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J  T   o^^^ 


THE   AMERICAN 

Journal  of  Psychology 

Founded  by  G.  Stani<EY  Hai^i,  in  1887. 
Vol.  X.  JULY,  1899.  No.  4- 


THE 


AMERICAN 
J9 


JQURNAL  OF  PSYCHOLOGY 


EDITED   BY 

G.  STANLEY  HALL, 


E.  C.  SANFORD,  AND  B.  B.  TITCHENER, 

Clark  University.  Cornell  University. 

WITH  THE  CO-OPERATION  OF 


F.  ANGEiyiy,  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University;  H.  Beaunis,  Univer- 
sities of  Nancy  and  Paris;  A.  F.  Chamberi^ain,  Clark  Uni- 
versity; V.  Henri,   Paris;  C.  F.  Hodge,  Clark  Uni- 
versity; A.  KiRSCHMANN,  University  of  Toronto; 
O.   KiJi^PE,    University   of  Wiirzburg;    W.  B. 
Pii,i,SBURY,  University  of  Michigan ;  G.  W. 
Storring,    University    of    Leipzig; 

A.  Wai,i,er,  London.  r/^T 


y 


1 


VOIv.     X. 


CLARK   UNIVERSITY,  WORCESTER,   MASS. 

I^ouis  N.  Wilson,  Publisher. 

1898-99. 


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• 


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THE    AMEEICAE" 

Journal  of  Psychology 

Founded  by  G.  Stani^ey  Hai^i,  in  1887. 
Vol.  X.  OCTOBER,  1898.  No.  i. 

THE   MIGRATORY  IMPULSE  VS.    LOVE    OF   HOME. 


By  Linus  W.  Ki.ine,  Fellow  in  Psychology,  Clark  University. 


Introduction. 


The  migration  of  animals  and  peoples,  the  wandering  of 
tribes  and  roving  impulse  of  the  individual,  have  been  woven 
into  legends  and  myths,  carved  upon  stone  and  written  upon 
parchment,  ever  since  the  advent  of  human  thought. 

The  predatory  advance  of  the  locust,^  the  measured  flight  of 
certain  butterflies,^  the  martial  like  procession  of  caterpillars 
and  ants  ^  have  long  inspired  wonder,  superstition  and  thought, 
**  The  *  human  race  is  more  concerned  in  the  movements  and 
migrations  of  fish  than  in  the  question  of  their  permanent 
abode. ' '  To  the  ancients  the  flight  of  birds  was  a  token  of 
prosperity  or  adversity  according  to  the  direction  of  the  flight. 
If  an  eagle  flew  over  from  left  to  right  or  from  right  to  left, 
the  former  was  regarded  a  good  omen,  the  latter  an  evil  one. 
Among  the  hieroglyphs  on  the  monuments  of  the  Pharoah's 
are  represented  wild-goose  fowling  as  these  birds  were  making 
their  annual  migrations  through  the  Nile  Valley.  The  ^prophet 
Jeremiah  in  rebuking  the  seared  consciences  of  the  Jews, 
spoke  in  this  fashion  :  Yea,  the  stork  in  the  heavens  knoweth 
her  appointed  times  and  the  turtle  and  the  crane  and  the 
swallow  observe  the  time  of  their  coming ;  but  my  people 
know  not  the  judgment  of  the  Lord. 

The  folk-lore  of  many  tribes,  the  beginnings  of  many  great 

^Figuier  :  The  Insect  World.     Page  302. 

2  Couch  :  Illustrations  of  Instinct,  pp.  145-150. 

^Huber  :  Ants. 

*Baird,  Spencer  F  :  U.  S.  Fish  Com.  Report,  1886,  p.  47. 

^Jeremiah  8  :  7. 


2  KI.INE  : 

nations  in  addition  to  historical  facts,  consist  of  migratory 
legends  and  myths  of  wandering. 

The  tradition  of  the  Hebrew,  which  tells  of  their  migra- 
tion into  Palestine  from  the  countries  across  the  Euphrates,  is 
substantiated  by  their  tribal  name,  ibri,  i.  e.,  one  who  has 
crossed.  The  Doric  traditions  of  an  imigration  from  Thrace 
and  Macedonia  through  Epirus  into  Greece  is  confirmed  by  lin- 
guistic facts.  The  legendary  account  of  the  migration  of 
Cadmus,  leading  to  the  foundation  of  Thebes,  the  checkered 
and  wandering  life  of  ^neas,  previous  to  his  marriage  and 
settling  in  Italy,  the  adventurous  and  romantic  journey  of 
Ulysses  from  Troy  to  Ithaca  have  given  to  literature  its  classic 
wanderers  for  all  time. 

All  tribes  of  the  Maskoki  stock  of  Indians,^  likewise  the 
Washoe  around  Carson  City  and  Tinne-Appache  of  New  Mex- 
ico possess  migration  legends  intermingled  with  myths  and 
mythic  ideas.  Many  of  the  ^Polynesian  tribes  have  similar 
traditions. 

In  recent  times  Germany  and  Austro- Hungary  have  estab- 
lished stations  for  observing  bird  migration.  Scientists  of 
Great  Britain  utilize  part  of  her  lighthouse  service  for  collect- 
ing data  on  bird  movements.  In  our  own  country  many  men 
of  the  weather  bureau  service  have  divided  their  time  between 
observing  weather  phenomena  and  collecting  data  on  the 
flight  of  birds. 

Several  attempts  ^  have  been  made  by  naturalists  and  anthro- 
pologists* to  trace  out  the  migrations.^  of  man  from  his 
^primitive  home  until  he  had  peopled  the  whole  earth.  Jour- 
nahsm '  has  recently  given  some  space  to  accounts  of  roving 
and  tramps  life.  Within  the  past  two  years  some  systematic 
study  has  been  devoted  to  Truancy,^  chiefly^"  along  statistical, 
sociological  and  anthropometrieal  lines. 

The  writer  was  brought  face  to  face  with  this  instinct  while 
in  conversation  with  a  few  of  the  beneficiaries  of  the  associated 

iGatschet,  A.  S. :  A  Migratory  Legend  of  the  Creeks,  p.  218,  Phil. 
1884. 

^Sittig,  Otto  :  Compulsory  Migrations  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Smith. 
Report,  1895,  pp.  519-35- 

3  Sittig  Otto  :  loc.  cit. 

*  Mason,  O.  F.:  Amer.  Anthro.,  Vol.  II,  No.  3,  1894,  Migration  and 
the  Food  Quest. 

^Brinton,  G.  D.  :  Races  and  People. 

^Miiller,  Friedrich  :  Allgemeine  Bthnographie. 

7  Noble,  C.  W. :  Border  Land  of  Trampdom.  Pop  Sci.  Month,  Vol. 
ly,  p.  252. 

sFlynt,  Josiah:  Century  Vols.  XXIV  and  XXV,  1893.  Same 
author  in  Atlantic  Month.    Vol.  LXXVII,  p.  88. 

^  Fifty-ninth  Annual  Report,  Board  of  Ed.  of  Mass. 

I*'  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  1898. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI^E.  3 

charities  of  Boston.     A  description  of  one  will  suffice,  for  in 
respect  to  this  trait  they  differed  but  little. 

A  young  man  of  American  parentage  who  had  just  recovered 
from  a  spell  of  sickness  in  a  Boston  hospital  presented  himself 
to  the  manly  department  of  the  association  asking  for  money 
to  purchase  a  ticket  to  Springfield,  Mass.  He  seemed  very 
anxious  to  get  work  again  and  had  a  strong  hope  that  he  could 
do  so  were  he  only  in  Springfield.  He  produced  evidence 
showing  that  he  was  a  skilled  workman  and  had  given  satisfac- 
tion to  his  employers.  It  was  found  that  he  had  come  from 
New  York  and  to  New  York  he  had  gone  from  Springfield, 
Mass.,  to  which  latter  place  he  now  longed  to  return,  though 
he  had  neither  home  nor  relatives  in  the  place.  He  had  paid 
his  respects  to  each  of  these  four  cities  within  five  months. 
No  particular  reason  could  he  assign  for  leaving  any  one  place, 
except  that  he  thought  a  change  was  good  for  him.  After 
remaining  a  certain  length  of  time  in  a  place,  familiar  objects 
and  places  became  distasteful,  even  the  odors  of  the  shop  would 
haunt  him  and  at  times  the  very  sight  of  shop  comrades  would 
appear  repulsive.  Peace  of  mind  came  only  by  breaking  away 
and  entering  into  the  life  of  a  new  place.  He  recognized  pain- 
fully that  it  was  not  the  way  to  provide  for  a  rainy  day  nor  to 
become  a  practical  citizen. 

Says  Flynt  :  '  *  ^  I  have  known  men  on  the  road  who  were 
tramping  purely  and  simply  because  they  loved  to  tramp. 
They  had  no  appetite  for  liquor  or  tobacco,  so  far  as  I  could 
find,  also  were  quite  out  of  touch  with  criminals  and  their 
habits;  but  somehow  or  other  they  could  not  conquer  that 
passion  for  roving.  In  a  way  this  type  of  vagabond  is  the 
most  pitiful  that  I  have  ever  known  ;  and  yet  is  the  truCvSt 
type  of  the  genuine  voluntary  vagrant To  re- 
form him  it  is  necessary  to  kill  his  personality,  to  take  away  his 
ambition  and  this  is  a  task  almost  superhuman.  Even  when 
he  is  reformed  he  is  a  most  cast  down  person. ' ' 

* '  Ten  ^  years  ago  four  young  men  of  this  city  took  a  pedes- 

1  Flynt,  Josiah  :  Century,  Oct.,  1885,  p.  941. 

2  One  of  over  500  cases  taken  from  Rubrics  II  and  IV.  See  Syllabus 
below. 

TOPICAL  SYLLABI   FOR   CHILD   STUDY. 

(Series  for  Academic  Year  1896-7). 

III.    Migrations,  Tramps,  Truancy,  Running  Away,  ktc, 

vs.  LovK  OF  Home;. 

I.     Consider  whether  you  know  any  small  child  with  a  propensity 

to  run  away  ;  and  if  so  describe  the  circumstances — why,  when,  where 

it   went,  whether  alone,   and   planned,  or   impulsively,  and  all  the 

details  and  incidents  of  each  case  ;    its  adventures,  how  it  was  found, 


4  KI.INE : 

trian  trip  to  the  Delaware  Water  Gap.  They  were  all  of  good 
families  and  of  excellent  habits.  On  returning  home  three  of 
them  resumed  their  every-day  life,  but  F.,  who  was  about 
twenty  years  old,  after  staying  home  several  days  disappeared 
and  did  not  return  for  several  weeks.  When  he  came  back  he 
told  the  alarmed  family  that  he  had  been  on  another  tramp. 
Since  that  time  he  has  been  all  over  the  United  States  work- 
ing only  when  he  could  not  obtain  food  or  lodging  otherwise. 
He  returns  home  at  intervals  but  stays  only  for  a  few  days,  and 
does  not  appear  to  have  formed  any  bad  habits,  but  cannot 
overcome  the  desire  to  wander.  He  still  seems  to  have  affec- 
tion for  those  at  home,  yet  cannot  content  himself  to  stay  with 
them.  As  none  of  his  relatives  have  led  adventurous  lives, 
his  parents  cannot  account  for  his  strange  behavior. ' ' 

whether  deterred  later  by  its  experiences,  at  what  age  this  disposition 
appeared  and  when  it  ceased  and  why. 

II.  Describe  the  same  with  boys  and  girls  in  their  teens,  who  leave 
home  for  love  of  adventure,  anger,  impatient  of  restraint,  to  start  life 
for  self,  etc.,  definite  plans  or  none.  Give  every  incident  of  cause, 
experiences,  hardships,  etc.,  you  can  find  out. 

III.  Describe  any  case  of  truancy  from  school  or  church,  its 
motives,  traits  of  the  child,  mode  of  concealment. 

IV.  In  your  own  experience  what  are  the  charms  of  travel  in  order 
of  interest,  whether  of  a  trip  to  Europe,  a  ride  or  bicycle  journey,  a 
lonely  walk  of  a  day's  duration,  globe-trotting,  etc.  Have  you  ever 
left  home  aimlessly,  and  before  leaving  had  you  lost  property  and 
friends  or  been  injured   in   feelings  ?     Have  you   been   tempted   to 

** disappear,"  and  what  reasons,  or  left  home  to  "do  the  world  "  or 
"  paint  the  town  ?"  Have  you  ever  suffered  intense  hunger,  and  if  so 
describe  your  feelings. 

V.  What  do  you  know  of  tramps  ?  have  you  ever  interviewed  one, 
or  can  you  do  so  ?  what  have  you  ever  read  or  heard  of  them  ? 

VI.  Do  you  know  people  who  move  frequently,  and  if  so,  state 
why,  where,  how  often  and  all  you  know  of  them. 

VII.  Do  you  know  anything  of  gypsies  or  can  you  find  out  any. 
thing  ? 

VIII.  Do  you  know  an  inveterate  visitor,  call-maker,  gad-about 
person,  who  must  be  always  on  the  street  or  on  the  go  ?  If  so  describe 
them  carefully,  and  see  if  you  can  account  for  it ;  or  of  boys  with  a 
passion  to  start  out  for  themselves  exceptionally  early  in  life. 

IX.  The  same  of  any  one  who  loves  home  so  intensely  that  he  or 
she  will  only  very  reluctantly  go  away  for,  or  be  away  nights. 

X.  What  are  the  elements  in  your  own  love  of  home  in  order — as 
love  of  father,  mother,  brother,  sister,  the  house,  hills,  trees,  and 
natural  scenery,  familiar  ways  of  life,  etc. 

XI.  Describe  any  case  of  homesickness  you  know  of  and  especially 
if  you  have  experienced  it  yourself. 

XII.  Describe  your  own  experiences  with  spring  fever,  ennui  that 
impelled  you  to  go  or  be  far  away,  longings  in  the  distance,  desire  to 
break  away  and  see  the  great  world  and  take  a  part  in  its  actions. 
Have  you  ever  felt  thus  concerning  a  future  life  as  connected  with 
either  religion,  love  or  conflict  ? 

In  each  case  specify  each  of  the  following  points :     i,  age  ;  2,  sex  ; 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI^E.  5 

Here,  then,  is  an  activity  of  the  soul,  woven  into  legends 
and  folk-lore,  is  discussed  in  history  and  science,  and  affects 
profoundly  the  social  and  domestic  life  of  a  people.  An  instinct 
that  destroys  for  the  time  being  even  the  activities  that  provide 
for  the  immediate  wants  of  life,  that  drives  out  considerations 
for  home,  relatives  and  friends,  that  overpowers  the  sympa- 
thetic, the  domestic,  the  home-making  spirit  of  man,  that  un- 
fits him  for  static  toil  and  conditions,  and  impels  him  to  seek  a 
change,  the  new,  strange  and  untried. 

Modern  biologj^  in  its  interpretation  oi  form  and  function  be- 
gins its  work  with  the  undifferentiated  organ  or  organism  in 
question,  and  follows  it  through  its  phylo-ontogenetic  devel- 
oping paths,  both  by  the  methods  of  experimental  morphology 
and  comparative  anatomy  until  present  conditions  are  reached. 
The  verdict  of  thCvSe  methods,  especially  the  former,  is  that  the 
efficient   causes   in  the   process   are  first, ^   "internal  causes, 

3,  nationality ;  4,  occupation  of  parents  ;  5,  are  one  or  both  living?  6, 
do  they  own  their  homes?  7,  is  their  food  and  clothes  good?  8, 
toys;  9,  books;  10,  pin-money;  11,  affections;  12,  has  the  child  any- 
physical  defects?  13,  is  it  oldest,  youngest  or  only  child?  14,  is  it 
quick-tempered?  15,  sensitive  ;  16,  demonstrative  ;  17,  laugh  and  cry 
easily;  18,  cheerful;  19,  active;  20,  generous;  21,  fond  of  playmates 
or  reticent  and  inclined  to  be  alone ;  22,  does  it  seek  to  govern  others 
and  does  it  obey  readily?  23,  love  or  shun  crowds;  24,  or  dark; 
25,  animals  ;  26,  deep  water ;  27,  out  of  door  life,  fondness  for  woods, 
fields,  etc.;  28,  does  it  love  music,  does  it  dance?  29,  a  good  color 
sense,  and  what  are  its  favorite  colors?  30,  is  it  careless  or  tidy  and 
dressy?  31,  has  it  had  pets,  is  it  good  to  animals?  32,  careful  of  prop- 
erty ;  33,  and  of  others'  rights  ;  34,  made  a  collection  of  things ;  35, 
is  it  persistent  in  carrying  out  tasks?  36,  is  it  inquisitive  and  talka- 
tive? 37,  were  there  ample  opportunities  for  taking  exercise,  were 
games  and  sports  encouraged  ?  38,  was  there  plenty  of  physical  or 
manual  labor  at  home?  39,  must  there  have  been  long  hours  of  seden- 
tary work  at  home  and  in  school  ?  40,  always  specify  the  season  of  the 
year  of  every  incident  if  possible ;  41,  was  their  immoderate  love  of 
sight-seeing,  being  out  evenings,  camping  out,  hunting,  excursions, 
picnics,  etc.? 

XIII.  What  have  you  observed  concerning  the  migrations  and  the 
homing  instincts  of  animals,  cats,  dogs,  cows,  horses,  hens,  rabbits, 
pigeons,  fish,  ducks,  etc.,  etc.?  What  have  you  read,  and  can  you 
send  or  refer  to  any  literature  or  reports  of  cases  ?  What  have  you 
observed  of  any  lower  forms  of  life  that  move  freely  at  first  and  then 
become  sessile  or  fixed  as  parasites,  of  nuptual  flights  of  insects? 

XIV.  What  special  literature  can  you  refer  to  on  tramps,  home- 
sickness, truancy,  gypsies  or  on  any  other  aspect  of  this  topic? 

In  any  case  giving  the  full  name  of  any  part  of  it  is  optional  with 
the  one  answering. 
Kindly  send  your  answers  to 

G.  STANLEY  HAIvL, 
or  L.  W.  KIvINE. 

ClvARK   UnIVKRSITY, 

Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  26th,  1896. 

1  Davenport,  C.  B.:  Experimental  Morphology,  Part  I,  p.  8. 


6  KI,INE : 

which  include  the  qualities  of  the  developing  protoplasm  ; ' ' 
second,  '  *  external  causes,  which  include  the  chemical  and  phy- 
sical properties  of  the  environment  in  which  the  potoplasm  is 
developing. ' ' 

The  genetic  psychologist  has  taken  his  cue  from  the  biolo- 
gists, and  accordingly — after  making  certain  assumptions,  a 
feature  common  to  all  sciences,  concerning  the  relations  of 
mind  ^  and  body,^  heredity  and  the  like,  unnecessary  to  discuss 
here — goes  back  to  primitive  psychic  life,  and  investigates  both 
the  causes  and  the  processes  in  its  development  until  it  reaches 
conditions  found  in  the  adult  form.  The  factors  believed  to  be 
operative  in  originating  and  determining  the  causes  of  psychic 
differentiation  are  ( i )  those  inherent  in  the  principle  life  itself  ; 
{2)cosmic,  including  chemical  substances,  moisture,  heat,  pres- 
sure, light  and  electricity,  and  their  innumerable  combinations 
and  ever  changing  relations  to  each  other  and  to  life ;  and 
(3)  social,  meaning  by  the  latter  all  those  influences  that  proceed 
from  members  of  the  same  family,  tribe  and  species,  together 
with  all  other  species,  both  plants  and  animals.  Dr.  Brinton  * 
writing  on  the  role  played  by  social  influences  in  psychical 
differentiation  says  :  ' '  The  psychical  development  of  men  and 
nations  finds  its  chief  explanation,  less  in  the  natural  sur- 
roundings, the  climate,  soil,  and  water  currents,  as  is  taught 
by  some  philosophers,  than  in  their  relations  and  connections 
with  each  other,  their  friendships,  federations  and  enmities, 
their  intercourse  in  commerce,  love  and  war. ' '  To  present  the 
point  of  view  of  the  present  investigation,  to  sensitize  our 
minds  as  to  the  delicacy  of  the  interaction  between  cosmic 
forces  and  life,  and  the  nature  of  the  latter' s  response,  I  pro- 
pose to  give,  very  briefly,  indeed,  the  results  of  some  experi- 
ments and  observations  on  temperature,'^  one  of  the  most  vital 
forces  operating  on  organic  life. 

i"The  process  of  psychical  evolution  runs  parallel  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  organic  life."     Paulsen:  Introduction  to  Philosophy,  p.  143. 

2  "  The  key-note  of  modern  biology  is  evolution;  and  on  the  hy- 
pothesis of  scientific  monism  here  adopted.  .  .  .  We  are  not  only 
logically  justified  in  extending  our  comparative  psychology  so  as  to 
include  within  its  scope  the  field  of  zoological  psychology,  but  we  are 
logically  bound  to  regard  psychological  evolution  as  strictly  co-ordi- 
nate with  biological  evolution."  Lloyd  Morgan:  Introduction  to 
Comparative  Psychology,  pp.  36-37. 

^Brinton,  G.  D.:  loc.  cit. 

*  It  should  be  remembered  that  temperature  is  only  one  among 
many  determining  developmental  factors,  and  that  what  is  presented 
here  is  merely  a  type  of  a  large  number  of  studies  made  on  the  be- 
havior of  protoplasm  in  the  presence  of  chemicals,  density  of  fluid 
medium,  gravity,  electricity  and  light.  Doubtless  the  most  compre- 
hensive modern  works  of  experimental  morphology  are  Loeb's  Un- 
tersuchungen  z.  Physiologischen  Morphologie,  d.  Thiere,  1892;  M. 
Verworn's  Algemeine  Physiologie,  1895 ;  and  C.  B.  Davenport's  Ex- 
perimental Morphology,  1897. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIySB.  7 

What  quantitative  limitations  does  temperature  impose  upon 
life? 

The  range  of  life  in  temperature  is  less  than  ioo°  of  the  tem- 
perature scale.  "  SoMelicate  is  the  adjustment  between  liv- 
ing matter  and  the  conditions  by  which  it  is  environed  that  if 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  were  raised  or  lowered 
through  only  a  few  dozen  degrees,  the  teeming  creatures  of 
air,  water  and  land,  would  cease  to  exist."  Upon  this  point 
Professor  Shaler^  observes  :  ' '  The  range  of  heat  which  life  can 
sustain  may  be  taken  as  less  than  ioo°  ;  but  in  the  sun  we 
have  a  temperature  which  cannot  well  be  estimated  as  less  than 
a  hundred  thousand  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  in  the  depth  of 
the  earth  is  probably  to  be  measured  by  tens  of  thousands  of 
degrees  on  that  scale,  while  in  the  realm  of  ether  between 
the  solar  and  terrestrial  spheres  there  is  a  degree  of  cold  which 
is  certainly  to  be  reckoned  as  some  hundreds  of  degrees  below 
zero.  Amid  these  contending  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  life 
must  find  its  narrow  place."  If  these  inconceivably  large 
numbers  be  expressed  in  linear  terms,  we  have  a  line  one  hun- 
dred thousand  inches  in  length,  an  extension  of  about  one  mile 
and  a  half,  let  the  space  of  each  inch  represent  one  degree 
Fahrenheit.  On  that  scale  mark  off  a  space  of  eight  feet 
near  one  end  and  this  trifling  part  of  the  length  of  the  whole 
line  gives  us  a  diagrammatic  representation  of  the  ratios 
between  the  temperatures  of  the  solar  system  and  those  in 
which  organic  life  can  be  maintained.  This  delicate  adjust- 
ment of  life  to  temperature  is  clearly  expressed  by  spatial 
limitations.  "  It  is  highly  probable  that  at  no  time  since  the 
beginning  of  life  in  the  unstable  material  forms  as  we  know  it, 
has  temperature  conditions  necessary  for  life  existed  much  over 
five  miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea  even  at  the  equator. ' ' 

Relations  of  life  to  temperature  considered  experimentally .  The 
casual  observer  knows  that  fow^ls  droop  their  wings,  that  swine 
hunt  the  wallow  and  the  ox  the  shade  of  the  oak  in  hot 
weather.  Every  farmer,  gardner  and  florist  knows  well  that 
the  effectiveness  of  the  hot-bed  and  green-house  in  producing 
vigorous,  healthy  plants,  depends  upon  a  very  narrow  range  of 
temperature. 

The  experimental  investigations  of  Velten,*  Kerner,'*  Men- 
delssohn,^ Verworn,^  Loeb'^  and  others  show  quantitatively  the 

1  McGee  :  Anthropological  Society,  Washington,  D.  C,  1894. 

^Shaler,  N.  S.:  Interpretation  of  Nature,  pp.  67,  68-117. 

^Velten.  Quoted  by  Davenport:  Experimental  Morphology,  pp. 
226-227,  1897. 

*  Kerner  ^  The  Natural  History  of  Plants,  Vol.  I,  pt.  2,  pp.  557-8. 
(Tr.  by  Oliver.) 

^Mendelssohn  :  Archiv.  fur  die  ges,  Phys.,  Band  60,  1895. 

^  Verworn  :  Allgemeine  Physiologie. 

■^I/oeb:  Untersuchungen  z.  Phys.  Morphologie,  d.  Thiere. 


8  KI.INE : 

exceeding  sensitiveness  of  protoplasm  to  temperature.  Kngle- 
mann,^  Kdward,^  Mendelssohn,  Cambell,*  Davenport,  have 
demonstrated  that  in  general  protoplasm  is  more  responsive 
the  closer  we  approach  its  optimum  temperature — a  tempera- 
ture of  about  30°c. 

A  more  direct  line  of  evidence  showing  the  relation  of  the 
activities  of  protoplasm  to  temperature  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
organisms,  in  general,  absorb  more  oxygen  and  excrete  more 
carbon  dioxide  the  higher  the  temperature  within  certain  limits. 

This  has  been  sufiiciently  proven  by  the  germination  and 
growth  of  seedlings,*  by  the  increase  of  rhythmic  movements  of 
the  contractile  vacuole  of  infusoria  in  rising  temperature.^ 
Numerous^  experiments  on  air  breathing'  animals  confirm  the 
same  general  law,  and,  furthermore,  establish  a  relationship® 
between  the  oxygen  absorbed  and  the  carbon  dioxide  given 
off.  But  nowhere  do  I  find  experimental  evidence  on  the 
quantitative  differences  between  either  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
or  the  excretion  of  carbon  dioxide  at  the  optimum  of  an  organ- 
ism and  at  temperatures  above  and  below  that  point. 

I  present  here  in  detail  a  series  of  experiments  carried  out 
on  tadpoles^  with  a  view  to  gain  some  evidence  on  this 
problem.     The  first^°  part  of   the  problem  was  to  ascertain 

1  Englemann,  Th.  W.:  Flimmeruhr  u.  Flemmermiihle  Zwei,  App. 
Z.  Register  d.  Flemmerbewegung.  Pfliiger  Archiv.  f.  Phys.,  pp.  501- 
502,  Vol.  XV,  1877.     (See  Fig.  i  and  F.  af  6.) 

2 Edward,  Chas.  L.:  Stud.  Biol.  Lab.  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  Vol.  IV, 
1888,  pp.  19-35. 

3  Campbell:    Stud.  Biol.  Lab.  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 

123-145- 

*Vine,  S.  H.:  Physiology  of  Plants,  p.  198.  (See  table.) 

^  "  From  all  these  facts  we  may  conclude  that,  within  certain  limits, 
an  increase  of  temperature  increases  metabolism,  and  a  diminution  of 
temperature  diminishes  it."  Davenport:  Experimental  Morphology, 
p.  225. 

^  Regnault  et  Reiset :  Recherches  chimiques  sur  la  respiration  des 
Animaux  des  diverses  classes.  Annales  de  chemie  et  Physique,  pp. 
299  et  seq.\  3me  Sfer  ;  Tome  26,  1849. 

■^  Colosanti :  Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  umgebenden  temperatur  auf  den 
Stoff  wechsel  der  Warmbliites  Pflug.  Arch.,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  92,  469, 
1877. 

8 Page:  External  Temperature  Affecting  the  Amount  of  CO2,  etc., 
Jour,  of  Phys.,  Vol.  II,  p.  228,  i879-'8o. 

^  I  chose  this  form  of  animal  because  it  lends  itself  readily  to  a  vari- 
ety of  experiment  with  comparatively  simple  apparatus,  and  also  on 
account  of  its  delicate  and  ready  response  to  changes  of  environment. 

1'^  For  this  purpose  a  zinc  trough  20cm  deep,  i6cm  wide  and  2.3 
meters  long,  supported  by  a  wooden  frame,  was  constructed.  To  the 
bottom  of  the  trough  i6cm  from  one  end  a  tin  box  12cm  wide,  15cm 
long  and  6cm  deep  was  soldered.  The  box  received  water  through  a 
hole  cut  in  the  zinc.  Water  was  conducted  to  the  hole  through  a 
stand  pipe  soldered  to  the  inside  bottom  of  the  trough.  The  tin  box 
served  two  purposes  :   first,  it  admitted  a  direct  application  of  the 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  9 

whether  or  not  the  tadpole  will  choose  voluntarily  his  optimum.^ 
( I )  Sixty-seven  tadpoles  were  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
rectangular  trough,  the  temperature  of  the  water  being  4°c 
throughout.  They  leisurely  distributed  themselves  equally 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  Heat  was  now  applied  to  the 
left  end,  the  right  end  resting  on  iced  sawdust.  When  the 
left  end  reached  i6°c  the  tadpoles  began  to  congregate  in  that 
region,  and  especially  about  the  standpipe.  No  one  remained 
very  long  in  any  one  place,  though  they  did  not  appear  at  all 
uncomfortable.  Each  movement  was  attended  by  a  leisurely 
indifferent  motion  of  the  tail,  as  if  the  rising  temperature  was  a 
source  of  comfort.  The  temperature  at  the  right  end  at  this 
moment  was  6°c,  containing  only  a  few  tadpoles  which  seldom 
moved.  At  2o°c  the  left  end  was  crowded,  thus  showing  that 
for  that  temperature  they  are  positive  thermotactic.  At  24°c 
the  tadpoles  showed  marked  discomfort.  The  movements  were 
no  longer  of  an  indifferent  lazy  waggle,  but  were  decided  and 
quick,  showing  that  they  were  beginning  to  experience  un- 
comfortable quarters.  As  yet,  however,  there  were  no  move- 
ments in  a  definite  direction.  Between  25°c-26°c  migrations 
began  toward  the  right  end,  which  had  risen  to  a  temperature 
of  i5°c.  At  27°c  migrations  to  the  right  end  were  continuous, 
and  at  times  not  a  single  creature  remained  in  the  region  of  the 
left  end.  Tadpoles  occupying  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  two  ends,  temperature  i8°c,  sniffing,  as  it  were,  a  warmer 
region  toward  the  left,  frequently  darted  suddenly  for  it,  only 
to  find  themselves  in  hot  water,  out  of  which  they  immediately 
migrated.  The  eight  thermometers  at  twelve  inches  apart  reg- 
istered temperatures  shown  in  Fig.  I,  Diagram  i.  (2)  When 
the  temperature  of  the  left  end  reached  36 °c  and  the  right  end 
26°c  the  heat  was  turned  off.  The  left  end  was  allowed  to 
cool  by  the  ordinary  process  of  radiation  into  the  air  of  the 
room,  while  the  right  was  hastened  by  artificial  means.  When 
the  latter  had  fallen  to  i8°c  during  12  minutes,  the  left  end 
registered  28 °c,  toward  which,  but  not  to  it,  a  slow  movement 
began  and  increased  more  and  more  as  the  temperature  fell  at 
both  ends.     When  the  left  end  had  fallen  to  24^c  and  the  right 

flame  to  its  surface,  and  thereby  protecting  the  zinc  bottom,  and 
second,  the  water  heated  in  this  vessel  transmitted  its  heat  to  the  zinc 
over  a  surface  equal  to  the  area  of  the  tin  vessel ;  thus  preventing  an 
excessively  high  temperature  in  one  spot,  which  would  have  resulted 
by  a  direct  application  of  the  flame.  Depth  of  water  in  trough  was 
two  and  one-half  inches.  A  board  strip  containing  one-quarter  inch 
holes  six  inches  apart  was  laid  lengthwise  of  the  trough.  Ther- 
mometers were  thrust  through  eight  of  these  holes,  and  allowed  to 
dip  two  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

1 A  summary  of  these  experiments  appeared  in  Ped.  Setn.^  Vol.  V, 
No.  3,  1898. 


lO  KI.INE  : 

end  to  io°c  the  migration  toward  the  left  were  about  complete. 
A  few  remained  behind  entangled  in  the  ice,  besides  a  few 
scattering  ones  at  intermediate  points,  but  the  great  bulk  were 
huddled  in  together  at  the  left  end  tadpole  fashion.  The  cool- 
ing continued  until  both  ends  reached,  respectively,  i8°c  and 
i9°c.  The  temperatures  of  the  intermediate  thermometers  were 
noted  and  the  number  of  creatures  in  the  region  of  each 
counted,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  II.  This  is  a  clear  expres- 
sion of  negative  thermotropism  at  temperatures  below  iS^'c. 
Now,  since  they  move  away  from  a  temperature  of  26°c 
tow^ard  a  lower  one,  and  away  from  a  temperature  of  i8*^c 
toward  a  higher  one,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be  a  temper- 
ature somewhere  between  these  two  points  which  is  agreeable 
or  most  favorable  for  the  tadpole — its  optimum. 

(3)  The  tadpoles  were  removed  from  the  trough,  and  the 
left  end  was  raised  to  35 °c,  the  other  reduced  to  o^c.  Fifty 
fresh  tadpoles  were  then  put  into  the  tank  at  a  point  register- 
ing lo^c.  Within  five  minutes  they  took  the  position  indicated 
in  Fig.  III.  I  removed  them  from  the  tank  to  a  vessel  con- 
taining water  at  i2*^c — temperature  in  which  they  were  then 
being  kept,  where  the}^  remained  45  minutes,  after  which  they 
were  transferred  again  to  the  tank  and  put  in  at  a  region  regis- 
tering 26°c.  In  a  very  short  time  the  position  indicated  in 
Fig.  IV  were  taken.  The  several  temperatures  were  kept 
constant  for  ten  minutes,  during  which  time  the  number  at  the 
temperatures  were  counted,  but  at  no  time  were  the  numbers 
materially  changed  from  those  already  given.  At  times  there 
was  more  or  less  moving,  now  toward  the  cooler  region,  now 
toward  the  warmer,  but  their  little  excursions  nearly  always 
ended  in  the  region  between  i9°c  and  24°c. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  optimum  for  the  tadpole  is  be- 
tween i9°cand  24°c.  This  conclusion  is  supported  by  three 
other  facts.  ( i )  Their  respiration  curve  rises  very  suddenly  at 
24°c.  [See  Chart  I].  (2)  The  maximum  amount  of  CO 2  is 
produced  between  tq^c  and  24°c.  (3)  Their  refusal  to  eat  in 
temperatures  above  24°c.  (They  will  eat,  however,  in  tem- 
perature as  low  as  io°c).     The  curves^  of  Chart  I  indicate  the 

1  The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  tall  narrow  glass  jar,  depth  28cm,  and 
diameter  9cm.  It  was  filled  with  water.  The  tadpoles  were  confined 
within  narrow  limits,  and  prevented  from  direct  contact  with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  glass  jar  by  a  partition  spaced  off  by  two  circular  pieces  of 
wire  gauze  8.5  in.  diameter,  placed  horizontally  in  the  jar  6.5cm  apart. 
These  two  wire  platforms  were  held  in  situ  by  a  wooden  rod  thrust 
through  their  center  and  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  which  was 
placed  in  a  sheet-iron  kettle  containing  five  liters  of  water.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  glass  jar  was  allowed  to  barely  touch  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  kettle.  These  conditions  secured  a  slow  and  uniform 
rise  in  temperature.  Two  thermometers  were  placed  at  different 
levels  within  the  space  confining  the  tadpoles. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE. 


II 


Diagram  I. 
Thermotropism  of  tadpoles. 


3 

0° 

2 

T 

2 

5'^ 

23'' 

1 

8^ 

1 

8°            17° 

15° 

( 

) 

• 

I 

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9 

10 

7               10 

26 

Fig.  I. 


19°  17'  16°  14°  11°  8°  5°  0°        , 


49  7  4  2  1 


0  1  3 


Fig.  II. 


35°  32°  26' 


23°  21°  10°  5' 


0  062834  22 


Fig.  III. 


40°  26°  23°  20°  ^^^  ''^°  8 


0  7  24  5  4  7  3  0 


Fig.  IV. 


The  vertical  lines  represent  thermometers.  The  lower  row  of  figures 
indicate  the  number  of  tadpoles  in  the  region  of  different  temperatures. 
The  upper  row  of  figures  indicate  temperature  in  degrees  centigrade. 


12  KI.INK: 

effect  of  rising  temperature  on  the  respiration  of  tadpoles.  The 
temperature  was  raised  from  o°c  to  30^0  in  165  minutes, 
or  i°c  in  5.5  minutes.  The  lean,  unfed  tadpoles  began  to 
breathe  at  4°c,  those  well-fed  at  6°c.  At  these  temperatures  I 
was  able  to  count  from  20  to  24  respirations  per  minute.  Often, 

o||  Chart  I.     Respiration  of  tadpoles  in  rising  temperature. 

^  !•»,  ^      111122222222222333333333334444  hrs. 
"  S.  25    28    42  45   50   00  05  10  15  22  28  34  37  42  49   55   01  04    10    12    20  24  30  35  40   46   55   00   05    10    14  tnins. 


FED  TADPOLES  / 


UNFED  TADPOLES 


/ 

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Q<j    jo    ^Q   ^o  ^o  ^o  gQ  ^o  30  90  10"  ii»  i2«  I3«i4°i5«i6'' 17'' i8"'i9°20°2i«22«23'='24°25'2  26«27«28'?29«3o«Tem 

however,  no  respiration  could  be  detected  below  5°c.  From 
5°c  up  to  2o°c  the  increase  is  quite  uniform.  At  2i°c  the 
obese  tadpoles  increase  their  respiration  54  to  the  minute,  the 
lean  ones  defer  any  sudden  rise  until  24°c.  Divergence  in 
their  curves  begin   at   i7°-i8°c.     Attention  is  called  to  the 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  1 3 

fact  that  the  increase  in  respiration  from  24°c  to  3o°c,or  through 
6°c  equals  that  from  5°c  to  24°c,  or  the  increase  through 
i9°c.  Thus  showing  that  any  increase  of  temperature  above 
24°c  produces  effects  altered  in  character  to  those  of  like  incre- 
ments below  that  point.  Another  inference  made  here  is  that, 
since  metabolism  is  a  function  of  respiration  (taught  long  ago  by- 
physiologists)  ,  and  that  the  latter  stands  in  causal  relation  to 
temperature,  metabolism  bears  a  vital  relation  to  temperature. 
The  second  part  of  the  problem  was  to  enquire  more  closely 
into  the  nature  of  this  relation.  What  is  the  quantitative  differ- 
ence between  the  metabolism  at  the  optimum  and  at  tempera- 
tures above  and  below  that  point,  as  indicated  by  carbon 
dioxide^  produced  at  different  temperatures  ?  ^ 

The  determination  of  CO  2  produced  by  air  breathing  animals 
is  usually  effected  by  aspirating  the  exhaled  air  over  barium 
hydrate  or  a  soda  solution  contained  in  Pettenkorf  or  U  tubes. 
The  difference  in  the  weight  of  the  tubes  before  and  after  the 
aspiration  of  the  expired  air  is  taken  as  the  weight  of  CO  2  pro- 
duced after  making  certain  corrections. 

With  water  breathing  animals  the  problem  is  more  complex. 
Water  is  a  solvent  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  extent  of  the 
solvency  depends  on  the  temperature  and  pressure.  In  this 
instance  the  normal  pressure  was  lessened  by  the  aspirator  em- 
ployed to  supply  the  water  containing  the  tadpoles  with  oxy- 
gen. This  diminution  of  pressure  favored  the  escape  of  a 
portion  of  the  carbon  dioxide  from  the  water.  The  prob- 
lem narrowed  into  the  estimation*  of  the  carbon  dioxide  left  in 
the  water  and  of  that  which  continually  escaped  into  the  tubes. 
The  amount  found  in  the  former  I  have  termed  the  * '  volumetric 

1  The  inference  that  a  quantitative  determination  of  CO  2  is  a  measure- 
ment of  metabolism  is  based  on  the  following  well-known  facts  : 
"  Oxygen  is  concerned  with  the  integrating,  the  anabolic  process,  on 
the  other  hand  carbon  dioxide  is  one  of  its  several  disintegrating  or 
katabolic  products.  These  two  constituents  are  not  only  always  present 
in  metabolic  processes.butareof  such  prime  importance  to  the  process 
that  a  quantitative  determination  of  either  or  both  is  a  fair  measure  of 
metabolism  itself."  .  .  .  Quoted  from  article  on  Truancy,  Fed.  Sent., 
Vol.  V,  No.  3,  p.  383.  See  same  article  for  literature  on  the  relation 
of  O  to  CO 2  in  life  processes,  also  Howell's  American  Text-book  of 
Physiology  for  criticisms  on  the  constancy  of  the  ratio  of  the  oxygen 
absorbed  to  carbon  dioxide  produced. 

2  It  is  not  the  purpose  to  determine  the  absolute  amount  of  metabol- 
ism, such  a  task  is  some  distance  ahead  present  laboratory  methods. 
The  object  here  is  to  estimate  the  relative  amounts  at  different  tem- 
peratures, and  regard  these  quantities  as  merely  indices  to  what  the 
absolute  quantity  may  be  at  a  given  temperature. 

^The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  three  mouthed  glass  jar,  capacity 
seven  liters.  The  jar  was  connected  on  one  side  with  U  tubing  and 
a  gas  meter  —  the  tubing  was  filled  with  pumice  stone  and  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  —  and  on  the  other  with  a  series  of  seven  U 


14 


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MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  15 

portion,"^  and  that  found  in  the  latter  the  *'  gravimetric  por- 
tion. ' '  The  sum  of  the  two  being  the  whole  amount  exhaled. 
A  detailed  statement  of  the  experiment  and  results  are  given 
in  Table  I.  This  Table  shows  that  a  maximum  amount  of  CO 2 
is  produced  at  the  optimum,  2o°c,  and  that  the  amounts  de- 
crease for  temperatures  above  and  below  the  optimum  and  fur- 
ther that  the  fall  is  much  more  rapid  toward  the  lower  temper- 
atures than  toward  the  higher  ones.  [See  Curve  in  Chart  II.] 
If  then  we  regard  the  production  of  CO  2  as  a  fair  index  of  the 
amount  of  normal  metabolism  in  an  organism  we  are  justified 
in  the  conclusion  that  for  this  species  of  embryos,  maximum 
metabolism  is  coincident  and  very  probably  a  function  of  opti- 
mum temperature.  Page's^  experiments  on  the  dog  show 
that  a  minimum  amount  of  CO 2  is  produced  in  a  temperature 
of  25°c  anS  that  the  amount  increases  above  and  below  25°c, 
which  is  probably  about  the  optimum  for  this  mammal.  [See 
Curve  in  Chart  II.]  Thus  the  warm^  blooded  animal  presents 
reverse  conditions.*     The  fact  emphasized  here,  however,  is 

tubes  and  a  large  Waulff  flask.  The  first  and  seventh  tube  contained 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  pumice  stone,  the  first  caught  any  or- 
ganic matter  issuing  from  the  jar  containing  the  tadpoles,  the  seventh 
caught  organic  and  moist  particles  coming  from  the  Waulff  flask  at 
times  of  a  negative  pressure,  the  remaining  five  tubes  contained  potas- 
sium hydrate  slightly  moistened .  The  difference  in  the  weight  of  these 
tubes  thoroughly  dried  and  corked,  before  and  after  the  aspiration  is 
the  weight  (with  one  correction)  of  the  CO 2  that  escaped  from  the 
water. 

The  estimation  of  the  amount  of  CO 2  that  remained  behind  in  the 
water  was  made  by  the  quantitative  method  devised  by  Pettenkorfer, 
(For  description  see  Fresenius,  Quant.  Anal.,  Amer.  Ed.,  p.  834.) 

^The  water  to  be  tested  was  siphoned  from  the  jar  into  a  100 cc  bu- 
rette and  from  thence  into  a  bottle  corked  with  ground  glass.  The 
CO 2  of  the  air  in  the  room  and  of  the  water  used  was  deducted  from 
the  sum  of  the  "volumetric  "  and  "gravimetric"  portions.  The  air 
aspirated  was  corrected  for  temperature  and  pressure.  The  CO 2  in 
the  room  was  determined  by  both  the  lounge  and  Regnault  methods. 
The  CO 2  of  the  tap  water  was  determined  by  the  Pettenkorfer  method. 

2  Page  :  External  temperature  affecting  the  amount  of  CO 2,  Jour, 
of  Phys.,  Vol.  II,  p.  228,  1879-80. 

^  Body  temperature  of  warm  blooded  animals  is  kept  constant  by 
all  parts  of  the  body  being  constantly  oxidized,  so  that  when  the  ex- 
ternal temperature  is  low  much  burning  is  needed  to  maintain  the 
requisite  temperature,  and  consequently  much  carbon  produced ;  also 
if  the  external  temperature  is  above  that  of  the  body  it  hastens  oxid- 
ation. That  the  relative  amounts  of  CO 2  produced  at  any  temper- 
ature below  the  optimum  for  coldblooded  animals  should  bear  a  direct 
proportion  to  that  temperature  is  evident,  but  why  the  amount  should 
decrease  above  the  optimum  is  not  so  clear.  It  is  suggested  that  prob- 
ably the  higher  temperatures  destroy  or  disorganize  the  normal 
physico-chemic  life  processes,  since  the  heat  rigor  of  tadpoles  is 
reached  at  34*  —  35*^c. 

*  Edward  Smith  shows  that  the  quantity  of  CO  2  given  off  in  man  is 
inverse  as  the  change  of  the  temperature ;  the  vital  changes  lessening 
with  increase  of  temperature.     Food,  p.  11. 


1 6  Ki,iNS : 

that  there  is  a  comparatively yJ^^</  rate  of  metabolism  in  opti- 
mum temperature  for  both  species. 

The  next  question  of  importance  is,  what  effect  has  maximum 


Chart  II. 

Curves  showing  the  relation  of  the  production  of  CO 2  at  different  tem- 
peratures for  dog  and  tadpole. 

165 

160  h—  DOG 

155  [— TADPOLES 

150 
145 
140 
135 
130 
125 
120 


lio 

105 
100 
95 
90 
85 
80 

75 
70 


\  -         / 


/ 


"5  h  \  / 


\  y 


«h  / 


/ 


y 


/ 


I '  I '  I '  I '  'I  I' 'I  I' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

,0  jo  3O40  50  y>  ^o  go  9»io°ii<>i2«i3<'i4»i5»i6''l7''l8»l9°20°2l»22»23<'24»2S'>26''27«28»29'30''3l»i2»33»34°35<' 


metabolism  on  the  tadpole,  as  a  whole  ?  To  secure  experi- 
mental evidence  on  this  point  a  group  of  ten  tadpoles  was  sub- 
jected to  their  optimum  for  two  months.     A  second  group  of 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE. 


17 


10  were  kept  in  a  temperature^  varying  from  6°-8°c  below 
their  optimum  the  first  month  and  4°-7°c  below  the  second. 
The  results  are  given  in  table  II,  which  show  that  the  tadpoles 
enjoying  their  optimum  increase  more  rapidly  in  both  weight 
and  length.  ^ 

It  appears  then  that  optimum  temperature,  maximum  met- 
abolism and  most  rapid  growth  are  causally  related  ;  another 

TABI.K  II. 

Showing  the  rate  of  growth  of  ten  tadpoles  in  their  optimum  tempera- 
ture, and  of  ten  others  in  4°c-8^c.  below  the  optim,um,. 


In  optimum. 

Below  Optimum. 

Difference 
of  Increase. 

Date. 

Wt. 

Gain. 

Ivcngth. 

Gain. 

Weight. 

Gain. 

I^ength. 

Gain. 

Wt. 

Ivcngth 

Nov.  28, 
1896. 

Dec.  26, 
1896. 

Jan.  26, 
1897. 

39  ^'''^• 
45    T 
50.2" 

6  Grs. 
5.2   " 

7.II  cm. 

7.57     " 
7.88      '* 

.46  cm. 
.31cm. 

38.5  Grs. 
43        " 
47        " 

4.5  G. 

4      " 

6.81  cm. 
7.16     " 
7.41     '* 

•35^^- 
.25   " 

1.5  Grs 
12     " 

.11  cm. 
.06  ** 

inference  is,  that  the  optimum  is  chosen  because  that  particular 
temperature  is  a  factor  in  the  organism's  well-being,  that  it 
affords  just  that  temperature  stimulus  necessary  to  set  agoing 
the  physico-chemical  activities  in  harmony  with  that  pitch  or 
rhythm  which  natural  selection  has  determined  for  that  species. 
The  same  interpretation,  in  the  absence  of  conflicting  evidence, 
may  be  extended  to  all  thermotactic  organisms,  i.  e. ,  a  positive 
thermotactic  response  is  an  effort  of  the  organism,  guided  by 
the  *  *  differences  in  the  intensity  of  heat  to  which  the  two  poles 

^  Two  glass  jars  of  same  shape  and  size  were  used.  They  contained 
equal  quantities  of  tap  water  into  which  was  put  same  kind  and  as 
near  as  possible  equal  amounts  of  grasses  and  foods.  The  jar,  in  which 
it  was  desired  to  keep  a  known  and  constant  temperature,  was  placed  in 
a  copper  kettle  containing  on  an  average  nine  liters  of  water.  The 
bottom  of  the  glass  jar  barely  touched  the  surface  of  the  water.  In 
this  way  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  jar  was  maintained  between 
2o*'c  -  23°c.  The  temperature  of  the  second  jar  varied  with  that  of  the 
room,  which  during  the  months  through  which  the  experiment  ex- 
tended fluctuated  between  I2*i-i8**c.  The  experiment  was  extended 
through  the  months  of  February  and  March,  but  serious  and  frequent 
mishaps  set  in  that  rendered  the  results  worthless.  Although  the  ex- 
periment ran  smoothly  during  the  months  reported,  the  force  of  the 
results  is  weakened  by  the  short  period  of  the  experiment. 

2  Drs.  Davenport  and  Castle  report  tadpoles  as  growing  more  rapidly 
under  constant  temperature  of  24*^-25^,  then  those  subjected  to  150c. 
The  results  of  my  experiment  had  been  described  some  time  before 
their  work  came  into  my  hands. 

JOURNAI,— 2 


1 8  KiviNE: 

of  the  body  are  subjected,"  to  seek  a  temperature,  in  agree- 
ment with  its  physico-chemical  constitution.^ 

Malling-Hansen's^  discoveries  of  the  intimate  relation  be- 
tween temperature  and  growth  of  man  are  quite  pertinent  to 
our  present  problem.  He  demonstrates  a  rhythmic  response 
of  growth  in  both  weight  and  height  to  the  large  and  small 
portions  of  the  sun's  corona  as  they  are  successively  presented 
to  us  by  the  sun's  27^  days'  rotation.  The  greatest  height 
of  the  growth  curve  is  coincident  with  the  time  in  which  the 
larger  sector  is  presented,  as  this  recedes,  thus  lessening  the  out- 
put of  solar  heat  toward  us,  the  curve  falls,  but  rises  again, 
though  not  so  high,  when  the  small  sector  of  the  corona  is 
turned  on  us.  That  is,  there  are  two  waves  of  the  growth 
curve  comprehended  within  about  27)^  day  period,  which 
waves  are  coincident  with  the  earthward  appearance  of  the  large 
and  small  sectors  of  the  corona.  This  is  interpreted  as  a  deli- 
cate cosmical  adjustment  of  life  to  temperature. 

Enough  has  been  said  of  only  one  of  the  cosmic  factors  to 
illustrate  its  delicate  adjustment  with  life.  But  it  is  difficult  to 
see,  even  though  we  were  to  consider  every  possible  cosmic 
factor  from  the  same  point  of  view,  how  they  have  been  effective 
in  either  bodily  or  psychic  differentiation  until  we  consider  some 
of  the  inherent  properties  of  protoplasm  itself. 

How  does  it  conduct  itself  along  the  narrow  path  marked 
out  by  cosmic  forces?  The  laboratory  attempts  to  answer  the 
question,  in  part,  by  experimentation  which  aims  to  test  the 
capacity  of  protoplasm  for  acclimatization.^  These  experi- 
ments include  acclimatization  to^  chemical  agents,^  to  Mesicca- 
tion,  ^temperature,'  changes^  in  food,  etc.  The  general  ver- 
dict is  that  protoplasm  is  automatic  adjustable^  that  it  hiisbands^ 
and  profits  by  its  experience  within  its  milieu.  It  appears  that 
the  teachableness  and  the  ability  to  profit  by  it  are  among  the 
chief  distinguishing  features  of  protoplasm.  In  fact  the  his- 
tory of  morphology,  of  adaptation,  of  evolution   itself  is  writ 


1  "It  (protoplasm)  is  highly  sensitive  to  changes  in   temperature 

migrating  if  possible  so  as  to  keep  in  the  temperature  to  which 

it  is  already  attuned."     Davenport,  Experimental  Morphology,  p.  263. 

2  Malling-Hansen :  Perioden  im  Gewicht  der  Kinder  und  in  der 
Sannenwarme,  Copenhagen,  1896. 

3  Davenport,  C.  B.  :  lac.  cit.,  pp.  27-32  ;  65  ;  85-88  ;   and  249-58. 

*  Sewall,  Henry  :  Experiments  on  the  Preventive  Innoculation  of 
Rattlesnake,  Jour,  of  Physiol.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  203-210,  1887. 

^I/oew,  O.:  Ueber  den  Verschiendenen  Resesturf  grail  im  Proto- 
plasm Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  Vol.  XXXV,  pp.  509-516,  1885. 

^lyance,  M.  Denis:  Sur  la  reviviscence  des  Jardigre  des  comp. 
Rend.,  Vol.  CXVIII,  pj).  817-818,  1894. 

■^  Mendelssohn  :  too.  cit. 

8 Semper:    Animal  Life,  p.  133. 

9 Davenport,  C.  B. :    too.  cit.,  pp.  253-254. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIvSEJ.  1 9 

large  with  the  effort  of  life  to  secure  the  completest  adjustment 
possible  both  on  the  bodily  and  psychic  sides. 

The  delicate  adjustment  between  life  and  cosmic  forces,  the 
continual  effort  of  life  to  maintain  this  adjustment,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  rhythmical,  periodical  manifestation  of  the 
migrating  instinct  par  excellence  on  the  other,  suggest  the  im- 
portance of  considering  the  mode  or  nature  of  the  interaction 
between  life  and  external  forces. 

Accordirfg  to  Fiske  ^  and  Spencer  ^  all  cosmic  forces  obey  a 
rhythmical  motion  which  is  a  corollary  from  the  persistence  of 
force. 

We  may  reasonably  assume  that  the  primitive  megazobn 
found  itself  in  this  maze  of  cosmical  rhythms.  Heat,  light, 
soimd,  wind,  electricity,  etc.,  beat  upon  these  primordial 
creatures  in  rhythmic  waves.  We  may  imagine  that  one  of 
the  first  tasks  of  this  life  was  to  get  in  rapport  with  these  innu- 
merable cosmic  movements. 

In  fact  existence,  survival  itself,  and  the  evolution  of  the 
organism  were  conditioned  largely  on  a  rhythmical  adjustment 
to  the  inorganic  forces  of  creation.  "  Those  ^  spontaneous 
compounds  whose  internal  rhythms  chance  to  accord  with  the 
external  rhythm  enjoy  the  greater  probability  of  survival  and 
thus  rhythmic  interaction  between  the  internal  and  the  exter- 
nal may  be  developed  through  the  exclusion  of  the  non- 
rhythmic,  elimination  of  the  ill- rhythmic  and  the  preservation 
of  the  duly  rhythmic."  What  is  this  adjustment  but  a  con- 
tinual effort  of  life  functions  to  operate  in  unison  with  cosmic 
rhythms.  Accordingly  we  find  rhythms  prevailing  through 
all  life  processes  both  physiological  and  psychical. 

The  elaboration  and  assimilation  of  food  into  the  body  tissue 
in  excess  of  waste  and  repair  is  rhythmical,  that  is  to  say,* 
growth  obeys  this  law.  The  ^  menstrual  life  is  associated  with 
a  well-marked  wave  of  vital  energy  which  manifests  itself  in 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  in  the  pulse  rate,  etc.,  etc. 
These  several  phenomena  have  a  striking  coincidence  to  both 
the  lunar  period  and  sun's  rotation.  The  ^  pulse  shows  an 
annual  rhythm  maximum  in  winter  and  minimum  in  summer. 
The  daily  bodily^  temperature  is  higher  in  the  evening  than 
that  of  the  morning.  The  return  of  zymotic  diseases  in  some 
countries  show  a  remarkable  regularity  and  appear  to  stand  in 

1  Fiske,  John  :     Outline  of  Cosmic  Philosophy,  Vol.  I,  pp.  297-313. 

2  Spencer,  H.  :    First  Principles,  pp.  256-257. 

^  McGee,  W.  J. :    Karth  the  Home  of  Man,  p.  5. 

"*  Mailing — Hansen :    loc.  cit. 

^Stephenson,  Wm.  :    Am.  Jour.  Obstet,,  Vol.  XV,  1882,  pp.  283-294. 

« Coste  F.  H.  Perry:    Nature,  Vol.  XLIV,  1881,  p.  35. 

"^  Bucknill  and  Tuke  :    Psychological  Medicine,  4th  Kd.,  p.  317. 


20  KI,INE  : 

causal  connection  with  certain  climatic  elements.  In  India,  ^ 
for  example,  the  fluctuations  of  the  death  rate  by  fever  coin- 
cide with  the  variations  in  the  range  of  temperature. 

That  these  innumerable  cosmical  and  physiological  rhythms 
have  greatly  influenced  the  soul  and  have  stamped  upon  it 
highly  colored  rhythmical  activities  are  evidenced  in  every 
period  and  condition  of  human  history,  in  every  field  of  human 
thought  and  feeling.^  It  is  manifested  among  primitive 
peoples  by  the  readiness  and  completeness  with  which  they 
surrender  themselves  to  music  and  dancing,  by  their  strict 
observance  of  annual  festivals  and  celebrations. 

The  early  mind  was  impressed  by  this  universal  principle. 
Their  gods  and  demons  did  things  rhythmically.  They  visited 
the  earth,  made  war  and  peace,  and  discharged  their  hercu- 
lean tasks  for  the  most  part  with  strict  periodicity.  ^ 

Spencer  has  pointed  out  that  philosophic  thought  obeys  this 
principle.  Now  Platonic  idealism  is  all-pervading,  now  the 
materalism  of  a  Hobbes,  then  the  ebb  of  Hegelian  idealism 
gives  way  to  the  flow  of  materalism  of  the  third  quarter  of  this 
century. 

Further,  our  volitional  nature  pulsates  rhythmically.  Mar- 
riages'*  in  every  country  show  a  more  or  less  periodicity. 
The  time  of  the  year  for  marrying  in  different  countries  is 
somewhat  influenced  by  custom,  religious  beliefs,  harvest^ 
time  and  the  return  of  spring. 

^  Lefl&ngwell  raises  the  question  concerning  the  influence  of 
spring  upon  the  ratio  of  legitimate  to  illegitimate  births. 
* '  Among  human  beings  is  there  yet  remaining  any  trace  of 
that  instinct  which  leads  birds  to  mate  when  winter  goes,  and 
which  in  earlier  periods  of  man's  development  was  perhaps 
as  strong  as  with  other  animals?"  *' If  it  exists  should  we 
find  any  difference  in  and  out  of  the  marriage  relation  ?' '  The 
birth  rate  of  ^France,  Norway,   Sweden,    Holland  and  Italy 

1  Hill,  A.  S.  :    Nature,  Vol.  XXXVIII,  1888,  p.  245. 

2  The  psychological  aspect  of  the  subject  is  treated  indirectly  in 
every  modern  exposition  of  sound,  retinal  revelry,  fatigue  and  atten- 
tion. Bolton  has  treated  the  subject  directly  and  especially  as  it  is 
manifested  in  music,  verse  and  poetry.     Am.  Jour.  Psy.,  Vol.  VI,  pp. 

145-238- 

^ Kelly,  W.  K. :    Indo-European  Traditions  and  Folk-Ivore. 

*  Farr,  Dr.  William  :    Vital  Statistics,  p.  76,  London,  1885. 

5  Hill,  A.  S.  :    Nature,  Vol.  XXXVIII,  p.  245,  1888. 

®  I/effingwell :    Influence  of  Seasons  upon  Conduct,  p.  115. 

'  Observations  tend  to  show  that  the  largest  number  of  conceptions 
in  Sweden  fall  in  June ;  in  Holland  and  France,  in  May-June  ;  in 
Spain,  Austria  and  Italy,  in  May  ;  in  Greece,  in  April.  That  is,  the 
farther  south  the  earlier  the  spring  and  the  earlier  the  conceptions — 
Mayo-Smith,  Statistics  and  Sociology,  1895.  In  Massachusetts  the 
largest  number  of  marriages  is  shifting  from  late  fall  and  the  New 
Year,  which  prevailed  down  to  1870,  to  April  and  June — Mass.  State 
Board  of  Health,  1896,  p.  731. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  21 

show  that  the  ratio  of  illegitimate  births  between  the  spring — 
summer  months  and  the  fall — winter  months  is  greater  than 
the  ratio  of  the  legitimate  births  covering  the  same  period. 
The  ratio  of  the  totals  for  the  countries  just  named  for  legiti- 
mate births  between  spring — summer  months  and  fall — winter 
months  is  24  :  23  and  for  illegitimate  births  for  the  same 
periods  the  ratio  is  26  :  22 — pointing  to  a  permanent  seasonal 
influence  on  the  reproductive  functions  and  to  the  genial  effect 
of  spring  upon  the  procreative  functions.  More  striking, 
however,  is  the  evidence  of  periodicity  in  the  tendency  to  those 
relationships  which  occasion  illegitimate  births.  Under  like 
conditions  the  excess  of  the  seasonal  ratio  of  illegitimate  births 
over  that  of  the  legitimate  is  a  direct  expression  of  the  remnant 
of  that  passion  implanted  in  man  when  pairing  in  spring  time 
was  almost  universal.  The  strength  of  the  reverberation  of 
this  passion  is  inversely  to  the  respect  for  the  prevailing  cus- 
toms, religion  and  law. 

The  relation  between  spring  and  certain  bodily  and  mental 
conditions  finds  emphasis  in  a  large  group  of  phenomena 
arising  from  spring  fever  and  ennui.  The  following  are  typi- 
cal cases  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  received  on  that  subject. 
(See  Syllabus,  Rubric  XII.) 

1.  M.,  20.  Whenever  I  am  afflicted  with  what  I  have  always  called 
spring  fever  I  feel  sleepy  and  tired  and  have  no  ambition  to  study. 

2.  F.,  19.  Feel  sleepy,  languid,  no  ambition;  strength  seems  to 
have  left  me,  and  every  duty  seems  a  great  trouble. 

3.  F.,  17.  I  have  no  power  of  concentration,  feel  that  I  must  be  out 
of  doors  all  the  time,  am  drowsy  and  ache  all  over.  lyike  to  sleep — 
can  eat  only  certain  things. 

4.  M.,  25.  Was  physically  weak,  or  rather  inert,  so  that  I  could 
hardly  drag  one  foot  after  the  other  and  the  queerest  longings  beset 
me — now  for  a  gust  of  wind  to  fan  my  face,  now  for  an  apple  (would 
have  given  almost  anything  for  an  apple  once),  and  then  I  wished  in- 
tensely for  a  swift  ride.  This  fever  of  queer,  delicious  lassitude  and 
longing  lasted  nearly  three  weeks  and  during  that  time  I  was  of 
practically  no  use  on  the  farm. 

5.  F,,  16.  Felt  as  though  all  energy  had  fled,  and  that  I  was  such 
a  weak  mortal — not  fit  for  this  life  which  needs  so  much  energy  and 
brightness. 

6.  F.,  18.  Wanted  to  sleep,  or  meditate,  or  dream  the  time  away. 
It  seemed  too  much  trouble  to  think,  to  speak  or  to  act.  Some  very 
romantic  or  thrilling  storv  interested  me  somewhat,  but  I  soon  wearied 
of  it. 

7.  F.,  19.  I  wanted  to  lounge  around  in  the  open  air — never  want 
any  one  to  bother  me. 

8.  F.,  17.  I  feel  tired  of  everything,  and  that  I  cannot  drag  out 
another  day — things  are  weary,  stale,  flat  and  unprofitable. 

9.  F.,  18  Could  I  only  break  away  and  go  somewhere  by  myself 
where  the  sun  is  bright  and  warm  and  where  I  can  hear  birds  singing, 
find  a  nice  comfortable  position  and  spend  my  time  in  day-dreaming, 
I  should  be  perfectly  happy. 

10.  F.,  17.     Felt  as  though  there  was  absolutely  no  life  in  me  and 


22  KLINE  : 

that  I  should  go   wild  if  I  did  not  get  away  from  everybody  and  be 
alone  in  the  wood  or  on  the  water  in  a  quiet  bay. 

11.  F.,  22.  Lose  interest  in  my  work,  study  is  a  burden.  The  feel- 
ing is  impossible  to  describe.  It  is  a  longing  for  something,  I  know  not 
what.     Often  I  have  sat  quietly  and  tried  to  analyze  it  but  cannot. 

12.  F,,  19.  I  feel  dull,  drowsy,  can't  hurry,  prefer  to  drag  along  as  I 
please.  Sometimes  I  like  to  walk  slowly  along  some  shady  path  or 
sit  down  under  a  shady  tree  and  dream  my  life  away.  I  have  had  a 
desire  to  be  married  and  have  a  home  of  my  own.  I  think  I  have 
planned  where  it  shall  be  and  how  furnished,  a  dozen  times.  Perhaps 
it  is  very  foolish  ;    but  I  do  it  very  often. 

13.  M.,  30.  This  spring  a  strong  wave  of  sentiment  came  over  me  to 
see  an  old  chum  and  sweetheart.  I  could  hardly  restrain  myself 
from  setting  out  instantly  to  see  her  which  would  have  been  a  long 
journey. 

14.  F.,  20.  Spring  fever  affects  me  most  about  June  or  when 
school  closes.  Then  I  have  a  great  longing  to  skip  two  years.  This 
longing  is  connected  with  love.  I  expect  to  have  a  house  of  my  own 
at  that  time,  and  O  !  how  anxious  I  am  to  see  that  time.  It  is  hard  for 
me  to  work  patiently.  I  like  my  studies  because  they  take  my  mind 
away  from  thinking  too  much  about  this  much  desired  thing. 

15.  M.,  26.  I  feel  most  these  impulses  as  often  as  once  a  month,  at 
least.  And  when  school  is  over  the  tendency  is  irresistible.  I 
always  rush  off  somewhere.  I  feel  every  year  as  though  so  much  of 
student  life  was  becoming  unendurable.  I  must  get  out  and  do  some- 
thing. I  often  feel  so  in  regard  to  love.  It  is  the  Lord  of  promise. 
I  feel  oftentimes  as  if  I  had  waited  long  enough,  and  I  must  fall  in 
love  with  and  marry  somebody. 

16.  M., — .  Physician  says  :  "  In  my  youth  I  had  frequent  attacks 
of  ennui,  and  sometimes  desired  to  break  away  from  home  and  see  the 
great  world,  but  since  blessed  by  a  good  wife  and  daughter  and  a 
pleasant  home,  together  with  more  philosophic  views  of  life  which 
came  with  age,  such  feelings  have  gradually  faded  away." 

Longing  in  the  distance,  desire  for  widfer  liberties  and  space, 
hunger,  are  often  strongest  at  this  period.  (100  cases  of  this 
group.) 

17.  F.,  38.  From  the  age  of  20  to  30  I  felt  spring  fever  strongly, 
longed  to  see  strange  sights  in  other  countries,  felt  myself  hemmed 
in  and  stifled. 

18.  F.,  19.  I  have  often  felt  during  the  spring  months  as  if  I 
would  like  to  find  employment  among  strangers — never  desired  to  go 
any  great  distance  away  from  home. 

19.  M.,  22.  I  longed  to  be  out  of  doors,  and  to  sit  under  the  trees 
alone  and  meditate. 

20.  F.,  19.  The  feeling  of  longing  in  the  distance  comes  over  me 
at  this  time.  I  try  to  think  what  it  is,  but  I  cannot.  There  seems  to 
be  something.  I  have  often  thought  how  I  would  like  to  have  a 
family,  how  I  would  enjoy  taking  care  of  the  children. 

These  cases  interest  us  only  so  far  as  they  contribute  evi- 
dence to  the  proposition  that  there  are  still  left  remnants  of 
instinct  feelings  interwoven  and  combined  with  the  repro- 
ductive functions  that  stand  in  causal  relation  with  the  cosmic 
forces  of  spring  time.  To  summarize  the  general  and  salient 
characteristics  :  the  majority  report  a  tired,  languid,  worn-out 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  23 

feeling ;  a  feeling  of  lassitude  ;  a  restless,  trembly  nervous 
feeling  ;  a  dull,  drowsy,  hesitating  condition.  Many  complain 
of  headache,  no  life  or  energy  left,  felt  as  though  the  blood  had 
ceased  to  circulate.  The  air  of  the  room  feels  poisonous, 
stifling  and  suffocating.  They  long  for  fresh  air,  to  get  out 
under  the  wide  sky,  to  lounge  and  sleep,  to  lie  on  the  grass 
and  have  bugs  and  beetles  crawl  over  them,  to  be  let  alone,  to 
sit  down  quietly  and  read,  to  sit  under  a  shady  tree  and  be 
read  to,  to  dream,  to  meditate,  to  walk  slowly  in  shady  paths, 
to  sit  quietly  in  a  boat  in  some  secluded  bay.  Some  become 
quite  anti-social  and  want  to  be  let  alone.  They  wish  to  for- 
get work  and  duty.  It  is  hard  to  think,  to  concentrate,  to 
direct  the  attention.  Work  is  distasteful  and  unsatisfactory. 
They  lose  interest  and  ambition  in  the  work  of  the  moment, 
and  desire  a  change. 

Others  wish  to  begin  life  anew,  to  enter  upon  some  great  and 
uplifting  work,  to  be  a  good  Samaritan,  to  be  independent,  to 
make  a  success  of  things,  to  cross  swords  with  the  world. 
Many  state  that  they  experience  passions  of  love,  desire  to  be 
married,  day-dream  over  their  future  home,  how  it  shall  be 
built,  how  furnished,  and  how  they  will  delight  to  care  for  the 
children. 

These  passions,  dreams  and  fancies  do  not  always  pass  away 
as  such,  but  according  to  statistics  already  quoted  express 
themselves  by  increasing  the  number  of  marriages  and  concep- 
tions during  the  vernal  season.  Could  it  be  that  lassitude, 
restlessness,  the  inability  to  think,  to  concentrate  the  atten- 
tion, so  frequently  mentioned,  are  due  to  the  shifting  of  the 
main  bulk  of  the  metabolic  processes  from  the  vegetative  to  the 
reproductive  functions.  The  fact  that  thought  processes — es- 
pecially attention — are  associated  with  increase  blood  supply- 
to  the  brain,  lends  color  to  the  view,  that  when  thought  is 
difficult — in  the  absence  of  fatigue  and  other  ordinary  causes — 
an  increased  blood  supply  is  attracted  to  the  reproductive 
organs. 

A  very  interesting  and  instructive  correlation  exists  between 
the  age  of  the  individual  and  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 
running  away  from  home  occurs.  (See  Chart  III.)  From 
one  to  eight  by  far  the  majority  leave  during  the  summer.  At 
four,  spring  takes  the  lead  of  autumn  and  winter,  and  con- 
tinues to  increase  until  the  seventeenth.  The  summer  curve 
begins  at  eight,  to  fall  gradually  until  at  ten,  where  it  follows 
closely  the  autumn  and  winter  curves  to  the  sixteenth  year,  join- 
ing the  spring  curve  at  seventeen.  The  feeble  and  even  height 
throughout  all  ages  is  noteworthy  in  the  winter  curve.  The 
same  description  applies  to  the  autumn  curve,  save  that  it  is 
higher   at   the  majority  of  ages,  especially  at  nine  and  ten. 


24  KI.INE : 

where  it  even  rises  above  the  summer  curve.  These  two 
curves  regarded  separately  contain  but  little  interest,  merely 
showing  that  all  ages  behave  about  alike  at  these  seasons  ;  but 
when  compared  with  spring  and  summer  they  indicate  that 
man,  like  the  rest  of  organic  life,  hovers  about  his  hibernating 
quarters.  The  spring  curve,  though  interesting  even  alone, 
derives  additional  import  by  comparison  with  those  of  the 
other  seasons.  From  one  to  seven  the  number  leaving  in  spring 
are  about  equal  to  those  of  autumn  and  winter.  At  eight  the 
curve  makes  a  considerable  rise,  leaving  the  winter  and  autumn 
curves  far  below.  Doubtless  the  phenomenal  rise  at  this  age 
is  associated  with  the  child's  love  of  nature  and  the  varied  out- 
door activities  paramount  at  this  period  of  childhood.  The 
spring  runaway  is  a  reaction  against  the  prison  life  of  winter, 
together  with  a  strong  tendency  to  revel  in  the  out-door 
charms  of  spring.  Chart  IV  shows  that  the  nature  curve 
attains  its  greatest  height  from  eight  to  eleven,  inclusive.  A 
second  and  larger  rise  occurs  in  the  fourteenth  year,  which 
continues  through  three  successive  years,  falling  slightly  in 
the  fifteenth  year. 

Now  from  one  to  twelve  years  or  thereabouts,  the  child  is 
neuter  respecting  much  that  belongs  to  both  primary  and  sec- 
ondary sexual  differentiation.  Up  to  this  time  he  is  a  vegetative 
animal,  his  activities  being  determined  by  atavistic  tendencies 
and  by  forces  that  affect  the  vegetative  functions.  At  about 
the  thirteenth  year,  however,  the  physiological^  changes  and 
peculiar  psychosis  that  take  place  as  a  result  of  the  functional 
development  of  the  reproductive  organs  expose  the  organism  to 
a  new  play  of  forces  that  eventually  topple  the  unsettled  phys- 
iological and  psychical  elements  over  into  a  field  of  periodic 
activities  recognized  as  sexual,  or  as  irradiations  of  these  func- 
tions. 

Considering  the  data  as  a  whole,  that  furnished  by  mar- 
riages, spring  fever  psychosis,  and  that  of  the  runaways,  we 
are  j  ustified  in  the  inference  that  both  youth  and  manhood  up 
to  thirty  odd  years,  are  more  susceptible  to  the  feelings  of  sex 
and  its  irradiations  at  that  season  of  the  year  when  the  "  will 
to  live  ' '  is  making  a  universal  effort. 

Thus  far  I  have  tried  to  develop  three  general  notions  :  (i) 
the  delicate  and  vital  relation  that  exists  between  life  and  cos- 
mic forces  1(2)  that  the  first  and  most  fundamental  effort  of 

1  For  literature  on  these  changes  see  Ranke  :  Grundziige  der  Phys- 
iologie,  1881.  Das  Volum  des  Herzens  und  die  Weite  der  grossen 
Arterien-Pubertatsentwickelung  des  Herzens  S  490-94 ;  Lancaster : 
Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  V,  No.  i.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Adoles- 
cence. Donaldson:  Growth  of  the  Brain,  also  Clouston  :  Neuroses  of 
Development. 


26  KLINE  : 

life  is  to  keep  in  rapport,  in  attune  with  cosmic  and,  I  should 
add,  social  forces ;  (3)  that  as  a  result  of  the  first  two  condi- 
tions life  processes,  both  psychical  and  physical,  have  be- 
come rhythmical ;  and  that  the  higher  the  organism  the 
more  complex  the  rhythmical  adjustment,  e.  g.,  the  savage 
must  keep  in  unison  with  his  tribe.  He  must  hunt,  dance, 
fight  and  celebrate  victories  with  his  fellows.  The  life  of  the 
modern  man  is  a  web  of  rhythms ;  he  must  not  only  respond 
with  the  rest  of  creation  to  cosmic  rhythms,  but  also  to  the 
manifold  periodicities  of  civilized  life.  He  must  keep  in 
unison  with  the  movements  of  his  trade,  with  the  pul- 
sations of  his  profession  and  his  society.  He  must  keep 
step  with  the  fads  and  whims  of  his  club  or  drop  out. 

The  thesis  maintained  here  is,  that  migration  is  one  method 
adopted  by  an  organism  to  maintain  its  psycho-physiological 
activities  in  attune  or  rhythm  with  those  of  the  organic  and  in- 
organic world. 

It  has  become  a  universal  mode  by  which  organisms  restore 
and  maintain  the  factors  essential  to  their  well-being,  be  it  for 
light,  heat,  pressure,  food,  relation  to  society,  position  in 
trades,  profession  or  what  not.  It  is  the  mode  employed  by 
nomadic^  societies'^  to  make  good  the  exhaustion  and  failure  of 
the  food  supply,  by  the  peasant  who  comes  to  America,  thereby 
relieving  the  pressure  of  oriental  social  conditions.  The  pil- 
grimages to  Rome,  Jerusalem  and  Mecca,  are  efforts  to  main- 
tain a  more  complete  adjustment  to  certain  complex  religio- 
sociological  customs  and  rites. 

The  children's  Crusade*  at  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury is  perhaps  an  illustration  of  the  greatest  attempt  of  a 
body  of  human  beings  to  regain  peace  and  well-being  to  the 
body  and  soul  by  migrating.  "^  Coxey  and  his  army,  as  others 
have  done  elsewhere,  embraced  the  principle  to  relieve  their 
social  and  economic  strains  and  stresses.  The  planomaniac 
breaks  the  monotony  of  the  home  by  daily  gadding  the  street. 

1  Spencer,  Herbert :  Synthenic  Philosophy;  Chapter  on  Rhythm. 

2McGee,  W.  J.:  Amer.  Anthro.,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4,  1895. 

8  The  history  of  that  period  records  that  war  and  turmoil  were  every- 
where supreme.  Desolation  and  poverty  covered  vast  districts  ;  star- 
vation entered  many  homes.  Society  was  disorganized,  law  and 
religion  a  mockery.  No  time  for  reading  or  study, — the  densest 
ignorance  settled  over  the  land.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  St.  Bernard 
came  preaching  the  failure  of  the  preceding  crusades,  due  to  the  sinful- 
ness and  wanton  folly  of  the  pilgrims  and  soldiers.  The  Holy  Sepul- 
chre must  be  reclaimed  by  innocent  hands.  Who  were  such  ?  The 
children  of  the  land  :  accordingly  20,000  German  boys  and  girls,  10  to 
16  years  of  age,  and  30,000  from  France  at  once  took  up  the  cause 
which  so  soon  ended  in  every  form  of  misery. 

-^Gray,  Geo.  Z.:  The  Children's  Crusade  or  an  Episode  of  the  13th 
Century. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  27 

The  well-to-do-citizen,  and  globe-trotter  yielding  to  the  popu- 
lar fashion  joins  the  annual  summer  wave  of  European  tourists. 
The  American  student  to  hold  his  place  at  the  crest  of  his  pro- 
fession feels  it  necessary  to  join  the  semi-pilgrimage  to  Euro- 
pean universities. 

SECTION  A. 

Migration  of  Animals. 

Wiid  Animals. 

This  section  embodies  in  a  brief  form  the  observations  and 
theories  of  naturalists  on  migrations  among  lower  animals. 

Crustaceans.  "The  adult  lobster^  never  moves  up  and 
down  the  coast  like  the  migratory  fishes,  but  is  of  a  far  more 
sedentary  disposition."  In  the  spring  months  of  April  and 
May,  however,  large  numbers  appear  to  move  from  deep  water 
toward  the  shore.  In  the  fall  they  retire  to  deeper  water  again. 
This  is  proven  from  the  fact  that  they  are  caught  in  from  three 
to  ten  fathoms  of  water  from  May  until  November ;  for  the 
rest  of  the  year  fishing  is  conducted  in  thirty-five  to  forty 
fathoms.  If  the  spring  is  late  and  the  water  cold  the  lobster 
keeps  away  from  the  shore.  The  land  crabs  of  the  West 
Indies^  are  generally  found  in  great  numbers  in  holes  and 
cavities  among  the  mountains  ;  but  every  spring  they  descend 
in  immense  bodies  to  the  coast,  ....  pursuing  so 
direct  a  line  to  the  place  of  their  destination  that  scarcely  any- 
thing will  divert  their  course.  ^  * '  When  they  have  efiected 
the  purpose  for  which  they  undertook  their  journey,  they 
slowly  return,  weak  and  exhausted  ;  and  not  long  after,  mil- 
lions of  the  little  crabs,  which  have  been  hatched  on  the  shore 
may  be  seen  making  their  way  up  to  the  mountains. ' ' 

Insects.  The  predatory  onslaught  of  the  locusts  has  been 
witnessed  over  all  temperate  and  tropical  regions  and  has  quite 
a  place  in  history.  We  read  in  Exodus  :  * '  And  the  locusts 
went  up  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt  and  rested  on  all  the  coasts 

of  Egypt :    very  grievous  were  they For   they 

covered  the  face  of  the  whole  earth,  so  that  the  land  was 
darkened  ;  and  they  did  eat  every  herb  of  the  land,  and  all 
the  fruit  of  the  trees  ....  and  there  remained  not  an}^ 
green  thing  in  the  trees,  or  in  the  herbs  of  the  field,  through 
all  the  land  of  Egypt. ' '  Similar  descriptions  are  found  in  Pliny, 
Cauch,*  Figuier,^  Swainson,^  Wallace'  and  others  of  this  ruth- 

1  Herrick  :    The  American  Lobster,  p.  20,  Washington,  D.  C,  1895. 
^Heilprin  :     Distribution  of  Animals,  p.  41. 
^Swainson  :     Habit  and  Instinct,  p.  263. 
^  Cauch  :    Illustrations  of  Instinct,  p.  151. 
^Figuier:    The  Insect  World,  p.  302. 
^  Swainson  :    loc.  cit. 

^  Wallace,  A.  R.  :  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,  Vol.  I,  p. 
32,  1876. 


28  KLINE : 

less  reaper  of  all  kinds  of  foliage  whatever.  Such  expressions 
as  the  following  are  used  in  attempting  to  express  their  num- 
bers :  '  *  Such  was  its  density  that  when  they  flew  low  one 
person  could  not  see  another  at  the  distance  of  twenty  paces. ' ' 
**  It  totally  intercepted  the  solar  light."  "  Like  a  shower  of 
snow,  when  the  flakes  are  carried  obliquely  by  the  wind." 
Mr.  Barrow  describes  a  migration  of  locusts  of  Southern  Africa 
in  1797.  They  literally  covered  an  area  of  nearly  2,000  square 
miles.  When  driven  into  the  sea  by  a  northwest  wind  they 
formed  upon  the  shore  for  fifty  miles,  a  bank  three  or  four  feet 
high  ;  and  when  the  wind  was  southeast,  the  stench  was  so 
powerful  as  to  be  smelt  at  the  distance  of  15  miles.  Their 
movements  are  always  with  the  wind,  sometimes  preceding  a 
strong  wind.  The  same  is  true  of  the  well  known  dragon-fly 
"storms"  of  South  America.  Their  migrations,  like  many 
other  insects,  never  occur  at  stated  times  and  seasons  as  those 
of  higher  animals,  but  depend  on  various  concurrent  causes  ; 
as  the  humidity  of  the  preceding  season,  the  intensity  and 
direction  of  the  wind,  barometric  pressure  and  food  supply. 
^  Hudson  says  :  ' '  The  cause  of  the  flight  is  probably  dynam- 
ical, affecting  the  insects  with  a  sudden  panic  and  compelling 
them  to  rush  away  before  the  approaching  tempest.  The 
mystery  is  that  they  should  fly  from  the  wind  before  it  reaches 
them,  and  yet  travel  in  the  same  direction  with  it."  I  venture 
to  suggest  that  their  sudden  appearance  from  five  to  fifteen 
minutes  before  the  wind  storm  is  due  to  the  well  known  barom- 
etric ^  rise  preceding  wind  and  thunder  storms. 

^  On  the  other  hand  the  migrations  of  several  species  of  but- 
terflies and  the  nuptial  flights  of  ants  obey  seasonal  and 
climatic  influences.  Butterflies  (notably  the  painted  lady)  fly 
in  huge  numbers  in  France,  England,  Italy,  Switzerland  and 

1  Hudson,  W.  H. :    The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata,  pp.  130-134. 

2  Davis,  W.  M.  :    Elementary  Meteorology,  1894,  p.  250. 

^  Cauch  cites  several  instances  of  sultry,  moist,  warm  weather  inter- 
rupted occasionally  with  showers  and  thunder  storms  which  were  also 
periods  of  wave  movements  of  the  dragon-fly.  **As  to  the  great 
multiplication  of  these  insects  about  the  end  of  May  in  the  present 
year,  it  is  by  no  means  mysterious.  From  the  beginning  of  that 
month  to  the  21st,  the  weather  had  been  exceedingly  rainy  ;  rivers 
and  lakes  overflowed  and  spread  their  inundations  over  immense 
areas  of  low  grounds,  whereby  myriads  of  the  pupae  of  the  Libellulae, 
which  under  other  circumstances,  would  have  remained  in  deep  water 
and  become  the  prey  of  their  many  enemies,  were  brought  into  shal- 
low water  ;  and  the  hot  weather  from  May  21st  to  May  29th  converted 
those  shallows  into  true  hot  beds.  Numerous  thunderstorms  (at 
Weimer  there  were  four)  during  that  week  must  have  greatly  encour- 
aged their  rapid  development  into  perfect  insects  ;  and  so  those 
clouds  of  winged  insects  rose  almost  at  once  from  the  temporary 
swamps  and  were  immediately  obliged  to  m,igrate  in  order  to  satisfy 
their  appetite  as  these  species  are  very  voracious.''' 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SK.  29 

Brazil.  In  the  European  countries  their  flight  is  from  south 
to  north  during  the  spring  and  summer  months.  In  Brazil 
their  movements  are  from  north  to  south,  or  from  northwest 
to  southeast.  They  are  usually  from  the  dry  arid  districts  of 
the  interior  towarci  the  verdant  forests  of  the  sea  coast  during 
May — June.  ' '  We  could  mention  many  facts  tending  to  favor 
the  opinion  that  all  these  butterfly  migrations  are  made  toward 
these  verdant  tracts,  for  the  purpose  of  breeding  or  rather 
of  depositing  their  eggs. ' '  Huber  has  associated  special  cli- 
matic conditions  with  the  nuptial  flights  of  insects.  *  *  Let  ^  us 
retire  to  a  meadow  on  a  fine  summer's  day  at  a  time  when  they 
first  make  use  of  their  wings. "  "  Ants^  are  now  and  then 
induced  to  change  their  residence.  Should  it  be  too  much  in 
the  shade,  too  humid,  too  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  passen- 
gers, or  too  contiguous  to  an  enemy's  quarters  .... 
they  leave  it  to  lay  the  foundations  of  another.  This  I  have 
denominated  migration. "  "  During  these  flights  impregnation 
occurs,  and  their  wings  are  shed  after  alighting. ' ' 

Fish.  Their  migrations  are  variously  classified  :  in  time  ; 
they  are  either  regular,  i.  e.,  seasonal,  or  irregular,  many  species 
of  the  anadromous  fishes  furnish  examples  of  seasonal  migra- 
tion, long  and  irregular  absences  of  the  bluefish  and  chub 
mackerel  from  our  shores  represent  the  latter  :  In  direction, 
it  may  be  said  that  they  migrate  roughly  in  three  planes  :  (i) 
a  horizontal  plane  extending  toward  or  from  the  equator — such 
movements  are  largely  controlled  by  temperative  conditions  ; 
(2)  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  to  or  from  the  shores, 
caused  by  the  fish  seeking  a  stratum  of  water  of  an  agreeable 
temperature,  and  also  by  the  stimulus  of  the  spawning  season. 
Ichthyologists  are  now  of  the  opinion  that  movements  in  this 
plane  constitute  the  great  majority  of  their  migrations ;  (3) 
a  vertical  plane  to  which  Goode  ^  has  given  the  name  ' '  bathic 
migrations. ' '  Such  movements  are  controlled  by  temperature, 
winds,  currents  and  light.  It  is  generally  thought  that  the 
causes  of  these  several  movements  are  due  to  changes  in  tem- 
perature, a  desire  for  suitable  places  for  spawning  and  to 
search  for  food.  Winds,  currents,  light  and  density  of  the 
water  are  also  regarded  as  minor  factors. 

The  most  potent  of  these  factors,  however,  is  temperature. 
I  shall  enumerate  only  a  few  of  the  best  confirmed  observations. 

Temperature.  The  optimum  temperature  for  the  menhaden 
is  6o°-7o°  Fahrenheit,  that  of  the  herring  is  45°-55°  Fahren- 
heit.    The  former  is  a  warm,  the  latter  a  cold-water  species. 

1  Huber  :    Ants,  p.  96. 

^Cauch:  loc.  cit.,  pp.  148-152. 

8 Goode,  G.  Brown:    U.  S.  Report,  Fish  and  Fisheries,  p.  51,  1877. 


30  KI.INE : 

Accordingly,^  when  the  menhaden  desert  the  Gulf  of  Maine 
they  are  replaced  by  the  herring.  Cold  weather  drives  the 
menhaden  to  the  warm  strata  (bathic  migrations),  while  it 
brings  the  herring  to  the  surface.  The  relation  between  the 
distribution  of  herring  and  the  degree  of  heat  in  the  water 
has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  herring  fisheries  ;  '*  since, ^ 
when  the  heat  of  the  surface  water  is  above  55 °F.  herring  are 
seldom  seen  ;  as  this  decreases  they  make  their  appearance. 
This  is  so  well  established  that  now  the  herring  fishery  on  the 
coast  of  Scotland  is  largely  regulated  by  the  temperature  ob- 
served, and  when  it  is  decidedly  above  55°  the  herring  are  not 
looked  for. ' '  The^  extent  of  the  catch  of  anchovies  along  the 
shores  of  Scotland  during  the  fishing  season  is  (at  least  largely) 
dependent  on  the  temperature  of  the  water  during*  the  mid- 
summer months  of  the  preceding  year. 

Search  for  Food.  Baird  observes  that  oceanic  currents  have 
a  more  or  less  influence  upon  the  distribution  of  fishes.  This, 
however,  depends  more  upon  their  pursuit  of  the  less  inde- 
pendent algae,  jelly-fish,  crustaceans,  ascidians,  etc.,  that  float 
hither  and  thither  with  the  currents.  Prof.  Mobius  (quoted 
by  Beard) ,  in  investigating  the  food  of  the  herring  in  the  Ger- 
man seas  finds  that  the  abundance  of  herring  in  any  one  season 
is  in  strict  proportion  to  that  of  the  shrimp.  A  direct  and 
combined  effect  of  food  and  temperature  upon  fish  movements 
is  found  in  San  Francisco  Bay.  This  bay  receives  the  waters 
of  two  very  large  rivers,  which  bring  down  constantl)^  a  large 
amount  of  minute  animal  and  vegetable  life,  much  of  which  finds 
a  congenial  home  in  the  bay,  thus  furnishing  a  large  and  varied 
quantity  of  food  for  its  fish  life.  The  temperature  of  the  bay 
is  almost  constant,  varying  only  a  few  degrees  at  any  season  of 
the  year.  The  constancy  of  these  two  most  important  factors 
(food  and  temperature)  throughout  the  year  ought  to  reduce 
migrations  to  a  minimum.  Observations  confirm  this  supposi- 
tion.'* The  ofl&cial  report  reads:  "That  the  conditions  are 
extremely  favorable  to  the  support  of  aquatic  life  is  demon- 
strated in  the  rapid  increase  and  permanent  residence  (italics 
mine)  of  the  several  fine  food-fishes  introduced  from  the  At- 
lantic coast  by  the  government.  Some  of  the  fishes  thus 
acclimatized  are  naturally  anadromous,  but  in  San  Francisco 
Bay,  contrary  to  their  usual  migratory  habits,  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  any  desire  to  spend  much,  if  any,  of  their  ex- 

1  Goode,  G.  Brown  :  U.  S,  Fish  Com.  Report,  p.  72,  1877. 

2  Baird,  Spencer  F.:  U.  S.  Fish  Com.  Report,  p.  55,  1886. 
^Bottemanne,  C.  J.:  p.  340,  Vol.  I,  Jour.  Marine  Biolog.  Ass'n. 

*  Wilcox,  W.  A.:  Fisheries  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  U.  S.  Fish  Com.  Re- 
port, 1893. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  3 1 

istence  in  the  ocean."  Another^  example  of  the  sufEciencj^  of 
food  and  limited  range  of  temperature  checking  the  wandering 
of  fish  is  furnished  by  the  menhaden  that  may  be  found  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  along  the  coasts  of  Ga.  and  S.  C.  Only  a 
partial  migration  occurs  in  mid- winter,  which  is  now  believed 
to  extend  only  a  short  distance  seaward. 

IVznd,  Light,  etc.  Herr  von  Freedon  (quoted  by  Goode) 
finds  that  warm  winds  and  clear  skies  of  the  North  German 
seas  are  coincident  with  large  catches,  and  vice  versa}  "A 
bright  sunny  day,"  says  Baird,  "will  frequently  call  up  forms 
that  are  never  seen  at  any  other  time,  while  others,  again,  only 
approach  the  surface  on  cloud}^  days,  or  even  in  the  night,  ex- 
clusivel3^"  Experts  testify  that  along  the  shores  of  Scotland 
thunder  storms  of  some  magnitude  and  extent  affect  seriously 
the  quantity  of  the  catch  on  the  following  day.  If  any  are 
caught,  it  is  at  extreme  depths. 

Movements  Affected  by  Enemies.  Salmon  are  known  to  en- 
tirely abandon  a  particular  section  of  sea  coast  by  the  onslaughts 
of  the  white  whales  and  porpoises.  In^  the  fall  of  '94,  owing  to 
the  vast  numbers  of  bluefish  and  squeteague  (deadly  enemies 
of  the  menhaden)  in  the  vicinity  of  Montauk  Point,  large 
schools  of  menhaden  were  detained  in  Gardiner  and  Neapeague 
bays  weeks  beyond  their  usual  time  of  departure,  and  were  un- 
able to  reach  the  ocean  until  their  enemies  had  left.  About 
October  21st  the  bluefish  disappeared,  and  the  departure  of  the 
menhaden  rapidly  ensued.  In  fact,  so  great  is  the  fear  of  the 
menhaden  for  the  bluefish — a  veritable  corsair — that  the  for- 
mer are  known  to  reverse  the  course  of  their  annual  migra- 
tions for  several  weeks  should  the  latter  appear  in  their  front. 

Reproductive  Instinct.  The  movements  associated  with  the 
reproductive  period  give  the  clearest  evidence  of  a  migrating 
instinct.  Moving  from  an  uncomfortable  to  a  comfortable  tem- 
perature, seeking  light  of  proper  intensity,  pursuing  and  cap- 
turing prey  are  activities  of  the  more  simple,  reflex  type — a 
reaction  to  a  simple  stimulus.  True,  migrating  movements  are 
in  obedience  to  stimulus,  but  a  stimulus  of  a  very  complex  sort, 
it  \s  periodic  2cti&  persistent  leading  to  the  execution  of  large  and 
definite  tasks,  impelling*  the  species  to  a  particular  spot  at  a 
fixed  time.     They  are  peformances  larger  than  individual  ex- 

lU.  S.  Fish  Com.  Report,  p.  40,  1877. 

2Baird,  S.  F.:  loc.  cit.,  p.  57,  1886. 

8  Smith,  H.  M.:  Bulletin  of  U.  S.  Com.,  1895,  p.  299. 

*The  long  journeys  of  catadromous  fish  give  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  an  inherited  activity  ("primary  automatic"  by  some 
authors,  "congenital"  by  others).  "This  species  of  fish,  represented 
by  the  eel,  are  born  in  the  sea,  ascend  the  rivers  and  reach  their 
maturity  in  two  to  four  years,  and  then,  when  mature,  descend  to  the 
ocean  to  spawn,  and  possibly  never  leave  it  again." 


32  KLINE : 

perience,  and  too  clear-cut  and  purposive  to  be  ascribed  to  im- 
mediate sense  experience.  As  sexual  maturity  approaches 
the  stimulus,  which  has  its  origin  in  the  developing  repro- 
ductive organs,  urges  it  to  leave  the  ocean  and,  entering 
the  mouth  of  a  river,  to  journey  upward,  often  thousands  of 
miles,  to  its  source  in  the  mountains.  Classical  examples  of 
this  sort  are  the  seasonal  migrations  of  the^  salmon,^  tunny ^ 
herring,^  shad  and  sturgeon  up  rivers  or  into  quiet  estuaries 
for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 

Birds.  The  mystery^  and  superstition  that  has  hovered 
about  bird  movements  are  dissolving  before  sober  and  careful 
observation.  The  problem  is  by  no  means  solved, but  it  has  been 
brought  from  the  region  of  folk-lore^  and  the  mere  * '  wonder  ' 
stage  ' '  and  given  a  seat  alongside  other  unsolved  problems  as 
anger,  hunger,  fear,  etc.  True,  the  progress  for  the  past 
twenty  years  has  been  so  feeble  and  unsatisfactory  that  some 
scientists^  discourage  theoretical  speculations  on  the  subject, 
regarding  them  not  only  useless,  but  a  positive  injury  to  real 
observations  of  nature.  Despite  these  backward  conditions 
two  groups  of  theories  are  set  forth.  To  the  first  group  I  have 
applied  for  the  want  of  a  better  term  kinetogenetic,  and  to  the 
second  group  physiogenetic ;  meaning  by  the  former  such 
theories  as  make  food,  geological,  and  the  several  climatologi- 
cal  elements  the  effective  causes  in  originating  the  instinct,  by 
the  second,  the  periodic  physico-chemical  processes  that  are 
coincident  with  the  reproductive  and  moulting  seasons. 

Kinetogenetic.  Faber  (quoted  by  Homeyer)  says  :  ' '  That 
nature  divided  every  individual  into  two  irresistible  impulses  ; 
the  wandering  impulse  (wafiderungstrieb) ,  and  the  homesick 
impulse  (heimwehtrieb)."  The  bird  shows  the  former  when 
it  leaves  the  place  of  its  nativity  and  repairs  to  a  region  usually 

1  Romanes  :  Animal  Intelligence,  p.  294. 

2  "  At  this  time  the  king  of  fishes  (salmon)  is  in  physical  perfection, 
with  few  rivals  in  beauty  or  strength  or  fierce  energy  or  indomitable 
courage  and  perseverance  ;  but  its  strength,  is  soon  fully  taxed  in  sur- 
mounting the  obstacles  and  in  fighting  the  rivals  which  oppose  its 
progress,  until  at  last,  worn  and  thin,  torn  and  mangled  by  battle, 
and  battered  by  rocks  ?  and  whirlpools  ?  (question  marks  mine)  with 
its  skin  in  rags,  its  fins  crippled  and  bleeding,  ....  nothing 
of  its  kingly  nature  remains  except  the  indomitable  impulse,  which 
no  hardships  can  quench,  still  urging  it  upward,  until,  if  any  life 
is  left,  it  at  last  reaches  the  breeding-ground."  W.  K.  Brooks, 
Pop.  Sci.  Month,  Vol.  IvII,  1898,  pp.  784-85.  (Prof.  Brooks's  article 
appeared  after  this  section  had  been  written.) 

^Swainson:  loc.  cit.,  p.  263. 

*  Wallace,  A.  R.:  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,  p.  19,  1876. 

^  Newton  :  Birds,  Ency.  Britannica. 

^Wallace,  A.  R.:  loc.  cit.,  p.  21. 

7  Brooks,  W.  K.:  loc.  cit.,  p.  786. 

8  Homeyer,  B.  P.:  Die  Wanderungen  Der  Vogel,  Leipzig,  1881. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  33 

characterized  by  new  foods  and  climatic  elements,  the  latter  by 
its  return  after  a  season  to  its  birthplace. 

Darwin's  theory  is  that  the  ancestors  of  migratory  animals 
were  annually  driven  by  cold  or  want  of  food,  to  travel  slowly 
southwards,  ....  and  that  this  compulsory  travelling 
would  become  an  instinctive  passion. 

Palmen^  undertook  in  1876  to  verify  Darwin's  theory  from 
the  study  of  geological  history.  He  worked  out  in  detail  nine 
great  routes  traversed  by  birds  in  their  passage  from  Greenland 
and  northern  Eurasia  to  Africa,  southern  Asia  and  the  East 
Indies.  A  glance  at  the  routes  shows  that  the  presence  of 
water  in  the  past  and  present  in  the  form  of  rivers,  lakes,  seas 
and  ocean  is  the  major  factor  in  determining  the  bends  in  the 
course  of  their  flight.  These  routes  pertain  to  bog  and  water  birds. 
They  are  quite  circuitous,  e.  <r, ,  the  most  direct  route  for  the 
crane  living  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  to  its  winter  home  in 
northern  Africa,  is  across  the  Alps  and  along  the  east  shore  of 
Italy.  Its  actual  route  is  up  the  Rhine  to  near  its  source,  and 
down  the  Rhone  to  the  sea,  and  then  along  the  west  shore  of 
Italy  and  Sicily  across  to  Africa.  The  most  direct  route  for 
the  wagtail  from  Greenland  to  a  warmer  climate  is  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America,  instead  of  this  it  strikes  boldly 
out  to  the  S.  E.,  across  the  Atlantic  toward  the  shores  of  Nor- 
way and  the  British  Isles.  Ornithologists  are  agreed  that  most 
of  our  eastern  birds  come  to  us  through  Mexico,  and  in  return- 
ing to  their  winter  homes  in  Central  America,  they  travel 
through  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  are  unknown  in  Florida  and 
the  West  Indies.^  Others  have  come  to  us  through  Florida, 
and  in  returning  to  their  winter  quarters  do  not  pass  through 
either  Texas  or  Mexico.  This  is  best  illustrated  by  the  bobo- 
link, an  eastern  bird,  which  breeding  from  New  Jersey  north- 
ward to  Nova  Scotia,  has  spread  westward  until  it  has  reached 
Utah  and  northern  Montana.  But,  and  here  is  the  interest- 
ing point,  these  birds  of  the  far  west  do  not  follow  their  neigh- 
bors and  migrate  southward  through  the  Great  Basin  into 
Mexico,  but  ....  retrace  their  steps  [and  leave  the 
United  States  by  the  roundabout  way  of  Florida,  crossing 
thence  to  Cuba,  Jamaica  and  Yucatan,  and  wintering  south  of 
the  Amazon. ' '  While  in  some  cases  the  relation  of  the  route 
to  the  conditions  for  procuring  food  is  clearly  evident,  in 
species  like  the  wagtail,  eiderduck  and  bobolink,  no  such  rela- 
tion exist  at  present.  This  fact  brings  to  the  front  the  per- 
manency of  the  routes,  and  fully  justifies  the  inference  that 
not  only  the  impulse  to  migrate,  but  also  the  direction,  is  an 
inherited  tendency. 

iPalm^n,  J.  A.:  Die  Zugstrassen  der  Vogel,  I^eipzig,  1876. 
2  Chapman,  F.  M.:  Bird  Ivife,  Appleton,  1898. 
JOURNAI, — 3 


34  KI.INE : 

The  bobolink  of  Utah  did  not  learn  their  route  in  one  genera- 
tion ;  they,  in  all  probability,  inherit  the  experience  of  countless 
generations,  slowly  acquired  as  the  species  extended  its  range 
westward.  But  how  shall  we  account  for  the  eiderduck,the  wag- 
tail and  puffin,  wholly  disregarding  land  forms  in  a  portion  of 
their  route,  and  faithfully  following  them  in  others.  Weis- 
mann,  Darwin,  Palmen  and  others,  believe  that  these  routes 
are  older  than  the  present  topographical  conditions,  that  what 
is  now  sea^  was  land  in  a  past  geological  age,  furnishing  way 
stations  of  food  just  as  the  littoral  and  fluvial  routes  do  at  the 
present  time. 

The  study  of  route  migration  emphasizes  two  things,  ( i )  that 
the  migrating  impulse  is,  at  least,  partly  inherited.  (2)  That 
its  antiquity  dates  back  to  former  geological  periods.  It  has 
also  directed  the  attention  of  the  movements  of  single  species, 
and  given  hints  on  the  relation  of  bird  movements  to  food,  but 
it  does  not  account  for  the  origin  of  the  vast  movements. 
Allen, ^  Spencer,^  Darwin*  and  others  say  in  substance,  that  the 
instinct  grew  out  of  a  series  of  freezings  and  thawings  of  the 
glacial  epochs,  that  bird  life  must  have  been  crowded  south- 
ward, and  the  struggle  for  life  thereby  greatly  intensified.  The 
less  yielding  forms  may  have  become  extinct ;  those  less  sensi- 
tive to  climatic  changes  would  seek  to  extend  their  range  by  a 
slight  removal  northward  during  the  middle  intervals  of  sum- 
mer, only,  however,  to  be  forced  back  again  by  the  recurrence 
of  winter.  These  incipient  migrations  must  have  been  grad- 
ually extended  and  strengthened  as  the  cold  wave  receded,  and 
opened  up  a  wider  area  within  which  existence  in  summer  be- 
came possible.  What  was  at  first  a  forced  migration  would 
become  habitual,  and  through  the  heredit}^  of  habit  give  rise  to 

1  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  route  taken  by  the  crane  and  eider- 
duck  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Rhone  to  the  shores  of  Africa.  In- 
stead of  striking  directly  across  the  sea  from  the  Rhone,  they  pass 
along  the  west  coast  of  Italy,  via  Sicily,  and  from  thence  to  Africa. 
It  is  pretty  well  established  that  the  Mediterranean  Sea  was  divided 
into  two  halves  by  an  isthmus  between  Sicily  and  Africa,  which  birds 
followed  in  their  migration  north  and  south.  This  strip  of  land  began 
to  sink  gradually,  the  flat  places  becoming  bogs,  and  later  so  many 
little  straits,  the  higher  places  would  form  a  chain  of  islands,  Sicily 
being  the  last  surviving  link  in  the  chain.  These  bogs  and  islands  in- 
stead of  inducing  the  birds  to  change  their  course  would,  if  anything, 
rather  tend  to  strengthen  their  preference  for  it  on  account  of  the 
variety  and  quantity  of  food  furnished  by  such  land  forms.  So  that 
by  the  time  of  a  complete  submergence  the  inherited  tendency  for 
this  particular  route  would  have  become  so  strong  that  it  impelled 
them  to  cross  this  vast  sheet  of  water. 

2  Allen,  A.  J.:  Scribner's  Month.,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  932-938,  1881 ;  also 
Bulletin,  Nuttall  Ornith.  Club,  Vol.  V,  1880. 

^Spencer:  Prin.  Biology,  p.  412. 
*  Darwin  :  Origin  of  Species,  p.  342. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIvSK.  35 

the  instinct.  Temperature  and  food  are  the  principal  factors  in 
this  theory. 

The  metabolism  of  the  bird  exceeds  that  of  all  other  verte- 
brates. This  calls  for  abundant  and  nutritious  food,  and 
especially  during  the  breeding  season.  So  vital  is  this  relation 
that  Wallace  is  disposed  to  regard  the  migrating  instinct — "  as^ 
an  exaggeration  of  a  habit  common  to  all  locomotive  animals 
of  moving  about  in  search  of  food. ' '  Indeed  Hudson^  has  found 
that  abundance  of  food  may  change  the  time  of  the  breeding 
season. 

^  "  In  the  island  of  Goree  the  swallows  remain  through  the 
whole  year  because  the  warmth  of  the  climate  enables  them  to 
find  food  at  all  seasons. ' '  Allen*  has  shown  that  the  distance 
traversed  by  the  migratory  kind  in  passing  from  their  summer 
to  their  winter  homes  is  in  direct  relation  to  their  habits  in 
respect  to  food.  Yet  while  the  effect  of  food  upon  bird  life  is 
direct  and  vital,  it  does  not  explain  satisfactorily  the  periodicity 
of  the  impulse,  the  regularity  to  a  day  with  which  some  birds 
return  to  their  nesting  places.  In  fact  it  does  not  account  in 
many  cases  for  the  southward  movements.  The  swift^  and 
cuckoo  both  in  America  and  England  leave  for  the  South  when 
nature  is  in  her  richest  abundance  and  the  temperature  fairly 
constant.  Many  birds  leave  their  winter  homes  in  the  tropics 
in  the  height  of  the  tropical  spring  when  insect  and  vegetable 
food  are  daily  increasing.  They  leave  a  land  of  plenty  for  one 
from  which  the  snows  of  winter  have  barely  disappeared,  often 
coming  so  early  that  unseasonable  weather  forces  them  to  retreat. 

This  advancing,  checking,  stopping  suddenly  or  even  retreat- 
ing temporarily  led  Prof.  Cooke*  to  study  the  relation  between 
meteorology  and  migration.  His  extensive  data  suggests  a 
correlation  between  successive  '  *  bird  wave  "or  "  migration 
wave ' '  and  the  '  *  warm  waves  ' '  in  the  atmosphere.  The  inves- 
tigation was  not  a  complete  one  and  is  doubtless  subject  to 
errors  and  corrections.'^ 

It  seems  clear  in  some  cases  that  temperature  exerts  a  direct 
influence  upon  their  movements,  but  it  sheds  no  light  upon  those 
very  definite  migrations  that  occur  in  equable  temperature  and 
abundance  of  food,  e.  g.,  swift,  cuckoo,  bobolink.     Many  East- 

1  Wallace,  A.  R.:  loc.  cit.,  p.  21. 

2  Hudson,  W.,  H.:  loc.  cit.,  p.  63. 

3  Ribot,  Th.:  Heredity,  p.  16. 

*  Allen,  A.  J.:  Scribner's  Month.,  loc.  cit. 

^ Couch:  loc.  cit.,  p.  138. 

^  Cooke,  W.  W.:  Report  on  Bird  Migration  in  the  Miss.  Valley, 
1884-85. 

■^  A  further  attempt  has  been  made  to  represent  graphically  the  migra- 
tion of  birds  and  the  composition  of  the  avi-fauna  changing  with  the 
season.     W.  W.  Stone,  The  Auk,  Vol.  VI,  p.  139. 


36  KLINE : 

ern  species  move  southward  not  according  to  temperature 
changes,  but  rather  with  respect  to  food  changes.^  Wallace 
and  Chapman  contribute  evidence  showing  that  temperature 
and  weather  elements  in  general  have  very  little  to  do  with  the 
time  of  their  arrival  or  departure.  They  consider  temperature 
effective  only  as  far  as  it  effects  food  supply.  The  Pine  War- 
bler's wide  area  ( i6  degrees  parallel  of  latitude)  of  nidification  is 
a  case  in  point  showing  that  temperature  alone  is  not  the  factor 
that  determines  bird  distribution  and  migration.  Again,  if 
food  and  climatic  elements  were  the  sole  factors  in  originating 
the  impulse,  the  periodic  migrations  within  the  tropics  would 
remain  mysterious,  because,  there,  these  factors  are  compara- 
tively uniform  throughout  the  year. 

Physiogenetic.  I  think  it  quite  probable,  that,  if  a  careful 
record  of  a  bird's  metabolism  were  kept  throughout  the  year, 
and  expressed  graphicallj^  it  would  show  among  other  things 
two  distinct  evelvations,  a  large  one  at  the  approach  and  during 
the  reprodutive  period,  and  a  smaller  one  at  the  moulting  sea- 
son. Facts  are  not  wanting  which  lend  this  supposition  some 
degree  of  certainty. 

It  is  well  known  that  both  physiological  and  mental  changes 
more  or  less  varied,  occur  in  nearly  all  species  from  crustaceans 
to  and  including  species  of  anthropoid  apes,  during  the  pro- 
creative  period.  Darwin^  in  his  thesis  of  sexual  selection  pre- 
sents an  immense  number  of  facts  on  this  point,  especially  on 
the  changes  that  occur  in  secondary  sexual  characteristics. 
These  changes  reach  their  climax  in  birds.  The  voice,  plumage, 
comb,  wattles  and  weapons  of  various  sorts  are  all  brought  to 
their  greatest  possible  perfection.  These  secondary  sexual 
changes  are  paralleled  by  more  fundamental  and  important 
ones  in  the  primary  organs  before  their  flight.  In^  the  case  of 
sea  birds  dissection  shows  an  enlargement  of  the  sexual  organs 
before  their  flight  —  those  of  the  male  enlarge  first.  The  deposit 
of  eggs  by  the  trout  and  salmon  soon  after  their  arrival  to  the 
spawning  areas  is  evidence  of  ovarian  activity  even  before  migra- 
tion began.  The  parturition*  of  the  seal  occurs  within  a  day 
or  two  after  her  advent  to  the  rookery.  Stork, ^  geese,  and 
members  of  the  Hirundinae^  family  display  unusual  activity 
previous  to  their  flight. 

These  periodic  '  *  self-assertions  ' '  of  the  reproductive  energy 
induce  physico-chemical  changes  throughout  the  whole  organ- 

1  Newton,  Prof. :    See  article  in  Bncy.  Britannica. 

2  Dawin  :  The  Descent  of  Man,  pp.  270-555. 

3  Chapman,  F.  M.  :  The  Auk,  Vol.  XI,  1894,  pp.  12-17. 
*  Elliot,  H.  W. :    An  Arctic  Province,  p.  282. 
^Swainson  :  loc.  cit.y  p.  261. 

^  Cauch  :  loc.  cit.,  p.  130. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  37 

ism,  thereby  ill-adjusting  it  to  external  conditions  which 
before  favored  and  promoted  well-being.  Influenced  by  this 
new  development  of  organs  and  energy  their  very  nature  seems 
altered  ;  and  while  the  climate  they  formerly  delighted  in  has 
thus  grown  irritating  and  irksome,  they  feel  a  craving  for  one 
in  which  the  procreative  impulse  may  best  be  carried  into  effect. 
Similarly,  the  ' '  moulting  season  "  works  physiological  changes 
of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  individual.  If  the  physico- 
chemical  changes  of  the  procreative  period  are  in  the  interests 
of  the  species,  the  race,  those  of  the  moulting  season  are  for 
the  individual.  During  this  season  hens  cease  to  lay,  birds  quit 
singing.  Naturalists  speak  of  them  as  ' '  moping. ' '  Peafowls 
hide,  courting  and  love  antics  cease.  Rich^  food  and  excited 
antics  are  requisite  to  the  moulting  process.  *  *  This  feverish 
condition  is  accompanied  with  a  higher  degree  of  sensibility, 
which  renders  irksome  and  aggravating  those  impressions  of 
the  air  which  before  were  pleasing.  An  appetite  for  new  kinds 
of  food  may  be  a  natural  accompaniment  of  this  state  of  the 
body.  The  moulting  process,  per  se,  occurs  in  migratory  birds 
as  soon  as  they  complete  their  southward  journey.  These 
considerations  point  strongly  to  the  conclusion  that  both  the 
homeward  and  outward  migrations  have  a  physiological  basis, 
and  that  these  processes  serve  as  a  stimulus  to  the  nervous 
mechanism  which  discharges  in  terms,  so  to  speak,  of  migra- 
tions. There  are  also  two  other  motives  associated  with  the 
breeding  seasons  that  set  in  motion  almost  all  forms  of  life. 
The  first  includes  all  those  activities  connoted  by  '  'sexual  se- 
lection, ' '  the  second  is  the  search  for  suitable  breeding  areas. 

Animals,  which  are  at  all  other  times  solitary,  including  most 
carnivora,  seek  the  opposite  sex  of  their  species  during  the 
rutting  season.  The  lion,  tiger  and  the  entire  family  of  Feli- 
dae,  both  wild  and  domestic,  lead  solitary,  selfish,  vegetative 
lives,  except  during  the  season  of  love.  The  sexes  of  the  arctic 
reindeer  keep  apart  except  at  the  courting  season.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  wild  turkey,  ^  the  grouse,  and  certain  vultures  of 
the  U.  S.  The  male  chaffinches  in  Sweden  never  migrate. 
The  females  go  south  in  September  and  return  to  Sweden  in 
April,  where  they  are  fought  for  to  the  finish  by  the  males. 
Pairing,  according  to  Darwin,  is  effected  by  the  ''law  of  bat- 
tle." Describing  it  among  birds,  he  says,  * '  when  many  males 
congregate  at  the  same  appointed  spot  and  fight  together,  as  in 
the  case  of  grouse  and  various  other  birds,  they  are  generally 
attended  by  the  females  which  afterwards  pair  with  the  victo- 
rious combatants. ' '     The  point  urged  here  is  that  the  desire 

iBrehm,  Dr.  A.  E.:  Bird  Life,  p.  372. 
^Darwin  :    Descent  of  Man,  p.  416,  etc. 


38  KI.INE : 

for  a  mate  or  mates  brings  together  periodically  great  aggre- 
gations of  life,  that  otherwise  would  have  met  perhaps  by 
chance.  May  not  the  desire  for  a  mate  and  the  repeated  bodily 
experiences  excited  in  what  was  at  first  accidental  meetings 
and  pairings  have  become  permanently  associated,  so  that  the 
desire  for  a  mate  is  immediately  followed  by  a  journey  for  one, 
or  to  the  ''breeding  ground?" 

The  search  for  suitable  breeding  areas,  it  appears,  is  prompted 
by  two  causes  :  first,  suitable  food  and  shelter  for  the  young  ; 
second,  the  well  known  desire  that  so  many  animals  have  for 
seclusion  during  the  reproductive  period.  In  fact  nearly  every 
species  of  the  great  backboned  series  will  seek  at  the  approach 
of  this  season  some  retired  part  of  their  haunts  or  range  in 
which  to  bring  forth  their  young.  Probably  the  second  desire 
grew  out  of  the  first,  especially  out  of  the  necessity  for  shelter 
for  nest,  eggs  and  helpless  young. 

The  female  of  the  reindeer^  of  Norway,  of  the  common  stag^, 
of  the  long-tailed  deer  of  the  British  Isles,  of  several  species  of 
^monkey"*  isolates  herself  from  her  congeners  and  other  forms 
of  life  for  a  fortnight  or  more  during  parturition.  The  annuaP 
return  of  the  seal  to  her  "rookery,"  at  the  breeding  season  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  perpetuation  of  the  species.  The 
young  seal  from  the  moment  of  birth  to  a  month  or  six  weeks 
is  utterly  unable  to  swim.  Especially  is  it  necessary  that  birds 
should  select  safe  breeding  grounds,  nests,  eggs  and  birdlings 
are  fragile,  helpless  objects,  an  easy  and  tempting  prey  to  ene- 
mies. There  is  no  wonder  to  be  attached,  then,  to  the  fact  that 
birds  above  all  other  creatures  are  most  circumspect*  about  the 
location  of  their  breeding  sites. 

In  England  the  chafiinches  and  a  host  of  other  birds  spend 
the  winter  in  the  open  country  but  at  the  approach  of  spring 
come  to  the  gardens,  hedgerows  and  fruit  trees  because  these 
places  offer  better  security  for  nesting  than  the  wood  or  heath. 
The  starling  spreads  itself  over  the  country  of  Cornwall  in  the 
winter  and  in  the  spring  immense  flocks  desert  their  food  area, 
though  only  to  proceed  to  the  distance  of  a  few  miles,  for  the 
sake  of  a  place  in  which  to  hide  their  nests.  Chapman  men- 
tions several  species  of  tropical  sea  birds  that  resort  each  year 
to  some  rocky  islet,  "  rookery,"  where  they  may  nest  in  saifety. 

1  Darwin  :  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  503. 

2  Swainson :  loc.  cit.,  p.  275. 
^Hartman:  Anthropoid  Apes,  pp.  247-48. 
''Heape,  W.:  Philo.  Trans.,  Parti,  p.  413,  1894. 
5 Elliot,  H.  W.:    loc.  cit.,  p.  287. 

^  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  birds  are  conscious  of  the  superior 
advantages  of  these  sites  any  more  than  they  are  conscious  of  the  fit- 
ness of  the  materials  (grasses,  hair,  sticks  or  mud)  used  in  nest  build- 
ing. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIySB.  39 

These  movements  are  usually  regarded  as  non-migratory,  and 
yet  the  object  is  the  same,  and  the  migration  as  regular  as  that 
which  prompts  a  wagtail  or  a  puffin  to  wing  its  way  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  arctic  regions. 

^Brehmsays:  "The  act  of  migration  stands  in  a  certain 
way  connected  with  the  business  of  breeding  and  moult." 
^  Wallace  has  emphasized  the  necessity  of  separating  the  sub- 
sistence and  breeding  areas  making  food  and  safety  during  the 
nesting  period  the  causal  elements  or  initiative  factors. 

These  two  authors,  taken  together,  correlate  the  reproduc- 
tive and  moulting  processes  and  the  instinct  for  seclusion  with 
that  of  migration.  To  cover  the  facts  of  periodicity,  of  all  real 
migrations,  the  immense  distance,  and  direction  of  some  of  the* 
routes,  I  should  restate  and  add  to  the  above  theories  in  some- 
what this  fashion  :  The  incipient  factors  in  originating  the 
migrating  instinct  are  the  COINCIDENCES  of  the  physico-chemical 
changes  and  the  instinctive  desire  for  seclusion  and  for  suitable 
breeding  areas  with  the  periodicity  of  the  seasojis.  If  it  had  hap- 
pened that  secluded  and  suitable  pairing  and  breeding  grounds 
had  always  been  selected  in  an  east  and  west  line  from  their 
area  of  ' '  subsistence, "  it  is  probable  that  the  powerful  instinct  as 
we  know  it,  would  never  have  originated,  because  the  climatic 
and  food  elements  could  never  have  co-operated  with  the  pro- 
creative  factors ;  on  the  other  hand  it  appears  as  equally 
improbable  that  the  instinct  should  have  originated  in  the 
absence  of  the  desire  for  seclusion  or  suitable  breeding  grounds 
or  the  ever  recurring  physiological  changes  which  mark  the 
annual  cycle  of  bird  life.^ 

This  theory  explains  a  number  of  facts  connected  with  bird 
migration  that  are  otherwise  mysterious. 

Males  of  many  species  precede  the  females  in  the  northward 
journey  ;  this  correlates  with  the  male  sexual  organs  develop- 
ing first.  Birds  that  do  not  sexually  mature  the  first  year  in 
the  feeding  area  either  migrate  only  a  small  portion  of  the  way 
or  not  all.  Barren  birds  of  a  migratory  species  remain  south 
all  their  lives,  only  at  times  do  they  make  a  portion  of  the 
journey — doubtless   due  to  imitation  and  the   social   instinct. 

1  Brehm,  Dr.  A.  E.  :    loc.  cit.,  p.  368. 

2  Wallace,  A.  R.  :    Nature,  Vol.  X,  1874,  p.  459. 

3  Chapman  says — in  the  Auk,  Vol.  XI,  1894 — "It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  period  of  reproduction  may  have  been  coincident  with  the 
return  of  the  warmer  part  of  the  year  and  in  addition  to  the  desire  for 
seclusion  and  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  crowded  conditions  of  exis- 
tence, which  then  prevailed  ("during  glacial  epoch),  was  potent  in 
inducing  birds  to  seek  breeding  grounds  in  the  north  during  the 
summer.  The  only  criticism  offered  against  this  theory  is  the  time 
(glacial  period)  and  the  place  (northern  zones)  it  offers  for  the  origin 
of  the  instinct.  Arboreal  tropical  life  is  now  believed  by  naturalists 
to  be  the  natal  home  of  birds. 


40  KLINE : 

The  arrival  to  the  breeding  ground  is  much  more  regular  and 
uniform  than  their  departure,  the  latter  is  usually  governed  by 
the  success  of  breeding.  They  come  burdened  with  the  great 
task  of  procreation  which  gives  instinctive  purpose  and  pre- 
cision to  their  movements,  they  leave  in  obedience  to  vegetative 
functions.  The  theory  accounts  for  their  leaving  breeding  or 
feeding  area  when  to  all  appearances  temperature  and  food  are 
ideal. 

lyOWER  Mammals.  Omitting  the  voluminous  literature  on 
this  topic  I  shall  mention  only  briefly  the  more  significant  facts. 

Movements  to  which  the  term  migration  is  applicable  are 
seen  in  ten  or  twelve  species  of  rodents,  certain  wolves  and 
bears,  several  species  of  rengulate  and  a  few  primates. 

Classical  examples  of  the  instinct  among  rodents  are  the 
military-like  advances  of  the  squirrel,  the  hare  and  notably 
those  of  the  lemming.^  The  movements  begin  in  the  spring 
or  fall  and  may  continue  during  severe  weather.  The  object  is 
apparently  to  enlarge  their  food  area  which  is  made  necessary 
by  an  unusual  multiplication  ^  of  the  species  and  an  unfavor- 
able food  season.*  "Wolves^  everywhere  descend  from  the 
mountains  to  the  lowlands  in  severe  weather,  and  bears  not 
infrequently  migrate  in  great  numbers  to  escape  the  rigors  of 
an  extreme  winter. 

Porcupines  in  Persia  migrate  north  and  vsouth  with  the 
seasonal  changes  of  temperature. 

Reindeer  and  antelope,  especially  the  latter,  migrate  in  some 
countries  as  regularly  as  the  fishes  and  birds, — the  females  of 
some  species  going  farther  north  than  the  males. 

Food,  enemies  and  change  of  seasons  influence  the  move- 
ments of  monkeys. 

On  the  whole  it  appears  that,  although  the  movements  of 
the  lower  mammals  are  due  to  the  same  causes  that  control 
animals  moving  in  air  or  in  water,  yet  they  are  less  precise, 
definite  and  periodical.  True,  unmistakable  traces  of  the 
instinct  are  present,  manifesting  itself  in  flashes,  as  it  were, 
sometimes  impelling  the  creatures  to  distruction,  e.  g.,  mouse 
and  lemming. 

Domestic  Animals.^ 

For  the  sake  of  completeness,  but  more  particularly  for  em- 
phasizing certain  observations  made  in  the  present  section  and 

1  Romanes  :    Mental  Evolution  in  Animals,  p.  282. 

^Swainson  :    loc.  cit.,  p.  250. 

3  Heilprin  :    Distribution  of  Animals,  p.  40. 

*  Wallace,  A.  R.  :    loc.  cit.,  p,  18. 

^The  material  presented  here  is  in  answer  to  Rubric  XIII  of  the 
syllabus.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  cases  were  received  on  ducks,  tur- 
keys, chickens,  cats,  sheep,  cows,  horses,  etc. 

Doubtless  they  will  seem  very  commonplace,   so  they  are,  but   to 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  4I 

by  way  of  introductory  to  the  love  of  home,  I  treat  here 
the  migrating  and  homing  phenomena  of  domestic  animals. 

Fowi,S.  I.  "I  have  observed  that  animals,  such  as  cats,  dogs,  hens, 
hare,  cows  and  horses  are  attracted  to  home  life,  while  fish,  ducks, 
turkeys  and  guineas  are  not — they  like  to  wander." 

2.  **  Our  chickens  often  wander  but  are  sure  to  return  before  night 
fall,  while  our  turkeys  always  wander  away,  and  sometimes  they 
stay." 

3.  "  Have  known  hens  and  turkeys  to  stay  away  during  the  day 
and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  fields  or  woods  and  come  home  at  night." 

4.  "  A  neighbor  had  a  hen  that  would  come  to  our  place  to  roost 
but  always  went  home  to  lay.'''' 

5.  "When  we  kept  turkeys  they  used  to  wander  from  home; 
especially  to  build  nests." 

6.  ''  When  a  hen  '  stole  her  nest,'  we  found  it  hard  to  locate  it, 
because  the  hen  would  not  go  to  it  when  any  one  was  looking." 

7.  **  Have  known  Mrs.  C.  to  watch  her  turkeys  for  two  hours  at  a 
time  to  find  where  they  laid.  She  was  often  compelled  to  follow 
them  over  a  mile  away  into  some  underbrush." 

The  writer  has  performed  the  very  monotonous  juvenile 
task  of  following  the  wanderings  of  a  turkey-hen  until  she  saw 
fit  "to  take  ' '  her  nest.  If  sTie  detected  my  watching,  her 
course  was  most  often  turned  leisurely  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  she  would  postpone  going  on  for  several  hours  ;  some- 
times, if  watched  too  closely,  she  would  not  visit  the  nest  that 
day.  Usually  when  she  "made  up  her  mind"  to  go,  she 
struck  a  bee-line  for  the  nest  as  fast  as  she  could  run. 

8.  **  Had  given  up  one  of  my  hens  as  stolen  or  killed,  when  to  my 
surprise  one  day  she  entered  the  yard  and  presented  me  a  dozen  little 
chicks  in  a  very  '  fussy  fashion.'  " 

9.  *' Have  a  number  of  times  missed  hens  and  gave  them  up  for 
lost,  but  after  some  time  they  would  come  up  with  a  few  little 
chicks." 

10.  "  We  gave  up  keeping  turkeys  because  it  was  impossible  to 
keep  them  at  home." 

11.  **  It  was  very  hard  to  keep  ducks  on  the  farm,  although  we  had 
a  brook  and  pond  ;  they  were  forever  gone, — would  wander  a  mile  or 
two  below  the  house  staying  two  or  three  days,  when  back  they  would 
come — as  soon  as  fed  and  rested  a  day,  away  they  would  go  again." 

12.  "...  .  Sold  a  couple  of  ducks  to  a  neighbor  three  miles 
away.  About  a  week  after  a  tremendous  noise  in  the  yard  awoke  the 
household.  It  proved  to  be  the  quacking  and  gabbling  of  the  ducks. 
Never  before  had  I  seen  an  animal  make  so  great  a  display  of 
pleasure." 

13.  "...  Drove  my  young  chicks  over  a  week  old  at  evening  into 
a  new  coop, but  left  the  door  open  until  late,  as  it  was  a  very  warm  night. 
When  I  returned  to  shut  the  door  of  the  new  coop,  they  had  all  left. 

the  writer  therein  lies  their  value.  The  naive  innocence,  simple- 
mindedness  and  freshness  with  which  they  are  told  precludes  all 
suspicion  that  their  observations  were  influenced  by  preconceived 
theories  and  biological  conceptions  as  to  the  deeper  significance  of 
what  they  saw. 


42  KLINE  : 

Going  to  the  old  one  I  found  them  all  cuddled   in  a  heap  beside  the 
closed  door."  ^ 

Cats.  14.  *'  My  cat  goes  away  frequently,  stays  three  or  four  days 
perhaps — always  glad  to  see  us  on  his  return." 

15.  "  Our  cat  goes  off  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then  returns.  He 
is  treated  kindly  and  well  fed,  but  just  roams  off,  we  can  expect  him 
within  a  week." 

16.  "  .  .  .  This  cat  used  to  go  away  every  month,  and  stay 
about  a  week,  then  come  back.     Its  journeys  were  regular." 

17.  "  .  .  .  Owned  a  cat  that  would  stay  in  the  woods  for  three 
months  at  a  time,  she  would  then  return  home  with  four  or  five  kit- 
tens." 

18.  "  Had  a  cat  that  would  take  care  of  her  little  kittens  in  an  old 
basket  at  the  next  door  neighbor's.  She  brought  her  kittens  over 
home  three  times  a  day  to  be  fed." 

19.  "  When  the  little  kitten  of  our  old  cat  got  big  enough  to  run 
around  we  used  to  play  with  it  a  great  deal.  One  day  it  disappeared. 
Thorough  searching  proved  in  vain.  The  old  cat  was  around  every 
day,  but  no  kitten.  One  day  the  old  cat  was  spied  going  across  the 
field.  I  followed.  She  led  me  across  two  large  fields  to  a  patch  of 
oats.  Went  to  the  edge  of  them  and  called.  Out  came  that  little 
kitten  as  fat  as  a  butter  ball.  We  think  the  mother  hid  it  because  we 
fondled  it  too  much." 

The  last  six  cases  are  typical  of  36  that  illustrate  a  role  by 
the  procreative  factor  in  wandering. 

20.  "  Have  observed  that  cats  had  much  rather  have  one  place  in 
which  to  sleep." 

21.  ''Cats  will  seldom  leave  permanently  their  old  home,  even 
after  the  family  has  moved  away." 

22.  "  When  we  moved  into  our  new  house  we  left  behind  a  large 
cat  that  had  been  in  the  family  for  several  years.  My  father  was  very 
fond  of  the  cat.  He  would  go  down  to  the  old  house  with  food  for  the 
cat,  but  he  would  not  eat.  He  howled  day  and  night, but  whenever  any 
of  us  went  down  to  the  old  place  he  would  jump  on  us,  roll  over  and 
purr,  and  act  wildly  glad.  My  father  could  not  bear  the  idea  of  its 
grieving  and  starving  itself  to  death,  so  the  cat  was  brought  to  the 
new  home.  He  was  crazy  with  joy.  He  ran  up  and  down  stairs,  on 
top  of  the  furniture,  rubbed  against  and  smelt  of  everything,  climbed 
up  on  us,  walking  right  up  our  skirts  into  our  arms,  remaining  but  a 
moment,  then  down  again,  and  following  us  about  like  a  dog.  After 
awhile  he  settled  down  and  went  to  sleep." 

Fifty  cases  like  the  last  five  were  received  on  the  home  instinct 
of  the  cat. 

Dogs.  The  following  cases  are  typical  of  the  wandering 
and  homing  instincts  of  dogs  : 

23.  "Our  dog  went  back  to  his  old  home,  three  miles  distant, 
every  Saturday  night,  and  returned  every  Monday  morning  regu- 
larly." 

24.  "  Owned  a  dog  that  was  very  fond  of  going  off  on  long  journeys 
by  himself.  Sometimes  he  would  be  gone  two  or  three  days,  and 
would  come  home  worn  out  and  in  every  way  ready  for  rest.  After 
he  had  stayed  home  several  days  he  would  be  ready  to  start  out  again." 

1 1  have  before  me  numerous  observations  on  the  homing  of  pigeons, 
but  such  facts  are  every-day  occurrences,  as  observations  and  cur- 
rent literature  abundantly  testify.     The  cases  are  therefore  omitted. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  43 

25.  *  *  Had  a  dog  that  would  travel  a  week,  then  stay  at  home  a  week, 
until  finally  he  disappeared." 

26.  "  Have  a  dog  that  persists  in  running  away.  Is  kept  tied,  will 
leave  home  as  soon  as  untied  to  go  to  where  there  is  a  dog.  He  will 
not  go  away  during  the  winter." 

27.  "  Know  a  dog  that  spends  a  great  part  of  his  time  at  a  neigh- 
bor's, although  his  master  is  good  to  him." 

28.  "  Dogs  will  often  go  off  on  journeys  lasting  two  or  three  days 
or  longer,  but  will  return  after  that  time." 

29.  **  Brother  bought  a  hound  from  an  old  man  living  some  miles 
from  our  home.  The  dog  returned  next  day.  We  went  after  him  a 
number  of  times.  Even  after  the  old  man  died  the  dog  would  make 
trips  to  his  old  home." 

30.  *'My  parents  owned  a  fine  setter.  They  sent  him  to  a  farm 
forty  miles  away,  to  be  trained.  On  taking  him  from  the  wagon 
when  the  farmer  reached  home,  he  got  away  and  came  home.  He 
ran  right  up  stairs  into  a  room  where  my  mother  lay  sick,  putting  his 
forefeet  on  her  bed He  was  not  to  be  driven  from  her  bed- 
side that  night." 

31.  "A  member  of  my  family  was  a  witness  to  the  following  inci- 
dent :  A  farmer  living  near  North  Bend  on  the  Ohio,  transported  his 
farm  products  on  a  flatboat  down  to  Vicksburg.  On  one  of  these 
trips  he  took  a  highly  prized  dog.  At  the  landing  place  at  Vicksburg 
the  dog  disappeared.  About  a  month  after  the  owner  had  returned 
the  dog  came  home  poor  and  half-starved.  He  had  travelled  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  swam  rivers,  threaded  forests,  forded  swamps  and 
faced  starvation  to  return  to  his  home." 

Sheep.  32.  "  Flock  of  sheep  in  the  spring  have  started  about  the 
usual  time  for  the  range  where  the  older  ones  of  the  flock  had  pas- 
tured for  two  or  three  years.  The  pastures  were  on  high  hills,  and 
the  warmth  and  dampness  of  spring  may  have  produced  a  degree  of 
discomfort  that  reminded  the  sheep  of  the  fresh  pastures,  breezes 
and  hillside  springs,  where,  shorn  of  their  fleeces,  they  had  enjoyed 
previous  summers." 

Cows.  33.  "A  man  in  our  neighborhood  has  a  cow  that  runs 
away  from  home.  She  will  be  gone  for  a  day  or  more,  and  then  will 
come  back  again." 

34.  "Our  cow  had  spells  of  going  away  every  month  last  sum- 
mer." 

35.  **  Mr.  C.  had  a  cow  that  would  leave  home  every  chance  she 
could  get,  and  would  go  into  the  country.  Sometimes  found  ten  miles 
away  from  home." 

36.  "  A  cow  that  will  make  her  escape  from  pasture  and  return 
home,  at  a  distance  of  several  miles,  at  every  opportunity." 

37.  "A  herd  of  young  cattle  belonging  to  my  grandfather  escaped 
from  a  wild  pasture  about  the  last  of  September,  and  came  home,  a 
distance  of  twelve  miles." 

38.  "  Sold  a  cow  to  a  man  living  about  twenty-five  miles  away  over 
rough  hills  and  streams.  She  came  back  in  a  few  days  and  stood  by 
the  gate  until  we  let  her  in.  She  was  again  taken  to  her  owner,  but 
soon  returned.  It  was  very  cold  weather.  We  drove  her  away  and 
made  her  stay  outside  of  shelter,  but  without  avail.  Fearing  she 
would  die  of  hunger  and  cold  we  bought  her  back." 

Horses.  39.  "  Horses  always  come  toward  home  faster.  Have 
known  very  few  to  wander  away  from  home." 

40.  '*  Horses  become  attached  to  home  if  it  is  one  in  which  they 
are  treated  kindly.  Know  a  horse  raised  and  owned  by  one  man  until 
the  horse  was  quite  old.     He  was  then  sold  to  a  person  who  kept 


44  KI.INE : 

him,  not  far  from  his  former  home,  but  the  horse  was  so  homesick 
that  he  refused  food  and  water,  and  would  immediately  start  for  home 
on  being  released.  He  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  his  old  home 
and  consequently  died  of  homesickness." 

41.  "Have  known  dogs,  horses  and  cows,  to  suffer  so  intensely 
from  evident  homesickness,  and  so  little  food  did  they  eat  that  great 
weakness  and  emaciation  resulted.  The  diagnosis  was  confirmed  by 
allowing  such  animals  to  be  taken  to  their  homes,  when  appetite  and 
health  promptly  returned." 

42.  "  Horses  and  cows  will  often  wander  in  search  of  more  or  bet- 
ter food,  but  will  soon  return." 

These  cases  indicate  sufficiently  the  causal  efficacy  of  food 
(case  42),  temperature  and  seasons  (32),  in  impelling  domesti- 
cate creatures  to  wander  ;  and  likewise  emphasize  strongly 
that  the  procreative  processes  ill-adjust  periodically,  the  organ- 
ism to  its  home,  and  further,  that  along  with  these  physiologi- 
cal changes  are  co-operating  the  instinctive  desires  for  pairing 
and  seclusion  during  the  periods  of  nest-building,  laying 
(cases  4,  5  and  6,  etc.),  parturition.  In  some  cases  the  whole 
periods  of  gestation  is  one  of  seclusion  (case  17).  Cats,  dogs, 
cows,  and  even  horses  will  often  hide  their  young  (case  19), 
especially  if  one  fondles  or  pays  them  considerable  attention  in 
any  way.  The  many  advantages  derived  by  seclusion  from 
members  of  their  own  and  those  of  other  species  during  this  whole 
period  are  self-evident.  A  hen  will  lay  in  the  woods,  and 
come  home  to  roost  and  feed.  A  cat  will  keep  her  kittens  in  a 
basket  at  the  next  neighbor's  barn,  but  brings  them  home 
three  times  a  day  for  meals,  a  cow  nurses  and  conceals  her 
calf  in  a  thick  copse,  but  pastures  in  the  open  field.  Thus 
domestic  animals,  like  the  birds,  often  make  an  efifort  to  sep- 
arate the  reproductive  from  the  vegetative  areas  even  during 
and  after  the  period  of  gestation. 

The  periods  of  heat  in  the  cat,  dog  and  cow,  are  coincident 
with  their  leaving  home.  Doubtless  the  horse  would  prove  no 
exception  if  he  were  allowed  equal  freedom.  It  appears  that 
the  periodical  physiological  changes  of  the  sexual  organs  com- 
pletely overpower  whatever  adjustment  the  organism  may  have 
effected  on  a  vegetative  basis,  and  impels  it  to  seek  forces  that 
will  restore  its  equilibrium.  Good  food,  comfortable  quarters 
and  kind  treatment  (case  27)  are  no  longer  attractive.  The 
male  of  both  the  feline  and  canine  races  leave  their  comforta- 
ble vegetative  quarters  to  become  the  paramour  of  a  female  of 
their  respective  species,  and  this  too  in  the  face  of  repeated  bit- 
ter experiences,  strength  challenged  on  every  hand,  deadly 
combats  waged  with  other  male  suitors,  many  a  kick  and  cuflf 
delivered  by  man,  and  of  privations  and  hunger  continually 
besetting  them. 

The  appreciation  and  love  for  home  in  domestic  animals  is 
wide  spread  and  oftentimes  very  intense  and   pathetically  ex- 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  45 

pressed.  A  new  cot,  a  new  kennel,  a  new  manger  of  strange 
smells  and  sights,  a  new  master  with  new  and  strange  methods 
of  treatment  produce  at  times  acute  cases  of  nostalgia  in  dogs, 
cats  and  horses. 

The  observations  of  this  section  indicate  that  temperature  is 
the  chief  cause  in  the  majority  of  fish  movements,  likewise  of 
lobster  and  a  few  mammals,  as  squirrels,  monkeys  and  porcu- 
pines. In  so  far  as  it  affects  the  food  supply  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  indirect  cause  among  all  species.  Food  and 
atmospheric  pressure  seem  to  be  the  dominant  forces  among 
many  insects,  e.  g. ,  locusts,  grasshoppers,  etc.  The  procrea- 
tive  instinct  is  operative  in  all  the  species  considered  save  the 
lobster,  and  probably  the  locust.  With  certain  land  crabs, 
butterflies,  fish  and  eels,  all  birds,  many  rodents  and  the  wan- 
dering of  all  domestic  animals,  the  procreative  instinct,  I  am 
persuaded,  is  paramount. 

No  one  factor  acting  alone  is  responsible  for  the  instinct. 
It  is  the  product  of  a  nexus  of  forces  co-operating  and  supple- 
menting each  other.  But  when  the  relative  intensities  of  the 
many  factors  are  considered,  together  with  the  circumstances 
and  the  order  in  which  they  operate,  it  appears  that  the  pro- 
creative  instinct  is  the  initiative,  the  primal  factor,  and  that 
cosmic  forces  give  precision,  definiteness,  and  periodicity  to  its 
expression. 

Section  B. 

Migrations  of  Primitive  Man.  The  present  section  is  con- 
cerned with  the  wanderings  of  primitive  man,  to  the  end  of 
exposing  in  rough  outline  the  customs,  habits  and  characters 
of  a  migrating  people.  The  conception  of  the  migrating 
instinct  thus  seen  in  the  race  may  improve  our  position  for 
interpreting  the  instinct  as  expressed  by  the  individual. 

Ethnologists,^  generally,  subscribe  to  the  assumption  that 
man  must  have  begun  his  career  on  some  fertile  island^  or 
region  in  the  tropics.^  While  here  his  food  consisted  of  the 
fruits  and  herbs  of  the  forest.  He  was  a  frugiferous  animal. 
Increase  in  his  numbers  soon  forced  him  to  migrate  into  regions 
less  secure  and  blessed  with  a  less  genial  climate.  These  forced 
movements  compelled  him  to  face  a  host  of  new  conditions,  e.g., 
new  climate,  new  food  and  a  new  array  of  enemies.  As  he 
migrated  farther  and  farther  away  from  the  tropics  the  food 
supply  came  gradually  to  be  seasonal  instead  of  perennial.  To 
secure  food  during  the  interim  of  the  fruit  bearing  season  he 
drew  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  for  fish — his  first  artificial  food. 

1  Morgan,  l/cwis  H.  :    Ancient  Societ)^  p.  20. 

2  Ivyell,  Sir  Charles  :    Antiquity  of  Man,  p.  433. 

^Mason,  O.T.  :  Migration  and  the  Food  Quest.  The  Amer.  An- 
thropologist, Vol.  II,  No.  3,  1894. 


46  KI.INE : 

They  "  were  universal  in  distribution,  unlimited  in  supply  and 
the  only  kind  of  food  at  all  times  attainable. 

It  is  quite  probable,  too,  that  after  coming  within  range  of 
seasonal  changes  his  dependence  upon  stream  and  forest  for 
food  compelled  him  to  migrate  back  and  forth  to  some  extent 
with  the  seasons." 

^Brinton  says  :  ''These  periodical  journeys  extend  hundreds 
of  miles  and  embrace  the  whole  tribe.  This  must  also  have 
been  the  case  with  primeval  man  when  he  occupied  the  world 
in  paleolithic  times.  His  home  was  along  the  shores  of  seas 
and  the  banks  of  streams.  Up  and  down  these  natural  high- 
ways he  pursued  his  wanderings  until  he  had  extended  his 
roamings  over  most  of  the  habitable  land."  ^Such  is  the 
case  among  modern  primitive  peoples  who  control  as  yet  but 
few  of  the  forces  of  nature.^  While  fish  food  rendered  man 
to  some  extent  independent  of  climate  and  locality  he  was 
forced  to  limit  his  excursions  along  sea  shores  and  river  courses 
until  he  had  acquired  sufficient  skill  with  bow  and  arrow  to 
kill  his  prey  at  a  distance.  Skill  with  these  implements  per- 
mitted distant  excursions  into  the  forest  ;  fruit  and  fishing 
areas  might  now  be  deserted  at  a  less  risk  of  perishing  from 
hunger.  The  chase  became  the  highest  of  arts,  the  strongest 
incentive  to  wandering  in  all  probability  that  man  has  ever 
received. 

These  three  stages,  the  frugivorous^  fishing  and  hunting 
furnished  admirable  conditions  for  the  origin  and  growth  of  the 
wanderlust  spirit.  Their  periods  were  long  and  the  stimulus 
intense.  There  is  much  evidence  from  geology  and  paleon- 
tology showing  that  these  periods  may  count  their  years  by 
tens  of  thousands,  that  the  transition  from  the  frugivorous  man 
to  the  nomad  is  many  times  longer  than  from  the  dawn  of 
history  to  modern  times.  If  psychic  evolution  has  at  all 
paralleled  structural  in  point  of  time,  there  are  strong  reasons 
for  believing  that  man  was  merely  a  fruit  gatherer  longer  than 
a  fisherman,  a  fisherman  longer  than  a  hunter,  a  hunter  longer 
than  a  nomad  and  the  latter  longer  than  a  farmer  and  home- 
maker  in  the  modern  sense. 

1  Brinton,  G.  D.  :    loc.  cit.,  p.  74. 

2  Mason  sets  forth  the  view  that  America  was  accidently  settled  by 
some  remote  ancestors  of  the  red  man  who  left  their  home  in  the  Bast 
Indies  in  quest  of  food  and  crept  slowly  but  surely  along  the  coasts  of 
China,  Japan  and  Aleutian  shores  until  they  reached  the  shores  of 
Western  North  America.  Ivikewise  Otto  Sittig  (Smithsonian  Report 
1895,  pp.  519-35)  says  that  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  were  peopled  by 
compulsory  migrations.  The  frail  crafts  of  the  natives  of  the  Malayan 
Archipelago  while  in  search  of  fish  and  other  food  were  accidentally 
caught  by  contrary  wind  and  current  and  carried  to  more  distant 
islands. 

3McGee,  J.  W.  :    The  Amer.  Anthro.,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4.  1895. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE;.  47 

Victor  Hehn  says  :  ' '  We  cannot  sufficiently  estimate  the 
slowness  and  difficulty  of  the  transition  from  a  wandering  hun- 
ter's life  to  the  taming  and  tending  of  cattle,  nor  of  that  from 
nomadic  freedom  to  a  settled  domicile.  Necessity  must  have 
been  very  pressing  before  the  shepherd  could  resolve  to  dig  up 
his  pasture  land,  to  sow  grain,  to  wait  for  its  growing     .     .     . 

.     and  so  tie  himself  down  to  one  spot  like  a  prisoner  and  a 

slave In   the   same  way  the   hunter   felt  cattle 

breeding  a  kind  of  slavery.     Armed  with  bow  and  arrow     .     . 

.     .     he  freely  roamed  the   woods If  he  had 

the  luck  to  kill  a  wild  bull,  he  could  feast  for  days."  Hunt- 
ing must  have  become  unprofitable,  indeed,  before  the  less  skill- 
ful, hampering  and  humdrum  arrangements  of  cattle  tending 
were  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  support. 

Among  the  many  factors  arguing  that  man  has  and  is  pass- 
ing through  these  several  stages  are  those  represented  (i)  in  the 
primitive  ways  of  the  Tasmanian,  Bushmen,  many  Indian 
tribes,  Gypsies,  Bedouin,  and  nations  of  the  Mongoloid  type  ; 
(2)  by  a  large  class  of  individuals  in  civilized  society  that 
neglect  home  life  and  throw  off  responsibility  at  every  angle  to 
become  a  planomaniac,  a  globe  trotter,  a  Thoreau,  a  Robinson 
Crusoe,  or  a  Captain  Kidd  ;  (3)  by  the  atavistic  activities  of 
childhood,  e.  g.,  fondness  for  water, ^  tree  climbing,  hunting 
trading  and  bartering,  etc. 

To  get  a  composite  view  of  the  planomaniacal  ^  type  I  quote 
from  one  hundred  and  forty- four  cases  ^  bearing  on  that  sort  of 
an  individual. 

I-  ^'1  35*  **  I^eaves  home  nearly  every  day  immediately  after 
breakfast  to  go  visiting — is  discontented  and  unhappy  when  compelled 
to  stay  at  home." 

2.  F.,  48.  '*On  the  go  from  morning  till  night — sometimes  only 
running  to  see  her  nearest  neighbor,  sometimes  going  away  on  the 
cars — she  keeps  this  up  four  or  five  months  at  a  time,  then  suddenly 
stops  and  will  not  leave  her  yard  for  several  weeks,  nor  does  she  care 
to  receive  company  during  her  stay-at-home  spells." 

3.  F.  "  Married,  does  not  stay  at  home  more  than  two  hours  dur- 
ing the  day — spends  her  time  in  running  about.  She  is  young  and 
does  not  have  very  much  to  do,  perhaps  she  gets  lonesome." 

4.  F.  **  Seems  restless,  is  out  calling  every  day — can't  stay  at 
home  long  at  a  time,  although  home  and  home-life  is  attractive  and 
pleasant." 

5.  F.,  50.  **  Married,  educated,  raised  a  family  who  are  ignorant 
through  neglect.  Kind  hearted,  picks  up  and  visits  for  a  week,  or 
will  wait  on  the  sick  for  weeks  at  the  neglect  of  her  home  duties." 

6.  F.,  30.  "Good  natured,  smart,  good  cook  and  yet  she  allows 
her  little  girls  to  come  home  from  school  and  prepare  their  own  din- 
ners. She  leaves  often  after  breakfast  and  does  not  return  till  bed 
time.     She  does  not  seem  to  do  it  to  get  rid  of  work,  as  often  she  will 

1  Truancy,  Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  pp.  396-419. 

2  Rubric  VIII  of  Syllabus. 
^Ninety-five  per  cent,  reported  are  females. 


48  KI<INK : 

be  helping  some  one  to  do  just  what  she  has  left  undone  at  home." 
(Many  cases  of  this  kind.) 

7.  F.  "  Married,  quick  and  active,  will  take  one  child  in  her  arms 
and  have  the  others  following  after.  Household  duties  do  not  worry 
her  in  the  least.     She  says  life  is  too  short  to  waste  it  in  the  house." 

8.  F.,  30.  **  Has  a  fixed  day  to  visit  each  of  her  friends  every  week 
— can't  be  found  at  home  more  than  two  days  in  the  week." 

9.  M.,  52.  "A  comfortable  home,  good  clothes  and  food,  but  will 
not  stay  at  home.  Always  finds  some  news  to  carry  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  is  always  ready  to  eat.^^ 

10.  F.  "Has  a  large  family,  always  on  the  go  in  all  sorts  of 
weather,  will  keep  her  children  out  of  school  to  stay  with  the  little 
ones.  Her  calls  are  of  a  gossiping-seeking  sort."  (Five  cases  of  this 
nature.) 

11.  F.,  50.  *'Not  interested  in  the  duties  of  home,  neglects  them 
to  go  calling,  cannot  bear  to  be  alone." 

12.  F.  "So  fond  of  calling  that  she  will  bring  her  cooking  to  our 
house.     There  is  no  special  reason  for  her  doing  so." 

13-  ^-y  50-  '*  Married,  four  children,  always  on  the  street,  or 
shopping,  will  visit  the  same  store  several  times  a  day." 

14.  F.,  25.  "Unmarried,  never  satisfied  at  home,  has  no  taste  for 
reading  or  domestic  life.     Ivoves  to  talk  and  carry  news." 

15.  F.  "  Always  making  calls.  I  think  it  is  to  find  out  other 
people's  business.     Is  the  first  to  call  on  a  new  neighbor." 

16.  F.,  40.  "Always  on  the  street,  delights  in  gathering  and 
redistributing  news."     (Cases  like  the  last  three  are  most  numerous.) 

17.  M.,  48.  "  Neglects  his  family  and  farm  to  talk  with  neighbors, 
is  fond  of  trading  horses,  etc.,  visits  all  public  gatherings." 

18.  M.,  56.  "Had  a  good  farm  and  well  stocked,  suddenly 
abandoned  it  to  his  family,  and  went  calling  from  neighbor  to  neighbor. 
Fond  of  children,  well  read,  would  work  hard  for  a  neighbor,  but 
would  never  receive  any  pay — would  only  occasionally  do  a  hard 
day's  work  at  home." 

19.  F.  "A  member  of  every  club  and  society  in  which  she  can  gain 
a  foothold,  dips  into  everything,  has  done  a  little  of  everything,  fond 
of  doing  committee  work." 

20.  F.,  30.  "Neglects  home  to  visit  and  be  with  other  people. 
Good  to  sick  and  needy,  will  do  menial  work  away  from  home  that 
she  will  not  do  at  home.  Is  fond  of  going  to  weddings,  funerals,  par- 
ties, etc." 

21.  F.,  30.  "Is  noted  for  going  to  funerals  and  public  gatherings 
of  all  sorts." 

22.  F.,  40.  "Always  looking  after  the  needy  and  sick,  a  great 
church  goer,  attended  all  week  and  Sunday  meetings,  and  all  funerals 
that  she  possibly  could.  Her  friends  once  saw  her  going  to  the  funeral 
of  a  noted  pugilist,  though  they  could  not  understand  how  she  could 
possibly  be  interested  in  the  deceased." 

The  funeral  and  club  goers  form  somewhat  a  separate  group, 
yet  illustrate  the  lack  of  home  interests  and  aversion  to  static 
conditions. 

24.     M.,  22.     "  Married,  seldom  at  home,  fond  of  horse  trading." 

^The  impotency  of  the  home  spirit,  the  desire  to  lead  a  semi- 
roving  life  and  the  attendant  psychoses  of  such  a  people  are 

1  Rubric  VI  of  Syllabus.  217  cases  reported,  23%  of  which  were 
forced  to  move  because  of  a  failure  to  pay  rent. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SK.  49 

further  illustrated  by  people  who  move  frequently.  The  fol- 
lowing are  instances  of  families  who  move  often  for  some  other 
cause  than  failure  to  pay  house  rent. 

25.  "A  lady  and  her  daughter  spend  much  of  their  time  looking 
for  a  new  boarding  place.     They  are  rich  and  hard  to  please." 

26.  "A  farmer,  lost  a  good  farm  by  bad  management,  has  tried  sev- 
eral occupations,  is  discontented,  moves  every  year  to  a  new  farm," 

27.  "  M.  moves  about  every  two  years,  always  to  a  different  part  of 
the  same  town.     He  is  always  changing  his  occupation." 

28.  "  Husband  indolent  with  little  business  ability,  wife  is  ignorant 
and  slovenly,  move  twice  a  year.     It  has  come  to  be  a  habit." 

29.  "  This  family  is  never  contented,  think  if  they  could  be  in  some 
other  place  all  would  be  well.  Within  four  years  they  have  moved 
seven  or  eight  times." 

30.  '*  This  family  moves  every  spring  and  fall.  The  man  has  very 
poor  calculation  and  generally  thinks  that  if  only  he  were  somewhere 
else  he  might  do  great  things." 

31.  "  This  family  moves  to  avoid  cleaning  house.  They  endeavor 
to  move  into  one  already  cleaned." 

32.  "  This  farmer  has  moved  every  year  for  28  years,  moved  every 
spring  thinking  he  would  get  a  better  farm." 

34.  "A  lady  has  moved  four  times  in  five  years, — although  she  owns 
several  houses,  she  lives  in  a  rented  one.  She  is  a  very  restless  per- 
son." 

35.  **  This  family  moving  into  a  new  place  think  it  delightful  and 
can't  praise  it  enough.  They  soon  grow  dissatisfied  and  move  again. 
They  move  back  and  forth  from  city  to  country.  They  are  always  in 
an  unsettled  frame  of  mind  and  think  they  can  do  better  somewhere 
else:' 

36.  "  Bach  time  this  family  moves,  they  think  they  are  getting  a 
better  place.  They  move  every  tw^o  or  three  months.  They  have 
moved  from  a  house  and  then  back  to  it  again  in  a  few  months." 

37.  "I  know  many  families  who  move  frequently.  They  always 
think  the  new  tenement,  which  may  be  no  better,  has  some  advantage. 
They  do  not  often  get  less  rent,  neither  do  they  leave  unpaid  rent  be- 
hind ;  sometimes  they  do  not  even  change  landlords,  nor  do  they  go 
beyond  a  radius  of  a  mile  for  years." 

38.  "  Have  known  this  family  for  twenty  years.  They  move  on  the 
average  every  six  months.  They  have  always  lived  in  the  same  city, 
pay  their  rent  —  are  respectable  people.  Each  time  they  move  they 
paint,  varnish,  and  paper  throughout,  build  new  cupboards  and  begin 
cultivating  grass  and  flowers,  only  to  be  left  in  a  few  months  for  an- 
other neighborhood. 

39.  "  Family  of  four,  all  well  educated,  are  continually  moving 
about,  from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another ;  they  will  have  a  very 
nice  home  for  about  a  year,  then  sell  all  their  furniture  and  begin 
boarding.  After  a  short  time  they  become  dissatisfied,  buy  new  furni- 
ture and  go  to  housekeeping  again." 

40.  "  This  family  is  not  content  to  remain  long  in  any  one  place, 
grow  tired  of  house  and  surroundings.  They  are  nice  people,  much 
respected." 

41.  *•  This  family  moves  about  because  they  never  like  their  neigh- 
bors.    They  usually  move  two  or  three  times  every  year." 

42.  "I  know  a  man  with  a  family  of  nine,  moves  from  two  to  five 
times  a  year.  He  is  a  horse  jockey,  works  but  little,  loafs  around  the 
post  office,  stores  and  other  places."     (  Bight  casesof  this  character.) 

43.  "They  move  about  every  four  months,  are  regarded  as  shift- 

JOURNAI, — 4 


50  Ki,iNE : 

less,  unstable  in  character,  contented  in  one  place  as  long  as  there  is 
novelty,  but  soon  become  discontented  and  move."  (This  '*  shiftless  " 
class  forms  i8  %  of  the  number  who  pay  their  rent.) 

44.  "  My  grandfather  would  never  stay  in  one  house  more  than  six 
months.  He  said  he  got  tired  of  seeing  the  same  things.  They  say 
he  was  just  the  same  when  a  boy,  was  always  changing  his  room  and 
rearranging  things.  As  a  young  man  he  was  always  changing  his 
boarding  place." 

The  planomaniac  flees  from  domestic  cares,  has  no  interests 
for  modern  civilized  ways,  and  will  not  fuse  with  them.  He 
could  not,  if  he  would,  for  he  belongs  (  using  geological  ana- 
logues) to  a  different  and  earlier  formation.  We  should  not 
wonder  at  his  dread  of  solitude  (  cases  3,  4,  5,  11),  at  his  being 
lonely  in  the  midst  of  modern  environment.  To  such  his  mind 
is  vacant,  hence  his  pursuit  for  diversion,  and  search  for  his 
kind.  Zimmerman  ^  says  * '  Vacant  souls  are  always  burden- 
some to  their  possessor  ;  and  it  is  the  weight  of  this  burden 
that  impels  them  incessantly  in  the  pursuits  of  dissipation  for 
relief."  How  primitive  and  semi-roving  are  these  traits: 
"always  ready ^  to  eat"  (  case  9  ),  desire  to  barter*  (  cases  17, 
24),  working^  by  fits  and  starts"  (case  18),  "shiftless" 
cases  (  cases  28,  42,  43  ),  "slovenly  ^  and  unkempt  in  person," 
indifferent  to  and  with  seeming  inability  to  fight  dirt.^ 

It  appears,  too,  that  the  desire  to  rove  is  not  abated  with 
advancing  age,  not  even  with  the  increase  of  domestic  and 
business  cares.  The  cases  cited  indicate  that  there  are  persons 
in  the  midst  of  all  degrees  of  intelligence  and  culture  that  mini- 
mize the  value  of  a  permanent  home,  that  persist  with  seem- 
ing delight  in  a  roving  and  nomadic  life.  Their  lives  are  de- 
voted in  searching  for  the  new,  getting  acquainted  with  the 
unfamiliar,  gathering  and  distributing  news,  and  dipping  into 
new  enterprises.  They  are  possessed  by  a  consuming  curi- 
osity, frequently  of  the  idle  sort. 

The  concomitancy  of  the  roving  and  curiosity  instincts  in  the 
same  individual  suggests  a  common  origin,  if  not  a  causal  rela- 
tion. The  conclusions'^  of  naturalists^  and  genetic  psychologists® 
are  to  the  effect  that  curiosity  arose  from  the  hunger  and  fear 

1  Zimmerman:   Solitude,  p.  12. 

2  "These  Indians  are  disposed  to  gluttonize  in  idleness,  when  oppor- 
tunity arises,  when  their  power  for  consuming  is  no  less  striking  than 
their  power  of  abstaining.  This  characteristic  of  the  tribe  is  pos- 
sessed by  other  primitive  peoples."  W.  J.  McGee,  Amer.  Anthro. 
Vol.  VIII,  No.  4,  1895. 

8  The  Bedouins  possessed  this  trait  in  a  high  degree.  See  Ency.  Brit 

*  Ellis  Havelock  :     The  Criminal,  p.  loi. 

^Lubbock,  Sir  John  :     Prehistoric  Times,  p.  432. 

^Bancroft,  H.  H.  :     Native  Races. 

'Darwin  :     The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  71. 

^Romanes:     Animal  Intelligence,  p.  279. 

^ James:     Psychology,  Vol  II,  p.  429. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE.  5 1 

instincts.  The  motives  for  animals  to  investigate  the  unfamil- 
iar, it  would  seem,  are  twofold,  (i)  to  see  whether  or  not  the 
object  in  question  is  harmful,  (2)  to  see  whether  or  not  it  is 
palatable.  Likewise  the  passions  for  excessive  call  making, 
gadding  about,  ' '  the  first  to  call  on  a  new  neighbor, ' '  continual 
shopping  (  but  rarely  purchasing) ,  sampling  and  ' '  sizing  up ' ' 
the  material  and  mental  furniture  of  a  newcomer  may  have 
originated  out  of  the  necessity,  common  to  all  organisms,  to 
know  what  is  harmful  and  friendly,  nourishing  and  distasteful 
in  their  milieu. 

Interwoven  with  this  curiosity  plexus  of  motives,  sometimes 
separated  from  them,  is  a  longing  for  the  unexpected,  moving 
with  the  hope,  Micawber-like,  * '  That  something  may  turn 
up,"  imagining  that  the  other  side  of  the  road  is  always  the 
better.  They  have  an  insatiable  desire  for  conjuring  with  that 
unknown  factor  that  lurks  in  the  untried,  to  commit  their  for- 
tunes to  the  play  of  the  mysterious  and  unconscious  forces  of  the 
universe  which  to  so  many  lend  an  irresistible  charm  to  a  new 
game,  new  neighbors,  a  new  house,  a  new  farm,  a  new  posi- 
tion, a  new  enterprise.  In  gambling  it  is  the  element  of  chance, 
in  trading  and  barter  it  is  termed  luck.  Hence  it  is  that  we 
find  so  many  of  these  people  doing  a  shiftless,  bartering  and 
gambling  business  where  the  conditions  of  chance  and  luck 
have  their  fullest  swing.  In  all  probability  these  conditions 
were  at  their  best  during  the  life  of  the  primitive  hunter  and 
trapper.  Here  the  degree  of  probability  that  labor  will  be 
proportionately  rewarded  is  at  a  minimum.  The  ratio  of  re- 
ward to  labor  becomes  so  infinitely  small  that  he  comes  to 
regard  his  rewards  and  successes  due  to  chance  rather  than 
personal  effort.  One  should  not  wonder,  then,  at  barbarous 
and  semi-civilized  people  persistently  and  continually  creating 
conditions  in  which  chance  is  at  a  maximum.  Trapping,  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  are  pursuits  that  reward  more  by  chance  than 
deliberate  effort  or  certainty.  Daily  bread  is  the  reward  oione 
lucky  arrow,  spear,  trap  or  net  out  of  a  hundred  of  such  instru- 
ments and  not  by  the  sweat  of  the  brow.  The  psychology  of 
longing  to  be  in  some  other  place,  for  new  conditions,  for  spec- 
ulating, for  gambling,  is  a  reassertion  of  the  old  associations 
between  chance  and  reward  formed  when  the  welfare  of  man 
was  largely  dependent  on  the  mysterious  forces  of  chance.^ 

Probably  the  gypsy  is  the  best  type  of  a  wandering  people 

^The  origin  of  many  forms  of  gambling,  and  games  of  chance  and 
lot  as  opposed  to  skill  among  the  Chinese,  Koreans,  North  American 
Indians  and  many  other  primitive  tribes,  lends  considerable  support 
to  this  theory,  in  that  they  all  can  be  traced  back  to  throwing  the  ar- 
row, or  tipped  and  feathered  bamboo  reeds  as  well  as  species  of  dice. 
.  .  .     See  Stewart  Culin  :  Korean  Games. 


52  KLINE : 

who  have  kept  intact  the  customs  and  habits  that  once  uni- 
versally prevailed.  The  gypsy ^  that  we  know  is  quite  differ- 
ent from  those  of  other  countries  in  their  manner  of  getting  a 
living.  In  Egypt  they  practice  the  art  of  serpent  charming  and 
conjuring  ;  in  France  and  Spain  the  girls  sit  as  professional 
models  ;  in  England  we  meet  Gypsy  Methodist  preachers,  actors, 
quack  doctors,  chimney  sweeps,  carpenters,  factory  hands.  In 
every  land  the  men  are  workers  in  metals,  musicians  and  horse- 
jockeys  ;  are  never  scientists,  barristers,  or  men  of  large  affairs. 
In  this  country  they  travel  about  over  the  country  in  light- 
running  canvass  covered  wagons,  laden  with  their  goods 
and  chattels.  They  subsist  by  fortune-telling,  horse-jockey- 
ing, tinkering,  sometimes  by  selling  small  articles,  trading, 
gambling,  by  theft  and  deception.  They  are  dirty ^  both  in 
person  and  cooking,  lazy,  fond  of  drinking  and  smoking. 
They  are  charmed  by  gaudy  dress  and  jewelled  ornaments.  In 
no  country  have  they  ever  been  known  to  farm.  A  few  own  land 
in  this  country,  but  they  seldom  occupy  it,  preferring  the 
wagon  and  highway  instead.  They  keep  both  dogs  and 
horses,  being  very  fond  of  the  latter.  They  have  deep  emo- 
tions, enjoy  life,  are  highly  imaginative,  and  extremely  fond 
of  music. 

The  gait  of  the  gypsy  is  not  jerky,  angular,  and  individual, 
but  rhythmical,  racial,  swaying  from  side  to  side,  generating, 
roughly,  from  the  hips  up,  sections  of  an  inverted  cone.  The 
negro  has  a  similar  gait.  This  animal-like  motion  is  due  to 
the  dominance  of  the  fundamental  muscles  in  walking  as  op- 
posed to  the  finer,  accessory  muscles  that  stamp  individuality 
upon  the  Caucasian  gait.  Prof.  Shaler  observes  that  the  gypsy 
will  not  follow  the  sidewalk  and  brick  pavements.  They  pre- 
fer the  middle  of  the  road. 

The  origin,  together  with  the  traits  of  a  wandering  people, 
have  thus  far  been  sought  in  the  vegetative,  the  food  getting 
side  of  man.  There  are  impulses  and  irradiations  from  the 
reproductive  functions  whose  significant  bearing  on  the  wan- 
dering instinct  call  for  consideration. 

The  evidence  furnished  by  Bancroft,^  Wester marck,''  School- 

1  For  an  extended  account  of  the  probable  origin  and  customs  of 
gypsies,  see  histories  by  C.  C.  Leland,  or  George  Borrows. 

2  This  is  not  universally  true  as  the  following  will  show,  quoted 
from  a  competent  observer :  ' '  This  party  of  gypsies  were  scrupu- 
lously clean,  had  lots  of  silverware,  dishes,  etc.,  all  of  which  were  as 
clean  as  could  be.  The  children,  too,  were  cleanly  and  neatly 
dressed." 

8  Bancroft :  Native  Races,  Vol.  I,  p.  351. 

*  Westermarck  :  The  History  of  Human  Marriage,  p.  34. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSK.  53 

craft/  Hill,^  EHis^  and  others,  indicate  strongly  that  in  one 
stage  of  human  evolution  an  annual  pairing  season  took  place 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer  months.  Westermarck,  after  an 
exhaustive  research  on  this  subject,  says  :  *'  It  is,  therefore,  a 
reasonable  presumption  that  the  increase  of  the  sexual  instinct 
at  the  end  of  spring  or  in  the  beginning  of  summer,  is  a  survival 
of  an  ancient  pairing  season  depending  upon  the  same  law  that 
rules  in  the  rest  of  the  animal  kingdom."  The  evidence  of 
the  preceding  section  shows  that  there  is  an  intensity  increase 
in  the  human  sexual  functions  during  the  spring,  not  yet  sup- 
pressed by  law,  religion  and  social  customs.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  pairing  was  decided  by  the  "  law  of  bat- 
tle. ' '  This  archaic  habit  is  known  in  anthropological  litera- 
ture as  wife  capture.  That  this  custom  was  once  general,  if 
not  universal,  is  inferred  from  the  symbols*  of  capture^  that  are 
so  wide^  spread  among  all  peoples'  at  the  present  time.  Sev- 
eral mythic  legends,  as  Pluto  and  Proserpine,  Boreas  and 
Orithya,  Theseus  and  Helen,  the  Romans  and  the  Sabines  have 
in  all  probability  their  foundation  on  the  custom  of  systematic 
capture  of  wives  among  such  ancient  races. 

The  desire  for,  and  methods  of  selecting  a  mate  inaugurates 
practically  the  same  activities  as  are  displayed  by  lower  crea- 
tures when  accomplishing  a  similar  purpose,  viz.,  the  '*  law  of 
battle  ' '  and  wandering.  Olaus  Magnus^  represents  the  tribes 
of  northern  Europe,  as  continually  at  war  with  one  another, 
either  on  account  of  stolen  women,  or  with  the  object  of  steal- 
ing women.  In  Australia  the  capture  of  wives  is  a  signal  for 
war,  and  as  the  tribes  have  little  property,  except  their 
weapons  and  their  women,  the  women  are  at  once  the  cause  of  war 
and  the  spoils  of  victory.  The  same  is  essentially  true  of  the 
Bonaks  of  California,  the  Tasmanians  and  Maorians.  The 
coin-men  of  Patagonia  make  excursions  every  year  at  the  time 
of  ' '  red  leaf ' '  from  the  mountains  in  the  north  to  plunder 
Fuegians  of  their  women,  dogs  and  arms.  McLennan  thinks 
that  the  modern  groomsmen  or  ' '  best  man  ' '  is  the  legitimate 
descendant  from  the  early  fighting  and  protecting  protege  of  the 
bridegroom. 

War  waged  for  any  cause  whatever,  necessarily  strengthens 

1  Schoolcraft :  Archives  of  Aboriginal  Knowledge,  Vol.  II,  p.  224. 

2 Hill,  A.  S.:  Nature,  Vol.  XXXVIII,  p.  250. 

3  Ellis,  A.  B.:  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol.  XXXIX,  No.  2,  pp. 
207-22. 

^Westermarck  :  loc.  cit.,  pp.  283-402. 

^  Wood,  Edward  J.:  Wedding  Day  in  all  Ages  and  Countries,  2  vols. 

^Mclyennan,  J.  F.:  Studies  in  Ancient  History,  Chapters  I,  II,  III, 
IV,  V. 

^  Ellis,  A.  B.:  loc.  cit. 

^  Quoted  from  Mclycnnan's  Studies  in  Ancient  History,  p.  55. 


54  KI.INE : 

the  wandering  instinct — the  aggressor  in  pursuit  of  his  prize, 
and  the  aggressed  exchanging  domestic  duties  for  those  of 
defense  and  regaining  losses.  Out  of  such  conditions  arose 
the  themes  of  the  greatest  poems  of  antiquity,  those  of  Homer 
and  Virgil  have  made  Ulysses  and  ^neas  classic  wanderers  for 
all  time.  Peggotty  wandering  in  search  for  Emily,  Adam  Bede's 
false  betrothed  tramping  the  highway  in  bitter  shame  and  re- 
morse, the  untiring  search  of  Evangeline  for  her  lover  over  an 
entire  primeval  continent,  St.  Elmo's  aimless  wandering  after 
killing  his  rival,  are  all  mental  creations  that  do  no  violence  to 
human  nature.  Indeed  tragedies  and  romances  are  most  often 
the  cradles  of  future  wanderers. 

The  art  of  wife  getting  attained  its  most  delicate  and  refined 
form  in  the  nth  and  12th  centuries,  as  set  forth  and  practiced 
by  the  Troubadours  and  Courts  of  Love. 

So  charming  and  seductive  were  their  lives  and  methods  of 
wooing,  that  every  nobleman  of  any  merit,  many  princes  of 
royal  blood,  and  even  four  kings  became  ardent  devotees. 
Love  was  their  theme,  their  Alpha  and  Omega,  music  and 
wandering  the  methods  of  its  exposition.  They  write :  ' '  It^ 
is  love  that  makes  me  sing. "  '  *  For  sweet  love  do  I  labor 
night  and  day  in  the  improvement  of  my  lays. "  "  For  love 
sing  the  birds,  and  for  love  sing  I."  Says  Rowbotham  :  "  The 
leading  and  characteristic  feature  in  the  life  of  every  trouba- 
dour was,  that  he  was  expected  '  to  go  through  the  world,'.  . 
*  to  go  from  court  to  court.'  At  the  first  breath  of  spring 
(italics  mine)  the  troubadour  mounted  on  his  steed  .  .  . 
sallied  out  in  quest  of  listeners,  and  prepared  to  indulge  in 
what   adventure   might   befall   him  on  the  way." 

That  the  activities  and  attendant  passions  of  ( i )  the  annual 
pairing  seasons,  (2)  of  wife  capture  in  its  various  forms  and 
consequent  wars,  (3)  of  the  various  forms  of  symbolism  of  wife 
capture  and  (4)  of  the  ever  recurring  romantic  episodes  among 
civilized  peoples  everywhere,  have  impressed  the  human  soul, 
and  have  differentiated  it  in  a  special  way  is  highly  probable. 
The  product  of  this  differentiation  is  the  instinct  that  impels  man 
to  desert  home  and  vegetative  stores  and  seek  a  world  where 
the  procreative  functions  and  its  higher  irradiations  may  assert 
themselves.  It  would  be  absurd  to  interpret  the  precocious 
runaways  of  adolescence,  the  roving  life  of  many  individuals  or 
the  life  of  the  vagrant  as  a  direct  expression  of  the  procreative 
functions  seeking  conditions  for  satisfaction  as  witnessed  in 
wild  and  domestic  animals.  Scott^  has  argued  that  these  fun- 
damental passions  may  be  irradiated,  long-circuited  or  trans- 

1  Rowbotham,  J.  Frederick  :  The  Troubadours  and  Courts  of  Love, 
p.  226. 
2 Scott:  Sex  and  Art,  Amer.  Jour,  of  Psy.,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  153-226. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  55 

posed  into  a  hierarcy  of  activities  ranging  all  the  way  from  the 
gross  sensuous  impulse  of  a  marauder  to  the  idealistic  senti- 
ments of  youth  that  urges  him  to  go  forth  espousing  freedom's 
cause,  waging  war  to  reclaim  a  holy  shrine,  or  to  a  missionary 
in  any  good  work.  Between  these  two  extremes  may  be  men- 
tioned passions  to  start  life,  seeking  wider  liberties,  for  adven- 
ture, yearning  for  space,  for  solitude  and  the  like. 

The  impulse  to  go  off  at  the  approach  of  the  menstrual^ 
period,  the  desire  for  seclusion  during  parturition,'^  and  the 
passion  for  a  wedding  tour  can  only  be  mentioned  here  as 
subjects  for  investigation.  No  adequate  data  exists  on  this 
phase  of  the  subject. 

Historical  Migrations.  This  subject  presents  three  items  of 
interest,  ( i )  the  degree  of  civilization  of  a  migrating  nation  en 
masse,  (2)  the  direction  of  the  route,  (3)  the  climatic  condi- 
tions of  the  country  from  which  the  nations  move,  and  of  that 
to  which  they  go.  The  organization  of  a  migrating  people  has 
usually  been  of  a  comparatively  high^  state.  They  have  been 
skilled  in  the  several  arts  of  war,  in  making  and  using  weapons, 
and  in  handling  great  bodies  of  men.  According  to  Von  Hell- 
wald*  the  direction  of  the  migratory  streams  will  be  found 
always  to  lie  in  the  axis  of  the  greatest  longitudinal  extension 
of  the  continent.  The  historical  migrations^  in  the  old  world 
have  been  from  the  high  plateaus  of  Eurasia  in  the  east  to  the 
narrow  land  areas  in  the  west.  In  America  they  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  broad  land  areas  of  the  north  to  the  mild 
tapering  peninsula  of  the  south.  Doubtless  the  mountain  ranges 
that  lie  in  the  long  axes  of  continents  determine  to  some  extent 
the  direction.  Both  the  temperature  and  wind  of  large  water 
areas  are  more  uniform  than  that  of  great  land  areas.  Countries, 
therefore,  wholly  or  partially  surrounded  by  water  areas,  or  that 
are  so  situated  as  to  have  their  shores  bathed  by  strong  sea  cur- 
rents, and  their  surfaces  blown  over  by  winds  coming  from  large 
sea  areas,  enjoy  the  most  delightful  climates  in  the  world. ^ 
The  countries  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  south- 

^  The  writer  is  informed  by  a  student  of  psychology  that  his  wife 
when  a  girl  in  her  teens  at  home  and  at  college  experienced  a  vague 
impulse  "  to  go  off,"  not  to  hide  specially,  but  to  be  alone,  a  few  days 
before  each  monthly  flow.  Several  girls  of  her  intimate  acquaintance 
professed  to  her  a  like  experience. 

2  When  the  time  of  a  Schoshone  woman's  confinement  draws  near, 
she  retires  to  some  secluded  place,  brings  forth  unassisted,  and  re- 
mains there  alone  for  about  a  month.     Bancroft :  Native  Races,  Vol. 

I,  P-  437- 

3  Lubbock,  Sir  John  :  loc.  cit.,  p.  586. 

*Von  Hellwald,  Frederick:  The  American  Migrations,  Smithsonian 
Report,  1866,  pp.  328-45. 
^Cram's  Universal  Atlas,  p.  269,  1893. 
^  Davis,  W.  M.:  Elementary  Meteorology,  p.  338,  1894. 


56  KLINE : 

ern  California,  portions  of  Chili,  etc. ,  are  freed  from  extremes 
of  temperature,  winds,  and  floods  and  frequent  undulations  of 
atmospheric  pressures.  England,  East  China  and  Japan  are 
lands  whose  climates,  though  in  the  great  land  areas  or  just 
adjacent  to  them,  are  tempered  and  uniformed  by  sea  winds 
and  currents.  In  such  countries,  e.  g,,  Egypt,  Japan,  East 
China,  Greece  and  Rome,  are  found  the  oldest  and  most  per- 
manent institutions  of  man.  In  them  civilization  was  cradled 
and  wrought  out  the  deeds  that  form  the  bulk  of  history. 

On  the  other  hand  the  great  land  areas  of  the  N.  temperate 
zones  are  characterized  by  wide  annual  ranges  of  temperature, 
in  some  regions  long  drouths  followed  by  short  but  heavy  rain- 
fall, and  by  a  wide  spread  and  frequent  undulations  in  atmos- 
pheric pressure.^  Such  climates  are  found  on  the  eastern  and 
southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  the  northern  lands  of  Russia, 
northern  and  central  Asia,  and  the  large  interior  of  North 
America  stretching  north  of  the  Missouri  and  northwest  of  the 
Great  Lakes.  The  Steppes  of  Turkestan,  the  great  desert  of 
Gobi  and  Takla-Makin^  with  moving  dunes  of  sand,  portions 
of  Arabia  and  Persia  are  all  dry  lands  with  a  relative  large 
range  of  temperature. 

The  uncertain  changeable  geographico-climatic  conditions  of 
these  land  areas,  it  seems,  would  foster  and  emphasize  the  sev- 
eral migrating  traits  already  surveyed,  would  furnish  just  the 
right  stimuli  to  set  agoing  from  time  to  time  the  old  migrating 
instinct  implanted  in  the  race  in  prehistoric  times.  Such  lands 
cradled  the  Tartar,  the  Hun,  Visigoth,  Vandals,  the  Bedouin — 
the  children  of  want  and  hard  circumstances,  the  hardy, 
brawny,  restless  races,  in  whose  blood  there  is  a  good  mixture 
of  iron,  and  which  have  come  forth  periodically  to  destroy  the 
luxurious  and  the  wealthy,*  to  lay  in  ashes  the  arts  and  culture 
that  flourish  where  the  forces  of  nature  are  more  uniform  and 
less  rigorous.  At  the  present  time,  according  to  Tarde*  and 
Below,  the  life  of  the  pastoral  people  in  the  Sahara,  as  on  the 
plateau  of  central  Asia,  is  passed  in  circular  migrations,  re- 
turning to  their  points  of  departure.  He  thinks  that  caravan 
life,  like  sea  life,  has  incited  others  to  a  roving  life  through 
imitation.  Commerce  conducted  in  any  form  whatever,  as 
caravans,  railways  or  ships,  is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  wander- 

1  For  physiological  effects  of  elevated  climates,  frec^uent  undulations 
in  atmospheric  pressure,  etc.,  see  Hand-book  of  Medical  Climatology, 
p.  6i,  by  Dr.  S.  Edwin  Sully,  also  Warren  P.  Lombard  in  Amer.  Jour. 
Psy.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  5-71. 

^Heden,  Dr.  Sven :  McClure's  Magazine,  Dec,  '97.  **It  was  all 
sand-moving  dunes  of  sand.  The  days  were  very  hot,  the  nights  were 
bitterly  cold.     The  air  was  full  of  dust." 

3Holworth,  Sir  H.  H.:  History  of  Monguls,  Chap's  Hand  III,  Part  I. 

*Tarde,  M.  G.:  Revue  Scientifique,  Vol.  XI,V,  p.  747,  1890. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI.SE. 


57 


ing.  The  tenacity  with  which  trainmen  cling  to  the  railroad, 
the  stolid  backwardness  shown  by  the  Mississippi  River  steam- 
boat employees  to  quit  boat  life  and  enter  other  pursuits,  are 
instances  justifying  Tarde's  conclusions.  A  commercial  peo- 
ple are  cosmopolitan — rarely  if  ever  homesick.  It  would  seem 
that  certain  occupation  predispose  to  restlessness  and  roving. 


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The  Instinct  in  the  Individual.     The  migratory  instinct,  to- 
gether  with   the   comcomitant  traits,  so  far  as  they  can  be 


58  KiviNE : 

made  out  in  childhood  and  early  youth,  were  treated  at  some 
length  in  my  paper  on  Truancy.^  It  remains  to  note  briefly 
in  the  light  of  all  that  has  preceded  the  role  played  by  the 
instinct  in  maturer^  life.  Our  study  thus  far  suggests  that 
its  germs  are  perhaps  in  every  one — at  least  such  is  the  view 
here  adopted.  The  instinct  is  not  an  anomalous  thing.  It 
had  a  legitimate  birth,  and  is  an  essential  function  of  the  soul. 
At  what  age  or  ages,  under  what  conditions  it  will  most  prob- 
ably control  one's  activities,  and  what  will  be  its  form  of  ex- 
pression, /.  e.,  whether  seeking  a  fortune,  love  of  adventure, 
or  fleeing  from  restraint,  or  what  not,  are  suggested  from  the 
returns  of  the  questionnaire, — Rubrics  I  and  II. 

For  total  number  of  cases  of  runaways,  number  of  each  sex, 
distribution  according  to  age,  and  the  relation  between  ages 
and  the  different  causes  for  running  away,  see  Table  III  and 
Chart  IV.  The  manner  of  running  off"  is  partly  a  function  of 
age  (Chart  III).  All  children  that  run  off  from  one  to  three  do 
so  impulsively.^  Three  to  eight  years  shows  a  gradual  falling 
in  the  impulse  curve  with  a  rise  in  the  planning  curve  (Chart 
III).  The  child's  growing  interests  and  respect  for  home  and 
parents'  and  the  consequent  desire  to  conceal  his  misdemeanors 
are  probably  factors  at  work  here.  From  eight  to  twelve  the 
curves  are  reversed.  This  corresponds  roughly  to  the  period 
of  slow  growth  of  brain,  body,  weight  and  height.  It  is  a 
time,  too,  when  the  child  partially  slides  out  from  under  the  sole 
care  and  companionship  of  parents,  and  sets  up  a  social  circle 
of  his  own.  He  is  less  sensitive  and  considerate  to  his  parents' 
reproofs  and  wishes.  Respect  weakens,  he  waxes  bold,  ques- 
tions authority.  This  dare-devil  spirit  may  account  for  the 
child  doing  things  impulsively,  openly  and  above  board.  The 
ways  and  manner  of  leaving  home,  however,  multiply  with 
age.  The  curves  (Charts  III  and  IV)  showing  the  relation 
between  ages  and  different  causes  for  leaving,  are  based  on  too 
small  a  number  to  merit  a  detailed  description;  they  do,  how- 
ever, emphasize  this  fact,  that  childhood  and  youth  are  affected 
differently  by  the  same  causes,  and  further  that  the  causes  in- 

1  Truancy  as  Related  to  the  Migratory  Instinct :  Ped.  Sem.,  Vol.  V, 
No.  3,  1898. 

2  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  data  for  a  thorough  study  is  yet  to  be 
collected.  There  is  much  literature  of  an  idealized  sort,  descriptive 
of  the  professional  tramp.  But  the  tramp  by  no  means  expresses  all 
of  the  roving  instinct — not  all  wanderers  are  tramps.  Indeed,  if  ad- 
hering to  fixed  habits,  customs  and  conditions  excludes  the  roving 
instinct,  then  the  tramp  is  not  dominated  by  the  migratory  impulse, 
for  he  is  exceedingly  staid  in  all  his  ways.  A  study  of  tramps  and 
vagrants,  then,  will  not  suffice  our  present  purpose. 

3 See  cases  and  comment:    Ped.  Sent.,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  pp.  387-90. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  59 

crease  as  the  indivividual  comes  to  sustain  wider  and  wider 
relations  with  society.  For  example,  injured  feelings  in  child- 
hood may  arise  through  an  unfavorable  comparison  of  their 
lot  with  that  of  their  playmates,  and  from  real  bodily  wrongs, 
or  from  objective  conditions  and  processes  while  the  feelings 
of  adolescence  are  generally  disturbed  by  subjective  and  imag- 
inative conditions.  His  moulting  ego  is  excessively  sensitive 
to  personal  rights  and  honor,  his  good  intentions  are  misin- 
terpreted. The  injured  feeling  curve  attains  its  maximum  in 
the  fifteenth  year.  Again,  childhood  and  adolescence  are 
affected  diametrically  opposite  by  solitude.  The  former  flees 
from  loneliness,  the  latter  often  seeks  it.  Childhood  goes  to 
nature  (Chart  IV)  for  companionship,  adolescence  for  solitude. 
Probably  one  of  the  most  faithful  sources  of  wandering  in 
adolescence  is  restricted  liberty,  or  impatience  under  restraint. 
The  following  are  two  cases  from  more  than  a  hundred  bearing 
on  this  point. 

1 .  F. ,  34.  "  Until  I  was  twelve,  I  cannot  recall  having  ever  gone  from 
home  with  pleasure,  but  during  my  early  teens  I  began  to  feel  a  sense 
of  oppression  from  remaining  at  home  which  became  highly  accentu- 
ated by  the  age  of  fifteen.  I  was  then  allowed  to  leave  home  to  teach 
a  little  rural  school.  The  sense  of  freedom  I  experienced  was  intoxi- 
cating (and  not  mildly).  Yet  I  was  under  no  real  restraint  at  home. 
I  simply  felt  restrained  there.  I  think  I  had  an  irritating  desire  to 
find  how  I  alone  stood  with  the  world,  to  feel  myself  detached  from 
all  that  bound  me.  During  this  time  I  thought  much  of  '  independ- 
ence,' delighted  in  long  lonely  walks — often  pictured  to  myself  the 
freedom  of  the  gypsy  and  delighted  greatly  in  all  tales  and  poems 
idealizing  the  gypsy  girl." 

2.  F.  "  The  noise  of  a  city  and  the  crowds  of  people  always  make 
me  impatient  to  get  away.  I  don't  like  even  a  day  with  houses  in 
front  of  me —  even  brown  stone,  vine  wreathed,  is  a  burden  to  my 
spirit.  I  can  get  along  in  a  very  small  room  for  myself  and  my 
belongings  but  I  must  have  some  space  outside  my  window.  When  I 
had  to  live  in  the  city  I  had  such  longings  to  escape  that  I  would  take 
a  car  in  dead  of  winter  and  go  to  the  end  of  the  route  and  then  walk 
until  there  was  not  a  house  or  a  person  in  sight  and  so  get  my 
equilibrium." 

A  Student  of  tramps  and  vagrants  writes  me  : 
"It  is  my  impression  that  the  narrow,  cramped  conditions  under 
which  boys  often  live,  without  sufficient  variety  and  wholesome 
interests  in  their  lives,  is  responsible  for  much  of  the  constant  recruit- 
ing in  the  ranks  of  the  tramp  army.  It  is  unnatural  for  young  people 
to  live  a  life  of  dead  monotony,  and  the  boy  who  breaks  away  in  sheer 
desperation,  without  an  education  to  equip  him  for  any  better  life, 
soon  drifts  to  trampdom  and  becomes  irreclaimable  to  serious  life." 

While  the  charms  of  travel  woo  many  to  a  roving  life,  trav- 
elling, especially  on  water,  cures  many  of  a  roving  passion. 
The  following  are  from  280  cases  of  Rubric  IV  on  the  charms 
of  travel  : 

Charms  of  Travei<.  3.  M.,  26.  "I  enjoy  a  walk  into  far  away 
country  places  for  the  sake  of  the  sensation  of  delicious  freedom,  of 


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MIGRATORY    IMPUI^E.  6 1 

the  perfect  mental  abandonment.  One  feels  as  if  he  had  shaken  off 
the  dead  weight  of  mental  contact,  and  the  far  off  stretches  of  country- 
promise  more  of  the  same  kind  of  liberty." 

4.  M.,  24.  "  I  like  being  aboard  a  ship  for  the  feeling  of  endless 
space  and  a  sort  of  liberation  from  conventions  that  it  brings.  A 
long  walk  into  a  new  part  of  the  country  has  a  charm  for  me.  And 
I  have  enjoyed  herding  cattle  on  the  prairie  because  it  set  me  free 
from  self -consciousness." 

5.  F.,  33.  "  Have  often  felt  as  though  the  house,  although  comfor- 
table and  handsome,  was  choking  me,  and  the  moment  I  got  my  foot 
on  the  doorstep  for  a  walk,  even  though  a  deep  snow  prevailed,  I  felt 
better.  I  feel  intense  pleasure  when  walking  in  the  twilight — alone, 
have  an  elasticity  of  step  and  elation  which  makes  me  wish  twilight 
would  last  for  hours  so  that  I  could  walk  miles.  Am  in  no  sense  a 
gad-about,  and  I  hate  call-making,  but  cannot  hear  the  whistle  of  a 
locomotive  without  a  tingling  of  the  blood  and  a  longing  to  be  off — 
indefinitely,  anywhere.     Have  led  a  sedentary  life." 

6.  F.,  21.  "  Either  a  trip  on  the  ocean  or  a  long  ride  on  the  train 
has  great  interests  for  me.  The  former  soothes,  puts  me  at  peace  with 
the  whole  world  ;  the  latter  excites  me,  I  feel  boisterous,  can  hardly 
keep  still,  no  matter  how  peaceful  the  scenery,  it  seemed  that  I 
could  always  see  something  wild  about  it,  something  that  answered 
to  my  feelings." 

7.  M.,  26.  **  The  chief  interest  of  travel  to  me  is  the  seeing  of  new 
things.  My  hobby  in  the  way  of  change  is  to  get  out  into  the  country 
for  about  two  days  at  a  time,  drop  everything,  cut  loose  from  every 
thought  that  binds  me  to  my  work  and  walk  in  the  woods.  With  me 
there  is  a  peculiar  emotional  tone  that  goes  with  thoughts  of  travel." 

8.  M.,  30.  **  The  novelty  of  seeing  new  things  and  having  new  ex- 
periences are  the  attractions  of  travel.  I  sometimes  get  tired  of 
habitual  surroundings — I  think  from  the  monotony  and  sameness  of 
repeated  experiences." 

9.  F.,  16.  "A  day's  walk  through  the  woods  has  the  greatest 
charm  for  me.  The  freedom,  the  wildness,  the  quietness,  the  birds, 
flowers,  all  answering  to  an  inner  feeling  of  joyousness  ;  a  feeling  of 
being  at  hotne  with  nature." 

10.  F.,  20.  "  The  new  sights.  I  like,  too,  the  onward  motion,  the 
feeling  that  I  am  going." 

11.  F.,  19.  "I  think  I  never  had  a  desire  to  run  away,  but  some- 
times in  spring  I  have  had  desire  to  go  for  a  walk  by  myself ;  I  have 
gone  to  walk  through  the  fields  and  woods.  It  seems  as  though  I 
wished  to  enjoy  it  alone  and  not  speak  to  any  one." 

12.  M.,  20.  "In  my  experience  the  bicycle  has  held  the  most 
interest  in  the  charms  of  travel.  It  is  akin  to  flying,  the  swift  motion 
and  delightful  breezes  fanning  your  head  are  pleasant  sensations." 

The  thirst  for  travel  is  a  product  of  a  nexus  of  factors.  In 
our  280  returns,  however,  two  groups  of  motives  have  domi- 
nated. First  they  show  that  travelling  is  a  favorite  means  to 
destroy  monotony,  it  breaks  up  the  tedium  of  the  hour ;  it 
shelves  old  experiences  and  sensations,  that  have  induced  a 
sort  of  mental  cramp  or  fatigue.  Travelling  relieves  this 
cramp  by  furnishing  a  superior  sort  of  new  psychical  and 
bodily  activities ;  second,  they  indicate  strongly  that  the 
desire  to  experience  sensations  of  motion  is  unique  among 
human  passions.     Josiah  Flynt  says :     ' '  The  possibility   of 


62  KI,INB : 

riding  everywhere  afforded  by  our  net  work  of  railways  is 
alluring  to  the  boy  and  often  wins  many  to  trampdom." 
Shaler  thinks  the  love  of  adventure  (chart  IV)  can  best  be 
satisfied  by  going  to  sea. 

The  sensation  of  motion,  as  yet  but  little  studied  from  a 
pleasure-pain  standpoint,  is  undoubtedly  a  pleasure  giving 
sensation.  For  Aristippus  the  end  of  life  is  pleasure  which  he 
defines  as  gentle  motion.  Motherhood  long  ago  discovered  its 
virtue  as  furnished  by  the  cradle.  Galloping  to  town  on  the 
parental  knee  is  a  pleasing  pastime  in  every  nursery.  The 
several  varieties  of  swings,  the  hammock,  see-saw,  flying- 
jenny,  merry-go-round,  shooting-the-chute,  sailing,  coasting, 
rowing  and  skating,  together  with  the  fondness  ^  of  children  for 
rotating  rapidly  in  one  spot  until  dizzy,  and  for  jumping  from 
'high  places,  are  all  devices  and  sports  to  stimulate  the  sense  of 
motion.  In  most  of  these  modes  of  motion  the  body  is  passive 
or  semi-passive,  save  in  such  motions  as  skating  and  rotating 
on  the  feet.  The  passiveness  of  the  body  precludes  any  im- 
portant contribution  of  stimuli  from  kinaesthetic  sources. 
The  stimuli  are  probably  furnished,  as  Dr.  Hall  and  others 
have  suggested,  by  a  redistribution  of  fluid-pressures  (due  to 
the  unusual  motions  and  positions  of  the  body)  to  the  inner 
walls  of  the  several  vascular  systems  of  the  body. 

I^ove  of  adventure  (see  table  III  chart  IV)  is  apparently 
prompted  by  a  variety  of  motives,  e.  g. ,  by  rebellion  against 
restraint,  love  of  freedom,  of  travel,  thirst  for  knowledge, 
chivalry  ;  and  also  by  the  dare-devil,  iconoclastic  spirit  that 
revels  in  the  unexpected  and  courts  fortune  through  the  factors 
of  lottery  and  chance. 

Rubrics  I,  II,  concerning  runaways,  and  IX  and  XI,  pertain- 
ing to  homesickness,  etc. ,  are  treated  in  a  comparative  way 
(table  IV)  as  interesting  from  a  sociological  standpoyit  and 
as  a  further  introduction  to  the  material  of  section  C. 

Probably  the  most  general  and  fundamental  group  of  facts 
are  those  pertaining  to  the  home  and  parents.  The  percentage 
of  orphans  in  both  lovers  of  home  and  runaways  are  compara- 
tively small. 

Tenanting  is  much  more  common  among  parents  of  run- 
aways—  35%  as  against  i8%  for  lovers  of  home.  The 
conditions  of  the  home  are  classified  into  poor,  moderate, 
comfortable  and  bountiful.  The  largest  number  of  homes  in 
both  groups  belong  to  the  comfortable  class.  An  examination 
of  all  the  classes  shows  that  the  runaways  bear  by  far  the 
greatest  number  of  inferior    homes  in   an  economic    sense. 

1  Hall,  G.  Stanley  :  Study  of  Fears  :  Am,  Jour.  Psy.,  Vol.  VIII, 
No.  2,  p.  157. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE. 


63 


Nineteen  per  cent,  of  the  runaways  come  from  poor  homes  as 
opposed  to  no  per  cent,  of  home  lovers.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  comment  on  the  rest  of  the  items  compared — the  table  is 
self-explanatory. 

Tabi,e  IV. 

Showing  the  comparative  sociological  conditions,  traits,  etc.,  of  five 
hundred  (500)  runaways  and  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  (22^) 
lovers  of  home  (ages  1-20  years). 


Runaways. 

Per  cent. 

lyOVERS  OF  HOME.       Per  cent. 

r  Both  living 

86 

80 

Parents.-^  Partially  orphans 

II 

16 

(  Wholly  orphans 

3 

3 

Do  not  own  their  homes     . 

35 

18 

r  Poor 

19 

0 

Conditions!  Moderate 

30 

6 

of  home.  1  Comfortable    . 

40 

58 

Bountiful 

II 

23 

Not  affectionate  . 

45 

9 

Physically  defective    . 

12 

0 

Numerical     [?"f"     ,      ' 
relation  in     J  Youngest      . 

23 
25 

20 

32 

the  family.    \%^^^^         ; 

23 
28 

2 
45 

Sensitive       .... 

62 

90 

Demonstrative 

60 

32 

Laugh  easily 

70 

79 

Cry  easily     .... 

62 

73 

Generous       .... 

74 

87 

Careless  in  dress 

52 

10 

I/ike  crowds 

79 

36 

Shun  crowds 

21 

64 

Careful  of  property 

61 

90 

Regards  others  rights 

.        64 

93 

Made  no  collection 

45 

12 

Persistent  in  tasks 

74 

85 

Summary. 

The  discussion  of  migration  of  animals  indicates  that  the 
most  general  initiative  factor  that  disturbs  the  psycho-physio- 
logical adjustments  is  the  procreative  function,  but  that  the 
mode  and  time  of  its  operation  is  greatly  modified  by  cosmic 
forces. 

We  do  not  trace  with  equal  certainty  the  operation  of  the 
same  factors  in  the  same  order  and  effectiveness  in  originating 
and  controlling  the  instinct  in  man  for  the  obvious  reasons  that 
he  has  freed  himself  to  a  great  extent  from  these  archaic 
forces  and  in  a  measure  controls  them  ;  besides  he  has  set  up  a 
social  cosmos,  as  it  were,  of  his  own  that  must  be  obeyed. 
Despite  these  hindrances,  however,  we  do  get  traces  here  and 
there  of  the  persistency  and  eflfectiveness  of  the  inner,  the 
cosmic  and   the   social  forces   involved   in   the   differentiation 


64  KI,INE : 

of  the  instinct.  The  movements  of  primitive  man  were  con- 
trolled, in  all  probability,  by  the  distribution  of  certain  foods, 
by  the  physical  geography  of  the  country,  and  by  the  change 
of  seasons.  The  factors  of  climatology  together  with  the 
topography  of  the  country  have  greatly  controlled,  if  not 
actually  touched  oflf,  the  instinct  as  seen  in  historic  migrations. 

The  passions  for  local  roving,  "  gadding  about,"  frequent 
moving  and  gypsy ing  is  a  reassertion  of  the  old  psychoses  that 
was  formed  when  to  know  friend  and  foe  were  essential  to  self- 
preservation,  and  when  the  highest  conditions  of  lot  aud  chance 
were  assiduously  courted.  Spring  fever,  ennui,  psycho-physi- 
ological disturbances  of  spring,  and  of  the  lunar  as  well  as  cer- 
tain solar  periods,  then,  too,  the  vernal  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  marriages  and  in  the  number  of  illegitimate  births  ;  the 
.  strengthening  of  the  love  of  adventure,  for  independence  and 
freedom  at  the  onset  of  puberty  ;  the  greatest  number  of  run- 
away adolescents  occurring  in  the  spring  —  all  alike  point  to 
the  general  conclusion  that  the  procreative  functions  and  their 
irradiations  and  cosmic  periodicities  are  joint  factors  in  the 
differentiation  of  the  migratory  instinct.  They  are  the  factors 
that  have  ever  periodically  disturbed  whatever  adjustment  that 
man  may  have  effected  with  his  environment  on  a  vegetative 
basis. 

Finally,  the  migratory  instinct  is  general,  if  not  universal. 
It  is  merely  a  matter  of  degree  —  sometimes  very  slight,  too  — 
from  the  mental  throes,  perturbations  and  secret  threats  of 
leaving  home  by  the  adolescent  to  their  actual  occurrence.  The 
gradual  passage  from  the  adolescent  who  fights  and  smothers 
these  several  subjective  upheavals  and  remains  at  home,  or 
from  the  one  who  subdues  the  desire  for  change  and  continually 
adjusts  himself  to  present  tasks  to  the  one  who  is  overcome  and 
breaks  away  is  paralleled  by  the  fine  shades  from  sanity  to  in- 
sanity, or  from  the  feint  inner  thoughts  of  to  the  actual  com- 
mitting of  crime. ^ 

We  are  not  then  dealing  with  anomalous  elements  and  char- 
acters. The  germs  and  even  at  times  the  full  fruition  are  in 
us  all,  partly  as  a  heritage  and  partly  acquired.  (See  cases 
I  and  2.) 

1  Ferri,  E. :  Criminal  Sociology,  p.  43  —  "Every  man,  however  pure 
and  honest  he  may  be,  is  conscious  now  and  then  of  a  transitory  no- 
tion of  some  dishonest  or  criminal  action.  But  with  the  honest  man, 
exactly  because  he  is  physically  and  morally  normal,  this  notion  of 
crime  which  simultaneously  summons  up  the  idea  of  its  grievous  conse- 
quences, glances  off  the  surface  of  the  moral  conscience  .  .  .  with  the 
man  who  is  less  normal  and  has  less  forethought,  the  notion  dwells  and 
finally  prevails." 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIvSK.  65 

SECTION  C. 
I.OVK   OF   HOME. 

The  love  of  home  is  indeed  an  archaic  theme  in  literature. 
An  activity  of  the  soul  that  arose  very  probably  soon  after  the 
sex  broad-ax  dichotomized  organic  life.  To  build  a  home,  fur- 
nish and  protect  it  absorb  the  quintescence  of  the  energies  of 
the  greater  part  of  living  species^  The  instinct  is  expressed 
oftentimes  in  an  unmistakable  manner  by  the  unnatural  and 
waning  activities  of  wild  animals  in  captivity  longing  to  return 
to  their  familiar  haunts. 

Werwom^  found  that  many  lowly  forms  of  pelagic  life, 
although  under  the  very  best  conditions,  decrease  considerably 
in  volume  in  a  few  days,  many  die  within  less  than  a  week. 
He  kept  heroes  alive  three  weeks.  One  beroe  that  measured 
2  cm.  long,  after  14  days  captivity  was  only  6  mm.  long. 

^  Young  shows  that  in  vessels  of  the  same  shape  the  larger 
the  area  of  the  vessels,  the  greater  the  growth  of  tadpoles  con- 
fined therein.  *De  Varigny  has  found  the  same  to  be  true  of 
the  pond  snail.  He  interprets  this  dwarfing  as  a  physiological 
or  mechanical  impedimenta  to  movements,  i.e.,  he  would  make 
free  exercise  one  of  the  functions  of  growth.  Darwin  observes 
that  insular  animals  are  smaller  than  their  continental  congen- 
ers. For  instance,  in  the  Canary  Islands  the  oxen  of  one  of 
the  smallest  islands  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  others, 
although  all  belong  to  the  same  breed  ;  the  same  is  true  of  their 
horses.  Spencer  says  '  *  It  is  well  known  by  all  anglers  that 
trout  and  other  fishes  are  small  in  small  streams  and  large  in 
larger  rivers." 

According  to  Bates,  only  one  of  the  largest  species  of  the  South 
American  turtles  will  live  long  in  captivity,  the  smaller  ones 
die  in  a  few  days.  Snapping  turtles  generally  refuse  food  and 
remain  shy  and  fierce,  but  taken  young  can  be  brought  to  feed. 
Sea  snakes  cannot  be  kept  alive  many  days  even  in  salt  water. 
The  vipers  all  vomit  their  food  after  being  taken  captives  and 
will  seldom  take  any  further  nourishment  except  water.  ^Jordan 
found  that  female  newts  kept  in  confinement  all  winter  were  not 
so  apt  to  lay  eggs  in  the  spring  as  those  freshly  captured.    The 

1  The  agricultural  achievements  of  the  ant  common  in  several  lands^ 
the  variety  of  architectural  designs  for  the  home  and  the  certainty 
and  cleverness  of  their  execution  as  seen  in  the  life  history  of  ants, 
bees,  fish,  birds  and  both  lower  and  higher  mammals,  furnish  abun- 
dant examples  of  the  large  bulk  of  animal  activities  exerted  for  the 
realization  of  a  and  its  belongings. 

^Werworn:  Plfiig.  Archiv.,  Vol.  L,  1891,  pp.  439-440. 

3  Young  :     Arch,  des  Sci.  Phys.  et  Nat.,  Vol.  XIV,  1885. 

*De  Varigny  :     Experimental  Evolution. 

^Jordan :  Habits  and  Developments  of  Newts,  Jour.  Morphology, 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  269-366. 

JOURNAI,— 5 


66  KI.INE : 

duckbill  ^  and  pouched  mole  in  spite  of  all  care  and  attention 
live  but  a  very  short  time  in  captivity.  Hartmann,  Chaillou 
and  others  give  several  instances  of  young  monkeys  dying  soon 
after  capture.  Captured  adult  pumas  ^  invariably  pine  away 
and  die.  Delboeuf  ^  allowed  two  different  species  of  lizards 
to  run  together  in  his  laboratory  for  over  two  years.  One  dis- 
appeared suddenly  fot  three  weeks,  during  which  time  the 
second  one  refused  all  food,  and  had  no  relish  for  insects  and 
earthworms  until  the  absent  one  returned.  A  species  of  snake 
(pelias  berus)  usually  refuses  all  food  ;  but  if  the  floor  of  its 
cage  is  made  to  look  like  its  native  moor  it  will  sometimes  feed 
voluntarily.  Cornish  ^  says  nearly  all  animals  dislike  solitude 
and  confinement.  Tame  hawks  and  falcons,  if  kept  alone  in  a 
room  mope  and  lose  condition,  and  in  some  species  a  suicidal 
instinct  is  developed.  Merlins  kept  in  solitary  confinement 
destroy  their  claws  and  toes. 

These  citations,  though  by  no  means  exhaustive,  illustrate 
that  not  only  forcible  curtailing  or  limiting  conditions  for  ex- 
ercise, but  a  sudden  change  of  environment,  feeding  grounds 
or  even  loss  of  companionship  will  cause  dwarfing,  sickness 
and  even  death  to  wild  animals. 

Instances  ^  of  the  love  for  home  among  domestic  animals  and 
their  intense  mental  sufferings  when  away  per  force  were  given 
in  Section  A. 

Some  of  the  factors  making  for  the  love  of  home  in  man  are 
set  forth  in  the  cases  below.  ^ 

1.  F.,  19.  **  I  think  that  the  order  is  mother  first,  father  and  broth- 
er equally.  I  like  to  think  of  my  surroundings,  at  home  in  this  order, 
the  sittng-room,  the  two  maples  in  the  yard,  the  brook  and  the  sur- 
rounding hills." 

2.  F.,  20,  "The  elements  in  my  own  love  of  home  are  first  my 
father,  then  sister,  brothers,  the  house,  and  familiar  spots  on  the 
farm." 

3.  F.,  17.  **.  .  .  Father  and  mother  and  next  my  sister  and  brother — 
then  the  home  feeling  which  I  have  but  which  I  cannot  possibly  ex- 
plain." 

The  family  as  a  whole  or  the  member  in  the  manner  given 
in  these  three  cases,  of  course,  take  precedence  over  all  other 
elements  in  all  the  returns,  therefore,  they  are  omitted  in  the 
rest  of  the  cases. 

4.  F.,  25.     Scenery  and  past  association. 

5.  F.,  20.     House,  water,  hills,  trees,  familiar  ways  of  life. 

6.  F.,  — .     House,  natural  scenery,  familiar  ways  of  life. 

1  Bennett,  G.:     Gatherings  of  a  Naturalist  in  Australasia,  i860. 

■^  Hudson  :     The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata,  p.  44. 

^Delboeuf,  J.:     Pop.  Sci.  Month.,  Vol.  L,  pp.  395-99,  1897. 

*Cornish,  C.  J.:     Animals  at  Work  and  Play,  '96,  pp.  31-38. 

°  Selected  at  random  from  200  answers  to  Rubric  XIII  of  Syllabus. 

^  Selected  at  random  from  160  answers  to  Rubric  X  of  Syllabus. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  67 

7.  F.,  — .     Friends,  location  and  familiar  scenes. 

8.  F.,  18.     House,  hills,  and  mode  of  living. 

9.  F.,  25.     Natural  scenery  and  associations  connected  with  it. 

10.  M.,  19.  Of  my  father,  mother,  brother,  it  would  be  hard  to 
tell  which  I  love  most.  They  are  all  a  part  in  my  life.  But  of  the 
house  and  surroundings,  hills  and  valleys,  there  is  that  lasting  feeling 
which  ties  me  to  it. 

11.  F.,  21.  Hill,  trees,  and  natural  scenery  around  my  own  home 
seem  dearer  to  me  than  those  of  any  other  place. 

12.  M.,  25.  Familiar  ways  of  life,  all  the  familiar  parts  of  the 
house ;  its  nooks  and  crannies,  where  old  associations  and  memories 
cluster  thick  as  swarming  bees  ;  the  plot  of  ground  about  the  house, 
and  lastly  the  outlook  from  its  doors  and  windows,  such  as  hills,  trees, 
lawns,  etc. 

13.  F.,  22.  The  room  where  we  sit  together  evenings,  my  own 
room,  my  bird  and  other  household  pets,  the  scenery,  especially  the 
mountains. 

14.  M.,  22.  House  itself,  trees  that  stand  before  it,  a  hill  back  of 
it. 

15.  F.,  26.  Familiar  books  and  furniture,  and  the  sincerity  and 
naturalness  of  home  relations. 

16.  M.,  27.  Habit  I  think  enters  strongly  into  my  love  of  home — 
accustomed  faces,  furniture,  surroundings,  etc. 

17.  M.,  30.     Familiar  haunts,  chance  to  relax  and  feel  easy. 

18.  F.,  21.  Distant  hills,  domestic  animals  and  pets,  home  habits 
and  family  ways. 

19.  F.,  22.  The  house  itself  because  I  was  born  there — then  the 
woods  and  fields,  which  abound  in  nooks  so  pleasant  to  me,  familiar 
ways  of  the  people  about  the  town. 

20.  F.,  18.  Naturalness  of  home  life,  the  cozy  surroundings, 'trees, 
flowers,  the  peaceful  river  and  sceneries,  the  sociability  of  friends. 

21.  F.,  18.  Ways  of  the  home,  everything  seems  familiar,  the  good 
times  we  all  have  together,  freedom  of  the  home,  always  open  to  my 
friends  and  all  friends  of  the  family. 

Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  cases  are  females.  By  far  the  great 
majority  (62%)  rank  mother  first,  father  second  (30%). 
Some  (3.7%)  say  that  the  members  of  the  family  do  not  sep- 
arate out  into  individual  preferences.  They  regard  the  family, 
as  a  whole,  the  strongest  factor.  Two  per  cent,  rank  parents 
first,  followed  by  other  members  of  the  family.  A  very  few 
( I  %  )  think  a  brother  or  sister  is  first  choice.  Females  have 
more  preferences  among  members  of  the  household,  or,  at 
least,  hesitate  less  to  undertake  an  analysis. 

After  members  of  the  family  the  most  common  element  is 
the  natural  scenery  about  the  home  (85%).  This^  consists  of 
garden,  lawn,  familiar  spots  on  the  farm,  trees,  grove,  river, 
brook,  lakes,  water  falls,  hills,  distant  mountains.  Then,  too, 
sunrise  and  sunset — on  the  prairie,  or  on  the  mountain,  or 
from  my  window.  The  house  itself  (70%).  Because  I  was 
born  there — always  been  my  home,  its  cozy  rooms,  especially 
my   room,  all  my  things  are  there.     Familiar  ways  (65%), 

1  Per  cents  are  estimated  on  the  number  of  times  the.factors  are  men- 
tioned. 


68 


KI.INK : 


the  sincerity  and  naturalness  of  home  life,  the  home  ' '  feeling, ' ' 
quiet  way  and  way  we  do  it,  time  for  meals,  table  manners, 
evening  chats.  Freedom  of  the  ho7ne  (43%),  place  to  relax 
and  feel  easy,  absence  of  restraint  by  strangers,  freedom  to  talk 
without  fear  of  offending,  to  go  where  and  when  I  please,  free 
use  of  all  the  house.  Relatives  and  friends  (25%),  genial 
ways,  interested  in  me,  good  times  together.  The  relative 
strength  of  these  several  elements  is  illustrated  diagramatically 
in  Diagram  II.  One  is  surprised  at  finding  sympathy  so  low 
among  the  elements  enumerated.  Phrases  like  the  following 
occur  :  Sympathy  for  my  work  ;  for  my  troubles  ;  for  my  in- 
clination ;  for  my  plans. 

Diagram  II. 
Showing  the  relative  values  of  a  few  elements  in  the  love  of  home. 


Parents 
Scenery 
House 

Familiar  ways 

Freedom 

Relatives,  friends 

Animals 

Pleasant  memories 

Furniture 

Sympathy 

One  of  the  Family 

Religion  and  Church 

Out-door  life 


Cheerfulness 


The  love  of  home,  it  appears,  is  a  complex  of  at  least  three 
general  groups  of  factors  :  first,  the  personnel  of  the  family  ; 
second,  the  variety  of  home  life,  both  as  to  activities  and 
material  objects,  especially  objects  in  nature  ;  third,  the  rela- 
tion of  the  first  two  groups  to  self.  If  this  relation  is  one  in 
which  the  self-regarding  interests  have  been  administered  to, 
the  intensity  of  home  love  is  usually  a  strong  one. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  those  whose  home  affections  are  ex- 
clusively for  members  of  the  family,  were  the  children  of 
parents  that  moved  frequently,  or  lived  in  tenement  flats,  and 
thus  were  robbed  of  the  associations  of  trees,  hills,  mountains, 
lakes,  and  so  on.     The  following  cases  are  typical : 

22.  F.,  25.  "My  love  of  home  is  almost  entirely  personal,  as  we 
live  in  New  York  city  flats." 

23.  F.,  21.     "I  love  my  home  because  it  is  the  place  where  my 


MIGRATORY   IMPUI^E.  69 

mother  and  father  live.  The  hills  do  not  especially  strike  my  sense 
of  the  beautiful  or  thejpicturesque,  as  they  only  vary  from  about  four 
inches  to  one  foot  in  height.  We  have  one  tree  in  our  yard,  and  it 
would  not  take  very  long  to  count  the  leaves  on  it.  The  natural 
scenery  consists  of  rows  of  brick  houses." 

24.  F., — .  "  My  love  of  home  is  very  strong,  but  I  don't  know 
that  I  can  specify  the  elements  in  it.  I  think  it  cannot  be  the  house 
or  natural  scenery,  for  until  I  was  about  grown  I  had  never  lived  more 
than  a  year  or  two  at  the  same  place  (being  an  itinerant  preacher's 
daughter).  I  grew  up  with  the  feeling  that  wherever  papa  and 
mamma  were  was  home." 

25.  F.,  33.  "  I  have  known  three  homes.  All  handsome.  In  two 
of  them  my  position  was  that  of  sister,  in  the  third,  wife.  I  find  that 
the  sense  of  home  exists  only  with  the  sense  of  personal  possession  and 
responsibility,  and  congenial  ways  of  life.''' 

Some  factors  lying  apparently  at  the  basis  of  the  affections 
for  home  are  emphasized  by  answers  to  Rubric  IX.  Bigbty 
per  cent,  of  the  cases  (104)  are  females. 

26.  F.,  20.  "  Always  hated  to  stay  away  from  home,  feeling  that 
something  might  happen  to  my  people,  or  that  my  mother  might  die 
before  my  return." 

27.  F.,  18.  Until  within  a  few  years  past  never  objected  to  be 
away  from  home.  Ivost  her  father  at  12,  and  since  then  will  only  very 
reluctantly  leave  her  mother  over  night. 

28.  F.,  15.  Would  never  go  out  to  parties  or  out  with  other  girls. 
At  her  mother's  wish  she  packed  her  trunk  and  made  ready  to  spend 
a  summer  vacation  in  the  country.  She  started  several  times,  broke 
out  crying  each  time,  and  finally  gave  it  up. 

29.  F.,  22.     Gets  homesick  away  over  night  even  with  her  sister. 

30.  M.,  38.  Very  systematic  in  habits,  does  everything  by  clock- 
work. Sociable  and  full  of  fun,  but  never  goes  away  from  home  even 
for  a  night.  Has  been  in  the  same  ofiice  for  20  years.  As  a  boy  did  not 
care  to  gad  about  the  streets. 

31.  "  Common  thing  for  people  of  middle  life  to  say  it  is  an  effort 
for  them  to  get  away  from  home,  and  that  they  can  sleep  better  in 
their  own  beds.  Know  a  lady  of  25  who  never  likes  to  go  on  a  vaca- 
tion. A  week  away  seems  very  long,  ....  is  not  happy  or  at 
ease  until  in  her  home  again." 

32.  M.,  30.  Very  conscientious,  an  indefatigable  worker,  could 
never  rest  away  from  home  unless  his  family  were  with  him.  Wants 
but  a  few  friends. 

33.  M.,  64.  Does  not  like  to  be  with  crowds,  never  stayed  away 
from  home  many  nights  in  his  life,  dislikes  to  get  out  sight  of  the 
house. 

34.  F.,  17.  A  regular  home  girl,  good  housekeeper  and  manager. 
Dislikes  to  meet  strangers.  When  12  or  13  would  go  occasionally  to 
spend  the  night  with  a  cousin,  but  scarcely  found  sleep.  She  seemed 
to  be  attacked  with  all  the  horrors  of  homesickness,  would  cry  nearly 
all  night.     Afraid  that  mother  might  die  that  night. 

35-  I^-»  55-  Married  and  lived  on  a  farm,  no  family.  She  and  her 
husband  very  often  do  not  speak  for  weeks.  She  is  fond  of  company, 
but  never  leaves  home  except  to  go  to  the  market.  She  is  very  am- 
bitious to  make  money.  I  think  that  is  why  she  stays  at  home  so 
closely.     She  is  afraid  to  leave  home  lest  something  might  go  to  ruin. 

36.  F.,  88.  Has,  and  always  has  had  the  intensest  love  for  her  lit- 
tle wee  shabby  home.  She  cannot  bear  to  be  away  from  it  a  moment 
just  for  sheer  love  of  it.  Just  as  a  loving  mother  cannot  bear  to  leave  her 


70  KI,INE : 

little  baby.  She  cares  for  it  in  a  way  that  is  almost  caressing  in  its 
fondness  and  prettiness.  She  permits  no  one  to  do  a  thing  for  her. 
She  cleans  it,  scrubs  it,  and  keeps  it  dainty  with  the  utmost  joy.  I 
know  from  things  she  has  said  to  me  that  it  would  pain  her  to  have  any 
of  her  dearly  beloved  house  utensils  carelessly  used  or  handled.  She 
once  gave  me  a  pretty  piece  of  old-fashioned  ware  because  she  said  that 
her  grandchildren  would  be  likely  to  break  it  if  it  was  left  to  them, 
and  she  did  not  like  to  think  of  it  ever  being  broken. 

Last  summer  (her  88th  year)  she  made  her  own  garden,  planted 
and  hoed  it.  She  had  it  plowed,  but  that  was  all.  She  could  not  bear 
to  have  any  one  touch  it  but  herself.  Her  two  sons,  who  live  near  by, 
would  gladly  do  everything  for  her.  Whenever  I  go  there  she  takes 
me  all  over  the  little  baby  house,  down  cellar,  into  the  woodshed,  the 
pantry,  shows  me  her  cistern,  her  dishes  and  everything,  just  as  we 
used  to  show  off  our  playhouses  when  children.  She  is  a  woman  of 
exquisite,  native  refinement ;  her  thoughts  are  all  very  poetic  and  lovely 
thoughts. 

Section  B  (Table  IV)  calls  attention  to  the  home  life  of 
home  lovers  as  usually  congenial  and  quite  comfortable  in  a 
material  way.  Their  lives  are  industrious,  quiet,  uneventful, 
conservative.  ^Guppy  says  :  "It  was  the  boast  of  a  wealthy 
old  Devonshire  yeoman,  150  years  ago,  that  he  had  never 
crossed  the  borders  of  his  native  country,  and  I  cannot  believe 
that  in  this  respect  he  differed  greatly  from  his  fellows.  .  . 
This  gave  solidity  of  character  to  which  the  long  persistence 
of  families  in  the  same  locality  and  in  the  same  stations  is 
mainly  due."  They  love  order,  fond  of  systematic  work,  and 
beheve  that  there  is  a  virtue  in  doing  things  at  fixed  times. 
Some  spend  life  happily  in  one  place  tinkering  and  puttering 
away  at  odd  jobs.  Cases  50,  54,  55  and  56,  represent  a  large 
class  that  make  few  friends,  retiring  in  disposition  ;  dread 
meeting  strangers,  entering  a  new  place,  or  even  sleeping  in  a 
strange  bed  ;  are  in  constant  dread  when  among  strangers 
either  of  boring  some  one  or  getting  bored.  They  have  more 
fears  than  rovers  and  gad-abouts.  Although  they  shun  crowds, 
hospitality  and  open  friendship  are  found  at  their  homes. 
Many  are  fond  of  company,  and  delight  in  the  duties  of  hostess. 

Habit,  born  of  necessity,  doubtless  explains  much  of  the 
phenomena.  Some  are  suddenly  and  almost  pitifully  attached 
to  their  homes  through  some  shock  occasioned  by  a  death  in 
the  family  (case  48),  or  by  sickness  contracted  away  from,  or 
by  some  other  unexpected  misfortune.  They  come  to  feel  that 
to  leave  home  will  in  some  mysterious  way  precipitate  a  dire 
calamity.  This  feeling  and  nervousness  often  becomes  so  in- 
tense at  leaving  that  the  journey  is  abandoned.  Thus  sorrow 
and  disappointment  may  greatly  intensify  the  home  feeling. 
The  dread  of  meeting  persons,  shunning  the  effort  to  bear 
up  the  '  *  dead  weight ' '  of  the  presence  of  strangers,  the  fear 

^Guppy,  H.  B.:  The  Homes  of  Family  Names. 


MIGRATORY   IMPUIjSE.  7 1 

of  not  being  welcome,  of  injuring  some  one's  feelings  indicate, 
at  least,  a  strong  coincidence  between  the  fear  of  persons  and 
the  love  of  home.  Dr.  Hall  ^  finds  that  the  fear  of  persons 
ranks  third,  exceeded  only  by  the  fear  of  thunder  storms  and 
reptiles. 

They  may  grow  homesick  or  timid  or  their  resolution  to  stay 
away  may  break  down  at  the  approach  of  night.  They  are 
afraid  "  mother  might  die  "  (case  56)  ;  something  "  at  home 
might  go  to  ruin"  (case  57)  ;  "something  fatally  done" 
(case  45),  or  that  they  will  never  see  home  again,  that  they 
themselves  may  die  that  night.  One  after  returning  home 
examines  every  shrub  and  flower  in  the  yard  to  see  if  they  are 
unharmed  (case  34),  another  goes  straight  to  her  room  to  see 
if  all  her  things  are  as  she  had  left  them,  and  so  on.  May  not 
this  unusual  unrest  and  anxiety  about  home  and  its  belongings 
be  a  remnant  of  the  bitter  and  costly  experience  that  man  along 
with  so  many  other  species  must  have  sufiered  through  the 
neglect  of  properly  guarding  or  hiding  the  home. 

Many  species  of  life  must  have  had  some  such  experience, 
otherwise  the  origin  of  the  widespread  instinct  to  post  sentinels 
or  place  some  obstacle  in  the  way  of  approach  to  the  home  is 
still  unsolvable.^  The  home  of  whatever  species,  being  the 
center  of  family  possessions  has  always  been  the  one  tempting 
object  for  attack  and  pillage.  Even  civilization  like  modern 
frontier  life  is  not  without  its  lessons  of  wrecked  homes  in  the 
absence  of  its  natural  protectors.  It  would  be  a  wonder  if 
these  bitter  experiences  during  the  evolution  of  the  home  from 
the  ill-provised  tent  of  the  nomad  to  the  modern  brown  front 
had  left  no  trace  upon  the  soul. 

The  feeling  of  comfort  and  ease  based  on  habit,  ^  familiarity 
and  freedom  is  nowhere  fostered  as  in  the  home.  The  feeling 
that  our  ways  are  better  ways,  the  difficulty  to  adopt  one's  self 
to  other  ways  of  life  than  those  learned  in  childhood  are  just 
so  much  data  on  the  general  laws  of  habit.  It  weds  every  one 
of  us  to  the  manners,  nooks  and  crannies,  hills,  valleys,  lakes 
and  forests  of  our  own  home  and  neighborhood.  The  sense  of 
familiarity  so  frequently  mentioned  is  but  a  function  of  habit. 
We  like  the  feel  of  things,  welcome  under  all  circumstances, 
the  "warmth  and  intimacy,"  the  naturalness  of  home  rela- 
tions. What  is  this  naturalness  but  a  maximum  reduction  of 
friction  through  habit  ?     Along  with  familiarity  runs  a  deeper 

iHall,  G.  Stanley  :     Amer.Jour.  Psy.,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  1897. 

2 Ants,  bees,  species  of  fish  like  the  stickleback,  species  of  birds, 
monotremes,  prairie  dogs,  many  herbivorous  and  several  species  of 
monkeys  post  sentinels  to  give  the  danger  signal  or  do  battle  for  the 
home  when  attacked  by  the  enemy. 

^James,  William  :     Psychology,  Vol.  I. 


72  KI,INE  : 

feeling,  that  of  freedom.  At  home  I  can  do  what  I  like,  have 
a  chance  to  relax  and  feel  easy,  and  throw  off  conventional 
restraint. 

The  fact  that  natural  scenery  ranks  next  to  members  of  the 
family  as  a  factor  in  the  love  of  home  justifies  further  investi- 
gation—  far  more  than  this  paper  contemplates. 

There  is  little  doubt  now  but  that  "gods^  of  the  early  world 
are  the  rocks  and  the  mountains,  the  trees,  the  rivers,  the  sea." 
The  primitive  mind  did  not  even  distinguish  animate  from  in- 
animate objects,  but  both  alike  possessed  life,  passions  and 
spirits.  Along  with  this  belief  in  the  general  animation  of 
everything  went  the  belief  in  metamorphosis.  Their  gods  were 
creative.  "In  Greece^  the  stories  of  the  descent  of  man  from 
gods  stand  side  by  side  with  ancient  legends  of  men  sprung 
from  trees  or  rocks,  or  of  races  whose  mother  was  a  tree  and 
their  father  a  god.  Similar  myths,  connecting  both  men  and 
gods  with  animals,  plants  and  rocks,  are  found  all  over  the 
world  and  were  not  lacking  among  the  Semites. ' '  In  addition 
to  being  objects  of  worship,  trees,  rivers  and  mountains  have 
always  been  favorite  places  for  worship.  The  word  kirk,  now 
softened  into  church  from  quercus  oak,  indicates  early  religious 
use  of  trees.  Preferences  for  certain  waters  in  rituals  is  evi- 
denced by  Naaman's  indignation  when  he  was  told  to  bathe  in 
the  Jordan  instead  of  the  rivers  of  Damascus.  Again  we  read  : 
"  The  hour  cometh  when  ye  shall  neither  worship  in  this  moun- 
tain .   .   .   ." 

The  application  of  flowers  and  plants  to  ceremonial  purposes 
is  of  the  highest  antiquity.  Of  forests  Coulter^  says  :  ' '  There 
is  solemnity  about  them,  a  quiet  grandeur,  which  is  very  im- 
pressive, and  the  rustling  of  their  branches  and  leaves  has  that 
mysterious  sound  which  caused  the  ancients  to  people  them 
with  spirits.  We  still  recognize  the  feeling  of  awe  that  comes 
in  the  presence  of  forests."  Rivers  and  springs,  trees  and 
plants  have  long  administered  to  the  ills  of  man.  The  moun- 
tains have  furnished  him  shelter  from  storms  and  enemies.  The 
feeling  of  the  child  and  adolescent  for  stream  and  forest  has 
already  been  indicated.  Truly,  the  race  has  lost  none  of  its 
attachment  for  these  archaic  friends. 

The  love  of  home  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  nostalgia 
adds  emphasis  to  matter  already  presented  and  gives  renewed 
interest  to  somewhat  old  psychological  problems.  Some  typ- 
ical cases  of  nostalgia  are  presented,  taken  from  176  reports  on 
that  topic.  Six  per  cent,  of  the  members  report  as  having  never 
been  homesick.     Eighty-seven    per  cent,    are  females.     This 

1  Fergusson  :     Tree  and  Serpent  Worship,  p.  54. 

2  Smith,  W.  Robertson  :     The  Religion  of  the  Semites,  p.  86. 

3  Coulter,  J.  M.:     Nature  and  Art,  Vol.  I,  p.  i,  1898. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  73 

large  percentage  I  think  is  due  to  the  fact  that  eighty-six  per 
cent,  of  those  that  answered  the  syllabus  were  females.  No 
sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  loneliness  and  homesick- 
ness. The  latter  is  oftentimes  preceded  by  a  brief  period  of  the 
former. 

1.  M.,  4.  Whose  parents  had  moved  to  a  new  neighborhood,  said 
even  before  the  house  furniture  had  been  put  in  order,  "Let 'stake 
the  cows  and  go  back  home." 

2.  M.,  5.  Became  very  lonely  and  homesick  to  return  to  the  old 
home  from  which  parents  had  just  moved.  When  questioned  why  he 
wished  to  return,  said,  "I  want  to  get  my  playthings."  They  consist- 
ed of  a  stick  horse,  a  few  pebbles  and  broken  dishes. 

3.  F.,  21.  "  When  I  first  entered  school  I  was  homesick  for  several 
weeks.  If  lessons  were  hard  and  I  found  much  difficulty  in  mastering 
them,  I  would  get  a  longing  for  home  that  would  not  leave  me  until 
after  a  night's  sleep." 

4.  F.,  19.  "  Have  never  experienced  intense  feelings  of  homesick- 
ness, although  I  have  longed  to  be  at  home  at  times  when  dissatisfied 
with  my  surroundings  or  my  work.  The  feeling  wore  off  with  in- 
creased interest  in  my  work." 

5.  F.,  20.  Experienced  homesickness  only  for  a  short  time  and 
then  it  was  mostly  due  to  lack  of  employment. 

6.  M..  5.  Went  to  stay  all  night  with  a  neighbor  only  a  few  rods 
away  from  home.  Became  so  homesick  that  he  had  to  be  carried  home 
even  in  the  night. 

7.  F.  "At  about  eight  visited  an  aunt.  At  night  I  would  cry  my- 
self to  sleep  thinking  of  the  pleasant  ways  at  home,  I  felt  forsaken 
and  forgotten,  worried  about  accidents  that  might  happen  at  home. 
I  was  afraid  some  one  would  die  before  getting  home." 

8.  M.,  21.  "At  10 went  to  spend  the  night  away  from  home  for  the 
first  time.  Made  it  all  right  during  the  day.  At  night  was  seized 
with  a  tremendous  longing  to  be  at  home.  I  was  helping  to  shell 
peas,  put  one  in  my  mouth  but  could  not  swallow,  I  felt  so  badly. 
Without  saying  a  word  put  on  my  hat  and  walked  home  two  miles  in 
the  dark." 

9.  M.,  19.  "Could  not  eat,  whenever  I  would  try  I  would  choke 
up.  Felt  sick  all  over.  Did  not  want  to  say  anything — was  thinking 
of  home  all  the  time — could  not  think  of  anything  else.  There  was 
sort  of  a  smarting  sensation  in  my  stomach,  and  I  felt  faint.''' 

10.  F.,  18.  (First  term  in  boarding  school.)  ''Ifelt  dazed  and 
for  a  long  time  I  could  not  realize  why  I  was  where  I  was." 

11.  M.,  24.  "I  cried  every  day  for  three  weeks  about  sundown. 
I  could  not  tell  why  I  cried,  for  I  had  been  very  anxious  to  go  away 
to  boarding  school  and  would  not  have  gone  home  had  I  had  the 
opportunity." 

12.  F.,  10.  "I  used  always  to  get  homesick  if  separated  from  my 
mother ;  but  if  she  left  me  at  home,  it  was  not  so  bad  as  when  I  left 
home — suppose  the  familiarity  of  home  surroundings  lessened  the 
sickness." 

13.  F.,  22.  "At  12  while  in  school  became  homesick  and  finally 
ill.  The  physician  said  their  could  be  no  marked  improvement  while 
I  remained  from  home,  as  that  was  my  one  thought.  I  had  not  been 
home  but  a  few  hours  when  I  ate  a  hearty  meal  and  slept  well,  and  in 
one  week  was  well  again,  while  the  day  I  came  home  I  had  to  be 
carried  up  stairs." 

14.  "All  new  girls  at  this  school  were  placed  in  the  back  part  of 
the  hall,  which  was  dark  and  gloomy.     Looking  out  of  my  window  I 


74  KI.INE : 

could  see  any  number  of  tin  roofs,  chimneys,  back-yards,  and  servants 
passing  in  and  out.  These  sights  together  with  the  coldness  of  the 
older  students  made  me  dreadfully  homesick." 

15.  F.,  22.  At  seven  stayed  away  from  home  a  week,  could  not 
eat  anything  and  was  always  looking  to  see  some  house  or  scenery 
that  looked  like  home. 

16.  F.,  10.  Was  sent  away  to  a  school  for  girls — she  was  eager  to 
go.  Enjoyed  the  change  at  first  but  soon  gave  way  to  extreme  home- 
sickness. At  the  end  of  three  months  of  school  life  she  had  become 
really  ill — was  very  thin,  ate  almost  nothing,  had  a  heavy  cough  and 
was  believed  to  have  consumption.  She  was  sent  home  and  recovered 
in  a  few  days. 

17.  F.,  18.  "  Got  along  well  during  the  day,  but  at  nightfall 
would  choke  up  and  when  the  crickets,  the  "Katydids"  (cicadae) 
and  the  low  wind  began  to  make  a  noise  I  broke  down  and  cried  my- 
self to  sleep." 

18.  "I  was  homesick  once,  at  home,  too, — (father  and  mother  had 
gone  away  for  some  time).  I  was  all  alone  in  the  old  house.  The 
feeling  was  similar  to  nausea  only  in  a  less  degree  with  such  a  longing 
for  some  one  to  come." 

19.  F.,  18.  "I  lost  my  appetite,  could  not  be  comforted,  did  not 
wish  to  talk,  would  get  dizzy  when  I  walked  across  the  floor." 

20.  F.,  23.  "  Do  not  lose  my  ambition  to  work  but  feel  doleful, 
lose  my  appetite,  so  that  I  almost  come  down  sick.  Have  a  bad  feel- 
ing all  the  time  in  the  region  of  my  stomach  which  ceases  with  the 
homesicknes.  I  think  homesickness  is  the  most  appalling  thing 
under  the  sun.  It  swoops  down  on  one  before  one  knows  it  and  you 
cannot  get  rid  of  it."  > 

21.  F.,  17.  "  An  indescribable  longing.  I  seemed  sick  all  inside 
myself  and  all  choked  up." 

22.  F.,  18.  "I  would  always  get  sick  at  my  stomach  and  often 
vomit.  My  family  would  laugh  at  me  when  I  reached  home  and  say 
it  was  homesickness.  There  is  a  feeling  of  pain,  as  well  as  I  can 
locate,  a  little  lower  than  my  heart." 

23.  F.,  30.  "I  always  have  a  smothering  sensation — everything 
seems  closing  in  on  me." 

24.  M.,  22.  "I  feel  melancholy,  down  hearted.  There  seems  to 
be  a  lump  in  my  throat — I  feel  that  a  good  cry  would  help." 

25.  M.,  23.  "I  lost  both  appetite  and  weight,  had  to  give  up  work 
and  go  home." 

26.  F.,  25.     "  My  dreams  of  home  make  me  homesick." 

27.  F.,  18.  "I  felt  unloved  and  unloving  to  all  around  me  and 
could  only  conceive  of  happiness  at  home." 

Age.  Forty-three  per  cent,  of  these  cases  (166)  occurred 
for  the  first  time  at  ages  16,  17  and  18  years.  Eighty  per 
cent,  occurred  for  the  first  time  from  ages  1 2  to  and  including 
18  years.  The  large  number  occurring  at  16,  17  and  18  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  conditions  for  homesickness  were  presented  for 
the  first  time  at  these  ages,  e.  g.^  entering  school  or  college, 
taking  a  new  position,  entering  the  navy  or  army. 

Hack  Tuke  ^  thinks  there  are  no  general  rules  for  its  occur- 
rence in  the  different  sexes,  ages  and  temperament.  Papillon^ 
says:     **  Nostalgia   attacks  by  preferences,  young  people  and 

iTuke,  Hack:    Die.  of  Psy.  Medicine,  Vol.  II,  p.  858. 
2Papillon,  Fernaud  :    Pop.  Sci.  Month.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  215-20,  1874. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  75 

those  just  entering  youth,  affecting  all  temperaments  without 
distinction." 

'*  Adolescence  is  really  the  age  for  predilection  to  nostalgia/' 
says  Widal/  **  It  is  the  age  of  delusion  and  of  love.  The 
young  man  is  still  under  the  influence  of  his  childish  memories 
which  dispose  him  to  recall  the  place  where  he  has  been  happy 
and  to  magnify  the  charms  of  native  land  as  soon  as  he 
encounters  the  first  deception  of  life. ' '  An  army  ^  surgeon 
writing  on  the  evils  of  youthful  enlistment,  and  nostalgia 
says  :  "Among  young  prisoners  of  war  it  is  the  most  compli- 
cated disease  to  be  encountered. ' '  Both  the  French  and  German 
army  surgeons  confirm  this  view  ;  and  all  agree  that  fresh 
youthful  troops  from  rural  districts  are  often  a  positive  hin- 
drance to  the  efficiency  of  an  army  because  of  their  predi- 
lection to  homesickness.  Widal  believes  that  there  are  vague 
signs  of  it  in  babyhood.  "Although  this  affection  may  be 
incompatible  with  the  infant,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that, 
instinctively  the  nursing  child  is  affected  by  all  that  surrounds 
it,  and  the  tears  which  it  sheds  when  one  changes  its  food  or 
removes  its  rattle  are  already  vague  feelings  of  nostalgia." 
My  impression,  based  on  medical  literature  and  other  material, 
is  that  in  quality  or  intensity  (cases  9,  25)  nostalgia  is  just  as 
severe  and  if  allowed  will  lead  to  as  fatal  results  before  and 
after  as  those  cases  occurring  in  adolescence  but  that  the  latter 
is  more  predisposed  to  an  attack  than  either  childhood  or  man- 
hood. 

Sex.  Tuke  thinks  no  rules  can  be  laid  down  regarding  its 
relations  to  sex.  Widal  thinks  woman  is  less  subject  to  nos- 
talgia than  man  because  she  can  enter  into  new  conditions  and 
receive  new  influences  without  herself  suffering  any  great 
change.  This  notion  squares  with  the  general  theory  that  she 
is  more  conservative  than  man.  "Whatever  may  be  the 
migration  of  woman  her  manner  of  life  is  less  changed  and 
like  the  ancient  wanderers  she  carries  her  household  gods 
with  her."  These  are  the  reflections  of  a  French  army  sur- 
geon who  had  studied  nostalgia  in  camp,  prisons  and  hospitals, 
all  three  presenting  the  pink  of  conditions  for  the  ravages  of 
the  disease.  Had  he  been  a  physician  to  a  cotton  or  woolen 
factory,  a  female  boarding  school,  or  a  modern  normal  school, 
it  is  probable  that  his  notions  would  have  been  considerably 
modified. 

While  the  present  study  (eighty-seven  per  cent,  females) 
indicates  that  women  are  more  liable  to  the  sickness,  I  hesitate 

1 V.  Widal :    Die.  Bng.  des  Sci.  Medicales,  pp.  357-380. 
2 Peters,  DeWitt  C.  (U.  S.  A.  Surgeon);    Am.  Med.  Times,  Vol.  VI, 
1863. 


76  KLINK : 

in  the  absence  of  a  wider  range  of  data  to  draw  any  conclu- 
sions on  this  point. 

Temperament  and  Nationality.  It  is  generally  agreed  that 
the  most  diverse  temperaments  pay  equal  tribute  to  nostalgia, 
so  that  an  attempt  to  make  any  classification  on  that  basis 
is  of  no  value.  I  find,  however,  that  the  majority  of  the 
cases  are  sensitive,  not  a  few  nervous,  timid,  sociable,  affec- 
tionate; but  they  fear  a  crowd,  dread  meeting  strangers,  delight 
in  the  simplicity  and  shelter  of  domestic  life.  Another  class 
occurring  often  enough  to  mention  is  the  phlegmatic,  the  taci- 
turn. They  are  described  as  *'  difficult  to  entertain,"  "prefer 
to  be  by  themselves, "  "  interests  are  odd  or  provincial. ' ' 
They  move  in  a  self-created  world.  With  but  few  exceptions 
the  cases  are  Americans  of  Anglo-Saxon  stock.  A  few  pitiful 
cases  of  foreigners  unable  to  speak  our  language  are  reported. 

A  French  writer  says  :  '  *  That  every  one  imagines  that  his 
native  soil  is  distinguished  from  others  by  signal  favors,  by 
particular  and  rare  attributes,  and  that  nature  has  need  of  this 
illusion  in  order  to  keep  each  man  in  his  own  home. ' '  Widal 
thinks  that  the  predilection  to  nostalgia  is  inversely  to  the 
degree  of  civilization  of  a  people.  Sagos,  quoted  by  ^Papillon, 
says  '  *  that  love  of  country  is  strongest  with  those  who  are 
nearest  to  a  state  of  nature."  Savages  living  under  the 
rudest  forms  of  civilization,  in  the  most  uninviting  climates, 
grieve  when  they  quit  them.  A  Lapp  brought  to  Poland 
where  every  kindness  was  shown  him,  was  seized  with  incur- 
able sadness,  and  at  last  escaped  and  returned  to  his  inhospita- 
ble country.  Greenlanders  taken  across  to  Denmark  risk 
certain  death  by  trusting  themselves  to  slight  canoes  to  cross 
the  ocean  separating  them  from  their  own  land.  Pocahontas, 
fondled  and  caressed  by  London  society,  grew  homesick  for 
Virginia's  woods  and  finally  wasted  and  pined  away.  The 
Psalmist^  records  Israel's  yearning  for  their  Judean  homes 
while  captives  in  Babylon.  "  By  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  there 
we  sat  down,  yea  we  wept,  when  we  remembered  Zion.  We 
hanged  our  harps  upon  the  willows  in  the  midst  thereof.  .  .  . 
How  shall  we  sing  the  Lord's  song  in  a  strange  land?" 

Nationality.  Switzerland  is  the  classic  land  of  nostalgia. 
The  love  of  freedom  and  independence  of  the  inhabitants,  their 
love  of  family  life,  the  pure  air  of  the  mountains,  the  charm- 
ing scenery  of  which  the  accentuated  outlines  become  etched 
into  their  very  souls  are  all  elements  that  make  for  love  of 
home.  Next  come  the  French.  The  disposition  to  the  dis- 
ease diminishes  roughly  in  proportion  as  one  advances  toward 
the  middle  of  the  country^  (France). 

1  Papillon,  Fernaud  :  lac.  cit.,  p.  218. 

2  Psalm  CXXXVII,  Verses,  i,  2,  4. 

3  Based  upon  thousands  of  cases  in  French  military  hospitals. 


MIGRATORY    IMPULSE.  77 

English  and  Germans  leave  their  country  with  less  reluc- 
tance than  the  citizens  of  other  countries.  More  cases  occur 
among  German  troops  in  foreign  lands  than  among  the 
English,  whose  adventurous  and  cosmopolitan  spirit  (his  coun- 
try is  wherever  his  flag  floats),  his  commercial  predilection 
immune  him  from  nostalgia  without  removing  in  the  least  his 
attachment  for  his  country. 

Dr.  Peters^  describing  the  ravages  of  homesickness  among 
fresh  troops  quartered  in  New  Orleans  (1862),  says  :  "This 
was  notably  true  of  soldiers  from  New  England,  where  it 
appeared  that  the  love  for  home  was  very  strong. ' ' 

Dr.  Calhoun^  writes  :  *  *  It  is  a  matter  of  common  remark 
in  this  army  that  troops  from  the  country  have  a  much  larger 
percentage  of  deaths  than  those  recruited  in  the  cities."  He 
thinks  that  the  peculiar  susceptibility  to  nostalgia  of  those 
from  rural  districts  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  country  boy  is 
more  at  home,  seldom  takes  his  meals  at  other  than  the  family 
table,  seldom  sleeps  away  from  home,  has  less  temptation  to 
leave  it,  and  thinks  more  of  it  and  its  influences  than  he  who 
in  the  city  spends  his  days  in  the  workshop  or  counting-room, 
and  his  nights  at  the  thousand  and  one  places  of  amusement  a 
city  afibrds  ;  then,  too,  the  city  boy  gets  his  meals  at  the  res- 
taurant or  the  boarding-house. 

Facilitating  Conditions.  By  these  I  mean  the  variety  of  con- 
ditions in  which  nostalgia  occurs  and  the  factors  that  may 
aggravate  it.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  cases  reported  occurred 
on  entering  school — even  the  first  day  of  school.  Others 
occurred  while  making  a  visit  in  the  country  from  the  city,  or 
vice  versa,  or  in  beginning  the  first  school,  taking  a  new  posi- 
tion among  strangers,  moving  to  a  new  neighborhood,  to  a 
foreign  land,  being  left  alone  at  home,  taken  sick  away  from 
home  ;  again  seeing  or  meeting  some  one  from  home,  or  even  re- 
ceiving a  letter,  is  sufficient  at  times  to  touch  off"  the  pent-up 
feelings. 

Idleness,  the  mother  of  a  motley  host  of  delinquent  off"- 
spring,  is  exceedingly  prolific  in  this  disease  (case  5).  Among 
soldiers*  and  sailors,  idleness,  coupled  with  suspense  and  lim- 

iDr.  Peters:  lac.  cit.,  pp.  75-6. 

2  Calhoun,  Th.  J.:  Nostalgia  as  a  disease  of  field  service.  Medical 
and  Surgical  Reporter,  Vol.  XI,  p.  131,  Phil.,  1864. 

3  In  military  life  the  beginning  and  the  close  of  service  is  marked  by 
increased  nostalgia.  "When  I  took  charge  of  the  division  they  were 
losing  men  by  death  daily.  That  it  was  not  due  to  local  causes  was 
proved  by  the  fact  that  adjoining  regiments  exposed  to  the  same  local 
influences,  lost  none,  and  of  the  patients  at  our  division  hospital, 
with  the  same  diseases  (typho-malarial  fever  and  camp  dysentery), 
those  from  the  120th  N.  Y.,  Vols,  died  under  the  same  treatment  that 
the  others  got  well  on.     The  regiment  is  from  one  of  the  river  counties 


78  KI.INE : 

ited  freedom,  is  more  than  the  ordinary  soul  can  endure  with 
equanimity.     It  wrings  the  cold  sweat  from  the  stoutest. 

According  to  my  returns  nightfall  exceeds  all  other  elements 
in  aggravating  and  intensifying  the  sickness.  (Cases  12,  16, 
18,  23,  35.)  The  stillness  of  the  night,  the  chirping  of 
crickets,  the  whispering  of  the  leaves,  the  sough  of  the  wind, 
new  and  strange  noises,  real  or  imagined,  all  intensify  the 
gloom  and  forsakenness  of  the  unfortunate.  Dr.  Hall's^  study 
of  Fears  emphasizes  the  wonderful  horrors  that  night  holds  in 
store  for  so  many,  even  though  surrounded  by  every  comfort 
and  protection.  Less  frequent  aggravations  are  the  reception 
of  letters  and  articles  from  home  ;  dreams  about  home  ;  the 
feeling  of  goneness  on  facing  the  real  after  awakening  ;  friends 
offering  sympathy  ;  hearing  a  familiar  song.  So  strong  and 
disturbing  was  the  influences  of  a  certain  air  on  Swiss  soldiers 
in  the  service  of  the  French  that  it  was  forbidden  to  be  played 
in  their  hearing. 

Psychical  Effects.  It  usually  begins  by  feeling  lonely,  desolate, 
forsaken.  '  *  Longing  for  a  lost  past, "  "  low  spirited, "  *  *  loss  of 
ambition, "  "  hard  to  cheer  up, "  "no  interest  in  surround- 
ings." Desire  to  please,  natural  coquetry  and  regard  for  the 
opposite  sex  disappear.  Some  report:  "I  wanted  to  cry;" 
"wanted  to  scream  ;"  "cried  most  all  the  time  ;"  "  cried  my- 
self to  sleep  ;"  "  could  think  of  nothing  but  home  ;"  "  thought 
all  the  time  on  objects  at  home  ;"  "  felt  as  if  I  would  go  in- 
sane." Sometimes  it  comes  very  suddenly.  "It  swooped 
down  on  me  ;"  "felt  as  though  everything  was  closing  in  on 
me;"  "there  is  a  smothering  sensation;"  "feeling  of  utter 
despair  came  over  me  all  at  once. ' '  They  may  become  icon- 
oclastic. "  Wanted  to  destroy  everything  in  my  way  ;"  "  had 
no  mercy  on  man  nor  beast  until  I  reached  home."  In  its  last 
stages  hallucinations  and  delirium  set  in,  followed  by  complete 
prostration,  stupor,  syncope  and  death. 

Bodily  Phenomena.  The  three  most  general,  if  not  universal 
effects,  are  (i)  loss  of  appetite,  (2)  gastro-enteric  troubles, 
(3)  irregularity  in  respiration  interrupted  by  sighing.  Vague, 
erratic  pains — variable  in  intensity — accompany  all  the  symp- 
toms, and  become  more  and  more  localized  in  the  head  and 
stomach.  Vomiting  often  begins  early  (case  31),  the  same  is 
true  of  animals — the  eyes  become  more  and  more  fixed,  dull, 

of  New  York  state.  Nearly  all  who  died  were  farmers.  Those  who  were 
sent  on  furlough  got  well,  while  those  who  remained  died.  But  a  still 
further  proof  is  present.  The  battle  of  Chancellorsville  cured  the 
regiment,  and  it  has  since  enjoyed  as  good  health  as  any  in  the 
division.  This  leads  me  to  the  remark,  that  Battier  is  to  be  consid- 
ered the  great  curative  agent  of  nostalgia  in  the  field:'  Theodore 
J.  Calhoun,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  131-32. 
1  Hall,  G.  Stanley  :  loc.  cit. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  79 

and  languid  and  sunken  in  their  sockets.  The  face  is  anemic, 
the  whole  body  begins  to  emaciate  ;  the  pulse  is  irregular  and 
weakened,  heart  palpitates,  temporal  arteries  throb.  The 
mouth  is  dry  and  sticky.  Nervous  dyspepsia  is  very  common, 
more  often  accompanied  by  diarrhoea,  sometimes  by  constipa- 
tion, ending  in  an  absolute  refusal  to  take  food.  There  is  in- 
continence of  urine,  spermatorrhoea,  menstruation  may  be 
checked  or  suppressed  altogether.  Sexual  functions  are  dulled. 
Pulmonary  phthisis  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  consumption 
(case  1 6).  In  a  word,  anabolic  processes  gradually  approach  a 
minimal  activity,  while  the  katabolic  hasten  to  the  maximal.^ 
Sagar  says  :  *  *  It  appears  that  the  soul  of  the  nostalgic  no 
longer  resides  in  the  body,  that  it  has  broken  oiF  all  commerce 
with  it.  All,  however,  agree  to  a  general  bodily  phthisis 
sometimes  more  or  less  pronounced  in  the  lungs. 

The  foregoing^  facts  and  considerations  impress  one  that  nos- 
talgia is  a  very  fundamental  reaction  of  an  organism  to  fairly 
describable  groups  of  stimuli.  These  groups  QlT^  primarily ,  it 
seems  to  me,  the  absence  or  loss  of  the  Familiar,  the  presence 
of  the  Strange  and  Untried,  and  secondarily  restricted  lib- 
erty, change  of  food,  habits  of  life  and  the  like.  The  first  group, 
especially,  will  engage  us  here. 

Cases  like  9,  10,  18  and  19  have  suggested,  what  appears  to 
be  a  probable  solution  —  at  least  a  point  of  view  permitting 
legitimate  speculation.  Faintness,  a  dazed  feeling,  nausea 
and  dizziness  are  the  well  known  disorders  of  seasickness  and 
vertigo. 

Seasickness^  is  caused  by  a  derangement  of  the  nerve  centers 
that  control  the  equilibrating  mechanism  of  the  body.  The 
sense^  of  equilibrium  is  furnished  by  every  possible  bodily  sen- 
sation —  both  kinaesthetic  and  sensory.  To  retain^  this  sense, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  information,  derived  from  whatever 
source,  should  harmonize.  Disturb  the  harmony  and  vertigo 
immediately  ensues.  Contradictory  impressions  not  only  dis- 
turb but  often  stop  the  equilibrating  functions.  Nowhere  are 
these  confused  sensations  so  baffling  as  at  sea.     The  point  of 

1  Physicians,  like  Haspel  and  Larrey,  believed  that  it  was  caused  on 
the  physical  side  by  brain  and  spinal  lesions,  cerebral  hemorrhages 
and  swellings  of  the  arachnoid  membrane,  or  by  gastro-enteric  lesions. 
These  views  are  now  discredited. 

2 Calhoun  says  "Nostalgia  is  an  affection  of  the  mind.  It  must  be 
treated  with  that  in  view."  Hack  Tuke  thinks  that  it  always  repre- 
sents a  combination  of  psychical  and  bodily  disturbances.  Sauvage  de- 
scribes it  by  four  words :  morasitas,  pervigilio,  anorexia,  asthenia, 
which  signify  sadness,  sleeplessness,  want  of  appetite  and  exhaustion. 

^Hudson,  W.  W.:     Cause,  Nature  and  Prevention  of  Seasickness. 

*  Howell :     Amer.  Text  Book  of  Phys.,  pp.  846-47. 

5  Eisner,  H.  L.,  Dr.:     The  Medical  News,  Vol.  LX,  pp.  477-80,  1892. 


8o  KLINK : 

rest  (center  of  gravity)  in  the  human  body  on  a  tossing  ship  is 
being  constantly  shifted.  Persons  unacquainted  with  these 
phenomena  attempt  consciously  and  unconsciously  to  make 
compensatory  movements  in  order  to  maintain  the  old  habitual 
land-sense  of  equilibrium ;  thus  inaugurating  a  struggle  be- 
tween equilibrium  of  habit  and  the  equilibrium  under  novel 
conditions  (sailors  are  adjusted  to  this  novel  sense  of  equilib- 
rium). These  repeated  attempts  to  maintain  an  arbitrary  cen- 
ter of  gravity  as  it  were,  produce  seasickness^ 

Nostalgia,  it  is  true,  is  not  a  direct  disturbance  of  the  phys- 
ical sense  of  equilibration,  it  appears  as  a  secondary  effect. 
The  patient  has,  however,  lost  his  psychical  orientation.  Just  as 
the  seasick  patient  has  his  center  of  gravity  and  consequently 
his  physical  plane  of  reference  constantly  eluding  his  bodily 
adjustments,  so  the  nostalgic  has  his  "  psychical  plane  of  ref- 
erence ' '  —  composed  of  familiar  scenes,  friends,  sense  of  secu- 
rity and  the  like  —  rendered  uncertain  and  bewildering,  through 
his  inability  to  interpret  and  to  enter  into  familiar  relationships 
with  the  new  world  about  him.  To  get  on  in  this  new  world 
new  adjustments  must  be  made,  old  brain  paths  must  be  dropped 
and  new  ones  formed.  He  must  fuse  with  a  new  stratum. 
The  greater  the  unfamiliarity  the  severer  will  be  the  nervous 
shock  and  stress  in  trying  to  make  a  new  adjustment,  or  to 
establish  new  relationships.  As  we  have  seen,  many  do  not  try 
to  make  a  * '  fusion ' '  at  all,  do  not  seek  a  new  '  *  plane  of  refer- 
ence," do  not  attempt  to  build  new  brain  paths,  but  rather 
yield  passively  to  their  prison-world  with  wonder,  timidity  and 
fear.  One  experiences  the  beginnings  of  this  phase  of  nostalgia 
on  entering  a  familiar  room  in  which  the  furniture  has  been 
rearranged  or  a  piece  taken  out,  or  when  one  attempts  a  me- 
chanical performance  in  a  new  situation,  e.g.,  wanting  or  eating 
in  a  new  place  at  the  table,  or  when  one  looks  into  the  garden 
or  on  the  lawn  where  a  conspicuous  tree  has  been  cut  down. 

The  shrivelling  and  contracting  effects  of  nostalgia  on  the 
ego  are  unique.  Especially  does  this  seem  true  of  the  social 
ego.  In  a  strange  land  no  one  appreciates,  applauds  and  sym- 
pathizes with  my  efforts,  my  boon  companions  are  gone,  I  am 
isolated,  cut  off,  but  a  mere  machine  grinding  out  a  bit  of  the 
world's  work. 

Migrant  vs.  IvOver  of  Home. 

The  migrant  is  cosmopolitan,  has  manifold  interests,  and  finds 
profitable  objects  and  kindred  spirits  in  a  variety  of  situations. 

1  For  a  detailed  description  of  the  anatomical  and  functional  rela- 
tions of  the  organs  (believed  to  be)  involved  in  vertigo.  See  Dr.  E. 
Woakes,  Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  Vol.  I,  pp,  801-41,  1883. 

McBride:  Medical  Times,  London,  1881. 

H.  S.  Lee  :    Jour.  Phys.,  Vols.  XV  and  XVII,  1894-95. 

Howard  Ayres  :    Jour.  Morph.,  Vol.  VI,  1892. 


MIGRATORY   IMPULSE.  8 1 

He  may  be  found  in  the  commercial,  speculative,  daring,  pro- 
gressive, macroscopic  interests  of  the  world.  The  lover  of 
home  is  provincial,  plodding  and  timid.  He  is  the  world's  hod- 
carrier.  His  interests  are  identified  with  the  conservative  and 
microscopic  affairs  of  society. 

AcKNOWivEDGMENT.  This  thesis  crystallized  under  the 
influence  of  President  Hall's  lectures  on  the  genesis  of  Fears, 
I  am,  therefore,  partly  indebted  to  him  for  the  subject  itself, 
and  am  very  thankful  for  constant  help  and  inspiration  during 
its  treatment.  I  have  received  friendly  help  and  criticism  from 
Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham  and  citations  to  literature  by  Drs.  Cham- 
berlain and  Sanford  to  whom  I  offer  my  best  thanks.  To  Mr. 
Wilson,  the  University  I^ibrarian,  I  am  greatly  indebted  for 
meeting  me  more  than  half  way  in  securing  rare  books  and 
special  literature. 


JOURNAIv— 6. 


THE  APPLICABILITY  OF  WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL. 


By  ElvEANOR  ACHKSON  MCCULI^OCH  GambIvE,  Ph.   D., 
Cornell  University. 


CONTENTS. 
Introduction. 


Progress  of  the  Experimental  Proof  of  Weber's  Law. 

Object  and  Scope  of  this  Paper.     Its  connection  with  Zwaardemaker's 

Olfactoraetric  Work. 
Zwaardemaker's  Terminology. 
Defect  of  All  Psychophysical  Measurements. 
The  Peculiar  Difficulty  of  Olfactometry,  viz.,  the  Indeterminateness 

of  Olfactory  Qualities. 
Zwaardemaker's  Classification  of  Olfactory  Qualities. 
Antecedent  Probability  of  the  Applicability  of  Weber's  Law  to  Smell. 

Chapter  I.    Method. 
Section  i.     Factors  which   Determine  the    Intensity  of    the   Smell- 
Stimulus  for  the  Normal  Organ. 

(I.)     The  Quantity  of  Vapor  Thrown  Off  by  the  Odorous  Body. 

(II.)     The  Rate  of  Diffusion  of  the  Odorous  Vapor. 

(III.)     The  Rate  and  Manner  of  Breathing. 

Compensation  of  Smells. 

Direct  and  Indirect  Olfactometric  Methods. 

Methods   of  Valentin,   Fischer  and   Penzoldt,  Dibbits,  Ottolenghi, 
Passy,  Frolich,  Arousohn,  Savelieff. 
Section  2.     Control  in  Zwaardemaker's  Olfactometric  Method  of  the 
Factors  which  Determine  the  Intensity  of  the  Stimulus. 

Treatment  of  the  Two  Factors  of  the  Genetic  Unit. 

The  Method  of  Henry. 

Adhesion  to  the  Inhaling-Tube. 

Control  of  the  Diffusion-Rate  of  the  Vapor. 

Control  of  the  Manner  and  Rate  of  Breathing. 
Section  3.     Anosmia  and  Hyperosmia. 

Method  of  Testing  the  Openness  of  the  Nasal  Passages. 

The  Effect  of  Exhaustion. 
Section  4.     Psychophysical  Methods  Employed. 

An  Imperfect  Method  of  Finding  the  Stimulus-Ivimen. 

The  Method  of  Just  Noticeable  Differences. 

Intervals  between  Stimuli  and  between  Determ'inations. 

The  Method  of  Minimal  Changes. 

A  Modified  Form  of  the  Method  of  Just  Noticeable  Differences. 

The  Subject's  Tendency  to  Judge  in  Terms  of  Hand-Movement. 

The  Method  of  Right  and  Wrong  Cases. 

Chapter  II.    Apparatus  and  Materiai^s. 
Section  i.     The  Standard  and  the  Fluid-Mantle  Olfactometers. 

(I.)     The  Standard  Olfactometer. 

(II.)     The  Fluid-Mantle  Olfactometer. 
Section  2.     Preparation  of  Odorous  Materials. 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO   SMELL.  83 

(I.)     Preparation  of  Odorous  Substances  Used  in  Solid  Form. 
(II.)     Preparation  of  Odorous  Substances  in  Solution. 
Section  3.     Other  Arrangements  and  Appliances. 

Chapter  III.    Resui^ts. 
Section  i.     The  Several  Subjects  and  their  Stimulus-Limina. 

Table  I.     A  Table  of  Stimulus-Limina.     Remarks. 
Section  2.     Results  Obtained  by  the  Method  of  Just  Noticeable  Dif- 
ferences. 
Table  II.     Consecutive  Results  for  One  Subject,  T.    Remarks  upon 

the  Constant  Sources  of  Error. 
Table  III.     Complete  Results  for  One  Solid  and  One  Liquid  Sub- 
stance. 
Rough  Summary  of  Results  by  Series. 

Table  IV.     Approximate  Values  of  Ar  Obtained  for  Pairs  of  Stan- 

r 
dard  Stimulus-Intensities  Sensed  under  the  Same  Conditions. 
Curves  Illustrating  Parts  of  Table  IV. 
Lists  of  the  Substances  Used  hy  the  Several  Subjects. 
Table  V.     Approximate  Values  of  Ar  Arranged  to  Show  Variations 

for  Individual  Subjects.  r 

Table  VI.    Approximate  Values  of  t^r  Arranged  to  Show  Variations 

for  Different  Substances.  ~ 

Curves  Illustrating  Part  3  of  Table  VI. 
Remarks  on  Tables  V  and  VI. 
Some  Incidental  Exhaustion-Phenomena. 
Section  3.     Results  of  Other  Methods. 
Table  VII.     Results  of  the  Modified  Form  of  the  Method  of  Just 

Noticeable  Differences. 
Table  VIII.     Results  Obtained  for  Red  Rubber  by  the  True  Method 

of  Minimal  Changes. 
Table  IX.     Results  Obtained  by  the  Method  of  Right  and  Wrong 

Cases. 
Table  X.     Results  of  a  Rough  Attempt  to  Gauge  the  Applicability 
of  the  Method  of  Right  and  Wrong  Cases  to  Smell. 
Summary  and  Conci^usion. 

Introduction. 

So  long  ago  as  1834,  in  a  paper  entitled  "  De  Tactu,"  Ernst 
Heinrich  Weber  first  stated  the  law  which  bears  his  name,  the 
first  law  of  psychophysics.  Working  by  the  method  afterwards 
called  by  Fechner  "  the  method  of  just  noticeable  differences," 
he  had  discovered  the  law  in  its  application  to  pressure  and 
strain.^  Before  i860  it  had  been  proved  to  hold  also  for  noise 
and  brightness.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  first  psycho- 
logical laboratory,  which  occurred  in  the  academic  year  1878-9, 
and,  oddly  enough,  but  a  few  months  after  Weber's  death,  the 
validity  of  the  law  for  the  four  sensation  qualities  mentioned 
has  been  over  and  over  again  confirmed. 

Before  i860  Volkmann,  Renz,  and  Wolf,  by  the  method  of  minimal 
changes,  had  proved  its  applicability  to  noise.   Bourger,  Fechner,  and 

1  Wundt :  Physiologische  Psychologie,  4th  ed.,  I,  p.  381. 


84  GAMBLE : 

Volkmann,  by  their  "shadow-experiments,"  and  Masson  with  his  ro- 
tating disks,  had  shown  its  validity  for  brightness.  Fechner  had  also 
established  Weber's  conclusions  in  regard  to  strain  by  the  method  of 
right  and  wrong  cases.  In  the  last  twenty  years,  Tischer,  Merkel, 
and  Starke,  by  the  method  of  minimal  changes  ;  Merkel  and  Angell 
by  the  method  of  mean  gradations ;  and  Ivorenz,  Merkel,  and  Kampfe, 
by  the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases,  have  confirmed  for  noise- 
intensities  the  results  of  Volkmann  ;  Helmholtz,  Aubert,  and  Krapelin 
have  established  for  brightness  the  results  of  Masson  ;  and  Merkel, 
using  the  method  of  minimal  changes,  has  also  proved  the  conclu- 
sions of  Weber  and  Fechner  in  regard  to  strain.  In  the  last  six 
or  seven  years,  the  experiments  of  Merkel  by  the  method  of  aver- 
age error  have  proved  the  extension  of  the  law  to  those  strain- 
sensations  in  terms  of  which  we  measure  distance  by  the  eye,  and 
the  experiments  of  Schumann  by  the  same  method  give  some  indica- 
tion of  its  extension  to  strain-sensations  involved  in  our  estimate  of 
intervals  between  one-half  second  and  three  seconds. 

In  case  of  the  sensation-modalities  for  which  the  law  has  not 
been  proved,  and  in  the  case  of  tone,  there  are  great  difficulties 
in  graduating  the  intensity  of  the  stimulus.  Articular  sensa- 
tions, indeed,  are  not  themselves  graduated  intensively.  In 
the  case  of  tone,  the  difficulty  is  mechanical, — that  of  grad- 
uating minutely  the  objective  intensity  of  simple  periodic 
vibrations.  In  the  case  of  the  two  temperature  qualities,  which 
are  peculiar  in  depending  on  different  intensities  of  a  stimulus 
from  a  physical  point  of  view  the  same  in  kind,  and  in  passing 
into  each  other  through  a  conscious  indifference-point,  the  ex- 
treme adaptability  of  the  so  far  unknown  and  inaccessible  periph- 
eral organ  makes  the  intensity  of  the  physiological  stimulus 
begin  to  fall  towards  the  indifference-point  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  any  new  physical  stimulus,  and  thus  prevents  the  phys- 
ical stimulus  from  being  a  measure  of  the  physiological.  The 
sensation,  moreover,  varies  in  intensity  with  the  extent  of  sur- 
face stimulated  and  with  the  weight  of  the  stimulating  body. 

The  qualities  of  taste  and  smell  form  manifolds  of  indefinitely 
related  terms,  which  must  be  investigated  separately.  In  the 
case  of  taste,  the  list  is  at  least  closed.  The  intensity  of  the 
taste  sensation,  however,  is  a  function  (i)  of  the  degree  of  sat- 
uration of  the  solution  tasted  ;  (2)  of  the  magnitude  of  the  area 
excited ;  and  (3)  of  the  movement,  diffusion,  and  pressure  of 
the  substance  tasted  within  the  buccal  cavity.  No  very  satis- 
factory way  of  keeping  all  but  one  of  these  factors  constant, 
while  that  one  is  varied,  has  as  yet  been  found,  though  the  in- 
vestigations of  Camerer,  who  worked  by  the  method  of  right 
and  wrong  cases,  make  the  law  of  Weber  appear  to  apply  to 
salt  and  bitter. 

As  for  the  applicability  of  Weber's  law  to  smell,  the  object  of 
this  paper  is  to  offer  a  mass  of  experimental  difference-deter- 
minations, with  a  statement  of  the  * '  checks ' '  or  controls  to 
which  they  must  be  subjected.     This  enumeration  of  possible 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL.  85 

errors  involves  a  discussion  of  the  essentials  of  a  satisfactory 
olfactometric  method,  and  a  detailed  description  of  the  method 
and  apparatus  actually  employed.  The  literature  of  difference- 
determinations  in  smell  amounts  practically  to  pages  180- 181 
and  pages  188-194  in  Die  Physiologie  des  Geruchs  of  Dr.  H. 
Zwaardemaker,  now  professor  of  physiology  in  the  University 
of  Utrecht.  The  work  was  translated  into  German  from  Dr. 
Zwaardemaker's  manuscript  by  Dr.  A.  Junker  von  I^angegg,  and 
was  published  in  Leipzig  in  1895.  The  experiments  to  be  de- 
scribed are  in  the  main  a  realization  of  suggestions  of  Dr, 
Zwaardemaker's,  of  which  some  are  contained  in  his  book,  and 
some  few  were  made  in  personal  letters.  The  olfactometric 
method  used  was,  of  course,  his.  This  method  was  first  applied 
in  1888,  and  is  now  familiar  in  most  psychological  laboratories. 
To  quote  from  Science,  XV,  44:  "  Dr.  Zwaardemaker  of  Utrecht 
has  constructed  an  instrument  which  he  calls  an  olfactometer. 
It  consists  simply  of  a  glass  tube,  one  end  of  which  curves  up- 
ward to  be  inserted  into  the  nostril.  A  shorter  movable  cylin- 
der made  of  the  odoriferous  substance  fits  over  the  straight  end 
of  this  glass  tube.  In  inhaling,  no  odor  is  perceived  so  long 
as  the  outer  does  not  project  beyond  the  inner  tube.  The  far- 
ther we  push  forward  the  outer  cylinder,  the  larger  will  be  the 
scented  surface  presented  to  the  inrushing  column  of^  air,  and 
the  stronger  will  be  the  odor  perceived." 

We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Zwaardemaker  for  the  words  * '  olfac- 
tometry "  and  "olfactometer"  (replacing  the  older  "osmom- 
eter"), "  odorimetry  "  and  "  odorimeter."  Olfactometry  is 
that  branch  of  psychophysics  which  is  concerned  with  the 
measurement  of  the  keenness  of  smell.  ^  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  keenness  and  the  delicacy  of  smell  must  be  kept  in 
mind.  On  the  delicacy  of  smell  depends  the  discrimination  of 
olfactory  qualities.  On  its  keenness  depend  the  bare  sensing  of 
odors  and  the  discrimination  of  them  as  more  or  less  intense.^ 
Odorimetry  is  a  "side-issue"  of  olfactometry.  It  is  con- 
cerned not  with  the  sense-organ,  but  with  the  measurement  of 
the  intensity  of  smell-stimuli  considered  as  objectively  as  possi- 
ble.^ For  the  unit  of  keenness  of  smell,  Zwaardemaker  uses 
the  word  "olfactus,"  and  for  the  normal  stimulus-limen  for 
each  odorous  substance  he  employs  the  companion  word  '  *  ol- 
facty."*  If,  for  example,  a  subject's  stimulus-limen  on  the 
olfactometer  is  10  mm.  when  the  normal  stimulus-limen  used  is 

1  Die  Physiologie  des  Geruchs,  p.  78. 

^P.  II.  Cf.  also  Vintschgau,  Die  Physiologie  des  Geruchsinnes  und 
des  Geschmacksinnes,  in  Hermann's  Handbuch  der  Physiologie,  111,  2, 
p.  270. 

3  Zwaardemaker :  op.  cit.,  p.  174. 

*  Pp.  92,  134.135. 


86  GAMBLE : 

5  mm. ,  then  his  stimulus-limen  is  two  olfacties,  and  his  olfactus 
y^.  The  olfacty  used  by  olfactometry  becomes  for  each  sub- 
stance the  unit  of  odorimetry.  Odorimetry  is  correlated  with 
photometry  and  phonometry.  Both  olfactometry  and  odorime- 
try are  branches  of  "  olfactology  "  (to  anglicise  another  word 
used  by  Dr.  Zwaardemaker).  This  again  is  correlated  with 
optics,  acoustics  and  haptics. 

The  interdependence  of  olfactometry  and  odorimetry  is  not 
unique.  The  unit  of  photometry,  /.  e. ,  the  unit  for  the  meas- 
urement of  light  in  the  physical  sense,  is  the  illuminating 
power  for  sensation  of  the  light  of  some  standard  candle.  "  We 
have  no  adequate  objective  method."  writes  Prof.  Kiilpe,  '*  of 
ascertaining  the  intensity  of  the  non-periodic  and  aperiodic 
concussions  which  form  the  substrate  of  simple  or  complex 
noises,  independently  of  the  statement  of  the  observer  whose 
sensitivity  we  are  testing.  The  phonometric  determination  of 
sound  intensities  in  psychophysical  experiments  is  usually  car- 
ried out  upon  a  principle  similar  to  that  employed  in  photom- 
etry. As  the  objective  stimulus-values  in  the  apparatus  em- 
ployed,— say,  elastic  balls  falling  from  a  measurable  height 
on  a  resisting  plate, — are  determined  by  way  of  a  subjective 
comparison,  the  results  are  purely  empirical,  valid  only  for 
the  material  used,  the  special  circumstances  of  the  observation, 
etc."i 

The  peculiarly  unsatisfactory  character  of  the  determina- 
tions of  olfactometry  and  odorimetry  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact 
that  olfactory  qualities,  unlike  visual  and  auditory,  are  not  de- 
marcated. It  is  true  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  keep  uniform 
the  duration  and  extension  of  smell-stimuli  than  it  is  to  regu- 
late these  attributes  for  other  stimuli,  with  the  possible  excep- 
tions of  temperature  and  taste.  It  is  also  true  that  the  great 
gulf  of  psychophysics,  our  ignorance  of  the  physiological  pro- 
cesses which  everywhere  link  the  strictly  physical  to  the  psy- 
chological, is  wider  in  the  cases  of  temperature,  taste  and 
smell,  than  in  the  cases  of  vision,  audition,  pressure  and  strain. 
Yet,  at  best,  the  measurements  of  physics  must  always  be  in 
terms  of  sensation,  and  the  measurement  of  sensation  must 
always  be  in  terms  of  physics. 

It  seems  wise  to  emphasize  at  the  outset  the  initial  difficulty 
which  makes  all  quantitative  work  in  smell  more  or  less  un- 
systematic, viz.,  the  indeterminateness  of  olfactory  qualities. 
It  is  at  present  necessary  to  regard  as  a  simple  and  separate 
quality  the  odor  of  every  substance  which  from  a  physical 
point  of  view  is  unmixed  ;  yet,  for  several  reasons,  it  is  un- 

^  Outlines  of  Psychology,  tr.,  p.  156. 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO  SMELL.  87 

likely  that  there  are  as  many  elementar>  odors  as  there  are 
simple  substances.^ 

One  reason  is,  that  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  either  the 
structure  of  the  fibres  or  endings,  or  the  substance  of  the  olfac- 
tory nerve,  is  differentiated  to  correspond  to  the  innumerable 
odorous  substances  which  we  encounter;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  probable  by  analogy  with  other  sense-organs,  that 
there  are  ' '  specific  energies  ' '  of  smell  which  are  limited  in 
number  and  capable  of  combination.^ 

A  second  reason  is  that  we  have  experimental  evidence  that 
the  action  of  the  sense  organ  is  differentiated  into  more  and  less 
separable  processes.  We  have  sure  evidence  in  the  results  of 
exhaustion-experiments,  which  were  first  instituted  by  Frolich 
and  Aronsohn.^  For  example,  a  subject  whose  organ  is 
fatigued  by  the  continuous  smelling  of  tincture  of  iodine  can 
sense  ethereal  oils  and  ethers  almost  or  quite  as  well  as  ever, 
oils  of  lemon,  turpentine  and  cloves  but  faintly,  and  common 
alcohol  not  at  all.  We  have  also  evidence  of  vSome  slight  value 
in  the  recorded  traces  of  partial  anosmia.'*  Unfortunately,  very 
few  such  cases  have  been  described  by  persons  who  took  ex- 
perimental precautions,  and  such  cases  as  are  noted  in  medical 
literature  fail  to  show  typical  anomalies  comparable  to  the  uni- 
form phenomena  of  color-blindness  or  "  tone-islands,"  which 
have  played  such  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  theories 
of  vision  and  audition.^ 

A  third  reason  is  that  there  are  countless  instances  of  smell- 
fusions  in  which  the  components  cannot  be  detected.  Nagel 
intimates  that  there  is  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  smell- 
fusions  in  which  different  components  can  be  sensed  as  differ- 
ent at  the  same  instant,  and  points  out  that,  in  this  respect, 
smell-mixtures  resemble  color-mixtures  rather  than  clangs.® 

Zwaardemaker,  following  Aronsohn  and  bearing  in  mind  the 
usages  of  the  perfume  trade,  holds  that  only  similar  odors  will 

^It  should  be  noted  that  the  words  "simple"  and  "  mixed  "  or 
"  compound  "  are  used  here  in  the  sense  of  physics  proper,  and  not  in 
the  sense  of  chemistry.  Smell,  in  the  physical  sense,  is  undoubtedly 
a  property  of  the  molecule,  not  of  the  atom.  Indeed,  most  of  the 
elements  are  odorless.  Sulphur  and  hydrogen,  themselves  odorless, 
form  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  one  of  the  most  offensive  smelling  gases 
known. 

2  Nagel :  tjber  Mischgeriiche  und  die  Komponentgliederung  des  Ge- 
ruchsinnes.  Zeitschrift  fur  Psychologie  und  Physiologie  der  Sinnesor- 
gane,  XV,  pp.  82-83. 

8  Zwaardemaker  :  £?/.  «7.,  pp.  203,  204,  256-257.  Aronsohn:  Unter- 
suchungen  zur  Physiologi  des  Geruchs.  Archiv  fiir  Physiologie^  1886, 
pp.  342-346. 

*  Zwaardemaker  :  op.  cit.,  p.  259  sq. 

^  Nagel :  op.  cit.,  p.  87. 

*Pp.  90-91. 


88  GAMBLE : 

mix.^  He  believes,  on  the  basis  of  his  own  experiments,  that 
if  dissimilar  odors  of  different  intensities  are  mixed,  the  weaker 
odor  will  cancel  part  of  the  odor  of  the  stronger,  and  will  itself 
be  lost,  and  that  if  dissimilar  odors  of  the  same  intensity  are 
mixed,  both  will  disappear  or  will  give  but  a  feeble  indetermi- 
nate fusion.^  Zwaardemaker  does  not,  as  alleged  by  Nagel, 
adduce  his  conclusions  in  regard  to  mixture  as  a  buttress  to 
his  localization  and  irradiation  theory,  though  he  does  seek  to 
explain  the  facts  of  mixture  and  compensation,  as  he  under- 
stands them,  in  harmony  with  this  theory.*  Nagel,  as  opposed 
to  Zwaardemaker,  believes,  on  the  basis  of  his  own  experi- 
ments, that  any  two  smells  will  unite  in  a  mixture  which 
for  an  instant,  at  least,  will  make  a  simple  impression  of 
new  quality.'*  He  has  never  found  an  instance  of  complete 
"compensation,"  but  he  agrees  with  Zwaardemaker  that  a 
mixture  of  several  smells  is  in  general  weaker  than  its  indi- 
vidual components,  and  that  some  combinations  of  strongly 
odorous  substances  are  almost  odorless.^  Nagel  offers  no  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomenon  of  compensation,  nor  does 
Zwaardemaker  explain  it  satisfactorily  even  on  the  basis  of  his 
irradiation-theory.  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  most 
smells  will  mix.  As  Nagel  suggests,  there  is  no  occasion  in 
the  perfume  trade  to  mix  nauseating  or  hircine  smells  with 
the  odors  of  flowers,  spices  and  resins. 

A  fourth  and  final  reason  for  believing  that  there  are  not  as 
many  simple  odors  as  there  are  unmixed  substances,  is  that 
many  simple  substances  have  been  found  by  experiment  to  have 
composite  odors.  Chlorphenol  and  nitrobenzol  are  good  ex- 
amples of  such  substances.  ^ 

Now,  if  there  are  a  limited  number  of  specific  energies  of 
smell,  and  if  most  smells  are  mixed,  our  ignorance  of  the  ele- 
mentary smells,  and  our  consequent  inability  to  isolate  them, 
have  serious  consequences  for  the  value  of  olfactometric  work. 
This  will  be  clearer  if  we  consider  the  two  methods  which  are 
used  to  discover  whether  a  smell  is  simple  or  composite.  The 
method  of  Passy  consists  in  gradually  increasing  the  dilution  of 
odorous  substances,  and  depends  upon  the  principle  that  since 
the  stimulus-limina  of  different  odors  are  different,  they  must 
disappear  successively  as  the  intensities  of  the  different  stimuli 
are  diminished  equally.'     However,  it  is  at  least  possible  that 

'^Op.  cit.,  p.  280. 
2  Pp.  167  and  284. 
8  P.  279. 
4  op.  cit.,  95. 
5P.  loi. 

6  Pp.  96-97.         ' 
T  P.  96. 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO   SMELL.  89 

odors  which  have  very  different  stimulus-limina  should  have 
the  same  difference-limina.  The  other  method  is  that  of  ex- 
haustion, and  depends  on  the  fact  that  different  odors  exhaust 
the  organ  with  different  degrees  of  rapidity,  so  that  a  com- 
pound odor,  continuously  smelled,  will  alter  in  quality  as  first 
one  and  then  another  of  its  constituents  disappears.  One  may 
smell  continuously  the  substance  to  be  tested,  or  may  smell  it 
before  and  after  smelling  repeatedly  an  odor  very  similar  in 
quality.  The  principle  of  the  method  is  the  same  in  both 
cases.  The  permanency  of  the  mixed  odor  depends  primarily 
on  the  equality  of  rate  at  which  its  different  constituents 
fatigue  the  organ.  The  more  numerous  the  constituents,  the 
more  permanent  the  quality  of  the  mixture.  This  fact  is  well 
recognized  in  the  perfume  industry.  Fortunately  for  the  trade, 
the  odor  of  almost  every  flower  (Sawer  mentions  jasmine  as  a 
unique  exception)^  may  be  simulated  by  compounding  the 
odors  of  other  flowers.  The  odor  of  violet,  for  example,  is 
given  by  a  blend  of  the  odors  of  acacia,  rose,  Florentine  iris, 
tuberose  and  almond.  The  odors  of  most  flowers,  again,  are 
possessed  by  certain  chemicals.  To  the  mixture  is  usually  added 
some  substance,  such  as  styrax,  amber,  or  vanilla,  which 
evaporates  slowly,  and  smells  strongly  enough  to  compensate 
parts  of  the  other  odors.  This  is  done  that  quantities  of  the 
other  odorous  substances  large  enough  to  allow  for  evaporation 
may  be  put  into  the  solution  without  raising  the  intensity  of 
the  smell  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  terminal  stimulus- 
intensity.^  If,  now,  most  smells  are  mixed,  and  if  mixed 
smells  alter  in  quality  as  the  organ  becomes  fatigued,  and  if 
different  olfactory  qualities  have  not  the  same  limina,  then  in 
quantitative  work  in  smell,  we  are  seeking  to  determine  values 
which  are  continually  changing  according  to  laws  which  we  do 
not  know. 

There  is  no  classification  of  olfactory  qualities,  which  is  even 
provisionally  satisfactory  from  any  point  of  view  but  a  per- 
fumer's. We  give  to  odors  the  names  of  the  objects  which  most 
commonly  give  rise  to  them,  or  to  something  similar  to  them.  We 
speak  of  a  ' '  fishy  smell ' '  as  loosely  as  Homer,  in  the  days  when 
the  terminology  of  color  was  in  its  infancy,  spoke  of  "  thewine- 
hued  sea."  Yet  the  name  of  an  odor  is  clearly  and  indisputa- 
bly applicable  only  to  the  smell  of  that  object  from  which  the 
name  is  taken. ^ 

Giessler's  classification  of  odors  may  be  of  value  to  psy- 
chology proper,  but  is  of  no  value  whatever  to  psychophysics. 


1  Sawer  :  Odorographia,  First  S( 

2  Zwaardemaker  :  op.  cit.y  p.  285 
8  P.  208. 


First  Series,  p.  94. 


90  GAMBLE: 

The  most  satisfactory  method  of  arriving  at  a  classification  of 
smells  seems  to  be  the  method  of  exhaustion  ;  but  the  results  so 
far  obtained  do  not  furnish  any  basis  for  such  a  system.  Nagel 
points  out  as  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  way  that  when  the 
organ  is  fatigued  by  one  smell,  its  sensitivity  does  not  remain 
quite  unimpaired  for  one  large  group  of  odors,  and  utterly  fail 
for  another  group ;  but  on  the  contrary,  is  usually  more  or  less 
impaired  for  all  odors.  ^  Analysis  by  exhaustion  is  complicated 
experimentally  by  the  fact  that  smells  do  not  fall  away  steadily, 
but  oscillate  at  the  stimulus-limen,  as  do  minimal  sensations 
in  other  departments.  In  the  case  of  smell  this  oscillation  de- 
pends on  slight  variations  in  the  rate  and  manner  of  breathing, 
as  well  as  on  the  ordinary  ebb  and  flow  of  the  attention.  The 
apparent  "rivalry"  of  odors  is  due  to  this  fluctuation  at  the 
limen.^  Moreover,  it  is  only  the  last  component  of  the  mixture 
to  disappear,  which  is  ever  really  isolated  by  the  exhaustion- 
process. 

Zwaardemaker  adopts,  with  some  modification,  the  old  classi- 
fication of  Linnaeus,  which  really  has  only  a  subjective  basis, 
though  Zwaardemaker  attempts, without  signal  success,  to  give 
it  a  chemical  one.  On  the  principle  that  even  a  most  unsatis- 
factory system  is  better  than  none,  some  pains  have  been  taken 
in  the  experiments  to  be  described  to  procure  smells  from  as 
many  of  Zwaardemaker' s  classes  as  possible,  and  to  compare 
results  for  representatives  of  the  same  class  and  of  different 
classes.  Zwaardemaker' s  classes  of  pure  olfactory  qualities  are 
as  follows  :^ 

I.  Ethereal  smells — including  all  the  fruit  odors  (a  class 
taken  from  I^orry). 

II.  Aromatic  smells — including  all  such  odors  as  that  of 
camphor,  spicy  smells,  and  the  odors  of  anise  and  lavender, 
lemon  and  rose,  and  almond. 

III.  Fragrant  smells — including  the  odors  of  most  flowers, 
of  vanilla,  and  of  such  gums  as  tolu  and  benzoin. 

IV.  Ambrosiac  smells — including  the  odor  of  amber,  and  all 
the  musk  odors. 

V.  Alliaceous  smells — including  the  odors  of  garlic,  asafcet- 
ida,  gum  ammoniac,  vulcanized  India  rubber,  fish,  bromine, 
chlorine  and  iodine,  etc. 

VI.  Empyreumatic  smells — including  the  odors  of  toast, 
tobacco  smoke,  pyridin,  naphtha,  etc.,  (a  class  taken  from  von 
Haller). 

VII.  Hircine  smells — including  the  odors  of  cheese,  sweat, 
rancid  fat,  etc.,  etc. 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  86. 

2  P.  98. 

^Op.cit.,  pp.  233-235. 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO  SMELL.  9 1 

VIII.  Virulent   smells — including   such   odors  as   that  of 
opium,  '*  Odor  cimicis,"  etc. 

IX.  Nauseating  smells — including  the  odors  of  decaying 
animal  matter,  of  faeces  and  the  like. 

The  pungency  of  smells  is  not  an  olfactory  quality,  but  is 
due  to  the  excitation  of  filaments  of  the  trigeminus,  which  are 
freely  distributed  in  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  The  sensa- 
tion is  more  like  pressure  than  smell.  When  very  strong  it 
becomes  a  tickling,  and  sneezing  ensues.  Persons  who  have 
congenital  or  pathological  defects  of  smell  are  said  to  have  cul- 
tivated these  sensations  by  attention  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  do  duty  for  smells  proper.^  Some  smells  which  are  not  the 
flavors  of  food  sensed  in  expiration,  seem  to  be  tastes,  as  well 
as  smells.  For  example,  we  think  of  the  odor  of  boiling  syrup 
as  sweet,  and  say  that  curdled  milk  "  smells  "  sour.  This  is 
probably  due  to  early  association,  which  has  indissolubly 
fused  certain  taste- memories  with  certain  smell-sensations  of 
peripheral  origin.^  It  may,  however,  be  due  to  the  entrance 
of  sapid  particles  through  the  nose  into  the  pharynx.^  Smells 
are  often  blended  with  pressure  sensations  other  than  pungency 
and  with  temperature  sensations.*  It  is  probable  that  there 
is  an  element  of  pain  in  an  impression  of  pungency,  while 
smells  often  give  a  ''feeling  of  weight,"  pure  and  simple. 
Whenever  the  subjects  in  these  experiments  spoke  of  the  heat, 
taste,  pressure,  pain,  or  pungency  of  an  odor,  their  remarks 
were  carefully  noted,  on  the  supposition  that  such  factors  in  the 
total  impression  were  disturbing  in  a  quantitative  investigation 
of  olfactory  qualities  proper. 

Zwaardemaker's  differentiation  of  the  specific  energies  of 
smell  and  localization  of  their  actions  on  the  olfactory  mucous 
membrane  is  not  to  our  present  purpose.  We  may  simply 
note  in  passing  that  he  arranges  the  zones  of  their  operation  in 
horizontal  order,  since  the  height  to  which  the  air  current  is 
carried  in  the  nose  makes  no  difference  in  the  quality  of  an 
odor  ;  and  that  he  rather  ingeniously  places  the  nauseating  and 
virulent  smells  farthest  back  and  closest  to  the  pharynx,  in  a 
region  where  they  may  excite  the  reflexes  of  vomiting  and 
coughing  by  mere  irradiation  of  nervous  excitation  without  the 
connecting  link  of  central  processes ;  puts  the  hircine  and  am- 
brosiac  odors  in  the  middle,  on  account  of  the  connection  of  hy- 
peraemia  of  the  "corpora  cavernosa  nasal  ia  "  with  the  blood 
supply  of  the  generative  organs  ;  and  locates  the  fragrant,  aro- 
matic  and   ethereal   smells   farthest   to   the   front,   since   the 

1  Pp.  236-237. 
2p.  211. 
*Pp.  211-212. 
*P.  212. 


92  GAMBLE  : 

sneezing-reflex  is  most  easily  excited  in  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  nasal  cavities/  Nagel's  remark  that  Zwaardemaker's  locali- 
zation-theory leads  to  * '  irresolvable  contradiction  ' '  is  not  quite 
clear,  but  he  is  certainly  right  in  saying  that  the  theory  has  no 
adequate  basis.  Aside  from  the  lack  of  experimental  evidence, 
the  arrangement  of  the  several  zones  is  too  fancifully  neat  to 
carry  conviction  with  it;  but  Zwaardemaker  himself  empha- 
sizes the  fact  that  the  essential  part  of  his  theory  is  simply  the 
arrangement  of  the  operations  of  specific  energies  of  smell  cor- 
responding more  or  less  exactly  to  the  classification  of  Lin- 
naeus on  the  olfactory  mucous  membrane  in  the  order  of  these 
classes.^ 

Before  bringing  these  introductory  remarks  to  a  close,  it  may 
be  noted  that,  aside  from  any  experimental  evidence  which  may 
be  offered,  it  is  probable  that  Weber's  law  does  apply  to  such 
smells,  mixed  and  unmixed,  as  we  daily  encounter.  In  the 
first  place  we  have  the  analogy  of  several  other  modalities  of 
sensation  for  believing  that  the  law  applies  to  simple  olfactory 
qualities.  In  the  second  place  it  has  never  been  proved  that 
Weber's  law  applies  merely  to  unmixed  sensations.  It  has 
been  neither  proved  nor  disproved  for  clangs,  but  many  expe- 
riences of  ordinary  life  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  it  does 
apply  to  musical  chords  as  wholes.  Thus  it  may  apply  to 
smell-fusions  as  wholes,  and  approximately  correct  difference- 
determinations  maj^  be  obtained  for  these  wholes  even  while 
their  character  is  gradually  altering.  Since,  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge,  no  one  can  even  pretend  to  be  working 
with  simple  olfactory  qualities,  all  difference-determinations  in 
smell  must  proceed  upon  the  assumption  of  this  possibility. 
Experimental  results  must  be  the  only  decisive  evidence  for  or 
against  the  theory,  so  that  it  is  needless  to  discuss  it  farther  in 
this  place. 

In  the  third  place  the  distinction  drawn  by  Passy  between 
*'  insistent  "  and  *'  intensive  "  smells,  which  is  based  upon  a 
classification  of  smells  in  the  popular  mind  and  confirmed  by 
other  scientific  men,  is  explained  by  the  supposition  that 
Weber's  law  applies  to  smell  with  different  values  of  Ar  for  diff- 

r 
erent  qualities.  In  Zwaardemaker's  language,  and  in  the  ordi- 
nary language  of  this  paper,  the  smaller  the  "minimum  percept- 
ible "  of  a  substance,  the  more  intense  its'  odor.  Passy  uses  a 
term,  "  pouvoir  odorant," — which  we  may  translate  *'  insist- 
ency,"— for  "intensity"  in  our  sense.  Hesays  :  "Tout  lemonde 
sent  que  le  camphre,  le  citron,  le  benzine  sont  des  odeurs  for- 

1  Pp.  262-265. 

2  P.  265. 


wkber's  law  to  smbll.  93 

tes,  la  vanille,  I'iris  des  odeurs  faibles,"  though  vanilla  has  an 
insistency  one  thousand  times  greater  than  that  of  comphor. 
Besides  this  subjective  basis  of  distinction  between  weak  odors, 
however  insistent,  and  strong  or  intensive  odors,  he  has  five  ob- 
jective differentiae,  (i)  Weak  smells  have  vague  differences  of 
intensity.  For  example,  vanilla  and  coumarine  soon  reach  a 
maximum  of  intensity  which  cannot  be  increased.  Greater 
concentrations  simply  become  unpleasant.  (2)  Individual  dif- 
ferences are  more  evident  for  weak  smells.  (3)  The  daily 
variations  of  sensitivity  are  more  evident  for  weak  smells.  (4) 
Exhaustion  has  more  effect  on  weak  smells.  (5)  Strong 
smells  hide  the  weak.-^  In  view  of  the  first  objective  difference, 
Zwaardemaker  explains  the  subjective  difference  as  follows  : 
As  the  strength  of  a  sensation  is  estimated  by  the  number  of 
grades  of  intensity  by  which  it  surpasses  the  liminal  sensation, 
and  as  the  terminal  stimulus  is  by  definition  that  degree  of  in- 
tensity beyond  which  increase  cannot  be  shown  for  our  human 
sense  organs  with  our  mechanical  appliances,  it  is  obvious  that 
odors  with  large  difference-limina  must  be  subjectively  weak, 
and  that  subjectively  weak  odors  must  have  large  difference- 
limina.  Thus,  the  very  rapid  attainment  by  some  smell- 
stimuli  of  the  terminal  intensity  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
Weber's  law  applied  to  olfactory  qualities,  and  that  the  differ- 
ence-limen  differed  from  quality  to  quality.^ 

Unfortunately  our  own  experimental  results  are  at  variance 
with  the  second  clause  of  the  theory.  They  make  Weber's  law 
appear  to  apply  to  smells  as  we  find  them,  but  show  no  great  va- 
riation of  Ar  from  substance  to  substance.    The  difference-limina 

r 
even  of  camphor  and  vanilline  seem  much  the  same.  If  our  fig- 
ures are  accepted  as  trustworthy,  some  other  explanation  than 
the  simple  one  of  Zwaardemaker  must  be  found  for  the  distinction 
of  Passy .  May  it  not  be  that,  for  phy logenetic reasons, ' '  intense' ' 
smells  have  more  affective  value,  more  of  what  Miiller  calls 
*' Eindringlichkeit,"*  than  have  the  smells  which  Passy  calls 
"  insistent?"  Or  may  it  not  be  that  the  smells  most  useful  to 
human  life  exhaust  the  human  sense-organ  less  after  many  in- 
crements than  smells  less  useful  do  after  a  few  increments, 
although  the  increments  are  relatively  equal  throughout  ?  The 
need  of  some  such  explanation  will  be  more  or  less  clear  as  the 
figures  to  be  offered  are  more  or  less  convincing. 

ipp.  191-192. 

2  Pp.  192-193. 

^The  "  Eindringlichkeit"  of  a  sensation  depends  in  part  upon  its 
intensity,  and  in  part  upon  its  affective  value  (G.  E.  Miiller,  Zeitschr. 
f.  Psych,  und  Physiol,  der  Sinnesorgane,  X,  pp.  25-27). 


94  GAMBLE : 

Chapter  I.     Method. 

Section  i.     Determination  of  the  intensity  of  the  Smell- Stimulus 

for  the  Normal  Organ. 

If  all  the  nervous  elements  concerned  in  smell  are  in  a  nor- 
mal condition,  and  if  "compensation  "  does  not  come  into  play, 
the  intensity  of  an  odor  depends  on  the  number  of  odorous  par- 
ticles in  gaseous  form  which  are  acting  on  the  olfactory  nerve- 
endings  at  the  time.  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  intensity 
is  ordinarily  a  function  of  the  number  which  are  acting  on  the 
rod-cells  of  the  olfactory  mucous  membrane.  ^  Whether  or  not 
individual  rod-cells  are  subject  to  cumulative  stimulation,  we 
do  not  know,  for  we  do  not  know  even  whether  the  stimulation 
is  chemical,  thermal,  or  electrical,^  but  we  do  know  that  the 
intensity  of  the  smell  seems  to  depend  on  the  extent  of  mem- 
brane and  therefore  on  the  number  of  rod-cells  stimulated, — 
always  supposing  that  the  rod-cells  are  the  olfactory  cells  proper. 

Now  the  number  of  odorous  particles  which  act  at  any  given 
time  on  the  olfactory  membrane  of  the  normal  nose  depends, 
first,  on  the  quantity  of  vapor  which  the  fragrant  body  is 
throwing  off;  secondly,  on  the  rate  of  the  diffusion  of  this 
vapor ;  and  thirdly,  on  the  manner  and  rate  of  breathing.  L<et 
us  consider  these  facts  separately. 

I.  The  Quantity  of  Vapor  Thrown  off  by  the  Odorous 
Body.  '  *  Whether  ' '  says  Zwaardemaker,  ' '  odorous  particles 
are  set  free  by  evaporation  or  chemical  reaction,  the  mass  of 
odorous  molecules  which  are  given  off  from  a  solid  body  or  the 
surface  of  a  liquid  is,  ceteris  paribus^  in  compound  proportion 
to  the  time  of  exposure  and  extent  of  surface  exposed.* 
Zwaardemaker  has  invented  a  '  *  genetic  unit ' '  for  the  measure- 
ment of  odor  in  the  physical  sense.  It  is  the  number  of  seconds 
of  exposure  multiplied  by  the  number  of  square  millimeters  of 
surface  exposed.*  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  genetic 
unit  differs  from  substance  to  substance.  The  ' '  other  factors  '  * 
which  must  remain  equal,  if  the  genetic  unit  of  a  given  sub- 
stance is  to  be  constant,  are  the  moisture,  weight,  and  temper- 
ature of  the  atmosphere  and  the  amount  of  ozone  present  in  it.^ 

That  heat  and  dampness  affect  the  intensity  of  odors  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation.  Yellow  wax  smells  twice  as 
strong  in  summer  as  in  winter.  Heat  promotes  evaporation. 
Dampness  also  promotes  the  vaporization  of  such  solids  as  are 

1  Zwaardemaker  :  op.  cit.y  p.  7  ;   Foster:    Text  Book  of  Physiology y 
6tli  ed.,  p.  249. 
2 Zwaardemaker :    op.  cit.,  pp.  276-277. 

*  P.  26. 
6  P.  28. 


WEBER'S   LAW   TO   SMELIv.  95 

soluble  in  water,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  retards  the  diffusion 
of  odorous  vapors.  The  temperature  of  the  laboratory  in 
which  smell  experiments  are  in  progress  should  be  kept  as  uni- 
form as  possible,  and  thermometer  and  barometer  readings 
should  be  taken  whenever  the  stimulus-limen  is  determined. 
Uniformity  of  temperature  was  not  secured  in  our  own  experi- 
ments. 

II.  The  Rate  of  Diffusion  of  Odorous  Vapor.  Cloquet 
pointed  out  in  182 1  that  odors  diffuse  in  the  air  as  one  gas 
diffuses  in  another, — gradually,  and  without  interruption  by 
reflection  or  refraction. — so  that  if  the  air  is  at  rest,  the 
strength  of  a  smell  will  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  distance 
of  its  source,  though  the  speed  with  which  different  odors 
travel  varies  much.^  Now  the  air  from  which  we  draw  our 
breath  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  almost  never  free 
from  currents.  For  phylogenetic  reasons,  no  gas  is  odorous 
which  is  not  heavy  enough  to  remain  near  its  source  if  undis- 
turbed. Yet  the  wind  may  carry  such  gases  for  miles  near  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Nor  can  we,  in  view  of  the  dynamic 
theory  of  smell,  and  of  Liegois's  theory  that  odorous  particles 
are  largely  diffused  in  the  form  of  tiny  liquid  drops  which 
afterwards  vaporize,  unhesitatingl)^  apply  the  laws  of  diffusion 
of  gases  to  smells.  Zwaardemaker  has,  however,  proved  by  a 
series  of  experiments  that  the  transmission  of  odorous  vapors 
in  tubes  takes  place  at  the  same  rate  for  different  distances 
from  the  source,  unless  these  distances  are  very  considerable.^ 
From  an  inhaling-tube,  all  currents  of  air,  except  the  suction- 
current  created  by  the  inspiration,  are  excluded. 

III.  The  Rate  and  Manner  of  Breathing.  Not  all  the  air 
which  passes  through  the  nose  comes  in  contact  with  the  olfac- 
tory mucuous  membrane.  The  current  of  air  drawn  into  the 
nose  from  without  is  divided  by  the  lower  turbinal  bone  into 
two  portions.  From  the  stream  which  takes  the  direct  path  to 
the  choana  under  this  bone  and  along  the  floor  of  the  nose,  no 
odorous  vapor  reaches  the  olfactory  membrane.  Each  nasal 
cavity  is  divided  by  the  middle  turbinal  bone  into  two  cham- 
bers. In  the  upper  chamber,  which  extends  from  the  pointed 
roof  of  the  nose  to  the  under  edge  of  the  middle  turbinal  bone, 
the  side  wall  and  the  septum  are  almost  parallel,  and  only 
about  two  millimeters  apart.  The  olfactory  membrane  is 
spread  over  the  upper  surface  of  these  parallel  walls,  forming 
the  regio  olfactoria  of  Todd  and  Bowman.  According  to  von 
Brunn  only  the  uppermost  part  of  the  upper  turbinal  bone  and 
the  surface  of  the  septum  just  opposite  are  covered  by  the  ol- 

2Pp.3i-34,39.4o. 


96  GAMBi^K : 

factory  membrane.^  In  ordinary  breathing,  the  highest  point 
in  the  upper  stream  is,  according  to  Franke,  the  under  edge  of 
the  upper  turbinal  bone,  and  according  to  Paulsen  and  Zwaar- 
demaker,  the  under  edge  of  the  middle  turbinal  bone.^  In  the 
rapid  and  violent  breathing  with  expanded  nostrils  which  we 
call  "  sniffing,"  the  air  is  carried  about  2  mm.  higher,^ — i.  e., 
into  the  forward  and  under  part  of  the  upper  chamber.  In 
either  case,  odorous  particles  can  reach  the  olfactory  membrane 
only  bj^  diffusion,  but  more  of  them  will  penetrate  to  it  in 
sniffing  than  in  quiet  inspiration.  The  upper  chamber  is  an 
annex,  not  an  integral  part,  of  the  breathing-passage. 

Odorous  particles  probably  do  not  accumulate  in  the  upper 
chamber.  During  inspiration,  the  air  in  the  passages  traversed 
by  the  current  is  thinned,  and  as  soon  as  inspiration  ceases,  the 
air  in  the  upper  chamber  rushes  down  to  the  middle  meatus,  to 
be  renewed  from  the  pharynx  during  expiration.*  If  so  much 
odorous  matter  has  been  taken  in  as  to  saturate  the  air  in  the 
pharynx,  we  sometimes  get  a  smell  in  expiration  even  when 
we  are  not  eating.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  very  weak  stimu- 
lus from  the  pharynx,  coming  after  the  very  strong  stimulus 
from  without,  is  not  sensed.^  Fick,  indeed,  advanced  the  hy- 
pothesis that  when  odorous  particles  come  in  contact  with  the 
olfactory  membrane,  they  are  at  once  dissolved  in  the  thin  fluid 
which  covers  the  bottom  of  the  sensitive  hairs,  and  that  when 
so  dissolved,  they  cease  to  act.*  These  particles  may,  how- 
ever, accumulate  to  some  extent  on  the  Schneiderian  mem- 
brane, especially,  if  it  is  in  a  catarrhal  condition.  Of  course, 
we  get  the  flavor  of  food  only  in  expiration.  The  course  of 
the  air  in  expiration  is  almost  the  same  as  in  inspiration,  but 
Bidder  is  probably  right  in  supposing  that  a  smaller  amount 
passes  above  the  lower  turbinal  bone.^ 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  more  rapid  the  breathing,  the 
more  intense  the  smell.  Sniffing  is  to  be  forbidden  in  olfacto- 
metric  work,  not  merely  because  it  carries  the  air  higher  in  the 
nose,  than  does  * '  regular  breathing, ' '  but  because,  both  by  in- 
creasing the  suction-force  and  by  widening  the  entrance,  it 
takes  more  air  and  therefore  more  odorous  particles  into  the 
nose  in  a  given  time.  The  spaces  from  which  air  is  drawn 
through  the  nose  are  cones  with  their  points  at  the  nostrils. 
We  may  see  their  size  and  shape  in  the  clouds  of  vapor  formed 

ip.  6. 

2  Pp.  46-57,  67. 

*P.  202. 

*P.6o. 

6  P.  62. 

6  P.  60. 

'P.  42. 


WEBER'S   I.AW   TO   SMELI..  97 

by  our  exhalations  in  cold  weather.  The  spaces  from  which 
odorous  particles  are  drawn  are  portions  of  these  larger  spaces. 
The  breathing-spaces  are  projections  of  the  whole  of  the  nasal 
cavities;  the  "fields  of  smell"  are  projections  only  of  those 
cavities  from  which  odorous  particles  reach  the  olfactory  mem- 
brane. They  are  separated  from  each  other  by  about  a  centi- 
meter. In  snifl5ng,  through  the  expansion  of  the  nostrils,  the 
fields  of  smell  become  wider  than  the  ordinary  breathing-spaces, 
but  as  the  inspiration  is  short  and  quick,  they  are  not  so  deep.^ 

If  then  the  strength  of  a  smell-stimulus  is  to  be  measured 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  by  the  genetic  unit,  the  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  of  the  air,  the  diffusion-rate  of  the  vapor, 
and  the  subject's  manner  and  rate  of  breathing  must  be  kept 
as  uniform  as  possible. 

As  for  the  compensation-error,  there  is  no  intrinsic  stimula- 
tion of  the  olfactory  membrane  as  there  is  of  the  retina  and  the 
ear.  Owing  to  exhaustion,  the  subject  cannot  smell  his  own 
breath  in  expiration.  He  can  indeed  smell  it  in  inspiration  if  the 
current  is  puffed  upward  to  the  nostrils.  This  fact  seems  to 
show  that,  given  the  same  amount  of  odorous  matter  in  the  air 
current,  we  get  a  stronger  smell  in  inspiration  than  in  expira- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  difficulty  of  securing  an  absence 
of  smells  from  external  sources  for  a  subject  who  has  at  all 
cultivated  his  organ  by  attention,  transcends  the  difficulty  of 
securing  such  silences  and  darknesses  as  are  satisfactory  for 
experimental  purposes.  Of  course,  no  substance  which,  as  such, 
is  to  be  used  as  a  test,  should  be  dissolved  in  an  odorous 
medium,  such  as  alcohol,  ammonia,  or  ether. 

Zwaardemaker  classes  the  methods  which  have  so  far  been 
employed  to  find  the  stimulus-limina  of  smells  as  direct  and 
indirect.^  By  the  direct  methods  the  subject  seeks  to  find  the 
stimulus-limen  of  an  olfactory  quality  in  terms  of  the  greatest 
dilution  of  an  odorous  vapor  which  can  give  a  just  noticeable 
sensation  of  that  quality.  By  the  indirect  methods,  he  seeks 
to  find  the  stimulus-limen  in  terms  of  the  smallest  quantity  of 
the  odorous  substance  which  can  be  sensed  under  certain  defi- 
nite and  easily  procurable  conditions.  The  direct  methods  aim 
at  absolute  results  where  absolute  results  are  unattainable. 
"  It  may  be  possible,"  says  Zwaardemaker,  "  to  determine  the 
area  of  an  inspiration  made  in  an  effort  to  smell,  but  the  exact 
ascertainment  of  the  amount  of  odorous  gas  which  in  this  in- 
spiration comes  in  contact  with  the  olfactory  cells  has  so  far 
proved  an  impossibility."^  The  indirect  methods  aim  at  rela- 
tive results,    but  their  procedure  is  exact.     They  furnish  a 

1  Pp.  68.77. 

2  Pp.  79-80. 

3  p.  80. 

JOURNAI,— 7. 


98  GAMBLE : 

basis  for  the  comparison  of  individuals  with  reference  to  their 
keenness  of  smell,  and  of  substances  with  reference  to  their 
value  for  the  sense,  and  thus  may  indirectly  lead  to  some 
knowledge  of  the  greatest  degree  of  dilution  in  which  an  odor- 
ous substance  can  be  detected.^ 

The  method  which  Valentin  invented  in  1848  may  be  called  classi- 
cal, since  it  is  mentioned  in  most  of  the  standard  text  books  of 
physiology.  It  was  direct,  and  consisted  in  taking  a  certain  volume 
of  odorous  gas  and  mingling  it  with  a  hundred  volumes  of  air,  taking 
a  certain  volume  of  the  mixture  and  mingling  this  again  with  a  hun- 
dred volumes  of  fresh  air,  and  so  on  until  the  last  mixture  gave  a  just 
discernable  odor.  Valentin  varied  his  procedure  by  allowing  the 
vaporization  of  smaller  and  smaller  quantities  of  a  highly  concen- 
trated solution  of  an  odorous  substance  in  a  definite  amount  of  air,  or 
by  mingling  smaller  and  smaller  quantities  of  it  with  a  mass  of 
water  of  a  given  volume. ^  It  is  plain  that  a  certain  amount  of  the 
odorous  substance  must  adhere  to  the  vessel  in  which  such  a  mixture 
is  contained,  so  that  the  amount  of  odorous  substance  taken  away 
from  the  receptacle  for  a  new  admixture  will  never  be  so  large  as  the 
ratio  of  the  gas  or  liquid  removed  to  the  whole  volume  would  indi- 
cate, and  that  this  error  must  increase  as  the  experiment  proceeds. 
As  for  the  use  of  highly  concentrated  solutions,  it  involves  two 
serious  disadvantages,  the  blunting  of  the  sense  by  exhaustion  and 
the  adhesion  of  odorous  particles  to  objects  in  the  laboratory.^ 

The  invention  of  no  other  direct  olfactrometric  method  is  recorded 
before  that  of  the  method  employed  by  Fischer  and  Penzoldt  in  1887. 
Avoiding  Valentin's  progressive  dilutions,  these  investigators  sought 
to  determine  how  much  mercaptan  and  how  much  chlorphenol  must 
be  introduced  into  the  whole  mass  of  air  in  a  laboratory  of  a  certain 
size  in  order  to  give  an  odor  just  noticeable  to  a  person  entering  the 
room.  The  walls  of  the  laboratory  were  perfectly  smooth,  the  floor 
was  of  stone,  and  the  equal  distribution  of  the  odorous  gas  to  all  parts 
of  the  room  was  secured  by  the  motion  of  fans.  The  solutions  were 
scattered  with  a  fine  spray.*  Unfortunately,  these  solutions  were 
alcoholic. 

In  the  same  year  H.  C.  Dibbits  arrived  at  a  partial  determination  of 
the  stimulus-limen  for  the  odor  of  acetic  acid.  Acetate  of  zinc 
is  decomposed. in  the  presence  of  water,  and  an  insoluble  basic  salt 
and  free  acetic  acid  are  formed.  Dibbits,  during  the  course  of  six- 
teen hours,  allowed  60  litres  of  damp  air  to  pass  over  a  mass  of  salt 
which  had  been  freed  from  water  of  crystallization,  found  the  loss  of 
weight  to  be  16.8  mg.,  and  calculated  the  proportion  that  the  weight 
of  the  acetic  acid  set  free  must  bear  to  this  loss  of  weight  to  be  ^i^-. 
As  24  mg.  of  acetic  acid  must  have  been  communicated  to  60  1.  of  air, 
and  as  the  odor  was  discernible  in  this  air,  the  stimulus-limen  of 
acetic  acid  must  lie  under  0.4  mg.  per  litre.^  While  the  methods  of 
Fischer  and  Penzoldt  and  of  Dibbits  are  comparatively  accurate,  it  is 
obvious  that  they  are  impracticable  for  difference-determinations. 

A  method  employed  in  1889  by  Ottolenghi  for  testing  the  olfactory 
sensitivity  of  criminals  is  a  modified  form  of  Valentin's,  and  is  essen- 
tially   the    same   as   the  method   recommended   by    Passy   in    1892. 


IP.  80. 

2  Valentin  :  Grundriss  der  Physiologie,  p.  515. 

^Zwaardemaker:  op.  cii.,  p.  79. 

^  American  Journal  0/  Psychology,  I,  p.  357. 

^  Zwaardemaker  :  op.  cil.,  p.  84, 


webkr's  law  to  smell.  99 

Ottolenghi  used  12  aqueous  solutions  of  essence  of  cloves  contained 
in  similar  bottles  in  similar  quantities.  The  solutions  were  graduated 
from  1 :  50000  to  1:100.  The  subject  began  with  the  weakest  solution 
and  took  the  bottles  successively  until  sensation  commenced.  Passy 
dissolved  a  certain  weight  of  odorous  material  in  a  given  weight  of 
alcohol,  mingled  a  certain  fraction  of  the  solution  with  a  given  weight 
of  pure  alcohol,  and  so  op,  until  he  had  obtained  a  graduated  series  of 
saturations.  He  then  put  single  drops  of  his  solutions  into  bottles  of 
the  same  size,  and  arrived  by  the  method  of  just  noticeable  stimuli  at  an 
estimate  of  the  stimulus-limen  in  terms  of  saturation-strength  and  the 
area  of  his  bottles. 1  Ottolenghi's  combinations  of  essence  of  cloves 
and  water  were  not  true  solutions.  Passy's  results  are  vitiated  by  the 
compensating  effect  of  the  odor  of  the  alcohol.  Both  methods  involve 
an  error  due  to  the  constant  loss  of  odorous  material  by  the  mere 
opening  of  the  vessels  for  the  subject  to  smell  their  contents,  by  in- 
halation, and  by  condensation  on  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  Zwaarde- 
maker  suggests  that  fairly  satisfactory  results  might  be  obtained  on 
Ottolenghi's  principle  if  one  (i)  employed  only  solutions  in  distilled 
water,  (2)  made  very  short  inspirations,  (3)  used  very  large  inhaling 
vessels,  and  ( 4)  avoided  all  odorous  substances  the  vapor  of  which 
is  easily  condensed. 2  Theoretically,  if  the  series  of  saturations  could 
be  minutely  enough  graduated,  this  method  might  be  employed  for 
difference-determinations,  but  practically,  the  use  of  many  large  in- 
haling-vessels  would  make  it  too  clumsy. 

The  first  indirect  method  was  invented  by  Frolich  in  1851,  three 
years  after  Valentin  invented  his  direct  method.  Frolich  gauged  the 
keenness  of  smell  by  the  distances  at  which  odorous  substances  could 
be  sensed  under  uniform  conditions.  He  put  up  in  tightly  corked 
test-tubes  such  substances  as  ethereal  oils,  resins,  spices,  and  musk 
mixed  with  starch  in  such  proportions  that  however  different  in 
quality,  the  odors  might  be  the  same  in  intensity.  The  subject  closed 
his  eyes,  the  tube  was  uncorked  and  moved  toward  him,  and  both 
the  distance  at  which  the  substance  was  first  sensed  and  the  time  at 
which  judgment  was  passed  were  marked. ^  Frolich  seems,  however, 
to  have  made  little  use  of  his  time-estimates.  As  the  odors  with 
which  he  worked  are  slowly  diffused,  the  mass  of  odorous  vapor  may 
be  thought  of  as  moving  with  the  tube.  Yet  results  based  on  such  a 
rough  hypothesis  cannot  be  very  reliable.^  Moreover,  the  assump- 
tion that  odors  so  unlike  in  quality  are  of  the  same  intensity,  since 
they  can  be  just  sensed  by  the  same  person  at  the  same  distance,  begs 
the  question  of  the  value  of  the  hypothesis  mentioned,  and  Frolich 
seems  to  have  had  no  other  means  of  determining  their  comparative 
intensity  except  guess-work. 

Aronsohn's  famous  method,  devised  in  1886,  though  indirect  upon 
the  ordinary  theory  of  smell  which  makes  the  odorous  particles  act 
in  gaseous  form  on  the  olfactory  membrane,  must  be  classed  on  Aron- 
sohn's own  premises  as  direct.  His  hypothesis  is  that  odorous  parti- 
cles are  in  solution  when  they  act  on  the  nerve-endings.  This 
assumption,  for  which  J.  Miiller  is  chiefly  responsible,^  is  based  (i) 
on  the  fact  that  fishes  and  amphibia  have  peripheral  and  central  or- 
gans similar  to  the  organs  of  smell  in  birds  and  mammals,  and  (2)  on 
the  fact  that  the  nasal  membranes  are  normally  covered  with  mucus, 

1  Pp.  98-99. 

2  P.  99. 

3  Pp.  80-81. 
*P.  81. 

5  P.  62. 


lOO  GAMBI^E : 

and  that  the  drying  of  this  mucus,  as  in  the  first  stage  of  rhinitis, 
impairs  the  sense  of  smell.  Tortual  and  Weber  had  indeed  proved 
that  odorous  liquids  when  introduced  into  the  nose  "  do  not  smell," 
and  Weber  had  also  found  that  the  sense  is  for  a  time  impaired  if 
warm  or  cold  water  or  sugar  and  water  are  poured  into  the  nasal  cavi- 
ties and  retained  there  for  a  few  moments.^  Aronsohn  explained  these 
phenomena  by  supposing  that  strong  solutions  of  odorous  matter  and 
liquids  of  foreign  temperature  if  brought  in  contact  with  the  delicate 
olfactory  membrane  must  necessarily  have  a  pernicious  effect.  He 
found,  on  the  other  hand,  that  very  small  quantities  of  odorous  sub- 
stances dissolved  in  normal  saline  solutions  can  be  sensed  if  the 
mixture,  at  a  temperature  of  about  40°  C,  is  poured  into  the  nose  from 
the  height  of  about  half  a  meter.  Weber  had  used  cologne  and  water 
in  the  proportion  of  i  :  11.  Aronsohn  used  oil  of  cloves,  for  example, 
in  salt  and  water  in  the  proportion  of  i  :  500.  His  olfactometric 
method  consisted  simply  in  determining  how  weak  a  solution  of  an 
odorous  substance  could  be  sensed  if  injected  at  the  temperature 
proved  empirically  to  be  most  favorable  for  its  detection.^  If  Aron- 
sohn's  premises  are  correct,  not  only  is  his  method  direct,  but  the 
worst  difficulties  in  the  measurement  of  smell-stimuli  are  eliminated. 
In  criticism  of  these  premises,  however,  Zwaardemaker  points  out  (l) 
that  aquatic  mammals  have  organs  which  resemble  the  organs  of 
smell  in  land  mammals,  but  are  rudimentary,  as  if  useless  under 
water  ;  (2)  that  the  dryness  of  rhinitis  is  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  Schneiderian  membrane  and  is  conjoined  with  hyperaemia  and 
swelling  which  obstructs  the  passage  of  air;  (3)  that  the  cilia  of  the 
olfactory  cells  protrude  through  the  covering  of  mucus ;  and  (4) 
that  most  odorous  substances  are  not  at  all  or  are  but  very  slightly 
soluble  in  water.  Books  on  the  perfume-industry  are  filled  with  the 
discussion  of  ethereal  oils,  of  spices,  gums,  and  the  like.  In  a  room 
saturated  with  perfume  or  tobacco  smoke,  a  bit  of  cotton  wool  will 
take  up  the  odor,  while  a  glass  of  water  will  not.  Moreover,  as 
Zwaardemaker  believes,  it  cannot  be  shown  that  Aronsohn  succeeded 
in  filling  the  cavity  which  contains  the  olfactory  membrane  so  en- 
tirely with  liquid  that  all  bubbles  of  air  were  excluded.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  drive  all  the  air  out  of  blind  pouches.^ 

In  1893,  I^r.  N.  Savelieff  in  the  laboratory  of  Morokschowetz  con- 
structed an  olfactometer  on  a  principle  entirely  different  from  Zwaar- 
demaker's.  There  were  two  flasks  of  glass,  each  with  two  corks. 
Through  one  cork  in  each,  the  two  flasks  were  connected  by  a  glass 
tube  bent  twice  at  right  angles.  Through  the  other  cork  of  one  was 
inserted  a  glass  tube  which  reached  to  the  bottom.  Through  this  tube 
a  mixture  of  ethereal  oil  and  water  was  poured.  The  liquid  did  not 
reach  the  end  of  the  connecting  tube.  Through  the  remaining  cork 
of  the  second  flask,  which  was  filled  only  with  air,  was  inserted  a 
glass  inhaling-tube  which  divided  into  a  nose-piece  for  each  nostril. 
The  odor  of  the  liquid  was  weakened  by  successive  additions  of  water, 
and  the  intensity  of  the  stimulus  was  measured  through  the  propor- 
tion by  weight  which  the  ethereal  oil  bears  to  the  water.*  As  Zwaar- 
demaker suggests  the  method  of  Savelieff  has  this  great  disadvant- 
age, that  its  results  do  not  stand  in  simple  relations  to  the  real  stim- 
ulus-intensities. The  intensity  of  the  stimulus  will  vary  according 
to  the  height  of  the  liquid  in  the  first  vessel,  and  according  to  the  ad- 

1  Weber  :    Archiv  f.  Physiologie,  1847,  P«  351-354- 

2  Aronsohn  :    op.  cit.,  1886,  pp.  324-332. 

3  Op.  cit.,  pp.  62-66. 

*  Neurologisches  Centralblatt,  1893,  p.  343  sq.* 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL.  lOI 

hesion  of  odorous  material  in  different  parts  of  the  apparatus.  Sav- 
elieff*s  method  would  indeed  be  fairly  satisfactory  for  clinical  pur- 
poses if  real  solutions  were  used  instead  of  mixtures  of  ethereal  oils 
and  water.  It  is  a  great  disadvantage,  however,  to  begin  an  experi- 
ment by  exhausting  the  sense-organ  with  a  saturated  solution. ^ 

Section  2.     Control  in  Zwaardemaker' s  Oifactometric  Method  of 
the  Factors  which  Determine  the  Intensity  of  the  Stimulus. 

Zwaardemaker's  measurements  ol  the  smell-stimulus  are  in 
terms  of  but  one  factor  of  the  genetic  unit, — viz.,  in  terms  of 
the  amount  of  odorous  surface  exposed.  The  time  for  which 
different  extents  of  surface  are  exposed  is  supposed  to  be  kept 
constant  by  the  regularity  of  the  movement  of  the  hand  which 
manipulates  the  odorous  cylinder.  All  of  these  time-values 
are  so  small  that  their  variation  may  well  be  disregarded. 

In  1890,  Henry,  a  French  scientist,  instituted  in  the  interests  of  the 
perfume  industry  a  modified  form  of  Zwaardemaker's  method,  and 
took  the  time  values  into  account.  His  instrument  differs  from 
Zwaardemaker's  only  in  the  substitution  for  the  odorous  cylinder  of  a 
porous  paper  cylinder,  hollow,  closed  at  the  bottom,  and  saturated 
from  a  surrounding  glass  reservoir  with  the  fumes  of  an  odorous 
liquid.  The  glass  inhaling-tube  enters  from  the  top,  and  the  subject 
raises  it  with  a  uniform  movement  while  he  is  making  the  inspiration 
required.  Stimulus-intensity  is  reckoned  in  terms  of  the  surface  of 
the  paper  cylinder  exposed,  and  of  the  time  which  the  odorous  vapor 
has  had  for  diffusing  into  it  since  the  lifting  of  the  inhaling  tube.^ 
As  for  this  second  factor,  by  which  alone  Henry's  method  differs  from 
Zwaardemaker's,  Passy  suggests  that  the  time-rate  of  evaporation  of 
a  liquid  under  a  membrane  differs  from  the  time-rate  of  the  same  fluid 
in  the  open  air.  Henry  supposes  that  the  pressure  of  vapor  on  the 
paper  cylinder  is  constant,  but  on  the  contrary,  since  its  surface  is 
wholly  covered  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  and  is  gradually 
uncovered  as  the  glass  tube  is  raised,  the  pressure  of  vapor  will  con- 
stantly decrease.^  At  any  rate,  Henry's  apparatus  will  not  answer  for 
difference-determinations,  as  it  would  render  procedure  in  both  direc- 
tions impossible. 

Much  more  serious  in  Zwaardemaker's  method  than  any 
error  which  may  arise  from  irregularity  in  the  subject's  move- 
ments is  the  error  due  to  the  adhesion  of  odorous  particles  in 
the  glass  inhaling-tube.  These  particles  may  condense  on  the 
sides  of  the  tube  or,  if  the  substance  is  soluble  in  water,  may 
dissolve  in  the  moisture  which  forms  on  the  inside  during  in- 
spiration. A  correction  can  be  made  for  adhesion  only  for  the 
"minimum  perceptible,"  and  only  for  a  determination  taken 
with  the  perfectly  dry  and  clean  inhaling-tube  and  a  saturated 
porcelain  cylinder.  It  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Let  the 
length  of  the  inhaling-tube  ordinarily  used  be  x  and  let  a  be 
the  value  of  the  stimulus-limen  as  found  with  it.     Then  let  a 

1  Op.  cit.,  pp.  loo-ioi. 

"^Comptes  rendus  de  V  Academic  des  Sciences,  Feb.  9,  1891. 

^  Zwaardemaker  :   op.  cit.,  p.  94. 


I02  GAMBLE : 

shorter  inhaling-tube  of  the  same  diameter  and  the  length  y  be 
pushed  for  about  2  mm.  into  the  odorous  cylinder.  Through 
the  other  end  of  this  cylinder,  which  is  usually  the  movable 
part  of  the  instrument,  let  a  third  tube  of  the  same  diameter  be 
pushed.  By  moving  this  third  tube  backward  and  forward, 
the  extent  of  odorous  surface  exposed  to  the  air  is  varied.  Let 
the  stimulus-limen  found  under  these  conditions  be  b.  Then 
a-  b  will  be  the  difference  in  the  stimulus-limen  made  by  the 
adhesion  of  odorous  particles  to  a  tube  of  the  length  x^y. 
The  correction  to  be  made  for  adhesion  to  a  tube  of  the  length 
X  will  be  as  much  greater  as  x  is  greater  than  x^y.  If  cylin- 
ders of  solid  odorous  substances  be  used,  this  correction  cannot 
be  made,  even  for  the  stimulus-limen,  since  it  is  so  exceedingly 
small.  It  is  impossible,  moreover,  to  take  many  determin- 
ations even  of  the  stimulus-limen  in  an  hour  with  a  perfectly 
dry  and  clean  tube.  As  for  the  difference-limen,  it  is  both 
theoretically  and  practically  impossible  to  make  the  adhesion- 
correction,  for  to  know  how  much  greater  for  sensation  a 
given  stimulus  is  than  the  liminal  stimulus,  one  would  have 
to  know  beforehand  that  Weber's  law  applied  to  that  particular 
olfactory  qualit3^  and  what  the  exact  value  of  Ar  for  the  quality 

r 
was.  The  effect  of  adhesion,  in  the  first  inspiration  or  at 
least  in  the  very  first  few  inspirations,  is  to  decrease  the 
strength  of  the  stimulus,  but  after  the  first  or  at  most  after  the 
second  or  third  inspiration,  the  effect  is  rather  to  increase 
the  strength  of  the  stimulus,  since  the  odor  from  the  matter 
adhering  to  the  inhaling-tube  more  than  compensates  for  the 
loss  of  the  odor  of  the  matter  which  continues  to  adhere. 

The  tube  must  be  carefully  dried  after  it  has  been  washed, 
and  the  subject  must  be  trained  not  to  breathe  back  into  it. 
Yet  on  a  damp  day,  the  moisture  left  on  the  inside  of  the  tube 
by  the  inspired  air  is  no  inconsiderable  source  of  error.  Bun- 
sen  computes  the  possible  thickness  of  such  a  layer  at  o.ooioi 
mm.  If  a  glass  tube  is  15  cm.  long  and  5  mm.  wide,  the  area 
of  its  bore  will  be  23.57  qmm.  This  would  make  the  weight 
of  a  layer  of  moisture  of  the  thickness  given  by  Bunsen  2.38 
mg.  If  the  odorous  substance  is  in  aqueous  solution,  this 
moisture  may  be  left  out  of  account,  but  if  no  moisture  comes 
from  the  cylinder  itself,  it  may  vitiate  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ment. Since  the  dampness  of  the  air  varies  from  day  to  day, 
this  error  cannot  well  be  corrected.^  All  that  one  can  do  is 
faithfully  to  take  the  barometer-readings  in  the  hope  of  finding 
in  them  possible  explanations  of  erratic  judgments.  The  ex- 
perimenter must  be  careful  to  cool  the  inhaling-tube  after  dry- 

ipp.  124-125. 


WEBER'S   LAW   TO   SMELL.  IO3 

ing  it  over  the  spirit-flame,  not  only  on  account  of  the  risk  of 
distracting  the  subject's  attention  with  -a  warm  tube,  but  on 
account  of  the  danger  of  heating  the  inside  of  the  odorous 
cylinder. 

Since  the  source  of  the  odorous  vapor  is  connected  with  the 
subject's  nose  by  a  tube  of  known  length,  the  diffusion  of  the 
matter  is,  outside  of  the  body,  obviously  under  complete  control. 

The  subject's  breathing  is,  indeed,  a  seriously  variable  element, 
but  its  variation  is  by  no  means  the  greatest  practical  draw- 
back to  the  method.  Sniffing  must,  of  course,  be  watched  for 
and  peremptorily  forbidden.  The  mere  expansion  of  the  nos- 
trils does  not  increase  the  intensity  of  the  odor  as  it  does  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  but  rather  decreases  it,  since  the  field 
of  smell  is  artificially  limited,  and  the  widening  of  the  en- 
trance to  the  nose  simply  increases  the  amount  of  air  which 
dilutes  the  odorous  gas.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  more  rapidly  one  breathes,  the  stronger  the 
odor  one  will  get.  If  one  uses  the  olfactometer,  this  is  not 
true.  Since  the  diffusion-rate  within  the  cylinder  is  constant, 
increased  rapidity  of  breathing  will  increase  the  degree  in 
which  the  odorous  particles  are  diluted  with  air  on  their  en- 
trance to  the  nasal  passages.  Thus,  the  more  slowly  one 
breathes,  within  a  certain  limit,  the  stronger  the  smell  one  will 
get.  The  air  must  be  drawn  in  with  enough  force  to  carry  part 
of  the  current  above  the  lower  turbinal  bone.  If  the  air  simply 
takes  the  straight  path  to  the  choana  along  the  floor  of  the 
nasal  cavity  under  the  lower  turbinal  bone,  there  will  be  no 
smell.  Zwaardemaker  believes  that  each  subject  with  a  little 
practice  will  discover  for  himself  the  best  rate  of  breathing  for 
obtaining  the  strongest  smell  from  a  given  stimulus,  so  that,  in 
a  manner,  the  breathing  rate  will  be  self- regulating.^  Our 
own  experimental  results  seem  to  bear  out  this  conclusion.  In 
Section  i  of  Chapter  III,  each  subject's  mode  of  breathing  is 
noted,  but  its  peculiarities  can  scarcely  be  traced  in  the 
numerical  results.  The  inability  of  most  of  the  subjects  to 
arrive  at  difference-determinations  with  one  inspiration  must,  of 
course,  have  aggravated  the  adhesion-error.  Henry  regulates 
the  breathing  of  his  vsubjects  by  putting  about  the  chest  a  belt 
which  allows  only  a  certain  expansion.  Such  an  appliance 
must,  however,  have  the  effect  of  distracting  the  subject's  at- 
tention and  making  the  breathing  unnatural.  Following 
Zwaardemaker' s  example,  we  did  not  even  stop  the  nostril  not 
in  use.     The  inhaling-tube  was  thrust  into  the  forward''  half 

of  the  nostril  to  the  depth  of  half  a  centimetre. 
_______ 

2  A  substance  pressed  against  the  back  of  the  nostril  can  hardly  be 
smelled  at  all,  as  its  vapor  will  take  the  direct  path  to  the  choana. 


I04  GAMBI.E : 

We  may  say,  then,  that  the  most  unsatisfactory  features  of 
Zwaardemaker's  method  are  (i)  the  adhesion-error,  and  (2)  a 
tendency  which  the  subject,  if  he  manipulates  the  odorous 
cylinder,  has  toward  judging  in  terms  of  hand-movement. 
This  difficulty  will  be  discussed  in  another  place. 

While  the  intensity  of  the  stimulus  depends  in  the  case  of 
any  sense  upon  the  condition  of  the  peripheral  organ,  no  sense- 
organ  is  so  likely  to  vary  either  through  obstruction  or  through 
exhaustion  as  is  the  organ  of  smell.  Let  us  now  consider  the 
variations  from  the  normal  condition  to  which  this  organ  is 
most  subject. 

Section  j.     Anosmia  and  Hyp erosmia} 

Whether  pathological  or  non-pathological  in  origin,  anosmia 
is  of  three  sorts, — respiratory,  essential  or  toxic,  and  nervous. 
Respiratory  anosmia  is  due  to  obstruction  of  the  nasal  passages, 
from  asymmetry  of  the  nasal  skeleton,  from  hyperaemia  of  the 
respiratory  or  Schneiderian  membrane,  or  from  accumulation  of 
mucus.  Toxic  anosmia  may  be  due  to  poisons  in  the  inspired 
air, — a  form  not  yet  investigated, — to  injurious  fluids  introduced 
directly  into  the  chamber  containing  the  sense-epithelium  (as 
in  Aronsohn's  experiments),  to  poisons,  such  as  morphine, 
pulverized  and  blown  into  the  nose,  or  to  certain  forms  of 
blood-poisoning,  such  as  chronic  nicotine-poisoning.  The 
anosmia  of  smokers  cannot  be  wholly  attributed  to  their 
catarrh,  though  a  light,  acute  nicotine-poisoning  does  not 
seem  to  produce  a  loss  of  smell.  Nervous  anosmia  may  be 
congenital, — /.  e.,  due  to  imperfect  development  of  the  olfac- 
tory vesicle  in  the  brain, — or  may  be  senile, — due  to  degenera- 
tion of  some  of  the  nervous  elements  which  condition  the 
sense, — or  may  be  due  to  exhaustion  of  the  olfactory  nerve, 
or  to  dryness  of  the  epithelium.  If  we  rule  out  exhaustion,  we 
may  say  that  respiratory  anosmia  is  vastly  more  common  than 
toxic  or  nervous.  The  more  peripheral  parts  of  every  sense- 
organ  are  more  subject  to  injury  and  disease.  Thus,  the  mus- 
cles and  lenses  of  the  eye  give  much  more  trouble  than  the 
retina  and  the  optic  nerve.  In  the  case  of  smell,  the  sensory 
epithelium  is  well  protected  by  its  secluded  position. 

As  to  hyperaemia  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane,  its 
blood  supply  is  controlled  much  more  by  the  exigencies  of 
breathing  than  by  those  of  smell.  It  is  largely  under  the  sway 
of  local  reflexes.  The  fibers  of  the  trigeminus  which  ramify 
through  it  are  closely  connected  with  fibers  of  the  sympathetic 
nervous  system.  Too  profuse  secretion  of  mucus  is  the  most 
common  mechanical  hindrance  to  smell.     On  the  other  hand, 

ipp.  136-165. 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL.  105 

too  small  a  secretion  has  a  disastrous  effect  on  the  sense- 
epithelium.  It  seems  that  the  tiny  hairs  of  the  rod-cells  re- 
fuse to  do  their  work  if  they  become  dry.  The  action  of  all 
the  mucous  glands  of  the  nose  may  be  increased  by  injecting 
strychnine,  and  decreased  by  injecting  atropin  into  the  mem- 
branes. Too  much  atropin,  however,  produces  irritation  and  a 
flow  of  tears. 

Hyperosmia  may  also  be  respiratory, — due  to  certain  asym- 
metries of  the  skeleton  or  to  anaemia  of  the  respiratory  mem- 
brane,— or  toxic,  or  nervous.  In  hysterical  subjects,  hyper- 
osmia is  common.  Anaemia  of  the  respiratory  membrane  may 
be  produced  by  smelling  such  substances  as  cocoa-butter,  or 
cedar- wood,  which  rather  powerfully  affect  the  trigeminus. 

The  two  forms  of  anosmia,  which  vary  in  the  same  subject  from 
day  to  day,  are  respiratory  anosmia  from  obstruction  of  the  nasal 
passages  by  mucus,  and  nervous  anosmia  from  exhaustion.  It 
is  possible  at  any  time  easily  to  discover  whether  the  nasal 
passages  are  obstructed  or  not.  The  test  can  be  made  by  ex- 
haling on  a  concave  metal  mirror  held  at  the  level  of  the 
mouth.  The  clouds  of  condensed  vapor  give  the  true  shape  of 
transverse  sections  of  the  breathing-cones.  They  are  divided 
from  each  other,  and  if  the  nasal  passages  are  in  a  normal  con- 
dition, they  are  symmetrical,  and  broader  than  they  are  long. 
As  they  pass  away,  they  should  each  divide  into  an  antero- 
medial  and  a  postero-lateral  division  of  about  the  same  size. 
As  divided,  the  spots  should  still  be  roughly  symmetrical.  The 
division  is  due  to  the  projection  of  the  *'  triangular  cartilage  " 
and  the  lower  turbinal  bone  from  the  side  wall  of  the  nose. 
This  division  of  the  air  current  occurs  in  all  mammals.^  Patho- 
logical alterations  in  the  raucous  membrane  of  the  nose  and 
asymmetry  of  the  nasal  skeleton  may  alter  the  size  and  shape 
of  these  divisions,  but  rarely  prevent  them  from  appearing. 
The  antero-medial  division  alone  represents  the  current  of  air 
which  passes  above  the  lower  turbinal  bone.  The  form  and 
position  of  the  field  of  smell  in  an  ordinary  inspiration,  there- 
fore, corresponds  roughly  with  this  division,  and  would  do  so 
exactly  if  it  were  not  for  the  slight  difference  in  the  course  of 
the  currents  of  inspired  and  expired  air.^ 

The  influence  of  exhaustion  is  more  insidious.  It  varies 
from  subject  to  subject,  from  substance  to  substance,  and  from 
one  intensity  of  a  substance  and  one  general  condition  of  a  sub- 
ject to  another,  so  that  numerical  corrections  are  out  of  the 
question.  Fortunately  or  unfortunately,  the  effects  of  adhe- 
sion  and  exhaustion  are   for  the  most  part  opposite.     This 

^P.  73. 
2  Pp.  73-74. 


I06  GAMBLE : 

Opposite  influence  makes  one's  numerical  results  more  nearly 
correct  than  they  would  otherwise  be.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
makes  the  exact  influence  of  each  source  of  error  more  diSicult 
to  read  from  the  figures.  Yet  it  is  not  particularly  difficult  to 
detect  the  effect  of  the  exhaustion  when  it  is  at  all  marked,  and 
to  exclude  the  most  unreliable  determinations.  In  our  expe- 
rience of  thirteen  different  subjects,  complete  or  marked 
anosmia  from  exhaustion,  if  it  occurred  at  all,  usually  came  on 
very  suddenly. 

Section  4..     Psychophysical  Methods  Employed. 

Before  difference-determinations  were  made  at  all,  the  stim- 
ulus-limen  was  usually  found  as  accurately  as  possible  for  the 
substance  and  subject  concerned.  The  subject,  starting  with 
the  end  of  the  odorous  cylinder  even  with  the  end  of  the  inhal- 
ing-tube,  moved  the  cylinder  outward  until  he  obtained  a  smell. 
If  this  smell  seemed  to  him  more  than  liminal,  he  moved  the 
cylinder  back  for  a  short  distance,  and  continued  to  move  back- 
wards and  forwards  until  he  had  satisfied  himself  as  to  the  point 
at  which  he  obtained  a  just  noticeable  sensation.  The  method 
of  moving  steadily  in  both  directions, — from  a  point  considera- 
bly below  to  a  point  just  above  the  limen,  and  from  a  point  con- 
siderably above  to  a  point  just  below  the  limen, — was  tried,  but 
was  abandoned.  It  is  often  impossible,  on  account  of  adhesion 
in  the  tube  or  in  the  nasal  passages,  or  on  account  of  memory 
after-images,  or  cumulative  stimulation,  to  move  from  a  point 
of  intensive  stimulation  to  a  point  at  which  sensation  entirely 
disappears.  Memory  after-images  certainly  occur.  The  exist- 
ence of  true  after-images  of  peripheral  origin  has  not  been 
proved  in  the  case  of  smell.  ^ 

The  only  difference- determinations  for  smell,  so  far  on  record, 
are  a  few  which  Zwaardemaker  performed  for  yellow  wax  and 
vulcanized  rubber.  The  method  which  he  employed,  and  the 
method  which  so  far  seems  practicable,  is  Fechner's  rough  and 
simple  method  of  just  noticeable  diff*erences.  One  gives  the 
subject  a  standard  stimulus,  and  then  after  an  interval,  which 
one  makes  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible,  a  second  stimulus 
which  is  appreciably  greater  or  smaller.  He  himself  then 
moves  the  cylinder  until  he  makes  the  stimulus  just  greater 
or  just  smaller  than  the  standard.  When  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  stimulus,  he  moves  back  and  forth  as  he  likes,  until  he 
has  satisfied  himself  of  the  accuracy  of  the  determination. 
Thus,  as  there  is  near  the  limen  procedure  in  both  directions, 
the  method  may  be  classed  as  a  gradation-method.  The  in- 
terval between  the  two  stimuli  averaged  in  our  experimenls  2^ 

1  P.  260. 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELI..  107 

seconds  with  the  standard  olfactometer,  and  5  seconds  with  the 
fluid-mantle  olfactometer.  With  the  small  olfactometer,  it  was 
never  less  than  2,  and  almost  never  greater  than  4  seconds.  It 
was  ordinarily  2.  With  the  large  olfactometer,  it  varied  from 
4  to  6  seconds.  The  difficulty  in  manipulating  the  large  olfac- 
tometer more  quickly  will  be  described  in  another  place.  The 
interval  between  determinations  was  much  more  variable.  It 
was  usually  about  a  minute,  except  when  the  tube  was  cleaned. 
Our  determinations  were  broken  into  short  series  in  which 
t^ro  and  A^w  were  found  alternately.  The  series  were  divided 
from  each  other  by  the  necessary  cleanings  of  the  inhaling- 
tube.  With  some  substances,  we  washed  and  dried  the  tube 
after  every  8  determinations,  wiping  it  out  with  dry  absorbent 
cotton  in  the  middle  of  the  series.  With  other  substances,  we 
washed  and  dried  it  at  the  end  of  every  4  determinations.  It 
took  about  a  minute  to  give  the  tube  a  dry  wipe,  making  the 
interval  between  half  vSeries  about  2  minutes.  After  practice, 
it  took  about  3  minutes  to  wash,  wipe  and  dry  the  tube,  mak- 
ing the  interval  between  series  about  4  minutes.  These  time 
estimates  are  all  rough.  We  were  not  intent  on  time-determi- 
nations ;  the  subject  had  often  incidental  remarks  to  make  on 
his  own  experiences ;  and  there  were  various  untoward  acci- 
dents,— water  spilled,  tubes  broken,  wire  dropped,  etc.  The 
subject  used  his  two  nostrils  alternately  ;  all  our  records  were 
kept  for  the  two  nostrils  of  each  subject  as  for  two  different 
persons.  We  changed  the  order  of  determinations  in  successive 
series  that  exhaustion  and  adhesion  might  equally  affect  ^ro 
and  Artt  for  the  right  nostril  and  for  the  left.  For  example,  4 
series  might  run  thus  : 

(i)  Ar(?f.  R.  N.,  Ard7f.  L.  N., 

(2)  l\rui.  L.  N.,  Arz^f.  R.  N., 

(3)  iirui.  R.  N.,  h.ru  f.  L.  N., 

(4)  Ar^f.  L.  N.,  I\ro  f.  R.  N., 

With  the  standard  olfactometer,  after  some  practice  in  clean- 
ing the  tube,  we  took  usually  32  determinations  in  an  hour  ; 
with  the  fluid-mantle  olfactometer,  24.  It  was  not  worth  while 
to  take  more  even  if  there  was  time,  as  the  effect  of  exhaus- 
tion became  too  marked.  Fortunately,  the  odors  of  the  solids 
used  with  the  small  and  easily  handled  olfactometer,  were  less 
exhausting  than  the  insistent  smells  of  most  of  the  solu- 
tions. 

With  an  unpracticed  subject,  we  used  one  standard  a  day. 
With  a  practiced  subject,  we  took  determinations  first  with  a 
weaker,  then  with  a  stronger  standard  on  the  same  day.  If 
the  substance  was  very  exhausting,  we  worked  first  with  a 
weaker,  then  with  a  stronger,  then  with  a  weaker,  then  with  a 


A  ru  f.  R. 

N., 

A  ru  f.  L. 

N. 

Art?  f.  Iv. 

N., 

l\ro  f.  R. 

N. 

/\ro  f.  R. 

N., 

/\ro  f.  L. 

N. 

A  ru  f.  L. 

N., 

I\ru  f.  R. 

N. 

I08  GAMBLE  : 

Stronger  standard.  The  subject  was  always  warned  of  a  change 
in  the  standard. 

Two  grounds  of  objection  to  the  method  of  just  noticeable 
differences  are  mentioned  by  Wundt.  They  are  the  haphazard 
choice  of  the  more  intensive  stimulus,  which  may  light  upon 
a  stimulus  unnecessarily  large,  and  thus  weary  the  subject's 
attention  and  sense-organ  unnecessarily,  and  the  irregularity 
and  immeasurability  of  the  moving  back  and  forth  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  difference-limen, — the  "  Tatonnieren. "  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  as  exhaustion  increases  during 
the  act  of  determination,  A  ro  would  always  be  too  large  and  A  ru 
too  small,  were  it  not  that  adhesion  has  a  precisely  opposite 
effect,  which  is  increased  by  the  time-error.  Thus,  there  is 
really  a  rude  double  cancelling  of  errors. 

The  true  method  of  minimal  changes  involves  great  practi- 
cal difl&culties  if  applied  to  difference-determinations  with 
Zwaardemaker's  olfactometer.  On  account  of  the  adhesion  in 
the  inhaling-tube,  either  two  olfactometers  must  be  used,  and 
both  inhaling- tubes  cleaned  after  every  comparison  of  two 
stimuli,  or  only  such  substances  must  be  used  as  are  insoluble 
in  water  and  do  not  condense  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  in- 
haling-tube. Zwaardemaker  tried  the  method  with  vulcanized 
India-rubber,  and  believes  it  to  be  practicable  for  this  sub- 
stance.^ We,  too,  tried  it  with  the  tube  of  red  vulcanized 
India-rubber  sent  from  Holland,  and  obtained  very  satisfactory 
results.     (See  Table  VIII. ) 

We  also  tried  a  combination  of  the  two  methods  mentioned. 
Giving  the  subject  a  variable  stimulus  objectively  equal  to  the 
standard,  we  bade  him  make  it  subjectively  equal, — for  it 
would  tend  to  seem  subjectively  less  from  the  effect  of  exhaus- 
tion,— and  then  after  pausing  to  let  us  take  the  reading,  to 
make  it  subjectively  just  greater  than  the  standard.  Then  he 
was  directed  to  make  a  variable  stimulus  very  appreciably 
greater,  just  equal  subjectively.  Next,  after  making  an  ob- 
jectively equal  stimulus  subjectively  equal,  he  made  it  sub- 
jectively less.  Lastly,  he  made  an  appreciably  weaker  stimulus 
subjectively  equal  to  the  standard.  Some  of  the  results  obtained 
by  this  method  are  given  in  Table  VII.  They  are  arranged 
in  connection  with  results  obtained  for  the  same  subject,  sub- 
stance and  standard  by  the  method  of  just  noticeable  differ- 
ences. The  uncertainty  of  a  method  in  which  the  subject 
exhausts  an  already  wearied  organ  by  hunting  for  subjective 
equality  before  proceeding  to  the  determination  proper,  is 
obvious.  Therefore,  the  two  sets  of  results  tally  surprisingly 
well. 

ipp.  189-190. 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL.  I09 

With  any  form  of  the  method  of  just  noticeable  differences 
in  which  the  subject  himself  alters  the  stimulus  of  comparison, 
there  is  liability  to  serious  error  from  the  subject's  inclination 
to  judge  in  terms  of  movement.  When  he  has  found  that  a 
certain  hand-movement  has  made  the  stimulus  of  comparison 
just  noticeably  greater  or  less  than  the  standard,  he  will  expect 
the  same  movement  to  make  it  just  noticeably  greater  or  less 
again.  He  will  be  all  the  more  tempted  to  judge  in  terms  of 
hand-movement  from  the  fact  that  he  has  been  all  his  life  form- 
ing estimates  of  space  in  terms  of  the  sensations  produced  by 
movement,  and  has  probably  never  thought  of  taking  pains  to 
compare  the  intensity  of  two  odors.  This  tendency  varies 
much  in  different  subjects.  Its  presence  may  be  suspected 
when  the  mean  variation  of  a  series  is  very  small.  Fortunately, 
it  acts  in  such  a  way  as  rather  to  conceal  the  operation  of 
Weber's  law,  if  applicable,  than  to  make  it  appear  applicable 
if  it  were  not.  If,  for  example,  one  finds  A  r  to  be  5  mm.  for  a 
standard  of  20  mm.,  and  by  repeating  the  series  of  movements, 
obtains  the  same  value  of  A  r  for  a  standard  of  40  mm.,  Ar  will 

r 
be  %  in  the  one  case,  and  ^  in  the  other. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  our  results  offer  evidence  for  the  law 
which  is  strong  to  an  almost  suspicious  degree.  Yet  it  is  not 
probable  that  a  trained  subject  would,  or  that  an  untrained 
subject  could  deliberately  alter  his  movements,  when  the  stand- 
was  varied,  so  as  to  keep  the  value  of  Ar  approximately  the 

r 
same,  and  it  is  absolutely  impossible  that  twelve  subjects  out  of 
thirteen  should  all  do  so.     Such  a  procedure  would  argue  a 
miraculous  combination  of  psychophysical  knowledge,  accurate 
memory,  industry  and  malice. 

We  also  made  some  attempt  to  test  the  applicability  of  the 
method  of  right  and  wrong  cases.  At  the  time  we  tried  it, 
which  was  early  in  the  course  of  our  experiments,  we  found  it 
utterly  impracticable.  The  fact  that  more  than  half  the  mis- 
takes were  made  in  thinking  the  second  stimulus  weaker  than 
the  first  or  equal  to  it,  would  indicate  that  exhaustion  was  the 
disturbing  factor.  Since,  however,  the  subject  seems  genuinely 
to  recognize  the  stimulus  of  comparison  in  the  gradation- 
methods  as  greater  or  less  than  the  standard,  it  is  probable  that 
the  difficulty  with  the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  is 
largely  the  utter  confusion  it  produces  in  his  mind.  Most 
persons  are  not  used  to  smelling  attentively  and  have  to 
**  learn  "  a  given  smell-intensity. 


no  GAMBI^E  : 

Chapter  II.     Apparatus  and  Materiai^. 

Section  i.    The  Standard  and  Fluid-Mantle  Olfactometers. 

In  our  experiments,  we  employed  the  single  "standard ' '  olfac- 
tometer and  a  double  form  of  the  ' '  fluid-mantle ' '  olfactometer. 
Both  instruments  were  supplied  from  Utrecht.  The  sliding 
tubes  used  with  the  standard  or  small  olfactometer  were  formed 
of  the  odorous  material  itself,  and  covered  with  an  outer  tube 
of  glass.  Porcelain  cylinders,  saturated  with  odorous  solu- 
tions, and  fitted  into  larger  glass  tubes,  have  been  largely  used 
by  Zwaardemaker  in  connection  with  this  simple  instrument. 
We,  however,  used  the  porcelain  cylinders  only  with  the  large 
or  fluid-mantle  olfactometer.  We  shall  reserve  the  considera- 
tion of  the  preparation  of  the  odorous  substances  to  the  next 
section.  Here  we  shall  describe  the  screen  and  inhaling-tube 
of  the  small  instrument,  and  all  the  appurtenances  of  the  large 
instrument,  except  the  odorous  solutions. 

/.  Standard  Olfactometer.  The  glass  inhaling-tube  has  a  total 
length  of  15  cm.  and  a  bore  of  5  mm.  The  glass  varies  in  different 
tubes  from  i  to  1}^  mm.  in  thickness.  The  portion  which  curves  up- 
ward to  fit  into  the  nostril  is  never  more  than  i}i  cm.  long.  Zwaar- 
demaker says  that  the  angle  of  the  bend  seems  to  make  no  difference 
with  the  results  of  the  experiment.  He  himself  makes  it  a  right  an- 
gle, but  Reuter  makes  it  an  angle  of  40  degrees.^  A  metal  sleeve 
carrying  a  raised  bead  at  the  edge  towards  the  bent  end  of  the  tube 
and  buttoning  into  a  metal  ring  in  the  center  of  the  small  wooden 
screen  is  fastened  to  the  tube  in  such  a  position  as  to  allow  10  cm.  to 
project  beyond  the  screen.  This  portion  is  graduated  into  twenty 
divisions  of  5  mm.  each.  The  securing  of  the  metal  to  the  tube  is  a 
serious  problem  in  practice.  We  were  able  to  find  neither  odorless 
glue  nor  cement  which  would  withstand  the  constant  washing  of  the 
tube,  and  the  drying  over  the  spirit-flame,  a  performance  which  must 
be  repeated  from  four  to  a  dozen  times  in  a  single  hour.  We  finally 
solved  the  difficulty  for  ourselves  by  pasting  with  freshly  dissolved 
gum  arabic  a  strip  of  paper  to  the  tube,  and  working  the  metal  ring 
down  over  it,  where  it  fitted  so  tightly  as  not  to  be  removed  without  a 
process  of  soaking.  The  graduated  tubes  can  be  easily  duplicated  by 
any  glassware  firm.^  They  are  so  frequently  broken  in  cleaning  by 
an  unpracticed  operator,  that  no  extended  course  of  experiments 
should  be  undertaken  without  laying  in  a  stock  of  them. 

The  screen  is  a  square  bit  of  cherry  wood, — 7>^  cm.  broad  by  10  cm. 
high  by  i  cm.  thick, — furnished  with  a  handle  and  'coated  with  var- 
nish which  is  supposed  to  be  odorless.  The  screen  must,  however,  be 
freely  exposed  to  the  air,  and  when  new,  must  be  well  sunned,  or  it 
will  have  a  decided  smell  of  its  own.  Its  double  purpose  is  to  serve 
as  a  handle,  and  to  protect  the  nostril  not  in  use  from  the  odor  of  the 
sliding  cylinder.  The  subject  in  making  his  determination  holds  the 
handle  of  the  screen  in  his  left  hand  and  moves  the  cylinder  with  his 
right.8 

ip.  104. 

2  Messrs.  Eimer  and  Amend,  of  New  York,  courteously  duplicated 
for  us  all  of  our  imported  tubes. 

3  The  standard  olfactometer  can  be  made  in  any  laboratory.    See  the 


WEBER  S   LAW   TO   SMELL.  Ill 

//.  Fluid-Mantle  Olfactometer.  In  this  instrument,  the  constant 
saturation  of  the  hollow  porcelain  cylinder  is  secured  in  the  following 
manner :  A  section  of  wide  glass  tubing  is  secured  between  two  cir- 
cular and  cork-lined  end-plates  of  metal.  One  of  the  metal  plates, — 
that  which  when  the  instrument  is  adjusted  is  nearer  to  the  subject, 
— is  furnished  with  three  equidistant  rods,  inside  of  which  the  disks 
of  cork  and  the  glass  tube  fit.  The  three  rods  terminate  in  three 
screws  with  detachable  heads.  The  screws  pass  through  holes  in  the 
other  metal  plate.  The  plates  are  bored  at  the  center  to  circular  open- 
ings, 8  mm.  in  diameter,  which  coincide  with  the  bore  of  the  enclosed 
porcelain  cylinder.  The  cylinder  itself,  which  has  exactly  the  length 
of  the  glass  tube, — lo  cm., — is  held  in  place  simply  by  the  pressure  of 
the  end-plates.  The  glass  inhaling-tube  passes  through  the  screen 
into  the  bore  of  the  cylinder.  The  odorous  solution  is  put  into  the 
space  between  the  cylinder  and  the  glass  tube  with  a  pipette  through 
one  of  two  holes,  2  mm.  in  diameter,  which  are  left  one  in  each  of  the 
two  metal  plates,  and  closed  with  cork-lined  screw-heads.  It  would 
be  better  if  there  were  two  of  these  holes  in  each  plate,  for  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  force  a  sluggish  liquid,  such  as  glycerine,  against 
the  pressure  of  the  air  into  the  space  around  the  cylinder.  If  the 
rubber  of  the  pipette  is  flaccid,  it  becomes  almost  impossible. 

The  "shells"  thus  constructed  for  mantling  the  cylinder  with 
liquid,  are  mounted  in  a  horizontal  position  on  a  wooden  table, — 27.7 
cm.  long  by  16.4  cm.  wide, — which  can  be  adjusted  to  the  required 
height  above  a  heavily  leaded  base.  Bach  of  the  shells  can  be 
moved  to  and  from  the  observer  along  a  way  of  hard  wood.  The  rack 
and  pinion  movement  is  governed  by  milled  heads, — diameter  2|^  cm., 
— projecting  from  the  table  to  right  and  left  within  easy  grasp  of  the 
subject's  hand.  A  scale  and  pointer  enable  the  observer  to  determine 
how  far  the  cylinder  is  moved. 

The  inhaling-tubes  are  made  with  the  same  bore  and  of  glass  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  graduated  tubes  used  with  the  standard  olfactom- 
eter. Those  sent  from  Holland  turn,  one  to  the  right  and  the  other 
to  the  left  before  curving  upward  to  be  inserted  in  the  nose.  The 
metal  sleeves,  within  which  the  tubes  are  cemented,  do  not  bolt  into 
the  holes  in  the  screen,  but  flare  off  each  on  its  outer  side  into  flat  fan- 
shaped  pieces  of  metal,  which  are  screwed  to  tally  with  a  mark  on  the 
screen.  We  made  no  experiments  with  these  tubes,  but  used  instead 
tubes  of  the  same  bore  and  thickness  of  glass,  either  with  a  somewhat 
shorter  upright,  or  with  but  one  curve.  The  tubes  with  one  curve  are 
precisely  like  the  inhaling-tubes  of  the  standard  olfactometer,  except 
that  the  part  which  extends  through  the  screen  is  longer  and  is  not 
graduated.  It  is  a  mistake  to  use  two-jointed  tubes  at  all,  unless  both 
nostrils  are  to  be  used,  as  in  compensation-experiments.  The  extra 
curve  seems  to  make  no  difference  in  the  results,  but  it  makes  the 
tubes  much  harder  to  clean.  The  total  length  of  our  two-jointed 
tubes  was  18^  cm.,  and  that  of  our  one-jointed  tubes,  17)^  cm.  11. 3 
cm.  of  every  tube  used  must  project  beyond  the  screen.  We  fitted 
our  tubes  into  hollow  plugs  of  cherry  wood  turned  to  order  in  the 
shape  of  corks,  so  as  to  pass  easily  into  the  holes  of  the  screen,  and 

directions  given  in  Sanford:  Experimental  Psychology y  p.  371.  Scrip- 
ture's blotting-paper  olfactometer  as,  made  by  Willyoung,  is  rendered 
useless  by  the  vulcanized  India-rubber  of  the  inhaling-tubes.  We  sub- 
stituted for  the  inner  glass-tube,  rubber-tube,  and  nose-piece,  a  glass 
tube  bent  at  right  angles  and  expanded  into  a  nose-piece  at  its  upper 
end.  The  dimensions  of  this  tube,  however,  make  it  very  breakable, 
and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  clean  it  except  by  blowing  through  it. 


112  GAMBLE: 

to  fit  tightly  when  pushed  home.  To  keep  the  tubes  themselves  from 
slipping  backwards  and  forwards  in  the  plugs,  we  gummed  strips  of 
paper  to  the  glass  at  the  edge  of  the  wood.  Lumps  of  these  strips 
will  continue  to  adhere  even  after  many  washings.  These  home-made 
substitutes  for  the  heavy  metal  attachments  are  very  serviceable. 

We  should  advise  all  who  purchase  the  instrument  to  strengthen 
the  table  with  metal  cross  pieces  on  its  under  side.  The  upward 
warping,  which  is  inevitable,  narrows  the  ways  and  throws  the  inhal- 
ing-tube  out  of  alignment  with  the  porcelain  cylinder.  The  result  is 
a  stiff  movement  of  the  rack  and  pinion  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  per- 
petual breaking  of  inhaling-tubes  on  the  other.  Moreover,  if  the 
warping  has  gone  far,  the  whole  table  is  liable  to  split.  We  have  also 
found  it  necessary  to  shave  the  edges  of  the  wooden  blocks  which 
carry  the  shells,  and  to  reduce  the  friction  caused  by  two  spring- 
brakes  placed  alongside  of  the  ways.  It  would  be  much  better  if  the 
carrying  blocks  were  moved  with  cranks,  rather  than  by  the  milled 
heads.  The  exertion  necessary  to  turn  the  screw  and  the  chafing  of 
the  hand  by  the  milling  are  distracting  to  the  subject's  attention. 
Moreover,  the  intervals  when  the  experimenter  is  turning  the  head 
to  give  the  stimulus  of  comparison  are  undesirably  long.  Great  care 
must  be  used  in  the  selection  of  any  oil  which  is  applied  to  the  in- 
strument. We  once  used  clock  oil,  and  afterwards  had  extreme 
trouble  in  eradicating  the  odor. 

The  porcelain  cylinders  for  these  olfactometers  are  made  by  Hooft 
and  Labouchere  in  Delft,  and  composed  of  pure  kaolin.  They  must 
be  kept  continually  immersed  in  water,  and  this  must  be  removed  at 
least  daily  to  minimize  the  odor  of  the  clay.  They  must  not  be  dried 
before  they  are  introduced  into  their  glass  coverings.  The  ends  are 
perfectly  smooth,  and  are  glazed  for  use  with  the  standard  olfactome- 
ter. The  outer  and  inner  surfaces  remain  porous.  All  the  cylinders 
used,  whether  made  of  porcelain  or  of  the  fragrant  material  itself, 
have  a  length  of  lo  cm.,  and  a  bore  of  8  mm.,  so  as  to  slide  easily 
along  the  inhaling-tube,  and  to  cover,  in  case  of  the  standard  olfactom- 
eter, the  graduated  portion  of  the  tube  lying  beyond  the  screen. 
The  external  diameter, — counting  the  thickness  of  the  protecting 
shell  of  glass,  when  present, — varies  from  14  to  16  mm. 

Section  2.     Preparation  of  Odorous  Materials. 

In  Table  VI  (Chapter  III,  Section  2)  the  odorous  materials  are 
arranged  in  their  order  according  to  Zwaardemaker's  scheme 
of  olfactory  qualities.  We  shall  here  describe  them  in  groups 
according  to  their  mode  of  preparation.  We  shall  consider  first 
the  preparation  of  the  tubes  of  solid  odorous  matter,  and  after- 
wards discuss  the  solutions  used  to  saturate  the  porcelain  cylin- 
ders. 

/.  Preparation  of  Odorous  Substances  Used  in  Solid  Form.  The 
solid  odorous  materials  from  which  tubes  or  hollow  cylinders  were 
prepared  were  vulcanized  India  rubber,  black,  red,  and  gray  ;  cedar, 
rose-wood  and  musk-root ;  Russian  leather,  yellow  wax,  paraffine,  glyc- 
erine soap,  mutton-tallow,  cocoa-butter  and  solid  oil  of  mace,  asafoet- 
ida,  gum  benzoin,  tolu  balsam,  and  a  combination  of  gutta-percha 
and  gum  ammoniac  in  equal  parts  by  weight.  Tubes  of  red  and  black 
India  rubber,  and  of  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniac  came  with  the 
standard  olfactometer  from  Utrecht.  All  the  other  cylinders,  and  a 
second  tube  of  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniac,  were  home-made.  It 
is  necessary  that  all  such  cylinders  should  be  fitted  into  glass  tubes 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO  SMELL.  II3 

of  the  same  length  in  order  that  no  odor  from  their  outer  surfaces 
may  pass  around  the  screen. 

India  rubber  has  three  great  qualifications  for  use  in  experiments  in 
smell,  (i)  It  can  be  smelled  for  a  long  time  by  most  subjects  with- 
out blunting  the  organ  ;  (2)  its  odor  is  not  easily  obscured  by  other 
odors,  and  (3)  adheres  comparatively  little  to  the  inhaling-tube.  Two 
of  our  subjects  {C.  and  Sh.),  however,  complained  more  of  smarting 
in  the  nose  when  using  rubber  than  when  using  any  other  substance. 
The  age  and  mode  of  preparation  of  different  sorts  of  rubber,  and  the 
amounts  of  sulphur  in  them,  make  some  difference  in  the  quality  and 
slight  differences  in  the  intensity  of  the  smell.  The  intensity,  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  virtually  the  same  at  all  degrees  of  temperature  be- 
tween 13**  and  30*^  C.  The  cylinder  may  be  prepared  by  cutting  10 
cm.  from  a  rubber  tube  with  a  bore  of  8  mm.,  and  working  it  into  a 
glass  tube  of  the  same  length.  The  rubber  must  be  clean  and  new, 
and,  in  particular,  must  never  have  come  in  contact  with  illuminating 
gas.  Although  the  odor  of  the  rubber  when  fresh  is  not  easily  dis- 
guised by  other  smells,  yet  the  substance  easily  loses  its  own  odor 
and  takes  that  of  other  substances.  An  inhaling-tube  or  the  broken 
fragment  of  one  should,  therefore,  be  left  in  the  cylinder  so  as  to 
cover  its  inner  surface  when  not  in  use.  Such  tubes  must  never  be 
allowed  to  lie  about  unprotected  on  the  shelves  of  a  wooden  cup- 
board. If  not  sealed  by  containing  the  inhaling-tube,  they  should  be 
rolled  up  in  clean  glazed  paper  and  shut  up  in  a  jar  by  themselves. 

Our  cedar  and  rose-wood  cylinders  were  turned  to  order.  A  block 
of  wood  2j^x2^x4j^  ins.  will  make  four  of  these  tubes.  Bach  was 
held  in  its  place  in  the  outer  tube  of  glass  by  a  small  bit  of  "  instant 
crockery -mender  "  applied  to  the  wood  before  putting  it  in.  The  fit 
is  so  tight  that  the  odor  of  the  paste  cannot  escape.  These  cylinders 
also  are  very  liable  to  lose  part  of  their  odor,  and  should  be  carefully 
protected.  Messrs.  McKesson  and  Robbins,  of  New  York,  furnished 
a  single  piece  of  musk-root  large  enough  to  make  two  cylinders.  One 
crumbled  in  the  turning,  but  the  other  broke  evenly  around  the  cir- 
cumference into  two  sections,  which  were  pushed  so  tightly  into  a 
glass  tube  as  to  stay  in  place  of  themselves.  The  crack  was  almost 
invisible,  and  as  it  was  6  cm.  from  one  end  of  the  tube,  it  did  not  ren- 
der the  cylinder  really  defective.  From  the  Russian  leather, — which 
was  genuine,  and  not  the  "Russian  leather"  of  America,  which  is 
tanned  with  birch  instead  of  sandal  wood, — a  piece  24  mm.  wide  and 
10  cm.  long  was  cut,  and  was  fitted  into  a  tube  so  as  exactly  to  cover 
the  inner  surface.  Cylinders  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way  from 
India  rubber  sheeting. 

The  other  substances  were  all  melted  and  moulded .  The  glycerine  soap 
was  Pear's,  the  mutton  fat  employed  was  fresh  from  the  butcher's,  the 
cocoa-butter,paraffine  (the  kind  used  by  histologists),  gum  benzoin  and 
gum  ammoniac  were  such  as  can  be  bought  of  any  retail  druggist.  We 
obtained  of  McKesson  and  Robbins  "  solid  "  oil  of  mace  and  the  pure 
juice  of  asafcetida  done  up  in  small  tin  cans,  and  also  a  quantity  of 
gutta-percha  in  narrow  fibrous  sticks  or  slabs,  and  of  tolu  balsam  en- 
tirely freed  from  impurities.  For  the  outside  mould,  the  permanent 
glass  shell  must,  of  course,  be  used.  The  glass  tubing  was  cut  before- 
hand in  our  case  into  lengths  of  10  cm,,  and  these  moulds  were  corked 
at  one  end,  so  that  the  tube  of  odorous  matter  was  never  quite 
so  long  as  its  shell.  For  the  inside  mould,  we  used  an  inhaling-tube, 
or  the  long  straight  part  of  one  which  had  broken  at  the  curve.  The 
tube  may  be  kept  upright  by  digging  a  hole  for  the  end  of  it  in  the 
cork.  This  end  should  be  plugged  to  prevent  the  liquid  from  working 
up  into  the  tube,  through  which  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  pour 

JOURNAI« — 8. 


114  GAMBLE: 

warm  or  cold  water.  All  the  odorous  substances  in  this  group  were 
melted  in  a  water-bath.  We  crumbled  or  shaved  them  into  a  small 
beaker,  which  we  floated  by  means  of  a  ring  of  cork  in  a  large 
beaker  of  water  over  a  Bunsen  burner.  We  tried  to  melt  the  gums 
in  a  sand-bath,  but  succeeded  only  in  charring  them.  The  mass 
which  we  obtained  by  melting  the  gum  ammoniac  and  gutta-percha 
together  was  of  lighter  color  than  that  sent  from  Holland,  and  was 
not  entirely  free  from  the  fibres  of  the  gutta-percha.  It  was  spongy 
and  easily  moulded  by  the  fingers  into  any  desired  shape.  The  soap, 
paraffine,  cocoa-butter  and  tallow  are  readily  manipulated.  They 
solidify  in  a  very  few  moments  if  the  outer  tube  is  immersed  in  cold 
water,  and  the  removal  of  the  inner  mould  presents  no  difficulty. 
Tubes  of  these  materials  were  kept  all  the  summer  in  a  room  of  which 
the  temperature  occasionally  rose  to  94^^  F.,  and  sustained  no  damage 
by  the  heat.  The  tubes  of  soap,  however,  sometimes  shrivel  in  a  few 
days  independently  of  the  temperature.  The  longer  the  paraffine  is 
heated  the  stronger  the  odor.  Zwaardemaker  succeeds  in  giving  it  an 
odor  as  strong  as  that  of  tallow  or  musk-root.  We  did  not  try  heat- 
ing it  longer  than  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  our  paraffine  tubes  gave  the 
weakest  of  all  our  scents.  Tubes  of  tallow  are  easy  to  make  and  to 
keep,  and  do  not  exhaust  the  subject's  sense-organ  to  any  appreciable 
extent,  and  are  therefore  especially  to  be  recommended. 

The  oil  of  mace  has  a  consistency  like  that  of  table-butter.  It  melts 
rapidly,  and  solidifies  almost  instantly  when  the  outer  mould  is 
plunged  into  ice  water,  but  tends  to  stick  to  the  inner  tube,  and  to 
come  out  with  it  in  perfect  shape.  To  remove  the  inner  tube  by  itself, 
we  filled  it  with  ice  water,  and  then  hastily  poured  a  little  hot  water 
over  the  outer  mould.  When  once  made,  the  mace  tubes  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  the  jar  in  which  they  stand  should  not  be 
set  on  end.  While  they  are  in  use,  they  must  be  grasped  only  with 
the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  must  be  cooled  every  few  moments  with  ice 
or  snow.  The  juice  of  asafoetida,  when  pure,  never  becomes  solid 
enough  to  be  moulded.  We  poured  small  quantities  of  it,  when 
melted,  upon  a  mass  of  pulverized  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  worked 
the  two  materials  together  with  our  fingers,  as  one  works  flour  into 
a  very  soft  dough.  We  put  lumps  of  this  mixture  into  an  outer 
mould,  heated  it  in  the  water  bath  for  a  few  moments,  and  then 
forced  the  inner  tube  down  through  the  mass  as  nearly  parallel  with 
the  outer  mould  as  possible.  After  many  attempts,  we  succeeded  in 
making  several  satisfactory  cylinders.  Their  odor,  in  spite  of  the 
adulteration  of  the  asafoetida,  is  only  too  strong. 

The  gums  never  become  very  liquid  in  melting,  and  they  solidify 
almost  instantly  when  removed  from  the  heat.  We  found  it  difficult  to 
pour  the  gum  benzoin, and  impossible  to  pour  the  tolu  and  the  mixture 
of  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniac,  into  the  space  between  the  inner 
and  outer  moulds.  We  poured  this  mixture  and  the  tolu  into  the 
outer  tube  when  empty,  and  then  forced  the  inner  tube  into  its  place, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  asafcetida.  When  the  fragrant  substance  is  a 
gum,  this  inner  tube  must  be  greased.  We  coated  it  rather  thickly, 
but  evenly,  with  lanolene,  which  is  as  nearly  odorless  as  grease  can 
easily  be  found,  and  which  evaporates  quickly.  All  these  tubes  of  gum 
retain  their  odors  well,  but  the  tolu  is  likely  to  melt  out  of  shape  in  a 
hot  room. 

Before  these  cylinders  are  used,  the  section  of  odorless  substance 
exposed  at  the  outer  end  must  be  covered.  We  employed  a  little  rin^or 
cap  of  glazed  paper  gummed  to  the  surface.  Even  with  this  precaution, 
the  odor  of  the  asafcetida,  mace,  butter  and  Russian  leather,  is  quite 
apparent  when  the  instrument  is  closed  by  pushing  the  odorous  tube 


weber's  law  to  smell.  115 

as  far  in  as  possible.  It  apparently  proceeds  from  such  space  as  there 
is  between  the  inside  surface  and  the  inhaling-tube.  The  inhaling- 
tube,  on  the  other  hand,  must  not  fit  too  closely  in  the  inside  of  the 
odorous  tube,  for  if  it  does,  the  subject  will  be  able  to  move  it  only  in 
irregular  jerks,  and  it  will,  moreover,  scrape  off  shavings  from  the  in- 
side surface  of  a  cylinder  of  soft  material,  such  as  asafoetida  or  oil  of 
mace.  When  it  is  used  with  the  Russian  leather,  a  bit  of  paper  may  be 
gummed  around  it  to  make  it  fit  somewhat  more  closely.  Kven  this, 
however,  does  not  keep  the  smell  of  the  leather  from  making  itself 
apparent  in  the  space  from  which  one  breathes  through  the  tube.  We 
attempted  to  find  "negative  stimulus-limina  "  for  the  troublesome 
substances,  in  the  following  manner :  We  used  a  graduated  inhaling- 
tube  4  cm.  longer  than  the  ordinary  one,  and  adjusting  the  cylinder 
over  the  10  cm.  nearest  the  screen,  moved  out  to  find  the  limen. 
The  device  was  not  successful.  The  odor  still  diffused  itself  through 
the  space  from  which  the  air  was  drawn.  All  the  determinations  of 
difference-limina  for  these  substances  involve  a  constant  error,  7-- 
namely,  the  addition  of  an  increment,  which  we  have  no  means  of 
measuring,  to  every  stimulus  represented  on  the  tube. 

//.  Preparation  of  Odorous  Substances  in  Solution.  Of  the  odor- 
ous substances  used  in  solution,  the  caryophylline,  citral,  vauilline, 
coumarine  and  heliotropine  were  among  the  "  De  Laire  Specialties," 
and  were,  with  the  ethyl  butyrate,  tincture  of  musk,  and  oil  of  cam- 
phor, the  gift  of  Messrs.  Dodge  and  Olcott,  of  New  York.  "The 
De  Laire  products,"  writes  a  representative  of  Dodge  and  Olcott, 
"are  not  an  embodiment  of  the  simple  chemical  formulas  suggested 
by  their  names.  They  are  compounds  after  secret  recipes,  and  their 
names  denote  only  the  odor  or  flavor  or  other  quality  which  it  is 
claimed  they  reproduce  or  imitate.  De  Laire's  caryophylline,  for 
example,  is  not  the  caryophylline  of  your  chemical  formulas,  a  dis- 
tinctly isolated  aromatic  principle,  but  a  preparation,  having  doubt- 
less as  its  base  one  of  the  clove-oil  products,  which  is  intended  to 
supply  the  perfumer  with  the  bouquet  of  the  clove-pink."  We  have 
retained  the  De  Laire  spelling  of  their  own  specialties.  The  chemical 
formulae  of  butyric  ether,  valerianic  acid,  allyl  sulphide,  and  pyridin 
are,  respectively,  C3  H5.  C4  H^  Og,  C5  Hjo  O2,  (C,  H5)  S,  and  C5 
H5  N.  The  butyric  ether  used  was  a  commercial  product,  but  the 
valerianic  acid  was  obtained  at  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  Uni- 
versity, and  the  allyl  sulphide  and  pyridin,  as  well  as  the  oil  of  anise, 
were  had  of  the  Theodore  Metcalf  Company,  of  Boston. 

Our  solvents,  mixtures,  and  concentrations  were  as  follows  : 
Oil  of  camphor  in  liquid  paraffine,  a  mixture,  1:500 

Caryophylline  in  pure  glycerine,  a  true  solution,  1:500 

Oil  of  anise  in  liquid  paraffine,  a  mixture,  1:1665^ 

Valerianic  acid,  in  water,  a  true  solution,  1:1500 

Ethyl  butyrate,         "  "  "  1:1000 

Citral,  in  liquid  paraffine,  "  "  1:500 

Vanilline,  in  pure  glycerine,  "  "  1:125 

Coumarine,  in  liquid  paraffine,       "  "  1:1000 

Heliotropine,  in  liquid  paraffine,  "  "  1:125 

Natural  Musk,  the  ordinary  alcoholic  tincture,  in  water, 

a  mixture,  1:125 

Allyl  Sulphide,  in  liquid  paraffine,  a  true  solution,  1:1000 

Pyridin,  in  water,  a  true  solution,  1:500 

Laudanum,  the  ordinary  alcoholic  tincture,  a  true  solu- 
tion, unmixed. 

Some  of  the  musk  was  of  course  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  so 
much  water,  and  floated  about  in  dark  brown  specks,  a  state  of  affairs 
anything  but  desirable. 


Il6  GAMBLE: 

We  are  aware  that  all  the  concentrations  are  startlingly  high.  We 
could  not,  however,  use  lower  concentrations  if  we  were  to  fix  our 
standard-stimulus  in  two  places  on  the  scale.  With  a  few  exceptions, 
our  stimulus-limina  were  much  higher  than  those  given  by  Zwaarde- 
maker  as  normal.  These  facts  will  be  noted  later  in  detail.  Zwaarde- 
maker  recommended  vanilline  in  glycerine  in  the  concentration  qf 
i:iooo  and  coumarine  and  allyl  sulphide  in  paraffine  in  the  same  con- 
centration as  especially  well  fitted  for  difference-determinations.  We 
did  use  the  coumarine  and  allyl  sulphide  in  these  concentrations,  but 
most  of  our  subjects  obtained  no  odor  whatever  from  the  vanilline  at 
i:iooo,  and  in  no  case  did  the  stimulus-limen  fall  for  both  nostrils 
below  36  mm. 

For  coumarine,  heliotropine  and  tincture  of  musk,  stimulus-limina 
were  found  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  With  all  the  other  substances, 
an  odor  was  apparent  when  the  pointer  of  the  fluid-mantle  olfactom- 
eter stood  at  zero.  The  odor,  undoubtedly,  came  from  the  space 
between  the  inhaling-tube  and  the  inside  of  the  porcelain  cylinder, 
as  great  pains  had  been  taken  to  wash  away  every  drop  of  liquid  from 
the  metal  plates.  It  is  almost  impossible  so  to  adjust  the  inhaling- 
tube  that  it  will  not  scrape  against  the  clay  at  some  point,  and  to 
paste  paper  around  it  would  be  out  of  the  question,  since  the  paper 
would  continually  rub  and  wipe  the  odorous  surface.  The  odor  was 
apparent  4  cm.  from  the  end  of  the  ordinary  inhaling-tube  when  the 
cylinder  was  supposed  to  be  sealed.  All  the  determinations  of  differ- 
ence-limina  for  these  substances  also  are,  therefore,  subject  to  a 
constant  error,  but  not  so  great  an  error  as  occurs  in  the  results  for 
the  troublesome  solids  with  the  exception  of  Russian  leather.  The 
odor  of  the  solutions  when  the  instrument  was  closed  was  usually 
barely  liminal. 

When  water  was  used  as  a  solvent,  it  was,  of  course,  distilled.  The 
measuring-glasses  and  the  bottles  used  should  be  rinsed  well  with 
distilled  water,  or  at  least  with  water  which  has  been  freshly  steril- 
ized by  boiling  just  before  the  liquids  are  poured  into  them.  An 
aqueous  solution  becomes  unfit  for  use  if  long  exposed  to  the  light. 
Zwaardemaker  advises  that  the  fluid-mantle  of  the  porcelain  cylin- 
der be  changed  every  two  days.  We  usually  not  only  changed  the 
mantle,  but  made  a  fresh  solution,  as  often  as  this.  It  is  safe  to  use 
the  same  glycerine  or  parafl&ne  solution  for  days  or  even  some  weeks. 
The  glycerine  is  much  more  diflScult  to  put  into  the  receptacle  than 
the  parafl&ne,  and  for  citral  and  caryophylline  it  is  not  so  able  a 
solvent.  It  is  diflficult,  however,  to  obtain  and  keep  liquid  paraffine 
quite  free  from  a  slight  odor,  somewhat  pungent  and  somewhat  like 
that  of  vaseline.  Alcoholic  solutions  are,  of  course,  more  or  less 
undesirable,  as  we  have  noted  before.     If  Af  were  known  to  bet  he 

r 
same  for  all  qualities,  there  would  be  no  objection  to  using  such  solu- 
tions, but  to  assume  that  it  is,  is  to  beg  one  question  at  issue.     We 
could  not  manage  the  musk  and  the  opium,  however,  in  any  other 
form. 

Section  j.     Other  Arrangements  and  Appliances. 

For  cleaning  the  inhaling-tubes,  one  needs  a  funnel  of  which  one 
end  is  small  enough  to  fit  into  the  bore  ;  two  small  light  vessels, — 
tin  cups  are  best, — for  pouring  water  back  and  forth  through  them  ;  a 
roll  of  absorbent  cotton  ;  a  piece  of  pliable  brass  wire  ;  some  listerine  ; 
and  a  small  alcohol  lamp.  After  a  tube  is  washed,  it  must  be  wiped 
inside  and  out  with  absorbent  cotton  before  it  is  dried  more  thoroughly 
over  the  spirit-flame,  else  it  will  break.     We  used  listerine  occasion- 


webbr's  law  to  smell.  117 

ally  as  a  deodorizer  during  a  set  of  experiments,  and  always  as  a 
disinfectant  at  the  end  of  the  hour.  Its  own  odor  is  easily  washed 
away.  As  it  takes  some  time  for  a  porcelain  cylinder  to  become 
thoroughly  impregnated  with  an  odorous  solution,  it  is  convenient  to 
have  test-tubes  with  tightly  fitting  corks,  in  which  a  number  of  cylin- 
ders may  be  put  to  soak  at  the  same  time.  Unless  they  can  be  kept 
in  a  dark  cupboard,  it  is  well  to  wrap  up  these  tubes  in  several  plies 
of  black  calico.  Bottles  of  yellow  glass,  such  as  perfumers  recom- 
mend for  the  safe  keeping  of  heliotropine,  might  well  be  used  for  all 
the  solutions,  but  if  they  are  not  available,  the  ordinary  bottles  of 
colorless  glass  can  be  wrapped  up  in  black  cotton  cloth.  The  less 
woolen  cloth  about  the  room,  the  better.  We  keep  our  solid  cylinders 
in  "self-sealing"  preserve  jars.  When  the  cylinder  with  its  fluid- 
mantle  in  place  is  not  in  use,  the  bore  should  be  corked  to  keep  the 
inner  surface  from  drying  off.  It  may,  indeed,  be  filled  with  the  solu- 
tion and  corked  when  it  is  put  away  for  some  time.  In  this  case,  all 
drops  of  liquid  must  be  wiped  out  with  absorbent  cotton  before  the 
experiments  begin.  If  it  seems  likely  that  much  odorous  substance 
has  condensed  on  the  inner  surface,  the  whole  bit  of  apparatus,  glass 
shell  and  all,  may  be  immersed  in  water.  The  bore  should  then  be 
filled  for  a  few  hours  with  the  odorous  liquid. 

The  walls  of  the  room  in  which  our  experiments  were  made  are 
covered  with  oiled  paper,  and  the  floor  is  covered  with  oil-cloth  which 
has  a  coating  of  shellac.  The  room  has  at  present  this  defect,  that 
when  the  wind  blows  in  certain  directions,  it  is  impossible  to  create 
through  it  a  draft  of  air  which  does  not  pass  first  through  a  hall 
frequented  by  students  and  therefore  dusty,  and  by  no  means  free 
from  odor.  When  the  standard  olfactometer  was  used,  the  subject 
sat  between  the  observer  and  the  window,  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
observer,  so  that  the  light  shone  through  the  graduated  inhaling- 
tube.  When  the  fluid-mantle  olfactometer  was  used,  subject  and 
observer  sat  at  right  angles  to  each  other  at  the  end  of  a  low  table. 


Chapter  III.    Results. 

Section  r.      The  Several  Subjects  arid  their  Stimulus- Limina. 

Individual  variations  in  the  sense  of  smell  are  so  great  that 
it  is  necessary  to  preface  a  chapter  on  experimental  results  with 
an  account  of  the  subjects.  The  following  notes  upon  our  sub- 
jects in  alphabetical  order  are  thrown  into  "noun-form"  for  the 
sake  of  brevity. 

Be.  (Dr.  I.  M.  Bentley),  a  trained  subject. 

Organ  impaired  by  acute  catarrhal  troubles  and  easily  exhausted. 

Breathing  spots  always  blurred  and  ragged  at  the  division  lines, — 
indicating  a  catarrhal  condition  of  the  membranes, — and  never  quite 
symmetrical. 

r\  usually  determined  with  one  inspiration  ;  A.r  determined  with 
from  2  to  4  inspirations. 

Movements  of  cylinder  long'and  slow,  but  few. 

Position  indicative  of  strain. 

Bi.  (Miss  K.  M.  Bickham),  a  wholly  untrained  subject.  General 
physical  condition  neurasthenic. 

Organ  twice  operated    on   (in  '95  and  '96)  for  hypertrophy  of   the 


Il8  GAMBLE: 

membranes.  Superfluous  portions  removed  from  both  sides.  No 
catarrh  now  apparent. 

Breathing  spots  usually  well-rounded  and  symmetrical  with  neat 
division  lines. 

r\  and  A/'  determined  with  but  one  inspiration. 

Movements  of  cylinder  rapid  with  little  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  strain. 

C.  (Miss  M.  H.  Carter),  o. partially  trained  subject. 

Organ  very  easily  exhausted.  Membranes  subject  to  sudden  con- 
gestions of  blood  and  mucus  upon  nervous  fatigue.  Adenoid  growth 
as  a  child.     (The  growth  was  not  cut  away,  but  disappeared  of  itself.) 

Breathing  spots  ragged,  ill-defined,  and  almost  never  symmetrical. 

Breathing  during  an  experiment  irregular  and  violent.  Tendency 
to  sniff  obstinate.  r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  i  or  2  inspira- 
tions. 

Movements  of  cylinder  rapid  with  little  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  much  strain. 

D.  (Mr.  S.  J.  Druskin),  a  partially  trained  subject. 
Breathing  spots  perfect,  as  a  rule. 

rX  and  A^  usually  determined  with  i  or  2  inspirations. 
Movements  of  cylinder  at  first  rapid  and  few  ;   after  practice,  tenta- 
tive with  noticeable  repetition. 
Position  indicative  of  but  slight  strain. 

K.  (Mr.  T.  Kairiyama),  a  trained  subject. 

Organ  much  impaired  by  hay-fever  and  other  catarrhal  trouble. 

Breathing  spots  fairly  symmetrical  as  a  rule,  but  ragged  at  the 
edges. 

r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  i  or  2  inspirations.  Expiration 
violent  ("  to  clean  out  the  smell  "). 

Movements  of  cylinder  tentative  but  few. 

Position  indicative  of  but  slight  strain. 

M.  (Miss  B.  B.  Macleod),  a  wholly  untrained  subject. 
Breathing  spots  seldom  quite  symmetrical  arid  never  well  defined. 
No  catarrh  before  the  current  winter. 
r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  i  or  2  inspirations. 
Movements  of  cylinder  always  irregular  from  want  of  practice. 
Position  easy. 

N.  (Mr.  A.  C.  Nutt),  2. partially  trained  subject. 

Organ  :  Easily  exhausted.  Sensitivity  somewhat  higher  on  the 
right  side,  as  a  rule.  (The  subject  complained  of  "feeling  left- 
handed  "  on  the  left  side.) 

Postero-lateral  half  of  left  breathing-spot  usually  missing  (a  fact 
showing  chronic  obstruction  of  the  left  inferior  meatus).  Both  spots 
ill-defined. 

r\  and  Ar  determined  usually  with  2  or  3  inspirations. 

Movements  of  cylinder  slow  and  tentative  with  but  little  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  strain. 

P.  (Mr.  C.  A.  Perry),  o, partially  trained  subject. 

Organ  much  impaired  by  chronic  catarrh.  Diseased  portions 
removed  from  the  lower  turbinal  bones  on  both  sides. 

Breathing  spots  rarely  symmetrical.  Secondary  division  quite 
apparent  in  spite  of  the  operation  mentioned.     Spots  ill-defined. 

r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  one  inspiration. 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO   SMELL.  II9 

Movements  of  cylinder  slow  and  tentative  with  but  little  repetition. 
Position  indicative  of  but  slight  strain. 

Rob.  (Mr.  E.  P.  Robins),  a  trained  subject. 

Breathing  spots  rarely  symmetrical  or  perfectly  defined. 

r\  and  Ar  almost  invariably  determined  with  one  inspiration. 

Move'fnents  of  cylinder  slow  and  tentative  with  but  little  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  but  little  strain. 

Rog.  (Miss  L.  R.  Rogers),  2l partially  trained  subject. 
Breathing  spots  rarely  symmetrical  or  very  well  defined. 
r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  2  or  3  inspirations. 
Movements  of  cylinder  slow  with  much  repetition. 
Position  indicative  of  but  slight  strain. 

Se.  (Mr.  W.  B.  Secor),  a  trained  subject. 

Organ  :  Sensitivity  somewhat. higher  on  the  right  side  as  a  rule. 

Postero-lateral  half  of  left  breathing  spot  usually  very  small  or 
missing  as  with  N.     Spots  ill-defined. 

r\  and  Ar  usually  determined  with  2  or  3  inspirations ,  m,ovem,ents 
of  cylinder  slow  with  some  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  strain. 

Sh.  (Dr.  Stella  E.  Sharp),  a  trained  subject. 

General  physical  condition  neurasthenic. 

Organ  easily  exhausted. 

Right  breathing  spot  usually  larger  than  left,  edges  of  both  spots 
clearly  cut. 

r\  and  /\r  usually  determined  with  one  inspiration,  movements  of 
cylinder  slow  with  little  repetition. 

Position  indicative  of  much  strain. 

T.  (Dr.  Ellen  B.  Talbot),  a  trained  subject. 

Organ  somewhat  easily  exhausted.  Portions  of  both  lower  turbinal 
bones  removed  to  prevent  congestions  of  mucous  in  the  upper  passages. 
Sensitivity  somewhat  higher  on  the  left  side. 

Breathing  spots  well  rounded  and  clearly  cut.  Secondary  divisions 
imperfect.  (When  the  nasal  passages  were  clear  the  division  was 
represented  only  by  indentations  at  the  edges  of  the  spots.) 

r\  at  first  determined  with  one  inspiration  ;  later  in  the  work,  with 
2,  3,  or  even  4  as  a  more  satisfactory  procedure.  Ar  usually  deter- 
mined with  2  or  3  inspirations. 

Movem,enis  of  cylinder  very  slow  and  cautious  with  much  repeti- 
tion. 

Position  indicative  of  but  little  strain. 

In  the  notes  just  given  a  subject  is  called  "  trained  "if  he  had  had 
a  fair  amount  of  experience  in  general  introspection.  Only  Be.  had 
had  any  training  in  smell-experiments  before  the  beginning  of  the 
course  described  in  this  paper.  Some  months  earlier  we  had  made  a 
futile  attempt  to  find  his  difference-limen  with  the  weaker  Utrecht 
cylinder  of  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniac  by  the  method  of  minimal 
changes.  A  subject  is  called  '•  partially  trained  "  if  he  began  psycho- 
logical laboratory-work  about  the  time  when  these  experiments  com- 
menced. The  word  "repetition"  is  used  in  connection  with  the 
manipulation  of  the  cylinder  to  denote  the  moving  backwards  and 
forwards  at  the  limen. 

The  breathing  spots  of  all  the  subjects  varied  much  from  day  to 
day.  Sometimes  they  were  broken  up  into  several  bands,  always  run- 
ning  rather  from  front  to  back  than  laterally.     Often  one  narrow 


I  20  GAMBLE  : 

medial  strip  would  separate  from  one  or  the  other.  In  most  cases  a 
more  or  less  jagged  and  blurred  outline  showed  the  adhesion  of 
clots  of  mucous  to  the  passage-walls.  In  fact,  twelve  out  of  the  thir- 
teen subjects  had  suffered  or  were  suffering  from  frequent  "  colds  " 
or  from  hypersecretion  more  or  less  chronic.  As  a  function  of  the 
turbinal  bone  is  to  deflect  a  part  of  the  inspired  air  to  the  upper 
passages,  its  removal  damages  the  sense  of  smell.  The  sensitivity  of 
7". was  higher  on  the  left  side  of  the  nose,  from  which,  as  she  reported, 
the  smaller  amount  of  bone  had  been  taken,  but  the  small  remains  of 
the  secondary  division  of  the  breathing  spots  did  not  indicate  that 
more  bone  had  been  removed  on  the  one  side  than  on  the  other.  The 
obstruction  of  the  inferior  meatus  would  not,  in  itself,  do  much  mis- 
chief to  the  sense,  but  it  must  indicate  a  dropping  of  mucous  from  the 
upper  passages.  It  is  of  some  interest  to  note  that  the  subject  (Z>.) 
whose  spots  are  most  perfect  is  a  Russian.  He  came,  however,  to  live 
in  New  York  city  at  the  age  of  twelve.  K.  is  Japanese,  but  has  been 
long  enough  in  this  country  to  suffer  severely  from  the  catarrhal  cli- 
mate. Rob.^  one  of  the  best  subjects,  comes  from  Prince  Edward's 
Island.  The  homes  of  the  other  ten  are  scattered  over  the  States  from 
Eastern  Massachusetts  to  California,  though  none  are  farther  south 
than  Missouri.^ 

When  it  is  said  that  Ar  was  determined  with  one, two, or  more  inspi- 
rations, it  is  meant  that  the  stimulus  of  comparison  was  manipulated 
during  one,  two,  or  more  inspirations.  More  than  one  inspiration  was 
almost  never  taken  to  "  learn  "  the  standard.  It  seemed  better  to  risk 
the  increase  of  adhesion  by  allowing  a  subject  to  take  as  many  breaths 
to  a  determination  as  he  wished  than  to  make  him  try  to  form  a  judg- 
ment when  the  force  of  an  inhalation  was  decidedly  on  the  wane. 
Many  of  the  subjects  considered  a  judgment  with  one  inspiration  an 
impracticable  ideal.  D.,  K.,  Se.  and  Sh.y  and  in  a  smaller  measure 
Be.  and  P.,  had  a  bad  habit  of  suspending  an  inspiration,  and  not  of 
sniffing,  but  of  "  holding  the  breath  "  momentarily  during  an  inspira- 
tion. This  practice  must  have  tended  to  weaken  the  stimulus  by 
allowing  the  air  in  the  upper  chamber  to  rush  downwards  to  the  mid- 
dle meatus.  Be.,  N.,  P.,  Rob.,  Se.  and  T.  noticed  that  the  stimulus 
was  stronger  during  the  latter  part  of  an  inspiration.  This  may  point 
to  cumulative  stimulation  of  the  rod-cells,  or  it  may  merely  mean  an 
access  of  attention  and  an  unconscious  sniff.  Se.y  who  had  the  habit 
of  suspending  an  inhalation,  noticed  the  increase  most  after  a  strong 
inspiration,  and  Z>.,  K.  and  Sh.,  who  had  the  same  habit  did  not 
notice  it  at  all.  And  it  is  clear  that  this  peculiar  mode  of  breathing 
would  tend  to  prevent  cumulative  stimulation.  On  the  other  hand, 
Be..,  P.  and  T.  noticed  the  increase  most  when  the  stimulus  was  near 
its  limen,  and  this  looks  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  attention  and  breath- 
ing-rate, especially  as  T.  did  not  hold  her  breath.  Be.  remarked  that 
the  least  difference  of  attention  altered  the  stimulus.  Rob.  thought 
the  first  part  of  an  inspiration  gave  the  fairest  measure  of  an  inten- 
sity, and  Be.  and  Se.  relied  on  it  "  in  easy  judgments,"  but  judged  by 
the  latter  part  of  the  inspiration  if  the  stimulus  were  weak  or  vague. 
N.  and  P.  asserted  that  they  judged  "  by  the  impression  as  a  whole," 
but  N.  confessed  to  a  tendency  "  to  emphasize  the  last  whifif."  T.  re- 
versed the  procedure  of  Be.  and  /*.,  usually  judging  by  "the  last' 
whiff,"  but  repeating  the  inspiration  and  relying  on  the  first  impres- 
sion if  the  determination  were  difficult.  With  Rof^.  exhaustion  often 
supervened  in  a  long  inspiration.     If  is  clear  that  if  the  intensity  of 

1  Spraying  the  subject's  nose  at  the  beginning  of  the  hour  might  be 
a  useful  expedient,  but  we  did  not  try  it. 


WEBER'S   LAW  TO  SMELL.  121 

a  stimulus  alters  with  the  duration  of  an  inspiration  as  well  as  with 
the  manipulation  of  the  instrument,  the  subject  must  make  more  than 
one  inspiration  to  determine  a  limen,  unless  the  judgment  is  very- 
easy.  It  is  probable  that  the  first  part  of  the  inspiration,  before  the 
smell  "blossoms  out,"  gives  the  best  criterion  of  the  intensity  of  a 
stimulus.  We  would  suggest  that  cumulative  stimulation  of  smell 
would  be  a  profitable  subject  of  investigation. 

In  an  effort  to  smell  with  the  standard  olfactometer,  C,  Z>.,  K.,  P., 
Rob.,  Rog.,  Sh.  and  T.  all  tipped  the  head  to  the  left  if  using  the 
left  nostril,  and  to  the  right  if  using  the  right,  pointed  the  outward 
end  of  the  inhaling-tube  in  the  same  direction  as  the  head  was  tipped, 
and  slanted  the  screen  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  odd  uniformity 
is  perhaps  explicable.  On  entering  the  nose  the  air  ordinarily  streams 
a  little  toward  the  septum  and  the  opposite  directions  in  which  the 
subject  slanted  his  head  and  the  screen  tended  on  each  side  to  throw 
the  opening  of  the  nose-piece  into  an  acute  angle  with  the  septum, 
while  the  turn  given  to  the  instrument  in  the  horizontal  plane  threw 
the  opening  a  little  toward  the  front  of  the  nose.  On  the  other  hand, 
Se.  exactly  reversed  these  directions  on  each  side,  and  so  did  Be.,  ex- 
cept that  he  turned  the  tube  to  point  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
screen  was  slanted,  so  throwing  its  inner  opening  towards  the  back  of 
the  nose.  Bi.  slanted  both  head  and  screen  to  the  right  when  using 
the  right  nostril,  and  to  the  left  when  using  the  left.  This  was  prob- 
ably a  mere  matter  of  attention  to  one  nostril  or  the  other.  She  was 
not  consistent  in  the  pointing  of  the  tube.  N.  turned  everything  to  the 
right.  Unfortunately,  no  written  notes  were  taken  of  the  hand  used, 
but  it  was  usually  the  right,  the  hand  farther  from  the  experimenter. 
All  the  subjects  tended  to  tilt  the  hand  forward  and  the  screen  back- 
ward,— probably  in  their  desire  to  get  "  nearer  "  the  stimulus.  Almost 
all,  unbidden,  closed  their  eyes. 

T.  once  mentioned  verbal  associations  as  an  aid  in  memorizing  the 
stimulus.  This  expedient  was  not  common,  ^e.  wrinkled  his  fore- 
head and  nose  in  a  marked  degree,  and  once  noted  a  tendency  to  judge 
in  terms  of  strain,  especially  about  the  eyes.  Some  substances  were 
pungent  to  a  disturbing  extent  to  every  one,  but  C.  and  D.  com- 
plained much  of  "pain"  from  odors  which  no  one  else  thought 
pungent.  D.  explicitly  distinguished  the  sensation  from  pressure. 
He  thought  coumarine  both  pungent  and  "sour."  Both  C.  and 
D.  said  that  they  received  simply  sensations  of  pressure  from 
some  stimuli.  With  D.  sensations  of  smell  merged  in  sensa- 
tions of  pressure  as  the  organ  became  exhausted.  C.  said  that 
when  she  tried  to  smell  the  black  rubber  with  the  left  nostril  she 
merely  felt  as  if  she  were  "  breathing  a  feather,"  or  as  if  the  inside  of 
her  nose  were  "pressed  with  a  soft  wad."  Yet  the  judgments  made 
with  this  nostril  agreed  pretty  well  with  those  made  with  the  other. 
Be.  occasionally  spoke  of  sensations  of  pressure  or  pain  from  the 
stimuli.  Most  of  the  subjects  expressly  denied  temperature-associa- 
tions. Be.,  however,  said  that  tolu  and  heliotropine  were  cold;  M. 
that  cocoa-butter  was  cold  ;  Rob.  that  vanilline  was  cold  ;  and  N.  that 
white  tallow  and  musk-root  were  warm,  and  camphor  cold,  and  that 
every  smell  grew  warmer  as  it  grew  stronger.  He  thought  of  helio- 
trope as  "warm,  dark  and  deep,"  in  contrast  with  ylang  ylang,  which 
was  "  light  and  fluffy." 

The  comparative  sensitivity  of  the  subjects  may  be  judged  from  the 
following  Table : 


122 


GAMBLK : 


TABI.E  I.    A  Table  of  Stimulus-Limina. 
Part  I.    Stimulus- Limina  Arranged  to  Show  Individual  Variations. 


SUBSTANCE. 

sosiril. 

Be 

Bl. 

c. 

D. 

K. 

M. 

N. 

P. 

Rob. 

EOg. 

S8. 

SH. 

T. 

Z. 

M 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Black  rubber, 

R. 

36 

4 

(22) 

(43) 

(35) 

12 

(61) 

I 

(12) 

7 

(38) 

ly. 

34 

5 

(23) 

(59) 

II 

(50) 

I 

(23) 

10 

(30) 

Gray  rubber, 

R. 

(35) 

I 

(19) 

(I) 

5 

(7) 

ly. 

8 

(29) 

6 

(22) 

(I) 

9 

^10) 

Red  rubber, 

R. 

L. 

CI) 

(0) 

(4) 
(5) 

7 

Russian  leather. 

R. 

L. 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

ID 

Paraffine, 

R. 

12 
20 

(21) 
(14) 

10 

Rosewood, 

R. 

6 
8 

8 
7 

(54) 

(67) 

3 
II 

3 

Cedar, 

R. 
L. 

(4) 
(5) 

(27) 
(29) 

(10) 
(12) 

5 
10 

31 
13 

20 

Gum  benzoin. 

R. 

7 

7 

(19) 

(17) 

(6) 
(8) 

10 

Gum  ammoniac 

(i)R. 

(I)lv. 

(7) 

(9) 
(8) 

(8) 

(12) 

&  gutta-percha: 

(17) 

(10) 

(21) 

(I)  First 

Utrecht  cylinder. 

(2)R. 

(9) 

(2)  Second 

Utrecht  cylinder. 

(2)1.. 

(8) 

(3)  Home-made 

(3)  R- 

9 

2 

cylinder. 

(3)Iv. 

18 

4 

Yellow  wax. 

R. 
I/. 

2.5 

Cocoa-butter, 

R. 

10 
8 

(16) 
(17) 

(7) 
(4) 

7 
12 

I 

Tolu  balsam. 

R. 
I.. 

14 
19 

4 
3 

I 
I 

(62) 
(49) 

I 
6 

9 
5 

I 

Musk-root, 

R. 

Iv. 

4 
8 

7 
5 

Mutton-tallow, 

R. 

4 
6 

2 
5 

Asafoetida, 

R. 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

Oil  of  Mace. 

R. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

L. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Coumarine, 

R. 

17 

(2) 

(20) 

(6) 

(8) 

(I) 

(25) 

(12) 

(12) 

(4) 

(27) 

(36) 

L. 

23 

(2) 

(6) 

(12) 

(3) 

(21) 

(II) 

(10) 

(5) 

(54) 

(33) 

Glycerine  soap. 

R. 

(19) 
(15) 

(12) 
(13) 

(7) 
(4) 

2 

Heliotropine, 

R. 

L. 

24 
39 

(33) 
(33) 

(9) 
(10) 

Musk. 

R. 

L. 

(8) 
(2) 

(7) 
(7) 

WEBER'S   LAW  TO   SMELL. 


123 


Table  I. — Continued. 

Part  2.    Stimulus- Limina  Arranged  to  Show  Variations  Due  to 
Practice  and  to  Differences  of  Temperature. 


SUBJECT. 

SUBSTANCE. 

NOSTRUM. 

Value  of  rX  in  cm. 

THERMOMETER 
READING. 

Be. 

Tolu  balsam 

R. 
L. 

(32) 
(35) 

53^F 

R. 

14 

60 

L. 

19 

K. 

R. 

L. 

(24) 
(28) 

54 

R. 

(21) 

52 

L. 

(22) 

R. 

4 

64 

L. 

3 

Rosewood 

R. 

L. 

(16) 
(29) 

59 

R. 

(13) 

64 

L. 

(22) 

R. 

6 

62 

L. 

8 

P. 

Cocoa  butter 

R. 

(27) 
(26) 

62 

R. 

(19) 

62 

Iv. 

(27) 

R. 

7 

66 

I.. 

12 

All  the  values  of  r\  given  in  this  Table  are  averages  of  several  de- 
terminations taken  on  the  same  day.  Those  enclosed  in  parentheses 
were  found  when  the  subjects  had  had  little  or  no  experience  with  the 
substances  in  question.  Those  not  so  enclosed  were  found  after  the 
respective  substances  had  been  used  by  the  several  subjects  in  differ- 
ence determinations.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Table,  the  limen  given 
is  in  every  case  the  last  limen  found  for  the  subject  and  substance, 
and  all  the  last  limina  found  are  given.  The  second  part  of  the  Table 
simply  contains  results  selected  by  way  of  illustration,  but  all  the 
limina  found  for  the  subject  with  the  substance  in  question  are 
included. 

In  Part  i,  all  the  substances  but  the  last  four  are  taken  in  order 
from  a  Table  in  which  Zwaardemaker  arranges  various  materials  for 
solid  odorous  cylinders  in  the  order  of  their  intensity.^  The  limina 
in  the  column  headed  Z  are  those  given  by  him  in  another  Table  as 
normal  at  a  temperature  of  15°  C.  or  59°  F.2  The  temperatures  at 
which  our  records  were  taken  lay  for  the  most  part  between  60°  and 
70''  F.  Our  limina  ought,  therefore,  to  be  lower  than  his,  instead  of 
higher.  We  cannot  satisfactorily  explain  the  difference  between  our 
results  and  his  in  the  matter  of  stimulus-limina.  That  the  limina  of 
Americans  should  be  higher  than  those  of  Dutchmen  is  not  indeed 
surprising,  but  the  entire  change  in  the  rank  of  the  substances  is. 
According  to  Dr.  Renter,  as  cited  by  Zwaardemaker,  the  gum  ammo- 
niac and  gutta-percha  cylinder  is  forty  times  as  strong  as  the  vulcan- 

^Op.  cit.,  p.  118. 
2P.  167. 


124  GAMBI^E: 

ized  rubber,  and  the  musk-root  is  five  times  stronger  than  the  former. 
The  tallow,  Zwaardemaker  says,  is  stronger  still.  We  regret  that  we 
could  not  find  stimulus-limina  oftener.  The  washing  of  the  tube 
consumed  so  much  time  that  this  was  impossible.  We  feel  that  the 
results  embodied  in  Table  I  are  the  most  unsatisfactory  part  of  our 
work.  Yet  if  allowances  be  made  for  exhaustion  in  some  of  the 
results  of  C.  and  Sh.^  and  for  expectation  gradually  controlled  by 
practice  in  the  cases  of  Bi.,  M.  and  Rog.,  the  Table  will  serve  its 
purpose.! 

We  have  not  space  to  give  our  temperature  records  in  full.  They 
varied  so  irregularly  that  the  arithmetical  mean  by  no  means  repre- 
sents the  most  common  reading.  As  the  steam  had  to  be  kept  shut 
off  when  we  were  not  in  the  laboratory,  the  exact  regulation  of  the 
temperature  involved  serious  practical  difficulties,  and  for  most  of  our 
work  it  was  a  matter  of  minor  importance,  for  in  difference-determi- 
nations variations  of  temperature  and  moisture  affect  the  standard- 
stimulus  and  the  stimulus  of  comparison  equally,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  disregarded.  Indeed,  our  barometer-records,  though  carefully 
kept,  proved  to  be  wholly  a  work  of  supererogation,  for  in  the  case  of 
the  very  few  substances  (glycerine  soap,  coumarine,  heliotropine, 
vanilline,  and  allyl  sulphide)  which  were  somewhat  soluble  in  water 
and  yet  not  in  aqueous  solution,  we  did  not  succeed  in  finding  stimu- 
lus-limina on  different  days.^  Practice  lowered  the  stimulus-limina 
in  a  conspicuous  manner,  but  the  effect  of  variations  in  temperature 
can  *only  occasionally  be  traced  in  the  complete  results.  Part  2  of 
Table  I  illustrates  this  fact  with  fairness. 

It  only  remains  to  say  that  Be.,  C,  K.,  N.,  Se.  and  T.  worked  twice 
a  week  for  at  least  part  of  the  year  and  the  others  once. 

Section  2.  Results  Obtained  by  the  Method  of  Just 
Noticeable  Differeyices. 
Since  in  the  nature  of  the  case  numerical  proof  of  the  applica- 
bility of  Weber's  law  to  a  given  sense  department  cannot  be 
thrown  into  the  form  of  averages,  and  since  we  have  not 
space  for  the  great  mass  of  figures  which  we  have  at  hand, 
we  must  offer  first  samples  and  then  summaries  of  our  evi- 
dence, and  content  ourselves  with  them.  Tables  II  and 
III  are  the  samples,  and  Tables  IV,  V  and  VI  are  summa- 
ries from  different  points  of  view.  Tablel  V  constitutes  the 
most  decisive  proof  of  the  validity  of  the  law.  Tables  V  and 
VI  are  intended  to  confirm  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from 
Table  IV,  and  to  show  the  probable  value  of  Ar.     In  Tables 

r 
III,  IV,  V  and  VI,  every  value  given  or  enumerated  is  an  av- 
erage of  the  results  of  one  day's  work  with  one  subject,  nostril, 
substance  and  standard.     All  the  work  done  with  this  method, 
however  unsatisfactory,  is  represented  in  Tables  V  and  VI. 

1  The  writer's  own  limina  are  lower  than  those  of  any  of  the  subjects. 
Abnormal  keenness  of  smell  has  persisted  from  childhood,  in  spite  of 
the  usual  share  of  "colds." 

2  For  the  effect  of  atmospheric  moisture  in  Zwaardemaker's  method, 
see  Chapter  I,  Section  2. 


WEBER'S  LAW  TO  SMELL . 


125 


Tabi,e  II.    Consecutive  ResuIvTs  of  One  Subject,  T. 


Date. 

Substance. 

Nostril. 

No.  of 
values 
aver- 
aged. 

r 

/\ro 

/\ru 

Ar 

Ar 
r 

Disturbing 
factors. 

Nov.   9, 

Tolu 

R. 

6 

20 

4(2) 

7(3) 

hVz 

4 

balsam 

L. 

5(2) 

5(1) 

5 

4 

13, 

R. 

6 

30 

2(1) 

14(2) 

8 

4 

Iv. 

3(2) 

9(5) 

6 

5 

16, 

R. 

3,4 

20 

1(1) 

6(4) 

i% 

6[Z] 

L. 

3,3 

4(2) 

4(2) 

4 

5[Z] 

R. 

4 

30 

6(3) 

8(2) 

7 

4 

L. 

4(2) 

7(4) 

^% 

5 

19. 

R. 

4,3 

20 

4(1) 

1(2) 

^% 

Z  [Z] 

L. 

3,3. 

5(3) 

6(4) 

sy2 

4[Z] 

R. 

4 

30 

6(2) 

7(3) 

6>^ 

5 

L. 

4(4) 

5(3) 

4J^ 

Z 

30- 

Russian 

R. 

4,2 

24 

7(2) 

3(1) 

5 

5[Z] 

leather, 

L. 

6(1) 

5(2) 

5% 

4 

R. 

4 

44 

8(2) 

9(2) 

^y^ 

5 

L. 

10(3) 

12(3) 

II 

4 

Dec.  10, 

R. 

4 

24 

3(2) 

6(3) 

aYz 

5 

L. 

6(4) 

7(2) 

ey^ 

4 

R. 

4 

44 

6(4) 

10(3) 

8 

6 

L. 

8(3) 

11(4) 

9>^ 

5 

14, 

Asafoetida, 

R. 

3 

8 

5(4) 

4(1) 

4K 

A 

L. 

6(0) 

7(1) 

ey^ 

A 

R. 

3 

13 

4(3) 

10(2) 

7 

A 

L. 

2,3 

5(1) 

8(1) 

ey^ 

2  [2] 

Russian 

R. 

2 

9 

5(3) 

-[Z] 

Exhaustion. 

leather, 

L. 

3,1 

4(2) 

o(-) 

2 

5  [6] 

16, 

AsafcEtida, 

R. 

2,1 

8 

3(3) 

6(-) 

4>^ 

A[Z] 

( General            ) 
<  fatigue.            \ 
(  Exhaustion.    ) 

L. 

3,1 

4(1) 

z'A 

2  [5] 

R. 

3 

13 

3(2) 

6(2) 

4>^ 

3 

Iv. 

2,3 

8(1) 

5(2) 

ey^ 

2  [3] 

Russian 

R. 

3,2 

9 

6(4) 

1(1) 

3>^ 

3  [3] 

leather, 

L. 

3,1 

5(1) 

3(-) 

4 

2  [6] 

20. 

Asafoetida, 

R. 

1,3 

8 

3(-) 

3(2) 

3 

3[Z] 

Exhaustion. 

L. 

1,1 

3(-) 

o(-) 

i^ 

5  [-] 

R. 

3.2 

13 

6(1) 

6(1) 

6 

2  [3] 

L. 

3,2 

7(1) 

3(2) 

5 

3  [3] 

Russian 

R. 

1,2 

9 

lo(-) 

1(2) 

s'A 

A  [6] 

Exhaustion. 

leather, 

L. 

3,1 

3(1) 

i(-) 

2 

5[Z] 

Jan.     8, 

Cedar, 

L. 

4 

22 

8(2) 

8(3) 

8 

3 

Exhaustion. 

II, 

R. 

4,2 

22 

\^''\ 

6(2) 

7 

3  [5] 

( Exhaustion.    ) 
1  Pungency.       J 

L. 

3,4 

63 

8(3; 

7 

3  [4] 

L. 

42 

ii(i) 

10(1) 

io>^ 

4 

22. 

Asafoetida, 

R. 

2 

12 

8(4) 

8(0) 

8 

A 

General  fatigue. 

L. 

5(3) 

8(1) 

ey 

A 

R. 

2 

22 

14(2) 

13(2) 

ny 

A 

L. 

8(1) 

14(0) 

II 

2 

Feb.     I, 

R. 

3 

22 

8(2) 

8(1) 

8 

3 

L. 

8(3) 

8(3) 

8 

3 

R. 

3 

12 

10(1) 

8(1) 

9 

A 

L. 

9(2) 

7(1) 

8 

A 

5. 

Coumarine, 

R. 

3 

56 

14(2) 

7(4) 

io>^ 

5 

12, 

Heliotropine, 

R. 

4 

28 

15(2) 

11(0) 

13 

2 

126 


GAMBLE  : 


TabIvK  II. — Contimied. 


1                                 1 

No.  of 

;                1 

Datr. 

Substance. 

Nostril. 

values 
aver- 

r 

Aro 

1 
Aru   Ar 

Ar 
r 

Disturbing 
factors. 

aged. 

Feb.  12, 

Heliotropine, 

L. 

13(1) 

11(2)12 

2 

R. 

3 

48 

18(0) 

l^{l)\l'7% 

3 

- 

L. 

20(2) 

15(1)  i7>^ 

3 

i8, 

R. 

2 

28 

17(0) 
14(2) 

13(0)  15 

Il(o)il2K 

A 

2 

R. 

2 

48 

18(1) 

15(0) 

i6>^ 

3 

L. 

19(5) 

14(0) 

i6>^ 

3 

26. 

R. 

2 

27 

13(0) 

10(0) 

ii'A 

2 

h. 

12(1; 

8(1) 

10 

3 

R. 

2 

47 

19(1) 

14(3) 

16/2 

3 

L. 

1,2 

i6(-) 

9(2) 

I2>^ 

4 

Mar.    I, 

R. 

3 

27 

13(1) 

8(0) 

ioy2 

3 

General  fatigue. 

Iv. 

12(2) 

8(0) 

10 

3 

R. 

3 

47 

18(1) 

15(0) 

i6>^ 

3 

. 

Iv. 

18(0) 

15(1) 

i6>^ 

3 

3. 

Valerianic 

R. 

3 

i8 

15(2) 

9(1) 

12 

A 

( Pungency.       ) 
1  Exhaustion,    i 

acid, 

Iv. 

14(2) 

7(3) 

io>^ 

A 

R. 

2 

38 

18(1) 

13(1 

i5>^ 

3 

Iv. 

2,3 

16(2) 

9(2) 

I2>^ 

3 

8, 

R. 

2 

18 

13(0 

3(2) 

8 

2 

L. 

3 

12(1) 

4(2) 

8 

2 

R. 

2 

38 

16(2) 

6(4) 

II 

4 

L. 

1,2 

i8(-) 

5(0) 

llVz 

3 

i8, 

R. 
I.. 

2,1 
2 

18 

15(2) 
15(3) 

4(-) 

3(2 

9 

A 
2 

C  General  fa-     "j 
J  tigue.     Nose-  I 
1  bleed  during  f 

R. 

2,1 

38 

24(2) 

ii(-) 

17/2 

2 

tthe  day.          J 

L. 

2 

20(1) 

11(0) 

is'A 

3 

i9> 

R. 

2,3 

18 

ii(i) 
12(0) 

5(1) 

2 

r  Irritation  of    \ 
\  nasal  mem-     ! 

L. 

2 

— 

— 

— 

1  branes.             f 

R. 

3,2 

38 

16(1) 

10(4) 

13 

3 

[  Exhaustion.   J 

L. 

2 

17(1) 

10(3) 

i3>^ 

3 

21, 

R. 

3 
3,2 

18 

13(1) 
13(0) 

7(2) 
7(1 

10 
10 

A 

A 

Irritation  of    ' 
nasal  mem- 
•  branes. 

R. 

3 

38 

16(1)13(1.) 

14/2 

3 

1  Smell  of 

L. 

2 

18(1) 

11(2) 

H'A 

3 

(.tobacco. 

26. 

Citral, 

R. 

2 

13 

8(1) 

5(2) 

e<A 

2 

'  Irritation  of 
nasal  mem- 

L. 

3,2 

8(1) 

4(2) 

6 

2 

branes. 

R. 

ly.  • 

2,1 

3,2 

28 

13(0) 
12(2) 

8(-) 
7(1 

9^ 

3 
3 

'  Homatropin 
freshly  put 
jntothe  eyes.  J 

Apr.  i6, 

R. 

1.2 

13 

7(-) 

0(0) 

z'A 

4 

L. 

2 

8(1) 

2(1) 

5 

3 

R. 

3 

28 

12(0) 

4(2) 

8 

4 

L. 

2,3 

12(1) 

5(2) 

^A  3 

T.  whose  results  seem  best  fitted  to  be  used  as  an  illustration,  worked 
twice  a  week,  as  a  rule,  during  the  time  covered  by  this  Table.  No 
difference-determinations  obtained  from  her  during  this  time  by  the 
method  of  just  noticeable  differences  have  been  omitted.  In  October, 
we  worked  with  her  once  a  week,  but  were  occupied  chiefly  in  finding 
stimulus-limina.  She  also  worked  for  us  several  hours  late  in  the 
spring  with  results  which  did  not  differ  materially  from  those  em- 
bodied in  the  table.  The  fourth  column  of  the  Table  gives  the  number 
of  values  averaged  to  obtain  the  figures  given  in  the  columns  headed 


weber's  law  to  smell.  127 

A^^  and  Ar«.  If  two  figures  stand  on  a  line  in  the  fourth  column,  the 
first  refers  to  /\ro  and  the  second  to  A^«.  One  figurerefers  not  toi)oth 
together  but  to  each  alike.  The  numbers  in  parentheses  are  all  mean 
variations.  A  dash  in  parentheses  means  that  the  number  by  which 
it  stands  is  not  an  average.     In  the  column  headed  Ar,  for  the  sake 

r 
of  brevity  values  greater  than  ^  are  indicated  by  the  letter  A ;  values 
equal  to  )/%  or  less,  but  nearer  to  >^  than  to  ]/>,,  are  indicated  by  the 
figure  2 ;  values  equal  to  Yj,  or  nearer  to  Yi  than  to  )^  or  to  X.  by  the 
figure  3 ;  values  equal  to  %  or  nearer  to  %  than  to  Yi  or  to  \,  by  the 
figure^ ;  values  equal  to  \  or  nearer  to  \  than  to  %  or  to  \y  by  the  fig- 
ure 5  ;  values  equal  to  \  or  greater,  but  nearer  to  \  than  to  \,  by  the 
figure  6  ;  and  values  less  than  \,  by  the  letter  Z.  Every  subject 
sometimes  moved  the  cylinder  beyond  the  standard,  and  the  reading, 
if  taken  at  all,  could  be  written  only  as  a  minus  quantity.  This  cross- 
ing of  the  standard  almost  never  occurred  with  the  fluid-mantle 
olfactometer,  and  when  it  did  the  error  was  so  easily  explained  that 
the  reading  was  not  taken.  Between  November  9  and  the  time  when 
the  liquids  were  first  used,  two  sets  of  averages  were  obtained,  the 
first  by  excluding  and  the  second  by  including  these  negative  quanti- 
ties when  they  occurred.  In  Tables  IV,  V  and  VI,  only  values 
representing  no  negative  quantities  and  differing  from  averages  of 
the  same  series  with  the  addition  of  such  quantities  by  less  than  % 
are  included  in  the  enumeration.  The  averages  enclosed  in  square 
brackets  in  Table  II  were  found  by  including  minus  quantities  in  the 
average  values  of  /^ro  and  /\ru.  From  all  unbracketed  averages,  nega- 
tive quantities  are  excluded.  A  dash  in  square  brackets  indicates 
that  the  corresponding  value  of  /\r  is  itself  a  negative  quantity. 

The  effect  of  some  of  the  disturbing  factors  which  are  con- 
stant can  best  be  illustrated  in  connection  with  this  Table. 
Besides  exhaustion,  adhesion,  and  the  tendency  to  judge  in 
terms  of  hand-movement,  which  we  call  for  short  "the  move- 
ment-error," some  obstruction  of  the  nasal  passages,  some 
slight  compensating-smells,  such  as  that  of  the  absorbent 
cotton  used  to  wipe  the  inhaling-tube,  and  some  distraction  of 
the  attention  in  manipulating  the  large  instrument,  must  be 
taken  for  granted  with  all  the  subjects.  Only  marked  ex- 
haustion is  expressly  noted  in  Table  II.  Another  source  of 
error  which  comes  into  operation  with  asafoetida,  oil  of  mace, 
Russian  leather,  and  all  the  liquids  except  coumarine,  helio- 
tropine  and  musk  is  the  escape  of  odor  between  the  cylinder 
and  the  tube.  The  effect  of  this  circumstance,  which  was 
mentioned  in  Section  2  of  Chapter  2,  must  be  to  make  the 
value  of  Ar  too  large,  because  it  makes  the  standard  larger 

r 
than  the  instrument  indicates.     If,  for  example,  r  on  the  in- 
strument is  20  mm.,  but  really  is  25  mm. ,  and  A  r  is  found  to  be 
5  mm.,  then  A^will  be  nominally  ^  while  really  it  is  \. 
r 

As  we  explained  in  discussing  the  disadvantages  of  the 
method  of  just  noticeable  differences,  the  effect  of  the  move- 
ment-error is  to  make  the  value  of  A  r  smaller  for  the  larger 


128  GAMBLE: 

standards,  and  thus  to  conceal  the  operation  of  Weber's  law. 
If  we  look  now  at  the  values  of  A  r  in  Table  II,  we  shall  see  at 

r 
a  glance  that  this  variation  exists.     It  should  be  noted  that 
no  variation  in  the  order  of  the   standards  will  eliminate  the 
movement- error.     If  the  smaller  standard  is  given  first  and  a 
certain  habit  of  movement  acquired,  this  habit  will  make  A  r 

r 
for  the  larger  standard  too  small.     If  the  habit  is  acquired  «in 
connection  with  the  larger  standard,  it  will  make  A  r  for  the 

r 
smaller  too  large.  It  is  true  that  if  the  standards  were  alter- 
nated by  single  determinations,  rather  than  by  short  series,  a 
habit  of  movement  would  be  less  likely  to  establish  itself,  but 
such  a  procedure  is  excessively  confusing  to  the  subject  in  the 
case  of  smell,  and,  moreover,  all  work  done  with  the  smaller 
standard  after  the  organ  is  blunted  with  the  larger  is  more  or 
less  unsatisfactory.  If  the  distance  between  the  standards 
and  the  stimuli  offered  as  decidedly  greater  or  less  were  kept 
not  absolutely  but  relatively  equal,  the  movement- error  would 
be  concealed.  The  fact  that  these  distances  cannot  be  kept 
absolutely  equal,  if  the  stimulus  of  comparison  is  to  be  accepted 
as  such  by  the  subject,  is  in  itself  no  small  confirmation  of 
Weber's  law.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were  kept  as  nearly 
equal  as  possible,  both  to  avoid  concealing  the  movement-error 
and  to  minimize  exhaustion  by  strong  stimuli.  They  often 
varied  in  the  same  series  as  the  subject's  organ  became  blunted 
to  all  differences  and  then  recovered  itself,  but  in  general  for  a 
standard  of  lo  or  15  mm.,  the  difference  was  made  10  mm.  ; 
for  a  standard  of  20  or  30,  15  ;  for  a  standard  of  40  or  50,  20, 
and  for  a  standard  of  60  or  70,  25. 

The  moving  back   and   forth  at  the  limen    is    some   safe- 
guard against  the  error,  yet  the  tendency  of  A^  to  be  smaller 

r 
for  the  larger  standards  is  apparent  in  the  results  of  subjects 
whose  attention  was  good  and  whose  movements  were  careful. 
Thus,  it  is  particularly  well-marked  in  the  work  of  Se. ,  who 
was  certainly  not  inferior  to  any  of  our  subjects.  Moreover,  the 
same  tendency  showed  itself  when  the  different  standards  were 
used  on  different  days,  and  a  habit  in  such  nice  adjustments 
could  scarcely  persist  from  day  to  day  or  week  to  week  with  so 
little  practice.  If  (i)  the  movement-error  is  one  explanation 
of  the  variation,  (2)  the  escape  of  odorous  vapor  is  in  some 
cases  another.  The  equal  though  unmeasured  increment  is 
a  larger  fraction  of  the  smaller  standard  than  of  the  larger. 
If  our  standards  are  20  and  40  and  the  increment  is  4,  while 


webkr's  law  to  smell.  129 

Ar=  }(  in  both  cases,  then  A r  will  be  6  in  one  case  and    1 1 
r 
in  the  other,  and  we  must  write  the  values  of  A  r  f  J  and  f|. 

r 
We  believe  that  (3)  a  fortuitous  circumstance  in  connection 
with  the  standard  olfactometer  is  another  factor  in  the  same 
result.  Usually,  the  last  movement  made  by  the  subject  is  an 
outward  movement.  He  moves  from  a  point  decidedly  differ- 
ent from  the  standard  to  subjective  equality,  and  then  a  little 
way  back  again, — in  and  out  once  or  oftener.  In  moving  the 
cylinder  the  hand  is  apt  to  slip,  and  the  accidental  increment  to 
A  r  is  a  larger  fraction  of  the  smaller  standard  than  of  the  larger. 
Adhesion  is  not  a  factor  in  the  case,  for  it  is  larger  for  the 
larger  standard,  varies  with  the  length  of  the  determination, 
has  an  opposite  effect  upon  l\ro  and  i\ru^  and  is  balanced  in 
an  indefinite  way  by  exhaustion. 

It  should  be  noted  in  Table  II  that  at  first  /\ru  is  usually  slightly 
larger  than  l^ro,  but  that  with  practice  this  variation  is  reversed.  The 
natural  effect  of  exhaustion  is  to  make  l\ro  larger  than  Ar«,  for  ex- 
haustion does  not  affect  the  standard  stimulus  and  stimulus  of  com- 
parison equally,  but  progresses  all  the  time  that  the  latter  is  manipu- 
lated. This  tendency  is  in  a  manner  checked  by  the  time-error  and 
by  adhesion.  (See  Chapter  I,  Section  4.)  Now  Be.,  the  one  subject 
who  had  had  some  experience  in  smell-experiments  before  the  begin- 
ning of  this  course,  tended  from  the  first  to  make  /\ro  greater  than  l\ru. 
All  the  other  subjects  at  first  made  /\ru  greater  than  A^<?,  but  all  ex- 
cept Rog.,  Se.  and  5^.  changed  the  tendency  with  practice  or  began 
to  do  so.  Rob.,  N.  and  T.  altered  it  very  soon  and  decidedly.  With 
►S*^.  the  values  were  usually  almost  equal.  This  alteration  with  prac- 
tice seems  to  show  that  exhaustion  causes  more  disturbance  than  ad- 
hesion and  the  time-error  put  together.  This  is  what  we  should 
expect,  for  although  the  subject  rested  while  the  tube  was  being 
cleaned,  yet  the  removal  of  adhesion  was  absolute, while  the  recupera- 
tion of  the  organ  was  less  complete  each  time.^  We  never  can  be 
quite  sure,  however,  whether  exhaustion  is  really  decreasing  the 
strength  of  stimuli  regularly,  or  is  blunting  all  differences  or  making 
all  movements  haphazard.  When  a  subject  complained  that  his  nose 
felt  "hot,"  "dry,"  "rough,"  "scrapy,"  "sore,"  or  "numb,"  his 
movements  were  often  erratic,  and  the  smaller  stimulus  sometimes 
seemed  as  strong  as  the  larger,  which  probably  stunned  the  already 
weary  organ  instantly.  The  dryness,  no  doubt,  was  due  to  the  vigor- 
ous breathing.  The  tongue  of  a  fever-patient  will  become  much  more 
parched  and  black  if  respiration  through  the  nose  is  obstructed. 

The  original  tendency  to  make  Aro  decidedly  smaller  than  Aru,  and 
the  difficulty  of  finding  the  lower  stimulus-limen  are  probably  due  to 
the  same  cause.  Both  cumulative  stimulation  and  memory  after- 
images might  produce  the  tendency,  though  both  would  be  counter- 
acted in  a  measure  by  the  moving  to  and  fro  at  the  limen.  Against 
both,  the  subject  would  learn  to  guard  in  a  measure.  Be.  mentioned 
"  after-images  "  of  cocoa-butter,  and  Se.  of  tolu  balsam.  Frequently 
a  subject  would  complain  that  he  could  not  "  get  the  strong  smell  out 
of  his  nose." 


^  Zwaardemaker  :  op.  cit.,  pp.  203-204. 
JOURNAI, — 9. 


I30 


GAMBLE  : 


In  the  mean  variations,  as  a  whole,  it  is  impossible  to  trace  any 
tendency  to  be  larger  in  judgments  made  with  reference  to  the  larger 
standard.  Though  the  larger  standard  was  usually  given  last,  the 
effect  of  exhaustion  in  producing  erratic  judgments  towards  the  end 
of  the  hour  seems  to  have  been  balanced  by  a  certain  lack  of  practice. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  hour,  there  is  a  sort  of  conscious  awkwardness, 
characteristic  of  these  smell-judgments  when  first  attempted.  It  is 
impossible  to  draw  from  our  figures  any  conclusion  in  regard  to  the 
delicacy  of  quantitative  sensible  discrimination  in  smell.  The  varia- 
tions were  evidently  controlled  to  a  great  extent  by  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  instrument  and  the  subject's  habit  of  movement,  and 
it  must  be  confessed  that  from  day  to  day  the  effect  of  practice 
upon  them  was  not  very  clearly  marked.  All  the  subjects  had 
smaller  mean  variations  when  using  the  fluid-mantle  olfactometer, 
but  this  fact  can  hardly  have  been  due  to  practice,  for,  although  the 
other  instrument  was  used  first  in  every  case,  Rob.,  Rog.  and  T.  re- 
turned to  it  after  using  the  large  instrument  for  a  while,  and  showed 
the  same  mean  variations  as  they  did  at  the  beginning.  Moreover, 
the  difficulty  of  turning  the  screw-head  of  the  large  instrument  and 


Tabi,e  III. 
Complete  Results  for  One  Solid  and  One  Liquid  Substance. 


SUBSTANCE. 


Gray 
rubber, 

Coumarine, 


SUBJECT. 


Be. 

D. 

Se. 

Be. 

Bi. 

C. 

D. 
K. 
M. 

N. 

P. 
Rob. 

Rog. 

Se. 

Sh. 


17       17       22      19       14^      17    r,«rl   -3  5 

g'7>  TS")  T4»  T¥)  TF  w.  7"^  ana  y ^ 5-, 
/e  w.  f  i  and  yW 

8     ^j     22      13    ^T      19 

Tg"  W.  y-g",  -g-g-  W.  y-g- 

14xTr   18   15  -mr   19   15  ^T   13   14  ^7.   20 

16   14 
"5T 


VAI^UES  OF 


Ar 


1  O    X  •* 

3^^>  "ST 

1  2  „.   17   1  2  ^7-   17   1  6  -oy 

24   17   25   23  ^r   25   25   2 

19^.   27   17  ^T   27 


24   12^ 

17      25      23xTrr      25      25      22-prT      29 
si,    •t2»    T^  W.   -g-^,    -5-^,    -5-2-  W.    -92, 

1  9  ^T   2  7   1  7  XTT   2. 7. 
TY  W.  9^,  "S^Y  W.  -9  2" 

14  „r    18     15   ^r    19 

¥2  W.  y2"»  ¥2-  W.  y^ 

16    20^,7   27    18-r^T   29 
TrV*  T 2-  W.  TT2-»  T2-  W.  yxT 


it   o 

7T 


4   23 
■5'2 


72- 
5 


24  w 

25 

T2" 


w.  tVV,  ft  w.  tVt ,  ft  w.  ttV 
*f,  Ifw.  Jf,  ii-w.  II,  ifw.ff 

9.  R         9  1 2  6 


26 


Ifw. 


J  2   6  2   1       -prr  -^_ 

^7       3  8        2  7  w       33        19  TTT      21. 

if  w.  ff ,  M  w.  M 
T^  w.  If.  if  w.  li,  H  w.  H.  M  w.  *f 

if,  T%,  H  w-  If .  tt  ^-  H 

21 
TTT 


1  8 
"ST) 


^T  ^*  T5^ 


wkber's  law  to  smkll. 


131 


the  propensity  of  the  movable  cylinder  of  the  small  instrument  for 
slipping  are  quite  enough  to  explain  the  fact.  The  mean  variations 
of  Rob.,  Rog.,  Se.  and  Sh.  closely  resembled  those  of  T.,  both  in  size 
and  in  degree  of  uniformity.  Those  of  Be.,  Bi.,  C,  M.  and  N.  ran 
higher,  and  were  more  irregular.  This  fact  was  undoubtedly  due  to 
hasty  movements  in  the  cases  of  Bi.,  C.  and  M.,  and  to  exhaustion  in 
the  cases  of  Be.  and  N.  D.'s  mean  variations  were  large  and  irregu- 
lar in  the  beginning,  but  improved  with  his  manner  of  moving  the 
cylinder,  and  K.'s  also  were  large  at  first,  but  finally  approximated  to 
Z'.'s.  P.'s  were  suspiciously  small,  as  small  with  the  fluid-mantle  as 
with  the  standard  olfactometer,  and  indicated  the  movement-error 
beyond  a  doubt. 

Results  connected  by  W.  ("with")  were  found  on  the  same  day 
for  the  same  nostril.  The  values  obtained  with  gray  rubber  were 
chosen  for  illustration  because  vulcanized  rubber  was  used  with  three 
different  methods,  and  those  obtained  with  coumarine  were  taken 
because  this  scent  was  used  with  all  the  thirteen  subjects.  Both  sets 
are  fair  samples  of  the  whole  mass  of  results.  The  series  of  Be.  and  D. 
with  gray  rubber,  and  of  Bi.,  C,  K.,  31.,  N.,  Rob.  and  Sh.  with  cou- 
marine, give  pretty  clear  indications  of  the  validity  of  Weber's  law. 
That  of  5<?.with  rubber,  and  those  of  D.,  P.,  Rog.  and  Sh.  with  couma- 
rine, indicate  the  operation  of  the  law  simply  by  the  fact  that  as  a 
rule  the  numerators  of  the  fractions  with  the  larger  denominators  are 
larger.  The  series  of  Be.  and  T.  with  coumarine  are  too  short  to 
prove  anything  by  themselves.  A  series  in  which  the  numerators  of  the 
fractions  with  the  larger  denominators  are  persistently  smaller  than 
those  of  the  fractions  with  the  smaller  denominators  or  equal  to  them 
may  be  counted  as  tending  to  disprove  the  law. 

In  the  complete  set  of  results — counting  the  results  of  one  subject 
with  one  substance  as  one  series — there  are  55  series  for  solids.  Out 
of  these,  15  indicate  Weber's  law  clearly  ;  14  indicate  it  faintly  ;  11  long 


Tabi,e  IV. 


Ar 


Approximate  Values  of  —7  obtained  for  Pairs  of  Standard  Stimulus- 
Intensities  Sensed  under  the  Same  Conditions, — viz  : 
Subject,  Nostril,  Substance,  and  Hour. 


Ar 

(0 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(I) 

(I) 

(2) 

(2) 

r:=i2a 

r — 

r:=.2a 

/• 

T 

r=za 

or2a^ 

r-=^a 

a-^{a 

r — a 

or2a-\- 

r a 

a-^{a 

A.  V. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

C. 

>?^(A) 

20 

3 

14 

II 

10 

7 

I 

J^(2) 

7 

7 

5 

5 

35 

I 

H 

4 

/3(3) 

34 

13 

7 

10 

35 

57 

46 

32 

^(4) 

9 

32 

21 

7 

6 

34 

17 

32 

J  (5) 

3 

II 

9 

12 

3 

3 

3 

12 

%  (6) 

5 

4 

3 

5 

I 

4 

YAi-L) 

I 

3 

I 

13 

I 

2 

5 

Total, 

74 

74 

61 

61 

95 

95 

90 

90 

132  GAMBLE: 

>  /z       y2        Vs        'A        I       i        a 

40  40 


Curves  Ii,i,ustrating  the  Vai^uks  of  At  for  Soi^ids  when  r  =  a 

r 
AND  2  a  OR  2a-\-.     (See  Table  IV.; 

series  are  of  doubtful  interpretation  ;  13  series  are  too  short  to  prove 
anything  ;  and  2  tend  to  disprove  the  law.  Out  of  39  series  for  liquids, 
24  indicate  the  law  clearly,  and  11  do  so  faintly,  while  3  are  too  short 
to  count,  and  only  i  tends  to  disprove  the  law. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  the  Tables  which  summarize  the  evidence. 

As  noted  before.  Table  IV  enumerates  only  values  for  standards 
which  can  be  paired  as  sensed  under  the  same  conditions.  The  left 
column  of  each  pair  of  columns  enumerates  values  obtained  for  the 
smaller  standards  in  the  pairs.  The  columns  headed  (i)  enumerate 
values  for  standards  of  which  one  was  twice  as  strong  as  the  other, 
or  more  than  twice  as  strong.  The  columns  headed  (2)  enumerate 
values  for  standards  of  which  one  was  less  than  twice  as  strong 
as  the  other.  All  values  obtained  for  standards  which  can  be  paired 
are  included.  A.  V.  stands  for  "  Approximate  Values,"  and  C.  for 
"  Cases." 

We  believe  that  we  have  accounted  for  the  tendency  of  Ar 

r 
to  be  somewhat  smaller  for  the  larger  standards.  In  Table  IV, 
however,  it  is  clear  that  the  errors  to  which  this  tendency  is 
due  do  not  serve  to  conceal  the  operation  of  Weber's  law.  If 
certain  absolute  differences  of  smell-intensity  were  sensed  and 
A  r  for  a  given  standard  were  yz,  then  for  a  standard  twice  as 
r 
strong  it  should  be  ^,  not  %. 

Tables  V  and  VI  are  arranged  to  show  such  variations  as 
occur  from  subject  to  subject,  and  substance  to  substance.  That 
it  may  be  seen  that  each  subject  used  a  variety  of  substances, 
and  that  the  different  subjects  used  the  substances  in  different 


wbber's  law  to  smell. 


133 


60 


% 


X 


<i 


60 


Curves  IIvI^ustrating  the  Vai^ues  of  A^  for  Liquids  when  r=  a 

r 
AND  2  a  OR  2  a-\-.     (See  Table  IV.) 

Of  these  curves,  the  heavy  lines  give  the  values  for  the  smaller, 
and  the  broken  lines  for  the  larger  standards.  The  ordinates  give  the 
number  of  cases,  and  the  abscissae  approximate  values. 

orders,  we  preface  the  Tables  with  the  following  list  of  sub- 
stances as  used  in  order  by  each  subject : 

Be.  Black  rubber,  tolu,  cocoa-butter,  asafoetida,  Russian 
leather,  gray  rubber,  coumarine,  heliotropine,  valerianic  acid, 
citral. 

Bi,     Cocoa-butter,  coumarine,  vanilline. 

C.  Gum  benzoin,  oil  of  mace,  cedar,  coumarine. 

D.  Gray  rubber,  gum  benzoin,  oil  of  mace,  coumarine,  oil 
of  camphor. 

K.  Tolu,  rose-wood,  asafoetida,  Russian  leather,  gum  am- 
moniac and  gutta-percha  from  Utrecht,  oil  of  mace,  coumarine, 
musk,  ethyl  butyrate. 

M.     Cocoa- butter,  coumarine. 

N.  Black  rubber,  tallow,  musk-root,  rose-wood,  oil  of 
mace,  heliotropine,  oil  of  camphor,  vanilline. 


134 


GAMBI^E  : 


P.  Gum  ammoniac  and  gutta-percha,  home-made,  glycer- 
ine soap,  oil  of  mace,  coumarine,  oil  of  camphor. 

Rob.  Glycerine  soap,  gum  ammoniac  and  gutta-percha, 
home-made,  oil  of  mace,  coumarine,  vanilline,  cedar,  gum  am- 
moniac and  gutta-percha  from  Utrecht. 

Rog.  Black  rubber,  parafiine,  coumarine,  oil  of  camphor, 
caryophylline,  gum  benzoin,  oil  of  anise,  laudanum. 

Se.  Tolu,  rose-wood,  tallow,  asafoetida,  musk-root,  gray 
rubber,  oil  of  mace,  coumarine,  musk,  ethyl  butyrate,  citral, 
caryophylline,  allyl  suphide. 

Sh.  Black  rubber,  cedar,  gum  ammoniac  and  gutta-percha, 
from  Utrecht,  coumarine,  oil  of  camphor. 

T.  Tolu,  Russian  leather,  asafoetida,  cedar,  coumarine, 
heliotropine,  valerianic  acid,  citral,  pyridin  and  yellow  wax. 

The  fact  that  the  order  was  not  varied  more  extensively  and 
more  systematically  was  due  to  practical  difficulties  with  the 
apparatus. 


Tabi^e  V.       Approximate:    Vai^ues 


OF  -—  Arranged  to  Show 


Variations 

for 

iNDiviDUAi.  Subjects. 

Nature 

Number  of  cases    j  ^TSiTf  1^^^^  1 

Total 

Subject. 

of 
Stimuli 

>5^(A) 

J^(2) 

>^(3) 

5<(4) 

H5) 

J  (6) 

<S(Z) 

numoer 
of  cases. 

Be. 

S. 

6 

9 

4 

6 

3 

I 

29 

L. 

5 

5 

i6 

5 

5 

I 

I 

38 

Bi. 

S. 

4 

4 

I 

3 

12 

Iv. 

I 

9 

4 

I 

3 

2 

20 

C. 

S. 

6 

2 

7 

3 

5 

I 

2 

26 

L. 

3 

6 

3 

12 

D. 

s. 

9 

4 

3 

6 

I 

23 

L. 

7 

6 

3 

16 

K. 

S. 

3 

6 

13 

5 

I 

28 

L. 

2 

6 

12 

9 

I 

30 

M. 

S. 

I 

2 

3 

L. 

I 

2 

4 

I 

8 

•      N. 

S. 

4 

2 

13 

13 

5 

3 

8 

48 

L. 

I 

I 

lO 

7 

3 

2 

24 

P. 

S. 

5 

4 

2 

I 

2 

14 

L. 

3 

6 

4 

3 

16 

Rob. 

S. 

i6 

4 

ID 

II 

I 

2 

44 

I.. 

2 

I 

8 

7 

I 

I 

20 

Rog. 

S. 

.    I 

4 

5 

5 

3 

18 

Iv. 

I 

21 

6 

3 

I 

32 

Se. 

S. 

8 

4 

II 

14 

10 

3 

2 

52 

Iv. 

I 

19 

40 

29 

3 

92 

Sh. 

s. 

2 

2 

4 

4 

12 

Iv. 

I 

9 

3 

4 

I 

18 

T. 

s. 

8 

5 

II 

13 

10 

2 

2 

51 

Iv. 

6 

II 

24 

6 

I 

4 

52 

Total, 

78 

95 

251 

175 

76 

27 

36 

738 

WEBER'S   LAW   TO   SMELL. 


135 


It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  very  little  variation  in  the  value 
of  A  r  from  class  to  class  of  substances.     All  of  Zwaardemaker's 

r 
classes  are  represented  among  either  the  solids  or  the  liquids 
except  Class  IX,  that  of  nauseating  smells.  We  could  not 
obtain  Anagyris  foetida  or  Indian  stink- wood  ("  Scatolholz  ") 
in  the  American  market,  and  we  did  not  try  soon  enough 
to  get  it  from  Europe.  Variations  in  the  results  of  individual 
subjects  are,  however,  due  to  variations  in  the  substances  used. 

TABI.E  VI. 

Approximate  Values  of  Ar  arranged  to  show  Variations  for 
r 
Different  Substances. 

PART  I.      SOIvIDS. 


Substance.     . 

Number  of 

cases/      equal  to  or      ) 
I  approximating  / 

Total 
number 
of  cases. 

>i(A) 

K2) 

i(3) 

K4) 

H5) 

K6) 

<KZ) 

Yellow  wax.     I, 



I 

3 

4 

8 

Russian  leather.     I, 

2 

4 

3 

5 

6 

I 

21 

Oil  of  mace.     II, 

25 

II 

10 

4 

50 

Cocoa-butter.     II  (?), 

3 

2 

5 

5 

3 

5 

23 

Rosewood.     II, 

I 

10 

10 

2 

I 

24 

Cedar.     II, 

9 

2 

3 

4 

18 

Tolu  balsam.     Ill, 

2 

8 

6 

2 

2 

20 

Gum  benzoin.     Ill, 

6 

2 

8 

6 

5 

2 

I 

30 

Musk-root.     IV, 

I 

6 

7 

2 

I 

3 

20 

Black  rubber.     V, 

I 

4 

5 

6 

4 

6 

26 

Gray  rubber.     V, 

2 

4 

10 

5 

I 

22 

Asafoetida.     V, 

14 

6 

5 

25 

Gum  ammoniac  and  gutta- 

percha. 

(i)     Weaker    cylinder     fr. 

Utrecht, 

I 

3 

4 

3 

2 

I 

14 

(2)     Stronger    cylinder  fr. 

Utrecht, 

I 

I 

5 

7 

I 

I 

16 

(3)     Home-made  cylinder, 

10 

2 

I 

I 

I 

15 

Paraffine.     VII, 

3 

3 

2 

8 

Mutton-tallow.     VII, 

5 

3 

4 

12 

Glycerine  soap, 

2 

4 

I 

I 

8 

Total, 

60 

37 

83 

86 

5' 

18 

25 

360 

Values  for  oil  of  mace,  asa- 

fcetida,    and    home-made 

cylinder   of   gum  ammo- 

niac and  gutta-percha, 

49 

19 

16 

4 

I 

I 

90 

Final  result, 

II 

18 

67 

82 

50 

18 

24 

270 

136 


GAMBLE  : 


TabIvK  VI. — Continued. 
Approximate  Values  of  A^  arranged  to  show  Variations  for 
r 
Different  Substances. 

PART  II.      WQUIDS. 


Substance. 

Number  of  cases  {  J^^^^^.^^     | 
1,  approximating  j 

Dtal 

tnber 

ases. 

>KA) 

K2) 

K3) 

i(4) 

K5) 

i(6) 

<KZ) 

fl  0 

Oil  of  camphor.     II, 

I 

7 

26 

8 

6 

4 

52 

Caryopliylline.     II, 

I 

2 

10 

5 

2 

20 

Oil  of  anise.     II, 

6 

I 

I 

8 

Valerianic  acid.     II, 

10 

7 

12 

2 

31 

Ethyl  butyrate.     II, 

2 

12 

8 

6 

28 

Citral.     II, 

8 

2b 

9 

I 

44 

Vanilline.     Ill, 

ID 

7 

I 

4 

2 

24 

Coumarine.     Ill, 

3 

II 

34 

31 

7 

3 

89 

Heliotropine.     Ill, 

I 

4 

14 

3 

6 

I 

I 

30 

Musk.     IV, 

2 

15 

6 

I 

24 

Allyl  sulphide.     V, 

5 

3 

8 

16 

Pyridin.     VI, 

2 

2 

4 

8 

Laudanum.     VIII, 

2 

I 

I 

4 

Total, 

18 

58 

168 

89 

25 

9 

II 

378 

PART  III.      SOI.IDS   AND  I^IQUIDS. 


Nature  of  Stimulus. 

Number  of  cases  |  _T.^\.^°.^J_  | 
L  approximating  J 

Total 
number 
of  cases. 

>KA)K2) 

K3) 

K4) 

K5) 

K6) 

<KZ) 

Solid, 
Liquid, 

II 
18 

18 
58 

67 
168 

82 

89 

50 
25 

18 
9 

24 
II 

270 
378 

Total, 

29 

76 

235 

171 

75 

27 

35 

648 

Almost  all  the  values  for  solids  in  which  A  r  exceeds  V^  were 


obtained  with  asafoetida,  oil  of  mace,  or  the  home-made  cylin- 
der of  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniac.  Thus,  out  of  9  values  in 
which  D.  exceeded  Yz  for  solids,  7  were  f  mnd  with  oil  of 
mace,  and  out  of  16  values  in  which  Rob.  exceeded  ^,  10  were 
ft)und  with  the  home-made  cylinder  of  gutta-percha  and  gum 
ammoniac,  and  4  with  oil  of  mace.  We  believe  that  it  is  per- 
fectly fair  to  exclude  these  cylinders  from  our  final  results. 
And  if  we  do  so  there  is  little  variation  from  substance  to  sub- 
stance. The  odor  of  asafoetida  and  oil  of  mace  was  very  per- 
ceptible when  the  instrument  was  closed,  and  the  mace  would 


240 


220 


WEBKR'S  I.AW  TO  SMELL. 

i       i       i 


137 


<J 


200 


180 


240 


220 


200 


180 


160 


140 


120 


100 


80 


60 


40 


20 


Curves  Showing  the  Approximate  Vai^ues  of  —  in  the  whoi^e 

Course  of  Experiments  by  the  Method  of  Just  Noticeabi^e 

Differences.     (See  Table  VI,  Part  3.) 

The  heavy  line  gives  the  values  for  both  solids  and  liquids ;  the 
dotted  line  gives  the  values  for  solids,  and  the  broken  line  for  licjuids. 
The  ordinates  give  the  number  of  cases,  and  the  abscissae  approximate 
values. 


138  GAMBLE: 

scrape  off  on  the  iiihaling-tube.  While  Zwaardemaker's  mix- 
ture of  gum  ammoniac  and  gutta-percha  is  black  and  brittle 
like  licorice,  ours  was  yellowish  gray,  contained  strings  of 
gutta-percha,  and  made  the  inhaling-tube  cloudy  and  sticky. 
We  did  succeed  in  obtaining  stimulus-limina  with  it  when  the 
inhaling-tube  was  first  cleaned,  but  we  believe  that  the  end  of 
the  tube  was  probably  soiled  most  of  the  time  during  difference- 
determinations.  We  have  not  excluded  the  results  for  Russian 
leather  because  its  odor,  like  that  of  most  of  the  liquids,  was 
just  liminal  when  the  instrument  was  closed,  and  the  results 
harmonized  with  the  others.  Since  most  of  the  liquids  had  this 
error  of  the  equal  but  unmeasured  increment,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  values  of  A  r  run  higher  for  them  than  for 

7' 

solids.  It  will  be  noticed  that  they  run  highest  for  valerianic 
acid,  which  was  particularly  troublesome  in  escaping  from  the 
instrument.  Yet  as  the  results  for  coumarine,  heliotropine, 
and  musk  show  yi  as  the  most  common  value,  we  must  con- 
clude that  the  value  of  l\r  lies  somewhere  between  yi  and  }(. 
r 

Some  of  the  substances  showed  an  interesting  difference  of 
quality  with  difference  of  intensity.  Thus  several  subjects 
thought  that  oil  of  camphor  smelt  like  nutmeg  when  weak,  and 
like  turpentine  when  strong.  The  slight  odor  of  the  paraffine 
appeared  when  a  strong  stimulus  was  given  with  coumarine. 
T.  said  that  heliotropine  smelled  like  heliotrope  on  the  left 
(the  better)  side  of  her  nose,  and  like  bitter-almonds  on  the 
right.  (As  a  matter  of  fact  the  two  smells  are  closely  allied.) 
Se.  said  that  the  tallow  smelled  like  onions  in  his  poorer  nos- 
tril. Fluctuations  at  the  limen  were  also  noted.  Coumarine 
and  heliotropine, when  weak, were  said  to  come  "  in  whiffs"  or 
"waves,"  and  /C,  always  spoke  of  weak  smells  as  "scat- 
tered." 

Section  J.     Results  of  Other  Methods. 

Table  VII  gives  some  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  method 
of  just  noticeable  differences  modified  in  the  direction  of  the 
method  of  minimal  changes,  as  described  in  Chapter  I,  Section 
4,  and  shows  the  agreement  of  these  results  with  those  reached 
by  the  ordinary  method.  C.  M.  stands  for  "Combination 
Method." 

We  used  red  rubber  with  the  true  method  of  minimal 
changes  because  Zwaardemaker  had  done  so.  The  cylinder 
was  obtained  from  Utrecht.  The  experiments  of  which  the 
results  are  given  in  Table  VIII  extended  through  five  labora- 
tory-hours. It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  instrument  was 
manipulated  entirely  by  the  experimenter. 


WEBER'S   LAW   TO   SMELL. 


139 


Tabi,e  VII. 
Results  of  the  Modified  Form  of  the  Method  of  fust  Noticeable 
Differences. 


H 

i-r 

S?^ 

0 

w 

SUB- 
STANCE. 

METHOD 
AND 

I 

if 

Ar^' 

Aro" 

Arz^" 

Ar«' 

Arc 

Arw 

Ar 

Ar 
r 

t3 
03 

Standard 

^ 

pcj-*S 

D. 

Gray 

m.) 

R. 

4 

9 

8 

6 

10 

9 

8 

8>^ 

2 

rubber, 

L. 

II 

8 

3 

7 

ID 

5 

7/2 

3 

i^^,} 

R. 

4 

18 

9 

3 

II 

14 

7 

10/2 

4 

L. 

18 

9 

4 

8 

14 

6 

10 

4 

lr  =  i9/ 

R. 

4 

2 

6 

4 

.S 

L. 

7 

6 

6>^ 

3 

{^=39} 

R. 

4 

12 

10 

II 

4 

L. 

9 

10 

9/2 

4 

K. 

Rose- 

{r^^«} 

R. 

3 

15 

5 

2 

II 

10 

7 

8X2 

3 

wood, 

L. 

IT 

6 

3 

16 

9 

10 

9>^ 

2 

{%^^ 

R. 

4 

14 

4 

5 

8 

9 

7 

5 

L. 

12 

6 

9 

14 

9 

12 

10^2 

4 

{.^=^1 

R. 

2 

10 

5 

7 

10 

8 

9 

8/2 

3 

L. 

8 

7 

8 

4 

8 

6 

7 

3 

{^=4^} 

R. 

L. 

2 

10 
II 

6 
6 

3 
4 

9 
10 

8 
9 

6 

7 

7 
8 

6 
5 

{VJ.) 

R. 

9 

9 

9 

3 

L. 

13 

15 

14 

A 

/J  NDl 

I  r=42  / 

R. 

8 

16 

12 

4 

Iv. 

7 

14 

io>^ 

4 

Table  VIII. 

Results  obtained  for  Red  Rubber  by  the  True  Method  of  Minimal 

Changes. 

SUBJECT — SH. 


r=io  mm. 


40  mm. 


Gradation  =2  mm. 
A^=4  mm. 


^1 

given  before  i 

r. 

r  given  before  rj . 

Ar^' 

Ar<?" 

/\ro 

Aro' 

Aro" 

Aro 

R.N. 

6 

6 

6 

12 

6 

9 

L.N. 

6 

10 

8 

6 

8 

7  ■ 

Arw' 

Ar«" 

Aru 

Ar«' 

Arw" 

Aru 

R.  N. 

12 

6 

9 

6 

12 

9 

L.N. 

8 

4 

6 

8 

12 

10 

Ar 

Ar 

Ar 

Ar 

R.N. 

L.  N. 

7^ 
7 

r 

'4. 

8i 

H^r-^- 

Final  result :  R.  N.  Ar=8^  mm.  Ar=ff =|+ 


140 


GAMBLE  : 


Zwaardemaker  concluded  that  for  a  standard  of  from  2  to  5 
cm.,  the  difference  limen  was  about  1.5  cm.,  and  that  for  a 
standard  of  from  5  to  9  cm. ,  it  was  about  3. 5  cm.  This  would 
make  the  value  of  A  r  run  from  about  Yz   to  about  ^.     Our 


own  results  agree  fairly  well  with  his,  and  are  a  verj'  pretty- 
confirmation  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  method  of  just 
noticeable  differences.  The  writer  intends  to  use  the  method 
of  minimal  changes  much  farther. 

In  contrast  with  these  excellent   results  are  those   of  the 
next  Table  : 

Table  IX. 
Results  obtained  by  the  Method  of  Right  and  Wrong  Cases. 

SUBJECTS— C,  D.,  K.,  N.,  ROB.,  ROG,,  AND  T. 

Instrument— Standard  Olfactometer.      Substances — Black  Rubber 
or  Tolu  Balsam. 


Mistakes  made  in 

TOTAI. 

Number 

OF 

Cases. 

r  AND  ri. 

Right 
Cases. 

Wrong 
Cases. 

TAKING  THE   SECOND 

stimui.us  for 

Weaker 

WHEN  Stronger. 

20  and  25 

37 

19 

12 

56 

50  and  70 

30 

10 

9 

40 

20  and  30 

47 

19 

12 

66 

30  and  50 

33 

II 

5 

44 

20  and  40 

42 

22 

18 

64 

30  and  60 

4 

2 

6 

20  and  50 

39 

II 

8 

50 

20  and  60 

7 

I 

I 

8 

The  stimuli  given  were  never  equal,  and  the  judgment 
' '  equal ' '  was  counted  a  mistake.  The  results  of  all  the  sub- 
jects are  massed. 

As  we  said  before,  while  exhaustion  makes  the  errors  nearly 
all  run  in  one  direction,  confusion  due  to  the  unfamiliarity  of 
olfactometric  work  is  probably  most  at  fault.  More  experi- 
ments should  be  made  with  the  standard  olfactometer  and 
trained  subjects.  It  is  difficult  to  use  the  large  olfactometer 
with  this  method,  because  the  intervals  between  stimuli  must 
be  made  very  long  or  the  subject  can  guess  from  the  time  spent 
in  manipulation  how  they  have  been  changed. 

As  a  rough  method  of  testing  the  applicability  of  the  method 
of  right  and  wrong  cases  to  smell,  we  blind-folded  one  subject, 
stopped  his  ears  with  absorbent  cotton,  and  required  him  to  tell 
which  way  we  had  moved  from  a  given  standard  on  the  large 
olfactometer.     The  results  are  given  in  the  following  Table  : 


wkber's  law  to  smkll. 


141 


TABI.E  X. 

Results  of  a  Rough  Attempt  to  Gauge  the  Applicability  of  the  Method 
of  Right  and  Wrong  Cases  to  Smell. 


SUBJKCT- 

-K. 

SUBSTANCE— 

ETHYI,  BUTYRATE 

4J 
0 

k 
f 

0  0 

1. 

ii'3  9 

tn 
cd 
0 

0 

u 

1 

1 

0 

If 

5 

"So 

to 

0 
0 

u 

a 

s 

8 

2 

Mm. 
20  to  30 
20  to  10 

95 
115 

46 

27 

II 
6 

152 
148 

Mm. 
40  to  60 
60  to  40 

100 
106 

35 
29 

6 

5 

141 
140 

We  see  that  here  again  the  number  of  mistakes  was  very 
large.  Yet  these  were  the  last  experiments  made  with  K. , 
who  had  worked  for  us  twice  a  week  throughout  the  year,  and 
who  had  used  butyric  ether  successfully  in  experiments  by 
the  method  of  just  noticeable  differences.  He  was,  however, 
very  tired  at  the  time  these  last  experiments  were  made.  The 
second  stimulus  still  is  more  often  mistakenly  taken  for 
the  weaker  than  for  the  stronger,  showing  that  in  these  ex- 
periments also  exhaustion  outweighed  adhesion  and  the  time- 
error  put  together.  (The  tube  was  cleaned  after  every  eight 
comparisons.) 

Summary  and  Conclusion. 

In  beginning  our  investigations,  we  saw  that  we  could  not 
isolate  simple  olfactory  qualities,  and  that  an  attempt  to  prove 
Weber's  law  for  smell  was  justified  only  by  the  assumption 
that  it  might  apply  to  fusions.  We  also  saw  that  the  fact 
that  some  olfactory  qualities  show  but  few  grades  of  intensity 
pointed  to  a  rise  towards  the  terminal  intensity  by  geometrical 
progression.  Although  Zwaardemaker  explains  the  fact  partly 
by  the  supposition  that  different  smells  have  different  differ- 
ence-limina,  we  believe  that  two  smells  with  the  same  differ- 
ence-limen  may  exhaust  the  human  sense-organ  with  very 
unequal  degrees  of  rapidity,  so  that  one  may  reach  the  termi- 
nal intensity  much  sooner  than  the  other. 

Aside  from  the  condition  of  the  sense-organ,  the  intensity  of 
a  smell  depends  ( i )  on  the  amount  of  odorous  surface  exposed 
to  the  air,  (2)  on  the  time  that  it  is  exposed,  (3)  on  the  condi- 
tion of  the  air  in  regard  to  temperature,  moisture,  etc. ,  which 
controls  the  rate  of  evaporation,  (4)  on  the  diffusion-rate  of  the 


142  GAMBI.E : 

vapor,  and  (5)  on  the  rate  andmanner  of  the  subject's  breathing. 
The  great  incidental  difficulties  in  olfactometric  work  are  ( i ) 
the  variability  of  the  organ  through  obstruction  by  mucus  or 
(2)  exhaustion,  (3)  the  adhesion  of  the  odorous  matter  to 
parts  of  the  apparatus,  and  (4)  the  presence  of  compensating 
smells.  The  freedom  of  the  nasal  passages  may  be  tested,  but 
exhaustion  can  neither  be  prevented  nor  measured,  nor  can 
adhesion  and  the  presence  of  compensating  odors  be  absolutely 
excluded.  We  employed  Zwaardemaker's  olfactometric  method 
in  which  (i)  the  measure  is  the  amount  of  odorous  surface 
exposed,  (2)  the  time  of  exposure  may  be  disregarded,  (3)  the 
diffusion-rate  of  vapor  is  under  control,  and  (4)  the  subject's 
breathing  is  supposed  to  be  self- regulating.  We  did  not  (5) 
succeed  in  regulating  the  temperature  of  our  laboratory,  but 
its  variability  was  not  of  primary  importance  in  difference- 
determinations.  Adhesion  makes  the  method  of  minimal 
changes  impracticable  for  most  substances  with  Zwaardemaker's 
method  of  smell- measurement,  and  exhaustion  contributes  to 
make  the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  very  difficult.  We 
therefore  used  the  method  of  just  noticeable  differences.  This 
psychophysical  method  involves  an  error  from  the  subject's 
tendency  to  judge  in  terms  of  hand-movement.  Another 
occasional  source  of  error,  incidental  to  our  apparatus,  was  the 
escape  of  some  odors  between  the  inhaling-tube  and  cylinder. 
Both  of  these  circumstances  tend  to  make  the  values   of  A  r 

r 
smaller  for  the  larger  standards.  Adhesion  and  the  ordinary 
time-error  tend  to  balance  exhaustion.  In  spite  of  the  four 
most  serious  sources  of  error,  (i)  exhaustion,  (2)  adhesion, 
(3)  the  movement-error,  and  (4)  the  unmeasured  increment  to 
some  stimuli,  we  found  Ar  to  be  about  Yi  in  36%   and  about 

r 
%  in  26%  of  our  determinations.  It  was  about  ^  in  12%, 
about  I  in  12% ,  about  i  in  4% ,  greater  than  ^  in  5%  and  less 
than  \  in  5  %  of  the  determinations.  The  slight  use  we  made 
of  the  other  gradation-methods  confirms  the  general  result. 
There  is  no  great  variation  from  one  substance  to  another,  or 
from  one  of  Zwaardemaker's  classes  to  another. 

There  is  much  yet  to  be  done  and  said  in  olfactometric  work 
— "of  making  of  books  there  might  be  no  end" — but  we 
believe  that  enough  has  been  said  and  done  to  offer  some 
evidence  that  Weber's  law  applies  to  smell  and  that  the  value 
of  A  r  lies  between  one-third  and  one-fourth. 


MINOR  STUDIES  FROM  THE  PSYCHOI.OGICAI, 
LABORATORY  OF  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 


Communicated  by  E.  B.  Titchener. 


XVII.     Cutaneous  Perception  of  Form. 


By  D.  R.  Major,  Ph.  D. 


The  object  of  the  following  experiments  was  the  determina- 
tion of  the  limen  of  form  at  various  parts  of  the  cutaneous 
surface.  Although  the  investigation  is  not  yet  concluded,  it 
seems  worth  while  to  publish  the  results  so  far  gained:  espe- 
cially as  there  is  no  literature  upon  the  subject  {^cf.  Henri, 
Raumw.  d.  Tastsiiuies,  1898,  p.  53). 

The  forms  employed  were  angles,  open  circles,  filled  circles 
and  filled  triangles.  ^\{^^  angles  (of  35°)  were  made  by  fasten- 
ing strips  of  sheet  rubber  to  wooden  handles.  The  lengths  of 
side  used  were  3  to  10  mm.,  inclusive.  The  open  circles  were 
cut  from  glass  tubing  (thickness  of  glass  about  .5  mm.),  the 
cut  edge  of  which  was  ground.  The  outside  diameters  ranged 
between  2  and  1 1  mm.  Th^Jilled  circles  were  made  from  solid 
glass  rods,  in  the  same  way  :  diameters  2  to  12  mm.  The  tri- 
angles (equilateral)  were  cut  from  hard  rubber  blocks,  and 
fastened  to  wooden  handles  :  sides  2  to  9  mm.  In  each  series 
the  increment  of  difference  was  i  mm.  The  method  employed 
was  that  of  just  noticeable  stimuli,  as  described  by  Kuelpe 
(^Outlines  of  Psych.,  pp.  55  f.).  The  subject  closed  his  eyes, 
and  the  form  was  pressed  firmly  down  upon  the  skin,  at  the 
place  selected.  As  soon  as  the  subject  had  cognised  (or  defi- 
nitely failed  to  cognise)  a  form,  he  opened  his  eyes,  and  drew 
upon  paper  a  figure  which  corresponded  to  the  cutaneous  per- 
ception. The  judgment  of  cutaneous  form  was  thus  recorded 
in  terms  of  a  visual  translation.  This  procedure  recommended 
itself  in  view  of  the  fact  that  movement  was  above  all  things 
to  be  avoided ;  we  were  investigating  the  cutaneous,  not  the 
tactual  appreciation  of  form.  It  may  be  said  at  once,  however, 
that  one  of  the  subjects  (G),  who  is  of  the  tactual  type  and 
has  small  power  of  visualization,  could  hardly  be  restrained 
from  movement  (wrinkling  the  skin,  shifting  the  fingers,  etc.,) 
in. spite  of  all  cautions.  With  the  other  two  subjects  no  such 
difficulty  was  found. 


144 


MAJOR  : 


The  subjects  — Dr.  I.  M.  Bentley  (B),  Dr.  E.  A.  Gamble 
(G),  and  Dr.  W.  Manahan  (M) — were  all  trained  in  psycho- 
logical methods,  and  knew  in  a  general  way  the  object  of  the 
present  enquiry.  The  procedure  with  knowledge  was,  of 
course,  followed  in  experimentation.  B  soon  became  aware 
that  only  four  forms  were  being  employed  ;  G  and  M  showed 
no  trace  of  any  positive  opinion  on  the  matter.  The  surfaces 
tested  were  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger 
of  the  right  hand,  and  the  central  portions  of  the  red  areas  of 
upper  and  lower  lips.  It  was  a  mistake  to  work  upon  all  four 
with  the  same  forms  in  a  single  investigation,  since  informa- 
tion gained  from  the  points  of  greater  discrimination  is  almost 
inevitably  transferred  to  other  points,  whose  limina  are  thus 
unduly  lowered.  The  results  proved  that  the  dimensions 
taken  were  not  small  enough,  in  the  following  cases :  angles, 
on  the  tongue  and  under  lip ;  open  circles,  on  the  tongue  ; 
filled  triangles,  on  the  tongue.  (The  results  from  G,  where 
they  stand  alone,  throw  no  light  on  this  question,  for  the 
reason  given  above.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  dimensions 
were  too  small  to  allow  of  liminal  determinations  on  forehead, 
cheek,  ball  of  thumb,  and  volar  side  of  wrist.  No  other  sur- 
faces were  tried. 

Results.  The  following  Tables  show  the  results  for  the 
three  subjects  on  the  four  surfaces.  Under  L  is  given  the 
average  form  limen ;  under  m.  v.  the  average  departure  of  the 
single  determinations  from  L  ;  under  no.  the  number  of  single 
determinations  made.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  single 
determination  implies  the  performance  of  experiments  in  two 
directions,  ascending  and  descending;  so  that,  e.g.,  lo  L's 
required  20  series  of  experiments.  The  m.  v.'s  of  the  partial 
limina  were  very  small ;  hence  neither  they  nor  the  limina 
themselves  are  shown  in  the  Tables.  The  thick  figures  indi- 
cate that  the  limit  of  the  instrument  was  reached,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  recorded  L  may  be  too  large. 

T^ABI^E  I. 
Tip  of  tongue.     Unit  i  mm. 


SuDjeci 

A' 

0 

• 

▲' 

I.. 

M.  v. 

NO. 

I.. 

M.  v. 

NO. 

Iv. 

M.  v. 

NO. 

Iv. 

M.  v. 

NO. 

I 

M 

3 

I 

8 
10 
10 

2 
2 
2 

- 

4 
4 
4 

6 
4 
4 

1-3 

I 
1 

3 
5 
4 

2 

•5 

10 

8 
8 

1  On  tongue  and  lips  these  figures  were  placed  always  with  the  apex 
pointing  upwards  or  downwards  upon  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the 
body.     Variation  of  direction  made  no  difference  in  judgment.     On 


MINOR   STUDIES. 

Tabi,e  II. 

Tip  of  finger.     Unit  i  mm. 


145 


Snbject. 

A 

0 

• 

▲ 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

L. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

B 
G 
M 

4 
5 
5 

■I 

II 
10 

6 

A 

•3 

I 

3 
4 
3 

5 
4 
6 

I 

•7 
1-3 

3 
4 
3 

4 
4 
5 

I 
I.I 
2.3 

4 

TABI.E  III. 

Upper  lip.     Unit  i  mm. 


subject. 

A 

0 

• 

▲ 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

t. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I,. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

B 
G 
M 

5 
4 
4 

.6 

•4 
.6 

8 
8 
9 

3 

•5 
~7 

4 
3 
4 

6 

5 
6 

2 
1.2 

5 
4 
4 

6 

5 
5 

2 

1-3 
•7 

II 

I 

Tabi,e  IV. 
Lower  lip.     Unit  i  m^m. 


A 

0 

• 

▲ 

snbject. 

J.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I.. 

M.  V. 

NO. 

!<• 

M.  V. 

NO. 

I,. 

M.V. 

NO. 

B 

4 

I 

5 

J 

.2 

4 

6 

1.5 

3 

7 

2.1 

7 

G 

3 

- 

9 

- 

3 

5 

1-5 

4 

4 

I 

6 

M 

8 

- 

6 

3 

•3 

3 

6 

1.7 

4 

7 

2 

5 

It  appears  from  these  Tables  that,  within  the  limits  of  our 
experiments,  the  surfaces  tested  rank,  as  regards  capacity  of 
form  cognition,  in  the  order :  tip  of  tongue,  tip  of  finger,  lips. 
(Between  upper  and  lower  lip  there  is  no  appreciable  differ- 
ence.) It  appears  further,  that  the  cutaneous  surfaces  differ 
in  their  behavior  according  as  the  stimuli  are  surfaces  or  out- 
lines :  thus  the  lips  are  at  a  disadvantage  when  the  filled  circle 
and  the  triangle  are  applied.  A  different  selection  of  stimuli 
might  therefore  lead  to  a  different  order  of  rank.  The  fact  is 
brought  out  in  Table  V,  which  is  obtained  by  massing  the 
results  from  the  three  subjects. 


the  finger  tip,  all  four  possible  positions  were  employed.  Unfortu- 
nately, we  have  no  separate  records  for  the  longitudinal  and  transverse 
directions.  The  introspective  notes,  however,  show  (for  all  three  sub- 
jects) that  cognition  was  subjectively  a  little  easier  when  the  forms 
lay  transversely  upon  the  surface,  , 

Journal, — 10 


146 


MAJOR  : 


Table  V. 
Lintina  of  form  in 


PI.ACE. 

A 

0 

• 

4 

Tongue     .     .     . 
Finger  .... 
Upper  lip      .     . 
Lower  lip       .     . 

3.7 

4.7 

3*i 

2 

3 

2.7 
2.7 

4.7 
5.7 

2.3 

4.3 

Av 

4 

2.6 

5-3 

'4.5 

We  see  from  these  figures  that  theybrw  most  easily  cognised 
by  the  four  surfaces  is  the  open  circle.  It  is,  perhaps,  hardly 
safe  to  draw  any  general  conclusion  from  them  as  to  the  order 
of  cognition  of  the  remaining  three  forms.  We  may  remark, 
however,  that  the  filled  circle  was  as  unsatisfactory  as  the  open 
circle  was  satisfactory  to  work  with.  This  accounts  for  the 
smaller  number  of  series  given  for  these  two  forms  in  the 
Tables. 

Practice — in  some  cases  extending  over  a  month  —  was  given 
with  each  instrument  for  each  place  upon  the  skin.  Its  effect 
was  twofold.  Practice  at  a  given  spot  increased  the  subject's 
power  of  discrimination  (or  rather  cognition)  of  form  at  that 
spot.^  And  practice  at  a  spot  of  finer  discrimination  was,  as 
we  have  said  above,  of  influence  upon  the  cognition  of  form  at 
spots  of  coarser  discrimination.  The  latter  fact  is  clear  from 
our  introspective  records,  especially  from  those  of  B.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  influence  was  enhanced  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  method  employed,  i.  e.,  by  the  requirement  of 
translation  from  hap  tics  into  optics. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  value  of  a  limen  is  never  an 
absolute  value.  I^imina  will  vary  as  the  conditions  of  experi- 
mentation vary.  Our  subjects  had  all  had  general  practice, 
and  worked  according  to  a  procedure  with  knowledge.  While 
we  have  reason  to  think  that  the  limina  of  these  three  subjects 
would  have  been  practically  the  same  if  obtained  by  a  proce- 
dure without  knowledge,  experiments  (not  yet  completed) 
upon  subjects  lacking  in  general  practice  promise  to  give  a 
higher  limen,  particularly  by  a  procedure  without  knowledge. 
They  indicate,  too,  that  the  values  will  difier  with  the  admis- 
sion or  rejection  of  visualization. 

Subliminal  judgments.      The    following    Tables   show   the 

^ The  values  given. by  Titchener  {Outline  of  Psychology y  p.  164)  — 
triangle,  3.5  mm.  on  tongue,  7  mm.  on  finger-tip — are  massed  values 
taken  from  our  three  subjects  at  what  proved  to  be  about  halfway 
through  the  stage  of  practice.  On  the  theory  of  practice  see  Henri, 
Raumw.  d.  Tastsinnes,  pp.  27  ff.;  Tawney,  Phtl.  Stud.,  xiii,  163  ff. 


MINOR  STUDIES. 


147 


nature  of  the  subliminal  judgments  of  form  passed  by  the  three 
subjects.     They  tell  their  own  tale  of  individual  tendency. 


Tabi,e  VI. 
Subliminal  judgments.     Tip  of  tongue. 


Subject. 

A 

• 

▲ 

B 
G 

M 

•  1 

Blur. 
Blur. 
Blur. 

9  or  blur. 

Tabi,e  VII. 
Subliminal  judgments.     Tip  of  jinger. 

SnDject. 

A 

• 

A 

0 

B 
G 
M 

0  or  '^ 
-or,v 
-or,v 

Blur. 

0 
Blur. 

• 

—  or  A 

A 

Blur. 
Blur. 

TABI.E   VIII. 

Subliminal  judgments.     Upper  lip. 

snliject. 

A 

• 

A 

0 

B 
G 

M 

^  or  Blur. 

—  or /v 

0 

Blur. 
Blur. 

Blur. 

—  or  0 

•  or  4i 

Blur. 
Blur. 

Tabi,e  IX. 
Subliminal  judgments.    Lower  lip. 

Sutiject. 

A 

A 

0 

B 
G 

M 

f^  or  Blur. 

-  or  ,v' 

•  or '^2 

Blur. 

0 
Blur. 

Blur. 

—  or  Aor,v 
•  or  ^ 

Blur. 
Blur. 

llM 

2  In 

practic 
practic 

e  experic 
e  experiu 

tients. 
lents. 

1 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  LITEEATURE. 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Moral  Instinct,  by  Alexander  Suth- 
erland. I/ondon  :  Ivongmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1898.  2  vols.,  pp.  797. 

The  volumes  are  well  printed — an  excellence  of  no  small  moment  to 
the  much  taxed  modern  eye.  Other  superficial  excellences  are :  A 
comprehensive  table  of  contents,  an  ample  index,  and  a  preliminary 
chapter  outlining  the  scope  and  method  of  work. 

In  the  preface  the  author  makes  special  acknowledgment  of  in- 
debtedness to  Darwin  and  Adam  Smith.  To  the  former  he  owes  the 
general  direction  of  his  ethical  thinking  and,  more  particularly  his 
method  of  investigation  and  demonstration.  "Full  half  of  the  book 
is  a  detailed  expansion  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters  of  his  Descent 
of  Man.''  "  His  (Darwin's)  progress  in  these  chapters  reminds  us  of 
the  march  of  some  active  and  brilliant  general  who  outlines  a  great 
conquest,  but  leaves  behind  him  many  a  fort,  and  city,  and  strong 
place,  to  be  subsequently  beleaguered  by  plodding  oflEicers,  each  con- 
cluding in  his  own  province,  by  time  and  labor,  what  his  commander 
had  effectively  done  in  design."  To  the  latter  he  owes  the  more  defi- 
nite direction  of  his  thesis.  "  Adam  Smith  would  in  all  likelihood  have 
revealed  the  origin  of  our  moral  instincts,  had  he  only  possessed  a 
mere  suspicion  of  that  greatest  of  biologic  truths  which  Darwin  was 
subsequently  to  establish.  He  saw  that  morality  was  founded  on 
sympathy,  but  nowise  perceiving  whence  that  sympathy  could  possi- 
bly be  derived,  the  whole  remained  involved  as  much  in  mystery  as 
ever." 

The  author  thus  states  his  thesis  :  "It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book 
to  show,  how  from  the  needs  of  animal  life  as  they  rose  and  developed, 
there  sprang,  at  first  with  inexpressible  slowness,  but  imperceptibly 
quickening  as  it  advanced,  that  moral  instinct  which,  with  its  con- 
comitant intelligence,  forms  the  noblest  feature  as  yet  visible  on  this 
ancient  earth  of  ours."  He  waives  all  the  "grander  and  deeper" 
philosophic  considerations  that  encompass  his  enquiry,  and  devotes 
himself  solely  to  tracing  "the  growth  of  our  moral  instincts  from  their 
humble  source  among  the  lower  animals,  with  absolutely  unbroken 
continuity  thrpugh  lowliest  savage  to  the  noblest  of  men,  always  as  a 
biologic  process." 

The  book  presents  three  stages  of  treatment.  In  the  earlier  chap- 
ters the  growth  of  sympathy  is  traced.  Parental  care  is  adduced  as 
the  condition  of  the  "emergence,  the  survival,  and  subsequent  ascend- 
ency of  the  more  intelligent  types."  The  second  stage  of  the  argu- 
ment shows  how  sympathy  having  "  thus  entered  on  its  first  humblest 
existence,"  has  deepened  and  expanded,  giving  rise  to  "the  moral 
instinct,  with  all  its  accompanying  accessories,  the  sense  of  duty,  the 
feeling  of  self-respect,  the  enthusiasm  of  both  the  tender  and  manly 
ideal  of  ethic  beauty."  Finally,  there  is  the  exposition  of  a  theory  of 
the  physiological  basis  of  those  emotional  susceptibilities  which  we 
collectively  call  by  the  name  of  "  sympathy."    (This  theory  coincides 


PSYCHOI.OGICAI.  LITBRATURK.  1 49 

very  nearly  with  the  "visceral  theory"  of  Prof.  James,  but  was 
formulated  in  ignorance  of  Prof.  James's  work.) 

The  thesis  is  supported  by  a  wealth  of  detailed  evidence  drawn  from 
the  widely  varying  fields  of  zoology,  physiology,  anthropology,  his- 
tory, jurisprudence  and  philosophy. 

As  a  scientific  history  of  "the  growth  of  our  moral  instinct"  this 
book  has  two  elements  of  weakness.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  an  apology 
and  not  strictly  a  history.  Adam  Smith's  doctrine  of  "  morality 
founded  on  sympathy"  is  assumed  as  a  proposition  to  be  demon- 
strated. Under  such  conditions  an  impartial  investigation  of  the  facts 
of  moral  evolution  would  be  well  nigh  a  superhuman  task.  In  the 
second  place  the  author's  evident  disregard  of  psychology  is  a  grave  de- 
fect. You  scan  the  index  in  vain  for  a  citation  from  a  "  simon  pure  " 
psychologist.  This  disregard  is  especially  exasperating  in  view  of 
the  author's  use  of  such  indefinite  psychological  terms  as  "  instinct" 
without  even  a  provisional  definition.  His  treatment,  too,  of  sym- 
pathy is  somewhat  invertebrate.  It  is  defined  as  "that  general  ten- 
dency which  makes  men  grieve  at  the  pains  and  rejoice  in  the 
pleasures  of  their  fellows,"  ....  the  capacity  of  contagiousness 
in  emotion."  The  physiological  conditions  of  sympathy  are  set  forth 
with  admirable  and  convincing  thoroughness  ;  but  the  psychological 
conditions,  which  can  hardly  be  of  less  significance  in  the  history  of 
the  progressive  development  of  sympathy,  are  not  mentioned.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  history  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  moral  instinct 
is  essentially  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  psychogenesis.  In  the  hands 
of  one  not  a  psychologist  the  subject  is  bound  to  suffer. 

More  specific  points  of  criticism  are  the  failure  to  take  account  of 
the  sex  factor  in  the  origin  of  sympathy,  which  seems  to  be  ascribed 
wholly  to  parental  instinct;  and  the  practical  ignoring  of  the 
heredity  problem.  The  author  seems  to  hold  to  the  Darwinian  doc- 
trine of  transmission.     Weissmann  is  not  mentioned. 

On  the  whole  this  book  adds  little  to  clear  thinking  along  the  line 
of  moral  evolution  ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  has  not  a  little  of  moral 
dynamic  in  itself.  Its  purpose  is  dogmatic,  but  the  controversial 
temper  is  generally  absent ;  and  a  kind  of  noble  idealism  permeates 
all  the  pages.  W.  S.  S. 

Animal  Intelligence :  An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Associative 
Processes  in  Animals,  by  K.  Iv.  Thorndikk.  Monograph  Supple- 
ment, No.  8,  of  the  Psychological  Review. 

This  monograph  of  109  pages  presents  the  results  of  a  series  of  ex- 
periments conducted  for  two  years  on  dogs,  cats  and  chicks,  with  a 
view  to  ascertain  the  time  required  and  mode  in  forming  their  mental 
associations,  together  with  a  determination  of  their  delicacy,  number 
and  permanency. 

The  method  used  was  to  confine  the  animals  in  enclosures  from 
which  they  could  escape  by  some  simple  act,  such  as  pulling  at  a  loop 
of  cord,  pressing  a  lever,  or  stepping  on  a  platform.  The  animals,  as 
far  as  possible,  were  kept  in  a  uniform  state  of  hunger.  This, 
together  with  the  desire  for  freedom  and  discomfort  in  confinement, 
were  the  factors  played  upon  throughout. 

He  found  that  the  creatures  could  not  learn  to  do  any  act  from  being 
put  through  it,  "  and  that  no  association  leading  to  an  act  could  be 
formed  unless  there  was  included  in  the  association  an  impulse  of  the 
animal's  own.  lyearning,  whether  among  domestic  animals  or  their 
keepers,  is  a  process  in  which  the  learner  must  shoulder  the  great 
bulk  of  the  task. 

The    interpretations    that  will    probably   provoke  discussion  and 


I50  PSYCHOI.OGICAI.   I.ITERATURB. 

adverse  criticism  are  the  following:  ist,  that  animals,  excepting 
primates,  cannot  and  do  not  learn  the  simplest  acts  from  seeing  their 
fellows  do  them  ;  2nd,  "  that  the  elements  in  the  associative  processes 
are  sense-impressions,  plus  a  past  '  impulse  and  act,'  rather  than 
between  two  sense-impressions,  one  past,  and  one  present."  He  would 
argue,  if  I  interpret  him  aright,  that  in  order  for  the  product  of  the 
associative  processes  to  be  advantageous  to  increase  intelligence,  one 
of  the  elements  must  be  an  impulse  from  the  motor  side  as  opposed  to 
the  idea  which  maintains  that  the  associative  elements  in  animal  psy- 
chosis may  be  between  sensations  or  even  between  memory  images  of 
an  elaborate  order.  For  those  of  us  who  have  an  abiding  interest  and 
faith  in  comparative  psychology  as  an  important  auxiliary  to  the 
study  of  mind,  the  chief  value  of  the  paper  lies  in  its  testing  a  simple 
method  whereby  more  of  the  facts  of  animal  psychosis  may  be  set 
forth.  Iv.  W.  K1.INE. 

A  Primer  of  Psychology,  by  Edward  Bradford  Titchbnbr.    The 
Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1898.     Price,  |i. 

A  good  elementary  text-book  is  by  no  means  easy  to  write ;  it  is  a 
most  searching  test  both  of  the  real  condition  of  the  science  for  which 
it  is  written  and  of  the  degree  in  which  the  writer  has  mastered  his 
subject.  To  write  up  "  results "  for  Archives  or  technical  journals 
is  one  thing,  to  distil  off  the  vital  essence  of  a  science  for  beginners 
is  quite  another.  Such  a  book  ought  not  to  be  a  mere  description  of 
the  "wonders"  of  the  science  in  question,  still  less  an  abstract 
account  of  its  theory ;  it  must  show  the  theory  alive  and  luminous  in 
phenomena  actually  present. 

The  peculiar  merit  of  Prof.  Titchener's  primer  is  the  successful 
attempt  to  do  just  this.  The  general  treatment  is  not  only  concrete 
and  sufficiently  untechnical,  but  each  of  the  fifteen  chapters  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  section  of  "  Questions  and  Kxercises,"  intended  to  lead 
the  student  not  only  to  the  better  comprehension  of  the  text,  but  also 
to  an  intelligent  observation  of  his  own  mental  experiences.  When 
practicable  these  observations  are  given  an  experimental  form,  and  an 
appendix  is  devoted  to  a  convenient  list  of  apparatus  and  materials, 
with  names  and  addresses  of  makers,  and  prices. 

The  book,  however,  covers  a  much  wider  field  than  that  of  labora- 
tory psychology.  After  introductory  chapters  on  the  nature  and 
methods  of  the  science,  the  topics  of  sensation,  feeling,  and  attention 
are  taken  up  in  that  order,  to  be  followed  by  those  of  perception, 
idea  and  association,  emotion,  simpler  forms  of  action ;  then  memory 
and  imagination,  thought  and  self-consciousness,  sentiment,  and  com- 
plex forms  of  action  ;  the  work  is  concluded  by  a  chapter  on  abnormal 
psychology,  and  another  on  animal  and  child  psychology  and  the 
relation  of  psychology  to  ethics,  logic  and  pedagogy.  As  will  be  seen 
from  this  list,  the  order  of  treatment  is  somewhat  peculiar.  In  the  re- 
viewer's opinion  it  is  not  altogether  happy, — certain  logical  and  sys- 
tematic advantages  having  been  gained  at  the  expense  of  a  natural 
pedagogical  approach.^ 

The  present  state  of  psychological  science  is  apparent  in  the  vary- 
ing interest  of  the  chapters,  those  upon  matters  little  touched  as  yet 
by  the  newer  methods  being  painfully  skeletonesque.  For  this,  of 
course,  the  author  cannot  be  held  responsible.  It  is  to  be  regretted, 
however,   that  he  did   not  give  more  explicit  attention  to  mental 

^  It  is  perhaps  fair  to  say  that  the  plan  is  simpler  than  the  chapter  headings 
would  suggest,  being  the  usual  threefold  division  treated  successively  at  different 
levels  of  complexity:  i,  Sensation,  Feeling,  Attention  ;  2,  Perception  (with  idea 
and  association),  Smotion,  Simple  Action ;  3,  Higher  Intellect,  Sentiment,  Complex 
Action. 


PSYCHOLOGICAI.  LITERATURE.  151 

hygiene  based  upon  psychological  principles,  especially  as  the  book 
is  intended  for  normal  and  high  school  students.  A  few  minor  inac- 
curacies also  and  inadvertencies  of  expression  might  well  receive 
attention  in  another  edition;  e.g.,  on  p.  33  it  seems  to  be  implied 
that  imagination  is  dependent  on  changes  of  blood  supply,  on  pp.  44- 
45  in  considering  giddiness  the  otolith  organs  are  mentioned,  but  the 
semicircular  canals  are  not,  and  on  p.  50  the  intensity  of  moonlight 
is  taken  much  too  high.  The  book  is  valuable  enough,  however, 
to  carry  off  many  more  than  these  deficiencies,  and  will,  no  doubt, 
prove  extremely  helpful  even  to  many  above  the  level  for  which  it 
was  first  designed.  E.  C.  S. 

The  Influence  of  High  Arterial  Pressures  Upon  the  Blood-Flow 
Through  the  Brain.  W.  H.  HowEi.iv.  American  Journal  of 
Physiology,  I.     (1898),  57-70. 

The  physiology  of  the  cerebral  circulation  is  a  difficult  and  obscure 
matter,  and  has  been  made  even  more  difficult  of  comprehension  by 
the  supposition  that,  because  the  brain  itself  is  practically  incompress- 
ible and  encased  in  an  inextensible  skull,  any  enlargement  of  the 
arteries  under  increased  blood  pressure  must  bring  about  a  corres- 
ponding compression  of  the  veins,  which  would  hinder  the  outflow  of 
the  blood,  and,  in  case  of  a  sudden  and  great  rise  of  arterial  pressure, 
might  produce  anaemia  by  preventing  it  altogether.  Recent  experi- 
ments by  several  observers,  however,  have  made  clear  that  this 
reasoning  was  somewhere  at  fault,  for  when  the  arterial  pressure  in 
living  animals  has  been  made  very  high  by  the  administration  of 
drugs,  the  outflow  has  not  been  diminished.  Prof.  Howell  has  carried 
these  experiments  further,  and,  it  would  seem,  entirely  closed  the 
question  by  showing  in  the  case  of  dogs  previously  killed,  that  even 
very  great  pressures  {e.g.,  500  mm.  of  mercury,  or  about  9.7  lbs.  per 
square  inch)  do  not  cause  any  decrease  of  the  outflow  from  the  cere- 
bral veins  ;  in  other  words  that  ' '  the  circulation  in  the  braiu  behaves 
in  this  respect  precisely  as  it  does  in  the  other  organs  of  the  body ; 
the  greater  the  arterial  pressure  the  more  abundant  is  the  flow  of 
blood."  The  arterial  enlargement  is  indeed  compensated  by  com- 
pression of  the  veins  (and  they  even  show  a  pulse,  due,  apparently,  to 
the  increase  of  compression  at  each  arterial  pulse)  but  their  total  bore 
is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  arteries,  so  that  they  are  never 
seriously  occluded,  while  the  large  sinuses,  which  might  suffer  more, 
are  protected  by  tough  dural  sheaths.  E.  C.  S. 

On  the  Relation  Between  the  External  Stimulus  Applied  to  a 
Nerve  and  the  Resulting  Nerve  Impulse  as  Measured  by  the 
Action  Current.  C.  W.  Greenk.  American  Journal  of  Physi- 
ology, I.     (1898),  104-116. 

Experiments  were  made  on  the  excised  nerves  of  frogs,  terrapin, 
cats  and  dogs.  The  curves  for  the  relation  of  the  stimulating  current 
and  current  of  action,  plotted  from  the  results,  show  three  stages : 
The  first  rising  sharply  from  the  abscissa  and  practically  straight,  the 
third  also  straight  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  abscissa,  and  the  second, 
a  curve  with  its  concavity  toward  the  abscissa,  connecting  the  other 
two.  The  first  stage  extends  from  the  smallest  stimuli  awakening 
any  response  up  to  the  intensity  required  to  bring  out  maximal  mus- 
cular contractions  and  considerably  beyond  ;  it  is  the  expression  of  an 
arithmetical  ratio,  each  increase  in  stimulus  bringing  out  a  propor- 
tional and  decided  increase  in  the  current  of  action.  The  third  also 
represents  an  arithmetical  ratio,  but  the  increase  fbr  each  unit  of 
stimulus,  while  still  proportional,  is  quite  small.     In  the  nerves  of 


152  PSYCHOI.OGICAI.   UTERATURB. 

dogs  the  author  finds,  as  Waller  found  for  the  nerves  of  frogs,  that 
the  first  straight  portion  of  the  curve  is  preceded  by  a  short  curved 
portion,  convex  toward  the  abscissa.  The  point  of  interest  for  psycho- 
physics  lies  in  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  inference  from  these  experi- 
ments is  justifiable,  the  relation  of  stimulus  and  sensation  generalized 
by  Weber's  law  (which  many  have  considered  a  matter  of  neural 
physiology)  lies  in  the  activity  of  some  other  portion  than  the  nerve 
fibre.  K.  C.  S. 

The  Functions  of  the  Ear  and  the  Lateral  Line  in  Fishes.  Fred- 
eric S.  IvEE.  American  Journal  of  Physiology,  I.  (1898), 
128-144. 

As  a  basis  for  discussing  the  relation  of  the  ear  and  the  organs  of 
the  lateral  line  Dr.  Lee  summarizes  the  results  of  his  admirable 
studies  on  the  equilibration  sense  and  the  ear,  already  published, 
together  with  others  not  as  yet  published  in  detail.  The  ear  of  fishes 
performs  both  dynamical  and  statical  functions.  The  dynamical  are  : 
First,  recognition  of  rotations  (mediated  by  the  semicircular  canals 
and  their  nervous  mechanisms),  and  second,  recognitions  of  move- 
ments of  translation  (mediated  by  the  otolith  organs  of  the  utriculus, 
sacculus  and  lagena).  The  statical  function,  recognition  of  position 
in  space  (gravity  sense),  is  also  mediated  by  the  otolith  organs.  An 
ear  might  seem  to  imply  hearing,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  fishes, — 
Ivee's  experiments,  like  those  of  Bateson  and  Kreidl,  showing  these 
creatures  to  be  without  hearing  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word, 
though  sensitive  to  jars.^ 

lyce  has  also  experimented  on  the  lateral  line  organs  in  dog-fish, 
toad-fish  and  butter-fish  with  results  that  point  strongly  to  an  equi- 
librative  function  as  that  of  these  organs  also,  which  agrees  with  the 
morphological  derivation  of  the  ear  from  a  specialized  group  of  these 
line  organs. 

What  has  probably  been  the  evolutionary  history  of  the  developed 
ear  of  higher  forms  is  thus  sketched  by  the  author  :  "  The  primitive 
function,  not  improbably,  was  the  appreciation  of  movements  of  the 
water  against  the  body  and  movements  of  the  body  in  the  water,  com- 
bined with  appreciation  of  contact,  and,  hence  indirectly  and  crudely, 
of  position  in  space ;  by  the  exercise  of  this  function,  through  func- 
tional connection  with  the  locomotor  mechanism,  the  equilibrium  of 
the  body  was  maintained.  In  some  unknown  way  a  bit  of  this  sensory 
system  became  cut  off  from  the  rest  and  enclosed  within  the  skull ;  it 
still  retained  its  power  of  appreciating  bodily  movements  and  contact, 
and  this  power  became  refined  and  differentiated ;  the  capacity  of 
appreciating  rotary  movements  was  separated  from  that  dealing  with 
progressive  movements  and  position  in  space,  and  the  two  were  asso- 
ciated with  distinct  organs,  the  semicircular  canals  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  otolith  organs  on  the  other,  which  were  appropriately  con- 
structed to  subserve  their  respective  functions.  Thus,  a  well-marked 
sensory  organ  for  equilibrium  was  evolved  in  fishes.  When  aquatic 
animals  began  to  leave  the  water  and  live  a  shorter  or  longer  time 
upon  the  land,  and  the  possible  advantage  of  a  sense  of  hearing  was 
presented,  a  portion  of  this  sensory  organ  of  movement  became  still 
farther  differentiated  ;     a   new   patch  of  sensory  nerve-terminations 


*  I^ee  summarizes  one  of  Kreidl's  studies  as  follows:  "In  a  subsequent  paper 
Kreidl  explodes  the  oft-repeated  tale  of  hearing  by  fishes  that  come  for  their  food 
at  the  sound  of  a  bell,  by  investigating  carefully  the  action  of  trout  at  the  famous 
old  Benedictine  monastery  in  Krems.  Austria.  He  proved  that  the  fishes  come 
because  they  see  the  man  who  brings  the  food,  and  appreciate  the  vibrations  of  the 
water  caused  by  his  step  and  communicated  through  the  stone  basin ;  and  that, 
when  these  are  excluded,  the  sounds  of  the  bell  have  no  effect." 


PSYCHOI.OGICAL  I.ITERATURE.  153 

appeared,  the  papilla  acustica  basilaris  ;  apparatus  for  conveying  the 
waves  in  the  air  directly  to  the  membranous  ear  was  developed  ;  and 
thus  the  power  of  appreciating  the  movements  we  call  sound  was 
acquired."  E.  C.  S. 

I  limiti  del  pudore  neWuomo  e  nella  donna.     Pio  Viazzi.  Riv.  mens. 

di  Psich.  forense,  Antrop.  crim.,  ecc.  (Napoli),  Vol.  I  (1898),  pp. 

164-175. 
In  this  article,  Viazzi,  the  author  of  a  work  on  "  Sexual  Criminals," 
in  which  he  sustained  in  detail  the  view  that  woman  has  a  greater 
sense  of  shame  than  man,  abandons  that  opinion,  returning  to  the 
conviction  of  Sergi,  that  by  reason  of  her  less  amorous  sensibility, 
woman  has  necessarily  less  sense  of  shame  than  man,  though  she 
seems  to  evince  and  to  display  more.  Woman's  use  of  shame  as  a 
means  of  seduction, — shame  in  the  sense  of  hiding  or  avoiding  what 
would  excite  repugnance  or  disgust  and  endanger  her  amorous 
conquests  ;  the  graver  consequences  for  her  of  the  coitus  and  the 
social  consequences  of  unchastity  and  infidelity,  which  cause  not  a 
little  calculation  to  enter  into  her  sense  of  shame,  until  ultimately  it 
departs  from  the  sphere  of  feeling  and  enters  the  region  of  deliberate 
reasoning  as  to  consequences  of  lack  of  shame ;  the  greater  interest 
woman  has  over  man  in  showing  herself  modest  and  shamefaced — all 
this  lessens  the  amount  of  real  shame-sense  to  be  attributed  to  the 
female  sex.  A  great  deal  of  her  apparent  shame  is  merely  the  clever 
psychical  counterfeit.  The  pallid  frigidity  of  woman  on  certain  occa- 
sions, may  be  the  shadow  of  shame,  but  only  the  ghostly  shade. 
Man's  wider  range  of  sexual  reactions  (shown  also  in  the  pathological 
side  of  love  and  its  fetishisms)  carries  with  it  a  greater  bulk  of  shame, 
lyow-necked  dresses  and  exposed  breasts  still  wait  their  anologues  in 
the  drawing  room  and  the  theater  from  men.  Women  are  led  to  be 
shameless  more  easily  than  men,  and  shameless  in  public.  For  evolu- 
tionary reasons,  a  deeply-felt  sense  of  shame,  an  organic  sense  of  it  are 
naturally  stronger  in  the  sex,  whose  ego  is  best  protected  and 
defended.  A.  F.  C. 

II  dolore  neW  educazione.     Iv-  M.  BiIvIvIA.     Nuovo  Risorgimento,Vol. 

VIII  (1898),  pp.  187-193. 

The  question  whether  man  is  free  or  not  seems  to  be  settled  by  the 
answer  to  the  question  :  Can  he  inflict  pain  upon  himself  for  a  certain 
end?  Not  every  pain,  or  all  pain  is  educative,  but  without  pain  there 
can  be  no  greatness,  no  virtue,  no  true  happiness,  no  work,  no  science, 
no  education.     Study  is  pain,  thought  i*  pain,  pain  is  virtue. 

A.  F.  C. 
The  Origin  of  the  Family.     H.  Soi^otaroff.     American  Anthropol- 
ogist, Vol.  XI  (1898),  pp.  229-242. 

The  primary  form  of  the  family,  according  to  M.  Solotaroff,  is  "the 
mother  free  to  contract  or  dissolve  sexual  bonds — and  the  group  of 
children  resulting  from  these  sexual  relations."  The  assertion  of 
man's  bio-psychic  activities  and  individualities,  and  the  growth,  with 
the  vicissitudes  of  environments  of  the  need  of  sexual  favors,  help 
and  protection  for  herself  and  her  children  "have  led  the  woman 
slowly  out  of  bondage  of  economic  care  for  her  family  group,  but  led 
her  into  marital  bondage,  while  the  most  powerful  tendency  toward 
socialization  among  primitive  men,  expressing  itself  in  various  ways, 
has  incidentally  expressed  itself,  also,  in  occasional  sexual  permis- 
cuity  as  the  outcome  of  the  ecstacies  of  play — one  of  the  most  potent 
instincts  of  the  social  sentiment."  In  his  general  views  the  author 
approaches  Westermarck,  rejecting  the  theory  of  primitive  promis- 
cuities. A.  F.  C. 


154  PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE. 

Piratical  Acculturation.     W.  J.  McGer.     Ibid.,  pp.  243-249. 

The  four  stages  or  phases  of  acculturation  are  sketched  by  Professor 
McGee,  as  follows:  "The  first  phase  is  characteristic  of  savagery; 
it  is  expressed  in  the  imitation  of  weapons  and  symbols,  with  the 
esoteric  purpose  of  invoking  new  deities  ;  it  may  be  styled  martial 
acculturation.  The  second  phase  is  characteristic  of  barbarism, 
though  arising  earlier  and  perishing  later  ;  it  is  expressed  in  semi- 
antagonistic  mating  between  tribes,  with  the  initial  esoteric  purpose 
of  strengthening  tribal  pantheons ;  it  may  be  called  marital  accnltura- 

tion The   third  phase   is   characteristic    of    civilization, 

though  it  begins  in  barbarism  and  plays  a  role  in  enlightenment ;  it  is 
expressed  in  interchange  of  goods  with  the  purpose  (at  first  esoteric 
and  afterwards  exoteric)  of  personal  profit  or  gain  ;  it  may  be  designa- 
ted commercial  acculturation.  The  fourth  phase  is  characteristic  of 
enlightenment,  though  its  beginnings  may  be  found  much  lower ;  it 
is  expressed  in  the  spontaneous  interchange  of  ideas  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  human  power  over  nature ;  it  may,  provisionally,  be 
styled  educational  acculturation."  The  first  two  phases  are  essentially 
piratical,  the  last  two  essentially  amicable.  A.  F.  C. 

The  Factors  of  Heredity  and  Environment  in  Man.  D.  G.  Brin- 
TON.  Ibid.y  pp.  271-277. 
After  pointing  out  the  divergence  of  scientific  opinion  upon  the  sub- 
ject (Lombroso  says  "  milieu  can  annihilate  all  ethnic  traits,"  while 
CoUignon  holds  to  hereditary  transmission  of  anatomical  peculiari- 
ties," together  with  "  a  difference  of  brain,  revealed  by  a  special 
direction  of  the  thoughts  and  the  display  of  special  mental  powers  "), 
Dr.  Brinton  emphasizes  the  fact  that  "the  progress  of  man  is  his 
progress  of  gaining  independence  from  nature,  of  making  her  forces 
his  slaves,  and  not  leaving  them  his  masters  " — hence  "the  depend- 
*  ence  of  man  on  his  environment  is  not  a  fixed  quantity,"  for  "  in  the 
most  favored  spots  to-day  it  is  reduced  almost  to  a  zero,  so  far  as  its 
influence  on  man's  higher,  soul-life  is  concerned."  Besides  there  are 
two  psychical  elements,  temperament  and  character,  which  "are 
largely  independent  both  of  heredity  and  environment."  Tempera- 
ment, Manouvrier  calls  ' '  the  determining  cause  of  the  intellectual 
and  moral  traits  of  the  individual,"  and  character  is  "the  essential 
personal  element  in  humanity."  It  is  neither  inherited  nor  acquired, 
and  "it  probably  begins  with  the  very  inception  of  the  individual 
life  ;"  while  "in  its  essential  traits  it  forever  bides  the  same,  resisting 
all  external  agencies;"  it  is  that  "which  in  the  last  analysis  [as 
Wundt  demonstrates]  prompts  the  decisions,  guides  the  actions,  and 
carves  the  destiny  of  men  and  nations."  The  theories  of  atavism 
are  weaker  to-day  than  yesterday,  and  the  advances  in  the  study  of 
cellular  pathology  have  won  whole  territories  for  variation  and  the 
heredity  of  acquired  characteristics.  The  peculiar  traits  of  races  may 
be  pathological,  the  result  of  that  perfect  adaptation  to  one  environ- 
ment which  brings  in  its  train  unfitness  for  any  other.  "  Blood  will 
tell,"  it  is  true,  but  just  as  much  temperament  and  character. 

A.  F.  C. 

Familientypus  und  Familiendhnlichkeiten.     Graf  Theodor   Zichy. 
Correspbl.  d.  deutschen    anthrop.   Ges.   (Miinchen),   1898,   (Vol. 

xxix5,s.  41-44;  51-54. 

An  interesting  study  of  the  features  of  the  Hapsburgs  and  the 
Bourbons.  The  author  concludes  :  i.  Nearly  everybody  has  the 
features  of  some  near  ancestor,  but  the  whole  series  is  necessary  for 
perfect  orientation.     2.     An  inherited  family  type  is  not  infrequent, 


PSYCHOI.OLICAI.   LITBRATURK.  155 

but  by  no  means  the  rule.  3.  Between  children  of  the  same  parents 
resemblances  are  frequent,  but  mostly  only  during  youth.  4.  The 
resemblances  between  parents  and  children  are  most  noticeable  in  the 
youth  of  both.  5.  Here  and  there  very  striking  resemblances  to 
very  remote  ancestors  occur.  A.  F.  C. 

r 

LHmitation  dans  VArt.     Fki,ix   RegnauIvT.      Rev.   Sci.,   4e  sdrie, 
Tome  X  (1898),  pp.  335-336. 
Art  has  all  along  its  history  been  prone  rather  to  imitation  than  to 
invention — the   former  is  easier.     Relics  of  imitation  and  repetition 
are  to  be  found  in  the  symmetries  of  classic  art  and  architecture. 

Studien  zur  deutschen  Weidmannssprache.  Paui,  IvKmbke.  Ztschr. 
f.  den  deutschen  Unterr.,  XII.  Jahrg.  (1898),  S.  233-277. 
A  valuable  discussion  of  the  vocabulary  of  the  German  "hunter's 
dialect,"  with  appropriate  consideration  of  such  words  (^hetzen, 
Luder,  naseweis,  unbdndig,  Wildfang,  Hundejunge,  Hundsbube, 
wittern,  stobern,  etc.)  and  phrases  {durch  die  happen  gehen,  auf  den 
Strich  gehen,  ^tc.)  which  have  passed  into  the  literary  language  of 
the  day,  the  student-language  or  other  clannish  forms  of  speech 
among  the  various  social  classes.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  influ- 
ence of  the  "hunt"  in  a  Mecklenburg  dialect,  where,  e.  g.,  the 
carouse  after  the  hunt  is  called  Najagd ;  a  dance  is  K tapper j agd  ; 
distinguished  people  are  Hochwild ;  de  liitt  lagd  ("little  hunt  ")  = 
when  a  player  has  many  small  trump  cards;  of  an  old  maid  they  say 
ut  de  jagdboren  Johren  is  se  rut  ("she's  past  her  hunting  time"). 
Many  hunting  proverbs  are  also  noted.  A.  F.  C. 

V Education  Rationnelle  de  la  Volonti,  Dr.  Paui.  Emii^k  Lrvy. 
Paris,  F^lix  Alcan,  1898.     pp.  231. 

The  thesis  of  this  work  is  contained  in  the  first  sentence  of  the 
opening  chapter.  "We  propose  to  show  that  it  is  possible  to  preserve 
our  moral  and  physical  being  from  many  affections,  and  if  any  evil 
comes  to  one  or  the  other  to  draw  from  our  own  nature  relief  or 
cure."  The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts,  (i),  theoretical;  (2), 
practical.  The  fundamental  psychological  law  upon  which  the 
theory  of  autosuggestion  is  based  is  the  fact  that  every  thought  is  the 
beginning  of  action.  The  will  acts  more  effectually  when  it  acts  un- 
consciously, or  without  effort,  that  is  as  a  result  of  suggestion.  Sug- 
gestion is  of  two  kinds :  suggestion  from  without,  and  autosuggestion  ; 
but  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  these. 

Many  ailments  of  the  body  as  well  as  of  the  mind  are  habits.  Moral 
hygiene  consists  in  the  fixation  in  the  organism  of  healthy  physical 
and  mental  habits. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  book  many  cases  are  given  in  detail  of 
the  cure  by  autosuggestion  of  emotional  troubles,  of  habits,  of  func- 
tional disorders  of  circulation  and  digestion.  While,  according  to 
Dr.  Iv^vy,  psychotherapy  does  not  claim  to  be  all  there  is  of  therapy, 
there  are  cases  in  which  nothing  can  take  its  place,  there  are  other 
cases  in  which  it  acts  better  than  any  other  curative  agent.  And  in 
all  cases  it  is  useful.  G.  E.  Partridge. 

Moderne  Nervositdt  und  ihre  Vererbung,  von  Ch.  Fere.     Arzt  am 

Bic^tre.    Dutch  Dr.  Hubert  Schnitzer,  Berlin. 

The  book  is  chiefly  a  discussion  of  heredity  as  affected  by  nervous 

diseases.     Fer^  asserts  himself  a  follower  of  Darwin  and  an  opponent 

of  the  Weismann  theory  of  the  continuity  of  the  germ  substance.     His 


156  PSYCHOIvOGICAL   LITERATURE. 

position  is  that  the  conditions  of  life  affect  the  individual  organism, 
and  exert  an  important  modifying  influence  on  the  protoplasm. 

The  influence  of  heredity  is  far  from  being  limited  to  psychic  dis- 
eases. It  extends  also  to  the  most  organic  and  functional  diseases  of 
the  nervous  system,  and,  further,  every  nervous  disease  is  connected 
with  an  anatomical  change. 

Interesting  chapters  dealing  with  degeneracy  and  hereditary  asym- 
metry are  given. 

The  book  is  especially  valuable  as  a  guide  to  the  literature  of  the 
subject,  a  very  large  list  of  authors  being  cited. 

The  translator  has  done  his  work  well.  The  lucid  style  of  the 
French  author  is  well  maintained  throughout  in  the  translation. 

Norman  Tripi^ett. 

r 

Le  Subconscient  chez  les  Artistes,  les  Savants  et  les  Ecrivains,  par  le 
DoCTEUR  Chabaneix,  mddecin  de  la  marine.  Preface  de  M.  le 
Docteur  Regis.     Paris,  1897.     pp.  124. 

In  this  preface  Dr.  Regis  defines  the  ''Subconscient  "  as  the  peculiar 
state  between  sleeping  and  waking ;  between  the  conscious  and  the 
unconscious. 

It  is  this  state  that  Dr.  Chabaneix  has  studied  in  the  cases  of  a 
number  of  authors,  artists  and  scientists.  Noting  the  frequency  among 
such  men  of  somnambulism,  neuropathy,  hallucinations,  etc.,  the 
author  was  desirous  of  determining  whether  they  were  particularly 
subject  to  "subconscious"  dreams,  and  if  so,  what  part  the  subcon- 
scious played  in  their  works.  He  gives  the  experience  of  Mozart, 
Goethe,  Heine,  Voltaire,  Schopenhauer,  Wagner,  Tolstoi,  and  many 
other  equally  famous  men,  both  historic  and  contemporary. 

He  shows  that  the  subconscious  appears  with  great  frequency  among 
men  of  talent  and  genius,  and  in  the  case  of  many  it  figures  in  their 
productions  to  a  remarkable  degree. 

Dr.  Regis  says  the  study  brings  to  light  one  of  the  psychologic  con- 
ditions under  which  the  great  works  of  the  human  mind  are  produced. 
It  establishes  also  that  the  personality  of  men  of  talent  and  genius  so 
diversely  interpreted,  is  more  often  due  to  nervous  erethism  than  to 
mental  derangement,  and  that  the  great  creators  are  often  lost  in  their 
subconscious  abstraction. 

The  work  contains  a  bibliography  of  some  seventy  titles  ;  also  a 
table  of  the  authors  cited. 

The  Use  of  Color  in  the   Verse  of  the  English  Romantic  Poets,  by 
A1.1CE  Edwards  Pratt.     Chicago :  The  University  of  Chicago 
Press,  1898.     pp.  118. 
This  work  is  a  thesis  for  the  doctor's  degree  in  the  Department  of 
English  of  Chicago  University.     The  author  presents  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  use  of  color  by  the  seventeen  principal  English  poets 
from  I/angland  to  Keats.     The  study  includes  the  entire  product  of 
each  poet  considered,  except  Thomson ;  and  the  results  have  been 
catalogued  and  classified.     The  classification  is  made  in  two  ways: 
According  to  color  groups  ;  and  according  to  distribution  among  fields 
of  interest.     The  tables  and  charts  give  a  graphic  representation  of 
the  subject.   The  work  furnishes  some  suggestive  material  for  the  psy- 
chologist. W.  vS.  S. 

Leitfaden  der  physiologischen  Psychologie  in  15  Vorlesungen.     Von 

Th.  Ziehen.    4te  Aufl.  Jena,  G.  Fischer,  1898.     pp.  5,  263. 

Professor  Ziehen's  Leitfaden,  published  in  1891,  is  well  known  to 

American  students  of  psychology  in  the  translation  of  Messrs.  Beyer 

and  Van  L/iew  (2d  ed.,  1895).     It  is  with  this,  in  the  absence  of  the  3d 


PSYCHOLOGICAIv  I.ITKRATURB.  157 

German  edition,  that  the  reviewer  must  compare  the  present  volume. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  changes  :  I,ecture  II, 
"  Sensation,  Association,  Action,"  has  new  paragraphs  on  the  devel- 
opment of  the  brain  in  the  vertebrate  series  ;  Lecture  III,  "  Stimulus, 
Sensation,"  a  new  derivation  of  Fechner's  measurement-formula,  and 
modifications  in  the  discussion  of  Weber's  law;  Lecture  IV,  "Taste, 
Smell,  Cutaneous  Sensations  and  Sensations  of  Movement,"  a  para- 
graph on  the  static  sense  and  the  alimentary  organic  sensations  ;  Lec- 
ture V,  "  Sensations  of  Hearing,"  remarks  on  the  timbre  of  vowels  ; 
Lecture  VI,  "Sight"  (the  whole  lecture  has  been  revised,  with  the 
assistance  of  Professor  Koenig),  paragraphs  on  visual  perceptions  of 
movement  and  on  certain  optical  illusions  ;  Lecture  VII,  "  Temporal 
Attributes  and  Affective  Tone  of  Sensations,"  added  remarks  on  after- 
images, references  to  the  time-sense,  and  changes  in  matter  and 
arrangement  throughout  the  second  half  of  the  lecture  ;  Lectures  IX 
and  X,  minor  additions  in  the  discussion  of  emotion  and  of  association 
of  ideas  ;  Lecture  XI,  paragraphs  on  the  activity  experience  in  atten- 
tion, and  on  the  relation  of  attention  to  intensity  of  sensation  ;  Lecture 
XIV,  new  matter  in  the  paragraphs  dealing  with  the  development  of 
action  and  with  simple  reaction  experiments ;  Lecture  XV,  consid- 
eration of  objections  to  the  associative  theory  of  will.  The  new  indices, 
of  subjects  and  authors,  are  most  welcome,  as  are  the  numerous  cita- 
tions of  recent  literature  in  the  foot  notes. 

It  is  plain,  from  this  summary,  that  the  fourth  German  is  a  great 
improvement  upon  the  second  English  edition  of  the  Leitfaden.  It  is 
regrettable  that  Professor  Ziehen  has  seen  fit  to  retain  the  polemical 
treatment  of  Wundt's  apperception  theory  in  text  and  preface.  He 
has,  apparently,  never  understood  that  theory  ;  though  a  reading  of 
the  Grundriss  and  Vorlesungen,  in  their  recent  issues,  would  be 
amply  sufficient  to  show  him  that  he  has  misrepresented  Wundt's  doc- 
trine. E.  B.  T. 

Yetta  Sdgal,  by  H.  J.  Roi^wn.  New  York,  G.  W.  Dillingham  &  Co., 
1898.     pp.  174. 

Yetta  S^gal  is  a  novel,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  familiarize  the  public 
with  the  idea  of  race-mixture  as  the  final  step  in  the  mental  and 
physical  development  of  mankind.  In  the  course  of  the  story  an 
American  Jewess  marries  a  man  who  is  part  American,  part  negro, 
and  part  Spaniard  ;  and  a  Japanese  woman,  one  of  whose  grandparents 
was  European,  finds  a  husband  who  is  half  English  and  half  Swede. 

With  the  merits  of  the  story  as  story  we  are  not  here  concerned. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  of  the  psychological  importance  of 
the  fact  upon  which  the  author — apart  from  his  references  to  the 
Antilles  and  citations  of  Herbert  Spencer — lays  stress  :  the  fact  that, 
in  a  civilized  community,  "  positive  assurance  is  now  impossible  as  to 
the  racial  purity  of  any  individual." 

L' Enseignement  Integral,''  Ai^Kxis  BerTrand,  Professeur  de  Phi- 
losophic k  I'Universitd  de  Lyon.     F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1898. 

"Unified  instruction"  is  really,  according  to  the  author,  instruc- 
tion in  all  the  human  sciences  for  every  human  being.  This  book  is 
another  and  strong  appeal  for  reform  in  the  lack  of  popular  educa- 
tion. Whatever  secondary  education  exists,  is  not  well  suited  to  all 
classes.  There  is  an  aristocracy  of  learning,  whereas  there  should  be 
perfect  equality.  No  provision  is  made  for  the  instruction  of  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  mechanics,  laborers  and  farmers,  and  these,  the 
mass  of  the  people,  are  as  capable  as  any  of  profiting  thereby.  The 
great  gap  comes  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  twenty. 

Descartes  and  Comte,  as  national  philosophers,  are  taken  as  guides 


158  PSYCHOLOGICAL  LITBRATURE. 

in  support  of  the  new  movement ;  for  the  proposed  system  is  partly  in 
operation  in  Lyon  and  other  cities.  In  the  author's  outline  for  popu- 
lar secondary  education  Comte  is  roughly  followed,  and  according  to 
this  philosopher  there  are  three  periods  in  positive  education.  The 
first  is  purely  physical  and  under  the  mother's  direction.  The  second, 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen,  is  aesthetic ;  the  study  of 
the  arts  and  languages.  The  third  is  scientific,  conforming  closely  to 
the  "  hierarchy  of  the  seven  fundamental  sciences."  These  sciences 
are  arranged  in  a  logical  series  ;  mathematics,  astronomy,  physics, 
chemistry,  biology,  sociology,  and  morals.  The  study  of  the  classics 
brings  in  a  bifurcation,  fatal  to  an  utilitarian  and  unified  instruction. 
The  introduction  of  co-education  marks  probabl}'^  the  greatest  innova- 
tion in  the  proposed  new  system. 

This  secondary  instruction  in  the  sciences  would  be  given  in  two 
schools  ;  the  first  or  institutes,  would  be  evening  schools,  and  the 
course  would  last  seven  years.  The  second,  the  colleges,  would  differ 
from  the  first  only  in  that  the  students  devote  full  time  to  study  and 
finish  in  four  years.  Chapter  three  gives  the  details  of  the  author's 
unique  plans  for  these  schools.  F.  D.  Sherman. 

Introduction  to  Herbartian  Principles  of  Teaching,  by  Catharine  I. 
DoDD,  of  Day  Training   Department,  The  Owens  College,  Man- 
chester, 1898.     London  :  Swan,  Sonnenschein  &  Co.;  New  York  : 
The  Macmillan  Company,     pp.  198. 
The  author  of  this  work  has  fittingly  prefaced  it  with  an  introduc- 
tory notice  by  Dr.  W.  Rein,  of  Jena.     She  has  undertaken  the  task  of 
transplanting  the  methods  and  principles  of  Herbartian  pedagogy  into 
the  elementary  schools  of  England.     A  summary  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  education,  and  the  Herbartian  doctrine  of  interest  and  in- 
struction furnish  the  English  readers  with  the  fundamental  concep- 
tions of  education  as  seen  in  the  writings  of  Herbart  and  his  followers. 
A  good  description  is  given  of  the  course  of  instruction  followed  in 
the  culture-epoch  schools  of  Germany.     The  most  interesting  feature 
of  this  work  is  the  attempt  to  adopt  these  culture-epochs  to  the  needs 
of  children  of  the  English  race.    The  legends  and  history  of  Germany 
are  changed  for  those  of  England.     Miss  Dodd  closes  this  interesting 
work  with  a  brief  history  of  the  rise  and  development  of  the  Herbartian 
movement  in  Germany. 

The  Nature  and  Development  of  Animal  Intelligence,  by  WesI/Ey 
Mii.i,s,  M.  A.,  M.  D.,  D.  V.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  C.  Macmillan,  N.  Y., 
1898.  pp.  307. 
At  last  we  have  these  very  careful  and  objective  studies  that  have 
appeared  in  a  fragmentary  way  in  many  forms  and  places,  put  together 
into  a  more  or  less  systematic  whole.  Part  I  is  occupied  with  describing 
animal  intelligence  and  comparative  psychology  ;  Part  II  deals  with 
squirrels,  with  special  reference  to  feigning,  and  to  hibernation.  Part 
III  treats  the  psychic  development  of  young  animals  and  its  physical 
conditions,  brain  growth  and  its  relation  to  psychic  development ;  and 
part  IV  represents  various  discussions.  The  work  is  of  great  acumen, 
and  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  literature  of  the  subject,  but  is 
handicapped  by  a  title  too  large  for  it.  The  author's  strong  point 
is  fidelity  and  patience  of  observation  and  description  rather  than 
generalization  or  discussion.  The  book  is  so  diversified  that  it  needs 
the  admirable  index  which  it  has. 

Die  Masturbation,  von  Dr.  H.  Rohi^eder.     Berlin,  1898.     pp.  319. 

This  "  monograph  for  physicians  and  pedagogues"  is  written  in 
conformity  to  the  motto  that  the  "  diseases  of  society  can  be  no  more 


PSYCHOIX)GICAlv  I^ITERATURE.  1 59 

cured  than  can  those  of  the  body  without  speaking  of  them  openly 
and  freely."  The  work  is  elaborate  and  systematic,  discussing  litera- 
ture, definitions,  history,  forms,  diffusion,  onanism  among  animals, 
etc.  The  causes  are  divided  as  those  lying  in  the  body,  as  laziness, 
moral  weakesss,  over  liveliness,  precocity,  bodily  defect,  etc.;  and 
those  out  of  the  body  like  education  at  home  and  in  school,  faulty 
dress,  food,  abnormal  fear,  unwholesome  occupation.  The  results  are 
specified  for  nerves,  senses,  digestion,  muscles,  respiration,  cerebel- 
lum, etc.,  and  therapeutic^  occupy  most  of  the  last  hundred  pages. 

Ueber  die  Sexuellen  Ursachen  der  Neurasthenie  u.  Angstneurose,  von 
Dr.  FEI.IX  GatteIv.  Berlin,  1898.  pp.  68. 
The  author,  a  nerve  specialist  in  Berlin,  has  evidently  been  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  Kraus,  Hecker,  and  Brener,  and  Freud's  recent 
brilliant  studies  on  hysteria,  and  depends  on  the  basis  of  100  sexual 
cases  in  the  clinique  of  Krafft-Ebing.  The  general  thesis  is  that  the 
neurosis  of  onanists  always  occurs  where  there  is  a  restraint  of  the 
sexual  desire,  and  full  neurasthenia  can  arise  only  as  a  result  of  mas- 
turbation. 

Arbeit  und  Rhythmus,  by  M.  K.  Bucher.  Allg.  Phil.  Hist.  Classe 
Sachs  Ges.  der  Wiss.,  Bd.  17,  No.  5.  Leipzig,  1896. 
This  important  and  fascinating  monograph  shows  by  many  illustra- 
tions how  half  civilized  people  are  prone  to  work  rhythmically  and 
even  in  concert  and  to  sing.  Work  is  thus  argued  to  be  the  cause  of  song 
and  poesy,  dance  and  the  drama.  This  conclusion  is  illustrated  by 
hypothetical  stages  of  development  of  lyric  and  epic  poety.  Rhythm 
is  potent  as  a  means  of  unifying  work  and  creating  voluntary  com- 
munities of  laborers.  Machinery  has  weakened  and  in  many  cases 
threatens  the  decay  of  the  rhythmic  impulse.  If  it  goes,  the  super- 
structure of  music  will  also  be  endangered. 

W.  V.  Her  Book  and  Various  Verses,  by  WiIvLIAm  Canton.  Stone 
and  Kimball,  N.  Y.,  1898.  pp.  146. 
This  very  tasteful  little  book  is  made  up  of  prose  records  of  very 
cute  doings,  and  especially  sayings  of  the  heroine,  V.  G.  The  bushes 
have  their  hands  full  of  flowers ;  the  buds  are  the  trees'  little  girls  ; 
Jesus  is  cleverer  than  we  are ;  did  the  church  people  put  Jesus  on  a 
cross?  her  new  words,  fussle,  sorefully,  ficky,  etc.,  are  stated  in  prose, 
and  the  author  then  lapses  into  brief  versicles  describing  the  inci- 
dents poetically. 

A  Study  of  a  Child,  by  Louise  K.  Hogan.     Harper's,  N.  Y.,  1898. 
pp.  220. 

This  attractively  printed  and  bound  book  is  illustrated  by  over  500 
drawings  by  the  child.  There  are  eight  chapters,  the  first  representing 
the  first  year  of  Harold's  life,  and  so  on  to  the  eighth.  Following  the 
chronological  order  the  author  finds  it  unnecessary  to  observe  any 
other,  and  there  is  no  index  to  aid  the  reader.  The  first  year  notes 
are  particularly  fragmentary,  and  are  only  seven  pages.  Many  of  the 
notes  are  interesting  and  suggestive,  and  many  are  very  inane.  There 
are  almost  no  attempts  to  draw  conclusions  of  any  sort,  but  only 
objective  accounts  of  specific  things  the  child  did  and  said. 

The  Development  of  the  Child,  by  Nathan  Oppenheim.     Macmillan 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  1898.     pp.  296. 
The  author  is  the  attending  physician  to  the  children's  department 
of  Mt.  Sinai  Hospital  Dispensary  in  New  York  city,  whose  supple- 
mentary culture  enables  him  to  discuss  in  an  interesting  way  the 


l6o  PSYCHOLOGICAI.  LITER ATURK. 

relation  of  heredity  and  environment ;  the  place  of  the  primary  school 
and  of  religion  in  a  child's  development ;  the  value  of  child  testimony  ; 
the  evolution  of  the  juvenile  criminal ;  the  bearings  of  the  mode  of 
development  as  productive  of  genius  or  defect,  institutional  life  and 
the  profession  of  maternity.  The  book  is  on  a  far  higher  plane  than 
such  works  of  Taylor  and  Hogan  noticed  in  this  number,  but  is  sug- 
gestive rather  than  conclusive,  indicating  a  certain  immaturity  of 
view,  and  frequently  a  disposition  to  expatiate  in  what  are  almost  the 
commonplaces  of  the  subject.  Still  it  is  a  book  to  be  heartily  com- 
mended to  parents. 

Psychologie  de  V Instinct  Sexuel,  par  Dr.  Joanny  Roux.  Paris, 
1899.  pp.  96. 
This  is  an  admirable- little  compend  of  the  subject.  Starting  with  a 
r^sumd  of  the  leading  current  conclusions  of  biology  on  the  subject, 
the  author  passes  to  the  discussion  of  the  general  theory  of  fecunda- 
tion and  thence  of  love.  Its  merit  consists  in  the  author's  wide 
acquaintance  with  recent  scientific  literature  in  the  various  fields,  and 
in  his  lucidity  and  conciseness  of  statement. 

Citizenship  and  Salvation,  or  Greek  and  Jew,  by  A.  H.  Lloyd,  Ph. 

D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy,  University  of  Michigan. 

Little,  Brown  and  Co.,  Boston,  1897.     pp.  142. 

In  Part  I  the  author  describes  the  death  of  Socrates  and  its  influence 

on  Greek  thought,  and  then  on  Roman.     In  Part  II  he  describes  and 

discusses  the  death  of  Christ  in  Judea  and  the  fall  of  Rome.     Part  III 

is  devoted  to  an  account  of  the  resurrection  or  the  Christian  state. 

The  Study  of  the  Child,  by  A.  R.  TayIvOR,  M.  D.,  President  of  the 
State  Normal  School  of  Emporia,  Kansas.  D.  Appleton  and  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1898.  pp.  215. 
This  book  is  Volume  XLIII  in  Dr.  Harris's  Educational  Series,  and 
makes  an  attempt  to  study  and  present  the  results  of  the  study  of 
children.  It  claims  no  originality,  but  only  to  fit  the  reader  to  enter 
upon  the  study  of  children.  It  treats  the  senses,  consciousness,  apper- 
ception, attention,  symbolism,  sayings,  feelings,  will,  intellect,  con- 
cepts, self,  habit,  character,  manners  and  morals,  normal  and  abnormal. 
It  seems  to  the  writer  of  this  note  that  the  title  might,  with  minor 
modification,  just  as  well  have  been  the  study  of  the  adult,  or  psy- 
chology, according  to  Froebel,  Herbart  and  Harris.  The  book  is 
abstract,  and  contains  almost  nothing  genetic  and  little  that  is  con- 
crete ;  but  is  a  restatement  of  stock  matter  in  the  general  field  of 
mental  philosophy  with  such  adjustments  as  show  that  from  that 
standpoint  child  study  has  a  place,  and  this  is  something  to  be  grate- 
ful for. 

Versuch  einer  Darstellung  der  Empfindungen,  von  Wai^ter  Prizi- 
BRAM.  A.  Holder,  Wien,  1898.  pp.  28. 
This  posthumous  work,  edited  by  the  author's  brother,  attempts 
*'  to  bring  sensations  as  immediately  given  purely  psychic  facts  into  a 
mathematical  system,  the  formulas  of  which  shall  be  a  complete 
desciption  of  single  sensations  in  general,  and  discussable  under  the 
special  cases."  It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  system  in  brief  form. 
Five  large  tables  present  the  chief  terms  and  forms  used. 

Essai  sur  la  Classification  des  Sciences,  par  Edmond  G0BI.0T.     F. 
Alcan,  Paris,  1898.     pp.  296. 

The   first   chapter  discusses  the  formal  unity  of  sciences,   logical 
dualism,  and  the  common  laws  of  the  development  of  all  sciences, viz., 


PSYCHOTX)GICAL   LITERATURE.  l6l 

induction,  mathematics,  and  deduction  in  the  sciences  of  nature.  The 
main  body  of  the  book  is  an  exposition  of  the  system  of  sciences 
which  falls  into  the  following  order :  Arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
mechanics,  including  cinematics  and  dynamics,  cosmology,  biology, 
psychology  and  sociology,  including  aesthetics  and  morals.  Other 
sciences  are  sub-sections  of  these. 

L' Illusion  de  Fausse  Reconnaissance,  by  E.  Bernard-Leroy.  Paris, 
1898.  pp.  249. 
The  author  sent  out  a  long  questionnaire  to  educated  people  request- 
ing accounts  of  striking  experience  of  having  been  in  a  new  place. 
Of  his  returns  he  selects  and  prints  in  full  86,  which  make  the  last 
150  pages  of  his  book,  the  first  being  devoted  to  discussions.  Reject- 
ing Ribot's  theory  that  there  are  two  successive  and  perfectly 
conscious  impressions,  the  first  real  and  the  second  hallucinatory,  he 
holds  recognition  to  be  a  unique  kind  of  "intellectual  sentiment" 
associated  with  re-known  phenomena.  The  manifestations  of  this 
sentiment  may  become  almost  chronic.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
a  difference  between  sensation  and  perception,  or  between  impersonal 
impressions  and  those  where  the  subject  is  conscious. 

Classified  Reading,  by  Isabei^  Lawrence.  Published  by  the  author, 
St.  Cloud,  Minn.,  1898.  pp.  423. 
This  is  a  descriptive  list  of  books  for  school,  library  and  home. 
Pedagogy,  child  study,  geography,  history,  English,  and  miscella- 
neous, the  latter  including  manual  training,  drawing,  physical  culture 
and  music,  are  the  chief  topics.  There  are  wide  margins  for  additional 
literature.  It  is  easy  to  find  fault  with  every  such  book  both  for  what 
it  includes  and  excludes,  but  on  the  whole  this  can  be  most  heartily 
commended  to  every  teacher  or  student  of  geography,  history  or 
English,  as  a  very  valuable  companion  and  helper  in  their  work. 

Ignorance,  by  M.  R.  P.  Dorman.     London,  1898.     pp.  328. 

The  author  undertakes  to  study  the  causes  and  effects  of  ignorance 
in  popular  thought  and  to  make  educational  suggestions.  No  one 
before  has  attempted  to  reduce  ignorance  to  a  science.  Its  effect  is 
traced  on  art,  letters,  capital,  economy,  state,  woman,  and  collective 
and  individual  ignorance  are  distinguished.  The  author  emphasizes 
unconscious  causes  and  cures.  Large  ideas  in  small  minds,  the  retire- 
ment of  the  fittest,  new  superstitions  of  ultra  idealism,  ultra  spirit- 
ualism, uncritical  orthodoxy,  the  substitution  of  feeling  for  the  ease 
with  which  women  conceal  ignorance  by  following  custom,  the  degra- 
dation of  the  pulpit,  press,  stage,  methods  of  advertisement,  etc.,  are 
among  the  causes  of  ignorance  to  be  contended  against. 

The  Elements  of  Physical  Education,  by  D.  Lemox,  M.  D.,  and  A. 
Sturrock.  Blackwood,  London,  1898.  pp.  241. 
This  is  a  teacher's  manual  copiously  illustrated  with  147  cuts  of 
children  practicing  free  gymnastics  and  using  ball,  wand,  dumb-bells  ; 
and  some  40  pages  of  new  gymnastic  music,  by  H.  E.  Loseby.  The 
first  67  pages  are  taken  up  with  very  elementary  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology.    It  is  a  practical  and  interesting  book. 

A  Course  of  Practical  Lessons  in  Hand  and  Eye  Training  for  Stu- 
dents, 1-4,  by  A.  W.  Bevis.     London,  1898. 
These  are  four  handbooks  of  some  150  pages  each,  illustrating  a 
new  course  of  work    adopted   by  the   Birmingham   English    School 
Board,  and  are  full  of  new  and  suggestive  work. 

Journai, — II 


1 62  PSYCHOLOGICAL  LITERATURE. 

The  Play  of  Animals,  by  Kari,  Groos.  Tr.  by  Elizabeth  L.  Baldwin. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1898.  pp.  341. 
It  was  a  happy  idea  to  translate  this  valuable  book  from  the  Ger- 
man, and  Miss.  Baldwin  has  done  her  task  ver)'  acceptably.  Professor 
Baldwin  writes  a  characteristic  preface  of  eleven  pages,  and  a  re- 
printed appendix  of  four  pages  quoting  from  himself,  or  referring  to 
his  work  some  fourteen  times,  claiming  four  out  of  nine  factors  of 
organic  evolution,  and  offering  a  series  of  criticism,  **  even  though  to  a 
thinker  like  Professor  Groos  they  may  be  trivial  and  easily  answered." 
On  the  whole  the  work  of  Groos  is  commended,  but  were  not  most  of 
its  best  ideas  either  hinted  at  or  better  expressed,  or  were  not  most  of 
the  facts  more  truly  stated  by  Professor  Baldwin  at  some  distinctly 
previous  date  ? 


CORRESPONDENOE. 


Dr.  Herman  T.  I^ukens  has  written  the  following  personal  letter  to 
the  editor.  It  was  with  no  thought  of  publication,  but  Dr.  L,ukens 
has  kindly  consented  to  let  it  appear  in  the  Journal,  without  change  : 

My  Dear  Sir  : 

I  have  just  been  out  to  Chevy  Chase  to  see  Dr.  Klmer  Gates  and 
his  laboratory.  The  work  on  enlargement  of  the  laboratory  is  still 
under  way,  so  that  I  did  not  see  things  and  apparatus  in  working 
order,  but  in  heaps.  He  has  raised  the  old  building  one  story,  and 
built  a  new  first  story.  It  is  a  fine  situation  on  the  same  lot  with  his 
residence,  with  ground  enough  around  for  two  or  three  new  buildings 
besides  a  fine  lawn.  The  property  is  his  own,  laboratory  and  all,  but 
he  has  received  donations  of  various  amounts  (I  think  he  said  $320,- 
000)  from  Mrs.  Phebe  Hurst  and  others  to  aid  in  special  investiga- 
tions. His  work  covers  the  whole  range  of  the  sciences.  He  has  just 
invented  a  way  of  getting  an  electric  current  from  the  action  of  sun- 
light without  the  intervention  of  dynamo  or  engine.  He  started  in  on 
the  study  of  looms  some  time  ago,  and  in  nine  months  had  sixty-eight 
new  inventions  of  improvements  in  the  loom  ;  one  of  these  inventions 
he  disposed  of  for  ten  per  cent,  royalty,  receiving  ^62,000,  with  which 
he  is  building  his  new  laboratory  now.  He  employs  a  force  of  trained 
assistants,  machinists,  etc.  His  metallurgical  room  is  for  investiga- 
tions in  alloys.  He  proposes  to  make  a  complete  series  of  10,000  (or 
so)  varying  percentages  of  alloys  of  certain  two  metals,  and  test  the 
properties  of  the  alloys.  He  is  at  present  on  optics  and  acoustics.  He 
proposes  to  put  up  a  building  in  which  will  be  museum,  laboratory 
and  all  apparatus  needed  to  demonstrate  every  known  fact  about  sight 
or  sound.  Then  he  will  take  a  class  through  by  his  method  of  work, 
which  goes  by  regular  stages :  (i)  Sensations,  (2)  Images,  (3)  Concepts, 
(4)  Ideas,  (5)  Thoughts,  ist  order,  (6)  Thoughts,  2nd  order,  (7) 
Thoughts,  3rd  order.  He  aims  to  get  as  many  different  sensations  as 
possible.  Out  of  these  come  images  of  objects.  These  are  grouped 
by  likeness  into  concepts.  Then  the  concepts  are  each  to  be  related  to 
every  other  one.  He  keeps  going  over  and  over  the  material  trying  to 
find  relation  of  concepts  systematically,  i.  e.,  of  every  possible  pair. 
He  lays  much  stress  upon  this  mechanical  completeness  of  the  system. 
He  goes  to  bed  at  8.30  and  gets  up  at  5.30,  works  till  i  or  2,  and  gives 
afternoon  to  social  life  and  relaxation. 

He  and  his  wife  began  to  prepare  themselves  for  parenthood  a  year 
or  two  before  they  created  their  last  child.  They  avoided  all  onesided 
specialism  and  aimed  to  develop  all  the  good  emotions  and  exercise 
their  minds  on  the  whole  round  of  human  knowledge.  During  preg- 
nancy his  wife  avoided  all  evil  passions,  anger,  envy,  etc.,  and  cultivated 
good  emotions,  social  and  altruistic  instincts,  art,  literature,  dramas, 
the  sublime  in  nature,  heavens,  the  spirit  of  the  cosmos,  etc.  The  child 
was  born  at  full  time,  without  any  pain,  and  the  whole  process  of 
birth  took  only  two  and  one-half  hours.  He  has  two  bright  children, 
on  whom  he  has  been  trying  various  new  ideas.  The  oldest  at  21 
months,  he  says,  knew  11,000  words. 

He  is  at  work  on  sexual  perversion,  invisible  rays  of  the  spectrum, 


164  CORRKSPONDKNCE. 

conditions  of  work,  etc.  He  has  records  for  twenty  years  of  his  own 
activity  and  environment,  atmospheric  potential,  electrical  poten- 
tial, barometer,  wind,  etc.  He  has  an  army  of  readers  working  for  him 
in  the  gigantic  task  of  sifting  facts  out  of  scientific  books.  He  is  try- 
ing to  get  all  the  alleged  facts  collected,  and  then  test  these  and  weed 
out  the  theories  and  mere  "accepts,"  thus  reducing  the  great  mass  of 
rubbish  to  a  small  compass  of  accessible  facts, — a  scientific  Bible,  as 
he  says  ;  for  what  is  more  sacred  than  truth,  and  what  more  satanic 
than  falsehood  ?  He  showed  me  a  great  mass  of  manuscript  material, — 
an  attempt  to  work  over  the  Standard  Dictionary  and  extract  the 
words  that  stand  for  new  ideas  in  sound  and  light.  These  are  on  cat- 
alogue cards  for  purposes  of  classification,  and  filled  several  large 
drawers. 

He  has  a  great  mass  of  notes  that  have  been  collecting  for  20  years, 
and  which  he  proposes  to  begin  to  edit  in  a  series  of  books  which  will 
bring  out  his  ideas  better  than  anything  else  he  has  thus  far  done. 
These  will  include  best  regimen  for  work,  scientific  rearing  of  chil- 
dren, method  of  invention,  encyclopaedic  Bible  of  science,  etc. 

Dr.  Gates  has  a  lovely  home,  into  which  he  has  put  a  large  part  of 
himself.  It  shows  the  man  of  ideas  and  of  resources.  He  is  affable 
and  cordial,  gave  me  unstintingly  of  his  time  and  attention,  and  spoke 
freely  of  everything.  He  seems  to  me  to  have  made  a  great  mistake 
in  not  publishing,  so  as  to  get  the  criticism  of  fellow  workers  and  the 
steadying  influence  of  co-operation  in  investigations.  But  he  is  sin- 
cere, has  the  scientific  spirit,  and  is  a  man  of  original  ideas  who  will 
be  more  and  more  known  as  the  years  go  by. 


NOTES  AND  NEWS. 


Dr.  Wreschnrr's  Weight  Experiments. 

lu  my  review  of  Dr.  Wreschner's  Beitrdge  zu  psychophy sicken  Mes- 
sungen  (this  Journal,  IX,  591  ff.),  I  noted  the  fact  that  the  author 
nowhere  states  whether  his  subjects  were  informed  of  the  time-order 
of  the  experimental  series.  "  Were  the  subjects  told  the  time-order 
of  the  first  double  series  or  not?  Presumably  not,  since  the  pro- 
cedure at  large  was  procedure  without  knowledge.  .  .  .  The  knot 
is  cut  if  the  subjects  were  acquainted  with  the  time-order  in  every 
case  ;  but  this  is  nowhere  stated."     (P.  593.) 

Dr.  Wreschner  has  requested  me  to  give  publicity  to  the  following 
statement :  "The  subjects  were  always  told  beforehand  whether  a  P 
I  or  a  P  II  series  was  coming.  The  method  was  only  so  far  without 
knowledge  that  the  magnitude  of  the  weight  of  comparison  was  un- 
known to  the  subjects  in  each  experiment.  I  regret  that  I  did  not 
expressly  say  this  in  the  chapter  '  Das  Versuchsverfahren ;'  but  a  re- 
mark upon  the  matter  occurs  on  p.  210  (2  lines  from  the  top)." 

I  am  very  glad  to  call  attention  to  this  correction,  which  is  of  great 
importance  for  any  estimate  of  Dr.  Wreschner's  theory  of  the  time- 
error.  I  may  add  that  the  sentence  on  p.  210  was  one  of  the  two  or 
three  puzzling  passages  that  led  me  to  note  the  omission  pointed  out 
in  my  review.  E.  B.  T. 

EXPERIMENTAI,   PSYCHOI.OGY   IN   ENGI.AND. 

During  the  absence  of  Dr.  W.  H.  Rivers  with  the  Borneo  Expedi- 
tion, the  courses  in  Experimental  Psychology  at  University  College, 
Ivondon,  are  given  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Dixon,  known  by  his  mathematical 
publications  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society,  and  by  his 
work  on  visual  space  recently  published  in  Mind. 

»  The  Wei«by  Prize. 

The  Welby  Prize  of  ;^5o,  offered  for  the  best  essay  on  the  subject  of 
"The  Reasons  for  the  Present  Obscurity  and  Confusion  in  Psycho- 
logical and  Philosophical  Terminology,  and  the  Directions  in  which 
we  may  look  for  Efficient  Practical  Remedy,"  has  been  awarded  to 
Dr.  Ferdinand  Tonnies,  of  Hamburg.  A  translation  of  the  successful 
essay  will  shortly  appear  in  Mind. 

University  News. 

Mr.  Henry  Wilde,  F.  R.  S.,  of  Manchester,  has  endowed  in  the 
University  of  Oxford  a  Wilde  Readership  and  a  John  lyocke  Scholar- 
ship in  Mental  Philosophy. 

Dr.  R.  Macdougall  has  been  appointed  assistant  director  of  the  Psy- 
chological Laboratory  in  Harvard  University ;  Dr.  F.  G.  Lancaster, 
professor  of  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  at  Colorado  College ;  Dr.  C.  II. 
Judd,  professor  of  Experimental  and  Physiological  Psychology  in  the 
Schpol  of  Pedagogy,  New  York  University;  Dr.  D.  S.  Miller,  lecturer 
in  Psychology  at  Columbia  Univiersity  ;  Dr.  E.  Thorndike,  instructor 
in  Psychology  at  the  Western  Reserve  University ;  Mr.  G.  M.  Whip- 


1 66  NOTES   AND   NEWS. 

pie,  assistant,  and  Dr.  I.  M.  Bentley,  instructor  in  Psychology  at 
Cornell  University  ;  Dr.  E.  A.  Gamble,  instructor  in  Psychology,  Wel- 
lesley  College. 

In  accordance  with  the  request  of  the  Government  of  Venezuela, 
and  of  the  Committee  on  Organization,  the  III  Pan  American  Medical 
Congress  has  been  postponed  to  meet  in  Caracas  in  December,  1900. 

Forthcoming  Books. 

The  following  books  on  psychological  subjects  are  announced  as  in 
preparation : 
Baillifere,   Tindall  &  Cox:     "Aids    to    Psychological  Medicine,"  by 

T.  A.  BkadIvE;    "Handbook  for  Attendants  on  the  Insane,"  by 

authority  of  the  Medico-Psychological  Association. 
Cambridge  University  Press  :     "  An  Introduction  to  Psychology,"  by 

G.  F.  Stout  and  J.  Adams. 
J.  &  A.  Churchill :     "  Clinical  Lectures  on  Mental  Diseases  "  (C1.0US- 

ton),  with  new  plates. 
C.  Griffin  &  Co.:     "  Mental  Diseases,"  by  W.  B.  Levi^is. 
Longmans  &  Co.:   "Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom,"  by  T.  F.  G.  Dbx- 

TER  and  A.  H.  GARI.ICK. 
The    Macmillan  Co.:    "First  Experiments  in  Psychology,   an    Ele- 
mentary Manual  of  Laboratory  Practice,"  by  E.  B.  Titchener. 
Scientific  Press,  Ltd.:     "  Medical  Aspects  of  Education,"  by  P.   G. 

Lewis  ;  "  Mental  Nursing,"  by  W.  Harding. 
W.  Scott,  Ltd.:  "  Degeneracy,"  by  E.  S.  Tai^bot. 
Swan    Sonnenschein   &   Co.:     "Aristotle's    Psychology,"  by  W.  A. 

Hammond  ;  Wundt's  "  Physiological  Psychology,"  trs.  by  E.  B. 

Titchener. 
University  Correspondence  College  Press  :    "  Manual  of  Psychology," 

by  G.  F.  Stout. 


THE   AMERICAN 

Journal  of  Psychology 

•   Founded  by  G.  Stani^ey  Hai.1,  in  1887. 
Vol.  X.  JANUARY,  1899.  No.  2. 

HYDRO- PSYCHOSES. 


By  FrbdeRICK  E.  Boi^TON,  Late  Fellow  in  Psychology,  Clark 
University. 


In  this  study  we  wish  to  investigate  the  influence  that  water 
has  exerted  in  shaping  and  moulding  man's  psychic  organism. 
The  thoughts  expressed  in  literature  have  been  greatly  influ- 
enced by  pelagic  conditions.  Not  only  are  there  accounts  of 
water  spirits,  nautical  tales,  etc. ,  but  almost  every  page  bears 
evidence  through  metaphor  of  the  modifications  of  thought  and 
expression  by  water.  Note  the  phrases  ' '  stemming  the  tide, ' ' 
"  current  of  thought,"  "  flowing  robes,"  "  torrents  of  joy,"  "a 
total  wreck, "  "  drown  grief, "  '  *  sinking  in  adversity, "  "  ebbing 
life,"  etc.  The  poets  have  been  especially  inspired  by  the  sea, 
the  brook,  the  rill,  etc.  Many  of  the  poems  relating  to  water 
have  been  set  to  music,  and  have  played  a  great  r61e  in  re- 
ligious worship.  Hymnology  is  replete  with  allusions  to  water. 
What  is  now  poetical  allusion  was  in  primitive  times  the  ex- 
pressions of  belief.  The  poetry  of  to-day  was  the  philosophy 
of  yesterday.  So,  too,  mythology  chronicles  as  mere  tales  for- 
mer firm  beliefs.  In  this  we  find  abundant  evidence  of  the 
great  influence  water  exerted  upon  savage  peoples.  Nearly  all 
primitive  peoples  had  their  water  spirits,  and  even  the  rivers 
and  seas  were  supposed  to  be  alive.  The  literature  of  all 
nations  abounds  with  tales  of  fountains  of  youth,  rivers  of  life, 
etc.  Omens,  superstitions,  sayings  relating  to  water  and  to  water 
gods  are  numerous.  Philosophy,  religion,  medicine,  mythology, 
have  all  been  influenced  by  various  ideas  concerning  water. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  all  people  have  feelings  about  water 
which  are  only  partially  explainable  by  present  relations  and 
circumstances.  Much  may  be  explained  by  the  vastness,  the 
activity,  the  feeling  of,  individual  experiences,  etc.,  but  there 


I 70  BOLTON : 

is  still  a  residuum  wholly  unaccounted  for  by  individual  expe- 
riences and  by  the  phenomena  themselves.  Apparently,  only 
the  psychic  history  of  the  race  can  offer  adequate  explanations. 
If  the  causes  do  not  not  appear  in  the  phenomena,  the  cause 
must  be  in  the  soul  itself.  The  soul  in  its  long  period  of  de- 
velopment must  have  passed  through  experiences,  the  present 
manifestations  of  which  are  but  reverberations  of  a  remote  psy- 
chic past.  To  trace  the  genesis  of  these  conceptions  and  feel- 
ings and  to  study  the  reaction  of  people,  both  in  the  past  and 
in  the  present,  toward  this  phase  of  nature  is  the  object  of  this 
investigation. 

Evidences  of  Man's  Pelagic  Ancestry. 

There  are  several  lines  of  argument  which  give  such  abund- 
ant proofs  of  man's  pelagic  ancestry  that  little  doubt  of  it  re- 
mains in  the  minds  of  scientists.  Chief  among  these  on  the 
physical  side  are  the  proofs  afforded  by  Embryology,  Mor- 
phology, Paleontology  and  Pathology.  Recent  valuable  additions 
have  been  made  by  a  study  of  survival  movements.  By  show- 
ing transitory  characteristics  in  process,  much  may  be  gleaned 
indirectly  from  a  study  of  these  groups  of  animals  which  were 
once  land  animals,  but  which  have  returned  to  the  sea. 

Each  of  these  classes  of  evidence,  with  the  exception  of  that 
drawn  from  Paleontology,  will  be  passed  in  review. 

Embryological,  ua.  General.  Man,  like  all  other  animals, 
begins  life  as  a  unicellular  organism.  The  earliest  stages  of 
development  which  the  human  embryo  passes  through,  so  far 
as  is  known,  resemble  those  of  all  other  animals.  The  only 
difference  between  the  development  of  the  human  embryo  and 
the  embryo  of  other  animals  is  that  the  human  embryo  goes 
away  beyond  all  other  organisms  in  its  unfoldment.  But  so 
close  are  the  resemblances  among  the  earliest  embryonic  stages 
that  differences  are  unrecognizable.  Some  one  has  said,  James, 
I  think,  that  for  some  time  no  human  being  can  determine 
whether  a  given  embryo  will  turn  out  a  frog  or  a  philosopher. 
Romanes  says^  that  when  man's  "  animality  becomes  estab- 
lished, he  exhibits  the  fundamental  anatomical  qualities  which 
characterize  such  lowly  animals  as  polyps  and  jelly-fish.  And 
even  when  he  is  marked  off  as  a  Vertebrate,  it  cannot  be  said 
whether  he  is  to  be  a  fish,  reptile,  a  bird  or  a  beast.  Later  it 
becomes  evident  that  he  is  to  be  a  Mammal,  but  not  till  later 
still  can  it  be  said  to  which  order  of  mammals  he  belongs. ' ' 

Not  only  do  the  embryonic  forms  of  all  vertebrate  animals, 
resemble  each  other  in  their  general  characteristics,  but  special 
organs  or  systems  of  the  higher  mammals,  can  be  traced  out  in 

^Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  I,  119. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  171 

the  various  stages  of  development.  It  is  well  known  that  re- 
semblances of  the  mammalian  embryos  to  lower  vertebrates 
flash  out  as  each  new  step  is  attaint.  As  Prof.  Drummond 
has  put  it  we  have  "  first  the  resemblance  of  the  Fish,  then  of 
the  Amphibian,  then  of  the  Reptile,  lastly  of  the  Mammal."^ 

b.  Nervous  System.  Considering  the  development  of  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system  we  find  that  different  stages  of  the  human 
embryonic  brain  have  close  homologies  in  some  of  the  great 
groups  of  lower  animals.  Man's  brain  passes  through  a  series 
of  stages  of  increasing  complexity.  These  stages  are  only  tem- 
porary in  the  human  embryo,  while  they  represent  the  maxi- 
mum development  of  the  group  corresponding  to  each  stage. 
Prof.  H.  DeVarigny  says  :  '*  One  may  easily  detect  in  the  evo- 
lution of  the  human  brain  a  stage  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
brain  of  fishes ;  but  while  the  fishes  permanently  retain  this 
brain-structure,  an  advance  occurs  in  man,  and  the  brain 
acquires  characters  of  the  reptilian  encephalon ;  later  on  it  pro- 
gresses again,  and  acquires  bird  characters,  and  finally  it 
acquires  those  characters  which  are  peculiar  to  mankind.  Here 
again,  ontogeny  demonstrates  phylogeny."^ 

c.  Circulation  a^id  Respiration.  Romanes  sums  up  what 
Darwin  and  others  had  first  pointed  out  concerning  the  devel- 
opment of  the  foetal  circulatory  and  respiratory  organs  by  say- 
ing that, ' '  at  the  time  when  the  gill-slits  and  the  gill-arches  are 
developed  in  the  embryonic  young  of  air-breathing  Vertebrates, 
the  heart  is  constructed  upon  the  fish-like  type.  That  is  to 
say,  it  is  placed  far  forwards,  and  from  having  been  a  simple 
tube  as  in  the  worms,  is  now  divided  into  two  chambers,  as  in 
Fish.  Later  it  becomes  progressively  pushed  further  back 
between  the  developing  lungs,  while  it  progressively  acquires 
the  three  cavities  distinctive  of  Amphibia,  and  finally  the  four 
cavities  belonging  only  to  the  complete  double  circulation  of 
Mammals.  Moreover,  it  has  now  been  satisfactorily  shown 
that  the  lungs  of  air-breathing  Vertebrata,  which  are  thus  des- 
tined to  supersede  the  function  of  gills,  are  themselves  the 
modified  swim -bladders^  or  float  which  belong  to  Fish.  Con- 
sequently all  these  progressive  modifications  in  the  important 
organs  of  circulation  and  respiration  in  the  air-breathing  Ver- 
tebrata, together  make  up  as  complete  a  history  of  their 
aquatic  pedigree  as  it  would  be  possible  for  the  most  exacting 
critic  to  require."* 

Rudimentary  Organs.  In  almost  all  animals  and  plants  we 
find  rudimentary  or  vestigial  organs  which  serve  no  purpose  in 

^The  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  72. 

2 Prof.  Henry  DeVarigny:  Experimental  Evolution,  p.  35. 

^See  Darwin  :  Descent  of  Man,  pp.  160-61. 

*  Romanes'  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  I,  154. 


172  BOI.TON  : 

the  present  life  of  the  organism.  Some  of  these  appear  only  in 
the  embryo,  then  become  absorbed  or  pass  away,  leaving  little 
or  no  trace  of  their  presence.  Kverybod}^  knows  of  the  gills, 
tail,  and  swimming  apparatus  which  frogs  and  toads  possess 
during  the  tadpole  stage,  and  which  remain  in  adult  life  only 
as  vestigial  structures.  There  is  a  species  of  salamander  {sala- 
mander atra')  which  lives  high  up  among  the  mountains,  brings 
forth  its  young  full  formed  like  the  mammals,  but  whose  tad- 
poles, or  young,  possess  exquisitively  feathered  gill-slits.  If  the 
young  chance  to  be  removed  from  the  body  of  the  mother 
before  the  close  of  the  normal  period  of  gestation,  the  young 
salamanders  will  swim  away  like  fish  if  placed  in  water.  When 
born  at  full  term  they  will  drown  as  will  the  adult  animal  if 
placed  in  water.  These  organs,  adapted  to  aquatic  life,  and 
which  have  ' '  reference  to  ancestral  adaptations,  repeat  a  phase 
in  the  development  of  its  progenitors."^ 

The  life  history  of  individuals  cannot  in  every  case,  of 
course,  present  a  full  and  complete  recapitulation  of  its  ances- 
tors. To  preserve  all  useless  structures  would  be  a  waste  of 
energy  and  material,  and  nature  is  never  prodigal.  The  law  of 
use  and  disuse  are  ever  operative.  As  soon  as  structures  lose 
their  functions  they  tend  gradually  to  disappear.  If  detri- 
mental they  are  the  sooner  dropped  ofiF.^  The  vestigial  or  obso- 
lescent structures  which  come  regularly  under  our  notice  in 
any  class  of  individuals  are  undoubtedly  those  which  sub- 
serve some  unknown  purpose  during  embryonic  life,  or  they 
are  such  as  have  only  recently  ceased  to  function.  Those  that 
appear  occasionally,  but  are  absent  in  the  normal  individuals, 
are  probably  the  reverberations  of  long-since  abandoned  organs, 
but  have  become  reawakened  through  stimulations  that  have 
called  forth  functions  similar  to  those  possessed  by  the  organ  in 
question,  or  they  may  belong  to  arrested  development.  To 
this  class  many  pathological'  freaks  and  abnormalities  may  un- 
doubtedly be  referred.  Romanes  says  that  '  *  the  foreshortening 
of  developmental  history  which  takes  place  in  the  individual 
lifetime  may  be  expected  to  take  place,  not  only  in  the  way  of 
condensation,  but  also  in  the  way  of  excision.  May  pages  of 
ancestral  history  may  be  recapitulated  in  the  paragraphs  of 
embryonic  development,  while  others  may  not  be  so  much  as 
mentioned."^ 

Vestigial  Structures  in  Man.  In  the  human  body  there  are 
numerous  obsolescent  organs,  which  persevere  in  form  only, 
and  give  unequivocal  evidence  of  former  ancestry.  There  are 
in  all  upwards  of  130  that  have  been  discovered.     The  vermi- 

^  G.  H.  Lewes,  in  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  p.  398. 
2  Romanes'  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  I,  103. 
*  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  I,  pp.  103-4. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 73 

form  appendix  is  one  of  the  best  known.  It  is  as  fuU}^  devel- 
oped during  foetal  life  as  in  adult.  The  muscles  by  means  of 
which  the  external  ear  is  moved  is  demonstrable  only  in  ex- 
ceptionally atavistic  individuals.  The  panicules  carnosis,  or 
muscles  by  means  of  which  animals  move  the  skin,  still  exhibit 
vestiges  of  former  function  in  man.  Club-feet  are  said  to  be 
atavistic  reminiscences  of  remote  ancestors,  meaning  no  more 
nor  less  than  baboon  feet.^ 

"  Prominent  among  these  vestigial  structures  are  those 
which  smack  of  the  sea.  If  embryology  is  any  guide  to  the 
past,  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  the  ancient  progenitors 
of  Man  once  lived  an  aquatic  life.  At  one  time  there  was  noth- 
ing else  in  the  world  but  water-life ;  all  the  land  animals  are 
late  inventions."^  After  emerging  from  the  annelide  and  mol- 
luscan  stages,  what  was  to  become  man  remained  in  the  water 
until  evolution  had  produced  a  fish-like  stage  ;  ' '  after  an  am- 
phibian interlude  he  finally  left"  the  watery  domain,  but 
* '  many  ancient  and  fish-like  characters  remained  in  his  body 
to  tell  the  tale."^ 

One  typical  vestigial  structure  which  dates  back  to  sea  ances- 
try is  the  plica  semi-lunaris  or  the  remnants  of  the  nictitating 
membrane  of  fishes.  It  is  a  semi-transparent  curtain-like  mem- 
brane formed  on  the  inner  side  of  the  eye  as  a  vertical  fold  of 
the  conjunctivia,*  which  apparently  is  of  great  utility  in  sweep- 
ing across  the  eye  to  cleanse  it.  It  is  very  common  among 
birds,  some  fishes,  reptiles,  and  amphibians,^  and  most  verte- 
brates.* In  man  only  a  small  fold  6r  curtain  draped  across  one 
side  of  the  eye,  and  Romanes  states  that  it  is  rudimentary  only 
in  animals  above  fishes.'^ 

The  most  unequivocal  rudimentary  structures  which  give 
indication  of  water  ancestry  are  the  visceral  clefts,  or  gill-clefts, 
in  the  neck-region.  These  were  the  first  discovered  vestigial 
structures  to  indicate  the  probable  line  of  descent.  These 
structures  are  first  seen  in  the  amphioxus,  the  connecting  link 
between  invertebrates  and  vertebrates.  "  In  all  water-inhabit- 
ing Vertebrates  which  breathe  by  means  of  gills  the  thin 
epithelial  closing  plates  break  through  between  the  visceral 
arches,  and  indeed  in  the  same  sequence  as  that  in  which  they 
arose.  Currents  of  water,  therefore,  can  now  pass  from  the  out- 
side through  the  open  clefts  into  the  cavity  of  the  fore  gut,  and 

^  Drummond  :  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  96. 
^Drummond  :  The  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  83. 
^Loc.  cit.y  p.  85. 

*  Text-book  of  Embryology,  Hertwig-Mark,  p.  487. 

*  Darwin:  Descent  of  Man,  p.  17. 

*  Hertwig-Mark  :  A  Text-hook  of  Embryology,  p.  487. 
Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  I,  74. 


174  BOLTON: 

be  employed  for  respiration,  since  they  flow  over  the  surface 
of  the  mucous  membrane.  There  is  now  developed  in  the 
mucous  membrane,  upon  both  sides  of  the  visceral  clefts,  a 
superficial^  close,  network  of  blood-capillaries,  the  contents  of 
which  effect  an  exchange  of  gases  with  the  passing  water. 
Ivikewise  in  the  case  of  the  higher  (amniotic)  vertebrates,-^  both 
inner  and  outer  visceral  furrows,  together  with  the  visceral 
arches  separating  them,  are  formed  ;  but  here  they  are  never 
developed  into  an  actually  functioning  respiratory  apparatus  ; 
they  belong,  consequently,  in  the  category  of  rudimentary 
organs.  Upon  the  mucous  membrane  arise  no  branchial  leaflets  ; 
indeed  the  formation  of  open  clefts  is  not  always  and  every- 
where achieved,  since  the  thin  epithelial  closing  membranes 
between  the  separate  visceral  arches  are  preserved  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  externally  visible  furrows. ' ' 

The  number  of  gill-clefts  and  visceral  arches  decreases  in  the 
ascending  scale  of  vertebrate  life.  In  some  of  the  lower  species, 
as  the  selachians,  there  are  seven  or  eight,  while  birds,  mam- 
mals and  man,  possess  but  four.^  The  number  of  external 
openings,  also,  is  found  to  constantly  decrease  as  we  ascend  the 
scale  of  life.  In  the  higher  mammals  and  man  they  would 
scarcely  be  known  were  it  not  for  their  detection  in  the  embry- 
onic stage.  But  they  are  discernible  in  the  chick  embryo  on 
the  third  day  of  incubation,  and  they  may  be  seen  distinctly  in 
the  human  embryo  according  to  His  when  the  embryo  has  at- 
tained a  length  of  three  or  four  millimeters.  They  begin  to 
become  obliterated  by  the  fourth  week  of  foetal  life.^  But  still 
says  Drummond  * '  so  persistent  are  these  characteristics  [gill- 
slits]  that  children  are  known  to  have  been  born  with  them  not 
only  externally  visible — which  is  a  common  occurrence — but 
open  through  and  through,  so  that  fluids  taken  in  at  the  mouth 
could  pass  through  and  trickle  out  at  the  neck.  .  .  .  Dr. 
Sutton  has  recently  (Evolution  and  Disease,  p.  8i)  met  with 
actual  cases  where  this  has  occurred.  ...  In  the  common 
cases  of  children  born  with  these  vestiges  the  old  gill-slits  are 
represented  by  small  openings  in  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and 
capable  of  admitting  a  thin  probe.  Sometimes,  even,  the  place 
where  they  have  been  in  childhood  is  marked  throughout  life 
by  small  round  patches  of  white  skin."*  Dr.  Hertwig  also 
mentions  the  fact  that  fistulae,  which  penetrate  from  without 
inward  for  variable  distances,  sometimes  even  opening  into 
the  pharyngeal  cavity,  are  to  be  met  with  in  human  beings. 

1  Text-book  of  Embryology,  Hertwig-Mark,  pp.  286-7. 
"^Ibid.,  p.  287. 

8  Hertwig-Mark  :  Text- book  of  Embryology,  pp.  288-9. 
*  Drummond  :  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  81. 


HYDRO-PvSYC  HOSES.  175 

These  are  explainable  as  being  still  open  clefts  of  the  cervical 
sinus.  ^ 

The  ultimate  metamorphosis  of  the  embrj^onic  gill-clefts  is 
still  a  question  of  much  interest.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that 
the  thymus  and  probably  the  thyroid  gland  are  derived  from 
the  visceral  clefts.^  The  thymus  is  derived,  according  to  Kol- 
liker,  Born  and  Rabl,  from  the  third  visceral  cleft.  Some 
authorities,  among  them  De  Meuron  and  His,  difftT  in  minor 
points,  principally  as  to  the  number  of  clefts  involved,^  but  in 
the  main  they  agree.  The  thj^mus  is  found  in  all  animals,  begin- 
ning with  the  fishes.  Even  in  the  fishes  it  is  derived  from  epi- 
thelial tracts  of  the  open  gill-clefts  still  functionally  active. 
Dohrn  holds  that  the  thyroid  gland  is  the  remnant  of  ancient 
gill-clefts  of  the  vertebrates.  Although  this  is  disputed  by 
Hertwig  he  still  admits  that  ' '  it  appears  to  be  an  organ  of 
very  ancient  origin,  which  shows  relationship  to  the  hypo- 
brancial  furrow  of  Amphioxus  and  the  Tunicates. '  "*  It,  at 
any  rate,  gives  strong  evidence  of  the  close  relationship,  being 
developed  ' '  from  an  unpaired  and  a  paired  evagination  of  the 
pharyngeal  epithelium,"^  and  in  the  region  of  the  former  vis- 
ceral clefts,  and  b}^  good  authorities  it  is  claimed  to  be  developed 
from  them.  The  so-called  accessory  thyroid  gland  is  conceded 
by  all  to  have  thus  arisen.  The  unpaired  fundaments  which 
contribute  toward  the  thyroid  are  not  wanting  in  a  single 
class  of  vertebrates/  Dohrn  makes  several  bolder  hypotheses 
concerning  the  metamorphosed  products  of  the  embryonic 
clefts.  He  maintains  (i)  "  that  the  mouth  has  arisen  by  the 
fusion  of  a  pair  of  visceral  clefts,  (2)  that  the  olfactory  organs 
are  to  be  referred  to  the  metamorphosis  of  another  pair  of  clefts, 
a  view  which  is  also  shared  by  M.  Marshall  and  others, 
(3)  that  a  disappearance  of  gill-clefts  in  the  region  of  the 
sockets  of  the  eye  is  to  be  assumed,  and  that  the  eye-muscles 
are  to  be  interpreted  as  remnants  of  gill-muscles.'"  Hertwig, 
however,  dissents  from  some  of  these  views.  But,  most  em- 
bryologists  are  agreed  that  the  middle  and  outer  ear  are 
derived  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  first  visceral  cleft  and  its 
surroundings.  In  fishes  there  is  no  external  auditory  apparatus, 
and  these  organs,  which  in  man  develop  into  an  ear,  subserve 
another  purpose.  The  Eustachian  tube  represents  a  partial 
closure  of  an  original  cleft ;  the  tympanic  membrane  is  devel- 

1  Hertwig-Mark  :  Text-book  of  Embryology,  p.  290. 
"^Ibid.,  p.  316. 
^Ibid.,^.  316. 
,  *  Hertwig-Mark :  Text-book  of  Embryology,  p.  317. 
^  Loc.  cit. 
^  Loc.  cit. 
'  Hertwig-Mark  :  Text-book  of  Embryology,  p.  288. 


176  BOLTON: 

Oped  from  the  closing  plate  of  the  first  visceral  cleft  and  sur- 
rounding portions  of  the  arches ;  and  the  external  ear  is  derived 
from  the  ridge-like  margins  of  the  first  and  second  visceral 
arches.^ 

* '  Ears  are  actually  sometimes  found  bursting  out  in  human 
beings  half  way  down  the  neck  in  the  exact  position — namely, 
along  the  line  of  the  anterior  border  of  the  sterno- mastoid  mus- 
cle— which  the  gill-slits  would  occupy  if  they  still  persisted. 
In  some  families,  where  the  tendency  to  retain  these  spacial 
structures  is  strong,  one  member  sometimes  illustrates  the 
abnormality  by  possessing  the  clefts  alone,  another  has  the 
cervical  ear,  while  a  third  has  both  the  cleft  and  a  neck  ear — 
all  these,  of  course,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  neck  ears.^" 

Survival  ^Movements.  An  exceedingly  interesting  and  im- 
portant study,  and  one  which  sheds  much  light  upon  the  pres- 
ent problem,  was  carried  out  by  Dr.  Alfred  A.  Mumford,  of 
England.^  He  noticed  the  peculiar  paddling  or  swimming 
movements  which  a  young  babe,  a  few  days  old,  made  when 
it  was  placed  face  downwards  with  only  hands  and  feet  touch- 
ing the  floor,  its  head  and  abdomen  being  supported  by  a  hand 
placed  under  each.  Being  struck  with  the  great  similarity  of 
these  movements  to  those  made  in  propulsion  through  a  waterj' 
medium  he  began  a  systematic  study  of  infants*  movements. 
Besides  confirming  and  extending  many  of  the  recent  observa- 
tions concerning  an  anthropoid  relationship  he  makes  state- 
ments which  are  much  more  far-reaching. 

He  has  noted  that  the  position  of  the  limbs  at  birth  and  dur- 
ing the  first  few  weeks  of  infancy  tend  to  assume  the  primitive 
developmental  position,  viz.:  "folded  across  the  chest,  thumb 
towards  the  head,  and  with  the  palm  towards  the  thorax  ;  but 
more  often  the  palm  is  away  from  the  chest- wall,  and  is 
directed  anteriorly  by  means  of  extreme  pronation,  the  dorsum 
of  the  hand  often  lying  on  or  near  the  shoulder,  sometimes  an 
inch  or  two  outside.  As  the  child  wakes  up  the  elbows  begin 
to  open  out  and  the  palm  is  pushed  outwards  in  a  way  that  would 
be  useful  in  locomotion,  especially  in  a  fluid  medium.  In  fact 
it  is  the  movement  of  the  paddle. ' '  These  movements  are  de- 
scribed as  slow  rhythmical  movements  of  flexion  and  exten- 
sion, such  as  one  sees  among  animals  in  an  aquarium.  They 
occur  often  in  series  of  three  at  a  time  during  a  quarter  of  a 
minute,  followed  by  alternating  pauses.  These  are  interpreted 
as  vestigial  movements  of  a  former  amphibian  existence,  which 
were  of  fundamental  importance  before  forelimbs  developed. 

i/^zV/.,  pp.  505,  511. 

2  Drummond  :  Ascent  of  Man,  p.  89. 

3  Brain,  1897. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  177 

This  is  supported  by  the  shape  of  the  hand,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  highly  developed  of  bodily  organs  in  function,  but  in 
some  repects  least  modified  of  all  the  skeleton.  ' '  In  shape  and 
bones  it  is  more  like  the  primitive  amphibian  paddle  than  is 
the  limb  of  any  other  mammal." 

We  also  know  that  there  are  many  reflex  movements  known 
as  vibratory  or  oscillatory,  which  are  especially  common  among 
children,  though  by  no  means  confined  to  them.  Among  them 
are  those  of  tapping,  swaying,  and  others  of  a  rhythmical 
nature.^  Swaying  from  side  to  side  is  very  noticeable  in 
small  school-children.  They  sway  from  side  to  side  and  for- 
ward and  backward.  Fish  swim,  in  part,  by  similar  move- 
ments, and  in  view  of  man's  pelagic  line  of  ascent,  it  is  not 
improbable  to  suppose  that  swaying  and  possibly  other  reflex 
rhythmic  and  oscillatory  movements  may  be  recrudescences  of 
former  aquatic  life.  That  they  are  atavisms,  seems  borne  out 
by  the  fact  that  intellectual  fatigue  increases  such  automa- 
tisms.^ That  is,  fatigue  causes  a  temporary  relaxation  of  the 
control  exercised  by  the  higher  and  more  recently  developed 
psychic  centers  and  a  reversion  toward  more  primitive  condi- 
tions. It  is  probable  that  all  automatic  movements,  as  well  as 
expressive  movements,  are  weakened  repetitions  of  movements 
that  were  once  of  utility.* 

Origin  of  Animai^  Life. 

Not  only  have  speculative  philosophy  and  mythology  claimed 
for  everything  a  sea  origin  [see  later  sections  in  this  paper]  but 
science  has  actually  demonstrated  that  the  beginning  of  life 
was  in  the  sea — near  the  bottom.  This  is  as  true  of  vertebrate 
as  well  as  of  invertebrate  life."*  Dr.  Brooks  writes  :  *'  We  may 
feel  sure  even  in  the  absence  of  sufiicient  evidence  to  trace  their 
direct  paths,  that  all  the  great  groups  of  Metazoa  ran  back  to 
minute  pelagic  ancestors."^  Another  authority  writes  that 
' '  for  the  present  we  may  conclude  that  the  proximate  ancestor 
of  the  vertebrates  was  a  free-swimming  animal  intermediate  in 
organization  between  an  ascidian  tadpole  and  amphioxus." 
The  same  writer  claims  that  the  ultimate  or  primordial  ancestor 

^See  Dr.  T.  I^.  Bolton's  article  on  Rhythm,  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.. 
Vol.VI,  p.  145. 

2  Ivindley  :  Motor  Phenomena  of  Mental  Effort,  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.  ^ 
Vol.  VII,  p.  506. 

3  See  Lindley,  loc.  cit. 

*W.  K.  Brooks:  The  Genus  Salpa  Mem.  Biol.  Lab.,  Johns  Hopkins 
Univ..  p.  153. 
*  W.  K.  Brooks :  The  Genus  Salpa,  p.  159 ;  see  also  p.  163. 


178  BOLTON: 

of  the  vertebrates  was  a  worm-like  animal  with  an  organization 
approximating  the  bilateral  ancestors  of  the  echinoderms.^ 

Science  has  also  shown  us  that  a  great  body  of  animals  have 
been  gradually  crawling  out  of  the  sea.  ' '  From  almost  every 
countr}^  pond,  or  ditch,  or  swamp,"  says  Miss  Buckley,  "  a 
chorus  of  voices  rises  up  in  the  spring-time  of  the  year,  calling 
to  us  to  come  and  learn  how  Life  has  taught  her  children  to 
pass  from  the  water  into  the  air  ;  for  it  is  then  that  the  frogs 
lay  their  eggs,  and  every  tadpole  which  grows  up  into  a  frog 
carries  us  through  the  wonderful  history  of  animals  beginning 
life  as  a  fish  in  water  with  water-breathing  gills,  and  ending 
it  as  a  four-legged  animal  with  air-breathing  lungs.  "^ 

All  the  amphibians,  or  double-lived  animals,  are  jnst  emerg- 
ing from  the  water.  We  find  them  in  all  stages  of  transition, 
some  having  only  just  begun  to  emerge,  while  in  others  the 
transition  is  so  nearly  complete  that  their  former  identity  is 
scarcely  discernible.^ 

But  the  young  of  all  amphibians  begin  life  in  an  aqueous 
medium,  thus  recapitulating,  as  all  animals  do,  the  life  of  the 
race.  In  embryonic,  or  tadpole  life,  all  amphibians  possess  gills 
for  extracting  oxygen  from  the  water,  and  organs  for  water 
locomotion.  It  is  only  w^hen  they  reach  an  adult  stage  that 
they  possess  organs  which  equip  them  for  terrestrial  existence. 

Animal  Retrogressions  to  Aqi^atic  lyiFE. 

But  there  have  been  man 3'  retrogressions  in  the  process. 
Many  animals  after  rising  step  by  step  above  the  fishes, 
and  through  the  backboned  animals  until  they  reached  a  rank 
only  a  little  below  the  primates,  for  some  reason  have  gone 
back  to  the  sea.  The  French  song  says  '*  on  revient  tojours  k 
ses  premiers  amours."  Among  those  that  have  completely 
forsaken  the  land  and  assumed  fish-like  characters  such  as  to 
almost  elude  detection  are  the  whales,  porpoises,  and  dolphins. 
Their  fish-like  forms  and  marine  habits  seem  to  indicate  affini- 
ties with  the  fishes.  But  their  internal  structure,  breathing, 
and  mode  of  reproduction  and  suckling  the  young  proclaim 
their  mammalian  kinship.  They  resemble  quadrupeds  in  their 
internal  structure,  and  in  some  of  their  appetites  and  affections. 
Like  quadrupeds  they  have  lungs,  a  midriff,  a  stomach,  intes- 
tines, liver,  spleen  and  bladder.  The  organs  of  generation  and 
Heart  are  quadrupedal  in  structure.  "  The  rudimentary  teeth 
of  the  whalebone-whales,  which  never  come  into  use,  are  final 

1  Arthur  Willey  :  Amphioxus  and  the  Ancestry  of  the  Vertebrates, 
p.  291. 

2  Arabella  Buckley:  Winners  in  Life's  Race,  p.  71. 

3 Dr.  W.  K.  Brooks:  The  Genus  Salpa,  Memoirs  fr.  the  Biol.  Lab., 
Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS.  1 79 

links  in  the  chain  of  evidence."  says  Professor  OvSkar  Schmidt/ 
' '  that  the  whalebone-whales  are  the  last  members  of  a  trans- 
formed group  which  commenced  with  animals  with  four  toes  and 
numerous  teeth,  and  which,  by  the  gradual  diminution  of  the 
dentition,  have  become  whalebone- whales. "  Tlie  fins  still  re- 
tain the  bones  of  the  shoulder,  forearm,  wrist  and  fingers, 
though  they  are  all  enclosed  in  a  sac  and  could  render  no  ser- 
vice except  in  swimming.  The  head  is  also  mammalian  save 
in  shape,  which  has  become  modified  and  fish-shaped  for  easier 
propulsion  in  the  water.  The  mammalian  skull  with  all  the 
bones  in  their  proper  anatomical  relations  to  one  another  are 
still  preserved.^  Prof.  Schmidt  says  in  regard  to  the  dolphin 
that  the  "hind  limbs,  like  those  of  the  Sirenians,  have  disap- 
peared externally  without  leaving  a  trace  of  their  former  exist- 
ence ;  the  rudimentary  pelvic  bones  that  are  concealed  in  the 
flesh — sometimes  with  the  last  remnant  of  the  thigh  bone,  very 
rarely  with  the  shank — bear  witness,  however,  to  their  having 
possessed  ancestors  with  four  legs. ' '  ^ 

There  are  several  species  of  animals  that  exhibit  the  trans- 
formation still  in  process.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  polar  bear, 
which  is  about  half  aquatic.  This  animal  really  gave  us  the 
first  hint  that  some  mammals  may  revert  to  a  water  stage  of 
existence.^  His  body,  much  longer  and  more  flexible  than  that 
of  common  bears,  eiiables  him  to  adapt  himself  to  water  loco- 
motion. His  feet  have  become  decidedly  broad,  his  head 
pointed,  and  his  ears  small,  thus  enabling  him  to  propel  him- 
self through  his  aqueous  habitat  with  ease.  Other  bears  hug 
their  prey,  while  this  one  uses  teeth  and  claws  entirely.  The 
soles  of  his  feet  have  become  provided  with  long  hair,  which 
provide  against  slipping  on  the  ice.  They  have  largely  lost 
their  hibernating  habits,  arid  fish  and  hunt  throughout  the 
winter.^  The  seals  show  by  the  shape  of  their  skull,  dentition, 
and  mode  of  life  that  they  are  carnivorous  animals  that  have 
adapted  themselves  to  a  life  in  water.  Their  limbs  are  meta- 
morphosed into  fin-like  rudders. 

Instead  of  a  perfect  fish-like  tail  he  has  two  legs  flattened 
together,  with  nails  on  the  toes.  These  are  obvious  superflui- 
ties, but  remain  as  an  inheritance  from  ancestors  to  which  they 
were  of  use,  but  they  have  now  become  modified  by  the  present 
fish-like  habits  of  the  animal.  Sea  otters,  the  nearest  relatives 
of  the  seal,  have  also  become  pure  fish-eating  animals.     The 

^The  Mammalia,  p.  248;  see,  also,  J.  G.  Romanes,  Darwin  and  after 
Darwin,  I,  50. 

^Romanes,  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  II,  51. 
^The  Mammalian,  p.  250. 

*  Arabella  Buckley :  Winners  in  Ivife's  Race,  p.  295. 
^  Op.  cit.,  pp.  295-8. 


l8o  BOLTON  : 

Sirenia,^  which  comprise  the  dugougs  and  manatees  resemble 
the  true  Cetacea  (whales,  dolphins  and  porpoises)  in  their 
adaptation  to  an  aquatic  mode  of  life  and  the  absence  of  pelvic 
limbs,  but  are  probably  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Ungulates. 
These  now  aquatic  animals  are  plainly  retrogressions  from  the  reg- 
ular land  type.  They  are  somewhat  fish-like  in  form,  the  posterior 
portion  of  the  body  being  developed  into  a  caudal  fin.  Hind  limbs 
are  lacking,  and  the  forelimbs  have  been  modified  into  swim- 
ming-paddles or  flippers.  The  ear  has  lost  the  external  con- 
cha. A  few  bristles  still  cover  the  thick  skin  and  tell  of  former 
life.  They  are  vegetable  feeders  (called  herbiverous  Cetaceans 
by  Cuvier).  There  are  two  mammary  glands,  pectoral  in  posi- 
tion. The  pelvis  is  rudimentary,  some  teeth  are  rudimentary, 
and  some  species  possessed  a  rudimentary  femur.  They  date 
back  to  the  Eocene  Tertiary  period,  while  the  cetacea  probably 
extend  to  the  secondary  period. 

Among  reptiles  which  represent  these  atavistic  traits  there 
are  the  oceanic  turtles,  and  the  sea  snakes ;  among  the  birds, 
the  penguin,  whose  wings  are  scarcely  different  from  the  true 
fins  of  fishes.  Then,  again,  from  the  mammals  might  be  named 
the  web-footed,  duck-billed  platypus,  the  web-footed  opossum 
of  South  America,  the  beaver,  and  the  walruses  and  sea  lions. ^ 

In  all  these  classes  of  animals  that  have  returned  to  aquatic 
life,  we  notice  that  in  the  process  of  evolutipn  the  most  marked 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  least  typical  structures, — those 
which  are  least  strongly  inherited,  such  as  skin,  claws  and 
teeth.  The  aqueous  medium  necessitates  a  change  of  covering. 
Instead  of  fur,  which  we  know  (from  the  few  straggling  bris- 
tles) they  once  possessed,  a  smooth  surface,  offering  little  re- 
sistance is  advantageous.  To  still  maintain  adequate  bodily 
heat  a  covering  of  fat  under  the  skin  is  acquired.  The  whale 
has  evolved  a  layer  of  blubber  in  some  cases  one  and  one-half 
feet  thick.  The  changed  medium  modifies  the  locomotor  organs 
— does  away  with  the  necessity  of  legs  and  necessitates,  instead, 
swimming  apparatus.  The  anterior  end  becomes  more  pointed 
to  reduce  resistance  to  the  minimum.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  the  head  retains  essentially  all  the  functions  it  pos- 
sessed, being  modified  only  in  form.  In  all  cases  the  eyes 
become  much  reduced  in  size.  In  whales  they  suffer  so  much 
reduction  that  they  can  scarcely  be  found.  The  same  change 
is  taking  place  in  the  eyes  of  seals,  polar  bears,  walruses, 
and  other  animals  of  this  type.  Dentition  has  suffered  so  much 
change  that  whales  possess  only  rudimentary  teeth  that  never 
cut  the  gum.     In  the  living  species  of  sirenians  the  jaws  carry 

1  Nicholson  :  Manual  of  Zoology,  Chap   LXVI. 

2  Arabella  Buckley :  Winners  in  Life's  Race,  p.  299. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS.  l8l 

more  or  fewer  molar  teeth,  which  have  flattened  crowns,  while 
the  front  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  is  furnished  with  rough 
horny  pads  or  plates.  In  the  genus  Rhytina,  now  extinct, 
there  were  no  true  teeth,  but  the  places  of  these  were  taken  by- 
plates  of  horn.  Incisors  are  also  present,  but  they  do  not  cut 
the  gum,  except  in  the  case  of  male  dugongs.  Nostrils  become 
situated  on  the  upper  surface.  The  anterior  organs  of  locomo- 
tion suffer  much  less  change  in  form  than  the  posterior,  though 
they  assume  entirely  new  functions.  In  general  the  bones  of 
the  shoulder,  forearm,  wrist  and  fingers,  are  retained,  although 
they  become  encased  in  a  fin-shaped  sac,  so  as  to  become  better 
fitted  for  swimming. 

The  entire  posterior  end,  as  well  as  the  hind  legs,  undergo  a 
most  radical  metamorphosis.  The  hind  legs  are  no  longer 
needed  for  walking,  and  soon  atrophy  entirely  or  become 
merely  rudimentary.  In  the  whales,  porpoises,  and  other  ani- 
mals, which  have  completely  forsaken  the  land,  the  hind  legs 
have  completely  disappeared  externally,  and  only  the  rudi- 
mentary bones  give  evidence  of  the  species  ever  having  pos- 
sessed legs.  Synchronously  with  the  atrophy  of  the  hind  legs 
there  occurs  a  loss  of  the  sacrum  and  pelvis.  In  the  sirenians 
there  is  no  true  sacrum,  and  the  pelvis  is  only  rudimentary. 
The  lungs  instead  of  degenerating  become  enormously  enlarged, 
and  enable  their  possessors  to  remain  under  water  great  lengths 
of  time.  The  whalebone  whale  can  remain  under  water  for  an 
hour  at  a  time  without  reinflating  its  lungs. 

The  reversion  to  an  aquatic  medium  seems  to  be  promotive 
of  great  increase  in  size.  This  is  probably  due  to  several 
causes.  First,  the  expenditure  of  energ}^  in  locomotion  is 
greatly  reduced;  second,  the  ease  of  securing  food  is  greatly 
increased,  the  whale  having  only  to  open  his  mouth  as  he 
swims  to  entrap  myriads  of  minute  marine  animals;  third,  it  is 
probable  that  the  loss  of  a  pelvis  is  advantageous,  as  much 
larger  young  may  be  born  without  injury  than  when  the  pelvis 
is  present.  Among  land  vertebrates  we  know  that  many  of  the 
largest  and  most  promising  of  the  various  species  succumb  to 
the  dangers,  attending  birth,  arising  from  a  narrow  pelvis. 

Psychic  Reverberations.  We  cannot  hope  to  unravel  all  of 
man's  mental  history  with  any  such  demonstrable  certainty  as 
we  can  reconstruct  his  past  physical  history.  Mental  states  are 
the  most  fleeting  and  least  preservable  entities,  and  although 
we  must  logically  conclude  that  the  record  of  no  psychosis  is  ever 
effaced,  yet  the  majority  become  so  intricately  blended  and 
interwoven  and  overgrown  with  other  more  recent  acquisitions 
that  no  psychology  will  ever  be  able  to  reconstruct  the  entire 
race  history.  Only  the  most  oft-repeated  and  most  far-reaching 
psychic  acts  leave  traceable  evidences.     But  patient  and  careful 


I 82  BOLTON: 

work  will  enable  us  to  understand  much  of  man's  psychic  past 
through  survivals  and  rudimentary  organs,  just  as  we  have 
been  aided  in  tracing  psj^chical  development.  But  just  as  all 
psychic  organs  are  less  demonstrable  than  physical,  so  rudi- 
mentary psychic  phenomena  are  less  capable  of  proof  than 
vestigial  physical  structures.  There  is,  however,  unquestioned 
evidence  of  numerouus  rudimentary  psychic  traits  and  many 
others  which,  though  not  capable  of  rigorous  demonstration, 
give  strong  evidence  of  their  origin.  Traces  of  peculiar  mani- 
festations of  the  souls  of  our  remote  ancestors  are  to  be  met 
with  in  "  the  present  reactions  of  childish  and  adolescent  souls, 
or  of  specially  sensitized  geniuses  or  neurotics. ' '  There  are 
also  times  in  the  life  of  the  normal  individual  when  the  control 
maintained  by  the  higher  and  more  recently  acquired  centers  is 
apparently  suspended,  and  the  lower  and  older  centers  then 
given  full  sway  seem  to  step  in,  and  the  resulting  psychical 
phenomena  present  traces  of  long  past  activities.  Such  condi- 
tions are  evidenced  in  sleep  and  dreams.  Idiots  present  childish 
and  even  animal  mentality,  showing  that  the  higher  centers 
have  failed  to  function.  Instead  of  evincing  rudimentary  psy- 
chic phenomena  in  the  true  sense,  they  are  cases  of  arrested 
development.  Their  lives  are  made  up  of  those  activities  that 
are  common  to  animals  and  to  humanity  in  its  infancy.  Again, 
there  are  certain  modes  of  thought  that  crop  out  in  the  form  of 
omens,  superstitions,  sayings,  proverbs  and  signs,  to  which  we 
ordinarily  attach  no  importance,  but  often  hear  and  repeat.  All 
these  have  a  meaning  to  the  psychologist.  They  are  to  -him 
vestigial  or  rudimentary  organs,  and  suggest  use  in  a  remote 
past.  "  Few  things,"  says  Black, ^  "  are  more  suggestive  of  the 
strange  halts  and  pauses  which  mentally  a  people  makes  than 
to  note  how  superstition  springs  up  in  the  very  midst  of  modern 
education."  They  are  to  the  psychologist  what  gill-slits  are  in 
pathological  cases  of  arrested  development.  Children  are  very 
prone  to  be  superstitious,  which  is  also  true  of  savages. 

The  range  of  atavistic  psychoses  is  practically  unlimited. 
Admitting  memory  to  be  a  biological  fact  we  assume  that  every 
impression  leaves  an  ineffaceable  trace,  by  which  we  mean  that 
vestiges  or  predispositions  or  habit-worn  paths  of  association 
are  formed  which  will  function  again  when  properly  stimulated. 
Conservation  of  impressions  is  a  state  of  the  cerebral  organ- 
ism. The  effect  once  produced  by  an  impression  upon  the  brain, 
whether  in  perception  or  in  a  higher  intellectual  act,  is  fixed 
and  there  retained.  The  retention  of  any  act  in  memory,  ac- 
cording to  James, ^  is  an  unconscious  state,  purely  physical,  a 

1  Folk  Lore  in  Medicine,  p.  218. 
aprin.  of  Psych.,  I,  655. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  183 

morphological  feature.  According  to  Ribot  we  may  assume 
that  persistence  of  memories,  "if  not  absolute,  is  the  general 
rule,  and  that  it  includes  an  immense  majority  of  cases.  "^  This, 
of  course,  applies  only  to  the  persistence  of  memories  during 
the  individual's  life,  but,  as  Dr.  Hall  has  pointed  out,^  "we 
may  fancy,  if  we  like,  that  on  some  such  theory  as,  e.  q^., 
Mach's  of  hereditary,  or  a  form  of  memory  by  a  direct  con- 
tinuity of  molecular  vibration  in  cells  or  their  elements  (Weiss- 
mann's  biophor's,  Wisner's  plasomes,  de  Vrie's  pangens, 
Nageli's  micellae,  etc.),  or  in  any  less  material  way,"  that 
these  traces  or  vestiges  are  continued,  and  may,  even  though 
apparently  forever  effaced,  reappear  in  future  generations  in 
children  or  pathological  cases.  Multitudes  of  impressions,  even 
in  the  individual's  existence,  may  never  be  recalled,  but  the}" 
might  be  if  the  proper  stimulus  occurred,  or  if  more  recent 
memory  modifications  were  removed,  and  the  older  memories, 
as  it  were,  set  free.  Evidence  in  support  of  such  a  theory  is 
furnished  by  pathological  cases.  Events  long  since  apparently 
forgotten  often  reappear  in  disease.  This  is  accounted  for  by 
the  destruction  of  the  more  recent  and  higher  centers.  Accord- 
ing to  Ribot  the  law  of  regression  is  that  a  progressive  dissolu- 
tion of  the  memory  proceeds  from  the  least  organized  to  the 
best  organized,  from  the  new  to  the  old.  In  physiological  terms 
'  *  degeneration  first  afiects  what  has  been  most  recently  formed. ' ' 
In  psychological  terms  '  *  the  complex  disappears  before  the 
simple,  because  it  has  not  been  repeated  as  often  in  expe- 
rience." Hence,  may  not  such  cases  give  us  glimpses  of  the 
remote  psychic  past,  even  of  the  paleo-psychic  age? 

In  sleep  we  have  similar  conditions.  The  higher  centers 
having  relaxed  their  control,  there  flash  into  consciousness 
great  accumulations  of  old  experiences  that  we  did  not  know  we 
possessed.  Those  which  are  the  most  retrospective  and  atavis- 
tic take  us  back  through  the  remote  periods  of  the  development 
of  the  race  consciousness.  In  the  psychic  life  of  sleep  our  con- 
sciousness may  extend  backward  to  embrace  all  that  our  ances- 
tors have  lived  and  felt  and  bequeathed  to  us  as  an  indestructi- 
ble organic  patrimony."  Some  of  the  somnolescent  phenomena 
certainly  point  to  aquatic  existence.  Consider  the  sensations 
of  flying,  hovering,  swimming,  floating,  and  jumping  indefi- 
nitely, as  with  seven-leagued  boots.  Nearly  everybody  can 
bear  testimony  to  these  sensations.  Sometimes  it  is  a  sort  of 
skating  or  gliding  across  countless  miles  of  country  or  of  ocean, 
sometimes  it  is  a  giant-like  striding  from  mountain-top  to  moun- 
tain-top, sometimes  the  perfect  eagle-swoop  through  the  blue  of 

1  Diseases  of  Memory,  p.  185. 
^Amer.Jour.  of  Psych.,  Vol.  VIII,  173. 


184  boi^Ton: 

space,  effortless  and  superb.  Many  testify  to  taking  hundred- 
mile  steps,  for  jumping  contests  imaginarih^  performed  in  sleep 
are  of  such  a  character  as  would  excite  the  admiration  of  the 
fabled  gods.  These  states  undoubtedly  arise  from  disturbed  circu- 
lation and  respiration,  for  both  of  these  acts  are  much  deranged 
in  an  actual  fall  through  space.  And,  as  Dr.  Hall  suggests,^  *  *  as 
lungs  have  taken  the  place  of  swim-bladders,  the  unique 
respiratory  action  of  hovering,  as  in  nightmare,  with  all  the 
anakatsesthesic  phenomena,  and  perhaps  the  elusesthesic  sen- 
sations of  a  falling,  which  are  quite  distinct  from  the  former, 
although  not  without  common  elements,  suggest  the  possibility 
that  here  traces  of  function  have  survived  structure.  .  .  . 
Our  ancestors  .  .  .  .  floated  and  swam  far  longer  than 
they  have  had  legs  ....  and  why  may  there  not  be 
vestigial  traces  of  this,  as  there  are  of  gill-slits  under  our 
necks  ?  .  .  .  .  Although  it  cannot  be  demonstrated  like 
rudimentary  organs,  I  feel  strongly  that  we  have  before  us  here 
some  of  the  oldest  elements  of  psychic  life,  some  faint  reminis- 
cent atavistic  echo  from  the  primeval  sea. ' ' 

The  study  of  methods  of  suicide  offers  some  very  interesting 
data  to  the  psychologist.  The  characteristic  mode  of  procedure 
adopted  by  different  nations  throws  light  upon  racial  psy- 
chology, while  the  differences  in  the  methods  employed  by  men 
and  women  in  accomplishing  this  terrible  deed  throw  consid- 
erable light  upon  sexual  psychology.  All  statistics  show  very 
strikingly  that  many  more  women  than  men  commit  suicide  by 
drowning.  And  women  choose  this  method  more  often  than 
any  other.  This  represents  a  fundamental  psychic  difference 
between  men  and  women.  The  woman  represents  the  oldest 
and  most  primitive  features  of  the  race  ;  the  man  that  which  is 
more  recent  and  artificial.  This  is  also  true  from  a  biological 
standpoint.  Woman's  body  seems  to  be  somewhat  more  primi- 
tive and  conservative  than  man's.  This  is  witnessed  in  her 
greater  nearness  to  the  quadrupedal  position,  in  the  length  of 
body,  smaller  size,  etc.  Woman  represents  that  which  is  more 
conservative  in  the  race.  In  woman  there  are  seldom  abnor- 
malities of  bodily  structure,  and  variations  are  much  less  pro- 
nounced than  in  man.  **  From  an  organic  standpoint,  there- 
fore, men  represent  the  more  variable  and  the  more  progressive 
element,  women  the  more  stable  and  conservative  element  in 
evolution In  various  parts  of  the  world  anthro- 
pologists have  found  reason  to  suppose  that  the  primitive  racial 
elements  in  a  population  are  more  distinctly  preserved  by  the 
women  than  the  men."^     Of  their  mental  characteristics  the 

'^  Am.  Jour.  Psych.,  VIII,  Jan.,  1897,  p.  158. 
2  Havelock  BUis  :  Man  and  Woman,  p.  367. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 85 

same  authority  writes  that  "  on  the  psychic  side  women  are 
more  inclined  than  men  to  preserve  ancient  customs  and  ancient 
methods  of  thought. ' '  ^ 

If  it  be  true  that  women  are  phylogenetically  nearer  primi- 
tive human  beings  than  man,  it  is  not  strange  that  in  methods 
of  suicide  they  should  choose  the  primitive  and  more  natural 
means  oftener  than  man.  It  would  be  strange  were  the  statistics 
otherwise.  The  theory  has  often  been  advariced  that  the 
methods  of  suicide  selected  have  a  close  connection  with  the 
occupation  of  the  persons  during  life.  To  illustrate,  a  soldier 
would  choose  firearms,  a  druggist  poison,  etc.  The  theory  is 
probably  in  a  large  measure  true,  but  it  in  no  way  vitiates  the 
theory  that  the  most  primitive  and  most  conservative  choose 
the  most  primitive  methods.  Statistics  show  that  men  prefer 
active  methods,  w^hile  women  prefer  passive  methods.  Women 
give  themselves  to  the  power  of  natural  forces  or  elements, 
as,  for  example,  to  gravity  when  the}^  throw  themselves 
from  heights  or  into  the  water  and  then  wait  for  the 
end,  while  men  make  themselves  the  active  agent  in 
manipulating  some  artificial  contrivance,  a  pistol,  a  rope,  a 
bomb-shell,  or  the  like.  Many  more  women  than  men  suicide 
by  taking  poison,  which  Dr.  Chamberlain  has  pointed  out  to 
be  an  atavistic  tendency.  Women  were  the  earliest  agricultur- 
ists, and  earliest  learned  the  use  of  vegetables  as  articles  of 
diet,  as  curatives,  and  as  agents  of  destruction.  From  these 
early  employments  of  women  she  learned  to  be  a  vegetarian,  a 
trait  she  still  possesses,  and  she  earliest  learned  the  use  of  poison- 
ous herbs.  The  result  of  this  last  still  reverberates  through  her 
organism,  and  to-day  when  woman  determines  to  exterminate 
a  fellow-being  or  an  animal,  poison  is  about  the  only  means 
sought,  while  a  man  would  employ  a  gun,  a  knife,  or  an  explo- 
sive. In  attempting  her  own  life,  though  poison  is  often 
resorted  to,  a  more  primitive  method  is  more  often  chosen. 
"  Throughout  Europe  the  law  roughly  stated  is  that  men  hang 
themselves ;  .  .  .  .  with  modifications  this  rule  probably 
holds  good  all  over  the  world.  "^  In  India,  where  the  people 
represent  a  more  primitive  stage,  according  to  Cheevers,*  six 
out  of  every  seven  women  who  commit  suicide  seek  drowning 
as  a  means.  The  proportion  of  men  who  drown  themselves  is 
also  greater  there  than  in  other  countries.  In  the  Celto-Latin 
nations,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  drown- 
ing among  women  shows  the  highest  percentages  of  any  coun- 
tries.    For   some   reason   or  other  among  the  Slavic  nations 

^  Havelock  Ellis:  Man  and  Woman,  p.  368. 
^Havelock  Ellis  :  Man  and  Woman,  pp.  334-5. 
*  Quoted  by  Ellis:  Man  and  Woman,  p.  335. 

Journal, — 2 


1 86  BOLTON: 

drowning  is  at  a  minimum.^  Strange  to  say,  the  atavistic  ten- 
dencies are  becoming  stronger,  according  to  Havelock  Ellis, who 
says  that  ' '  hanging  has  become  much  rarer  in  both  men  and 
women,  while  drowning  and  poisoning  have  become  commoner 
in  both.  That  is  to  say,  that  women  have  become  more 
womanly  than  ever  in  their  preference  for  the  passive  methods 
of  suicide."^ 

May  not  many  cases  of  suicide  by  drowning  and  the  other- 
wise unexplainable  "  drawing  power"  of  water  so  frequently 
experienced,  be  explained  by  supposing  a  temporary  or  perma- 
nent suspension  of  control  by  the  higher  psychic  centers  allow- 
ing a  recrudescence  of  the  old  love  for  aquatic  conditions.  The 
fear  which  has  been  later  formed,  and  which  normally  is  in 
equilibrium  with  the  love  of  water  becomes  overbalanced,  and 
hence  the  desire  to  jump  in.  The  philosopher,  August  Comte, 
during  a  fit  of  temporary  insanity  insisted  on  plunging  into  the 
lake  with  neither  thought  nor  intention  of  drowning.  The  re- 
turns to  my  syllabus  furnish  many  cases  which  attest  to  the  feel- 
ing that  water  exerts  a  peculiar  attraction  for  many  individuals. 

The  sight  of  waves,  billows,  or  in  fact  any  water,  makes  some 
desire  to  ride  upon  it ;  many  want  to  plunge  in,  and  others  are 
tempted  to  follow  the  streams.  Some  cannot  go  bathing  with- 
out feeling  an  imperative  impulse  to  go  down  forever ;  to  leave 
care  and  pain  ;  to  end  life ;  so  they  won't  know  any  more,  etc. 
One  says  she  always  thinks  like  Longfellow  :  "  Oh  that  the 
river  might  bear  me  away  on  its  bosom  to  the  ocean  wild  and 
wide."  During  trouble  many  long  to  escape  from  it  all  by 
plunging  in  and  being  engulfed  by  the  rushing  waters. 

Water  in  Primitive  Conceptions  of  Life. 

We  shall  see  that  in  all  early  Greek  philosophy  water  was  an 
integral  part  in  all  conceptions  of  life.  Some  assumed  it  to  be 
the  origin  of  all  things ;  others  said  that  water  was  one  of  the 
primitive  elements,  and  that  all  plants  and  animals  either  came 
from  or  were  made  of  water.  The  same  ideas  were  current  in 
mythology,  and  are  prevalent  among  some  people  to  this 
day.  Peoples  like  the  Egyptians,  and  those  in  southern  and 
western  Asia,  who  lived  in  countries  subject  to  periodic  drouths, 
were  not  long  in  concluding  that  water  was  necessary  to  the 
germination  and  growth  of  plants.  During  dry  weather  vege- 
tation withered  ;  during  periods  of  abundant  rain  it  waxed  vig- 
orously. They  very  naturally  ascribed  to  water  the  powers  of 
a  supernatural  being.  It  became  to  them  not  a  condition  of 
life,  but  the  origin  of  life  itself. 

1  Havelock  Ellis  :  Man  and  Woman,  p.  336. 
•^Ibid. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 87 

The  potency  aud  life-giving  properties  ascribed  to  water  are 
shown  in  Egyptian  writings  where  ' '  it  appears  in  such  phrases 
as  *  spirit  of  water, '  the  source.  It  is  a  conspicuous  hiero- 
glyphic in  the  verb  '  to  live  ;'  also  in  '  living'  and  light. "^ 

Among  the  Ojibwas  it  is  supposed  to  have  magic  power  over 
life  and  death.  It  is  not  strange  that  among  the  Egyptians, 
where  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  meant  life  itself,  that 
water  deities  should  assume  so  important  a  place.  The  river 
was  presided  over  by  the  god  Nikis.  The  most  important 
Egyptian  festival  was  the  one  held  at  the  annual  summer 
solstice  in  honor  of  the  Nile.^  At  this  time  an  invocation  was 
made  to  the  river  deity  for  the  inundation.  An  image  of  the 
god  Nilus  was  encircled  by  a  serpent,  and  from  beneath  the 
rocks  of  a  cataract  a  hydra  poured  forth  sacred  water. 

The  idea  of  resurrection  undoubtedly  grew,  in  part,  out  of 
the  common  observation  of  plant  life.  Vegetation  flourishes 
during  a  season,  appears  to  lose  all  vitality  during  a  succeeding 
season ,  but  when  spring  returns  it  becomes  once  more  rej  u  venated. 
Again,  plants  flourish,  produce  seed,  and  wither  away.  The 
seed  in  turn,  under  proper  influences,  germinates  aud  produces 
new  plants.  It  was  but  a  step  to  arrive  at  the  belief  that  man 
also,  after  death,  must  live  again.  We  have  seen  that  the 
primitive  mind  regarded  water  as  the  rejuvenating  principles  of 
all  plant  life,  and  hence  it  will  not  appear  strange  that  the 
notion  should  be  extended  to  include  the  resurrection  of  man.* 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  ceremonials  of  the  dead  all  indi- 
cated an  expected  resuscitation  of  life,  and  water  was  always  made 
the  emblem  of  rejuvenescence,  whether  in  connection  with  human 
dead  or  with  plants.  In  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  water  was  the 
symbol  of  revivification.  They  *  *  believed  in  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  through  the  same  fertilizing  power  as  that  which  re- 
generates the  plant  world. '"^  Primitive  peoples  generally,  we 
may  say,  have  taken  cognizance  of  water  in  the  ceremonials  over 
the  dead.  And  the  return  of  life  is  always  spoken  of  in  connec- 
tion with  it.  In  Egypt  funeral  processions  always  had  to  pass  by 
the  sacred  lake,  which  was  near  every  city,  and  consecrated  to 
the  dead.  In  their  funeral  rituals  the  departed  soul  is  repre- 
sented as  a  ship  with  four  rudders  pointing  to  the  four  cardinal 
points.  The  ancient  Hindoos  buried  the  dead  beneath  the  bed 
of  a  stream  whose  current  was  temporarily  turned  aside.  The 
Greenlanders  say  that  when  one  sleeps  by  the  river  he  can  hear 
the  singing  of  the  dead.  Some  Australians  say  that  the  soul, 
which  they  call  the  "  little  body,"  goes  into  the  sea  at  death. 

^  Ellen  Bmerson  :  Rain  Ceremonials,  American  Anth.,  Jul.,  1894. 
^Frazer:  The  Golden  Bough,  I,  pp.  15-17. 
^  Op.  cit.^  I,  p.  93. 
.    *  Ellen  Emerson  :  Rain  Ceremonials,  Am.  Anth.,  Jul.,  1894. 


1 88  BOLTON: 

Various  symbolisms  were  early  adopted  to  signify  water.  In 
Egypt  it  w^as  Ptah,  the  frog,  the  "  Father  of  Fathers,"  who 
was  a  symbol  of  the  vital  principle  in  water,  its  principle  of  re- 
organization. The  hieroglyphic  representing  Ptah  was  regu- 
larly placed  in  the  tombs  of  the  dead.  Its  office  was  at 
some  future  time,  to  reunite  the  scattered  parts  of  the  body. 
Among  some  Indian  and  various  other  tribes  the  serpent  sym- 
bolizes the  watery  element,  air  or  breath,  which  are  necessary 
to  life.^  We  have  also  noted  in  various  rain  ceremonials  the 
position  of  frogs,  toads  and  serpents.  In  Babylonia,  Thammuz 
was  supposed  to  be  resurrected  by  the  water  of  life  which  the 
goddess  Aphrodite  brought  up  from  Hades.  That  water  was 
regarded  by  the  Indie  Aryans  as  the  source  of  all  things  is 
shown  in  the  Rig  Vedas  which  tell  us  that  *'  waters  contained 
a  germ  from  which  everything  sprang  forth. "  The  Peruvians 
worshipped  Mama-cocha,  the  mother  sea,  from  which  had  come 
everything,  even  giants,  and  the  Indians  themselves.  In  Peru 
water  was  everywhere  worshipped,  and  it  was  believed  that  the 
Incas  originated  in  lake  Titicaca,  while  other  fabled  tribes  came 
from  fountains  and  streams.^ 

The  rain  ceremonials  performed  by  various  peoples  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  rain  are  of  exceeding  interest.  Although 
the  details  vary  considerably  the  ceremonials  may  all  be  classed 
under  a  few  heads.  Sometimes  rain  is  sought  to  be  produced 
by  sympathetic  magic, ^  that  is,  it  is  believed  that  by  imitating 
some  of  the  attendant  phenomena  they  can  influence  the  course  of 
nature.  For  example,  by  beating  on  a  kettle  to  imitate  thunder, 
knocking  two  fire-brands  together  and  causing  sparks  to  fly  to 
imitate  lightning,  and  sprinkling  water  from  a  vessel  by  a 
bunch  of  twigs,  as  is  done  in  some  parts  of  Russia,  the  people 
believe  that  rain  will  be  produced.*  Many  tribes  take  a  mouth- 
ful of  water,  spirt  a  part  of  it  into  the  air,  thus  making  a  fine 
mist,  to  simulate  rain.  This  is  common  among  the  Omaha 
Indians  and  certain  other  tribes.^  In  Germany  and  France  it 
is  said  to  be  customary  to  throw  water  upon  the  last  sheaf  cut 
at  harvest.  The  same  custom  prevailed  in  England  and  Scot- 
land until  recently.  In  Transylvania  among  the  Roumanians  a 
girl  wears  a  crown  made  of  the  last  cut  grain.  When  she  comes 
home  all  hasten  out  to  meet  her,  and  throw  water  upon  her  until 

^See  Ellen  Emerson  :  Rain  Ceremonials,  Am.  Anth.,  July,  1894,  for 
account  of  Egyptian  and  N.  Am.  Indian  rain  ceremonials;  also 
Weather-making,  Ancient  and  Mod.,  Mark  W.  Harrington,  Smith- 
sonian Rep.,  1894. 

2  Dr.  Chamberlain  :  The  Child  and  Childhood  in  Folk  Ivore,  pp.  38-9. 

3  Ellen  Emerson,  op.  cit. 

*  Frazer :  Golden  Bough,  I,  p.  13. 
6  Op.  cit.,  p.  15. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 89 

she  is  completely  drenched.  This  is  done  to  insure  rain  for 
next  year's  crop.^  Sympathetic  magic  among  the  savages,  Mr. 
Frazer  regards  as  exactlj^  analogous  to  the  modern  conception 
of  physical  causation.  A  man-god  in  this  view,  is  only  an  in- 
dividual who  is  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  influencing 
nature  to  a  high  degree.'-^ 

Another  way  of  trying  to  secure  rain  is  by  coercion  of  the 
rain-god.  In  some  parts  of  China  a  huge  wooden  or  paper 
dragon,  representing  the  rain-god  is  carried  about  in  a  proces- 
sion. If  no  rain  follows"  they  curse  it  and  demolish  it.  The 
Senegambians  throw  down  their  fetishes,  drag  them  about  the 
fields  and  curse  till  rain  falls.  ^  Still  another  way  is  to  disturb 
the  gods  in  some  way.  Troubling  the  sacred  springs  by  throw- 
ing impurities  into  them  is  believed  by  the  Dards  to  bring  rain. 
Other  springs  need  only  to  be  looked  at  and  the  whole  province 
secures  rain.^  Sometimes  an  appeal  is  made  to  the  pity  of  the 
gods.  The  Zulus  kill  a  "  heaven  bird,"  throw  it  into  a  pool, 
' '  then  the  heavens  melt  with  tenderness  for  the  death  of  the 
bird  ;  it  wails  for  it  by  raining,  wailing  a  funeral  wail.  "^ 

Various  other  methods  are  resorted  to  in  diffverent  parts  of  the 
world.  The  Samoan  rainmakers  wet  some  sacred  stones  when 
they  wish  rain,  and  put  them  into  the  fire  when  they  desire 
dry  weather.^  In  China  Ke-mung,  who  is  man-shaped  and 
dragon-headed,  haunts  the  Chang  River  and  causes  rainstorms.^ 
In  the  same  country  water-spouts  are  said  to  be  caused  by 
dragons  fighting  in  the  air.*  The  Dodola  or  girl  dressed  in 
clothes  made  of  grass,  herbs  and  flowers,  who  goes  about  from 
house  to  house  and  sings  while  the  housewife  pours  water  over 
her,  is  a  common  rain-charm  in  southeastern  Europe.  It  is 
found  among  the  Servians,  Greeks,  Bulgarians  and  Rou- 
manians.^ Beating,  pinching,  and  beheading  frogs  is  quite  a 
common  rain-charm  among  the  Orinoco  Indians,  and  Idlling 
the  frog  is  an  old  German  rain-charm.^ 

Water  in  Philosophical  Speculation. 

Not  only  among  savage  tribes  has  water  played  an  important 
T61e  in  their  mythological  explanation  of  the  world,  but  even  in 
philosophic  thought  water  has  been  the  subject  of  much  specu- 
lation.    It  assumed  an  important  place  in  early  Greek  cosmo- 

1  Op.  cit.,  I,  p.  286. 

2(9/>.  «7.,  I,  p.  12. 

^Op.  cit.,  I,  p.  18. 

^  Op.  cit.y  I,  p.  19. 

^  Loc.cit. 

^Tylor  :  Early  History  of  Mankind,  p.  133. 

'Denny's  Folk  Lore  of  China,  p.  98. 

^Conway:  Demonology  and  Devil-lore,  II,  107. 


190  BOLTON : 

logical  theories.  The  Greek  philosophers  were  not  the  first  to 
form  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  universe  ;  such  theories,  more 
or  less  mythlogical  of  course,  were  extant  among  all  tribes. 
But  the  Greeks  were  the  first  to  seriously  attempt  to  understand 
nature.  Burnet  says  "  the  real  advance  made  by  the  scientific 
men  of  Miletos  was  that  they  left  off  telling  tales.  "^  They  had 
noticed  the  constantly  changing  aspects  of  nature,  the  eternal 
flux  as  Heracleitus  later  puts  it,  and  their  minds  began  to 
grope  and  yearn  for  some  unitary  principle  to  which  the  eter- 
nal succession  of  changing  objects  could  be  reduced.  They  did 
not,  it  is  true,  abandon  the  speculation  concerning  origins,  but 
their  scientific  contribution  was  the  search  for  a  unitary  prin- 
ciple in  what  was  present.  ' '  They  gave  up  the  hopeless  task 
of  describing  what  was  when  as  yet  there  was  nothing,  and 
asked  instead  what  all  things  really  are  now?"^  Parmenides 
asserts  that  * '  nothing  comes  into  being  out  of  nothing,  and 
nothing  passes  away  into  nothing."  But  they  observed  the 
continual  coming  into  being  and  corresponding  passing  away 
of  particular  things.  From  this  it  was  natural  to  pass  to  the 
assumption  of  a  substratum  which  was  the  ultimate  and  only 
reality.  As  *' nothing  comes  from  nothing,  nothing  can  pass 
away  into  nothing,  there  must  then  be  something  which  always 
is,  something  fundamental,  which  persists  throughout  all 
change,  and  ceases  to  exist  in  one  form  only  that  it  may  reap- 
pear in  another."^ 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  cause  of  the  change  in  cosmo- 
logical  doctrine  among  the  early  Greeks.  Much  of  the  change 
was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  increased  knowledge  of  the  sea, 
which  had  hitherto  represented  to  them  the  boundless,  at  least  so 
far  as  mortal  knowledge  was  concerned.  What  was  unattaina- 
ble, beyond  reach,  unexplainable  by  natural  means,  was  placed 
beyond  the  sea.  Their  world  was  bounded  by  the  sea,  it 
rested  upon  the  sea,  the  mythical  heroes  dwelt  in  or  beyond 
the  sea.  But  with  the  increase  of  maritime  knowledge  in 
the  5th  and  6th  centuries  B.  C,  old  conceptions  had  to  be 
abandoned  for  something  new.  At  the  time  the  Odyssey 
was  composed,  Odysseus  met  with  Circe,  the  Cyclops,  and 
the  Sirens,  not  in  the  near  and  familiar  ^gean,  but  in 
the  "  West,"  which  meant  to  them  beyond  the  known  sea.* 
But  with  the  increase  of  geographical  knowledge  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  monsters  and  beings  purported  to  be  the 
inhabitants    of   countries    beyond    the   sea,    were    no    longer 

ij.  Burnet:  Early  Greek  Philosophy,  p.  8. 

2 Burnet:  op.  cit.,  p.  8.^ 

3 Burnet:  op.  cit.,  p.  10. 

*Geo.  Grote  :  Hist,  of  Greece,  I,  342-3. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  IQI 

there,  and  a  doubt  of  their  ever  having  been  there  arose.  ^ 
About  this  time  they  changed  the  name  of  the  "  Inhospitable 
Sea"  to  the  "Hospitable  Sea."^  They  had  determined  the 
location  of  the  "  far  country,"  and  Jason  was  made  to  bring 
the  Golden  Fleece  from  a  definite  place  Kolchis.^  Burnet  says, 
"  above  all,  the  Phokaians  had  explored  the  Mediterranean  as 
far  as  the  Pillars  of  Herakles,  and  the  discovery  that  the  '  end- 
less paths  '  of  the  sea  they  knew  had  definite  boundaries  must, 
as  Grote  has  said,  have  moved  men's  minds  in  much  the  same 
way  as  did  the  discovery  of  America  in  later  days."* 

To  return  to  their  cosmological  theories,  we  can  readily 
understand  how  in  their  search  for  the  eternal,  original,  unitarj'' 
substance  through  whose  changes  and  motions  all  else  arose, 
that  they  should  turn  to  those  things  which  were  either  ever 
present,  most  abundant,  or  presented  the  greatest  possibility  of 
change,  but  which  at  the  same  time  appeared  to  possess  some 
simple  form  beyond  which  further  change  was  impossible.  This 
the  various  philosophers  thought  the)^  discovered  in  the  ele- 
ments,— earth,  air,  fire  and  water.  Some  chose  one,  some 
another,  and  still  others  believed  that  all  were  necessary  for  a 
satisfactory  explanation. 

Thales,  the  founder  of  the  Milesian  school,  and  probably  the 
first  of  the  cosmologists  in  seeking  a  primary,  fundamental 
matter,  something  which  would  answer  the  question  :  Of  what 
is  the  world  made  ?  proposed  the  answer  :  water.  All  special 
existences  were  but  modes  of  this  primary  substance.  He  saw 
about  him  '*  constant  transformations — birth  and  death,  change 
of  shape,  of  size,  and  of  mode  of  existence — he  could  not  regard 

any  one  of  these  variable  states  as  Existence  itself 

He  looked  around  him,  and  the  result  of  his  meditation  was  the 
conviction  that  Moisture  was  the  Beginning.  He  was  impressed 
with  this  idea  by  examining  the  constitution  of  the  earth. 
There,  also,  he  found  moisture  everywhere.  All  things  he  found 
nourished  by  moisture  ;  warmth  itself  he  declared  to  proceed 
from  moisture  ;  the  seeds  of  all  things  are  moist.  Water  when 
condensed  becomes  earth."®  Further,  as  Burnet  points  out  the 
process  that  evaporation  was  continually  going  on  around 
them,  the  phenomenon  which  rural  people  call  the  "sun  draw- 
ing water  "  was  then  as  observable  as  at  the  present  day,  and 
the  conclusion  was  probably  similar.  The  Greeks  went  a  little 
further  than  the  rustic  of  to-day,  and  asserted  that  this  water 
passing  into  the  sky  by  evaporation  went  to  feed  the  heavenly 

^Op.  cit.,  p.  334. 

2J.  Burnet:  Early  Greek  Philosophy,  p.  14. 

^Ibid. 

*Ibid. 

s  Geo.  H.  Lewes :  Hist,  of  Phil,  from  Thales  to  Comte,  Vol.  I,  p.  7. 


192  BOLTON  : 

fires.  After  coming  down  in  rain  they  thought  it  changed  into 
earth.  Then  from  the  phenomena  of  mists  and  subterranean 
springs  they  believed  that  earth  once  more  was  converted  into 
water.  They  did  not  connect  springs  with  rain,  and  the  waters 
underneath  the  earth  were  regarded  as  an  independent  source 
of  moisture.^ 

Anaximander  (6io  B.  C.)  did  not  agree,  saying  that  the  ele- 
ments "are  in  opposition  to  one  another, — air  is  cold,  water 
moist,  and  fire  hot, — and  therefore  if  any  one  of  them  were  in- 
finite, the  rest  would  cease  to  be  by  this  time."^  He  regarded 
the  world,  according  to  Burnet,  as  a  boundless  mass  or  body 
out  of  which  *  *  our  world  once  emerged  by  the  *  separating  out  * 
of  the  opposites,  moist  and  dry, warm  and  cold."^  But,  although 
Anaximander  made  a  great  advance  over  the  ideas  of  Thales, 
no  longer  considering  the  earth  as  a  disc  resting  upon  the 
waters,  the  potency  of  moisture  or  of  water  was  still  clearly 
visible  in  his  system.  His  ideas  of  the  origin  of  living  creatures, 
as  chronicled  by  Theophrastus,*  are  as  follows  :  "  Living  creat- 
ures arose  from  the  moist  element  as  it  was  evaporated  by  the 
sun.  Man  was  like  another  animal,  namely,  a  fish,  in  the  be- 
ginning."    Hipp.  Ref,,  i,  6  (R.  P.,  i6  a). 

*  *  The  first  living  creatures  were  produced  in  the  moist  ele- 
ment, and  were  covered  with  prickly  integuments.  As  time 
went  on  they  came  out  upon  the  drier  part,  and,  the  integu- 
ment soon  breaking  ofi",  they  changed  their  manner  of  life." 
Aet.=/y«<:.,  V,  19.  I  (R.  P.,  ib.). 

'  *  The  sea  is  what  is  left  of  the  original  moisture.  The  fire 
has  dried  up  most  of  it  and  turned  the  rest  salt  by  scorching 
it."     Ket.—Plac,  iii,  16.  i  (R.  P.,  14  c). 

Anaximenes  (588  B.  C.)  appears  at  first  sight  to  have  taken 
a  different  element  from  any  of  his  predecessors  as  the  one 
underlying  substances  from  which  all  things  come.  According 
to  the  account  given  by  Theophrastus  "  from  it  .  .  (air) 
.  the  things  that  are,  and  have  been,  and  shall  be,  the 
gods  and  things  divine,  took  their  rise,  while  other  things  came 
from  its  offspring."  Hipp.  Ref,  i,  7  (R.  P.,  21).^  Burnet 
explains,  however,  that  "  the  '  air  '  of  which  Anaximenes  spoke 
was  not  at  all  what  we  call  by  that  name.  The  word  aijp  is 
still  used  in  its  old  Homeric  sense  of  vapor  or  mist.  The  dis- 
covery that  what  we  call  air  was  corporeal,  and  not  identical  with 
empty  space,  was  first  made  by  Empedokles.     In  all  the  earlier 

ij.  Burnet:  Early  Greek  Philosophy,  p.  45. 

2  Quoted  by  J.  Burnet  from  Aristotle's  Phys.,  Early  Greek  Philoso- 
phy, p.  51. 

^  J.  Burnet :  Early  Greek  Philosophy,  p.  61. 

*  These  references  quoted  by  J.  Burnet,  Early  Greek  Phil.,  pp.  73-94- 
^ Loc.  cit.y  p.  77. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES .  193 

cosmologists  drjp  means  water  in  a  vaporous  state  more  or  less 
condensed."^ 

Below  are  quoted  several  passages  of  the  opinions  of  Tlieo- 
phrastus  which  give  the  key  to  the  cosmology  of  Anaximenes. 
' '  When  it  is  dilated  so  as  to  become  rarer,  it  becomes  fire ; 
while  winds  on  the  other  hand  are  condensed  air.  Cloud  is 
formed  from  Air  by  *  felting,'  and  this,  still  further  condensed, 
becomes  water.  Water,  condensed  still  more,  turns  to  earth  ; 
and  when  condensed  as  much  as  it  can  be,  to  stones, ' '  Hipp. 
Ref.,  Aet.  (R.  P.,  21). ^ 

Thus  we  see  Anaximenes  practically  returning  the  view  of 
Thales,  making  everything  come  from  the  6J]p  or  moisture,  and 
even  holding  that  the  disc-shaped  earth  floated  upon  it. 

Xe7iophanes,  though  not  making  himself  clear  concerning  his 
cosmological  theories,  seems  to  incline  largely  to  the  Anaxi- 
mandrian  view.  Though  he  denied  the  conception  of  a  primary 
substance^  he  says : 

' '  All  things  are  earth  and  water  that  come  into  being  and 
grow."'     R.  P.,  86. 

"  For  we  all  arise  from  earth  and  water."     R.  P.,  86.** 

Heracleitus  (504  B.  C),  not  satisfied  with  former  cosmology 
sought  a  new  principle,  out  of  which  the  diversified  world 
might  be  made,  which  would  change  into  everything  else,  and 
which  would  be  produced  by  everything  changing  back  into 
it.  This  he  thought  he  found  in  "  fire — real  fire,  of  course, 
'that  burns  and  crackles,'  as  Teichmtiller  put  it."*  Many 
interpreters,  however,  regard  this  fire  as  only  symbolic,  and 
claim  that  the  word  was  used  with  the  same  significance  as 
Anaximenes  had  used  air,  that  is  meaning  mist  or  moisture."^ 
Be  this  as  it  may,  Heracleitus  regarded  fire,  water  and  earth, 
as  the  fundamental  forms  which  water  assumed  in  its  transfor- 
mation* in  his  celebrated  ' '  flux  ' '  theory  gives  to  water  great 
prominence. 

Theophrastus  records  that  '  *  he  called  change  the  upward 
and  the  downward  path,  and  held  that  the  world  goes  on 
according  to  this.  When  fire  is  condensed  it  becomes  moist, 
and  when  collected  together  it  turns  to  water  ;  water  being  con- 
gealed turns  to  earth  (the  conjecture  of  Theophrastus);  and  this 
he  calls  the  downward  path.     And,  again,  the  earth  is  in  turn 

'^Loc.  cit.,  p.  78. 
^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  81. 
'^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  124. 
^Loc.  cit.,  p.  115. 
^Ibid. 

«  Op.  cit.,  p.  148. 

''Op.  cit.,  p.  148  for  discussion  of  interpretation;  also  Zeller,  Pre- 
Socratic  Philosophy,  II,  51  ff. 

8  Zeller:  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy,  II,  51. 


194  BOLTON  : 

liquified,  and  from  it  water  arises,  and  from  that  everything 
else ;  for  he  refers  almost  everything  to  the  evaporation  from 
the  sea.     This  is  the  path  upwards."^   R.  P.,  29. 

From  Hyppolytas,who  probably  represents  Heracleitus  accur- 
ately, in  Mr.  Bywater's  edition  we  learn  that  Heracleitus 
believed  that  "  the  transformations  of  Fire  are,  first  of  all  sea 
(and  half  of  the  sea  is  earth,  half  fiery  storm-cloud").  R.  P., 
28  b.^ 

**  The  earth  is  liquified,  and  the  sea  is  measured  by  the  same 
tale  as  before  it  became  earth. "^     R.  P.,  31. 

Heracleitus  believed  that  there  was  a  constant  flux  between 
fire  and  water.  One  prevailed  for  a  time,  then  the  other,  but 
that  neither  gained  the  permanent  ascendancy.  The  balance 
was  maintained  by  the  "  measures,"  as  he  called  them.  Meas- 
ures of  * '  ever-living  fire  ' '  were  ever  going  out,  while  compen- 
satory "  measures  "  were  being  kindled.*  He  writes,  "so  long 
as  things  as  they  are,  fire  and  water  will  always  be  too,  and 
neither  will  ever  fail."     Ps.  Hipp.,  De  Diaeta,  i,  3.'* 

By  the  oscillation  between  fire  and  water  Heracleitus  ex- 
plained the  change  of  seasons,  and  day  and  night.  I^ike  the 
heavenly  bodies  man,  also,  oscillates  between  fire  and  water.^ 

Hippolytas  interprets  Heracleitus  as  saying : 

'*  The  dry  soul  is  the  wisest  and  best."^     R.  P.,  34. 

' '  For  it  is  death  to  souls  to  become  water,  and  death  to 
water  to  become  earth.  But  water  comes  from  earth  ;  and  from 
water  soul."*     R.  P.,  30  B. 

"  It  is  pleasure  to  souls  to  become  moist."*     R.  P.,  38  b. 

"A  man,  when  he  gets  drunk,  is  led  by  a  beardless  lad, 
knowing  not  where  he  steps,  having  his  soul  moist. "  *    R.  P. ,  34. 

Empedocles  held  that  there  were  four  fundamental  and  pri- 
mary elements,  fire,  earth,  air  and  water. ^  According  to  him 
plants  and  animals  are  composed  of  fire  and  water  in  definite 
proportions.  Likewise  man  sprang  from  the  earth,  at  first 
composed  of  shapeless  lumps  of  earth  and  w^ater,  thrown  up  by 
subterranean  fire,  which  gradually  shaped  themselves  into 
human  members  under  the  influence  of  Love.^ 

Anaxageras  followed  in  a  large  measure  the  cosmological 
doctrines  of  Anaximenes.  He  taught  that  plants  and  animals 
all  originated  in  germs  which  came  down  in  rain-water.^ 

1  Burnet :  op.  cit.,  p.  151. 

2  Burnet :  op.  cit.,  p.  135. 

*  Fragment  20.  Quoted  by  Burnet,  op.  cit.,  p.  135. 

*  Burnet :  op.  cit.,  p,  135. 
5  Burnet:  op.  cit.,  p.  162. 

®  Burnet :  op.  cit.,  p.  138. 

'Zeller:  Pre-Socratic  Philosophy,  II,  p.  125,  et  seq. 

^Zeller:  op.  cit.,  pp.  159-161. 

*Zeller  :  op.  cit.y  p.  365. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 95 

These  cosmological  theories,  trivial  as  they  may  now  appear, 
were  of  the  utmost  significance.  Who  would  for  a  moment  ques- 
tion the  great  importance  of  the  atomic  doctrine  of  elements  ? 
Probably  no  other  hypothesis  in  ancient  or  modern  times  has 
been  vSo  potent  in  determining  our  knowledge  of  the  physical 
universe.  Now,  in  all  these  crude  attempts  to  answer  the 
question  proposed  by  Thales,  we  can  distinctly  foresee  the 
struggles  toward,  if  indeed  not  the  germs  of,  a  future  atomic 
theory.  They  were  searching  for  the  primitive,  fundamental, 
unchangeable  something  from  v/hich  all  else  was  derived. 
"  Greek  philosophy  began  as  it  ended,  for  what  was  lasting  and 
abiding  in  the  fl*ux  of  things."^  Thales  postulated  water  as 
this  abiding  something,  Anaximenes  arip  or  mist,  Heracleitus 
fire,  which,  however,  could  not  exist  without  water,  Empe- 
docles,  earth,  air,  fire  and  water.  Others  asserted  one  or  a 
combination,  but  in  all  these  theories  water  played  the  chief,  or 
at  least  not  unimportant  r61e  in  answering  Thales  conundrum. 

Sacred  Waters. 

We  have  shown  how  water  came  to  be  regarded  as  pos- 
sessed of  life-giving  powers  through  its  connection  with  the 
growth  of  vegetation.  Living  or  running  water  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  of  special  sanctity.  Early  civilizations  largely 
inhabited  countries  having  periodic  rainfalls,  so  that  with  the 
rainy  season  and  overflowing  streams,  the  apparent  visitation  of 
some  supernatural  powers  were  particularly  noticeable.  Grad- 
ually certain  streams,  lakes,  pools,  wells  and  fountains,  became 
set  apart  as  sacred.  The  sources  of  streams  were  held  as  par- 
ticularly sacred.  Temples  and  other  sanctuaries  were  fre- 
quently erected  on  the  banks  of  streams,  and  the  stream  formed 
an  important  part  of  the  sacra  of  the  place. 

We  have  evidence  of  the  sacredness  of  many  rivers  in  the 
Orient.  The  Phcenecians  and  the  Carthaginians  held  many 
rivers  to  be  divine.  Belus,  Adonis,  ^sclepius  and  the  Kishon, 
were  all  held  in  veneration;  also  the  pool  of  Aphaca,  which 
was  the  most  famous  of  all  holy  places.  Several  of  these  holy 
places  were  named  from  the  ancestral  gods.  The  river  Tripolis 
is  still  called  the  Cadisha,  or  holy  stream.  The  Jordan,  in 
Biblical  times,  was  the  sacred  stream  of  the  Hebrews,  as  were 
the  Abana  and  Pharpar  of  the  Syrians.  In  Damascus  the 
Barada  was  sacred,  and  figures  of  the  river-gods  Chrysorrhoa 
and  Pegai  often  appear  on  Damascene  coins.  These  gods  were 
probably  prominent  in  religious  w-orship.  The  Euphrates  was 
sacred  to  the  Syrians,  and  bore  an  important  part  in  the  ritual 
of  Hierapolis.  From  the  river  the  goddess  was  thought  to  have 

1  Burnet :  Early  Greek  Phil.,  p.  13. 


196  BOI.TON  : 

been  born.  The  Aborrhas  or  Chaboras,  the  chief  tributary  of 
the  Euphrates  in  Mesapotamia,  was  held  sacred  as  the  place 
where  Hera  (Atargatis)  bathed  after  her  marriage  with  Zeus 
(Bel).  According  to  tradition  the  Orontes  was  carved  out  by 
a  dragon  which  disappeared  in  the  earth,  at  its  source.  The 
river  Cadas  bears  a  name  which  implies  its  ancient  sanctity. 

Besides  sacred  streams,  fountains,  waterfalls,  wells,  pools, 
etc.,  were  regarded  sacred.  Each  village  in  Syria  had  its  own 
well  and  its  own  high-place  or  little  temple.  In  Canaan  they 
were  generallj^  outside  of  the  villages.  Sacred  springs  were  gen- 
erally sought  in  places  to  which  long  pilgrimages  had  to  be 
made.  Such  shrines  were  Mamre,  Aphaca,  Dan  and  Beersheba. 
Sometimes  they  were  within  the  temples,  and  again,  as  at  An- 
tioch,  the  water  and  the  groves  surrounding  formed  public 
parks  where  pleasure  and  religious  observances  were  combined. 

Both  legend  and  religious  ritual  give  evidence  that,  at  least 
in  earliest  times,  the  sacred  waters  themselves  were  deemed  in- 
stinct with  divine  powers,  and  not  that  beings  resided  in  them 
which  possessed  these  magic  gifts.  The  latter  idea  came  in, 
but  it  is  not  the  primitive  one.  Many  of  the  legends  attempt 
to  explain  how  the  waters  became  impregnated  with  super- 
natural powers.  Many  ancient  accounts  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  blood  of  the  deity  flows  in  the  waters.  In  Paradise  Eost, 
following  Lucien  in  the  Syrian  account, 

"  Smooth  Adonis  from  his  native  rock, 
Ran  purple  to  the  sea,  supposed  with  blood 
Of  Thammuz  yearly  wounded."^ 

The  red  color  of  the  river  was  supposed  to  come  from  the 
blood  of  the  god  killed.  A  fountain  at  Joppa  was  said  to  be 
colored  from  the  blood  of  a  sea-monster.  In  another  class  of 
legends  the  life  of  the  water  is  derived  from  the  blood  of  the 
gods  who  descend  into  them  and  die.  This  was  said  of  the 
Euphrates,  into  which  Hierapolis  and  Ascalon  plunged  and 
were  changed  into  fishes.  This,  says  Mr.  Smith,  is  but  another 
way  of  bringing  the  divine  water  or  divine  fish  into  harmony 
with  anthromophic  ideas.  Aphrodite  is  said  to  have  been  born 
of  the  seafoam,  which  is  but  another  way  of  saying  that  a  deity 
had  given  its  life  to  the  water.  Fish  were  taboo  in  Syria,,  and 
sacred  fish  were  found  in  all  sanctuaries.  Sacred  fish  are  still 
kept  in  pools  at  the  mosques  of  Edema  and  Tripolis. 

The  early  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  probably  worshipped 
the  lakes.  Ancient  writers  indicate  that  the  Gauls,  Germans 
and  other  nations,  considered  many  lakes  sacred.  "  According 
to  Cicero,  Justin  and  Strabo,  there  was  a  lake  near  Toulouse  in 
which  the  neighboring  tribes  used  to  deposit  offerings  of  gold 

1  Paradise  Lost,  I,  450,  following  Ivucien  in  Dea  SyriUy  viii. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 97 

and  silver.  Tacitus,  Pliny  and  Virgil,  also  mention  the  exist- 
ence of  sacred  lakes.  "^  Gregory  of  Tours  tells  of  a  sacred 
lake  on  Mt.  Helamus  which  was  worshipped,  and  offerings  of 
clothes,  skins,  etc.,  made  to  it. 

Besides  being  sacred  many  of  these  waters  were  deemed  to 
possess  life-giving  powers  to  all  who  drank  of  them  or  bathed 
in  them.  It  was  but  an  extension  of  the  notion  concerning  the 
relation  of  rain  and  water  in  general  upon  vegetation  to  its 
effects  upon  man.  Stories  of  fountains  of  youth  abound  in  all 
lands,  and  the  significance  is  great.  It  betokens  the  wide- 
Spread  faith  that  has  been  held  concerning  water  as  a  life-giving 
agent,  and  the  close  identification  of  water  with  life.  The  magic 
draught  of  the  fairy  story,  the  Greek  ambrosia,  the  Vedic  Soma 
or  anirita,  which  gave  immortality,  the  Zend  haoma,  waters  of 
strength  and  waters  of  weakness,  rivers  of  life  and  fountains  of 
youth,  all  seem  intimately  connected  through  the  primitive 
notions  from  which  they  all  arose.  These  draughts  were 
the  source  of  all  strength  and  powers,  panaceas  for  all  ills.  By 
imbibing  magic  waters,  or  bathing  in  them  the  old  were  made 
young,  the  infirm  strong,  and  the  blind  to  see. 

In  India  there  is  a  lake  and  river  in  which  bathers  could 
become  as  young  or  as  old  as  they  chose.  Cambyses  had  heard 
of  the  long-lived  Ethiopians,  and  despatched  messengers  to 
spy  out  their  conditions  of  life.  The  Ethiopians  were  reported 
to  live  a  hundred  and  twenty  years,  and  the  secret  was  that 
they  bathed  in  a  magic  fountain.  In  the  Hawaiian  legend 
Tahita  Kahiki,  or  the  land  far  away  may  be  found  the  wai  ora 
waiola,  or  water  of  life,  and  the  wai  ora  roa,  or  water  of  endur- 
ing life.  These  waters  remove  all  sickness,  deformity,  or  de- 
creptitude  from  those  who  plunge  beneath  them.^  The  Sand- 
wich Islanders  have  a  tradition  of  a  river  in  the  spirit- world 
called  Water  of  Life,  which  makes  the  aged  young,  and  allows 
them  to  return  to  earth  to  live  another  life.  Similar  ideas  have 
been  found  in  the  Malay  Islands.  Batara  Gurr  saves  himself  and 
the  other  gods  from  a  poisonous  drink  by  discovering  a  well  of 
life.  Nurtjaja  compels  the  bandit  Kabib  to  disclose  to  him  the 
springs  of  immortality  which  flow  beneath  the  caverns  of  the 
earth.  Europe  is  not  lacking  in  stories  of  miraculous  fountains. 
**  Ibu-el-Wardi  places  the  Fountain  of  Life  in  the  dark  south- 
western regions  of  the  earth.  El-Khidar  drank  of  it,  and  will 
live  till  the  day  of  judgment."  Prester  John  wrote  to  Manuel 
of  Constantinople  in  the  13th  century  that  "at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Olympus  bubbles  up  a  spring  w^hich  changes  its  flavor 
hourly  day  and  night,  and  the  spring  is  scarcely  three  days 
journey  from  Paradise,  out  of  which  Adam  was  driven.    If  any 

^  Sir  John  Lubbock:  Pre-Historic  Times,  p.  222. 


198  BOI.TON: 

man  drinks  thrice  from  this  spring  he  will  from  that  day  feel  no 
infirmity,  and  he  will  as  long  as  he  lives  appear  the  age  of 
thirty.^  Sir  John  Maundeville  is  said  to  have  identified  the 
mountain  a  century  later  as  Polombo,  near  Ceylon.  (Tylor 
gives  it  as  Mt.  Cy tec*. )  He  wrote  that  there  '  *  is  a  fayre  Welle 
and  a  gret  that  hathe  odour  and  savour  of  all  Spices;  and  at 
every  hour  of  the  day  he  changethe  his  odour  and  his  savour 
diversely.  And  whoso  drynkethe  3  tymes  fasting  of  the  Waters 
of  that  Welle,  he  is  hool  of  alle  maner  of  sykenesse  that  he 

hathe And  men  se)^,  that  that  Welle  cometh  out 

of  Paradys;  and  therefore  it  is  vertuous."^ 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  belief  was  current  that  one  who 
bathed  in  the  Euphrates  in  the  springtime  would  be  immune 
from  disease  the  remainder  of  the  3^ear.  This  power  also  ex- 
tended to  the  vegetation  along  its  banks.  Near  the  sacred  Belus 
grew  the  colcasium  plant  which  healed  Heracles  after  his  com- 
bat with  the  Hydra.  Ezekiel  speaks  of  the  sacred  waters  that 
issue  from  the  New  Jerusalem,  giving  life  wherever  they  went. 
The  leaves  of  the  trees  along  its  banks  were  believed  to  have 
medicinal  virtues.  The  fountain  of  youth  was  a  much  sought 
for  object  even  in  subsequent  times.  Ponce  de  Leon  is  said  to 
have  searched  long  and  anxiously  for  it  among  the  Bahamas, 
and  the  everglades  of  Florida,  and  even  penetrated  the  New 
World  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  River  in  search  of  that  which 
would  rejuvenate  his  ebbing  powers. 

Healing  Waters.  Belief  in  the  curative  and  even  life-giving 
powers  of  certain  water  has  persisted  down  to  the  present  time. 
* '  The  healing  power  of  sacred  water  is  closely  connected  with 
its  purifying  and  consecrating  power,  for  the  primary  concep- 
tion of  uncleanness  is  that  of  some  dangerous  infection;  origi- 
nally an  infection  of  holiness,  but  later  on  of  impurity.'"^ 
(Studied  more  in  detail  later  on.)  There  are  numerous  records 
of  enchanted  wells  until  recently,  and  possibly  still  regarded  as 
possessing  miraculous  powers.  Great  Britain,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  furnish  them  in  great  numbers.  Among  the  most 
noted  was  St.  Winifred's  in  Flintshire,  Wales.  Its  waters  were 
deemed  almost  as  potent  as  those  of  the  pools  of  Bethesda.  All 
human  ills  were  supposed  to  be  relieved  by  drinking  from  it  or 
being  bathed  in  it.  The  spot  from  whence  the  spring  issues  is 
the  spot  upon  which  St.  Winifred's  head  fell  when  struck  off  by 
Prince  Caradoc.  It  has  many  visitors  to  this  day.  In  1635 
Sir  George  Peckham  prolonged  his  devotions  too  far,  ' '  having 
continued  so  long  mumbling  his  paternosters  and  Sancta  Wini- 

1 W.  Robertson  Smith  :  Rel.  of  the  Semites. 

^W.  Robertson  Smith:  Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  68. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  1 99 

freda  orea  pro  me,  the  cold  struck  into  his  body,  and  after  his 
coming  forth  from  that  well  he  never  spoke  more. ' '  ^ 

Hither  came  Wm.  the  Conqueror,  his  grandson,  Henry  II,  and 
the  first  Edward;  here,  too,  many  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  con- 
spirators, and  later  James  II.  In  1876  the  Duke  of  Westmin- 
ster leased  the  well  to  the  corporation  of  Holywell  for  a  thou- 
sand years  at  a  sovereign  a  year.  At  a  recent  date  the  following 
articles  left  by  cured  patients  might  have  been  seen  by  the 
curious  visitor :  39  crutches,  6  canes,  a  hand-hearse,  and  a 
pair  of  boots.  It  is  said  of  the  two  wells  at  Newton,  near  St. 
Neots,  that  "never  went  people  so  fast  from  church,  either 
unto  a  fair  or  market,  as  they  go  to  these  wells.  "^  In  the  par- 
ish of  Wembdon,  during  the  reign  of  Edward  IV,  immense 
concourses  of  people  flocked  to  St.  John's  Well,  and  were  said 
to  be  restored  to  health  through  its  curative  properties.  With 
Chader  Well,  on  the  Island  of  St.  I^ewis,  and  also  a  well  in 
Dumfriesshire  it  was  either  kill  or  cure:  if  convalescence  did  not 
immediately  follow,  death  did. 

Sacred  wells  were  often  the  mediators  in  the  transference  of 
disease.  At  St.  Elias's  Well,  Denbighshire,  disease  is  trans- 
ferred by  casting  into  the  well  a  pin,  along  with  a  pebble, 
marked  with  the  intended  victim's  name.  If  the  victim  hears 
of  it  disease  often  occurs  as  a  result  of  suggestion,  but  believed 
to  have  been  transferred  by  magic.  To  remove  the  disease,  the 
pebble  is  taken  out  and  the  victim's  name  erased  from  the 
magician's  book.'  At  the  holy  well,  Tubber  Quan,  near  Car- 
rick  on  Suir,  the  faithful  were,  and  probably  are,  wont  to  resort 
on  the  last  Sunday  in  June  to  supplicate  St.  Quam  and  St. 
Brogaum.  If  cures  are  to  be  granted  they  appear  as  two  won- 
derful trout.  In  Wales  epileptic  patients  go  to  St.  Telga's 
Well,  half  way  between  Wrexham  and  Ruthin.  The  patient 
goes  to  the  well  after  sunset,  washes  in  it,  and  makes  an 
offering  of  four  pence.  With  a  fowl  under  his  arm  he  walks 
around  the  well  three  times,  reciting  the  Lord's  Prayer.  He 
then  sleeps  all  night  in  the  church  with  the  Bible  for  his  pillow. 
In  the  morning  another  six-penny  offering  is  made  to  the  well. 
If  the  fowl  dies  the  disease  is  supposed  to  be  transferred.'' 

A  few  years  ago  a  lady  was  sketching  on  the  banks  of  a 
river  in  Ireland  when  she  ' '  saw  a  young  girl  ....  lead- 
ing a  boy  with  a  halter  round  his  neck.  When  the  pair  reached 
the  river  the  boy  went  down  on  his  hands  and  knees,  and  so 
led  by  the  girl  crossed  the  river,  bending  his  lips  to  drink. 
They  then  recrossed  in  the  same  fashion;  he  drank  as  before 
and  she  led.    Then  they  went  up  the  hill  home.    But  presently 

1  W.  G.  Black  :  Folk  Medicine,  p.  103. 

2  W.  G.  Black:  Folk  Medicine,  p.  39. 
^  Loc.  cit,,  p.  46. 


200  BOLTON  : 

they  again  appeared  coming  down  the  hill.  This  time,  how- 
ever, the  boy  led  the  girl,  otherwise  the  ceremony  was  the 
same.  '  Me  an'  Tom's  very  bad  with  the  mumps,'  explained 
the  little  girl,  raising  her  hands  to  her  swollen  neck  and  cheeks, 
*  so  I  put  the  branks  on  Tom  an'  took  him  to  the  water,  an' 
then  he  put  them  on  me.  We  be  to  do  that  three  times  an'  its 
allowed  to  be  a  cure.'  And  a  cure  did  result."^  In  the  early 
part  of  the  century  sufferers  from  the  whooping  cough.  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant,  drank  holy- water  from  a  silver  chalice  in  the 
hope  of  a  cure.  Nurses  in  Gloucestershire  used  invariably  after 
public  baptism  to  wash  the  infant's  mouth  with  the  holy  water. 
It  was  said  to  be  a  safeguard  against  toothache.  Such  a  value 
was  placed  upon  this  water  that  to  prevent  the  people  stealing 
it,  the  fonts  had  to  be  kept  locked.  In  the  Puritan  portion  of 
western  Scotland  it  was  looked  upon  as  having  power  to  cure 
many  disorders.  Further,  it  was  a  preventive  against  witch- 
craft, and  eyes  bathed  in  it  would  never  behold  ghosts.^  It  is 
said  of  the  Borgie  Well,  at  Cambuslang,  near  Glasgow  : 

**  A  drink  of  the  Borgie,  a  bite  of  the  weed, 
Sets  a'  the  Cam'slang  folk  wrang  in  the  head." 

On  the  26th  of  June,  every  year,  people  flock  to  Saw  Beach, 
Maine,  for  a  healing  dip  which  the  waters  are  thought  to  pro- 
vide on  that  day. 

The  Chinese  do  not  like  to  have  running  water  near  their 
dwellings  because  it  runs  away  with  their  luck.  Scotch  and 
English  peasants  believe  it  will  bear  away  evil,  and  thus  attach 
great  value  to  it.  Some  think  that  to  possess  desirable  qualities 
the  stream  must  run  east,  others  think  south.  The  latter  is 
usually  regarded  the  more  auspicious,  being  particularly 
efficacious  in  cure  of  witchcraft,  a  series  of  three  mighty 
plunges  being  required  for  a  cure.  In  Northumberland  whoop- 
ing-cough was  cured  by  porridge  cooked  on  a  griddle  held 
over  a  south-running  stream.  At  one  time  the  number  of 
patients  was  so  large  that  they  could  get  but  a  spoonful  at  a 
dose. 

Offerings.  A  further  proof  that  the  divine  potency  was  sup- 
posed to  reside  in  the  water  is  shown  by  the  form  of  religious 
ceremonies  observed  when  offerings  were  made  to  the  water. 
At  Mecca  and  at  the  Stygian  waters  in  the  Syrian  desert  gifts 
were  cast  into  the  holy  sources.  Even  at  Aphacus,  where  the 
goddess  Astarte  was  believed  to  descend  into  the  waters,  the 
pilgrims  cast  into  the  pool  webs  of  linen  and  byssus,  gold  and 

ij.  G.  Black:    Folk   Medicine,  pp.   105-6,  from  Univ.    Mag.,    Aug. 
1879,  P-  219- 
2  J.  G.  Black  :  op.  cit. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  20I 

silver  jewels  and  other  valuable  materials.  At  Abraham's  Well, 
Mamre,  the  heathen  visitors  cast  into  it  libations  of  wine,  cakes, 
coins,  myrrh  and  incense,  and  illuminated  the  well  at  night 
with  lamps.  ^ 

The  custom  of  leaving  rags  and  other  worthless  things  at 
holy  wells  still  exists  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  as  well  as  in  re- 
mote parts  of  the  world.  A  traveller  in  Persia  found  a  tree 
near  one  of  these  wells  hung  with  rags,  which  had  been  left 
there  by  people  afflicted  with  ague.  An  African  explorer  found 
a  tree  hung  full  of  rags.  Old  clothes,  crooked  pins,  pebbles, 
shells,  rusty  nails,  coins  and  other  useless  objects,  all  form  ap- 
propriate offerings.  The  superstitious  adoration  was  so  great 
in  the  reign  of  King  Edgar  that  it  was  forbidden  by  the  i6th 
canon  issued  in  960,  and  it  was  condemned  by  the  canons  of 
St,  Anslemus  in  the  next  century.  In  the  reign  of  King  Canute 
it  was  also  interdicted  by  law.  The  practice  has  been  limited 
since  the  Reformation.  But  there  is  still  scarcely  a  parish  in 
Ireland  but  has  its  own  holy  well.^ 

Oracular  Powers.  Holy  waters  have  often  been  places  of 
oracle  and  divination.  They  were  supposed  to  indicate  by  some 
sign  the  favorable  or  unfavorable  disposition  of  the  divine 
power,  and  also  to  show  whether  certain  gifts  were  acceptable 
or  not.  At  Aphaca  acceptable  offerings  sank,  and  unacceptable 
ones  were  thrown  back  by  the  eddies.  The  gifts  deposited  one 
year  were  thrown  back  the  next,  which  was  regarded  as  an  ill 
omen,  betokening  the  fall  of  Palmyra.  In  Greece  holy  wells 
gave  prophetic  inspiration  to  those  who  imbibed  their  waters. 
The  oracle  at  Antioch  was  obtained  by  dipping  a  laurel  leaf 
into  the  water.  The  oracular  power  of  water  has  often  been 
used  to  determine  the  curability  or  incurability  of  disease.  In. 
recent  times  it  was  customary  at  St.  Orwald's  Well,  Holywell 
Dale  in  North  Lincolnshire,  Great  Cotes,  St.  John's  Well, 
Aghada,  Cork  and  at  other  places,  for  people  to  try  to  discover 
by  the  floating  or  sinking  of  their  shirt,  whether  one  would  re- 
cover or  not.  At  their  departure  they  usually  hung  a  part  of 
their  shirt  or  a  rag  upon  a  bush  near  by  as  an  offering.*  One 
form  of  oracular  manifestation  is  seen  in  the  ordeals  such  as 
those  used  in  trial  of  witches,  which  survived  until  recent 
times.  In  1759  King  James  I  published  his  [in]  famous  trea- 
tise on  demonology.  One  of  the  methods  prescribed  for  testing 
witches  and  sorcerers  was  to  find  an  anaesthetic  or  analgesic 
spot  on  the  body  of  a  person,  which  was  an  indication  of  league 

^  W.  Robertson  Smith:  Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  162. 

^Gabrielle  M.  Jacobs,  in  Godey's  Magazine,  Feb.,  1898;  see  also 
Brand's  Popular  Antiquities,  Vol.  II,  for  interesting  chapter  on  sacred 
wells  and  fountains. 

«W.  G.  Black:  Folk  Medicine,  p.  73. 

JOURNAI, — 3 


202  BOLTON : 

with  the  devil.  The  other  was  the  trial  by  water.  He  wrote:  "  it 
appears  that  God  hath  appointed  (for  a  supernatural  sign  of  the 
monstrous  impiety  of  witches)  that  the  water  shall  refuse  to  receive 
them  in  her  bosom  that  have  shaken  off  them  the  sacred  waters 
of  baptism  and  willfully  refused  the  benefit  thereof."^  In 
Hadramant  when  a  man  was  injured  by  enchantment,  all  the 
suspected  witches  were  brought  to  the  sea  or  a  deep  pool,  weights 
were  tied  to  them,  and  they  were  thrown  into  the  water.  Those 
who  sank  were  adjudged  immune,  while  those  who  did  not 
sink  were  declared  guilty  because  the  waters  rejected  them.^ 

In  ancient  religions  it  was  criminal  for  persons  ceremonially 
impure  to  approach  sacred  waters.  Arabian  women  during 
menstrual  periods  were  forbidden,  for  their  children's  sake,  to 
bathe  in  the  Dusares.  At  the  present  no  one  dares  enter  the 
valley  of  the  Sheik  Adi,  which  has  a  sacred  fountain,  without 
first  ceremonial  purification  of  person  and  clothing.  Aristotle 
described  a  sacred  oil-spring  of  the  Carthaginians  which  would 
flow  only  for  those  ceremonially  pure.  Drinking  certain  water 
was  often  prescribed  as  an  ordeal.  The  waters  of  Asbamae, 
near  Tyana,  were  sweet  and  beneficial  to  those  who  were 
truthful,  but  perjurers  were  at  once  afflicted  with  dropsy  and 
wasting.  Those  who  swore  falsely  by  the  Stygian  waters 
died  of  dropsy  within  the  year.^  The  Hebrews  prescribed  the 
drinking  of  holy  water  for  women  suspected  of  infidelity  to 
their  husbands.  The  guilty  were  immediately  afflicted  with 
dropsy  on  drinking  it. 

Many  superstitions  are  still  current  regarding  the  super- 
natural power  of  water  to  bring  harm  to  offenders.  Sayings 
and  proverbs  are  also  prevalent  which,  though  not  now  believed, 
represent  actual  beliefs  of  more  primitive  times.  One  of  the 
oldest  superstitions  regarded  it  as  certain  that  ill  would  befall 
the  rescuer  of  a  drowning  person.  The  older  form  of  the  supersti- 
tion maintained  that  the  rescuer  would  himself  be  drowned.  In 
this  primitive  conception  it  was  believed  that  the  water  was  a 
spirit,  or  contained  a  spirit  or  nixy  who  was  naturally  angry  at 
being  deprived  of  his  victim,  and  who  would  revenge  himself 
by  drowning  the  one  who  tried  to  thwart  him.** 

To  dream  of  deep  or  muddy  water  is  regarded  as  a  sign  of 
trouble.  Dripping  water  is  a  sign  of  death.  It  is  lucky  to 
have  rain  fall  on  a  corpse  or  an  open  coffin.  To  cross  water  cures 
disease.  A  stormy  wedding  day  betokens  a  stormy  life.  Sev- 
eral in  my  syllabus  returns  speak  of  superstitions  concerning 
water  that  have  affected  their  own  or  others'  actions.     An  old 

1  Quoted  by  Baros  Sidis :  The  Psych,  of  Suggestion,  pp.  336-7. 

2  W.  Robertson  Smith  :  The  Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  163. 

3  Op.  cit.,  pp.  163-4. 

*J.  Fiske:  Myths  and  Mythmakers,  p.  215. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS.  203 

man  going  to  the  beach  met  a  girl  and  happened  to  brush 
against  her.  He  was  drowned  that  day,  and  the  girl  was  much 
frightened  lest  the  same  fate  should  befall  her.  She  was  heard 
to  remark  that  she  must  be  careful  and  not  go  out  too  far  when 
she  went  bathing  or  she  would  surely  drown.  A  man  in  Sweden 
besought  his  brother  not  to  cross  a  certain  lake  because  some 
one  was  sure  to  drown  there  within  twenty-four  hours. 

F.,  41.  About  a  year  ago  I  experienced  a  great  trouble.  The  follow- 
ing day  it  rained  very  hard.  Seemed  as  if  nature  were  weeping  with 
me. 

F.,  18.  My  mother  and  another  lady  both  dreamed  on  three  differ- 
ent nights  that  I  was  in  my  canoe  and  was  drowned.  At  the  time  the 
"flood  gates"  at  Park  Island  were  in  a  dangerous  condition.  My 
mother  and  her  friend  were  sure  I  would  be  drowned,  but  the  gates 
have  been  repaired,  and  I  am  still  alive. 

Fishers  folk  are  very  superstitious,  and  regulate  most  of 
their  lives  according  to  superstitious  beliefs  connected  with  the 
sea.  Birth  and  death  are  dominated  by  the  ebb  and  flow  of 
the  tide.  This  is  illustrated  by  Dickens^  in  referring  to  the 
death  of  Barkis.  "People  can't  die  along  the  coast,"  said 
Mr.  Peggoty,  *  except  when  the  tide's  pretty  near  out.  They 
can't  be  born  unless  its  pretty  nigh  in — not  properly  born,  till 
flood.  He's  a  goin'  out  with  the  tide.  Its  ebb  at  half  arter 
three,  slack  water  half-an-hour.  If  he  lives  till  it  turn,  he  '11 
hold  his  own  till  past  the  flood,  and  go  out  with  the  next 
tide,'  ....  and  it  being  low  water  he  went  out  with 
the  tide." 

Water  Dkitiks. 

Folk-tales  and  mythology  of  all  lands  abound  with  accounts 
of  spirits  who  inhabit  the  water.  They  are  a  product  of  the 
universal  animistic  conception  of  the  primitive  minds  which, 
failing  to  differentiate  the  non-ego  from  the  ego,  personify 
whatever  happens  to  be  an  object  of  contemplation.  **  To  the 
lower  tribes  of  man,  sun  and  stars,  trees  and  rivers,  winds  and 
clouds,  become  personal  animate  creatures,  leading  lives  con- 
formed to  human  or  animal  analogies,  and  performing  their 
special  functions  in  the  universe,  with  the  aid  of  limbs  like 
beasts,  or  of  artificial  instruments  like  men."^  Water  with  its 
ceaseless  motion  and  constantly  varying  shapes  offered  wide 
scope  for  the  savage  imagination. 

Proteus,  the  old  man  who  tends  the  seal  of  Poseidon,  lived 
near  the  river  Aigyptos,  and  each  day,  when  the  heat  was 
greatest,  he  raised  himself  from  the  deep  and  rested  on  the  sea- 

1  David  Copperfield :  Gadshill  Ed.,  Vol.  II,  p.  lo. 
2E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture,  I,  p.  285. 


204  BOLTON : 

shore.  He  first  became  fire,  then  a  snake,  and  finally  assumed 
many  aspects  before  returning  to  his  original  shape.  He  is  said 
to  be  the  Farmer  Weatherby  of  Norse  tales.  The  daughters  of 
Nereus  are  the  Nereids  or  Naiads,  denoting  water  dwellers.  The 
word  Nereid  is  usually  applied  to  those  living  in  the  sea,^  and  the 
latter  to  those  inhabiting  fresh  water.  The  Greek  goddesses, 
Nymphe  or  Latin  Lymphse,  belong  to  the  water.  Lymphati- 
cus,  of  Latin  origin,  corresponding  to  Nympholeptos,  denoted 
the  man  smitten  by  the  Nymphs.  The  Nymphe  were  some- 
times divided  into  the  Oreads  and  Dryads.  In  the  Vedas  they 
are  the  Apsaras  or  movers  in  the  waters,  and  are  endowed  with 
wisdom.  Besides  the  Nymph^  there  were  the  swan-maidens  of 
Aryan  mythology,  who  were  akin  to  clouds  and  vapors.  They 
swam  about  on  seas  formed  by  the  blue  heavens,  and  navigated 
by  the  self-guided  barks  of  the  Phakians.  Thetis,  although 
called  a  Nereid,  is  akin  to  Proteus,  and  can  change  her  form 
at  will.  Poseidou  is  lord  of  the  Thalassa  or  troubled  waters. 
Okeianos,  whose  slow-moving  stream  no  storm  can  ruffle, 
dwells  in  the  far  west.  He  is  the  source  of  all  things.  ' '  From 
him  flow  all  rivers  and  all  the  tossing  of  floods,  all  fountains 
and  all  wells.  He  is,  in  short,  the  spring  of  all  existence."'^ 
Neptune  is  not  strictly  a  god  of  the  sea,  but  "  the  god  of  the 
clouds  as  the  source  of  all  moisture  and  water."*  The  Sirens 
are  the  witches  of  the  shoals,  while  Scylla  and  Charybdis  are 
the  demons  of  the  whirlpools.  These  are  universally  known, 
though  under  different  names.  Father  Marquette  met  with 
the  same  belief  among  North  American  Indians  with  reference 
to  a  river  whirlpool. 

In  Australia  special  water  demons  infest  pools  and  bathing 
places.  In  the  natives'  theory  of  disease  and  death  no  person- 
age is  more  prominent  than  the  water  spirit,  who  afflicts  all 
who  go  into  unlawful  pools  or  bathe  at  unlawful  times.  The 
Greenlanders  preserve  animistic  ideas  concerning  water.  When 
they  come  to  an  untried-  spring  an  Angekok,  or  the  oldest 
man,  must  drink  first  to  free  it  from  a  harmful  spirit.  The 
Algonquin  hunter  says,  '  *  the  spirit,  he  maketh  this  river 
flow."  In  all  rivers,  lakes  or  cascades,  he  believes  there  are 
spirits  or  mighty  manitus.  The  Winnebagoes  on  reaching  a 
body  of  water  make  a  present  or  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  who 
reside  there.  The  Peruvians  used  to  scoop  up  a  handful  of 
water  and  drink  it,  praying  the  river  deity  to  let  them  cross  or 
to  give  them  fish.  Indians  of  the  Cordilleras  take  a  ceremonial 
sip  before  they  will  pass  a  river  on  horseback.     Most  African 

^  G.  W.  Cox :  Mythology  and  Folk  Lore,  pp.  202-4. 
2G.  W.  Cox:  op.  cit.,  p.  204. 
8  Ibid. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  205 

tribes  display  well  the  rites  of  water  worship.  Among  the 
Manikas  every  spring  has  its  spirit  to  which  oblations  are 
made.  In  the  Okra  district,  lakes,  ponds  and  rivers,  are  wor- 
shipped as  local  deities.  The  KaflSrs  and  Tartars  venerate 
streams  as  personal  beings,  or  as  the  abodes  of  personal  deities. 
Water  holds  a  very  prominent  position  in  Finnish  mythology, 
and  nothing  in  nature  indicates  a  more  supernatural  origin. 
Many  of  the  sayings  are  still  beliefs.  The  people  call  them- 
selves Suomilainen  or  fen-dwellers,  since  they  live  in  a  land  of 
swamps  and  marshes.  Vapor  baths  are  a  national  character- 
istic. Many  streams  and  lakes  are  called  holy,  and  receive 
sacrificial  tributes.  They  have  a  current  superstition  that 
rivers  may  resent  being  enslaved  when  a  new  mill  is  being  con- 
structed,^ just  as  the  Romans  believed  that  the  Tiber  was 
offended  when  chained  by  a  bridge.  Their  chief  water- god, 
Ahto,  lives  with  his  cold  and  cruel-hearted  spouse,  Wellamo, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  general  term  for  inhabitants  of 
the  water  is  Ahtolaisset,  which  means  water-people.  Allotar 
is  the  wave-goddess,  Koskenneiti  the  cataract  maiden,  Wella- 
nos  the  eternal  people  or  people  of  the  foam  and  billows.  In 
the  Vedas  the  river  is  personified.  Sometimes  they  are  the 
good  mothers  who  watch  over  and  care  for  the  people.  They 
were  believed  to  control  the  growth  of  vegetation  and  animals, 
and  were  addressed  as  gods  who  must  be  propitiated  to  retain 
good  will.^  Norse  and  Russian  mythology  are  full  of  allusions 
of  river- spirits.  Matthew  Arnold's  Forsaken  Merman  is  un- 
doubtedly founded  upon  the  Russian  myth  in  which  Russalka, 
the  drowned  girl,  marries  a  Vodyamy  or  Merman.  The  rivers 
of  Russia  are  thought  to  have  been  persons.  In  Iceland  seals 
are  regarded  as  descendants  of  the  Pharaohs  who  perished  in 
the  Red  Sea.*  Thus  we  might  trace  the  prevalence  of  water 
spirits  in  all  countries, — in  the  remote  Orient  as  well  as  the 
Occident. 

Mr.  Tylor  says*  that  to  the  savage  mind  '  *  water  acted  not 
by  laws  of  force,  but  by  life  and  will;  that  the  water  spirits  of 
primeval  mythology  are  as  souls  which  cause  the  water's  rush 
and  rest,  its  kindness  and  its  cruelty;  that  lastly  man  finds,  in 
the  beings  which  can  work  him  such  weal  and  woe,  deities 
with  a  wider  influence  over  his  life,  deities  to  be  feared  and 
loved,  to  be  prayed  to  and  praised  and  propitiated  with  sacri- 
ficial gifts. ' ' 

Paradise  has  usually  been  conceived  by  primitive  people  as  a 
land  beyond  the  sea,  or  a  place  surrounded  by  water,  which  must 

1  Max  Miiller  :  Cont.  to  the  Sci.  of  Myth.,  I,  269. 

2  Kalavala,  the  national  Finnish  epic. 

«  W.  R.  S.  Ralston  :  The  Songs  of  the  Russian  People,  p.  148. 
^  Primitive  Culture,  II,  209. 


206  BOI.TON  : 

be  crossed  at  death.  The  belief  in  an  earthly  paradise  existed 
for  centuries.  "  The  features  of  this  earthl3^  paradise  are  for  the 
most  part  similar  to  those  familiar  to  us  in  Biblical  description. 
It  contained  the  fountain  of  immortality,  from  which  sprang 
the  four  rivers  which  flowed  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth. 
Purling  brooks  ran  with  the  far-famed  ambrosia."^  This  gar- 
den of  delight  was  often  sought,  but  only  those  in  league  with 
the  gods  could  find  it.  Nereus,  the  sea-god,  succeeded  in 
piloting  Hercules  to  the  spot.^  A  14th  century  Icelandic  saga 
describes  the  position  of  the  Deathless  Land  as  across  a  strait 
which  was  to  be  entered  by  a  stone  bridge,  guarded  by  a 
dragon.  In  Japanese  legend  there  exists  an  Island  of  Eternal 
Youth.*  It  is  beyond  the  horizon,  and  some  fortunate  observers 
have  seen  a  wonderful  tree  rising  far  above  the  waves.  The 
tradition  was  slow  to  die,  and  there  are  probably  people  who 
still  believe,  as  did  Sir  John  Maundeville  in  the  14th  century, 
that  the  Garden  of  Eden  exists  somewhere  upon  the  earth  if  it 
could  only  be  found.  After  describing  its  cosmogenic  position 
he  relates  that  'Vin  the  highest  place  of  Paradise,  exactly  in 
the  middle,  is  a  well  that  casts  out  four  streams,"  the  first  is 
called  the  Ganges,  the  second  the  Nile,  the  third  the  Tigris, 
and  the  fourth  the  Euphrates.  *  *  And  men  beyond  say  that 
all  the  sweet  waters  of  the  world,  above  and  beneath,  take  their 
beginning  from  the  Well  of  Paradise,  and  out  of  that  well  the 
waters  come  and  go.* 

Rivers  of  Death.  The  *'  land  of  the  blessed  "  is,  as  we  have 
noted,  quite  universally  separated  from  the  abode  of  mortals  by 
some  body  of  water,  now  by  a  gulf,  now  the  stormy  sea,  or 
again  by  a  river  which  must  be  passed  beyond  the  grave.  The 
idea  is  preserved  among  all  civilized  people  in  sacred  worship, 
by  scripture  and  hymnology.  The  land  of  promise  is  quite 
universally  across  the  ' '  River  of  Jordan  ' '  or  similar  waters. 
Stories  of  ' '  rivers  of  death ' '  and  ' '  bridges  of  the  dead  ' '  are  to  be 
met  with  in  all  tongues.  The  rivers  Styx  and  Lethe  have  come 
down  in  our  language  as  symbolic  of  death.  There  is  a  large 
quantity  of  Polynesian  mythology  relating  to  the  gulf  of  death, 
though  the  bridge  conception  is  lacking.  Souls  are  obliged  to 
cross  this  gulf  in  canoes  or  by  swimming.  In  the  ancient  Orient 
the  Vedic  Yama,  King  of  the  Dead,  crossed  the  rapid  waters 
to  guide  our  Aryan  ancestors.  The  modern  Hindoo  is  sup- 
posed to  grasp  the  cow's  tail  when  death  comes,  and  is  thus 
safely  ferried  over  the  dreaded  river  Vatarini.  In  ancient 
Egypt  and  modern   Brittany  Charon  carried  in  his  boat  the 

1  Mrs.  J.  H.  Philpot:  The  Sacred  Tree,  p.  136. 

'^Loc.  cit. 

^Op.  cit.,  p.  141. 

*  Travels  in  Early  Palestine,  p.  276. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  207 

procession  of  the  dead  to  their  long  home.  The  ancient  Scan- 
dinavians used  to  place  their  distinguished  heroes  in  a  ship, 
set  it  on  fire  and  cast  it  afloat,  or  bury  them  in  boats  on  shore. ^ 
The  Finns,  the  Guinea  Negroes,  the  Khonds  of  Orissa,  and  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo,  all  have  myths  relating  to  rivers  of  death. 
Some  North  American  Indians  have  tales  of  the  bridge 
of  the  dead,  but  more  frequently  the  water  must  be  crossed 
in  canoes  to  reach  the  "beautiful  island."  A  storm  always 
wrecks  the  wicked  souls,  and  the  heaps  of  their  bones  are 
to  be  seen  under  water  as  evidence  of  the  fact.  The  Ojibwas 
are  obliged  to  cross  the  Heaven  Gulf  on  the  way  to  the  * '  land 
of  spirits, ' '  and  the  wicked  are  drowned  by  their  burden  of 
sins.^  Not  even  ghosts  will  cross  living  water.  Witches,  also, 
cannot  do  so,  as  we  know  in  the  case  of  Tarn  O'Shanter,  they 
were  baffled  when  he  reached  the  Bridge  o'  Doon.  Sometimes 
the  milky- way  and  the  rainbow  are  called  the  bridge  of  souls.* 
That  the  soul  after  death  has  a  perilous  journey  is  believed  by 
many  people.  The  Algonquins  believed  that  the  wicked  perished 
in  crossing  the  lake  to  the  happy  land.  The  Choctaws  are  said 
to  walk  a  peeled  log,  and  the  wicked  slip  off  into  the  boiling 
gulf.  The  Moslem's  bridge  of  Ks-Sirat  was  sharper  than  a 
knife-edge.  The  Australian  natives,  who  are  without  an  idea 
of  God,  believe  that  their  souls  after  death  fly  to  the  clouds  or 
cross  the  ocean  to  a  distant  land.  Finns  believed  that  those 
journeying  to  Tuonella  were  required  to  voyage  over  nine  seas 
and  over  one  river,  the  Finnish  Styx,  black,  deep,  and  filled 
with  hungry  whirlpools  and  angry  waterfalls. 

There  is  great  tenacity  in  old  impressions,  especially  when 
connected  with  the  sanctity  of  religious  doctrines  and  feelings. 
The  primitive  beliefs  relating  to  the  location  of  paradise,  the 
river  or  gulf  separating  it  from  the  present,  and  the  difficulty 
of  passing  this  water  still  survive  in  poetry  and  hymnology. 
From  a  few  hymn  books  I  have  collected  nearly  two  hundred 
different  phrases  and  lines  relating  to  rivers  of  life,  fountains  of 
life,  healing  waters,  havens  of  rest,  crossing  wild  and  stormy 
billows,  shore  beyond  the  river,  etc.  (See  sec.  on  Water  in 
Literature. ) 

Many  curious  customs  have  arisen  as  a  result  of  the  belief  in 
rivers  of  death.  Various  ways  of  aiding  the  departed  on  their 
journey  have  been  invented.  The  custom  of  placing  a  coin  in 
the  hand  of  the  corpse  with  which  to  pay  the  boatman  who 
ferries  them  across  the  river  is  still  found  among  Scandi- 
navians, the  peasants  at  Altmatkt,  Germany,  and  among  some 

^  John  Fiske  :  Myths  and  Mythmakers,  p.  49 ;  also  Thalma,  by  Marie 
Corelli. 
2B.  B.  Tylor  :  Early  Hist,  of  Manhood,  p.  362. 
*  John  Fiske  :  Myths  and  Mythmakers,  p.  57. 


2o8  BOLTON : 

Irish  at  wakes,  and  among  peasants  in  Cleveland,  England. 
Some  Hebrews  in  America  are  said  to  place  a  towel  and  soap 
with  the  corpse  for  use  in  crossing  the  river.  In  Brittany  is 
the  Baie  des  Ames  (Bay  of  Souls),  where  souls  are  said  to  be 
launched  for  their  voyage. 

Water  Itself  Animate.  Bearing  in  mind  these  early  con- 
ceptions of  primitive  peoples  regarding  the  supernatural  powers 
and  animation  of  water,  it  is  not  difficult  to  conceive  how  cer- 
tain waters  came  to  be  sacred,  while  all  folk -tales  and  my- 
thology abound  with  accounts  of  waters  of  life,  waters  of 
strength,  waters  of  weakness,  etc.  Nor  will  it  be  difficult  to 
understand  how  by  a  slight  extension  of  the  idea  of  the  super- 
natural power  of  living  water  came  the  conception  of  ceremonial 
renewal  of  life.  Water  was  early  ascribed  as  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  gods,  which  is  evidenced  by  survivals  in  the  my- 
thology of  all  countries.  Mythology  and  folk-tales  of  all  peo- 
ples abound  with  stories  of  nymphs,  water- gods  and  goddesses, 
that  reside  in  the  waters.  But  evidence  shows  us  that  the 
more  primitive  conception  regarded  water  itself  as  endowed 
with  life.  All  nature  suggests  to  the  savage  mind  the  con- 
ception of  living  force,  and  primarily  supernatural  life  belongs 
to  the  objects  themselves.  W.  Robertson  Smith  says  of  the 
Semites^  ' '  that  the  supernatural  was  conceived  in  a  generally 
savage  fashion,  and  identified  with  the  quasi-human  life 
ascribed  to  the  various  species  of  animals  or  plants,  or  even 
of  inorganic  things.  For,  indeed,  certain  phenomena  of  inor- 
ganic nature  directly  suggest  to  the  primitive  mind  the  idea  of 

a  living  ageilt Of  all  inanimate  things  that  which 

has  the  best  marked  supernatural  associations  among  the  Sem- 
ites is  flowing,  or  as  the  Hebrews  say,  *  living  water.'  In  one 
of  the  oldest  fragments  of  Hebrew  poetry  the  fountain  is 
addressed  as  a  living  being  "^  (Num.  XXI,  17-18.)  We 
have  previously  noticed  that  water  was  conceived  among  many 
primitive  peoples  as  being  the  source  of  all  life  to  vegetation, 
and  was  also  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  restoring  the 
dead  to  future  life.  These  ideas,  coupled  with  the  knowledge 
of  the  function  played  by  drinking  water  and,  also,  the  fact 
that  bathing  refreshes  and  invigorates,  led  naturally  to  the 
belief  that  water  externally  applied  produces  magical  changes 
in  human  life.  From  these  early  beliefs  and  superstitions,  the 
religious  and  legal  ceremonial  bathings,  the  precursor  of  later 
baptismal  rites  arose. 

^Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  126. 
2Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  127. 


hydro-psychoses.  209 

Lustrations  and  Ceremonial  Purifications  by  Water. 

Many  writers  ascribe  to  ceremonial  purifications  an  origin 
purely  purgative  in  character,  but  we  shall  see  that  the  idea  of 
a  supernatural  virtue  inherent  in  the  water  is  the  most  promi- 
nent and  original  feature  instigating  the  ceremonies.  The 
usual  medium  employed  in  lustrations  is  water,  though  some- 
times other  substances,  as  sand  or  salt,  were  used  in  default  of 
water.  But  undoubtedly  in  these  cases,  also,  the  agent  was 
believed  to  possess  more  than  simple  cleansing  properties. 
Salt,  we  are  certain,  was  regarded  as  sacred  by  many  primitive 
peoples. 

One  writer^  has  suggested  in  accounting  for  the  ceremonial 
of  Christian  baptism  that  John  the  Baptist  simply  utilized  an 
observance  largely  in  vogue  in  Oriental  countries.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly true  of  Christian  baptism,  but  the  idea  that  cere- 
monial purifications,  prior  to  this  time,  arose  owing  to  the  dust 
and  heat  making  cleanliness  and  comfort  demand  very  frequent 
bathing  of  the  whole  body,  is  not  tenable.  This  custom  may 
have  been  prevalent  in  that  country,  and  in  that  advanced  stage 
of  civilization  found  by  John  the  Baptist,  but  ceremonial  purifi- 
cations and  lustrations  date  back  to  remoter  times,  and  are 
found  among  the  most  primitive  peoples  of  to-day.  Though  the 
idea  of  cleansing  is  found  in  some  or  perhaps  most  of  the  cere- 
monials, yet  many  circumstances  indicate  other  ideas  connected 
with  their  origin.  Certainly  the  idea  of  bodily  cleansing  is  very 
remote  among  some  of  the  most  ardent  disciples.  Tylor  states* 
that  "  these  ceremonial  practices  have  come  to  mean  something 
distinct  from  mere  cleanliness.  Kaffirs  who  will  purify  them- 
selves from  ceremojiial  uncleanness  by  washing,  are  not  in  the 
habit  of  washing  themselves  or  their  vessels  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, and  the  dogs  and  the  cockroaches  divide  between  them 
the  duty  of  cleaning  out  the  milk  baskets. 

I  believe,  however,  that  instead  of  "coming  to  mean"  as 
Dr.  Tylor  interprets  it,  that  the  ceremonials  always  have  been 
only  partially  indicative  of  either  literally  cleansing  bodily  un- 
cleanness or  symbolizing  purification  from  spiritual  contamina- 
tion. This  meaning  has  been  read  into  the  facts  in  the  light 
of  modern  baptism.  But  the  older  idea  considered  that  the 
fetish  could  in  some  magic  way  renew,  revive,  rejuvenate,  or 
even  remove  undesirable  qualities.  There  was  a  belief  in  some 
inherent  sacredness  and  magic  power  of  the  medium  itself  with 
little  or  no  thought  of  the  literal  cleansing  properties.  From 
time  immemorial  the  Ganges  has  been  held  sacred.  Whoever 
bathed  in  it  was  cleansed  and  rejuvenated.  The  new-born  babe 

1  A.  W.  Eaton  :  Heart  of  the  Creeds,  p.  135. 
'^  Primitive  Culture,  p.  434. 


2IO  BOLTON: 

is  bathed  in  it,  the  sick  sprinkled  with  its  water,  and  the  dead 
are  plunged  into  it.  It  is  carried  to  the  Hindu  hous'es  and  used 
in  the  temples.  Now,  were  water  symbolic  of  cleansing,  only, 
any  water  would  suffice.  But  it  must  be  particular  water,  pos- 
sessed of  supernatural  powers. 

According  to  the  legendary  lore  of  the  Greeks  at  the  feast  of 
Pales,  the  goddess  of  the  flocks,  shepherds  purified  themselves 
by  washing  in  fresh  dew,  or  by  aspersion  with  consecrated 
water,  sprinkled  from  a  laurel  or  an  olive  branch.^  The 
Scriptures  record  that  894  years  B.  C,  Naaman  was  sent  by 
Elisha  to  wash  in  the  Jordan  seven  times  to  be  cured  of  leprosy. 
After  dipping  himself  seven  times  he  came  forth  clean,  with  flesh 
like  a  little  child.  All  these  illustrate  how,  from  the  more  primi- 
tive belief  in  the  universal  life-giving  power  of  water,  certain 
waters  became  set  apart  as  sacred,  and  still  possessed  of  cura- 
tive powers  and  revivification.  The  symbolism  of  spiritual 
cleansing  is  plainly  a  later  idea.  The  myths  and  legends  of 
fountains  of  youth,  waters  of  immortality,  and  later  facts  relat- 
ing to  sacred  wells,  rivers,  etc.,  elsewhere  described,  corrobor- 
ate this  view. 

Among  all  peoples  ceremonial  lustrations  have  been  prac- 
ticed long  before  baptismal  rites,  symbolic  of  spiritual  cleansing 
were  known.  Long  before  the  Christian  era  ceremonial  puri- 
fications by  water  were  common,  and  are  also  common  among 
savage  tribes  at  the  present  time  who  know  nothing  of  bap- 
tism. Some  savage  tribes,  it  is  true,  know  and  practice  bap- 
tism which  they  have  learned  from  missionaries,  but  lustrations 
were  known  to  them  before  the  ceremony  of  baptism  was 
learned.  Sacred^  and  profane  literature  record  that  ceremonial 
purifications  were  to  be  observed  after  such  occurrences  as 
childbirth,  theft,  touching  a  corpse,  adultery,  the  conjugal  act, 
etc.  Lustral  water  was  placed  at  the  doors  of  the  Greek  tem- 
ples so  that  priests  could  purify  the  profane.  Usually  before 
entering  a  temple  the  hands  and  feet  were  washed.  This  was 
also  true  among  the  Hebrews.'  The  Hebrews  were  taught  to 
regard  running  water  as  having  greater  power  of  purification 
than  still  water.  The  Incas  of  Peru  to  be  purified  from  guilt 
bathed  in  the  river  and  repeated  the  following:  "  O,  thou 
River,  receive  the  sins  I  have  this  day  confessed  unto  the  sun; 
carry  them  down  to  the  sea,  and  let  them  never  more  appear."* 

Among  the  Essenes  and  the  Pharisees  ceremonial  bathing  took 
up  a  great  part  of  the  time,  so  that  it  was  very  natural  that 
John  the  Baptist  should  adopt  that  method  of  consecration  in 

1  Baring  Gould  :  Origin  and  Derivation  of  Rel.  Belief,  p.  398. 

2Lev.  XII,  XV,  etc. 

*Ex.  X,  29,  30,  40 ;  Lev.  8,  etc. 

*  Baring  Gould:  Origin  and  Deriv.  of  Rel.  Belief,  pp.  399-401. 


H  YDRO-PS YCHOSES.  2 1 1 

Christ's  time.  It  was  simply  making  sacred  a  custom  which  had 
long  been  in  vogue. 

Infant  Baptisin.  The  lustration  ceremonials  for  infants, 
prevalent  among  almost  all  primitive  peoples,  contain  many 
suggestions  that  indicate  belief  in  the  magic  power  of  water. 
In  many  cases  these  infant  baptisms,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
ceremonials  above  noted,  are  for  the  purpose  of  removing  tapu 
or  taboo  as  well  as  cleansing.  Among  many  tribes  a  new-born 
infant  is  taboo  until  ceremonial  purification  has  removed  the 
taboo.  Some  tribes  do  not  baptize  the  infants  until  three  or 
four  months  old.  During  this  period  the  mother  is  also  taboo. 
This  does  not  refer  to  uncleanliness  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  term.  The  taboo  may  refer  in  some  cases  to  physical 
uncleanness,  but  the  more  primitive  conception  is  that  the 
object  of  taboo  is  in  some  mysterious  manner  associated  with 
dangers  arising  from  the  presence  of  supernatural  spirits,  which 
are  to  be  avoided  as  one  would  avoid  infectious  diseases.  All 
taboos  are  produced  through  awe  of  the  supernatural.  The 
new-born,  as  the  woman  in  childbed,  or  during  her  courses,  or 
the  person  who  touches  a  corpse,  are  all  taboo  because  every- 
thing connected  with  generation  of  the  species,  and  also  with 
disease  and  death  seem  to  involve  supernatural  powers  of  a 
dangerous  sort.  There  is  a  type  of  taboo  arising  out  of  respect 
to  the  gods,  where  certain  holy  things  must  not  be  touched, 
but  it  is  not  because  of  the  offense  given.  On  the  contrary,  it 
is  because  the  taboo  will  sanctify  whatever  it  touches,  render- 
ing it  unfit  for  ordinary  uses.  For  example,  "  a  slave  or  other 
person  not  sacred  would  not  enter  a  wahi  tapu,  or  sacred  place, 
without  having  first  stripped  off  his  clothes;  for  the  clothes, 
having  become  sacred  the  instant  the  precintsof  the  wahi  tapu, 
would  ever  after  be  useless  to  him  in  the  ordinary  business  of 
life."^  *' The  fundamental  notion,"  says  Smith,  is  that  the 
tabooed  object  "  is  merely  not  safe  for  ordinary  people  to  use; 
it  has,  so  to  speak,  been  touched  by  the  infection  of  holiness, 
and  so  becomes  a  new  source  of  supernatural  danger."^ 

In  higher  stages  of  thought  the  idea  approaches  the  popular 
notion  that  the  unclean  object  has  become  hateful  to  God,  and 
should  be  shunned  by  all  who  wish  his  favor.  But  according 
to  the  more  primitive  and  fundamental  notion,  holiness  was 
contagious,  and  things  that  came  in  contact  with  such  taboo 
needed  purification  just  as  much  as  distinctly  corrupted  ob- 
jects.* To  show  that  unclean  things  are  tabooed  because  of 
the  inherent  supernatural  condition  supposed  to  be  connected 

iW.  R.Smith:  Rel,  of  the  Semites,  p.  432.     Quoted  from  Short- 
land's  N.  Zealand. 
*  Op.  cit.,  p.  431. 
3  W.  R.  Smith  :  Rel.  of  the  Semites,  p.  431  ;  also  Isaiah  LXV,  5. 


212  BOLTON : 

with  it,  ii  is  known  that  some  of  the  most  tabooed  things,  as 
menstruous  blood,  bones  of  the  dead,  etc. ,  are  the  most  potent 
charms.  According  to  Mr.  Smith,  "the  heathen  Arabs  used 
to  tie  unclean  things,  dead  men's  bones,  menstruous  rags,  upon 
children  to  keep  away  th^jlnn  and  the  evil  eye."^ 

*  *  Primarily  purification  means  the  application  to  the  person  of 
some  medium  which  removes  a  taboo  and  enables  the  person  to 

mingle  freely  in  the  ordinary  life  of  his  fellows 

Purifications,  therefore,  are  performed  by  the  use  of  any  of  the 
physical  means  that  re-establish  normal  relations  with  the 
deity  and  the  congregation  of  his  worshippers — in  short,  by 
contact  with  something  that  contains  and  can  impart  a  divine 
virtue.  For  ordinary  purposes  the  use  of  living  water  may 
suflftce,  for,  as  we  know,  there  is  a  sacred  principle  in  such 
water. "^  Blood,  also,  in  its  most  primitive  sacrificial  idea  was 
not  used  to  wash  away  impurities,  but  to  carry  to  the  worshipper 
something  of  holy  life.  The  idea  of  expulsion  of  an  impurity 
is  perhaps  involved  with  the  adding  of  sanctity.  The  evil  may 
be  dispossesed  by  inoculation  with  a  more  desirable  life.  This 
idea  is  seen  in  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  exorcism  of  devils 
from  the  catechumen  before  baptism.* 

In  southern  Egypt  the  child  is  bathed  for  the  first  time  on 
the  40th  day.  From  that  time  on  it  is  no  longer  taboo,  but 
pure.  The  same  custom  is  chronicled  of  many  primitive  peo- 
ples, e.  g. ,  the  Aryans,  Turanians,  Polynesians,  Semites,  cer- 
tain tribes  in  the  Canary  Islands,  some  Negroes  and  Indians. 
Long  before  the  Christian  era  among  the  Norwegian  Lapps,  a 
Finnish  people,  infant  baptism  was  a  national  custom.  At  the 
time  of  the  ceremony  the  child  was  given  a  name  and  conse- 
crated to  a  good,  lucky  and  prosperous  life.  After  every  dis- 
ease this  ceremony  was  repeated  and  the  child  received  a  new 
name.  This  probably  symboHzed  a  new  birth,  received  through 
the  sacred  potency  of  water,  after  which  the  child  lost  its  old 
name  and  identity,  and  consequently  could  no  longer  be  found 
by  the  evil  spirits.  New  Zealanders  baptize  the  child  when  eight 
days  old.  AH  the  women  of  the  neighborhood  dip  branches  in 
water  and  sprinkle  the  child.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  child 
receives  a  second  name  and  a  new  baptism.  The  Tohunga 
(priest)  dips  a  green  twig  into  water  and  sprinkles  the  child, 
at  the  same  time  repeating  his  blessing  in  such  ancient  lan- 
guage that  few  understand  it.  This  would  indicate  its  remote 
origin.     In   the  northern  part  of  New  Zealand  the  child  is 

^  Op.  cit.,  p.  429. 

2  W.  R.  Smith  :  Rel.  of  the  Semites,  pp.  405-6. 

*  Op.  cit.,  pp.  406-7.  For  a  general  discussion  of  some  of  these  topics 
see  same  work,  Taboos,  p.  143,  et  seq.;  Sacrifice,  p.  405,  et  seq.,  Note 
C,  p.  432. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  2 1 3 

dipped.  The  Papuans  bathe  (ceremonially  perhaps)  the  child 
as  soon  as  it  can  walk,  when  it  receives  a  name.  This  is  re- 
peated several  times.  Many  tribes  do  not  bathe  the  child  at 
all  for  months.  The  Uveans  of  the  South  Sea  sprinkle  the  head  of 
the  child,  and,  like  most  primitive  peoples,  make  the  first  bath  of 
the  child  an  occasion  of  festivity .  In  Java  the  child's  head  is  shorn 
on  the  40th  day,  and  it  is  plunged  into  the  river.  Among  the 
Battas  the  neighbor  women  await  the  birth  of  the  child,  which 
is  immediately  carried  to  the  men,  who  take  it  to  the  nearest 
stream,  give  it  a  dip,  while  the  father  gives  it  a  name.  The 
Fiote  Negroes  baptized  at  three  or  four  months,  the  child 
being  dipped  and  sprinkled  by  all  the  community  and  given  a 
name.  The  Basuto  Negroes  cook  up  some  magic  decoction  and 
sprinkle  the  child  with  this.  Upon  the  birth  of  a  child  among 
the  Yoruba's  of  western  Africa  they  send  for  the  priest  and 
ask  for  the  name  of  some  dead  ancestor  who  intends  to  re- 
inhabit  the  child's  body.  They  look  upon  this  as  a  rebirth  of 
the  soul.  They  baptize  and  sprinkle  the  child's  eyes  with 
sacred  water.  In  the  lowlands  of  Scotland  a  new-born  babe 
was  bathed  in  salt  water  and  made  to  taste  it  three  times.  The 
solution  was  considered  strengthening  to  the  child,  and  also 
obnoxious  to  the  evil  eye. 

All  these  ceremonial  lustrations  indicate  the  widespread  be- 
lief in  the  regenerating  and  life-giving  power  of  water,  and 
also  its  efficacy  in  removing  taboo,  so  that  the  child  could  enter 
into  harmonious  relations  with  its  new  existence.  Although 
I  shall  not  enter  into  the  subject  of  Christian  baptism,  we  can 
easily  recognize  the  older  materialistic  conception  in  the  sym- 
bolism of  spiritual  regeneration  which  water  holds  in  Christian 
baptism  to-day. 

Water  in  Literature. 

Space  will  permit  only  the  briefest  mention  of  the  great 
influence  that  water  has  had  upon  literary  expression.  Poetry 
has  kept  alive  the  old  animistic  theory  of  nature.  The  poets, 
like  children,  are  deeply  animistic,  and  their  expressions  reflect 
the  closeness  with  which  they  keep  in  touch  with  nature. 
Poetry  is  largely  a  conventionalization  of  child-like  ideas.  To 
quote  Dr.  Tylor  there  are  moments  in  the  civilized  man's  life 
when  * '  he  casts  off  hard,  dull  science  and  returns  to  child- 
hood's fancy,  [and]  the  world-old  book  of  animated  nature 
is  open  to  him  anew.  Then  the  well-worn  thoughts  come 
back  to  him,  of  the  stream's  life  that  is  so  like  his  own;  once 
more  he  can  hear  the  rill  leap  down  the  hillside  like  a  child,  to 
wander  playing  among  the  flowers;  or  can  follow  it  as,  grown 
to  a  river,  it  rushes  through  a  mountain  gorge,  henceforth  in 
sluggish  strength  to  carry  heavy  burdens  across  the  plains. 


214  BOLTON: 

In  all  that  water  does,  the  poet's  fancy  can  discern  the  person- 
ality of  life.  It  gives  fish  to  the  fisher,  and  crops  to  the  hus- 
bandman; it  swells  in  fury  and  lays  waste  the  land;  it  grips 
the  bather  with  chill  and  cramp,  and  holds  with  inexorable 
grasp  its  drowning  victim."^  Hence  it  is  only  a  natural  ex- 
pression of  animistic  feelings  to  say 

"  The  bubbling  brook  doth  leap  when  I  come  by, 
Because  my  feet  find  measure  with  its  call." 

Or  with  Michael  Bruce  in  Lochleven  that 

**  The  vales,  the  vocal  hills, 
The  woods,  the  waters,  and  the  heart  of  man, 
Send  forth  a  general  song." 

And  with  Joseph  Warton,  who  added — 

"  And  that  all  nature  conspires  to  . 
Raise,  to  soothe,  to  harmonize  the  mind." 

The  ocean  has  always  impressed  the  poets  strongly.  Barry 
Cornwall's  characterization  of  the  ocean  expresses  the  senti- 
ments of  many.  ^ 

"  O,  thou  vast  Ocean  !  ever-sounding  Sea! 
Thou  symbol  of  a  drear  immensity ! 
Thou  thing  that  windest  round  the  world 
Like  a  huge  animal,  which  downward  hurled 
From  the  black  clouds,  lies  weltering  and  alone, 
Lashing  and  writhing  till  its  strength  be  gone. 
Thy  voice  is  like  the  thunder,  and  thy  sleep 
Is  a  giant's  slumber,  loud  and  deep. 
.     .     .     .     Oh  !  wonderful  thou  art,  great  element ; 
And  fearful  in  thy  spleeny  humours  bent, 
And  lovely  in  repose ;  thy  summer  form 
Is  beautiful,  and  when  thy  silver  waves 
Make  music  in  earth's  dark  and  winding  caves, 
I  love  to  wander  on  thy  pebbly  beach. 
Marking  the  sunlight  at  the  evening  hour. 
And  hearken  to  the  thoughts  thy  waters  teach — 
Eternity — Eternity — and  Power !  " 

The  same  writer  says  of  the  streamlet:* 

**  Gently  it  murmurs  by 

The  village  churchyard,  its  low  plaintive  tone, 
A  dirge-like  melody, 

For  worth  and  beauty  modest  as  its  own 
May  not  its  course  express. 

In  characters  which  they  who  run  may  read, 
The  charms  of  gentleness. 

Were  but  its  still  small  voice  allowed  to  plead?" 

1  E.  B.  Tylor:  Primitive  Culture,  II,  p.  209. 

2  Address  to  the  Ocean. 

8  The  Cataract  and  the  Streamlet. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  2 1 5 

The  poet  Swinburne  calls  the  sea  "fair,  white  mother," 
"green  girdled  mother,"  "great,  sweet  mother,"  "mother 
and  lover  of  men,  the  sea."  ^ 

James  Russell  lyowell  regards  the  fountain  as  typifying  great 
happiness. 

"  Into  the  starlight,  Rushing  in  Spring, 

Happy  at  Midnight,  Happy  by  day  ! 
.     .     .     .     Ceaseless  aspiring,  ceaseless  content, 

Darkness  or  sunshine,  thy  element : — 
Glorious  fountain  !  Let  my  heart  be 

Fresh,  changeful,  constant,  upward  like  thee  !" 

—  The  Fountain. 

Dr.  Biese^  says  of  the  peculiar  charm  of  one  of  Goethe's 
scenes  in  Faust:  "  Die  Herrliche  Sommerabend-scene  liegtim 
Keime  mit  den  Worten:  Ach  demals,  wie  oft  habe  ich  mich 
mit  Fittigen  eines  Kranichs,  der  Ufer  des  ungemessenes 
Meeres  gesehnt,  aus  den  schaumenden  Becher  des  Unendlichen 
jene  schnellende  lycbenswarme  zu  trinken  und  nur  einen 
Augenblick  in  der  eingeschrankten  Kraft  meines  Busens  einen 
Tropfen  der  Seligkeit  des  Wesens  zufiihlen,  das  alles  in  sich 
und  durch  sich  hervorbringt. ' '  Again  he  quotes  Pindar  as 
saying : 

**  Des  Menschenseele  gleicht  dem  Wasser: 
Vom  Himmel  Kommt  es  zum  Himmel  steigt  es, 
Und  welder  nieder  zur  Brde  Muss  es  ewig  wechselnd."^ 

Dryden's  writings  are  full  of  references  to  water. 

Miss  Reynolds  says,*  as  illustrative  of  Dryden's  use  of  simili- 
tudes drawn  from  water,  note  the  following:  "  Revenge  and 
rage  are  sudden  floods;  joys  are  torrents  that  overflow  all 
banks;  contending  passions  are  tides  that  flow  against  cur- 
rents; fame  is  a  swelling  current;  anger  is  adammed-up  stream 
that  gets  new  force  by  opposition;  a  ruined  life,  destroyed  for- 
tunes are  shipwrecks;  love  is  like  springtides,  full  and  high,  or 
like  a  flood  that  bursts  thro'  all  dams,  or  like  a  stream  that 
cannot  return  to  its  fountain,  or  like  the  tides  that  do  not  turn; 
the  disappointed  lover  dies  like  an  unfed  stream;  the  mind  of  a 
capricious  tyrant  is  like  a  vast  sea,  open  to  every  wind  that 
blows;  the  army  of  the  enemy  comes  like  the  wind  broke  loose 
upon  the  main;  an  obdurate  foe  is  as  deaf  to  supplication  as 
seas  and  wind  to  sinking  mariners;  an  open  mind  is  a  crystal 
brook;  grief  undermines  the  soul  as  banks  are  sapped  away  by 
streams;  the  voice  of  a  mob  is  like  winds  that  roar  in  pursuit 

1  See  Dr.  Chamberlain's  Child  and  Childhood  in  Folk  Lore,  p.  39. 

2  Alfred  Biese  :  Naturgeftilhs,  p.  385. 

3  Alfred  Biese  :  Naturgefiihls,  p.  390. 

.  *  Myi;a  Reynolds :  Treatment  of  Nature  in  Eng.  Poetry,  pp.  28-9. 


2l6  BOI.TON: 

of  flying  waves;  unspeakable  anger  is  like  water  choking  up 
the  narrow  vent  of  the  vessel  from  which  it  is  poured;  and  so 
on  through  a  long  list. ' ' 

Religious  rites  and  ceremonies  are  great  conservators  of 
ancient  thoughts  and  customs.  In  hymnology  we  find  in- 
numerable metaphorical  expressions  of  former  literal  beliv^fs. 
From  a  very  few  books  I  have  collected  nearly  two  hundred 
such  verses,  of  which  the  following  are  typical: 

"  Behold  I  freely  give,  The  living  water,  thirsty  one, 

Stoop  down  and  drink  and  live." 
"  When  death's  cold,  sullen  stream 

Shall  o'er  me  roll." 

"  Safe  into  the  haven  guide " 

"  Bear  me  o'er  life's  fitful  sea." 
*'  Till  I  reach  the  golden  strand. 

Just  beyond  the  river." 
"  There's  a  precious  fountain. 

Free  to  all  a  healing  stream." 
*'  Foul,  I  to  the  fountain  fly." 

FKKLINGS   of   PEOPI.K   AT   PRESENT  ToWARD   WATER. 

In  the  light  of  the  preceding  investigation  let  us  consider  the 
reactions  of  people  toward  water  at  the  present.  To  carry  out 
this  study  a  syllabus  (M.  XV,  Water  Psychoses)  was  issued  in 
February  of  the  present  year.  Only  a  part  of  the  list  of  ques- 
tions contained  in  the  syllabus  have  been  considered  in  this 
paper.  To  some  others  the  returns  were  too  meagre  to  furnish 
any  important  data;  others  may  be  worked  up  in  a  subsequent 
paper.  About  800  individual  papers,  some  covering  as  many 
as  20  pages  of  letter  paper  have  been  considered  in  this  report.^ 

Feelings  Toward  Water  in  General.  Many  like  to  be  near 
water,  and  to  watch  it  because  it  makes  them  feel  happy,  or 
because  it  has  a  ' '  soothing  effect. ' '  Some  have  ' '  feelings  of 
reverence  such  as  they  feel  nowhere  else,  and  they  wish  to  be 
noble  and  pure."  To  some  it  *'  seems  like  a  friend,"  "  a  great 
comfort,"  others  "  feel  like  confiding  to  it  their  sad  thoughts." 

^  I  am  under  great  obligations  to  the  following  persons  who  furnished 
large  numbers  of  returns  from  their  pupils  :  Professor  Will  S.  Mun- 
roe,  State  Normal  School,  Westfield,  Mass. ;  Professor  lyillie  A. 
Williams,  State  Normal  School,  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  Professor  E.  J.  Swift, 
State  Normal  School,  Stevens  Point,  Wis. ;  Principal  B.  M.  Beaman, 
Fairchild,  Wis.  ;  Principal  E.  H.  Cassels,  Tomah,  Wis. ;  Superinten- 
dent R.  B.  Dudgeon,  Madison,  Wis. ;  Principal  E.  L.  Bolton,  Tunnel 
City,  Wis. ;  Principal  Sarah  E.  Davies,  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Miss  S.  Elizabeth 
Smith,  Kaukauna,  Wis. ;  Superintendent  J.  M.  Barrow,  Columbus, 
Miss.  To  the  various  assistant  teachers,  all  the  pupils,  and  those  who 
sent  individual  returns,  my  obligations  are  also  gratefully  acknowl- 
edged. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  217 

Various  reasons  are  given  for  liking  it,  such  as:  "it  is  so  musi- 
cal," "  it  affords  such  a  variety  of  amusement,"  "  so  restful," 
"have  natural  instinct  for  it,"  "love  it  because  it  attracts 
me,"  "seems  like  human  beings,"  "seems  to  soothe  me," 
"  seems  to  sympathize  with  me,"  "  because  it  goes  on  its  jour- 
ney as  a  man  does,  sometimes  placid,  sometimes  turbulent," 
etc. 

The  time  of  day  and  the  state  of  the  weather  exercise  a 
strong  influence  over  the  feelings.  Bright,  pleasant  days  bring 
feelings  of  "unutterable  peace,"  "happy  recollections," 
"  joyousness,"  etc.  When  bright  and  windy  some  record  feel- 
ings of  "  passionate  joy,  difficult  to  analyze  because  of  their 
very  intensity."  To  be  near  water  in  cloudy  weather  "  makes 
me  moody,"  "  profoundly  melancholy,"  etc.  In  the  morning 
or  at  sunset  a  "keen  delight"  is  felt.  At  dusk  or  in  the 
moonlight  "  feelings  of  awe,  wonder,  sadness,"  "desire  to  be 
alone  and  not  to  be  spoken  to,"  "  solemnity,"  etc.  One  records 
that  if  sky  is  dark  and  wind  high  "  I  feel  as  if  I  must  let  the 
water  carry  me  somewhere — it  matters  not  where,  but  some- 
where away  from  myself." 

Storms  produce  various  effects.  Some  fear  them,  but  more 
enjoy  them,  especially  if  they  are  used  to  being  near  water. 
Expressions  concerning  them  are  variously  given,  as:  "  the 
roaring  and  the  rocking  are  pleasurable, "  "  something  about 
the  vast  amount  of  water  with  its  easy,  uncontrollable  motion, 
ever  changing,  yet  repeating  the  same  forms  that  makes  me  ex- 
ultant in  its  power,"  "  was  filled  with  the  beauty  and  might  of 
the  waves,"  "one  word,  grandeur,"  "felt  as  though  could 
scarcely  breathe, "  "  always  feel  as  if  water  were  alive  and  send- 
ing out  its  arms  for  prey,"  "  seems  like  a  great  monster  which 
would  not  hesitate  to  wreak  its  vengeance  upon  anything  within 
its  reach,"  "  the  rougher  the  sea  the  better  I  like  it,"  etc. 

Run7iing  water  seems  to  produce  a  different  effect  from  large 
expanses.  As  was  noted  elsewhere  the  Jews  held  running  or 
living  water  in  especial  reverence.  Small  streams  bring  ' '  a 
sort  of  dreamy,  happy  feeling,"  "  an  inward  pleasure  and  hap- 
piness and  excite  to  more  vigorous  action,"  "relief  from  sad- 
ness and  reveries  are  of  pleasant  things,"  feelings  of  "jollity 
and  fun."  Brooks  to  many  seem  possessed  of  life — "  like  chil- 
dren, happy  and  gay,"  while  rivers  "  typify  greater  maturity 
and  exhibit  purposeful  action,"  Many  record  that  they  often 
steal  away  from  all  persons  just  to  sit  by  a  stream  and  watch  it 
and  listen  to  its  music.  They  sit  and  meditate  ' '  upon  the 
works  of  God."  The  beauties  of  ripples,  eddies,  color,  its 
swiftness,  its  music,  its  majesty,  all  seem  subjects  for  a  poet's 
theme.  One  says  that  she  ' '  often  fits  words  of  poetry  to  the 
tune  made  by  the  rippling  brook."     A  little  girl  of  5   said 

JOURNAI. — \ 


2i8  BOI.TON: 

brooks  '  *  must  lead  charmed  lives,  now  flowing  in  the  bright 
sunlight,  babbling  over  the  pebbles,  now  running  through  some 
quiet  wood,  where  only  the  rustling  of  the  leaves  or  the  chirps 
of  the  birds  disturb  them." 

Large  expanses  produce  a  quite  different  class  of  feelings. 
Such  expressions  as  the  following  are  very  numerous:  When 
viewing  large  expanses  **I  feel  insignificant,  stricken  with 
awe,  as  though  the  supernatural  were  in  the  water,"  "  makes 
me  happy,  contented,  yet  restless,"  **  uncontrollable  feelings 
of  longing  and  half  sadness, "  "sorrowful,  especially  if  alone," 
* '  should  like  to  be  as  pure  as  they  are, "  "  wish  to  always 
watch  and  never  leave,"  "  always  loved  the  grand  old  ocean, 
and  ever  shall,"  "  feelings  less  personal  than  when  near  small 
bodies,  thoughts  of  a  universal  interest,  of  the  God  of  the  uni- 
verse and  of  nature,  rather  than  of  a  personal  God,"  "enrap- 
tures me  so  I  cannot  help  exclaiming  at  the  grand  spectacle," 
'  *  awes  me  with  its  mightiness, "  "  sad  feelings  increased, ' ' 
"  desire  to  get  to  the  place  called  the  horizon,"  "  wish  to  sail 
far  away  and  explore  unknown  depths,"  "  feelings  of  awe, 
reverence  and  solemnity,"  "it  reveals  nature's  vastness  and 
my  own  insignificance,"  "  seems  as  if  gazing  into  eternity," 
' '  feelings  of  sublimity ;  the  absorption  of  my  soul  into  the  uni- 
versal soul,"  "produce  a  yearning  toward  one  far  off  divine 
event  to  which  the  whole  creation  moves, "  "  Nothing  so  fair  ; 
so  pure  and  at  the  same  time  so  large,  as  a  lake,  perchance, 
lies  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,"  (Thoreau)  "feel  utterly  pow- 
erless in  its  presence, "  "  suggests  power,  deep  thought,  ability 
to  keep  grave  responsibilities  secret ;  representative  of  great 
persons,  their  silent  yet  powerful  actions,  compels  me  to  sub- 
mit to  nature's  plan  and  to  realize  that  all  its  workings  are  in 
more  perfect  harmony  than  those  of  any  individual. ' ' 

Waves ^  billows,  etc.,  are  always  objects  of  especial  interest 
because  of  the  activity  and  force  displayed.  The  following 
expressions  are  typical :  ' '  make  me  feel  as  nothing  compared 
with  them,"  "ripples  make  me  feel  jealous;  sometimes  think 
of  them  as  the  laughter  of  children,"  "waves  seem  to  be  at 
play,"  "  through  waves  nature  displays  her  mighty  power," 
"seem  like  great,  lifeless  monsters,  moved  by  a  mighty  hidden 
force,"  "produce  delight  and  admiration  for  their  grandeur 
and  beauty,"  "ripples  make  me  think  of  our  deeds, — some- 
times good,  sometimes  bad ;  waves  of  our  sorrows  and  joys, — 
how  they  swell  and  swell  until  they  can  grow  no  more,  then 
suddenly  burst, "  "  remind  me  of  waters  of  time,  pessimists, 
shallow-minded  men,  unable  to  accomplish  ends  without  fric- 
tion ;  brute  force  instead  of  persuasion,  selfishness,  treachery." 

To  be  on  the  water  intensifies  many  of  the  emotions  ex- 
perienced when  only  looking  upon  the  water. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  219 

The  vastness  of  the  universe,  the  power,  beauty  and  gran- 
deur of  nature's  hidden  forces,  the  insignificance  of  individuals, 
the  oneness  of  nature,  the  strength  of  the  ties  of  kinship  and 
friendships,  the  awful  solemnity  of  being  alone  with  nature 
probably  never  can  be  so  forcibly  realized  as  when  in  mid-ocean 
during  a  midnight  storm.  Brave  hearts  quake  with  fear,  stal- 
wart forms  tremble,  the  pious  and  the  blasphemous  seek  com- 
fort and  protection  in  prayer  ;  all  feel  that  the  power  of  God  is 
manifest  and  that  his  creatures  must  bow  before  his  will. 

When  on  the  water  "  I  feel  nature's  vastness  and  my  own 
insignificance, "  "  whenever  alone  with  nature  I  feel  how  grand 
it  is  and  how  insignificant  I  am,  but  when  on  the  water  the 
feeling  is  much  stronger,"  "have  feelings  of  solemnity  and 
think  how  soon  the  waves  could  swallow  me  up, "  "  feel  solem- 
nity and  reverence  for  God  ;  that  I  am  a  part  of  this  great 
world  and  that  I  have  my  duty  to  perform  in  making  it  beau- 
tiful," "in  a  boat  I  always  feel  caged,"  "  have  joy  ousness, 
solemnity,  reverence,  awe,  and  humility,  but  never  real  sad- 
ness. ' ' 

Children' s  Animistic  Conceptions  of  Water,  The  next  three 
rubrics  deal  with  the  animistic  conceptions  of  water  which 
children  have.  We  find  that  most  of  the  answers  are  from 
children  or  are  reminiscent  experiences  of  older  persons  which 
refer  to  child  life.  The  child,  like  the  savage,  conceives  all 
nature  endowed  with  life  and  it  is  only  later  at  the  approach 
of  adolescent  years  and  the  dawning  of  self-consciousness  that 
the  differentiation  between  himself  and  surrounding  nature 
becomes  complete.  Most  children  regard  water,  and  in  fact 
all  nature,  as  endowed  with  life.  Some  ascribe  to  it  ani- 
mal life,  others  human  life,  and  many  talk  to  it.  With  few 
exceptions  they  think  of  it  as  talking  but  many  do  not  think 
they  can  understand  it.  The  older  ones  think  of  its  animation 
in  a  more  metaphorical  way  and  not  with  the  reality  of  child- 
hood. In  these  childish  expressions  so  frankly  and  candidly 
given  we  have  the  pages  of  the  earliest  stages  of  man's  life 
opened  to  view.  The  savage  heard  the  voice  of  nature  talk  to 
him  with  tongues  understood  only  by  the  primitive  mind ;  the 
child  recapitulating  the  race  history  understands  those  same 
voices.  The  poet,  like  the  child  and  the  savage,  penetrates 
what  is  invisible  to  ordinary  mortals,  and  is  cognizant  of  the 
same  unseen  powers.  These  he  discloses  to  us  through  his 
versifications.  To  the  ordinary  mind  these  voices  become 
hushed  through  the  complex  of  psychic  influences  necessary 
to  mature  existence. 

Water  as  Endowed  with  Life.    i.  F.,  12.     Often  think  the  water  has 
wild  life  like  animals. 
2.     M.,  12.    Think  of  it  as  a  person ;  it  seems  as  if  it  could  talk. 


220  BOIvTON  : 

3.  F.,  15.     Seems  as  if  it  had  life  like  a  roaring  lion. 

4.  F.,  13.     Appears  to  be  planning  to  do  some  wrong. 

5.  F.,  17.  The  noise  of  the  ocean  and  of  rapids  give  me  a  feeling 
that  they  have  life. 

6.  F.,  17.  Never  talk  to  water.  It  seems  to  have  life  but  not  like 
animals  or  persons  ;  it  gives  one  a  different  feeling. 

7.  F.,  15.     When  it  attempts  to  drown  me  I  think  it  has  life. 

8.  F.,  14.     The  waves  seem  like  snakes. 

9.  M,,  14.     The  waves  make  me  think  they  are  coming  to  catch  me. 

10.  F..  17.  Billows,  eddies,  ripples  seem  endowed  with  life.  They 
seem  to  think  then  act.     Often  think  of  the  waves  as  temptations. 

11.  M.,  12.     Think  of  the  water  as  being  kind  of  snaky. 

12.  M.,  18.  Reared  in  the  country  and  always  thought  of  the  water 
as  being  somewhat  of  a  friend   to  me. 

13.  F.,  14.  Seems  alive ;  don't  know  what  kind  of  life,  but  the 
waves  seem  to  be  groaning. 

14.  F.,  18.  Used  to  think  it  had  life,  but  different  from  ours  ;  it 
was  always  a  puzzle  to  me. 

15.  F.,  17.  Used  to  think  it  had  life  like  a  person  and  was  made  to 
take  care  of  little  children. 

16.  F.,  20.  When  small  thought  it  had  work  to  do,  and  that  it 
hurried  along  so  fast  because  it  had  n't  time  to  stop. 

17.  F.,  17.  Used  to  imagine  the  water  had  life  ;  knew  that  it  really- 
had  n't,  but  liked  to  think  it  had  and  that  it  was  like  a  person. 

18.  M.,  18.  When  a  child,  frequently  thought  it  had  life  aud  was 
talking  as  it  rippled  over  its  stony  bed. 

19.  F.,  19.  In  a  storm  the  waves  and  billows  dash  against  one 
another  and  crowd  and  jostle  each  other  as  though  their  bed  was  too 
small  for  them. 

20.  M.,  13.     Think  of  water  having  life  like  a  person. 

21.  F.,  9.     Seems  alive,  so  human. 

22.  M.,  12.     Think  it  is  like  animals  because  so  wild. 

23.  F.,  II.     Think  of  it  having  life  like  an  intelligent  animal. 

24.  M.,  II.  Think  it  like  a  person,  because  it  is  so  bright  and 
knows  how  to  work. 

25.  F.,  30.  I  am  happier  in  the  instinctive  feeling  that  water  has  a 
kinship  of  life  with  me,  than  when  I  am  under  the  rebuke  of  reason 
concerning  such  things. 

Talk  to  Water,  i.  M.,  18.  When  small,  I  sometimes  talked  to  wa- 
ter and  asked  it  if  it  would  be  good  and  not  wash  away  my  water  wheels. 

2.  F.,  5>^.  Was  sailing  a  boat ;  the  string  broke  and  the  boat  went 
sailing  away.  She  said,  "  Water,  if  you  don't  bring  back  that  boat  I'll 
tell  mamma."  Another  time  was  heard  to  say  to  the  brook,  "  I  won- 
der where  you  go  to  ?  Do  you  ever  get  tired  ?  I  know  I  should."  She 
says  water  must  have  life  or  it  could  n't  move.  Thinks  it  feeds  on  grass 
and  sticks.  Thinks  rivers  and  brooks  talk,  but  she  cannot  understand 
what  they  say.  Thinks  it  must  be  saying,  **  How  happy  I  am  !  Nothing 
to  do  but  play  all  day." 

3.  F.,  20.  Used  to  scold  when  the  ocean  washed  my  sand  houses 
away,  calling  it  "  a  mean  old  thing!"  After  building  them  up  again, 
1  would  say,  "  Come  on  now  and  enjoy  it!" 

4.  F.,  12.  Have  talked  to  it  in  my  mind,  if  not  in  words,  many 
times  and  said  I  would  like  to  plunge  into  it. 

5.  F.,  15.  I  talk  to  it  as  if  it  were  a  person  I  love  very  much  and 
tell  it  all  my  little  troubles, 

6.  F.,  41.  As  a  child  I  said,  "Pretty  water,  I  like  you.  Where  are 
you  going  ?    Take  me  with  you." 

7.  M.,  19.  Never  talked  to  water,  but  always  recited  a  certain  piece 
of  poetry  when  near  the  shore. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS.  221 

8.  F.,  17.  Used  to  ask  the  ocean  to  tell  me  what  it  saw  way  out 
from  land  and  to  tell  me  about  the  little  girls  it  saw. 

9.  F.,  18.  Used  to  sympathize  with  water  when  rocks  or  stones  were 
in  its  way,  and  would  scold  the  stones  and  talk  pityingly  to  the 
water. 

10.  F.,  22.  When  watching  waves  chasing  each  other  I  have  said 
to  the  one  I  wished  to  beat,  "  Oh,  hurry,  hurry  !  "  Used  to  draw  a 
line  before  my  sand  houses  and  say,  "  Now,  you  mustn't  come  any 
further."  When  the  houses  were  washed  away,  I  said,  "Horrid 
thing!" 

11.  F.,  6.  Scolded  the  river  after  a  boy  had  been  drowned.  To 
punish  it  would  not  go  near  it  for  a  week.  When  did  go,  thought  the 
river  was  glad  to  see  her. 

12.  F.,  II.  Never  talked  to  it,  but  have  often  thought  I  should  like 
to. 

13.  F.,  10.  Sometimes  like  to  talk  to  it.  Was  sitting  beside  it  and 
told  it  it  made  me  feel  cool  and  that  I  loved  its  little  rippling  music. 

14.  F.,  18.  Used  to  say,  "  Pretty,  babbling  brook,  singing,  laugh- 
ing brook!" 

The  following  paragraph  gives  some  expressions  that  children 
think  the  water  seems  to  use: 

F.,  10.  "Ripple,  ripple,  ripple."  M.,  10.  "Flip,  flap,  flip,  flap." 
F.,  12.  "I  am  tired  of  running  so  long."  M.,  12.  "For  men  may 
come,  and  men  may  go,  but  I  go  on  forever."  M.,  13.  "Come."  M., 
10.  "I  chatter  over  stony  ways."  M.,  12.  "  Bubble,  bubble,  bubble." 
F.,  13.  "Come,  bathe  in  this  nice,  warm  water."  F.,  13.  "Come 
along,  we  have  no  time  to  play."  M.,  12.  "Roll  on,  roll  on."  M., 
15.  "I  will  swallow  you  up."  F.,  12  "Hiawatha,  Wa-wa  Tasi." 
M.,  16.  "  Don't  get  near  me  or  I'll  take  you  out  with  me."  M.,  11. 
**  Come,  jump  in."  M.,  13.  "  Won't  you  come  in  and  have  a  swim." 
M.,  14.  "  L<et  me  get  hold  of  you  and  I  will  swallow  you  up."  F.,  14. 
"  I  am  stronger  than  you  are."  M.,  11.  "lam  on  my  way  to  the 
ocean."  M.,  12.  "I  go  on  forever."  M.,  12.  "I'm  coming  on 
through  hills  and  vales  and  over  stones  to  meet  the  ocean."  M.,  16. 
"  Keep  away  from  me.  I  '11  drown  you  if  I  get  the  chance."  F.,  3>^. 
After  wading  in  the  brook,  told  that  the  water  said,  "  Oh,  stay  a  little 
longer!  Come  along  with  me,  I'll  catch  you."  M.,  10.  "  Trick,  trick, 
trick."  F.,  II.  "What  part  of  you,  little  river,  is  the  widest?  and 
what  kind  of  fish  are  swimming  about  in  the  water?"  M.,  10.  "I 
would  like  to  know  your  history  and  about  your  drifting  ships."  F., 
12.  "  Have  you  had  a  pleasant  jonrney  ?  Do  you  expect  to  carry  large 
ships?  " 

Water  seems  to  be  talking .  i.  M.,  12.  Think  it  the  most  delight- 
ful thing  to  be  near  water,  to  watch  it  flow,  and  hear  it  tell  of  its  won- 
derful adventures. 

2.  F.,  15.  I  think  the  water  seems  to  talk  ;  it  sounds  like  some 
sweet  lullaby. 

3.  F.,  18.     In  running  it  seems  to  be  talking  all  the  while. 

4.  M.,  20.  As  a  child,  when  playing  in  streams,  I  imagined  the 
ripples  sang,  "  Go  home,  go  home  !  " 

5.  F.,  18.  The  waterfalls  seemed  to  laugh,  but  when  dashing 
against  the  rocks  I  used  to  think  it  scolded  because  rocks  were  in  the 
way. 

6.  F.,  17.  Thought  the  water  answered  what  I  said  but  thought  I 
was  too  little  to  understand,  but  would  when  I  grew  older. 

7.  F.,  41.     It  seemed  to  say  it  was  very  busy  rushing  on  to  the  sea. 

8.  F.,  20.  '  Its  music  I  hear,  but  it  is  a  music  entirely  different  to 


222  BOLTON : 

my  imagination  from  that  of  any  human  music  —  a  music  of  nature, 
separate  and  distinct,  as  is  also  the  wind's. 

9.  F.,  17.  At  the  beach  the  water  used  to  seem  to  say,  **  Come  on 
down,  little  girl,  I  love  you."  Once  when  I  had  ventured  too  far  and 
my  clothes  became  wet,  I  told  my  mother  the  waters  had  told  me  to 
come  down  and  they  would  n't  hurt  me. 

10.  M.,  12.  Seems  to  be  complaining,  especially  when  there  are 
rocks  in  a  creek.     Seems  to  be  moaning  when  the  tide  comes  in. 

11.  F.,  19.  When  I  first  heard  the  ocean  waves  (at  13)  I  imagined 
they  were  saying  something  to  us  which  we  did  not  understand.  Some- 
times I  thought  them  singing  mournful  songs.  Always  thought  the 
waves  were  like  queer  people.  Just  as  we  were  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth,  they  were  of  the  water. 

12.  M.,  10.  Seems  to  say:  "I  have  lived  a  hundred  years  and 
more,  have  fish,  whales,  snakes,  and  many  other  things." 

13.  F.,  II.  Seems  to  laugh  on  days  when  the  sun  is  bright  and 
moan  sadly  on  a  dark  day. 

14.  F.,  II.  Think  it  talks,  because  trees  talk.  Think  by  their 
moaning  they  comfort  the  fish. 

15.  M.,  12     It  talks.     Don't  know  what  it  says,  but  it  knows. 

16.  F.,  II.    The  largest  bodies  seem  to  talk  and  tell  you  great  stories. 

17.  M.,  13.  Seems  to  be  talking  but  not  a  language  like  ours  ;  has 
a  language  of  its  own. 

18.  F.,  II.     Says  "  I  work,"  and  many  other  things. 

19.  M.,  II.     Some  water  seems  to  say  "  Follow  me,  follow  me." 

20.  F.,  10.  Sometimes  seems  to  tell  me  to  bathe  in  it  and  it  will 
refresh  me.     Also  tells  me  of  the  journeys  it  takes. 

21.  M.,  II.     Seems  to  say  "  Come  in  and  play,  come  in  and  play." 

22.  F.,  17.  Water  was  always  talking  to  me,  telling  me  of  its  little 
•scrapes  and  trials  and  the  fun  it  had. 

Earliest  Feelings  toward  Water.  The  general  concensus  of 
testimony  relating  to  babies'  actions  on  being  first  placed  in  tub 
baths,  is  that  the  water  causes  momentary  fright  when  it  first 
comes  in  contact  with  the  skin.  Almost  without  exception  the 
verdict  is  that  after  the  first  shock  and  surprise  are  over  babies 
take  extreme  delight  in  being  in  the  water.  This  they  manifest 
in  various  baby  ways — by  splashing  about,  by  cooing  and  prat- 
tling, smiling  and  laughing,  and  by  remonstrating  against 
being  taken  out.  After  a  few  times  at  most  the  bath  becomes 
a  pleasurable  event,  and  is  looked  forward  to  with  keen  delight. 
Of  course,  some  exceptions  are  recorded,  but  they  are  very  few 
indeed.  When  a  little  older,  children  often  object  to  having  their 
faces  washed,  but  many  reminiscent  items  indicate  (although 
this  question  was  not  asked)  that  it  is  because  children  feel  that 
it  is  a  waste  of  legitimate  playtime,  and  is  not  because  of  any 
objection  to  the  water.  The  following  answers  are  typical  of 
great  numbers  received: 

1.  F.  Mother  says  the  first  time  I  was  put  into  a  tub  of  water  I 
didn't  make  a  sound,  but  clenched  my  hands  and  stiffened  my  body. 

2.  An  experienced  nurse  said  most  babies  objected  to  their  first  bath, 
but  usually  changed. 

3.  F.  Mother  says  when  I  was  a  baby  I  loved  water  and  was  still 
as  a  mouse  when  she  washed  me. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  223 

4.  M.,  7  mo.  When  put  into  the  bath  kicks  and  squeals  with  de- 
light, but  cries  when  his  mother  takes  him  out. 

5.  F.  Mother  says  I  enjoyed  tub  baths  very  much,  and  liked  to 
play  in  the  water. 

6.  F.  Mamma  says  I  used  to  jump  for  joy  when  she  mentioned  the 
word  water. 

7.  M.  Mother  says  at  sight  of  water  I  used  to  want  to  jump  right 
in. 

8.  F.,  12.  When  about  i>^-2  yrs.  old,  one  washing-day,  I  was  all 
dressed  to  go  out,  bonnet  and  coat  on,  I  climbed  upon  the  chairs  and 
got  right  into  the  tub  with  all  my  clothes  on.  Did  n't  mean  to  be 
naughty  :  was  always  a  good  child,  but  it  was  because  I  liked  water. 
(A  little  boy  did  the  same  thing.) 

9.  F.,  14,  When  small  was  afraid  of  water.  Thought  only  fish 
could  stay  in  it. 

10.  M.,  14.  Have  always  loved  to  be  in  the  water.  Remember  the 
first  time  put  into  a  tub — was  about  a  year  old. 

11.  F.,  17.  As  a  child  liked  to  paddle  and  wade  in  water  because  I 
liked  the  feel  of  it. 

12.  F.,  18.  When  a  child  was  very  fond  of  being  near  water,  but 
was  always  afraid  of  reptiles.  Think  all  children  like  to  play  in 
water. 

13.  F.,  23.  Did  not  like  to  bathe  when  a  child,  but  it  was  because 
of  the  cold  when  they  took  me  out. 

14.  F.,  10.  Ivike  to  paddle  and  wade  in  water.  Enjoy  bathing  but 
shudder  at  coldness.  Earliest  fears  of  water  were  because  afraid  of 
drowning. 

15.  F.,  17.  When  a  child  loved  it.  Seemed  to  be  my  dearest  play- 
mate. 

16.  F.,  20.  Most  enjoyable  hours  of  my  childhood  were  when  we 
children  went  to  the  woodland  brook  to  wade. 

17.  F.,  14.  Earliest  recollections  were  of  seeing  some  persons  im- 
mersed, and  I  shouted  "  See  them  going  into  the  pretty  water." 

18.  F.,  20.  When  about  12  loved  to  ride  on  rafts  so  well  that  I  tried 
to  construct  one  myself. 

19.  F.,  17.  When  a  child,  during  a  storm  at  sea,  would  run  away 
and  just  stand  and  watch  it  for  hours  from  the  shore.  Never  wanted 
to  talk  to  any  one.  When  all  others  were  frightened,  I  was  delighted. 
My  love  for  the  ocean  is  almost  a  passion :  would  rather  be  near  it 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

20.  F.  Thought  when  water  was  happy  it  danced  along  in  the  sun- 
shine, and  when  it  was  sad  it  was  still.     I  was  then  sad,  too. 

21.  F.,  20.  As  a  child  loved  small  streams  and  always  longed  to  lie 
down  on  the  grassy  banks  and  gaze  upon  the  water  as  it  danced  along. 

22.  F.,  18.  Was  fond  of  playing  in  puddles.  Am  told  I  used  to  sit 
under  our  old  pump  and  pump  water  over  myself. 

23.  F.,  17.  When  I  see  streams  always  want  to  put  my  hand  into 
the  water. 

24.  F.,  18.  Was  always  running  out  in  the  rain  and  running  away 
to  the  brook, where  found,  minus  shoes  and  stockings,  paddling  around 
in  the  water. 

25.  F.,  22.  Many  times  when  a  child  I  ran  away  to  go  and  play  in 
the  water.  Had  to  be  watched  continually.  Three  times  I  ran  away 
to  the  docks,  fell  off,  and  was  nearly  drowned  each  time,  but  all  this 
did  not  frighten  me  away. 

26.  M.,  7.  So  fond  of  the  water  almost  impossible  to  keep  him 
away  from  it.  Would  go  swimming  in  deepest  part  of  the  brook  as 
often  as  he  could  without  his  mother  knowing. 

.  27.     F.,  17.     Earliest  love  for  water  was  when  very  small.     Father 


224  BOLTON  : 

took  me  in  bathing  and  swam  way  out,  while  I  was  perched  "piggie 
back  "  fashion.     Thought  it  the  nicest  thing  a  little  girl  could  do. 

28.  F.,  20.  At  3  my  parents  had  hard  time  to  keep  me  out  of  the 
water.  After  being  dressed  for  the  afternoon  would  wander  to  the 
stream  to  watch  the  boys  fish  and  swim.  Parents  always  knew  where 
to  find  me. 

29.  M.,  7-8.  Always  preferred  companionship  of  water  to  children. 
Often  begged  to  have  a  lunch  and  go  and  stay  all  day,  returning  only 
when  sought.  When  he  returned  to  the  city  would  pine  for  the  sea- 
shore and  seemed  to  live  only  for  the  next  summer.  Was  a  different 
child  when  away  from  water. 

30.  F.,  15.  Likes  water  so  well  that  when  washing  dishes  she  plays 
and  dabbles  in  the  water.  Seems  pleased  and  generally  sings.  (In 
one  way,  exceptional.) 

31.  M.,  7.  Forbidden  to  go  near  the  water,  but  used  to  manage  to 
go  almost  every  day  and  remain  in  by  the  hour.  In  spite  of  all  pun- 
ishments this  transgression  continued. 

32.  F.,  23.  When  5  went  to  beach.  Saw  the  waves  and  screamed 
with  fright.  Would  not  go  in  nor  allow  my  mother  to.  She  picked 
me  up  and  in  spite  of  myself  carried  me  in.     Soon  liked  and  do  yet. 

33.  F.,  II.  Loved  the  water  in  the  river  when  I  first  went  to  bathe. 
Was  very  anxious  to  get  into  it. 

34.  F.,  II.  Like  to  paddle  in  it  because  I  like  to  see  the  water 
splash. 

35.  F.,  13.  Like  to  wade  and  go  as  far  out  as  I  can  without  getting 
my  clothes  wet. 

36.  M.,  12.     Like  to  bathe  in  all  kinds  of  water. 

37.  F.,  II.  Like  to  ride  on  planks  and  rafts  because  it  has  such  a 
good  feeling  and  is  such  fun. 

38.  M.,  12.  Love  the  water  like  a  fish;  don't  know  any  boy  who 
doesn't. 

39.  M.,  II.     Like  to  wade  and  paddle  because  I  like  to  get  wet. 

40.  F.,  14.  Don't  know  of  any  one  who  doesn't  like  to  wade  and 
paddle.  Children  think  it  a  great  loss  if  near  the  water  and  cannot  go 
in. 

41.  M.,  13.  Like  to  ride  on  planks,  and  when  way  out  in  the  river 
we  push  each  other  off  to  get  a  good  ducking. 

42.  M.,  10.  Would  often  conceal  his  books  underneath  the  piazza, 
and  generally  go  to  the  water. 

43.  Was  out  with  a  boy  of  7  in  one  of  worst  storms  of  sleet,  and 
yielded  to  his  coaxing  to  sail  chips  down  the  gutter.  It  was  the  noon 
hour  and  he  forgot  his  dinner.  Soon  many  little  boys  joined.  Do  not 
believe  one  of  those  boys  would  have  willingly  forsaken  that  fun  for 
the  best  dinner  that  ever  tempted  a  child. 

Bathing,  i.  M.,  16.  Says  of  course  he  likes  to  bathe  in  streams 
or  he  would  not  walk  to  the  bay,  two  miles  away,  every  day. 

2.  F.,  15.     Often  walked  a  mile  to  take  a  bath  in  a  stream. 

3.  F.,  17.     To  be  in  water  gives  one  a  feeling  of  exhilaration. 

4.  F.,  22.  Used  to  enjoy  bathing  in  fresh  water.  Generally  feel  the 
water  on  my  skin  with  great  pleasure. 

5.  F.,  19.  Before  13  did  not  care  for  the  water.  Then  was  taken 
rowing,  and  have  liked  it  ever  since. 

6.  M.,  13.  Am  very  happy  when  the  boys  say  **  let's  go  two-fin- 
gers." 

7.  F.,  15.  Like  to  paddle  in  water  because  the  water  has  a  feeling 
different  from  anything  else. 

8.  F.,  10.  Love  to  paddle  in  shallow  water  when  there  are  no  snakes 
nor  blood-suckers. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  225 

9.  M.,  12.  Feels  sorry  for  the  children  of  the  far  North,  who, 
though  so  near  the  water,  cannot  bathe  in  it. 

10.  F.,  17.  Enjoy  bathing  very  much.  Think  it  is  because  of  the 
water  upon  the  skin  and  the  buoyancy. 

11.  M.,  20.  Used  to  like  paddling  in  shallow  water,  but  was  afraid 
of  deep  water.     Always  shudder  on  going  into  deep,  cold  water. 

12.  F.,  19.  Always  enjoyed  plunge  baths,  though  I  shudder  at  the 
thought  of  going   in  streams  because  of  the  coldness  of  the  water. 

13.  F.,  22.  As  a  child  was  so  fond  of  bathing  in  streams  that  often 
went  in  three  times  a  day. 

14.  F.,  20.  At  the  thought  of  going  in  used  to  shudder  because  I 
thought  it  so  cold,  but  the  first  plunge  over  it  was  a  pleasure  for  me. 

15.  F.,  30.  Enjoy  a  sea  bath  with  a  feeling  of  mixed  pleasure  and 
fear;  do  not  like  a  plunge  tub  bath;  can't  quite  raise  my  will  to  the 
point  of  putting  my  head  under  water,  but  when  at  the  beach  let  the 
surf  meet  me  more  than  half  way.  Much  of  the  shudder  is  from  the 
cold,  but  more,  I  believe,  from  dread  of  being  submerged. 

The  last  two  rubrics  give  fairly  representative  expressions 
relating  to  being  in  the  water.  Although  some  do  not  enjoy 
bathing  and  swimming,  yet  the  majority  of  the  returns  indicate 
a  passionate  love  for  it.  Many  of  the  dislikes  noted  corroborate 
the  deductions  made  by  Dr.  Hall  in  his  study  of  water  fears. 
The  thought  of  the  coldness  of  the  water  on  taking  the  first 
plunge  or  after  getting  out  brings  the  "  shivers  "  to  many,  and 
act  as  a  deterrent  factor.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that  could  all  tem- 
perature conditions  be  regulated  perfectly,  few  would  hesitate 
about  bathing.  Long  centuries  of  wearing  clothing  has  sensi- 
tized the  body  to  feel  keenly  the  changes  of  temperature.  Sav- 
ages, peoples  inhabiting  warm  climates,  and  boys  accustomed 
to  daily  ' '  swimming  and  sunning  ' '  through  the  summer  forget 
all  about  the  possibility  of  disagreeable  sensations.  Even  with 
babes  it  is  only  the  first  shock  that  friglitens,  and  then 
they  love  the  wafer  passionately,  often  crying  to  remain  in. 
The  first  contact  produces  a  shock  upon  the  dermal  sense 
organ,  causing  a  gasp  and  often  a  tremor,  but  it  is  because  of 
the  newness  and  not  the  disagreeableness.  Again,  the  fear  of 
smothering  from  submergence  as  in  15  is  frequent.  Fear 
of  snakes,  blood-suckers,  and  other  water  animals  (8),  deep, 
dark  water  (11),  motion  of  the  water  are  frequently  men- 
tioned as  deterrents,  but  the  "  feel  "  and  buoyancy  are  always 
listed  with  the  pleasureable  and  attractive  features.  It  is  a 
matter  of  every-day  observation  that  most  children  are  ex- 
tremely eager  to  be  in  the  water,  to  play  and  paddle  about  in  it, 
or  to  play  in  tubs  of  water.  After  every  summer  rain  they  can 
scarcely  resist  getting  out  and  splashing  in  the  pools  in  which 
they  caper  and  frisk  about  in  high  glee.  If  allowed  to,  during 
the  rain  they  will  run  out  hatless  and  shoeless  and  let  the  rain 
pelt  down  upon  them.  Many  boys  in  the  country  have  been 
known  to  get  out  of  sight,  strip  off  all  their  clothing,  and  take 
the  keenest  delight  in  staying  out  in  the  driving  rain.     The 


226  BOLTON: 

beaches,  river  banks  and  brooks  during  the  summer  months 
could  attest  to  boys'  love  for  water.  Under  severest  protest  they 
will  run  away  to  go  swimming,  and  undoubtedly  more  cases  of 
school  truancy  in  the  summer  are  attributable  to  this  attraction 
than  any  other.  One  gentleman  of  middle  age  says  that  noth- 
ing is  so  restful  to  him  as  to  plunge  into  the  water  and  float 
around,  oftentimes  upon  his  back,  gazing  into  the  soft  blue  sky. 

This  universal  love  for  water  seems  not  to  be  due  to  expe- 
rience alone,  for  all  babes  exhibit  it  in  their  earliest  days,  if  con- 
ditions are  supplied.  It  seems  partly  instinctive  and  of  more 
than  recent  philogenic  origin,  and  at  least  suggests  a  survival  of 
the  old  time  life  in  an  aquatic  medium.  This  is  not  demon- 
strable, but  the  weight  of  all  testimony  is  in  that  direction. 
How  else  can  we  account  for  the  passionate  love  of  children 
to  paddle,  to  splash,  ride  on  rafts,  run  out  in  the  rain ;  for 
their  intense  delight  in  swimming,  even  going  without  meals, 
walking  long  distances,  enduring  severe  punishments,  etc., 
just  for  the  sake  of  being  in  the  water?  Many  of  these  char- 
acteristics are  exhibited  by  adults  when  the  conventionalities 
of  civilized  life  can  be  thrown  off. 

Pedagogic  Significance.  The  natural  tendency  of  children 
to  get  near  to  nature,  indicates  that  while  children  are  passing 
through  this  animistic  stage  that  they  can  be  brought  into 
sympathy  with  the  great  book  of  nature  without  appealing  to 
artificial  and  esoteric  interests.  They  already  commune  with 
nature  and  should  be  encouraged  and  aided  in  understanding 
and  appreciating  more  of  its  beauties.  At  this  stage  it  should 
not  be  minutely  dissected  and  studied  apart  from  its  natural 
setting.  The  child  idea  of  oneness  and  harmony  should  not  be 
carelessly  destroyed.  Injudicious  teaching  may  create  ideas 
that  the  soundest  philosophical  teaching  of  maturer  years  will 
fail  to  correct.  The  unity  of  nature  which  the  child  mind  and 
the  savage  instinctively  apprehend  should  be  strengthened,  not 
weakened.  Nature  should  not  be  dissected  and  sliced  and 
teased  apart  until  nothing  related  remains.  By  so  proceeding 
all  interest  is  destroyed  and  the  most  fundamental  and  import- 
ant lessons  to  be  taught  are  abortive.  The  child  on  looking  at 
the  ocean  or  river  or  streamlet,  feels  them  to  be  sentient  beings 
like  himself  only  of  a  different  form.  Even  older  persons  say 
they  seem  so,  and  some  say  they  are  happier  in  the  instinctive 
feeling  that  water  has  a  kinship  of  life  with  them  than  when 
conceiving  it  otherwise.  The  ocean's  boundlessness  produces 
feelings  of  nature's  vastness  and  one's  own  insignificance. 
Awe,  humility,  and  reverence,  the  basal  ideas  in  religion,  are 
prompted,  as  so  many  of  the  returns  show,  by  gazing  upon  vast 
bodies  of  water. 


HYDRO-PSYCHOSES.  227 

The  various  forms  of  water  are  most  eloquent  teachers.  They 
appeal  to  the  child's  imagination  in  a  way  that  no  human  be- 
ing could.  So  many  say  that  they  want  to  be  alone  by  the 
water  to  contemplate,  to  reflect.  Their  thoughts  are  turned 
from  the  disunited  artificial  life,  enforced  by  the  usual  modes  of 
living,  and  turned  toward  the  unity  and  harmony  which  they 
discover  for  themselves  when  brought  into  contact  with  nature. 
Contact  with  nature  is  a  more  genuine  eloquent  exhortation  to  a 
contemplation  of  the  Divine  than  all  the  preachers  without  the  aid 
of  nature.  When  alone  with  the  forests,  the  rocks,  or  the  deep, 
for  companions,  one's  thoughts  turn  instinctively  toward  the 
contemplation  of  the  universal,  which  cannot  but  lead  to  a  search 
for  the  primal  cause,  for  the  constant,  the  all  powerful, — for  God. 

From  a  purely  pedagogical  point  of  view  the  study  has  much 
suggestiveness.  The  child  that  is  impressed  with  the  thought 
of  "how  large  the  world  must  be!"  and  with  "  wonder  about 
what  could  be  seen  if  the  eye  could  penetrate  space"  has 
aroused  in  him  the  most  fundamental  conditions  of  the 
learner,  viz. ,  wonder  and  curiosity.  A  permanent  interest  of 
this  general  form  is  to  be  most  earnestly  sought  in  all  instruc- 
tion. To  wonder  what  and  why,  and  to  determine  to  under- 
stand more,  is  the  highest  type  of  interest.  It  surpasses  all  the 
passing,  definable,  artificial  interests.  This  is  interest  self- 
determined,  and  if  cultivated  will  prove  permanent. 

Child  life  loves  nature.  These  returns  show  that  many  of 
the  happiest  of  childhood  hours  are  spent  directly  in  contact 
with  it.  To  separate  the  child  from  nature  is  like  separating 
the  savage  from  his  forest  home.  The  child,  like  the  race,  may 
develop  later  interests  in  other  directions,  but  the  transition 
must  be  natural  and  gradual,  and  the  feeling  of  oneness  with 
nature  should  never  be  relinquished.  From  the  wading  and  pad- 
dling and  swimming  in  the  brook,  and  from  the  sound  of  the 
merry  music  of  brook  and  cascade  to  the  more  mature  con- 
templation of  the  majestic  ocean,  there  is  a  charm  and  a  delight 
which  are  the  rightful  heritage  of  childhood  and  youth.  To 
rob  childhood  of  the  beauties  and  teachings  of  nature  is  to  do 
violence  to  the  normal  course  of  development.  The  childhood  of 
the  race  was  spent  in  delightful  contact  with  nature ;  the  child, 
ontogenetically  recapitulating  the  phylogenetic  development 
of  the  race,  craves  instinctively  for  communion  with  nature. 

I  am  indebted  to  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  for  the  assign- 
ment of  the  problem,  and  for  much  sympathy  and  many  helpful 
suggestions  in  carrying  out  the  foregoing  research.  In  this 
place  I  also  desire  to  express  my  gratitude  to  the  other  mem- 
bers of  Clark  University  who  have  aided  me  in  many  ways  in 
prosecuting  the  work. 


INDIVIDUAL  MEMORIES. 


By  F.  W.  CoivEGROVE,  Honorary  Fellow  in  Psychology, 
Clark  University. 


This  paper  comprises  one  of  nine  chapters  which  treat  of 
memory  or  memories.  The  preceding  sections  contain  (a)  An 
Historical  Orientation;  (b)  A  Biological  Orientation  which 
treats  of  racial  memory  and  traces  the  individual  psychical 
memory  through  different  stages  of  life  from  man  down  to  the 
vorticellae;  (c)  The  Diseases  of  the  Memory — an  original  study 
based  upon  new  material;  (d)  The  Relations  of  Brain  to  Mind; 
(e)  Memories.  The  subsequent  chapters  treat  of  Appercep- 
tion and  Association,  Attention  and  Interest,  and  the  final 
chapter  is  a  summary  of  the  leading  pedagogical  principles 
suggested  throughout  the  work.  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is 
to  give  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  memories  of  normal  people 
from  nine  months  to  ninety  years  of  age. 

At  the  outset  a  real  difficulty  is  met  which  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  following  extract  from  ''Recollections  of  Childhood," 
by  Sony  a  Koval^vski.  She  writes:  ''When  I  begin  to  sort 
out  and  classify  my  earliest  recollections,  the  same  thing 
always  happens  with  me:  these  recollections  disperse  before  me. 
At  times  it  seems  to  me  that  I  have  found  the  first  definite  im- 
pression which  has  left  a  distinct  trace  in  my  memory;  but  as 
soon  as  I  concentrate  my  thought  on  it  for  a  while,  other  im- 
pressions of  a  still  more  remote  period  begin  to  peep  forth  and 
acquire  form.  And  the  difficulty  of  it  is  that  I  cannot  myself 
in  the  least  determine  which  of  these  impressions  I  really  re- 
member; that  is  to  say,  I  cannot  decide  which  of  them  I  really 
lived  through  and  which  of  them  I  only  heard  about  later 
on, — in  my  childhood — and  imagine  that  I  recall,  when,  in 
reality,  I  only  remember  the  accounts  of  them.  Worse  still  I 
can  never  succeed  in  evoking  a  single  one  of  these  original  rec- 
ollections in  all  its  purity;  I  involuntarily  add  to  it  something 
foreign  during  the  very  process  of  recalling  it."  She  then  de- 
scribes a  scene  in  childhood,  and  adds:  "  As  I  reflect  upon  the 
matter  now,  I  think  I  must  have  been  two  or  three  years  old, 
and  that  the  scene  took  place  in  Moscow  where  I  was  born." 
After  the  first  memory  she  recalls  ' '  a  series  of  detached  but 
tolerably  clear  pictures"  as  of  "picking  up  pebbles,"  and 
"my  sister's  doll  which  I  threw  out  of  the  carriage  window." 


INDIVIDUAIy   MEMORIES.  229 

So  many  people  have  had  the  experience  described  by  this 
' '  marvel  of  mental  development ' '  that  the  question  may  fairly 
be  asked — can  most  people  ascertain  their  earliest  memories 
with  sufficient  accuracy  and  certainty  to  render  them  trustwor- 
thy data  for  scientific  results  ?  In  order  to  test  whether  the 
difficulty  would  prove  insuperable,  one  hundred  persons  were 
personally  interviewed,  most  of  whom  were  more  than  sixty- 
five  years  of  age.  The  results  of  these  interviews  were  such 
as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  after  all  deductions  are  made 
there  is  a  large  residuum  which  is  reliable.  Moreover  the  very 
difficulty  alluded  to  is  explained,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  hy- 
pothesis advanced  later  in  this  study.  The  questionnaire  read 
as  follows: 

1.  What  is  your  earliest  memory?  However  trivial,  or  childish, 
your  earliest  experience  is  wanted.  Be  sure  that  it  is  a  memory  and 
that  no  one  has  told  you. 

In  1,2,  3,  give  your  age  at  the  time,  at  least  the  probable  age. 

2.  In  like  manner,  give  your  second  and  third  earliest  memories. 

3.  What  is  your  earliest  recollection  of  your  (a)  father,  (b)  mother, 
(c)  sister,  (d)  brother,  (e)  playmates,  (f  )  of  any  injury  from  a  fall  or 
a  blow  ? 

4.  Of  what  four  consecutive  years  have  you  the  best  recollection  ? 

5.  Of  what  four  consecutive  years,  after  the  first  four  have  you  the 
poorest  memory? 

6.  Can  you  state  examples  of  false  memories  experienced  ?  e.  g. 
Have  you  recalled  as  real  what  you  had  merely  dreamed,  heard  or 
read  ?  Give,  if  possible,  a  case  of  transposed  memory  in  which  what 
happened  earlier  was  recalled  later,  and  what  happened  later  was  re- 
called earlier. 

7.  What  book  read  before  you  were  nine  years  of  age  do  you  recall 
best? 

8.  Do  you  recall  pleasant  or  unpleasant  experiences  better  ? 

9.  What  studies  have  best  developed  your  memory  ? 

10.  Give  a  condensed  account  of  any  case  of  loss  of  memory  caused 
by  a  blow  on  the  head,  a  fall  or  by  disease. 

11.  Describe  fully  any  aids  to  memory  which  you  have  found  use- 
ful. How  do  you  fix  in  mind  and  recall  (a)  figures,  dates,  dimensions, 
(b)  forms  of  faces,  microscopic  structures,  leaves,  crystals,  patterns, 
figures  on  the  wall,  carpet  or  dress,  phrases  in  music  and  the  cut  of 
dresses?  (c).  How  do  you  fix  and  recall  passages  of  prose  and  poetry, 
declamations,  and  recitations?  Why  and  how  do  you  memorize  fine 
passages  ?  In  learning  foreign  languages,  describe  devices  for  fixing 
new  forms  and  phrases.  Describe  your  system  of  keeping  appoint- 
ments. What  memorandum  do  you  keep,  what  book  is  used  and  how 
do  you  make  entries?  As  a  student,  how  full  notes  do  you  take  in  the 
class  room?  How  would  you  teach  a  boy  to  remember  things  on 
time  ?  Do  you  store  up  facts  and  dates,  with  no  definite  idea  of  how 
you  will  use  them? 

12.  State  cases  in  which  the  memory  is  so  good  or  bad,  that  it 
weakens  the  other  powers  of  the  mind. 

13.  Describe  cases  of  exceptional  forgetfulness  in  old  and  young, 
stating  whether  it  was  due  to  distraction,  abstraction,  loss  of  mental 
power,  or  heredity. 

As  a  rule,  does  defect  in  memory  in  children  appear  in  the  field  of 
.things  done,  known  or  felt  ? 


230  COLKGROVE : 

14.  As  you  advance  in  years  do  you  find  the  interval  between  the 
power  to  determine  whether  you  have  had  an  experience  and  the 
ability  to  define,  locate  and  name  the  experience  wider  or  narrower? 
How  is  this  in  the  kindergarten,  high  school,  college,  middle  life,  and 
old  age  ? 

The  tabulation  required  almost  incessant  labor  for  five 
months.  The  results  were  first  tabulated^  upon  two  rolls  of 
paper  whose  combined  length  was  fifty-two  feet  by  one  foot 
eight  inches  in  breadth.  A  second  tabulation  was  made  in 
which  the  memories  (which  could  be  readily  studied  from  the 
first  tabulation)  were  arranged  under  a  large  number  of  head- 
ings (over  sixty),  these  headings  being  drawn  from  the  papers 
themselves.  Such  topics  were  used  as  hovel  occurrences,  re- 
peated or  protracted  occurrences,  gustatory  memories,  auditory 
memories,  memories  of  father,  mother,  brothers,  sisters,  more 
distant  relatives,  other  persons,  deaths  and  funerals,  sickness 
and  accidents  to  self,  sickness  and  accidents  to  others,  memories 
of  time,  number,  etc.  Under  novel  occurrences  or  single  im- 
pressions were  included  such  memories  as,  seeing  the  ocean 
for  the  first  time,  drowning  a  cat,  pet  bird  died,  etc.  By  pro- 
tracted or  repeated  experiences  w^ere  included  such  memories 
as  bringing  water  for  mother  in  a  little  pail,  the  dress  a  person 
wore,  etc. 

To  this  topical  syllabus  1,658  replies  were  received  in  time 
for  tabulation.  Of  this  number  1,372  were  from  white  people; 
605  males  and  767  females.  182  were  from  negroes;  94  males 
and  88  females.  104  returns  were  furnished  by  Indians;  64 
males  and  40  females.  The  Indians  represented  25  different 
tribes.  The  tabulations  were  made  according  to  age  in  periods 
as  follows:  I,  ages  1-4:  II,  ages  5-9;  III,  ages  lo-ii;  IV,  ages 
12-13;  V,  ages  14-15;  VI,  ages  16-17;  VII,  ages  18-19;  VIII, 
ages  20-29;  IX,  30-39,  etc.  The  last  decade  was  practically 
80-89,  although  a  few  males  and  one  female  90  years  of  age 
sent  returns,  which  were  tabulated  separately.  The  purpose 
in  tabulating  two  year  periods  from  10-20  was  to  note  the 
changes  in  memory,  if  any  occurred,  during  this  period  of 
growth.  The  returns  furnished  many  memories  besides  the 
first  three.  While  the  whole  number  of  early  memories  did 
not  differ  essentially  in  character  from  the  first  three,  the  for- 
mer furnish  broader  data  for  safe  conclusions. 

The  youngest  child  whose  memory  was  obtained  was  eleven 
months  of  age.  She  had  apparently  two  definite  memories. 
These  experiences  may  not  enter  into  the  list  of  permanent 
memories.     Yet  a  few  adults  state  that  they  remember  expe- 

1 1  am  indebted  to  my  wife  for  the  painstaking  tabulations. 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  23 1 

riences  as  early  as  one  year  of  age/  and  no  definite  limit  can 
be  set  for  the  age  of  the  earliest  memories.  The  earliest  mem- 
ories of  children  under  five  years  of  age  show  the  following 
range:  The  first  number  mentioned  in  each  group  of  two  rep- 
resenting males,  and  the  second  number  females. 

Novel  occurrences  or  single  impressions:  fifteen,  thirty-one; 
Protracted  or  repeated  occurrences:  sixteen,  nine;  Visual 
memories:  twelve,  sixteen;  Auditory:  four,  two;  Emotional: 
one,  one;  Gustatory;  — ,  three;  Motor:  eight,  nine;  Tactile; 
one,  two;  Father:  two,  three;  Mother:  five,  one;  Grandparents: 
one,  — ;  Brothers  and  sisters:  two,  one;  Playmates:  four,  one: 
Other  persons:  three,  two;  Temperature:  one,  — ;  Topograph- 
ical: seven,  two;  Logical:  six,  — ;  Clothing:  five,  one;  School: 
— ,  two;  Home:  — ,  one;  Visitors:  — ,  two;  Visiting:  — ,  one; 
Running  away:  — ,  one;  Corporal  punishment:  — ,  one;  Dolls; 
one,  nine;  Sickness  and  accidents  to  self:  five,  three;  Sickness 
and  accidents  to  others:  one,  — ;  Deaths  and  funerals:  one,  — ; 
Domestic  fowls  and  animals:  two,  three;  Fright:  one,  one; 
Colors:  three,  five;  Playthings:  four,  four;  Gifts:  two,  seven, 
Christmas:  one,  six;  Playing:  one,  two;  Activity  of  others:  one; 
three;  Attendant  circumstances:  one,  — ;  Intellectual:  one,  — ; 
Physical  pain:  one,  — ;  Number:  — ,  one;  Trees:  — ,  two;  Me- 
chanical: one,  — ;  Teasing  others:  one,  — ;  Time:  one,  — ; 
Where  slept:    one,  — . 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  males  have  the  greatest  number  of 
memories  for  protracted  or  repeated  occurrences,  for  people  and 
clothing.  They  excel  also  in  topographical  and  logical  mem- 
ories. The  females  have  the  better  memory  for  novel  occur- 
rences and  single  impressions,  for  Christmas,  gifts,  and,  as 
would  be  expected,  for  dolls. 

In  the  5-9  period,  the  males  again  excel  in  the  memory  for 
protracted  and  repeated  occurrences,  the  females  for  novel  oc- 
currences or  single  impressions.  The  motor  memories  here 
have  a  marked  increase  in  the  case  of  the  females,  and  a  slight 
increase  for  the  males.  The  memory  for  all  persons  shows  a 
noticeable  increase  with  the  females.  For  the  males  the  per- 
sonal memory  improves  for  near  relatives  only.  In  the  case  of 
each  there  is  a  better  memory  for  the  activity  of  others. 

In  the  next  period — age  10  and  11 — motor  memories  de- 
crease for  the  females  and  increase  for  the  males.  Memories  of 
near  relatives  increase  in  the  case  of  both,  while  memories  for 
other  persons  decrease.  Memories  of  sickness  and  accidents  to 
self  and  of  playing  are  emphasized. 

In  the  12-13  period  the  percentage  of  memories  for  novel  oc- 

1  This  accords  with  the  researches  of  V.  and  C.  Henri.  See  popular 
Science  Monthly  for  May. 


232  COIvBGROVE : 

currences  decreases  in  the  case  of  the  females,  while  those  for 
protracted  experiences  increase.  Both  males  and  females  show 
a  decrease  in  memories  for  near  relatives,  and  an  increase  in 
those  for  playmates  and  other  persons.  Sickness  and  accidents 
to  self  are  remembered  less  by  males  and  better  by  females  than 
in  the  preceding  period.  Memory  for  the  activity  of  others  in- 
creases in  the  case  of  the  males  and  decreases  in  the  case  of 
the  females. 

In  the  period  which  includes  those  fourteen  and  fifteen  years 
of  age  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  motor  memories  nearly  cul- 
minate for  the  males,  but  decrease  in  the  case  of  the  females. 
These  memories  seem  to  harmonize  with  the  psychical  and  physi- 
cal life  of  the  period.  Mischievousness  and  destructiveness  are 
well  remembered.  The  males  have  a  decrease  in  the  proportion 
of  memories  of  novel  occurrences  and  an  increase  in  those  for  re- 
peated occurrences.  The  reverse  is  true  in  the  case  of  females. 
The  males  show  a  marked  decrease  in  memories  for  relatives  and 
playmates  and  an  increase  in  those  for  other  persons.  Topo- 
graphical memories  increase  in  the  case  of  each,  as  do  visual 
and  auditory  memories. 

In  the  period  16-17  ^^^  relations  are  again  reversed  so  far  as 
novel  occurrences  and  protracted  experiences  are  concerned,  the 
females  showing  an  increase  in  memories  for  the  latter  and  a 
decrease  for  the  former.  In  the  case  of  the  males  the  oppo- 
site is  true,  and  the  percentages  become  essentially  the  same 
as  in  the  period  12-13.  ^^^  females  show  a  slight  increase 
in  memory  for  all  near  relatives  and  playmates,  and  a  greater 
increase  in  memory  for  other  persons.  The  males  show  an 
increase  in  memories  for  playmates  and  relatives,  and  a  de- 
crease in  memories  for  other  persons.  The  females  have  a 
marked  increase  in  the  memory  for  fears,  the  males  for  the 
activity  of  others. 

In  the  period  18-19  there  is  an  increase  in  the  visual  mem- 
ories for  each  sex,  and  the  auditory  memory  of  the  females  im- 
proves. The  memory  for  the  activity  of  others  shows  an  increase 
in  the  case  of  each,  and  it  is  strongly  emphasized  for  the  males. 
The  females  excel  in  the  proportion  of  memories  for  protracted 
or  repeated  occurrences,  and  the  males  in  that  for  novel  occur- 
rences and  single  impressions. 

Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  and  Drs.  Lancaster,  Starbuck  and 
others,  have  found  that  puberty  exerts  a  great  influence  upon 
the  entire  psychical  life.  In  order  to  test  its  effect  upon 
memory  the  exact  pubertal  age  was  obtained  by  Miss  Williams 
of  no  females  who  had  answered  m}^  questionnaire.  Of  the 
no  cases,  in  37  puberty  occurs  in  the  period  of  best  memory; 
in  9  it  occurs  in  the  period  of  poorest  memory;  in  50  it  occurs 
between  the  periods  of  best  and  poorest  memory;  in  14  it  occurs 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  233 

after  the  periods  of  both  best  and  poorest  memory.  In  i6  cases 
it  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  the  best  remembered  period.  In  4 
cases  it  occurs  at  the  close  of  the  best  remembered  period.  In 
5  cases  it  marks  the  division  between  the  best  and  poorest 
memory.  In  two  others  it  occurs  at  the  close  of  the  period  of 
poorest  memor}^ 

The  returns  give  evidence  that  the  period  of  adolescence  is 
one  of  great  psychical  awakening.  A  wide  range  of  memories 
are  found  at  this  time.  From  the  fourteenth  year  with  girls 
and  the  fifteenth  with  boys,  the  auditory  memories  are  strongly 
developed.  At  the  dawn  of  adolescence  the  motor  memory  of 
boys  nearly  culminates,  and  they  have  fewer  memories  of  sick- 
ness and  accidents  to  self.  During  this  time  the  memory  of 
others  persons  and  the  activity  of  others  is  emphasized  in  case 
of  both  boys  and  girls.  In  general  at  this  period  the  special 
sensory  memories  are  numerous,  and  it  is  the  golden  age  for 
motor  memories.  Now,  too,  the  memories  of  high  ideals,  self 
sacrifice  and  self  forgetfulness  are  cherished.  Wider  interests 
than  self  and  immediate  friends  become  the  objects  of  reflection 
and  recollection. 

The  decade  20-29  is  perhaps  to  most  people  as  important  a 
decade  as  any.  At  this  period  there  is  a  marked  change  in  the 
memory  content.  For  the  second  time  the  proportion  of  mem- 
ories for  novel  occurrences  and  for  protracted  or  repeated  ex- 
periences is  nearly  the  same  in  the  case  of  males  and  females. 
The  males  show  a  noticeable  increase,  and  the  females  a 
marked  decrease  in  visual  memories.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
auditory  memories.  The  memory  for  grandparents  nearly  cul- 
minates in  the  case  of  the  females,  and  increases  in  the  case  of 
the  males.  The  females  show  an  increase  in  logical  memories, 
and  a  more  decided  increase  in  topographical  memories  than  do 
the  males.  Memories  of  sickness  and  accidents  to  self  decrease 
with  the  males  and  increase  with  the  females,  while  in  the  case 
of  both  there  is  relative  decline  in  the  memories  of  sickness  and 
accidents  to  others. 

In  the  decade  30-39  memories  involving  reflection  and  thought 
seemingly  ripen.  The  logical,  intellectual,  topographical  and 
visual  memories  for  the  males  culminate  here,  also  those  for 
time,  number,  colors  and  father.  The  visual  and  auditory 
memories  of  the  females  culminate,  while  the  intellectual,  logi- 
cal and  topographical  nearly  reach  the  zenith.  Memories  for 
joy,  quarrels,  pride,  jealousy,  Christmas,  physical  pain  and 
weariness  disappear.  The  predominant  memories  are  of  a 
thoughtful  cast.  This  is  a  conservative  period,  as  no  new  mem- 
ories are  introduced. 

In  the  decade  40-49  memories  for  persons  tend  to  fall  away. 
One  is  almost  surprised  to  find  the  motor  memories  of  the 

JOURNAI. — 5 


234  COI.EGROVE : 

females  ascend  and  reach  their  maximum.  Their  tactile  mem- 
ories also  advance  and  culminate  in  the  next  period. 

In  the  decade  50-59  the  motor  memories  of  the  males  cul- 
minate and  again  appear  strong  from  80  to  89.  We  have  seen 
that  they  nearly  reach  their  maximum  at  14,  and  in  all  subse- 
quent periods  they  are  well  represented.  According  to  Ribot 
the  motor  elements  are  primary  in  all  emotions,  and  they  seem 
to  be  among  the  most  abiding  of  memories.  The  memory  of 
the  males  for  physical  pain  and  weariness  culminates  from  60 
to  69;  that  of  both  males  and  females  for  school  culminates 
from  70  to  79;  and  that  of  the  males  for  wearing  dresses  from 
80  to  90.  The  boy's  first  trousers  are  remembered  best  in  the 
first  and  last  periods  of  his  life.  In  the  last  decade  the  chief 
classifications  are  still  represented,  but  it  is  noticeable  that  the 
auditory  and  tactile  memories  entirely  disappear  in  this  period. 
Memories  are  no  longer  found  for  grandparents,  sickness  and 
accidents  to  self,  gifts  and  Christmas.  On  the  other  hand 
visual  memories  and  those  for  near  relatives  are  well  repre- 
sented. 

As  already  stated  in  the  replies  to  the  questions  calling  for 
the  first  three  memories,  a  much  larger  number  than  three  was 
frequently  given.  Moreover  other  questions  called  for  earliest 
memories  of  relatives,  playmates,  etc. ,  so  that  a  much  larger 
number  of  memories  was  obtained  than  the  first  three  of  each 
individual.  White  persons  reported,  as  the  second  tabulation 
shows,  6,222  memories,  78  per  cent,  of  which  were  novel  oc- 
currences or  single  impressions,  and  22  per  cent,  protracted  or 
repeated  experiences.  The  males  had  76^  per  cent,  memories 
for  novel  occurrences,  and  23^  per  cent,  for  repeated  impres- 
sions. With  them  the  memory  for  novel  occurrences  culminates 
in  period  VII,  ages  18  and  19,  when  they  constitute  83!  per 
cent,  of  all  memories.  With  females  the  memory  for  novel 
occurrences  culminates  in  period  III,  ages  10  and  11, when  they 
constitute  89  per  cent,  of  all  memories.  They  drop  to  58I  per 
cent,  with  the  males  during  the  two  periods  70-79  and  80-89, 
but  rise  at  90  to  84!  per  cent.  With  the  females  they  also  drop 
to  58j^^  per  cent,  in  the  period  80-89. 

The  memories  of  repeated  occurrences  in  the  case  of  the 
males  culminate  in  the  first  period  (ages  1-4),  when  they  con- 
stitute 5  if  per  cent,  of  the  memories.  They  become  35!  per 
cent,  in  period  X,  ages  40-49.  With  the  females  they  are  223^ 
per  cent,  in  the  first  period,  ages  1-4,  and  do  not  form  a  greater 
proportion  except  during  three  periods:  VII,  ages  18  and  19, 
when  they  are  27!  per  cent.,  XI,  ages  50-59,  and  XIV,  ages 
80-90,  when  they  become  3ItV  and  4ifV  per  cent.,  respectively, 
of  the  whole 

The  fact  that  different  memories  culminate  at  different  periods 


INDIVIDUAL  MKMORIRS.  235 

may  be  significant.  In  not  a  few  instances  they  seem  to  bear  a 
relation  to  the  whole  mental  life  of  the  period.  In  order  to 
determine  this  relation  more  definitely  we  shall  now  consider 
the  periods  when  the  memories  more  frequently  found  become 
a  chief  factor  and  reach  their  highest  percentage.  The  visual 
memories  are  27^  per  cent,  of  the  whole  for  the  males,  and 
31  per  cent,  for  the  females.  In  the  case  of  each  they  are  a 
large  factor  in  the  first  period,  1-4,  when  the  child  is  exploring 
the  world.  With  both  males  and  females  they  culminate  in 
the  fourth  decade,  30-39.  In  this  period  observation  is  rip- 
est. In  the  case  of  the  males  the  percentage  is  low  in  the 
8th  and  9th  decades — 70-89,  and  improves  in  the  tenth,  as  if 
second  sight  were  obtained.  The  auditory  memories  become 
accentuated  with  the  males  in  period  VI,  years  16  and  17,  and 
culminate  in  years  20-29.  With  the  females  they  become  em- 
phasized in  period  V,  years  14  and  15,  and  culminate  in  years 
30-39.  The  periods  of  culmination  are  epochs  when  the  audi- 
tory sense  is  much  used  as  a  rule.  Men  and  women  are  busy, 
**  hear  what  is  going  on,"  and  do  not  spend  much  time  in 
reading.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  period  80-89  for  females 
and  the  90  period  for  males,  an  age  when  the  hearing  is  poor, 
there  are  no  auditory  memories.  The  motor  memories  come 
in  great  profusion  at  14  and  15  for  the  males.  At  this  period 
the  motor  memory  is  intensely  motor,  of  a  break  bone  and  acci- 
dent nature.  On  the  other  hand  with  the  females  at  this  period 
there  is  an  actual  falling  ofi"  of  4  per  cent,  in  motor .  memories. 
The  motor  memories,  however,  in  case  of  the  males,  culminate 
in  years  50-59  by  a  margin  of  3^^  per  cent,  over  the  14  and  15 
period,  and  with  the  females  reach  their  maximum  at  40-49. 
This  may  not  easily  be  explained,  but  it  is  a  period  of  life 
when  activities  have  fallen  away  little,  if  any,  and  achievement 
and  the  results  of  activity  are  the  objects  of  reflection. 

The  memories  of  brothers,  sisters  and  playmates,  culminate 
in  the  seventh  period  for  females,  and  in  the  eighth  for  males, 
and  then  steadily  diminish  until  second  childhood  begins.  The 
memory  of  females  for  the  mother  exceeds  that  of  the  males  by 
4^  per  cent.,  while  males  have  a  better  memory  foi:  the  father 
than  females.  The  memories  of  the  males  for  their  grandpa- 
rents reach  the  highest  points  at  (a)  5-9,  (b)  30-39,  (c)  60-69; 
those  of  the  females  at  (a)  5-9,  (b)  20-29,  and  (c)  50-59,  the 
years  (a)  when  they  have  most  to  do  with  their  grand- 
parents in  their  own  home,  (b)  when  their  children  are  small 
and  their  own  parents  first  become  grandparents,  (c)  when 
they  become  grandparents  themselves.  The  natural  interval  of 
ten  years  between  the  ages  of  males  and  females  in  the  last  two 
cases  may  be  noted.  Memories  for  deaths  and  funerals  are  re- 
called by  the  females  almost  equally  well  in  the  years  from  60 


236  COIvEGROVE  : 

to  90,  and  are  not  strongly  marked  before  this  time.  Those  of 
the  males  culminate  at  90,  but  are  very  marked  from  70  to  79. 
Is  it  not  true  that  the  memories  of  any  period  are  in  harmony 
with  the  general  psychical  life  of  that  period,  and  do  they  not 
to  a  certain  extent  partake  of  its  qualities  ?  These  facts  sug- 
gest that  what  is  remembered  does  not  primarily  constitute 
definite  memories,  but  a  memory  complex.  From  this  com- 
plex, at  subsequent  periods  of  life,  those  parts  are  selected  out 
and  made  distinct  which  are  en  rapport  with  what  may  be 
termed  the  memory  tone  of  the  period;  e.  g.,  if  the  period  be 
one  in  which  the  auditory  sense  is  much  used,  or  be  one  of 
great  logical  activity,  auditory  or  logical  memories  will  be  prom- 
inent. This  hypothesis  explains  the  cases  of  individuals  in  whom 
certain  types  of  memory  are  pronounced.  It  also  explains  those 
cases  in  which  persons  assert  that  they  cannot  single  out  early 
memories.  "  It  is  all  one  mass, ' '  they  say.  Such  minds  are  little 
given  to  reflection  upon  the  distant  past.  They  have  not  tried 
to  separate  the  single  elements  of  the  complex.  When  they 
consent  to  reflect  for  a  time,  they  are  usually  able  to  differen- 
tiate single  elements  and  to  arrange  them  in  serial  order.  Yet 
what  these  elements  are  will  differ  with  the  age  of  the  indi- 
vidual or  with  his  memory  tone.  The  memories  for  sickness 
and  accidents  to  self  culminate  for  the  females  in  years  12  and 
13,  and  for  the  males  in  years  14  and  15.  Sickness  and  acci- 
dents of  others  are  best  recalled  by  the  females  in  years  14  and 
15;  by  the  males  in  period  12  to  13.  Females  have  the  better 
memory  for  sickness  and  accidents  to  others.  Males  have  the 
better  memory  for  sickness  and  accidents  to  self.  The  activities 
of  others  are  best  recalled  by  both  males  and  females  in  the 
closing  periods  of  their  lives. 

In  the  general  average  for  the  whole  life  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  females  have  a  slightly  higher  percentage  of 
visual,  auditory,  gustatory  and  tactile  memories  than  the 
males.  The  gustatory  memory  is  3^^  per  cent,  for  the  females, 
and  culminates  in  the  first  period,  while  among  the  males  it  is 
2.^  per  cent.,  and  culminates  in  period  5-9.  Memories  for 
odors  are  very  few,  being  ^  of  one  per  cent,  for  the  males,  and 
■^  of  one  per  cent,  for  the  females.  The  males  have  two  per 
cent,  more  logical  memories.  The  females  have  from  2^  to  4 
per  cent,  better  memory  for  mother,  playmates  and  other  per- 
sons. They  have  7^  per  cent,  better  recollection  of  brothers 
and  sisters,  and  7  per  cent,  less  of  topographical  memories  than 
the  males.  Motor  memories,  father,  grandparents,  gifts,  play- 
things and  fears,  are  about  equally  recalled  by  each,  but  the 
females  have  double  the  memories  for  playing.  The  female 
memory  for  dolls  is  3^  per  cent. ,  and  culminates  in  the  first 
period,  years  1-4,  when  it  is  22 >^  per  cent,  of  all  memories. 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  237 

The  male  memory  for  clothing  is  6  per  cent, ,  the  females  7^ 
per  cent.  The  males  have  7  per  cent,  of  school  memories,  the 
females  5}^  per  cent.  The  memories  of  the  males  for  home  are 
I  ^  per  cent. ,  of  the  females  fV  ^^  one  per  cent.  The  males 
have  nearly  8  per  cent,  of  memories  for  domestic  animals  and 
fowls, which  culminate  in  period  40-49;  the  females  have  only  2}^ 
per  cent. ofsuch  memories,  which  culminate  in  period  50-59.  Time 
has  2^-^  of  memories  with  each.  Number  memories  are  1%  per 
cent,  for  the  males,  and  a  little  less  than  one  per  cent,  for  the 
females.  Memories  of  colors  are  4^  per  cent,  for  the  females, 
3^  per  cent,  for  the  males.  The  males  have  2f  per  cent,  of 
memories  of  deaths  and  funerals;  the  females  i)2  per  cent. 
Memories  of  trees  are  1%  percent,  with  the  females,  and  |-  of 
one  per  cent,  with  the  males.  The  following  memories  should 
also  be  mentioned:  Picture  taken;  pride;  visit  to  dentist;  quar- 
rels; storms;  money;  jealousy;  shame;  lie;  selfishness;  curiosity; 
birthdays;  being  lost;  deceit;  stealing;  picnics;  circus;  parades  and 
soldiers;  praise;  temperature;  visiting;  4^  percent,  for  females, 
2%,  males;  visitors  2%  per  cent,  for  females,  1%,  males;  re- 
proof, which  is  remembered  ^  as  well  as  corporal  punish- 
ment; running  away;  mud  pies;  crying  and  grief;  anger;  attend- 
ant circumstances;  fishing;  swinging;  hair;  sliding;  physical 
pain;  fatigue;  malice;  losing  things;  being  praised;  enemy; 
birthday;  laughed  at;  playing  horse;  imitation;  where  slept; 
destructiveness;  being  kissed;  disobedience;  church;  wedding; 
surprise;  jealousy;  teasing;  mischief;  guilt:  blood;  charity;  re- 
venge; working;  supernatural;  love;  sorrow.  The  last  eight 
memories  are  found  for  the  first  time  at  senescence. 

The  average  age  for  the  three  earliest  memories  at  different 
periods  under  the  age  of  25  is  shown  by  the  curves  here  given. 
The  continuation  of  the  same  curves  during  the  remaining  peri- 
ods is  described  in  Figs,  i  and  2.  The  three  lower  lines  repre- 
sent the  early  memory  of  the  males,  and  the  upper  ones  of  the 
females.  The  heavy  line  represents  the  first  memory ;  the  broken 
line  the  second,  and  the  dotted  line  the  third  memories.  Distance 
to  the  right  represents  the  age  of  the  person  reporting ;  distance 
upward  indicates  the  age  of  the  person  at  the  time  of  the  occur- 
rence remembered.  For  the  first  memory  during  the  entire 
period,  it  is  less  than  three  years.  The  first  rise  in  the  curve 
is  naturally  marked  because  it  begins  low  at  the  age  of  one.  It 
drops  at  4^  and  five  for  the  first  two  memories,  which  may  be 
due  to  some  acquired  ability  to  reflect  upon  the  past.  Children 
under  this  age  have  not  been  given  to  reflection,  and  it  is  very 
difficult  to  get  them  to  bring  forth  the  memories  which  later 
years  will  prove  that  they  already  possess.  There  is  a  rise 
in  all  of  the  curves  at  adolescence  which  is  emphatic  in  the 
case  of  four  of  them.    This  shows  that  from  the  age  of  13  to  15, 


238 


COI.EGKOVE 
Fig.  I. 


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*" ^                            ..■■^- ^^. '"          '"    " ^~- -•-.-.  l'"-^-'''-7-|-.i '■ 

•••  •  1                 ''■              --' — i— .  --  ""^^  .-*- — r~ '— ~~[  ' 

— r--^^T^~^'fTi^=~~~~~^  ii rt~r 

„       .2           \/ 

n             ^Z 

\ll!iZlA3J:>i*^S           6           7           S           8           10           11           U          0          14          IS          16           IT           l«          19         i-         Zl 

Fig.  II. 

1 

.-  ■'  ''  "  •■•                                1 

/"^ '         ■•■..•■  /  ^-^    ,'      ^^        "^^ 

'"              ^^\>V^'''" ~     z^-^--^" 

;2          N>-==-. -::;^ 

'■?' 

,«     ^^                                                      '                  X 

■a   2  U  J   3A  ->  4\  5 


boys  and  girls  do  not  recall  so  early  memories  as  others  do 
before  and  after  this  period.  At  this  period  the  present  is 
large  and  the  future  makes  a  strong  appeal.  While  the  store- 
house of  memory  is  very  rich  now,  perhaps  the  temperament  or 
the  psychical  tone  is  now  wanting  in  accordance  with  which 
painstaking  reflection  calls  forth  the  earliest  experiences.  At 
any  rate  the  earliest  memories  of  boys  at  the  age  of  14  average 
almost  four  years,  and  for  the  girls  it  is  more  than  three.  At 
35  the  curve  for  the  males  descends  and  approaches  two  years, 
which  is  the  average  age  for  the  first  memory  of  boys  at  nine 
and  five  years  of  age.  The  curve  for  the  earliest  age  of  the 
females  descends  slightly  at  30  and  40,  and  then  fluctuates, 
rising  slightly  at  80  to  descend  again.  The  curve  for  the  males 
rises  at  70  and  descends  gradually,  later  terminating  in  the 
height  reached  at  6,  10  and  11. 

The  curves  for  the  second  and  third  memories  call  for  no  dis- 
cussion as  the  representation  is  apparent.  They  show,  how- 
ever, a  tendency  to  sympathize  with  the  first.  One  fact  seems 
clear  from  this  study:  There  is  not  a  progressive  fading-out  of 
memories  as  life  advances  and  declines.  The  range  of  subjects 
recalled  may  narrow  a  little  toward  the  close,  but  if  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  data  could  be  gathered,  even  this  might 
be  doubtful.  The  garrulous  mode  of  talking  prevalent  among 
old  people  seems  to  be  due  to  complete  associations  in  which 
few  petty  details  are  omitted.  Moreover  the  memory  of  the 
aged  goes  back  practically  as  far  as  does  that  of  young  peo- 
ple, and  is  as  clear  and  vivid.  On  the  farm  at  my  early 
home  is  a  trout  stream  whose  waters  are  clear  and  cold.     In 


INDIVIDUAL  MEMORIKS.  239 

childhood  I  saw  the  tree-tops  and  mosses  mirrored  in  the  clear 
waters.  The  stream  has  narrowed  down  a  little  owing  to  the 
cutting  away  of  the  forest.  The  branches  now  reflected  there 
have  changed  somewhat,  not  b}^  time,  but  by  elements  at  work 
in  time.  If  in  old  age  I  see  them,  the  branches  may  be  the 
same,  but  changed  a  little  more.  Such  is  the  memory  stream, 
narrowed  a  little,  it  may  be,  in  the  passing  years,  but  the  waters 
flowing  as  clear  as  ever  from  the  same  springs,  mirror  the  old 
experiences. 

Comparing  the  Indian  males  with  the  white  males  of  the 
same  period,  the  Indians  show  a  higher  percentage  of  mem- 
ories for  hearing,  taste,  mother  and  playmates,  crying  and  grief, 
corporal  punishment,  trees,  quarrels,  and  almost  double  for 
domestic  fowls  and  animals.  They  have  a  higher  percentage 
of  tactile  memories,  and  a  smaller  per  cent,  for  dress  and  per- 
sons not  relatives.  The  following  memories  are  wholly  or 
chiefly  Indian:  Fishing,  snakes,  squirrels,  negroes,  hunting 
(bow  and  arrows),  lakes  and  streams,  and  tobacco. 

Comparing  Indian  females  with  white  females  of  the  same 
age,  the  Indians  have  a  larger  percentage  of  auditory,  gusta- 
tory and  motor  memories,  also  for  father,  mother,  playmates, 
fear  and  dolls;  much  greater  for  crying  and  grief,  and  double 
the  percentage  for  domestic  fowls  and  animals.  They  have  a 
smaller  percentage  of  memories  for  persons  not  related,  dresses 
and  other  clothing,  fewer  topographical  and  logical  memories, 
and  less  for  sickness  and  accidents  to  self  and  others,  and  for 
the  activity  of  others.  The  following  memories  belong  wholly 
or  chiefly  to  the  Indians:  Lakes,  rivers,  wolves,  coons,  owls, 
fishing,  skating  and  negroes. 

The  Indians  who  sent  returns  represent  25  different  tribes, 
and  may  be  considered  fairly  representative.  Some  of  the 
tribes  are  in  a  low  state  of  civilization,  but  many  came  from 
families  of  wealth  and  culture.  Many  of  these  memories  may 
be  termed  crystallized  racial  experiences,  and  the  question 
arises  whether  the  memory  tone  is  not  modified  by  atavistic 
tendencies.  As  will  be  seen  later,  their  memories  for  pleasant 
and  unpleasant  occurrences  savor  of  racial  experiences.  The 
curves  for  the  first  three  memories  of  both  males  and  females 
average  higher  than  those  of  the  whites.  That  for  the  earliest 
memory  of  the  males  fluctuates  between  three  and  four  until 
the  age  of  21  is  reached.  At  this  point  it  drops  below  3,  rises 
from  21  to  22,  drops  again,  and  with  the  curve  for  the  second 
memory  reaches  its  Ipwest  point  at  26.  The  third  memory  for 
this  period  is  high.  The  curve  for  the  earliest  memory  of 
the  females  reaches  its  lowest  point  by  a  rapid  descent  at  25. 
The  second  and  third  memories  average  4  and  5,  respectively, 
and  are  liable  to  reach  the  age  of  nine. 


240  COI.EGROVK : 

The  curves  for  age,  of  the  negroes,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
three  memories  show  a  higher  average  than  those  for  the 
whites.  The  earliest  memory  of  the  males  is  usually  found 
between  three  and  four.  The  curve  representing  it  is  lower 
than  3  at  the  ages  of  14  and  15;  it  also  descends  to  three 
at  the  ages  of  23,  24  and  27.  It  is  high  from  16  to  18, 
and  culminates  at  22.  The  second  earliest  memory  ranges 
from  4  to  6,  but  at  the  age  of  14  drops  below  4.  The  curve 
for  the  third  earliest  memory  fluctuates  from  4)^  to  9.  The 
curve  representing  the  earliest  memory  of  the  negro  females 
descends  to  2  at  the  age  of  25,  and  at  this  period  the  second 
earliest  memory  descends  to  3.  The  curve  for  the  first  is  higher 
at  the  age  of  26,  when  it  is  4-}-.  The  curve  for  the  third 
memory  is  noticeably  high  during  the  period  from  14  to  16. 
The  first  and  second  are  high  from  15  to  17.  The  curve  for 
the  third  memory  is  high  again  from  19  to  25,  when  it  de- 
scends. The  curve  for  the  second  memory,  like  that  for  the 
first,  falls  at  22,  and  both  reach  a  very  low  point  at  25. 

The  negroes  do  not  seem  to  differentiate  the  memories  from 
the  memory  complex  until  late  in  life.  This  may  be  due  to  the 
poverty  of  the  mental  experience  in  early  life.  The  memory 
tone  is  monotonous.  Further  evidence  of  this  is  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  remember  by  comparison.  Such  an  event  occurred  in 
"Garfield's  or  in  Harrison's  administration,"  or  "after  I 
went  to  school."  But  the  best  educated  negroes,  as  would  be 
expected,  have  sharply  defined  and  well  differentiated  early  ex- 
periences. Their  memories,  too,  have  less  of  the  grotesque 
character.  The  story  of  hardships,  wrong  and  suffering  is 
deeply  imprinted  on  many  memories. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  negro  females  would  place 
emphasis  upon  dress.  The  racial  experience  also  crops  out. 
One  could  hardly  find  an  Indian  or  white  child  afraid  of  a 
candy  sheep's  head  because  the  teeth  showed,  but  this  was  the 
earliest  memory  of  a  negress. 

The  replies  to  questions  4  and  5  were  tabulated  together 
with  replies  to  questions  asked  persons  past  fifty  years  of  age 
regarding  the  decades  best  and  poorest  remembered.  The 
years  best  remembered  by  males  of  all  ages  are  the  i6th  and 
17th,  which  are  equally  well  recalled.  The  15th  year  comes 
next,  followed  by  the  19th  and  14th  in  the  order  given.  The 
poorest  remembered  year  is  the  8th,  and  the  second  poorest  the 
7th.  From  46  to  50  there  comes  a  tendency  to  remember  the 
last  4  years  or  the  last  decade  most  poorly,  and  the  red  lines 
representing  the  best  remembered  years,  and  the  black  lines 
representing  the  poorest  remembered  years  mingle  together. 
After  this  period,  as  a  rule,  the  last  4  years,  or  the  last  decade 
is  least  remembered.     There  are  notable  exceptions,  however. 


INDIVIDUAI.  MEMORIES.  24 1 

A  few  represent  the  whole  life,  after  the  first  4  years,  as  best 
recalled,  and  know  no  poorest  memorj'.  The  statement  is 
made  by  persons  pavSt  80  that  they  still  recall  passing  events 
well,  in  which  they  become  interested,  and  to  which  they  give 
attention.  Middle  aged  people  frequently  designate  the  years 
20-25  <^'*  25-30  as  the  best  remembered,  for  the  reason  that  im- 
portant changes  were  then  occurring. 

The  poorest  remembered  year  for  the  females  also  is  the  8th, 
and  the  next  poorest  recalled  is  the  7th.  Their  best  remem- 
bered year  is  the  15th.  At  the  age  of  50  the  lines  representing 
the  best  and  poorest  recalled  years  mingle  freely,  and  after  this 
the  tendency  is  to  recall  the  last  4  years  or  the  last  decade 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Here,  too,  are  notable  exceptions. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  years  poorest  recalled  by  all  per- 
sons are  the  8th  and  7th  respectively.  For  all  persons  the 
years  best  recalled  are  those  characterized  by  the  great  psychi- 
cal and  mental  awakenings  of  adolescent  life.  It  is  true  that 
after  50,  proper  names,  at  least,  are  not  so  well  recalled.  An 
explanation  given  by  the  returns  is  that  middle  aged  people 
have  many  more  acquaintances  and  fewer  intimate  friends. 
The  early  memories  abate  little  to  the  last.  At  every  period  at- 
tention and  interest  are  the  handmaids  of  memory. 

The  sixth  question  called  for  false  memories.  The  returns 
fully  justify  the  discussion  in  a  previous  chapter  as  to  the  in- 
fluence of  dreams.  There  are  inverted  memories,  and  defective 
localization  in  the  past  is  fairly  common.  The  period  16-19  is 
that  in  which  false  memories  are  most  common.  The  expe- 
rience at  this  age  is  fairly  common  to  both  sexes,  but  the  males 
are  able  to  give  fewer  definite  examples.  Yet, while  false  mem- 
ories are  more  common  at  this  period,  no  time  of  life  seems  free 
from  them. 

Y.  F.,  f.,  age  16.     Read  of  robbery  in  paper,  and  told  it  as  seen. 

A.  N.,  f .,  age  16.    Told  playmate  a  dream,  and  was  punished  for  lying. 

A.  B.,  f.,  age  17.  Four  years  ago  I  dreamed  a  person  was  dead,  and 
supposed  it  was  true  until  I  met  her  a  year  ago. 

M.  C,  f.,  age  17.  Dreamed  of  a  fire,  and  the  next  day  asked  if  a 
friend  went  to  it. 

Iv.  C,  f.,  age  17.  Dreamed  that  price  of  potatoes  had  gone  up,  that 
mother  had  told  me  so.     Found  out  my  mistake  at  the  dinner  table. 

F.  C,  f.,  age  17.  Dreamed  mother  had  bought  me  a  new  dress. 
Looked  for  it  all  over  the  house. 

M.  D.,  f.,  age  19.  Told  teacher  of  a  visit  to  Washington.  Had  never 
been  there. 

H.  D.,  f.,  age  17.  Dreamed  uncle  had  come  to  visit  us.  Next  morn- 
ing asked  mamma  if  uncle  had  come  down  to  breakfast  yet. 

T.,  f,,  age  9.  Mistook  event  near  close  of  voyage  home  from  Scot- 
land to  have  been  on  the  outward  voyage. 

M.,  f.,  age  17.  Visited  a  friend  five  summers  ago.  The  friend  vis- 
ited her  seven  summers  ago.  M.  states  that  she  made  the  first  visit, 
and  no  amount  of  explanations  and  dates  changes  her  mind. 


242  COI.EGROVK : 

T.,  m.,  age  19.  Member  of  foot-ball  team,  in  writing  from  memory 
a  report  of  the  games  in  which  he  played,  often  related  events  as  oc- 
curring at  the  beginning  of  the  game  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
.occurred  later.  This  was  brought  to  his  notice  by  men  who  stood  on 
the  side  lines  and  kept  running  notes  of  the  game. 

F,  W.,  m.,  age  26.  College  graduate.  Thought  aunt  told  me  some- 
thing coming  home  from  a  funeral  8  or  10  years  ago.  Recently 
learned  that  she  and  I  returned  from  the  funeral  in  different  car- 
riages, and  that  it  was  told  me  by  another  relative. 

A.  F.,  m.,  age  18.  Often  thought  I  was  at  a  feast  in  the  woods  before 
I  was  born. 

R.  C,  m.,  age  15.  Have  an  impression  of  having  done  something 
ages  before. 

C.  B.,  m.,  age  17.  Dreamed  there  was  a  train  of  cars  in  the  closet 
for  me,  but  found  none. 

E.  L.,  m.,  age  14}4.  Dreamed  I  had  a  bushel  of  pennies,  but  could 
not  find  them. 

A.  H.,  m.,  age  19.  Dreamed  of  landscapes  which  I  never  saw.  They 
seemed  real. 

Some  of  the  dreams  may  remain  permanently  as  real,  but 
they  are  apt  to  be  corrected  by  experience. 

Question  seven  called  for  the  book  read  before  the  age  of  9 
which  is  best  recalled.  Books  which  appeal  strongly  to  the 
imagination  constitute  a  large  portion  of  those  mentioned.  The 
influence  of  rhyme  also  apparently  aids  the  memory.  The  books 
most  frequently  mentioned,  180  in  all,  fall  under  the  heading 
of  light  stories  and  nursery  rhymes.  While  short  children's 
stories  are  included,  the  Mother  Goose  Melodies,  Jack  and  the 
Beanstalk,  etc.,  make  up  a  large  part  of  this  heading.  The 
younger  people,  especially,  recall  the  pictured  story  books 
which  they  have  seen  in  rich  profusion.  Here  might  have  been 
placed  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  mentioned  by  14,  and  Babes  in 
the  Woods,  by  3. 

The  second  division  comprises  novels  which  lead  school 
books  by  the  slight  margin  of  92  to  90.  The  list  of  novels  is 
largely  increased,  however,  by  books  mentioned  separately, 
and  which  were  not  included  in  the  above  estimate.  Such  are 
Pilgrim's  Progress  remembered  by  20,  Black  Beauty  by  17, 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  14,  Oliver  Twist  3,  Beautiful  Joe  i,  Tom 
Brown's  School  Days  i.  Rip  Van  Winkle  3. 

Fairy  Tales  b}^  Grimm,  Andersen  and  others,  come  next,  82, 
not  including  Cinderilla  25,  Arabian  Nights  5,  ^sop's  Fables 
2,  Blue  Beard  8. 

Returning  to  novels  one  separated  from  the  general  list  is 
designated  almost  as  many  times  as  are  all  other  novels.  It  is 
Robinson  Crusoe  mentioned  71  times.  The  Swiss  Family  Robin- 
son is  mentioned  25  times,  Gulliver's  Travels  twice.  Of  other 
books  Bible  stories  are  designated  by  43,  didactic  works  by  11, 
biography  by  14,  history  by  13,  natural  history  by  16.  Little 
Men  by  Miss  Alcott  is  mentioned  by  9,  and  Little  Women  by 


INDIVIDUAI.  MEMORIES. 


243 


16.  A  middle  aged  man  writes  that  he  recalls  Little  Men  bet- 
ter than  any  book  he  has  ever  read.  Essays  are  mentioned  by 
3,  Moody  and  Sankey  Hymn  Book  by  i.  The  Scrap  Book  and 
Brownies  have  one  vote  each.  Peck's  Bad  Boy  is  mentioned 
twice. 

The  pedagogical  significance  is  unmistakable.  What  appeals 
to  the  child's  imagination  interests  him,  and  as  a  result  remains 
in  memory.  Historical  and  didactic  novels  are  most  potent  of 
the  permanent  influences.  Scott  and  Lord  Lytton,  not  men- 
tioned here,  if  read  early  will  be  remembered.  The  Bible  stories 
are  the  portions  of  sacred  Scripture  best  suited  to  the  child. 
Biography  is  well  remembered  and  most  instructive.  There 
could  be  no  better  reading  to  appeal  to  the  permanent  interest 
of  the  young,  than  some  of  the  best  of  Jowett's  Dialogues  of 
Plato. 

Pleasant  and  Unpleasant  Memories. 

*  *  The  thought  of  our  past  lives  in  me  doth  breed  perpetual 
benediction." 

A  large  number  of  replies  were  received  to  the  inquiry,  ' '  do 
you  remember  pleasant  or  unpleasant  experiences  better  ?' '  The 
replies  are  illustrated  by  the  curves  here  given. 

The  figures  at  the  bottom  give  the  age  of  the  persons  inter- 
viewed; the  height  of  the  curves  gives  the  relative  number  of 
replies;  the  heavy  lines  representing  those  who  remember  the 
pleasant  better,  the  broken  lines  those  who  remember  the  un- 
pleasant better,  and  the  dotted  lines  the  number  who  could 
make  no  choice.  It  is  the  relative  rise  of  the  curves  represent- 
ing the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  memories,  and  not  the  absolute 
rise  of  one  at  any  point  or  points  that  is  significant. 


Fig.  III. 

Z\ 

1      \ 

2^    t      X 

1      f       ^ 

t-H 

1  ,_j  7l    _ 

t    ±1    lA.    ._ 

41   M-.     ^   .lI^^ 

it'      ^\jL 

-,     :?JEI        lAlL       4l_ 

1^1  c^     x^iX    ]t 

iijSL      '         4    yS       21       j^ 

t    jl     2  o^sti    i^L.    X 

J     '^z\n  -T     ih 

^v  ••  ^                ''  K  I  \i^t---\. 

^    ^^   '                ■••••••%         3'^^r^3E5L  '^^ 

Jl    ■'                             ^/\    ••  ^^^_L 

li    14    1$    M    n    16    18    20  U    21  21  24  2S  io  is   4«   \S  M  SS  fit  CV  )»   Tf  SO  8! 


Curves  representing  the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  memories  of  white  males. 

As  will  be  seen  the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  memories  of  the 
male  whites  rise  and  fall  together  until  the  age  of  21.     At   22, 


244 


COI.EGROVB : 


in  the  case  of  the  males,  the  curve  for  unpleasant  memories  is 
the  higher,  after  which  the  pleasant  memories  are  in  the  as- 
cendency. After  the  age  of  30,  unpleasant  memories  are  little 
recalled  by  the  males. 

The  unpleasant  memories  have  a  larger  share  in  the  woman's 
mental  life  than  in  that  of  the  man. 


Fig.  IV. 

4) 

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4- 

I- 

t- 

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; 

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[7  :        ^_5 

ul       t 

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\      fJ        ^        -1       Sl^'  i   /^jS  iZtt 

7  ^       "^         ■•••     4^----  35  i'Xtzu.t 

.    L        -^   :■              ••  ^^^    •■•ZIS^E--3>J/^SS 

±        ^/                •••••'            ±           _      jr 

21    2)    if   2{    JD     JS     fs    *£    iO     JS 


CS   7a     75     60    6S   80 


Curves  representing  the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  memories  of  white  females. 

The  unpleasant  memories  play  the  important  r61e  in  the  case 
of  the  Indian  and  Negro  males.  One  can  hardly  fail  to  see  in 
it  a  suggestion  of  persecution  and  slavery.  The  Indian  females 
show  a  slight  tendency  toward  remembering  unpleasant  expe- 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES. 


245 


riences   best,    and   share   the   sorrowful   experiences   of  their 
Fig.  V. 

""      "^  Fig.  VI. 


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23  24   2f   2e 


Curves  representing-  the  pleasant  and  un-l  Curves  representing  the  pleasant  and  un- 
pleasant memories  of  Indian  males,       [     pleasant  memories  of  Indian  females. 

brothers.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  the  negro  females, 
unpleasant  experiences  play  a  very  minor  part  indeed.  With 
them  a  dress  of  striking  color  appears  easily  to  efface  grief. 

Fig.  VIII. 


Fig.  \ 

. 

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8 J.^ 

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21    22  23  2*  25  2£   27  28  29  JO  34  JR 


14    15    l<     17    18    18    20  21    22   23  24   25    Z6  2? 


Curves  r 


rves  representing  the  pleasant  and  un-|  Curves  representing  the  pleasant  and  un- 
pleasant memories  of  Negro  males.       |     pleasant  memories  of  Negro  females. 

For  many  years  the  warning  against  memoriter  work  has 
been  so  persistent  that  one  almost  feels  like  apologizing  for  ask- 
ing the  question — "what  studies  have  best  developed  your 
memory?"  The  thesis  that  memory  ought  not  to  be  trained 
has  been  supplemented  by  the  other  that  it  cannot  be  trained. 
These  ideas  have  made  for  advancement.  They  have  also 
wrought  injury.  Have  college  students  the  ability  to-day  that 
they  had  fifteen  years  ago,  to  reproduce  an  author's  thought 
and  to  think  while  upon  their  feet  ?  The  question  in  the  topi- 
cal syllabus  called  forth  a  great  number  of  replies.  Almost  all 
of  the  studies  in  the  curricula  of  High  Schools,  Normal  Schools 
and  Colleges  are  mentioned.  We  must  allow  for  the  fact  that 
studies  most  commonly  pursued  will  be  mentioned  most  fre- 
quently. History  easily  takes  the  precedence,  being  mentioned 
229  times.  Some  specify  learning  the  dates,  but  with  the  great 
majority  the  work  of  fixing  the  salient  points  at  different 
epochs,  and  wide  collateral  reading,  are  believed  to  have  aided 
the  memory.  It  is  but  natural  that  a  close  ally,  geography, 
should  come  next.  It  is  mentioned  147  times.  Arithmetic 
comes  next,  having   124  votes.     Many  specify  the  committing 


246  COLEGROVK : 

of  the  rules  and  tables.  The  tables  for  denominate  numbers 
form  an  admirable  memory  drill.  Geometry  is  mentioned  66 
times,  and  algebra  27  times,  while  mathematics  is  mentioned 
55  times.  In  certain  schools  where  mathematics  are  well 
taught  they  have  a  large  percentage  of  votes.  Latin  is  men- 
tioned 67  times,  some  add  "  when  taught  in  the  old  way."  No 
other  language  is  to  be  compared  with  the  Latin  in  the  num- 
ber of  its  adherents,  although  Greek  is  mentioned  8  times, 
(manj^  more  have  studied  Latin  than  Greek).  French  7  times, 
German  twice,  and  Language  by  19.  If  this  be  true  of  foreign 
languages  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  that  English  Literature 
has  74  votes,  English  grammar  47,  poetry  45,  general  reading 
36,  recitations  and  declamations  30.  Many  state  that  their 
memory  has  been  improved  by  memorizing  gems  of  literature. 
Spelling  is  mentioned  27  times,  science  (general  science)  is 
mentioned;  chemistry  and  physics  are  each  named  5  times, 
physiology  14  times,  botany  twice,  and  zoology  three  times. 
Music  is  mentioned  8  times.  Other  studies  named  are  Moral  Phi- 
losophy I,  Psychology  11,  Drawing  i,  Catechism  3,  Bible  verses 
9,  Pedagogy  i,  Political  Economy  and  Civil  Government  i  each. 
The  Indians  mention  short-hand  and  phonography  as  helpful  in 
training  the  memory.  They  also  give  other  studies  mentioned 
by  the  whites.  The  negroes,  with  two  exceptions,  refer  to 
text-books  and  other  books  mentioned  by  the  whites.  It  is 
probably  true,  as  stated  in  another  chapter,  that  nature  assigns 
memory  limits  to  each  individual.  There  is  as  little  doubt  that 
within  the  limits  assigned  by  nature  the  memory  is  susceptible 
to  training,  and  is  developed  more  by  some  studies  than  by 
others. 

The  request  contained  under  heading  10  of  the  syllabus — 
"  give  a  condensed  account  of  any  case  of  loss  of  memory 
caused  by  a  blow  on  the  head,  a  fall,  or  by  disease,"  elicited  a 
number  of  suggestive  replies.  These  results  are  not  significant 
as  compared  with  the  carefully  collated  results  in  chapter  3, 
studied  under  medical  supervision.  They  show,  however,  that 
loss  of  memory  due  to  traumatism  and  disease  are  fairly  com- 
mon and  carefully  observed  by  the  folk  consciousness.  In- 
stances given  are  as  follows: 

I.  J.,  m.  Head  injured  during  foot-ball  game.  Could  not  remem- 
ber signals. 

Grandmother  in  usual  health  lost  all  memory  for  i^  days. 

M.,  f.  Suffered  nervous  prostration,  had  to  learn  A.  B.  C.'s  over. 
She  afterward  became  a  High  School  teacher,  but  was  forgetful. 

E.  G.,  f.,  age  19.  Crossing  the  ocean  forgot  all  had  learned.  It  came 
back  at  age  of  15. 

M.,  f.,  age  tYz.  Broke  arm.  Next  day  asked  why  it  was  tied  up. 
Had  forgotten  the  name  of  the  pussy  cat,  etc. 

B.,  age  8.     Scarlet  fever,  forgot  everything,  and  had  to  learn  over. 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  247 

A  number  of  instances  were  given  in  which  the  secondary  automatic 
movements  of  children  were  lost  by  disease. 

E-,  m.,  age  2.     After  a  fever  he  had  to  learn  to  walk  over  again. 

Man  fell.  He  did  not  know  his  own  name  for  2  years.  After  the 
death  of  his  wife  it  all  came  back  to  him. 

Man  fairly  educated,  after  typhoid  fever  had  to  learn  to  spell. 

M.  W.  Fell  down  stairs  three  years  ago.  Cannot  remember  names 
since,  nor  can  he  identify  persons. 

F.     Can  recall  nothing  which  transpired  before  an  illness  at  6. 

Child  fell  from  barn.     Forgot  being  on  the  barn. 

Quinine  affects  the  memory  of  one. 

L.  L.,  f.,  age  15.  Crossed  Pacific  Ocean  at  4,  sick,  forgot  Chinese 
language.     It  came  back  upon  return  to  China  2  years  later. 

That  the  memory  is  affected  by  the  state  of  the  physical  health 
is  a  widespread,  popular  belief,  due  to  experience.  A  "  close, 
stuffy  room,"  and  "  lack  of  mental  power  due  to  fatigue,"  are 
mentioned  as  prejudicial  to  a  good  memory. 

B.  M.,  f.,  age  18.  Broke  limb  at  9,  took  chloroform.  Memory  for 
years  1-9  poorer  since.  She  attibutes  it  to  the  chloroform.  Others 
believe  that  chloroform  has  affected  their  memory. 

H.  K.,  Indian,  age  24.  "I  was  playing  foot-ball,  and  once  while 
running  with  the  ball  I  was  tackled  by  an  opponent,  who  threw  me  on 
the  flat  of  my  back, with  his  own  weight  on  top  of  me,  my  head  striking 
the  ground  at  the  same  time  or  a  little  before  my  body  did.  I  got  up 
in  a  little  while,  said  I  was  not  hurt  for  I  felt  no  pain,  so  they  began 
playing.  They  called  the  signals  and  I  stood  still.  I  could  not  place 
the  meaning  of  the  numbers.  I  did  not  even  know  my  own  number, 
so  after  the  play  was  made  I  stepped  to  the  other  '  half-back  '  and 
asked  him  what  my  number  was.  Before  the  fall  I  knew  the  signals 
as  well  as  any  man  on  the  team.  Of  course  I  had  to  retire  from  the 
field.  I  could  not  remember  from  one  minute  to  the  next.  I  knew 
what  I  was  doing,  and  knew  at  the  time  that  I  could  not  remember  a 
thing.  There  were  three  days  that  I  could  not  remember  anything.  It 
just  seemed  that  a  door  would  shut  on  everything  I  did,  and  in  less 
than  a  minute  I  would  be  doing  the  same  thing  over  again." 

A  well  known  pedagogical  principle  is  that  vivid  impressions 
are  easily  recalled.  With  frequency,  recency,  and  emotional 
congruity,  vividness  plays  an  important  role  in  association.  In 
order  to  test  the  abiding  character  of  a  vivid  experience  179 
middle  aged  and  aged  people  were  asked  in  personal  interviews 
the  following  question :  "  Do  you  recall  where  you  were  when  you 
heard  that  Lincoln  was  shot?"  An  affirmative  answer  required 
the  exact  location,  an  example  of  which  is  the  following  reply: 
* '  My  father  and  I  were  on  the  road  to  A —  in  the  State  of 
Maine  to  purchase  the  '  fixings  '  needed  for  my  graduation. 
When  we  were  driving  down  a  steep  hill  into  the  city  we  felt 
that  something  was  wrong.  Everybody  looked  so  sad,  and 
there  was  such  terrible  excitement  that  my  father  stopped  his 
horse,  and  leaning  from  the  carriage  called:  *  What  is  it,  my 
friends?  What  has  happened?'  '  Haven't  you  heard?'  was  the 
reply — '  Lincoln  has  been  assassinated.'  The  lines  fell  from  my 
father's  limp  hands,  and  with  tears  streaming  from  his  eyes  he 


248  COLEGROVE : 

sat  as  one  bereft  of  motion.  We  were  far  from  home,  and  much 
must  be  done,  so  he  rallied  after  a  time,  and  we  finished  our 
work  as  well  as  our  heavy  hearts  would  allow. ' ' 

Not  all  the  replies  were«*so  vivid  as  this  one,  but  only  those 
were  accounted  as  affirmative  which  contained  facts  as  to  time 
of  day,  exact  location,  and  who  told  them. 

J.  P.,  age  76.  I  was  standing  by  the  stove  getting  dinner,  my  hus- 
band came  in  and  told  me. 

M.  B.,  age  79.  I  was  setting  out  a  rose  bush  by  the  door.  My  hus- 
band came  in  the  yard  and  told  me.     It  was  about  11  o'clock  a.  m. 

H.  R.,  age  73.  We  were  eating  dinner.  No  one  ate  much  after  we 
heard  of  it. 

J.  T.,  age  73.  I  was  fixing  fence,  can  go  within  a  rod  of  the  place 
where  I  stood.  Mr.  W.  came  along  and  told  me.  It  was  9  or  10  o'clock 
in  the  morning. 

Iv.  B.,  age  84.  It  was  in  the  forenoon ;  we  were  at  work  on  the  road 
by  K.'s  mills;  a  man  driving  past  told  us. 

Of  the  179  persons  interviewed,  127  replied  in  the  affirma- 
tive, and  were  able  to  give  full  particulars;  52  replied  in  the 
negative.  A  few  who  gave  a  negative  reply  recalled  where 
they  were  when  they  heard  of  Garfield's  death.  Inasmuch  as 
33  years  have  elapsed  since  Lincoln's  death  the  number  who 
made  an  affirmative  reply  must  be  considered  large,  and  bears 
testimony  to  the  abiding  character  of  vivid  experiences. 

Many  helpful  pedagogical  suggestions  were  received  from  High 
School,  Normal  and  College  students  in  reply  to  question  1 1 . 
Figures  are  mentally  represented  as  clearly  as  possible, — a  * '  pict- 
ure of  them  as  they  look  printed  or  written. ' '  A  child  thought  of 
the  figures  to  be  carried  in  division  as  '  *  gone  up  in  the  attic. ' ' 
He  would  ' '  call  up  attic  to  see  if  anything  was  there. ' '  One 
"  locates  them  on  a  certain  page  of  a  book."  Several  "write 
them  a  few  times."  Association  helps.  A  college  student 
writes,  ' '  I  associate  figures  with  what  is  familiar.  If  I  hear 
that  Mr.  A.  receives  $5,000  salary,  I  say  to  myself  that  is  5  times 
as  much  as  my  old  school  teacher  got.  After  this  the  salary  is 
easily  recalled."  Place  localization,  and  association  are  chiefly 
relied  upon.  Some  have  a  kind  of  mnemonic  system,  and  group 
or  reverse  the  numbers.  One  associates  the  figure  8  with  a 
doughnut.  3. 141 6,  the  ratio  between  the  diameter  and  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle  is  fixed  by  serial  association,  repeating 
the  figures  in  order.  3. — 1.4.1.6.  (3,  one  4,  one  6).  The  same 
aids  are  employed  for  dimensions.  The  most  efficient  mnemonic 
aids  for  dates  is  to  associate  them  with  important  events,  e.  g. , 
1492,  1776,  etc.  Dates  of  minor  importance  are  associated  with 
these.  Charts  are  recommended.  Some  make  rhymes  for  dates, 
getting  the  idea,  perhaps,  from  the  way  the  presidents  or  the 
rulers  of  England  are  remembered.  One  sees  figures  in  a  wind- 
ing row. 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  249 

Faces  are  recalled  by  types.  After  fixing  the  type  to  which 
it  belongs,  the  eyes,  hair,  nose,  cheek-bones,  complexion  and 
scars  are  noted.  A  college  student  writes:  "I  try  to  trace  a 
resemblance  between  a  strange  face  and  one  I  know. ' '  A  mid- 
dle aged  woman  takes  careful  notice  of  the  hand.  She  has  a 
poor  memory  for  faces,  but  can  often  locate  the  person  by  the 
hand.  A  normal  student  writes  the  initial  of  the  person  or 
place  on  the  left  hand.  After  it  has  been  erased  she  still  vis- 
ualizes it  there.  One  analyzes  the  features.  '  *  If  any  feature 
resembles  a  well  known  face  it  is  easily  recalled. ' ' 

Microscopic  structures  and  crystals  are  fixed  by  drawing 
them.  Drawing  is  the  chief  aid.  Here,  too,  clear  visualiza- 
tion counts.  ' '  I  see  them  floating  before  my  eyes. ' '  lyocali- 
zation  in  place  is  a  help. 

I^eaves  are  remembered  by  the  form,  color,  number  of  lobes, 
the  veining,  margins,  and  by  comparing  them  with  other 
leaves.  Figures  of  wall-paper  and  carpets  are  associated  with 
the  room,  house,  or  are  localized  in  time.  Here  forms  are  also 
fixed  by  drawing,  ' '  even  by  tracing  them  in  the  air. ' '  The 
color,  shape,  and  above  all  striking  characteristics  of  figures 
are  noticed. 

Phrases  in  music  are  recalled  by  playing,  or  by  attempting 
to  play,  or  by  humming  the  tune.  College  student,  m. ,  age 
22.  *'  I  recall  the  time  intervals  and  note  the  first  part  of  the 
theme;  I  recall  the  rest  by  association."  Female,  age  17,  nor- 
mal student  writes:  "  I  remember  phrases  in  music  by  thinking 
if  they  are  similar  to  phrases  in  any  selections  that  I  have 
heard."  Constant  repetition  and  association  of  the  selection 
with  the  person  who  played  or  sang  it  are  helps  frequently 
used.  *'  If  I  get  one  measure  as  tone, — be  it  first  or  last, — the 
rest  comes  without  effort."  Female,  age  34,  recalls  sounds, 
not  appearance  of  notes.  Her  memory  for  sounds  was  strength- 
ened by  taking  music  lessons.  One  recalls  music  by  an  imag- 
inary curved  line  going  up  and  down  with  the  tone.  One 
thinks  of  whole  rests  as  heavier  than  half  rCvSts,  and  conse- 
quently falling  below  the  line.  One  boy  thinks  of  the  notes 
as  Chinese  climbing  a  fence.  With  another  it  is  secondary 
automatic, — "my  fingers  remember  the  music."  The  Indians 
find  that  sheer  determination  helps  them  to  remember  music, 
as  other  experiences. 

The  negro  males  gave, — by  sound,  visualizing,  position  of 
notes  on  the  staff",  some  initial  note  is  the  key  to  the  whole, 
music  just  comes  up.  Negro  females  remember  (a)  phrases  in 
music  by  accent,  (b)  by  sounds,  time  and  words,  (c)  where 
they  saw  them  last,  (d)  by  mental  picture  of  the  notes.  The 
familiar  mnemonic  sentences  are  given  for  sharps,  flats  and 
keys:    "  God  deluged  all  earth  by  floods,"  *'  Foolish  boys  eat 

JODRNAI, — 6 


250  COLEGROVK : 

apple  dumplings  greedily,"    "Fred  Coburn  goes  down  after 
each  boy. ' ' 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  some  excellent  musicians  recall 
music  better  after  an  interval.  They  cannot  immediately  re- 
produce it  if  they  have  enjoyed  it  intensely.  Sometimes  an 
interval  of  a  day  or  two  is  necessary  in  order  to  recall  it  well. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  there  is  a  modification  of  the  basilar 
membrane  which  serves  as  a  basis  for  subsequent  recall.  Fur- 
thermore it  is  true  that  many  people  find  that  a  time  interval 
is  necessary  to  recall  well  any  experience.  K.  C,  f.,  age  17, 
recalls  better  now  what  happened  in  all  school  grades  than 
when  she  was  younger.  Male,  age  20,  "  I  can  define  and 
locate  my  former  experiences  better  now  than  I  could  a  year 
or  so  after  they  happened. "  Female,  age  19,  "I  can  recall 
now  things  that  happened  8  or  10  years  ago, which  I  could  not 
recall  4  years  ago. ' '  Apart  from  a  maturer  mind  perspective 
seems  to  be  necessary  to  many  in  order  that  they  may  have  a 
good  memory. 

The  cut  of  dresses  is  recalled  by  association  with  the  person 
who  wore  the  garment.  New  features  are  noted.  The  differ- 
ent parts,  as  neck,  yoke  and  skirt,  are  studied  by  one.  Asso- 
ciation with  place  and  person  is  the  chief  aid. 

Passages  of  prose  and  declamations  are  memorized  by  paying 
attention  to  the  thought.  After  the  thought  is  fixed  it  easily 
clothes  itself  in  language.  Not  a  few,  however,  memorize  me- 
chanically, attention  being  especially  paid  to  the  beginnings 
and  endings  of  sentences.  Repetition  and  reading  aloud  are 
frequently  mentioned.  Clear  mental  representation  and  a  purely 
local  memory  are  of  service.  Male,  17.  "I  usually  memorize 
by  imprinting  the  object  and  its  surroundings  on  my  mind  like 
a  negative.  In  memorizing  I^ew  Wallace's  "chariot  race," 
comprising  16  pages,  I  read  it  through  twelve  times.  I  im- 
printed the  photograph  of  the  page  on  my  mind,  and  then  read 
what  I  saw."  In  poetry  the  answers  bear  out  the  conclusions 
of  Ebbinghaus  and  Miiller  and  Schuman,  as  to  the  influence  of 
rhythm.  It  plays  the  chief  r61e.  One  is  aided  by  fixing  upon 
the  initial  letters  of  each  line.  Another  gets  the  thought, 
"  and  the  words  which  are  so  closely  associated  with  thought 
in  poetry  come  of  their  own  accord. ' '  Repeating  aloud  is  of 
service,  but  form  and  structure  are  usually  mentioned  as  the 
essentials  to  be  considered.  Practice  improves.  One  learns 
easily  who  memorizes  a  selection  every  day  and  rehearses  all  at 
the  close  of  the  week.  A  college  student  writes,  "  first  of  all  a 
feeling  of  confidence  is  necessary  in  all  recollection.  Doubt 
breaks  the  train. ' '     The  memory  must  be  trusted. 

Much  the  same  suggestions  are  given  as  to  the  manner  of 
memorizing  fine  passages.     Slow  repetition  aids  one  or  two. 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIBS.  25 1 

The  reasons  given  for  memorizing  these  passages  are  (a)  beauty 
of  thought,  (b)  beauty  of  expression.  "  The  author  expresses 
the  thought  better  than  I  can."  "  When  depressed  these  beau- 
tiful passages  come  up  and  encourage  me."  Other  reasons  are: 
"To  enrich  my  mental  life,"  "  prevents  day-dreaming, "  "con- 
venient when  no  book  is  at  hand,"  "for  pleasure  and  enjoy- 
ment ' '  is  an  answer  repeated  frequently. 

Few  devices  were  given  for  fixing  forms  and  phrases  of  for- 
eign languages.  Comparison  with  similar  phrases  and  forms 
in  the  mother  tongue  is  found  to  be  serviceable.  Even  where 
the  native  language  is  as  poor  as  the  Indian  this  device  is 
found  useful.  The  less  familiar  are  associated  with  the  better 
known.  The  beginning  of  the  list  of  German  prepositions,  aus, 
bei,  mit,  nach,  etc.,  are  associated  by  one  with  the  phrase 
"  the  house  by  the  meat-market." 

A  large  number  of  devices  are  given  for  keeping  appoint- 
ments. Females  change  rings,  insert  paper  under  a  ring,  pin 
paper  on  dress,  etc.  There  are  other  favorite  mechanical  de- 
vices. Chairs  are  turned  over,  and  other  furniture  disarranged. 
A  middle  aged  man  hid  his  hat  to  remind  him  of  an  appoint- 
ment. Next  morning  he  hunted  up  another  hat,  but  did  not 
recall  why  the  one  usually  worn  was  gone.  One  associates 
appointments  with  the  hands  of  the  clock  at  the  hour  fixed. 
Not  a  few  find  it  necessary  to  repeat  the  appointment  again  and 
again.  Others  are  aided  by  a  memorandum.  As  a  rule  those 
who  say  that  their  memories  are  utterly  untrustworthy  do  not 
use  notes.  Yet  W.,  m.,  age  26,  writes  that  the  only  appoint- 
ment he  has  missed  for  years  is  one  which  he  noted  down. 
Female,  age  16,  writes,  "to  keep  an  appointment  I  write  the 
first  letter  of  the  person  or  place  connected  with  the  appoint- 
ment on  my  left  hand.  Even  if  it  be  erased  I  still  imagine  it 
there."  Clear  mental  representation  is  the  great  help  in  such 
cases.  Three  visualize  in  colored  terms.  Female,  age  19,  re- 
calls the  letter  A  in  black  on  red  background.  Female,  age 
21,  "  words  seem  colored.  My  name  is  red,  my  sister  is  yel- 
low. I  often  remember  by  color."  Male,  age  18,  "I  remember 
figures  by  color. ' ' 

There  is  a  wide  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  how  full  notes  a 
student  should  take,  and  almost  all  degrees  of  copiousness 
are  indicated.  Female,  age  37,  believes  her  memory  was  in- 
jured by  taking  full  notes  at  the  normal  school.  Again,  "too 
many  notes  make  the  general  idea  of  the  lecture  indistinct. ' ' 
One  writes  that  the  state  of  his  health  determines  how  full 
notes  he  takes.  If  the  physical  tone  is  low  he  is  obliged  to 
take  more  copious  notes.  Some  are  best  aided  by  jotting  down 
the  headings  and  by  giving  attention  unreservedly  to  the  lecture. 
A  normal  student  writes  out  very  full  notes,  and  never  thinks 


252  COLEGROVE : 

of  the  contents  of  the  lecture  until  she  leaves  the  lecture  room. 
Some  take  "key"  words  with  which  the  rest  is  associated. 
Concentration  of  attention  and  "  hand  and  arm  "  memory  are 
required  as  a  rule  by  taking  quite  copious  notes.  To  take  few 
notes  is  a  work  of  art,  and  the  essentials  must  be  seized  upon. 
The  consensus  of  opinions  received  would  seem  to  favor  few 
notes.  Where  full  notes  are  taken  they  are  not  often  re- 
viewed. 

The  inquiry:  "how  would  you  teach  a  boy  to  remember 
things  on  time?"  brought  out  a  large  number  of  specific  direc- 
tions, many  of  which  were  of  a  nature  to  make  the  fate  of  the 
lone  Indian  attractive  by  comparison.  The  normal  students 
would  have  him  keep  a  memorandum  book;  deprive  of  some 
pleasures,  give  tardy  mark;  keep  after  school  as  long  as  late; 
exclude  from  class  and  association  with  other  pupils;  if  late  at 
dinner,  give  very  scanty  meal;  write  down  and  fix  things  for 
him  to  do  in  a  natural  order;  mark  o;  be  on  time  myself  for  an 
example;  make  him  go  and  get  what  he  had  forgotten;  tell  him 
true  story  of  boy  in  trouble  on  account  of  forgetfulness;  punish 
if  late,  and  reward  for  being  on  time;  make  him  do  two  or 
three  times  as  much  when  he  wants  to  do  something  else; 
study  the  boy;  exclude  from  school;  make  him  write  the  thing 
forgotten  20  times;  have  him  repeat  what  he  was  to  do  and 
when;  make  him  take  the  natural  consequences;  whip;  lecture; 
strengthen  his  memory  by  having  him  commit  poetry;  have 
him  write  several  hundred  times  what  he  had  forgotten ;  give 
him  tasks  to  perform  that  could  be  done  only  at  one  time; 
teach  the  sin  of  forgetting;  try  to  interest  him;  first,  ask  w^hy, 
second,  keep  after  school;  strengthen  his  memory  by  giving 
him  short  lessons  to  learn;  show  him  how  it  would  affect  his 
father's  business  if  his  father  were  not  on  time;  "  I  once  told  a 
forgetful  boy  to  be  sure  and  forget,  and  if  he  did  I  would  give 
him  a  pretty  card.     He  remembered." 

The  academic  and  collegiate  students  favor  corporal  punish- 
ment. One  states  that  it  worked  well  when  he  was  a  boy. 
The  Indians  also  suggest  this  remedy.  A  very  sensible  sug- 
gestion comes  from  a  college  woman:  "  If  a  boy  could  not  re- 
member things  on  time,  I  would  try  to  give  him  opportunities 
for  practice;  I  should  try  to  form  an  association  between  the 
thing  to  be  done  and  the  required  time  or  something  which 
would  happen  then."  The  suggestions  to  study  the  boy,  and 
make  him  take  the  natural  consequences;  try  to  interest  him; 
and  ask  him  why,  are  good  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint. 

A  large  number  of  young  people  state  that  they  store  up 
facts  and  dates  with  no  definite  idea  of  how  they  will  use  them. 
This  statement  applies  more  to  facts  than  dates.  It  is  a  trait 
more  characteristic  of  young  men  than  young  women.     Male, 


INDIVIDUAL   MEMORIES.  253 

age  20,  writes:  "  I  collect  facts  as  I  would  dollars,  expecting 
to  use  them  in  many  different  ways."  While  peering  into  the 
future,  and  uncertain  as  to  what  resources  shall  be  called  out, 
the  young  man  stores  up  facts  from  all  sources,  with  but  little 
thought  as  to  their  use. 

In  reply  to  question  12,  instances  are  frequently  given  of  a 
tenacious  memory  for  history  or  literature,  accompanied  by  lit- 
tle ability  for  original  thought.  Such  students  are  usually  de- 
ficient in  mathematical  ability.  One  young  girl  learns  a  page 
easily,  but  she  has  to  recite  it  in  order,  or  all  is  a  blank  to  her. 
Male,  age  19.  Recalled  all  that  he  heard  or  read,  but  his  con- 
versation and  writings  were  masses  of  quotations. 

On  the  one  hand  it  is  recognized  that  a  rich  mental  life  is 
impossible  without  a  good  memory;  on  the  other,  very  complete 
association  is  often  attended  by  poor  constructive  power. 

The  request  made  under  heading  13  of  the  syllabus  called 
forth  a  wealth  of  material.  Certain  cases  due  to  abstraction  are 
as  follows:  A  young  lady  went  to  telegraph  for  an  umbrella  left 
on  a  car;  she  had  been  holding  it  over  her  head  for  30  minutes. 
A  lady  walked  into  the  parlor  with  a  $10  bill  in  one  hand,  a 
match  in  the  other.  She  put  the  bill  in  the  stove  and  saved 
the  match.  A  college  professor  forgets  to  eat  his  meals.  A 
boy  broke  his  ribs,  and  forgot  all  about  it  in  two  days.  A  man 
picked  up  a  pebble  and  put  it  in  his  pocket;  took  out  his 
watch  and  threw  it  into  the  ocean.  A  lady  tried  to  tie  her 
horse  with  the  blanket  and  cover  him  with  the  line.  A  boy 
returned  from  the  store  three  times  to  find  out  what  his  mother 
wanted.  A  lady  was  called  away  by  an  important  message  be- 
fore breakfast,  forgot  until  late  in  the  day  that  she  had  eaten 
neither  breakfast  nor  dinner.  Gentleman,  age  50,  came  down 
from  his  study  and  asked  his  wife  if  she  knew  where  his  pen 
was,  he  thought  the  children  had  mislaid  it.  She  told  him  if 
he  would  take  it  out  of  his  mouth  he  would  talk  more  plainly, 
^oy,  age  9,  sent  to  store  for  extract  of  peppermint,  brought  pare- 
goric; sent  back  with  a  bottle  labelled  peppermint,  brought 
vanilla;  third  time  sent  he  brought  the  peppermint.  College  pro- 
fessor, expert  in  numbers,  is  frequently  seen  with  one  black 
and  one  tan  shoe  on.  A  minister  became  absorbed  in  a  book 
and  forgot  that  it  was  Sunday.  Man  walked  home  and  left  his 
horse  in  the  village  all  night.  The  same  man  went  home  from 
church  and  left  his  wife. 

A  great  share  of  cases  of  lack  of  memory  are  due  to  abstrac- 
tion, or  to  absent  mindedness,  which  Mach  terms  ' '  present 
mindedness. "  It  often  characterizes  people  of  great  ability 
along  narrow  lines  of  thought.  The  following  is  an  instance 
of  lack  of  memory  due  to  fatigue:  Female,  age  22.  "  At  the 
age  of  16  I  had  been  travelling  all  day,  I  went  to  the  ticket 


254  COI.EGROVE : 

office  at  the  last  change  of  cars,  but  could  not  think  where  I 
was  going,  yet  I  had  lived  in  the  town  i6  years. 

There  are  a  few  instances  given  in  which  loss  of  memory 
is  due  to  distraction.  A  middle  aged  woman  heard  of  her  son's 
death  by  drowning.  She  could  not  remember  her  husband's 
address  in  order  to  telegraph  him,  although  she  had  written 
there  hundreds  of  times.  "  Aunt  recalls  nothing  that  happens 
since  her  husband's  death," 

Defective  memory  in  children  is  ascribed  to  things  known. 
There  are  many  instances  reported  in  which  forgetting  oc- 
curred in  the  field  of  things  done,  many  of  these  cases,  how- 
ever, are  evidently  cases  of  temporary  forgetfulness  due  to 
abstraction.  All  of  the  Indians,  with  a  single  exception,  state 
that  things  known  are  most  easily  forgotten.  As  to  abstrac- 
tion, no  period  of  life  is  free  from  its  influence.  Not  a  few 
draw  comfort  from  the  facts  frequently  cited,  that  Samuel 
Johnson,  when  he  had  stepped  from  the  sidewalk  would  con- 
tinue for  a  long  distance  with  one  foot  in  the  gutter  and  one  on 
the  walk;  that  Pestalozzi  did  not  know  enough  to  put  up  his 
umbrella  when  it  rained;  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  supposed  he 
had  eaten  when  he  saw  the  chicken  bones  on  his  plate;  and 
that  Edison  forgot  his  wedding  day.  Still  the  fact  remains  that 
no  period  of  life  is  free  from  noticeable  abstraction.  The  boy 
with  book  in  hand  forgets  to  go  to  dinner  after  he  has  rung  the 
bell;  the  young  woman  goes  to  different  parts  of  the  house,  she 
knows  not  why;  middle  age  hunts  for  the  thimble  on  its  fin- 
ger, or  the  pen  in  its  mouth;  while  old  age  is  troubled  that  it 
cannot  find  the  glasses  on  its  nose. 

Loss  of  mind  and  heredity  are  much  less  frequently  cited  as 
causes  of  forgetfulness  than  abstraction  or  distraction  due  ta 
disease. 

The  fourteenth  question  was  very  abstract,  and  in  some  in- 
stances was  evidently  misunderstood.  The  answers  came  chiefly 
from  young  people.  Of  those  who  apparently  answered  in  an 
intelligent  manner  140  believed  that  the  interval  between  being 
aware  of  an  experience  and  the  ability'-  to  define,  locate  and 
name  the  experience  grows  narrower  as  we  grow  old.  Often 
the  period  up  to  middle  age  onl}^  is  considered.  One  qualifies 
the  statement  "  until  old  age;"  two  state  that  this  is  true  until 
college  is  reached;  while  many  consider  that  it  holds  until  mid- 
dle age.  Not  a  few  of  the  replies  are  the  outgrowth  of  indi- 
vidual experiences,  and  would  not  apply  after  the  age  of  20  or 
22  is  reached.  125  state  that  the  interval  grows  wider.  Sev- 
eral state  that  this  is  especially  true  of  middle  age.  The  fact  is 
recognized  in  the  returns  that  the  interests  of  middle  life  are 
greater,  and  the  range  of  one's  acquaintances  is  wider,  and 
that  this  influences  the  interval  necessary  for  recognizing  and 


INDIVIDUAI.   MEMORIES.  255 

defining  an  experience.  This  may  not  be  the  only  factor,  but 
it  seems  to  offer,  at  least,  a  partial  explanation.  A  fruitful 
field  of  inquiry  is  thus  opened  up  and  the  ground  broken.  Pro- 
longed and  painstaking  study  of  this  problem  may  be  richly 
repaid. 

The  writer  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  President  G. 
Stanley  Hall  for  his  unremitting  interCvSt  and  helpful  sugges- 
tions, to  Dr.  K.  C.  Sanford  for  practical  plans  as  to  working  up 
the  returns,  and  to  Dr.  Burnham  for  criticism.  He  is  deeply 
indebted  to  the  many  educators  in  colleges,  normal  schools, 
academies  and  high  schools,  for  returns  sent  to  the  question- 
naire. Their  unselfish  work  remains  as  a  most  pleasing  recollec- 
tion. Mention  must  be  made  of  Miss  Lillie  A.Williams,  of  the 
Trenton  (N.  J.),  Normal  School,  for  a  great  amount  of  excel- 
lent work;  also  of  Miss  Sarah  W.  Smith,  of  Medina,  Ohio.  A 
large  number  of  papers  were  sent  by  President  A.  H.  Heine- 
man,  of  Haskell  Institute,  Ks.,  President  Charles  Meserve,  of 
Raleigh,  N.  C,  and  by  Booker  T.  Washington,  of  Tuskegee, 
Ala. 


METHODS  IN  ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 


By  IviNUS  W.  KWNE,  Ph.  D. 


The  diflferentiation  of  comparative  psychology,  as  a  branch 
and  method  to  general  psychology,  has  been  comparatively  slow. 
Its  growth,  however,  has  been  natural  and  healthy,  and  its 
contributions  to  the  study  of  mind  are  ever  increasing  in  value. 
A  complete  historical  account  of  this  differentiation  would  be 
quite  premature ;  yet  it  may  be  worth  while  to  note  in  passing 
that  several  of  the  special  problems  of  psychology, — for  example: 
emotions,  instinct,  habit,  heredity,  etc.,  have  been  treated  on 
very  broad  lines  by  such  all-around  scientists  as  La  Marck, 
Brehm,  Darwin,  Kingsley,  Wallace  and  Agassiz.  A  little  later, 
men  like  Naegal,  Huxley,  Romaines,  Lubbock,  Graber,  and 
Spalding,  began  to  focus  down  and  make  experiments  and  ob- 
servations on  the  senses,  habits  and  intelligence  of  animals. 
Running  somewhat  parallel  with  these  two  groups  of  more 
purely  scientific  writers  are  the  speculative  and  philosophic  pens 
of  Oken,  Lewes,  Spencer,  Schneider,  Weismann,  Biichner,  Cope 
and  others  who  have  evaluated  and  ennobled  the  facts  of  or- 
ganic life  by  indicating  their  significance  on  the  more  serious 
and  time- honored  problems  of  mind  and  philosophy. 

At  present,  definite  problems,  as  the  formation  of  association 
processess,^  imitation,  habit  and  instinct,  are  put  to  animals 
by  playing  upon  some  one  or  more  fundamental  instincts  and 
taxic  motions  like  those  of  hunger,  sex,  discomfort  in  solitude 
and  prison,  preferences  for  certain  colors,  geotaxis,  chemotaxis, 
tonotaxis,  etc.  The  ablest  representative  for  psychology  in  this 
work  is  Lloyd  Morgan,  whose  careful  and  critical  interpretations 
of  the  objective  manifestations  of  mind  through  bodily  activities 
have  done  much  to  make  comparative  psychology  reputable  as  a 
science,  and  even  now  essential  to  a  comprehensive  understand- 
ing of  the  more  fundamental  problems  of  mind.  Wundt  like- 
wise has  criticised  to  great  advantage  the  usual  erroneous  and 
loose  interpretations  of  animal  activities.  Criticisms  of  this 
type  should  not  cease  yet  awhile. 

The  matter  of  interpretation  at  this  stage,  however,  it  seems 
to  me  is  secondary.  The  most  urgent  need  at  present  is  more 
and  better  methods  to  get  at  the  facts,  which,  when  once  dis- 
covered, will  receive  ample  and  proper  attention. 

^Thorndike,  Edward  I/.:  Animal  Intelligence.  An  experimental 
study  of  the  associative  processes  in  animals.     N.  Y.,  June,  1898. 


METHODS    IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  257 

The  systematic  study  of  animals  thus  far  has  been  conducted 
along  two  lines :  oue,  for  a  better  name,  we  shall  call  the  nat- 
ural method.  This  consists  in  observing  carefully  and  continu- 
ously the  free  life  of  an  animal,  for  example:  Huber,  Moggridge, 
and  McCook  on  ants,  Audubon  on  birds,  Figuier  on  insects, 
Mills^  on  our  domestic  animals ;  the  second  line  of  work  may 
be  termed  the  experimeiital  method.  Here  the  animal  is  sub- 
jected to  certain  conditions  essential  in  putting  a  question,  and 
that  favor  the  performance  of  activities  that  shall  contribute 
material  for  answering  a  problem. 

Both  methods  are  necessary  to  a  more  abundant  ingathering 
of  facts.  Both  are  frequently  used  by  the  same  investigators, 
e.  g. ,  Lubbock  and  Bethe*  on  ants,  and  Morgan  on  birds.  Both 
have  their  share  of  errors  and  abuses.  In  the  natural  methods 
the  cleverness  of  animals  is  sometimes  overestimated,  anecdotes 
of  a  questionable  foundation  are  given  too  much  credence.  In 
the  experimental  method,  conditions  too  artificial  are  liable  to 
be  created,  thereby  inhibiting  the  free  expression  of  the  animal's 
acts.  Fear  is  too  often  present,  dominating  and  modifying  every 
act.  A  recent  investigation  makes  exclusive  use  of  the  second 
method,  which  seems  to  me  exposes  the  results  to  serious  criti- 
cism.    I  shall  revert  to  this  investigation  later  in  this  paper. 

Partly  as  an  illustration  of  the  use  of  these  two  methods  com- 
bined, partly  to  reinforce  observations  already  made,  and  lastly 
to  present  a  bit  of  new  material,  I  present  the  results  of  experi- 
ments and  observations  made  on  vorticella,  wasps,  chicks  and 
rats. 

Vorticella  Gracilis.^ 

The  object  here  was  to  discover  what  activities,  if  any,  have 
a  psychological  significance  or  value.  The  activities  may  be 
subsumbed  under  the  following  rubrics  :  Self-preservation,  repro- 
duction, and  "miscellaneous."  The  first  includes  all  those 
movements,  whatever,  both  of  the  whole  and  parts  of  the  cell, 
exerted  in  food-getting,  ejecting  detritus,  placing  the  mouth  in 
a  more  advantageous  position  for  receiving  food,  contracting  the 
stalk  to  escape  an  enemj^  or  when  cilia  touch  any  large  body, 
dead  or  alive,  etc. 

The  reproductive  activities  need  no  specification.  Miscel- 
laneous activities  include  all  those  movements  for  which  we  can 

^  Mills,  Wesley:  Animal  Intelligence.  307  pp.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
18^8. 

"  Bethe,  Albrecht :  Diir  fur  wirden  Ameisen  und  Biemen  psychische 
Qualit  aten  zuschreiben  ?  Pfliiger  Archiv  fiir  Physiologie.  Bd.  LXX 
1898. 

3  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  C.  F.  Hodge  for  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions in  carrying  out  this  experiment. 


258  KLINE : 

assign  no  cause,  e.  g. ,  violent  contraction  of  the  stalk  at  a  time 
when  the  field  is  free  from  any  disturbing  element  that  might 
be  revealed  by  the  microscope,  food  abundant,  and  body  fairly 
well  filled.  Probably  a  study  directed  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
its  chemotaxic  and  tonotaxic  reactions  would  make  some  of  these 
activities  meaningful.  I  turn  to  the  activities  of  self-preserva- 
tion and  note  first  the  movements  of  the  body  as  a  whole.  If  the 
long  axis  of  stalk  and  calyx  is  in  and  with  a  current  of  water/ 
the  calyx  is  soon  turned  across  the  stream,  forming  an  angle 
with  the  stalk.  It  is  evident,  owing  to  the  well-known  bell-shape 
of  the  calyx  and  the  position  of  the  cilia,  that  thus  turning  the 
bell  would  greatly  facilitate  food  getting.  Is  there  a  psychical 
element  in  such  a  movement,  i.  e.,  is  the  movement  the  outcome 
of  the  exercise  of  a  psychical  force?  It  appears  to  me  that  an 
afi&rmative  answer  is  open  to  two  serious  objections:  First,  it  can 
be  explained  in  several  other  equally  as  plausible  terms.  The 
reaction  to  hunger  alone  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  move- 
ment, and  when  we  reflect  that  the  habitat  of  V.  is  on  grasses 
bathed  by  currents,  natural  selection  might  well  be  invoked  as 
the  principle  that  has  impressed  a  reflex  or  mechanical  move- 
ment of  this  sort  on  the  cell.  Then  again,  the  inequality  of 
the  density  of  the  current  on  the  sides  of  the  bell  is  a  stimulus 
sufficient  to  cause  a  reaction  expressed  in  movement  (Jonotaxis). 
Reactions  of  this  sort  occur  in  paramcecia,^  hydra,*  frog,  and  the 
human  conjunctive ;  second,  to  ascribe  a  directing  role  to  what- 
ever psychoses  that  may  be  present  in  these  forms  to  activities 
of  this  sort,  precludes  further  investigation — just  as  the  "fiat 
creation  hypothesis ' '  of  the  middle  ages  kept  men  from  enquir- 
ing into  the  more  rational  ways  of  world  growth. 

The  mouth  cilia  are  so  directed  as  to  either  receive  or  reject 
small  particles  of  matter.  These  activities  have  been  cham- 
pioned as  ps3'chical.  That  the  cilia  do  these  things  there  can 
be  no  question,  but  that  they  are  movements  directed  by  a 
psychosis,  i.  e.,  are  really  selective,  expressing  choice,  is  quite 
another  question.  Before  this  question  can  be  scientifically 
discussed,  it  seems  to  me  another  question  must  first  be  deter- 
mined, viz. :  Have  vorticellae  a  choice  in  food — do  they  not 

^A  current  of  sterilized  water  carrying  yeast  cells  from  a  large  flask 
was  kept  flowing  under  the  cover  slip.  The  water  was  drawn  from  the 
flask  through  a  glass  syphon,  down  to  a  capillary  point,  placed  at  one 
end  of  the  cover  slip,  and  a  filter-paper  drip  attached  to  the  other  end. 
The  microscope  used  was  a  Zeiss,  apochromatic  series,  comp'  ocular 
12  objective  i6  mm.,  which  gave  a  magnification  190  diameters,  and 
sometimes  ocular  6,  objective  4  mm.  was  used — magnification  375  dia- 
meters. The  vorticellae  were  found  in  great  abundance  from  flags 
placed  in  an  aquarium  three  weeks. 

^Jennings,  H.  S.  :  Reaction  of  Ciliate  Infusoria.  Journal  of  Physi- 
ology, Vol.  21,  1897,  pp.  258-321. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  259 

receive  both  digestible  and  indigestible  material  alike,  and 
when  filled  eject  both  alike?  It  is  a  physical  impossibility  to 
receive  even  all  the  digestible  material  that  comes  their  way. 
If  given  yeast  they  will  receive  2,  3,  or  4  grains  at  once  and 
will  then  whirl  the  others  away  for  5,  10,  sometimes  15  minutes 
before  admitting  any  more.  So  that  what  has  been  interpreted 
as  a  selective  process  may  be  a  reaction  to  "enough."  To  get 
facts  that  would  answer  the  question  one  would  have  to  first 
find  a  material^  that  they  reject^  altogether,  then  mix  it  with  a 
palatable  food,  say  yeast  grains,  and  note  their  reactions  toward 
the  mixture. 

I  present  in  Table  I  the  notes  from  my  diary  on  a  typical  ex- 
periment with  vorticella.  It  presents  nothing  essentially  new 
or  different  from  the  work  of  Drs.  Hodge  and  Aiken,  save  that 
yeast  is  a  food  for  all  the  V.  that  I  observed. 

Again,  do  they  discern  between  enemies  and  friends,  between 
what  is  harmful  and  unharmful?  If  they  do,  we  should  expect 
to  see  the  stalk  contract  in  the  presence  of  certain  objects  and 
remain  extended  in  others  or  even  remain  in  contact  with  them; 
and  if  they  do  not,  we  should  expect  the  stalk  to  contract  when 
the  calyx  comes  in  contact  with  any  rigid,  resisting,  unmanage- 
able object,  organic  or  inorganic,  dead  or  living  matter.  The 
latter  condition  is  just  what  we  do  find.  Vorticella  takes  no 
risks,  trusts  nothing,  as  it  were,  but  contracts  the  stalk  when- 
ever the  sensitive  parts  of  the  calyx  or  cilia  meet  with  any  re- 
sisting body  whatsoever.  I  have  observed  the  stalk  contract 
when  yeast  cells  and  other  food  material  came  floating  by  in 
unmanageable  quantities,  or  when  the  peristomal  region  came 
in  contact  with  a  large  colon}^  of  bacteria — if  the  colony  is  small, 
they  are  hurled  away  b}^  the  cilia.  I  counted  118  stalk  con- 
tractions due  to  the  calyx  hitting  a  dead  leaf  fibre.  How  long 
it  had  been  reacting  to  this  particular  object,  and  how  much 
longer  it  would  have  continued,  had  no  accident  intervened,  can 
only  be  conjectured. 

It  seems  to  me  all  that  we  can  say  here  is  that  the  sense  of 
touch  mediates  bigness,  and  persistence  or  rigidity,  and  reactions 
to  such  stimuli  imply  nothing  more  than  simple  mechanical 
reflexes. 

Under  the  category  of  reproductive  activities  it  is  sometimes 
urged  that  the  attachment  of  the  free-swimming  zoid  near  the 
base  of  the  calyx  is  an  expression  of  choice  of  selection  on 
the  part  of  the  zoid,  and  therefore  psychic.  The  zoospores  of 
the  cryptogamic  world  do  equally  as  clever  things  in  selecting 

^This  problem  was  suggested  to  me  by  Dr.  Adolf  Meyer. 

*The  substance  would  have  to  be  partly  insoluble,  at  least  in  water, 
and  of  low  specific  gravity.  I  suggest  pepsin,  lycopodium  powder, 
a  few  of  the  salts  of  calcium  and  barium,  ground  glass  and  the  like. 


26o 


KLINE 


the  right  oospore  in  which  to  penetrate.  My  fondness  for  mys- 
ticism and  the  *  *  brand-new' '  is  too  feeble  to  urge  me  to  invade 
the  botanist's  realm  searching  for  psychological  material. 

The  presence  of  a  psychoses  is  not  denied.  There  may  be 
feelings  corresponding  to  the  stimuli  bigness,  rigidity  or  per- 
sistence, whenever  the  organism  mechanically  responds  to  such. 
All  that  I  aiSrm  is  that  these  activities  give  no  indication  that 
they  are  the  outcome  of  the  exercise  of  a  psychical  principle. 

Table  containing  the  observations  on  Vorticella  gracilis. 
Experiment  12. 


Date  and  time.  Contraction  of  Stalk. 


Kov. 
22,7 


,00  A.M. 

45     " 

05     " 

45     " 


*'  9-45  " 

"  9-55  " 

"  10.00  " 

"  10.10  " 

"  10.30  *' 


None. 

None.  Stalk  well 

extended. 

Regularly. 

Feeble. 


4  X  per  min. 

Less  frequent. 

None. 


Once,whenalarge 
torulae  struck  the 
body  near  the 
mouth  parts. 

None. 


None. 

None. 
None. 


Remarks. 


Cilia  moving  slowly.     Vesicle  closing 

about  3  per  min. 
Feeding  occasionally.     Takes  in  yeast 

grains. 
Stopped  feeding. 
A  swift  current  bearing  yeast  grains  has 

just  started  up.   The  long  axis  of  stalk 

and  bell  are  in  line  with  current. 

Feeding  again.  Taken  in  two  yeast  grs. 
Takes  in  yeast  grs.  occasionally,  permits 
the  great  majority  to  go  by  after  being 
twirled  rapidly  by  the  cilia.  It  is  a  phy- 
sical impossibility  to  take  in  all  the 
yeast  grains  that  come  by,  or,  for  that 
matter,  other  food  material.  The  food 
revolves  around  a  common  center.  The 
diameter  of  each  revolution  of  any  one 
revolving  food  mass  grows  shorter. 
The  food  thus  approaches  the  center, 
but  not  quite,  as  it  gradually  works  to- 
ward the  mouth  when  nearing  com- 
plete digestion. 
Feeding  slowly.  Takes  in  3  or  4  yeast 
grs.  at  once,  then  sets  them  to  revolv- 
ing with  the  great  mass  of  food. 


Has  turned  the  bell  almost  at  right 
angles  to  the  stream,  (the  stalk  is  in 
line  with  the  stream).  This  offers  a 
better  position  for  taking  food. 

Two  yeast  grains,  after  making  one 
revolution,  were  hurled  out  not  seri- 
uosly  injured. 

Ejected  yeast  detritus,  i,  e.y  cells  that 
had  been  digested  to  a  shapeless  mass. 

Followed  two  yeast  grains  through  one 
revolution  ;  time,  4  min.  and  45  sec, 
about. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


261 


Table  containing  the  observations  of  Vorticella  gracilis. 
(Continued.) 


Date  and  time.  Contraction  of  Stalk, 


Remarks. 


Nov. 
22,10.35 


10.45 
10.55 

11.03 


"  11.30    ** 
"  11.55  A.M. 
'•  12  M. 


None. 


Once,  violent. 
None. 


None. 

None. 

None. 

Regularly. 


•*  12.15  P.M. 
"  12.20    " 

Rapid  and  vio- 
lent. 
Irregular  but 
strong. 

"  12.45    " 

None. 

"  12.55     " 

None. 

"      I.15     " 
"     2.00    ♦' 

No.  2  violent  and 
rapid. 
Feeble. 

"     2.15     " 

Occasionally. 

•'     2.16    " 

None. 

"     2.18    " 

Twice,  violent. 

"     2.30    ♦' 

None. 

"     2.40    " 

None. 

"     3.00    " 

Occasionally. 

A  torulae  of  six  grains  rest  on  the  base 
of  the  bell.  V.  does  not  move — in- 
different to  their  touch.  Heretofore, 
when  a  similar  bunch  was  caught 
about  cilia  and  lip,  contraction  of 
stalk  followed  at  once. 

Threw  off  the  chain  of  torulae  at  base. 
It  had  supported  the  chain  15  min. 

Revolution  of  food  not  regular.  Some- 
times it  moves  by  jerks. 

The  body  has  been  distended  with  yeast 
grs.  for  one  hour. 

Yeast  cells  in  all  degrees  of  digestion. 

Body  growing  shorter  and  thicker. 

Body  has  two  mouths — a  clearage  line 
can  be  made  out.  At  one  edge  of  the 
field  V.  No.  2,  that  has  likewise  been 
under  observation  from  the  beginning, 
is  also  dividing.  Differed  from  V.  No. 
I  only  in  feeding;  has  eaten  less  yeast, 
digested  all. 

Division  complete  with  No.  2,  making 
two  bells  attached  to  the  same  stalk. 

At  close  of  clearage  No.  2  daughters  were 
roundish,  dumpy,  now  becoming  more 
bell  shaped. 

No.  I  has  completed  divison.  Neither  No. 
I  nor  No.  2  have  taken  food  for 45  min. 

No.  2  has  begun  to  feed — taken  in  three 
yeast  grains. 

No.  2  has  lost  her  daughter.  No.  i  eat- 
ing yeast  grains  again. 

No.  I  daughter  bell  detached.  No.  r 
throwing  out  digested  material.  Cur- 
rent has  slowed  up,  yeast  grains 
scarce. 

Cilia  are  developing  about  the  base. 
Has  stopped  feeding,  ejected  most  of 
detritus.  Mouth  cilia  moving  slowly 
and  body  elongating. 

Body  rotating  around  stalk  and  quiver- 
ing with  violent  action.     Current  nil. 

Broken  off  from  stalk  and  swimming 
away,  having  been  under  observation 
7  hrs.,  18  min. 

Current  in  region  of  No.  2  has  run  con- 
tinuously. 

Feeding  on  yeast  and  other  material  that 
has  somehow  fallen  into  the  current. 

Stuffed  with  yeast,  body  bent  obliquely 
to  the  stream. 


262 


KLINE  : 


Table  containing  the  observations  of  Vorticella  gracilis. 
(Concluded.) 


Date  and  time.  Contraction  of  Stalk. 


Nov. 
22,   3. 

"     3 

"    4 
"    5 


"    5-IO 


5-35 


"  6. 

"  6, 

'*  6. 

"  7- 

"  7- 

23>  7- 


05   " 

30  P.M. 

45    " 
00   " 

15    " 

30  A.M. 


8.00 


9.00 


None. 
None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 


Once.  Bell  struck 
by  a  monster. 

Feeble. 
Occasionally. 

Violent. 

4  X  per  min. 

Few. 


Every  time  cilia 
twirls  bacteria  or 
run  into  a  mass 
too   thick    to    be 

twirled. 

Violent. 


Remarks. 


Yeast  grains  revolving — being  digested. 
Ejecting  detritus,  taking  in  yeast  grs. 

and  other  foods. 
Vesicle  contracts  about  3  x  per  min. 
For  the  last  hour  but  little  feeding,  no 

yeast  received,  body  filled  with  it. 
Food  massed  being  churned,  moved  back 

and  forth  through  the  long  axis  of  bell 

instead  of  revolving. 
Filled  like  a  balloon,  takes  in  a  yeast  gr. 

occasionally.     The  great  majority  are 

made  to  pass  on. 
Food  mass  revolving  again. 
Body  shortening  and  thickening. 
Second  division  has  begun. 
Cleavage  line  distinct.     Two  mouths. 
Division  complete. 
No.  2  still  in  the  field — bacteria  have 

developed  during  night  to  an  alarming 

degree. 
Body  well  filled. 


Had  stopped  feeding  for  some  time. 
Developed  cilia  and  at  9  A.  M.  floated 
away.  It  had  been  under  observation 
26  hrs.,  12  hrs.  and  15  min.  of  which 
were  constant. 


Wasps.      (^Polistes  rubiginosus.') 
Se7ise  of  Smell. 

The  apparatus^  consisted  of  a  board  48  inches  long  and  15 
inches  wide,  on  which  was  built  a  glass  hallway  18  inches  long, 
I J^  inches  wide  and  i  inch  high.  One  end  of  this  long  hall 
opened  into  two  halls  of  similar  dimensions,  save  their  lengths, 
which  was  9  inches.  These  short  halls  diverged  from  each 
other  at  an  angle  70°.  Both  led  into  a  single  box,  which  was 
usually  kept  dark.  These  short  halls  I  called  "forks."  The 
floor  and  top  of  the  halls  were  glass.  The  odor  was  dropped 
on  cotton  batting  the  size  of  a  pea.  Odorous  cotton  was  placed 
in  the  fork  about  3  inches  from  the  end  of  the  long  hall.  At 
the  same  time  the  opposite  fork  contained  a  bit  of  odorless  cot- 

^For  valuable  help  and  suggestions  in  the  construction  of  apparatus 
and  experimentation,  I  desire  to  thank  Mr.  Willard  S.  Small. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  263 

tou — the  object  being  to  present  as  far  as  possible  similar  con- 
ditions to  the  eye.  The  apparatus  was  placed  directly  in  front 
and  about  twelve  feet  from  a  window.  The  end  containing  the 
dark  box  was  kept  toward  the  window.  The  wasps  used  were  a 
large,  reddish,  yellow-bodied,  black-winged  social  species,  Poli- 
sies  rubigi?iosiis,  sent  me  from  Virginia.  While  being  introduced 
into  the  glass  hall  at  the  end  away  from  the  light,  they  were 
handled  by  broad  and  very  pliable  forceps.  Gentle  handling 
must  be  observ^ed.  At  the  close  of  each  experiment  the  halls 
were  thoroughly  deodorized.  This  requires  much  time.  The 
experiment  should  be  performed  on  bright  days,  and  in  a  tem- 
perature not  below  60  F.  The  following  odors  were  used  : 
asafoetida,  bergamot,  carbolic  acid,  cinnamon,  cologne,  oil  of 
cologne,  cloves,  pennyroyal,  tar,  turpentine,  violet,  sassafras, 
alcohol  and  spearmint.  I  have  copied  below  three  experiments 
from  my  notebook,  the  rest  are  presented  in  tabulated  form. 

Odor  :     Carbolic  Acid.     Number  of  Wasps  used  :    Four. 
Odor  on  the  Right, 

Wasp  No.  I.  Stopped  about  four  inches  in  front  of  the  forks — rubbed 
antennae  vigorously  with  fore  leg  for  about  30  seconds,  then  took  the 
left  hand  fork  to  the  dark  box. 

Wasp  No.  I.  Stopped  about  six  inches  in  front  of  the  forks  and  after 
much  hesitation  and  turning  back  and  walking  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  hall,  he  went  in  on  the  left  side. 

Wasp  No.  I.     Walked  straight  down  left  fork  without  halting. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Stopped  about  four  inches  in  front  of  forks,  then  turned 
back.  Approached  again,  crawled  back  and  forth  from  fork  to  fork; 
at  last  crawled  up  to  the  top  glass  of  the  right  fork  and  crawled  into 
the  box  back  down. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Much  excited — mad — crawled  right  over  odorous  cot- 
ton and  went  in  box  via  right  side. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Approaches  forks  slowly,  much  brushing  of  antennae  ; 
at  last  takes  left  fork  to  box. 

Odor  on  the  Left. 

Wasp  No.  I.     Went  in  via  left — crawled  over  the  odorous  cotton. 

Wasp  No.  I.  Went  in  via  left,  hugged  the  sides  of  the  wall  while 
passing  the  odor. 

Wasp  No.  2.     Went  via  right,  after  much  hesitation  at  forks. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Went  via  left,  but  avoided  the  odor  by  hugging  the 
side  of  the  wall. 

Wasp  No.  3.  Went  via  right  fork  after  halting  one  minute  at  the 
forks. 

Wasp  No.  3.     Went  via  right ;  seemed  much  confused. 

Wasp  No.  3.  Went  via  left  after  much  hesitation  and  turning  back 
and  forth ;  hugged  the  under  side  of  the  top  glass. 

Wasp  No.  4.     Went  via  right;  seemed  pure  chance. 

Wasp  No.  4.  Went  via  right  after  much  waving  of  antennae  and 
examining  both  roads. 

Wasp  No.  4.  Stopped  at  forks,  started  down  left,  recoiled,  and 
crawled  back  to  the  far  end  of  the  gallery ;  returns,  stops  at  forks, 
cleans  antennae,  then  goes  via  right  fork. 


264  KLINE : 

Summary. 

Sixteen  tests,  thirteen  of  which  showed  conclusively  that  the 
odor  was  sensed,  and  eleven  that  it  was  objectionable. 

Odor  :  Tar.     Number  of  Wasps  Used  :  Two. 
Odor  on  the  Right, 

Wasp  No.  I.     Went  via  left  fork  ;  pure  chance. 

Wasp  No.  I.     Went  via  left ;  seemed  not  yet  to  have  sensed  it. 

Wasp  No.  I.     Went  via  right ;  gave  no  attention  to  tar. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Went  via  right  fork  ;  indifferent  to  tar.  Cannot  tell 
whether  tar  was  even  sensed. 

Wasp  No.  2  went  in  via  right  fork  ;  came  out  of  dark  box  into  right 
fork,  walked  over  the  odorous  cotton;  seemed  quite  indifferent. 

Odor  :  Absolute  Alcohol.     Number  of  Wasps  Used  : 

Four. 

Odor  071  Right. 

Wasp  No.  I.  Halted  four  minutes  about  three  inches  in  front  of 
odor,  brushed  antennae  vigorously,  then  crawled  up  the  side  of  wall  of 
right  fork  and  passed  into  dark  box. 

Wasp  No.  I.     Went  via  left  fork  ;  this  time  seemed  pure  chance. 

Wasp  No.  I.  Went  via  left  fork,  halted  some  time  about  two  inches 
in  front  of  odor,  reared  back,  and  finally  took  left  fork  to  dark  box. 

Wasp  No.  2.  Turned  down  right  fork,  ^topped  about  2>^  inches  be- 
fore odor,  waved  and  stroked  antennae  vigorously,  reared  back  and 
plunged  forward  repeatedly,  finally  crawled  in  back  down,  on  under 
side  of  top  glass. 

Wasp  No.  2.    Halted  at  forks,  brushed  antennae,  went  in  via  left  fork. 

Odor  on  Left. 

Wasp  No.  3.  Went  in  via  left  fork ;  avoided  odor  by  hugging  the 
side  walls.     Was  mad  and  excited. 

Wasp  No.  3.     Went  via  right ;  still  mad. 

Wasp  No.  4.  Walks  slowly  down  gallery  ;  stops  at  forks,  waves 
antennae  and  strokes  them  vigorously  ;  then  crawls  up  to  the  top  glass 
and  starts  down  the  left  fork  ;  stops  just  before  getting  to  odor,  turns 
back  and  forth  in  much  confusion ;  finally  turned  back  and  went  via 
right  fork. 

Wasp  No.  4.  Went  via  right  fork ;  did  not  halt  anywhere  on  the 
road. 

Wasp  No.  3.  Started  down  left  fork,  stopped  in  front  of  odor  for 
some  time,  then  turned  back  and  forth  repeatedly,  finally  crawled  in 
via  left  fork,  hugging  side  of  the  wall. 

Wasp  No.  3.     Went  via  right,  did  not  stop  at  forks. 

Put  3  and  4  in  long  gallery  together.  No.  3  crawled  down  right  side, 
did  not  halt  at  forks,  kept  straight  ahead  to  dark  box  via  right 
fork ;  and  No.  4  stopped  after  entering  the  left  fork,  turned  back 
and  went  via  right  fork. 

Summary  for  Tar  and  Alcohol. 

Tar  may  be  sensed ;  it  certainly  is  not  objectionable.  The 
twelve  tests  with  alcohol  show  that  it  is  sensed  and  that  it  is 
decidedly  objectionable. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOIvOGY.  265 

Unobjectionable.  Objectionable.  Doubtful. 

Tar  Asafoetida  Cinnamon 

Turpentine.  Bergatnot  Violet 

Carbolic  Acid  Sassafras 

Cologne^ 

Oil  of  Cologne 

Cloves 

Pennyroyal 

Alcohol 

Spearmint 

Conclusions,  (i)  wasps  readily  sense  odors;  (2)  some  are 
much  more  objectionable  than  others,  e.  ,^. .  spearmint  caused 
the  most  violent  reactions.  They  moved  up  and  down  the 
galleries  as  if  frightened  or  pursued  by  an  enemy  ;  (3)  some 
odors,  as  tar,  turpentine,  are  not  disagreeable ;  (4)  there  is 
much  evidence  showing  that  the  sense  of  smell  fatigues — more 
observations,  made  with  the  greatest  precautions,  are  needed  to 
make  this  conclusive. 

Chicks. 

I  used  chicks  of  two  incubations  of  about  five  weeks  apart. 
The  first  group  were  returned  to  their  rightful  parent  at  about 
the  age  of  eighteen  hours.  To  the  second  group  I  was  foster 
parent  fourteen  days,  and  from  their  standpoint  many  days 
longer,  for  they  often  ran  joyfully  to  me  and  followed  me  when 
I  went  among  the  farm  poultry.  They  knew  no  other  parent. 
Both  groups,  which  were  cross-breeds  of  Plymouth  Rock,  Leg- 
horn, and  Minorca,  w^ere  taken  from  the  hen  eight  to  twelve 
hours  before  they  had  pecked  through  their  shells,  and  kept 
awhile  in  warm  water  and  then  transferred  to  an  incubator. 

Group  one,  consisting  of  two  little  birds.  At  the  age  of  four 
hours  I  placed  them  on  a  large  newspaper  spread  on  the  floor. 
Their  repeated  efforts  to  stand  erect  invariably  resulted  in  their 
toppling  over  sometimes  forward,  sometimes  backward  to  a 
complete  somersault.  The  tarso- metatarsus  (featherless  por- 
tion of  the  leg)  does  foot  duty  at  this  age,  so  that  the  distal  end 
of  the  leg  when  standing  is  the  tibio-tarsus.  Walking  is 
really  running,  darting  forward  from  16  to  30  inches  and  end- 
ing in  a  sprawl.  After  attempts  to  stand  or  walk,  they  take 
cat-naps. 

These  naps  occur  every  few  minutes,  during  which  time  the 
neck  is  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  floor  and  the  head  rest- 
ing on  one  side.  They  nap  most  frequently  in  direct  patches 
of  sunlight.  On  awaking,  clumsy  attempts  are  made  to  smooth 
out  the  matted  down — their  only  feathers — which  had  been  un- 

^  It  was  thought  that  the  objectionable  element  in  cologne  was  the 
alcohol.  The  oil  of  cologne  contains  no  alcohol,  but  they  still  avoided 
it,  even  though  a  very  small  drop  was  used. 

J0URNA.1,— 7 


266  KLINK : 

kempt  from  the  beginning.  Only  bright  objects  or  strongly 
contrasted  colored  objects  are  noticed  and  pecked;  large  letters 
on  the  paper,  bright  threads  in  the  carpet,  at  crawling  flies, 
but  with  no  success;  bits  of  white  pine,  at  their  own  and  each 
other's  toes,  and  at  each  other's  bills,  eyes  and  combs.  At 
times  they  try  to  hover  or  cuddle  under  each  other.  I  hold 
my  hand  over  them  under  which  they  huddled  close  together. 
They  act  similarly  toward  almost  any  object  held  gently  to 
their  backs  and  heads — a  stick  of  wood,  a  flannel  rag,  a  shoe, 
a  sock,  a  tin  pan. 

A^e,  six  hours.  Gave  them  crumbs  of  dough  and  bits  of  ^gg 
shells  at  which  they  frequently  pecked  but  very  seldom  swal- 
lowed. They  seized  fairly  well  whatever  they  aimed  at,  but 
seemed  to  have  trouble  in  holding  it  and  getting  it  adjusted 
for  deglutition.  They  follow,  although  their  pursuit  is  inter- 
rupted by  frequent  falls,  any  comparatively  large  moving  ob- 
ject: a  hat,  a  folded  garment,  a  tin  pan,  the  cat,  a  person.  I 
walk  by  one  piping  the  want  note,  which  by  the  way  is  their 
earliest  and  most  frequent  note,  to  a  doorway  ten  feet  distant, 
pass  through  the  doorway  over  a  sill  ten  inches  wide  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  fifteen  degrees,  the  lower  edge  one  and  one-half 
inches  high,  into  the  next  room  and  step  behind  the  door. 
The  chick  makes  the  door  sill  in  two  runs,  and  to  my  surprise 
gets  upon  and  over  the  inclined  door  sill  and  enters  the  room 
to  a  distance  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  looking  and  piping  to  the 
fullest  capacity  of  its  voice.     Finally  it  takes  a  nap. 

Age,  eight  hours.  One  swallows  a  dead  fly  after  mangling  it. 
I  clap  my  hands  close  to  their  heads,  make  a  loud  hissing 
noise,  they  take  no  notice  of  either  noise.  I  thrum  on  a  guitar; 
this  startles  them,  but  they  settle  down  so  soon  as  the  noise 
ceases  and  sleep,  especially  if  the  thrumming  lasts  from  30  to  45 
seconds.  Later  they  chirp  the  want  note  vehemently.  I 
sneeze — they  stop  chirping  for  some  seconds.  Striking  a  pan 
has  the  same  effect. 

Group  two  consists  of  four  chicks.  Chicks  Nos.  i  and  2  born 
August  28,  4  p.  M.,  No.  3  August  29,  II  A.  M.,  and  No.  4  at  3 
p.  M. 

77  hours  old.  August  29,  9  a.  m.  Nos.  i  and  2  now  17 
hours  old  are  placed  in  their  poultry  yard,  4  ft.  wide,  5  ft.  long 
and  2  ft.  high — built  in  an  attic  with  southern  exposure.  I 
give  them  cracked  wheat,  bits  of  half  matured  maize.  They 
peck  at  the  larger  pieces  of  food  and  succeed  in  getting  them 
into  their  mouths,  but  allow  them  to  fall  out.  At  last  No.  2, 
the  larger  and  brighter  of  the  two,  after  making  three  trials  to 
swallow  a  half  a  grain  of  wheat  succeeds  in  the  fourth  attempt. 
They  do  not  confine  their  attention  long — 15  seconds  to  about 
30  seconds — to  the  different  foods,  in  fact  they  are  more  con- 


METHODS    IN    ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY.  267 

cerned  about  the  objects  in  their  new  quarters.  Everything 
attracts  them  with  about  equal  force.  They  have  had  no  ex- 
perience from  which  to  form  preferences.  (//  to  i8  hours 
old.)  Accordingly  all  objects  within  reach  must  be  exam- 
ined— the  large  letters  and  figures  of  the  newspaper,  the 
cracks  in  the  floor,  the  wood  work  of  their  yard.  They 
follow  moving  objects  occasionally.  The  walking  mechanism 
is  fairly  co-ordinated  and  under  control.  They  never  topple 
over  backwards,  and  rarely  tumble  while  moving  forward. 
Loud  and  sudden  noises  shock  them — not  quite  fright,  for 
they  never  try  to  escape.  Banging  on  a  tin  pan,  thrum- 
ming a  guitar,  tooting  a  horn,  clapping  the  hands,  causes  them 
to  start,  squat  and  shudder. 

2  p.  M.  No.  2,  22  hours  old,  catches  and  swallows  a  wing- 
less fly.  I  drop  an  earth  worm  {Lumbricus)  before  them.  No. 
I  looks  at  its  serpentine  movements,  steps  back  skittishly,  and 
gives  for  the  first  time  the  well  known  danger  churr,  ap- 
proaches the  worm,  pecks  it,  wipes  his  bill,  pecks  again  and 
then  lets  it  alone.  I  give  them  two  more  worms.  No.  2  spies 
and  approaches  one,  strikes  it  twice,  wipes  his  bill,  and  lets 
them  alone.  Their  bills  are  yet  too  weak  to  seize  earth  worms. 

4  p.  m.y  chicks  one  day  old.  I  heard  an  unusual  piping  in 
my  poultry  yard.  No.  2  had  jumped  out  of  the  warm  box — a 
feat  five  inches  up  and  a  fall  fourteen  inches — into  the  yard. 
He  is  now  the  sole  occupant.  When  I  approach  he  scurries 
behind  the  box  and  crowds  close  up  in  the  corner  of  the  yard. 
This  is  the  first  time  that  he  seems  afraid  of  me,  or  has  shown 
signs  of  genuine  fear.  I  drop  earth  worms  in  the  yard  a 
second  time,  both  show  signs  of  fright  and  do  not  even  peck  at 
them. 

No.  3,  born  11  a.  m.  Placed  it  on  a  newspaper  at  3  p.  m. 
Its  efforts  to  stand,  walk  and  swallow,  closely  parallel  those  of 
I  and  2.  It  made  three  attempts  to  follow  me,  and  one  to  over- 
take an  old  garment  folded  up  and  dragged  slowly  by  it.  I 
did  not  permit  it  to  overtake  the  garment.  Later  drew  it  by 
several  times,  but  it  took  no  further  notice  of  this  garment.  It 
sleeps  when  not  molested. 

No.  4  or  "  the  lonely  chick,"  born  August  29,  3  p.  m.  This 
chick  is  completely  isolated  from  all  others  of  its  kind  for  four 
days  less  eight  hours.  His  food  is  confined  to  bits  of  half 
matured  maize  and  occasionally  cracked  wheat  and  water.  Of 
course  he  gains  a  knowledge  of  the  food  qualities  through  ex- 
perience.by  pecking  at  the  several  objects  of  his  prison,  e.  g.y 
specks  in  the  carpet,  nail  heads,  rollers  of  table,  large  letters  in 
the  newspaper,  etc. 

Second  day.  August  30,  7  A.  m.  No.  2,  as  before,  has 
jumped  out  of  his  box  and  shows  signs  of  fear  at  my  approach. 


268  KLINE  : 

but  when  I  hold  out  my  hand  he  runs  to  it  and  eagerly  sur- 
veys it.  Yesterday  he  avoided  his  excrement  after  four  expe- 
riences pecking  at  it.  This  morning  he  shows  evident  signs  of 
disgust  at  the  first  trial. 

9  A.  M.  I  place  a  tin  of  water  on  the  floor.  All  three  run 
up  and  peck  the  brighter  portions  of  the  vessel  while  walking 
around  it.  I  trouble  the  water  gently  by  rocking  the  vessel. 
No.  2  sees  the  ripples,  stretches  his  neck  to  examine,  at  the 
same  time  stepping  back  and  uttering  the  danger  churr.  This 
is  not  at  the  motion  of  the  tin,  for  they  have  been  accustomed 
to  this  all  along.  When  the  surface  of  the  water  quiets,  No.  2 
approaches  and  begins  pecking  at  shiny  places  as  before.  In 
doing  this  he  throws  a  bit  of  cracked  wheat  lying  on  his  head 
into  the  water,  he  seizes  and  swallows  it  as  usual  and  smacks 
his  bill,  as  if  tasting,  then  thrusts  it  into  the  water  up  to  his 
eyes,  turning  his  head  up  he  drank  after  the  characteristic 
chick  fashion.  This  was  an  entirely  new  movement,  for  bill, 
head  and  neck.  It  was  executed  to  perfection.  He  dips  his 
bill  in  twice  more  and  as  deep  as  before.  This  seems  unpleas- 
ant, for  he  walks  away  hurriedly  each  time  and  wipes  and 
scratches  his  bill.  A  bit  of  spider  web  thoroughly  filled  with 
wood  dust  bored  out  by  a  bee  fell  into  the  yard.  No.  2  pecked 
at  it  six  times.  It  gives  him  no  satisfaction.  He  let  it  alone. 
Nos.  I  and  3  then  give  their  attention  to  it.  They  soon  desert 
it. 

10.30  A.  M.  Offer  them  water  a  second  time.  No.  i  dis- 
covers it  for  himself  somewhat  as  No.  2,  i.  e.,  by  pecking  at 
a  speck  on  its  surface.  Both  i  and  2  now  drink  together. 
No.  3  steps  up  and  watches  the  motions  of  No.  i  in  a  single 
act  of  drinking.  He  immediately  begins  to  drink.  No.  2 
has  learned  to  thrust  his  bill  in  at  the  ordinary  depth.  I  offer 
them  an  earth  worm  for  the  third  time,  this  time  as  food,  in 
my  hand.  All  come  up  and  look  in.  No.  2,  who  leads  in 
everything,  sees  it  crawling,  gives  the  danger  note,  at  this  the 
others  look  more  intently,  then  all  walk  away.  They  fear 
more  things  with  age.  Sounds  that  yesterday  were  unheeded 
are  to-day  listened  to  with  surprise  and  fear.  They  shy  away 
short  distances  whenever  I  approach.  My  hand,  to  which  they 
have  become  accustomed,  brings  them  back.  Evidently  they 
have  not  become  acquainted  with  my  body  as  a  whole. 

4.30  p.  M.  I  give  them  bits  of  yellow  pine  in  one  portion  of 
their  yard  and  cracked  grains  of  yellow  maize  in  another.  The 
morsels  of  food  look  not  unlike.  They  eat  the  maize  as  usual. 
No.  2  seizes  a  bit  of  pine,  fumbles  it  in  his  mouth,  drops  it, 
tries  another,  drops  it  likewise,  and  pays  no  further  attention 
to  the  wood.     No.  3  tries  three  different  pieces  before  swal- 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  269 

lowing  one.  He  swallowed  two  bits,  then  turned  to  the  heap 
of  maize. 

5.30  p.  M.  I  gave  them  bits  of  starched  muslin  cut  about 
I  mm.  square  from  old  collars  and  cuffs.  All  three  attack  the 
little  pile  eagerly.  No.  i  swallowed  a  piece;  No.  3  ran  off  with 
quite  a  large  piece;  the  others  gave  chase.  This  heightened, 
apparently,  the  desire  of  each  to  secure  it.  They  snatch  it 
from  each  other's  mouths  until  No.  3  despatches  it.  They  re- 
turn to  the  muslin,  look  at  it,  pick  up  pieces  lightly  and  drop 
them.  Their  appetites  for  muslin  soon  quail.  It  was  the  last 
that  I  persuaded  them  to  eat.  Competition  even  at  two  days 
old  spurs  them  on  to  more  prodigious  tasks.  No.  2  has  tried 
repeatedly  to  swallow  a  whole  grain  of  maize,  but  without  suc- 
cess. No.  I  attempts  to  snatch  it  away.  The  grain  passes 
back  and  forth  from  mouth  to  mouth,  while  chasing  each  other 
around  the  yard,  until  finally  No.  2,  although  hard  pressed, 
makes  an  unusual  effort  to  swallow  it  and  succeeds. 

4  p.  M.  No.  4,  the  chick  in  solitude  now  one  day  old,  is 
offered  a  tin  of  water.  Gives  it  no  attention.  Drop  food  near 
the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  later  a  few  bits  in  the  water.  It 
seizes  the  food  on  the  water,  thereby  getting  water  in  its 
mouth.  The  stimulus  touches  off  the  drinking  apparatus,  for 
it  at  once  goes  through  the  drinking  movements.  But  the 
water  seems  to  frighten  it  very  much.  It  runs  off  some  dis- 
tance; wipes  its  bill  repeatedly.  1  coax  in  vain  for  it  to  return 
to  the  tin  of  water. 

Third  day.  August  31,  9.15  A.  M.  I  give  Nos.  i,  2  and  3 
green  cabbage  worms  for  the  second  time.  No.  2,  as  usual, 
gave  danger  churr,  all  walk  away.  They  still  fear  earth 
worms.  Nos.  i  and  3  contend  over  a  bit  of  muslin,  but  soon 
neglect  it.  I  threw  them  several  bits  of  muslin — all  came  up 
and  looked  at  it  and  then  walked  away.  They  treat  pine  wood 
similarly.  Show  joy  when  I  sprinkle  wheat  and  Indian  meal 
on  the  floor  by  running  up  and  flapping  their  wings.  They 
devote  more  time  to  preening  their  feathers  and  stretching  in 
the  sun.  I  thrum  the  guitar  as  on  first  day.  No.  2  scurries 
away  behind  the  warm  box,  and  3  runs  and  squats  as  if  hid- 
ing. I  wave  the  guitar  over  the  yard  once.  No.  i  runs 
screaming  to  the  farthest  corner  and  tucks^his  head  under  the 
edge  of  the  paper  that  forms  the  wall  to  their  yard.  A  wasp 
flies  against  the  window.  No.  2  gives  the  danger  sign,  the 
rest  listen.  A  sailing  cloud  throws  a  rapidly  moving  shadow 
across  their  home,  it  frightens  them  very  much. 

10  A.  M.  No.  4,  now  nearly  two  days  old,  is  again  offered 
water.  It  looked  in  the  vessel  then  walks  away,  did  this  three 
times. 

September   i,   8  a.   m.     Nos.    i,   2  and  3  still  avoid  earth 


270  KI.INE : 

worms,  caterpillars  and  green  canker  worms.  They  learned  to 
drink  milk  yesterday  in  much  the  same  way  as  they  did  water. 
They  show  no  sign  to-day  of  having  seen  it  before.  They  ap- 
proach it  cautiously,  peck  around  the  edges  of  the  tin  for  six 
minutes,  and  after  much  stretching  and  craning  of  their  necks 
in  looking  at  the  milk,  begin  to  drink  it.  Their  experience 
with  the  white  boring  grub  is  interesting.  Nos.  i  and  2  are 
afraid  of  it,  No.  3  seizes  the  grub  while  curled  up,  looking  not 
unlike  a  grain  of  corn.  No.  i  gives  chase,  and,  as  usual,  the 
desire  for  the  worm  is  increased  until  No.  3  swallows  it.  I 
give  them  three  more  grubs.  The  grubs  begin  crawling,  and 
so  long  as  this  is  kept  up  the  chicks  give  the  usual  danger  note 
and  crane  their  necks  forward  in  fear  and  wonder.  The  small- 
est of  the  grubs  stops  crawling,  No.  3  seizes  and  swallows  it  at 
once.  This,  I  judge,  encouraged  him  to  try  the  second  largest. 
No.  2,  by  imitation,  seized  the  largest  grub,  which  I  had  con- 
sidered too  large  for  them  to  swallow.  The  others  endeavored 
to  share  so  large  a  morsel  with  No.  2.  This  precipitated  quite 
a  tussle,  which  ceased  by  the  lucky  one  despatching  the  grub. 
12  M.  I  take  Nos.  i,  2  and  3  on  an  outing,  as  it  were,  of  one 
hour  and  forty-five  minutes,  into  a  large  grass  plot.  While  here 
their  behavior,  more  than  ever,  impresses  me  of  the  great 
importance  that  experience  plays  in  their  acquaintance  with 
the  chicken  world.  They  were  unusually  active  the  entire 
time,  pecking  at  the  diifferent  grasses,  seeds,  sticks,  dried 
leaves,  bees,  crawling  ants.  The  bright  husks  of  the  pepper 
weed  and  the  seeds  of  the  short  wire  grass  received  their  first 
attention  because  of  their  brightness.  I  concealed  two  black 
watermelon  seeds  under  a  tuft  of  grass,  farther  on  a  yellow 
seed,  and  in  a  third  place  the  seeds  of  a  cantaloupe.  They 
discovered  all  three  in  due  time — each  discovery  was  attended 
with  notes  of  surprise,  and  the  investigation  set  out  with  cautious 
pecking.  It  seems  that  their  nerves  are  keyed  for  responses 
to  every  stimuli  of  sight  and  sound,  that  their  organism  is  es- 
sentially nervous,  responding  and  adjusting  to  a  novel  environ- 
ment. No.  3  spied  an  earth  worm  coming  out  of  the  ground. 
He  seized  it  at  once,  and  pulled  and  tugged  at  it  not  unlike 
robin  red-breast  in  a  similar  feat.  This  was  the  first  earth 
worm  eaten.  No.  4  (the  lonely  chick)  is  not  thriving  like  his 
congeners.  His  body  is  becoming  short  and  rounded,  * '  dumpy;" 
the  head  is  drawn  in  close  to  the  body.  When  not  eating  he 
pipes  the  lonely  want  note.  His  efforts  to  make  friends  with  a 
half-grown  cat  was  an  amusing  performance.  Its  first  ad- 
vances were  met  by  gentle  soft  taps  from  the  kitten,  for  which 
attention  it  chirped  the  satisfied  note,  and  made  repeated  at- 
tempts to  cuddle  up  in  the  kitten's  fur.  This  appeared  to 
annoy  her  felineship.     She  began  moving  backwards  on  three 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  27 1 

feet,  using  a  fore  foot  to  bar  the  chick's  too  familiar  advances. 
Her  pats  finally  grew  to  taps,  then  to  slaps,  and  at  last  to  a 
severe  box  that  sent  the  chick  rolling  over  several  times.  This 
experience  destroyed  the  chick's  desire  for  further  affiliation 
with  the  cat.  Nos.  i,  2  and  3  after  eating  a  full  meal  spend 
much  time  in  making  their  toilet,  basking  in  the  sunshine  and 
engaging  in  mock  fights.  These  and  other  activities  essen- 
tially chick-like,  are  the  fullest  and  most  varied  after  a  sump- 
tuous meal. 

Fourth  day.  September  2d.  They  still  show  signs  of  fear 
when  I  drop  a  small  earth  worm  before  them.  But  this  time 
No.  3  seizes  one  before  it  begins  crawling.  This  whets  the 
appetites  of  the  others.  I  divert  the  pursuer's  attention  by 
dropping  another  worm,  it  is  seized  and  carried  to  one  corner 
to  be  devoured.  They  now  seize  small  moving  worms,  but 
large  crawling  ones  overtax  their  courage.  They  are  now  in- 
difierent  toward  green  cabbage  worms,  do  not  even  show  signs 
of  fear  in  their  presence.  White  grubs  are  attacked  and 
eaten,  if  not  crawling;  the  crawling  grub  presents  a  sight  too 
hideous  for  them,  even  at  the  age  of  four  days. 

No.  4 — the  lonely  chick — now  nearing  the  age  of  four  days, 
is  brought  from  his  isolated  quarters  to  my  poultry  yard.  He 
presents  a  dumpy,  ill-conditioned  form  and  a  fretful,  timorous 
attitude,  yet  always  ready  to  eat.  The  three  approach  and 
station  themselves  in  a  semi-circle  about  the  stranger.  Nos.  i 
and  2  give  the  astonish  or  surprise  chuckle.  All  three  stretch 
their  necks  and  peer  scrutinizingly  at  the  intruder  as  if '  *  to 
look^  him  out  "  of  their  presence.  No.  i  advances  and  strikes 
him  a  severe  blow  on  the  head.  He  attempts  to  return  it,  but 
is  struck  again  and  seized  by  the  head  and  pulled  and  jerked 
about  in  battle  royal  fashion.  At  this  treatment  he  screams  the 
shrill  cry  of  distress  and  tries  to  escape  from  the  3^ard.  He  is 
nagged  for  some  minutes,  and  finally  permitted  to  stand  in  one 
comer  and  utter  those  lonely  piteous  cries  that  he  has  been 
making  ever  since  he  began  to  walk. 

I  now  distribute  several  kinds  of  food  in  distant  parts  of 
their  yard,  thereby  increasing  the  unwelcome  stranger's  oppor- 
tunities for  getting  his  breakfast.  He  makes  good  use  of  the 
advantage,  and  snatches  a  morsel  now  here,  now  there.  Al- 
though he  is  occasionally  struck  at,  it  is  apparent  that  his 
presence  is  becoming  more  tolerable,  and  in  time  will  be 
suffered  to  remain  in  peace.  And  so  he  was  at  the  expiration 
of  two  hours  with  all  four  basking  together  in  a  parallelogram 
of  sunshine.     They  lie  on  one  side,  stretch  the  free  leg  and 

^The  reader  will  understand  this  phrase  as  merely  descriptive  of 
their  appearance  and  nothing  more. 


272  KI.INK : 

wing  at  full  length.  So  well  at  ease  had  No.  4  become  that 
while  thus  stretched  out  on  the  floor,  he  raised  the  free  ex- 
panded wing  and  fanned  it  gently  back  and  forth  showing 
every  sign  of  comfort.  This  is  the  first  time  he  has  shown 
genuine  contentment.  It  took  companionship  to  make  his  life 
complete.  I  gave  them  grubs  and  earth  worms,  which  were 
eagerly  devoured,  after  which  I  offered  them  green  cabbage 
worms.  This  was  No.  4's  first  experience  with  worms  of  any 
sort.  He  had  just  witnessed  the  others  eat  grubs  and  earth 
worms  with  impunity.  So  when  the  green  cabbage  worms 
appeared,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  devour  them  while  the  others 
stood  back  or  walked  away.  But  his  spirited  and  ravenous 
dealing  with  the  worms  induced  the  others  to  rob  him  of  a 
worm — a  lively  chase  ensues  which  ends  in  the  competitors 
devouring,  fragments  of  the  worm. 

The  only  activity  during  their  outing  to-day  (ages  four  and 
five  days)  that  deserves  notice  is  that  of  wallowing  on  the  hard 
ground  and  shuffling  the  wings  after  the  manner  of  full  feath- 
ered birds  when  taking  a  sand  bath.  The  motion  of  the  wing, 
when  sand  is  present,  both  gathers  and  throws  the  sand  over 
the  entire  body  not  unlike  a  shower  bath.  The  movement 
appears  complex. 

Fifth  day.  September  3,  7  A.  m.  Cabbage  worms  are 
offered  No.  4  the  second  time.  Nos.  i,  2  and  3  stand  aloof. 
No.  4  eats  one,  wipes  his  bill  vigorously  several  times,  returns 
to  the  squirming  heap,  shakes  his  head.  He  never  ate  cabbage 
worms  after  that.  My  chicks  have  a  peculiar  way  of  shaking 
or  slinging  the  head — as  if  in  disgust,  at  the  sight  of  an  object 
disagreeable  to  their  taste.  Again  during  their  outing  they  in- 
dulge in  attempts  to  wallow  on  the  hard  ground.  They  made 
a  similar  attempt  on  the  floor.  They  now  appear  to  know  their 
' '  outing  grounds. ' '  So  soon  as  placed  on  the  ground  they 
run  and  dart  hither  and  thither  and  flap  their  wings,  and  en- 
gage in  mock  fights.^  This  usually  begins  by  a  sudden  and 
simultaneous  darting  about  and  clapping  the  wings,  and  then 
rushing  together  giving  each  other  light  pecks.  They  are  less 
timid,  pay  less  attention  to  the  various  noises  and  sights  about 
them,  and  wander  farther  away  from  me  and  from  each  other. 
When  these  little  excursions  isolate  them  the  lost  note  is  piped. 
They  always  find  their  way  back.  To-day  for  the  first  time 
they  give  evidence  of  wishing  to  perch  in  high  places.  No.  i, 
after  walking  around  a  basket,  five  inches  high,  several  times 
and  looking  at  its  top,  mounts  to  its  rim,  and  as  soon  as  he  has 
balanced  himself  sits  down.     Later  at  roosting  time  he  tries  to 

1  See  Wundt,  pp.  357-8,  and  Karl  Groos:  The  Play  of  Animals.  D. 
Appleton  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1898. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  273 

fly  to  a  horizontal  stick  four  inches  high,  forming  a  part  of 
the  yard's  frame- work.  He  also  flies  up  the  side  of  the  paper 
wall  and  pipes  the  distress  note  when  he  wants  to  go  to  roost. 
He  invariably  chooses  the  same  corner  of  the  wall  over  which 
he  attempts  to  make  his  escape,  and  although  he  mounts  only  a 
very  small  fraction  of  the  wall,  his  efforts  never  tire  in  covering 
that  small  distance.  I  offer  them  again  bits  of  muslin  and  pine 
wood,  which  they  have  not  seen  for  three  days.  The  muslin 
is  ignored,  several  pieces  of  pine  are  picked  up  and  dropped  by 
each  one.  No.  2  finally  swallows  a  piece — the  fifth  that  he  had 
examined.  He  walks  away  and  wipes  his  bill.    Four  days  later 

1  offer  them  pine  wood.  It  received  no  attention  this  time  even 
though  I  continued  to  sprinkle  it  before  them  as  I  do  grain. 

Sixth  day.  September  4th.  After  eating  their  breakfast, 
wallowing  in  fresh,  loose  ground  and  preening  feathers,  Nos. 

2  and  4  engage  in  a  mock  fight.  No.  4  sits  on  the  bottom  rung 
of  a  ladder,  the  top  of  which  rests  on  the  top  of  the  yard  en- 
closure, thus  affording  an  outlet,  should  they  make  an  effort  to 
use  it.  This  occurred  at  8  A.  m.  At  8.45  No.  3  walks  half- 
way up  the  ladder  and  sits  down.  No.  4  attempts  to  fly  up  to 
No.  3,  but  fails.  No.  3  gets  up  and  continues  his  way  up  the 
ladder;  at  a  height  of  18  inches  he  stops,  looks  about,  both  feet 
and  wings  tremble  and  quiver.  Steadying  himself,  he  turns 
around  and  descends  the  ladder  to  a  height  of  10  inches,  sits 
down  and  completes  his  toilet  in  apparent  ease.  They  now 
seize  earthworms  whether  moving  or  crawling. 

An  instinctive  movement  was  made  by  No.  2  at  the  close  of 
his  toilet  exercise,  that  is  both  comical  and  instructive.  After 
smoothing  out  the  pin  feathers  of  his  breast  and  straightening 
out  the  sprouting  remiges,  he  stretched  up  at  full  height, 
flapped  his  wings  against  his  sides  in  approved  gallinaceous 
style,  and  at  the  close  of  the  wing  movements  swished  and 
wiggled  the  little  bunch  of  cottony  pin  feathers  that  occupy  the 
place  of  the  future  tail  feathers — a  beautiful  illustration  of  com- 
plete development  and  co-ordination  of  both  nervous  and  mus- 
cular apparatus  long  before  there  is  any  need  of  their  func- 
tioning; for  the  tail  feathers  over  which  these  nerves  and 
muscles  have  control  did  not  show  themselves  until  three  weeks 
later. 

Seventh  day.  September  5th.  I  notice  that  they  are  quite 
sensitive  to  changes  of  temperature.  No.  i  stepped  on  a 
motionless  earth  worm.  The  foot  was  taken  off  with  a  sudden 
jerk.  It  had  not  noticed  the  worm.  I  laid  a  cold  copper  wire 
down,  one  stepped  on  it  and  immediately  jerked  the  foot  up. 
Their  room  has  a  southeast  exposure.  The  first  rays  of  the 
sun  fall  on  the  right  wall  of  their  yard  about  one  foot  from  the 
floor.     They  spend  much  time  in  looking  at  the  bright  spot. 


274  KLINE : 

It  descends  obliquely  to  the  floor,  reaching  it  in  about  twenty 
minutes.  They  have  now  learned  to  stand  ready  waiting  for 
the  warm  rays  to  fall  on  them.  These  September  mornings  are 
chilly.  The  direct  sunlight  reaches  the  left  side  of  the  yard  by 
noon.  They  follow  it  up  as  it  crosses  the  yard  whenever  they 
make  their  toilet  or  wish  to  cat-nap. 

8.30  A.  M.  No.  3  mounts  the  ladder  and  climbs  the  rungs 
quite  a  distance,  sits  down  at  a  height  of  1 1  inches.  Nos.  2 
and  4  stand  under  him,  stretching  and  peering  their  heads  up, 
and  try  to  fly  up.  It  did  not  occur  to  them  to  walk  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  ladder  and  walk  up.  This  is  the  third  time  that  No. 
3  has  perched  on  the  ladder,  and  every  time  2  and  4  have  tried 
to  reach  him  by  flight,  standing  directly  under,  notwithstanding 
too,  that  both  have  seen  No.  3  begin  his  ascent  at  the  end  of 
the  ladder. 

'5  p.  M.  No.  4  for  the  first  time  walks  to  the  top  of  the  lad- 
der. This  gave  him  a  view  of  the  world  outside  the  poultry 
yard.  He  looked  intently  in  several  directions  and  at  times 
uttered  notes  of  surprise  and  the  * '  wonder  chuckle. ' '  He 
walked  a  short  distance  from  the  end  of  the  ladder  out  on  the 
top  of  the  wall  of  the  yard.  He  looked  first  on  the  outside,  then 
on  the  inside,  as  if  in  doubt  which  way  to  fly.  He  finally  flew 
down  in  his  old  yard.  No.  i  for  the  past  three  days  grows  very 
restless  at  the  approach  of  night  and  tries  to  escape  as  before 
described.  He  walks  around  the  four  sides  of  the  yard;  on 
reaching  the  fourth  corner  he  attempts  to  fly  oyer.  He  is  as 
persistent  in  his  efforts  as  a  bee  against  a  window  pane.  He 
has  ample  opportunities  for  learning  to  use  the  ladder,  but  pays 
no  attention  to  it  when  he  wishes  to  escape.  All  have  taken  a 
turn  in  walking  up  the  ladder,  save  No.  2,  who  is  very  large 
for  his  age,  with  wings  undeveloped.  He  never  shows  discon- 
tent. His  fellows  have  small  bodies  but  rapidly  growing  wings. 
They  grow  restless.  No.  4  has  made  two  more  excursions  ta 
the  top  of  the  ladder.  An  outside  ladder  butts  against  the  in- 
side one  at  the  top  of  the  yard  wall.  No.  4  stepped  on  this 
ladder,  walked  down  two  rungs,  uttered  a  cry  of  fear,  stepped 
off"  backwards  on  to  the  inside  one  and  walked  down  into  the 
yard. 

Eighth  day.  September  6th,  6.45  A.  m.  Gave  them  green 
canker  (cabbage)  worms.  They  gave  the  surprise  chuckle, 
finally  No.  4  seized  one,  then  all  gave  chase  until  he  swallowed 
it.  All  return  to  the  worms,  but  refuse  to  take  hold.  They 
begin  to  clamor  for  food. 

7.30  A.  M.  They  have  had  a  sumptuous  breakfast.  Preen- 
ing feathers,  mock  fights  and  the  like  follow.  No.  4  has  walked 
to  the  top  of  the  ladder  four  times  since  breakfast.  He  has 
stepped  on  the  outside  ladder  twice.     The  others  still  watch 


METHODS   IN  ANIMAI.  PSYCHOLOGY.  275 

him  as  if  they  too  would  like  to  climb  up.  During  the  forenoon 
he  climbed  the  ladder  fourteen  times.  Sometimes  he  would 
step  on  to  the  outside  ladder  but  never  ventured  to  walk  down. 
After  his  noon  meal  he  walked  up  the  ladder  and  out  on  the  top 
of  the  poultry  yard  fence.  He  walked  back  and  forth  leisurely 
on  the  wall  and  while  attempting  to  catch  a  passing  fly  he 
slipped  off  and  dropped  on  the  outside.  He  showed  signs  at 
once  of  desiring  to  return  to  the  yard.  He  walked  around  and 
under  the  outside  ladder.  It  was  made  exactly  like  the  inside 
ladder  and  leaned  against  the  wall  at  the  same  angle,  but  it 
never  occurred  to  him  to  use  it.  During  the  space  of  an  hour 
he  walked  back  and  forth  along  the  wall  thirty-two  times,  and 
put  his  head  through  a  small  crack,  looking  into  the  yard, 
thirty-eight  times.  Toward  the  end  of  the  hour  he  became 
more  reconciled  to  his  lot  and  began  to  search  for  food. 

Ninth  day.  For  some  time  they  have  been  pulling  off  bits 
of  paper  forming  the  wall  to  their  yard  to  get  the  flour 
paste  used  in  their  wall  paper.  To-day  they  pecked  and 
pulled  at  a  piece  that  turned  in  until  they  made  an  opening 
large  enough  through  which  to  escape.  They  walked  out.  I 
put  them  back.  They  went  at  once  to  work  and  pulled  it  in 
and  up.  Out  they  went  again.  This  was  repeated  until  I 
fixed  it  securely.  I  kept  them  in  their  poultry  yard  until  the 
age  of  fourteen  days.  They  never  learned  to  use  the  two  lad- 
ders as  a  means  of  egress  and  ingress,  although  I  frequently 
put  them  through  the  movements  of  climbing  one  ladder  and 
descending  the  other.  ^ 

Conclusions. 

1.  Both  hearing  and  sight  are  dull  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  first  day.  They  develop  very  rapidly  the  second  and 
third  day,  being  highly  sensitive  on  the  third  to  any  and  all 
sounds  and  noises. 

2.  Pecking  is  better  developed  from  the  first  than  swallow- 
ing, in  fact  the  muscles  for  holding  the  head  erect,  for  con- 
trolling the  jaws,  and  the  process  of  deglutition  are  very  weak 
the  first  8  or  10  hours. 

3.  Fear  increases  with  the  development  of  sight  and  sound. 

4.  The  instinct  to  follow  soon  fades  out.  Hovering  and  cud- 
dling together  are  instinctive.  Both  Morgan  and  Mills  seem  to 
think  that  hovering  under  the  hand  or  following  it  is  due  to 
the  warmth  it  affords  them.  I  find  they  follow  any  small  mov- 
ing object  at  first.  Later  the  hand  becomes  a  very  interesting 
object;  their  attachment  grows  out  of  its  being  their  only  source 
of  food. 

1  To  expect  them  to  learn  a  task  by  forcing  them  through  it,  has  im- 
pressed me  since  as  a  very  artificial  if  not  an  actually  absurd  thing  to  do. 


276  KLINE  : 

5.  Mock  fights  begin  the  third  day,  and  shade  over  into 
serious  business  the  sixth  week. 

Wundt^  regards  mock  fighting  as  the  only  type  of  play 
among  animals,  and  interprets  it  along  with  Karl  Groos^  as  a 
schooling  to  the  serious  struggles  of  adult  life. 

The  different  degrees  of  permanency  of  their  associations 
suggest  a  problem  for  extended  work  among  several  species. 
They  rejected  pine  wood  after  a  few  experiences  at  the  age  of 
three  days,  but  three  days  later  they  ate  it  again,  while  expe- 
riences with  muslin  on  the  third  day  was  lasting.  They  were 
six  days  getting  acquainted  with  earth  worms,  and  eight  days 
with  the  canker  worms. 

They  learn  to  do  some  things  by  imitation,  e.  ^.,  drinking, 
learning  to  eat  certain  foods,  escaping  from  their  enclosure, 
while  other  tasks  of  apparent  equal  simplicity  are  not  learned. 
Though  the  fortunate  one  performs  the  trick  before  them  every 
day.  No.  2  learned  to  escape  from  the  "  warm  box  "  at  one 
day  old,  the  others,  more  agile  in  most  things,  never  learned 
the  trick.  I  quit  putting  them  into  the  box  the  fifth  day.  Dr. 
Thorndike^  inclines  strongly  to  the  belief  that  domestic  animals 
do  not  imitate  each  others  performances.  This  belief  is  founded 
on  the  results  from  experiments  conducted  exclusively  on  what 
I  have  called  the  experimental  method.  Describing  his  method  he 
says:  "  It  was  merely  to  put  animals  when  hungry  in  enclos- 
ures from  which  they  could  escape  by  some  simple  act,  such  as 
pulling  at  a  loop  of  cord,  pressing  a  lever,  or  stepping  on  a 
platform."  The  motives,  then,  played  upon  were  hunger,  de- 
sire for  freedom,  and  surely  in  many  cases  fear — especially 
would  this  likely  to  be  true  with  the  young  brought  into  novel 
situations.  Imitative  activities  form  a  good  part  of  play  activ- 
ities— not  all  play  is  imitation,  nor  vice  versa,  but  much  of  the 
two  are  on  common  grounds,  and  find  their  fullest  expression 
under  similar  conditions.  What  are  these  conditions?  Just 
the  opposite  to  those  created  in  his  experiments,  viz.,  free- 
dom, security  from  harm,  satiety,  in  a  word — well  being.  Noth- 
ing so  shrinks  and  inhibits  completely  the  fullness  and  variety 
of  an  organism's  activities*  than  prison^  life*  and  fear."^  Dr. 
Thorndike  first  teaches  a  chick  to  escape  from  a  certain  situa- 
tion, then  places  along  side  of  this  one  that  ' '  knows  the  ropes  ' ' 

1  Wundt :  Human  and  Animal  Psychology,  p.  358. 
'^  Groos,  Karl :  The  Play  of  Animals.     Translated  edition,  1898. 
3  Thorndike,  Edward  Iv.:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  6. 
^  Verworn,  M.:  Pfliig.  Archiv.,  Vol.  ly,  1891,  pp.  439-440. 
^Cornish,  C.  J.:  Animals  at  Work  and  Play,  pp.  31-38,  1896. 
•^  Jordan :  Habits  and  Developments  of  Newts.  Jour.  Morphology, 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  269-366. 

7  Kline,  L.  W.:  Am.  Jour.  Psy.,  Vol.  X,  No.  i,  1898. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  277 

others  entirely  ignorant,  and  says  by  his  experiment  * '  imita- 
tion if  present  will  surely  come  forth."  To  get  a  particular 
tone  from  a  musical  instrument  we  must  play  on  certain  defi- 
nite keys.  Dr.  Thorndike  has  played  the  wrong  keys.  It 
seems  to  me  all  that  we  can  say  at  present  is  that  some  indi- 
viduals of  a  species  learn  some  things  by  imitation.  I  heartily 
agree  with  Professor  Mills  who  finds  wide  individual  aptitudes 
among  members  of  the  same  brood,  or  family. 

White  Rat. 

The  object  of  the  experiment  with  the  white  rat  was  to  as- 
certain its  susceptibility  to  profit  by  experience,  to  test  its 
quickness  to  learn  by  appealing  to  its  most  dominant  and  char- 
acteristic activity  in  food  getting,  the  readiness  with  which 
contiguous  associations  are  built  up. 

For  this  purpose  stimuli  was  addressed  to  the  rats'  pawing 
and  digging^  activity  by  means  of  the  following  device:  (i) 
A  box  8  inches  long,  7  inches  wide,  6  inches  deep,  whose  sides 
were  of  wire,  top  of  glass  and  bottom  of  wood,  was  put  into 
their  home  box,  which  also  served  for  an  observation  box. 
At  one  end  of  the  floor  of  the  small  box  a  piece  3^^  inches 
long  and  2  inches  wide  was  sawed  out.  The  box  was  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  floor  by  resting  on  two  strips  i^ 
inches  thick;  (2)  sand  and  sawdust  was  heaped  up  loosely 
around  the  sides  of  the  box  until  it  rose  a  little  above  the  level 
of  its  floor;  (3)  food  (dog  biscuit  and  cheese)  was  put  in  the 
box. 

The  observation  box,  containing  two  rats,  was  18  inches 
long,  14  inches  wide  and  14  inches  deep,  one  side  was  wire, 
one  end  glass,  the  rest  of  wood.  The  rats  knew  practically  no 
other  home,  they  had  been  reared  in  much  the  same  sort  of 
box.  Before  beginning  the  experiment  I  left  the  experiment 
box  in  their  home  several  days,  so  that  they  had  become  quite 
familiar  with  it.  Their  exceeding  timidity  makes  such  pre- 
cautions necessary. 

Experiment  1.  January  9th,  2  p.  m.  Both  rats  at  once  at- 
tacked the  box,  crawled  up  the  sides,  over  the  top,  and  went 
round  and  round  in  a  very  monotonous  fashion — always  smell- 
ing. They  persevered  nearly  an  hour.  At  3  p.  m.  their  move- 
ments were  less  decided,  seemed  more  haphazard  and  indiffer- 
ent. One  gave  up  and  returned  to  the  nest, — the  second, 
somewhat  more  frisky,  began  scratching  the  sawdust  in  that 
very  instinctive  fashion  which  I  have  observed  them  do  under 

1 1  am  not  yet  satisfied  that  I  have  appealed  to  its  dominant  trait  or 
method  of  food  getting.  On  a  priori  grounds  I  had  thought  that  the 
gnawing  activity  was  the  best  developed — a  tentative  experiment 
threw  doubt  on  this  and  suggested  the  one  used. 


278  KLINE: 

all  sorts  of  conditions,  even  when  they  are  well  fed.  It  appears 
to  be  a  "wild  trait  in  a  tame  animal,"  as  Robinson^  has  char- 
acterized such  more  or  less  useless  instinctive  performances 
among  our  domestic  animals. 

The  hole  thus  accidentally  dug  happened  to  be  at  the  end  of 
the  box  where  the  piece  had  been  taken  out  of  the  floor.  The 
rat  immediately  poked  its  nose  into  the  new  opening  which 
was  not  large  enough  to  admit  its  head.  It  seemed  to  be 
frightened,  ran  to  its  hiding  place,  came  out  after  about  a 
minute,  smelled  cautiously  about  the  hole,  and  dug  away 
more  material,  then  scampered  away  as  before.  These  acts 
were  repeated  several  times,  until  an  opening  quite  too  large 
had  been  made.  It  then  ventured  cautiously  up  into  the  box, 
snatched  the  food  and  carried  it  to  its  hiding  place  at  3.30  p. 
M. ,  after  working  one  hour  and  thirty  minutes. 

Experiment  II.  January  loth,  3.45  p.  m.  Thej'  behaved 
to-day  much  like  the  preceding,  i.  e.,  climbing  up  the  sides, 
walking  over  the  top,  except  that  they  spent  more  time  about 
the  place  where  they  had  excavated  the  day  before — seemed  to 
have  located  the  place  in  an  indefinite  sort  of  fashion.  They 
frisked  and  fidgeted  about  4  minutes,  then  one  began  digging 
with  a  will,  and  did  not  stop  this  time  until  the  work  was  com- 
plete. But,  as  before,  they  hesitated  to  enter  at  once  into  the 
hole  and  box,  they  frisked  nervously  about  for  some  time — 
coming  up,  peeping  into  the  hole,  then  scampering  off.  At 
3.53  p.  M.,  or  after  eight  minutes'  work,  one  ventured  in  after 
the  food. 

Experiment  III.  January  nth.  Set  experiment  agoing  at 
2.12  p.  M.  One  came  out  of  nest  about  a  half-minute  before 
the  second.  They  did  not  climb  up  the  sides  and  over  the  top 
of  the  box,  but  confined  their  movements  about  the  place  where 
they  had  made  the  burrow  the  two  preceding  days.  After 
smelling  around  i^  minutes,  No.  i  went  to  work  and  in  a  half 
minute  a  hole  of  sufficient  size  was  made.  This  time  there  was 
no  hesitation  ;  it  went  right  in.  Snatched  the  food  at  2. 14  p.  m. 
Time  in  getting  food  2^  minutes. 

Experiment  IV.  January  12th.  Experiment  began  4.17 
p.  M.  Rats  came  out  immediately,  climbed  up  side  of  box, 
then  on  to  top,  walked  about  sniffing  the  air,  crawled  down, 
and  went  at  once  to  the  usual  digging  place.  At  4. 20  it  took 
food  out.     Time,  3  minutes. 

Experiment  V.  January  13th,  4.15  p.  m.  Rat  No.  i,  only, 
came  out.  Approached  the  box  leisurely,  sniffed  the  air  quite 
often.     Stood  erect,  with  forepaws  against  the  box.    Suddenly, 

1  Robinson,  Lewis  :  Wild  Traits  in  Tame  Animals,  326  pages.  Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1898. 


METHODS   IN   ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  279 

as  though  the  idea  had  just  possessed  it,  it  got  down  and  began 
the  usual  excavation.  Stopped  when  half  done,  walked  away, 
came  back,  finished  the  opening,  and  took  food  at  4.iS}4  p.  m. 
Time,  3)^  minutes.  The  indifference  manifested  in  this  experi- 
ment I  think  is  due  to  their  being  too  well  fed.  No.  2  did  not 
even  leave  his  nest  until  No.  i  had  started  home  with  his  food. 
It  is  evident  that  they  have  learned  how  to  get  their  food  (dur- 
ing the  experiment  it  was  given  in  no  other  way),  and  that 
they  must  have  greatly  profited  by  their  jirs^  experience — the 
first  attempt  to  reach  the  food  required  i  hr.,  30  min.  ;  the 
second  attempt,  24  hours  later,  only  8  minutes.  I  am  not  per- 
suaded, however,  that  the  elements  in  the  associative  chain, 
whatever  the  psychologist  may  decide  their  nature  and  number 
to  be,  have  as  yet  taken  on  any  very  stable  and  clear  form. 
They  seldom  begin  digging  at  the  proper  place,  sometimes  will 
begin  holes  in  several  different  places,  and  they  will  not  dig  at 
all  until  they  have  made  several  examinations  of  the  box.  All 
these  preliminary  activities  may  fade  out  in  time.^ 

The  methods  presented  here  enable  us  in  a  comparatively 
short  time  to  point  out  more  distinctly,  and  that,  too,  in  an 
elementary  way,  the  dividing  lines  between  instinct,  ^intelligence, 
and  habit,  e.  g, ,  it  was  instinct  that  prompted  my  chicks  to 
perch,  or  my  rats  to  scratch  up  the  sawdust ;  it  was  intelligence 
gained  through  chance  experience,  that  enabled  the  chicks  to 
escape  from  the  yard,  and  the  rats  to  get  food  from  the  box  ;  it 
was  habit  that  made  the  chicks  go  in  a  particular  roosting  box, 
unsolicited,  at  the  approach  of  night,  while  they  were  wholly 
indifferent  to  another  box  and  would  escape  from  it  if  put  in  it. 

To  Dr.  Edmund  C.  Sanford  I  desire  to  express  my  best 
thanks,  not  only  for  suggesting  the  work  itself,  but  for  valuable 
help  and  timely  suggestions  at  every  turn  during  its  execution. 

^  I  have  since  performed  8  more  experiments.  The  time  has  been 
reduced  to  30  seconds,  and  many  of  the  useless  preliminary  perform- 
ances have  been  dropped. 

2  Morgan  C.  Lloyd  :  Habit  and  Instinct. 


MINOR  STUDIES  FROM  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL 
LABORATORY  OF  CLARK  UNIVERSITY. 


Communicated  by  Edmund  C.  Sanford. 


XII.    On  Neari^y  S1MU1.TANEOUS  Clicks  and  Flashes. 


By  Guy  Montrose  Whippi^e,  A.  B. 


Judgments  of  the  time  order  of  nearly  simultaneous  clicks 
and  flashes  have  been  studied  by  several  investigators,  but  with 
discordant  results.  Exner^  and  Gonnesiat^  find  that  the  order 
click- flash  can  be  recognized  when  the  interval  of  time  between 
the  two  stimuli  is  less  than  when  the  order  is  flash-click. 
Bloch,*  Tracy*  and  Miss  Hamlin,^  on  the  contrary,  find  that 
the  order  flash-click  is  the  more  easily  recognized. 

In  explanation  of  this  difference  Miss  Hamlin  suggests, 
on  the  basis  of  her  own  and  Tracy's  work,  that  it  "  depends  on 
the  fact  that  series  of  pairs  of  stimuli  were  used  in  one  case 
[Exner's]  and  single  pairs  in  the  other.  In  his  experiments 
on  personal  equation  Gonnesiat  finds  rhythm  a  very  important 
factor,  and  it  may  have  been  effective  in  these  experiments  of 
Exner's."  The  present  study  has  chiefly  in  view  a  compari- 
son of  the  '  series  '  and  *  single  pair '  methods  when  judged  by 
the  same  subjects. 

Apparatus  a?id  Method.  The  apparatus  consisted  of  an  ar- 
rangement for  producing  the  clicks  and  flashes,  and  of  a  double 
set  of  switches,  one  of  which  could  be  used  to  cut  out  single 
pairs  of  stimuli  for  observation,  when  single  pairs  were  under 
investigation,  while  the  other  served  to  reverse  the  order  from 
click-flash  to  flash-click  without  altering  the  other  parts  of  the 
apparatus.  The  arrangement  for  producing  the  clicks  and 
flashes  consisted  of  a  double  revolving  disk  of  special  construc- 
tion, so  arranged  as  to  make  contact  for  an  instant  in  two  in- 

'^Pfiuger's  Archiv,  XI,  1875,  403-432. 

"^ Richerches  sur  V equation  personnelle.  Paris,  1892,  pp.  138-140. 

^  Revue  scientifique,  XXXIX,  585. 

^  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  V,  567  f. 

6/(&zrf.,V,  564-575. 


MINOR   STUDIES.  28 1 

dependent  electrical  circuits.  ^  One  of  the  disks  was  fixed  per- 
manently upon  the  shaft  of  the  instrument,  and  was  divided 
into  degrees;  the  other  could  be  turned  upon  the  shaft  so  as  to 
alter  the  separation  of  the  contact  points  (of  which  each  disk 
carried  one),  and  was  provided  with  a  vernier,  by  means  of 
which  the  setting  of  the  disks  with  relation  to  each  other  could 
be  read  to  one-tenth  of  a  degree.  These  disks  were  driven  at 
the  required  speed  by  a  small  electric  motor,  the  speed  of  the 
motor  being  properly  reduced  by  the  interposition  of  gears  and 
pulleys.  The  actual  clicks  were  given  by  a  telephone,  and  the 
flashes  by  a  Geissler  tube  and  induction  coil,  both  controlled 
by  the  instrument  just  described.  The  tube  was  encased  in  a 
blackened  box,  but  seen  directly  through  a  horizontal  slit  115 
mm.  long  by  6  mm.  wide.  The  room  was  partially  darkened 
during  experimentation. 

It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  an  apparatus  driven  in  such 
a  manner  by  an  electric  motor  should  be  wholly  constant  in 
rate.  Careful  timing  showed  a  difference  in  rate  of  about  o.  i 
sec.  per  revolution, — from  8990-  to  7960-, — during  a  five  minutes* 
run  of  the  apparatus.  This,  however,  is  less  important  in  the 
present  instance  than  the  irregularity  from  revolution  to  revo- 
lution, which  was  such  as  to  give  a  maximal  mean  variation  of 
10.90-  in  an  average  of  eight  determinations  taken  at  random 
from  the  records  of  a  single  minute.  This  variation  is  larger 
than  could  be  wished,  but  as  the  contact  points  of  the  two  disks 
were  never  more  than  27°  apart,  it  involves  a  variation  of  only 
o.8<r  in  the  time  values  of  interest  for  this  study.  This  varia- 
tion makes  the  measurements  rough,  but  leaves  them  of  suf- 
ficient accuracy,  it  is  believed,  for  the  questions  to  be  deter- 
mined. 

The  time  for  any  set  of  tests  was  found  by  calculation  from 
the  setting  of  the  disks  and  the  time  for  100  revolutions  of  the 
disks  taken  with  a  stop-watch  giving  fifths  of  a  second. 

The  rates  at  which  the  pairs  of  stimuli  recurred  when  they 
were  used  in  series  were  approximately:  one-half,  one,  two, 
three  and  four  seconds.  Ten  consecutive  pairs  were  included 
in  each  series.  When  single  pairs  were  used  the  intervals  from 
test  to  test  were  taken  at  the  operator's  convenience. 

The  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  was  employed,  the 
subjects  being  given  an  equal  number  of  click-flash  and  flash- 
click  orders  irregularly  mixed,  and  being  required  to  register 

*  While  the  instrument  was  arranged  for  two  independent  circuits, 
it  was  found  simpler  in  use  to  make  the  two  circuits  partially  coinci- 
dent, and  by  proper  wiring  to  use  only  a  single  battery  for  producing 
both  clicks  and  flashes. 

JOURNAI, — 8 


282  WHIPPI.E : 

an  answer  one  way  or  the  other  each  time,  guessing,  if  in 
doubt.  ^ 

The  number  of  trials  given  at  each  rate  was  never  less  than 
ICO,  and  often  more.  The  usual  precautions  against  fatigue  and 
expectant  attention  were  taken,  and  to  counteract  the  effects  of 
practice,  in  part,  each  subject  was  given  an  hour's  training 
before  beginning  serious  testing.  Part  of  the  subjects,  also, 
started  at  slow  rates  of  speed,  and  part  at  fast.  Of  the  sub- 
jects, C,  P.  and  S.  were  accustomed  to  laboratory  tests,  the 
others  not.  S.  had  served  also  as  subject  for  Miss  Hamlin. 
The  results  of  the  tests  are  given  in  Table  I,  according  to  the 
subject,  and  in  Table  II  in  briefer  form,  according  to  the 
various  rates  of  speed.  In  the  first  Table  "kind"  indicates 
whether  a  single  pair  or  a  series  of  pairs  of  stimuli  was  used. 
The  second  column  gives  the  interval  in  seconds  at  which  the 
pairs  of  stimuli  recurred  when  the  series  method  was  used.  In 
counting  the  tests  each  order  presented  was  counted  as  one; 
thus  200  tests  means  100  trials  of  the  click- flash  order  and  100 
of  the  flash -click  order,  "Time"  is  the  interval  separating 
the  stimuli,  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.  The  last  two 
columns  indicate  the  time  necessary  to  give  75%  of  right 
answers,  calculated  according  to  Fullerton  and  Cat  tell 's  Table.  ^ 

In  Table  II,  the  results  of  these  calculations  have  been  col- 
lated to  show  at  a  glance  the  individual  variations  and  the 
effects  of  the  various  rates  of  speed.  The  bracketed  times  rep- 
resent the  results  of  verification  tests,  being  in  each  case  a  rep- 
etition at  the  close  of  the  whole  experiment  of  the  particular 
form  of  test  on  which  the  subject  began. 


Tabi,E  I. 

Subject 

C, 

Time 

Interval 

%  correct. 

necessary  to 
give  75^ 

Date. 

Kind. 

in  sec. 

No. 

Time. 

c. 

F. 

rt.  cases. 

C.            F. 

Jan.  10. 

Singles 

— 

200 

74.1 

67 

83 

114        53 

"     12. 

Series 

3 

150 

15.6 

70 

93 

20          7 

"     17. 

<< 

2 

ICX) 

26.9 

72 

82 

31        20 

"     18. 

<( 

I 

100 

40.0 

66 

78 

66        35 

"     24. 

<( 

y^ 

100 

10.8 

64 

70 

20        14 

"     26. 

Singles 

200 

67.5 

63 

62 
Av. 

138      150 
,     61        45 

1  Further  experiments,  by  the  method  of  minimal  changes,  are  now 
in  progress.  Since  their  completion  has  been  unavoidably  delayed, 
and  since  the  series  taken  by  the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  are 
complete  in  themselves,  it  seems  best  to  publish  this  study  at  the 
present  time. 

2  Fullerton  and  Cattell :  On  the  Perception  of  Small  Differences, 
Univ.  of  Penna.,  1892. 


MINOR   STUDIES.  283 

Subject  P. 


Jan.  10. 

Series 

I 

200 

42.5 

78 

100 

37 

— 

"  II. 

<( 

% 

2CX) 

42.3 

72 

80 

49 

34 

"  22. 

<j 

2 

100 

20.5 

88 

88 

12 

12 

"  25. 

(( 

3 

ICX> 

13-9 

78 

90 

12 

7 

"  27. 

** 

4 

100 

10.7 

84 

68 

7 

16 

"  29. 

Singles 

— 

200 

25.2 

83 

81 

18 

19 

Feb.  3. 

Series 

I 

100 

19.1 

68 

82 
Av., 

28 
23 

14 
17 

Subject  W. 

Jan.  15. 

Singles 

— 

200 

69.4 

60 

89 

183 

38 

"  25. 

Series 

4 

100 

10.6 

94 

96 

5 

4 

"  27. 

(( 

3 

100 
Subject 

10.8 

94 

94 

Av., 

5 
64 

5 
16 

Jan.  14. 

Singles 

— 

200 

76.4 

74 

77 

80 

69 

"  15. 

Series 

4 

100 

16.4 

64 

80 

32 

13 

'•  26. 

" 

3 

100 

16.6 

88 

96 

10 

6 

"  27. 

'* 

2 

100 

21.8 

74 

92 

23 

10 

Feb.  3. 

<( 

I 

100 

22.5 

72 

66 

26 

37 

"   4. 

(( 

% 

100 

41.6 

66 

66 

68 

68 

"  14. 

Singles 

200 
Subject 

45.8 
Sm. 

81 

94 
Av., 

35 
39 

20 

32 

Jan.  14. 

Series 

I 

150 

38-7 

78 

86 

34 

24 

"  15. 

(< 

Yz 

ICX) 

Subject 

43.1 
S. 

78 

74 
Av., 

40 

37 

45 
35 

June  II. 

Series 

I 

100 

35.0 

74 

90 

37 

18 

"   II. 

Singles 

— 

100 

53.3 

84 

86 

36 

33 

"  13. 

Series 

2 

100 

22.2 

78 

96 

20 

9 

"  14. 

** 

K 

100 

34.8 

72 

84 

40 

24 

"  15. 

Singles 

ICX) 

50.9 

80 

84 

41 

35 

Av.,     35        24 

An  examination  of  these  Tables  will  show  that  the  results  ob- 
tained, with  few  and  unimportant  exceptions,  accord  with  those 
of  Bloch,  Tracy  and  Miss  Hamlin,  and  are  contrary  to  those  of 
Kxner  and  Gonnesiat;  in  other  words,  that  the  click-flash  order 
requires  a  longer  interval  of  time  for  recognition  than  the  flash- 
click^  order.    In  seeking  for  an  explanation  of  her  results.  Miss 

^  The  tendency  to  take  the  flash  as  coming  earlier  was  noticed  by 
some  of  the  subjects  themselves.  Ck.,  for  example,  during  one  test 
said:  "They  all  seem  like  flashes  [first].  I  have  to  work  hard  to 
make  any  clicks  first."  S.  found  it  rare  to  get  a  click  distinctly  first, 
and  hence  answered  "click  first,"  for  any  cases  where  they  appeared 
simultaneous  or  with  the  flash  only  slightly  ahead.  The  flashes  were 
commonly  distinctly  separate  from  the  clicks  when  they  actually  came 
first. 


284 


WHIPPLE  : 


Hamlin  suggests  in  place  of  Exner's  theory  of  optical  inertia, 
that  the  stimulus  of  the  greater  attention-claiming  quality  will 
be  apt  to  be  considered  first  in  point  of  time.  With  this  view 
the  writer  of  the  present  paper  finds  himself  in  full  agreement. 


i 

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The  prominence  of  the  flash  in  consciousness  is  further  attested 
by  the  tendency,  that  nearly  all  the  subjects  noticed  in  them- 
selves, to  connect  the  click  causally  with  the  flash,  which  seemed 
to  travel  along  the  tube.     If  the  click  seemed  at  the  end  of  the 


MINOR  STUDIES.  285 

tube  where  the  flash  appeared  to  originate,  it  was  called  first; 
if  at  the  other  end,  the  click  seeming  a  result  of  the  flash,  like 
thunder  after  lightning,  it  was  called  last.  Whether  the  atten- 
tion-claiming powers  depended  on  a  greater  intensity  in  the  flash 
or  a  greater  weakness,  cannot  now  be  said  with  certainty.  The 
flash  appeared  to  some  to  be  a  more  intense  stimulus  to  the  eye 
than  the  click  to  the  ear;  to  others  the  reverse  was  true.  Most 
of  the  subjects  felt  unable  to  compare  them.  Meumann^  found 
that  a  strong  stimulus  could  catch  the  attention,  and  thus  be 
placed  earlier:  Drew^  that  a  faint  stimulus  had  the  same  effect. 
Probably  both  tendencies  are  found  under  different  conditions. 
It  appears  most  probable  that  the  weakness  of  the  flash,  or 
rather  the  necessity  of  attending  to  it,  is  the  factor  most  effective 
in  these  experiments.  The  flash  necessitates  accommodation  and 
a  watching  of  the  box;  while  the  click  seems  to  force  its  way  into 
consciousness  unaided.  It  would  be  interesting  to  repeat  the 
experiments  with  a  visual  stimulus  arranged  to  illuminate  the 
whole  visual  field  with  a  sudden  glow,  so  that  the  elements  of 
visual  attention  could  be  reduced  to  equality  with  the  aural. 
Another  point  of  interest  is  the  fact  also  brought  out  in  all  of 
the  experiments  of  Miss  Hamlin  and  in  most  of  Drew's  work, 
that  the  external  conditions  of  the  experiment  determine 
strongly  the  direction  of  the  subject's  attention,  and  that  any 
attempt  at  voluntary  attention  defeats  itself  and  reduces  the 
number  of  correct  answers. 

It  yet  remains  to  speak  of  the  effect  of  a  series  of  stimuli  as 
compared  with  single  pairs,  and  of  the  various  rates  of  succes- 
sion of  the  pairs  in  the  series.  Inspection  of  Table  II  shows 
that  the  tendency  to  perceive  the  flash  first  is  the  same  in  all 
the  rhythmical  series  as  in  the  single  pairs,  and  therefore  that  the 
difference  of  result  between  Exner  and  Gonnesiat  on  one  hand, 
and  Miss  Hamlin  and  her  supporters  on  the  other,  cannot  be  due, 
as  she  suggests,  to  this  difference  in  method.  It  will  be  seen, 
further,  that  at  all  speeds  a  series  of  stimuli  decreases  the  least 
observable  interval,  and  that  with  the  exception  of  a  single  sub- 
ject in  a  single  test,  this  time  decreases  directly  as  the  length 
of  time  between  the  pairs  of  stimuli  increases. 

The  subjects  all  testified  that  at  the  rates  designated  as 
'  four, '  and  usually  at  *  three, '  no  effect  of  rhythm  was  per- 
ceptible. S.  had  only  occasional  feeble  rhythmic  effect  at  '  two. ' 
In  these  forms,  the  experiment  is  obviously  reduced  to  ten 
chances  of  diagnosing  the  same  single  pair.  For  this  reason 
the  slow  rates  were  not  given  to  all  the  subjects.     Under  these 

1  Beitrage  zur  Psychologic  des  Zeitsinus,  Phil.  Studien,  IX,  291  ff. 

2  Attention :  Experimental  and  Critical,  American  Journal  of  Psy- 
chology, VII,  i895.'96,  539  ff. 


286  WHIPPI^E : 

circumstances,  too,  the  extremely  low  intervals  perceptible  are 
not  surprising.  The  usual  method  was  to  make  a  decision  on 
the  first  pair,  and  then  see  if  the  others  confirmed  it.  In  the 
two-second  series  rhythm  was  generally  noticeable  and  helpful; 
the  one-second  rate  was  most  agreeable  and  pleasant ;  the  half 
second  very  lively;  the  four-second  "  deathly  slow  "  and  *'  ner- 
vous. * '  It  should  be  mentioned  that  at  the  fastest  rate  the 
apparatus  did  not  always  function  perfectly,  occasionally  skip- 
ping a  click  or  flash.  Subjective  control  and  introspective 
analysis  of  method  seemed  also  quite  difiicult  at  this  rate,  and 
here  S.  reported  that  the  clicks  and  flashes  failed  to  combine, 
but  formed  independent  series. 

To  recapitulate  briefly,  this  study  has  shown: 

1.  That  the  flash-click  order  can  be  recognized  when  the  in- 
terval is  shorter  than  that  required  for  the  click-flash  order. 

2.  That  this  holds  true  for  a  series  of  pairs  of  stimuli  as  well 
as  for  a  single  pair. 

3.  That  the  serial  repetition  of  the  pairs  materially  reduces 
the  time  interval  necessary  for  right  judgment. 

4.  The  cause  of  this  seems  to  be  a  retardation  of  the  click  due 
to  greater  attention-claiming  quality  attaching  to  the  flash. 


XIII.     The  Time  Required  for  Recognition. 

By  F.  W.  Coi^EGROVE. 


The  method  employed  in  the  following  rough  study  was  ex- 
tremely simple.  Sixty-eight  pictures,  three  to  four  inches  in 
length  and  two  to  three  inches  inches  in  height,  were  cut  from 
an  old  magazine  and  pasted  upon  cards.  These  were  inserted, 
one  at  a  time,  in  the  clips  of  the  Cattell  Fall-chronometer  and 
exposed  by  the  sudden  falling  of  the  screen.  At  the  instant  of 
exposure,  the  falling  screen  released  one  pendulum  of  an  elec- 
trical vernier  chronoscope,  the  other  being  released  by  the  sub- 
ject as  soon  as  he  was  able  to  decide  whether  he  had  seen  the 
picture  before  or  not.^  If  the  picture  was  recognized,  the  sub- 
ject reacted  with  his  right  hand ;  if  unrecognized,  with  his 
left.  Five  or  six  reactions  to  the  letters  R  (right)  and  L  (left) 
were  taken  before  and  after  each  sitting,  and  the  discrimination 
times  thus  found  furnish  both  a  control  of  the  other  experiments 
and  a  means  of  finding  the  pure  recognition  time  free  of  all  pe- 
ripheral processes. 

^  For  the  mode  of  operating  the  vernier  chronoscope,  see  this  Journal, 
Vol.  IX,  191-7,  Jan.,  1898. 


MINOR   STUDIES. 


287 


In  the  tables  below,  however,  these  simple  discrimination  times 
have  not  been  deducted,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  full  time  of 
response  has  been  retained. 

Five  subjects  were  tested,  all  of  whom  had  had  some  labora- 
tory experience  and  two  of  whom  had  had  a  good  deal.  Five 
pictures,  numbers  i,  2,  6,  44  and  68,  were  shown  each  subject 
before  beginning  and  he  became  familiar  with  them.  He  also 
saw  them  again  before  each  sitting.  In  what  follows  they  are 
termed  the  * '  well-known  pictures. ' '  On  the  first  day  of  ex- 
perimenting these  were  shown  in  irregular  order  with  other 
pictures  from  the  series.  On  the  second  day  both  the  * '  well- 
known  pictures ' '  and  the  new  ones  of  the  first  day  could  be 
drawn  upon  as  known  pictures  to  mix  with  a  second  group  of 
unknown  pictures ;  and  on  the  third  day  the  pictures  of  both 
the  first  and  second  days,  and  so  on. 

A  considerable  mass  of  records  was  thus  obtained,  both  for 
the  time  required  for  recognizing  the  "well-known  pictures," 
and  for  the  time  required  for  other  pictures  after  one,  two,  three, 
four  or  more  exhibitions.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention 
that  the  first  recognition,  except  in  cases  of  mistaken  reactions, 
occurs  on  the  second  exhibition  and  so  on.  The  results  for  the 
earlier  and  later  recognitions  of  the  well-known  pictures  are 
given  in  Table  I.     In  forming  this  table,  the  series  of  recog- 

Tabi,e  I. 

Showing  Times  for  Signaling  the  Recognition  of  the  Well-known 
Pictures ;   Times  in  o.ooi  Seconds.^ 


EARI^IER  RECOGNITIONS. 

I.ATER  RECOGNITIONS. 

Subject. 

No.  of  Ob- 
servat'ns. 

Time  of  Re- 
cognition. 

M.  v. 

No.ofOb- 
servat'ns. 

Time  of  Re- 
cognition. 

M.  V. 

w 

15 

524 

58 

15 

451 

35 

Y 

22 

490 

119 

27 

432 

38 

S 

17 

615 

65 

19 

516 

55 

K 

23 

571 

124 

26 

474 

68 

Q 

23 

434 

IIO 

23 

424 

71 

Average, 

527 

459 

^  The  times  are  given  in  the  usual  unit  for  convenience  of  the  reader, 
though,  as  the  unit  of  the  chronoscope  itself  was  0.02,  no  significance 
is  attached  to  the  third  figure  of  the  results.  It  might  be  expected 
that  with  the  method  of  division  described  in  the  text  the  number  of 


288 


COLEGROVE 


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MINOR  STUDIES.  289 

nitions  for  each  picture  was  divided  in  the  middle,  if  the  num- 
ber of  recognitions  was  even,  and  the  first  part  taken  for 
the  column  of  earlier  recognitions,  the  second  for  that  of  later 
recognitions.  If  the  number  was  odd  and  the  full  series  could 
not  be  evenly  divided,  the  middle  term  was  discarded  and  the 
remaining  parts  treated  as  if  the  series  had  been  even. 

These  figures  show  that  the  full  time  of  signaling  the  recog- 
nition of  a  well-known  picture  lies  somewhere  between  424  to 
615,  and  that  it  is  shorter  in  the  second  half,  where  the  familiar- 
ity was  greater.  This  quickening  may  be  due  in  part  to  in- 
creased skill  in  reacting.  Two  of  the  five  subjects  show  a  similar 
gain  in  reacting  to  the  letters  R  and  L,  and  with  one  subject,  Q, 
the  difference  is  more  than  that  between  the  early  and  late  trials  in 
Table  I,  making  the  pure  recognition  times  respectively  68  and 
89.  But  it  must  be  due  chiefly  to  increasing  familiarity  with 
the  pictures.  Four  of  the  five  subjects  show  the  same  relation 
in  the  pure  recognition  times  as  in  the  table.  The  average  pure 
times,  found  by  subtracting  316  and  311  from  527  and  459  re- 
spectively, are  211  and  148. 

The  same  thing  is  shown,  though  somewhat  irregularly,  when 
the  successive  recognitions  of  other  pictures  are  examined,  as 
in  Table  II. 

How  this  increased  speed  of  recognition  should  be  regarded, 
whether  as  a  hastening  of  the  recognition  process  or  as  a  gradual 
change  in  the  character  of  that  process  from  one  which  is  more 
or  less  conscious  toward  one  which  is  wholly  automatic,  or  as 
involving  both  tendencies,  is,  unfortunately,  not  shown  by  the 
data  at  hand. 

Beside  this  general  question  there  are  several  of  a  subordinate 
interest,  namely:  Is  there  any  difference  in  quickness  of  response 
when  a  picture  is  signaled  as  unrecognized?  Is  the  quickness 
of  response  different  when  errors  are  made,  i.  e. ,  when  a  known 
picture  is  signaled  as  unknown,  or  vice  versa}  Is  there  any 
difference  in  the  quickness  with  which  different  pictures  are 
recognized  ?  Such  data  as  the  experiments  have  furnished  upon 
these  points  are  gathered  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

In  Table  III  the  time  for  the  firsi  recognitions  has  been  taken 
from  Table  II,  instead  of  the  average  time  of  all  recognitions, 
as  corresponding  more  nearly  with  the  condition  present  when 
the  pictures  (before  unknown)  are  signaled  as  unrecognized. 
It  will  be  observed  that  three  subjects  (W,  S  and  K)  take 
longer  to  determine  and  signal  a  recognized  picture  than  an  un- 
recognized one ;  and  two,  Y  and  Q,  take  longer  for  the  unrecog- 

observations  would  be  the  same  for  the  same  subject  in  both  early  and 
later  recognitions,  and  such  would  be  the  case  except  for  differences 
introduced  by  failures  in  the  functioning  of  the  apparatus,  and  by  erro- 
neous reactions  on  the  part  of  the  subjects. 


290 


COLEGROVE  : 


Tabi^E  III. 

Showing  Comparative  Quickness  in  Signaling  Recognized  and  Un- 
recognized Pictures. 


RECOGNIZED  PICTURES. 

UNRECOGNIZED  PICTURES. 

Sub- 
ject. 

No.  of 
Cases. 

Time. 

M.  V. 

No.  of 
Cases. 

Time. 

M.V. 

W 
Y 

S 
K 

Q 

19 

33 

26 
25 

550 
644 
625 
490 

Ill 
100 
129 
124 

95 

52 

40 
48 
49 

43 

618 

583 

587* 

586 

564 

Ill 

88 
95 

121 

99 

♦One  record,  nearly  four  times  as  large  as  that  next  it  in  size,   was  omitted  in 
making  this  average. 


Tabi,e  IV. 
Showing  Comparative  Quickness  in  Erroneous  Reactions, 


WRONGLY  SIGNALHD  AS  KNOWN. 

WRONGLY  SIGNALED  AS  UNKNOWN. 

Sub- 
ject. 

No.  of 
Cases. 

Time. 

M.V. 

No.  of 
Cases. 

Time. 

M.  V. 

W 
Y 

S 
K 

Q 

9 
19 

6 
10 
16 

624 
536 
550 
614 
461 

2CX> 
118 

137 
128 

71 

20 
27 
15 
31 
10 

617 
586 
635 
570 
516 

88 
116 

98 
105 
140 

nized.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  a  difference  in  mental  attitude, 
which  will  perhaps  be  clearer  after  a  consideration  of  the  results 
where  errors  were  made.  Y,  Q  and  K  show  the  same  ten- 
dencies in  Table  IV  as  in  Table  III ;  the  times  of  W  when  in 
error  are  practically  the  same  without  regard  to  the  nature  of 
the  error;  while  for  S  the  relation  of  Table  III  is  reversed. 
The  small  number  of  cases  and  the  large  M.  V.  make  it  seem 
likely  that  this  difference  in  the  case  of  S  is  accidental,  and  ex- 
amination of  the  separate  determinations  confirms  that  opinion. 


MINOR   STUDIES.  29 1 

The  proportion  of  errors  of  each  sort  for  the  different  subjects 
is,  however,  more  characteristic  than  the  times.  The  percent- 
age of  cases  in  which  the  error  consisted  in  signaling  as  known 
a  picture  which  had  not  really  been  seen  before,  is  as  follows : 
W  31,  Y  41,  S  29,  K  24  and  Q  62.  W,  S  and  K  evidently  tend 
less  to  false  recognitions  than  Y  and  Q.  Furthermore,  if  the 
records  of  the  observers  in  all  the  tables  be  compared,  it  will  be 
found  in  every  case  that  subject  Q  made  the  quickest  responses, 
and  that  in  every  case  but  one  (t.  e.,  in  wrongly  signaling 
known  pictures  as  unknown,  Table  IV,  second  half),  Y  stands 
next  him  in  speed,  while  K,  W,  and  S  are  always  slower,  though 
their  order  among  themselves  is  different  in  different  tables. 
Y  and  Q  appear  to  err  by  being  hasty. 

The  first  inference,  perhaps,  would  be  that  Q  and  Y  belong 
to  the  motor  type  of  reagents  and  carried  their  motor  habit  into 
these  recognition  experiments  ;  and  there  was  more  or  less  in 
Q's  manner  of  reacting  to  justify  such  an  inference.  Yet,  if  this 
were  the  case,  something  of  the  same  tendency  ought  to  appear 
in  the  records  for  signaling  the  presence  of  the  letters  R  and  L. 
The  records,  however,  fail  to  show  such  a  tendency  ;  Q  is  slow 
as  compared  with  the  rest,  and  Y,  though  quick  in  the  early 
part  of  the  series,  was  excelled  by  both  S  and  W  in  the  latter 
part.  It  seems  more  probable,  therefore,  that  Q  and  Y  were 
somewhat  on  the  lookout  for  known  pictures,  while  the  rest 
expected  unknown  pictures. 

The  grading  of  the  pictures  according  to  their  difficulty  of 
recognition  was  made  on  the  basis  of  the  errors  recorded  against 
them  and  checked  by  a  subsequent  calculation  of  the  times  re- 
quired for  certain  special  groups ;  all  of  the  * '  well-known  ' ' 
pictures  were  excluded  in  this  consideration. 

Ten  pictures  had  no  errors  at  all  or  but  a  single  failure  in 
recognition  recorded  against  them.  They  gave,  together, 
thirty-three  recognition  times,  with  an  average  value  of  568, 
and  a  M.  V.  of  III.  Six  pictures,  on  the  other  hand,  failed 
of  recognition  on  four  or  more  occasions.  These  gave,  together, 
ninteen  recognition  times,  with  an  average  value  of  583  and  a 
M.  V.  of  155. 

Any  statement  of  reasons  for  this  slowness  must  be  largely 
conjectural,  but  the  pictures  recognized  with  difficulty  seem 
lacking  in  interest,  either  in  the  situation  presented  or  because 
they  involve  a  multitude  of  nearly  co-ordinate  details.  The 
pictures  that  were  most  often  recognized  falsely  (2.  e. ,  signaled  as 
known  when  shown  for  the  first  time) ,  were  a  group  of  three  draw- 
ings of  country  houses,  all  executed  in  a  similar  and  somewhat 
peculiar  manner,  and  not  easily  distinguishable  in  their  general 
aspects,  though  offering  no  difficulty  when  placed  side  by  side. 
Next  these  in  suffering  errors  of  this  kind  was  a  group  of  eleven 


292  COIvRGROVE  : 

pictures,  a  number  of  which  showed  resemblance  in  subject  or 
treatment  to  other  pictures  in  the  series.  As  was  to  have  been 
expected  from  the  nature  of  the  experiment,  the  general  effect 
is  more  important  in  both  cases  than  details. 

The  general  results  of  this  study  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  The  central  processes  of  recognition  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
magazine  pictures  take  place  in  a  fifth  of  a  second  or  less,  on 
the  average,  the  time  decreasing  as  the  familiarity  increases. 
Whether  the  judgment  that  a  picture  is  known  takes  place 
more  quickly  than  the  judgment  that  it  is  unknown,  seems  to 
depend  on  the  mental  attitude  of  the  subject — more  quickly  if 
he  expects  the  exhibition  of  known  pictures,  less  quickly  if  he 
expects  the  reverse.  Differences  in  the  facility  of  recognition 
are  found  with  different  pictures,  depending  chiefly,  it  would 
seem,  upon  their  ability  to  arouse  interest,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  compel  attention. 


XIV.     Notes  on  Mentai.  Standards  of  Length. 


By  F.  W.  Coi,EGROVE. 


The  ability  to  make  estimates  of  length  presupposes  some 
sort  of  mental  standard  which  is  applied  to  the  length  in  ques- 
tion. The  existence  of  such  standards  is  very  easy  to  demon- 
strate, and  has  even  been  found  a  serious  obstacle  in  certain 
forms  of  psychophysical  experimentation.  Some  effort  has  been 
made  to  find  how  accurately  these  mental  standards  coincide 
with  the  external  units  that  they  represent,  but  so  far  as  the 
writer  is  aware  no  one  has  tried  to  investigate  the  nature  of 
these  scales  and  their  mode  of  application.  The  present  frag- 
ment unfortunately  does  not  go  far  toward  filling  this  gap,  but 
may,  at  least,  call  attention  to  the  matter  as  a  subject  for  in- 
vestigation. It  would  be  interesting  from  the  point  of  view  of 
individual  psychology  if  we  could  know,  for  a  considerable 
number  of  persons,  the  nature  and  origin  of  their  full  equip- 
ment of  mental  standards — for  weight,  capacity,  temperature, 
angular  measure  and  money  value,  as  well  as  for  length. 

The  method  of  the  present  study  was  simple  in  the  extreme, 
and  the  results  can  be  briefly  stated.  Fifty  circles,  differing  in 
diameter  by  sixteenths  of  an  inch,  and  forming  a  continuous 
series  from  one  and  a  half  inches  to  four  and  nine-sixteenths 
inches,  were  drawn  upon  cards  of  convenient  size.  A  similar 
set  of  straight  lines  of  length  equal  to  the  diameters  of  the 
circles  was  also  prepared,  and  was  submitted  with  the  circles 
to  the  subjects  for  estimation.     The  subjects  were  ten  in  num- 


MINOR  STUDIES. 


293 


ber,  including  one  who  estimated  the  circles  but  not  the  lines. 
Six  were  university  students  (four  were  of  the  psychological 
department),  and  of  the  remaining  four,  one  was  the  wife  of  a 
university  student,  one  a  carpenter,  and  one  an  expert  ma- 
chinist. The  combined  results  of  both  series  and  for  all  sub- 
jects are  exhibited  in  the  following  diagram.     The  short  lines 


I.   J. 


I 


f-r 


TT 


FT 


FT 


TTT 


Ttt 


ri 


nr 


ittIttH 


*L. 


3. 


projecting  downward  from  the  horizontal  are  intended  to  rep- 
resent the  objective  scale,  as  ordinarily  cut  on  measuring  rules. 
The  portions  at  the  left  of  the  one  and  a  half  inch  mark  and  to 
the  right  of  the  four  and  nine-sixteenths  inch  mark  are  put  in 
in  broken  lines  to  indicate  that  while  not  actually  found  on  any 
of  the  cards  presented,  they  were  trespassed  upon  by  estimates 
of  the  subjects.  The  longer  lines  erected  upon  the  upper  side 
of  the  horizontal  are  intended  to  indicate  the  relative  frequency 
of  estimates  of  the  extent  given  by  the  division  of  the  scale 
above  which  they  stand.  The  estimate  *  *  three  inches, ' '  for 
example,  was  recorded  no  times;  that  of  "two  and  fifteen- 
sixteenths  "  (next  line  to  the  left)  4  times;  that  of  "  three  and 
one-eight"  (next  line  to  the  right)  10  times.  The  detached 
line  at  the  extreme  right  shows  the  relative  frequence  of  esti- 
mates based  upon  other  than  the  2,  4,  8,  16,  division  of  the 
inch;  they  were  chiefly  thirds,  with  occasional  fifths  and  sixths; 
no  other  irregular  fractions  were  given  by  the  subjects. 

It  is  easy  to  see  from  the  diagram  that  estimates  in  six- 
teenths are  infrequent.  The  eighth  divisions  are  maintained 
throughout  from  one  to  four  and  a  half  inches.     The  quarters 


294  COLEGROVK : 

are  well  marked,  and  the  halves  and  whole  inches  best  of 
all.  The  estimate  "  three  inches,"  approximately  the  middle 
extent  of  the  range  used,  was  the  most  frequently  given.  In 
the  eighths  and  quarters  there  is,  as  might  be  expected,  a 
tendency  to  diminish  in  frequency  from  left  to  right,  and  this 
would  doubtless  have  been  much  more  marked  had  the  range 
been  more  extended.  Such  a  decrease  in  the  fineness  of  the 
estimation  scale  with  increase  in  its  extent  is  easily  verified 
in  introspection,  and  is  probably  a  case  of  the  same  sort  of 
relativity  that  finds  expression  in  Weber's  I^aw,  at  least  in  its 
application  to  visual  extents. 

In  a  certain  sense  the  diagram  above  may  be  said  to  represent 
the  average  mental  scale  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half 
inches,  but  it  is  in  no  sense  to  be  taken  as  a  picture  of  such  a 
scale.  The  mental  scale  is  probably  a  much  more  complex 
affair.  It  seems  likely  that  most  of  us  carry  separate  standards 
for  the  principal  extents;  i,  i^,  2,  2}^,  3  inches,  and  soon, 
and  in  estimating,  classify  first  according  to  these.  Then,  iif 
pressed  for  finer  judgments,  we  estimate  the  excess  or  defect  of 
the  given  extent  in  comparison  with  the  nearest  of  these  stand- 
ards in  such  fractions  of  an  inch  as  we  have  at  command,  and 
so  arrive  at  a  final  estimate.  The  grouping  of  the  sixteenths 
near  the  whole  inches  to  be  observed  in  the  diagram,  would 
accord  well  with  such  a  process. 

The  subjects  showed  considerable  individual  differences  in 
their  fineness  of  estimate.  Of  the  twenty-two  estimates  in- 
volving sixteenths,  seventeen  were  given  by  the  machinist,  four 
by  the  lady  and  one  by  one  of  the  psychologists. 

Several  subjects  rarely  estimated  in  eighths,  and  one  used 
no  eighths  and  only  five  quarters  in  fifty  judgments.  These 
differences  are  doubtless  largely  due  to  differences  in  practical 
familiarity  with  the  measuring  rule,  but  also  perhaps  in  part 
to  a  difference  in  the  seriousness  with  which  the  task  was  under- 
taken. The  unusual  fractions,  thirds,  fifths  and  sixths,  were 
used  to  some  extent  by  five  subjects ;  with  one  exception,  by 
those  whose  scale  was  not  otherwise  very  finely  divided.  The 
use  of  these  unusual  divisions  seems  to  indicate  reliance  upon 
a  standard  inch  divided  off-hand  as  occasion  required. 

The  experiments,  as  arranged,  were  not  adapted  to  test  the 
objective  truth  of  the  estimates,  but  there  seems  to  be  a  general 
tendency  toward  under-estimation.  It  was  expected  that  this 
would  be  marked  in  the  case  of  the  circles,  following  the  well- 
known  illusion  which  affects  circles  when  compared  with  squares 
of  equal  breadth,  but  the  circles  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
more  underestimated  than  the  lines. 

With  a  view  of  studying  the  ability  of  the  subjects  to  estimate 
extents  of  less  than  an  inch,  the  following  variation  of  the 


MINOR   STUDIES.  295 

experiment  was  tried  With  eight  of  the  previous  subjects,  the 
machinest  not  being  included,  however.  A  Brown  &  Sharpe 
micrometric  gauge  was  set  at  the  even  tenths  of  an  inch  from 
o.  I  to  the  full  inch  and  the  subjects  were  asked  to  estimate  the 
separation  of  the  jaws.  In  this  case  all  the  subjects  but  one 
used  divisions  as  fine  as  sixteenths,  and  one  went  as  far  as  sixty- 
fourths.  The  remaining  subject  gave  no  fraction  with  larger 
denominator  than  six.  One  gave  estimates  in  unusual  frac- 
tions (thirds  and  fifths)  but  no  one  ventured  on  a  decimal 
division. 

Other  tests  were  made  in  which  the  subjects  drew  their 
standards  for  the  whole  inches  from  one  to  five,  and  still  others 
in  which  the  lines  were  estimated  from  memory  after  a  few 
minutes  interval,  but  not  in  sufficient  number  to  warrant  pres- 
entation of  the  results. 


NOTES  ON  THE  CASTRATION  OF  IDIOT  CHILDREN. 


By  Everett  Fi,ood,  M.  D.,  Supt.  Hospital  Cottages  for  Children, 
Baldwinville,  Mass. 


Bibliography  and  Brie:f  Abstracts. 

T.  B.  Curling,  Diseases  of  the  Testis,  London,  1843. 

Dictionnaire  Encyclopedique  des  Sciences  Med.,  1873.  Cas- 
tration, BOUISSON. 

History  of  Circumcision,  P.  C.  Rbmondino,  1891.  F.  A.  Davis 
Co. 

Pickering,  Races  of  Man,  p.  153. 

Dr.  Robert  Boal  read  before  the  Illinois  State  Medical  Society 
a  paper  under  the  title  *  *  Emasculation  and  Ovariotomy  as  a 
Penalty  for  Crime  and  the  Reformation  of  Criminals."— /<?wr. 
Am.  Med.  Association,  Sept.,  i8g^. 

Dr.  A.  Lapthorn  Smith,  Montreal,  Can.,  reports  the  case  of 
Miss  X.,  age  25,  ovaries  and  tubes  removed  7  years  ago.  Still 
has  the  same  sexual  feeling  as  before  and  indulges  excessively. 

Dr.  E.  J.  Munroe,  of  Bordeaux,  reports  observations  in  two 
cases  of  ovariotomy  in  young  women,  which  showed  an  effect 
on  the  voice  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  is  brought  about  in 
the  male  by  castration.  The  higher  notes  were  lost  and  the 
voice  fell  from  soprano  to  mezzo-soprano. — Boston  Med.  and 
Surg.  Jour. 

In  a  paper  entitled  "The  Crimes  of  Medical  Men,"  in  the 
Medical  Herald  for  June,  1896,  Dr.  W.  O.  Henry  mentions  as 
one  crime  the  failure  to  urge  legislation  to  prevent  marriage  of 
criminals  or  to  have  them  castrated. — Record,  Sept.,  1896. 

In  the  Annals  of  Surgery,  Sept.,  1896,  Dr.  A.  T.  Cabot  dis- 
cusses the  question  of  "Castration  for  Enlarged  Prostate,"  in 
which  the  writer  takes,  on  the  whole,  an  unfavorable  view  of 
the  operation  as  compared  with  the  older  one  of  prostatectomy. 
Dr.  White,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Annual,  combats  some  of 
his  conclusions.  "The  large  proportion  of  cases  mentioned  by 
Dr.  Cabot  in  which  mental  disturbance  followed  the  operation 
is  noteworthy,  even  if  it  is  not  directly  attributable  to  the  oper- 
ation." A  large  mortality  has  followed  the  operation  of  cas- 
tration in  the  aged  for  enlarged  prostate. 

Dr.  Pilcher,  Supt.  of  the  Institute  for  Imbeciles  and  Weak 
Minded  Children,  at  Winfield,  Kan. ,  has  been  bitterly  denounced 


NOTES  ON  THE   CASTRATION   OF   IDIOT   CHILDREN.       297 

by  newspapers  in  Winfield  and  Topeka  for  castrating  several 
boys,  inmates,  who  were  confirmed  masturbators.  His  prede- 
cessor, Dr.  Wile,  had  treated  these  boys  five  years  without 
benefit,  and  Dr.  Pilcher,  taking  a  rational  view  of  the  subject, 
performed  the  operation  for  the  same  reason  that  he  would  per- 
form any  other  surgical  operation — for  its  curative  effect.  There 
is  a  strong  probability  that  he  will  be  indicted  for  mayhem,  to 
the  everlasting  disgrace  of  the  civilization  of  the  nineteenth 
century. — Texas  Med.  Jour. 

The  House  Committee  on  Public  Health  of  the  Kansas  Legis- 
lature has  made  a  favorable  report  on  the  bill  which  does  away 
with  the  penitentiary  sentence  for  men  convicted  of  assaulting 
women,  and  substitutes  castration.  The  Social  Purity  League 
of  Topeka  has  been  urging  the  passage  of  this  bill,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  league  claim  enough  votes  in  both  houses  to  pass 
it,  and  have  secured  the  promise  of  Gov.  Leedy's  signature. 
They  say  that  following  the  lead  of  Kansas,  ten  other  States 
will  pass  the  same  law  at  their  next  session  of  legislature. — 
Med.  Record. 

*'  Castration  in  cases  of  sexual  perversion  and  for  habitual 
criminals  has  been  revived  in  able  papers  read  before  the  Chicago 
Medico- Legal  Society,  by  Daniel,  of  Texas,  and  Way,  of  the 
Elmira  Reformatory.  The  arguments  advanced  did  not  receive 
a  very  cordial  endorsement  from  the  members  present,  and  the 
possibility  of  the  adoption  of  the  measure  advocated  is  slight. 
It  is  too  radical  a  change  to  be  made  in  a  hurry,  and  the  fact 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  any  such  experimentation  is  con- 
trar}^  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  will  receive  almost  universal 
condemnation. " — Cutting. 

A  writer  in  the  London  Lancet  gives  us  some  information  on 
the  subject  of  the  demand  and  supply  of  eunuchs  in  China. 
The  emperor  and  certain  members  of  the  royal  family  are  alone 
entitled  to  keep  eunuchs.  His  majesty  maintains  at  least  2,000, 
but  no  prince  of  the  blood  or  imperial  princess  has  a  right  to 
more  than  30.  In  the  production  of  Chinese  eunuchs  four  chief 
factors  prevail,  viz. :  greed,  predilection,  poverty  and  laziness. 
Many  parents  sell  their  male  children  to  the  mutilators,  or  them- 
selves castrate  them  in  the  hope  of  eventually  sharing  their 
earnings.  Both  penis  and  scrotum  are  removed  by  a  single 
sweep  of  the  operator's  knife  or  scivSsors.  A  small  piece  of  wood 
or  pewter  is  inserted  into  the  open  urethra  and  the  wound 
washed  with  pepper  and  water.  The  patient  is  then  walked 
for  three  hours  without  rest,  and  for  the  following  three  days  he 
is  allowed  no  drink,  while  the  plug  fills  the  urethra.  On  the 
fourth  day  the  plug  is  removed  and  if  the  urine  flows  he  is  looked 
upon  as  cured;  but,  should  the  overstrained  bladder  refuse  to 
act,  he  is  left  to  die.     Fatal  cases  amount  to  about  three  per  cent. 

JOURNAI,^-9 


\-.> 


298  FI.OOD  : 

' '  In  Siluria  boys  are  castrated  in  a  certain  village  and  dressed 
in  women's  clothes." — Uncertain  authority. 

Hammond  refers  to  castration  as  a  religious  ceremony  in  New 
Mexico. 

There  is  a  wide-spread  belief  that  squirrels  castrate  each  other, 
but  after  reading  much  pro  and  con  I  feel  pretty  well  satisfied 
that  the  very  frequent  cases  where  the  testicles  are  missing  is 
due  to  a  parasitic  disease  which  destroys  the  gland. 

Dr.  Edmund  Andrews,  of  the  Northwestern  University, 
Chicago,  writes  for  the  American  Medical  Journal  of  Jan.,  1898, 
that  the  following  effects  of  castration  on  animals  are  noted. 
The  elk  experimented  upon  did  not  shed  their  horns  in  the  fol- 
lowing season,  as  is  usual  with  them,  but  the  old  horn  remained. 
The  severe  weather  froze  the  horn  at  the  tips  and  these  tips 
came  off  and  then  numerous  small  sprouts  came  out.  These  in 
turn  were  nipped  in  the  following  season  and  sprouted  in  smaller 
parts  and  this  went  on  until  a  pair  of  large  nobby  bunches  of 
bone  stood  up  on  the  heads.  If  protected,  these  horns  would 
probably  attain  an  immense  growth. 

The  ox.  When  the  calf  is  castrated  he  grows  to  be  a  larger 
and  taller  animal  than  the  bull  but  his  neck  and  forequarters 
are  thinner.  His  cerebellum  becomes  larger  than  that  of  the 
bull  and  his  horns  become  both  thicker  and  longer.  The  voice 
is  changed  in  pitch  while  lowing  but  not  in  bellowing. 

The  horse  grows  larger  if  castrated  young  and  the  bridle  teeth 
do  not  seem  to  be  changed  as  occurs  in  the  full  male. 

Sheep.  The  wethers  do  not  become  especially  larger.  The 
wool  of  the  ram  is,  however,  much  more  oily  and  of  less  value. 

The  cat.  These  animals  grow  larger  and  are  good  mousers. 
They  are  fonder  of  petting. 

Thecapo7i,  castrated  chicken,  grow  larger,  the  flesh  is  delicate, 
the  spurs  undeveloped,  the  colored  comb  and  wattles  remain 
small.  Some  of  them  develop  a  nursing  instinct  and  take  good 
care  of  a  brood  of  chickens. 

In  general  terms,  if  an  animal  is  castrated  young  he  develops 
the  distinctively  male  peculiarities  in  only  a  slight  degree,  yet 
some  species  produce  much  larger  horns  than  the  perfect  male. 
The  ox  and  gelding  do  not  completely  lose  their  sexual  passion, 
but  make  frequent  efforts  to  copulate  with  the  females  in  heat. 

Physical  effects  of  castration  in  man  seem  to  be  that  if  cas- 
trated young  they  grow  taller  and  have  larger  frames.  They 
are  also  fatter.  The  hair  on  pubes  and  face  does  not  grow. 
Cheeks  look  round  and  prominent,  chin  apt  to  be  double,  no 
beard.  The  voice  in  boys  below  age  of  puberty  is  about  like 
that  of  a  woman,  but  after  puberty  it  is  found  an  octave  lower 
than  that  of  the  woman.  The  timbre  never  attains  the  richness 
and  flute-like  splendor  of  the  adult  woman. 


NOTES   ON   THE   CASTRATION   OF   IDIOT   CHII.DREN.       299 

Mental  effects  of  castratio7i.  If  castrated  late  in  life  the  sexual 
desires  are  not  abated,  but  if  in  early  childhood  it  is  practically 
lost.  Eunuchs  are  charged  with  special  envy  and  jealousy,  but 
this  does  not  seem  substantiated.  They  are  only  zealous  in  their 
duty  of  defending  the  women  whom  they  are  in  charge  of. 

Dr.  Robert  P.  Harris,  of  Philadelphia,  in  an  article  on  Con- 
genital Absence  of  the  Penis,  in  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal 
of  January  8th,  1898,  offers  the  following  conclusions  among 
others :  The  eunuch  has  usually  longer  legs,  a  light  pelvis, 
and  is  defective  in  the  growth  of  his  chest  and  arms.  His  long 
bones  are  light  and  have  a  larger  hollow  in  them  than  in  the 
full  man.  If  not  taller,  he  is  often  very  fat,  and  attains  a  weight 
of  200  or  300  pounds. 

"A  complete  antithesis  to  the  Jumpers  is  presented  in  the 
sect  of  the  so-called  White  Doves  or  Skoptzi.  These  are  a  secret 
sect  in  Russia,  belonging  to  the  Christian  belief,  but  secretly 
practicing  castration,  and  believing  that  thereby  they  insure 
purity.  They  are  certainly  a  wonderful  people,  with  many  ex- 
cellencies, though  fanatics  in  this  belief." 

An  editorial  in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion of  October  23d,  1897,  concludes  that  the  psychic  and 
physical  effects  of  castration  are  less  pronounced  the  later  in 
life  the  operation  is  performed.  The  general  argument  is  in 
favor  of  great  care  in  performing  the  operation  in  women,  and 
a  conservatism  that  has  not  as  yet  been  practiced. 

Castration  is  hinted  at  in  Mat.  xix,  12  ;  Deuteronomy  xxiii, 
I ,  two  mutilations  analagous  to  complete  castration  are  men- 
tioned. 

A  castration  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Michigan  Legislature 
providing  for  the  castration  of  all  inmates  of  the  Michigan  Home 
for  the  Feeble- Minded  and  Epileptic  before  their  discharge;  also 
for  that  of  all  persons  convicted  of  a  felony  for  the  third  time, 
and  of  those  convicted  of  rape,  in  1897. 

Of  the  26  >male  cases  here  operated  on,  24  were  operated  on 
because  of  persistent  epilepsy  and  masturbation,  one  for  epilepsy 
with  imbecility,  and  one  for  masturbation  with  weakness  of 
mind. 

The  results  of  the  tabulation  show  that  the  cases  were  at  time 
of  operation  about  half  of  them  under  14,  four  16,  five  17,  two 
were  more  than  twenty,  and  the  balance  of  15.  The  time  since 
the  operation  has  been  in  most  of  the  cases  some  years,  but  in 
four  the  operation  has  been  done  within  a  year.  The  mortality 
has  been  nothing,  and  the  operation  is  regarded  as  very  safe  and 
simple  even  with  adults,  though  there  has  been  a  high  mortality 
in  the  aged  castrated  for  enlarged  prostate. 

In  these  cases  they  have  been  operated  on  under  an  anesthetic 
and  some  have  been  circumcised  at  the  same  time.     A  large 


300  FLOOD : 

number  of  other  cases  have  been  circumcised  alone  and  all  with 
good  results. 

Two  of  these  cases  had  large  varicocele  which  was  all  cut 
away  at  the  time  of  castration. 

The  mental  and  moral  condition  was  fair  in  9,  good  in  2,  and 
poor  in  the  others  ;  this  has  become  better  in  3  cases  and  re- 
mained unchanged  in  the  rest ;  two  were  kleptomaniacs,  and 
this  manifestation  has  nearly  disappeared  since  the  operation  ; 
one  was  salacious,  improved  since  operation  ;  one  was  solitary, 
not  so  much  so  now;  four  were  passionate  and  quarrelsome  and  are 
now  much  less  so  ;  one  persistently  eloped  but  now  never  attempts 
it ;  two  were  gluttonous  and  remain  so ;  one  was  monkeyish 
and  is  still  much  the  same ;  one  was  imbecile  and  is  now  more 
so ;  four  ceased  to  have  fits,  though  without  much  mental  change, 
soon  after  the  operation  ;  the  voice  remains  soft  in  five  cases  and 
is  not  perceptibly  altered  in  the  others.  Masturbation  has 
ceased  in  all  the  cases  but  one ;  that  comes  on  at  times  only  and 
lasts  for  a  few  days. 

In  one  of  the  female  cases,  not  included  in  the  26,  masturba- 
tion is  quite  prominent  at  intervals,  but  at  such  times  the  girl 
is  insane  and  demented.  There  has  been  gain  in  weight,  aside 
from  growth,  in  all  cases  but  3.  The  sexual  appetite  seems  to 
be  now  missing  in  all  the  cases  but  2,  and  in  them  appears  only 
periodically.  Erections  sometimes  occur  but  without  erethism 
except  in  the  instances  where  masturbation  still  occurs.  No 
extra  growth  of  legs  or  body  has  been  noted  in  these  cases,  and 
could  not  well  be,  as  they  are  nearly  ali  still  in  the  growing 
stage  and  have  not  as  yet  shown  abnormal  size.  The  temper 
has  been  improved  in  all  instances  but  4,  where  it  remains  un- 
changed. There  is  less  pugnacity  in  all  the  cases,  and  less  of 
anger,  obstinacy  and  self-will.  It  seems  that  the  cases  grow 
more  sympathetic  and  altruistic,  and  in  some  the  emotional 
nature  in  general  is  better  balanced  and  more  nearly  normal. 

In  all  these  cases  the  written  consent  of  the  parents  has  been 
obtained. 

This  class  of  work  has  been  very  little  done  anywhere,  as 
public  opinion  has  been  much  against  it,  and  even  among  med- 
ical men  no  encouragement  has  been  given  until  recently. 

The  effect  upon  the  epileptic  seizures  appears  to  have  been 
good  in  all  cases.  Some  have  ceased  having  the  attacks  alto- 
gether, though  one  has  had  an  attack  after  two  years  of  im- 
munity, but  it  was  brought  on  by  over-eating.  All  the  cases 
have  the  attacks  less  often  and  with  less  severity. 

Only  five  of  these  cases  have  had  bromide  since  the  operation 
and  they  with  diminishing  doses,  now  reduced  to  five  or  ten 
grains  once  dail}'.     All  the  others  have  been  without  medicine, 


NOTES  ON  THE  CASTRATION  OF  IDIOT  CHII.DREN.      30I 

except  that  they  have  had  tonics,  such  as  Co.  Tinct.  Gentian, 
and  cod  liver  oil,  at  intervals. 

Fourteen  of  the  cases  are  Americans,  six  Irish,  one  Scotch, 
one  Swedish,  the  others  being  of  unknown  extraction.  At 
present,  17  of  the  cases  still  reside  in  this  Institution,  3  are  in 
lunatic  hospitals,  five  are  at  home  with  parents,  and  the  where- 
abouts of  one  unknown. 


ON  THE  WORDS  FOR  ''FEAR"  IN   CERTAIN   LANGUAGES. 
A  STUDY  IN  LINGUISTIC   PSYCHOLOGY. 


By  Alex.  F.  Chamberlain,  Ph.  D.,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 


In  a  previous  essay^  the  writer  discussed  anger-words,  and  reference 
to  this  will  be  necessary  since  not  a  few  fear-words  are  akin  to  those 
used  to  denote  anger. 

I.  Fear,  if  we  trust  the  etymology  of  its  English  name,  is  "an  ex- 
perience;'''' Skeat  tells  us  that  the  word  was  "originally  used  of  the 
perils  and  experiences;  of  a  yi2.y -faring.''  The  Anglo-Saxon  fder 
meant "  a  sudden  peril,  danger,  panic,  fear  ;"  cognate  are  Icelandic yiir, 
"bale,  harm,  mischief,"  Old  High  German  yara,  var,  "treason,  dan- 
ger, fright,"  Modern  German  Ge-fahr,  "danger,  peril,  risk."  Re- 
lated also  are  :  'Liotin periculum,  "  peril,  trial,  danger  "  {irom perior, 
the  root  of  peritus,  "experienced,  skilled"),  experientia^  "expe- 
rience, trial,  proof;"  Greek  Tretpa,  "attempt,  stratagem,  trick," 
vepdu)  "  I  go  through."  The  common  radical  of  all  these  terms  is 
the  Indo-European  root  Per,  "  to  pass  through,  to  travel,  to  /are  (as 
our  own  English  word  from  the  same  stock  has  it)."     In  Old  Norse 

/dr  has  the  additional  signification  of  "  plague,  pestilence,  misfor- 
tune," which  may  go  to  somewhat  explain  our  expression  "  a  plague 
of  fear."     JFear,  then,  emphasizes  "  what  one  has  passed  through." 

II.  "  All  of  a  tremble'''  is  a  popular  description  of  the  state  of  fear 
or  terror,  and  not  a  few  of  our  fear-words  contain  this  primitive  idea. 
We  say  "  trembling,  shaking,  quaking  with  fear,"  and  these  expres- 
sions find  their  analogues  in  many  other  tongues.  George  Fox  tells 
us  in  his  "Journal  "  that  "Justice  Bennet  [in  1650]  was  the  first  to 
call  us  Quakers,  because  I  bade  him  quake  and  tremble  at  the  word  of 
the  Lord,"  and  all  over  the  world  the  "  fear  of  the  Lord  "  has  been 
largely  associated  with  quaking  and  trem,bling . 

The  English  word  terror  (French  terreur,  Latin  terror^,  goes  back 
to  the  same  root  which  gave  birth  to  Latin  terrere  (older  form,  ter- 
sere),  "to  dread,  to  be  afraid,"  and,  originally,  "to  tremble;"  Rus- 
sian triasti  {triasate),  "  to  shake,  to  shiver;"  Lithuanian  triszeti,  "  to 
tremble;"  Sanskrit  tras,  "  to  tremble,  to  be  afraid,"  trdsa,  "  terror" — 
the  radical  of  all  being  Indo-European  ters,  "to  tremble,  to  be 
afraid."  Of  similar  meaning,  ultimately  are  tremor  and  cognate 
words  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  the  derivatives  of  Greek  T/)^w, 
"  I  tremble,  quake,  fear,  dread,  am  afraid  of." 

The  German  Furcht  (the  Middle  High  German  vorhte  signified 
"  fear,  anxiety,  apprehension  ")  is  the  abstract  of  the  verb  fUrchten,'* 
cognate  with  Gothic /aurhtj an,  "  to  fear,  to  be  afraid  of,"  to  which  is 
related  the  adjective-participle  fauhrts,  "  fearful,  timid,"  faurhtei, 
"  fear."  The  Teutonic  radical /(?rA,  together,  perhaps,  with  the  roots 
of  Latin  querquerus,  '•  shivering  with  cold,"  and  Greek  x«PXa^P<^»  **  I 
tremble,"  goes  back  to  the  Indo-European  ^^r/?;  or  qerk,''\.o  trem- 
ble." Another  word  embodying  the  same  idea  is  Gothic  reiro,  "  trem- 
ble, terror" — reiran,  "to  tremble."     To  "  tremble  like  an  aspen  "  is 

»  Amer.Jour.  Psychol.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  585-592. 


WORDS    FOR    "fear."  303 

a  very  ancient  Indo-European  figure  of  speech.  The  Latin  pavor, 
"quaking,  trembling,  throbbing  with  desire,  joy,  fear,"  "anxiety, 
fear,  dread, — the  god  of  fear  is  personified  as  Pavor, — to  be  afraid,  to 
fear,  to  tremble,"  and  the  Greek  #6/3os,  with  all  the  phobias  to  which 
it  has  given  rise  in  the  various  civilized  languages,  have  at  their  base 
radicals  which  signify  "to  tremble."  The  corresponding  verbs  in 
Greek  ^o/S^w  and  ^^/SoTjat  are  related  to  Sanskrit  bhi,  "  fear,"  bibheti, 
"he  is  afraid,"  Lithuanian  baime,  "fear,"  bijitiSy  "to  be  afraid," 
bajiis,  "terrible,"  baish,  "terror,"  while  the  modern  German  beben, 
"  to  tremble,  quake,"  goes  back  to  the  same  Indo-European  radical. 

We  speak  in  English  of  "  shivering  with  terror,  or  fear,"  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  in  the  "  Gest  Hystoriale  of  the  Destruction  of 
Troy,"  an  English  Romance  circa  1390  A.  D.,  we  find  "  Achilles  at  the 
choice  men  cheuert  (shivered)  for  anger." 

The  French  vi or ^craindre,  "  to  fear,"  belongs  here  also,  being  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  tremere. 

The  radical  meaning  of  English  shudder  is  to  "  tremble." 

III.  Another  closely  related  series  of  words  is  that  in  which  the 
basal  idea  is  agitation,  move^neiit,  stir.  Here  belong  the  Latin 
metus,  "  agitation,  anxiety,  fear,  dread,  terror,"  metuere,  "  to  fear,  to 
be  afraid  of," — allied  perhaps  to  tnotus,  "  moved,  affected,  disturbed." 
Trepidation, — the  Latin  trepidatio  signified  "confused  hurry,  alarm, 
consternation,  terror,  trepidation," — has  a  curious  etymology.  Festus, 
the  ancient  grammarian,  glosses  the  old  Latin  trepit  by  uertit,  adding 
the  remark  "  unde  trepidus  et  trepidatio,  quia  turbatione  mens  uer- 
titur."  The  Latin  adjective  ifr<?/?Ww5,  "  trembling,  alarmed,  fearful, 
anxious,"  etc.,  would  then  seem  to  signify  "  in  a  state  of  disturbance, 
as  if  the  mind  is  being  continually  turned  about  or  agitated  (Skeat)." 
The  Old  Latin  trepere  is  cognate  with  Greek  Tp^ireiv,  "to  turn," 
and  also  with  Latin  torquere  {\s\iQ^nc&  torture) ,  the  basis  of  all  being 
the  Indo-European  radical  t-rk,  "to  turn,  to  twist."  -So  when  we 
speak  of  being  tortured  by  our  fears  we  are  but  repeating  a  very  old 
figure  of  speech.     A  coward  we  often  say  "  writhes  with  fear." 

IV.  A  common  expression  in  English  is  "  to  start  with  fear,"  with 
which  may  be  compared  the  colloquial  "  to  almost  jump  out  of  one's 
boots;"  we  have  also  the  derivative  "  to  startle.^''  The  same  idea  is  at 
the  basis  of  the  modern  High  German  Schreck,  "terror,  fright,  fear, 
horror,"  the  Old  High  German  verb  screckdn  signifying,  "to  start  up, 
to  leap,  to  hop,"  the  Middle  High  German  substantive  schric,  "  a  sud- 
den start,  terror,"  and  the  causative  verb  schrecken,  "  to  cause  to 
start,  to  make  afraid."  The  radical  is  skrik,  "to  leap,  to  move  sud- 
denly, to  start." 

A  cognate  idea  resides  in  the  Modern  German  sich  entsetzen,  "to  be 
startled  at,  to  be  terrified,  to  shudder,"  and  the  substantive  Entse- 
tzen, "terror,  dread,  horror,  fright."  The  Middle  High  German  ent- 
setzen signified,  "  to  cast  down,  to  disconcert,  to  fear,  to  be  afraid  of," 
the  Old  High  German  intsizzen  (there  is  also  a  M.  H.  G.  from  entsit- 
zen),  "  to  come  out  of  one's  seat,  to  lose  one's  composure,  to  fear,  to 
be  afraid  of."  In  Gothic  we  find  andasets,  "  horrible,"  andsitan,  "  to 
be  terrified."  These  words  are  all  based  upon  the  Indo-European 
root  sed,  "  to  sit,"  with  a  privative,  or  disjunctive  prefix  (Mod.  Ger- 
man ent,  Gothic  and).  The  idea  at  the  root  of  Entsetzen,  is  "  start- 
ing from  one's  seat  in  terror." 

V.  The  sinking  of  the  heart  and  of  the  vital  organs  generally  is  a 
familiar  conception  of  "fear"  among  primitive  peoples,  and  one 
which  appears  very  often  in  picture-writing  and  sign-language,  as 
Col.  Mallery  has  pointed  out.  Our  own  language  furnishes  cognate 
expressions,   "to  have  one's  heart  in  one's  boots,"   "to  feel  one's 


304  CHAMBERI.IN  : 

heart  sink,"  etc.    Being  "  down-hearted  "  is  thus  a  very  early  form  of 
fear. 

Perhaps,  here  belong  also  the  Yoruba  (a  West  African  language) 
aiyafo  mi,  "  I  am  afraid,"  literally,  "  the  heart  jumps  me,"  daiyafo, 
"  to  frighten,"  etc.,  although  the  jumping  is  here  the  other  way.  We 
say,  analogously,  in  English  "  my  heart  leaped  into  my  mouth,"  in 
speaking  of  certain  aspects  of  fear. 

VI.  The  ghost  in  '*  Hamlet  "  describes  several  of  the  known  symp- 
toms of  fear : 

**  I  could  a  tale  unfold,  whose  lightest  word 
Would  harrow  up  thy  soul,  freeze  thy  young  blood, 
Make  thy  two  eyes,  like  stars,  start  from  their  spheres. 
Thy  knotted  and  combined  locks  to  part, 
And  each  particular  hair  to  stand  on  end, 
Ivike  quills  upon  the  fretful  porpentine." 

The  last  mentioned  symptom  is  illustrated  by  the  etymology  of  the 
word  horror.  The  I^atin  horror,  *'  a  standing  on  end,  bristling,  terror, 
dread,"  and  horrere,  **to  stand  erect,  to  bristle,  to  be  afraid,  aston- 
ished, amazed,  to  startle  with  fear,"  etc.,  as  the  older  form  {horsere) 
of  the  verb  (cf.  hirsutus,  "rough,  hairy,  shaggy")  shows,  refer  to 
the  "bristling  of  the  hair  in  fear."  In  Sanskrit  hirsh,  "to  bris- 
tle," is  said  of  the  hair,  "especially  as  a  token  of  anger  or  pleasure  " 
(Skeat). 
Virgil  refers  to  the  bristling  of  the  hair  in  the  Aen.,  II,  774 : 
Obstupui,  steteruntque  comae,  et  vox  faucibus  hsesit. 

VII.  The  "  freezing  of  the  blood  "  finds  cognate  expression  in  some 
of  our  fear-words,  and  besides  we  speak  often  enough  of  "  the  cold 
shivers  "  of  fear,  and  "the  cold  sweat"  that  accompanies  it.  Our 
English  afraid  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  affray  "  to  frighten," 
which  Skeat  traces  through  the  Old  French  effreier  (effraier,  esfreer), 
"  to  frighten,"  to  a  I^ow  Latin  exfrigidare  {iromfrigus,''  cold  "),"  to 
freeze  with  terror," — in  L/atin  frigidus  meant  "  dead  or  stiffened  with 
cold  or  fright,"  and  Horace  even  uses  it  in  the  sense  of  "  fearful."  A 
common  phrase  in  English  is  *' numbed  with  fear." 

VIII.  Our  English  dismay,  "  to  terrify,  to  discourage,"  comes,  ac- 
cording to  the  Skeat,  from  Old  French  dismayer  (cf.  Spanish  des- 
mayar,  "  to  dismay,  to  dishearten,  to  be  discouraged,  to  lose  heart  "), 
which  seems  to  have  been  supplanted  very  early  by  the  verb  esmayer, 
"  to  dismay,  to  terrify,  to  strike  powerless  " — the  intransitive  sense  of 
which  "  to  lose  power,  to  faint,  to  be  discouraged,"  would  appear  to 
be  the  older.  Desm-ayer  and  esm,ayer,  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, are  derived  from  the  Old  High  German  magan  (Mod.  Germ. 
"tnogen.  Mod.  Engl,  may),  with  the  Latin  prefixes  dis-,  ex-.  The 
"  loss  of  power  "  is  the  basal  idea  here.  From  Old  French  esmayer 
comes  Modern  French  dm,oi,  "  fright,  terror."  Cognate  also  is  the 
Italian  smagare,  "  to  lose  courage."  The  English  word  misgiving 
has  somewhat  of  the  idea  in  dismay.  With  us,  in  English  "  to  lose 
heart  "  is  "to  give  way  to  fear." 

IX.  The  Latin  consternatio  (whence  our  consternation),  signified 
" consternation,  fright,  tumult;"  the  corresponding  verb  is  conster- 
nare,  "to  stretch  on  the  ground,  to  prostrate,  to  terrify,  to  alarm,  to 
dismay  " — the  participle  consternatus  meaning  "  cast  down,  prostrate, 
frightened."  The  basal  idea  is  seen  in  Latin  sternere,  "to  throw 
down,  to  throw  to  the  ground,"  from  the  Indo-European  radical  st-r, 
"to  spread  out."  We  employ  a  somewhat  similar  figure  when  we 
speak  of  "  abject  fear." 

X.  We  often  speak  of  persons  being  "  rooted  to  the  ground  with 


WORDS   FOR    "FBAR."  305 

fear,"  "transfixed  with  fear,"  etc.;  from  fright  people  often  stand 
"  stock  still."  In  Gothic  we  find  usgaisjan,  "  to  terrify,"  usgeisnan, 
"  to  be  terrified,"  cognate  with  Old  Norse  geiska-fullr,  "  filled  with 
terror,"  and  Lithuanian  gai'szti,  "to  swoon."  Related  also  is  the 
Latin  ha^rere  (older  form  hcssere),  "  to  cling  to,  to  stick,  to  be  unable 
to  move  away  " — the  radical  of  the  whole  series  being  Indo-European 
ghaiSy  "to  stick."  We  still  say  of  a  valiant  man  that  "he  will  not 
stick  at  anything." 


BOOK  NOTES. 


G.   S.   H. 


Die  Ideenassoziation  des  Kindes.    Von  Th.  Ziehen.     Berlin :  Reu- 
ther  und  Reichard,  1898.     pp.  66.     Price,  Mk.  1.50. 

A  scientific  study  of  the  association  of  ideas,  Professor  Ziehen  notes 
with  surprise,  has  scarcely  yet  been  made  ;  although  from  a  theoretical, 
no  less  than  a  pedagogical,  point  of  view,  no  field  promises  richer  re- 
sults. Galton  has,  it  is  true,  done  something  with  the  associated  ideas 
of  adults,  but  in  the  domain  of  genetic  psychology  one  finds  only  the 
most  incidental  references  to  the  subject,  and  Professor  Ziehen's  study 
is  an  attempt  to  break  new  ground.  His  test  was  carried  on  with  forty- 
two  boys,  from  eight  to  fourteen,  in  the  practice  school  connected  with 
Rein's  Padagogische  Seminar  at  the  University  of  Jena.  Certain  mon- 
osyllabic words  —  the  names  of  well-known  objects  —  were  at  stated 
intervals  pronounced  to  the  boys  and  they  were  required  to  give  the 
immediately  suggested  idea.  The  children  usually  answered  in  a  word 
and  these  answers,  or  associated  ideas,  Professor  Ziehen  groups  (i) 
rapid  (springende)  associations  and  (2)  reasoning  (urteils)  association. 
"  Rose — red  "  illustrates  the  first  group.  There  is  manifest  absence 
of  reasoning,  and  ideas  of  time  and  space  are  not  taken  into  considera- 
tion. In  the  second  group  the  child  answers,  **The  rose  is  red." 
Here  a  definite  rose  is  considered  and  time  and  space  are  indicated. 
The  idea  presented  is  also  connected  with  the  resulting  idea. 

Verbal  associations  constituted  less  than  2%  of  the  associations  made 
by  the  children,  but  Professor  Ziehen  concludes  that  such  associations 
are  more  common  among  adults  and  most  common  in  persons  having 
mania  or  some  form  of  mental  debility.  A  form  of  association — some- 
what related  to  verbal  association — namely,  word-completion,  he  found 
more  general  among  the  children,  as,  for  example,  postal — card  ;  heart 
— shaped;  post — office,  etc.  The  most  significant  facts  brought  out 
in  Professor  Ziehen's  study  are  (i)  the  universal  application  of  the 
law  of  contiguity  with  the  young  child — only  in  verbal  associations 
was  there  any  hint  of  the  working  of  the  law  of  similarity,  and  the 
verbal  associations,  it  will  be  recalled,  were  not  numerous;  and  (2) 
the  strong  emotional  element  in  the  associated  ideas  of  children.  This, 
says  Ziehen,  explains  why  the  memory-images  of  school  excursions 
form  so  readily  and  are  reinstated  so  easily. 

Wiiyi,  S.  Monroe. 
Studien  und  Versuche  uber  die  Erlernung  der  Orthographie.      Von 
Herman  Schii^ler.     Berlin :  Reuther  und  Reichard,  1898.     pp. 
63.     Price,  Mk.  1.50. 

The  spelling  problem,  notes  Professor  Schiller,  in  his  introduction, 
is  far  from  settled — German  contemporary  pedagogical  thought  to  the 
contrary,  notwithstanding.  The  results  obtained  in  the  schools,  which 
are  far  from  satisfactory,  justify  some  investigation  into  the  psycho- 
logical basis  of  accurate  spelling.  The  customary  way  of  acquiring 
word-forms,  assumes  the  author,  is  primarily  through  the  eye  and  the 
ear.  In  order  to  have  the  accurate  orthography  of  a  word,  the  pupil 
must  heaVy  see,  pronounce  and  write  the  new  word ;  and  in  order  to 


BOOK    NOTES.  307 

test  the  relative  value  of  visual,  auditory  and  motor  methods  in  spell- 
ing instruction,  Professor  Schiller  devised  a  series  of  words  which 
were  in  eleven  different  ways  propounded  to  classes  of  boys  ranging 
in  age  from  eight  to  nine.  The  following  were  the  variations  of  the 
tests  :  I.  Words  pronounced  by  teacher,  the  pupils  holding  their 
mouths  firmly  closed;  2.  Words  pronounced  by  teacher,  the  pupils 
repeating  the  same  in  a  low  tone  ;  3.  Words  pronounced  by  teacher, 
pupils  repeating  the  same  in  a  loud  tone ;  4.  Words  pronounced  by 
teacher,  and  the  pupils  write  the  words  in  the  air;  5.  Teacher  writes 
the  words  on  the  board,  the  pupils  close  the  mouth  firmly,  and  look 
at  it  an  instant ;  6.  The  same,  the  pupils  pronounce  the  words  in  a  low 
tone;  7.  Same,  the  pupils  pronounce  the  words  in  a  loud  tone  ;  8.  Same, 
the  pupils  write  the  words  in  the  air ;  9.  The  teacher  pronounces  the 
words,  the  pupils  spell  the  same,  that  is,  name  the  letters  and  syllables 
in  the  words  ;  10.  The  same,  the  pupils  pronouncing  the  words  in  low 
tones  ;  11.  The  same,  the  pupils  pronouncing  the  words  in  loud  tones. 

Each  test  was  repeated  eight  different  times  with  words  which  had 
not  been  taught  to  the  boys  and  which  must  have  been  more  or  less 
new  to  them.  The  efl&ciency  of  the  different  methods  was  judged  by 
the  errors  made  in  subsequent  efforts  to  correctly  render  the  lists  of 
words  learned.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  each  list  had  eight 
repetitions  ;  and,  as  to  relative  size  and  difficulty  of  words  in  the  dif- 
ferent lists,  the  balances  were  pretty  approximate.  The  following  com- 
parison with  regard  to  errors  made  suggests  the  efficiency  of  current 
methods  of  teaching  spelling  :  Words  written  on  board  by  teacher  and 
copied  by  pupils,  they  pronouncing  at  the  same  time  in  low  tones,  277 
errors  ;  the  same,  pronouncing  in  loud  tones,  298  errors ;  words  written 
on  the  board  by  teacher,  and  then  written  in  the  air  by  the  pupils, 
344  errors ;  words  pronounced  by  the  teacher  and  then  orally  spelled 
by  the  pupils,  356  errors ;  words  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher 
and  then  pronounced  in  loud  tones  by  the  pupils,  589  errors  ;  the 
same,  pronounced  in  low  tones,  642  errors ;  the  same,  with  the  mouth 
firmly  closed,  763  errors  ;  words  pronounced  by  the  teacher  and  writ- 
ten in  the  air  by  the  pupils,  772  errors  ;  the  words  pronounced  by  the 
teacher  and  repeated  in  loud  tones  by  pupils,  1,213  errors  ;  the  same, 
repeated  in  low  tones,  1,801  errors  ;  the  same  with  closed  mouth,  1,902 
errors. 

A  study  of  the  errors  leads  one  to  conclude  (i)  that  merely  hearing 
words  pronounced  is  the  least  effective  way  of  learning  to  spell ;  (2) 
that  exposing  the  word-form  to  the  eye  reduces  the  number  of  errors ; 
(3)  that  seeing  the  word-form  and  copying  the  same  produces  a  mini- 
mum of  error  ;  (4)  that  writing  in  the  air  reduces  the  number  of  errors 
in  both  the  seen  and  heard  lists  of  words  ;  and  (5)  that  loud  speaking 
— with  one  exception — proved  more  effective  than  low  speaking.  Pro- 
fessor Schiller  made  similar  experiments  in  a  I/atin  class,  employing 
the  same  method,  but  substituting  the  Latin  for  the  German  words, 
and  the  results  agree  substantially  with  those  already  noted.  He 
reaches  three  tentative  conclusions  from  the  study  ;  ( i)  necessity  of 
absolutely  correct  pronunciation  of  all  words  used  by  the  teacher  ;  (2) 
dictation  should  be  less  used  and  copying  more  generally  employed 
during  the  early  years  of  school  life ;  (3)  more  time  should  be  given 
to  writing  words  in  the  air. 

W11.1.  S.  Monroe. 
Le  rdle  social  de  la  Femme.    Devoirs.     Droits.    Education  par  Mme. 
Anna  L/AMperi^re.     1  vol.  \n  12  diQ\a.Bibliothequede Philosophie 
contemporaine,  2  fr.  50  (F^lix  Alcan,  dditeur). 

This  book  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  complete  study  of  the  subject, 
but  rather  presents  some  general  views  which  the  author  thinks  should 


308  BOOK   NOTES. 

be  opposed  to  the  partisans  of  '  la  compagne  f^ministe.'  According  to 
Mme.  Lamperi^re,  the  function  of  woman  in  society  should  be  abso- 
lutely different  from  that  of  man ;  she  should  be  his  co-laborer,  not 
his  competitor  ;  she  should  be  employed  as  organizer,  not  as  producer; 
in  a  word,  the  social  function,  i.  <?.,  duty,  of  woman,  is  to  expend  her- 
self for  society,  for  the  race,  as  her  domestic  function  is  to  expend 
herself  for  the  family. 

The  identity  of  the  rights  of  man  and  woman  is  rejected.  The  'right' 
of  the  human  being  is  merely  the  right  to  the  full  development  of  his 
faculties  ;  but  the  faculties  of  woman  are  other  than  the  faculties  of 
man,  though  "of  equal,  if  not  superior,  importance  for  the  harmonious 
organization  of  the  individual  life  and  the  social  life." 

The  supreme  right  of  woman  is  to  be  protected. 

Starting  from  these  ideas,  Mme.  Lamp^ri^re  studies  diverse  situa- 
tions of  woman,  notably  a  /'  atelier  and  in  marriage.  She  concludes 
by  treating  of  the  "education  of  this  educator,"  which  should  be 
"  conformable  to  biologic  laws,"  and  sets  forth  the  object  and  the  laws 
of  t\iQ  Socidtd  d'  dtudes/eminines,  created  precisely  with  such  education 
in  view. 

The  Students'  Life  of  Jesus,  by  George  Hai^ley  Gii^bert,  Ph.  D., 
D.  D.     The  Macmillan  Company,  1898.     pp.  412. 

This  book  aims  to  present  succinctly  and  accurately  the  facts  of  the 
objective  life  of  Jesus.  No  attempt  is  made  to  discuss  in  detail  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  ;  and  the  subjective  side  of  his  life  is  considered  only 
as  it  is  revealed  in  the  Gospels.  The  book  is  in  no  sense  interpretative. 
The  author  adheres  pretty  rigorously  to  his  purpose  of  stating  "the 
facts  as  directly  and  clearly  as  possible." 

The  Introduction,  of  about  eighty  pages,  is  devoted  to  establishing 
the  historicity  and  authenticity  of  his  sources,  which  are  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  the  fourth  Gospel,  and  the  other  New  Testament  writings, 
containing  references  to  the  subject.  The  author  states  the  problem 
clearly  in  each  case,  and  carries  on  the  discussion  with  thorough  can- 
dor ;  but  his  apologetic  attitude  leads  him  at  times  to  lean  rather 
strongly  upon  the  argument  from  ignorance. 

The  rest  of  the  book  presents  schematically  the  outline  of  the  life, 
constructed  from  the  aforesaid  sources.  The  work  is  done  critically, 
giving  evidence  of  ample  technical  scholarship. 

Though  the  author  distinctly  disavows  any  intention  of  adding  any 
interest  to  the  work  not  inherent  in  the  facts,  one  cannot  help  feeling 
that  the  value  of  the  book  would  have  been  enhanced  by  a  slight  in- 
fusion of  warmth  and  color  in  the  disposition  of  the  facts. 

W.  S.  S. 

Biomechaniky  von  Dr.  Brnst  Mehnert.  Privatdocent  an  der  Uni- 
versitat  Strassburg.  Jena,  1898.  pp.  177. 
This  is  a  philosophical  discussion  of  the  principles  of  organogene- 
sis. Although  the  great  biogenetic  law  that  the  individual  recapitu- 
lates the  stages  of  the  development  of  the  species  to  which  it  belongs 
is  true  in  a  large  sense,  the  order  in  which  it  has  developed  does  not 
follow  their  phyletic  age,  but  is  subject  to  much  relative  change.  The 
heart,  for  instance,  in  the  individual  develops  before  the  blood  ves- 
sels, but  this  reverses  the  phylogenetic  order.  The  walls  of  the  large 
vessels  develop  before  the  blood  corpuscles,  while  the  converse  was 
true  in  the  development  of  the  species.  Ontogenetic  age  in  all  such 
cases  is  an  index  only  of  the  intensity  of  kenogenetic  energy.  Re- 
tarded development  of  an  organ  on  the  other  hand  is  an  indication  of 
regressivity,  and  Mehnert  has  collected  much  evidence  of  these  cases, 
showing  that  abbreviation  and  retardation  of  different  organs  of  a 


BOOK    NOTES.  309 

creature,  which  is  their  bearer,  are  ontogenetic  processes  that  are 
constantly  operative.  The  latter  may  affect  the  date  of  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  an  organ,  the  differentiation  of  its  tissues  among  each 
other,  or  the  entire  processes  of  growth  of  a  part  or  all  of  them. 
Organs  are  progressive  according  to  the  degree  of  their  vitality.  The 
rapidity  of  the  growth  of  a  part  is  directly  as  the  degree  of  develop- 
ment acquired  by  the  phyletic  process.  Each  organ  also  has  its  own 
growth  center  more  closely  connected  with  and  dependent  on  the 
organism  of  the  series  from  which  it  has  descended  than  it  is  upon 
those  structurally  or  functionally  near  it  or  the  organ  of  which  it  is  a 
part.  In  other  words  of  all  its  determinants,  those  that  are  inherited 
are  the  most  important.  This  is  especially  true  of  periods  of  sudden, 
explosive  growth  functions,  the  interconnection  of  organs  and  rela- 
tion to  the  environment,  and  all  other  individual  or  epigenetic  fac- 
tors are  real  and  important,  but  subordinate  determinants,  so  that 
embryological  growth  is  purest. 

It  may  be  further  assumed  that  ripe  determinants  and  a  directive 

?rogramme  of  energy  develop  more  than  those  that  are  immature, 
he  eozoon  or  paleoatavistic  bases  of  heredity  are  the  formative  prin- 
ciples of  fundamental  organs.  These  bases  condition  all  others  and 
are  constant.  The  neoatavistic  factors  on  the  other  hand  are  the  in- 
tensity and  rapidity  of  development  due  to  later  and  more  individual 
influences  upon  heredity.  The  earlier  part  of  the  life  of  an  animal  is 
more  established  and  more  conformable  to  Weismannism,  while  the 
latter  part  of  each  individual  life  is  more  characterized  by  the  evolu- 
tion of  acquired  qualities.  Lower  animal,  especially  aquatic  forms, 
that  have  been  subjected  to  unfavorable  conditions,  produce  young 
before  they  are  mature  or  full  grown  ;  and  these  young  then  tend  to 
stop  in  their  own  development  at  the  stage  where  their  parents  were 
when  they  were  produced.  Growth  might  almost  be  defined  as  get- 
ting loaded  up  with  inherited  qualities.  Although  even  epigenetic 
cells  developed  under  the  influence  of  function  may  be  short  lived, 
still  assuming  the  monophyletic  origin  of  animal  life,  and  also  assum- 
ing that  maturity  and  death  are  longer  delayed  as  we  ascend  the 
scale  of  being,  more  and  more  weight  must  be  assigned  to  the  later 
acquired  than  to  the  earlier  and  more  stable  qualities. 

Basal  and  lapidary  as  is  the  biogenetic  law,  the  work  of  Appel,  Kei- 
bel,  Mehnert,  and  many  others  have  demonstrated  that  the  excep- 
tions to  it  are  numerous  and  important.  Kach  higher  animal  is  com- 
posed of  organs  phyletically  old  and  new,  and  the  order  of  their 
development  maybe  greatly  changed-  So  great  is  this  "  heteroch- 
rony "  that  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  the  time  at  which  an  organ 
appears  is  dependent  upon  the  time  when  it  is  needed  for  use,  and 
organs  decay  as  their  functions  cease.  Every  animal  is,  therefore, 
a  mixture  of  high  and  low  qualities.  In  many  respects  many  of  the 
lower  animals  excel  man.  The  generalization  here  important  is  that 
by  youthful  parents  heredity  is  more  confined  to  older  and  lower 
qualities,  so  that  those  who  attain  sexual  maturity  early  do  not  ad- 
vance the  phyletic  series.  Species  and  individuals  on  the  other  hand 
that  attain  propogative  power  late  make  for  progress  of  the  stock,  be- 
cause they  had  not  only  the  wealth  of  heredity  in  its  completeness,  but 
contribute  individual  additions,  infinitesimal  though  they  may  be. 
Early  marriages,  therefore,  tend  to  the  decay  of  culture  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  all  conditions  that  make  for  its  "  neotenia  "  are  retrogress- 
ive, and  each  generation  must  reacquire  everything  anew  because 
parents  transmit  nothing  not  transmittsd  to  them.  Conversely,  if  we 
follow  Mehnert,  hyperheredity  due  to  long  delay  of  propogation  may 
be  a  factor  for  accounting  for  the  overgrowth  of  the  horns  of  certain 


3IO  BOOK    NOTKS. 

stags,  some  of  the  monsters  of  the  'geologic  past,  and  other  hyper- 
trophied  organs  of  individual  species  and  functions,  even  those  of 
genius. 

Die  Psy chosen  des  Pubertdtsalters ,  von  Wai^ter  Wii,i,k.  Leipzig  u. 
Wien,  1898.  pp.  218. 
We  have  here  a  careful  description  of  135  cases  of  psychic  diseases 
during  pubescence,  which  the  author  places  between  14  and  23,  which 
he  has  observed  during  the  last  fifteen  years  at  the  Insane  Asylum  of 
Basle.  He  concludes  that  there  is  no  specific  pubertal  insanity,  but 
that  puberty  gives  a  peculiar  character  to  their  psychoses,  all  of  which 
may  occur  at  this  age.  Atypic  and  mixed  phases  are  unusually  fre- 
quent. The  most  common  hebephrenic  traits  are  frequent  and  cause- 
less changes  of  moods,  a  certain  superficialty  that  prompts  stupid 
jests  in  the  midst  of  lamentations ;  expressions  of  world  pain  during 
the  jolliest  hours ;  sudden  changes  of  thought  form  with  the  most 
bizarre  construction  of  sentences  ;  extravagance,  talkativeness,  echola- 
lia  ;  impulsiveness  in  action  ;  a  theatrical  reference  to  spectators  and 
other  degenerative  traits  play  the  leading  role  here.  Contradictions 
are  frequent,  and  delusions  of  greatness  and  a  sense  of  exaltation  alter- 
nate with  the  most  depressive  unworthiness.  Moreau  specifies  sudden 
changes  from  sadness  to  gaiety  ;  spells  of  unusual  activity  ;  extreme 
confidence  often  combined  with  chorea  and  catalepsy.  Regis  thinks 
pubertal  insanity,  more  often  moral,  shows  itself  in  morbid  acts  and  im- 
pulses rather  than  in  the  intellectual  sphere.  Savage  says  psychic  ab- 
normalities are  like  those  of  early  childhood,  only  more  expressed,  and 
that  all  its  many  phases  tend  to  issue  in  weakmindedness.  At  no  time 
is  dysmenorrhea  so  liable  to  intellectual  disturbance.  Blanford 
thinks  violence  more  common  than  delusion  and  that  St.  Vitus  Dance 
is  characteristic.  Trowbridge  distinguishes  between  short  duration 
and  true  psychoses,  the  latter  being  usually  incurable.  In  all,  perio- 
dicit}^  with  lucid  intervals  is  common.  Moral  perversions  of  boys  are 
prone  to  take  the  form  of  cruelty  or  crime,  while  girls  are  more  liable 
to  shameless  and  erotic  perversity  ;  while  egotism  and  self  satisfaction 
are  common  to  both  sexes. 

Nevroses  et  Idees  Fixes,   par  Prof.  F.  Raymond  et   Dr.   PierrE 
Janbt.     F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.     Vol.  I,  pp.  492  ;  Vol.  II,  pp.  559. 

The  first  of  these  two  heavy  volumes,  with  sixty-eight  cuts,  is  devoted 
to  experimental  studies  on  disturbances  of  will,  attention,  memory, 
emotion  and  fixed  ideas ;  and  the  second,  with  ninety-seven  cuts,  de- 
scribes clinical  cases  and  gives  suggestions  as  to  treatment.  The 
copious  analytical  index  at  the  end  permits  ready  reference  to  all  the 
rich  material.  Few  will  perhaps  agree  with  the  somewhat  extreme 
standpoint  of  the  author,  which  describes  so  many  and  varied  affecta- 
tions as  traceable  directly  and  indirectly  to  fixed  ideas,  but  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  cases  tend  to  favor  the  views  of  the  close  association 
between  mental  and  nervous  disturbances.  The  strong  point  of  the 
work  is  the  interpretation  of  individual  cases.  The  writer  is  fully 
alive  to  the  partial  truths  that  may  be  contained  in  the  current  notions 
of  mental  healing.  Such  topics  as  confusion,  aboulia,  emotive  delirium, 
impulsive  obsession,  somnambulism,  chorea,  tics,  visceral  spasms, 
contractures,  allochiria,  subconscious  hallucinations,  hysterical  hemi- 
anopsia, insomnia,  due  to  fixed  ideas  and  possession,  are  illustrated, 
and  explanations  of  very  suggestive,  if  not  always  conclusive,  charac- 
ter, are  given. 

The  Passing  of  Plato,  by  O.  P.  Jenkins.     Stanford  University  Press, 
1897.     pp.  23. 

Here  is  a  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Uni- 


BOOK   NOTES.  31I 

versity,  who  notes  the  fact  that  the  Greeks  originally  were  sympathetic 
lovers  of  nature,  till  Socrates  and  Plato,  who,"  with  the  purest  and  best 
of  motives,  unconsciously  did  the  race  a  disservice  that  became  a  bar 
to  progress  for  the  ages  to  follow."  The  mind  can  make  any  hypothesis 
so  there  was  no  trouble  to  attain  any  required  definitions,  "  and  to  de- 
fend the  whole  of  these  it  was  necessary  to  do  away  with  the  rest  of 
the  universe."  These  "innocent  diversions  of  Plato,"  were  followed 
by  Aristotle,  to  whom  "  mental  flights  were  more  attractive  than  his 
studies  of  bugs  and  fishes."  Then  follow  many  other  systems  evolved 
from  the  "  lazy  philosophy  of  Plato,"  but  pure  thinking,  which  spread 
over  the  worlcl  like  cobwebs  over  the  lawn  on  a  summer's  day,  all  in- 
spired by  Plato.  Despite  many  hopeful  signs,  these  conceptions  and 
methods  hang  like  the  old  man  of  the  sea  upon  the  neck  of  the  present. 
Now  science  is  changing  all  this. 

Any  well  trained  student  in  the  history  of  philosophy  will  recognize 
the  partial  truth  of  the  above,  and  if  he  has  read  I/ange's  Positivism 
vs.  Idealism,  he  may  detect  a  similar  spirit  here,  but  the  author's  ex- 
treme onesidedness ;  the  surprising  lack  of  historical  perspective  ;  his 
failure  to  recognize  one  of  the  axioms  of  evolution  as  applied  to  man  ; 
to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  Plato  was  never  so  much  studied  as 
to-day,  and  that  by  men  as  much  in  S5'mpathy  with  physiological  and 
biological  sciences  as  himself,  altogether  make  this  a  very  strange 
note  to  be  sounding  at  a  university  commencement. 

Moderne  Nervositdt  und  ihre  Vererbung,  von  Ch.  Fere.  Berlin, 
1898.  pp.  284. 
The  influence  of  heredity  upon  the  origin  of  mental  and  nervous 
diseases  are — this  assumes  that  there  is  no  nervous  disease  not  con- 
nected with  anatomical  change,  and  the  author  undertakes  to  apply 
the  general  laws  of  biology  in  this  field  to  pathology.  Many  diseases 
and  malformations  are  considered,  and  even  epilepsy  and  hysteria,  it 
is  assumed,  must  have  a  physical  and  transmissible  basis.  To  estab- 
lish his  thesis,  the  author  at  the  outset  makes  very  material  qualifica- 
tions of  the  extreme  views  of  Weismaun  and  his  followers ;  lays  con- 
siderable stress  upon  the  mutability  of  nervous  diseases,  especially 
these  transmitted  from  one  generation  to  the  next ;  and  undertakes  in 
some  respects  to  suggest  morbid  equivalents.  He  believes  that  all 
degenerative  tendencies  can  be  successfully  combated,  provided 
there  is  a  fit  hygiene  of  propagation  which  consists  mainly  in  system- 
atic rest  beforehand  and  the  most  favorable  nutritive  conditions.  The 
author's  reportory  of  casualistic  material  is  large,  and  twenty  inter- 
esting cuts  of  inherited  abnormalities  and  deformities  are  given. 

Archives  of  Neurology  and  Psychopathology .  Vol.  I,  Nos.  i  and  2. 
1898. 
This  new  archive  is  most  sumptuously  bound  and  printed,  and  is  to 
be  published  in  four  annual  numbers  per  volume,  price,  I3  a  year.  It 
is  to  be  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  York  State  Hospital 
and  the  Pathological  Institute,  by  permission  of  the  State  Commission 
in  Lunacy.  It  is  to  be  edited  for  the  former  by  Drs.  G.  A.  Blumer,  C. 
W.  Pilgrim  and  S.  H.  Talcott ;  and  for  the  latter  by  Drs.  Ira  van 
Gieson,  Boris  Sidis  and  H.  B.  Deady.  The  longest  and  most  impor- 
tant article  in  the  present  number  is  entitled,"  The  Correlation  of  Sci- 
ences in  the  Investigation  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases,"  by  Ira 
van  Gieson,  which  occupies  about  235  pages.  A  briefer  preliminary 
communication  by  Van  Gieson  and  Sidis  on  "  Neuron  Energy  and  its 
Psychomotor  Manifestations,"  makes  up  the  entire  number.  The 
archives  will  contain  studies  on  abnormal  mental  life  and  their  neural 
cojicomitants  based  on  psychology,  psychopathology,   experimental 


312  BOOK   NOTEvS. 

physiology  and  pathology,  cellular  biology,  pathological  anatomy, 
comparative  neurology,  physiological  chemistry,  anthropology  and 
bacteriology. 

Annual  and  Analytical  EncyclopcEcLia  of  Practical  Medicine^  by 
CharIvES  E.  de  M.  Sajous,  M.  D.,  and  loo  associates  assisted  by 
corresponding  editors,  collaborators,  and  correspondence.  Illus- 
trated by  chromolithographs,  engravings  and  maps.  F.  A.  Davis 
Co.,  Philadelphia,  New  York  and  Chicago,  1899.    Vol.  II,  pp.  607. 

The  two  volumes  already  issued  come  down  to  and  include  diph- 
theria. Most  of  the  sections  in  the  entire  work  are  prepared  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  the  editor,  and  are  submitted  to  mem- 
bers of  the  assistant  staff  for  revision  and  correction.  Each  author 
can  change,  erase  and  add.  This  second  volume  inaugurates  the  plan 
of  work  as  regards  elaboration.  Some  of  the  best  articles  in  the  pres- 
ent volume  of  interest  to  psychologists  are  on  deaf-mutism,  catalepsy 
and  cocainomania. 

The  volumes  thus  far  published  are  of  very  attractive  appearance, 
printed  in  large  clear  type  on  two  column  pages,  and  tastefully  and 
conveniently  bound,  and  what  is  perhaps  best  of  all  in  most  cases 
bring  down  the  literature  of  the  more  important  subjects  to  the  present 
year.  Such  a  work  was  greatly  needed  in  practical  medicine,  and  the 
high  character  of  the  authors,  as  well  as  the  work  which  has  thus  far 
appeared,  is  sufficient  to  stamp  the  encyclopaedia  as  an  honor  to 
American  scholarship,  a  necessity  for  practical  physicians  and  a  con- 
venience, not  to  say  a  luxury,  for  psychologists. 

Foot-notes  to  Evolution,  Series  of  Popular  Addresses  on  the  Evolution 
of  Life,  by  David  Starr  Jordan,  Ph.  D.,  President  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  University,  with  supplementary  addresses  by  Pro- 
fessors E.  G.  Conklin,  F.  M.  MacFarland,  J.  P.  Smith.  Appleton 
and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1898.     pp.  392. 

These  papers  on  organic  evolution  were  originally  given  as  oral  lec- 
tures before  University  Extension  Societies  in  California,  and  some 
have  already  appeared  in  the  Arena  and  Popular  Science  Monthly.  It 
is  not  intended  as  a  text-book  on  evolution,  although  most  of  its 
phases  are  touched  on,  partly  because  the  different  topics  are  very 
unequally  treated.  President  Jordan's  papers  are  entitled — the  kin- 
ship of  life  ;  evolution,  what  it  is  and  what  it  is  not ;  the  elements  of 
organic  evolution ;  the  heredity  of  Richard  Roe ;  distribution  of 
species  ;  latitude  and  vertebrae ;  the  evolution  of  mind  ;  degeneration  ; 
heredity  insufficiency ;  the  woman  of  evolution  and  the  woman  of 
pessimism  ;  the  stability  of  truth  ;  the  struggle  of  realities.  There 
are  twenty-eight  illustrations  and  five  full  page  plates.  The  topics 
are  treated  in  a  very  lucid  and  popular  way,  and  the  book  marks  an 
important  addition  to  the  illustrations  and  demonstrations  of  the  de- 
velopment theory. 

The  Gospel  According  to  Darwin,  by  Woods  Hutchinson.  Chicago, 
1898.  pp.  241. 
This  book  is  an  effort  to  glance  at  some  of  the  influences  affecting 
human  hope  and  happiness  from  the  evolutionary  standpoint,  and  to 
show  how  this  attitude  has  a  broad  and  a  secure  basis  for  courage  and 
happiness  in  the  present  and  for  hope  in  the  future  that  the  message 
of  Darwin  is  really  the  gospel  of  good,  and  that  the  natural  is  as  won- 
derful as  the  supernatural,  so  that  we  need  not  longer  limit  our  wor- 
ship to  the  mysterious.  Darwinism,  as  the  author  conceives  it,  has  a 
wonderful  power  to  broaden  and  deepen  religious  interest  in  the 
spirit  of  worship.     The  chapters  are  entitled — the  fifth  gospel,  the 


BOOK    NOTES.  31 3 

omnipotence  of  good,  the  holiness  of  instinct,  the  beauty  of  death, 
life  eternal,  love  as  a  factor  in  evolution,  courage  the  first  virtue, 
strength  of  beauty,  the  benefits  of  over  population,  the  duty  and 
glory  of  reproduction  and  the  economics  of  prostitution,  the  value  of 
pain,  lebensulst.  The  author  is  eloquent  and  poetic,  and  in  many  re- 
spects suggests  Drummond,  but  has  less  sympathy  with  conservatism. 

Les  Pensees  de  Tolstoi,  d'apres  les  Textes  Russes,  par  Ossip-IvOURIe;. 
F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.  pp.  179. 
In  this  little  book  with  a  preface  dedicated  to  Ribot,  the  writer 
selects  pregnant  quotations  from  Tolstoi,  and  groups  them  under  the 
heads  of  life,  man,  society,  religion,  power,  patriotism,  militarism, 
riches,  work,  happiness,  science,  art,  education,  feminism,  love,  mar- 
riage, the  good,  evil,  truth,  the  ideal,  and  death.  A  complete  list  of 
Tolstoi's  works  are  appended,  and  also  a  list  of  works  in  different 
countries  that  have  been  influenced  by  Tolstoi.  Each  quotation  is 
numbered  for  cross  reference  to  sources. 

La  Philosophic  de  Charles  Secretan,  par  F.  Pii,i.on,  F.  Alcan,  Paris, 
1898.  pp.  197. 
Secrdtan  is  known  as  the  philosopher  of  liberty,  from  the  title  of  his 
chief  work  which  treats  of  liberty,  human  and  divine,  in  a  special  con- 
nection with  the  three  great  Christian  dogmas  of  creation,  fall  and 
redemption.  Liberty  and  the  philosophy  of  Christianity  are  for  him 
synonomous  terms.  The  material  of  the  books  falls  into  the  three 
natural  chapters  of  metaphysics,  morals  and  critical  observations. 

Dynamic  Idealisfu,  by  A.  H.  Lloyd,  Ph.  D.     Chicago,  1898.     pp.  248. 

This  is  an  elementary  course  in  metaphysics  of  psychology  first 
entered  upon  in  lectures  before  the  students  in  the  University  of 
Michigan.  Psychology  without  metaphysics  is  useless  if  not  absurd, 
and  real  psychology  is  metaphysics.  The  author  has  been  more  in- 
terested in  the  relation  of  the  psychological  theory  to  dualism  or 
monoism  than  to  any  of  its  mere  external  details.  Only  metaphysical 
principles  can  make  any  process  really  complete.  The  first  duty  of 
psychology  is  to  give  the  distinct  doctrine  of  the  soul.  The  organs 
of  the  soul  are  after  all  the  true  definition  of  it.  The  author  discusses 
in  the  first  part,  the  world  and  things  including  change,  organism, 
body,  outer  world ;  secondly,  ideas  not  as  forms  but  as  forces  ;  con- 
sciousness as  interest,  etc.;  and  thirdly  the  world  of  acts,  the  will, 
the  living  ideal.  The  appendix  contains  a  study  of  immortality  in 
outline. 

A   Treatise  07i  Aphasia  and  other  Speech  Defects,  by  H.  Chari^ton 
Bastian.     London,  1898.     pp.  366. 

Five  of  the  seventeen  chapters  of  this  work  are  reproductions  with  a 
few  additions  from  the  author's  Lumleian  lectures,  and  treats  the  sub- 
ject in  a  more  complete  way  than  has  hitherto  been  attempted.  Theo- 
retical opinions  are  in  general  avoided  and  very  many  typical  cases, 
some  of  which  are  from  the  author's  own  observation,  are  presented, 
especially  where  the  necropsy  was  carefully  made.  Speculative  classi- 
fications are  to  a  great  extent  omitted,  and  some  attempt  is  made  to 
simplify  the  nomenclature.  The  relation  between  thought  and  lan- 
guage, classification  of  speech  defects  and  those  of  writing,  due  to 
structural  or  functional  degradation,  amnesia,  etiology,  and  modes  of 
recovery,  amimia,  prognosis  and  treatment  are  perhaps  the  studies 
most  fully  treated.  This  work  in  general,  comprehensive  as  it  is,  well 
illustrates  the  fact  that  we  really  know  far  more  about  sensory  than 
we  do  about  motor  aphasia,  and  quickens  the  hope  that  the  long 
promised  and  long  delayed  work  of  Dejerine  will  soon  appear. 

JOURNAI. — 10 


314  BOOK   NOTES. 

Histoire  de  la  Sipultureet  des  Fundrailles  dans  VAncienne  Egypte,  par 

E.  Ameuneau.     Paris,  1S96.    (Annales  du  Mus6e  Guimet)  pp.  336 

and  345. 

These  volumes,  the  twenty-eighth  and  twenty-ninth  of  the  Museum, 

consist  of  the  history  of  sepulture  and  funeral  rites  in  ancient  Egypt, 

and  are  illustrated  by  112  wood  cuts.     The  profound  influence  of  the 

form  of  Egyptian  belief  in  immortality  dominated  art,  architecture, 

etc.,  and  no  country  is  fuller  of  monuments  of  this  belief  than  Egypt. 

The  monuments,  tombs,  etc.,  are  described  historically,  and  with  great 

detail ;  although  all  the  chapters  are  exceedingly  objective,  the  author 

does  not  hesitate  to  pause  for  interpretations  suflScient  to  deiine  his 

standpoint  for  the  reader. 

Affirmations,  by  Havei^ock  E1.1.1S.     London,  1898.     pp.  248. 

"  How  happy  the  world  might  be  if  there  was  no  literature  but  the 
Bible,  if  Augustine,  Aquinas,  Calvin,  and  thousands  of  smaller  men, 
had  not  danced  upon  it  so  long,  stamping  every  page  into  mire." 
The  author  has  been  all  his  life  casting  away  knowledge  gained  from 
books  aud  literature  and  coming  toward  that  haven  of  knowledge 
where  a  child  is  king.  Very  different  from  this  is  the  literature  of  life, 
and  the  author  uses  Nietzsche,  Casanova,  Zola,  Huysmann,  and  St. 
Francis,  essays  on  whom  make  up  the  book,  as  stalking  horses  to  creep 
up  more  closely  to  the  life  his  soul  loves  so  well.  He  has  a  special 
predilection  for  questionable  themes  and  deems  it  useless  to  discuss 
others,  although  certainty  is  the  end  of  all.  He  desires  to  settle  a  few 
things,  clean  out  the  Augean  stables,  and  recall  the  simple,  eternal 
facts  of  existence.  Yet  for  every  man  his  own  afl&rmations  are  always 
the  best.  The  essays  are  written  in  a  sprightly  style,  and  while  they 
presuppose  some  things  about  the  author  treated,  make  the  best  of 
all  introductions  to  them. 

The  Problems  of  Philosophy,  by  John  G.  Hibben,  Ph.  D.,  Stuart  Pro- 
fessor of  Logic,  Princeton  University.  New  York,  1898.  pp.  203. 
As  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  the  author's  design 
is  to  indicate  between  points  at  issue  on  controverted  questions 
without  details  or  exhaustive  criticism.  It  is  assumed  that  the  student 
who  is  beginning  the  history  of  philosophy  will  find  himself  at  a  loss 
to  understand  the  relation  between  earlier  and  later  periods,  and  will 
lack  proper  perspective  to  appreciate  the  drift  of  opinions.  After  the 
plea  for  philosophy,  the  successive  chapters  discuss  the  problem  of 
ontology,  cosmology,  psychology,  epistemology,  logic,  ethics,  political 
science  and  sesthetics.  The  standpoint  is  that  of  idealism,  the  method 
lucid,  and  the  book  attractively  printed  and  bound,  and  conveniently 
indexed. 

The  Skin  Considered  as  an  Organ  of  Sensation,  by  J.  S.  Lemon,  Ph.  D. 
Gardner,  Mass.,  1899.  pp.  56. 
Dr.  Lemon,  a  former  pupil  of  Clark,  here  treats  the  genesis  of  touch 
and  of  the  skin  and  nervous  system  ;  the  resumes  of  different  theories 
about  these  topics  and  central  localization  ;  analyses  of  different  skin 
senses  and  the  recent  experimental  investigation  upon  them  ;  discusses 
illusions,  etc.  The  strong  point  of  the  paper  is  perhaps  the  author's 
study  of  the  earlier  history  and  literature  of  the  subject.  From  one  to 
half  a  dozen  writings  by  128  authors  are  appended. 

The  Doctrine  of  Energy.     The  Theory  of  Reality.    By  B.  L.  L.    Lon- 
don, 1898.     pp.  108. 

The  author  has  previously  published  essays  entitled,  "  Matter  and 
Energy,"  and  "Are  There  Two  Real  Things  in  the  Physical  Universe?" 


BOOK   NOTES.  315 

His  theory  was  that  the  present  conception  of  energy  supersedes  the 
idea  of  matter  and  by  itself  explains  all  the  real  elements  in  all  physi- 
cal phenomena.  This  view  is  now  presented  from  the  metaphysical 
standpoint.  What  we  call  volition  in  all  its  forms  is  dependent  upon 
the  unseen  energetic  substratum  "whose  transmutations  to  volition 
merely  initiates  and  works,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  all  the 
motions  and  transmutations  of  this  energy  are  similarly  originated  by 
the  supreme  intelligence  or  will."  Intelligence  and  this  unseen  basis 
on  which  all  its  actions  are  exerted  and  out  of  which  its  perceptions 
are  derived,  are  the  two  real  entities  which  reason  must  predicate. 
Sense  phenomena  result  from  their  interaction  and  are  a  mere  quality 
of  that  phenomenal  world  which  contains  neither  of  the  real  entities. 

Der  Korper  des  Menschen,  von  Dr.  A.  Brass.  Wernigerode  a.  H. 
1898. 
This  is  the  first  installment  of  the  first  of  three  volumes,  entitled 
development  history,  which  is  to  contain  an  atlas  with  many  illustra- 
tions in  color.  All  is  to  be  written  in  a  way  to  represent  the  present 
state  of  science  and  to  be  easily  intelligible  by  all.  This  first  section 
of  sixt5''-two  pages,  four  of  which  are  devoted  to  wood  cuts  and  three 
to  colored  engravings,  treats  of  sex  and  reproduction.  Technical  terms 
are  avoided  when  possible,  and  when  not,  they  are  very  briefly  ex- 
plained, and  the  style  is  certainly  very  simple,  and  many  facts  are 
stated  as  though  written  from  a  large  fund  of  information. 

Guesses  at  the  Riddle  of  Existence  and  other  Essays  on  Kindred  Sub- 
jects, by  Goodwin  Smith.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1898. 
pp.  244. 
Three  of  these  five  papers  have  appeared  in  the  North  American  Re- 
view or  Forum,  and  all  are  written  according  to  the  view  that  amidst 
all  the  religious  doubts  and  perplexities  of  the  present  are  that  our 
salvation  can  only  be  found  in  uncompromising  allegiance  to  the  truth. 
The  spirit  is  not  agnosticism  but  hopeful  inquiry  ;  despite  the  collapse 
of  proofs  of  a  supreme  being,  our  hearts  affirm  him.     The  church  and 
the  Old  Testament ;  the  miraculous  element  in  Christianity  ;  morality 
and  theism  are  some  of  the  other  topics  treated. 

Spiritual  Consciousness,  by  Frank  H.  Sprague.  Wollaston,  Mass., 
1898.  pp.  238. 
Men  have  been  fed  on  the  dry  husks  of  materialism  until  they  cry 
out  for  something  better.  Spiritualism,  Christian  Science,  spiritual 
healing,  theosophy  mark  an  earnest  desire  to  reach  the  inmost  kernel 
of  life.  This  and  the  tendency  of  the  age  toward  unity  are  everywhere 
noted,  and  in  a  few  points  are  sought.  These  tendencies  are  discussed 
in  chapters  entitled  :  what  is  truth  ;  realization  of  ideals  through  right 
thinking ;  the  outer  and  inner  world  ;  consciousness  ;  Christianity  ; 
growth  of  society  ;  the  problem  of  evil ;  spiritual  basis  of  love ;  mani- 
festations of  the  spiritual  principle ;  music,  art  and  nature.  There  is 
almost  no  reference  to  literature,  and  the  earnestness  and  seriousness 
of  the  author  are  impressed  on  every  page. 

Destinie  deV Homme,  par  M.  1'Abbe  C.  PiaT.  Paris,  1898.  pp.  244. 
The  primary  certainties  in  the  world  are  psychological,  that  is,  spir- 
itual, and  their  quality  and  intensity  are  fundamental.  The  unknow- 
able is  especially  found  in  our  passions.  Eternity  of  the  ideas  does 
not  imply  that  of  human  thought,  and  we  cannot  reason  from  their 
nature  to  the  quality  of  the  soul.  Our  theory  of  impersonal  reasons 
cannot  be  proven.  Liberty  cannot  solve  the  problems  of  the  uncon- 
scious limits  and  bases  of  our  mental  being.     Thought  and  nerve  action 


31 6  BOOK   NOTKS. 

are  a  mysterious  solidarity.  The  fundamental  beliefs  of  the  world 
are:  purpose,  thought,  love,  action.  Materialism  has  no  possible 
proof,  spiritualism  rests  on  the  solid  basis  of  teleology  and  must  grow 
with  time. 

Ueber  die  sexuellefi  Ursachen  der  Neurosthenie  und  Angstneurose, 
von  Dr.  FEiyix  GatTEI..  Berlin,  1898.  pp.  68. 
The  author  has  collected  and  tabulated  100  cases  from  which  he 
draws  the  conclusion  that  the  neuroses  of  anxiety  always  tend  to  occur 
wherever  there  is  excessive  retention  of  libido  ;  while  pure  neurathenia 
occurs  only  as  a  result  of  masturbation.  In  none  of  the  100  cases  he 
collects  was  the  sexual  life  normal. 

Gerichtliche  Psychopathologie,  von  Dr.  Anton  Dei^bruck.  I^eipzig, 
1897.  pp.  224. _ 
The  author  is  a  specialist  in  the  Insane  Asylum  of  Burgholzli  and 
privatdocent  at  Zurich,  a  pupil  of  Forel,  and  addresses  his  brief  text- 
book to  students,  physicians  and  jurists.  After  discussing  the  nature 
or  legal  responsibility,  methods  of  investigation  and  the  qualifications 
of  experts,  the  writer  takes  up  the  leading  types  of  mental  diseases, 
including  poisoning,  neuroses,  including  epilepsy,  histeria,  constitu- 
tional disturbances  and  arrested  development.  Perhaps  the  topics 
best  treated  are :  imperative  ideas,  moral  insanity,  morbid  impulses, 
simulation.  The  clinical  material  occupies  but  very  little  space ;  a 
digest  of  laws  and  a  copious  index  are  appended. 

ProbVemes  d' Esthetique  et  de  Morale,  par  C.  R.  C.  Herckenrath. 
F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.  pp.  163. 
The  writer  is  a  professor  in  a  Holland  I/yc^e,  and  presents  briefly  his 
views  on  beauty,  sublimity,  tragedy,  comedy,  laughter,  morality  and 
its  evolution,  the  moral  sentiments  and  the  relations  of  aesthetics  and 
social  science. 

Christentuni' s  Ende,  by  Friedrich  Nonnemann.  Munden,  1898. 
pp.  145. 
Lest  the  startling  title  of  this  book  .should  give  alarm,  it  may  be 
said  at  the  outset  that  it  is  introduced  by  a  dream,  and  is  written  novel- 
wise  and  most  ecstatically.  Christianity  ends  in  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom 
be  thanks,  praise  and  love  forever. 

Die  Entwickelung  der  Religiositat  und  das  Werk  der  Religion,  von 

Dr.  E.  Reich.    Zweiter  Band. 
Das  Werk  der  Religion  und  der  Kampf  gegen  das  Verhangniss.    1898. 

Zurich,  pp.  426. 
The  author  here  writes  in  his  characteristic  prolix  but  entertaining 
style  with  voluminous  and  apt  quotations  on  the  categories  and  essence 
of  time  and  eternity  ;  the  practice  of  religion  by  means  of  hygiene  and 
education ;  morals  and  culture.  The  agents  by  which  the  warfare  is 
waged  against  fate  are  :  society,  humor,  temperament,  energy,  feeling, 
character,  genius,  religion  ;  and  fate  is  found  in  false  societies  of  social 
organization,  politics,  insanity,  alcoholism,  nervousness,  gambling, 
other  forms  of  evil  and  sin,  and  degeneration  generally.  The  book 
should  be  regarded,  not  as  a  treatise  that  adds  essentially  to  its  topic, 
but  as  an  interesting  and  stimulating  collection  of  opinions  with  sen- 
sible and  interesting  comments  from  many  fields,  especially  that  of 
anthropology,  in  which  the  author's  learning  is  so  extensive. 

The  Book  of  the  Master,  by  W.  Marsham  Adams.      Putnam  Sons, 
New  York.     pp.  204. 
The  author  describes  the  Egyptian  gospel  of  the  light  born  of  a  virgin 


BOOK   NOTES.  317 

mother.  It  traces  a  clue  afforded  by  the  comparison  of  the  secret  pas- 
sages and  chambers  in  the  great  pyramid  with  those  described  in  the 
second  papyrus,  familiarly  known  as  the  "  Book  of  the  Dead,"  but 
originally  entitled  "The  Book  of  the  Master  of  the  Secret  House." 
Both  reproduce  the  same  religion,  one  in  stone,  the  other  in  words. 
He  finds  no  symbolism  in  either,  but  undertakes  to  express  in  clear 
form,  where  all  may  follow,  an  outline  of  the  deeply  veiled  doctrines 
of  the  earliest  recorded  religions,  which  certainly,  as  he  interprets  it, 
was  full  of  majesty  and  beauty.  He  describes  the  prevalent  ideas  of 
the  resurrection  in  Egypt ;  the  religion  and  light ;  the  festivals  of  the 
sun  and  moon ;  the  temples  of  the  virgin  mothers ;  the  entrance  of 
light  and  instruction  ;  the  initiation  of  the  postulant ;  the  illumination 
in  truth ;  the  master  of  the  secret.  The  book  contains  some  thirty 
illustrations. 

Les  Croyances  de  Demain,  par  Lucien  Arreat.  F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1898. 
pp.  178. 
Despite  its  ambitious  title,  the  pretensions  of  this  booklet  are  modest. 
The  author  does  not  attempt  to  define  the  faith  of  the  future,  but  only 
to  hint  at  a  few  of  its  features.  At  best  the  system  of  philosophy  is 
only  a  pocket  mirror  to  see  nature  in  ;  but  our  author  wishes  to  be 
naive  and  ignore  all  philosophies.  His  standpoint  is  that  of  the  par- 
liament of  religions  at  the  Chicago  Exposition.  His  view  is,  on  the 
whole,  optimistic.  The  certitudes  which  make  the  first  part  of  his 
book  are  that  religion  will  enlarge  its  horizon,  extend  its  sphere  of 
activity,  but  his  sentiment  will  always  guide  man  Justice  is  written 
in  the  very  mechanics  of  nature,  and  moral  evolution  is  certain  ;  and 
so  is  both  the  individual  and  historic  sanction.  The  second  part,  or 
conjectures,  discusses  the  cosmos,  the  soul,  God,  science  and  education. 
Religions  will  be  less  exclusive ;  their  harmony  will  be  more  em- 
phasized and  their  differences  less  ;  nature  will  be  seen  to  be  neither 
cruel  nor  beneficent ;  and  the  highest  human  service  consists  in  turning 
its  energy  toward  the  improvement  of  the  social  life.  The  doctrine  of 
personal  immortality  will  grow  dim  ;  that  of  a  personal  God  may  be 
superseded  by  the  definition  of  the  ideal  sum  of  phenomena ;  philoso- 
phy will  take  the  place  to  some  extent  of  theological  dogmas  ;  inter- 
national barriers  will  be  broken  down  ;  risks  minimized ;  the  feeble 
eliminated  ;  and  peace  will  reign.  Ivife  is  what  we  make  it,  and  es- 
pecially what  we  wish  to  make  it.  We  must,  therefore,  believe  in  the 
good  and  have  energy  to  bring  it  to  pass. 

Etat  Actuel  de  la  Question  de  V  Acsboisme  Nerveux,  par  Rene;  Dey- 
BER.  Paris,  1898.  pp.  127. 
The  conclusions  of  this  doctor's  thesis  are  that  protoplasmic  move- 
ment plays  an  important  part  in  cell  action  generally,  and  that  nerve 
cells  differ  from  others  in  having  peculiar  means  of  prolongation  and 
retraction,  suggested  by  their  very  structure.  Visual  cells  of  the 
retina  and  motor  functions  although  their  plasticity  may  be  less  than 
those  of  the  pyramidal  cells  in  the  brain.  This  amoeboidism  or  den- 
tritic  prolongation  of  neurons  exhibit  almost  every  possible  transition 
from  temporary  pseudopodia  to  vibratory  hairs.  In  those  organs 
where  the  existence  of  centrifugal  fibres  is  demonstrated,  central  cells 
command  movements  of  cells  of  less  importance,  and  chromoblasts. 
These  may  be  called  in  a  sense  veritable  nervi-nervorum. 

History  of  the  Principle  of  Sufficient  Reason,  by  Wii^bur  Urban,  Ph. 
D.,   Reader  in  Philosophy,   Princeton  University.     Thesis,   Feb- 
ruary, 1898.     pp.  88. 
After  stating  the  problem,  the  author  characterizes  pre-Leibnitzian 


3l8  BOOK   NOTKS. 

thinking,  and  then  the  philosophical  motives  of  I^eibnitz  ;  Kant's  idea 
of  sufficient  reason  as  the  basal  principle  of  metaphysics  ;  the  strug- 
gle between  Trendelenburg's  logic  and  Herbart's  metaphysical  mo- 
tives; and  describes  the  Sigwart  and  Wundt  view  of  sufficient  reason 
as  the  base  of  logic. 

Psychologie  der  Verdnderungsauffassung,  von  L.  Wm.  Stern.  Bres- 
lau,  1898.  pp.  264. 
The  author  is  a  privatdocent  in  the  University  of  Breslau,  and  at- 
tempts to  answer  the  question,  how  change  can  be  known,  or  what 
are  the  psychic  roots  of  this  category,  and  what  are  its  various  modes 
of  operation  in  the  field  of  the  different  senses  ?  The  best  part  of  the 
work  is  the  second,  which  gives  an  excellent  presentation  of  the  tech- 
nique and  methods  of  experimental  determinations  of  minimal 
changes  to  show  the  psychic  excitability  for  them  and  to  develop 
their  laws.  Incidentally  the  effects  of  signals,  fatigue,  surprise  and 
expectation,  optimal  time,  etc.,  are  discussed,  and  on  the  whole  the 
topic  is  treated  in  a  way  so  stimulating  and  suggestive  that  the  author's 
conclusions  will,  we  think,  generally  commend  themselves  to  experi- 
menters. 

Essai  dHine  Philosophie  Nouvelle,  par  Leonce  Ribert.  F.  Alcan, 
Paris,  1898.  pp.  562. 
The  plan  and  purpose  of  this  volume  is  unique;  although  the  author 
only  claims  the  virtues  of  the  diligent  compiler  and  popularizer,  he 
undertakes  to  present  the  general  conclusions  of  cosmogony  and  the 
nebular  theory,  celestial  mechanics,  geology,  laws  of  heat,  chemical 
affinity,  light,  electricity,  paleontology,  animal  life,  savage  and  bar- 
barous man,  and  to  draw  the  general  results  of  Greece,  Rome,  the 
Middle  Ages,  to  criticise  current  systems,  and  to  draw  from  it  all  met- 
aphysical and  moral  conclusiqns.  He  believes  the  idealism  of  the 
future  will  rest  on  the  solid  basis  of  fact,  and  the  new  philosophy 
owes  its  origin  for  him  to  new  conclusions  of  the  special  sciences 
about  nature.  It  is  thoroughly  ideal  and  metaphysical,  but  not  posi- 
tivistic. 

L^Etre  Subconscient,  par  Dr.  E.  Gyei^.  F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp.  191. 

Dr.  Gyel  at  first  describes  obscure  facts  in  normal  and  abnormal 
psychology.  The  latter,  treated  at  considerable  length,  involves  hyp- 
notism, telepathy  and  psycho  neuroses  generally,  with  attempts  to 
explain  all  the  established  phenomena.  The  three  laws  that  he  draws 
from  it  all  are  the  evolutive  laws  of  progress,  effort  and  solidarity, 
and  thus  reaches  a  new  explanation  of  evil,  of  morals  and  the  social 
question.  He  believes  thus  he  can  reach  the  philosophy  of  the  future 
based  on  positivistic  knowledge  and  guided  by  deductions  in  strict 
conformity  with  the  scientific  spirit. 

Jalresberight  iiber  die  Leistungen  und  Fortschritte  aufdem  Gebiet  der 
Neurologie  und  Psychologie.    I.  Jahrgang.    Karger,  Berlin,  1898. 

This  large  volume  of  1,508  pages  in  the  first  resumes  the  best  of  its 
over  3,500  papers  on  nervous  and  mental  diseases  that  appeared  during 
the  year  1897.  Professors  Flatan,  Jacobson  and  Mendel,  all  of  Berlin, 
are  the  chief  editors.  Fifty-three  names,  many  of  them  prominent, 
are  named  as  collaborators.  The  range  of  topics  is  wide,  including 
therapeutics  and  criminal  anthropology.  Besides  a  general  index, 
outlining  its  plan  of  arrangement,  there  are  two  full  indexes,  one  of 
topics  and  the  other  of  authors'  names,  at  the  end.  The  difficulties  of 
such  an  undertaking,  especially  for  the  first  year,  are  immense,  and 
nothing  but  German  industry  could  cope  with  them.     All  psycholo- 


BOOK    NOTES.  319 

gists,  as  well  as  neurologists  and  alienists,  will  most  heartily  welcome 
this  as  a  boon  of  the  highest  practical  value  for  their  work.  In  few 
topics  is  its  really  valuable  literature  more  widely  scattered  in  many 
languages  and  in  publications  of  more  various  kinds.  As  far  as  we 
have  examined  this  great  work,  we  find  nothing  in  it  not  worthy  of 
hearty  commendation,  and  all  interested  will  share  our  earnest  hope 
that  the  yearbook  will  meet  the  encouragement  it  so  well  merits  and 
be  continued. 

With  Pillon's  Aunee  Philosophique  now  in  its  ninth  year ;  the  Ann^e 
Psychologique  of  Binet  and  Henri;  the  Ann^e  Biologique  of  Delage, 
the  student  of  psychology,  in  the  large  sense  of  that  word,  has  aids  to 
his  work  that  are  not  only  valuable,  but  indispensable. 

V Education  des  Sentiments,  par  F.  Thomas.  Paris,  1899.  pp.  287. 
Intellectualism  has  been  the  ideal  of  education,  but  in  the  present 
reaction  against  its  ideals  there  is  a  tendency  to  study  and  train  the 
sentiments.  Pleasure  is  a  guide  and  aid,  and  pain  makes  pleasure  more 
intense  and  puts  us  on  our  guard  against  many  evils.  Neurasthenia, 
which  increases  pain,  is  combated  by  change  of  work,  rest,  exercise, 
country  life,  rules  of  hygiene.  Fear  is  educable  by  judicious  exposure 
to  it,  anger  by  restraint,  curiosity  by  rational  gratification,  etc.  The 
instinct  of  property,  self-esteem,  social  inclination,  friendship,  patriot- 
ism, sympathy,  pity,  love  of  truth,  of  play,  the  beautiful  and  good,  are 
all  educable  by  various  means.  The  book  is  very  interesting  and 
suggestive. 

A  Study  of  the  Ethical  Principles,  by  Jamks  Seth.     Chas.  Scribner's 
Sons,  New  York,  1898.     pp.  470. 

This  third  and  enlarged  edition  makes  this  one  of  the  very  best  of 
modern  books  upon  the  subject.  It  is  the  outcome  of  years  of  contin- 
uous reflection  and  teaching  in  which  the  author  has  sought  to  re- 
think the  entire  subject,  and  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  real  course 
of  thought  to  ancient  and  modern  times.  He  has  particularly  striven 
to  recover  and  in  part  restate  the  contributions  of  the  Greeks,  espe- 
cially Aristotle.  He  prefers  to  be  called  an  eudaemonist  in  the  orig- 
inal sense  of  that  term.  The  present  edition  contains  a  new  chapter 
on  the  nature  of  ethics  which  explains  the  more  limited  view  of  this 
field  which  further  reflection  has  forced  upon  the  writer.  In  the  second 
part  a  new  chapter  on  moral  progress  has  been  added,  and  a  sketch  of 
literature  is  appended  to  each  chapter. 

Theories  of  the  Will  in  the  History  of  Philosophy,  by  Archibai^d  Ai,- 
EXANDER.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1898.     pp.  357. 

The  writer,  formally  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Columbia  College, 
here  attempts  the  concise  account  of  the  theory  of  the  will  from  the 
earliest  Greek  thought  down  to  about  the  middle  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. He  modestly  disclaims  the  title  of  history  because  he  has  only 
included  the  theories  of  the  more  important  philosophers.  He  holds 
that  historical  treatment  is  indispensable  to  the  proper  presentation 
of  the  subject,  and  closes  his  view  with  the  theory  of  L/otze  with  an 
intimation  that  it  will  be  continued  later.  Theory,  the  author  thinks, 
has  tended  to  make  us  regard  no  psychical  states  as  self  explanatory, 
but  rather  as  a  result  of  antecedents  or  as  compounds  of  simpler  ele- 
ments. This  is  seen  in  the  tendency  to  seek  the  germs  of  adult  psychic 
states  in  the  infant  mind,  and  even  in  animals,  as  well  as  to  take  the 
brain  into  account.  These  facts  inspire  the  hope  that  the  genesis  of 
conscious  volition  may  be  explained  more  clearly.  Will  is  considered 
in  the  Socratic  period,  in  stoic  and  epicurian  theories,  in  Christian 
theology,  in  British  philosophy  from  Bacon  to  Reid,  on  the  continent 
from  Descartes  to  Leibnitz,  and  in  Germany  from  Kant  to  Lotze. 


320  BOOK    NOTES. 

The  Foundations  of  Zoology,  by  Wii^liam  K.  Brooks.  The  Macmil- 
lau  Co.,  New  York,  1899.  pp.  339. 
This  book,  which  has  been  for  some  time  awaited  with  interest,  is 
the  fifth  in  the  Columbia  University  Biological  Series,  and  is  rather 
singularly  dedicated  to  "  Hobart  College  where  I  learned  to  study, 
and  I  hope  to  profit  by  but  not  blindly  follow  the  writings  of  that 
great  thinker  on  the  principles  of  science,  George  Berkeley."  The 
titles  of  the  twelve  lectures,  which  compose  the  book,  will  give  the 
best  idea  of  its  wide  scope  and  great  importance — Huxley  and  the 
problem  of  the  naturalist ;  nature  and  nurture ;  LaMarck  ;  migration 
in  its  bearing  on  LaMarckism ;  zoology  and  the  philosophy  of  evolu- 
tion; a  note  on  the  views  of  Galton  and  Weismann  on  inheritance; 
Darwin  and  the  origin  of  species ;  natural  selection  and  the  antiquity 
of  life ;  natural  selection  and  natural  theology ;  Paley  and  the  argu- 
ment from  contrivance ;  the  mechanism  of  nature  ;  Louis  Agassiz  and 
George  Berkeley. 

The  Use  of  Color  in  the  Verse  of  the  Efiglish  Rotnantic  Poets,  by 
Ai,iCE  Edwards  Pratt.  Chicago,  1898.  pp.  118. 
The  use  which  has  been  made  of  color  and  color  terms  by  Pope> 
Thomson,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Cowper,  Scott,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth* 
Byron,  Shelley  and  Keats,  required  a  careful  reading  of  the  poets, 
and  the  cataloguing  of  each  usage  of  color.  The  results  for  each 
poet  are  classified,  first  by  color  groups,  and  second  as  distribution 
among  various  fields  of  interest.  Nine  colors  or  color  groups  are  used, 
and  twelve  fields  of  interest :  viz. — man,  dress,  manufactured  articles, 
animals,  minerals,  flowers  and  fruits,  sky,  land,  waters,  miscellaneous 
objects,  color  as  color,  and  abstractions.  Four  hundred  thousand 
lines  of  verse  were  read,  and  two  interesting  charts  are  appended,  one 
on  color  words  applied  to  human  eyes,  hair,  skin ;  and  the  second,  on 
those  applied  to  sky,  cloud,  air,  vegetation,  hills  and  deep  water.  In- 
terest in  color  culminated  in  two  periods — with  Goldsmith  represent- 
ing the  lowest  stage  between  them.  Scott,  Wordsworth  and  Shelley 
are  near  the  apex  of  the  first,  and  the  romanticists,  after  Tennyson,  of 
the  second  maximal  use. 

The  Sexual  Instinct  and  its  Morbid  Manifestations  from  the  Double 
Standpoint  of  furisprudence  and  Psychiatry,  by  Dr.  B.  Tarnow- 
SKY,     Translated  by  W.  C.  Costello  and  Alfred  AUinson.     Paris, 
1898.     pp.  239. 
This  important  work,  which  first  appeared  in  a  briefer  form  in  Rus- 
sian, in  1885,  is  here  at  last  translated  with  a  considerable  number  of 
fresh  observations,  which,  however,  do  not  especially  modify  the  au- 
thor's theory.     He  adopts  as  the  motto  of  his  book  the  sentence  of 
Havelock  Ellis  to  the  effect  that  now  that  the  problems  of  religion  and 
labor  have  been  more  or  less  either  settled  or  placed  on  a  practical 
basis,  the  question  of  sex  and  the  race,  which  rests  on  it,  now  becomes 
the  chief  problem  for  coming  generations  to  solve.     "  Sex  lies  at  the 
root  of  life,  and  we  can  never  learn  to  reverence  life  until  we  know  how 
to  understand  sex."     The  book  is  very  attractively  printed  and  bound 
and  contains  a  frontispiece  of  the  author. 

A  Plea  for  Polygamy.     Paris,  1898.     pp.  280. 

This  anonymous  book,  with  an  edition  strictly  limited  to  300  num- 
bers, is  a  serious  and  earnest  argument,  based  chiefly  on  anthropologi- 
cal rather  than  biological  grounds,  that  polygamy  is  practical  and  in 
some  respects  and  under  certain  circumstances  not  only  justifiable,  but 
highly  advisable.  The  author  thinks  it  would  prevent  a  social  evil ; 
that  monogamy  prevents  and  retards  marriage,  which  is  not  only  a 


BOOK    NOTES.  321 

duty,  but  an  inalienable  right  for  all  who  wish  it,  etc.  The  author's 
view  is  extreme,  and  his  accusations  against  monogamy  are  bitter ;  his 
list  of  great  men  in  the  past  who  have  been  open  or  covert  polygamists; 
his  analysis  of  love  and  the  primary  laws  of  marriage  exhibit  little 
scholarship,  strong  prejudice,  and  a  propensity  for  extreme  views. 

Psychology  of  Sex,  by  Havei^ock  Kiyiyis.  Vol.  I.  Sexual  Inversion. 
University  Press,  lyondon,  1897.  pp.  204. 
This  first  volume  is  largely  a  translation  of  the  author's  work  pub- 
lished a  year  earlier  in  Germany.  From  the  latter  work,  however, 
some  matter  has  been  omitted,  but  more  has  been  added.  As  a  youth, 
living  in  an  Australian  city,  where  the  ways  of  life  were  seen,  Mr. 
Ellis  resolved,  twenty  years  ago,  that  one  main  part  of  his  life  work 
should  be  to  make  clear  the  problems  of  sex.  He  has  a  deep  sense  of 
the  evils  of  ignorance,  and  suppression  of  efforts  that  can  never  be 
suppressed,  but  may  easily  be  perverted  ;  and  pleads  in  a  preface  the 
cause  of  sincerity  against  that  of  reticence.  In  the  days  of  the  great 
treatise  of  Sanchez,  the  church  dealt  faithfully  with  this  subject,  now 
it  ignores  and  slights  it.  A  later  volume  is  to  be  devoted  to  normal 
phenomena  in  this  field. 

The  Determination  of  Sex,  by  Dr.  IvEOpoi^d  Schenck.  The  Werner 
Co.,  Chicago,  Akron  and  New  York,  1898.  pp.  222. 
This  is  called  an  authorized  translation,  but  the  name  of  no  transla- 
tor is  given,  neither  are  we  informed  where  the  original  papers  of  the 
author  are  found.  The  style  of  the  translation  is  exceedingly  unsatis- 
factory, leaving  the  reader  often  in  great  doubt  as  just  what  the  sen- 
tences mean.  The  general  conclusion,  however,  is  plain  enough,  and 
is,  as  is  well-known,  that  sex  is  determined  in  the  very  early  months 
of  pregnancy  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  sugar  in  the  urine,  which 
the  author's  extremely  delicate  phenylhydrazine  test  detects  even  the 
faintest  trace  of.  If  the  diet  during  this  period  can  be  so  determined 
that  no  sugar  is'given  off,  a  male  child  is  the  result.  If  it  is  thus  ex- 
creted, a  female  child  is  produced.  The  very  wide  range,  however,  of 
variation  in  this  habit  requires  a  very  careful  individual  study,  and 
the  preliminary  study  of  dieting  must  precede  impregnation  for  some 
weeks  or  months. 

Die  Geschlechts-Bestimmung  des  Werdenden  Menschen,  von  Kari,  von 
Hagen.  BerliD,  S.  W.,  1898.  pp.  60. 
This  brochure  attempts  to  sum  up  what  we  knew  and  what  we  know 
on  the  predetermination  of  sex.  Assuming  the  general  correctness  of 
Schenck's  theory,  of  which  the  author  gives  a  somewhat  popular  state- 
ment, he  attempts  to  draw  certain  practical  diathetic  rules  concerning 
marriage,  food  and  regimen  ;  supplements  the  theory  with  a  number 
of  very  bold  conjectures  of  his  own  ;  and  introduces  a  number  of  striking 
psychological  conceptions. 

Sex  Worship  :  An  Exposition  of  the  Phallic  Origin  of  Religion,  by 
CiviFFORD  Howard.  Washington,  D.  C,  1897.  pp.  166. 
The  author  makes  sex  worship  the  basis  of  religion  in  the  world.  It 
was  universal  and  primitive,  and  has  left  its  mark  on,  not  only  all 
religions,  but  all  languages  and  institutions.  It  was  inspired  by 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  and  many  of  its  most  formal  m5'steries 
were  springtime  celebrations  of  the  regeneration  of  life.  Now  in 
India  there  are  millions  of  true  Phallic  worshippers.  Even  the  high- 
est theologies  are  its  product,  and  God  himself  is  love.  So  diverse  and 
changed  have  been  its  effects  that  many  really  worship  at  its  shrine 
without  knowing  it.     The  author  shares  what  to  us  is  extravagance  of 


322  BOOK    NOTES. 

nearly  all  writers  upon  this  subject,  the  propensity  to  see  Phallic  em- 
blems symbolized  everywhere  and  in  everything.  His  work  on  the 
whole  is  earnest  and  respectable,  but  shows  few  traces  of  the  scholar- 
ship really  required  to  treat  this  subject  critically  and  well. 

Psychologie  de  V Instinct  Sexuel,  par  Lk  Dr.  Joanny  Roux.  Paris, 
1899.  pp.  96. 
This  is  the  best  little  compend  on  this  great  subject  that  we  have 
seen,  and  is  written  with  the  wide  knowledge  of  the  best  literature. 
The  first  chapter  on  the  basis  of  sexual  need  leads  up  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  this  takes  its  rise  in  every  part  of  the  organism,  and  its  ex- 
citing cause  is  similar  to  that  of  the  desire  for  food.  The  second 
chapter  discusses  the  nervous  centres  of  this  function  and  its  relations 
successively  with  olfactory,  visual,  auditory,  tactile  and  gustatory 
sensations.  The  third  chapter  discusses  choice,  from  the  lowest  ani- 
mals up  to  man,  with  the  usual  account  of  the  theories  of  3chopen- 
hauer  and  Hartmann.  The  fourth  part  treats  of  the  higher  forms  of 
love,  the  role  of  intellectual,  moral  and  emotional  qualities,  and  the 
evolution  of  the  affectional  nature. 

Degeneracy  :  Its  Causes,  Signs  and  Results,  by  Eugene  S.  Talbot,  M. 
D.  London,  1898.  pp.  372. 
The  author  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Medicine,  and 
presents  here  the  results  of  twenty  years  of  labor  in  a  limited  medical 
department  of  biology.  He  writes  especially  for  educators  and  par- 
ents, and  avoids  laying  stress  on  any  one  cause  of  degeneracy,  nor 
will  he  venture  to  rigidly  distinguish  abnormality  from  disease  or 
atavism  from  arrested  development.  He  considers  the  stigmata  of 
heredity,  consanguineous  and  neurotic  intermarriages,  intermixture 
of  races,  toxic  agents,  the  school  strain,  degenerate  cranium,  nose, 
face,  eye,  ear,  teeth,  and  jaw,  reversion,  mental  and  moral  degen- 
eracy, and  illustrates  his  work  with  117  interesting  and  mostly  new 
cuts.  The  author  is  bold,  original  and  suggestive,  and  his  work  is  a 
contribution  of  real  and  indeed  great  value,  more  so  on  the  whole  than 
anything  that  has  yet  appeared  in  this  country. 

Evolution  Individuelle  Heriditi,  par  FeIvIX  IvE  DanTKC.  F.  Alcan, 
Paris,  1898.  pp.  306. 
This  is  a  theory  of  quantitative  variation,  and  considers  the  subject 
under  three  general  heads  :  I.  The  monoplastids,  both  sissipare  and 
those  with  so-called  cyclic  evolution.  II.  The  polyplastids,  first  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  individual  evolution,  and  second  from  that  of 
heredity.  III.  He  discusses  certain  facts  and  theories  connected  with 
heredity  such  as  embryogenic  acceleration ;  Cope's  diplogenesis ; 
Delage's  theory  of  actual  causes  ;  with  a  final  chapter  on  teleology. 

Beitrdge  zUr  Physiologic  des  Centralnervensystetns ,  von  Max  Vbr- 
WORN.  Jena,  1898.  pp.  92. 
This  first  part  of  a  more  comprehensive  work  of  the  above  title  is 
not  the  so-called  hypnosis  of  animals.  The  author  first  describes  with 
some  detail  the  phenomena  in  birds,  mammals,  reptiles,  amphibia, 
fish  and  crabs,  with  the  attempted  explanation  of  Circher,  Zeemack, 
Preyer,  Huebel  and  others;  and  then  characterizes  the  chief  phe- 
nomena in  man  with  the  theory  of  the  biotomic  process  which  he  as- 
sumes in  neurons.  The  characteristic  posture  of  hypnotized  animals 
he  holds  is  due  to  a  corrective  reflex  which  requires  the  muscles  in- 
volved to  remain  in  tonic  contraction,  and  is  the  same  if  the  cerebrum 
is  removed.  It  is  all  simply  the  inhibition  of  voluntary  activities 
that  we  always  observe  when  strong  sensory  impressions  are  intense. 


BOOK    NOTES.  323 

A  Mechanico-Physiological  Theory  of  Organic  Evolution,  by  Cari, 
VON  NageIvI.  Chicago,  1898.  pp.  53. 
This  little  hand-book  by  V.  A.  Clark,  a  student  in  the  University  of 
Vermont,  working  under  the  direction  of  F.  A.  Waugh,  is  a  very  care- 
ful summary  of  Nageli's  mechanico-physiological  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, and  will  prove  a  real  convenience  to  students. 

The  Formal  and  Material  Elements  of  Kant's  Ethics,  by  Wii^IvIAM 
M.  Washington.     New  York,  1898.     pp.  67. 
This  thesis  treats  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  metaphysics  of 
morals,  the  critique  of  pure  practical  reason,  and  the  metaphysics  of 
ethics . 

The  Basis  of  Early  Christian  Theisfn,  by  lyAWRENCE  T.  Col,k.     New 
York,  1898.     pp.  60. 
The  writer  nrst  treats  the  Greek  and  Roman  theistic  arguments,  then 
presents  the  patristic  point  of  view  and  the  patristic  use  of  the  theistic 
argument,  and  finally  eclectic  theism,  which  he  advocates. 

Der  Hypnotismus,  von  Kari,  WachteIvBORN.  Leipzig,  1898.  pp.  98. 
Has  hypnotism  a  place  in  practical  medicine?  The  author  pleads 
that  it  is  not  only  utterly  worthless,  but  is  a  dangerous  and  in  fact  a 
poisonous  thing.  Even  if  its  first  effects  are  good,  the  reaction  is 
detrimental  to  body  and  soul.  It  may  and  doubtless  has  advanced 
man's  knowledge. 

Das  Hypnotische  Hellsch-Experiment,  von  Rudoi^f  Mui<IvER.     Leip- 
zig, 1898.     pp.  322. 
This  pamphlet  is  only  an  extract  from  two  volumes  of  the  above 
title,  and  the  whole  is  a  plea  for  the  recognition  of  hypnotism  as  an 
important  method  of  scientific  psychic  investigation. 

DieerkenntnifstheoretischeStellungdes  Psychologen,  von  Rud.  Wein- 
MANN.     Leipzig,  1898.     pp.  252. 

This  is  at  the  same  time  a  contribution  to  the  foundation  of  the 
realistic  mode  of  thought  as  the  only  one  possible.  The  realism  here 
represented  is  confessedly  an  hypothesis,  but  one  which  admits  of  the 
greatest  simplicity  and  correctness  of  description. 

Der  Ativismus,  von  Dr.  I.  H.  F.  Kohi^brugge.  Utrecht,  1897.  pp.  31. 
The  conclusions  of  the  first  paper  is  that  all  so-called  atavistic  anom- 
alies call  forth  neutral  variations  (neutral  in  relation  to  future  race 
types)  either  by  change  or  arrest  of  development.  Arrests  are  caused 
by  disturbances,  mostly  casual  and  unknown,  occasioned  often  by  un- 
equal distribution  of  Energy  of  growth.  There  is  a  power  of  variation 
about  the  centre,  so  that  variation  is  always  liable  to  be  progressive  or 
retrogressive.  The  second  article  consists  very  largely  of  a  collection 
of  opinions  of  various  eminent  biologists  upon  the  subject. 

Die  vierte  Dimension,  von  Dr.  Leopoi^d  Pick.  Leipzig,  1898.  pp.  46. 
This  writer  holds  that  a  surface  can  be  conceived  as  a  section  of  two 
bodies.  The  question  whence  bodies  can  be  thought  to  have  arisen 
leads  logically  to  a  fourth  dimension  of  space.  Length,  breadth  and 
thickness  do  not  exhaust  the  essence  of  body.  We  never  see  body, 
but  only  surface.  Higher  creatures  might  see  the  partition  of  the 
material  and  immaterial,  inner  extension  or  the  fourth  dimension, 
and  this  really  unknown  numeral  of  things,  which  may  be  defined  as 
Ausdehnung  nach  innen.  Man  stands  on  the  threshold  between  the 
third  and  fourth  dimensions. 


324  BOOK    NOTES. 

Religion  und  Christentum,  von  Paui,  E)wai,d.  Leipzig,  1898.  pp.  39- 
Christianity  is  the  ideal  of  all  religions,  an  affirmation  of  the  super- 
sensuous,  and  based  upon  an  eruption  of  the  supersensuous  into 
earthly  life.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  to  speak  of  its  objective  basis, 
and  its  best  definition  is  communion  with  God.  Christ  is  its  center, 
and  yet  throughout  it  is  the  true  expression  of  the  inner  nature  and 
needs  of  man. 

The  Repair  of  Will-Loss,  by  John  M.  Taylor,  M.  D. 

In  these  three  lectures,  which  are  abstracted  and  reprinted  from  the 
International  Clinics,  the  writer  seeks  to  illustrate  how  certain  differ- 
ences arising  in  puzzling  medical  situations  may  be  met.  He  assumes 
that  long  protracted  ill-health  is  almost  sure  to  end  in  misconduct. 
It  is  difficult  to  get  hold  of  those  who  most  need  medical  aid  or  re- 
proof. The  basis  of  all  treatment  is  nutritional.  Every  subject  re- 
quires very  special  and  detailed  study  and  great  personal  care. 

Early  American  Philosophers,  by  Adam  L.  Jones.  New  York,  1898. 
pp.  80. 
This  Columbia  University  thesis  presents  a  concise  account  of  Wil- 
liam Brattle,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Cadwalader,  Thomas  Clapp,  and  a 
fuller  characterization  of  the  life,  education  and  opinions  of  Samuel 
Johnson  and  Jonathan  Edwards. 

Psycho logische  Untersuchungen  Uber  das  Lesen  auf  Experimenteller 
Grundlage,  von  Benno  Erdmann  und  Raymond  Dodge.  Halle, 
Max  Niemeyer,  1898.     pp.  360. 

After  a  brief  introductory  analysis  of  the  process  of  reading,  the 
authors  resume  the  results  of  previous  experimental  studies  in  this 
field,  criticising  extensively  the  work  of  Cattell,  Grashey,  Wernicke, 
and  Goldscheider  and  Miiller. 

The  authors  began  their  experimental  study  with  an  investigation 
of  the  alternating  "  reading-pauses  "  and  eye-movements.  The  eye- 
movements  were  observed  in  a  mirror  while  the  subjects  (the  authors 
and  one  other)  read  familiar  or  unfamiliar  passages  from  Helmholtz's 
Optik  and  Lock's  Essay  on  Human  Understanding.  The  average  an- 
gular excensions  are  found  to  vary,  in  the  different  subjects  and  texts, 
from  3*^45'  to  5°  for  comparatively  unfamiliar  passages,  from  4^14'  to 
5^36'  in  familiar  passages.  They  state  the  number  of  fixations  re- 
quired in  writing,  proof-reading,  and  in  reading  a  foreign  language. 
By  telescope  observations  on  reader's  eye  the  first  fixation  of  each  line 
is  found  to  fall  within  the  line,  and  the  last  falls  still  farther  within. 

Assuming  that  the  results  of  the  measurements  of  the  speed  of 
eye-movements,  made  by  Dodge  and  others  (as  described  later),  are 
valid  for  the  reading-movement,  the  authors  argue  that  during  \\  to 
If  of  the  reading-time  the  eye  remains  fixated,  and  that,  during  the 
movement,  recognition  of  letters  or  words  is  impossible. 

The  extent  of  the  "  reading-field  "  is  next  studied,  first  by  having 
subjects  describe  periphery  of  points  fixated  on  printed  page  ;  second, 
and  mainly,  by  "experimental  isolation  of  the  reading-pauses  and 
fields."  The  projection  apparatus  used  in  exposing  reading  matter  is 
described  at  length,  as  is  also  the  Dodge  Chronograph  used  in  connec- 
tion with  it  and  already  described  elsewhere. 

Wishing  to  make  the  length  of  exposure  as  nearly  that  of  reader's 
usual  fixation  as  possible,  while  still  excluding  reacting  eye-move- 
ment during  exposure,  the  authors  proceed  to  determine  the  eye's  re- 
action-time in  the  following  manner  :  From  a  point  first  fixated  the 
subject  moved  to  a  second  fixation  point  12  mm.  distant  on  the  ap- 
pearance there  of  a  small  letter  c.    Simultaneously  with  this  c  a  large 


BOOK   NOTES.  325 

letter  O  was  exposed  so  as  to  fall  just  within  the  blind  spot  with  the 
eye  in  first  fixation,  but  becoming  visible  the  instant  the  eye  was 
moved.  The  length  of  the  O's  exposure  necessary  to  make  it  visible 
was  taken  as  measure  of  eye's  reaction-time,  subject  to  a  slight  cor- 
rection. The  minimum  time  was  shown  to  be  between  1880-  and  2300-, 
the  experiments  not  being  extensive  enough  to  determine  it  more  defi- 
nitely. 

The  experiment  is  certainly  most  cleverly  planned.  The  times 
given  seem  rather  long,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  other  experiments 
may  assure  us  of  their  validity. 

Exposures  for  .1  second  of  letters  and  words  gave  results  not  very 
different  from  those  obtained  by  Cattell  and  Goldscheider  in  their 
shorter  exposures.  Words  were  read  at  greater  distanc_es  and  in 
shorter  exposures  than  TeHersT^iidoiif  authors  are  thus  led  to  argue 
strongly'agaliJSTThe  tfieofy  of  "  Buchstabirend  Lesen  "  even  in  the 
modified  form  in  which  it  seemed  to  have  support  in  the  work  of 
Goldscheider  and  Miiller. 

The  determining-letter  theory  of  the  latter  is  criticised,  and  the 
conditions  of  the  reproduction  of  the  "  Wortklangbild  "  are  discussed 
at  length. 

The  authors  then  make  an  exhaustive  criticism  of  the  "  psychologi- 
cal presuppositions  for  the  derivation  of  psychic  times,"  and  later  a 
special  discussion  of  their  derivation  for  the  processes  in  reading. 

The  results  of  the  psychometric  investigations  made  at  Leipzig  by 
Prof.  Cattell  are  subjected  to  a  merciless  dissection,  and  some  of  the 
methods  and  deductions  current  in  psychometry  are  given  a  shaking- 
up  which  is  interesting,  to  say  the  least. 

The  last  two  chapters  report  the  results  of  experiments  on  adequate 
sound-reactions  to  printed  letters  and  to  words  of  various  lengths  and 
degrees  of  familiarity.    A  careful  analysis  is  made  of  the  psychic  com^^ 
ponents  of  these  reactions,  and  the  relations  which  they  bear  to  the    \ 
corresponding  processes  in  actual  reading.  — -^ 

In  an  appendix  on  "the  angular  speed  of  eye-movements,"  after 
reviewing  the  work  of  Volkmann  and  of  Lamansky,  the  experiments 
of  Dodge  are  described. 

Dodge  used  a  modification  of  the  Helmholtz-Lamansky  method  of 
counting  the  after-images  from  light  stimuli  given  at  regular  intervals 
during  the  eye's  movement.  Movements  of  5**  required  150- ;  15°,  300- ; 
30°,  50<r,  nearly  twice  the  times  given  by  Lamansky. 

Dodge's  clever  extraction  of  apparently  valid  results  from  the  mis- 
used data  given  in  Volkmann's  experiments  is  deserving  of  notice. 

On  the  whole,  this  is  by  far  the  best  and  most  extensive  work  thus 
far  on  the  Physiology  and  Psychology  of  Reading.  Though  it  stop 
short  of  much  more  that  is  essentially  important,  it  treats  the  subject 
in  some  of  its  most  vital  parts,  and  has  many  good  things  which  can- 
not be  touched  upon  here.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  authors  have 
not  practiced  the  American  art  of  condensing,  which  might  well  have 
given  us  the  book's  essentials  in  not  more  than  half  its  present  bulk. 

The  unity  of  the  work  as  a  treatise  on  reading  would  be  much  en- 
hanced by  relegating  to  the  appendix  much  of  the  description  of 
apparatus,  and  by  the  separate  publication  of  the  "  criticism  of  psy- 
chic times."  E.  B.  Huey. 


NOTES  AND  NEWS. 


A  Study  of  Taste  Dreams. 

In  a  former  issue  of  this  Journai.  (Vol.  IX,  pp.  413,  414)  I  gave  the 
results  of  some  experiments  on  the  visual  elements  of  the  dreams  of 
my  students  of  psychology  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Westfield, 
Massachusetts.  More  recently  I  have  experimented  with  my  students 
for  taste  dreams.  The  conditions  imposed  by  the  test  required  that 
the  mouth  be  washed  out  just  before  retiring,  and  that  a  clove  be 
crushed  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tongue.  This  was  continued  for 
ten  successive  nights  and  the  details  of  the  remembered  dreams  written 
out  the  morning  following.  Twenty  women  fulfilled  the  conditions  of 
the  test  and  reported  a  total  of  254  dreams. 

A  strong  visual  element  was  reported  in  123  of  the  dreams ;  a  marked 
auditory  element  in  17,  and  a  pronounced  motor  element  in  36.  Sev- 
enteen taste  and  eight  smell  dreams  were  reported.  The  significant 
fact  in  the  study  is  the  large  proportion  of  taste  and  smell  dreams. 
With  three  of  the  students  cloves  were  involved — one  of  "tasting  cloves 
very  distinctly,"  and  another  of  "eating  cloves."  One  dreamed  of  re- 
citing in  school  on  the  importation  of  cloves  from  the  Molucca  Islands. 
This,  she  thinks,  may  have  been  due  to  a  recent  lesson  on  commercial 
geography  on  spices  and  condiments.  Several  students  reported  dreams 
involving  the  tasting  (and  eating)  of  fruits,  the  orange  being  oftenest 
mentioned.  One  dreamed  of  eating  nuts  and  one  of  eating  spiced  food. 
A  student  who  dreamed  of  tasting  wormwood  thinks  it  may  have  been 
suggested  by  a  discussion  which  took  place  in  the  psychology  class 
just  before  the  taste  experiment  was  undertaken.  I  had  asked  the 
class  to  suggest  some  substance  that  might  be  used  to  induce  gustatory 
dreams  and  one  student  had  recommended  wormwood.  A  brief  dis- 
cussion followed  in  which  most  of  the  students  opposed  the  selection 
of  wormwood  and  advocated  instead  cloves. 

Equally  interesting  were  the  eight  smell  dreams.  One  student 
dreamed  of  "smelling  and  seeing  spices."  Another  "  a  distinct  smell 
dream  of  food  cooking ;  can  assign  no  cause,  as  it  was  impossible  for 
the  odor  from  the  kitchen  to  reach  me."  One  dreamed  of  inhaling  the 
fragrance  of  a  cowslip  blossom,  and  she  adds  that  the  cowslip  had  been 
drawn  in  school  the  preceding  day.  One  reports  that  she  dreamed  of 
modelling  (in  sand)  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  that  some  sweet-smell- 
ing peas  grew  from  the  sand.  This  dream  may  have  been  occasioned 
in  part  by  the  fact  that  she  had  modelled  in  sand  a  relief  map  of  Asia 
the  preceding  day,  and  in  part  by  the  planting  of  some  seeds  in  saw- 
dust a  few  days  before  in  the  science  department,  in  order  to  study 
processes  of  germination. 

Several  of  the  more  remotely  suggested  taste  dreams  were  curious. 
One  student,  for  example,  dreamed  that  the  building  in  which  she  was 
sleeping  was  on  fire.  She  attributes  the  dream  to  the  last  remark 
which  she  made  to  her  room-mate  before  falling  asleep :  "I  shall  have 
to  remove  this  clove  ;   it  is  burning  the  mouth  out  of  me." 


NOTBS   AND   NEWS.  327 

Comparing  the  test  in  the  present  instance  with  that  previously  re- 
ported, the  following  percentages  are  obtained  : 


IMAGERY. 

TASTE  TEST. 

VISUAL  TEJsT. 

Visual  element, 

48% 

60% 

Auditory  element, 

7% 

5% 

Motor  element, 

14% 

10% 

Gustatory  element, 

7% 

3% 

Olfactory  element. 

3% 

i>^% 

The  close  relation  existing  between  the  taste  and  smell  senses  and 
the  comparatively  large  increase  in  the  percentage  of  gustatory  and 
olfactory  dreams  would  seem  to  suggest  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
experiment  as  the  cause,  especially  since  several  of  the  dreams  in- 
volved not  merely  gustatory  and  olfactory  imagery  {i.  e.,  thinking 
about  them),  but  real  tastes  and  smells.  Wiivi,  S.  Monroe. 


BOOKS   EEOEIYED. 


Grogs,  Kari..     Die   Spiele  der  Menschen.      Gustav   Fischer,  Jena, 

1899.     pp.  538.     Price,  Mk.  10. 
GyeIv,  E.     L'^tre  subconscient.     Felix  Alcan,  Paris,    1899.     pp.  191. 

Price,  Fes.  4. 
IvAMPERiERE,  Anna.     Le  r61e  social  de  la  femme.     Devoirs,  droits, 

Education.     F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.     pp.  175.     Price,  Fes.  2.50. 
MuEivivKR     RUDOI.F.       Das    Hypnotische     Hellseh-Experiment     im 

Dienste  der  Naturwissenschaftlichen  Seelenforcshung.     II  Band. 

Das  normale  Bewusstsein.     Arwed  Strauch,  I^eipzig,  1898.     pp. 

322.     Price,  Mk.  4. 
REnouvier,  Ch.,  et  Prat,  I^ouis.  Iva  nouvelle  monadologie.  Armand 

Colin  et  Cie,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  546.     Price,  Fes.  12. 
RiBERT,  IvEONCE.     Essai  d'une  philosophic  nouvelle  suggerde  par  la 

science.     Felix  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.     pp.  562.     Price,  Fes.  6. 
Stern,    L.    WiIvI<iam.       Psychologic    der    Veranderungsauffassung. 

Preuss  u.  Jiinger,  Breslau,  1898.     pp.  264.     Price,  Mk.  6. 
Tai^boT,    Eugene    S.      Degeneracy ;    Its  causes,   signs  and   results. 

(The  Contemporary   Science    Series,   Vol.   35.)      Walter    Scott, 

London,  1898.     pp.  372.     Price,  6  shillings. 


THE   AMERIOAlsr 

Journal  of  Psychology 

Founded  by  G.  Stani^ey  Hai^i,  in  1887. 

Vol.  X.  APRIL,  1899.  No.  3. 

INDIVIDUAI,  PSYCHOLOGY  :    A  STUDY  IN 
PSYCHOLOGICAL  METHOD. 


By  Stei^IvA  Emii^y  Sharp,  Ph.  D.,  Cornell  University. 


Part  I.     Historical  and  Critical. 
§  I .  Individual  Psychology. 

The  systematic  consideration  of  the  problems  grouped  under 
the  name  of  "  Individual  Psychology  "is  of  but  recent  date. 
Indeed,  the  only  treatment  of  the  whole  subject  for  its  own  sake 
is  that  contained  in  a  paper  published  in  1895,^  by  Mm.  Binet 
and  Henri.  A  great  deal  of  work  has,  however,  been  done  by 
others,  outside  of  France,  which  properly  belongs  to  this  branch 
of  Psychology;  notably  the  investigations  by  Prof.  Kraepelin 
and  his  followers  in  Germany,  whose  object  is  by  psychological 
methods  to  study  the  mentally  abnormal  in  comparison  with 
mentally  normal  individuals.  For  the  sake  of  this  comparison 
the  variations  in  the  psychical  processes  of  normal  individuals 
must.  Prof  Kraepelin  says,  first  be  studied;  but  the  methods 
employed  are  such  only  as  are  demanded  by  the  comparison 
that  is  the  main  object  of  the  investigation.^ 

Many  American  psychologists  have  made  researches  in  the 

1  A.  Binet  et  V.  Henri :  La  psychologie  individuelle.  In  UAnnee 
psychologique,  Vol.  II,  1895,  pp.  411  ff. 

In  a  foot  note  to  the  article  La  mdsure  en  psychologie  individuelle 
{Revue  philos.,  Vol.  XLVI,  p.  113),  M.  Binet  makes  the  claim  that 
he  is  the  first  French  psychologist  to  employ  the  term  "  Individual 
Psychology." 

'■^  E.  Kraepelin  :  Der  psychologische  Versuch  in  der  Psychiatrie.  In 
Kraepelin's  Psychologische  Arbeiten,  I,  i,  pp.  i  et  seq.  See  also 
Axel  Oehrn  :  Experimentelle  Studien  zur  Individual-Psychologic. 
Ibid.y  pp.  92  ff. 


o6' 


SHARP 


field  of  Individual  Psychology ;  but  there  has  been  no  unity 
of  method  among  the  investigators,  nor  have  the  results  been 
systematized  or  their  value  estimated.  An  important  char- 
acteristic of  most  of  this  work,  however,  is  the  large  propor- 
tion of  anthropometric  tests,  which  are  accorded  an  import- 
ance equal  to  those  which  are  strictly  mental.^  In  the  class  of 
the  more  exclusively  psychological  investigations  may  be 
named  the  experiments  of  Prof.  Jastrow  concerning  the  com- 
munity of  ideas  between  men  and  women,  made  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  and  similar  experiments  made  by  Prof.  M. 
W.  Calkins  at  Wellesley  College  ;^  as  well  as  a  brief  study  in 
Individual  Psychology  by  Miss  C.  Miles,  which  makes  use  of 
the  method  of  the  questionnaire.* 

It  is  clear, then,  that  any  treatment  of  Individual  Psychology 
almost  neceSvSarily  involves  a  consideration,  more  or  less  com- 
plete, of  the  work  done  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  well  to  ask  first  of  all  what  views  these  authors 
take  of  the  scope  and  relations  of  Individual  Psychology.  In- 
dividual Psychology,  they  maintain,  takes  up  the  thread  of 
investigation  at  the  point  where  General  Psychology  leaves  it. 
' '  General  Psychology  studies  the  general  properties  of  psychi- 
cal processes,  those,  therefore,  which  are  common  to  all  indi- 
viduals; Individual  Psychology,  on  the  contrary,  studies  those 
psychical  processes  which  vary  from  one  individual  to  another: 
it  seeks  to  determine  the  variable  qualities,  and  the  extent  and 
manner  of  their  variation  according  to  the  individual." 
Memory  maj'  very  well  illustrate  the  point.  The  law  of 
memory  is  as  follows:  the  time  necessary  to  fix  impressions  in 

1  Tests  employed  by  Prof.  Jastrow  at  the  World's  Fair  of  Chicago  in 
1893.  Analyzed  in  L' Annie  psychologiquey  Vol.  I,  p.  532.  See  also 
J.  McK.  Cattell,  Mental  Tests  and  Measurements.  Mind,  1890,  Vol. 
XV,  pp.  373  ff.;  J.  A.  Gilbert :  Researches  on  the  Mental  and  Physical 
Development  of  School  Children.  Stud.  Yale  Laboratory,  II,  1894 ; 
J.  McK.  Cattell  and  ly.  Farrand,  Psych.  Rev.,Wo\.  Ill,  1896,  pp.  610  ff.; 
J.  Jastrow  and  G.  W.  Morehouse  :  Some  Anthropometric  and  Psy- 
chologic Tests  on  College  Students.  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  Vol. 
IV,  pp.  420  ff . 

2  The  original  account  of  these  experiments  appeared  in  an  article 
entitled  A  Study  of  Mental  Statistics,  in  the  December,  1891,  num- 
ber of  the  New  Review,  under  the  heading  "  The  Community  of  Ideas 
and  Thought-Habits  of  Men  and  Women."  It  appeared  also  in  the 
article  Community  and  Association  of  Ideas:  a  Statistical  Study,  by 
J.  Jastrow;  Psych,  Rev.,  I,  p.  152  (1894).  Similar  experiments  made 
at  Wellesley  College  by  C.  C.  Nevers,  under  the  direction  of  M.  W. 
Calkins,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  II,  p.  363  (1895),  gave  a  different  result.  A 
criticism  of  the  latter  by  Prof.  Jastrow  appeared  in  the  Psych.  Rev., 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  68  (1896).  A  reply  to  this  by  Miss  Calkins  is  found  in  the 
same  volume  of  the  Psych.  Rev.,  p.  426;  and  a  further  reply  by  Prof. 
Jastrow,  p.  430.  Both  investigations  are  discussed  and  criticised  by 
Amy  Tanner,  Psych.  Rev.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  548  ff. 

^  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  VI,  p.  534- 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOI.OGY.  33 1 

memory  increases  at  first  proportionally  to  the  number  of  im- 
pressions; but,  after  a  certain  limit,  the  '  time  of  acquisition ' 
increases  more  rapidly  than  the  number  of  impressions.  This 
law  of  memory  is  common  to  all;  no  one  can  escape  it;  but  the 
law  does  not  say  that  the  limit,  beyond  which  the  time  neces- 
sary to  retain  the  impressions  is  no  longer  proportional  to  the 
number  ol  impressions,  is  fixed  and  common  for  all.  This 
limit  is  a  variable  property  of  memory,  and  here  Individual 
Psychology  comes  in,  and  investigates  the  subject  in  its  differ- 
ent aspects;  it  enquires  in  what  measure  this  limit  varies  in 
different  individuals,  and  whether  it  remains  constant  in  one 
individual  for  different  kinds  of  impressions.  If  A  and  B,  after 
one  hearing,  can  remember  ten  and  seven  letters  respectively 
out  of  twelve,  can  they  remember  with  the  same  relative  readi- 
ness an  equal  number  of  figures,  colors,  or  what  not?  Indi- 
vidual Psychology  goes  on,  further,  to  enquire  if  there  is  any 
relation  between  the  position  of  this  limit  and  the  psychologi- 
cal 'self  of  the  individual, — as,  for  example,  his  age;  or 
between  the  limit  of  memory  and  some  other  psychical  process. 

§  2.    The  Psychology  of  Structure  and  of  Function. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  more  detailed  statement  of  the  prob- 
lems of  Individual  Psychology,  as  set  forth  by  M.  Binet  and 
his  collaborator,  a  digression  must  be  made  in  order  to  con- 
sider a  distinction  that  has  lately  been  drawn  between  the 
points  of  view  of  *  experimental  *  and  of  '  descriptive  '  psy- 
chology. This  distinction  is  set  forth  by  Prof.  Titchener  in 
an  article  entitled  ' '  The  Postulates  of  a  Structural  Psy- 
chology."^ A  comparison  is  here  made  between  the  science  of 
biology,  in  its  widest  sense,  and  that  of  psychology.  The  for- 
mer may  be  approached  from  any  one  of  three  points  of  view. 

"  We  may  enquire,"  says  Prof.  Titchener,  "  into  the  structure  of  an 
organism, without  regard  to  function,  by  analysis  determining  its  com- 
ponent parts,  and  by  synthesis  exhibiting  the  mode  of  its  formation 
from  the  parts.  Or  we  may  enquire  into  the  function  of  the  various 
structures  which  our  analysis  has  revealed,  and  into  the  manner  of 
their  interrelation  as  functional  organs.  Or,  again,  we  may  enquire 
into  the  changes  of  form  and  function  that  accompany  the  persistence 
of  the  organism  in  time,  the  phenomena  of  growth  and  decay.  Biology, 
the  science  of  living  things,  comprises  the  three  mutually  interde- 
pendent sciences  of  morphology,  physiology  and  ontogeny." 

If  a  more  general  view  is  taken,  and  regard  is  had  for  the 
whole  number  of  living  beings  as  parts  of  a  collective  life,  we 
have,  corresponding  respectively  to  the  three  branches  named, 
the  more  general  sciences  of  taxonomy  or  systematic  zoology, 
the  science  of  classification;  oecology,  which  deals  with  ques- 

1  Philosophical  Review,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  449  ff.    Sept.,  1898. 


332  SHARP : 

tions  of  geographical  distribution,  of  the  function  of  species 
in  the  general  economy  of  nature;  and  phylogeny,  the  biology 
of  evolution,  dealing  with  the  problems  of  descent  and  of  trans- 
mission. 

The  same  principle  of  division  here  employed  in  biology  may 
be  applied  with  equal  validity  to  psychology. 

"  We  find  a  parallel  to  morphology  in  a  very  large  portion  of  *  ex- 
perimental '  psychology.  The  primary  aim  of  the  experimental  psy- 
chologist has  been  to  analyze  the  structure  of  mind  ;  to  ravel  out  the 

elemental  processes  from  the  tangle  of  consciousness His 

task  is  a  vivisection,  but  a  vivisection  which  shall  yield  structural, 

not    functional   results There   is,  however,   a   functional 

psychology  over  and  above  the  psychology  of  structure.  We  may  re- 
gard mind,  on  the  one  hand,  as  a  complex  of  processes,  shaped 
and  moulded  under  the  conditions  of  the  physical  organism.  We 
may  regard  it,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  collective  name  for  a 
system  of  functions  of  the  psychophysical  organism.  The  two 
points  of  view  are  not  seldom  confused.  The  phrase  '  associa- 
tion of  ideas,'  e.  g.,  may  denote  either  the  structural  complex, 
the  associated  sensation  group,  or  the  functional  process  of  recogni- 
tion and  recall,  the  associating  of  formation  to  formation.  In  the 
former  sense  it  is  morphological  material,  in  the  latter  it  belongs  to 
what  I  must  name  (the  'phrase  will  not  be  misunderstood)  a  physiolog- 
ical psychology.  Just  as  experimental  psychology  is  to  a  large  extent 
concerned  with  problems  of  structure,  so  is  *  descriptive  '  psychology, 
ancient  and  modern,  chiefly  occupied  with  problems  of  function. 
Memory,  recognition,  imagination,  conception,  judgment,  attention, 
apperception,  volition,  and  a  host  of  verbal  nouns,  wider  or  narrower 
in  denotation,  connote,  in  the  discussions  of  descriptive  psychology, 
functions  of  the  total  organism." 

So  much  for  the  'morphological'  and  'physiological'  psycholo- 
gies, which  are  indeed  the  most  important.  The  other  branches 
of  biology  have  also  their  counterparts.  Ontogenetic  psy- 
chology, the  psychology  of  individual  childhood  and  adoles- 
cence; taxonomic  psychology,  dealing  with  the  classification  of 
the  emotions,  impulses,  temperaments,  the  typical  mind  of 
social  classes,  etc. ;  the  functional  psychology  of  the  collective 
mind,  which  has  as  yet  been  but  little  worked  out;  and,  lastly, 
phylogenetic  psychology,  enriched  by  the  labors  of  the  evolu- 
tionary school,  complete  the  list. 

§  3.    The  Problems  of  Individual  Psychology. 

Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  class  the  problems  of  Individual  Psy- 
chology under  two  main  headings.     It  is  called  upon: 

1.  to  study  the  variable  properties  of  psychical  processes;  to 
find  how,  and  to  what  extent,  these  processes  vary  from  one 
individual  to  another;  and 

2.  to  ascertain  the  relation  of  the  processes  to  each  other  in 
a  single  mind;  to  find  out  whether  they  are  mutually  depend- 
ent, or  whether  there  are  some  fundamental  processes  upon 
which  all  the  others  depend. 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  333 

A .    The  First  Problem  of  hidividual  Psychology. 

The  first  problem  has  two  aspects,  according  as  emphasis  is 
laid  upon  the  processes  themselves,  or  upon  the  individual  who 
experiences  them.  The  first  aspect  is  the  one  with  which  In- 
dividual Psychology  must  necessarily  start.  How  and  to  what 
extent  mental  processes  vary  from  one  individual  to  another  is 
the  question  which  must  be  answered,  to  furnish,  as  it  were, 
the  materials  for  further  investigation.  Then  we  may  go  on  to 
ask  if  these  variations  follow  any  regular  laws,  corresponding 
to  the  classification  of  individuals  into  groups  by  profession, 
sex,  age,  etc. 

A  considerable  number  of  independent  investigations  have 
been  made  in  the  line  of  this  first  problem  of  Individual  Psy- 
chology, under  both  its  aspects.  Sensations  are  the  processes 
which  have  been  subjected  to  the  greatest  amount  of  research, 
on  account  of  their  value  for  some  practical  end.  The  tests  in 
regard  to  individual  variations  in  visual  sensations,  such  as 
color  blindness, which  have  been  made  among  engineers,  pilots, 
and  in  other  professions  whose  members  are  called  upon  to  rec- 
ognize color  signals,  are  experiments  of  this  kind.  Mm.  Binet 
and  Henri  state,  as  the  result  of  a  brief  historical  survey  of  the 
work  in  this  field,  that  "  the  individual  differences  for  sensation 
are  very  feeble  and  insignificant  in  relation  to  the  differences 
in  the  higher  faculties. ' '  Hence  much  of  the  work  done  is  of 
comparatively  little  value  for  Individual  Psychology,  which 
seeks  to  characterize  individuals  and  classes  according  to  the 
variations  which  they  exhibit  in  the  mental  processes  compos- 
ing the  '  real '  or  '  actual  '  mind  of  every- day  life. 

Other  researches  have  been  carried  out,  in  which  the  em- 
phasis has  been  laid,  not  upon  the  variations  themselves,  but 
upon  their  relation  to  the  individual;  and  the  individual's  men- 
tal proccvsses  have  been  studied  in  reference  to  the  class  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  investigations  of  Prof.  Jastrow  and 
Miss  Calkins  regarding  the  Community  of  Ideas  in  men  and 
women  (mentioned  above)  come  under  this  head.  The  in- 
vestigations of  what  may  be  called  'professional  psychology' 
also  belong  here,  and  would  be  of  the  highest  importance  for 
Individual  Psychology  were  it  not  that  they  fail  to  apply  a 
strictly  scientific  method.  As  it  is,  however,  they  are  rich  in 
suggestions  of  more  exact  work,  and  may  thus  lead  to  system- 
atic research  along  the  same  lines. -^ 

^  ly.  Arr^at :  Psychologie  du  petntre.  Paris,  1895.  This  considers 
anthropological  as  well  as  psychological  traits,  and  the  author  has 
drawn  his  material  largely  from  literature,  biographies,  and  docu- 
ments of  all  kinds  concerning  artists  of  every  time  and  country. 
Owing  to  the  imperfect  nature  of  the  material,  the  conclusions  are 


334  SHARP : 

The  question  now  arises  whether  the  first  great  problem  of 
Individual  Psychology  should  be  classed  as  an  enquiry  of 
'  structural '  or  '  functional '  psychology.  In  the  first  place, 
is  the  material  with  which  the  Individual  Psychologist  works 
the  same  as  (or  similar  to)  that  which  lends  itself  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  Experimental  Psychologist?  The  Experi- 
mental Psychologist  takes  mental  processes  in  as  simple  a  form 
as  he  can  find  them.  By  means  of  laboratory  methods,  he  ex- 
ercises the  most  rigid  control  over  conditions,  in  order  that  all 
complicating  factors  may  be  excluded,  and  that  the  result  may 
represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  working  of  the  elemental 
factors.  Thus  the  Experimental  Psychologist,  acknowledging 
that  a  pure  sensation  is  an  abstraction, — that  it  never  occurs  in 
our  concrete  experience, — yet  endeavors  by  artificial  means  to 
secure  in  his  subjects  states  of  consciousness  in  which  the  de- 
sired sensations  are  sufiiciently  isolated  from  their  respective 
contexts  to  give  information  as  to  their  properties  and  the  laws 
governing  the  variations  of  these  properties. 

Does  the  Individual  Psychologist  adopt  a  similar  method  of 
procedure?  Is  it  his  aim  to  take  the  simplest  existing  pro- 
cesses, in  order  to  investigate  any  possible  individual  varia- 
tions, and  thus  to  account  for  unlike  results  from  the  building 
up  of  unlike  materials  ?  It  is  by  the  answer  to  this  question 
that  two  groups  or  schools  of  Individual  Psychology  are  differ- 
entiated. M.  Binet  and  the  French  psychologists  answer  "  no;" 
Prof.  Kraepelin  and  the  German  psychologists  answer  ' '  yes. ' ' 
The  American  psychologists  make  no  explicit  statement  on  the 
subject,  but  their  practice  is  rather  with  the  German  than  with 
the  French  school.  The  German  school  maintains  that,  at 
least  for  the  present,  only  simple  mental  processes  can  be 
studied  with  the  exactness  necessary  for  scientific  work.  "  Die 
Probleme   der   Individual-psychologie   konnen   bisher   nur  in 

necessarily  exceedingly  general.  Prof.  James  denies  this  work  the 
adjective  '  scientific' 

ly.  Dauriac  :  Psychologic  du  ntusicien,  Articles  I-VII.  R&vue philos.y 
Vol.  XXXV,  pp.  449»  595  ;  Vol.  XXXIX,  pp.  31,  258,  404;  Vol.  XLII, 
pp.  I,  155- 

Harmon:  Psychologic dumilitaire prof essionel.  Paris,  1894.  This 
is  a  work  which  belongs  to  sociology  more  than  to  psychology.  It 
traces  the  moral  effects  of  army  life  and  the  reaction  of  these  upon 
society. 

A.  Binet  et  J.  Passy  :  Etudes  de  psychologic  sur  les  auteurs  dra- 
matiques.  L^Annee  psychoL,  I,  pp.  60  ff.  The  creative  imagination 
is  here  the  chief  subject  of  investigation.  A  number  of  French  drama- 
tists give  information,  either  by  word  of  mouth  or  in  writing,  regard- 
ing the  composition  of  their  works ;  the  choice  of  subject,  the  method 
of  literary  labor,  the  'furniture  '  of  the  mind  duriug  inspiration,  etc. 
The  '  interview,'  like  the  questionnaire,  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  method ; 
but  the  results  therefrom  cannot  claim  the  validity  of  the  stricter 
laboratory  procedures. 


INDIVIDUAI.  PSYCHOI.OGY.  335 

ganz  einfachen  Formen  psychischen  Geschehens  gesucht  wer- 
den."^  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  make  explicit  and  repeated 
statements  of  the  opposing  standpoint  in  the  article  which  we 
have  been  considering.  On  p.  417  is  found  the  passage  here 
translated.  * '  The  higher  and  more  complex  a  process  is,  the 
more  it  varies  in  individuals;  sensations  vary  from  one  indi- 
vidual to  another,  but  less  so  than  memory;  memory  of  sensa- 
tions varies  less  than  memories  of  ideas,  etc.  The  result  is, 
that  if  one  wishes  to  study  the  differences  existing  between  two 
individuals,  it  is  necessary  to  begin  with  the  most  intellectual 
and  complex  processes,  and  it  is  only  secondarilj^  necessary  to 
consider  the  simple  and  elementary  processes." 

An  examination  of  particular  investigations  which  have  been 
made  by  representatives  of  these  two  schools  will  enable  us  to 
judge  whether  the  principles  of  each  have  been  strictly  adhered 
to.  Kraepelin  and  Oehrn  must  be  taken  as  the  German  rep- 
resentatives. Kraepelin,  in  the  first  number  of  the  '  Psy- 
chologische  Arbeiten,'  lays  down  the  principles,  methods  and 
aims  of  the  work  which  he  proposes  to  undertake.  Oehrn — in 
part,  at  least — carries  out  these  methods,  and  the  results  are 
embodied  in  the  second  article  of  the  same  number  of  this 
periodical. 

Since  for  Kraepelin  men  are  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
the  mentally  normal  and  the  mentally  abnormal,  all  individual 
differences  are  summed  up  for  him  under  the  one  great  cate- 
gory of  mental  capacity.  It  is  his  aim  to  learn  as  much  as  pos- 
sible about  the  psychology  of  the  abnormal  mind.  For  this 
purpose  investigations  of  the  normal  mind  are  first  necessary, 
and  then  further  investigations  of  the  normal  mind,  under  cer- 
tain abnormal  conditions  which  produce  consciousnesses  com- 
parable to  those  normally  present  in  the  insane.  The  differences 
in  mental  capacity,  therefore,  which  Kraepelin  considers  sub- 
ject to  experimental  investigation,  are  those  which  are  most 
directly  connected  with  physical  conditions.  The  kinds  of 
mental  capacity  to  be  thus  investigated  he  classes  under  the 
three  heads  of  capacity  for  the  perception  of  sensory  stim- 
uli, for  the  association  of  ideas,  and  for  voluntary  movement. 
The  psychophysical  conditions  which  are  studied  under  these 
three  heads  are  the  influence  of  practice  and  the  persistence 
of  the  effects  of  practice,  the  capacity  of  the  special  mem- 
ories, the  influence  of  fatigue  and  the  capacity  of  recovery  from 
fatigue,  the  depth  of  sleep,  and  the  capacity  for  concentration 
of  the  attention.  Prof.  Kraepelin  states  that  this  list  is  as  far 
as  can  be  from  exhausting  the  conditions  which  it  is  possible 
and  even  necessary  to  determine  experimentally;  but  he  affirms 

1  Max  Brahn  :  Zeit  fur  Ps.  u.  Ph.  d.  Sintiesorganeydi.  XII,  .p.  280. 


33^  SHARP : 

that  it  is  upon  the  basis  of  an  investigation  such  as  this  that 
the  study  of  personalities  must  be  founded. 

The  operations,  suggested  by  Kraepelin  and  adopted  by 
Oehrn,  that  are  chosen  as  affording  means  for  the  investigation 
of  these  conditions  are  as  follows:  i.  Perception:  the  counting 
of  letters,  the  search  for  particular  letters,  proof  reading.  2. 
Memory:  the  learning  of  twelve  nonsense  syllables,  and  of 
series  of  twelve  figures.  3.  Association:  the  addition  of  series 
of  one-place  numbers.  4.  Motor  functions:  writing  from  dic- 
tation, and  reading  as  fast  as  possible. 

The  time  aspect  alone  of  these  operations  is  noted  experi- 
mentally. The  absolute  durations  of  the  processes,  and  their 
mean  variations,  give  information  in  regard  to  the  general 
mental  capacity  of  the  individuals  tested,  and  to  the  relation  of 
the  processes  to  each  other  in  respect  of  complexity,  etc. 

The  fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  the  processes  during  periods  of 
continuous  work,  or  after  stated  intervals  of  rest,  show  the  in- 
fluence of  practice  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  work,  of  fatigue 
in  decreasing  this  efficiency,  and  of  rest  in  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency by  means  of  the  removal  of  fatigue,  or  decreasing  it  by 
obliterating  the  effects  of  practice,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  rest  interval.  A  strict  numerical  expression  is  given  to  all 
the  facts  thus  deduced.  "  If  we  wish  to  be  instructed,"  says 
Oehrn  (p.  144),  "  concerning  the  psychical  efficiency  of  a  per- 
son, we  ask  first  concerning  the  quantity  of  work  he  can  do  in 
a  certain  time,  or  the  time  necessary  to  do  a  certain  amount  of 
work.  We  shall,  therefore,  have  to  consider  in  the  ^rst  place 
the  individual  differences  in  the  absolute  duration  of  the  func- 
tions investigated  "  {i.  e.,  the  average  time,  in  thousandths  of 
a  second,  that  it  takes  to  count  one  letter,  to  read  one  syllable, 
to  write  one  letter,  to  make  one  addition,  or  to  learn  one  num- 
ber or  syllable).  "  The  second  question  is  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  work,  by  which  alone  the  value  of  the  quantity  may  be  es- 
timated." A  direct  answer  to  this  latter  question  Oehrn  does 
not  attempt  to  give  in  his  work,  but  considers  the  omission  of 
secondary  importance,  since  all  of  his  subjects  had  attained  a 
degree  of  education  where  large  differences  in  the  quality  of  the 
particular  processes  tested  could  hardly  enter.  "  Further,  it 
is  of  importance,"  he  continues,  "for  judging  an  individual, 
to  know  if  he  is  in  condition  to  work  with  constancy.  If  this 
is  not  the  case,  the  quality  of  the  work  must  suffer  on  the  one 
hand,  while  on  the  other,  large  fluctuations  will  also  indicate  a 
diminution  of  quantity,  since  they  are  to  be  taken  as  evidences 
of  fatigue.  Hence  the  more  numerous  and  larger  the  fluctua- 
tions are,  the  lower  must  be  our  estimate  of  the  psychical  en- 
ergy of  the  individual  considered."  The  mean  variations  in 
time   give   numerical    representations    of   these    fluctuations. 


INDIVIDUAI^   PSYCHOLOGY.  337 

"  Finally,  we  have  to  ascertain  how  the  subjects  behave  in  re- 
gard to  practice  and  fatigue.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  that  practice  which  enters  into  a  single  experi- 
ment, .  .  .  and  the  permanent  practice  which  manifests 
itself,  in  a  repetition  of  the  experiment,  by  a  shortening  of 
the  time  necessary  to  perform  the  work."  The  mean  variations 
and  the  relation  of  practice  and  fatigue  in  an  individual  are 
considered  as  of  more  importance  forjudging  his  capacity  than 
the  absolute  duration  of  his  work.  Tables  are  given,  presenting 
the  numerical  results  in  each  of  these  regards,  obtained  from 
every  one  of  Oehrn's  ten  subjects.  From  the  Tables  a  compari- 
son of  the  vSubjects  could  be  made;  but  Oehrn  leaves  this  com- 
parison to  be  made  by  the  reader.  He  is  chiefly  concerned  to 
show  that  by  the  aid  of  the  method  he  has  described  it  is  pos- 
sible to  obtain  a  conception  of  the  psychical  status  of  an  indi- 
vidual. To  establish  a  normal  status  would  be  the  task  of  far 
more  extended  investigations. 

Contrast  with  this  work  in  Individual  Psychology  an  investi- 
gation made  in  France,  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  on  Memory 
for  Sentences  (Memory  for  Ideas). ^ 

In  the  memory  of  figures  or  letters,  it  is  chiefly  auditory, 
visual  or  tactual  sensations  that  are  retained:  the  memory  is 
one  of  relatively  simple  conscious  elements.  Memory  of  isolated 
words  approaches  this  in  its  essential  character;  for,  though 
the  sense  of  the  words  enters  here,  and  the  memory  is  partially 
a  memory  of  ideas,  yet  it  is  impossible  in  experiments  upon  the 
memory  of  isolated  words  to  determine  how  much  influence 
upon  the  subject's  power  of  recall  is  due  to  the  sense  cf  the 
words,  and  how  much  is  due  simply  to  the  subject's  desultory 
memory,  or  memory  of  separate,  unconnected  impressions. 
Hence  it  is  necessary  to  investigate  the  memory  of  ideas  by  it- 
self. 

Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  chose  eight  sentences,  or  closely  con- 
nected groups  of  sentences,  ranging  in  length  from  1 1  to  86 
words.  These  sentences  were  read  before  the  pupils  of  several 
classes  in  four  elementary  schools  in  Paris.  The  children  were 
required  to  reproduce  the  sentences  in  writing  immediately  after 
hearing  them.  The  attention  of  the  pupils  was  properly  di- 
rected, since  an  explanation  of  the  requirement  was  given  to 
them  in   advance.     The  main  work  in  the  investigation  was, 

^  A,  Binet  et  V.Henri :  La  mdmoire  des  phrases  (MSmoire  des  idies) . 
In  L'Annee psychologique,  I,  1894,  p.  24.  This  article  appeared  before 
that  on  Individual  Psychology  by  the  same  authors,  and  the  investi- 
gation is  not  explicitly  termed  an  investigation  in  Individual  Psy- 
chology. The  test  employed  is,  however,  closely  similar  to  one  pro- 
posed in  the  latter  article,  and  represents  very  fairly  the  kind  of 
material  which  the  writers  believe  Individual  Psychology  should  em- 
ploy. 


338  SHARP : 

of  course,  the  interpretation  of  the  results  handed  in  by  the 
pupils.  The  number  of  children  submitted  to  the  experiments 
was  about  510. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  the  interpretation  of  results 
lies  in  the  fact  that  not  every  word  in  the  sentence  or  sentences 
represents  an  independeiat  idea.  One  cannot  say  that  there  are 
just  as  many  ideas  in  the  sentence  as  there  are  words.  Pro- 
nouns, articles,  prepositions,  etc. ,  have  no  meaning  apart  from 
other  words  with  which  they  are  closely  connected;  and  short 
phrases  are  remembered  as  a  single  idea.  Hence  it  became 
necessary  to  separate  the  sentences  into  word-groups,  each 
group  representing  as  nearly  as  possible  one  idea.  Here  is  an 
example  of  this  division  of  one  of  the  shorter  sentences:  a  sen- 
tence of  20  words  and  8  groups  of  words: 

Le  petit  Emile  |  a  obtenu  |  de  sa  m^re  |  un  joli  |  cheval  m^canique  | 
en  recompense  |  de  sa  bonne  conduite  |  a  I'dcole.  | 

In  the  longer  sentences  or  series  of  sentences  the  division  be- 
comes more  difficult  and  assumes  a  more  or  less  arbitrary  char- 
acter.   A  passage  of  60  words  and  of  19  groups  may  show  this: 

Une  vieille  paysanne  |  agde  de  64  ans,  |  la  veuve  Mouillet,  |  qui 
habitait  une  petite  maison  |  sur  la  route  deserte  j  des  Recolets  |  avait 
conduit  I  son  troupeau  |  dans  les  champs.  |  Pendant  qu'elle  faisait  de 
I'herbe  pour  ses  aniraaux  |  une  vipere  ]  cach^e  derriere  |  les  fagots — 
s'^lancja  sur  elle  |  et  la  mordit  |  a  plusieurs  reprises  |  au  poignet.  |  La 
pauvre  femme  |  en  est  morte.  | 

The  results  obtained  from  the  investigation  were,  in  brief, 
these.  I.  Memory  for  sentences  (or  ideas)  shows  a  slight 
but  constant  increase  with  age.  This  was  ascertained  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  higher  classes  more  groups  of  words  were  com- 
pletely retained,  and  fewer  words  totally  forgotten, — i.  e.,  en- 
tirely left  out,  without  any  substitution  whether  right  or 
wrong, — than  in  the  lower  classes  where  the  pupils  were 
younger.  2.  The  memory  for  sentences  is,  in  certain  fixed 
conditions  under  which  these  experiments  were  tried,  twenty- 
five  times  superior  to  the  memory  for  isolated  words.  3,  The 
number  of  forgotten  words  increases  rapidly  with  the  length  of 
sentences  or  series  of  sentences;  for  a  sentence  of  20  words  (8 
groups)  it  was  g\,  while  for  a  series  of  80  words  (24  groups) 
it  was  \.  4.,  The  losses  of  memory  fall  upon  accessory  parts 
of  the  sentence,  not  upon  the  essential  parts,  i.  e.,  not  upon  the 
parts  that  are  logically  or  psychologically  important.  5.  In  short 
selections  there  are  more  substitutions  of  synonymous  words 
than  there  are  completely  forgotten  words,  but  in  long  selec- 
tions the  reverse  is  the  case.  In  short  sentences,  though  the 
particular  words  may  be  forgotten,  the  ideas  are  remembered, 
and  the  child  invents  his  own  terms.  We  find,  therefore,  a 
large  number  of  synonyms.     In  long  selections,  however,  the 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  339 

ideas  themselves  are  too  numerous  to  be  remembered,  and  the 
completely  forgotten  words  outnumber  the  synonyms.  <5.  Chil- 
dren have  a  tendency  to  simplify  the  syntax,  and  to  replace 
the  words  read  to  them  by  other  words  taken  from  their  own 
more  familiar  vocabulary.  This  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  call 
*  verbal  assimilation.'  7.  When  sentences  are  somewhat  long, 
children  show  a  tendency  slightly  to  alter  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence.  These  alterations  are  frequently  by  way  of  additions, 
and  may  be  of  two  kinds,  intellectual  and  emotional. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  only  factors  in  this  problem  that 
lend  themselves  to  numerical  expression  are  ( i )  the  quantity  of 
words  or  groups  remembered,  substituted,  or  forgotten  by  any 
pupil;  (2)  the  number  of  pupils  who  remember  or  forget  any 
particular  word  or  group;  and  (3)  the  age  of  the  pupils  who 
remember  best  or  worst. 

The  character  of  the  material  employed  in  this  investigation 
is  clearly  and  confessedly  of  the  complex  type.  Although  the 
sentences  are  mainly  concrete,  as  suited  to  the  child  mind, they 
yet  imply  a  considerable  faculty  of  generalization  and  a  syn- 
thetic power  of  attention  in  combining  the  various  ideas  into  a 
situation.  The  mental  processes  involved  are  therefore  highly 
complex,  and  the  investigators  have  here  used  the  material 
which  they  assert  to  be  most  suitable  for  the  examination  of 
the  Individual  Psychologist. 

Has  the  material  of  the  German  psychologists  the  opposing 
character  of  extreme  simplicity  ?  The  only  simplicity  that 
Kraepelin  claims  for  his  work  is  simplicity  of  method  (method 
of  continuous  work).  This  has  to  do,  not  with  the  measure- 
ment of  single  independent  acts,  but  with  the  continuous  per- 
formance of  regularly  connected  similar  acts.  The  acts  or  pro- 
cesses themselves  are  not  simple.  Oehrn  has  analyzed  each 
into  three  phases:  the  centripetal  phase,  or  process  of  percep- 
tion; the  central  phase,  or  process  of  association;  and  the 
centrifugal  phase,  or  process  of  movement.  The  three  phases 
vary  in  importance  and  duration  in  the  different  kinds  of  opera- 
tions used  in  the  experiments,  and  the  fluctuations  observed  in 
continuous  work  may  therefore  be  due  to  alterations  in  that 
phase  of  the  whole  process  which  is  predominantly  involved  in 
the  exercise  in  question.  This  analysis  is,  however,  far  from 
being  an  analysis  into  the  simplest  psychological  elements, 
made  for  the  sake  of  detecting  variations  in  these  elements. 
We  are  free  to  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  material  used  by 
the  Individual  Psychologist  is,  as  a  rule,  less  simple  than  that 
upon  which  the  general  Experimental  Psychologist  spends  his 
best  efforts. 

Nevertheless,  the  distinction  between  the  German  and  French 
schools  is  not  invalidated  by  this  statement.     There  is  a  con- 


340  SHARP : 

siderable  degree  of  difference  in  the  complexity  of  material 
employed  by  these  two  schools,  and  there  is  a  still  greater  dif- 
ference in  method  resulting  from  the  difference  in  material. 
The  more  exact  methods  of  the  Germans  are  inapplicable  to 
the  tests  which  the  French  insist  upon  as  of  primary  import- 
ance to  the  Individual  Psychologist.  It  is,  perhaps,  on  account 
of  this  difference  in  method  that  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  by  a 
slight  confusion,  exaggerate  the  difference  in  the  material  em- 
ployed by  themselves  and  by  other  Individual  Psychologists.  The 
specific  criticism  which  they  pass  upon  Prof.  Kraepelin's  work, 
however,  is  not  so  much  that  it  lacks  complexity  as  that  it 
lacks  scope.  The  experiments  are  too  partial,  they  say,  and 
for  that  reason  entirely  fail  to  characterize  an  individual.^ 

The  position  of  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  may  be  more  clearly 
understood  if  we  notice  briefly  some  of  the  '  mental  tests  ' 
proposed  by  American  psychologists.  The  tests  given  by  Prof. 
Jastrow  at  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago^  are  among  the  most 
complete.  There  are  here  five  different  experiments  for  touch 
and  cutaneous  sensitivity;  five  experiments  for  sight  and  touch 
together  (such  as  the  equalizing  of  movements  by  sight); 
twelve  or  more  experiments  for  sight  alone,  including  appre- 
ciation and  division  of  lengths,  rapidity  and  acuteness  of 
vision,  etc.  Other  tests  have  to  do  with  memory  for  letters, 
lines,  colors  and  forms,  and  with  simple  reaction  times.  Place 
is  also  given  to  anthropometric  tests  of  height,  development  of 
the  head,  and  the  relation  of  mental  to  physical  development, 
etc.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  experiments  have  chiefly  to  do 
with  sensations  and  simple  movements.  Even  the  memory 
tests  have  regard  to  memory  for  sensations  rather  than  to 
memory  for  ideas. 

Other  lists  of  tests  given  by  American  psychologists  show  the 
same  characteristics.  Prof.  Cattell,  in  an  article  in  Mind,^ 
gives  the  results  of  two  different  series  of  tests,  one  numbering 
ten  and  the  other  fifty.  The  first  series  is  as  follows:  (i) 
pressure  measured  by  the  dynamometer;  (2)  maximal  rapidity 
of  arm  movement;  (3)  minimal  distance  between  two  points  on 
the  skin  which  can  be  perceived  as  two;  (4)  pressure  necessary 
to  produce  pain;  (5)  least  perceptible  difference  for  weight  of 
100  gr.;  (6)  time  of  simple  reaction  to  an  auditory  impression; 
(7)  time  necessary  to  name  a  color;  (8)  division  of  a  length  of 
50  cm.  into  two  equal  parts;  (9)  reproduction  of  an  interval  of 
ten  seconds;  and  (10)  number  of  letters  retained  after  a  single 
hearing.  The  longer  series  is  analogous  to  this,  the  same  rel- 
ative importance  being  given  to  the  elementary  processes. 

iP.432. 

2  These  are  analyzed  \n  L'Annde psychologique,  Vol.  I,  p.  532  ('1894). 

^Mental  Tests  and  Measurements.     Mind,  1890,  Vol.  XV,  p.  373. 


INDIVIDUAIv   PSYCHOLOGY.  34I 

The  "  Researches  on  the  Meutal  and  Physical  Development 
of  School  Children,"  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Gilbert/  employ  the  follow- 
ing tests:  (i)  muscle  sense;  (2)  sensitivity  to  color  differ- 
ences; (3)  force  of  suggestion;  (4)  voluntary  motor  ability;  (5) 
fatigue;  (6)  weight;  (7)  height;  (8)  lung  capacity;  (9)  reac- 
tion-time; (10)  discrimination-time;  and  (11)  time-memory. 
All  these  tests  are  subject  to  exact  numerical  measurement. 
The  muscle-sense  was  measured  by  the  least  perceptible  differ- 
ence in  gr.  of  lifted  weights;  sensitivity  to  color-difference  was 
measured  by  the  shades  of  red-colored  fabric  picked  out  by  a 
child  as  being  alike  (every  piece  of  fabric  being  in  reality 
slightly  and  measurably  different  in  shade);  force  of  suggestion 
was  determined  by  the  difference  in  gr.  between  two  weights  of 
the  same  bulk  but  unequal  weight,  which  the  child  picked  out 
as  being  equal  respectively  to  a  weight  large  in  bulk  and  one 
small  in  bulk  which  (unknown  to  the  child)  were  of  equal 
weight.  For  the  experiments  on  voluntary  motor  ability  and 
fatigue,  reaction-time,  discrimination-time  and  time-memory, 
Dr.  Gilbert  constructed  an  apparatus  which  he  calls  the  reac- 
tion-board. This  board  holds  a  magnetic  tuning  fork,  vibrat- 
ing one  hundred  times  per  second;  a  double-post  switch;  a 
stimulating  apparatus;  a  reaction  key;  a  tapping  apparatus;  a 
commutator,  and  an  Kwald  chronoscope.  The  electric  current 
is  supplied  by  two  Grove  batteries.  Voluntary  motor  ability 
was  measured  by  the  number  of  taps  the  child  made  on  the 
tapping  apparatus  in  five  seconds,  and  fatigue  by  the  per  cent, 
of  loss  of  rapidity  of  tapping  after  the  movement  had  been  con- 
tinued for  45  seconds.  Reaction-time  and  discrimination-time 
were  measured  by  the  chronoscope,  in  hundredths  of  a  second. 
The  time-memorj"  was  measured  by  allowing  the  chronoscope 
to  run  a  certain  length  of  time,  and  then  starting  it  a  second 
time,  and  requiring  the  child  to  press  the  key  when  the  second 
running  had  lasted  as  long  as  the  first.  The  difference  between 
the  two  periods  of  time  marked  the  accuracy  of  the  time- 
memory.  Weight,  height,  and  lung  capacity  were  measured  by 
standard  instruments  suited  to  these  purposes. 

The  detail  which  has  been  given  is  sufficient  to  illustrate  the 
difference  in  material  and  method  between  the  French  Indi- 
vidual Psychologists,  and  those  engaged  in  similar  work  in 
America.  It  may  be  said,  therefore,  in  general,  that  there  is  a 
wide  divergence  in  opinion  and  practice  among  the  investiga- 
tors of  Individual  Psychology,  as  to  whether  the  first  problem 
of  the  science,  on  the  score  of  material  and  method,  is  properly 
of  a  structural  and  morphological  character,  or  whether  it 
should  be  classed  as  belonging  to  a  functional  or  *  physiologi- 

'^  Studies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  II  (1894),  p.  401. 


342  SHARP  : 

cal '  psychology.  The  Americans  make  it  approximate  to 
the  former  character;  the  Germans  seem  to  favor  the  former  in 
regard  to  method,  but  hold  a  middle  position  in  regard  to  ma- 
terial; while  the  French  psychologists  depart  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  point  of  view  of  morphology,  both  in  material  and  in 
method.  The  American  view  is  founded  upon  no  explicit 
theory  of  Individual  Psychology.  It  may,  therefore,  be  tem- 
porarily set  aside.  Considering  only  the  French  and  German 
psychologists,  we  find  that  Individual  Psychology  seems,  on 
the  whole,  rather  to  fall  outside  of  structural  psychology.  It 
might  be,  however,  that  strict  analysis  of  the  results  obtained 
from  the  study  of  complex  processes  would  give  information  in 
regard  to  the  ultimate  elements.  Is  this,  in  reality,  the  case? 
The  outcome  of  the  researches  we  have  hitherto  noticed  would 
seem  to  indicate  a  negative  reply.  But  it  is  too  early,  yet,  to 
look  for  an  entirely  decisive  answer.  Until  a  more  thorough 
investigation  of  the  methods  proposed  by  Individual  Psy- 
chology, or  possible  to  it,  is  carried  out,  the  question  must  be 
left  undecided. 

B,    The  Second  Problem  of  Individual  Psychology. 

Individual  psychology  has  to  study  not  only  the  variations 
of  mental  processes  from  one  individual  to  another,  and  the  re- 
lation of  these  to  individuals  or  classes  of  individuals,  but 
also  the  relations  of  the  mental  processes  to  each  other  in  the 
mind  of  one  and  the  same  individual.  Are  all  the  mental  pro- 
cesses definitely  related  and  correlated  ?  Is  there  one  process 
more  important  than  all  the  rest,  so  that  a  variation  in  this 
process  involves  a  perfectly  definite  variation  in  all  the  other 
processes?  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  are  there  a  large  number 
of  mental  processes,  practically  independent  of  each  other,  and 
capable  of  assuming  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  combinations 
in  as  manj^  individuals  ? 

Again  we  have  to  ask  whether  this  inquiry  by  Individual 
Psychology  is  of  a  structural  or  physiological  character.  The 
answer  is  not  far  to  seek;  it  is,  in  fact,  implied  in  the  very  form 
in  which  the  questions  of  this  second  problem  clothe  them- 
selves. It  is  the  investigation  of  the  relation  to  each  other  of 
the  various  ways  of  working  of  the  psychological  organism.  It 
is,  therefore,  the  psychological  problem  which  corresponds  to 
the  general  problem  of  physiology.  As  the  latter  asks  what  are 
the  basal  functions  of  the  living  physical  organism,  so  the  former 
seeks  to  find  in  the  mental  sphere  those  activities  whose  rela- 
tions to  each  other  and  to  the  psychological  organism  are 
analogous  to  those  existing  between  functions  in  the  sphere  of 
physical  life.  The  problem  may,  and  does,  imply  analysis;  but 
it  is  an  analysis  of  which  the  common  activities  of  every-day 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  343 

life  form  the  starting  point,  and  their  better  understanding,  the 
goal.  The  atomistic  point  of  view  is  abandoned,  and  the 
mental  activities  of  man  are  taken,  as  it  were,  in  the  large;  and 
the  various  relations  of  these  activities,  partially  seen  and 
understood  by  common  observation,  are  confirmed,  explained, 
and  rendered  explicit  by  the  use  of  the  experimental  method. 
This  is  the  task  laid  down  as  the  second  problem  of  individual 
psychology, — a  task  which  belongs,  therefore,  to  the  psy- 
chology of  function. 

The  difficulties  attendant  upon  an  investigation  of  the  ques- 
tions involved  in  this  branch  of  Individual  Psychology  are  very 
great.  The  mental  processes  which  make  up  the  sum  of  every- 
day psychical  activity  are  of  so  complex  a  nature  that  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  experimentation  can  be  applied  in  such  a 
way  as  to  yield  results  which  meet  the  requirements  of  scien- 
tific precision.  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  have,  however,  dis- 
cussed three  methods  by  which  investigation  may  be  carried 
on.  (i)  The  first  method  is  that  of  abnormal  cases;  wherein 
advantage  is  taken  of  instances  where  there  is  extreme  devel- 
opment or  enfeeblement,  or  even  loss,  of  some  psychical  pro- 
cesses, to  study  the  consequent  modification  of  other  processes. 
Where  there  is  a  loss  of  memory,  e.  g. ,  we  may  try  to  find  the 
effect  of  such  loss  upon  imagination,  power  of  concentration 
of  the  attention,  etc.  That  is  to  say,  the  object  is  to  ascertain 
whether  the  presence  of  an  abnormal  activity  involves  a  defi- 
nite deviation  from  the  normal  on  the  part  of  other  mental 
processes.  The  collection  of  a  large  number  of  investigations 
of  this  kind  would  show  the  relation  in  which  these  processes 
stand  to  one  another.  There  is,  however,  a  difficulty.  How 
shall  we  determine  the  amount  of  deviation  from  the  normal, 
which  one  process  must  possess  in  order  to  entail  a  correspond- 
ing deviation  of  other  processes?  This  question  must  be 
answered  by  means  of  experimentation,  before  the  more  gen- 
eral problem  can  be  solved. 

This  method  has  been  employed  to  some  extent,  and  has 
furnished  some  important  information.  By  its  means  was 
ascertained  the  fact  of  the  independence  of  the  partial  mem- 
ories;^ the  fact,  i.  e.,  that  we  "can  have  an  extraordinary 
memory  for  figures,  without  in  the  least  excelling  in  memory 
for  letters,  or  colors,  or  any  other  impressions  whatever." 
Moreover  it  has  shown  that  a  total  loss  of  some  partial  mem- 
ories may  fail  to  show  any  influence  upon  the  other  partial 
memories.^ 

(2)  Another  method,   one  that  is  applied  to  normal  indi- 

^  By  A.  Binet:  Psychologiedes  grands  calculateurset  joueurs  d'ichecs. 
2  Mm.  Ribot  and  Charcot,  quoted  by  Binet  and  Henri. 


344  SHARP : 

viduals,  may  be  stated  thus:  "  In  a  single  individual  one  may 
vary  a  psychical  process,  and  see  if  this  variation  involves 
changes  in  other  processes  in  the  same  individual."  For  this 
purpose  only  those  processes  are  chosen  which  are  useful  for 
the  comparison  of  individuals.  Experiments  upon  sensations, 
manner  of  fatigue,  etc.,  are  thus  eliminated.  The  practical 
application  of  this  method  is  attended  with  great  difficulty, 
owing  to  the  complexity  of  the  conditions.  It  depends,  evi- 
dently, upon  the  possibility  of  placing  an  individual,  by  arti- 
ficial means,  in  such  a  condition  that  certain  mental  processes 
shall  be  performed  in  the  way  in  which  they  take  place  nor- 
mally in  certain  other  individuals.  An  individual  who  gave  a 
quick  reaction  time,  owing  to  great  power  of  attention,  might, 
by  having  his  attention  artificially  distracted,  lengthen  his  re- 
action time  until  it  corresponded  to  that  of  other  individuals 
who  normally  gave  long  reaction  times  from  small  power  of  at- 
tention. Given  a  constant  correspondence  between  length  of 
reaction  time  and  degree  of  concentration  of  the  attention,  and 
the  rapidity  of  reaction  of  an  individual  might  be  taken  as  an 
index  of  his  power  of  attention. 

This  method  has  been  applied  by  Prof.  Kraepelin,  in  his  in- 
vestigation into  the  influences  of  slight  poisons  upon  certain  psy- 
chical processes:  these  poisons  producing,  in  a  normal  individual, 
effects  analogous  to  those  caused  by  certain  mental  diseases  in 
their  early  stages.  Valuable  as  the  method  may  be  in  theory, 
however,  its  range  of  application  is  necessarily  limited,  and  it 
is,  according  to  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  themselves,  more  useful 
as  a  source  of  suggestion  than  as  affording  specific  results. 

(3)  The  third  method,  which  is  likewise  the  simplest  and 
most  practicable,  is  that  in  which  the  experimenter  chooses  in 
advance  a  number  of  psychical  processes,  and  proceeds  to  study 
them  in  several  individuals,  noting  whether  the  individual  dif- 
ferences in  the  different  processes  run  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  correspond  in  a  regular  manner.  From  such  correspond- 
ence he  can  infer  the  existence  of  a  more  or  less  close  relation 
among  the  different  processes.  The  experiments  of  Oehrn  and 
Gilbert,  which  have  been  commented  on  above,  are  partial  ap- 
plications of  this  method,  as  are  also  the  various  '  mental 
tests '  proposed  by  American  psychologists.  The  disadvantage 
of  the  latter,  according  to  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  is  that  they 
are  calculated  to  give  but  little  information  in  regard  to  the 
second  problem  of  Individual  Psychology,  since  they  pay  but 
slight  regard  to  the  complex  processes.  The  method  itself  has 
the  advantage  of  serving  equally  well  for  the  study  of  either  of 
the  two  problems  of  Individual  Psychology.  The  results  may 
be  looked  at  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  variations  which 
occur  in  the  chosen  processes  from  one  individual  to  another, 


INDIVIDUAI,   PSYCHOI.OGY.  345 

and  the  relation  of  these  variations  to  the  sex,  age,  profession, 
etc.,  of  the  individuals  in  whom  they  are  observed;  or  the  re- 
sults may  be  studied  in  regard  to  the  correspondences  which 
may  constantly  manifest  themselves  between  the  different  pro- 
cesses in  any  single  individual.  For  the  latter  point  of  view, 
however,  it  is  necessary  that  the  processes  chosen  for  investi- 
gation shall  be  of  that  complex  character  which  distinguishes 
the  every-day  activities  of  one  individual  from  those  of  other 
individuals.  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  affirm  this  with  emphasis. 
They  say  (p.  426):  "  Is  it  necessary  to  know  that  A  has  a  finer 
tactual  sensibility  than  B,  that  he  can  distinguish  between  two 
colors  better  than  B,  or  that  he  can  move  his  arm  faster  than 
B,  in  order  to  distinguish  these  individuals  from  each  other  ? 
Certainly  not.  On  the  other  hand,  how  could  one  try  to  char- 
acterize them,  and  to  distinguish  them  from  each  other,  if  one 
had  no  data  concerning  their  imagination,  their  memory,  their 
power  of  attention,  their  power  of  observation,  their  power  of 
analysis,  their  reasoning,  their  stability  of  will,  their  affective 
life,  etc.?"  That  these  activities  are  more  difiBcult  to  investi- 
gate than  the  elementary  activities  is  a  disadvantage  which 
these  authors  believe  is  of  comparatively  small  importance, 
since  in  the  ' '  superior  psychical  faculties, ' '  to  use  their  termi- 
nology, there  are  stronger  individual  differences,  and  hence 
the  need  of  precision  is  not  so  great. 

The  method  of  '  mental  tests '  is  that  most  available  for 
present  use,  and,  since  the  particular  tests  which  have  been 
proposed  by  others  are  considered  by  Binet  and  Henri  to  be  in- 
adequate, these  authors  give  a  long  and  detailed  list  of  tests 
which  they  consider  will  bring  to  light  the  strongest  individual 
variations,  a  knowledge  of  which  in  one  individual  will  give  a 
general  idea  of  that  individual,  and  serve  to  distinguish  him 
from  others  belonging  to  the  same  class. 

The  tests  are  grouped  under  the  following  heads.  I. 
Memory:  (a)  visual  memory  of  geometrical  design,  (b)  memory 
of  sentences,  (c)  musical  memory,  (d)  memory  of  colors,  (e) 
memory  of  figures.  II.  Nature  of  mental  images:  (a)  letter 
squares,  (b)  interrogation.  III.  Imagination:  (a)  passive  im- 
agination (method  of  blots  and  of  abstract  terms),  (b)  con- 
structive imagination  (development  of  a  theme),  (c)  imagina- 
tion of  design  (composition  or  completion  of  a  picture),  (d) 
literary  imagination  (construction  of  sentences  using  given  sub- 
stantives or  verbs).  IV.  Attention:  (a)  duration  of  attention 
(series  of  reaction  times  or  successive  reproduction  of  lengths 
from  memory),  (b)  range  of  attention  (counting  of  metronome 
beats  and  execution  of  several  simultaneous  acts).  V.  Faculty 
of  comprehension:  (a)  talent  for  observation  (analysis  of  a  ma- 
chine), (b)  fineness  of  discrimination  (discrimination  of  syno- 

JOURNAI, — 2 


346  SHARP : 

nyms  and  criticisms  of  sentences).  VI.  Suggestibility:  (a)  of 
sensations  and  perceptions  (identification  of  lines  and  percep- 
tion of  odors),  (b)  of  imagination  (expectant  attention),  (c) 
of  emotivity  (apprehension,  fear),  (d)  of  involuntary  and  un- 
conscious movements.  VII.  Esthetic  sentiment:  (a)  prefer- 
ence in  geometric  forms,  colors,  perfumes,  (b)  questionnaire. 
VIII.  Moral  sentiments  (method  of  pictures).  IX.  Muscular 
force  and  strength  of  will  (persistence  in  muscular  effort).  X. 
Motor  skill  and  sureness  of  eye.  ^ 

The  general  conditions  which  the  proposed  tests  must  fulfill 
are  given  by  the  author  as  follows.  They  should  be  simple, 
that  is,  they  should  require  little  apparatus;  the  time  for  the 
whole  number  of  tests  should  not  exceed  an  hour  and  a  half 
for  one  individual;  they  should  be  varied  in  such  a  way  as  to 
avoid  fatiguing  the  subject;  and  the  means  of  determination 
should  be  as  independent  as  possible  of  the  personality  of  the 
experimenter,  in  order  that  the  results  obtained  by  one  experi- 
menter may  be  compared  with  those  of  another. 

A  casual  reading  of  the  descriptions  given  of  the  various 
tests  will  convince  one  that  the  first  condition  is  fulfilled.  The 
apparatus  required  are  small  as  to  number  and  simple  in  char- 
acter. In  regard  to  the  requirement  of  time,  however,  the  re- 
sult is  not  so  satisfactory.  One  test  alone,  that  of  the  memory 
of  sentences,  of  a  progressively  abstract  character,  could  take 
scarcely  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour:  add  to  that  the  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  allowed  for  the  development  of  a  theme  for  con- . 
structive  imagination,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  time  is  going 
far  too  quickly  to  allow  an  application  of  even  a  majority  of 
the  remaining  tests.  This  fact  has  a  bearing  also  on  the  next 
requirement,  that  there  should  be  as  great  a  variety  as  possi- 
ble in  the  tests  in  order  to  avoid  the  disturbing  effects  of  tedium 
and  fatigue;  for,  although  a  certain  variety  in  the  experiments 
is  advantageous  for  keeping  up  the  interest  of  the  subject,  yet 
a  crowding  of  many  dissimilar  tests  into  a  brief  space  of  time  is 
equally  disadvantageous.  The  aim  is,  of  course,  in  these  ex- 
periments to  have  the  processes  tested  as  nearly  like  those  of 
every-day  life  as  possible,  and  a  monotonous  repetition  of  ex- 
actly similar  operations  would  defeat  this  aim.     There  is,  how- 

1 A  number  of  these  tests  were  applied  by  Dr.  E.  Toulouse  in  the 
psychological  part  of  the  investigation  of  which  M.  Emile  Zola  was 
the  subject.  The  whole  investigation  is  described  by  Dr.  Toulouse  in  his 
book  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la  superiorite 
intellectuelle  avec  ndvropathie.  Paris,  1896.  Inasmuch  as  the  psycho- 
logical tests  employed  are  not  the  main  reliance  of  the  investigator 
in  the  formation  of  his  judgments,  but  are  considered  only  as  giving 
confirmation  to  the  judgments  based  on  general  observation  of  the 
subject,  of  his  written  works,  etc.,  the  essay  can  scarcely  be  called  a 
purely  experimental  study  of  Individual  Psychology. 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  347 

ever,  in  every-day  life,  as  the  mind  turns  from  the  performance 
of  one  set  of  operations  to  another,  a  certain  period  of  prepara- 
tion. If  the  attention  is,  as  it  were,  wrenched  from  one  sort 
of  activity  to  another  very  different  sort,  without  any  prepara- 
tion, confusion  is  apt  to  ensue.  So  in  the  activities  experi- 
mentally controlled,  too  sudden  changes  do  not  conduce  to  the 
most  favorable  conditions  of  the  attention.  In  the  tests  laid 
down  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  therefore,  the  requirement  of 
variety  in  arrangement  is  a  just  one,  for  the  attention  demands 
a  frequent  change  of  object.  A  radical  change  of  object,  how- 
ever, requires  time  for  the  readjustment  of  the  attention  to  the 
new  conditions;  and  time  must,  therefore,  be  provided  in  suf- 
ficient measure.  As  much  effort  is  expended  and  consequently 
as  much  fatigue  is  produced  by  working  hard  as  by  working 
long;  it  is  poor  economy  to  save  time  at  the  expense  of  effort. 
The  chief  reason  why  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  make  the  require- 
ment of  brevity  for  the  tests  is  the  practical  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing the  subject  of  experimentation  on  more  than  one  occasion. 
This  difficulty  does  not  seem  to  be  an  unsurmountable  one,  as 
it  probably  would  apply  only  to  a  restricted  number  of  cases. 
When  such  cases  do  occur,  judgment  must  be  exercised  in  bal- 
ancing the  rival  claims  of  variety  or  range  of  tests  and  of  suf- 
ficient time  to  perform  the  tests  most  efficiently. 

Whether  the  last  requirement  is  fulfilled,  whether,  that  is, 
the  results  of  different  experiments  using  these  tests  are  per- 
fectly comparable,  is  a  question  which  can  be  decided  only  upon 
a  further  consideration  of  the  individual  tests.  Owing  to  the 
complex  material  which  is  investigated,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
this  condition  is  a  hard  one  to  comply  with  perfectly.  M. 
Binet  treats  of  this  subject  in  a  separate  article,  La  misure 
en  psychologie  individuelle}  There  is  a  quantitative  aspect  to 
most  of  the  experiments,  and  this  may  be  measured  with  a  fair 
amount  of  accuracy.  There  are  two  possible  methods  of  meas- 
urement, the  first  being  a  measurement  of  the  results  obtained 
while  the  test  remains  the  same.  Thus  in  memory,  for  exam- 
ple, accuracy  may  be  measured  by  the  amount  by  which  the 
reproduced  series  falls  short  of  the  original  series.  The  rapidity 
with  which  a  certain  amount  of  work  is  performed  may  meas- 
ure some  other  processes.  Enumeration  and  evaluation  may 
also  give  numerical  results,  but  of  much  less  precise  a  character. 
The  second  method  of  measurement  consists  in  a  graduation 
of  the  experiment,  the  results  being  reduced  to  a  maximum  of 
simplicity.  An  example  of  this  method  would  be,  finding  the 
maximal  number  of  objects  which  a  subject  could  retain  after 
looking  at  them  for  five  seconds.  First  three  objects  are  shown, 

^  Revue philos.,  Vol.  XLVI,  Aout,  1898. 


348  SHARP : 

then  four,  then  five,  etc. ,  until  the  maximum  is  reached.  The 
gradation  of  tests  in  terms,  not  of  number  but  of  kind,  is  difii- 
cult,  as,  e.  ^., where  sentences  become  more  and  more  abstract. 

M.  Binet  states  that  the  measurement  of  which  he  is  speak- 
ing is  not  a  physical  or  absolute  measurement,  but  only  a 
method  for  the  classification  of  individuals.  There  is  no  fixed 
standard  by  reference  to  which  all  individuals  may  be  evaluated; 
but  of  certain  specific  individuals  one  can  say  that  under  cer- 
tain fixed  conditions,  when  A's  memory  of  isolated  words  is  12 
and  that  of  B  is  6,  A's  memory  of  isolated  words  is  better 
than  B's.  It  would  be  unwarranted,  however,  to  say  that  A's 
memory  for  isolated  words  is  exactly  twice  that  of  B,  since 
all  the  words  may  not  have  the  same  value  for  consciousness. 

All  methods  of  measurement  have  for  their  aim  the  classifi- 
cation of  all  the  individuals  tested  according  to  a  quantitative 
scale.  The  tests,  however,  bear  another  aspect  beside  that  of 
quantity.  Quality  must  also  be  considered;  and  here  it  is  nec- 
essary to  class  individuals  according  to  different  categories.  M. 
Binet  does  not  go  into  detail  in  regard  to  the  possibilities  of 
such  a  classification,  but  he  suggests  that  the  tests  might  dif- 
ferentiate literary  and  scientific  types,  or  emotive  (moral  or 
egoistic)  types. 

Part  II.     Kxpkrimental. 

§  4.     Description  of  Tests, 

The  following  experiments  were  undertaken  during  the  aca- 
demic year  '97- '98  as  a  study  of  Individual  Psychology  based, 
in  general,  upon  the  theories,  and  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
specific  suggestions  of  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  as  contained  in 
their  article  La  psychologie  individuelle.  The  theory  was  pro- 
visionally accepted  that  the  complex  mental  processes,  rather 
than  the  elementary  processes,  are  those  the  variations  of  which 
give  most  important  information  in  regard  to  the  mental  char- 
acteristics whereby  individuals  are  commonly  classed.  It  is  in 
the  complex  processes,  we  assumed,  and  in  those  alone,  that 
individual  differences  are  sufficiently  great  to  enable  us  to  dif- 
ferentiate one  individual  from  others  of  the  same  class.  Many 
of  the  particular  tests  recommended  by  the  French  psycholo- 
gists were  also  adopted,  but  were  considerably  modified  in  the 
general  conditions  of  their  application  by  the  purpose  of  our 
own  investigation. 

The  aim  of  this  work  was  ( i )  to  ascertain  the  practicability 
of  the  particular  tests  employed,  and  (2)  to  answer  the  more 
general  question  as  to  the  tenability  of  the  theory  upon  which 
they  are  based,  in  so  far  as  this  can  be  judged  by  the  experi- 
ments.   In  other  words,  we  desired  to  assure  ourselves  whether 


INDIVIDUAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  349 

investigations  of  this  kind  enabled  us  to  advance,  at  least,  to- 
ward a  solution  of  the  problems  of  Individual  Psychology; 
whether  those  individual  variations,  and  those  correspondences 
which  are  necessary  for  classifying  individuals,  and  for  esti- 
mating the  relative  importance  of  the  several  processes  in  a 
single  individual,  could  thereby  be  discovered. 

In  view  of  these  aims,  and  also  of  the  criticisms  of  the  gen- 
eral conditions  demanded  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  for  the  ap- 
plication of  the  method  of  '  tests, '  the  procedure  was  neces- 
sarily different  from  that  laid  down  by  these  psychologists.  To 
make  sure  that  the  tests  give  real  individual  differences,  and 
not  chance  variations,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  them  to  the  same 
individuals,  not  once,  but  several  times,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  observed  whether  the  variations  in  the  different  individuals 
maintain  a  constant  relation  to  one  another  at  various  times 
and,  consequently,  under  varying  subjective  conditions.  In- 
stead of  single  tests,  therefore,  series  of  similar  tests  for  each 
activity  were  arranged.  This  necessitated,  of  course,  a  very 
large  extension  of  the  time  beyond  the  limit  allowed  by  the 
French  investigators.  The  advantages  of  a  short  period  of 
varied  experimentation  were,  however,  to  a  large  degree  at- 
tained. The  experimental  work  of  each  subject  was  divided 
into  periods  of  one  hour  each,  and  separated  by  intervals  of 
one  week.  Within  a  single  hour-period  the  tests  were  varied 
as  much  as  possible.  As  a  rule,  only  one  or  two  experiments 
belonging  to  the  series  of  a  particular  test  were  given.  ^  In  this 
way  the  tedium  and  fatigue  due  to  monotonous  repetition  of 
similar  operations  were  avoided,  and  a  fair  degree  of  interest  in 
the  work  was  maintained  by  the  subject.  The  additional  pre- 
caution was  taken  of  separating  by  intervals  longer  than  a 
week  the  experiments  which  were  found  to  be  especially  trying 
or  disagreeable  to  the  subjects;  as,  e.  g.,  the  development  of  a 
theme,  or  description  of  a  scene  or  event,  employed  as  a  test  for 
constructive  imagination. 

Since  the  experiments  were  of  this  detailed  character,  the 
number  of  subjects  was  necessarily  restricted.  The  fact  that 
the  investigation  was  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  varia- 
tions in  individuals  of  the  same  class,  afforded  a  further  reason 
for  this  restriction.  The  subjects  consisted  of  seven  advanced 
students  in  the  Sage  School  of  Philosophy,  three  men  (B,  B. 
R,  and  W.  M),  and  four  women  (T,  G,  V.  M,  and  L.  R), 
all  ot  whom  had  had  training  in  introspection.  In  the  experi- 
mental work  the  subjects  were  divided  into  three  groups;  two 
groups  of  two  subjects  each,  and  a  third  group  of  three  sub- 

1  Tests  of  memory  for  figures,  words  and  letters,  were  exceptions  to 
this  rule. 


350  SHARP : 

jects.  This  arrangement  was  made  owing  to  the  fact  that  a 
large  number  of  the  experiments  could  be  performed  as  readily 
by  two  at  a  time  as  by  one.  A  group  of  three  presented  some 
difficulty  to  the  experimenter,  but  not  of  a  serious  nature.  As 
a  rule,  the  system  of  grouping  worked  well,  and  caused  much 
saving  of  time. 

Certain  of  the  tests  which  are  especially  adapted  for  collective 
study  were  given  not  only  to  these  groups,  but  also,  by  the  aid 
of  Prof.  Titchener,  to  the  less  advanced  students  taking  the  un- 
dergraduate (junior  year)  course  in  Experimental  Psychology. 
The  first  ten  minutes  of  the  lecture  hour  were  usually  devoted 
by  Prof.  Titchener  to  this  work,  the  test  in  every  case  being 
conducted  by  him.  Occasional  failure  of  attendance  on  the 
part  of  some  members  of  the  class  causes  a  corresponding  in- 
completeness in  these  results.  They  are  useful,  however,  as 
allowing  comparison  between  the  less  and  the  more  completely 
trained  students. 

Though  the  tests  as  above  described  are  intensively  of 
greater  range  than  those  of  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  they  are  ex- 
tensively much  more  restricted.  Only  those  tests  were  retained 
which  have  to  do  most  directly  with  the  intellectual  activities. 
The  aesthetic  sentiments  were  touched  upon  in  a  very  tentative 
manner  in  our  investigation,  while  the  moral  sentiments, 
strength  of  will,  etc., were  either  left  out  of  account  altogether, 
or  entered  only  indirectly  as  results  from  tests  which  were  ap- 
plied primarily  for  a  different  purpose. 

We  are  now  ready  to  consider  the  tests  in  detail. 

I.    Memorv. 

I.  Memory  of  Letters.  Twenty  sets  of  12  letters  each  were  pre- 
pared. As  the  object  was  to  test  the  memory  for  isolated  characters, 
it  was  desirable  to  avoid  the  formation  of  syllables  by  successive  let- 
ters, in  so  far  as  this  could  be  done  without  the  total  banishment 
of  vowels  from  the  series.  The  apparatus  employed  was  Jastrow's 
Memory  Drop,  by  means  of  which  one  letter  at  a  time  might  appear 
before  the  eyes  of  the  subject  from  behind  a  small  opening  in  a  screen. 
The  movements  of  the  drop  must  be  made  by  hand ;  the  experimenter 
regulated  them  by  making  them  coincide  so  far  as  possible  with  the 
beats  of  a  metronome  marking  intervals  of  one  second.  Each  letter, 
therefore,  was  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  subject  for  approximately 
one  second.  The  experiments  took  place  in  this  way.  The  subject 
was  seated  at  such  a  distance  from  the  screen  that  the  letters  could  be 
clearly  seen.  A  series  of  twelve  letters  was  then  exposed,  one  by  one, 
as  above  described.  The  subject  was  required  immediately  to  recite 
the  twelve  letters  in  their  order.  If  any  mistake  was  made,  the  ex- 
periment was  repeated  ;  the  letters  being  again  exposed,  and  the  sub- 
ject again  required  to  recite  them  correctly.  This  whole  operation 
was  repeated  until  the  subject  was  able  to  name  the  twelve  letters 
without  error.  The  number  of  times  it  was  found  necessary  to  expose 
the  series  was  noted.  The  answers  to  questions  put  by  the  experi- 
menter in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  letters  were  memorized, 


INDIVIDUAI.   PSYCHOI.OGY.  35 1 

as  well  as  observation  of  the  results  of  the  various  repetitions,  gave 
information  in  regard  to  memory  type,  and  therefore  served  to  sup- 
plement the  results  obtained  from  another  test,  the  purpose  of  which 
was  the  discovery  of  the  nature  of  the  subject's  mental  images. 

This  experiment  differs  from  many  others  which  are  to  follow,  in 
that  it  could  be  performed  with  only  one  subject  at  a  time ;  and  also 
in  the  fact  that  several  sets  of  similar  series  of  letters  were  given  to 
the  subject  in  a  single  hour. 

2.  Memory  of  Figures.  This  test  is  almost  precisely  similar  to  the 
one  above.  The  chief  differences  result  from  the  fact  that  with  figures 
the  available  characters  are  fewer,  and  hence  in  a  series  of  twelve 
there  must  necessarily  be  some  repetitions.  Further,  the  figures,  un- 
like letters,  no  matter  how  arranged,  make  an  intelligible  combina- 
tion. The  tendency  to  continue  the  separate  figures  is  hindered  some- 
what,— in  cases,  almost  entirely, — by  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
given  successively  ;  but  in  so  far  as  the  tendency  to  combine  is  ex- 
hibited, it  shows  an  approach  toward  the  memory  of  ideas,  In  the 
preparation  of  the  series  of  figures  it  was  our  aim  to  avoid  putting  any 
two  figures  in  their  natural  or  inverted  order,  or  immediately  repeat- 
ing the  same  figure.  The  experiment  was  conducted  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  described  above. 

J.  Memory  of  Words?-  This  test  has  two  parts.  In  the  first  place 
the  experimenter  read  a  series  of  7  disconnected  words,  at  the  rate  of 
about  two  words  a  second,  and  the  subject  was  required  immediately 
to  recite  these  in  order.  If  any  word  was  left  out  of  this  recital,  it 
was  named  by  the  experimenter,  and  any  error  was  corrected.  A 
second  series  of  7  words  was  then  read,  and  the  subject  was  required 
to  recite  them  as  before ;  then  a  third  series,  and  so  on,  until  seven 
series  of  seven  words  each  had  been  read  and  recited.  For  the  second 
part  of  the  experiment  the  subject  was  required  to  name,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occurred  to  him,  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
whole  49  words.  In  the  first  case  one  had  immediate  memory  of  ver- 
bal sounds;  while  in  the  recapitulation,  which  occurred  at  an  interval 
of  at  least  three  minutes  from  the  time  of  reading  of  the  first  short 
series,  the  auditory  memory  of  the  words  had  had  time  to  be  dimmed, 
and  the  sense  of  the  words  became  a  more  important  factor  for 
memory.  The  difference  in  number  of  words  remembered  when  taken 
series  by  series,  and  when  taken  as  a  whole,  indicates  the  relation 
which  subsists  between  the  immediate  memory  and  the  memory  of 
conservation  in  the  individual  tested.  Four  sets,  each  containing  7 
short  series,  were  given  to  all  our  subjects.  The  conditions  of  this 
test,  also,  required  that  one  subject  should  be  taken  at  a  time. 

4.  Mem,ory  of  Sentences.  There  were  given  two  types  of  experi- 
ments under  this  head;  (a)  one  in  which  the  passage  to  be  remem- 
bered was  confined  strictly  within  the  limits  of  a  single  period,  and 
(b)  another,  in  which  the  passage  was  longer,  comprising  in  somecases 
two,  three,  or  even  more  sentences.  For  convenience,  we  may  term 
the  first  type  that  of  short  sentences,  and  the  second  that  of  long  sen- 
tences. All  the  sentences,  both  long  and  short,  were  graduated  into 
five  series,  according  to  their  degree  of  abstractness.  This  graduation 
was  more  or  less  arbitrary.  It  was  difficult  to  define  five  distinct  de- 
grees ;  it  was  occasionally  a  matter  of  some  little  doubt,  therefore, 
which  of  two  successive  degrees  should  claim  a  particular  sentence. 
Although,  however,  the  difference  in  abstractness  between  one  degree 
and  the  next  was  often  slight,  the  difference  between  the  extremes  of 

1  See  A.  Binet  et  V.  Henri.  La  memoire  des  mots.  VAnnee  psychologique,  Vol.  I, 
1894,  pp.  1-24.  Also  E.  Toulouse.  Enquete  medico-psychologique  sur  les  rapports  de  la 
stiperiorite  intellectuelle  avec  la  nevropathie.  J^mile  Zola.     1896. 


352  SHARP : 

the  series  could  not  pass  unnoticed.     The  following  series  of  short 
sentences  will  serve  as  illustration  : 

I.  A  huge  fire  of  logs  blazed  on  the  great  kitchen  hearth,  and,  at  a 
table  covered  with  maps  and  papers,  neatly  set  in  order,  the  general 
sat  writing. 

II.  The  Chinese  regard  us  as  strictly  just  and  truthful,  and  it  is 
only  when  we  disabuse  them  of  that  impression  that  they  show  us  any 
disrespect. 

III.  Whatever  comes  from  the  brain  carries  the  hue  of  the  place  it 
came  from,  and  whatever  comes  from  the  heart  carries  the  heat  and 
color  of  its  birthplace. 

IV.  If  the  Necessitarian  doctrine  be  true,  then  there  is  not  merely 
no  foundation  either  for  morality  or  religion,  but  no  basis  either  for 
divine  or  human  law. 

V.  Thought  is  necessary  to  make  even  feeling  or  sensation  to  be 
conscious  feeling  or  sensation ;  and  thought  can  take  place  only 
through  discrimination,  or  perception  of  difference. 

The  sentences  were  chosen  from  literature :  magazine  articles, 
novels,  essays,  and  philosophical  works.  Fenimore  Cooper,  Carlyle, 
Huxley,  Leibniz,  and  many  others  furnished  their  quota.  Of  the 
short  sentences  there  were  twenty  sets  of  five  series  each,  making  one 
hundred  sentences  in  all,  ranging  from  22  to  28  words  in  length.  Two 
sets,  only,  of  the  long  sentences  were  employed,  making  ten  sen- 
tences, ranging  from  51  to  64  words  in  length.  All  the  sentences,  both 
long  and  short,  were  given  to  the  seven  advanced  subjects,  while  ten 
sets  of  short  and  the  two  sets  of  long  sentences  were  given  to  the 
juniors. 

The  experiment  was  performed  in  this' way.  A  short  sentence  was 
read  aloud  to  the  subject  at  the  rate  of  about  three  words  in  two  sec- 
onds, care  being  taken  that  all  words  should  receive,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, equal  emphasis.  The  subject  was  required  to  write  down  the  sen- 
tences immediately  after  the  reading.  One  set  of  five  sentences  was 
usually  given  to  the  advanced  subjects  in  a  single  experimental  hour. 
Sometimes  two,  and  sometimes  three  sentences  w^ere  given  to  the 
juniors  at  one  meeting  of  the  class.  The  subjects  were  requested, 
after  writing  the  sentence,  to  underline  once  those  words  which  they 
felt  sure  were  remembered  correctly,  twice  those  words  of  which  they 
were  doubtful,  and  three  times  those  words  which  they  felt  pretty 
confident  were  different  from  the  words  dictated.  When  words  had 
completely  fallen  out  of  consciousness,  the  subjects  left  spaces,  the 
length  of  which  indicated  the  supposed  gap  in  memory.  The  sen- 
tences were  'marked'  under  four  headings:  (i)  verbal  accuracy, 
that  is,  the  number  of  words  correctly  remembered;  (2)  order,  that  is, 
the  number  of  words  occupying  their  proper  position  in  the  sentence; 
(3)  sense,  that  is,  the  number  of  words  which,  either  from  the  fact 
that  they  reproduced  those  in  the  sentence  read,  or  that  they  were  es- 
sentially synonymous  with  them,  preserved  the  sense  of  the  original 
sentence ;  (4)  certainty  of  memory,  that  is,  the  number  of  words  which 
were  marked  very  doubtful  (underlined  three  times)  plus  one-half 
the  number  of  words  which  were  marked  somewhat  doubtful  (under- 
lined twice).  All  these  estimates  were  reduced  to  percentages,  that 
the  results  of  all  the  short  sentences  might  be  comparable.  This  sys- 
tem of  marking  has  its  disadvantages,  as  it  depends  in  some  degree 
upon  the  personal  judgment  of  the  marker.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  regard  to  the  sense  of  sentences.  Substitutions  or  errors  in  com- 
paratively unimportant  parts  of  a  sentence  may  change  the  meaning 
slightly,  but  not  essentially;  still,  the  sentence  can  hardly  be  classed 
in  such  a  case  as  reproducing  perfectly  the  sense  of  the  original  sen- 


INDIVIDUAI.  PSYCHOLOGY.  353 

tence.  As  all  the  sentences,  however,  were  marked  by  one  person,  the 
error  throughout  is  a  fairly  constant  one,  and  the  results  obtained  from 
different  individuals  may  be,  with  justice,  compared.  The  long  sen- 
tences were  intended  to  conform  more  nearly  to  those  employed  by 
Mm.  Binet  and  Henri, ^  in  the  investigation  briefly  described  above  in 
Part  I,  with  the  exception  that  our  sentences  were  graduated  accord- 
ing to  degree  of  abstractuess.  Their  method  of  estimating  the  results 
was  likewise  followed.  Each  sentence  was  divided  into  groups,  each 
group  containing  one  important  word  with,  perhaps,  some  subordinate 
words  linking  it  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  that  the  number  of  groups 
might  coincide  with  the  number  of  ideas.  The  necessarily  somewhat 
arbitrary  character  which  this  division  assumes  was  before  noticed, 
and  is,  of  course,  inimical  to  precision  in  results.  The  points  noted 
in  the  results  were  :  (i)  number  of  the  groups  in  a  sentence  which 
were  retained  intact ;  (2)  number  of  words  completely  forgotten;  (3) 
number  of  synonyms  employed  ;  and  (4)  number  of  other  substitu- 
tions. It  should  be  said  that  the  test  of  long  sentences  was  conducted 
in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of  short  sentences,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  reading.  No  effort  was  made  to  have  the  reading  monoto- 
nous, but  every  word  was  given  its  normal  emphasis  and  inflection. 

5.  Memory  of  Sounds.  To  make  a  detailed  test  for  memory  of 
sounds  would  have  required  an  amount  of  time  for  preparation  and  for 
experiment  which  it  was  impracticable  to  give  in  this  investigation. 
We  were  content,  therefore,  with  propounding  to  the  subjects  certain 
questions  in  regard  to  the  readiness  and  accuracy  of  their  musical 
memory.     They  were  as  follows  : 

1.  Can  you  carry  an  air  at  all  ? 

2.  Can  you  reproduce  an  air  after  hearing  it  once?  In  your  head? 
By  whistling  or  singing  ? 

3.  How  accurate  is  this  reproduction  (if  it  has  been  tested)  ? 

This  test  was  applied  both  to  the  advanced  students  and  to  the 
juniors. 

II.    Mental  Images. 

I.  Letter  Squares.  This  test  was  one  described  and  recommended 
by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri.  White  cards  were  prepared,  three  by  four 
inches  in  size,  and  divided  by  black  lines  into  twelve  equal  squares, 
each  square  containing  in  its  center  a  large  printed  letter.  As  the 
longer  side  of  the  card  was  taken  as  the  horizontal,  there  were  four 
letters  on  a  horizontal  line  and  three  on  a  vertical.  Ten  different  com- 
binations of  letters  were  chosen  for  these  cards,  to  be  used  in  ten  dif- 
ferent experiments.  There  were  other  cards,  precisely  similar  to 
these,  except  that  the  small  squares  were  left  blank.  The  experi- 
ments were  first  conducted  in  this  way.  Each  of  the  subjects  had 
before  him,  on  the  desk  or  table,  right  side  up,  a  card  of  blank 
squares,  and  also,  face  downward,  a  card  containing  the  printed  let- 
ters. The  requirements  of  the  experiment  were  explained  to  him. 
Upon  the  signal  of  the  experimenter  he  should  turn  up  the  printed 
card,  and  learn  the  letters  and  their  respective  positions  in  the 
squares.  Twenty  seconds  were  to  be  given  for  this.  At  the  second 
signal  of  the  experimenter,  the  subject  should  turn  down  the  printed 
card,  and  proceed  immediately  to  reproduce  the  letters  upon  the 
blank  cards  in  their  proper  places.  The  subject  was  further  requested 
to  write  on  the  reverse  of  the  (originally  blank)  card  the  nature  of  the 

'^A.  Binet  et  V.  Henri.  La  memoire  des  phrases.  V Annie  tsychologique,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
24  ff.  See  also  La  psychologte  indtvid^elle,  ibid..  Vol.  II.  The  same  type  of  test  was 
used  likewise  by  Dr.  Toulouse  in  the  investigation  mentioned  in  a  previous  foot- 
note. 


354  SHARP : 

mental  images  from  which  the  reproduction  was  made.  Five  of  the 
experiments  were  made  in  this  manner:  in  the  remaining  five  a  modi- 
fication was  made  in  regard  to  the  time.  The  subject  was  allowed 
only  five  seconds  between  the  first  and  second  signals  for  studying  the 
letters.  There  was  then  an  interval  of  thirty  seconds,  before  the  ex- 
perimenter gave  a  third  signal  to  fill  the  blank  cards.  This  had  the 
effect  of  making  the  introspection  of  memory  images  more  easy.  It 
also  increased  the  number  of  errors;  and,  as  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri 
make  the  usefulness  of  the  test  to  depend  principally  upon  the  study 
of  the  nature  of  the  errors  made,  this  fact  is  of  importance.  Like- 
sounding  letters  may  be  substituted  for  the  correct  ones,  thus  indi- 
cating the  presence  of  auditory  images ;  or  errors  may  be  traced  to  a 
similarity  in  form  of  the  letters  substituted,  etc.  The  letters  in  the 
printed  squares  were  arranged  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  last  letters^ 
in  each  horizontal  line  occasionally  rhymed,  and  in  rare  cases  con- 
secutive letters  formed  syllables. i 

2.  Questions.  Under  this  heading  may  be  placed  the  information 
gained  from  the  writing  on  the  reverse  of  the  blank  cards,  mentioned 
above,  as  well  as  that  obtained  in  questioning  the  subjects  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tests  for  memory  of  words,  letters  and  figures. 

III.     Imagination. 

1.  Passive  Imagination,  (a)  Method  of  blots.  This  test  is  also 
one  mentioned  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri,  and  is  similar  to  that  used 
by  Dr.  Dearborn. ^  The  blots  were  formed  very  much  after  the  fashion 
described  by  the  latter  writer.  A  drop  of  ink  was  allowed  to  fall 
upon  a  small  Bristol-board  card,  and  a  piece  of  paper  was  placed  over 
the  card  and  rubbed  with  the  finger.  In  this  way  a  variety  of  forms 
were  made  on  different  cards  ;  ten  cards,  in  all,  being  employed.  This 
test  was  applied  to  the  advanced  students  only.  A  card  bearing  a  blot 
was  handed  to  the  subject,  who  was  requested  to  name  all  the  objects 
suggested  by  the  form  of  the  whole  blot  or  of  any  part  of  it.  He  was 
allowed  to  turn  the  card  about  in  any  direction.  The  objects  sug- 
gested were  written  down  by  the  subject.  Five  minutes  were  allowed 
for  this  experiment.  The  number  of  objects  seen  in  the  blot,  their 
kind,  and  the  manner  of  reporting  them,  gave  information  in  regard 
to  the  passive  imagination  of  the  individual  tested. 

(^)  Associations  with  Abstract  Terms.  These  experiments  con- 
sist in  interrogating  the  subject  as  to  what  he  represents  to  himself 
when  such  words  as  'force,'  'infinity,'  'justice,'  etc.,  are  said,  and 
also  as  to  his  possession  of  number  forms  or  visual  schemes  for  the 
arrangement  of  months,  seasons,  etc. 

2.  Constructive  Im,agination.  (a)  Mechanical  imagination.  Two 
tests  were  used  for  this  :  a  German  toy  called  the  "  Magic  Box,"  and  a 
'puzzle'  watch.  The  magic  box  was  a  box  of  tin  about  3  inches  in 
diameter,  through  the  center  of  whose  lid  projected  the  tip  of  a  mag- 
netized revolving  rod,  actuated  through  an  internal  mechanism  of 
gears  and  fly  wheel  by  a  thrust  on  an  arm  projecting  through  the  side 
of  the  box.  A  small  triangular  piece  of  tin  with  rounded  corners,  to 
which  could  be  attached  paper  dolls  or  animals,  would,  of  course,  if 
put  upon  the  cover  of  the  box  near  the  rod,  be  drawn  around  as  the 
magnetized  pivot  revolved.  This  toy  was  shown  to  the  subjects,  as 
well  as  the  method  of  starting  the  motion  by  pushing  the  projecting 


^  One  set  of  letters  was  taken  from  the  example  given  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri. 
Three  others  were  copied  from  those  used  by  Dr.  Toulouse.  Certain  errors  on  the 
part  of  the  printer  made  slight  changes  in  these  latter,  however. 

'  G.  Dearborn.  Psychological  Review,  May,  1897,  pp.  309  ff.  Cf.  the  same  author, 
A  Study  of  Imagination.    Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology^  Vol.  IX,  pp.  183  ff. 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOI.OGY.  355 

arm  ;  but  they  were  requested  not  to  handle  the  toy.  The  requirement 
made  of  the  subjects  was  to  explain  the  mechanism  causing  the  move- 
ment of  the  tin  standard  around  the  cover  of  the  box.  The  two  points 
in  the  explanation  should  have  been  (i)  the  magnetic  connection  be- 
tween the  revolving  rod  and  the  tin  standard,  and  (2)  the  particular 
internal  mechanism  by  which  the  revolution  was  initiated  and  main- 
tained. 

In  the  puzzle  watch  the  works  were  confined  within  a  small  cres- 
cent-shaped portion  of  the  cylindrical  space,  while  the  rest  of  the 
watch,  except  the  nickel  rim,  was  completely  transparent,  having 
glass  faces  front  and  back.  All  that  could  be  seen  in  looking  through 
this  portion  was  the  hands,  the  rod  on  which  they  were  carried,  and 
the  gilt  numerals  on  the  glass  dial-plate.  There  was,  therefore,  no 
visible  mechanical  connection  between  the  hands  and  the  works.  The 
subjects  were  required  to  explain  the  movement  of  the  hands.  This 
was  caused  by  the  revolution  of  an  inner  glass  plate  held  in  a  toothed 
metal  ring.  Both  in  this  experiment  and  in  the  one  above  the  subjects 
were  given  five  minutes  for  a  written  explanation,  but  an  extension 
of  time  was  granted  if  desired.  These  tests  were  carried  out  with  the 
advanced  students  only. 

{b)  Iviterary  Imagination.  Three  kinds  of  experiments  came  under 
this  head:  (a)  the  construction  of  sentences,  (b)  the  development 
of  a  given  theme,  and  (c)  the  choice  of  a  topic  for  composition.  The 
construction  test  was  performed  in  this  way  :  Three  substantives  or 
three  verbs  were  read  to  the  subject,  and  he  was  required  to  write  in 
five  minutes  as  many  and  as  varied  sentences  as  possible,  embodying 
in  each  the  three  words  given.  Ten  experiments  with  substantives, 
and  ten  with  verbs  were  tried  with  each  of  the  advanced  students.  The 
same  number  of  experiments  was  given  to  the  Juniors,  but  there  was 
a  modification  in  the  time  requirement, — only  two  minutes  instead  of 
five  minutes  being  allowed  for  the  composition  of  the  sentences.  In 
order,  however,  to  have  results  directly  comparable  with  those  ob- 
tained from  the  advanced  students,  two  tests  with  substantives  and  two 
with  verbs  were  also  given  to  the  Juniors,  in  which  five  minutes  were 
allowed  for  the  composition  of  the  sentences.  In  each  case  the  num- 
ber and  quality  of  the  sentences  were  noted.  For  the  next  test,  that 
of  the  developing  of  a  theme,  two  sets  of  topics  were  chosen,  one  set 
for  narration  or  description,  and  the  other  for  exposition.  Ten  niinutes 
were  given  for  writing.  Three  topics  for  narration  (or  description) 
and  three  for  exposition  were  given  to  all^  the  advanced  students.  The 
third  test  consisted  in  naming  ten  titles  for  essays,  five  coming  under 
each  of  the  above  named  classes,  and  requiring  the  subject  taking  the 
experiment  to  choose  from  the  ten  given  the  five  upon  which  he  would 
prefer  to  write  papers,  provided  that  such  writing  were  demanded  of 
him.  The  topics  given  for  test  (b),  development  of  a  theme,  were  the 
following  :  (i)  For  imaginative  treatment :  "  Capture  of  a  Fortress," 
"  The  Escape  of  a  Prisoner,"  and  "  A  Forest  Fire."  (2)  For  exposi- 
tion :  "  The  Delays  of  Justice,"  "The  Influence  of  Newspapers,"  and 
"The  Mission  of  Music."  The  topics  given  for  test  (c),  choice  of 
titles,  were  these:  "In  a  Snowstorm,"  "A  Polar  Landscape,"  "A 
Puritan  Sabbath,"  "My  Opposite  Neighbor,"  "Man  Endowed  with 
the  Power  of  Flight,"  "  Civilization  not  Regeneration,"  "Wisdom  in 
Charity,"  "  Friendship  of  Books,"  "Fiction  as  a  Vehicle  of  Truth," 
and  "The  Eloquence  of  the  Bar  and  that  of  the  Pulpit."  A  sort  of 
modification  of  the  last  two  tests  was  given  to  the  Juniors.  On  two 
occasions  they  were  granted  a  choice  between  two  titles  (one  of  each 
type),  from  which  they  should  sketch  out  a  plan  for  an  essay.     The 

^  With  the  exception  that  W.  M.  failed  to  take  one  of  the  topics  for  exposition. 


356  SHARP : 

time  allowed  for  this  was  five  minutes.  The  topics  submitted  on  the 
first  occasion  were  :  "  The  Capture  of  a  Fortress  "  and  "  The  Friend- 
ship of  Books ;"  on  the  second  occasion,  "  The  Escape  of  a  Prisoner  " 
and  "  The  Influence  of  Newspapers."  The  length  of  the  written  com- 
positions, their  manner  of  development,  the  kind  of  topic  chosen,  and 
the  character  of  the  plans  made  for  them,  are  sources  of  information 
as  to  the  imaginative  type  of  the  individual.  Further  information  was 
sought  by  general  questions  in  regard  to  individual  tastes  and  tenden- 
cies, such  as  the  favorite  reading  of  the  subject,  his  fondness  for  re- 
flective games,  the  theater,  opera,  etc. 

IV.     Attention. 

1.  The  degree  of  attention  habitually  exercised  by  an  individual  was 
measured  by  the  quickness  and  accuracy  with  which  a  certain  given 
task  was  performed.  The  task  chosen  for  this  purpose  was  the  can- 
cellation of  every  letter  a  from  the  words  of  a  printed  page.  In  order 
that  the  operation  might  not  become  too  mechanical,  the  subject  was 
sometimes  requested  to  cancel  the  letter  e  instead.  Proof  pages  (12 
mo.)  of  the  English  translation  of  Kiilpe's  *'  Introduction  to  Philoso- 
phy "  were  used  for  the  cancellation,  the  pages  averaging  about  350 
words.  At  a  signal  from  the  experimenter  the  subject  began  reading 
to  himself  at  a  normal  rate,  crossing  every  a  as  it  came  to  his  notice, 
but  never  going  back  to  cancel  those  overlooked  when  they  were  first 
passed  over.  As  soon  as  the  page  was  finished  the  subject  gave  a 
signal.  The  experimenter  was  thus  enabled  to  read  from  the  stop- 
watch the  time  required  for  the  cancellation.  The  number  of  errors 
was  afterward  determined.  Eight  pages  were  thus  submitted  to  each 
of  the  advanced  subjects  for  experiment ;  but,  as  the  subject  matter 
was  a  possible  means  of  distraction  from  the  work  of  crossing  out  a's, 
other  printed  pages  of  a  different  character  were  also  used.  One  page 
of  concrete  description  (376  words)  was  prepared  and  printed  without 
the  use  of  punctuation,  spacing  or  capitals.  Another  page  of  philo- 
sophical matter  (340  words),  a  page  of  disconnected  words,  and  a  page 
of  '  pied  '  matter,  were  printed  in  the  same  manner.  Copies  of  these 
pages  were  used  for  experiments  in  the  same  way  as  those  described 
above.  In  the  Kiilpe  proof  all  the  subjects  had  different  pages,  while 
in  the  other  tests  the  copies  were  exactly  similar  for  each  kind  of 
page.  In  the  latter  case,  therefore,  results  from  the  different  subjects 
were  immediately  comparable,  since  no  complication  could  arise  from 
difference  of  subject  matter.  All  the  subjects  cancelled  the  a's  from 
eight  pages  of  proof,  one  page  of  concrete  matter,  one  page  of  abstract 
matter,  two  pages  of  disconnected  sentences  and  one  page  of  *  pied ' 
matter. 

A  further  experiment  upon  the  degree  of  attention  was  tried  with 
the  seven  advanced  subjects  by  requiring  them  to  read  aloud,  first,  a 
page  of  concrete  description,  printed  without  punctuation,  capitals  or 
spacing ;  and,  secondly,  a  similar  page  of  exposition  of  abstract 
thought.  The  time  necessary  for  each  reading  was  noted,  as  well  as 
the  correctness  of  the  words  and  expression.  The  first  page  consisted 
of  a  description  of  the  situation  and  equipment  of  a  blockhouse  upon 
a  densely  wooded  island.  The  most  notable  feature  of  this  page  was 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  monosyllabic  words ;  while  that  of  the 
second  or  abstract  page  consisted  in  the  repetition  of  certain  words, 
such  as  'subject,'  'object,'  'relation,'  'absolute,'  'power,'  'force,'  etc. 
The  first  page  was  slightly  longer  than  the  second,  the  number  of 
words  being  376  and  340  respectively. 

2.  Range  of  Attention.  To  test  the  subjects  in  regard  to  range  of 
attention,  a  single  experiment  was  tried  in  conformity  with  that  sug- 


INDIVIDUAI.   PSYCHOLOGY.  357 

gested  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri.  The  subject  was  required  to  read 
aloud  with  normal  rapidity  and  expression  a  passage  of  ten  lines  from 
a  contemporary  novel.  The  time  taken  by  this  reading  was  noted. 
The  subject  was  then  requested  to  read  the  same  passage  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  before,  but  while  doing  so  to  write  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  beneath  his  hand  the  letter  a  as  many  times  as  possible.  Again, 
the  subject  was  requested  to  reread  the  passage,  this  time  writing  a  b 
repeatedly.  During  a  fourth  reading,  abc  were  the  letters  required  to 
be  written.  A  fifth  and  last  reading  was  then  requested,  during  which 
the  subject  should  write  as  far  down  the  alphabet  as  he  could  without 
altering  his  reading ;  while  if  the  alphabet  were  completed  and  time 
still  remained,  he  should  begin  again  at  a  and  write  as  before.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  this  experiment  was  in  maintaining  a  uniform  rate 
in  the  reading  throughout  the  five  tests,  for  the  tendency  in  almost 
every  case  was  to  lengthen  the  reading  in  those  tests  which  involved 
the  simultaneous  writing  of  letters,  thus  allowing  time  for  a  rapid 
oscillation  of  the  attention  from  one  set  of  acts  to  the  other,  and  de- 
stroying their  simultaneity.  Where  success  was  attained,  however,  in 
keeping  the  reading  unchanged,  the  number  of  letters  of  the  alphabet 
written  by  the  subjects  gave  information  in  regard  to  individual  dif- 
ferences in  ability  to  perform  practically  simultaneous  acts  and  thus 
in  range  of  the  attention ;  while  in  the  cases  where  there  was  a  de- 
cided lengthening  of  the  reading  during  the  performance  of  writing, 
this  very  fact  was  an  indication  of  lack  of  such  ability. 

V.     Observation;  Discrimination. 

This  corresponds  to  the  heading  termed  by  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri 
the  'faculty  of  comprehending,'  and  comprises  phenomena  known 
under  various  names,  such  as  talent  of  observation,  keenness  0/  mind, 
good  sense,  judgm.ent,Qtc.,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  precise  definition. 
By  it  is  meant  the  power  to  perceive  relations,  to  distinguish  the  real 
and  essential  from  the  apparent  and  accessory ;  the  ability  to  analyze 
and  systematize.  The  lack  of  analysis  of  the  processes  involved  makes 
exact  investigation  impossible,  but  certain  tests  have  been  adopted 
which  are  calculated  to  throw  light  upon  the  individual  differences  in 
this  aspect  of  mind.  Of  these  tests,  the  first  two — those  which  have 
especially  to  do  with  observation — may  be  classed  also  as  tests  of 
memory ;  but  since  the  memory  is  immediate,  while  the  time  of  ob- 
servation is  very  short,  the  individual  differences  seem  to  be  attribu- 
table to  the  latter  rather  than  to  the  former.  The  first  test  was  applied 
after  this  manner.  The  reproduction  of  a  picture,  cut  from  a  magazine, 
with  the  title  carefully  trimmed  off,  was  shown  to  the  subject  for  a 
period  of  thirty  seconds,  after  which  he  was  requested  to  write  out  a 
full  description  of  what  he  saw,  five  minutes  being  allowed  for  the 
writing.  This  experiment  was  tried  upon  all  the  advanced  students 
with  two  different  pictures.  The  first  picture,  entitled  the  "Golden 
Wedding,"  was  more  satisfactory  than  the  second,  "An  Interrupted 
Duel,"  in  that  it  contained  far  more  variety  of  detail,  more  unmis- 
takable feeling,  and  somewhat  greater  scope  for  difference  of  interpre- 
tation. Both  pictures,  however,  contained  more  detail  than  could  be 
exhausted  by  an  attentive  observation  of  thirty  seconds.  This  test  is 
very  similar  to  that  described  by  M.  Binet  in  his  article  La  description 
d*un  objet,^  the  chief  difference  being  that  the  picture — in  this  case 
exposed  to  the  observation  of  children — represented  a  scene  from  a 
familiar  fable,  and  the  subjects  were  so  informed  before  looking  at  it. 
The  time  of  observation  was  two  minutes,  instead  of  thirty  seconds. 

^  ly'Ann^e  psychologique.    Vol.  Ill,  pp.  296  £f. 


358  SHARP : 

The  results  from  this  test,  as  from  those  of  imagination,  seem  to  be 
mainly  valuable  as  indicating  certain  individual  types. 

The  second  test  under  Observation  is  similar  to  the  first  and  may  be 
briefly  dismissed  as  having  in  itself  small  value.  A  small  colored  card, 
representing  a  lady  rather  brilliantly  dressed  standing  before  a  dressing 
table  upon  which  reposed  variously  tinted  bottles  and  boxes,  was 
shown  to  the  subject  for  the  space  of  five  seconds,  after  which  he  was 
requested  to  write  down  all  the  different  colors  he  had  observed  on  the 
card,  together  with  the  location  of  each.  This  test,  like  the  first,  may 
be  reckoned  one  of  observation  rather  than  of  memory,  since  the  colors 
of  the  pictured  card  were  not  that  to  which  attention  would  naturally 
be  primarily  directed  ;  moreover,  the  colors  were  few  and  could  easily 
be  remembered  if  noticed.  Hence  the  number  of  colors  actually  re- 
membered was  an  indication  of  the  degree  in  which  they  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  observer.  Since,  however,  the  experiment  was 
given  but  once,  the  result  could  not  be  taken  as  showing  a  permanent 
attitude  of  mind. 

The  third  test  departed  entirely  from  the  sphere  of  sensible  per- 
ception, and  had  to  do  with  thought  relations.  A  pair  of  synonyms 
was  given  to  a  subject,  and  he  was  allowed  five  minutes  for  writing 
down  the  distinction  between  the  words  in  regard  to  their  meaning 
and  use.  Six  pairs  of  such  words  were  given  to  the  Junior  class  and 
seventeen  to  the  advanced  students. 

VI.     Taste  and  Tendencies. 

Under  this  heading  are  grouped  the  remaining  experiments,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  test  in  the  several  individuals  the  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful  as  expressed  especially  in  art,  music,  and  literature. 
In  these  tests  the  assumption  is  made  that  the  taste  for  an  art  will 
carry  along  with  it  a  knowledge  of  that  which  is  universally  conceded 
to  be  the  best  work  in  that  sphere,  as  well  as  some  knowledge  of  the 
authors  of  it.  This  seems  to  be  a  warrantable  assumption,  if  we  take 
into  consideration  the  individuals  tested ;  since  all  must  have  had 
opportunities  (college  libraries,  magazines,  etc.,)  to  learn  of  that 
toward  which  their  natural  tastes  directed  them.  Art,  music,  and 
literature  form  the  basis  for  the  investigation  ;  art  being  taken  in  the 
restricted  sense  as  comprising  painting  and  sculpture. 

I.  Art.  Three  tests  belong  here,  (a)  For  this  test,  a  selection  of 
twelve  paintings  was  made  from  among  those  which  are  given  the 
very  highest  place  in  that  art.  Photographic  reproductions  of  these 
were  used.  A  subject  was  given  a  photograph,  and  allowed  five  min- 
utes for  noting  in  writing  five  things :  title,  artist,  school,  and  approx- 
imate date  of  the  original ,  together  with  a  brief  description  from  the 
photograph  itself.  The  paintings  chosen  were  these :  Raphael's  Sis- 
tine  Madonna^  Michael  Angelo's  Last  Judgment^  Iveonardo  da  Vinci's 
Last  Supper,  Rubens'  Descent  from  the  Cross,  Correggio's  Holy 
Night,  Titian's  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  Murillo's  Im,m,aculate 
Conception,  Rembrandt's  Night  Watch,  Volterra's  Descent  from  the 
Cross,  Guido  Reni's  Beatrice  Cenci,  Velasquez'  Portrait  of  Himself, 
and  Guido  Reni's  Aurora.  These  photographs  were  given  not  only 
to  the  advanced  subjects,  but  also  to  the  members  of  the  Junior  class. 
As  there  was  but  one  photograph  of  each  painting,  and  as  the  time 
available  was  not  sufiicient  to  allow  five  minutes  for  considering  each 
photograph,  the  experiment  was  performed  upon  the  Juniors  in  this 
way.  Each  photograph  was  numbered  upon  the  back,  and  all  were 
distributed  among  the  cldss,  face  downward.  The  experimenter  then 
gave  instructions,  reading  the  questions  (given  above)  to  which  answers 
should  be  written.    A  signal  was  then    given :     the  subjects  wrote 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  359 

down  at  the  head  of  a  sheet  of  paper  the  number  on  the  back  of  the 
photograph.  Another  signal,  and  the  photographs  were  turned,  and 
one  full  minute  allowed  for  writing  the  answers.  Then  the  photo- 
graphs were  passed  on,  from  each  student  to  the  next,  and  the  signals 
were  repeated  as  before. 

Tests  (b)  and  (c),  given  to  the  advanced  students  only,  consisted  in 
allowing  five  minutes  each  for  the  subject  to  write  (b)  the  names  of 
as  many  noted  pieces  of  sculpture  as  possible,  and  (c)  the  names  of 
as  many  artists  renowned  in  the  sphere  of  painting  or  plastic  art  as 
could  be  written  in  the  given  time. 

2.  Music.  Here  the  tests  are  similar  in  nature  to  those  above,  (a) 
The  subject  was  required  to  name,  on  paper,  as  many  musical  com- 
posers of  renown  as  possible  in  five  minutes,  (b)  The  subject,  being 
given  a  list  of  ten  musical  composers,  was  required  to  name  one  compo- 
sition or  important  class  of  composition  produced  by  each.  Five 
minutes  was  the  allotted  time  for  this  also.  The  list  of  composers 
comprised  the  following :  Mendelssohn,  Beethoven,  Chopin,  Mozart, 
Wagner,  Liszt,  Schumann,  Rubinstein,  Handel,  and  Schubert,  (c) 
The  test  previously  described  under  the  partial  memory  of  sounds 
(power  to  remember  and  reproduce  musical  airs)  has  a  bearing  upon 
this  part  of  our  subject. 

A  modified  form  of  these  tests  was  given  to  the  Juniors.  They  were 
required  to  write  (i)  a  list  of  six  musicians,  (2)  one  production  under 
each  name,  (3)  the  style  of  each,  i.  <?.,  his  favorite  form  of  composition, 
and  (4)  to  answer  the  question:  **  What  did  Wagner  introduce  into 
Grand  Opera?" 

3.  Literature,  (a)  Selections  were  chosen  from  eight  prominent 
English  prose  writers,  and  read  aloud  to  the  subjects.  After  the  read- 
ing of  each,  the  subject  wrote  whom  he  considered  to  be  the  author  of 
the  selection,  as  well  as  the  source  of  this  judgment :  whether  memory 
of  the  particular  passage,  or  inference  drawn  from  the  style  or  subject 
matter.  The  writers  and  selections  were  as  follows :  Macaulay,  The 
Progress  of  England,  from  Essays  on  Sir  James  Mackintosh  ;  Ruskin, 
The  Open  Sky,  from  Modern  Painters;  Bacon,  Of  Studies,  from  the 
Essays  ;  Dickens,  Mrs.  Gafnp^s  Apartment,  from  Martin  Chuzzlewit; 
De  Quincy,  A  Wonderful  Dream,,  from  Confessions  of  an  English 
Opium  Eater;  Carlyle,  Labor,  from  Past  and  Present ;  Thackeray, 
Family  Prayers,  from  The  Newcomes ;  and  Scott,  Raleigh's  First 
Interview  with  Queen  Elizabeth,  from  Kenilworth. 

(b)  Similar  selections  were  chosen  from  eight  English  and  American 
poets,  and  the  test  was  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  above. 
The  subjects  were  informed  that  the  poetry  might  be  taken  from  either 
English  or  American  writers.  The  passages  selected  were  these  : 
Wordsworth's  Ode  to  Im,m,ortality,  first  two  stanzas;  Shakespeare's 
Midsum,m,er  Night's  Dream,  speech  of  Theseus  on  Imagination; 
Tennyson's  In  Mem,oriam,,  LIU;  Milton's  Ode  to  His  Blindness ; 
Browning's  Rabbi  Ben  Ezra,  stanza  "Thou  Fool!"  etc.;  Bryant's 
To  a  IVaterf  owl,  last  three  stanzas ;  Holmes'  The  Chambered  Nautilus, 
last  two  stanzas;  and  Spenser's  Fairy  Queen  I,  4:  4,  5  (The  House 
of  Pride) . 

4.  A  further  test  of  tastes  and  tendencies  consisted  in  the  questions 
put  to  the  subjects  as  to  the  character  of  their  favorite  reading,  their 
fondness  for  the  opera,  the  play,  and  for  reflective  games  such  as 
whist,  chess,  etc.     See  above,  under  III. 

§  5.     Results. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  results  obtained  from  the  tests 
that  have  been  outlined.     They  may  be  considered  from  two 


36o 


SHARP : 


points  of  view,  quantitatively  and  qualitatively.  Some  tests 
best  lend  themselves  to  a  numerical  expression  of  results,  while 
the  outcome  of  others  must  be  estimated  chiefly  in  terms  of 
quality.  Among  the  former  are  the  tests  of  the  first  group, 
those  upon  rnemory. 

I.    Memory. 

I  and  2.  Memory  of  letters  and  memory  of  figures.  These  may  be 
considered  together,  since  the  tests  were  closely  similar  and  performed 
in  the  same  manner. 

Tabi,b  I. 


MEMORY  OF  LETTERS. 

MEMORY  OF  FIGURES. 

SUBJECTS. 

Average  times 
exposed. 

Fluctuation 
limits. 

Average  times 
exposed. 

Fluctuation 
limits. 

B. 

G. 
V.  M. 
W.  M. 
E.  R. 
L.  R. 

T. 

(2) 

3 

(I) 

«"^ 

3-2 

(5) 

3-95 

(4) 

3.3 

1—6 
1—4 

2 — 12 

2—5 
3-6 
2—7 
1—6 

(3) 

2.9 

(I) 

2.6 

(5) 

4.55 
(4) 

3 

1—4 
1—3 
2—5 

2—4 

2—5 
3—9 
2—4 

Table  I  gives  for  each  individual  (i)  the  averages,  taken  from  twenty 
experiments  each  of  letters  and  figures,  of  the  times  necessary  to  ex- 
pose a  series  of  twelve  before  it  is  correctly  repeated,  and  (2)  the 
fluctuation  limits,  that  is,  the  highest  and  the  lowest  number  of  ex- 
posures required  for  the  memorizing  of  one  series  by  the  different  in- 
dividuals. The  small  figures  in  brackets  at  the  left  of  the  first  and 
third  columns  indicate  the  order  of  the  averages  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  or  the  order  of  the  individuals  in  regard  to  rapidity  of  memor- 
izing from  the  most  to  the  least  rapid. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  from  the  last  five  experiments  with  letter 
series  with  those  from  the  first  five  makes  evident  the  effect  of  practice. 
In  the  last  experiments  also,  the  individual  differences  decreased.  In 
the  figure  series  the  effect  of  practice  in  the  last  experiments  was  less 
apparent.  This  was,  no  doubt,  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  practice 
gained  in  the  memorizing  of  letters  facilitated  the  memorizing  of  the 
figures  from  the  first. 

A  glance  at  Table  I  will  show  a  certain  correspondence  between  the 
order  of  averages  for  letters  and  that  for  figures.  Where  changes  have 
taken  place,  it  is  between  those  individuals  whose  averages  were  con- 
tiguous.    Thus,  2  and  3,  and  6  and  7  changed  places,  but  there  is  no 


INDIVIDUAI,  PSYCHOLOGY. 


361 


indication  of  a  strongly  developed  partial  memory  for  either  letters  or 
figures  alone,  on  the  part  of  any  individual,  which  would  make  a  radi- 
cal difference  in  the  order  of  averages  for  the  two  kinds  of  experiments. 
The  Table  shows,  in  general,  a  slightly  better  memory  for  figures  than 
for  letters,  with  one  marked  exception  (L.  R.).  Memory  of  figures 
might  have  been  easier  for  several  reasons.  The  practice  mentioned 
above,  gained  from  the  similar  memorizing  of  letters,  the  permanent 
practice  gained  in  the  course  of  education,  and  the  fact  that  figures,  in 
whatever  order,  make  an  intelligible  combination,  all  would  contribute 
to  greater  ease  in  learning  figures.  In  the  case  that  shows  a  decided 
divergence  from  this  rule,  the  cause  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  subject  tried  to  rely  upon  her  visual  memory,  and  that,  as  there 
was  necessarily  a  recurrence  of  some  figures  in  a  series  of  twelve,  the 
repetition  tended  to  fatigue  the  attention  and  confuse  the  mind  of  the 
subject  in  regard  to  the  order  of  the  characters.  The  decrease  in  the 
variety  of  form  doubtless  made  the  figure  series  harder  to  remember 
than  the  letters.  The  Table  shows  not  only  a  lowering  in  the  averages 
for  memory  of  figures,  but  a  lowering,  in  the  case  of  every  individual 
but  the  one  above  excepted,  of  the  upper  limit  of  fluctuation. 

The  mode  of  memorizing  the  letters  and  figures  used  by  the  subjects,, 
as  learned  from  observing  them  and  also  from  their  own  reports,  shows 
no  coincidence  between  any  particular  memory  type  and  any  special 
ability  or  disability  for  memorizing. 

3.     Memory  of  words, 

Tabi,e  II. 


SUBJECTS. 

B. 

G. 

V.  M. 

W.  M. 

E.  R. 

L.  R. 

T. 

Av.  per 
cent,  of 
words  re- 
produced 
in  short 
series. 

^5) 
81. 1 

84.2 

84.1 

(6) 

77-5 

75.6 

82.2 

98.5 

Av.  per 
cent,  of 
words  re- 
produced 
in  recapit- 
ulation. 

(2) 

34-6 

(I) 
54.3 

(5) 
27.9 

(3) 
34.1 

(7) 
19.0 

(6) 

27-5 

(4) 
29.6 

Difference, 


(3) 

(I) 

(5)  , 

(2) 

(6) 

(4) 

46.5 

29.9 

56.2 

43-4 

56.6 

54.7 

(7) 


68.9 


Table  II  gives  on  its  first  line  the  average  percentage  of  words  of 
short  series  which  were  immediately  repeated  by  the  subject  after  the 
series  was  read  to  him.  The  percentages  represent  for  each  individual 
the  results  obtained  from  four  sets  of  seven  short  series  each.  The 
second  line  of  the  Table  gives  the  average  number  of  words  mentioned 

JOURNAI, — 3 


362  SHARP : 

by  each  subject  in  recapitulating  from  memory  as  many  as  possible  of 
the  whole  forty-nine  words  contained  in  a  set  of  seven  series  of  seven 
words  each.  The  averages  in  this  line  were  also  made  from  four  sets 
of  such  series.  The  third  line  of  the  Table  gives  the  average  percent- 
age of  loss  sustained  by  the  memory  in  the  time  intervening  between 
the  repetition  of  the  short  series  and  the  recapitulation.  The  first 
line,  then,  indicates  individual  differences  in  the  immediate  memory 
of  verbal  sounds ;  the  second  line,  individual  differences  in  the  memory 
of  conservation  ;  and  the  last  line,  individual  differences  in  loss. 

The  words  used  in  these  tests  were  of  varied  character,  comprising 
names  of  particular  objects,  qualities,  virtues,  general  and  abstract 
terms,  in  wholly  disconnected  order.  The  results  showed  no  marked 
individual  differences  in  the  kind  of  words  remembered.  A  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  abstract  terms  were  remembered  by  all  the  subjects. 
In  general,  the  position  of  the  words  in  the  original  series  gave  no  clue 
to  individual  differences  in  the  recapitulations.  The  words  in  the  first 
and  last  parts  of  the  sets  were  usually  those  best  represented  in  the 
recapitulations  of  all  the  subjects.  In  the  case  of  Z".,  however,  the 
tendency  to  remember  best  the  words  in  the  last  short  series  was  more 
marked  than  in  the  others. 

Table  II  shows  in  the  first  line  an  order  among  the  individuals  quite 
different  from  that  observed  in  the  previous  Table.  Z".,  who  there  held 
the  fourth  place,  here  stands  far  higher  than  any  other ;  and  V.  M. 
and  L.  R.  change  from  the  sixth  and  seventh  to  the  third  and  fourth 
places.  This  change  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  remembered 
stimuli  are  auditory  instead  of  visual.  In  the  short  series  it  was  chiefly 
a  succession  of  sounds  that  was  remembered,  as  is  attested  by  the  fact 
that,  where  mistakes  by  substitution  occurred,  they  were  almost  inva- 
riably of  like-sounding  words,  such  a.s  flower  ior  floor,  or  furnish  for 
furnace  ;  while,  in  the  recapitulation,  the  errors  are  usually  additional 
words  suggested  from  analogy  of  sense,  such  as  dog  suggested  by  cat, 
cold  by  winter,  and  accident  by  horror.  In  the  recapitulation,  the 
order  among  the  individuals  returns  very  nearly  to  what  it  was  in  the 
first  two  tests. 

4.    Memory  of  Sentences,    (a)  Memory  of  Short  Sentences. 

Table  III  gives  under  four  headings  the  average  percentages  obtained 
from  twenty  sentences  under  each  of  the  five  groups.  The  sentences 
increase  in  abstractness  from  Group  I  to  Group  V.  The  average  length 
of  sentences  under  each  group  is  given  at  the  foot  of  the  Table.  The 
exact  meaning  of  the  four  headings  under  which  the  percentages  are 
classified  has  been  before  stated.  The  complete  results  from  which 
these  averages  are  drawn  show  for  a  single  subject,  in  a  single  group 
of  similar  sentences  (similar  in  regard  to  abstractness),  fluctuations 
larger  than  the  differences  in  the  averages  of  widely  separated  groups. 
This  is  evidence  of  the  complexity  of  the  factors  which  enter  into  these 
experiments.  The  differences  in  the  length  of  the  sentences  (though 
these  are  not  large),  the  differences  in  construction,  the  use  of  words 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


363 


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SHARP 


which  may  chance  to  be  somewhat  unfamiliar  to  the  subject,  and,  per- 
haps, more  important  than  all,  the  varying  subjective  conditions  under 
which  the  experiments  are  performed,  produce  results  of  more  varying 
character  than  those  which  come  from  differences  in  the  abstractness 
of  the  sentences.  One  page  from  the  original  results,  chosen  at  ran- 
dom, will  show  the  lack  of  constancy  in  the  averages  under  any  one 
group  of  sentences. 

Specimen  Page  of  Original  Results. 
SUBJKCT  B, 


Sentences. 

% 

Verbal 
Accu- 
racy. 

% 
Order. 

% 

Sense. 

% 

Cer- 
tainty. 

Sentences. 

% 

Verbal 
Accu- 
racy. 

% 
Order. 

% 

Sense. 

% 

Cer- 
tainty. 

1,  111,22 

2,  111,23 

3,  111,23 

4,  111,24 

5,  111,24 

6,  111,24 

7,  111,24 

8,  111,25 

9,  111,25 

10,  III,  25 

11,  III, 25 

12,  III,  25 

13,  III,  25 

14,  III,  26 

15,  III,  26 

16,  III,  26 

17,  III,  27 

18,  III,  28 

19,  III,  28 

20,  III,  28 

lOO.O 
83.1 

95-7 
87.5 
95-9 
62.9 

95-9 

84.0 
86.0 
80.0 
76.0 
79-3 

70.4 
82.2 

89.3 
92.9 

95.5 
lOO.O 

loo.o 
loo.o 
100. 0 

lOO.O 

loo.o 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 

96.0 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 

96.5 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 

lOO.O 

69.6 

lOO.O 

95-9 

lOO.O 

75.0 

lOO.O 

78.3 

lOO.O 

84.Q 
92.0 

lOO.O 

88.0 

lOO.O 

100.0 

84.7 

lOO.O 

96.5 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 

'93-2 
93-5 

91.4 

95-9 

93.8 

lOO.O 

98.0 
96.0 

98.0 
76.0 
90.0 
90.0 

84.7 
94.3 
98.1 

lOO.O 

92.9 
94.7 

lOO.O 

1,  IV,  22 

2,  IV,  22 

3,  IV,  23 

4,  IV,  23 

5,  IV,  23 

6,  IV,  23 

7,  IV,  24 

8,  IV,  24 

9,  IV,  24 

10,  IV,  25 

11,  IV,  25 

12,  IV,  25 

13,  IV,  25 

14,  IV,  25 

15,  IV,  25 

16,  IV,  25 

17,  IV,  26 

18,  IV,  26 

19,  IV,  27 

20,  IV,  28 

100. 0 

77-3 
95-7 
95-7 

lOO.O 

67.4 

83.4 
83.4 
83-4 

40.0 
56.0 
56.0 
96.0 

92.0 

80.0 

¥. 

77^8 
57.2 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 
lOO.O 
100. 0 
95.7 

95-9 

lOO.O 

95-9 
92.0 
96.0 
92.0 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 

96.0 

96.6 

lOO.O 
lOO.O 

963 
96.5 

lOO.O 

86.4 

lOO.O 

100. 0 
100. 0 

91.4 

87.5 
83.4 
87.5 

72.0 
76.0 

56.0 

100. 0 
92.0 
92.0 

lOO.O 

96.1 

96.1 

lOO.O 

85.8 

93.2 

95.5 

lOO.O 

97.9 
95.7 

93-5 
98.0 

93.8 

95.9 
74.0 
92.0 
76.0 
90.0 
96.0 
92.0 

lOO.O 

96.1 
91.2 

Average 

78.7 

99.1 

85.7 

90.2 

74.4 

97.6 

87.1 

88.7 

The  results  from  sentences  given  to  the  Juniors  show  precisely  the 
same  characteristics,  and  hence  will  not  be  given  here. 

Table  III  shows  that  the  columns  headed  order  of  words  and  degree 
of  certainty  of  the  subject  indicate  small  differences  between  the  in- 
dividuals in  these  respects,  although  in  the  groups  of  the  more  abstract 
sentences  individual  differences  in  regard  to  the  certainty  of  memory 
increase.  Again,  slighter  individual  differences  are  seen  in  sense  than 
in  verbal  accuracy^  the  former  being  very  frequently  preserved  when  the 
latter  is  at  fault.  Considering,  then,  the  verbal  accuracy  alone,  we 
find,  except  in  the  case  of  one  subject,  that  there  is  no  constant  lower- 
ing of  the  percentages  as  the  sentences  become  more  abstract.  Between 
contiguous  groups  of  sentences,  where  differences  in  concreteness  or 
abstractness  are  slight,  the  length  of  the  sentences  appears  to  have  a 


INDIVIDUAI.   PSYCHOI.OGY. 


365 


decided  influence.  For  example,  all  subjects  but  one  {B.)  have  a  higher 
percentage  of  verbal  accuracy  for  Group  II,  which  averages  shorter 
sentences,  than  for  Group  I ;  while  in  Group  III,  whose  sentences 
average  longer  than  those  of  Group  I,  there  is  a  lowering  of  the  per- 
centages for  verbal  accuracy  on  the  part  of  each  subject.  A  just  com- 
parison of  the  individual  differences  in  the  different  groups  should, 
however,  take  into  consideration  all  of  the  four  headings  for  marking. 
It  may  be  made  from  Table  IV,  which  gives  the  averages  of  the  four  per- 
centages for  each  individual  under  each  group,  as  well  as  the  general 
average  from  all  the  percentages  of  all  the  sentences. 

Tabi^E  IV. 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

General. 

■      % 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

B. 

6 

91.7 

6 

91.4 

5 

90.9 

6 
86.9 

6 

85.6 

6 

89.2 

G. 

%6.8 

%7.8 

%5.8 

3 

94.7 

96.7 

2 

96.4 

V.  M. 

3 

95.0 

3 
97.5 

2 
95-9 

2 

94.9 

4 

90.4 

3 
94.7 

W.  M. 

92.8 

5 
93.7 

6 

90.6 

92.9 

3 

90.5 

5 
92.1 

E.  R. 

'89.x 

7 
90.4 

84.0 

6 
86.9 

7 
85.2 

^,. 

Iv.  R. 

4 

94 -o 

4 

95.9 

4 
92.3 

%9.8 

^88.4 

4 

92.0 

T. 

I 
98.2 

'98.5 

'96.7 

97.7 

2 
96.6 

'97-5 

In  Table  IV  several  things  may  be  noted.  Every  individual  (except 
B.,  whose  I  and  II  figures  are  practically  equal,)  attained  his 
highest  percentage  in  Group  II,  that  which  averages  the  shortest 
sentences.  The  position  of  the  lowest  percentages  varies  with  the  in- 
dividuals. For  T.  and  W.  M.y  this  percentage  is  practically  the  same 
in  Group  III,  which  averages  the  longest  sentences,  and  in  Group  V, 
which  contains  the  most  abstract  sentences :  a  slight  difference  in 
lowness  being  in  favor  of  the  latter.  For  E.  R.  the  percentage  shows 
that  it  is  Group  III  which  is  most  difficult,  while  for  B.,  V.  M.,  and  L. 
R.y  it  is  Group  V.  The  remaining  subject,  G.,  has  her  lowest  average, 
strange  to  say,  in  Group  IV,  which  is  intermediate  both  as  to  length 
and  abstractness  between  III  and  V.  For  all  subjects,  however,  the 
percentage  in  Group  V  is  lower  than  in  Group  I,  the  amount  of  the 
difference  varying  in',the  individuals  as  follows:  ^.,6.1%;  G^.,  0.1%; 
V.  M.,  4.6%;   W.  M.,  1.3%;  E.  R.,  3.9%;  L.  R.,  5.6%;  and  T.,  1.6%. 


366  SHARP : 

In  regard  to  the  order  in  which  the  individuals  stand  in  the  different 
groups,  as  indicated  by  the  small  figures  in  the  Table,  it  will  be  seen 
that  no  subject  keeps  the  same  order  throughout.  T.  shows  the  greatest 
constancy.  The  subjects  may,  however,  be  grouped  in  a  general  way. 
7".,  G.,  and  V.  M.  hold  the  first  three  places  ;  W.  M.  and  L.  R.  corn- 
next,  and  B.  and  E.  R.  last.  This  grouping  agrees,  too,  with  the  order 
of  results  in  the  general  averages. 

If  the  order  seen  in  the  last  column  of  Table  IV  be  compared  with 
that  observed  in  Tables  I  and  II, — that  is,  the  order  of  the  subjects  in 
regard  to  memory  of  letters,  figures,  and  words, — it  will  be  found  that 
the  former  approaches  most  nearly  the  order  in  the  immediate  memory 
for  words.  In  the  test  of  sentences,  as  in  that  of  words,  the  stimuli 
were  auditory  impressions,  to  be  reproduced  immediately  after  dicta- 
tion. In  the  case  of  sentences,  however,  the  sense  of  the  words  had 
much  more  influence  ;  for  although  the  words  were  read  by  the  experi- 
menter very  monotonously,  as  if  they  formed  an  unconnected  list,  and 
the  interpretation  was  left  to  the  subject,  yet  this,  when  made,  could 
not  but  prove  a  material  aid  to  the  memory.  For  both  these  reasons 
the  order  is  very  different  from  that  observed  in  the  memory  for  letters 
and  for  figures,  while  only  slightly  different  from  that  for  the  imme- 
diate memory  for  words. 

Considering  the  test  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  sentences  of 
the  length  here  used,  abstract  sentences  are  very  little  more  difficult 
than  concrete  for  any  of  the  subjects  (including  the  Juniors).  More- 
over, in  regard  to  the  availability  of  the  test,  the  results  shown  are  of 
too  meager  and  indecisive  a  character  to  be  at  all  in  proportion  to  the 
time  and  labor  necessary  for  the  selection,  classification  and  correction 
of  the  sentences. 

(b)     Memory  of  Ivong  Sentences. 

Table  V  gives  in  full  the  results,  for  the  advanced  students  only,  of 
the  test  of  long  sentences,  where  two  sentences  are  given  for  each  of 
the  five  degrees  of  abstractness.  A  word  should  be  said  in  regard  to 
the  categories  under  which  the  marking  is  made.  The  number  of 
words  forgotten  means  only  those  which  have  entirely  dropped  out 
from  the  memory,  those  for  which  no  substitution,  even  though  inac- 
curate, is  made.  The  number  of  groups  retained  embraces  only  those  in 
which  there  is  absolutely  no  change  in  verbal  form.  The  'number  of 
synonyms'  means  the  number  of  words  in  the  original  passage  for 
which  synonymous  words  or  phrases  are  substituted.  These  substitu- 
tions may  have  a  more  contracted  or  expanded  form  than  the  original, 
but  contractions  are  by  far  the  more  numerous.  The  fourth  category, 
*  number  of  substitutions,'  means  the  number  of  words  in  the  original 
passage  which  are  represented  in  the  reproduction,  but  not  with  suf- 
ficient accuracy  to  be  classed  as  synonymous  substitutions,  plus  the 
words  in  the  reproductions  which  have  no  counterparts  in  the  original 
passage.  Substituted  forms  may  be  words  which  mean  something 
different  from  the  original,  although  related  to  it  by  analogy ;  or  they 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


367 


may  be  whole  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences  which  express  fairly  well 
the  main  idea  of  the  original,  while  ignoring  all  minor  points  of  sig- 
nificance, and  with  an  entire  change  of  syntax  and  verbal  form  ;  or, 
again,   they  may  consist  in  the  addition  of  words  not  found  in  the 


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original.  The  latter  kind  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  Table  does  not  represent  the  results  precisely.  It  gives 
the  number  of  words/br  which  substitutions  are  made,  but  not  the 


368 


SHARP 


number  of  words  substituted  ;  neither  does  it  tell  just  how  closely  the 
latter  conform  to  the  former  in  meaning.  The  four  categories  em- 
ployed seem,  however,  to  be  those  most  practicable  for  marking  the 
sentences  employed  in  this  test. 

Table  V  shows  that  here,  as  in  the  preceding  test,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable lack  of  constancy  in  the  results.  The  memory  of  long  sen- 
tences requires  a  high  degree  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the  subject, 
and  any  accidental  subjective  condition  which  may  serve  to  distract 
him  will  produce  an  effect  on  the  results  which  no  consideration  of  the 
objective  conditions  can  account  for.  The  same  individuals  show 
often  a  wide  discrepancy  of  results  between  two  sentences  of  the  same 
degree  of  abstractness  and  of  almost  the  same  length  and  number  of 
words.  The  totals,  however,  show  here,  as  in  the  test  with  short  sen- 
tences, that  the  most  abstract  sentences  are  more  diiEcult  to  remember 
than  the  concrete.  The  total  number  of  groups  retained  steadily  de- 
creases from  I  to  V.  The  total  number  of  words  completely  forgotten 
is  considerably  greater  in  V  than  in  I,  although  in  length  the  sentences 
do  not  greatly  differ.  In  III,  where  the  sentences  are  long,  the  number 
of  words  forgotten  is  almost  as  great  as  in  V ;  a  result  which  also  agrees 
well  with  that  observed  in  the  previous  experiment.  In  general,  the 
number  of  synonyms  increases  as  the  sentences  become  more  abstract, 
and  the  number  of  substitutions  increases  in  even  larger  proportion. 

TabIvE  VI. 


Number  of  words 
forgotten  in  all 
the  sentences 

Number  of 
groups  retained 
in  all  the  sen- 
tences. 

Number  of  syn- 
onyms in  all  the 
sentences. 

Number  of  sub- 
stitutions in  all 
the  sentences. 

6. 

6. 

6. 

2. 

B. 

166 

70 

33 

121 

G. 

I. 

89 

134 

'■         3S 

'■         .6 

V.  M. 

'•       148 

3- 

79 

I. 

60 

'■         66 

W.  M. 

^        179 

4- 

78 

'■         58 

6. 

49 

B.  R. 

4. 

124 

7. 

45 

4. 

40 

224 

I..  R. 

'■       118 

'■         78 

2. 

59 

3- 

94 

T. 

104 

2. 

93 

'■         ,8 

4. 

78 

Table  VI  shows  a  summary  of  results.  It  gives  for  each  subject  the 
total  number  of  words  forgotten,  groups  retained,  etc.  Individual 
characteristics  here  manifest  themselves.  For  B.  this  characteristic 
is  the  large  number  of  words  completely  forgotten,  for  G.  the  large 
number  of  groups  accurately  remembered,  for  E.  R.  the  large  number 
of  substitutions ;  while  for  the  remaining  subjects  the  number  of  words 
completely  forgotten  seems  the  most  prominent  characteristic. 


INDIVIDUAI.   PSYCHOLOGY. 


369 


Several  things  are  to  be  noted  in  regard  to  the  order  as  indicated  by 
the  small  figures.  The  order  in  the  number  of  groups  retained  is  the 
same  as  in  the  general  averages  for  memory  of  sentences,  with  the 
exception  that  T.  and  G.  have  changed  their  places  as  i  and  2  respect- 
ively. It  has  been  seen  that  T.  excelled  when  immediate  auditory 
memory  was  called  into  play.  Here  the  sentences  are  so  much  longer 
than  the  preceding  ones  that  the  auditory  memory  has  been  forced 
into  greater  subservience  to  the  memory  of  ideas,  and  hence  the  loss 
of  rank  follows.  That  the  order  in  columns  i  and  2  differs  consider- 
ably arises  from  the  fact  that,  where  groups  are  not  exactly  retained, 
they  need  not  all  be  dropped  out,  but  may  be  expressed,  with  more  or 
less  exactness,  in  a  different  verbal  form.  It  is  to  be  noticed,  also, 
that  the  order  in  column  4  and  that  in  column  2  are  almost  precisely 
reversed ;  that  is,  those  who  have  retained  the  greatest  number  of 
groups  have  employed  the  least  number  of  substitutions,  and  vice 
versa.  All  this  throws  some  light  upon  the  relative  reliability  of  the 
memory  in  the  subjects  tested .  G,  shows  not  only  the  largest  number 
of  groups  retained  and  smallest  number  of  forgotten  words,  but  also 
a  preponderance  of  synonymous  words  over  substitutions.  W.  M.y 
whose  number  of  forgotten  words  is  large,  has  also  a  preponderance 
of  synonyms  over  substitutions.  In  all  other  cases  the  substitutions 
outnumber  the  synonyms.  This  is  markedly  the  case  for  ^.  i?. ;  B. 
shows  the  same  characteristic  in  a  lesser,  but  still  large,  degree.  Both 
kinds  of  changes  in  expression  result  from  what  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri 
call  '  verbal  assimilation.'  The  subject  gives  to  a  passage,  as  it  enters 
his  mind,  the  stamp  of  his  own  personality,  imparts  to  it  his  own 
habits  of  thought. 

5.     Memory  of  Musical  Sounds. 

The  responses  to  the  three  questions :  (i)  Can  you  carry  an  air  at 
all?  (2)  Can  you  reproduce  an  air  after  hearing  it  once?  In  your 
head?  By  whistling  or  singing?  and  (3)  How  accurate  is  your  repro- 
duction (if  it  has  been  tested)? — have  been  tabulated  for  the  advanced 
students  as  follows. 

TABI.E  VII. 


Reproduce  after  single 

Carry 
Air' 

audition. 

Accurate? 

Mentally? 

Physically? 

B. 

Yes. 

Seldom. 

No. 

Not  tested. 

G. 

Yes. 

No. 

No. 

Only  after  learning. 

V.  M. 

Yes. 

Often. 

Partially. 

r  Mental  reproduction 
\     rate.     Physical,  not 

accu- 

W.M. 

Yes. 

Partially. 

Partially. 

Fairly  accurate. 

E.  R. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Sometimes. 

Not  tested. 

L.  R. 

Yes. 

Partially. 

Partially. 

Yes. 

T. 

Yes. 

Partially. 

Partially. 

Yes. 

370  SHARP : 

The  memory  for  musical  sounds  cannot  be  compared  with  that  for 
letters,  figures,  etc.,  since  no  direct  test  was  given  for  the  former. 
The  answers  above  tabulated  are,  moreover,  not  sufficiently  precise  to 
warrant  any  exact  comparison  between  the  individuals  in  regard  to  the 
readiness  and  accuracy  of  their  musical  memory.  All  that  can  be  said 
is  that  B.  and  G.  appear  to  fall  within  a  different  group  from 
the  other  subjects.  That  musical  memory  is  something  quite  distinct 
from  mere  auditory  imaging  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  GJ*s  line  in 
this  Table  with  the  corresponding  line  in  Table  VIII. 

II.  Mental  Images. 
Letter  Squares. — In  this  test  the  errors  made  are  intended  to  form 
the  basis  of  a  judgment  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  mental  images  em- 
ployed by  the  subjects  in  their  reproduction  of  printed  letters.  The 
largest  error,  however,  lay  throughout  in  incompleteness ;  that  is,  the 
omissions  far  outnumbered  the  actual  mistakes.  Again :  the  number 
of  right  letters  placed  in  the  wrong  squares  exceeded  greatly  the 
number  of  wrong  letters,  i.  <?.,  of  letters  which  did  not  appear  on  the 
printed  card  at  all.  The  omissions  are,  for  the  most  part,  non-com- 
mittal as  regards  mental  images;  the  errors  of  position  are  often 
equally  so ;  while  the  wrong  letters  used  do  not  invariably  make  the 
kind  of  images  a  matter  free  from  doubt.  The  subject's  report  of  in- 
trospection, therefore,  which  accompanied  each  experiment,  is  of  great 
value,  and,  when  considered  along.with  the  errors  made,  may  be  taken 
as  giving  reliable  information.  A  summary  of  the  information  thus 
gained  may  be  given  as  follows. 

Tabids  VIII. 
B.     Visual  images  most  prominent,  motor  next'  and  auditory  least. 
G.    Auditory  and  m.otor  images  prominent,  visual  very  slight. 
V.  M.     Visual  very  prominent,  motor  next,  and  auditory  least. 
W.  M.     Visual  very  prominent,  auditory  and  motor  both  important. 
B.  R.     Motor  most  prominent,  auditory  next,  visual  rarely  present. 
Lr.  R.     Motor  and  auditory  prominent,  visual  slight. 
T.    Auditory  and  m,otor  images  prominent,  visual  slight. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  characteristics  shown  by  the  introspec- 
tive reports  is  that,  in  the  case  of  one  subject  {L.  R.)y  the  letters  were 
rarely  remembered  directly,  but  usually  through  a  verbal  association 
formed  at  the  sight  of  the  printed  card,  this  verbal  association  being 
in  tactual  and  auditory  terms.  Other  subjects  sometimes  used  verbal 
associations  to  aid  the  memory,  but  to  a  much  less  extent.  The  in- 
direct method  was,  however,  common  among  the  Juniors.  The  an- 
swers obtained  from  questioning  the  subjects  in  connection  with  the 
tests  for  memory  of  words,  letters,  and  figures,  confirm  the  conclusions 
in  the  above  summary.  Beside  these  questions  each  subject  was  re- 
quested to  state  where,  in  his  opinion,  he  should  be  placed  under  the 
degrees  of  mental  imagery  (visual  imagery)  as  classified  by  Francis 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


371 


Galton  in  his  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty^  p.  93.  This  classifica- 
tion was  made  from  responses  received  from  a  large  number  of  individ- 
uals questioned  in  regard  to  the  illumination,  definition,  and  coloring 
of  their  mental  images.     The  classification  is  in  full  as  follows : 

Degrees  of  Mental  Imagery.  Highest. — Brilliant,  distinct,  never 
blotchy. 

First  Suboctile.     The  image  once  seen  is  perfectly  clear  and  bright. 

First  Octile.  I  can  see  my  breakfast  table  or  any  equally  familiar 
thing  with  my  mind's  eye  quite  as  well  in  all  particulars  as  I  can  do 
if  the  reality  is  before  me. 

First  Quartile.  Fairly  clear;  illumination  of  actual  scene  is  fairly 
represented.  Well  defined.  Parts  do  not  obtrude  themselves,  but 
attention  has  to  be  directed  to  different  points  in  succession  to  call  up 
the  whole. 

Middlemost.  Fairly  clear.  Brightness  probably  at  least  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  of  the  original.  Definition  varies  much,  one  or  two 
objects  being  much  more  distinct  than  the  others,  but  the  latter  come 
out  clearly  if  attention  be  paid  to  them. 

Last  Quartile.  Dim,  certainly  not  comparable  to  the  actual  scene. 
I  have  to  think  separately  of  the  several  things  on  the  table  to  bring 
them  clearly  before  the  mind's  eye,  and  when  I  think  of  some  things 
the  others  fade  away  in  confusion. 

Last  Octile.  Dim,  and  not  comparable  in  brightness  to  the  real 
scene.  Badly  defined,  with  blotches  of  light;  very  incomplete ;  very 
little  of  an  object  is  seen  at  one  time. 

Last  Suboctile.  I  am  very  rarely  able  to  recall  any  object  whatever 
with  any  sort  of  distinctness.  Very  occasionally  an  object  or  image 
will  recall  itself,  but  even  then  it  is  more  like  a  generalized  image 
than  an  individual  one.  I  seem  to  be  almost  devoid  of  visualizing 
power  as  under  control. 

Lowest.  My  powers  are  zero.  To  my  consciousness  there  is  almost 
no  association  of  memory  with  objective  visual  impressions.  I  recol- 
lect the  table,  but  do  not  see  it. 

Below  is  given  the  result  of  the  self-classification  of  our  seven  sub- 
jects under  the  above  divisions. 


B. 

G. 

V.  M. 

W.  M. 

B.R. 

L.  R. 

T. 

First  Oc- 
tile or  j)os- 
sibly  first 
Quartile. 

Last 
Octile. 

First 
Octile. 

First 
Octile. 

Last 
Suboctile. 

Last 
Quartile. 

Last  Quar- 
tile or  pos- 
sibly mid- 
dlemost. 

This  result  also  agrees  admirably  with  that  given  in  the  summary 
above. 

III.    Imagination. 

7.  Passive  Imagination,  (a)  Method  of  Blots.  The  results  obtained 
from  the  experiments  under  this  method  are  susceptible  of  quantita- 
tive expression,  but  their  qualitative  aspect  is  of  equal,  if  not  greater, 
importance.  The  numerical  results  are  given  in  Table  IX,  in  which 
is  shown,  for  each  subject,  the  number  of  objects  seen  in  each  of  the 
ten  different  blots,  and  the  number  of  their  sum. 

The  small  figures  at  the  left  of  the  last  column  in  Table  IX  indicate 
the  order  of  the  subjects  in  respect  to  the  readiness  of  their  flow  of  ideas, 


372 


SHARP : 


Tabi,b  IX. 
Number  of  Objects  seen  in  Blots. 


Blot  I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

Total. 

B. 

5 

7 

8 

5 

9 

I 

5 

14 

14 

13 

I. 

8l 
5- 

G. 

I 

4 

4 

6 

5 

2 

4 

3 

3 

6 

38 
3- 

V.  M. 

6 

6 

lO 

6 

6 

5 

7 

8 

8 

6 

68 

7- 

W.M. 

4 

3 

3 

I 

4 

3 

2 

3 

3 

I 

37 
2. 
70 

E.R. 

4 

4 

5 

3 

6 

I 

5 

4 

2 

3 

L.  R. 

6 

8 

7 

6 

6 

7 

8 

6 

6 

lO 

4. 

T. 

3 

5 

4 

6 

3 

6 

5 

9 

8 

6 

55 

or  the  relative  number  of  associative  connections  which  are  at  the  im- 
mediate command  of  the  subjects.  The  kind  of  associations  peculiar 
to  the  various  individuals  must,  however,  also  be  considered.  The 
associated  objects  most  frequently  mentioned  are  animals ;  familiar 
fruits,  plants,  tools,  household  utensils,  etc.;  scientific  objects  such  as 
geometric  figures,  mathematical  symbols,  schematic  drawings,  maps, 
etc.;  objects  suggested  by  literary  reminiscence;  and  finally,  objects 
from  fable  and  mythology,  such  as  monsters,  fairies,  witches,  satyrs 
and  centaurs.  -5.,  who  stands  first  in  regard  to  number  of  objects  seen 
in  the  blots,  holds  also  a  high  place  in  respect  to  variety,  since  his 
reports  show  not  only  the  names  of  animals  and  familiar  objects,  but 
associations  derived  from  science  and  a  few  from  mythology.  E.  R. 
and  M.  W.,  who  occupy  a  low  position  in  respect  to  number  of  asso- 
ciations, have  a  corresponding  place  in  regard  to  variety,  since  the 
associations  are  restricted  almost  exclusively  to  names  of  animals  and 
familiar  objects.  Of  the  other  subjects,  V.  M.  and  L.  R.  have  shown 
a  somewhat  greater  variety  than  G.  and  Z".,  especially  in  the  way  of 
fable  and  literary  reminiscence.  These  differences  in  variety  may  be 
called  the  individual  differences  in  regard  to  the  source  from  which 
associations  are  habitually  drawn.  The  reports  from  this  test,  how- 
ever, show  further  peculiarities, — individual  differences  which,  in  gen- 
eral, subsist  between  single  associations,  and  differences  in  the  manner 
of  reporting  all  the  associations.  For  example :  a  particular  blot  may 
call  up  in  the  mind  of  a  subject,  through  association,  a  number  of  ob- 
jects similar  to  this  in  form,  and  he  enumerates  the  objects  one  after 
another ;  while  to  another  individual  the  same  blot  seems  filled  with 
pictures  representing  some  action  or  situation,  which  are  reported, 
often  with  touches  of  fancy  or  sentiment.  This  difference  in  the 
reports  is  sufficiently  marked  and  sufficiently  constant  to  form  a  basis 
for  the  classification  of  the  individuals  into  two  classes :  one  class  rep- 


INDIVIDUAI.  PSYCHOLOGY.  373 

resenting  the  constructive  or  imaginative  type,  characterized  by  the 
putting  together  of  concrete  details  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  signifi- 
cant whole ;  the  other  class,  representing  what  may  be  called  a  mat- 
ter-of-fact or  scientific  type,  characterized  by  a  process  more  purely 
analytic  in  its  nature.  The  following  reports  from  three  subjects  on 
Blot  IX  may  serve  to  make  plain  the  characteristic  difference. 

/.    Associations  few  and  non-constructive. 

An  eagle.     Stuffed  turkey.     Head  and  neck  of  a  musk-rat. 

2.  Associations  many  and  varied,  hut  non-constructive. 

Ghost.  Tadpole.  Lizard.  Ichthyosaurus.  Mountains.  Wigwams. 
Totem  poles.  A  plain.  A  monument.  Rocks.  Pine  trees.  Sphinx. 
Satyr's  head.     Unknown  animal  (similar  to  giraffe). 

3.  Associations  numerous  and  constructive. 

Giraffe.  Prehistoric  bird  in  flight.  Fairy  riding  on  a  humble-bee. 
Bit  of  tropical  jungle,  with  trailing  gray  mosses  and  pools  of  water. 
Japanese  lady.  Bit  of  landscape  with  two  hills  and  a  valley  between — 
an  army  encamped  under  one  hill.  Moss-grown  log  floating  in  water. 
Fabulous  monster  (grifiin  perhaps),  walking  off  on  his  hind  legs  with 
a  small  Hottentot  under  his  arm. 

The  constructive  tendency  is  most  prominent  in  V.  M.  and  L.  R. 
who  also,  next  to  B.,  stand  first  in  point  of  number  and  variety  of 
associations;  it  is  plainly  discernible  in  G.  and  7".,  though  to  a  less 
degree  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former ;  B.^E.  R.,  and  W.  M.  must  be 
classed  as  belonging  to  the  other  type. 

(b)  Test  of  associations  with  abstract  terms,  number  forms,  etc. 
None  of  the  subjects  had  fixed  associations  with  abstract  terms,  not 
even  those  subjects  who  are  remarkably  good  visualizers.  That  this 
is  the  case  tends  to  confirm  the  fact,  observed  by  Galton,  that  persons 
dealing  with  highly  generalized  or  abstract  ideas  habitually  suppress 
any  mental  imagery  that  may  tend  to  arise  with  them,  and  thus  the 
very  tendency  disappears.  No  elaborate  forms  for  the  mental  arrange- 
ment of  number  was  reported  by  any  of  the  subjects.  B.,  however, 
arranges  the  months  in  a  vague  circle  with  winter  on  the  top  and 
summer  opposite  ;  and  G.,  who  has  a  color  association  with  all  words, 
letters,  and  figures,  has  extra  and  especial  colors  for  the  seasons,  which 
take  the  form  of  disks  arranged  on  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 
The  latter  fact  is  noticeable  because  the  subject,  apart  from  these  color 
associations,  visualizes  very  little. 

2.  Constructive  Im,agination .  (a)  Mechanical  Imagination.  The 
tests  under  this  heading  were  two,  the  Magic  Box  and  the  Puzzle 
Watch.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  two  points  of  explanation 
which  the  subjects  should  have  given  in  regard  to  the  first  were  the 
magnetized  pivot,  and  the  inner  mechanism  of  gearing  and  fly  wheel 
connected  with  the  side-arm  by  means  of  which  the  impulse  was  given. 
The  explanation  of  the  Puzzle  Watch  lay  in  the  connection  of  hands 
and  works  by  means  of  an  inner  glass  revolving  disk  and  the  regula- 
tion of  the  relative  movement  of  the  hands  by  means  of  tiny  gearings 
in  the  central  pivot.  The  explanations  given  by  the  different  subjects 
may  be  tabulated  as  follows. 


374 


SHARP : 


Tabi,e  X. 


Magic  Box. 

Puzzle  Watch. 

B. 

1.  Magnetized  pivot. 

2.  Coiled  spring-  inside  released 
by  lever  pushed  in. 

First  hypothesis,  hands  moved  by 
magnetism,  corrected  in  favor  of 
second  hypothesis  :  a  plate  of  glass 
revolving  with  hands  and  a  little 
system  of  cogs  for  relative  motion. 

G. 

1 .  Alternate  attraction  and  repul- 
sion by  electric    current   through 
pivot. 

2.  Electric  battery  inside;    cir- 
cuit closed  by  lever. 

Perhaps  hands  were  magnetized 
in  some  unknown  way. 

V.  M. 

No  explanation. 

Perhaps  the  hands  were  magnet- 
ized. 

W.  M. 

1.  Magnetized  pivot. 

2.  Spiral  spring  inside. 

Three  hypotheses.  First  was  per- 
fectly correct.  Second  (which  he 
preferred),  invisible  wire  connec- 
tion. Third  (preferred  to  either), 
magnetization. 

E.  R. 

1.  Magnetized  pivot. 

2.  Some  kind  of  clock  work  in- 
side. 

Two  inner  glass  disks,  one  revolv- 
ing with  pivot  of  minute  hand  and 
other  with  hour  hand. 

L.  R. 

1.  Magnetized  pivot. 

2.  Coiled  spring  inside  tightened 
by  pulling  lever  out. 

No  explanation. 

T. 

I.    Attraction  exerted  through  lid 
of  the  box  by 

2.    A  magnet  inside  made  to  move 
about  in  some  way. 

Suggested  magnetism,  but  failed 
to  see  how  it  could  be  made  to  work. 

In  the  first  test  the  explanations  given  by  B.,  W.  M.,  and  L.  R.^ 
are  almost  identical,  while  that  of  E.  R.  is  similar  but  more  indefinite. 
T.  and  G,  come  next  in  order  with  explanations  which  show  that  the 
correct  idea  is  more  nearly  grasped  by  the  former,  while  V.  M.  gives 
no  explanation  at  all.  In  the  second  test,  B.,  after  giving  the  hypothe- 
sis which  suggested  itself  to  nearly  all  the  subjects  (magnetism), 
changed  this  in  favor  of  the  correct  explanation ;  while  W.  M.y  who 
gave  the  correct  explanation  first,  afterwards  preferred  to  it  two  other 
erroneous  hypotheses.  E.  R.  gave  properly  the  main  idea  of  the  ex- 
planation. A  noticeable  difference  in  the  reports  of  the  two  tests  is 
that  L.  R.y  who  gave  one  of  the  best  explanations  of  the  Magic  Box, 
could  offer  no  suggestion  in  regard  to  the  Puzzle  Watch.  Z".,  G.,  and 
V.  M.y  whose  reports  were  on  slightly  different  levels  in  the  first  test, 
all  suggest  the  same  vague  hypothesis  in  the  second.  Taking  into 
consideration  the  reports  from  both  tests,  and  especially  the  lapse  on 
the  part  oi  L.  R.,it  may  be  said  in  general  that  the  subjects  most  pro- 
ficient in  mechanical  inventions  are  B.,  IV.  M.,  and  E.  R.,  a  group 
which  coincides  with  that  classed  in  a  previous  test  as  belonging  to 
the  matter-of-fact  or  scientific  type,  a  type  showing  analytical  tenden- 
cies. The  process  here  was  mainly  one  of  analysis ;  the  coincidence  in 
the  grouping,  therefore,  is  one  that  might  have  been  expected.  The 
classification  of  the  subjects  into  two  groups,  with  B.,  JV.  M.y  and  E.  R. 
on  the  one  side  and  V.  M.,  T.,  G.y  and  L.  R.  on  the  other,  is  also  a 


INDIVIDUAI.   PSYCHOLOGY. 


375 


grouping  according  to  sex.    This  may  be  significant,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  men  are,  as  a  rule,  more  familiar  with  mechanical  devices  than 
women. 
(b)     Iviterary  Imagination,     (i)  Development  of  sentences. 

TABI.K  XI. 


Sentences  developed  using  given 
substantives. 

Sentences  developed  using 
given  verbs. 

Average  number 
of  sentences  de- 
veloped from  one 
group  of  words. 

Average  quality 

of  the 

sentences. 

Average  number 
of  sentences  de- 
veloped from  one 
group  of  words. 

Average  quality 

of  the 

sentences. 

B. 

6. 

3-5 

^-         56 

6. 

2.6 

^-         6, 

G. 

2. 

5.8 

'■         68 

2. 

5.4 

4. 

71 

V.  M. 
W.  M. 

4. 

4-5 
5- 

3-7 

2. 

108 

6. 

55 

4. 

2.8 

69 

B.  R. 

7- 

3-2 

7. 

49 

7- 

2.5 

7- 

54 

Iv.  R. 

3. 

4.9 

3. 

105 

3. 

4.4 

3- 

128 

I. 

I. 

I. 

I. 

T. 

6.6 

T13 

5.8 

133 

Table  XI  gives  averages  obtained  from  ten  experiments  with 
substantives  and  ten  with  verbs,  five  minutes  being  the  time 
allotted  for  the  development  of  sentences  in  each  experiment. 
The  columns  of  the  Table  headed  quality  demand  some  explana- 
tion. In  general,  quality  stands  for  the  degree  of  elaboration 
of  the  sentences,  taking  into  consideration  the  length,  rhetori- 
cal form,  and  especially  the  range  of  ideas  expressed  in  a  single  sen- 
tence or  in  a  series  of  sentences  formed  by  the  use  of  the  same  '  given  ' 
words.  The  sentences  made  showed  three  distinct  degrees  or  stages 
of  elaboration,  which  may  be  designated  hy  A,  B,  and  C,  and  smaller 
degrees  of  difference,  intermediate  between,  or  shading  into  these, 
which  may  be  represented  by  the  symbols  of  plus  and  minus.  Sen- 
tences in  which  the  three  'given'  words  were  connected  into  a  sentence 
by  the  use  of  as  few  words  or  ideas  as  possible  were  classed  as  A. 
Sentences  which,  by  the  addition  of  supplementary  ideas,  were  more 
complete  and  definite  in  themselves,  or  which  implied  a  context,  were 
classed  as  B;  while  C  was  taken  to  designate  those  sentences  in  which 
the  ideas  were  still  further  supplemented,  and  the  literary  form  was 
correspondingly  of  a  somewhat  more  elaborate  character.  For  con- 
venience in  making  averages,  a  numerical  value  was  placed  upon  each 
of  these  symbols  as  follows:  ^^=50,  A — =40  and  ^+=60;  .5=  100, 
^—=80  and  ^+=120;  C=20o,  C— =160  and  ^+=240.  According  to 
this  evaluation  it  will  be  seen  from  the  Table  that  B's  sentences  from 


376  SHARP : 

substantives  average  in  quality  between  A  and  A-\-,  and  his  sentences 
from  verbs  average  between  A-\-  and  B — .  The  other  numbers  under 
'quality'  are  to  be  similarly  interpreted.  An  instance  of  a  sentence 
under  each  of  the  three  main  headings  may  serve  to  make  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  more  apparent. 

Sentences  formed  by  the  use  of  the  substantives,  citizen^  horse, 
decree. 

A.  "Decrees  are  made  for  citizens  not  for  horses."  (The  connection 
of  the  words  here  is  simple  and  mechanical.) 

B.  "That  stalwart  citizen  on  the  great  gray  horse  is  a  man  to  be 
trusted  with  the  decree."     (This  implies  a  concrete  situation.) 

C.  "All  the  well-to-do  citizens  of  the  village,  each  mounted  on  a 
horse,  rode  through  the  streets,  proclaiming  their  dissatisfaction  with 
the  new  decree."     (A  situation  is  here  more  fully  outlined.) 

A  brief  glance  at  Table  XI  shows  two  things:  first,  that  every  sub- 
ject averages  fewer  sentences  composed  from  *  given '  verbs  than  from 
*  given '  substantives ;  and,  secondly,  that  every  subject  averages 
higher  in  quality  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former.  The  reason  for  both 
facts  lies  in  the  greater  definiteness  with  which  the  substantives  deter- 
mine the  sentences  :  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  make  numerous  sen- 
tences from  definite  substantives  by  changing  the  verbal  connections, 
but  it  is  difficult  thus  to  change  the  entire  character  of  the  different 
sentences.  The  order  that  subsists  among  the  individuals  in  regard 
to  number  of  sentences  is  the  same  under  substantives  and  under 
verbs,  while  the  order  in  respect  to  quality  is  likewise  the  same  under 
the  two  headings.  If  the  order  under  number  and  under  quality 
be  compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  for  three  subjects,  Z".,  Z.  R.y  and  E. 
R.,  the  order  remains  the  same,  at  i,  3  and  7  respectively,  both  for 
substantives  and  for  verbs ;  while,  for  the  other  subjects,  the  order  is 
not  radically  changed.  In  general,  then,  the  subjects  who  made  the 
most  sentences  also  made  the  most  elaborate,  and  those  who  made  the 
fewest  sentences  made  also  the  simplest  and  most  unimaginative.  If 
the  subjects  are  grouped  according  to  their  order  in  regard  to  number 
and  also  in  regard  to  quality,  the  groups  will  be  found  to  agree  with 
those  observed  under  the  Method  of  Blots.  The  group  which  there 
showed  a  tendency  toward  constructive  imagination,  here  show  the 
same  tendency,  by  their  superiority  in  constructing  sentences  both  as 
regards  number  and  quality ;  while  those  who  there  showed  a  compar- 
ative lack  of  that  tendency,  here  manifest  the  same  characteristic  by 
their  lower  rank  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  Within  the  con- 
structive group  T.  has  in  this  test  advanced  to  the  first  place,  showing 
that,  to  her  mind,  words  possess  a  suggestiveness  superior  to  that  of 
mere  visual  outlines. 

(2)     Development  of  a  theme. 

The  only  quantitative  estimate  that  can  be  satisfactorily  made  in 
this  test  is  the  average  number  of  words  which  a  subject  uses  in  the 
development  of  a  theme  :  the  number  of  words  corresponding  roughly 
with  the  number  of  ideas  presented.     The  average  number  of  words 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


377 


used  by  the  various  subjects  in  developing  three  themes  by  narration 
or  description,  and  three  by  exposition  are  given  below. 

TABI.E  XII. 


B. 

G. 

V.  M. 

W.  M. 

B.  R. 

L.  R. 

T. 

Narration 
or  descrip- 
tion. 

7- 
124 

5. 
155 

2. 

179 

3- 
174 

6. 
150 

I. 
259 

4. 
173 

Exposition. 

7- 
94 

^•^38 

3. 

159 

4- 

147 

6. 
120 

I. 
222 

2. 
184 

It  may  here  be  seen  that  all  the  subjects,  save  one,  write  longer 
themes  on  imaginative  topics  than  on  those  requiring  the  treatment  by 
exposition ;  that  is,  the  topics  which  have  to  do  with  concrete  things 
seem  to  lend  themselves  to  more  spontaneous  expression  than  do  the 
topics  which  involve  the  activity  of  the  more  purely  intellectual  pro- 
cesses. T.  forms  the  marked  exception.  To  judge  from  the  length  of  her 
themes,  those  of  exposition  seem  to  be  composed  with  even  greater 
readiness  than  the  narratives.  The  order  subsisting  among  the  indi- 
viduals in  regard  to  length  of  themes  is  slightly  different  in  the  two 
kinds  of  writing.  This  is  due,  however,  to  the  exceptional  difference 
in  length  on  the  part  of  T. ;  if  this  were  left  out  of  account,  the  order 
among  the  subjects  would  remain  the  same  in  the  two  cases.  A  compari- 
son of  this  order  with  that  in  regard  to  the  average  number  of  sentences 
constructed  by  the  different  subjects  (see  Table  XI)  shows,  as  the 
most  striking  difference,  that  here  W.  M.  has  advanced  to  a  position 
in  the  first  group,  while  G.  has  fallen  from  the  second  to  the  fifth 
place.  There  are  also  smaller  differences  in  the  order  among  the  in- 
dividuals in  the  two  groups.  These  alterations  in  the  order  are  not 
of  themselves,  however,  sufficient  to  warrant  a  change  in  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  individuals  by  imaginative  type.  The  qualitative  differ- 
ences in  the  themes  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 

Narration  and  description  deal  with  particulars,  not  with  gen- 
eralization. This  imposes  on  both  the  same  task  of  seeking  out 
those  parts  and  characteristics  of  the  object  which  are  most  indi- 
vidual, most  unlike  those  of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs ;  all  the 
details  chosen  are  selected  with  a  view  to  bringing  out  this  unique 
character  of  the  whole  object  or  event.  The  material  is  concrete,  the 
process  is  mainly  synthetic.  Exposition,  on  the  other  hand  is  inven- 
tion dealing  with  notions  or  generalized  ideas ;  its  business  is  to  set 
forth  the  meaning  of  things,  to  make  clear  their  nature,  scope,  and 
relations.  **  Exposition  is  thus,"  in  the  words  of  Prof.  Genung,  "the 
handmaid  of  all  accurate  and  clearly-cut  thought."  Narration  and 
description  demand  vividness  or  picturesqueness  of  diction,  and  a 
certain  dramatic  force;  exposition  calls  only  for  clearness  and  sim- 
plicity. 

JOURNAI, — 4 


378 


SHARP  : 


An  attentive  perusal  of  the  particular  themes  under  consideration 
with  the  above  qualifications  in  mind  shows,  in  regard  to  the  imagin- 
ative themes,  constant  individual  differences.  L.  R.,  T.,  and  V.  M. 
here,  as  before,  belonging  to  the  constructive  type,  exhibit  in  the  highest 
degree  the  requisite  qualities  of  concreteness,  vividness,  etc.  B.  and 
G.  seem  to  be  on  substantially  the  same  level,  their  themes  being  less 
vivid,  more  matter-of-fact,  with  a  tendency  to  generalize  the  scene  or 
event,  and  with  very  slight  emotional  coloring;  the  themes  of  E. 
R.  and  W.  M.  show  these  characteristics  to  a  more  marked  degree. 
The  other  set  of  themes,  those  dealing  with  exposition,  gives  little 
clue  to  individual  differences,  partly  because  the  topics  themselves 
are  not  such  as  to  admit  of  very  wide  choice  in  the  matter  of  treatment, 
and  partly  because  the  long  course  of  intellectual  training  which  all 
the  subjects  had  enjoyed  tended  to  lessen,  in  this  sphere,  the  differ- 
ences due  to  mental  constitution. 

(3)     Choice  of  Topic. 

Tabi,e  XIII. 


. 

•0          .1 

V       c* 

a 

4>' 

% 

■ti 

Man  P^udowe 

with  the 
Power  of 

Flight 

.S-c 
a.S 

-c  8 

^0. 

ed  uA 

2*^ 

TheEloquenc 

of  the  Bar 

and  that  of  th 

Pulpit. 

B. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

G. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

V.  M. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

W.M. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

E.  R. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

L.  R. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

T. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Table  XIII  shows  the  five  topics  chosen  by  each  of  the  different  in- 
dividuals from  the  ten  given  topics,  five  of  which  were  for  imaginative, 
and  five  for  expository  writing.  The  results  are  chiefly  interesting  in 
their  collective  character.  All  the  subjects  showed  a  preference  for 
the  second  class  of  topics,  the  number  of  these  chosen  by  all  the  sub- 
jects being  almost  twice  as  great  as  the  number  of  imaginative  topics. 
The  usual  proportion  in  the  choice  of  imaginative  to  expository  topics, 
as  shown  in  the  table,  is  2  :  3,  the  only  exceptions  being  in  the  cases  of 
G.  and  L.  R.,  whose  proportion  is  i :  4.  The  imaginative  topics  least 
often  chosen  are  those  which  make  severest  demands  upon  the  imagin  - 
ation  of  the  writer.  That  two  of  these  least  popular  topics  were 
selected  by  the  three  subjects  who  have  been  classed  as  showing  less 
constructive  imagination  than  the  others  is  worthy  of  note.  This, 
together  with  the  fact  that  of  the  subjects  who  chose  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  expository  topics,  one  has  always  been  classed  with  the 
constructive  type,  and  the  other  has  usually  been  so  classed,  seems  to 


INDIVIDUAIv   PSYCHOLOGY. 


379 


indicate  that  a  particular  power  of  imagination  or  comparative  lack 
of  it  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  preference  for  or  against  the  exer- 
cise of  that  power  in  a  given  case.  Tastes  and  abilities  are  not  always 
co-ordinate. 

The  modification  of  the  last  two  tests  given  to  members  of  the  Junior 
class  show  likewise  a  strong  preference  for  expository  subjects  over 
imaginative :  two  subjects  only  chose  the  latter.  The  outlines  for 
essays  which  accompanied  the  topics  chosen  were  not  sufficiently 
diverse  in  character  to  form  a  basis  for  classifying  the  individuals. 

IV.    Attention. 
I.    Degree  of  Attention,    (a)  Cancellation  of  vowels. 

TABI.E  XIV. 


Pages  with  Spacing. 

Pages  without  Spacing. 

Percentage 

Percentage 

Percent- 
age of 
Error. 

Time 

of  Error  re- 

Percentage 

Time 

of  Error  re- 

(sec). 

duced  to 

of  Error. 

(sec). 

duced  to 

mean  time. 

mean  time. 

3- 

5. 

B. 

8.7 

189 

8.6 

4. 

6.2 

212 

5-5 

4- 

G. 

9.0 

214 

9-9 
2. 
4.0 

3-4 

272 

4.0 
I. 

I.O 

V.M. 

3-9 

196 

1.2 

200 

5. 

7- 

W.M. 

12. 1 

175 

10. 1 
6. 

9-3 

198 

8.3 
3. 

E.R. 

11.9 

198 

12.3 
7- 

1.8 

226 

ly.  R. 

18.3 

196 

18.8 
I. 
3.0 

8.2 

214 

7.9 

T. 

3.6 

164 

2.0 

209 

1.8 

Table  XIV  shows  that,  in  the  case  of  every  subject,  the  time  neces- 
sary to  cancel  a's  from  pages  without  spacing  exceeds  that  for  pages 
with  spacing,  but  that  the  percentage  of  error  in  the  former  is  less 
than  in  the  latter.  That  is  to  say,  the  demands  upon  the  attention 
were  greater  in  the  pages  where  absence  of  spacing,  punctuation,  and 
capitalization  necessitated  the  perception  of  each  letter  as  a  unit. 
The  separate  direction  of  the  attention  upon  every  letter  required 
more  time  than  the  perception  of  the  letters  grouped  into  words,  with 
the  added  process  corresponding  to  the  question,  **Does  this  word 
contain  an  a?";  but  it  also  insured  greater  accuracy.  The  associative 
process  indicated  by  the  question  might  easily  be  crowded  out  by  the 
more  interesting  associations  called  up  by  the  meaning  of  the  words 
and  sentences.  Distraction,  then,  operated  in  the  case  of  proof  pages 
to  increase  the  percentage  of  error,  while  in  the  pages  without  spacing 
the  increased  difficulty  of  perception  caused  an  increase  in  the  time 
necessary  to  perform  the  task. 


38o 


SHARP : 


The  reductions  in  the  third  and  sixth  columns  of  the  Table  were 
made  in  order  to  get  a  relative  estimate  of  the  individual  which  should 
take  account  of  both  quickness  and  accuracy.  The  assumption  made 
is  that  in  a  given  individual,  maintaining  a  constant  degree  of  atten- 
tion while  doing  a  piece  of  work,  the  percentage  of  error  is  inversely- 
proportional  to  the  time  taken  for  the  work.  Under  this  assumption 
the  percentage  of  error  of  each  subject  was  reduced  to  a  common  time, 
the  mean  of  the  time  for  all  subjects,  and  thus  all  individual  differ- 
ences were  reduced  to  terms  of  error.  The  order  of  individuals  in 
regard  to  this  error  is  different  in  the  different  kinds  of  pages.  E. 
R.  rises  from  the  sixth  to  the  third  place  when  the  distraction  due  to 
the  sense  is  removed  :  B.  and  W.  M.,  however,  are  comparatively  lower 
in  rank  in  the  second  class  of  pages  than  in  the  first.  Other  diver- 
gences of  order  are  more  slight. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  Table,  we  find,  apparently,  three  groups :  T. 
and  V.  M.,—B.,  G.,  W.  M.  and  E.  R.,—L.  R. ;  in  the  second  half,  also 
three  groups :    T.,  V.  M.  and  E.  R.,—B.  and  G.,—L.  R.  and  W.  M. 

(b)  Comparison  of  ease  (estimated  by  rapidity)  in  reading  a  page 
of  concrete  description  (without  spacing,  etc.,)  and  a  similar  page  of 
exposition  of  abstract  thought. 

TABI.B  XV. 


B. 

G. 

V.   M. 

W.  M. 

K.  R. 

L.  R. 

T. 

Time  of  reading 
concrete  page. 

5- 

m.  s. 
4.38 

6. 

m.  s. 
7.12 

2. 

m.  s. 
3.10 

4- 

m.  s. 

340 

7- 

m. 
15 

3. 

m.  s. 
3.10 

I. 

m.  s. 
2.23 

Time  of  reading 
abstract  page. 

5. 
m.  s. 

3.36 

6. 

m.  s. 
4.12 

2. 

m.  s. 
2.48 

3. 

m.  s. 
2.40 

7. 

m.  s. 

6.45 

4. 

m.  s. 

3.5 

I. 

m.  s. 
2.5 

Table  XV  shows  that  in  the  case  of  every  individual  the  time  for 
reading  the  abstract  page  was  less  than  that  required  for  the  concrete 
page.  There  are  several  reasons  why  this  should  be  the  case.  The 
practice  gained  by  reading  the  concrete  page  was  of  assistance  in  read- 
ing the  abstract  page  which  came  after.  The  abstract  page  had  some- 
what fewer  words  (340)  than  the  concrete  page  (376),  and  also  longer 
words,  which  are  easier  to  distinguish  than  sequences  of  short  words. 
Moreover,  a  considerable  number  of  the  longer'words  in  the  abstract  page 
occurred  several  times,  e.g.^  such  words  as  'philosophy,'  *  thought,'  'ab- 
solute,' 'consciousness,'  etc.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  said  that  the 
superior  rapidity  of  reading  the  abstract  pages  is  altogether  caused  by  a 
higher  degree  of  attention  resulting  from  the  greater  interest  excited  by 
the  nature  of  the  thought.  The  order  of  the  subjects  in  regard  to  rapid- 
ity of  reading  is  almost  the  same  in  the  two  pages ;  the  only  change  in 
order  being  in  the  cases  of  W.M,  and  Z.^.,  whose  rank  alters  from  fourth 
and  third  to  third  and  fourth  respectively, — indicating  that  W.  M. 
found  the  abstract  page  relatively  easier  to  read  than  L.  R.    The  order 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


381 


of  individuals  as  seen  in  Table  XV  and  in  the  third  and  sixth 
columns  of  Table  XIV  are  hardly  comparable,  since  in  the  former  no 
estimate  is  made  of  the  correctness  of  the  reading.  Moreover  the  re- 
sults in  Table  XV  are  made  out  from  single  experiments,  while  those 
in  Table  XIV  represent  the  canceling  of  a's  from  eight  pages  with 
spacing  and  five  pages  without  spacing.  The  latter  results,  therefore, 
have  greater  validity. 

We  regret  that  these  two  tests  should  be  so  bare  of  results,  since 
they  promise  (if  more  skilfully  performed)  to  yield  indications  of 
prime  importance  as  to  the  make-up  of  the  individual  consciousness. 
We  had  expected  to  discover  individual  differences  of  much  more  defi- 
nite character  and  much  greater  amount.  The  tests  evidently  involve 
processes  of  a  highly  complex  nature,  and  the  conditions  must  be  very 
carefully  regulated  if  reliable  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

2.  Range  of  attention,  (a)  Writing  letters  while  reading  a  passage 
of  ten  lines. 

TABI.E   XVI. 


Times  of  Readings. 

i 

Number  of  Letters  Written. 

Difference  in 
time  between 
5th  and  I  st  read- 
ings. 

irtionofthe 
enceintime 
number  of 
ibet  writ'n. 

ISt. 

2d. 

3d. 

4th. 

5th. 

A. 

A.  B. 

A. B.C. 

Alpha- 
bet. 

Prop( 
differ 
to  the 
alphf 

s. 

S. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

7- 

B. 

28 

38 

42 

50 

113 

47 

62 

78 

91 

85 

•94 
2. 

.15 
5. 

•45 
4- 

•23 
3- 

.20 
6. 

•57 
I. 
.08 

G. 

22 

22 

22 

21 

28 

29 

34 

39 

40 

6 

V.M. 

29 

30 

30 

30 

50 

40 

56 

57 

46 

21 

W.  M. 

26 

27 

27 

27 

29 

27 

28 

36 

13 

3 

E.  R. 

27 

27 

29 

27 

31 

31 

40 

48 

20 

4 

L.  R. 

22 

25 

26 

25 

37 

41 

44 

51 

26 

15 

T. 

27 

29 

30 

31 

29 

36 

40 

45 

25 

1 

2 

Table  XVI  is  largely  self-explanatory.  The  time  of  reading,  in  gen- 
eral, increases  with  the  complication  of  the  accompanying  acts.  The 
amount  of  this  increase  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals.  The 
number  of  a,  b's  is  greater  than  the  number  of  a's,  but  not  twice  as  great; 
and  the  number  of  a,  b,  c's  is  greater  than  the  number  of  a,  b's,  but  not 
three  times  as  great  as  the  number  of  a's.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  write  ab  repeatedly  while  reading  than  to  write  a  simply,  but 
the  sequence  between  these  two  letters,  a  and  b,  is  so  easy  and  natural 
that  it  is  not  twice  as  difficult  to  write  the  two  letters  as  to  write  the 
one;  a  subject,  therefore,  always  sets  down  in  the  aggregate  more  letters 


382  SHARP  : 

when  required  to  repeat  a,  b  than  when  writing  a's.  The  case  is 
similar  with  a,  b,  c.  The  conditions  are  different,  however,  in  regard 
to  the  alphabet.  There  the  number  of  characters  and  the  sequences 
are  so  greatly  increased  that  the  total  number  of  letters  written  is, 
in  several  cases,  less  than  the  number  of  a's ;  and  even  where  the 
number  of  letters  is  not  less,  the  time  taken  for  the  reading  and 
writing  is  increased.  The  extreme  complication  of  the  acts  accom- 
panying the  reading,  in  the  case  of  writing  the  alphabet,  tends  to 
distract  the  attention  from  the  reading,  thus  lengthening  the  time  of 
reading,  and  to  cause  a  decrease  in  the  total  number  of  letters  written 
during  the  reading.  Sometimes  one  effect  predominates  over  the 
other  :  in  ^.,  e.  g.,  it  is  the  lengthening  of  the  time,  in  T.  the  decrease 
in  the  number  of  letters.  The  last  column  but  one  of  Table  XVI  gives 
the  amount  of  increase  of  the  time  for  the  fifth  reading  over  that  for 
the  first  (or  normal)  reading.  The  last  column,  giving  the  proportion 
of  this  difference  of  time  to  the  number  of  letters  of  the  alphabet 
written,  indicates  the  degree  of  simultaneity  (if  this  expression  be 
permitted)  of  the  two  acts.  The  smaller  the  increase  in  time  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  letters  written  the  smaller  is  the  proportion,  and 
the  more  nearly  simultaneous  is  the  performance  of  the  two  acts. 
The  order  of  the  individuals  in  regard  to  range  of  attention  as  thus 
indicated  in  the  last  column  of  Table  XVI  does  not  correspond  to 
any  previous  grouping  of  the  subjects. 

V.     Observation :    Discrimination. 

I.  Descriptions  of  Pictures.  Of  the  two  pictures  used  in  these 
tests,  "The  Golden  Wedding"  and  "The  Interrupted  Duel,"  the 
former,  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  latter,  gave  results  which  varied 
from  one  individual  to  another.  The  first  picture  possessed  far  more 
detail,  the  composition  was  less  simple,  and  the  interpretation  was 
somewhat  less  obvious.  The  descriptions  of  the  "  Golden  Wedding  " 
show  that  the  observation  of  the  subject  may  be  primarily  directed 
to  the  particular  objects  or  details  of  the  picture,  or  to  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  objects,  that  is,  the  composition  of  the  picture,  or 
to  the  meaning  of  the  picture,  the  story  which  it  conveys,  the  details 
observed  being  such  as  lead  up  to  this  interpretation,  or  explain 
and  apply  the  interpretation  which  is  given  first.  The  different  ways 
in  which  the  same  picture  appeals  to  the  various  individuals  indicate 
differences  in  mental  constitution.  The  appeal  may  be  primarily  to 
the  intellectual  activities  of  perception,  or,  through  perception,  to 
the  imagination  and  feelings.  The  descriptions  written  by  V.  M.,  L. 
R.,  and  T.  give  prominence  to  the  interpretation  of  the  picture,  but 
differ  in  use  of  details.  In  the  case  of  V.  M.,  the  details  are  fairly 
numerous,  concrete  in  their  nature,  and  seem  to  be  carefully  chosen 
with  a  view  to  substantiating  the  interpretation  ;  in  that  of  L.  R.,  the 
details  which  are  abundant  and  minute  are  given  first,  and  then 
followed  by  an  interpretation  of  the  whole.     In  T.'s  description  the 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  383 

details  are  less  specific  in  character.  The  account  of  the  picture 
given  by  G.  contains  a  general  interpretation,  a  mention  of  two  or 
three  prominent  figures,  and  a  general  arrangement  of  the  groups  of 
people.  The  descriptions  of  E.  R.,  W.  M.,  and  B.  are  characterized 
by  entire  absence  of  interpretation  ;  but  these  subjects  also  vary  in  the 
use  of  detail.  E.  R.  had  no  recollection  of  the  composition  of  the 
picture  at  all,  and  mentioned,  therefore,  only  a  few  objects  in  the 
form  of  an  enumeration.  B.^s  description  contains  mention  of  a 
large  number  of  persons  and  objects,  but  fails  to  give  any  clear  idea 
of  the  composition  of  the  whole ;  while  that  of  W.  M.  contains  less 
detail,  but  conveys  a  somewhat  more  complete  idea  of  the  total  scene. 
The  whole  number  of  different  objects  (including  persons,  furniture, 
utensils,  etc.,)  mentioned  is  20:  the  number  of  these  specifically 
referred  to  in  one  description  varied  according  to  the  individual,  from 
6  to  13.  W.  M.,  E.  R.,  and  T.  mentioned  6;  G.,  i ;  V.  M.,  8 ;  B.,  11  ; 
and  L.  /?.,  13.  There  was  a  considerable  variety,  therefore,  in  the 
objects  selected  for  mention  by  the  different  subjects. — In  the  "  In- 
terrupted Duel  "  the  total  number  of  different  objects  mentioned  was 
15,  and  the  proportion  of  these  objects  named  in  the  different  descrip- 
tions was  much  larger  than  in  the  case  of  the  other  picture.  8  and  12 
were  the  limits  of  variation.  G.,  W.  M.,  and  T.  named  12  ;  B,  ii\  V. 
M.,  10;  and  L.  R.,  S\  E.  R.  failed  to  recall  the  picture  at  all.  Since 
the  scope  for  selection  of  objects  was  in  this  picture  more  limited, 
the  descriptions  of  the  different  individuals  were  more  similar  in 
character.  This  similarity  was  further  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the 
picture  so  plainly  revealed  the  subject  it  was  intended  to  represent, 
the  result  being  that  an  interpretation  of  the  picture  was  given  by  all 
{E.  R.  excepted),  though  that  of  L.  R.  was  erroneous,  owing  to 
her  failure  to  observe  the  minor  group  in  the  picture.  The  individual 
differences  observable  in  the  descriptions  of  the  "Golden  Wedding" 
tend  to  become  neutralized  in  the  "  Interrupted  Duel "  by  the  greater 
use  of  interpretation  on  the  part  of  B.  and  W.  M.,  and  a  somewhat 
less  use  of  ithy  L.  R.,  T.  and  G.  In  V.  M.,  however,  the  tendency 
to  interpret  is,  if  anything,  emphasized,  and  her  description  takes 
the  form  of  a  narrative,  explaining  the  situation  portrayed  in  the 
picture.  For  the  reasons  assigned  above,  the  "Golden  Wedding" 
is  the  picture  better  suited  for  a  test  of  this  kind.  The  results  from 
it,  therefore,  may  be  accepted  as  revealing  more  characteristic  differ- 
ences in  the  individuals.  These  results  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in 
substantial  agreement  with  those  obtained  in  the  tests  for  imagination. 
2.  Observation  of  Colors.  In  this  test,  it  will  be  remembered,  the 
subject  was  not  given  full  information  before  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment.  It  was  only  after  he  had  looked  at  the  card  for  the 
stated  time  (five  seconds),  that  he  was  requested  to  name  all  the 
prominent  colors  on  the  card,  with  their  respective  situations.  As  the 
experiment  could  not  be  repeated  under  precisely  the  same  conditions, 


384 


SHARP : 


the  test  was  given  but  once,  and  the  results,  therefore,  may  not  be 
such  as  would  be  precisely  confirmed  by  further  testing. 

Tabi^e:  XVII. 


Percentages  correctly 
given. 

Percentages  incorrectly- 
given. 

Mean  of  (cor- 
rect per- 

Colors. 

Situations. 

Colors. 

Situations. 

centages- 
errors). 

6. 

B. 

50 

25 

0 

12.5 

31-25 
I. 

68.70 

5- 

37.00 

4. 

37-50 

2. 

62.50 

G. 

75 

62.5 

0 

0 

V.  M. 

37 

37 

0 

0 

W.  M. 

62.5 

12.5 

0 

0 

E.  R. 

25 

0 

12.5 

0 

L.  R. 

62.5 

62.5 

0 

0 

3- 

T. 

50 

50.0 

0 

0 

50.00 

The  results  are  interesting  as  showing  that  the  subjects  who  are  the 
best  visualizers  observed  the  colors  and  the  place  they  occupied  in  the 
picture  less  well  than  did  others  whose  mental  images  are  predomi- 
nantly in  some  other  sense  department.  E.  R.,  however,  who  proved 
to  have  the  fewest  and  faintest  visual  images,  seemed  here,  as  in  the 
previous  experiment  with  pictures,  to  have  the  least  power  of  repro- 
ducing visual  impressions.  Since  the  same  subject  showed  relatively 
much  greater  facility  in  the  reproduction  of  letters  and  figures  under 
the  method  of  procedure  with  knowledge,  it  is  probable  that  in  the 
case  of  the  pictures  attention  was  not  sufficiently  aroused  to  enable 
the  subject  to  form  verbal  associations  with  the  visual  impressions. 
If  these  associations  had  been  formed,  especially  with  the  colors, 
which  were  so  few,  they  could  hardly  fail  to  be  recalled  so  soon  after 
their  formation.  It  is  to  be  further  observed  that  the  order  indicated 
in  the  last  column  of  Table  XVII  does  not  agree  with  the  order  in 
regard  to  particular  objects  mentioned  in  connection  with  either  of  the 
pictures  of  the  previous  tests.  The  general  grouping  of  subjects, 
however,  is  somewhat  similar  in  the  two  cases,  if  descriptions  of  pic- 
tures are  considered  in  respect  to  their  total  merit ;  the  chief  differ- 
ences being  that  G.  and  W.  M.  have  in  Table  XVII  advanced  from 
their  former  positions.  This  fact  may  be  of  significance,  when  it 
is  remembered  that  these  two  subjects  excelled  in  the  memory  of  un- 
connected visual  impressions  (letters  and  words). 

3.    Discrimination  of  Synonyms. 

The  discriminations  were  marked  in  regard  to  quality  according  to 
the  scale  of  A,  B  and  C,  as  described  under  the  test  of  Development 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


385 


of  Sentences, — quality  in  this  case,  however,  signifying  the  degree  of 
clearness  and  completeness  of  a  discrimination.  C,  here  as  before, 
signifies  the  highest  quality.  The  results  of  the  averages  of  the 
numerical  values  given  to  the  discriminations  of  the  different  subjects 
make  it  appear,  as  seen  in  the  Table,  that  the  value  of  B.^s  discrimina- 

TabIvE.  XVIII. 


Average  quality 

Average  length 

Total  number 

Total  number 

of  discrimina- 
tious. 

of  discrimina- 
tions (words). 

of  derivations. 

of  examples. 

5- 

7- 

3- 

B. 

89 
2. 

25 

6. 

0 

14 

G. 

106 

30 

0 

2 

4. 

2. 

2. 

V.  M. 

6.         '' 

54 
4- 

5 

17 

W.  M. 

76 
7- 

44 
5. 

0 

2 

E.  R. 

77 

36 

0 

2 

3- 

I. 

I. 

L.  R. 

103 

65 

0 

44 

I. 

3. 

4. 

T. 

119 

49 

0 

5 

tions  average  about  midway  between  B —  and  B,  that  of  G.^s  between 
B  and  B-|-,  and  so  on.  The  remaining  columns  of  the  Table  are  self- 
explanatory.  The  limits  of  variation  in  quality  for  the  different  sub- 
jects the  Table  shows  to  be  very  narrow.  The  lowest  quality  (76)  is 
almost  B — ,  and  the  highest  (119)  is  just  less  than  B+.  The  tendency 
of  the  past  training  of  all  the  subjects  was  towards  cultivation  of  the 
powers  of  intellectual  discrimination.  There  is  no  strongly  marked 
parallel  between  clearness  and  completeness  of  the  discrimination, 
and  number  of  words  used  in  its  expression.  G.^s  discriminations  are 
notable  for  clearness  combined  with  conciseness  of  statement ;  for 
the  rest,  there  seems  to  be  a  slight  balance  of  clearness  in  favor  of  the 
longer  discriminations.  The  tendency  to  illustrate  the  thought  by 
means  of  concrete  examples  is  shown  most  strongly  in  L.  R.,  V.  M., 
and  B.  Of  these  the  two  former  have  exhibited  the  same  tendency 
toward  the  concrete  in  the  development  of  themes.  On  the  whole, 
this  test,  like  that  of  th.e  development  of  the  topics  for  exposition,  is 
of  somewhat  too  general  a  character  to  bring  out  individual  differ- 
ences in  regard  to  those  activities  in  which  the  subjects  most  resemble 
each  other  by  reason  of  their  previous  training  and  of  the  tendencies 
which  lead  to  the  choice  of  this  training. 

The  discriminations  of  synonyms  by  members  of  the  Junior  class 
were  more  uneven  in  quality  ;  but  the  presence  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  excellent  discriminations  tended  to  bring  the  mean  value  for 
the  Junior  students  very  nearly  to  that  of  the  more  advanced  students. 


386 


SHARP 


VI.     Tastes.     (Esthetic  Tests.) 
The  Art,  Music  and  Literary  tests,  which  may  be  roughly  classed 
as  Esthetic  tests,  gave  the  results  noted  in  Table  XIX. 

Tabi,E  XIX. 


Art  Tests. 

Music  Tests. 

iviTERARY  Tests. 

a 

o 

Number 

named  in  five 

minutes. 

ill 

U   d;  $3 

IP 

§3 

Percentages  of  cor- 
rect answers  as  to 
compositions  by  given 
Composers. 

Percentages  of  correct 
answers. 

0.1 

< 

■I 

Si 

3       to 
< 

< 

1 

is 

11 
feo 

Sources  of 

given  poetic 
selections. 

B. 

54 

21 

18 

16 

90 

62.5 

62.5 

25 

G. 

51 

18 

7 

8 

50 

37-5 

50.0 

50 

V.M. 

43 

15 

12 

II 

40 

87.5 

62.5 

50 

W.M. 

8 

7 

9 

3 

30 

62.5 

25.0 

0 

E.  R. 

ID 

2 

7 

9 

20 

50.0 

62.5 

50 

L.  R. 

55 

12 

9 

9 

50 

62.5 

50.0 

25 

T. 

63 

37 

14 

25 

100 

75-0 

87.5 

75 

The  comparative  results  for  the  different  subjects  are  more  clearly 
shown  in  Table  XX,  in  which  the  subjects  are  classified  into  the 
groups  into  which  the  numerical  results  in  Table  XIX  seem  to 
make  them  naturally  to  fall.  The  second  part  of  Table  XX  sum- 
marizes for  each  subject  the  positions,  according  to  groups,  occupied 
throughout  the  tests,  and  gives  also  the  final  order  of  the  subjects 
considering  the  aesthetic  tests  as  a  whole. 

If  it  is  assumed,  as  has  been  done  in  these  tests,  that  a  subject's 
knowledge  of  the  best  works  and  workers  in  the  fine  arts  is  some 
criterion  of  his  appreciation  of  these  arts,  and  if  it  is  further  assumed 
with  Professor  Kiilpe  that  "the  aesthetic  feeling  originates  in  a 
relation  of  the  perceived  impression  to  the  reproduction  which  it  ex- 
cites ^''''  i.  e.,  that  an  impression  which  has  a  considerable,  but  not  in- 
tense, degree  of  effectiveness  for  reproduction  produces  pleasure,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  the  final  order  of  subjects,  as  seen  in  Table 
XX,  in  comparison  with  the  order  of  subjects  in  regard  to  the  aver- 
age number  of  objects  called  up  by  association  with  given  blots  of 
ink.  The  similarity  of  order  in  this  test  and  in  that  of  blots  is  suffi- 
cient to  call  for  remark.  V.  M.  (2),  G.  (5),  E.  R.  (6)  and  W.  M.  (7) 
remain  the  same  in  both ;  but  while  the  order  of  B.^  L.  R.y  and  T. 
was  (i),  (3)  and  (4)  respectively  for  blots,  it  became  (3),  (4)  and  (i) 
in  the  later  test.     The  reason  for  this  difference  in  order  is  not  clear. 

The  questions  in  regard  to  favorite  reading,  preference  for  theater 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


387 


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388  SHARP : 

or  opera,  fondness  for  reflective  games,  etc.,  produced  answers  which, 
in  several  cases,  threw  light  upon  changes  in  the  grouping  of  the  sub- 
jects in  the  three  different  classes  of  aesthetic  tests.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  cite  the  answers  here ;  it  is  enough  to  state  that  the  questions 
proved  to  be  worth  asking. 

The  art  tests  with  photographs  and  the  music  tests  which  were 
given  to  the  Juniors  showed,  as  a  result,  a  uniformly  lower  percentage 
of  correct  answers  in  both  cases.  The  individual  differences  were  of 
slightly  smaller  range  but  were  fairly  constant  throughout  the  tests. ^ 

§  6.      Conclusion. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  print  in  this  place  a  complete  sum- 
mary of  the  results  of  all  experiments  for  the  different  indi- 
viduals. Such  a  summary,  has,  of  course,  been  made  by  us; 
but,  in  the  first  place,  it  leaves  too  many  gaps  to  allow  a  definite 
differentiation  of  each  individual  from  all  the  others,  owing 
largely  to  the  limited  bounds  within  which  the  enquiry  was 
purposely  confined,  while,  secondly,  we  have  considered  it  best 
that  the  reader,  if  he  will,  shall  make  such  a  summary  for  him- 
self, and  in  this  way  form  his  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  tests. 
Our  aim  was  principally  to  investigate  the  merit  of  a  general 
method:  to  find  the  value  for  Individual  Psychology  of  experi- 
mentation applied  to  the  more  complex  mental  activities,  as 
well  as  the  practicability  of  certain  specific  tests,  many  of  which 
had  been  suggested  by  the  advocates  of  such  experimentation. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  we  noted  above  two  main  problems 
of  Individual  Psychology;  the  first  problem  having  reference 
mainly  to  variaidons  themselves,  that  is,  to  the  way  in  which 
psychical  processes  vary  in  different  individuals,  and  according 
to  classes  of  individuals;  the  second,  to  the  relations  among 
variations.  The  latter,  to  be  sure,  includes  the  question  how 
individuals  varj^  in  regard  to  psychical  processes,  but  it  goes 
on  further  to  ask  how  these  individual  variations  are  related  to 
each  other,  when  the  whole  range  of  mental  processes  is  con- 
sidered. It  is  this  part  of  the  problem  to  which  attention  has 
been  directed  in  the  present  investigation,  by  means  of  the  third 
method  mentioned  in  the  preliminary  discussion,  i.  e.,  the 
'  method  of  tests. ' 

*  A  remark  should  be  made  in  regard  to  the  absence  of  detailed  discussion  of  re- 
sults from  the  Junior  students.  The  purpose  in  view  when  the  tests  were  first 
given  to  the  Juniors  was  to  compare  results  from  the  class  as  a  whole  with  the 
general  results  from  the  advanced  students.  Since,  however,  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  collective  method  restricted  the  number  of  tests  which  could  be  given  to  the 
Juniors,  and  the  occasional  absence  of  different  individual  members  of  the  class 
caused  incompleteness  in  the  tests  that  were  given,  it  was  impossible  to  compare, 
step  by  step,  the  variations  as  seen  in  the  advanced  students  with  those  observed  in 
the  Juniors.  The  comparison,  therefore,  could  be  made  only  in  a  general  way. 
This  comparison  has,  nevertheless,  been  found  to  be  useful,  and  a  careful  working 
over  of  all  the  results  convinces  us  that  the  idea  upon  which  it  was  based  was  well 
warranted.  Had  the  scope  of  the  testing  been  somewhat  more  extended,  results  of 
interest  and  importance  could,  we  believe,  have  been  obtained. 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOLOGY.  389 

The  results,  we  believe,  have  shown  that,  while  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  tests  require  intrinsic  modification,  or  a  more 
rigid  control  of  conditions,  others  have  really  given  such  in- 
formation as  the  Individual  Psychologist  seeks.  Thus  the 
tests  for  Imagination  proved  to  be  important  as  forming  a  basis 
for  a  general  classification  of  the  individuals,  according  to 
fairly  definite  types;  and  results  from  other  tests  gave  some 
force  of  confirmation  to  this  classification,  as  e.  g.,  the  test  on 
Observation  by  description  of  pictures.  In  general,  however, 
a  lack  of  correspondences  in  the  individual  differences  observed 
in  the  various  tests  was  quite  as  noticeable  as  their  presence. 
The  total  change  in  the  order  of  subjects  in  the  memory  of 
single  short  series  of  words  and  in  the  recapitulation  of  the 
words  of  seven  short  series,  the  fact  that  those  subjects  who 
showed  best  observation  of  colors  were  not  the  best  visualizers, 
are  instances  of  this  lack  of  correspondence,  of  which  many 
others  could  be  cited.  Whether  the  fact  indicates  a  relative 
independence  of  the  particular  mental  activities  under  investi- 
gation, or  is  due  simply  to  superficiality  of  testing,  can  hardly 
be  decided.  While,  however,  we  do  not  reject  the  latter  pos- 
sibility, we  incline  to  the  belief  that  the  former  hypothesis  is 
in  a  large  proportion  of  cases  the  more  correct. 

But  little  result  for  morphological  psychology  can  be  obtained 
from  studies  of  the  nature  of  the  above  investigation.  So 
many  part-processes  are  involved  in  the  complex  activities, 
and  the  manner  of  their  variation  is  so  indefinite,  that  it  is  sel- 
dom possible  to  tell  with  certainty  what  part  of  the  total  result 
is  due  to  any  particular  component.  It  is  doubtful  if  even  the 
most  rigorous  and  exhaustive  analysis  of  test-results  would 
yield  information  of  importance  as  regards  the  structure  of 
mind.  At  all  events,  there  is  not  the  slightest  reason  to  desert 
current  laboratory  methods  for  the  '  method  of  tests. ' 

The  tests  employed,  considered  as  a  whole,  cannot  be  said 
to  yield  decisive  results  for  Individual  Psychology  if  applied 
once  only  to  individuals  of  the  same  class.  This  statement  the 
above  discussion  of  tests  seems  perfectly  to  warrant.  Series 
of  such  tests  are  necessary  in  order  to  show  constant  individual 
characteristics.  The  tests,  to  be  sure,  (i)  if  enlarged  in 
extent  to  cover  a  wider  range  of  activities,  might  be  useful 
for  roughly  classifying  a  large  number  of  individuals  of  very 
different  training,  occupation,  etc. ,  provided  that  the  greatest 
care  were  taken  that  the  conditions  in  the  case  of  each  in- 
dividual should  be  as  favorable  as  possible.  And,  on  the 
other  hand,  (2)  certain  groups  of  tests,  especially  selected 
for  a  particular  purpose,  and  applied,  once  each  in  series, 
to  a  limited  number  of  individuals,  might  yield  valuable  in- 
formation on  points  which  particular  circumstances  rendered 


390  SHARP : 

of  practical  importance.  As  engineers,  pilots,  and  others  who 
have  to  act  upon  information  from  colored  signals,  are  roughly- 
tested  for  color  blindness,  so  other  classes  might  often  profit- 
ably be  submitted  to  a  psychological  testing  of  those  higher 
activities  which  are  especially  involved  in  their  respective  lines 
of  duty. 

All  this,  however,  is  largely  beside  the  point ;  much  prelim- 
inary work  must  be  done  before  such  special  investigations  can 
be  of  any  great  worth.  This  appears  plainly  from  the  present 
investigation  where  the  positive  results  have  been  wholly  in- 
commensurate with  the  labor  required  for  the  devising  of  tests 
and  evaluation  of  results.  In  the  present  state  of  the  science 
of  Individual  Psychology,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
method  of  procedure  employed  by  M.  Binet  is  the  one  most 
productive  of  fruitful  results  :  that,  namely,  of  selecting  tests, 
and  applying  them  to  a  number  of  individuals  and  classes  of 
individuals  with  a  view  of  discovering  the  chief  individual 
differences  in  the  mental  activities  to  which  appeal  is  made. 
To  this  should  be  added,  however,  an  exhaustive  study  of 
the  results  from  series  of  similar  tests  given  to  a  small  number 
of  individuals  at  different  times  and  in  varying  circumstances, 
in  order  to  discover  how  constant  the  differences  are,  and  how 
much  of  the  variation  may  be  due  to  changes  in  mental  and 
physical  condition,  environment,  etc.  When  this  procedure 
has  been  followed  for  tests  that  cover  all  the  principal  psychical 
activities,  then  the  investigation  of  limited  groups  of  individuals 
for  the  purpose  of  characterizing  them  in  respect  to  their  men- 
tal differences  may  be  undertaken  with  hope  of  easy  and  ac- 
curate results.  The  previous  study  will  have  made  clear  the 
many  conditions  involved,  and  the  best  way  of  modifying  the 
'  test  method  '  to  suit  varying  circumstances. 

In  fine,  we  concur  with  Mm.  Binet  and  Henri  in  believing 
that  individual  psychical  differences  should  be  sought  for  in 
the  complex  rather  than  in  the  elementary  processes  of  mind, 
and  that  the  test  method  is  the  most  workable  one  that  has  yet 
been  proposed  for  investigating  these  processes.  The  theory 
of  the  German  psychologists,  who  hold  that  the  simplest  mental 
processes  are  those  to  which  the  investigator  should  look  for  a 
clue  to  all  the  psychical  differences  existing  among  individuals, 
we  believe  would  be  productive  of  small  or,  at  any  rate,  of 
comparatively  unimportant  results.  Whether  the  anthropo- 
metrical  tests  so  largely  used  by  American  workers  in  this 
field  of  psychology  will  lead  to  any  such  correlation  of  these 
traits  with  those  of  a  purely  psychical  character  as  has  been 
suggested  by  some  pursuing  the  inquiry,  is  a  question  which 
must  be  left  for  the  future  to  decide.  No  adequate  data  are  as 
yet  at  hand,  and  (as  has  been  stated  above)  the  American 


INDIVIDUAL   PSYCHOI.OGY.  39 1 

workers  have  formulated  no  explicit  theory  of  Individual 
Psychology.  The  method  here  outlined  should  (and  may), 
however,  be  rendered  more  exact  by  modifications  in  accord- 
ance with  the  procedure  of  the  German  investigators  of 
Individual  Psychology.  A  combination  of  the  principal 
characteristics  of  the  two  methods  is,  then,  it  seems  to  us,  best 
calculated  for  the  attainment  of  satisfactory  results. 


PAIN  AND  STRENGTH    MEASUREMENTS   OF    1,507 
SCHOOL  CHILDREN  IN  SAGINAW,  MICHIGAN. 


By  Ada  Carman,  Washington,  D.  C. 


These  measurements  of  least  sensibility  to  pain,  together 
with  those  of  greatest  strength,  were  made  on  1,507  public 
school  children  in  Saginaw,  Michigan,  through  the  permission 
and  courtesy  of  Mr.  A.  S.  Whitney,  school  Superintendent. 

The  instruments  used  in  these  experiments  were  a  temple 
algometer  and  a  hand  dynamometer. 

The  temple  algometer  was  designed  by  Arthur  MacDonald, 
specialist  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  and  consists  of  a 
brass  cylinder,  with  a  steel  rod  running  through  one  of  the  ends 
of  the  cylinder.  This  rod  is  attached  to  a  spring  and  the  cylin- 
der is  provided  with  scale  and  marker.  The  scale  is  graduated 
from  o  to  4,000  grammes.  A  brass  disk  15  millimeters  in  di- 
ameter, at  the  end  of  the  rod,  is  covered  with  flannel,  so  as  to 
exclude  the  feeling  of  the  metal  when  pressed  against  the 
skin.^ 

The  disk  is  pressed  against  the  temporal  muscle,  and  as  soon 
as  the  subject  reports  the  pressure  to  be  in  the  least  disagree- 
able the  amount  is  read  from  the  scale.  The  purpose  is  to  ap- 
proximate as  near  as  possible  to  the  threshold  of  pain. 

The  Collin  dynamometer  was  used. 

Before  the  experiments  were  made  the  pupil  answered  the 
following  questions  in  writing : 

Name, 

Age, 

Sex, 

Order  of  birth,  ist,  2d,  or  later  born, 

Color  of  hair, 

Color  of  eyes, 

Right  or  left  handed. 

Nationality  of  father  and  mother. 

Education  of  father  and  mother, 

Occupation  of  father  and  mother. 

When  the  pupil  could  not  answer  any  of  the  questions  he 
was  helped  by  his  teacher  or  by  the  experimenter.  At  least 
twenty -five  per  cent,  did  not  know  the  color  of  their  hair,  and 
at  least  fifty  per  cent,  did  not  know  the  color  of  their  eyes. 

1  Described  and  illustrated  in  the  Psychological  Review,  July,  1898. 


PAIN   AND  STRENGTH   MEASUREMENTS. 


393 


Most  of  the  children  were  of  foreign  parentage  of  the  labor- 
ing classes,  by  which  is  meant  artisans  and  unskilled  laborers. 

The  tables  give  in  grammes  the  least  sensibility  to  pain  by 
pressure  on  the  temporal  muscle,  and  in  kilogrammes  the 
greatest  strength  by  grasp  of  hand. 


Tabi,e  I. 
Boys. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 

Left 
Temple- 
Averages. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

Ages. 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

lO 

96 

2253 

219I 

16 

14 

II 

104 

2359 

2337 

19 

15 

12 

123 

2359 

2337 

21 

18 

13 

152 

2447 

2432 

22 

20 

14 

lOI 

2629 

2523 

26 

23 

15 

79 

2738 

2656 

30 

27 

16 

53 

2824 

2700 

35 

30 

17 

33 

3036 

3023 

40 

35 

18 

15 

3267 

3077 

42 

38 

10-18 

756 

2493 

2466 

24 

21 

Table  II. 
Girls. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 
Temple. 

Left 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

Ages. 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

10 

86 

1874 

1827 

II 

10 

II 

102 

2107 

1983 

13 

12 

12 

132 

1873 

1788 

15 

14 

13 

107 

2017 

1997 

18 

16 

14 

84 

1955 

I961 

20 

17 

15 

82 

2218 

2165 

21 

18 

16 

66 

2433 

2283 

21 

18 

'Z 

48 

2360 

2330 

23 

22 

18 

25 

2478 

2374 

24 

22 

19 

19 

2937 

2705 

23 

20 

10-19 

751 

2097 

2030 

17 

-16 

Journal— 5 


;94 


CARMAN : 

TABI.E  III. 
First  born — Boys. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 

Left 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

Ages, 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

lO 

20 

2180 

2178 

15 

12 

II 

40 

2420 

2363 

18 

16 

12 

31 

2421 

2390 

21 

18 

13 

55 

2537 

2461 

22 

20 

14 

25 

2390 

2208 

27 

23 

15 

23 

2354         ' 

2189 

26 

16 

20 

2845 

2603 

38 

33 

17 

8 

3288 

3163 

43 

37 

18 

4 

,3575 

3275 

40 

37 

10-18 

226 

2506 

2405 

24 

21 

Table  IV. 
First  born — Girls. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 
Temple. 

Left 
Temple. 

.Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

Ages. 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

10 

29 

2167 

2193 

II 

10 

II 

21 

2136 

2133 

13 

12 

12 

36 

1956 

1815 

15 

14 

13 

29 

2174 

2140 

18 

16 

14 

24 

1973 

1985 

20 

16 

15 

23 

2203 

1963 

22 

19 

16 

24 

2369 

2169 

20 

17 

17 

18 

2344 

2386 

23 

21 

18 

7 

2236 

2086 

20 

20 

19 

4 

2825 

3125 

22 

19 

10-19 

215 

2163 

2096 

17 

16 

Table  V. 
Second  born — Boys. 


Nearest 
Ages. 

No.  of 
Persons. 

Right 
Temple. 
Averages. 

Left 
Temple. 
Averages. 

Right  Hand. 
Averages. 

Left  Hand. 
Averages. 

10 
II 
12 
13 
14 

\l 

17 

j8 

28 

15 
28 

31 
28 

15 
15 

4 

2102 
2520 
2218 
2442 
2702 
3000 
2723 
3050 
3213 

2009 
2570 

2115 
2490 
2613 
2847 
2708 
3500 
3113 

16 
18 
21 
23 
25 
31 

^8 

40 

14 
16 

19 
21 

23 
27 
28 

35 
33 

10-18 

172 

2519 

2489 

24 

21 

PAIN   AND  STRENGTH   MEASUREMENTS. 


395 


Tabi,e  VI. 
Second  born — Girls. 


Nearest 
Ages, 

No.  of 
Persons. 

Right 
Temple. 
Averages. 

I.eft 
Temple. 
Averages. 

Right  Hand. 
Averages. 

Left  Hand. 
Averages. 

lO 
11 
13 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 

28 
35 
32 
24 
18 

16 

9 
2 

6 

1746 
2120 
1652 
1948 

2194 
2258 
2572 
2183 

3225 
3100 

1714 
1929 

1633 
2023 
2142 
2289 

2397 
22II 

3150 

2717 

II 
13 
15 
17 
20 

23 
20 
21 
28 
21 

10 
II 
13 
15 
17 
19 
19 
22 
21 
21 

10-19 

189 

2069 

2008 

17 

15 

Tabi^e  VII. 
Later  born — Boys. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 
Temple. 

I.eft 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

Iveft  Hand. 

Ages. 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

10 

48 

2372 

2302 

16 

14 

II 

49 

2260 

2245 

18 

15 

12 

64 

2374 

2409 

20 

17 

13 

66 

2375 

2381 

23 

20 

14 

48 

2711 

2635 

26 

23 

15 

41 

2857 

2849 

30 

25 

16 

18 

2881 

2803 

33 

29 

17 

17 

2912 

2732 

39 

35 

18 

7 

312I 

2943 

45 

42 

10-18 

358 

2527 

2493 

24 

21 

TABI.E    VIII. 

Later  born — Girls. 


Nearest 

No.  of 

Right 
Temple. 

Iveft 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

I.eft  Hand. 

Ages. 

Persons. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

Averages. 

10 

29 

1703 

1534 

II 

II 

11 

46 

2004 

1957 

13 

12 

12 

64 

1938 

1843 

15 

13 

13 

54 

1908 

18 

16 

14 

42 

1843 

1869 

19 

17 

15 

40 

2208 

2221 

20 

17 

16 

26 

2406 

2317 

21 

19 

17 

21 

2498 

2333 

24 

23 

18 

16 

2491 

2403 

25 

24 

19 

9 

2878 

25II 

24 

21 

10-19 

347 

2080 

1998 

18 

16 

396 


CARMAN  : 


Taking  the  tables  of  boys  we  find  (Table  I)  that  the  sensi- 
bility to  pain  decreases  as  age  increases,  except  at  the  age  of 
twelve.  The  strength  of  grasp  shows  a  regular  increase.  The 
left  temple  is  more  sensitive  than  the  right  temple. 

Sensitiveness  to  pain  decreases  in  order  of  birth  (Tables  III 
—  VIII),  first  born  boys  being  more  sensitive  than  second 
born,  and  second  born  more  sensitive  than  those  of  later  birth. 
The  strength  of  grasp  is  the  same. 

Divided  into  light  and  dark,  based  on  color  of  eyes  and  hair, 
the  boys  with  light  eyes  and  hair  are  less  sensitive  and  less 
strong  than  those  with  dark  eyes  and  hair. 


Ages. 

No.  of 
Persons. 

Average  Sensibility. 

Average  Strength 
of  Grasp. 

Right 
Temple. 

I.eft 
Temple. 

Right 
Hand. 

Iveft 
Hand. 

Dark, 
Ught, 

ia-18 
ia-18 

356 
400 

2462 
2570 

2408 
2518 

25 
23 

22 
20 

Of  the  756  boys,  5  per  cent,  were  left-handed,  with  an  aver- 
age of 


Right  Temple, 
2439 


Iveft  Temple. 
2359 


Right  Hand. 
21 


I.eft  Hand. 
19 


Boys  reported  by  their  teachers  as  bright  were  more  sensi- 
tive than  those  reported  as  dull,  and  while  stronger  in  the  right 
hand,  were  weaker  in  the  left  hand  than  the  dull. 


Average  Sensibility. 

Average  Strength  of  Grasp. 

Right 
Temple. 

Left 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

I.eft  Hand. 

Bright, 
Dull, 

2158 
2256 

2152 
2217 

21 
20 

17 
18 

Those  reported  as  being  especially  dull  in  mathematics  were 
more  sensitive  on  the  right  temple  than  on  the  left  temple,  with 
an  average  sensibility  of  2,015  on  the  right  temple  and  2,281 
on  the  left  temple.  Strength  of  grasp,  right  hand  21,  left 
hand  18. 

All  averages  as  to  brightness  and  dullness  are  based  on  ages 
10-14  inclusive,  number  of  pupils  576. 

With  the  girls  (Table  II)  the  decrease  of  sensibility  to  pain 
as  age  increases  is  not  so  regular  as  with  the  boys,  though 
there  is  a  general  decrease.  As  with  the  boys  the  left  temple 
is  more  sensitive  than  the  right. 

The  first-bom  girls  show  less  sensibility  to  pain  than  second- 


PAIN   AND   STRENGTH   MKASUREMKNTS . 


397 


born  ;  later  born  less  than  second-born  on  left  temple,  but  more 
on  right  temple  (Tables  IV,  VI,  VIII,).  The  strength  of 
grasp  varies. 

Girls  with  light  hair  and  blue  or  gray  eyes  are  less  sensitive 
to  pain  on  left  temple,  and  less  strong  than  girls  with  dark  hair 
and  dark  eyes.  On  right  temple  they  are  more  sensitive  than 
the  dark. 


Ages. 

No,  of 
Persons. 

Average  Sensibility. 

Average  Strength 
ofGrasp. 

Right 
Temple. 

Left 
Temple. 

Right 
Hand. 

Left 
Hand. 

Dark, 
Ught, 

10-19 
10-19 

402 
349 

2113 
2084 

1840 
2022 

18 
17 

16 
15 

Of  the  751  girls  3.6  per  cent,  were  left-handed,  with  an  aver- 
age of 

Right  Temple.  Left  Temple.  Right  Hand,  Left  Hand. 

1922  1952  21  19 

Girls  reported  as  bright  were  more  sensitive  and  stronger 
than  those  reported  as  dull. 


Average  Sensibility. 

Average  Strength  of  Grasp. 

Right 
Temple. 

Left 
Temple. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

Bright, 
Dull, 

1737 
2094 

1736 
1868 

16 
13 

13 
12 

Those  reported  as  being  especially  dull  in  mathematics  were 
more  sensitive  on  the  right  temple  than  on  the  left,  with  an 
average  sensibility  of  1,688  on  the  right  and  1,763  on  the  left. 
Strength  of  grasp,  right  hand  14,  left  hand  13. 

Averages  as  to  brightness  and  dullness  are  based  on  ages 
10-14  inclusive,  number  of  pupils  being  571. 

As  a  summary  we  give  the  following : 

With  both  boys  and  girls  sensitiveness  to  pain  decreases  as 
age  increases. 

The  left  temple  is  more  sensitive  than  the  right  temple. 

Girls  are  more  sensitive  and  weaker  at  all  ages  than  boys. 

In  general,  sensitiveness  to  pain  decreases  in  order  of  birth, 
the  exception  being  that  later  born  girls  are  slightly  more  sen- 
sitive on  the  right  temple  than  are  the  second  bom.  Were  the 
number  of  second  born  girls  larger  this  exception  might  not 
occur.  Strength  of  grasp  remains  the  same  with  boys,  while 
it  varies  with  girls. 


398  CARMAN  : 

Boys  with  light  hair  and  eyes  are  less  sensitive  and  less 
strong  than  boys  with  dark  hair  and  eyes.  Girls  with  light 
hair  and  eyes  are  less  sensitive  on  the  left  temple,  but  more 
sensitive  on  the  right  temple  than  girls  with  dark  hair  and 
eyes.     They  are  also  less  strong. 

Bright  boys  and  girls  are  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  dull 
boys,  and  in  general  are  stronger. 

Boys  and  girls  especially  dull  in  mathematics  are  more  sensi- 
tive on  the  right  temple  than  on  the  left  temple. 


SUGGESTIONS   TOWARD  A  LABORATORY  COURSE 
IN  COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY. 


By  Linus  W.  Kwne,  Ph.  D. 


"In  no  case  may  we  interpret  an  action  as  the  outcome  of  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  higher  psychical  faculty,  if  it  can  be  interpreted  as  the 
outcome  of  the  exercise  of  one  which  stands  lower  in  the  psychologi- 
cal scale." — C.  Lloyd  Morgan. 

"  But  why  should  we  bind  ourselves  by  a  hard  and  fast  rule.  .  .  ? 
Is  it  not  the  truth  at  which  we  wish  to  get?  For  myself,  I  am  becom- 
ing more  and  more  skeptical  as  to  the  validity  of  simple  explanations 
for  the  manifestation  of  animal  life  whether  physical  or  psychical." — 
Wesley  Mills. 

The  following  experiments  in  comparative  psychology  were 
devised  to  fill  a  small  part  of  the  work  offered  at  Clark  Univer- 
sity in  the  Psychological  Practicum.^ 

I  have  been  guided  by  two  principles  in  selecting  animals  for 
experimentation:  (i)  general  distribution  of  the  species;  (2) 
an  animal  little  influenced  by  captivity  and  permitting  a  variety 
of  experiments  of  a  psychological  value. 

The  animals  thus  selected  are  regarded  as  typal,  e.  ^.,  earth 
worms  of  vermes,  slugs  of  mollusca.  A  careful  study  of  the 
instincts,  dominant  traits  and  habits  of  an  animal  as  expressed 
in  its  free  life — in  brief  its  natural  history  should  precede  as 
far  as  possible  any  experimental  study.  Procedure  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  i.  e.,  by  the  experimental  method,  must  of  necessity 
be  largely  controlled  by  the  knowledge  gained  through  the 
former,  i.  <?.,  by  the  natural  method.  In  setting  any  task  for 
an  animal  to  learn  and  perform,  two  questions  should  be  asked: 
(i)  Does  it  appeal  to  some  strong  instinct ?  (2)  Is  it  adapted 
to  the  animal's  range  of  customary  activities? 

The  adage,  "Make  haste  slowly,"  is  highly  applicable  to 
the  present  jBeld  of  scientific  work,  not  only  in  working  with 
the  animals,  the  manual  execution,  but  especially  in  the  matter 
of  drawing  inferences  and  interpreting  the  facts. 

The  work  as  a  whole,  on  account  of  its  newness,  must  be 
regarded  as  tentative.  And  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
the  problems  and  experiments  here  outlined  have  been  largely 

1  Experiments  on  Arthropoda  (daphnia,  crayfish,  bees,  ants,  and 
wasps),  Amphibia  (frog,  newt),  Reptilia  (lizard,  turtle),  and  Canidae 
(dog)  are  omitted  from  this  paper  for  the  reason  that  many  of  them  are 
yet  untested  or  are  in  the  process  of  making. 


400  KLINK : 

selected  from  the  works  of  the  foremost  scientists  in  their  re- 
spective fields,  and  further  that  I  have  retested  their  ' '  work- 
ableness" in  many  cases  from  the  standpoint  of  psychology, 
they  still  belong  to  the  suggestive  stage  and  must  remain  such 
until  they  are  extensively  tested — not  merely  discussed — by 
student  and  teacher  in  a  number  of  laboratories. 

The  literature  given  here,  although  by  no  means  exhaustive, 
contains  in  every  case  matter  pertinent  to  the  subject.  The 
aim  is  to  acquaint  the  learner  with  a  few  of  the  best  works  in 
the  field,  leaving  the  minor  ones  to  his  own  industry. 

The  hope  that  the  present  outline  will  awaken  a  wider 
interest  and  enlist  a  larger  co-operation  in  testing  the  value 
of  the  methods  here  set  forth  is  my  only  justification  for  pre- 
senting this  paper. 

The  nature  of  this  work  has  necessarily  put  me  under  obliga- 
tions to  many  persons. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  material  itself  I  am  indebted  to 
those  from  whose  works  I  have  drawn  and  to  whom  I  make 
acknowledgments  in  the  references  accompanying  the  experi- 
ments. For  the  original  plan  of  the  work,  and  for  seeing  that 
ample  laboratory  material  was  provided  me,  together  with  much 
assistance  in  the  arrangement  of  the  subject  matter  of  this  paper, 
I  make  grateful  acknowledgments  to  Dr.  Edmund  C.  Sanford. 

I  am  thankful  to  President  Hall  for  the  loan  of  books  from 
his  library,  and  for  the  inspiration  received  from  his  hearty 
approval  of  the  work  itself. 

To  Dr.  C.  B.  Davenport,  of  Harvard  University,  I  feel  greatly 
indebted,  not  only  for  the  several  experiments  selected  from 
his  published  works,  and  citations  to  literature,  but  also  for 
personal  suggestions  and  his  keen  interest  in  the  purposes  of 
the  work. 

Amoeba. 

The  chief  psychological  interest  in  Amoeba  is  the  variety  of 
activities  that  it  is  able  to  perform  with  an  apparently  undifier- 
entiated  structure.  It  feeds,  it  gets  rid  of  waste  material,  it 
reacts  to  stimuli,  it  moves  from  place  to  place,  and  it  reproduces 
b}^  division. 

The  student  should  observe  carefully  to  what  stimuli  it  ap- 
pears responsive,  and  especially  any  cases  of  apparent  selective 
activity  in  the  taking  of  food,  and  in  the  latter  case  should 
consider  whether  or  not  the  act  in  question  requires  a  psychical 
explanation. 

Probably^  the  simplest  and  surest  method  of  securing  Amoeba 

^Behla,  Robert:  Die  Amoben,  inbesondere  von  Parasitaren  und 
culturellen  Standpunkt.     Berlin,  1898. 

This  excellent  little  monograph,  besides  containing  a  bibliography 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  4OI 

is  from  green  grasses  taken  from  streams  and  ponds.  Pnt  a 
small  handful  of  such  green  material  in  a  large  evaporating 
dish,  and  barely  cover  it  with  tap  water.  Amoeba  may  be  found 
at  once.  I  get  better  results  by  waiting  three  or  four  weeks, 
replacing  in  the  meantime  the  evaporated  water. 

Such  material  answers  every  purpose  for  observing  the  life 
processes  of  the  Amoeba.  By  permitting  the  glass  slide  to  dry 
up  by  evaporation  Amoeba's  reaction  to  desiccation  may  be 
observed. 

It  is  convenient^  to  rest  the  four  corners  of  the  cover  slip 
on  small  bits  of  glass  of  uniform  thickness  cemented  together, 
or  better  still  on  four  wax  feet  which  admit,  by  pressure,  of 
regulating  the  space  between  cover  slip  and  slide — say  1%  mm. 
apart. 

VORTlCEIvI^A. 

The  qualities  of  this  infusoria  that  lead  to  its  selection  for 
study  here  are :  first  the  easy  observation  of  the  same  individ- 
ual for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  due  to  its  permanent 
attachment ;  second,  the  variety  and  clear  cut  character  of  its 
activities  and  the  fact  that  they  are  performed  in  a  compara- 
tively short  cycle  ;  and  third,  the  fundamental  and  suggestive 
character  of  these  activities,  viz.  :  contraction  of  stalk,  move- 
ments of  cilia,  food-taking,  reproduction,  etc. 

Place  in  a  medium  size  glass  jar  a  bunch  of  grass  blades 
gathered  from  a  running  stream,  or  pond ;  cover  with  water. 
Vorticella  may  be  found  in  abundance  on  the  decaying  grass 
within  a  week  or  ten  days.    They  will  '  *  hold  their  own ' '  in  the 

and  descriptive  account  of  Amoeba  in  the  interests  of  medicine,  treats 
historically  of  the  many  attempts  to  obtain  a  pure  culture  of  Amoeba. 
No  one  method  is  as  yet  satisfactory.  Dr.  Behla,  himself,  recommends 
the  following :  25  grs.  of  flaxseed  stalks,  placed  in  a  liter  of  water  48 
hours.  Filter,  and  to  the  filtrate  add  a  1%  solution  of  agar  and  sodium 
carbonate  until  the  solution  becomes  alkaline.  Amoeba  Spinosa  devel- 
ops in  large  quantities.  Ogata,  according  to  Behla,  put  into  a  large 
evaporating  dish,  partly  filled  with  water,  green  grass  taken  from  an 
open  canal.  It  proved  to  contain  Amoeba  and  Infusoria.  He  put  a 
few  drops  of  this  water  into  a  test  tube,  which  was  filled  with  the  fol- 
lowing nourishing  solution  kept  in  a  sterilized  vessel :  a  filtered  solu- 
tion of  50CC  of  tap  water  containing  2.5%  grape  sugar.  To  separate  the 
infusoria  from  the  bacteria  he  dipped  into  the  the  test  tube  capillary 
tubes  10-20  cm.  long  and  0.4-0.6  mm.  in  diameter  filling  them  with  the 
culture  medium.  Sealed  the  ends  in  a  flame.  The  entire  length  of 
the  tube  was  examined  under  a  microscope  and  the  region  exception- 
ally plentiful  in  Amoeba,  and  freed  from  other  forms,  was  marked  and 
broken  off. 

^  Those  who  may  desire  to  study  Amoeba's  reactions  to  a  single 
stimulus,  e.  g.,  light,  temperature  or  chemical,  should  consult  Ver- 
worn's  Psycho-Physiologische  Protisten-Studien,  Jena,  1889  ;  J.  Loeb's 
Der  Heliotropismus  der  Thiere,  pp.  118,  Wiirzburg,  1890;  and  Daven- 
port's Experimental  Morphology,  Vol.  I,  pp.  155-218. 


402  KUNE : 

aquarium  for  several  weeks,  after  which  they  succumb  to  other 
forms. 

Their  form  ^  and  structure  ^  are  described  in  manuals  of 
zoology. 

Select  one  in  a  quiescent  state,  and  by  using  magnification 
from  375  to  425  diameters,  draw  the  following  structures  : 
calyx  (the  bell  shaped  body),  the  peristomal  lip  or  lid  to  the 
calyx  ;  the  stalk,  and  ribbon  like  contractile  tissue  (draw  these 
contracted  and  extended),  the  contractile  vesicle  and  band  like 
nucleus. 

Activities.  I.  Vegetative.  Do  you  discover  any  rhythm 
in  the  contraction  of  the  vesicle?  Does  the  stalk  contract 
when  the  calyx  and  cilia  ^  come  in  contact  with  any  rigid, 
resisting,  unmanageable  object,  or  is  it  indifferent  to  some, 
while  it  avoids  others  ; — i.  e. ,  does  it  seem  to  distinguish  be- 
tween harmful  and  harmless  objects? 

Put  Vorticella  in  a  continuous  current  of  distilled  water 
brought  from  a  reservoir  by  means  of  a  glass  syphon,  drawn  to 
a  capillary  point,  placed  at  one  side  of  the  cover-slip  and  a 
filter-paper  drip  applied  to  the  other  side.  Is  there  any  uni- 
formity in  Vorticella' s  reactions  to  the  current?*  Put  yeast  ^ 
grains  into  the  reservoir — note  behavior  toward  them — try  very 
fine  pulverized  chalk,  salts  of  barium,  pepsin.  Do  you  find 
any  uniformity  in  Vorticella' s  reaction  toward  these  substances. 
Are  the  cilia  selective  in  the  matter  of  food  getting,  *  or  do 
they  admit  all  sorts  of  material  indifferently  at  one  time  and 
reject  all  food  material  whatever,  at  other  times,  owing,  perhaps, 
in  the  latter  case  to  satisfied  hunger? 

II.  Reproductive.  Reproduction  in  Vorticella  may  take 
place  by  fission  or  by  gemmation.  The  former  process  may 
frequently  be  jseen,  the  latter  less  frequently. 

The  first  signs  of  multiplication  by  fission  may  be  seen  in  the 
calyx  taking  on  a  roundish  form,  the  longitudinal  axis  shorten- 
ing. Follow  and  note  all  the  changes  from  this  stage  on  till 
complete  division  takes  place.  Note  preparations  made  by 
the  daughter  Vorticella  previous  to  its  leaving  the  mother  stalk. 
Do  you  observe  anything  that  indicates  a  difference  in  the  sensi- 
tivity on  different  parts  of  the  calyx  ? 

^Kent,  Saville:    Manual  of  Infusoria,  p.  675. 
2  Nicholson,  H.  A. :   A  Manual  of  Zoology,     p.  100. 
^  Hodge  and  Aikens  :  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4. 
*  Kline,  L.  W. :  Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  1899,  Vol.  X,  No.  2,  p.  260. 
^Commercial  yeast  may  be  used — should  be  dissolved  in  sterilized 
water. 
•Weir,  James :  The  Dawn  of  Reason,  N.  Y.,  1899,  p.  8. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOI.OGY.  403 

Paramecia. 

This  hardy,  prolific,  and  swiftly  moving  infusoria  readily 
responds  to  a  wide  range  of  primitive  stimuli,  such  as  gravity, 
light,  contact,  temperature  and  chemical  substances.  Observa- 
tions of  the  responses  of  such  a  one  celled  organism  to  this 
varid  group  of  stimuli  must  be  both  interesting  and  instructive 
to  the  psychologists. 

Paramecia  occur  in  abundance  in  stagnant  water  contain- 
ing decaying  vegetable  matter.  ^  Two  or  three  weeks  before  they 
are  needed,  put  hay  or  grass  in  a  jar  of  water,  and  keep  in  a 
warm  room.  In  such  a  jar  they  may  be  kept  for  indefinite 
periods  in  immense  numbers.  To  prevent  the  paramecia  on 
the  slide  from  moving  too  rapidly,  it  is  advisable  to  put  them 
in  a  2.5%  solution  of  gelatine  in  water.  Study  first  with  the 
low  power,  then  with  the  high. 

The  following  structures  should  be  made  out :  the  position 
and  shape  of  the  buccal  cavity,  nucleus,  contracting  vacuoles, 
non-contracting  vacuoles,  cilia,  and  trichocysts. 

Movemerits  of  Cilia.^  Remove  a  large  number  of  Paramecia 
from  the  culture  medium  by  means  of  a  pipette  on  to  a  glass 
slide.  Cover  the  preparation  with  a  cover  glass  supported  by 
glass  rollers  of  capillary  fineness  and  of  uniform  thichiess. 
Thrust  under  the  cover  slip  a  couple  of  pieces  of  fine  capil- 
lary glass  tubing.*  After  the  Paramecia  begin  to  collect 
along  these  glass  tubes  as  well  as  the  glass  rollers,  run  carmine 
water  under  the  cover  glass  ;  select  a  quiet  individual  and 
observe  how  the  carmine  grains  pass  by  it.  Indicate  by  arrows 
placed  outside  the  periphery  of  your  drawing  the  direction  of 
movement  of  the  carmine.  What  do  you  infer  concerning  the 
movement  of  the  cilia  ?  Do  the  grains  whirl  as  much  about  a 
moving  individual  as  about  a  quiet  one  ?     Can  you  explain?* 

Geotaxis.  The  effect  that  gravity  ^  has  in  determining  the 
verticality  of  the  body  and  thereby  determining  the  direction 

*  Kent,  Saville  :  A  Manual  of  the  Infusoria.  Vol.  II,  pp.  483-488. 
PI.  26,  Figs.  28-30. 

^Jennings,  H.  S. :  Reactions  of  Ciliate  Infusoria.  Jour.  Phys., 
1897,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  303. 

'I/udloff  in  studying  the  motions  of  the  cilia  in  electrotaxis  con- 
fined the  animals  in  a  thick  gelatine  solution.  Jennings  considered 
their  motion  in  such  a  medium  as  abnormal  and  recommends  water 
containing  carmine  grains. 

*  Taken  from  Davenport's  outline  of  requirements  in  zoology  for  use 
in  preparing  students  for  Harvard  University. 

^  Verworn,  Max  :  Ueber  die  Fiihigkeit  der  Zelle,  activ  ihr  specifisches 
Gewicht  zu  verandern.  Pfliiger's  Archiv,  Vol.  LIU,  1892,  pp.  140-155. 
See  also  by  the  same  author :  Psycho-Physiologische  Protisten-Stu- 
dien,  pp.  121-122. 


404  KLINE : 

of  locomotion  is  termed  geotaxis.^  Creatures  whose  axial 
orientation  and  consequent  locomotion  are  perceptibly  influenced 
by  this  force  are  geotactic.^ 

(a).  Fill  half  full  with  the  culture  medium  of  Paramecia 
a  glass  tube  i>^  cm.  in  diameter  and  60  cm.  in  length.  Keep 
the  tube  vertical  and  in  uniform  temperature  and  light — not 
direct  sunlight.  After  a  few  hours  the  organisms  will  be  found 
at  and  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 

(b).  Fill  the  remaining  half  of  the  tube  with  hydrant  water, 
and,  keeping  it  vertical  as  before,  note  the  results.  Twelve  or 
fifteen  hours  later  they  may  be  found  3  to  6  cm.  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  (see  chemotaxis).  Turn  the  tube  bottom 
side  up  and  observe  the  time  for  complete  migration  to  the 
upper*  end.'* 

A  rough  and  ready  demonstration  of  this  geotactic  response 
may  be  found  by  filling  a  test  tube  nearly  full  of  the  culture 
medium.  To  prevent  the  free  end  becoming  richer  in  oxygen, 
seal  with  an  impermeable  plug  of  wax  or  a  rubber  stopper. 
Do  not  expose  the  tube  to  direct  sunlight.  For  the  theoretical 
interpretations  of  the  geotactic  responses  the  student  is  referred 
to  the  works  of  Verworn,  p.  141  ;  Jensen,  pp.  462-476  ;  Dav- 
enport, pp.  122-124.     (See  literature  given  below.) 

Chemotaxis.  (a).  Remove  a  large  number  oif  Paramecia 
from  their  culture  medium  by  means  of  a  pipette  on  to  a  glass 
slide.  Drop  into  their  midst  a  small  bit  of  decaying  vegetable 
or  animal  material.  Cover  the  preparation  with  a  cover  glass 
supported  by  capillary  glass  rollers  of  uniform  thickness.  Note 
the  behavior  of  Paramecia  toward  the  decaying  material. 

(b).  Introduce  under  the  cover  glass,  b}'  means  of  a  pipette 
drawn  to  capillary  fineness,  rancid  oils,  e.  f^.,  olive  oil,  cod-liver 
oil.     Use  also  a  drop  of  water  from  putrefying  meat,  beef  ex- 

^ Jensen,  Paul:  Ueber  den  Geotropismus  niederer  Organismen. 
Pfluger's  Archiv,  1892,  Vol.  LIU,  pp.  428-480. 

2 Davenport.  C.  B.  :    Experimental  Morphology     Vol.  I,  pp.  112-125. 

*  Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  negative  geotactic  activity  of  Par- 
amecia for  securing  large  numbers  in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  It 
also  serves  as  a  means  for  washing:  out  the  water  in  which  they  were 
bred. 

*Miss  Piatt  (The  Amer.  Nat.,  Vol.  XXXIII,  No.  385,  Jan.,  1899,)  and 
Dr.  Jennings  (Amer.  Jour,  of  Phys.,  Vol.  II,  1899,)  report  that  para- 
mecia in  this  country  are  not  so  markedly  geotactic  as  those  used  by 
European  investigators.  During  the  fall  and  early  winter  of  '98  I 
brought  large  numbers  into  small  volumes  of  water  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  geotactic  responses  which  they  then  so  readily  displayed. 
In  April,  '99,  I  had  an  occasion  to  repeat  the  process.  My  efforts 
failed.  The  paramecia  remained  scattered  throughout  the  length  of 
the  tubes  for  several  days.  Both  spring  and  fall  cultures  were  of  the 
same  species  and  reared  in  similar  mediums. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  405 

tract,  etc.     It  is  best  to  use  a  fresh  lot  of  Paramecia  for  each 
new  substance. 

(c).  The  following  salts,  acids,  and  alkalies  were  used  by 
Dr.  Jennings.^ 

Substance.                Wk.  Sol.    Stg.  Sol.            Substance.              Wk.  Sol.  Stg.  Sol. 

Copper  Sulphate      -\-  {^)       —        Sodium  chloride            —  — 

Sulphuric  acid          -j-               —        Sodium  carbonate          —  — 

Hydrochloric  acid    -j-               —        Sodium  bicarbonate      —  — 

Acetic  acid                 +              —        Potassium  hydroxide  —  — 

Nitric  acid                  -j-               —        Sodium  hydroxide        —  — 

Tannic  acid                -\-              —        Potassium  bromate       —  — 
Mercuric  chloride    -f-              — 
^H-  =  positive  and  — =  negative  chemotaxis. 

Solutions  of  H2  SO4  of  the  following  strengths  give  positive 
chemotactic   reactions:      tt^tt^^    Wtfif^.    4innr%>    ¥TrVir%, 

(d).  Repeat  experiment  (b)  under  geotaxis  and  note  that 
after  they  have  gathered  at  the  surface  they  recede  or  fall 
from  3  to  6  cm.  from  the  surface.     Can  you  explain  ? 

(e).  Repeat  (a)  using  a  bit  of  filter  paper  or  a  small  piece 
of  linen  fibre.  After  they  have  collected  in  large  numbers 
about  these  objects,  withdraw  by  means  of  a  capillary  pipette 
a  drop  of  water  from  within  the  area  to  which  the  Paramecia 
are  confined.  Inject  this  drop  beneath  the  cover  glass  of  a 
second  preparation  in  which  Paramecia  are  uniformly  dis- 
tributed. The  behavior  of  Paramecia  to  this  new  fluid  should 
be  very  carefully  observed.  Their  behavior  under  conditions 
in  experiments  (d)  and  (e)  is  now  believed  to  be  due  to  the 
presence  of  CO  2  excreted  in  the  respiratory  process  of  the 
organisms.  Jennings  has  shown  that  they  are  attracted  by 
weak  concentrations  of  CO2  and  repelled  by  strong.^  This 
fact  greatly  complicates  and  oftentimes  vitiates  experiments  in 
chemotaxis  with  these  animals. 

Thigmotaxis.  The  stimulus  offered  by  mere  contact  with  a 
solid  body  is  termed  thigmotaxis.  Animals  that  have  a  ten- 
dency to  cling  to,  or  to  move  along  solid  bodies  are  thigmotactic. 
Bits  of  sponge,  linen,  cotton,  or  cloth  fibre,  filter  paper  or  bits  of 
glass  may  be  employed  to  demonstrate  thigmotactic  activities 
of  Paramecia.  These  substances  should  be  sterilized  before 
using.  The  first  gathering  of  Paramecia  about  such  inert, 
insoluble  bodies  is  thigmotaxis,  but  experiments  (d)  and  (e) 

1  Jennings,  H.  S. :    Loc.  cit.,  pp.  258-322. 

^For  a  very  satisfactory  exposition  of  this  subject,  together  with 
tests  for  detecting  the  presence  of  CO2,  see  the  paper  by  Dr.  Jennings 
already  referred  to.  The  same  author  has  given  an  entirely  new  and 
far  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  positive  chemotaxis  in  a  more 
recent  study  of  Paramecia.     See  Am.  Jour.  Phys.,  Vol.  II,  May,  1899. 


4o6  KI.INE : 

under  chemotaxis  suggest  that  a  continuation  of  the  gathering 
in  one  place  is  due  to  the  presence  of  CO 2  excreted.  Dr.  Jen- 
nings ^  concludes  that  ' '  the  reactions  which  play  the  chief  part 
in  the  normal  life  of  Paramecia  are  7iegative  geotaxis,  positive 
ihigmotaxis,  and  positive  cheviotaxis  toward  carbon  dioxide.'' 
This  is  very  likely  true  and  at  first  it  might  appear  superfluous — 
at  least  for  psychology — to  investigate  their  reactions  to  any 
other  kind  of  stimulation.  Temperature,  however,  stands  in 
such  vital  relations  with  life  in  general,  necessitating  through 
its  frequent  and  wide  variations,  ever  new  adjustments,  that  it 
seems  advisable  to  give  a  method  of  testing  the  reaction  of 
Paramecia  to  temperature. 

Thermotaxis.  Mendelssohn^  has  demonstrated  that  Para- 
mecia are  negatively  thermotactic  to  temperatures  above  and 
below  24°-28°  C,  and  are  positively  thermotatic  to  temperatures 
within  and  including  these  limits,^  i.  e.,  24°-28°  C  is  their  opti- 
mum.^ 

An  apparatus  yielding  results  quite  satisfactory  for  demonstra- 
tional  purposes  may  be  constructed  on  the  following  plan :  ( i ) . 
A  wooden  frame — consisting  of  two  uprights  16  inches  long  and 
6  inches  apart  joined  at  the  top  by  a  cross  beam  and  firmly 
joined  to  a  wooden  foot  about  i  foot  square;  (^2)  a  glass  tube 
6  inches  long  and  y^  inches  in  diameter  with  a  ^  inch  hole  at 
its  middle  point.  Close  the  endsof  the  tube  with  cork  stoppers 
containing  a  ^  inch  hole  bored  near  the  periphery.  Insert  the 
stoppers  in  the  tube  so  that  their  holes  will  be  as  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tube  as  possible  ;  (3)  afiix,  transversely,  on  the 
inside  of  each  upright,  ten  inches  above  the  foot,  a  ^  inch  lead 
pipe  one  end  of  which  carries  a  coil  of  two  turns,  of  diameter 
barely  sufficient  to  admit  the  glass  tube. 

The  glass  tube  may  also  carry  near  its  middle  portion  a 
movable  pipe  of  one  coil.     Differences  of  temperature  may  now 

ijennings,  H.  S.  :     Loc.  cit.,  p.  321. 

2  Mendelssohn,  M.:  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiologie,  Vol.  LX,  pp.  1-27. 

^  His  apparatus  was  simple  and  excellent.  It  consisted  of  a  brass 
plate  20  cm.  x  6  cm.  and  4  mm.  thick,  supported  in  a  horizontal  plane. 
To  its  under  surface  was  attached,  transversely,  tubes  through  which 
hot  or  cold  water  was  run  at  pleasure  from  a  reservoir  elevated  above 
the  plane  of  the  brass  plate.  In  the  middle  of  the  plate  a  space  10 
cm.  X  2  cm.  and  2  mm.  was  cut  out  and  into  which  a  glass  or  ebonite 
trough  was  fitted.  Small  thermometers  with  bulbs  at  right  angles  to 
their  stems  were  placed  in  the  plane  of  the  trough  and  served  to 
measure  the  temperature  at  any  point.  Desired  differences  of  tem- 
perature between  any  two  points  along  the  trough  were  secured  by 
means  of  water  of  different  temperatures  running  through  the  trans- 
verse tubes. 

■*  Thermotactic  axis-orientation  is  a  reaction  to  the  stimulus  created 
by  the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  anterior  and  posterior 
ends  of  an  organism.     See  discussions  by  Davenport  and  Mendelssohn. 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY.  407 

be  secured  according  to  Mendelssohn's  method  (see  note  p.  406), 
or,  if  connection  with  hydrant  faucets  is  possible,  interpose  be 
tween  the  faucets  and  the  lead  pipes  two  metal  worms.     By 
applying  heat  to  one,  and  packing  ice  around  the  other,  con- 
tinuous streams  of  hot  and  cold  water  may  be  secured. 

The  following  rough  method  readily  shows  the  thermotaxis 
of  Paramecia  :  Build  a  trough  of  wax  on  a  glass  slide  6^  x 
I  ^  inches.  Fill  the  wax  trough  with  *  *  Paramecia  water. ' ' 
Place  the  slide  on  two  flat  glass  dishes  juxtaposed.  In  one 
keep  hot  water,  in  the  other  ice.  Let  the  hot  water  and  ice 
barely  touch  the  under  surface  of  the  glass  slide.  The  move- 
ments of  Paramecia  may  be  followed  with  a  hand  lens. 

(a).  By  means  of  geotaxis  secure  a  large  number  of  Para- 
mecia in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  Pour  into  the  glass  tube 
' '  Paramecia  water ' '  until  it  barely  covers  the  thermometer 
bulbs.  Too  much  water  will  start  up  currents  which  impair 
the  results.  Find  what  temperatures  attract  and  what  repel 
Paramecia. 

(b).  Supposing  that  Paramecia  migrate  from  a  temperature 
10°  C  to  a  temperature  18°  C,  and  from  temperature  32°  C  to 
temperature  26°  C,  make  the  further  experimentation  that  is 
necessary  to  find  their  optimum. 

(c).  Acflimatization,  Mendelssohn^  found  that,  if  Para- 
mecia be  kept  in  a  temperature  from  36°-38*^  C  from  4-  6  hours, 
and  then  placed  in  a  rectangular  vessel  whose  end  temperatures 
are  24°-36°  C  respectively,  they  will  occupy  a  position  corre- 
sponding to  30°-32°  C.  If,  however,  they  are  kept  in  a  temper- 
ature 18°  C  and  then  placed  in  the  vessel  whose  end  temperatures 
are  suddenly  raised,  they  reach  their  optimum  at  24°  C.^  Re- 
peat this  experiment.  What  inferences  may  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  of  acclimatization  ? 

Hydra.     (  Hydroidae. ) 

These  fresh  water  polypys  belong  to  the  primitive  forms  of 
double  walled  animals  (coelenterata. )  They  (coelenterata) 
present  to  us  for  the  first  time  organs  and  tissues  composed  of 
cells,  and  the  co-ordination  of  different  parts  in  the  performance 
of  certain  activities,  e.  g.,  simultaneous  closing  in  of  tentacles 
on  some  object  of  prey. 

Fresh  water  hydra  may  be  obtained  by  gathering  from  fresh 
pools  Lemna,  sticks,  and  grass  and  putting  them  into  an  aqua- 
rium.    Hydras,  which  are  attached  to  these  objects,  will  then 

1  Mendelssohn,  M. :  Loc,  cit.,  pp.  19-20. 

*  Davenport,  C.  B. :  Loc.  cit.,  1899,  pp.  27-32.  See  also  I^oew,  O. : 
Ueber  den  verschiedenen  Resistenz  grad  im  Protoplasma.  Archiv  f. 
d.  ges.  Physiologie,  1885,  Vol.  XXXV,  pp.  509-516. 


4o8  KUNE : 

usually  migrate  within  a  few  days  to  the  light  side  of  the 
vessel.  Hydras  can  be  kept  readily  throughout  the  winter  in 
a  large  glass  jar  containing  Lemna,  chara,  water  cress,  and  Eu- 
tomostraca  for  food.^ 

Touch.  Place  a  Hydra  in  a  watch-glass  full  of  water.  Touch 
the  tentacle  with  a  needle.     What  movements  ? 

Selecting  Food  {Taste),  (a).  Drop  cautiously  and  at  inter- 
vals of  a  few  minutes  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  over  the 
tentacles  of  the  Hydra  a  drop  of  water,  of  sugar  solution,  of 
acid.     What  differences  in  the  movements? 

(b).  Bring  a  Daphnia  (previously  stranded)  on  the  end  of 
a  needle  to  the  tentacles  of  the  Hydra.  Note  the  result.  With 
another  Hydra,  use  a  bit  of  plant  tissue. 

Reaction  to  Light  {Phofopathy)  .^  Place  in  a  small  glass 
jar  full  of  water  containing  Lemna  and  Entomostraca  two  or 
three  large,  budding  Hydras.  Cover  the  jar  with  a  box, 
placing  the  slit  next  to  the  window.  Means  of  aeration  should 
be  supplied  the  glass  jar.  Note  at  short  intervals  for  two 
weeks  the  position  and  number  of  Hydras  in  the  jar.' 

* '  Place  a  Hydra  in  a  watch-glass  with  a  little  water,  and  by 
means  of  a  needle  and  a  penknife  cut  it  into  two  or  three 
pieces.  Let  the  pieces  expand  and  draw  them.  By  means  of 
a  clean  pipette  place  the  pieces  in  a  small  Stender  dish,  in 
clean  water.  Draw  the  pieces  again  after  24  hours,  and  after 
a  longer  period  if  necessary. ' ' 

Earth  Worms.     {Lumhricus  Agricola.') 

Worms  changed  the  course  of  animal  evolution  from  a  radial 
to  a  bilateral  form  and  established  permanently  the  very  funda- 
mental principle  of  metamerism.  Those  that  have  migrated 
from  water  to  land  have,  by  reason  of  their  crawling  habits, 
greatly  accentuated  all  those  differences,  begun  in  the  sea,  be- 
tween ventral  and  dorsal  parts,  between  anterior  and  posterior 
ends.  These  structural  and  physiological  differentiations  have 
an  interest  for  the  psychologist  in  that  they  express  a  correla- 
tion between  the  degree  of  sensitiveness  and  the  relative  use  of 
the  parts  of  an  organism. 

^  For  anatomical  descriptions  of  Hydra  see  Manuals  of  Zoology. 

2  "The  wandering  of  organisms  into  a  more  or  less  intensely  illu- 
minated region,  the  direction  of  locomotion  being  determined  by  a 
difference  in  intensity  of  illumination  of  the  two  poles  of  the  organ- 
ism, is  photopathy."  Davenport:  Experimental  Morphology.  Part 
I,  p.  180.  See  also  Vitus  Graber :  Grundlinien  zur  Erforschung  des 
Helligkeits  und  Farbensinnes  der  Thiere.     pp.  318,  Leipzig,  1884. 

3  Wilson,  Edmund  B. :  The  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  XXV,  pp. 
413-425,  1891.  This  paper  of  Prof.  Wilson's  contains  also  an  account 
of  Hydras  reactions  to  colored  light. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  409 

The  nature  ^  of  the  soil,  as  to  its  compactness,  moisture,  fer- 
tility, that  is  most  favorable  to  the  presence  of  earth  worms  ; 
the  shape  and  contents  of  their  burrows ;  the  relation  of  the 
amount  of  their  castings  to  the  changes  of  the  weather — all 
must  be  studied  out  of  doors  in  their  natural  habitat. 

Sense  Organs.  Miss  Langdon's'*  anatomical  studies  have 
demonstrated  very  thoroughly,  '  *  that  the  sense  organs  are  distri- 
buted over  the  entire  surface  of  the  body,  but  are  most  numer- 
ous and  largest  at  each  end. "  ^  It  has  also  been  found  that  the 
anterior  and  posterior  portions  of  the  body  react  to  weaker  solu- 
tions of  strychnine  Jand  saccharine  than  do  the  middle  portions. 

Reactions  to  Chemicals.  Apply  very  gently  to  different 
portions  of  the  surface  a  few  drops  of  strychnine  varying  in 
strength  from  i:  loooo  to  i:  looooo;  also  solutions  of  different 
strengths,  of  saccharine  and  creosote. 

Touch.  Their  sensitiveness  to  touch  or  a  jar  may  be  seen 
by  tapping  gently  a  vessel  containing  them.  Blow  the  breath 
gently  against  the  head  end, — what  effect  ? 

Sight.  Earth  worms  may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time  in 
earthen  jars  containing  rich  soil.  (a).  Keep  the  entrance  of 
their  burrows  illuminated  all  night,  compare  in  the  morning  by 
weight  the  amount  of  castings  with  those  of  the  previous 
morning,  (b).  Compare  also  the  amount  of  food  eaten  with  that 
of  the  previous  night,  (c).  During  the  day  expose  (taking  care 
to  avoid  jarring  the  vessel)  the  top  of  the  vessel  suddenly  to 
the  light — note  how  quickly  the  worms  disappear  beneath  the 
surface  when  the  light  flashes  on  them.  (d).  Cover  a  pane  of 
glass  with  moist  filter  paper,  place  a  worm  upon  it  and  set  the 
glass  near  a  window — record  the  reactions  of  the  worm.  (e). 
Allow  direct  sunlight  to  fall  upon  the  head  end  of  the  worm, 
the  tail  end,  the  middle.     Make  note  of  the  reactions. 

Food.  Give  at  night  three  pieces  each  of  the  following 
vegetables — celery,  potato,  cabbage,  apple  and  onion — all  cut 
wedge  shaped.  Arrange  the  pieces  of  each  vegetable,  thus 
cut,  in  the  form  of  a  star,  with  their  bases  toward  a  common 
center.  Note  in  the  morning  what  pieces  have  been  most 
eaten  and  the  relative  position  of  the  pieces  that  have  been 

^  Darwin,  Charles :  The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould  through 
the  Actionof  worms,  with  observations  on  their  habits.  D.  Appleton 
&  Co.,  New  York,  1885,  pp.  326.  This  book  should  be  read  by  every 
student  of  nature,  not  merely  for  the  subject  matter  per  se,  but  more 
particularly  for  the  method  and  spirit  that  is  so  admirably  brought 
to  bear  on  a  group  of  commonplace  facts. 

^I^angdon,  Fanny  E. :  Am.  Jour,  of  Morphology,  1895,  Vol.  YI,  p. 
218. 

^Lenhossek,  Michael  V.:  Ursprung,  Verlauf  und  Bndigung  der 
sensibeln  Nervenfasern  bei  Lumbricus.  Arch.  f.  Micros.  Anat.,  1892, 
XXXIX,  pp.  106-136. 

JOURNAI,— 6 


4IO  KLINE: 

disturbed.  This  should  be  repeated  often  enough  to  establish 
with  certainty  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  preference  for  cer- 
tain foods. 

Taste.  Dip  a  piece  of  cabbage  or  celery  into  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  quinine  and  place  it  near  a  fresh  piece  of  the  same  food, 
of  same  size  and  shape — notice  whether  the  piece  dipped  in 
quinine  is  disturbed  during  the  night.  ^ 

Smell}  (a).  Bring  near  to  the  head  end  of  the  worm  in  suc- 
cession bits  of  sponges  or  filter  paper  saturated  with  water, 
with  sugar  solution,  with  onion  juice,  with  acetic  acid,  and  with 
beef  extract.  Does  the  worm  react?  (b).  Bury  in  a  hole 
about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  a  piece  of  onion.  Pack  the 
earth  firmly,  bury  a  second  piece  near  by  in  a  similar  way,  but 
do  not  pack  the  earth.  ^     Notice  which  is  first  disturbed. 

Boring  (a).  Place  three  or  four  worms  in  a  pot  of  loose 
earth  and  note  the  time  in  which  they  disappear,  (b).  Press 
and  pack  the  earth  and  repeat  the  experiment,  (c).  Try  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soils — note  where  the  worms  go  down.  Do  they 
swallow  the  earth  while  boring?  Methods  and  rate  of  boring 
may  be  conveniently  observed  in  tall  narrow  glass  jars.* 

Methods  of  Burying,  (a).  Place  without  order  in  a  jar  over 
night  fifty  dead  pine  needles.  In  another  jar  the  same  num- 
ber of  green  pine  needles.  Note  the  next  morning  the  arrange- 
ment of  dead  and  green  needles,  (b).  Make  the  same  exper- 
iment during  the  day  time — after  covering  the  top  of  the  jar 
with  a  black  cloth,  (c).  Put  dead  pine  needles  in  both  jars  ; 
keep  one  jar  in  a  temperature  of  about  22 °C  over  night,  and 
the  other  out  doors  uncovered.  Compare  the  number  of  needles 
drawn  in. 

Slugs.      {^Lhnax  Maximus.) 

This  species  of  gastropoda  may  be  found  ^  during  the  warmer 
seasons  in  gardens,  orchards,  dairy  houses  and  the  like,  and 
during  the  winter  seasons  in  greenhouses.  They  seek  dark, 
shady,  damp  places. 

iGraber,  Vitus:     Loc.  cit.,  pp.  290-295. 

'^  After  Darwin's,  probably  no  other  work  on  the  senses  of  earth 
worms  is  more  helpful  and  suggestive  than  that  of  Nagel's.  Biblio- 
theca  Zoologica,  Sept.  18,  1894,  pp.  146-150. 

3 This  experiment  was  used  by  Darwin  to  test  the  worms  sense  of 
smell.  The  food  placed  in  the  loose  earth  was  usually  found  first. 
Might  not  this  be  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  loose  earth  offered 
easier  penetration  to  the  worm  ? 

*For  the  powerof  worms  to  regenerate  lost  parts  see  T.  H.  Morgan's 
paper  in  Anat.  Anz.  Bd.  25.    No.  21,  s.  407,  1899. 

**!  keep  them  alive  all  winter  in  a  wooden  box  partly  filled  with 
rotten  wood  and  rich  soil  taken  from  their  natural  habitat.  They  eat 
ve.scetables,  fruits  and  meat. 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY.  4II 

Sense  Organs :  ^  Eyes,  auditory  vesicles  (otocysts) ,  tactile 
and  olfactory  organs  are  present. 

Senses.  They  react  to  odors, ^  sound,  touch,  light,  heat  and 
gravity. 

Sense  of  Smell}  (a).  Reactions  to  odors  in  the  form  of 
liquids  may  be  secured  by  putting  a  band  or  stream  of  the 
solution  on  a  pane  of  glass  at  right  angles  to  the  snail's  line  of 
motion.  Do  you  find  characteristic  reactions  toward  different 
odors.  Look  for  objectionable  and  unobjectionable  odors  ;  (b) 
note  in  seconds,  in  each  case,  the  interval  elapsing  before  the 
first  responses. 

Sight,  (a).  Do  they  discern  objects?*  Weir®  is  inclined 
to  think  that  they  do.  "  The  snail  carries  its  eyes  in  telescopic 
watch-towers  .  .  .  and,  as  semi-prominent  and  commanding 
view  points  are  assigned  to  its  organs  of  sight,  one  would  nat- 
urally expect  to  find  a  comparatively  high  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  them."  His  experimental  test  runs  thus:  At  the  end 
of  a  ten  foot  pole  suspend,  by  means  of  a  string,  a  white  or 
black  ball.  The  ball  is  made  to  describe  a  pendulum-like 
movement  to  and  fro  in  front  of  the  snail  on  a  level  with  the 
tips  of  its  horns.  I  suggest  that  a  pane  of  glass  be  interposed 
between  the  snail  and  the  swinging  ball,  thus  preventing  the 
possibility  of  creating  disturbing  air  currents,  (b).  Put  a 
specimen  on  a  pane  of  glass  8x  10,  and  place  the  glass  horizon- 
tally near  a  window  and  let  the  slug  be  parallel  to  the  window. 
Do  not  let  direct  sunlight  fall  upon  it.^  Plot  the  position  of 
the  slug  at  intervals  of  ten  seconds.^ 

Taste}  NageP  believes  that  the  lips  and  mouth  parts  of 
the  slug  are  moderately  susceptible  to  taste  stimulus.  By 
means  of  a  pipette,  place  one  at  a  time,  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  snail's  line  of  motion,  a  band  of  distilled  water,  of  a  weak 
solution  of  sugar,  of  acetic  acid,  of  quinine,  of  alcohol,  of 
cheese- water,  of  meat  juice,  etc., — make  a  record  of  its  behavior 
on  reaching  the  different  bands  of  solution. 

Locomotion.  Place  the  slug  on  the  glass  and  study  its  loco- 
motion from  the  under  side  of  the  plate. 

^Claus  and  Sedgwick  :    Text-book  of  Zoology.     1884,  Vol.  II,  p.  34. 

^Spengel,  J.  W. :  Die  Geruchsorgane  und  das  Nervensystem  der 
Molluskin.     Zeit.  f.  wiss.  Z06I.,  Vol.  XXXIV. 

3Nagel,  Wilibald  A.:  Bibliotheca  Zoologica,  heft,  18,  pp.  163-168, 
1894. 

*  Lubbock,  Sir  John  :  Senses,  Instincts,  and  Intelligence  of  Animals, 
p.  140. 

5  Weir,  James :    Zd?^.  «V.,  pp.  18-20. 

^Hot  water  or  a  solution  of  ether  and  alcohol  will  cleanse  the  glass 
of  the  slime  which  should  frequently  be  removed. 

'Loeb,J.:  DerHeliotropismusderThiere.  Wiirzburg,  1890,  pp.  93-100. 

8  Lubbock,  Sir  John  :    Loc.  cit.,  p.  22. 

^Nagel,  W.  A. :    Loc.  cit.y  p.  164. 


412  KLINK: 

Geotactic  Sense.  A  rough  and  ready  demonstrational  method 
is  to  place  the  slug  on  a  pane  of  glass,  parallel  to  one  edge  of 
the  pane,  hold  the  pane  vertical  and  shield  from  lateral  lights. 
Represent  graphically  the  position  of  the  slug  at  the  beginning 
of  the  experiment,  and  at  intervals  of  ten  seconds,  for  about  a 
minute. 

The  geotactic  sense  of  the  slug  has  been  so  well  demon- 
strated by  Davenport  ^  that  I  can  do  no  better  than  give  his 
methods.  A  dark,  wooden  box  of  cubical  form  about  35  cm. 
in  diameter,  a  dense,  opaque,  black  cloth  to  cover  the  open 
side  of  the  box  which  must  be  directed  upwards,  are  required; 
a  glass  plate  about  30  cm.^  square  carries  the  slug  and  is  so 
placed  in  the  dark  box  that  one  edge  fits  into  one  of  the  lower 
angles  of  the  box  while  the  opposite  edge  may  be  elevated  to 
any  degree  ranging  from  0°  to  90°.  Measure  the  angles  off, 
upon  one  side  of  the  box,  and  bore  a  hole  at  every  fifth  degree, 
so  that  the  glass  plate  may  rest  on  plugs  inserted  into  the 
holes.  The  angular  deviation  of  the  axis  of  the  body  during 
a  given  time  from  the  position  in  which  it  was  first  placed  may 
be  measured  off  by  means  of  a  protractor. 

If  the  student  desire  to  pursue  the  question  of  geotaxis  fur- 
ther, he  may  investigate  to  answer  the  following  questions,  which 
may  readily  be  determined  by  experimentation,  (a).  ''What 
relation  exists  between  a  variation  in  the  pressure  of  gravity 
and  the  precision  of  orientation  ?"  (b).  *'  What  is  the  limiting 
pressure  which  will  call  forth  the  geotactic  response?"  * 

The  former  is  demonstrated  by  ascertaining  the  angular 
deviation  of  the  slug  from  a  vertical  position  upon  the  plate  at 
various  inclinations  from  0°  to  90°,  and  after  the  lapse  of  a 
constant  time  (45  seconds).  The  data  gained  in  answer  to  the 
first  problem  furnishes  an  answer  to  the  second. 

Preliminary  to  (a)  :  Ascertain  whether  the  quickness  of 
the  response  of  the  slug  is  modified  by  the  strength  of  the 
action  of  gravity,  i.  e.,  does  the  slug  respond  as  quickly  and 
effect  as  complete  an  orientation  at  say  15°  as  at  75°?  For 
this  purpose,  place  the  slug  on  the  glass  so  that  its  long  axis 
is  parallel  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  plate.  Set  the  glass  suc- 
cessively at  60°,  45°,  30°,  20°  and  15°,  and  make  five  tests  at 
each  angle  upon  one  and  the  same  slug.  Two  time  intervals 
should  be  taken  :  ( i )  the  time  elapsing  before  the  first 
response  to  gravity  occurs,  and  (2)  the  interval  required  for 

1  Davenport,  C.  B.  :    Jour.  Phys.,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  99-110,  1897-98. 

2 1  receive  satisfactory  results  from  a  box  10x8  xy  inches  deep. 

*In  addition  to  these  questions,  Dr.  Davenport  asks  a  third  :  What 
determines  the  position  of  the  head  end  ?  A  solution  of  this  ques- 
tion involves  experimentation  beyond  what  is  contemplated  in  this 
course. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  413 

the  organism  to  place  its  entire  axis  in  a  vertical  position.  To 
avoid  exposing  the  slug  to  the  action  of  light  during  the  pre- 
liminary experiment,  the  completeness  of  orientation  should 
be  observed  after  different  periods  of  time,  e.  g.,  at  the  end 
of  30,  40,  and  50  seconds.  That  period  in  which  orientation 
is  just  effected  should  be  the  time  selected  for  future  experi- 
ments. 

(a).  Set  the  plate  at  the  following  angles  :  90°,  60^,  45°, 
30°,  20°,  10°  and  0°.  At  each  angle  make  six  determinations 
on  each  one  of  five  slugs.  For  each  angle  find  the  mean  of 
the  thirty  determinations  of  the  angular  deviation  of  the  slug 
from  the  vertical  position,  (b)  note  the  extreme  deviations 
from  the  vertical  in  the  case  of  each  slug.^ 

Fish. 

A  study  of  fishes  in  the  interests  of  comparative  psychology 
is  exceedingly  desirable,  for  the  reason  that  they  stand  at  the 
bottom  of  the  great  back-boned  series  of  animal  life  presenting 
in  a  simple  and  fundamental  form  all  the  essential  structures 
characteristic  of  that  group.  To  the  fish  we  owe  a  debt  for 
having  encased  the  nervous  system  in  a  bony  vertebral  column, 
for  developing  an  efficient  neuro-motor  mechanism  operating 
about  a  stiff  longitudinal  axis,  and  for  having  **  staked  out" 
or  laid  down  the  ground  plan  of  the  nervous  system  on  which 
the  forces  of  evolution  have  erected  the  complex  structures  of 
higher  forms. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  fish  suitable  for  such  a  study; 
pickerel^  (^E so x  Americana) ,  perch  (^Perca  Americana)  ^  goldfish 
{Cyprinus  Atcraius) ,  horned  pout,  common  bullhead  {Ameiurus 
nebulosus)  and  shiners  and  spotted  tail  minnows  {Notropus 
Juidsonius)  and  stickle-back  {Eucaiia  inconstans).  Both  pick- 
erel and  perch  should  be  kept  in  large  aquaria  supplied  with  a 
continuous  flow  of  water — a  forced  stream  is  preferable.  Chara, 
water  cress,  or  other  water  grasses  should  be  supplied  and, 
of  course,  permitted  to  grow.  Shiners,  earth  worms,  newts, 
young  frogs  serve  as  food.  Gold  fish  do  not  require  constant 
running  water.  It  .should  be  changed,  however,  every  week 
or  two.  Supply  the  aquaria  with  sand  and  pebbles,  and  grasses 
— like  water  cress,  cabomba,  chara. 

Food  for  gold  fish  may  be  had  of  the  dealers. 

Food,     (a)  Feed  regularly — daily  or  every  other  day  depend- 

^  See  also  Geotaxis  by  Davenport,  Experimental  Morphology,  Part 
I,  p.  119. 

■^The  scientific  names  of  North  American  fishes  can  be  found  in  U. 
S.  Com.  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  report  of  1895,  pp.  209-590.  This  work 
was  prepared  by  President  David  Starr  Jordan  and  Dr.  B.  W.  Ever- 


414  KLINE : 

ing  on  the  species  and  somewhat  on  the  season.  Note  the 
time  required  for  the  different  species  to  recognize  your  approach 
and  presence.^  Do  some  never  learn  to  recognize  you ?  (b). 
Compare  the  manner  in  which,  e.  g.,  perch^  and  pickerel 
seize  their  food  (live  minnows).  Can  you  account  for  the  dif- 
ference? (c).  See  if  you  can  detect  a  carnivorous  fish  stalking 
its  prey.  (d).  Cut  the  rice  wafer  preparation  for  gold  fish  into 
pieces  about  i  cm.  square.  Give  the  fish,  along  with  the  two 
or  three  pieces  of  wafer,  a  piece  of  decided  yellow  paper  cut 
like  the  wafer  in  size  and  shape.  Note  carefully  the  results. 
Repeat  the  experiment  often  enough  to  justify  a  conclusion. 
Next  give  them  paper  of  a  much  lighter  yellow  and  observe 
their  behavior  toward  it.  Is  it  touch  or  taste  or  both  that  ac- 
quaints them  with  the  paper?  Finally,  give  them  cut  pieces 
of  white  filter  paper,  which  very  closely  resembles  the  rice 
wafer.  At  each  experiment  do  not  give  more  than  two  or  three 
bits  of  rice  wafer  with  the  one  piece  of  paper.  It  would  be  of 
great  interest  to  find  out  if  the  gold  fish  would  ever  learn  not 
to  strike  at  the  white  filter  paper,  (e).  Feed'  perch  on  shiners 
for  three  months,  then  partition  off  a  portion  of  their  aquarium 
with  a  pane  of  glass.  Every  other  day,  at  the  feeding  hour,  put 
shiners  in  the  new  division.  Note  on  each  occasion  the  num- 
ber of  attempts  made  by  the  perch  to  catch  the  minnows. 
Remove  the  minnows  from  the  tank  at  the  end  of  each  observa- 
tion. Feed  the  perch  earth  worms  on  days  not  experimenting. 
Should  the  perch  finally  become  indifferent  toward  the  minnows, 
remove  the  glass  partition.  Note  the  effect,  (f) .  Some  fish,  like 
pickerel,  appear  to  have  "table  manners,"  others,  like  stickle- 
backs, snatch  at  times  the  food  from  each  other's  mouths  as  do 
the  hens. 

Temperature.^  The  sensitiveness^  of  fish  to  temperature 
varies  greatly  among  different  species,  (a).  If  a  minnow  be 
transferred  from  a  temperature  of  about  20° C  to  2°-4°C,  and 
allowed  to  remain  ^  minute,  it  will  soon  appear  as  dead.     If, 

1  Mcintosh,  W.  C:  Note  on  the  Memory  of  Fishes.  Journal  of 
Mental  Science,  Vol.  XLIV,  pp.  231-235,  1898. 

^Neither  pickerel  nor  perch  eat  dead  fish. 

8  This  experiment  was  suggested  by  the  famous  experiment  of  Mobius 
on  pike.  The  story  runs  that  pike,  having  lived  for  some  time  in  a 
tank  separated  by  a  glass  plate  from  another  in  which  small  fish  were 
living  finally  desisted  from  trying  to  catch  them,  and  on  the  glass  plate 
being  removed  made  no  attempt  to  molest  the  small  fish.  See  inter- 
pretation by  Prof.  Bateson.  Journal  of  Marine  Biological  Association, 
pp.  243,  1890. 

*  For  an  account  of  some  experimentation  and  observation  on  the 
Sense-Organs  and  Perceptions  of  Fishes,  see  W.  Bateson  in  Journal  of 
Marine  Biological  Association,  Vol.  I,  pp.  239-248. 

*Goode,  G.  Brown:  U.  S.  Fish  Com.  Report,  1877,  pp.  51-72. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOIX)GY.  415 

after  a  minute,  it  be  transferred  successively  through  io°C,  15° 
C,  and  back  to  20° C,  life  returns; — transferring  directly  from  2° 
to  2o°C  often  kills  the  fish. 

(b)^  The  following  apparatus  may  be  used  not  only  for  test- 
ing their  sensitiveness  to  temperature,  but  also  for  finding  their 
optimum.     (I  suggest  that  the  test  be  made  with  shiners,  using 


20  or  30  at  a  time).  A  zinc  trough  about  20  cm.  deep,  16  cm. 
wide  and  2.4  meters  long  supported  by  a  wooden  frame. 
[See  cut.]  Solder  to  the  bottom  of  the  trough  16  cm.  from 
one  end  a  tin  box  12  cm.  wide,  15  cm.  long  and  6  cm.  deep. 
The  box  receives  water  through  a  hole  cut  in  the  zinc 
trough.  Solder  a  stand-pipe  to  the  zinc  trough  about  the 
hole  leading  to  the  tin  box.  Apply  heat  to  the  tin  box. 
The  water  in  the  trough  should  not  exceed  2^  inches  in 
depth.  The  end  opposite  the  tin  box  should  rest  on  iced 
sawdust.  Ice  may  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  trough,  and 
also  put  in  the  water  to  secure  desired  differences  of  tempera- 
ture. I^ay  lengthwise  of  the  trough  a  strip  of  board  contain- 
ing %  inch  holes  about  six  inches  apart.  Thrust  thermometers 
through  the  holes  and  into  the  water  two  inches  below  its 
surface. 

Sight.^  Observations*  made  on  different  species  readily 
show  that  there  are  wide  differences  in  their  range  of  vision, 
e.g.,  perch  appear  to  recognize  the  human  figure  about  30 
feet  away,  minnows  20  to  25  feet  away  and  pickerel  10  to  15 
feet. 

With  the  room  darkened  and  with  a  magic  lantern  mounted 

lAii  apparatus  of  this  sort  gave  satisfactory  results  in  searching  for 
the  optimum  temperature  of  tadpoles.  See  Am.  Jour.  0/ Psychology, 
1898,  Vol  X,  No.  I,  pp.  8-10. 

^Bateson,  W. :   Loc.  cit.,  pp.  242-248. 

^One  may  connect  with  observations  on  the  sight  of  fishes  experi- 
ments and  observations  on  their  color  changes.  The  horned  pout  is 
said  to  alter  its  color  when  transferred  from  a  white  to  a  dark  dish. 
Abbott  and  others  cite  cases  of  color  changes  during  emotional  excite- 
ment. The  different  hues  on  my  perch  are  more  pronounced  after  an 
exciting  chase  for  a  minnow.  It  appears  that  changes  in  the  intensity 
.  of  light  causes  apparent  changes  in  color. 


4i6  KLINE: 

on  a  rotating  table  placed  about  three  feet  from  the  aquarium, 
throw  a  bright  light  on  the  aquarium  in  the  region  of  the  fish. 
Should  the  fish  finally  move  away  or  just  out  of  the  zone  of 
light,  rotate  the  table  until  the  light  covers  his  entire  body. 
See  if,  by  repeating  this  process,  you  can  drive  them  back  and 
forth  between  the  ends  of  the  aquarium.  It  would  be  interest- 
ing to  see  if  they  react  toward  colored  light  as  toward  white. 
Bateson  found  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  reaction  toward 
white  and  colored  light  among  the  species  tested  by  him.^  Give 
to  a  species  of  day  feeders  food  at  night, — note  their  behavior 
by  means  of  a  dark  lantern. 

Hearing.  Ichthyologists^  are  generally  agreed  that  fish  do 
not  hear  sounds  transmitted  by  air  waves.  ^  The  ear  apparatus 
is  usually  interpreted  as  an  organ  for  equilibration.  They  do 
respond  to  vibratile  motions  imparted  to  the  water  by  solid 
bodies.  Some  fish  are  known  to  make  noises,  and  even  musi- 
cal sounds  w^hich  are  heard  by  other  fishes  of  their  kind. 
Would  acuteness  of  hearing  be  of  any  advantage  to  the  fish  ? 

Emotions,  The  works  of  Romanes,  Brehm,  Giinther,  Dar- 
win, Abbott  and  others  cite  instances  of  the  activities  of  fish 
that  are  expressive  of  fear,  pugnacity,  social,  sexual  and 
parental  feelings,  anger,  jealousy,  play  and  curiosity.  How 
many  of  these  emotions  do  you  notice  ?  * 

Chicks. 

"I  have  now  described,  perhaps  in  undue  detail,  a  few  of  my  obser- 
vations as  noted  down  at  the  time.  To  some  they  may  seem  trivial, 
and  scarcely  worth  the  making  and  the  noting.  To  us,  as  students 
of  comparative  psychology,  their  interest  lies  in  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  beginnings  of  psychical  life  and  activity  in  the  chick  or 
d  uck . " — Morgan . 

*  Bateson,  W. :    Loc.  cit.y  pp.  251-252. 

^Ivce,  F.  S. :  A  Study  of  the  Sense  of  Equilibrium  in  Fishes.  Jour, 
of  Physiology,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  311-348. 

^  Kreidl,  Alois  :  Ueber  die  Schallperception  der  Fische.  Archiv  f . 
d.  ges.  Physiology,  1895,  Vol.  lyXI,  pp.  450-464 ;  also  Bin  weiterer 
Versuch  iiber  das  angebliche  Horen  eines  Glockenzeichens  durch  die 
Fische.     Archiv  f .  d.  ges.  Physiologic,  1896,  Vol.  LXIII,  pp.  581-586. 

*  From  my  observations  on  shiners,  I  am  persuaded  that  they,  at 
least,  possess  the  capacity  for  feigning  death.  Pickerel  will  not  eat 
dead  fish — at  any  rate  mine  do  not.  Sometimes  they  are  not  success- 
ful at  the  first  two  or  three  attempts  in  seizing  a  shiner.  These 
unsuccessful  attempts  greatly  excite  the  small  fish,  which  dart 
hither  and  thither  pursued  by  the  pickerel.  The  chase  may  finally 
be  given  up  or  the  pickerel  may  seize  one,  after  which  all  becomes 
quiet.  It  is  at  this  period  that  the  lucky  shiner  seeks  a  dark  place 
and  lies  flat  on  one  side  as  when  dead.  I  have  been  deceived  several 
times  myself  when,  on  going  to  remove  them  from  the  tank,  thinking 
they  were  dead,  they  would  dart  with  lightning  speed  to  some  new 
quarter. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOI.OGY.  417 

The  fact  that  chicks  can  be  reared  under  test  conditions  and 
by  the  care  of  foster-parents,  makes  it  possible  to  see  more  clearly 
just  what  responses  are  due  to  inheritance,  e.  g.,  pecking, 
cuddling,  making  their  toilet ;  and  what  are  due  to  sense- 
experience,  operating  under  the  principles  of  association,  e.  g., 
responses  to  agreeable  and  disagreeable  foods. 

First  Day.  Senses^,  (a).  While  peeping  in  the  shell, ^ 
whistle,*  clap  the  hands  near  the  ^%%,  hold  a  tuning-fork  near — 
is  there  a  response  to  these  sounds  ? 

(b).  After  they  have  recovered  from  the  "catastrophe  of 
birth,"  repeat  the  sounds  made  in  (a)  and  others  that  suggest 
themselves.  Repeat  this  at  ages  12,  24,  36,  and  48*  hours, 
respectively,  and  note  the  differences  in  responses  both  as  to 
the  increasing  perfection  of  the  sense  of  hearing  and  in  the 
expression  of  the  emotions. 

(c).  Has  tapping  on  the  floor  near  the  food  with  a  pencil 
any  suggestive^  value — through  the  auditory  sense — to  the 
chicks  pecking  ? 

2.  Note  behavior  toward  different  odors,  e.  g,,  spearmint, 
iodoform,  cologne,  cheese,  asafcetida,  etc.  Odors  may  con- 
veniently be  presented  on  bits  of  cotton  batting  held  by 
forceps. 

3.  At  about  the  age  of  12  hours  test  the  field  of  vision  by 
dropping  bright  bits  of  shell  or  meal  before  them.  Move  the 
food  back  and  forth,  up  and  down,  before  them.  Do  they 
peck  at  food  beyond  their  reach  ?^  Is  it  necessary  to  touch  the 
eye  to  get  a  winking  reflex? 

4.  Touch  their  feet  with  cold,  medium,  and  quite  warm 
wire — note  the  response  in  each  case.  Note  fondness  for  sun- 
shine. 

Instinctive  Move7nents?  (a).  Note  efforts  to  stand,*  to 
walk^  follow  moving  objects  ^° — do  they  show  preferences  here  ? 
Note  position  of  head  and  neck  when  sitting.  Whenever 
possible  early  movements  of  other  birds  should  be  noted  and 

1  Suggestions  and  directions  for  hatching  chicks  by  means  of  an  in- 
cubator may  be  had  by  writing  to  any  reputable  manufacturer  of 
incubators. 

^Morgan,  C.  Lloyd:    Habit  and  Instinct,  1896,  pp.  31-32. 

^Hudson,  W.  H.  :    Naturalist  in  La  Plata,  1892,  pp.  99. 

*  Spalding,  D.  A.:  Instinct.  Macraillan's  Magazine,  Feb.,  1873, 
Vol.  XXVII. 

^  Darwin,  Charles  :    Expression  of  the  Emotions,  1872,  p.  47. 

«  Preyer,  W. :  The  Mind  of  the  Child,  p.  239.  Translated  by  H.  W. 
Brown,  1888. 

^  Preyer,  W. :     Loc.  cit. 

^  Morgan,  C.  Lloyd  :     Habit  and  Instinct.     Chapter  3. 

^  Mills,  Wesley  :  The  Nature  and  Development  of  Animal  Intelli- 
gence. 

^°  Groos,  Karl :     The  Play  of  Animals.     Chapter  3. 


4i8  KLINE: 

compared  with  those  of  chicks,  e.  g. ,  standing,  walking,  and 
swimming  of  the  duck.  (b).  Make  a  list  of  all  those  activi- 
ties that  may  be  regarded  as  instinctive,  /.  ^. ,  "  congenitally  per- 
fect," as  pecking;  cuddling  (do  they  show  a  preference  here  or 
do  they  cuddle  indifferently  under  any  object)?  Do  loud, 
sharp  sounds  shock  or  frighten  them  ? 

Voice.  How  many  distinct  sounds  can  be  distinguished  at 
this  age? 

Second  Day.  i.  Repeat  experiments  on  the  senses,  adding 
to  the  list  experiments  on  taste  by  giving  them  bits  of  lemon 
and  orange  ^  peelings,  or  a  bit  of  blotting  paper  of  pronounced 
color  saturated  with  quinine.  Note  with  special  care  the  in- 
creased perfection  of  sight  and  hearing. 

2.  Note  all  activities  of  food  getting,  such  as  pecking, 
seizing,  bill-movements,  swallowing,  etc.  Offer  them  water 
(water  should  not  be  offered  earlier  than  the  second  day),  and 
observe  just  how  they  come  to  drink.  Offer  them  an  earth 
worm,  beetle,  or  the  like,  and  note  the  effects  of  competition. 
Imitative^  acts  are  liable  to  occur  at  the  end  of  the  second  and 
the  beginning  of  the  third  day.  For  discovery  ^  and  accurate 
description  they  require  careful  observation.''  What  is  the 
nature  of  the  activities  imitated,  racial  or  acquired  ? 

3.  Observe  the  following:  (a)  certain  activities  fading  out, 
(b)  new  ones  appearing,^  <?.  ^^.,  preening  feathers,  flapping 
wings,  wallowing,  scratching — will  they  scratch  on  a  bare  sur- 
face, or  do  they  require  a  bit  of  sand  or  grain  to  touch  off  the 
scratching  apparatus?  these  may  not  occur  until  third  and 
fourth  days,  (c)  Are  there  any  which  they  do  from  individual 
experience  ? 

Memory  and  Associations.^  To  study  the  formation  of  asso- 
ciations in  the  chick  the  sense  of  taste  may  easily  be  employed. 
Offer  them  some  bitter  or  disagreeable  substance  of  a  pro- 
nounced color  as  food.  The  number  of  experiences  which  the 
chick  has  with  the  disagreeable  substance  before  it  avoids  or 
neglects  it  altogether  is  a  rough  measure  of  the  time  required 
for  a  permanent  association  to  be  formed  between  the  color  of 
the  food  and  its  disagreeable  effects  when  taken  into  the  mouth^ 

1  Hunt,  H.  E. :     Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  1897,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  125-127. 

2  Morgan,  C.  Lloyd  :     Loc.  cit.,  pp.  166-185. 

^  Romanes  :     Mental  Evolution  in  Animals,  pp.  222-223. 

*  For  imitative  movements  in  the  child,  see  Preyer  :  The  Senses 
and  the  Will.     Tr.  by  H.  W.  Brown,     pp.  282-292. 

*  James,  W. :  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  394-402.  See  Transitoriness 
of  Instincts. 

^Thorndike,  E.  L. :  Animal  Intelligence.  Supp.  Psy.  Rev.,  1898, 
pp.  65.78. 

■^Morgan,  C.  Lloyd  :  Introduction  to  Comparative  Psychology, 
1894.     Chapter  5,  Association  of  Ideas  in  Animals. 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY.  419 

An  experiment  of  this  sort  may  require  several  successive  days 
of  observation.  The  permanency  of  the  association  should  be 
tested  by  offering  the  objectionable  substance  several  days 
apart.  ^ 

Third  Day.  Instinctive  Activities.  Note  the  first  appear- 
ance of  attempts  to  scratch  the  head,  to  wallow,  to  play,  and 
under  what  conditions  these  things  occur. 

Emotions.     Joy,  fear,  anger  may  be  expressed  at  this  age. 

Solitude  and  Society.  The  effect  of  solitude  may  be  observed 
by  isolating  one  chick  completely  from  his  kind — not  even 
letting  it  hear  the  voices  of  other  chicks.  Feed  it  on  a  limited 
variety  of  diet.  At  the  end  of  four  or  five^  days,  introduce  it 
to  a  flock  that  have  enjoyed  society  and  a  larger  variety  of  ex- 
perience.    Observe  its  initiation  into  this  larger  world. 

The  above  outline,  covering  the  first  three  days  of  chick  life, 
and  indicating  the  kind  of  observations  to  be  made  for  the 
advantage  of  psychology  may  be  continued  with  profit  twelve 
to  fourteen  days,  the  duration  depending  largely  upon  the 
problems  set  for  the  chicks  to  do. 

The  White  Rat. 

**  No  ghost  story  or  tale  of  horrid  murder  has  been  considered  quite 
complete  without  its  rat  peering  from  some  dark  corner." — Cram. 

To  Mr.  Willard  S.  Small  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  both  the 
form  and  matter  of  this  section.  The  outline  here  presented 
by  Mr.  Small  for  studying  this  rodent  is  based  on  his  own  very 
painstaking  investigations,  which  have  extended  over  nearly 
two  years.  With  appropriate  variations — dictated  of  course 
by  the  instincts,  dominant  traits,  etc.,  of  the  rodent  to  be 
studied,  the  outline  may  serve  for  further  investigations  on 
other  members  of  that  family. 

The  white  rat  presents  some  modifications  of  the  psychical 
character  of  his  wild  congeners,*  but  these  are  comparatively 
slight.  The  description  given  by  Brehm  *  of  the  character  of 
mus  decumanus  applies  to  the  domesticated  white  rat  with 
almost  equal  accuracy.  The  principal  difference  in  psychic 
outfit  is  the  inferiority  of  vision  in  the  white  rat.  The  eye 
is  unpigmented  and  seems  to  be  a  much  less  important  instru- 
ment than  with  the  wild  varieties.^ 

On  account  of  their  early  maturity,  healthiness  (under  nor- 

1  Kline,  L.  W. :     Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  Vol.  X,  p.  273. 

^Ibid.y  pp.  271-272. 

^Brehm:  Thierleben  (Saiijyethiere,  Vol.  II,  p.  342  ff.).  A  character- 
ization of  the  species  Muridae. 

*  Brehm  :     Loc.  cit.,  p.  349. 

^  Rod  well,  James:  The  Rat  (I^ondon:  Routledge  and  Sons)  is  a 
mine  of  anecdotal  literature  upon  the  rat, 


420  KLINE  : 

mal  conditions^),  gentleness  and  cleanliness  white  rats  are  well 
adapted  for  experimental  studies. 

/.  The  Psychic  Development  of  the  Young  Rat.  The  white 
rat,  born  blind  and  deaf,  passes  through  two  distinct  phases 
of  psychic  development:^  the  period  before,  and  the  period  after, 
sight  and  hearing  begin  to  function.  The  method  in  this  sec- 
tion is  to  follow  the  development  of  the  animal's  psychical  ac- 
tivities from  birth  until  the  age  of  five  or  six  weeks.  The  only 
factor  appearing  after  this  age  is  the  sex  instinct.  This  appears 
about  the  ninth  or  tenth  week. 

Sensation.®  First  day.  i.  Smell.  Test*  with  several  sub- 
stances, ^.^.,  fresh  milk,  cologne  water,  hydrochloric  acid. 
Observe:  (a)  the  character  of  the  reactions — how  many  kinds? 
(b)  whether  the  reactions  seem  to  indicate  pleasure  or  dis- 
pleasure in  each  case;  (c)  can  you  distinguish  between  the 
act  of  sensing  and  the  motor  reaction?  (d)  do  you  distinguish 
the  vibratory  movements  of  the  nostrils  so  characteristic  of  the 
rodents  ? 

2.  Taste.  Open  the  mouth  and  place  upon  the  tongue : 
fresh  milk,  honey  or  sugar  solution,  aloes  or  quinine  solution, 
or  other  substances.  Observe:  (a)  the  reactions;  (b)  whether 
they  seem  to  indicate  discrimination  of  tastes.^ 

3.  Tactile  Sensibility,  (a)  Touch  the  skin  lightly  on  various 
parts  of  the  body;  (b)  draw  a  bristle  across  the  back,  flank  or 
side,  and  over  the  nose;  (c)  pinch  very  lightly  the  tail,  foot, 
and  sides  or  flank;  (d)  touch  any  part  with  a  cold  wire  (32°), 
and  then  with  a  hot  wire  (not  hot  enough  to  burn);  (e)  notice 
also  the  rats'  extreme  sensitiveness  to  changes  of  atmospheric 

iThe  following  conditions  should  be  observed  :  (i)  the  rats  must 
be  kept  in  a  warm  room — temperature  ""not  lower  than  50**  F.;  (2)  the 
floors  of  the  cages  should  be  covered  one  inch  deep  with  clean  saw- 
dust; this  should  be  changed  at  least  once  a  week;  (3)  the  cages 
should  be  so  arranged  as  to  protect  the  rats  from  strong  light ;  (4)  a 
simple  diet  of  dog  biscuit  and  milk  and  occasional  green  stuff,  e.  g., 
apples  or  lettuce,  gives  good  results.  Fresh  water  each  day.  Offen- 
sive odors  are  minimized  by  carefully  observing  (2)  and  (4). 

An  excellent  observation  cage  may  be  made  as  follows  :  dimensions, 
length,  20  inches;  height,  16  inches;  width,  16  inches;  floor,  back, 
and  top  of  wood;  one  end  of  wire  mesh  {%  inch)  for  ventilation; 
front  and  other  end  of  glass.  This  insures  observation  of  all  activities, 
and  is  large  enough  for  the  introduction  of  necessary  apparatus. 

2 Mills,  Wesley:     Animal  Intelligence,  p.  167. 

^In  connection  with  the  observations  upon  sensation,  it  will  prove 
interesting  and  suggestive  to  note  the  conditions  of  the  sense  organs. 

*Bits  of  paper  held  by  forceps  are  convenient  for  this  purpose.  The 
odorous  substance  should  be  held  from  2  to  5  mm.  from  the  nostrils. 
Other  odors  and  irritating  fluids  should  be  used.  For  similar  tests 
upon  other  rodents,  cf.  Mills,  W.:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  234,  241.  Distinguish 
carefully  between  the  effects  of  odors  and  irritating  fluids. 

5 Mills,  Wesley:     Loc.  cit. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  42 1 

temperature  as  indicated  by  rapid  lowering  of  bodily  tempera- 
ture and  retardation  of  heart-beat  when  brought  from  the  nest 
into  a  cooler  atmosphere;  (f )  observe  also  their  apparent  satis- 
faction when  covered  with  the  hand. 

4.  ' '  Sense  of  Support. ' '  ^  Place  the  young  rat  near  the  edge 
of  the  table,  and  note  whether  it  crawls  off  or  hesitates  at  the 
edge  and  shows  uneasiness.^ 

5.  Sense  of  Position}  Place  the  rat  upon  a  pane  of  glass 
in  horizontal  position,  with  the  sagittal  axis  of  body  parallel 
with  two  sides  of  the  pane;  then  tip  the  pane — each  end  and 
side  in  turn — and  note  the  angle  required  to  elicit  a  response, 
i.  e.,  an  effort  to  compensate  the  inclination  of  the  pane. 

Second  to  fifteenth  day}  Follow  the  same  line  of  observation, 
noting  these  more  general  points.^ 

1.  Smell,  (a).  The  tests  may  be  made  with  the  same  sub- 
stances, or  variations  may  be  introduced.  In  the  former  case, 
note  the  effect  of  growing  familiarity  upon  the  reactions;  (b) 
note  whether  there  is  any  diminution  in  the  time  required  for 
sensing  the  stimulus;  and  (c)  distinguish  between  sensing  of 
stimulus  and  motor  response. 

2.  Taste}  The  experiments  need  not  be  repeated  more 
than  twice  during  the  first  week;  after  that,  every  second  day. 

3.  Instinctive  Activities?  First  day.  i.  When  the  young 
rats  are  held  in  the  hand,  observe  their  tendency  to  roll  up 
into  a  ball.  2.  Place  them  upon  a  smooth  table  and  ob- 
serve their  efforts;®  (a)  to  stand,  (b)  to  crawl,  (c)  to  hold 
up  and  move  the  head  from  side  to  side  ;  (d)  observe  further 
whether  they  seek  to  get  together;  explain  the  reason  of  this 
movement    and  consider  whether  it  has  any  significance  for 

1  Mills,  Wesley:  Animal  Intelligence,  pp.  118,  150,  176,  225.  Mor- 
gan, C.  Lloyd  :     Habit  and  Instinct,  p.  107. 

2 This  experiment  may  be  impracticable  the  first  day  on  account  of 
the  limited  locomotion  of  the  rats. 

^Sanford,  B.  C:  Experimental  Psychology,  p.  36.  Lee,  F.  S.:  Jour, 
of  Physiology,  Vols.  XV  and  XVII. 

*  Weigh  the  rat  and  measure  length  of  body  and  head  from  time  to 
time. 

^  Mills,  W.:  Lac.  cit.  Prof.  Mills's  work  should  be  familiar.  The 
differences  brought  out  in  his  studies,  between  young  animals  of  dif- 
ferent species,  are  most  instructive.  Preyer,  W.:  The  Mind  of  the 
Child— the  Senses  and  Will.     ( Tr.  by  H.  W.  Brown.)     p.  257  ff. 

6  The  experiments  on  taste  and  smell  maybe  varied  profitably  by 
introducing  the  factors  of  hunger  and  satiety.  Compare  rats  taken  at 
random  from  the  nest  with  some  that  have  been  segregated  for  two  to 
four  hours,  according  to  age.     (N.  B.     Keep  them  warm.) 

'Morgan,  C.  Lloyd:  Habit  and  Instincts.  Ch.  5.  For  a  discussion 
of  "Instinct,"  of.  Ch.  i.  Also  Groos,  Karl:  The  Play  of  Animals. 
Marshall,  H.  R.:  Instinct  and  Reason  (MacMillan,  1898).  James, 
W.:     Psychology,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  24. 

.^For  comparison  with  other  rodents,  cf.  Mills,  W.:    Loc.  cit. 


422  KI.INE  : 

the  origin  of  the  "social  instinct."  3.  Turn  them  over  upon 
their  backs;  note  their  efforts  to  turn  over  upon  their  bellies; 
note  also  the  variety  of  movements  in  these  efforts  and  the  lack 
of  muscular  co-ordination. 

4.  Try  to  observe  the  sucking  activity  from  the  first.  ^  (a) 
Do  the  new-born  rats  find  the  mother's  teats  immediately  by 
a  "  congenitally  perfect  instinct,"  or  is  there  accident  in  the 
process?  (b).  Do  they  vSuck  any  other  part  of  the  mother  than 
the  teats?    (c).   Does  the  mother  render  assistance? 

5.  Test  their  clinging  power — letting  them  cling,  unsup- 
ported, to  your  finger.^  The  attempt  should  be  made  constantly 
to  infer  the  sensational  and  affective  states  correlative  with  the 
instinctive  activities. 

6.  Vocal  Expressio7is.  Note  carefully  the  number  of  sounds 
you  can  distinguish  clearly,  and  what  affective  states  they 
severally  indicate.^ 

The  eyes  and  ears  begin  to  function  about  the  fifteenth  day. 
Between  the  second  and  the  fifteenth  days,  two  facts  of  a  general 
nature  relating  to  motor  activities  should  be  noted:  (a)  the 
increasing  vigor  of  movements,  and  (b)  definiteness  of  mus- 
cular co-ordination.  Note  especially,  the  progressively  effective 
use  of  the  paws  in  sucking. 

In  respect  to  vocal  activities,  it  should  be  noted  whether 
they  increase  in  variety,  and  whether  they  are  indulged  in 
more  or  less  frequently. 

New  features  in  development  may  be  looked  for  as  follows  : 

About  the  seventh  day,  note  that  the}^  begin  to  move  about 
more  freel)^  selecting  their  paths  to  some  extent  and  avoiding 
obstacles. 

Tenth  to  thirteenth  day.  i.  I,ook  for  the  appearance  of 
some  very  characteristic  "rat"  activities:  (a)  orientation, 
by  rising  slightly  upon  the  hind  legs  and  sniffing  about,  when 
they  are  moved  into  a  new  place  ;  (b)  climbing  up  on  the 
mother's  back  and  up  the  side  of  the  cage  ;  (c)  scratching  the 
body  with  the  hind  foot  ;*  (d)  washing  the  face  with  the  fore 
paws.  2.  Observe  about  this  time  also  that  they  may  leave 
the  nest  and  follow  the  mother  in  order  to  suck.^ 

1  Mills,  W.:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  118  ff.  Morgan,  C.  L.:  Loc.  cit.,  p.  113.' 
Hudson,  W.  H.:  The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata,  p.  106.  Wallace,  A.  R.: 
Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  p.  206.  Preyer,  W.: 
The  Senses  and  Will,  p.  257. 

2 Robinson,  Dr.  lyouis:  Nineteenth  Century,  Nov.,  1891.  (This  in- 
stinct in  the  human  child.) 

8  Contrast  with  rabbit,  Mills,  W.:     Animal  Intelligence,  p.  134. 

*This  is  called  by  Romanes  a  pure  reflex.  Cf.  Romanes,  G.  J., 
Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  part  2,  p.  80. 

^  I  have  seen  one  leave  the  nest  and  ^o  directly  to  the  mother,  a  foot 
away,  eating  her  supper.  Whether  this  was  by  chance  or  by  smell  is 
an  interesting  question. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  423 

A  test  for  instinctive  fear  may  be  made  by  rubbing  a  cat 
and  then  presenting  the  hand  to  the  nostril  of  the  rats.^ 

At  the  end  of  the  first  period,  it  will  be  well  to  "take 
account  of  stock,"  summarizing  the  psychical  elements  that 
have  now  appeared,  noting  their  time  of  appearance — congeni- 
tal or  later — and  their  order  of  development. 

Second  Period. 

The  following  suggestions  for  this  period  may  serve  for  a 
general  outline,  to  be  varied  or  discontinued  at  discretion. 

SeNvSATion.  I .  Smell.  Tests  should  be  made  now  espe- 
cially with  food  substances,  e.  g.,  milk,  cheese,  honey,  meat, 
etc.     Tests  may  be  made  also  with  essential  oils.^ 

2.  Test.  Discrimination  of  taste,  by  putting  edible  and 
non-edible  substances  into  the  mouths  of  the  rats,  e.g.,  dog 
biscuit  and  sealing  wag. 

3.  Hear  1713^.^  (a).  Tests  should  be  made  for  hearing  just 
before  the  external  meatus  is  completely  open,  by  clapping  the 
hands,  clucking,  hissing,  whistling,  etc.  Be  careful  that  a 
current  of  air  is  not  thrown  upon  the  rats  with  explosive 
noises,  (b)).  Generally  the  sense  of  hearing  becomes  acute 
about  the  fifteenth  day.  (c).  Try  a  number  and  variety  of 
sounds,  especially  musical  tones  (a  gamut  of  tuning  forks  is 
desirable).     Also  introduce  variations  in  loudness. 

In  these  experiments  observe  the  small  variety  in  the  re- 
actions at  first.     What  is  the  inference  ? 

(d).  The  test  should  be  repeated  daily  for  a  few  days 
noting  the  progress  in  discrimination  of  sounds  and  the  emo- 
tional concomitants,  (e).  At  the  age  of  about  three  weeks, 
test  for  aesthetic  sense  in  connection  with  sound.*  An  air  played 
softly  upon  a  violin  or  even  sung  softly  will  serve  for  test. 

4.  Vision.^  Make  tests  as  soon  as  the  eyes  begin  to  open, 
(a).  Bring  the  rats  into  a  strong  light,  (b).  Strike  the  hand 
across  the  field  of  vision  an  inch  or  two  in  front  of  the  eyes. 

1  Mills,  W.  :  Loc.  cit.,  p.  176,  177.  (I  have  not  been  able  to  confirm 
Prof.  Mills's  experiment  with  respect  to  rats.  Cf .  Morgan,  C.  Iv.  :  Loc. 
cit.,  p.  117.) 

2  *'  Rats  are  enticed  by  certain  essential  oils."  Darwin  :  Descent  of 
Man,  p.  530. 

3  Mills,  W. :    Loc  cit. 

*  Anecdotes  of  rats  and  mice  bein^  fascinated  by  music  are  so  fre- 
quent and  so  well  authenticated  that  this  experiment  is  of  peculiar 
interest.     Cf.  Weir,  Dr.  James  :    The  Dawn  of  Reason,  p.  116. 

^  It  should  be  remembered  that  vision  is  the  least  efficient  of  the 
white  rat's  senses.  A  comparison  should  be  made  between  the  im- 
portance of  vision  and  the  importance  of  smell  and  hearing  in  the 
development  of  the  young  rats. 


424  KI.INE : 

What  effect  in  each  case?  Can  you  get  a  winking  reflex 
without  touching  the  eyes  ? 

The  experiment  upon  vision  will  probably  be  unprofitable 
after  four  or  five  days,  except  experiments  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  distance  at  which  the  rats  can  see  objects.  These 
may  be  made  at  intervals  as  long  as  the  study  continues. 
These  determinations  may  be  made  roughly  by  moving  an  un- 
familiar object  in  front  of  the  cage,  carefully  excluding  all 
sound. 

5.  Observations  of  the  common  activities  of  the  rats  w^ill 
yield  information  in  regard  to  tactual  and  kinaesthetic  sensa- 
tions, and  the  sense  of  equilibrium. 

Instinctive  Activities.  After  the  eyes  and  ears  are 
open,  observe  the  gradual  disappearance  of  some  activities,  the 
progressive  perfection  of  others,  and  the  appearance  of  still 
others. 

A.  Vocal.  Even  casual  observations  will  show  the  diminu- 
tion of  vocal  activity. 

B.  Motor.  I.  Note  the  slow  degeneration  of  the  sucking 
instinct.  2.  Orientation,  climbing  and  washing  are  rapidly 
perfected.  3.  New  activities  appear,  17th  to  21st  days.  (a). 
Gnawing.  They  nibble  at  one's  fingers,  at  food,  and  as  early 
as  the  2ist  day  I  have  seen  them  gnawing  a  stick,  (b). 
Digging.  (c).  Play  activities  —  running,  jumping,  mock 
fighting,  etc.  They  may  frequently  be  seen  licking  each  other. 
It  is  not  apparent  whether  this  is  in  play  or  whether  they  are 
searching  for  vermin. 

At  the  end  of  four  or  five  weeks  the  student  should  again 
'  *  take  account  of  stock ' '  and  catalogue  the  psychic  outfit  of 
his  subjects.  As  all  our  knowledge  of  the  animal  mind  is 
inferential,  the  same  observations  will  serve  as  basis  for  conclu- 
sions as  to  instinct,  general  intelligence  and  emotion  in  the  rat. 
For  example,  the  constant  investigations  of  the  waking  rat 
will  declare  his  curiosity.  "The  eager  expectancy  displayed  at 
the  usual  feeding  time,^  especially  when  they  hear  the  rattle  of 
the  food,  is  evidence  of  memory.  Fear  is  apparent  at  every 
unusual  noise. 

1  Rats  should  be  fed  in  the  afternoon. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOI.OGY.  425 

II. 

Suggestions  for  Experimental  Study  of  Intelligence. 

The  preceding  study  of  the  young  rats  will  have  brought  out 
the  rat  character  sufficiently  to  warrant  the  setting  of  a  good 
many  tasks.  For  example :  hunger,  sociability,  and  curiosity 
may  safely  be  appealed  to  as  motives  for  the  performance  of 
tasks;  climbing,  digging,  and  gnawing  are  patently  instinctive 
and  persistent  activities.^ 

Two  practical  suggestions  for  apparatus  are  appended.  In 
each  case  aptness  for  learning,  imitation,  and  memory  may  be 
tested.     The  rats  should  be  at  least  six  or  seven  weeks  old. 

1.  The  apparatus  consists  merely  of  an  ordinary  squirrel*" 
revolver.     A  revolver  10  inches  in  diameter  and  one  foot  long 
can  be  used  in  the  cage  described  above,  and  it  is  better  to 
perform  the  experiments  in  their  accustomed  place. 

(a).  Keeping  the  door  of  the  revolver  open,  note  the  time 
required  for  the  rats  to  learn  to  run  the  revolver.^ 

(b).  After  the  rats  have  learned  this  lesson,  a  test  of  imita- 
tion may  be  made  by  introducing  one  or  two  uninitiated  rats 
into  the  cage.  The  difference  in  time  required  to  learn  the 
lesson  may  be  taken  as  a  rough  measure  of  imitation. 

(c).  Furthermore  memory  may  be  tested  by  removing  the 
drum  for  a  time  and  noting  the  results  upon  its  return. 

This  experiment  may  be  variously  complicated.  For  example, 
after  the  rats  have  learned  to  run  the  revolver,  the  door-way 
may  be  closed  with  a  spring  door  such  as  is  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  next  piece  of  apparatus.* 

2.  Two  pieces  of  apparatus.  In  both  cases  the  motive  ap- 
pealed to  is  hunger.  The  activity  in  one  case  is  digging;  in 
the  other,  gnawing. 

(a).  Bxp.  box  I.  A  box*  7  inches  square  and  6  inches 
high;  sides  of  wire  mesh,  ^  inch  mesh;  top,  glass;  bottom, 
wood.  At  one  side  of  bottom,  a  hole  3)^  by  2  inches  is  cut. 
Two  strips  of  wood  i  Y^,  inches  thick  tacked  to  the  bottom  raise 
the  box  above  the  floor  of  the  cage.  Sand  and  sawdust  are 
banked  about  the  box  just  above  the  level  of  the  floor.     Food 

^This  enumeration  is  merely  a  suggestion;  it  is  not  intended  to 
cover  the  field. 

^ Other  interesting  things  will  be  observed:  e.g.y  if  there  is  any 
straw  or  litter  in  the  cage,  they  are  very  likely  to  carry  it  into  the 
revolver  and  make  their  nest  there. 

2  In  all  these  experiments  the  experimenter  must  be  prepared  for 
individual  variations. 

*The  apparatus  and  the  method  is  more  fully  described  by  Dr.  L.  W. 
Kline,  Am.  Jour.  Psychology,  Vol.  X,  No.  2,  p.  277.  The  diary  of  a 
few  days'  experimentation  is  given. 

Journal — 7 


426  KLINK : 

of  some  kind^  is  placed  in  the  box  and  the  top  fastened  down. 
At  the  usual  feeding  time,  Exp.  box  i  is  placed  in  the  cage  and 
banked  up  as  described.  There  is  nothing  to  mark  the  place 
of  entrance.  This  experiment  should  be  repeated  daily  till  the 
lesson  is  completely  learned,  so  that  the  rats  go  at  once  to  the 
right  place  and  dig  into  the  box.^ 

(b).  Exp.  box  2.  The  same  as  Exp.  box  i,  except  that 
the  floor  is  solid  and  the  entrance  is  on  one  side.  The  entrance 
is  an  opening,  2>^  inches  square.  This  opening  is  provided 
with  an  inward  swinging  door  of  sheet  zinc,  hung  from  the  top. 
The  door  is  attached  by  a  spring*  (an  ordinary  rubber  band) 
to  the  top  of  the  cage,  so  that  when  free  it  is  held  open.  The 
door  is  held  closed  by  means  of  narrow  strips  of  stout  paper 
stuck,  with  sealing  wax,  to  the  door  and  the  lower  edge  of  the 
box.  Admission  to  the  food  within  can  be  attained  only  by 
biting,  pulling  or  scratching  off  the  paper.  This  experiment, 
too,  should  be  repeated  daily  until  the  habit  of  getting  the  food 
by  removing  the  papers  is  formed. 

The  two  experiments  yield  the  same  results  in  regard  to  the 
determination  of  instinct,  intelligence,  and  habit.*  The  two 
should  be  carried  on  contemporaneously  with  two  pairs  of  rats. 
Some  interesting  comparisons  will  in  the  form  of  discrimination 
be  apparent. 

A  further  study  of  intelligence  may  be  made,  after  the  two 
pairs  have  mastered  their  lessons,  by  interchanging  the  boxes. 

After  this  new  task  has  been  performed,  the  problem  may  be 
complicated  still  more  by  alternating  the  boxes  at  unequal  in- 
tervals. If  it  is  desired  to  test  even  further  the  adaptability 
of  the  rat,  other  complications  or  variations  may  be  devised. 

Careful  analysis  of  these  experiments  will  reveal  the  parts 
played  by  the  different  psychic  elements :  the  instinct  feeling 
of  hunger  (and  curiosity  too,  perhaps,),  the  instinctive  activities 
employed,  recognition,  memory — these  all  combining  to  form 
complex  asspciations. 

The  Cat. 

"  The  cat  seems  to  be  a  much  more  intelligent  animal  than  is  often 
supposed . ' ' — Mivart. 

' '  Indeed  no  greater  contrast  in  table  manners  can  be  observed  any- 
where than  when  we  turn  from  the  kennel  or  the  pig  sty  and  watch 
the  dainty  way  in  which  a  cat  takes  its  meals." — Robinson. 

"  In  will-power,  and  ability  to  maintain  an  independent  existence 
the  cat  is  superior  to  the  dog." — Mills. 

*I  use  nothing  but  dog  biscuit.     The  rats  must  not  be  over  fed. 
^Not  more  than  two  rats  should  be  set  to  this  task  at  once. 
"^  A  small  hook  soldered  to  the  lower  part  of  the  door  serves  to  attach 
the  spring  to  the  door. 

^  Kline,  L.  W.:     Loc.  cit.,  p.  279. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOI.OGY.  427 

A  psychological  study  of  the  cat,  ^  or  allied  species,  will  be 
more  profitable  and  certainly  more  pleasant  to  both  student 
and  cat  if  the  former  bears  in  mind  the  dominant  cat  traits  : 
She  is  independent  of  man  from  a  vegetative  standpoint ; 
self-willed,  will  not  brook  restraint ;  she  is  slow  to  forget  an 
injury  and  often  resents  it ;  enjoys  kind  treatment ;  she  is  for 
the  most  part  solitary  in  her  habits. 

The  senses,  instinctive  activities,  the  emotions,  the  forma- 
tion of  habits,  and  the  growth  of  intelligence  constitute  the 
essential  material  for  observation  and  investigation. 

The  order  in  which  the  senses  develop,  and  likewise  the 
order  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  instinctive  movements 
and  the  expression  of  the  emotions  occur,  should  first  engage 
the  attention,  and  that,  too,  not  later  than  the  second  day.^ 

Sense  of  Smell,  Cheese,  meat,  warm  milk,  the  hands  after 
being  rubbed  over  a  dog,  after  handling  mice,  carbolic  acid, 
etc.,  may  be  presented  as  objects  of  smell.  Can  you  distin- 
guish between  the  act  of  sensing  and  the  motor  reactions  ? 

Sense  of  Taste.  Solutions  of  sugar,  salt,  and  aloes  may  be 
applied  to  the  tongue  by  means  of  a  feather  or  camel's  hair 
brush.  Milk,  vinegar,  and  meat  juice  may  be  similarly 
applied. 

Touch.  Reaction  to  the  sense  of  touch  may  be  solicited  by 
touching  the  sole  of  the  forepaw,  the  mouth,  inner  surface  of 
the  nostrils  and  the  ear  with  a  broom  straw,  or  knitting  needle. 

Temperature.  Heat  an  iron  rod  to  an  uncomfortable  degree 
to  the  human  skin  (not  hot  enough  to  burn)  and  place  it 
against  the  sole  of  the  kitten's  foot. 

Pain.  Pinch  difierent  parts  with  forceps  or  fingers — note 
the  latent  time  before  the  response.  Does  the  latent  time 
shorten  with  age  ? 

Sense  of  Support.^  (a).  Uneasiness  manifested  by  cries, 
and  gripping  the  supporting  surface  vigorously  with  its  claws, 
when  it  crawls  to  the  edge  of  the  same,  is  interpreted  as  a  re- 
sponse to  a  disturbance  of  the  sense  of  support.*  If  convenient 
make  the  same  experiment  with  a  turtle,  a  puppy,  an  ant,  a 
slug,  a  chick.      (b).     Place  the  kitten  on  a  board   12  x  14 

iBrehin  :  Thiereleben  (Saiigethiere,  Vol.  I,  pp.  461-480.)  ;  J.  Hamp- 
den Porter's  Wild  Beasts,  pp.  76,  305,  contains  many  significant  obser- 
vations on  the  habits  and  traits  of  Felidie. 

2  Prof.  Wesley  Mills  is  the  first  scientist  to  have  observed  daily  the 
psychic  development  of  the  cat  from  birth  to  maturity.  Many  of  the 
above  suggestions  are  founded  on  Prof.  Mills's  work.  See  also  Bernard 
Perez  :  Mes  Deux  Chats  ;  Fragment  de  Psychologic  Compar^e,  pp.  39- 
78.     Paris,  1881. 

*  See  literature  under  Rat. 

♦Prof.  Mills  says  :  "  This  seems  to  me  as  fundamental  as  anything 
that  is  to  be  found  in  animal  psychology." 


428  KI.INE : 

inches,  the  sagittal  axis  coinciding  with  the  length  of  the 
board.  Tip  the  board  slowly  by  raising  one  side  until  the 
kitten  perceives  the  new  position.  Tip  the  forward  end  in  the 
same  way,  then  the  rear  end — note  the  angle  that  the  board 
makes  with  the  horizon  in  each  of  the  positions.^ 

Reactions  to  Rotation.  Place  the  kitten  on  a  small  rotation 
table — head  toward  the  periphery.  Turn  the  table  at  a 
moderate  rate  through  one  rotation — note  the  direction  of  the 
first  movement  after  the  table  stops. 

Hissing."^  This  mode  of  expressing  a  certain  group  of  emo- 
tions is  natural  only  to  the  Felidcs^  Reptilia^  and  a  few  birds. 
What  stimulus  provoked  the  first  hissing  sound.  How  many 
kinds  of  hissing  sounds  can  you  detect  in  the  kitten  ?  Note 
the  same  points  with  regard  to  spitting. 

Tail  and  Ear  Movements}  The  movements  of  these  pen- 
dant organs  are  for  the  most  part  instinctive,  though  in  the 
case  of  the  ear  they  would  seem  to  be  more  of  the  nature  of  a 
reflex.     Their  quivering  motion  is  a  curious  phenomenon. 

Sight.  Byes  open  about  eighth  day  —  note  shape,  color, 
the  distance  at  which  objects  are  recognized,  when  the  kitten 
first  follows  a  moving  object  by  turning  the  head  and  by  rolling 
the  eyes. 

Special  directions  for  observation  and  experimentation  on  the 
kitten  after  the  tenth  day  are  not  only  useless  but  a  positive 
hindrance.  No  two  observers  are  likely  to  surround  the  young 
cat  with  the  same  environment  and  conditions;  therefore,  in  the 
matters  of  habit  and  intelligence,  each  place  will  have  its  own 
special  problems.  But  the  appearance  of  instincts  and  emo- 
tions peculiar  to  the  cat  will  occur  under  all  favorable  conditions, 
so  that  it  may  be  helpful  to  indicate  what  to  expect  or  look  for 
as  the  psychic  life  of  the  cat  unfolds.  lyook  then  for  the  first 
appearance  of  spitting,  hissing,  making  its  toilet,*  playing 
with  inanimate  objects,^  chasing  moving  objects,  stretching 
and  yawning,  especially  after  a  nap  or  leaving  its  nest,  enjoy- 
ing being  stroked,  setting  claws  into  upright  objects,  tree- 
climbing,  purring,  crouching,  "lying  in  wait,"  bowing  the 
back  in  rage,  playing  '*  with  real  living  prey,"  e.  g.^  a  mouse,* 
playing  ''with  living  mock  prey,"'  e.  g.,  its  mother  or  another 

^*'  (b)  "  is  not  an  experiment  to  test  the  sense  of  support,  but  rather 
that  of  "  position." 

^For  a  probable  origin  of  hissing  and  tail  wagging,  see  Louis 
Robinson,  "Wild  Traits  in  Tame  Animals."  London,  1897,  pp.  228- 
264. 

^Ingersoll,  B. :  Wild  Neighbors.  See  chap.  "  The  service  of  Tails." 

*  Robinson,  Louis  :    Loc,  cit.,  pp.  262-264. 

*  Robinson,  Louis:    Loc.  cit.^  pp.  228-229. 

*  Groos,  Karl  :    The  Play  of  Animals,  pp.  121  and  130. 
'  Mills,  Wesley  :    Loc.  cit.,  p.  196. 


COMPARATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY.  429 

kitten.  How  many  of  these  activities  can  you  account  for  ? 
What  is  their  significance  in  the  economy  of  cat  life  ?  A  study 
in  the  formation  of  associations  and  their  consequent  habits, 
may  most  naturally  begin  (a)  by  observing  the  kitten  in  learn- 
ing its  name.  Make  a  record  of  the  number  of  times  the  name  is 
uttered  until  it  is  recognized  by  the  kitten.  While  teaching  it, 
the  name  should  be  used  judiciously,  and  always  in  immediate 
connection  with  a  pleasurable  reward,  e.  g.,  food,  stroking, 
giving  it  a  play  object  to  which  it  has  become  attached. 

(b).  Select  from  among  its  play  activities,  one  that  the  cat 
may  be  readily  induced  to  repeat  (this  the  observer  must 
decide),  then  create  conditions  that  will  call  forth  a  second 
one  that  has  a  pleasure  giving  or  satisfying  effect.  Note  the 
number  of  times  necessary  to  create  the  new  condition  that 
shall  call  forth  the  second  act  without  hesitation.  The  follow- 
ing account  of  an  actual  case  will  illustrate  the  point.  After 
the  young  cat  had  become  accustomed  to  play  with  a  ball,  a 
long  string  was  attached  to  the  ball  by  which  it  was  withrawn 
gently  from  the  cat  and  dropped  into  a  work-basket.  The 
cat  saw  the  whole  performance  and  immediately  took  the  ball 
from  the  basket  and  continued  the  play  for  a  few  minutes 
when  the  ball  was  jerked  away  and  dropped  into  the  basket 
with  the  quickest  possible  despatch.  After  two  experiences, 
i.  e.,  at  the  third  time  the  ball  was  jerked  away,  the  cat  went 
directly  to  the  basket.  The  experiment  may  be  varied — basket 
moved  before  the  ball  is  jerked  into  it,  a  different  basket  used, 
etc. 

Under  this  head  would  come  teaching^  some  of  the  well  known 

^  A  radically  different  method  for  studying  associative  processes  from 
those  given  in  (a)  and  (b)  has  been  used  by  Dr.  Thorndike.  (Thorn- 
dike,  E.  ly.:  Animal  Intelligence,  p.  6.  New  York,  1898.)  "It  was 
merely  to  put  animals  when  hungry  in  enclosure  from  which  they 
could  escape  by  some  simple  act,  such  as  pulling  at  a  loop  of  cord, 
pressing  a  lever,  or  stepping  on  a  platform.  .  .  .  The  animal  was 
put  in  the  enclosure,  food  was  left  outside  in  sight,  and  his  actions 
observed.  Besides  recording  his  general  behavior,  special  notice  was 
taken  of  how  he  succeeded  in  doing  the  necessary  act,  and  a  record 
was  kept  of  the  time  that  he  was  in  the  box  before  performing  the 
successful  pull,  or  clawing,  or  bite.  This  was  repeated  until  the  an- 
imal had  formed  a  perfect  association  between  the  sense  impression  of 
the  interior  of  that  box  and  the  impulse  leading  to  the  successful 
movement."  I  recommend  that  the  food  be  put  in  the  box  and  the 
animal  on  the  outside^  free,  unhampered,  and  that  the  several  tasks 
set  by  Dr.  Thorndike  for  the  animal  to  do  in  order  to  escape  be  accord- 
ingly transferred  to  the  outside  of  the  boxes.  I  have  found  this  method 
to  work  admirably  well  with  the  white  rat,  and  the  cat.  See  Am. 
Jour,  of  Psychology,  1899,  Vol.  X,  pp.  277-279.  The  time  required  to 
perform  each  experiment,  and  particularly  just  how  it  is  done,  and 
whether  or  not  experience  facilitates  the  execution  of  the  task,  are 
among  the  essential  items  to  be  noted. 


430  KI.INE : 

tricks,  e.  g.,  rolling  over,  jumping  through  the  hands,  "beg- 
ging "  in  upright  position,  shaking  hands,  etc. 

Full  notes  are  always  valuable.  While  teaching  them  a  task, 
the  notes  should  be  made  as  near  as  possible  at  the  time  of  the 
experiment.  It  is  highly  important,  too,  that  every  circum- 
stance attending  the  cat's  first  successful  effort  in  doing  a  set 
task  be  carefully  noted.  •  If  convenient,  photographs  should  be 
taken ;  and  especially  of  attitudes  expressive  of  emotions  that 
are  usually  so  difficult  to  describe. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY  AS  EVIDENCED 
BY  FAITH  CURES/ 


By  Hknry  H.  Goddard,  A.  M.,  Fellow  in  Psychology, 

Clark  University. 


Our  remedies  oft  in  ourselves  do  lie, 
Which  we  ascribe  to  heaven. 

— Shakespeare. 

Perhaps  no  question  is  forcing  itself  upon  the  attention  of 
society,  concerning  which  there  is  so  little  knowledge  and  so 
much  prejudice,  as  the  question  of  the  value  and  rights,  of  the 
new  methods  of  treating  disease,  included  under  the  compre- 
hensive term, — '* Faith  Cure." 

In  some  one  of  its  forms  it  is  making  its  appearance  on  all 
sides.  The  medical  man  has  it  to  contend  with  :  he  finds  a 
patient  has  left  him  to  try  a  mental  practitioner ;  or  else  he  is 
called  to  treat  a  new  patient  upon  whom  *  *  mind  cure ' '  has 
failed.  The  legal  profession  has  occasionally  to  decide  whether 
the  mental  healer  is  guilty  of  mal-practice,  or  the  friends  and 
relatives  of  a  deceased  person  guilty  of  "culpable  neglect" 
because  they  trusted  to  some  form  of  mental  therapeutics  and 
did  not  consult  the  recognized  doctors  of  medicine.  The 
minister  meets  it  as  a  more  or  less  persistent  theological  doc- 
trine, which  he  must  either  uphold  or  denounce.  Finally,  no 
person  can  see  a  friend  enduring  a  lingering  illness,  unbenefited 
by  the  arts  of  the  physician,  without  having  this  new  method 
urged  upon  him,  and  without  having  at  least  the  beginnings  of 
a  query  in  his  own  mind  as  to  whether  there  is  ' '  anything  in 
it"  or  not.  And  if  the  friend  who  looks  on,  how  much  more 
does  the  sick  one  himself,  wearing  out  the  weary  hours  of 
suffering,  watching  the  weeks  grow  into  months  and  the  months 
into  years,  with  no  improvement,  wonder  if,  since  everything 
else  has  failed,  it  may  not  be  worth  while  to  try  the  prayer 
cure  or  hypnotism  or  Christian  Science. 

Whenever  one  of  these  people  in  any  one  of  these  different 
classes  attempts  to  find  a  basis  for  a  rational  conclusion,  or  facts 

^  In  this  paper  we  have  attempted  to  present  a  brief  survey  of  the 
field,  that  portion  of  the  data  which  is  of  most  psychological  interest, 
and  some  of  the  conclusions,  from  an  extended  study  of  mental  thera- 
peutics. We  hope  to  present  in  a  later  publication  an  extended  report 
of  all  the  work  referred  to. 


432  GODDARD  : 

to  help  him  to  a  wise  decision,  he  invariably  finds  such  a  con- 
fusion that,  as  a  rule,  he  gives  up  in  despair. 

yJ/272flf  cure  suggests  psychology,  and  the  psychologist  is  ap- 
pealed to  for  the  laws  of  mind  which  may  explain  the  phenom- 
ena and  give  the  rationale  of  the  question.  But  the  psycholo- 
gist is  silent;  or  at  most  can  only  say:  "The  relation  of  mind 
to  body  is  unknown  to  us,  and  in  the  nature  of  things  will 
probably  never  be  determined. ' ' 

It  is  the  method  of  the  *  *  New  Psychology, ' '  however,  to  collect 
all  the  facts  possible,  in  relation  to  such  questions,  in  the  belief 
that,  in  time,  these  facts  which  at  first  are  so  isolated  as  to  be 
without  any  apparent  relation,  may  eventually  be  so  numerous 
and  so  complete  that  they  will  fit  into  each  other,  and  exhibit 
a  more  or  less  perfect  picture. 

It  is  believed,  that  even  if  this  study  yields  no  new  relations 
in  psychology,  it  at  least  puts  together  facts  that  may  some- 
time be  of  value  to  the  psychologist,  and  will  at  once  appeal 
to  all  who  are  interested  in  the  practical  side  of  ameliorating 
human  ills. 

In  the  following  pages,  we  propose  to  give  a  brief  account  of 
the  principal  forms  under  which  the  practice  of  treating  disease 
without  drugs,  appears  ;  next  to  show  the  relation  of  these  to 
each  other;  and  finally  select  one — the  so-called  Mental  Science — 
for  a  fuller  treatment.  This  will  be  followed  by  such  explana- 
tion as  we  are  able  to  give  by  correlating  it  with  more  scientific 
practices  in  the  same  line;  concluding  with  a  little  speculation 
on  some  of  the  deeper  problems  suggested  by  the  facts  presented. 

We  have  alluded  to  ' '  Faith  Cure ' '  practices  as  among  the 
new  methods  of  treating  diseases.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
principle  is  as  old  as  human  history,  and  only  certain  claims 
and  certain  methods  of  applying  it  are  new.  Of  these  new 
forms  probably  the  most  pretentious  as  well  as  the  best  known 
is  Christian  Science.  The  school  of  '  *  Healers ' '  known  as 
Christian  Scientists,  own  allegience  to,  and  claim  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  practice,  Mary  Baker  Glover  Patterson  Eddy. 
The  book  which  contains  the  doctrines  of  the  sect  is  believed 
to  have  been  written  by  Mrs.  Eddy  under  divine  inspiration. 

Mary  Morse  Baker  was  born  in  Bow,  N.  H.,  July  21,  182 1. 
Her  father  was  of  Scotch  descent.  As  a  child,  Mary  was  sickly 
and  hysterical;  not  able  to  attend  school  much  and  consequently 
received  very  little  education.  December  12,  1843,  she  married 
George  W.  Glover,  an  architect,  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.  Mr. 
Glover  died  suddenly  of  cholera  in  May,  1844.  One  child — a 
boy — resulted  from  this  marriage.  After  about  fourteen  years 
she  married  Dr.  Patterson,  a  dentist,  of  Franklin,  N.  H.  He 
was  a  man  of  excellent  character,  and  did  everything  possi- 
ble for  his  wife.      In   1862,  Mrs.  Patterson  went  to  Portland 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  433 

to  be  treated  by  Dr.  Quimby's  mental  methods  of  curing 
disease.  In  1865  she  obtained  a  divorce  from  Patterson.  Her 
first  publication  was  copyrighted  in  1870,  and  she  published 
'"Science  and  Health"  in  1875.  In  1877,  she  married  Asa 
Eddy,  of  Lynn,  Mass.  In  1879,  she  organized  a  "mind  heal- 
ing church,"  of  which  she  became  pastor  in  1881.  She  also 
established  her  "Metaphysical  College"  in  1881.  Her  hus- 
band, and  also  her  adopted  son,  Foster  Eddy,  assisted  her  in 
the  college.  Mr.  Eddy  died  suddenly  in  1882.  In  1889,  she 
closed  her  college,  and  since  then  has  devoted  herself  to  the 
advancement  of  Christian  Science  theories  through  her  writings. 
The  growth  of  the  organization  has  been  rapid  and  large.  Mrs. 
Eddy  now  resides  in  Concord,  N.  H. ,  and  is  seldom  seen  even  by 
her  most  devoted  follow^ers.  "Science  and  Health"  is  in  its 
i6otli  edition,  and  her  other  writings  have  passed  through  many 
editions. 

These  writings,  particularly  "Science  and  Health,"  contain 
the  authoritative  creed  of  the  organization,  the  foundation  of 
their  theory  and  practice.  The  teaching  is  a  sort  of  absolute 
idealism.  Mind  is  divine;  mind  is  all.  Sin  and  sickness  are 
delusions  of  "mortal  mind."  The  "treatment"  consists  in 
the  assertion  that  sickness  is  not  a  reality  but  only  a  '  *  belief. ' ' 
The  acceptance  of  this  view  by  the  patient  is  the  cure  sought 
for. 

The  following  account,  received  from  a  Christian  Scientist 
healer,  in  answer  to  our  syllabus,  will  probably  give  as  clear 
an  idea  of  the  philosophy,  theory,  and  practice  of  Christian 
Science,  as  it  would  be  possible  for  us  to  give  in  the  space  at 
our  disposal. 

I  suppose  the  object  in  sending  me  these  questions  to  answer  is  to 
learn  the  character  of  Christian  Science  method  or  principle  of  heal- 
ing; and  so  the  answers  take  up  the  subject  as  viewed  from  that 
standpoint.  If  you  find  them  unintelligible  or  unsatisfactory,  it  is 
because  of  the  wide  difference  between  the  bases  of  methods  built  up 
from  a  material,  mental  or  bodily  cause,  and  a  wholly  metaphysical 
being. 

Please  relate  the  facts  connected  with  the  cure  of  any  physical  ailment,  witboui 
medicine.    Mention  in  same  way  any  disease  prevented  in  similar  manner. 

The  facts  as  revealed  by  a  study  of  Christian  Science,  show  that  the 
only  agency  ever  effective  in  curing  disease,  is  some  faculty  of  mind  ; 
that  matter  having  no  potency  in  and  of  itself,  it  follows  that  the  exer- 
cise of  mental  belief,  ascribing  certain  degrees,  qualifications  and 
results,  either  to  the  drug  or  material  process,  is  what  restores  the 
patient.  But  suppositional  faith,  basing  its  reasoning  on  the  evidence 
of  one  or  more  of  the  physical  senses,  is  unreliable,  since  it  can  only 
reason  uncertainly  from  effect  to  cause ;  causation  thus  being  an  un- 
proven  hypothesis,  liable  to  be  found  only  another  effect  on  deeper 
investigation. 

Christian  Science  shows  such  reasoning  to  be  useless,  since  not  un- 
derstanding how  the  phenomena  of  disease  is  dissipated,  the  patient 


434  GODDARD  : 

is  liable  to  recurrence  in  the  same  or  another  form,  and  is  unable  to 
prevent  or  to  cure  himself. 

Christian  Science  starts  with  a  demonstrable  fact  for  its  causation, 
found  in  a  self-evident,  self-existent  Principle  of  Mind,  and  reaches 
an  understood  and  knowable  cure  through  its  application  in  a  scientific 
process. 

IVbat  was  the  nature  of  your  malady  ? 

It  had  none.     Disorganization  is  not  an  entity  to  be  characterized. 

How  long  had  you  been  afflicted  with  it  ? 

Ever  since  the  belief  that  disease  was  a  substantial  entity,  instead 
of  a  negation. 

How  did  you  first  discover  that  you  were  a  victim  of  disease  ?  Gve  fully  your 
symptoms. 

By  a  consciousness  of  limitation,  i.  e.,  finiteness. 

How  did  the  idea  come  to  you  that  you  could  be  healed  ?  If  suggested  by  some 
person,  what  was  your  estimate  of  that  person  ? 

The  conviction  that  limitation  was  an  error,  as  shown  by  the  inabil- 
ity and  suffering  it  brought ;  and  that  it  was  right  to  be  well ;  and 
sickness  was  a  wrong. 

Suggested  by  a  sense  of  justice. 

IVas  your  cure  instantaneous  ? 

Yes. 

If  so,  how  did  you  kno-w  that  you  were  cured  ? 

By  the  instant  receding  of  disease ;  and  the  corresponding  increas- 
ing of  health  and  strength. 

Did  you  know  it  at  the  time,  or  not  until  later  ? 

At  the  time ;  since  mind  first  perceiving  the  truth,  its  objective  mani- 
festation begins  to  appear. 

THd  you  have  to  test  it,  before  becoming  convinced  that  a  cure  had  actually 
taken  place  ? 

No ;  it  brought  its  own  self-evident  proof  with  it. 

If  not  instantaneous,  how  rapid  was  it  ?  How  do  you  know  that  it  was  any  more 
than  a  natural  recovery  ? 

It  was  natural  recovery.  There  is  no  other  genuine  recovery,  since 
health  (omipotent  and  self-existent  intelligence),  when  left  to  itself, 
without  any  erroneous  interference,  will  do  its  own  work  naturally. 

IVas  there  any  new  feeling  in  the  diseased  part  at  time  of  recovery,  or  in  any  part 
of  the  body  ?    If  so,  describe  aftd  explain  what  you  thought  it  meant. 

No.  The  disappearance  of  sensation  left  the  body  free  to  respond  to 
any  use  the  mind  would  have  for  it. 

Since  the  more  intense  the  sensation,  the  more  powerless  the  organ 
to  act  harmoniously ;  it  follows  that  the  theory  that  matter  is  con- 
scious intelligence,  is  a  causative  error,  expressing  itself  in  disease. 
Christian  Science  proves  this  true,  for,  by  correcting  this  mistaken 
theory,  the  afflicted  organ  is  relieved,  and  becomes  free  to  be  adapted  to 
any  action  the  mind  may  demand  of  it. 

Have  you  ever  doubted  your  complete  cure,  or  had  a  relapse  ?  If  so,  give  reasons 
for  your  first  doubt,  or  the  occasion  of  your  first  realipn^  that  you  were  not  per- 
manently cured  ?    To  what  do  you  attribute  the  relapse  ?    To  what  your  cure  ? 

No.  A  principle  is  a  complete  whole,  hence  can  manifest  nothing  less. 
Any  appearance  of  relapse  or  failure  comes  from  lack  of  principle,  ist, 
to  the  fact  that  mind  creates  all  phenomena.  2nd.  That  the  instant  a 
fact  is  seen  to  be  true,  all  previous  theories,  regardless  of  age  or  sup- 


EFFECTS   OF   MIND    ON    BODY.  435 

posed  substantiality,  disappear  as  realities  from  that  mind.  3rd.  That 
the  phenomena  of  the  theoretical  conception  also  vanishes  with  it, 
since  effect  cannot  exist  without  its  cause. 

If  you  have  ever  tried  to  get  healed  by  any  of  these  methods,  and  failed,  relate  the 
circumstances. 

Failure  followed  ever}^  effort  to  find  health,  until  Christian  Science 
was  understood  and  demonstrated.  Allopathy,  homeopathy,  hygiene, 
rational  systems,  surgery,  sanitarium  treatments,  mind  cure,  will- 
power, all  failed. 

To  what  do  you  attribute  your  failure  ? 

To  a  mistaken  belief  that  the  eternal  mind-principle  of  health  was 
a  material  condition ;  that  it  could  be  lost  and  re-created  by  some 
material  mechanism,  and  was  dependent  upon  physical  conditions  for 
its  existence  and  manifestation. 

Please  answer  the  following  questions  relating  to  your  own  persotiality,  with  great 
care.  Age  ?  Temperament  ?  Disposition  ?  Complexiofi  ?  Married  ?  Do  you  now, 
or  did  you  as  a  child,  choose  or  avoid  responsibility  ?  Did  you,  or  do  you,  prefer 
solitude  or  companions  ?  Were  you  precocious,  backward  or  normal,  in  the  matter 
of  learning  to  write,  walk  or  talk  ?    JVbat  was  your  health  in  childhood  ? 

This  paragraph  is  unanswerable  from  Christian  Science  basis,  since 
it  deals  with  mentality  only,  and  recognizes  physicality  as  the  mani- 
festation of  mistaken,  changing,  human  belief ;  having  no  fixed  charac- 
ter of  its  own,  and  subject  to  constant  correction. 

If  you  were  healed  in  answer  to  prayer,  kindly  describe  the  circumstances,  and 
answer  the  following  questions  in  addition  to  the  above. 

If  by  prayer  is  meant  a  petition  to  set  aside  fixed  law  and  its  penal- 
ties to  please  some  favored  petitioner,  decidedly,  no.  If  it  means  a 
humble,  steadfast  desire  for  spiritual,  mental,  and  bodily  wholeness, 
recognized  as  a  God-given  right  to  all,  to  be  received  in  proportion  to 
man's  intelligent  understanding  of  the  God-nature  and  its  operation ; 
yes. 

IVbat  bad  been  your  religious  experience  previous  to  your  cure  ? 

I  found  nothing  in  popular  religions  or  philosophies  of  any  practical 
value. 

IVhat  was  your  idea  of  the  ejficacy  of  prayer  ? 

It  had  none  beyond  a  blind  faith  in  the  petitioner,  resulting  in  a 
manifestation  of  self-mesmerism. 

How  did  the  faith  that  you  could  be  cured,  first  come  to  you? 

Realizing  the  fact  that  disease  was  discord,  led  me  to  seek  every 
means  possible  to  find  the  harmony  which  is  health. 

State  any  doubts  that  you  had. 

Neither  doubts  nor  certainties  ;  as  it  was  simply  another  experiment. 

IVhat  plan  had  you  formulated,  or  what  conditions  did  you  expect  to  have  to 
fulfill  before  you  could  be  healed  ? 

Obedience  to  any  requirement ;  as  would  be  expected  in  giving  a 
fair  trial  to  any  system. 

Did  it  happen  as  you  had  planned,  or  did  you  change  your  views  of  the  matter  ? 
If  the  latter,  how  did  you  come  to  change  your  views  ? 

The  positive  proof  of  the  disappearance  of  disease,  left  no  room  for 
questioning  the  presence  of  health  or  the  success  of  the  means  em- 
ployed. 

IVas  the  final  result  in  any  way  contrary  to  your  expectations  ?     If  so,  how  ? 

I  had  no  expectations. 


436  GODDARD : 

fVbat  physical  sensationsy  if  any,  accompanied  your  restoration  ? 

None  whatever. 

Had  you  any  previous  conception  as  to  how  the  cure  might  take  place  ? 

No. 

IVhat  was  your  mental  and  religious  state  at  the  time  of  the  cure  ? 

Having  been  a  student  of  various  philosophies  and  material  sciences, 
both  mental  and  religious  conditions  were  the  essence  of  materialism. 

Did  you  seem  to  have  any  ^^  revelation,''  or  was  there  any  ^*  manifestation"  as 
of  "  angels  "  or  *^ flames  '^  or  ^^  voices,''  or  any  such  thing? 

Not  the  slightest. 

IVas  it  comparable  to  any  of  the  cures  wrought  by  Jesus,  or  any  other  case  of 
which  you  had  heard  or  read? 

It  was  comparable  to  the  cures  wrought  by  Jesus,  in  that  as  we  who 
are  healed  in  Christian  Science  to-day,  so  with  the  people  of  those 
days;  after  "suffering  many  things  of  many  physicians,"  found  dis- 
ease not  lessened  and  often  increased  ;  turned  as  a  last  resort  to  the 
Master  Healer.  In  like  manner,  by  the  same  demonstrable  principle 
which  Christian  Science  finds  He  worked  by,  the  sick  are  healed  to-day. 

JVhat  effect  has  your  cure  had  upon  your  religious  life  ? 

My  cure,  study,  and  demonstrations  of  Christian  Science,  prove  to 
me  the  existence  of  a  practical,  scientific  theology,  whose  principle 
demonstrates  itself  to  be  true,  in  its  power  over  sin,  sickness,  death, 
and  all  discordant  conditions  in  material  environment. 

It  proves  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  on 
Earth,  to  be  present  possible  standards  for  humanity  to  live  by,  in  pro- 
portion as  each  one  accepts  the  standard  and  obeys  the  rules  which 
Christian  Science  shows  to  be  the  way  to  gain  this  harmony  of  Infinite 
love. 

If  you  were  healed  through  the  influence  or  mediation  of  some  person  or  "  healer!' 
or  "  bypnoti^er,"  kindly  describe  the  appearance  and  character. 

The  healing  of  Christian  Science  is  not  through  any  influence  or 
mediation  of  a  healer. 

The  patient  goes  to  a  so-called  healer,  through  a  mistaken  idea  that 
the  healer  possesses  some  ability  or  understanding  which  he  has  not. 
Like  an  elder  brother,  the  so-called  healer  corrects  this  mistake,  as 
well  as  others,  through  mental  processes,  until  the  patient's  mind  is 
in  a  condition  to  be  corrected  audibly,  and  shown  how  the  work  is 
done  directly  for  himself. 

Any  seeming  failure  in  cures  arises  from  lack  of  adherence  to  its 
principle,  either  in  patient,  healer,  or  both. 

Please  mention  any  books  bearing  on  these  subjects  that  you  regard  as  good. 

The  only  text-book  of  genuine  unadulterated  Christian  Science  is 
"Science  and  Health,  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures,"  by  Rev.  Mary 
Baker  G.  Bddy.     Published  in  Boston. 

We  will  add  one  more. 

Dkar  Sir  :  I  cannot  send  you  returns.  To  a  student  of  Christian 
Science  there  is  no  psychology,  for  there  is  but  one  soul  even  as  there 
is  but  one  God.  God  is  soul.  Man  reflects  soul,  for  man  is  "  made  in 
the  image  of  God,"  but  soul  is  not  in  man;  the  less  cannot  contain 
the  greater.  And  whereas  before  I  was  healed  from  chronic  invalidism 
through  the  "teachings  of  Christian  Science"  I  used  to  think  much 
on  your  topics,  I  wish  never  to  think  or  refer  to  them  again;  cannot 
and  be  consistent  or  obedient  to  the  teaching  which  heals.  They  are 
mental  poison  to  me. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND   ON   BODY.  437 

May  I  please  express  a  wish  for  you  and  all  that  are  making  a 
"scientific  study,"  all  who  are  seeking  for  knowledge — a  wish  that 
you  and  they  might  be  induced  to  study  the  Bible  in  the  light  of 
•'  Science  and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures,"  by  Mary  Baker  G. 
Eddy. 

Yours  in  truth, 

Christian  Science  is  an  offshoot  from  another  school  which 
we  shall  term  Mental  Science — a  term  quite  generally  used  by 
those  who  practice  this  form.  Mental  Science  may  be  said  to 
have  originated  about  the  middle  of  this  century  through  the 
efforts  of  P.  P.  Quimby. 

It  differs  from  Christian  Science  in  that  it  acknowledges  no 
allegiance  to  any  one  man,  and  does  not  claim  to  be  a  special 
revelation  from  God,  but  seeks  the  basis  for  its  theory  in  the 
teachings  of  the  old  philosophers  or  modern  mystics,  and  espe- 
cially empirically  in  the  results  of  its  practice  in  the  realm  of 
therapeutics.  It  has  not  the  explicit  religious  form  of  Christian 
Science.  It  is  a  philosophy,  a  theory  of  life.  We  give  a 
fuller  account  of  its  theory  and  practice  in  a  later  portion  of 
this  paper. 

Another  form  of  curing  disease  without  medicine  is  the  so- 
called  Divine  Healing.  Under  the  general  idea  that  God  heals 
disease  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  faith,  we  find  many  varia- 
tions in  the  method,  or  rather  the  ceremonies  accompanying  it, 
and  some  little  disagreement  as  to  the  strict  theology  of  the 
process.  But  since  they  all  produce  results,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  differences  do  not  go  further  than  the  minds  of  the 
healers,  and  that  the  real  principle  lies  deeper  than  individual 
theories. 

Of  course  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  whole  practice  is 
based  upon  the  Bible,  and  the  differences  are  the  result  of 
differences  in  interpretation.  One  division  anoints  with  oil 
according  to  the  suggestion  of  the  Apostle  James.  Another 
heals  by  the  laying  on  of  hands,  according  to  the  practice  of 
the  other  Apostles.  While  a  third  set  discards  all  types  and 
formalities  and  simply  prays  for  the  afflicted  one.  It  is  gener- 
ally agreed  by  all,  that  the  result  is  according  to  the  faith  of 
the  sick  one,  and  the  fact  that  any  particular  prayer  is  not 
answered  is  evidence  that  the  patient  did  not  have  sufficient 
faith.  There  are,  however,  those  who  argue  that  it  may  be  the 
will  of  God  that  a  person  should  endure  sickness,  and  by  such, 
a  resignation  to  the  will  of  God  is  encouraged. 

Rev.  A.  B.  Simpson,  of  New  York  City,  is  one  of  the  leaders 
in  this  work.  His  teaching  is  peculiar  in  that  he  argues  that 
when  once  a  person  has  prayed  for  healing  it  is  dishonoring 
God  to  doubt  the  cure  or  to  ask  for  a  sign  or  symptom.  The 
person  must  claim  he  is  healed  and  expect  it.     This  accounts 


438  GODDARD : 

for  the  many  people  who  claim  to  be  healed  but  whose  appear- 
ance contradicts  their  words. 

Many  oppose  this  view  and  hold  that  it  is  claiming  a  lie  to 
assert  that  one  is  healed  when  he  is  not.  The  chief  opponent, 
and  the  most  pretentious  healer  is  the  Rev.  John  Alexander 
Dowie,  of  Chicago. 

A  brief  account  of  Dr.  Dowie,  will  not  be  out  of  place  here. 
And  fortunately  we  can  give  it  in  his  own  words  as  published 
in  his  own  Leaves  of  Healing,  for  Dec.  ii,  1896.  It  gives  not 
only  the  facts  of  his  life  but  his  style,  method,  and  manner  of 
preaching  (for  this  is  part  of  the  report  of  his  sermon),  and  his 
general  character. 

He  says : 

I  will  give  you  a  little  of  my  autobiography,  and  I  am  not 
ashamed  of  what  God  has  wrought. 

I  was  born  in  Edinburgh  nearly  50  years  ago. 

Next  May  25  I  will  be  50  years  of  age. 

I  earned  my  own  bread  from  my  14th  j^ear,  and  was  brought 
up  in  the  academies  of  Edinburgh. 

I  went  with  my  father,  who  is  on  this  platform,  to  Australia. 

I  plunged  into  business,  and  within  a  few  years  was  the 
resident  partner's  confidential  clerk  in  a  firm  doing  $2,000,000 
in  open  goods,  every  invoice  of  all  these  imports  passing  through 
my  hands. 

Soon  after  that  I  became  the  financial  manager  with  a  part- 
nership interest,  small  then  but  larger  to  come,  in  another  firm ; 
and  though  I  say  it,  I  do  not  boast  of  it,  I  had  the  confidence 
before  I  was  21  years  of  age  of  men  in  the  largest  lines  of 
business,  and  was  myself  handling  large  concerns. 

At  that  age  I  consecrated  myself  to  the  ministry,  and  my 
money,  hardly  earned,  and  my  time.  With  my  father's  co- 
operation I  studied  privately  and  then  returned  to  my  native 
city,  Edinburgh,  in  the  University  of  which  I  studied  for  some 
time. 

I  have  the  honor,  therefore,  of  being  a  Scotchman  trained  in 
academical,  in  business,  and  in  University  life,  and  when  I  re- 
turned to  Australia  my  brethen  in  the  Congregational  body 
within  three  short  years  gave  me  the  honor  of  placing  me  at 
the  head  of  possibly  the  most  important  charge  in  the  entire 
denominational  body — famous  for  its  big  heads,  some  people 
think,  and,  after  all,  there  is  something  in  those  heads,  too. 

I  was  the  pastor  of  the  Newtown,  Sydney,  Congregational 
Church,  which  gave  me  the  opportunity  of  ministering  to  the 
professors  and  students  of  Camden  College,  the  only  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in  Australia, 
which  brought  me  into  close  touch  with  many  of  the  ablest 
men  in  the  great  University  of  Sidney,  a  city  of  more  than 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  439 

half  a  million  people.  That  was  my  third  pastorate,  and  I 
held  it  when  I  laid  down  my  denominational  connection  to 
give  my  life  to  a  world-wide  work  for  God  and  for  humanity. 

I  had  the  honor  of  being  at  that  time  the  leader  —  so  Sir 
Alfred  Stephens,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  and  Chief  Justice 
for  29  years  called  me  in  a  public  meeting, — the  leader  of  the 
Social  Reform  Party. 

I  was  offered  by  Sir  Henry  Parks  the  portfolio  of  Minister 
of  Education  in  his  government,  and  I  could  have  been,  he 
said,  Premier  within  a  few  years,  if  I  had  only  given  myself 
to  politics. 

I  helped  to  mould  public  opinion,  and  helped  to  create  legis- 
lation in  my  own  land,  and  was  frequently  chosen  to  do  im- 
portant public  work. 

For  instance,  the  Liberals  of  Sydney  once  appointed  me,  in 
company  with  Sir  Henry  Parks  and  the  Editor  of  a  Sydney 
daily  paper,  to  draw  up  an  important  document  addressed  to 
the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone.  This  document  was  one  of 
great  importance  at  a  time  when  the  foreign  policy  of  the  Tory 
party  under  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  had 
strained  the  loyalty  of  Australia  to  the  mother  country. 

On  another  occasion  I  was  supported  by  the  Protestant  min- 
isters of  all  denominations  in  Sydney  in  answering  a  famous 
address  of  Archbishop  Roger  Bede  Vaughan,  and  when  my  ad- 
dress appeared  in  pamphlet  form,  it  brought  me  kind  commen- 
dation from  the  late  Mark  Pattison,  Master  of  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford,  and  from  Mr.  Gladstone  himself.  The  largest  hall  in 
Sydney  was  filled  to  overflowing  with  the  leading  men  of  the 
land  when  this  lecture  was  delivered,  and  it  was  the  first  gun 
fired  in  a  battle  against  Roman  Catholic  supremacy  in  educational 
matters,  the  final  result  of  which  was  the  taking  away  of  all 
grants  to  denominations  from  the  public  treasury  and  the 
establishment  of  a  National  Compulsory,  and  Free  Educational 
System  for  all  the  people. 

I  am  also  the  General  Overseer  of  the  Christian  Catholic 
Church,  which  has  tens  of  thousands  of  sympathizing  friends 
in  and  around  Chicago,  and  we  have  set  down  at  our  monthly 
Communion  with  nearly  2,000  communicants  at  one  time  in 
the  auditorium. 

I  am  the  editor,  proprietor,  printer  and  publisher  of  *  *  Leaves 
of  Healing, ' '  a  weekly  paper  with  thousands  of  subscribers  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  God  is  blessing  our  little  White 
Dove,  of  which  we  have  no  reason  to  be  ashamed. 

My  position  entitles  me  to  courtesy,  and  the  recognition  of 
my  ministry. 

Beside  Dr.  Simpson  and  Dr.  Dowie  there  are  many  local 


440  GODDARD : 

leaders  in  this  work  whose  methods  differ  slightly  from  those 
already  mentioned.  There  is  also  a  class  of ' '  travelling  healers'  * 
who  go  about  from  place  to  place,  each  with  his  own  claims  to 
power,  and  with  his  own  methods.  Three  of  these  may  be  men- 
tioned, as  the  types  and  forerunners  of  what  bids  fair  to  become 
a  distinct  guild — that  of  the  tramp  healers.  These  are  Schlatter, 
Schrader,  and  Bradley  Newell.  The  first  two,  *  *  Divine  Healers, ' ' 
the  last,  "Magnetic." 

Schrader  and  Newell  are  too  well  known  through  the  daily 
press  to  need  description  here. 

A  brief  biography  of  Schlatter  will  illustrate  the  type  when 
sincere. 

The  career  of  Francis  Schlatter  is  a  most  unique  bit  of  biog- 
raphy. A  native  of  Alsace,  France,  a  shoemaker  by  trade,  he 
came  to  America  in  1 884 ;  spent  some  years  in  New  York  ; 
went  to  Denver  in  1892.  In  his  youth  he  attended  school  un- 
til 14;  but  all  his  life  he  was  a  reader,  student,  and  thinker.  In 
1893,  at  the  age  of  37,  he  became  possessed  of  the  idea  that 
God — ''Father"  as  he  always  familiarly  called  him, — wanted 
him  to  go  forth  from  Denver  on  foot.  He  obeyed,  and  during 
the  following  two  years  walked  through  Colorado,  Kansas, 
Indian  Territory,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  California,  and 
back  to  New  Mexico.  On  this  journey  he  endured  untold  pri- 
vations and  hardships,  from  hunger,  thirst,  heat,  cold,  and 
unkind  treatment.  But  he  * '  had  to  "  do  it ;  and  always  obeyed 
' '  Father ' '  at  whatever  cost.  ' '  Father ' '  often  told  him  to  go 
without  food  for  days  at  a  time,  and  often  allowed  him  water 
only  on  alternate  days.  He  was  imprisoned  as  insane  at  two 
different  times.  His  own  account  of  his  wandering  is  interest- 
ing though  somewhat  monotonous  reading. 

He  was  well  read  on  the  great  moral,  religious,  and  social 
problems,  and  discussed  them  with  a  good  deal  of  ability.  He 
was  possessed  of  the  idea  that  he  was  Christ,  and  explicitly 
declared  it  on  a  few  occasions ;  though  as  a  general  thing  he 
talked  and  acted  without  any  apparent  idea  of  such  an  imper- 
sonation. Only  his  appearance,  dress,  hair,  etc. ,  were  strikingly 
suggestive  of  the  mediaeval  pictures  of  Christ. 

His  discussions  were  strongly  marked  by  two  ideas — reincar- 
nation, and  socialism. 

Whatever  conclusion  one  reaches  as  to  his  real  nature  and 
condition,  no  one  can  doubt  the  sincerity  of  the  man.  He 
honestly  thought  himself  called  to  do  a  great  work  for '  'Father, ' ' 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  it  with  all  his  energy,  and  with  that 
childlike  faith  which  produced  suprising  results.  One  can  but 
regret  that  his  ideas  only  led  to  his  untimely  death. 

Following  these,  as  another  species  of  mental  therapeutics, 
we  may  mention  hypnotism.      The  treatment  of  disease  by 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  44 1 

hypnotism  is  avowedly  a  matter  of  suggestion.  While  exten- 
sive in  its  use  and  application,  it  is  yet  confessedly  limited. 
Practiced  by  a  large  number  of  regular  physicians,  some  of  them 
of  world-wide  reputation,  the  cases  number  many  thousands  and 
constitute  some  of  the  most  valuable  sort  of  data.*  We  shall 
revert  to  this  more  at  length  later. 

The  following  account  taken  from  Bernheim  (Suggestive 
Therapeutics,  p.  363,)  will  illustrate  his  method  : 

M.,  27.  Married,  delicate  constitution,  nervous  temperament,  suffer- 
ing from  severe  intercapular  pain.  Pressure  in  the  region  causes  severe 
pain.  I  propose  to  hynotize  him  by  closing  the  eyes.  He  gives  him- 
self up  to  it  with  a  bad  grace.  He  is  very  impressionable  and  fears 
that  I  wish  to  perform  an  operation  on  him.  I  reassure  him,  and  con- 
tinue suggestion,  holding  his  eyes  closed.  His  nervous  anxiety  is  with 
difficulty  dissipated.  His  hands  tremble.  However,  he  goes  into 
profound  sleep;  there  is  relaxation  without  catalepsy,  and  no  memory 
upon  waking.  I  energetically  suggest  calmness  of  mind ;  I  affirm 
that  the  pain  has  disappeared. 

Having  let  him  sleep  alone  for  about  six  minutes,  he  has  several 
nervous  spasms  and  calls  out:  "  I  am  falling  !  "  and  then  awakens  as 
if  coming  out  of  a  nightmare.  He  remembers  having  dreamed  that 
he  was  falling  into  a  ditch.  The  pain  has  almost  completely  disap- 
peared;  he  is  surprised;  cannot  find  the  sore  spots.  I  hypnotize  him, 
a  second  time.  He  gives  himself  up  easily.  His  sleep  is  more  quiet ; 
there  are  slight  nervous  movements  in  his  hands.  I  suggest  the  com- 
plete disappearance  of  the  pain.     Upon  waking  he  remembers  having 

heard  talking  but  does  not  know  what  I  said There  is  not  the 

slighest  pain.  He  does  not  understand  it;  his  astonishment  has 
something  comical  about  it. 

Such  is  Bernheim' s  own  account,  slightly  abridged,  of  one 
case.  Of  course  it  must  be  understood,  that,  as  in  regular 
practice,  no  two  cases  are  treated  just  alike. 

Besides  these  four  distinct  schools  of  curing  disease  without 
drugs,  there  are  many  minor  forms  in  which  the  same  element 
is  to  be  seen,  though  not  usually  so  considered.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  Patent  Medicines  in  so  far  as  they  cure  * '  in- 
curable diseases ' '  or  produce  results  out  of  proportion  to  the 
known  therapeutic  value  of  the  drugs  constituting  the  com- 
pound. Especially  is  this  seen  in  the  great  number  of  patent 
"devices"  for  the  cure  of  disease,  such  as  ''electric"  belts, 
bandages  and  garments  of  all  sorts,  also  the  various  inhalers. 

A  striking  device,  remarkable  for  the  cures  it  has  wrought, 
as  well  as  for  the  absolute  freedom  from  anything  curative  ex- 
cept its  name,  might  be  designated  as  a  string  one  end  of  which 
is  fastened  to  the  ankle  of  the  patient,  while  the  other  end  is 
tied  to  a  tin  can  which  is  then  immersed  in  a  dish  of  water  or 
buried  in  the  ground.  Again  we  have  no  end  of  ' '  health  fads, ' ' 
each  producing  its  long  list  of  testimonials,  in  the  shape  of 
cures  of  more  or  less  serious  diseases,  but  which  again  reduce 
in  the  last  analysis,  to  the  effect  of  the  mind  of  the  patient 

JOURNAI,— 8 


442  GODDARD : 

Upon  his  own  body.  '  *  Home  remedies ' '  also  contain  many- 
instances  of  the  same  thing,  and  they  in  turn  are  the  survivals 
in  the  present  time  of  the  older  customs  which  characterized 
the  age  when  nearly  all  therapeutics  was  a  science  of  magic. 

In  the  study,  of  which  the  present  paper  presents  a  portion, 
all  of  these  phases  have  been  investigated  extensively.  Folk- 
lore literature  has  been  ransacked  for  all  that  it  could  furnish 
in  regard  to  practices,  superstitious  and  otherwise,  relating  to 
therapeutics.  The  "fads"  of  modem  times  have  been  col- 
lected ;  the  household  remedies  still  in  vogue  have  added  their 
testimony;  patent  medicines  and  devices  have  been  examined 
as  to  their  actual  medicinal  value,  and  the  results  they  produce. 
Their  testimonials  have  been  examined  and  verified. 

We  have  studied  with  the  hypnotist,  seen  him  at  work  and 
learned  his  art.  Hundreds  of  cases  treated  by  hypnotism  have 
been  studied  and  tabulated.  The  divine  healer  has  been  ob- 
served in  many  instances  and  particularly  in  the  persons  of 
Schrader,  whose  blessing  we  received  on  two  occasions,  and 
Dowie,  whose  work  we  visited  and  whose  method  we  studied 
in  his  '  *  Divine  healing  home ' '  in  Chicago. 

As  a  basis  for  study  of  Divine  Healing,  we  have  over  i,6oo 
records  of  individual  cures,  all  of  more  or  less  value  and 
completeness. 

The  cases  to  be  discussed  are  nearly  all  from  Dr.  Dowie' s 
work.  About  two-thirds  of  them  are  females.  In  age  they 
range  from  6  mos.  to  86  yrs.  though  the  main  part  of  them  are 
between  20  and  50.  Of  the  women,  the  married  are  about  three 
times  as  numerous  as  the  unmarried. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  from  which  they  were  healed, 
varies  from  a  few  minutes  to  fifty- two  years.  The  average  time 
is  about  twelve  years  for  each  sex.  Thirty- three  per  cent,  report 
their  healing  instantaneous,  fifty  per  cent,  gradual  and  seven- 
teen per  cent,  say  they  are  not  yet  perfectly  healed.  It  must  be 
noted  that  while  thirty-three  per  cent,  report  instantaneous 
healing,  it  is  clear  from  their  own  account  that  they  almost  al- 
ways mean  that  pain  ceased  instantly.  And  it  may  be  men- 
tioned here  that  of  all  the  returns  that  give  data  on  that  point, 
almost  every  one  shows  that  pain  ceased  at  the  time  of  prayer. 

Again,  of  the  whole  number  seventy-six  per  cent,  were 
treated,  or  prayed  with,  by  Dr.  Dowie  in  person,  seven  and 
one-half  per  cent,  were  prayed  for  by  him  at  a  distance.  Four 
and  one-half  per  cent,  were  prayed  for  by  Mrs.  Dowie.  Seven 
and  one-half  per  cent,  were  healed  in  answer  to  their  own 
prayers  or  efforts  and  four  and  one-half  per  cent,  were  healed 
in  answer  to  prayers  of  friends. 

The  number  of  ailments  mentioned  in  their  accounts  of 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  443 

themselves,  varies  from  i  to  9  for  the  males,  and  i  to  1 1  for 
the  females. 

The  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  cure  varies  from  a  few 
days  to  fourteen  years.  Time  required  for  full  recovery  may 
be  as  much  as  two  months.  If  longer  than  that  it  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a  failure  and  is  not  mentioned. 

As  to  diseases  cured  they  have  been  classified  roughly  as 
follows:  the  figures  are  per  cents. 


Diseases. 

Ner- 
vous. 

Circu- 
lation. 

Respi- 
ration. 

Digest. 

Conta- 
gious. 

Wounds. 

Can- 
cer. 

Rheu- 
matism. 

ies. 
lale 

20 

s.    22 

10 

14.5 

20 
18 

15 
16 

5 

5 

14 
3-5 

5 
II.5 

II 
9.5 

Among  the  remarkable  features  mentioned  may  be  noted  the 
following:  Legs  lengthened  from  i  to  5  inches.  "Gained  95 
lbs."  Hip  lY^.  inches  reduced.  56  abscesses  at  one  time, 
cured.  Deaf  and  dumb.  Senseless  3  weeks.  While  the  men 
report:  "40  whiskies  a  day,"  cured.  "Wreck  physically." 
Hip  disease.  Goitre.  3  Bullets.  Deaf  and  dumb.  Fever 
settled  in  bones.  Appendicitis.  Leg  shortened  2  inches.  Born 
blind.     Deaf  after  measles. 

These  were  jotted  down  as  the  reports  were  read,  simply  as 
an  indication  of  the  range  of  the  work.  In  the  reports  of 
women  the  term  ' '  Internal  troubles ' '  is  often  mentioned.  From 
the  context  it  appears  that  the  expression  generally  refers  to 
troubles  peculiar  to  that  sex.  In  other  cases  such  troubles 
are  directly  specified. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  * '  Troubles ' '  as  stated  by  the 
patients  themselves: 

Abscess;  accident;  ague;  appendicitis;  ankle  sprained;  asth- 
ma; backache;  back  weak;  bad  habits;  bilious  trouble;  blindness; 
blind  from  birth;  blood  poisoning;  Bright 's  disease;  bronchitis; 
bronchial  disease;  broken  arm;  burns;  burnt  hands;  blood  dis- 
ease; brain  fever;  cancer;  cancer  in  tongue;  cancerous  tumor; 
carbuncle;  catarrh;  chills;  cholera  infantum;  cholera  morbus; 
congestion  of  lungs;  consumption;  constipation;  convulsions; 
cough;  chlorasis;  compound  curvature  of  spine;  croup;  deaf- 
ness; deaf  and  dumb;  diabetes;  diarrhoea;  diphtheria;  dislo- 
cated shoulder;  dislocated  knee;  dropsy;  dysentery;  dyspepsia; 
diphtheretic  paralysis;  devil  cast  out;  earache;  eczema;  epi- 
lepsy; erysipelas;  eyes,  inflammation  of;  eyes,  weak;  eyes, 
sight  failing;  feeble  minded  child;  fever;  fever  sores;  felon; 
fistula;  gangrene;  gambling;  goitre;  granulated  eyelids;  gall 
stone  ;  headache ;  healed  when  dying ;  heart  disease ;  heart 
broken  ;  heel  lame  ;  hay  fever ;  hydatids  ;  hydrophobia  ;  hem- 
orrhage of  lungs;  hemorrhage  of  kidneys;  hemorrhoids;  her- 


444  GODDARD : 

nia ;  hip  broken ;  hip  disease ;  hip  joint  renewed;  hysteria; 
imperfect  sight;  infidelity;  impediment  of  speech;  impotent;  in- 
digestion; inflammation  of  bowels;  inflammation  of  stomach;  in- 
flammation of  lungs;  inflammatory  rheumatism;  internal  tumor; 
ivy  poison;  internal  troubles;  intestinal  trouble;  insanity;  kid- 
ney and  bladder;  knee,  injured;  knee,  stiff;  knee,  swelling  in; 
la  grippe;  lame;  leg  too  long;  leg  too  short;  leg,  poisoned; 
leucaemia;  liver  trouble;  locomotor  ataxia;  lung  trouble;  lung 
fever;  lumbago;  malaria;  measles;  meningitis;  morphine  habit ; 
mumps;  nearsightedness;  nervous  exhaustion;  nervous  pros- 
tration; nervous  trouble;  neuralgia;  nervous  debility;  ovarian 
tumor;  palsy;  paralysis;  periostitis;  piles;  pneumonia;  poly- 
pus; puerperal  convulsions;  peritonitis;  pleurisy;  paralysis  of 
bowels  ;  palpitation  of  heart;  quinsy  ;  rheumatism  ;  running 
sore;  rib  broken;  rupture;  salt  rheum;  scalding;  scarlet  fever; 
scrofula;  skin  eruption;  skull  fractures;  sick  headache;  spasms; 
sea  sickness;  sleeplessness;  small  pox;  spinal  meningitis;  sore 
throat;  spinal  disease;  spine,  curvature  of ;  sciatica;  stone  can- 
cer; stigmatism;  stiff  hip  joint;  stomach  trouble;  sunstroke; 
synovitis;  symmetrical  keratiasis  of  the  palms  and  soles;  tape- 
worm; throat  trouble;  tobacco;  toothache;  tonsilitis;  tubercu- 
losis; telegrapher's  paralysis;  tuberculosis  of  bowels;  tumor;  tu- 
mor fibroid;  thigh  bone  diseased;  typhoid  fever;  ulcers;  urinary 
trouble;  ulcers  in  bowels;  varicose  ulcer;  varicose  veins;  whis- 
key; wounds;  wrist  sprained;  weak  lungs;  weak  eyes;  white 
diphtheria;  wild  hairs;  whooping  cough;  yellow  fever. 

The  unfortunate  Schlatter  has  been  followed,  by  his  own 
written  testimony,  and  that  of  his  personal  friends,  through 
his  work  as  a  healer  and  his  wanderings  alone  until  his  death 
from  starvation  in  the  deserts  of  the  Southwest,  a  victim  to  a 
peculiar  form  of  delusional  insanity  manifesting  itself  in  re- 
ligiomania. 

Cures  at  shrines  such  as  I^ourdes,  and  by  means  of  sacred 
relics  have  contributed  their  lessons. 

Christian  Science  has  unwillingly  yielded  its  facts  and  phi- 
losophy to  our  work.  By  means  of  many  personal  interviews 
with  Christian  Science  healers,  people  who  had  been  healed 
and  those  upon  whom  the  method  had  failed,  and  by  a  faithful 
perusal  of  "Science  and  Health,"  together  with  a  careful  study 
of  the  life  of  Mrs.  Eddy  from  childhood,  a  clear  view  of  the 
whole  system  has  been  obtained.  A  study  of  cases  similar  to 
those  under  divine  healing  has  also  been  made. 

Lastly,  Mental  Science  has  received  its  share  of  attention 
and  yielded  perhaps  the  best  returns.  Mental  Science  healers 
have  been  uniformly  courteous  and  helpful,  ready  to  furnish 
records  of  their  cures  and  often  of  their  failures,  willing  to 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  445 

discuss  their  theories  and  admit  their  limitations.  The  lit- 
erature of  this  as  well  as  of  the  other  schools  has  been  read. 

The  result  of  this  investigation,  extending  over  more  than 
two  years,  is  an  absolute  conviction  based  upon  evidence,  only 
one  or  two  items  of  which  we  can  give  here,  that  the  curative 
principle  in  every  one  of  the  forms  is  found  in  the  influence  of 
the  mind  of  the  patient  on  his  body.  In  other  words,  however 
different  the  claims  and  the  method,  the  explanation  of  all  is 
the  same.  We  may  mention  a  few  of  the  items  leading  to  this 
conclusion.  They  all  cure  disease  and  they  all  have  failures. 
They  all  cure  the  same  kind  of  diseases  and  the  same  diseases 
are  incurable  for  them  all.  In  those  classes  of  disease  where 
the  cures  are  wrought,  there  are  the  same  percentages  of  cures 
by  all  the  methods.  Stripped  from  a  few  characteristic  phrases 
all  the  reports  from  all  the  different  forms  are  identical.  A 
testimonial  to  a  patent  medicine,  for  example,  reads  precisely 
like  one  of  Dowie's  reports  of  a  divine  healing  cure.  Again 
there  are  many  records  of  people  going  from  one  school  to 
another  and  in  this  no  one  practice  seems  to  show  any  advan- 
tage. Some  fail  after  trying  all.  Some  fail  to  get  cured  by 
divine  healing,  but  get  restored  by  Christian  Science,  and  vice 
versa.  Others  fail  with  Christian  Science  and  are  successful  in 
hypnotism,  and  vice  versa. 

In  view  of  this  unity  of  principle,  we  have  selected  for  special 
presentation  here,  the  two  forms  of  Mental  Science  and  Hyp- 
notism as  typical  of  the  whole  matter.  Mental  Science  gives 
the  best  expression  of  the  popular  philosophy  in  this  line,  while 
Hypnotism  gives  the  scientist's  view  of  the  same  thing.  On  the 
popular  side,  Mental  Science  is  free  from  the  dogmatism  of  the 
Christian  Scientist,  and  the  superstition  of  the  divine  healer. 
The  cases  are  the  most  fully  reported,  and  the  arguments  of 
the  advocates  are  most  intelligible. 

As  previously  stated  Mental  Science  originated  with  Dr. 
Quimby,  and  we  may  now  give  a  short  sketch  of  his  life  and 
philosophy,  to  be  followed  by  a  brief  account  of  the  later  de- 
velopments of  the  movement  and  lastly  by  the  data  of  the  cures 
wrought  by  it. 

Phineas  Parkhurst  Quimby  was  born  in  Lebanon,  N.  H., 
Feb.  i6,  1802.  While  still  a  child  his  parents  moved  to  Belfast, 
Maine,  where  he  thereafter  always  lived,  although  he  had  an 
office  in  Portland  the  latter  years  of  his  life. 

He  had,  perhaps,  the  average  education  of  a  boy  in  a  small 
town,  in  those  days.  It  was  meagre  as  to  actual  book  study, 
but  evidently  full  of  that  suggestiveness  which  led  him  always 
to  long  for  more.  He  had  an  inventive  mind,  being  interested 
in  mechanics,  philosophy,  and  scientific  subjects. 

When  about  36  years  of  age,  a  travelling  hypnotist,  elicited 


446  GODDARD : 

his  intense  interest.  "At  that  time,  Mr.  Quimby  was  of  me- 
dium height,  small  of  stature;  quick-motioned  and  nervous, 
with  piercing  black  eyes,  black  hair  and  whiskers;  a  well-shaped, 
well-balanced  head;  high,  broad  forehead,  and  a  rather  promi- 
nent nose,  and  a  mouth  indicating  strength  and  firmness  of 
will;  persistent  in  what  he  undertook,  and  not  easily  defeated 
or  discouraged."     (New  England  Mag.,  Mar.,  1888.) 

He  began  at  once  to  experiment,  trying  to  hypnotize  any  one 
who  would  submit  to  the  experiment.  He  soon  found  that  he 
had  some  success  and  finally  discovered  a  subject  whom  he 
could  influence  in  a  remarkable  degree.  With  this  subject  he 
gave  exhibitions  for  several  years,  travelling  through  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick. 

He  produced  hypnosis,  by  sitting  in  front  of  his  subject  and 
looking  him  in  the  eye  for  a  few  moments.  The  performances 
were  so  remarkable  that  others  began  to  investigate  the  matter, 
and  Mr.  Quimby  was  called  upon  to  use  the  powers  of  his  sub- 
ject to  diagnose  disease.  Mr.  Quimby  soon  noticed  that  the 
diagnosis  was  always  identical  with  what  the  patient  himself, 
or  some  one  else  in  the  room,  thought  was  the  trouble. 

This  gave  him  his  first  suggestion  of  the  connection  between 
mesmerism  and  the  cure  of  disease.  From  this  time  on  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  what  he  considered  the  greatest 
boon  to  mankind,  that  had  ever  been  discovered — the  cause  and 
cure  of  disease  by  mental  states. 

He  soon  found  that  the  hypnotic  state  was  unnecessary  to  the 
success  of  his  work,  and  accordingly  dropped  that  part  of  his 
practice,  either  because  it  was  a  bothersome  and  useless  adjunct 
to  his  work  of  healing,  or,  as  seems  more  likely,  because  in 
those  days,  mesmerism,  especially  when  used  in  connection 
with  the  health  of  any  one,  was  generally  regarded  as  witch- 
craft, or  some  form  of  spiritism,  atd  this  brought  his  great 
discovery  into  undeserved  disrepute. 

Therefore,  instead  of  going  through  the  forms  and  ceremonies 
usually  accompanying  hypnotization,  he  simply  sat  by  the  side 
of  his  patient,  talked  with  him  about  his  disease,  explained  his 
own  theory,  convinced  him  that  his  disease  was  an  error  and 
"established  the  truth  in  its  place,  which,  if  done,  was  the 
cure."  He  sometimes,  in  cases  of  lameness  and  sprains,  ma- 
nipulated the  limbs  of  the  patient,  and  often  rubbed  the  head 
of  the  patient  with  his  hands,  wetting  them  with  water.  He 
said  it  was  so  hard  for  the  patient  to  believe  that  his  mere  talk 
with  him  produced  the  cure,  that  he  did  his  rubbing  simply 
that  the  patient  would  have  more  confidence  in  him;  but  he 
always  insisted  that  he  possessed  no  "powder"  nor  healing 
properties  different  from  any  one  else  and  that  his  manipulations 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  447 

produced  no  beneficial  effect  upon  the  patient,  although  it  was 
often  the  case  that  the  patient  himself  thought  they  did. 

Mr.  Quimby's  practice  increased  rapidly.  In  1859,  he  made 
his  headquarters  at  Portland  though  his  home  was  still  in 
Belfast.  In  Portland  he  became  favorably  known  and  treated 
many  patients  and  performed  some  remarkable  cures,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  papers  at  that  period. 

In  1866,  Dr.  Quimby  was  overcome  by  the  pressure  of  work, 
which  his  unselfish  devotion  to  humanity  as  he  regarded  it, 
forbade  him  to  neglect,  and  he  passed  away  at  his  home  in 
Belfast,  Me.  * 

While  he  was  undoubtedly  hampered  by  some  superstitions, 
for  which  the  age  was  more  responsible  than  he,  and  which  his 
successors  have  in  part  perpetuated  and  increased,  and  in  part 
outgrown;  yet  to  him,  undoubtedly,  belongs  the  credit  not  of 
discovering  that  mind  influences  matter,  nor  yet  of  originating 
the  philosopheme  that  all  matter  is  the  creation  of  mind,  but 
rather  of  practically  applying  the  principles  to  the  prevention 
and  cure  of  disease. 

Whatever  may  be  the  future  of  mental  healing,  it  must  at 
least  take  its  place  as  a  valuable  addition  to  our  methods  of 
coping  with  human  infirmities. 

A  few  quotations  from  Dr.  Quimby's  writings  will  show  his 
point  of  view — his  philosophy. 

He  says  of  his  method:  "I  give  no  medicines;  I  simply  sit 
by  the  patient's  side  and  explain  to  him  what  he  thinks  is  his 
disease,  and  my  explanation  is  the  cure.  And,  if  I  succeed  in 
correcting  his  errors,  I  change  the  fluids  of  the  system  and 
establish  the  truth,  or  health.     The  truth  is  the  cure." 

''When  I  mesmerized  my  subject  he  would  prescribe  some 
little  simple  herb  that  would  do  no  harm  or  good  of  itself. 
In  some  cases  this  would  cure  the  patient.  I  also  found  that 
any  medicine  would  cure  certain  cases,  if  he  ordered  it.  This 
led  me  to  investigate  the  matter  and  arrive  at  the  stand  I  now 
take :  that  the  cure  is  not  in  the  medicine,  but  in  the  confidence 
of  the  doctor  or  medium." 

"  Now  I  deny  disease  as  a  truth,  but  admit  it  as  a  deception,) 
started  like  all  other  stories  without  any  foundation,  and  handed 
down  from  generation  to  generation  till  the  people  believe  it, 
and  it  becomes  a  part  of  their  lives.     So  they  live  a  lie,  and 
their  senses  are  in  it. 

• '  To  illustrate  this,  suppose  I  tell  a  person  he  has  the  diph- 
theria; and  he  is  perfectly  ignorant  of  what  I  mean.  So  I 
describe  the  feelings  and  tell  the  danger  of  the  disease,  and 
how  fatal  it  is  in  many  places.  This  makes  the  person  nervous, 
and  I  finally  convince  him  of  the  disease.  I  have  now  made 
one;  and  he  attaches  himself  to  it,  and  really  understands  it, 


448  GODDARD : 

and  he  is  in  it  body  and  soul.     Now  he  goes  to  work  to  make 
it,  and  in  a  short  time  it  makes  its  appearance. 

"  My  way  of  curing  convinces  him  that  he  has  been  deceived  ; 
and  if  I  succeed,  the  patient  is  cured.     (1862) 

* '  Man  in  his  natural  state  was  no  more  liable  to  disease  than 
the  beast,  but  as  soon  as  he  began  to  reason,  he  became  dis- 
eased; his  disease  was  in  his  reason." 

Mental  Science  varies  so  much  among  the  individual  healers 
and  leaders  that  it  is  impossible  to  characterize  it  under  one 
head.  One  fairly  representative  statement  is  the  following  from 
an  editor  of  one  of  the  numerous  journals  devoted  to  this  move- 
ment. He  says  that  the  movement  is  founded  on  the  discovery 
that,  "  Mind  is  the  only  power;  that  this  is  God's  world,  and 
that  all  the  people  are  his  beloved  children.  The  horrible, 
God-dishonoring  dogma  of  hell  and  perdition  crumbles  and 
passes  into  nothingness  before  the  marvellous  light  of  Love. 
The  angry,  vengeful,  jealous  God  who  cursed  the  world  for  so 
many  years — blighting  hope,  chilling  love,  scaring  innocence 
and  emasculating  divine  manhood — now  veils  his  distorted  fea- 
tures, and  takes  refuge  in  the  dingy  precincts  of  a  few  unen- 
lightened orthodox  churches.  The  God  of  Love,  the  All-good 
Father,  now  reigns  supreme." 

Such  is  their  theology.  Their  healing  practice  grows  out  of 
that,  and  varies  in  its  claims  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
healer — whether  he  looks  to  the  theoretical  side,  the  theological; 
or  to  the  practical,  the  empirical.  Some  claim  everything; 
others  claim  little  more  than  the  most  enlightened  and  broad 
minded  medical  men  admit. 

The  following  quotations  from  a  recent  pamphlet  (Christian 
Science  and  the  New  Metaphysical  Movement,  published  by 
the  Metaphysical  Club,  Boston,)  emphasizes  still  further  the 
differences  between  Eddyism,  and  Mental  Science. 
'^  ' '  Christian  Science  proclaims  the  unreality  of  matter  and  of 
the  bod3^  The  rational  and  broader  thought,  not  only  admits 
the  validity  of  the  body,  as  veritable  expression,  but  claims 
that  it  is  as  good  in  its  own  place  and  plane,  as  is  the  soul  or 
spirit.  While  susceptible  to  mental  moulding,  it  is  neither  an 
error  nor  an  illusion.  .  .  .  It  is  to  be  ruled,  beautified, 
and  utilized  in  its  own  order,  and  not  denied  an  existence. 
Even  admitting  that  the  whole  cosmos  is  in  the  last  analysis, 
but  one  Universal  Mind  and  its  manifestation  even  admitting 
that  all  matter  is  but  a  lower  vibration  of  spirit,  and  that  the 
human  body  is  essentially  a  mental  rather  than  a  physical  or- 
ganism; still  matter  has  its  own  relative  reality  and  validity, 
and  is  not  to  be  ignored  as  illusion." 

The  broader  view  "  utilizes  a  practical  idealism.  It  is  en- 
tirely optimistic     ....     understanding,    both   from    ex- 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  449 

perience  and  observation  that  a  systematic  employment  of  mental 
potency  in  a  rational,  scientific,  and  idealistic  manner  has  a 
wonderful  and  unappreciated  healing  energy.  .  .  .  .  It 
does  not  antagonize  common  sense  nor  sound  philosophy. 
While  thoroughly  loyal  to  principle,  and  the  higher  causation, 
and  to  an  uncompromising  spiritual  philosophy,  it  recognizes 
that  progress  must  be  evolutionary.  It  does  not  ignore  the 
good  in  existing  systems,  disparage  reasonable  hygiene,  or  deny 
the  place  of  certain  departments  of  surgery,  x  It  is  not  insen- 
sible to  the  present  and  provisional  uses  of  simple  external 
therapeutic  agencies " 

Mental  Science  is  far  more  "scientific"  than  Christian  Science 
in  that  it  is  free  from  the  dogmatism,  and  seeks  for  a  broad  and 
general  principle  upon  which  to  base  its  results.  Being  free  from 
the  domination  of  any  one  mind  claiming  infallibility,  and  with- 
out any  organization,  there  is  a  much  greater  diversity  in  the 
theories  and  in  the  practices  of  the  different  healers.  There  is 
also  a  far  greater  readiness  to  accept  the  facts  and  to  be  governed 
by  them,  to  consider  the  views  of  others,  and  to  accept  such  as 
seem  well  founded.  It  must  be  remembered ,  however,  that  while 
this  is  true  of  the  Mental  Scientists  as  a  whole,  there  are  those 
who  hold  the  extreme  view  that  the  ' '  science  ' '  is  fully  estab- 
lished, is  perfect  in  its  theory  and  absolutely  invariable  in  its 
results,  and  of  universal  application.  At  the  other  end  are 
those  who  emphasize  the  empirical  side.  They  have  seen  re- 
sults, they  know  the  method  is  sure  under  certain  circumstances. 
They  confess  it  is  not  in  all  cases,  and  whether  it  can  be  made 
so  or  not,  they  are  in  doubt.  They  use  it  for  what  good  they 
can  get  out  of  it,  and  hope  that  time  and  experience  will 
make  clear  the  true  limits  or  the  limitlessness  of  the  application. 

These  varying  attitudes  are  extremely  valuable  to  the  student, 
and  are  worth  presenting.  They  are  well  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing extracts  from  personal  letters  received  from  prominent  per- 
sons in  this  line. 

Each  letter  is  given  entire  and  in  the  words  of  the  writer, 
except  that  changes  are  made  in  names  and  dates,  etc. ,  in  order 
to  prevent  recognition  and  so  save  the  writer  from  any  un- 
pleasant notoriety. 

Condensed  Personal  Outi^ine — Mentai.  Science. 

M.,  64.  English  descent.  Sensitive,  delicate  organization ;  very 
conscientious ;  strongly  intuitive ;  very  imaginative ;  fairly  intellec- 
tual. Subject  to  "  ups  and  downs ; "  dominated  considerably  by 
conscious  and  unconscious  fears  and  forebodings,  which  I  now  know 
were  largely  caused  by  early  theological  training.  Academic  educa- 
tion. In  business  inclined  to  overexertion.  Intense  business  care  and 
responsibility  developed  nervous  weakness.  Fears  and  forebodings 
prominent  enough  to  cause  mental  disquietude.     Alternations  of  de- 


450  GODDARD : 

pression  became  pronounced.  Fears  began  to  take  new  forms.  Every 
danger  was  magnified.    Health  broke  and  was  obliged  to  quit  business. 

All  this  time  was  under  best  medical  treatment,  and  observed  hygi- 
enic rules.  No  permanent  improvement,  but  managed  to  keep  about 
the  most  of  the  time.  Insomnia,  dyspepsia,  pain  at  base  of  brain, 
with  a  variet)'^  of  kindred  ills.  Entire  lack  of  nerve.  Consulted 
famous  physicians.  No  improvement.  Acute  attacks  of  tonsilitis, 
colds  and  fevers.     Morbid  impulses,  hard  to  resist. 

Persuaded  to  try  mental  healing.  I  had  tried  everything  else,  and 
was  desperate,  had  but  little  faith.  First  healer  made  no  impression. 
After  month  went  to  another.  No  change  for  two  weeks,  and  then 
with  sharp  transitions  for  an  occasional  half  hour  or  so,  in  a  day,  an 
interval  of  perfect  mental  and  physical  harmony.  Great  revelation. 
Had  had  nothing  like  it  for  years.  New  hope!  But  each  time  I 
dropped  back,  seemed  as  bad  as  ever.  But  slowly  the  harmonious 
seasons  lengthened  and  became  a  little  more  frequent.  Began  to  watch 
my  own  mental  processes  and  sequences,  and  interested  myself  in  the 
literature  of  the  subject  and  the  experiences  of  others.  Gained  gradual 
command.  Old  and  new  thought  in  conflict  within,  plainly  felt  and 
thoroughly  diagnosed.  Took  some  treatments  off  and  on  for  two 
years,  but  growingly,  the  greater  normality  of  self-healing  dawned 
upon  me.  Increasingly  learned  to  vanquish  discordant  and  depressing 
thoughts.  The  beauty  and  immense  importance  of  this  principle  of 
this  practical  idealism  seemed  to  me  a  discovery — a  truth  beyond 
value.  I  intuitively  became  thoroughly  idealistic  and  optimistic. 
I  realized  that  the  whole  world  is  suffering,  exactly  as  I  had  done, 
though  in  a  less  degree.  Knowledge  of  the  creative  power  of  thought 
stood  before  me  as  the  one  great  truth  needed  to  cure  the  woes  of  the 
world.  But  the  supernaturalism  of  the  church  and  the  materialism 
of  science  made  and  still  make  both  hostile  to  such  a  philosophy. 
A  feeling  of  at-one-ment  with  the  Universal  Goodness,  may  be  system- 
atically cultivated  and  may  be  depended  upon  to  displace  all  oppo- 
sites.  I  became  convinced  that  these  things  are  law,  as  exact  as  any 
law  of  physics  or  chemistry.  Other  experiences  abundantly  confirmed 
my  own. 

For  six  years  past  I  have  taken  no  medicine,  and  not  been  confined 
to  my  room  for  an  hour.  Temporarily,  sometimes  some  of  the  old 
scars  or  slight  remnants  of  old  chronic  conditions  appear,  but  they 
give  me  no  apprehension,  and  under  the  law  are  easily  vanquished. 
I  have  more  solid  enjoyment  now  in  one  year,  than  in  the  thirty  years 
from  the  time  I  was  20  until  I  was  50.  The  "  Spirit  of  Truth  "  is  a 
natural,  lawful,  and  veritable  teacher.  The  importance  to  the  world 
of  the  harnessing  of  electrical  forces,  is  infantile  and  puny,  compared 
with  the  intelligent  utilization  of  the  power  of  thinking  according 
to  law. 

F.,  35. 
Dear  Sir: 

my  airy  disposition  and  sanguine  temperament  finds  mental 

analysis  and  descriptive  retrospection  very  irksome. 

Two  years  ago  I  was  first  interested  on  my  own  account  in  Mental 
Healing In  receiving  both  absent  and  present  silent  treat- 
ment (after  I  believed  in  the  possibility  of  another's  thought  affecting 
me,  if  they  willed  it  and  I  set  up  no  barrier)  I  was  conscious  of  thrills 
running  up  and  down  the  body.  The  first  treatments  before  I  believed, 
made  no  conscious  impression  on  the  body,  but  I  was  restored  to  my 
normal  buoyancy  of  spirit.  The  bodily  ache  did  not  begin  to  yield 
until  five  or  six  months  afterward,  when  I  began  to  try  to  help  myself 
by  saying  and  trying  to  feel  that  I  loved  everybody.     I  had  for  years 


EFFECTS   OF   MIND   ON   BODY.  45 1 

been  deeply  resentful  toward  one  person  and  considered  my  final  ner- 
vous breakdown  three  years  ago  (six  months  duration)  much  aggra- 
vated by  the  physician  employed.  As  I  gained  control  over  my 
resentment  through  Auto-Suggestion  and  help  from  the  healer  I  began 
to  lose  the  physical  ache Had  no  school  training  in  psychol- 
ogy, nor  church  training  which  satisfied  anything  higher  than  my 
sense  of  the  aesthetic. 

Have  left  the  Episcopal  Church,  as  no  creeds  satisfy  me.  I  worship 
God  by  cultivating  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  and  by  daily  aspiration 
towards  "whatsoever  things  are  true,  honest,  just, pure,  lovely,  and  of 

good  report." The  first  intimation  of  the  power  of  thought 

over  the  body  was  given  me  by  a  German  physician  whose  prescriptions 
of  iron  and  mineral  water  did  no  permanent  good.  One  day  after 
observing  me  closely,  he  said  "guard  your  thoughts  Fraulein."  .... 
It  has  taken  eight  years  for  that  seed  to  fructify.  I  could  never  for- 
get that  sentence.  After  I  broke  down,  in  my  33rd  year,  and  began  to 
pull  up,  I  was  recommended  to  read  some  of  the  best  works  on  this 
subject. 

These  settled  my  belief  that  one  can  become  physically,  mentally, 
morally,  what  they  sincerely  desire  and  will  to.  Intense  desire  and 
concentrated  thought  will  draw  out  of  the  invisible  into  the  visible 
In  music  (I  spent  eight  hard,  weary  years  in  I^eipzig),  in  ora- 
tory, in  psycho-physical  culture,  the  highest,  noblest,  purest,  has  been 
drawn  to  me  through  the  law  of  vibration.  .  .  . 

As  for  education,  I  was  in  and  out  of  dozens  of  boarding  schools, 
from  life  in  British  Guiana,  Ireland,  France,  and  New  England,  until 
twenty-one  years  of  age ;  a  foe  to  book  knowledge,  and  a  lover  of  run- 
ning, dancing,  swinging — anything  that  necessitated  air. 

This  has  been  explained  since  reading  zodiacal  books — as  I  was  born 
on  the  cusp  between  Gemini  and  Cancer,  my  earth  sign  being  Sagiita- 
rius.  Science,  art,  and  spiritual  development,  are  all  that  life  holds 
for  me.     Facts,  reason,  judgment,  do  not  attract  me. 

Sincerely  yours, 

F.,  28.  Nervous  prostration,  showing  itself  through  physical  ex- 
haustion, lack  of  sleep,  tears,  and  suppressed  menstruation.  Physi- 
cally, had  always  been  strong,  but  the  other  symptoms  had  always  been 
noticeable  from  previous  life  since  twelve  years  of  age.  Much  nervous- 
ness on  maternal  side  of  family,  with  insanity  showing  itself  in  several 
members  of  second  generation  before  me.  Had  taught  for  eight  or  nine 
years  previous  to  illness,  with  great  pleasure  though  it  was  largely  a 
necessity.  Temperament,  great  self-consciousness ;  great  lack  of  trust- 
ing to  the  interior  self  for  action;  always  planning  what  was  to  be  done, 
no  spontaneity  or  demonstration  of  the  affections.  Consequently, 
great  contraction  throughout  the  organism.  Conscientious,  thorough, 
and  energetic.  No  interior  consciousness  as  a  fundamental  support. 
Always  went  to  a  liberal  Unitarian  Church  but  had  no  home  religious 
instruction  and  only  for  a  short  period  at  church.  Religion  was  ex- 
ternal, intellectual.  My  whole  life  wholly  of  the  head,  very  little  of 
the  heart,  almost  none  consciously  of  the  soul.  This  last  I  consider 
the  true  cause  of  my  illness. 

Made  no  improvement  under  a  prominent  M.  D.  Grew  distinctly 
worse  at  sanitarium,  then  returned  home  under  care  of  an  M.  D. 
Grew  very  much  better,  but  did  not  overcome  symptoms,  except  tend- 
ency to  tears. 

At  desire  of  an  intimate  friend  went  to  Mrs.  A.  for  mental  treatment 
after  nine  months  with  the  M.  D. 

Went  to  Mrs.  A.  in  October.  Improved;  apparently  recovered.  In 
January  following,  felt  less  strong,  returned  to  her,  but  apparently 


452  GODDARD : 

received  no  help.  Had  no  consciousness  of  incoming  life,  as  had  had 
at  early  treatments.  Knowing  no  other  resource  went  to  my  former 
M.  D.  again,  and  was  then  sicker  than  ever  before,  and  more  nearly 
on  the  verge  of  insanity.  I  believe  if  any  one  vibrates  between  medi- 
cine and  mental  healing,  there  is  no  permanent  cure  for  them  and  they 
are  likely  to  have  an  aggravated  form  of  their  former  illness. 

Next  went  to  Miss  B.,  Mental  Healer,  who  had  brought  back  to 
health  a  friend  who  had  had  a  long  illness  like  my  own.  The  contrast 
between  the  result  of  this  treatment  and  that  from  Mrs.  A.  lies  in  the 
fact  that  I  went  now  from  my  own  volition,  feeling  that  this  was  my 
last  chance;  also  I  felt  a  greater  affinity  for  Miss  B.  The  treatments 
were  more  immediate  and  more  marked  in  their  interior  effects.  I  did 
not  make  great  physical  gains,  but  my  whole  interior  nature  was 
shaken  to  its  core.  The  phj'^sical  effect  was  to  make  me  sleepy,  and 
to  want  to  keep  quiet  and  to  want  to  read  the  Bible,  which  I  had  never 
cared  for.  The  treatments  were  daily,  half  an  hour  long,  with  my 
hand  in  hers  and  in  a  relaxed  position,  so  that  I  could  rest  or  sleep 
afterwards.  She  gave  no  directions  except  to  rest  afterwards,  and 
take  more  interest  in  what  was  going  on  about  me,  and  break  up  old 
habits.  Very  soon  I  began  to  have  a  desire  to  lead  a  more  religious 
life;  then  to  see  that  all  life  was  in  mind,  surging  up  into  conscious- 
ness of  my  faults. 

Since  that  time  I  have  taken  no  medicine  nor  been  under  a  doctor's, 
care.  Later,  felt  that  Miss  B.'s  treatments  were  too  stimulating, 
though  really  encouraging  in  power  and  value.  To  rest  from  such 
intensity  of  mental  and  spiritual  action  as  it  produced,  I  went  South. 
Here  I  had  treatment  from  Christian  Science.  Was  always  conscious 
of  these  absent  treatments.  It  was  as  if  a  current  of  electricity  was 
coming  into  and  suffusing  me.  It  was  the  same  with  Miss  B.'s  treat- 
ments except  that  Miss  B.'s  were  more  powerful. 

Felt  an  inward  charge  to  give  up  the  treatments.  By  this  time 
neuralgia  had  left  me  and  I  had  resumed  the  habits  of  normal  life. 
An  imperfect  digestion  is  all  that  remained  of  the  old  illness.  For 
seven  years  have  been  able  to  care  for  myself  by  this  thought  method. 

Was  educated  in  public  schools;  fitted  for  Harvard.     Taught. 

All  is  God.  All  is  good,  in  the  fact  that  all  is  perpetual  evolution 
under  Divine  law.  We  reap  the  fruits  of  our  own  sowing.  Doctrine 
of  reincarnation  seems  to  me  probable. 

F.  47.  American.  I  inherit  a  nervous  temperament.  I  can  never 
remember  the  time  when  I  was  well  and  free  from  pain  ;  still  I  worked, 
teaching  for  several  years,  afterwards  dressmaking,  between  long  in- 
tervals of  severe  sickness.  When  37,  was  told  I  had  a  tumor  and  its 
removal  was  necessary.  Accordingly  I  was  sent  to  hospital  and  ova- 
riotomy was  performed.  Tubercles  were  also  found  and  removed. 
My  bowels  were  kept  open  two  years  and  kept  clean  by  means  of  in- 
serted perforated  tubes.  Then  they  were  allowed  to  heal.  This  was 
considered  a  very  wonderful  piece  of  surgery.  But  my  courage  was 
marvellous,  for  I  was  buoyed  up  by  the  hope  of  being  perfectly  well. 
But  six  years  later  another  operation  for  fibroid  tumor  left  me  with  no 
hope  of  recovery.  Spinal  neuralgia,  intestinal  indigestion,  and  worse 
than  all,  a  brain  incapable  of  any  mental  effort,  all  of  which  left  me 
in  a  deplorable  condition.  Was  refused  admission  to  the  hospitals 
because  case  too  chronic.  Two  years  ago  was  admitted  to  a  mental 
healing  home.  While  there,  was  constantly  haunted  by  the  fear  that 
I  should  be  dismissed  as  incurable.  The  treatments  were  mostly  silent, 
and  I  seemed  to  be  groping  in  the  dark  unable  to  grasp  the  truth. 
After  four  mouths  treatment  I  was  told  that  I  had  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  new  philosophy  to  heal  myself,  and  I  came  away  with  the  feel- 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  453 

ing  that  I  was  sent  because  incurable.  Still  there  was  a  start  in  the 
right  direction  that  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  life. 

Then  came  a  year  of  severe  struggle  alone.  I  had  been  reading  a 
book  on  the  subject,  and  tried  to  follow  its  directions  as  best  I  could. 
But  my  mind  was  so  bewildered  that  it  was  incapable  of  reception.  I 
received  some  help.  Still  doubts,  fears,  vacillation,  impatience  and 
worry  had  their  effect,  and  the  progress  was  slow.  ^ 

Nearly  a  year  ago,  I  received  a  copy  of  a  Mental  Science  Journal. 
I  wrote  to  the  editor.  She  inspired  me  with  hope.  I  believed  she 
could  help  me  and  I  began  to  take  treatments.  She  taught  me  how 
to  relax  every  nerve  and  muscle  and  to  lean  lovingly  on  her  and  to 
expect  a  realization  of  my  desires.  The  treatments  have  been  wholly 
absent,  for  I  have  never  seen  her,  but  their  effect  upon  me  has  been 
marvellous. 

A  fixed  time  each  day  was  given  to  the  treatments,  and  the  time 
strictly  adhered  to.  The  first  requirement  was  relaxation,  the  second 
trust.  In  leaning  upon  her  in  this  relaxed  condition,  I  learned  to  lean 
upon  the  hi^L,  Within  myself.  The  progress  was  slow  (but  there  was 
a  life  time  of  weakness  to  overcome)  but  the  improvement  was  notice- 
able from  the  very  first  treatment. 

Two  strong  evidences  of  cure  are:  increased  physical  endurance 
and  greater  mental  power.  Yet  while  I  am  conscious  of  greater 
strength  and  clearer  perception,  I  cannot  conceive  the  time  in  any 
person's  life  when  there  would  be  nothing  to  overcome ;  and  I  find  it 
just  as  necessary  to  hold  myself  receptive  to  the  teachings  of  the  Great 
Soul  as  at  first.  And  of  course  I  lean  more  and  more  upon  Its  guid- 
ance. Denials  have  little  weight  with  me.  My  strength  is  in  affirm- 
ations. While  I  think  that  health  is  after  all,  a  secondary  considera- 
tion, I  know  it  must  follow  from  right  thinking  and  right  living. 
Ivove  fulfills  the  whole  law  of  life.  All  things  can  be  accomplished 
through  this  mighty  force.     Even  death  must  yield  to  its  power. 

My  reading  on  the  subject  has  been  limited,  partly  from  choice, 
partly  from  necessity.  Another's  opinion  cannot  be  mine.  I  listen  to 
the  Kingdom  of  the  All  Within  me  for  the  wisdom  that  never  fails. 
This  is  the  most  essential  thing  I  have  learned  in  Mental  Science, 
and  this  has  the  greatest  influence  upon  my  life. 

There  are  millions  and  millions  of  forces  awaiting  our  recognition 
and  if  we  hold  ourselves  receptive  to  this  Truth,  there  is  no  limit  to 
our  growth.    I  should  say  to  all  "  Read  less,  think  and  practice  more.*^ 

Sincerely, 

Dear  Sir  :  Three  years  ago  I  was  quite  ill  from  nervous  prostra- 
tion, and  a  tendency  to  fall  when  I  attempted  to  walk,  and  I  also  suf- 
fered from  an  abnormal  action  of  the  heart,  and  other  effects  of  an 
exhausted  nervous  system.  For  a  number  of  years  I  had  been  unable 
to  sleep  without  quieting  mixtures  of  some  sort,  and  stronger  ones 
were  resorted  to  as  the  nervous  system  became  weakened,  and  insom- 
nia got  the  better  of  me. 

As  a  result  of  these  physical  conditions,  my  mental  condition  was 
deplorable — or  that  is  what  I  believed  at  that  time.  I  had  no  hope, 
and  was  burdened  day  and  night  with  the  idea  of  continuing  to  be  a 
burden  to  myself  and  to  my  friends.  Naturally  I  am  not  despondent, 
but  nervous  exhaustion  being  considered  hereditary  in  my  family, 
and  my  physicians  giving  me  little  encouragement,  I  saw  no  way  to 
regain  health. 

I  thought  because  I  was  over  50  years  of  age,  that  I  was  less  likely 
to  recover  than  a  younger  person  under  similar  conditions.  I  did  not 
worry  about  business  affairs,  as  I  have  no  business  occupation.  I  am 
an  American  with  liberal  views  regarding  religion,  always  having 


454  GODDARD : 

believed  in  the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man;  no 
church  creed  being  so  broad  as  my  own  inner  perception  of  God  and 
of  duty,  consequently  I  am  connected  with  no  church. 

When  health  failed  and  faith  in  medicine  was  lost,  I  resorted  as  a 
forlorn  hope  to  mental  treatment.  I  was  received  as  a  patient  by  a 
mental  healer.  I  remained  there  twelve  weeks.  The  method  was  verbal 
suggestion  and  silent  treatment.  I  can  report  no  special  feeling  I  ex- 
perienced during  treatment,  only  I  hoped  I  would  receive  help. 

And  I  did  receive  it.  After  a  few  weeks  I  was  able  to  sleep  well, 
and  I  took  up  life  again  with  courage  and  purpose.  I  have  continued 
to  improve  slowly  but  surely.  The  verbal  instructions  I  received  have 
enabled  me  to  care  for  myself  since  leaving  the  home. 

I  think  there  was  nothing  in  my  school  education  that  bore  especially 
on  the  subject  of  spiritual  science.     I  was  educated  in  the  common 

schools  of  my  native  town  of , .     I  never  studied  psychology. 

I  have  read  some  philosophy,  and  much  fiction. 

I  think  that  a  study  in  this  line,  wisely  selected  and  properly  ex- 
pounded, would,  if  introduced  into  the  schools,  be  of  inestimable  value. 
Very  truly  yours,  

F.,  47.  Neurasthenia,  brought  on  by  exclusive  and  highly  unwise 
devotion  to  study  outside  of  school  hours,  as  a  preparation  for  teach- 
ing; from  worry;  from  the  absence  of  all  modes  of  expression  except 
through  teaching;  withdrawal  from  the  society  of  my  friends;  and 
from  insufficient  motor  activity  of  any  sort.  . 

My  trouble  lasted  about  six  months  before  I  undertook  mental  treat- 
ment, which  lasted  three  weeks.  The  only  feeling  I  had  was  hope  or 
desire  that  I  might  be  relieved  of  the  awful  sense  of  burden  that  my 
school  work  laid  upon  me.  I  was  not  conscious  that  I  was  improving 
at  the  time.  But  I  gained  an  increasing  sense  of  the  significance  of 
certain  passages  of  the  Bible.  I  then  went  to  the  seashore,  where  I 
became  conscious  that  I  was  really  much  better.  The  cure  has  been 
permanent.  That  is,  I  have  not  since  had  nervous  trouble,  and  my 
general  health  is  fairly  good.  An  evidence  of  cure  is  that  I  do  not 
live  in  fear  that  the  disease  may  return.- 

I  am  not  so  convinced  that  mental  healing  is  capable  of  curing  any 
disease  that  I  should  have  recourse  to  it  in  all  cases.  I  have,  since 
my  recovery,  had  a  physician  in  my  family. 

As  to  school,  I  am  convinced  that  the  soul  of  the  child  needs  more 
recognition  than  it  gets  in  the  schoolroom;  and  that  it  must  be  nour- 
ished there  as  it  is  not  now  nourished.  Nature  lessons  from  the  right 
point  of  view — revealing  the  inter-dependence  of  forms  of  life,  and 
poetry  wisely  selected  and  taught  by  a  truly  sympathetic  teacher, 
will  do  much  to  lift  the  child  upon  a  higher  spiritual  plane. 

(University  education) 

Sincerely, 

I  was  a  constant  sufferer  for  fourteen  years  and  treated  by  a  dozen 
physicians;  ovarian  tumor  which  was  increasing  in  size,  and  with  no 
nope  except  by  a  severe  operation,  and  really  no  hope  then,  since  the 
complications  made  it  almost  suicidal  to  put  myself  into  the  hands  of 
the  surgeon. 

I  had  begun  teaching  at  16,  and  at  24  was  a  total  wreck.  I  was  un- 
der treatment  by  Mental  Science  eight  months,  then  returned  home 
cured.  Undertook  the  care  of  the  sick,  immediately,  and  for  eleven 
weeks  did  not  get  an  unbroken  night's  rest. 

Absent  treatments  were  beneficial,  but  not  as  satisfactory  as  the 
"present."     I  knew  the  time  that  I  was  to  receive  them. 

In  some  respects  I  noticed  improvement  in  a  few  days,  but  had  se- 


EFFECTS   OF   MIND    ON    BODY.  455 

vere  struggles  with  intense  pain  and  at  one  time  was  very  low  for  a 
number  of  hours.  Each  time  I  went  down  came  up  stronger  than 
before. 

Have  been  well  for  eight  years.  My  disposition  is  very  much 
changed,  and  is  very  noticeable  to  my  near  relatives. 

Educated  in  girls'  boarding  school,  have  read  much  history  and  good 
novels. 

F.  I  was  a  natural  student,  educated  in  public  schools  of  Maine,  fol- 
lowed by  two  years  at  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary,  where  in  trying  to  crowd 
four  years  into  three,  and  being  in  a  state  of  anxious  fear,  slight  deaf- 
ness appeared,  heat  in  head  and  throat  and  catarrhal  condition,  later, 
of  whole  mucous  membrane.  Many  physicians,  but  only  temporary 
relief.  Two  mental  shocks  from  sudden  death  produced  almost  paral- 
ysis. Tried  Mind  Cure.  Slowly  I  was  led  to  believe  that  every  state 
of  mind  effected  the  body  expanding  and  contracting  it,  and  to  cure, 
the  mental  state  had  to  be  corrected.  Improvement  began  at  once; 
but  it  was  more  than  a  year  before  I  was  thoroughly  convinced  of  the 
mental  cause  of  disease  and  my  own  body  well  renovated,  and  still 
the  deafness  was  not  wholly  overcome. 

My  cure  came  by  being  educated  or  growing  into  their  way  of  think- 
ing. Since  then  we  have  never  used  drugs  in  our  family.  There  has 
been  no  return  of  old  troubles.  Some  failures  followed  the  efforts  of 
these  healers. 

M.,  77.  Nervous.  Congregationalist.  American.  Mercantile  life. 
Disease  hereditary.  Eczema,  began  at  age  of  65.  Treated  by  prom- 
inent physicians.  Two  months  without  medicine,  then  Mental  Science. 
Absent  treatment  not  satisfactory.  Treated  two  months,  then  treated 
self. 

Began  to  improve  in  two  weeks,  slowly  but  without  relapses.  Cure 
complete  in  three  months.  Cured  two  ^ears  three  months.  No  return 
of  eczema.     Tumor  all  gone,  also  hernia  and  kidney  trouble. 

Belief  in  the  science  has  changed  my  whole  course  of  life,  leading 
my  mind  to  more  spiritual  thought,  quieting  my  nervous  temperament, 
more  free  from  envy,  hate,  quick  temper,  and  more  free  from  anxiety. 
Think  basic  principles  should  be  introduced  into  our  schools  at  once. 
I  never  studied  psychology,  left  school  at  15. 

Yours  truly,  

Temperament,  nervous,  sanguine  ;  age  about  45,  American;  occupa- 
tion, piano-forte  teaching ;  religion,  liberal  thought. 

Hereditary  headaches  and  weak  digestion,  then  after  the  birth  of 
one  child,  at  38,  and  subsequent  hospital  operation  for  laceration  of 
the  cervix,  there  was  a  gradual  break  down,  until  scarcely  any  organ 
of  the  body  was  in  a  normal  condition. 

Think  now  that  most  of  it  was  fear  and  worry.  Had  at  different 
times  been  under  the  care  of  22  different  doctors.  Amongst  them 
[names  six  prominent  physicians  of  New  York  and  Boston]  and  other 
local  physicians.  There  was  a  morbid  terror  of  cancers,  and  an  ina- 
bility to  eat  any  food  without  fearing  sick  headache,  which  was  fre- 
quently of  48  hours'  duration  and  sometimes  occurred  three  times  a 
week.  Treatment  was  given  by  [a  mental  healer]  of  Boston,  by  silent 
suggestion,  and  was  immediately  helpful.  I  had  no  faith  in  the  treat- 
ment at  the  time,  and  was  a  disbeliever  in  the  power  of  faith.  For 
three  years  I  have  enjoyed  the  best  of  health  and  expect  to  so  con- 
tinue. The  effects  of  the  teachings  absorbed  have  been  most  beneficial 
in  changing  my  whole  disposition.  I  no  longer  worry,  can  keep  my 
temper,  and  am  growing  more  patient.  Therein,  I  firmly  believe,  lies 
the  whole  cure,  and  the  "failures"  of  which  I  know  many,  are  all 


456  GODDARD : 

traceable  to  the  wish  to  be  healed  without  being  willing  to  change  the 
thoughts.  I  think  I  might  write  of  fifty  cases  personally  known  to 
me,  where  recovery  has  been  complete  and  lasting. 

Nothing  in  my  school  education  bore  at  all  on  this  subject.  Never 
read  a  work  on  psychology  until  three  years  ago.     Was  educated  at  a 

private  school,  since  discontinued,  in .     Fitted  for  college  at 

i6,  but  was  debarred  from  entering  at  that  time  by  the  old  ideas  for- 
bidding a  woman  to  share  education  with  her  brothers.  Have 
read  almost  everything  appertaining  to  psychology  during  the  last 
few  years.  Its  effect  is  marvellous.  It  opens  the  gateway  to  health, 
happiness,  serenity,  advancement,  both  spiritual  and  temporal ;  devel- 
opes  the  intellect,  abolishes  fear  and  worry,  alters  our  old  ideas  of 
Divinity,  and  gives  us  more  than  a  glimpse  into  a  future  state  of  ex- 
istence. 

F.  41.     American.     Unitarian. 

Disease  of  spinal  cord  (lateral  sclerosis).  Given  up  by  hospital 
authorities,  as  not  likely  ever  to  walk  again.  The  disease  accompanied 
nervous  prostration,  brought  on  by  overwork  in  teaching. 

Greatly  depressed :  mind  dwelling  on  weak  state  and  wholly  ruled 
by  bodily  sensations.  Learned  Mental  Science  and  improvement  be- 
gan at  once.  Attitude  of  mind  entirely  changed.  From  dwelling  on 
weakness,  and  illness,  my  mind  was  turned  toward  health  with  full 
expectation  of  regaining  it. 

Found  great  help  in  the  mental  atmosphere  of  those  about  me,  every 
one  believing  in  my  recovery.  Left  my  healer  after  about  four  months. 
Since  then — winter  of  1894 — my  general  health  has  been  excellent, 
though  I  have  not  yet  regained  entire  independence  in  walking.  Use 
a  cane.  No  result  from  absent  treatment,  though  I  tried  to  co-operate 
with  the  healer.  There  was  a  regular  appointment  as  to  time  of  these 
absent  treatments.     Modern  languages  and  psychology  studied. 

The  following  personal  letter  is  from  a  prominent  scholar, 
who  has  taught  in  both  English  and  American  Universities  and 
is  a  recognized  authority  in  his  department. 

I  can  only  say  that  when  Miss came  to  stay  with  us, 

my  eyes  were  in  a  very  bad  state.  They  were  inflamed  and  the  lids 
granulated.  I  could  hardly  manage  my  daily  work,  to  say  nothing  of 
MSS.  and  the  like.  I  was  wearing  spectacles,  as  I  had  done  for  years, 
on  account  of  a  malformation  in  the  left  eye. 

Under  Miss 's  treatment  my  eyes  got  well  like  magic ;  I 

gave  up  the  glasses,  and  in  a  few  days  was  all  right ;  and  for  two  years, 
if  I  remember  rightly,  I  did  not  use  the  glasses  again. 

Possibly  you  might  say  that  discarding  the  glasses  operated  bene- 
ficially. I  can  think  of  no  other  explanation  that  is  not  a  psychic 
one.  And  I  may  say,  for  myself,  I  am  satisfied  with  the  psychic  ex- 
planation. 

I  find  my  eyesight  at  present  is  growing  weaker,  especially  the  left 
eye,  and  I  doubt  whether  I  shall  do  much  more  difl&cult  decipherment. 
Still  there  is  not  much  amiss,  and  I  think  I  still  retain  the  evidence 

of  Miss 's  beneficial  treatment. 

Sincerely,  

(The  treatment  in  the  above  case  was  given  ten  or  twelve  years  ago, 
this  letter  was  dated  Jan.  28,  1898.) 


KFFBCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  457 

The  foregoing  letters  are  sufficient  to  give  the  reader  a  good 
idea  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  Mental  Healing.^ 

We  may  take  this  opportunity  to  call  attention  to  one  fact, 
often  misunderstood:  It  is  supposed  by  many  who  have  given 
no  special  attention  to  the  subject,  that  those  upon  whom  these 
methods  are  successful,  are  the  ignorant  or  superstitious,  or 
else  those  whose  diseases  are  imaginary. 

That  such  is  not  the  case,  is  evident  from  these  letters,  and 
will  constantly  appear  in  others  to  be  quoted  later.  Many  of 
these  people  are  college  bred,  nearly  all  show  that  they  are 
cultured  and  refined. 

As  to  their  diseases,  while  we  have  thought  best  to  omit 
names  of  physicians  and  institutions,  we  may  say  that  in  nearly 
all  cases  the  names  were  given,  and  were  physicians  in  good 
standing ;  and  in  some  cases,  the  most  noted  specialists.  So 
that  while  we  may  see  later  that  the  troubles  were  of  mental 
origin,  yet  they  were  far  removed  from  what  is  ordinarily  un- 
derstood by  "imaginary." 

Such  cases  as  the  foregoing  are  sufficiently  striking  to  arouse 
interest  in  mental  healing,  and  when  we  recall  that  they  are 
only  fair  examples  of  cases  that  are  being  reported  on  all  sides, 
we  cannot  wonder  that  the  uncritical  are  continually  being  led 
to  believe  in  the  absolute  infallibility  of  these  methods. 

Before  jumping  to  this  conclusion,  however,  it  is  necessary 
to  examine  critically  all  the  circumstances  that  may  explain 
these  *  *  miracles ' '  by  referring  them  to  recognized  laws.  We 
have  accordingly  examined  all  the  data  for  "  internal  evidence  " 
of  rational  explanation  on  the  basis  of  known  facts;  secondly 
we  have  searched  medical  literature  for,  first,  physical  conditions 
favoring  the  appearance  or  sudden  disappearance  of  disease, 
and  secondly  for  cases  of  ' '  miraculous  ' '  cures  in  general  med- 
ical practice.  We  have  found  much  that  tends  to  modify  any 
hasty  judgment  that  one  might  have  been  tempted  to  make. 

The  first  thing  to  be  mentioned  is  the  hysterical  diathesis. 
This  is  a  condition  far  more  prevalent  and  troublesome  than 
most  people  realize.  It  is  a  mental  state  without,  so  far  as  is 
known,  any  pathological  condition  behind  it.  It  is  a  form  of 
mental  alienation  characterized,  as  Krafft-Ebing  says,  by  great 
lability  and  emotional  prodigality.  It  is  perhaps  best  charac- 
terized as  a  condition  in  which  the  emotions  preponderate  over 
the  intellect  and  the  will.  The  disease  exists  in  all  degrees, 
from  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  normal  to  the  com- 
pletely insane.     There  are  no  pains  that  may  not  be  of  hysterical 

^Of  the  hundreds  of  similar  letters,  each  one  interesting  and  in- 
structive, that  we  have  received,  lack  of  space  forbids  more  than  these 
few,  in  this  article. 

JOURNAI,— 9 


458  GODDARD : 

origin.  Diseases  of  the  joints  are  among  the  most  common. 
Neuralgia  is  often  of  hysterical  origin.  The  functional  actions 
of  the  viscera  are  especially  liable  to  derangement  in  hysteria. 
Any  organ  may  be  affected,  but  the  stomach  seems  to  be  the 
favorite  one.  Not  infrequently  organic  disease  of  the  heart  is 
simulated,  there  being  palpitation  and  general  irregular  action 
of  this  organ. 

Nor  are  the  conditions  thus  manifested,  superficial  appear- 
ances merely.  They  frequently  baffle  the  most  skillful  physi- 
cians, for  a  time  at  least. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  what  proportion  of  our  cases  belong 
to  this  class,  but  it  seems  very  certain,  from  their  own  testimony, 
that  a  relatively  large  percentage  belong  here.  One  cannot 
read  far  in  the  records  of  cases  without  seeing  it  * '  between  the 
lines ' '  if  not  in  them. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  mental  science  is  just  the 
thing  for  these  people.  Dr.  Bdes  thinks  it  well  (Shattuck 
Lecture,  1895,  p.  48,)  "to  look  the  fact  squarely  in  the  face 
that  some  persons  do  receive  great  benefit  from  some  of  these 
.forms  of  treatment  who  have  failed  to  do  so  at  the  hands 
/of  regular  and  skilled  practitioners. ' ' 

Without  doubt  the  different  schools  of  mental  practice  have 
been  largely  recruited  from  this  class  of  patients. 

The  question  of  diagnosis,  although  of  great  importance  and 
having  received  much  attention  in  our  study,  need  only  be 
mentioned  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  we  find  a  large  percentage 
of  cases  diagnosed  solely  by  the  patient  herself  or  her  interested 
neighbors.  .  (Comment  is  unnecessary.)  Many  others  prove 
to  have  been  the  victims  of  **  Quacks."  Finally,  the  best 
physicians  are  fallible.  And  no  one  knows  this  so  well  as  the 
physician  himself.  It  is  true  he  does  not  go  around  publishing 
his  ignorance  or  the  weakness  of  the  science  of  medicine,  he 
understands  the  influence  of  mind  too  well  to  do  that,  and  yet 
he  often  finds  himself  helpless  in  the  presence  of  symptoms  that 
he  cannot  understand. 

Mental  healers  often  complain  that  the  regulars  will  never 
acknowledge  a  cure  by  mental  science,  of  consumption  or  any 
serious  case,  but  always  take  refuge  in  wrong  diagnosis.  We 
ought  not  be  surprised  that  the  physician  takes  this  view  of  the 
case.  There  are  manifestly  three  possibilities — three  explana- 
tions of  any  such  event  as  the  cure,  e.  g. ,  of  cancer,  by  mental 
methods.  Either  the  Mental  Science  view  is  correct,  or  cancer 
is  not  the  incurable  disease  that  it  is  regarded,  or  the  physician 
was  wrong  in  his  diagnosis.  Clearly  men  will  differ  as  to  which 
view  they  will  accept.  The  physician,  who  knows  the  whole 
history,  the  physiology  and  etiology  of  cancer,  who  has  seen 
every  kind  of  remedy  tried  including  divine  healing,  without 


EFFECTS  OF   MIND   ON   BODY.  459 

success;  is  the  first  to  admit  his  mistake  when  he  sees  the 
disease  that  he  thought  was  cancer,  cured.  He  cannot  do  any- 
thing else,  and  he  would  do  the  same  if  his  own  remedies  had 
cured  the  disease. 

The  mental  scientist,  however,  again  complains,  and  with  \ 
apparent  justice,  that  it  is  illogical  and  unscientific  for  the  I 
doctor  of  medicine  to  make  an  arbitrary  classification  and  de- 
clare all  diseases  incurable  which  he  has  been  unable  to  cure. 
And  when  a  new  claimant  for  therapeutic  honors  comes  into 
the  field,  he  rejects  it  on  the  basis  of  the  old  determination  that 
such  diseases  are  incurable.  The  argument  is  good,  and  yet,  so 
long  as  the  physician  puts  himself  under  the  same  rule,  he  can- 
not be  accused  of  unfairness.  In  reality  his  procedure  is  the 
only  possible  one.  Any  other  would  lead  to  inextricable  con- 
fusion. 

We  must  act  on  the  basis  of  what  is  most  probable;  and  in 
this,  Mental  Science  stands  on  the  same  ground  as  any  drug. 
Whenever  any  remedy,  be  it  drug  or  idea,  is  shown  to  cure 
cancer  oftener  than  the  law  of  chance  will  allow  spontaneous 
cure  or  wrong  diagnosis,  then  and  not  until  then  will  it  be 
accepted  as  a  specific  for  that  disease. 

We  have  thus  tried  to  show  that  the  question  of  diagnosis 
must  always  be  considered,  and  can  never  be  settled.  Cures 
based  on  the  patient's  own  diagnosis, or  that  of  a  quack  doctor,  are 
of  no  value.  Those  based  upon  the  diagnosis  of  a  regular  physi- 
cian may  have  all  values,  from  very  small  to  very  great.  They 
cannot  be  valueless,  since  we  all  rely  upon  the  judgment  of  these 
men,  and  if  Mental  Science  will  cure  what  the  doctor  of  medi- 
cine has  called  a  fatal  malady,  we  will  have  Mental  Science 
whether  the  doctor  of  medicine  was  right  or  wrong.  Neither 
can  Mental  Science  be  established  on  the  authority  of  any  sin- 
gle physician,  however  great  the  presumption  may  be  that  his 
diagnosis  was  correct.  Only  the  cumulative  evidence  of  a  great 
many  cases  can  constitute  a  demonstration. 

Spontaneous  cures  of  all  kinds  of  diseases  are  recognized  by 
physicians.  Spontaneous  cure  of  consumption  is  not  infre- 
quent. The  nature  of  cancer  makes  such  an  event  possible, 
and  it  has  been  claimed,  though  most  authorities  say  they  have 
never  seen  such,  and  they  rather  doubt  the  evidence  for  it. 

The  sudden  appearance  and  equally  sudden  disappearance  of 
non-malignant  tumors  is  a  fact  of  such  common  occurrence  as 
to  excite  no  suprise  in  the  minds  of  physicians. 

J.  William  White,  M.  D.,  of  Philadelphia,  in  an  article  en- 
titled *  *  The  Supposed  Curative  Effects  of  Surgical  Operations 
Per  Se" (Annals  of  Surgery,  Aug.  and  Sept.,  1891,)  has  shown 
that  many  diseases  have  been  cured  by  the  * '  reaction  of  trau- 
matism" due  to  the  simple  preliminary  cutting;  the  intended 


460  GODDARD : 

Operation  having  been  given  up  on  account  of  the  conditions 
found,  rendering  such  operation  impracticable. 

Dr.  White  says  of  his  cases  ' '  I  have  not  intended  to  include 
in  this  article  any  extended  cases  in  vt^hich  the  disease  is  purely 
imaginary,  though  the  field  that  would  be  opened  up  in  this 
direction  would  be  very  fruitful."     (p.  173.) 

(p.  1 74. )  "In  seeking  for  a  reasonable  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena observed  in  the  preceding  cases,  four  influences  are 
noted:  i.  Anaesthesia.  2.  Psychial  influence.  3.  Relief  from  ten- 
sion.    4.  Reflex  action  or  the  '  reaction  of  traumatism.'  " 

Upon  experiment,  anaesthesia  was  found  to  have  either  no 
effect,  or  else  an  injurious  one. 

On  the  question  of  psychical  influence,  he  says  "  in  so  far  as 
any  case  is  of  hysterical  or  imaginational  origin,  its  cure  by  a 
powerful  mental  impression  is  easily  understood.  But  only  a 
small  proportion  of  my  cases  were  of  this  character,  if  the 
reporters  may  be  believed." 

"In  so  far  as  clinical  experience  goes  it  would  appear  that  all 
kinds  of  tubercular  peritonitis  have  undergone  resolution  after 
abdominal  section  and  consequently  that  they  are  all  curable." 

William  Goodell,  Philadelphia,  March  27,  1891,  says: 
I  have  had  two  cases  of  fibroid  tumors  of  the  womb  as  large  as 
the  adult  head,  dwindle  down  almost  to  an  inappreciable  size  after  an 
exploratory  incision.  In  each  case  the  object  of  the  operation  was 
the  removal  of  the  ovaries.  But  they  lay  behind  a  universally  ad- 
herent tumor  and  could  not  be  touched. 

Joseph  T.  Johnson,  Washington,  D.  C,  March  24,  1891, 
says: 

I  have  opened  the  abdomen  in  two  cases  when  I  did  not  know  what 
was  the  matter,  and  don't  now,  but  the  patients  both  got  completely 
well.  One  appeared  to  be  malignant,  and  for  that  reason,  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  all  present,  I  abandoned  the  operation  and  told  her  husband 
I  thought  she  would  die.  She  got  well  and  has  since  had  a  baby  and 
is  now  in  good  health.  . 

H.  J.  Boldt,  New  York,  March  9,  1891,  writes: 

A  young  woman  complained  of  most  intense  pain  in  left  ovary.  She 
really  was  in  agony.  This  continued  several  weeks.  She  lost  flesh, 
was  bedridden,  temperature  loi  to  103,  could  not  be  touched  in  the 
ovarian  or  hypogastric  region  without  a  scream. 

On  opening  the  abdomen,  absolutely  nothing  was  found  to  account 
for  the  symptoms.  She  was  merely  washed  out  and  sewed  up  again. 
Recovery  in  every  respect  was  prompt  and  perfect. 

Another  class  of  cases  that  is  often  quoted  as  among  the 
most  startling,  has  to  do  with  muscular  functions.  These  are 
the  inability  to  walk,  from  various  causes,  such  as  one  leg  short, 
paralysis,  sprain,  etc.,  etc.  Dr.  Dowie  prays  with  these  people, 
tells  them  to  walk  and  they  obey,  much  to  the  surprise  of  all, 
and  to  the  glory  of  God  as  they  devoutly  believe. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY,  46 1 

But  such  phenomena  are  not  unknown  to  the  medical  pro- 
fession. Dr.  Henry  Ling  Taylor  has  made  a  speciality  of  such 
cases,  and  achieved  results  as  suprising  as  any  reported  by 
Divine  Healing.  He  explains  his  method  and  gives  illustrative 
cases  in  an  article  which  he  entitles,  "Hygiene  of  Reflex  Ac- 
,tion."  (Journal  of  Mental  and  Nervous  Diseases,  March,  1888.) 
The  following  parallel  cases  will  show  the  general  plan. 
Out  of  a  great  number  of  cases  of  cure  by  Divine  Healing  we 
must  restrict  ourselves  to  three. 

M.,  18.  Diseased  thigh  bone  nineteen  months.  Amputation  or- 
dered. Healed  instantly.  In  three  minutes  was  walking  rapidly 
around  the  hall. 

M.,  40.  Ivame  in  one  leg;  paralysis,  resulting  from  a  fall  of  forty 
feet.  A  familiar  sight  in  streets  of  Mansfield,  Ohio,  wheeling  himself 
in  his  chair.  After  one  week  at  D.'s  he  threw  away  his  crutches.  His 
limbs  are  not  quite  straight  yet,  but  is  confident  they  will  become  so. 
Two  joints  of  spine  were  caved  in;  are  now  coming  back  into  place. 

This  account  was  given  in  the  paper  in  town  where  he  was  well 
known  and  was  given  as  an  accepted  fact. 

F.,  19.  Paralysis  of  right  leg  from  knee  down;  no  feeling  in  it;  much 
withered;  one  and  one-half  inches  short.  Heel  cord  had  been  cut  by 
surgeon  and  lacked  an  inch  of  meeting.  Dr.  Dowie  performed  the 
ceremony  of  "laying  on  of  hands"  and  prayed.  When  he  laid  his 
hands  on  my  leg,  as  he  moved  them  down  towards  my  foot,  I 
could  feel  the  blood  trickling  into  the  veins  quite  distinctly,  and 
when  he  had  reached  the  toes  of  my  foot  I  had  perfect  sensation. 
He  had  gently  pulled  my  leg  during  his  prayer,  and  my  leg  at  once 
lengthened  to  an  equality  with  my  left  leg,  in  fact  it  was  just  a  very 
little  longer,  and  so  it  remains.  Heel  cord  was  instantly  united. 
Five  days  later,  walked  ten  miles  without  fatigue.  Leg  has  grown  to 
nearly  the  size  of  the  other. 

Compare  these  with  the  following  mental  cases  treated  by 
Dr.  Taylor:   {op.  cit.,  p.  138.) 

M.,  38.  Suffered  three  months  from  sprained  ankle,  pain  and  disa- 
bility; could  not  walk.  Diagnosed  as  "disturbed  reflexes."  Began 
education  of  reflexes,  and  was  discharged  cured  in  six  days;  locomo- 
tion entirely  normal.  Eight  months  afterward,  reported  still  perfectly 
well. 

F.,  50.  Turned  ankle  two  years  previously,  by  stepping  Oii  orange 
peel.  Pain,  swelling,  and  disability.  Had  been  worse  during  last  six 
months.  When  induced  to  move  ankle,  said  she  had  never  tried  be- 
fore and  did  not  know  she  could.  Crutches  were  thrown  away,  and 
in  a  week  she  said  she  did  not  know  she  had  an  ankle.     Entirely  cured. 

M.,  17.  Athlete.  Left  knee  had  given  out  while  tramping  in  Ger- 
many, six  months  previously.  Limped  and  thought  knee  was  swelled 
Had  used  a  crutch  and  cane  for  ten  weeks.  Was  energetic  and 
ashamed  of  hobbling.  The  case  was  diagnosed  as  "limb  suffering 
from  disuse."  Was  made  to  stand  up  and  bear  weight  on  both  feet. 
Inside  of  five  minutes  was  walking  around  the  table  without  assist- 
ance; went  out  on  street  and  up  front  steps;  at  end  of  fifteen  minutes 
he  walked  without  a  limp.  His  family  were  bewildered.  Never  had 
any  trouble  afterwards,  and  played  on  the  Harvard  foot-ball  team 
Thanksgiving,  1887. 

F.,  12.  Spinal  trouble.  Brought  to  office  in  a  chair.  It  was  per- 
fectly evident  that  the  entire  family  including  patient  were  intently 


462  GODDARD : 

watching  for  the  development  of  expected  symptoms.  Diagnosis  was 
made  of  "reflex  debility,  the  effect  of  too  much  mother."  On  the 
ninth  day  she  walked  two  miles,  and  the  next  day  walked  up  stairs. 

Young  lady.  Pott's  disease;  plaster  jacket;  great  pain.  In  spite  of 
remonstrances  of  parents,  jacket  was  removed  and  exercise  given. 
Went  home  in  two  months  in  fair  health  and  much  relieved.  I^ater, 
relapsed. 

F.,  34.  Bed  and  wheel  chair  for  seventeen  years.  That  this  patient 
was  walking  within  a  few  days  and  improved  steadily  in  all  respects, 
is  due  largely  to  her  own  intelligent  and  hearty  co-operation,  once  the 
condition  was  explained  to  her. 

These  cases  are  so  strikingly  similar  to  a  large  class  of  the 
Dowie  cases,  that  one  cannot  doubt  that  while  the  mental  ele- 
ment is  the  chief  feature  in  them  both,  yet  Dr.  Taylor  would 
have  been  just  as  successful  with  Dowie' s  cases  as  he  was  with 
his  own. 

Attention  is  also  called  to  the  great  liability  to  error  in  re- 
porting cases.  However  good  the  intention,  most  people  will 
forget  some  part  of  the  facts.  The  way  in  which  people  under- 
stand or  repeat  what  * '  the  doctor  said ' '  is  sometimes  amusing 
and  often  provoking  to  the  doctors. 

Positive  Testimony  to  the  Infi^uence  of  Mind  in 

Disease. 

In  the  preceding  section  we  have  attempted  to  give  a  fair 
statement  of  all  the  objections  that  can  be  raised  to  the  evidence 
upon  which  the  mental  control  of  disease  is  supposed  to  rest. 
In  the  present  section  we  shall  sum  up  the  arguments  on  the 
other  side,  and  show  the  valid  arguments  in  favor  of  this  in- 
fluence. 

We  may  recall  first,  the  great  place  that  is  actually  conceded 
to  mental  influence  in  disease,  by  the  popular  mind.  That 
sickness  is  often  caused  and  cured  by  emotional  states:  as  fear, 
grief,  etc. ,  is  a  matter  of  common  experience.  In  every  well 
regulated  sick  room,  great  care  is  taken  to  furnish  the  patient 
with  pleasant  and  agreeable  surroundings,  because  they  help 
toward  convalescence,  and  to  shut  out  the  opposite  conditions, 
because  they  hinder. 

Dr.  Tukes's  two  volumes  on  "The  Influence  of  Mind  on' 
Body, ' '  contains  a  valuable  collection  of  these  occurrences. 

Perhaps  the  same  argument  will  be  urged  by  the  unconvinced 
against  the  practice  of  mental  therapeutics,  that  is  used  by 
telepathists,  when  one  demands  experimental  proof,  namely, 
that  it  is  a  force  that  works  spontaneously,  and  cannot  be  har- 
nessed into  experimental  methods.  The  very  act  of  trying  to 
observe  it  dissipates  it,  like  the  introspective  study  of  an 
emotion. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  we  have  abundant  experi- 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  463 

mental  proof  of  the  value  of  mental  practice  for  the  cure  of 
disease. 

In  spite  of  the  severe  criticism  that  we  have  made  of  reports 
of  cure,  there  still  remains  a  vast  amount  of  material,  showing 
a  powerful  influence  of  the  mind  in  disease.  Many  cases  are 
of  diseases  that  have  been  diagnosed  and  treated  by  the  best 
physicians  of  the  country  or  which  prominent  hospitals  have 
tried  their  hand  at  curing,  but  without  success.  People  of  cul- 
ture and  education  have  been  treated  by  this  method  with  satis- 
factory results.  Diseases  of  long  standing  have  been  amelio- 
rated and  even  cured. 

The  numerous  instances  of  temporary  arrest  of  the  disease, 
while  not  showing  power  to  cure,  yet  exhibit  a  wonderful  power 
of  some  sort. 

Similarly,  the  cases  where  disease  is  cured  in  one  part  but 
breaks  out  in  another  part  of  the  body,  clearly  prove  the  great 
power  of  mind,  although  they  also  show  that  the  power  is  not 
unlimited.  The  most  striking  case  of  this,  is  the  instance 
of  the  man  who  was  healed  of  gangrene  in  the  foot  but  died 
later  of  the  same  disease  located  in  the  eye. 

We  have  traced  the  mental  element  through  primitive  medi- 
cine, and  Folk  medicine  of  to-day,  patent  medicine  and  witch- 
craft. We  are  convinced  that  it  is  impossible  to  account  for  the 
existence  of  these  practices,  if  they  did  not  cure  disease,  and 
that  if  they  cured  disease,  it  must  have  been  the  mental  element 
that  was  effective.  The  same  argument  applies  to  these  modern 
schools  of  mental  therapeutics — Divine  Healing  and  Christian 
Science.  It  is  hadly  conceivable  that  the  large  body  of  intelli- 
gent people  who  comprise  the  body  known  distinctively  as 
Mental  Scientists  could  continue  to  exist,  if  the  whole  thing 
were  a  delusion.  It  is  not  a  thing  of  a  day;  it  is  not  confined 
to  a  few;  it  is  not  local.  It  is  true  that  many  failures  are 
recorded,  but  that  only  adds  to  the  argument.  There  must  be 
many  and  striking  successes  to  counterbalance  the  failures, 
otherwise  the  failures  would  have  ended  the  delusion. 

The  testimony  of  regular  physicians  to  the  efficacy  and 
remarkable  results  of  mental  treatment  is  strong  evidence  of  its 
value.  The  admission  that  they  use  it  in  some  form  is  a  further 
corroboration  of  the  view  that  it  is  efficient.  A  few  instances 
out  of  the  many  that  have  been  collected,  and  the  innumerable 
quantity  that  might  be  collected,  are  here  appended. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  physicians  of  New  York  cityj 
prescribed  salt  water  for  a  nervous  affection  that  had  defied  alll 
other  treatment.  His  directions  were:  "Take  15  drops,  and] 
be  careful  not  to  take  an  overdose  or  it  might  prove  fatal ; ' 
and  be  sure  to  take  it  regularly."  The  patient  rapidly  re- 
covered. 


464  GODDARD : 

A  certain  druggist  told  the  writer  that  he  put  up  a  prescrip- 
tion of  salt  water,  for  which  he  charged  $1,  by  the  physician's 
direction,  the  physician  explaining  that  unless  the  patient  paid 
a  high  price,  he  would  not  think  the  prescription  good  for  any- 
thing.    He  was  cured. 

An  interesting  illustration  of  the  effect  of  the  mind  in  causing 
disease,  comes  from  a  very  prominent  Chicago  physician.  He 
writes  that  on  one  occasion,  he  was  very  much  interested  in  an 
important  case  that  was  referred  to  him,  after  failure  by  other 
physicians.  He  was  intensely  anxious  to  succeed.  He  discov- 
ered symptoms  which  had  been  overlooked  by  the  others,  of 
duodenal  catarrh.  He  lay  down  on  the  couch  in  the  evening, 
to  read  a  recent  work  on  the  subject.  He  fell  asleep  from  sheer 
exhaustion,  his  mind  "  full  of  the  pathology,  symptomatology, 
etiology  and  treatment  of  such  conditions. ' '  He  awoke  in  two 
hours  with  an  intense  duodenal  catarrh,  that  lasted  several  days 
before  he  could  get  it  under  control. 

Faii^ures  in  the  Practice  of  Mental  Therapeutics. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  said  little  about  failures 
in  any  of  the  different  methods. 

It  becomes  necessary,  however,  in  our  study  of  the  question 
and  our  effort  to  reconcile  the  different  practices,  or  find  the  law 
underlying  them  all,  to  consider  the  cases  where  they  fail  as 
well  as  those  in  which  they  succeed. 

The  ratio  of  successes  to  failure  is  impossible  to  determine, 
for  part  of  the  healers  do  not  admit  that  they  ever  fail,  and 
nearly  all  refuse  to  keep  anj^  record  of  failures.  On  the  other 
hand,  hypnotists  restrict  themselves  at  the  start,  and  only  use 
hypnotism  in  certain  cases  ;  of  these  they  keep  a  careful  record 
both  of  successes  and  failures. 

That  failures  are  numerous  is  the  common  belief,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly the  fact.  Indeed,  unless  materia  medica  is  growing 
correspondingly  impotent,  they  must  equal  the  failures  by  the 
old  methods,  since  there  is  no  change  in  the  death  rate  as  a 
whole  or  the  mortality  from  any  particular  diseases,  in  spite  of 
the  remarkable  growth  of  mental  practice  in  the  past  few  years. 

It  has  been  exceedingly  diflficult  to  collect  records  of  failure, 
for  the  purposes  of  study,  since  not  only  do  the  healers  conceal 
their  failures,  but  people  who  have  tried  to  get  cured  by  mental 
methods  and  failed,  seem  to  regard  it  as  a  disgrace  or  at  least 
a  weakness,  and  will  not  report  their  experiences.  Nevertheless 
by  continued  effort  we  have  succeeded  in  finding  several  people 
who  looked  at  the  matter  from  a  broader  standpoint,  and  were 
quite  willing  to  submit  their  own  experiences  or  those  of  their 
patients  (in  the  case  of  healers)  for  what  they  will  show  of 
value  in  elucidating  the  law  of  mental  therapeutics. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  465 

Under  the  head  of  Divine  Healing,  occur  many  failures,  and 
they  are  usually  accounted  for  by  the  assertion  that  the  patient 
did  not  have  sufficient  faith.  Later  we  shall  see  in  what  sense 
this  is  true. 

Dr.  Dowie  reports  a  few  deaths  in  his  '  *  Home. ' '  Many  of 
the  patients  say  "  not  yet  healed,"  though  they  are  still  hoping. 
Many  of  these  finally  give  up  in  despair. 

But  the  most  conclusive  indication  of  the  extent  of  failure, 
comes  from  Dr.  Dowie' s  own  statement.  He  says,  in  a  certain 
issue  of  his  paper  :  "I  pray  and  lay  my  hands  on  70,000  people 
in  a  year."  At  that  rate  he  would  have  prayed  with  175,000  in 
'2^2  years.  But  in  the  2^  years  immediately  preceding  this 
statement,  he  reports  only  700  cures.  The  conclusion  is  indis- 
putable that  only  a  small  portion  of  those  prayed  with  are 
cured. 

Failures  by  the  Christian  Science  method  are  frequently 
brought  to  public  notice  by  the  courts,  when  parties  are  cen- 
sured, fined  or  otherwise  punished  for  neglecting  to  employ  a 
regular  physician,  but  trusting  to  Christian  Science  with  results 
fatal  to  their  friends.  There  are  also  many  failures,  that  do  not 
result  fatally,  and  so  do  not  get  into  the  papers.  The  patient 
simply  is  not  cured,  and  endures  his  disappointment  and  his 
ills  with  whatever  fortitude  he  can  command. 

The  following  statement  from  a  lady  of  culture,  experience, 
and  calm  and  unbiased  judgment,  is  valuable  and  interesting 
for  many  reasons.^  It  will  be  noted  that  it  comes  from  one 
who  is  neither  a  '  *  healer ' '  nor  an  opponent  to  the  practice. 
She  has  all  the  interest  which  is  involved  in  a  mother's  desire 
for  the  welfare  of  her  daughter.  Yet  it  is  evident  that  she 
has  not  gone  blindly  into  the  matter,  or  closed  her  eyes  to  facts 
as  they  have  come  in  evidence.  The  whole  tone  of  fairness, 
and  wise  discrimination,  is  refreshing,  and  makes  the  testimony 
of  extreme  and  unusual  value. 

It  is  as  follows  : 

A  partially  successful  case,  was  that  of  my  daughter,  whose 
temperament  from  childhood  was  extremely  nervous.  For 
several  years  she  attended  a  denominational  school,  was  very 
religious,  and  wished  to  enter  into  religious  work. 

At  about  the  age  of  22  she  was  very  sick  with  a  contagious 
disease.  [The  writer  also  mentions  prominent  physicians  who 
treated  her,  at  this  time  and  also  later.] 

The  disease  left  her  with  blood  poisoning,  resulting  in  nervous 

^  The  original  letter  was  very  complete  and  detailed,  written  with 
the  utmost  freedom  and  confidence  but  not  for  publication.  The  fol- 
lowing condensation  was  made  by  the  present  writer  and  submitted  to 
the  lady  for  permission  to  publish,  which  permission  was  given.  This 
accounts  for  its  present  form  and  the  absence  of  some  details. 


466  GODDARD : 

prostration.      She   grew  worse  and  a  consultation  was  held. 

Dr.  pronounced  her  not  insane,  as  we  feared.     She  was 

sent  to [mentioning  one  of  the  most  valuable  medical 

institutions  in  the  country],  then  went  to  a  private  institution. 
It  was  nearly  a  year  before  she  came  home,  better,  but  far  from 
well,  still  hysterical  and  hypochondriacal.  She  had  taken  no 
medicine  (unless  a  simple  calmative)  for  a  long  time,  and  dis- 
continued that  on  coming  home.  Soon  after  her  return,  she 
heard  of  mind  cure,  and  wished  to  try  it.  She  improved  some- 
what under  the  treatment  and  afterwards  continued  it  under 
[mentioning  one  of  the  most  experienced,  most  success- 
ful, and  best  Mental  Science  healers  in  practice.] 

I  think  her  treatment  combined  all  the  methods  men- 
tioned. The  absent  had  the  least  effect.  In  those  cases  ap- 
pointments were  made  for  certain  hours.  Her  mind  was  pre- 
sumably occupied  with  peaceful  and  lofty  thoughts,  charity  and 
good- will  to  all  mankind.  Bitterness,  anger,  resentment,  even 
towards  enemies,  must  not  be  entertained  for  a  moment,  other- 
wise the  treatment  would  be  ineffectual. 

's  treatment  was  continued  regularly  for  about  six 

months,  afterwards  given  occasionally.  The  improvement  was 
slow  but  generally  steady. '  The  next  summer  we  thought  the 
cure  complete.  The  strongest  evidence  of  the  cure  was  the 
taking  up  again  of  her  old  duties  and  interests  and  submitting  to 
suggestions  and  advice.  The  moral  effects  of  the  science  were 
good,  the  tendency  being  to  make  one  rise  superior  to  all  the 
annoyances  and  even  the  trials  of  life, — in  short,  it  was  a  religion. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  idea  was  carried  too  far. 

I  attribute  the  apparent  success  at  first  to  the  fact  that  she 
was  taken  out  of  the  rut  into  which  she  had  fallen.  She  had 
become  a  hypochondriac,  and  her  physician  had  told  her  that 
she  could  help  herself  more  than  any  one  could  help  her.  It 
[seemed  that  where  her  malady  was  imaginary,  the  ' '  Science  ' ' 
[helped  her,  but  where  it  was  real,  there  was  no  effect.  Her 
naturally  vigorous  constitution  asserted  itself  for  a  time,  but 
while  the  poison  remains  in  her  blood  she  can  never  be  well. 

For  past  nine  years  she  has  continued  to  a  certain  extent  the 
same  treatment,  but  it  is  without  any  perceptible  effect,  or  at 
best  only  a  negative  one — she  might  be  worse  without  it,  and 
probably  would,  for  her  faith  is  undiminished,  and  she  abso- 
lutely refuses  to  consult  a  physician  for  any  ailment. 

The  literature  that  I  have  read  upon  this  subject  is  quite 
beyond  my  comprehension,  although  I  have  tried  earnestly  to 
understand  and  believe  in  it.  I  recognize  much  that  is  beau- 
tiful and  helpful  in  its  teachings  and  believe  they  might  be  used 
to  advantage  in  connection  with  medical  science  and  remedies. 
I  have  known  too  many  absurdities  claimed  for  it  and  too  many 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  467 

fatalities  resulting  from  trusting  to  it  blindly,  to  have  entire 

faith  in  it.    Instance  the  case  of .     (Here  is  cited  a  tragic 

instance  of  death  under  this  treatment. ) 

Neither  in  my  school  education  or  in  that  of  my  children, 
was  anything  taught  bearing  upon  this  subject  nor  upon  any 
form  of  psychology. 

I  think  it  would  be  most  unwise  to  teach  such  subjects  to 
the  young,  at  least  until  further  knowledge  brings  them  into 
the  class  of  exact  sciences.  There  is  so  much  delusion,  exagger- 
ation and  fraud  connected  with  these  subjects  as  to  make  it 
almost  impossible  for  even  mature  minds  to  reach  the  simple 
truth,  and  there  is  too  much  of  real  importance  and  profit  to 
be  learned,  to  spend  time  uselessly. 

In  this  statement  I  do  not  mean  to  include  all  psychology. 
Sincerely  yours, 

There  is  abundant  evidence  that  this  letter  might  be  consid- 
ered practically  a  resume  of  the  entire  mass  of  data  so  far  as 
the  points  covered.  The  experiences  here  recorded,  and  the 
conclusions  of  the  writer  are  strikingly  typical. 

But  just  now,  we  desire  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  noticeable 
points.  To  begin  with,  the  daughter  was  "from  early  child- 
hood extremely  nervous  and  was  very  religious."  These  are 
the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  successful  use  of  Mental 
Science.     This  is  admitted  by  all. 

2.  Her  Mental  Science  healer  was  one  who  stands  at  the 
very  top  of  the  profession.  3.  Absent  treatment,  for  which  so 
much  is  claimed,  had  "  least  effect. "  This  absent  treatment 
was  by  appointment,  and  at  these  times  the  patient  put  herself 
into  the  proper  state  of  mind  as  far  as  possible.  4.  It  was 
thought  for  a  time  that  the  cure  was  complete,  but  it  proved  to 
be  only  temporary.  The  temporary  cure  shows  that  the  patient 
received  the  teaching  and  profited  by  it.  Nothing  succeeds 
like  success;  yet,  in  spite  of  the  success  and  all  the  moral 
strength  that  comes  from  it,  there  was  a  relapse,  showing  that 
there  was  a  physical  condition  which  mental  methods,  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions^  could  not  reach.  It  was  not  because 
the  patient  gave  up,  lost  faith,  and  refused  to  accept  the  teach- 
ing. For  nine  years  she  has  held  firm  to  the  faith,  with  no 
other  result  than  that  she  has  perhaps  been  kept  from  growing 
worse.     Could  any  more  complete  test  be  desired  ? 

The  mother's  statement  that  ' '  where  the  malady  was  imagin- 
ary, the  treatment  was  helpful,  but  where  it  was  real,  it  had 
no  effect,"  is  easily  in  agreement  with  Wundt's  declaration 
(Human  and  Animal  Psychology,  pp.  333-4)  that  "  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  a  cautious  and  intelligent  use  of  suggestion 
[Mental  Science]  may  be  of  avail  for  the  temporary,  perhaps 


468  GODDARD : 

even  for  the  permanent,  removal  of  diseases  due  to  the  functional 

derangement  of  the  nervous  system But  it  is 

equally  undeniable  that  suggestion  is  in  the  long  run  just  as 
ineffective  for  the  cure  of  diseases  arising  from  some  palpable 
pathological  cause,  as  would  be  any  other  form  of-  command 
to  the  patient  to  grow  well. ' ' 

By  far  the  best  data  we  have  for  forming  an  idea  of  the  fail- 
ures and  their  relation  to  the  cures,  is  the  following  record  of 
cases  treated  at  a  Mental  Science  Home.  This  institution  is 
under  broad-minded  and  philanthropic  managers  who  believe 
that  some  people  are  cured  by  this  method.  The  healer  in 
charge  is  an  intelligent  man  fully  imbued  with  the  principles 
of  Mental  Science,  but  also  full  of  the  true  scientific  spirit,  so 
that  he  has  regard  to  results  as  well  as  to  his  theory.  All  cases 
are  welcome  at  the  home,  and  all  receive  the  best  of  attention 
and  treatment.  They  stay  until  they  are  cured  or  discouraged 
or  the  healer  is  convinced  that  they  cannot  be  further  benefited. 
No  pride  or  prejudice  seems  to  be  present  to  hide  the  facts. 
The  following  statements  are  clear  and  concise;  accurate,  as 
far  as  the  healer  is  concerned.  Doubtless  many  of  them  are 
the  patient's  own  version  of  the  case,  while  many  are  the  diag- 
noses of  prominent  doctors  of  medicine  previous  to  the  patients 
coming  to  the  ' '  Home. ' ' 

It  will  be  seen  that  less  than  half  are  pronounced  cured  or  well, 
less  than  half  again  only  improved  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
while  quite  a  large  percentage  (about  15%)  were  not  helped. 

The  same  disease  is  sometimes  cured  and  sometimes  not 
helped.  These  results  agree  remarkably  with  those  of  hypno- 
tism, and  altogether  we  believe  are  fairly  representative  of 
what  would  be  found  if  we  could  get  a  careful  record  of  all  the 
cases  treated  by  all  the  different  mental  methods. 

Miss  C.  Spinal  trouble,  epilepsy,  prolapsus  of  uterus,  and 
malarial  chills.     Cured. 

Miss  R.  Nervous  prostration,  neuralgia,  epilepsy,  and  im- 
poverished blood.     Not  much  improved. 

Miss  B.  Nervous  dyspepsia,  hemorrhoids;  painful  menstru- 
ation, sleeplessness.     Improved. 

Miss  F.     Pneumonia.     Cured. 

Miss  S.     Scrofula  bunches.     Cured. 

Miss  C.  Sciatica,  neuralgia,  severe  headaches  and  nervous 
prostration .     Improved . 

Miss  A.     Congested  brain  and  spinal  trouble.     Improved. 

Miss  t,.  Cough  resulting  from  pneumonia,  nervous  debility 
and  depression.     Improved. 

Miss  F.  General  debility,  mental  depression  and  eyesight 
impaired  from  inflammation  resulting  from  a  surgical  operation. 
Cured. 


EFFECTS   OF   MIND   ON   BODY.  469 

Mrs.     B.     Stones  in  the  bladder.     Greatly  benefited. 

Mrs.  M.  Rheumatism,  uterine  trouble,  indigestion  and 
catarrh.     Great  improvement. 

Miss  W.     Spinal  trouble,  and  a  growth  in  side.     Cured. 

Miss  K.  Uterine  tumor  and  in  too  weakened  a  condition  to 
admit  of  an  operation.  Four  years  could  not  speak  aloud  and 
two  year^  could  not  even  whisper.  She  was  in  an  extremely 
nervous  and  weakened  condition.     A  complete  cure. 

Miss  B.     Kidney  trouble  and  nervous  prostration.     Cured. 

Mrs.  C.  Hysterical,  causing  spasmodic  contraction  in  the 
throat  muscles,  preventing  her  swallowing  liquid  foods  with 
safety.     Cured. 

Mrs.  T.     Mental  and  physical  troubles.     Fully  restored. 

Miss  F.  Impaired  eyesight,  had  worn  glasses  sixteen  years 
and  could  not  depend  upon  her  eyes  even  with  those.  She  left 
off  glasses  and  her  eyes  were  cured. 

Miss  K.  Consumption.  Improved  for  a  few  weeks  then 
grew  worse. 

Miss  C.  Nervous  prostration,  dyspepsia,  and  painful  men- 
struation.    Cured. 

Miss  C.  Eruption  on  face  and  chest,  from  chicken  pox  five 
years  previously.     Cured. 

Miss  W.     Locomotor  ataxia.     Not  benefited. 

Mrs.  W.  Overwork,  back  strained  by  lifting,  was  unable  to 
sit  or  stand  without  great  sufiering.     Cured. 

Mrs.  L.  Depression ;  little  improvement.  Constipation  ; 
relieved. 

Mrs.  B.  Displacement  and  inflammation  of  uterus.  Fully 
regained  health. 

Miss  S.     Advanced  Bright's  disease.     Unsuccessful. 

Miss  H.  Neurasthenia  with  hysterical  symptoms;  was  never 
well.     Change  for  better. 

Miss  T.  Severe  headaches  from  sunstroke.  Very  much  im- 
proved. 

Miss  S.     Nervousness  and  headaches.     Unsatisfactory. 

Mr.  A.  Mental  trouble,  unfitting  for  business  five  years. 
Greatly  improved. 

Mrs.  D.  Uterine  trouble,  hysteria  and  severe  depression. 
Is  well. 

Mrs.  D.  Catarrh  of  bowels.  Rigid  diet  five  years;  had 
spasms  from  changing  diet  and  was  unable  to  leave  room.  Eats 
any  reasonable  food  and  walks.     Improved. 

Miss  F.  Creeping  paralysis.  Stronger,  but  the  trembling 
not  improved. 

Mrs.  P.     Paralysis  of  right  side.      Very  little  improvement. 

Mrs.  S.     Nervous  prostration.     Marked  improvement. 

Miss  S.     An  overworked  teacher.     Rested  and  strong. 


470  GODDARD : 

Mrs.  P.  A  humor,  said  to  be  incurable,  uterine  trouble  and 
life- long  nervousness.     Cured. 

Miss  B.  Mental  trouble  and  lack  of  will  power.  Unsatis- 
factory. 

Miss  R.     Paralysis  or  locomotor  ataxia.     Gained  strength. 

Miss  S.  Ovarian  trouble,  ulceration  of  stomach  and  bowels, 
liver  in  an  atrophied  condition.     Cured. 

Miss  H.  Uterine  trouble,  dyspepsia  and  general  weakness. 
Cured. 

Miss  B.     Dyspepsia  and  hysteria.     Improved. 

Mrs.  F.  Severe  case  of  constipation.  Uterine  trouble  and 
mild  form  of  insanity.  Cured  of  the  first,  much  improved  in 
second,  and  left  us  very  happy. 

Mrs.  S.  Uterine  trouble,  constipation,  and  nervous  prostra- 
tion.    Very  much  improved. 

Mrs.  H.  As  severe  a  case  of  depression  as  we  ever  had,  and 
nervous  prostration.  The  cloud  was  lifted  and  she  is  bright 
and  well.     Cured. 

Miss  D.     Nervous  prostration.     Improved. 

Miss  B.  Uterine  trouble  and  a  nervous  wreck.  Much  ben- 
efited. 

Miss  H.  Uterine  trouble,  constipation,  depression,  painful 
menstruations,  and  nervous  prostration, — an  invalid  from  child- 
hood.    Greatly  benefited. 

Mrs.  P.     Cancer.     Unsuccessful. 

Mrs.  R.     Heart  trouble  and  dyspepsia.    Not  much  improved. 

Miss  C.     Insanity.     Not  successful. 

Mrs.  S.  Heart  trouble,  dyspepsia,  and  nerves  in  wretched 
condition. 

Mrs.  Iv.  A  tired  and  nervous  teacher.  Was  ready  for  work 
when  she  left  us. 

Miss  G.     Painful  menstruation.     Greatly  relieved. 

Mr.  H.  Polypus  tumor  in  nose,  and  very  nervous.  Greatly 
helped. 

Mrs.  C.     Chronic  hay  fever.     Permanently  much  improved. 

Miss  C.  Heart  trouble,  rheumatism,  and  deafness.  Unsat- 
isfactory. 

Mrs.  G.     Hysteria  and  insomnia.     Improved. 

B. ,  8  yrs.  Malaria  and  a  cough,  result  of  whooping  cough. 
Cured. 

Miss  C.     Over  study.     Left  well  and  strong. 

Mrs.  H.     Heart  trouble  ten  years.     Some  improvement. 

Mrs.  W.  Ovarian  trouble  and  addicted  to  morphine  habit. 
Unsatisfactory. 

Miss  H.  Spinal  trouble,  ovarian  tumor  with  adhesions,  in- 
flammation throughout  the  abdominal  region,  enlarged  and 
displaced  uterus,  rectal  abscess,  throat  trouble,  weak  lungs,  bi- 


EFFECTS  OF   MIND   ON    BODY.  47 1 

valvular  affection  of  the  heart,  trouble  with  head  and  eyes, 
glasses  for  five  years,  abscesses  for  six  years  from  belladonna 
poisoning,  extreme  sensitiveness  of  nerves  and  much  numbness 
from  same  cause.  My  physicians  said  I  had  not  a  sound  organ 
in  my  body.    Glasses  given  up  and  eyes  well.    A  complete  cure. 

Mrs.  B.  Heart  trouble  and  nervous  debility.  Much  im- 
proved. 

Miss  R.  Difficulty  in  walking — doubtless  locomotor  ataxia. 
Unsatisfactory. 

Mrs.  H.  Indigestion,  uterine  trouble,  melancholia.  Not 
ready  for  this  treatment. 

Rev.  S.  Stiff  knee  and  spinal  trouble  from  fall  13  years 
ago.  Weak  and  lack  of  endurance.  Gained  in  strength,  but 
lameness  not  helped. 

Miss  S.     Nervous  prostration.     Great  gain. 

Mrs.  A.      Extreme  depression.     Not  satisfactory. 

Miss  R.  Fibroid  uterine  tumor,  and  so  depressed  that  she 
took  very  little  interest  in  anything.  No  change  in  the  physical 
trouble,  but  the  great  mental  burden  was  lifted  and  she  gained 
strength. 

Miss  M.  Retroversion  and  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  and 
in  such  a  serious  condition  that  the  physicians  said  she  must  un- 
dergo a  surgical  operation.  This  trouble  of  20  years'  standing, 
and  dyspepsia  of  3  years.     Cured. 

Mrs.  B.  Constipation,  palpitation  of  heart,  insomnia  and 
general  debility,  greatly  improved.     Constipation  cured. 

Miss  C.  Consumption  and  general  weakness.  Gained 
strength. 

Finally,  we  have  in  hypnotic  treatment  the  most  perfect 
demonstration  of  mental  cures  that  can  be  found.  Only  one 
thing  could  be  desired.  The  physicians  who  use  hypnotism 
have  been  so  careful,  in  their  effort  not  to  abuse  it  and  not  to 
endanger  in  any  way  their  patients,  that  they  have  not  tried 
it  for  all  possible  conditions,  so  that  we  do  not  know  what  it 
could  accomplish  under  all  circumstances. 

But  so  far  as  it  has  been  tried,  we  have  exact  data,  and  pos- 
itive testimony  to  its  power.  Hypnotic  suggestion  is  as  cer- 
tainly a  cure  for  neuralgia  as  any  drug  that  is  known.  The  data 
furnished  by  hypnotic  cures,  is  as  free  from  the  objections  urged 
in  the  previous  chapter,  as  one  could  reasonably  demand.  The 
use  of  hypnotism  is  confined,  in  its  therapeutic  aspect,  to  phy- 
sicians of  high  standing,  who  assign  to  hypnosis  a  place  equal 
in  importance  to  drugs  and  other  methods — and  no  greater. 
They  test  it  as  they  would  test  a  new  compound  or  regimen. 
They  study  the  results  impartially.  They  have  no  theory  to 
defend,  no  religious  dogma  to  support,  and  their  judgment  is 


472  GODDARD : 

not  overcome  by  emotions  due  to  the  fact  that  they  themselves 
have  been  healed  by  this  method. 

In  view  of  these  facts  we  may  reasonably  turn  to  hypnotism 
for  the  foundation  of  our  more  exact  study  of  the  theory  of 
Mental  Science. 

Hypnotism  as  a  Therapkutic  Agent. 

In  the  therapeutics  of  hypnotism  we  come  to  a  subject  at 
once  vast  and  valuable.  Its  vastness  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  in  1888,  there  were  recognized  801  writings  by  481  authors, 
and  207  periodicals  containing  articles  on  hypnotism.  And  in 
the  past  10  years  the  interest  and  the  literature  has  enormously 
increased. 

We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  careful  practitioners, 
whose  cases  number  something  over  a  1,000.  Following  are 
the  facts  deduced  from  these  reports. 

The  range  of  diseases  treated  by  hypnotism  is  not  so  large 
as  we  have  found  under  Mental  Science  and  Divine  Healing, 
since  physicians  have  not  thought  it  right  or  advisable  to  try 
hypnotism  in  all  diseases,  while  the  theory  of  Mental  Science 
and  Divine  Healing  compels  them  to  make  use  of  their  method 
in  all  cases. 

Before  going  into  the  more  detailed  accounts  of  hypnotic 
cures,  a  word  should  be  said  about  the  manner  of  treatment, 
and  some  illustration  of  the  methods  given. 

There  are  many  methods  of  inducing  the  hypnosis,  and  there 
is  some  diversity  in  the  kind  of  suggestion  given  after  the 
hypnosis  is  induced. 

The  following  cases  are  taken  from  the  practices  of  four  dif- 
ferent men,  and  will  indicate  the  scope  of  the  work  and  the 
results. 

Baierlacher  reports  using  hypnotism  on  58  patients:  24  males, 
34  females,  between  16  and  71  years  of  age.  7  M.  and  8  F. 
were  unhypnotizable. 

He  reports  success  in  cases  of  colicky  pains  following  abortion, 
catarrh  of  stomach,  occipital  neuralgia,  irregular  and  painful 
menses  (case  of  each),  muscular  rheumatism,  and  minor  ailments. 
Reduced  pulse  from  92  to  76,  and  from  86  to  76.  Consumptive 
pulse  of  1 20  was  not  changed.  Failures  were  met  with  in  cases  of 
traumatic  neuralgia,  traumatic  neurosis,  neuralgia  of  both  legs, 
apoplexy,  hemiplegia,  persistent  insomnia,  emphysema  of  both 
lungs,  and  extreme  dizziness. 

According  to  Van  Eeden,  who  reports  718  cases  where  he 
used  hypnotism,  only  19  of  whom  were  unhypnotizable;  nerv- 
ous condition  and  sex  have  no  effect  in  determining  suscepti- 
bility to  hypnosis;  character  and  age,  however,  are  important 
factors. 


KFFBCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY. 


473 


Dr.  Van  Rhenterghem  states  that  of  178  patients,  he  failed  to 
hypnotize  7.  He  treated  162,  of  whom  91  were  cured,  46  im- 
proved, and  25  unimproved.  There  were  37  different  diseases 
represented. 

The  following  is  a  tabulation  of  a  part  of  them. 


Rheumatic  pains, 
Various  hysterical  attacks, 
Various  neuralgias, 
Epilepsy, 
Indigestion,  etc.. 
Deafness, 


Treated. 

Improved. 

16 

2 

24 

7 

9 

2 

3        ' 

3 

12 

2 

II 

7 

Cured. 


13 

14 

6 

ID 

I 


Not  Cured. 


Esdaile,  who  worked  under  the  old  belief  in  mesmerism  or  a 
' '  magnetic  "  fluid  that  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  operator 
to  the  patient,  reports  a  few  cases  treated  by  him  in  India.  He 
seems  to  have  had  unusual  success  in  producing  anaesthesia 
sufficient  for  the  performance  of  difficult  surgical  operations. 
He  was  also  successful  in  curing  by  hypnotic  treatment  several 
serious  troubles. 

The  following  is  his  statement: 

(Mesmerism  in  India,  by  James  Esdaile,  M.  D.,  I^ondon, 
1846.) 

A  return  showing  the  number  of  painless  surgical  operations 
performed  at  Hoogly,  during  eight  months. 

Arm  amputated, 

Breast,  ditto. 

Tumor  extracted  from  upper  jaw 

Schirrus  testium  extirpated. 

Penis  amputated, 

Contracted  knees  straightened. 

Ditto,  arms. 


Sinus  6  inches  long  laid  open. 

Heel  flayed. 

End  of  thumb  cut  off, 

Teeth  extracted. 

Gum  cut  away. 

Prepuce  cut  off. 

Piles,  ditto. 

Great  toe  nails  cut  out  by  root, 

Seton  introduced  from  ankle  to 

knee, 
Large  tumor  on  knee  removed. 
Scrotal  tumors  weighing  from 

8  lbs.  to  80  lbs.,  removed,  17. 
Painless, 


14 


Operations  for  cataract, 
Large  tumor  in  groin  cut  off. 
Operations  for  hydrocele, 
Ditto,  dropsy, 

Actual  cautery  applied  to  a  sore, 
Muriatic  acid,  ditto, 
Unhealthy  sores  pared  down. 
Abscesses  opened, 

Operations,       73 

A  return  of  medical  caset.  cured  by  mesmerism  during  eight 
months. 

Nervous  headache,  cured  by  one 

trance,  3 

Ticdoloureux,    cured     by    one 

trance,  1 

JouRNAi, — 10 


Lameness  from  rheumatism,  by 
chronic  treatment,  2 

Lumbago,  by  general  and  local 
mesmerising  for  a  week,  i 


474 


GODDARD 


Nervousness  and  lameness  from 
rheumatism  6i2j4  years  stand- 
ing, I 

Spasmodic  colic,  by  one  trance,  i 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  eyes, 
by  repeated  trances  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  I 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the 
eyes,  by  chronic  treatment,     i 

Acute  inflammation  of  testes, 
by  repeated  trances  in  thirty- 
six  hours,  I 

Convulsions,  by  one  trance,  i 


Sciatica,  for  general  and  local 
mesmerising  for  a  week. 

Pain  in  crural  nerve,  by  general 
and  local  mesmerising  for  a 
week, 

Palsy  of  one  arm,  by  general  and 
local  mesmerising  for  one 
month, 

Palsy  of  half  the  body,  by  gen- 
eral and  local  mesmerising 
for  six  weeks, 

Feeling  of  insects  crawling  over 
body,  by  one  trance, 


i8 

"  By  chronic  treatment  is  meant,  daily  mesmerising  without 
the  intention  of  entrancing  the  patient,  which  is  not  necessary." 

(P.  22).  Author  recounts  experience  with  most  famous  ma- 
gician in  Bengal.  He  shows  that  the  magician's  method  of 
treatment  is  really  hypnotism. 

The  following  report  of  Dr.  Parkyn^  may  be  somewhat  excep- 
tional, but  it  is,  nevertheless,  very  remarkable,  and  indicative 
of  what  may  be  expected  from  mental  therapeutics. 
He  says : 

' '  In  the  past  eighteen  months  we  have  not  seen  a  case  of 
nervous  prostration  which  has  not  been  cured  in  a  few  weeks, 
w^hen  suggestion  was  properly  used.  Appended  is  a  report  of 
sixteen  consecutive  cases  successfully  treated  at  the  Chicago 
School  of  Psychology  within  a  short  time,  and  without  a  failure. 


Time  dis- 

Increase in  wt. 

I^ength  of 

Name. 

Age. 

ease  existed. 

in  pounds. 

treatment. 

Result. 

K.  D.  W., 

46 

20  years 

12  pounds 

I  month 

cured 

I..  M., 

23 

8      " 

14    ** 

I       " 

C.T., 

30 

2      " 

9       " 

3  weeks 

F.  B.  T., 

51 

3      *' 

12       *' 

6      " 

W.  M., 

47 

5      " 

6       '* 

I  month 

Miss  M.  B., 

34 

2      " 

12       " 

I      "i 

**     M.  C, 

23 

3      '* 

8       " 

I      •' 

"    W.  N., 

33 

4      " 

8       " 

I      " 

"     H., 

30 

I  year 

14       " 

2  months 

Mrs.  S.. 

24 

2  years 

7       " 

I  month 

"     G., 

43 

3      " 

10      " 

2  months 

"    W., 

43 

6      " 

18       " 

I  month 

"    J.  C.N., 

57 

2      " 

7      ''        ' 

I       " 

D.  R.  G.,» 

37 

4      " 

23      " 

I       *' 

C.  S.. 

44 

5      " 

15      " 

2  months 

P.  T.  C, 

55 

18      " 

8       " 

I  month 

2  Gained  12  lbs.  first  week  of  treatment. 


^  From  "  Suggestion  an  Infallible  Cure  for  Nervous  Prostration, 
by  Herbert  A.  Parkyn,  M.  D.     "  Suggestions,"  Vol.  I,  No.  3,  p.  105. 


KFFKCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  475 

Bernhkim's  Hypnotic  Cures.     (From  Suggestive 
Therapeutics. ) 

A.     Organic  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System.     lo. 

1.  Cerebral  hemorrhage,  hemiplegia,  hemianseslhesia  with 
tremor  and  contracture.     Cure. 

2.  Cerebro-spinal  disease:  apploplectiform  attacks, paralyses, 
ulnar  neuritis.     Cure. 

3.  Partial  left  hemiplegia.     Cure. 

4.  Traumatic  epilepsy  with  traumatic  rheumatism.     Cure. 

5.  Sensory  organic  hemianaesthesia.     Cure. 

6.  Diffuse  rheumatic  myelitis.     Improvement. 

7.  Cerebro-spinal  insular  sclerosis.     Marked  improvement 
for  six  months. 

8.  Nervous  troubles  (organic  cause?)  in  the  brachial  plexus. 
Temporary  suppression  of  the  symptom.     No  cure. 

9.  Paresis  of  traumatic  origin  of  the  muscles  of  the  hand. 
Cure. 

10.  Paresis  of  the  extensors  of  the  hand  and   saturnine 
anaesthesia.     Cure. 

B.     Hysterical  Diseases.     77. 

11.  Hystero-epilepsy  in  a  man,  sensitivo-sensorial  hemian- 
aesthesia .     Cure. 

12.  Hysteria,    sensitivo-sensorial    anaesthesia.      Transient 
suppression  of  the  symptoms.     No  cure. 

1 3 .  Hemiplegia  with  left  sensitivo-sensorial  hemianaesthesia. 
Cure. 

14.  Hysterical  sensitivo-sensorial  hemianaesthesia.     Cure. 

15.  Hysteriform  Paroxysms  with  hysterical  somnambulism. 
Cure. 

16.  Anaesthesia.     Hysterical  spinal  pain.     Cure. 

17.  Paralysis  with  hysterical  anaesthesia.     Cure. 

18.  Convulsive  hysteria  with  hemianaesthesia.     Cure. 
21,  23,  24.     '^ 

20,  22.     Convulsive  hysteria.     Cure. 

19.  Hysteria.     Paroxysms  of  convulsive  weeping.     Cure. 

25.  Hysteria  with  heminaesthesia.     Cure. 

26.  Hysteria  in   male:   weeping,  convulsion,    paroxysms. 
Cure — at  least  temporary. 

27.  Hysterical  aphonia.     Cure. 

C.     Neuropathic  Affections.     18. 

28.  Nervous  aphonia.     Cure. 

29.  Moral  inertia  and  subjective  sensations  in  the  head. 
Cure. 


476  GODDARD : 

30.  Nervous  aphonia.     Cure. 

31.  Post-epileptic  tremor,  cephalalgia  and  insomnia.    Cure. 

32.  Nervous  gastric  troubles.     Anaesthesia.    Improvement. 

33.  Neuropathic  pains.     Cure. 

34.  Epigastric  pains.     Cure. 

35.  Neuropathic  lumbar  pains.     Insomnia.     Cure. 

36.  Paresis  with  sense  of  weight  in  right  leg.     Cure. 

37.  Pains  in  right  leg.     Cure. 

38.  Girdle  pain  and  pain  in  right  groin,  with  difl&culty  in 
walking  for  20  months.     Cure. 

39.  Insomnia.     lyoss  of  appetite,  mental  depression,  tremor. 
Cure. 

40.  Gloomy  ideas.     Insomnia,  loss  of  appetite.     Cure. 

41.  Insomnia,  through  habit.     Partial  cure. 

42.  Cephalalgia,  intellectual  obnubilation.     Cure. 

43.  Vertigo,  moral  depression  connected  with  cardiac  dis- 
ease. Cure. 

44.  Laziness,   disobedience,  and  loss  of  appetite  in  child. 
Cure. 

45.  Pseudo-paraplegia  with  tremor.     Cure. 

D.      Various  Neuroses,     zjr. 

Choreic  movements  consecutive  to  chorea.     Cure. 

Choreic  movements  consecutive  to  chorea.     Cure. 

Choreic  movements  from  moral  emotion.     Cure. 

Post  choreic  tremor  in  hand.     Cure. 

Post  choreic  trouble  in  writing.     Cure. 

Choreic  movements  in  hands.     Cure. 

Hemi-chorea.    Rapid  improvement.     Gradual  cure. 

General  chorea.     Gradual  cure. 

General  chorea.     Gradual  cure. 

Obstinate  writers'  cramp.  Rapid  improvement.  Gradual 


46 

47 
48 

49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
cure. 

56 
57 
58 

59 
60 


Attacks  of  tettany,  nocturnal  somnambulism.     Cure. 
Nocturnal  somnambulism.     Temporary  cure. 
Nocturnal  incontinence  of  urine.     Cure. 
Nocturnal  incontinence  of  urine.     Cure. 
Nocturnal  aphonia  consecutive  to  pneumonia.     Cure. 

E.     Dynamic  Pareses  and  Paryallyses.     j. 

61.  Sense  of  weight  with  paresis  of  left  arm.     Cure. 

62.  Dynamic  Psychic  paraplegia.     Cure. 

63.  Pains  and  paresis  of  lower  limbs.     Cure. 

F.     Gastro- Intestinal  Affections.     ^. 

64.  Alcoholic  gastritis  with  insomnia  and  weak  legs.     Im- 
provement. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  477 

65.  Chronic  gastritis.     Dilation  of  the  stomach  and  vomit- 
ing.    Improvement. 

66.  Gastric   troubles.      Burning   sensation  over    sternum. 
Insomnia.     Cure. 

67.  Gastro-intestinal  catarrh.    Metritis.    Neuropathy.    Im- 
provement. 

G.      Various  Painful  Affections.     12. 

68.  Epigastric  pain.     Cure. 

69.  Umbilical  and  Epigastric  pain.     Cure. 

70.  Interscapular  pain.     Cure. 

71.  Thoracic  pain.  Insomnia.  (Tubercular  diathesis.)  Cure. 

72.  Hypogastric  and  supra-inguinal  pains  on  left,  connected 
with  old  pelvic-peritonitis.     Cure. 

73.  Intercostal  pain.     Cure. 

74.  Thoracic  pain.     Gradual  cure. 

75.  Painful  contusion  of  the  deltoid.     Cure. 

76.  Muscular  pain  in  flank.     Cure. 

77.  Painful  spot  in  side.     Cure. 

78.  Pains  in  the  epitrochlea  muscles.     Cure. 

79.  Pain  in  shoulder  and  upper  right  limb  from  effort.    Cure. 

H.     Rheumatic  Affections,     ig. 

80.  Rheumatic  paralysis  of  right  fore  arm.     Cure. 

81.  Rheumatic  scapulo-humeral    arthritis.     Improvement 
without  cure. 

82.  Muscular  rheumatism,  with  cramp.     Cure. 

83.  Ilio-lumbar  rheumatism,  neuralgia.     Cure. 

84.  Arthralgia  consecutive  to  an  arthritis.     Cure. 

85.  Pleurodynia  and  lumbar  pain  helped  by  suggestion. 
Cure. 

86.  Apyretic  articular  rheumatism.     Gradual  cure. 

87.  Chronic  articular  rheumatism.     Cure. 

88.  Muscular,  articular  and  nervous  rheumatism.     Gradual 
cure. 

89.  Acromio-clavicular  and  xiphoid  rheumatic  pains.    Cure. 

90.  Muscular  lumbo-crural   rheumatism  with  sacro-sciatic 
neuralgia.     Rapid  improvement.     Almost  total  cure. 

91.  Apyretic  articular  rheumatism.     Gradual  cure. 

92.  Acromio-clavicular  rheumatic  pains.     Cure. 

93.  Muscular  rheumatism  arm  and  leg.     Cure. 

94.  Gonorrheal  rheumatism.     Gradual  cure. 

95.  Acromio-clavicular  and  xiphoid  articular  rheumatism. 
Cure. 

96.  Rheumatic  articular  pains.     Cure. 

97.  Dorsal  and  meta  carpal-phalangeal  rheumatic  pains. 
Cure. 


478  GODDARD : 

98.  Rheumatic  dorso-lumbar,  and  sciatic  pains.     Cure. 

/.     Neuralgias.    5. 

99.  Rebellious  Sciatica.     Cure. 

100.     Recent  sciatica  helped  by  one  suggestion.     Cure, 
loi.     Rebellious  sciatica.     Cure. 

102.  Rebellious  sciatica.     Gradual  cure. 

103.  Neuralgia  of  trigeminus  with  facial  ticdoloureux.  Al- 
most complete  cure. 

J.     Menstrual  Troubles.     2. 

104.  Menstrual  retardation,  suggestion  of  periods  for  fixed 
day.     Success. 

105.  Profuse  menstruation  every  11  or  15  days.  Interval 
lengthened  by  suggestion  to  28  or  29  days. 

It  is  necessary  to  call  attention  with  greatest  emphasis  to  the 
utterly  wrong  idea  of  hypnotism  present  in  the  popular  mind. 
The  average  man  conceives  of  hypnotism  as  a  diabolical  power 
possessed  by  a  few  favored  individuals,  by  means  of  which  they 
can  do  anything  they  please  with  any  other  individual  who  is 
unfortunate  enough  to  come  within  their  influence.  Thanks  to 
scientific  investigations,  we  now  know  that  hypnotism  in  its 
complete  form  is  only  a  condition  of  sleep,  which  has  been 
produced  not  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  at  the  suggestion  of 
some  person,  and  with  the  understanding  that  the  one  so  put 
to  sleep  is  to  do  whatever  he  is  told  to  do.  The  hypnotizer 
has  no  power  that  the  subject  does  not  give  him.  He  cannot 
carry  out  his  command  to  sleep,  unless  the  subject  is  willing. 
Even  after  the  subject  is  asleep,  he  need  not  obey  the  commands 
if  he  does  not  wish  to  do  so.  Of  course,  if  the  subject  believes 
that  the  operator  has  power  over  him,  he  will  always  obey. 

Hypnosis,  then,  is  nothing  more  than  artificially  suggested 
sleep.  ''Suggestion  " — the  term  for  which  we  are  indebted  to 
Braid,  is  the  fundamental  principle  upon  which  this  "  occult  " 
power  depends.  A  great  deal  of  discussion  has  arisen  as  to 
the  nature  of  hypnosis,  much  of  which  has  tended  to  mystify, 
and  make  it  more  terrible  to  the  uninitiated. 

For  example,  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  method  of 
inducing  hypnosis,  in  efforts  to  get  at  the  cause  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  it.  All  these  discussions  neglect  the  principle  of 
Suggestion.  The  method  employed  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
cause  of  hypnotism.  It  may  be  the  condition  in  that  particular 
case,  but  cause  it  is  never. 

The  cause  of  hypnotism  is  in  the  fundamental  relation  of 
body  and  mind;  the  method  of  producing  it  is  by  suggestion. 
The  suggestion  may  be  accompanied  by  any  circumstance  that 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  479 

the  Operator  may  desire.  The  fixed  gaze  has  no  more  to  do 
with  causing  hypnotism,  than  a  couch  has  with  causing  sleep. 
Were  it  not  for  the  suggestion,  either  understood  and  believed 
beforehand,  or  explicitly  stated  by  the  operator,  **  After  you 
look  steadily  at  this  object,  for  a  short  time,  you  will  fall  asleep," 
the  steady  gaze  would  not  produce  hypnosis  any  more  than 
folding  the  hands  would.  The  hunter  fixes  his  gaze  on  the 
distant  game,  sometimes  for  hours,  without  falling  asleep,  or 
into  the  first  stage  of  hypnosis.  He  has  never  been  given  that 
suggestion.  If  it  were  an  accepted  fact  or  superstition,  that 
if  he  looked  too  long  he  would  become  hypnotized,  then  we 
should  have  no  end  of  such  experiences.  In  hundreds  of  trades 
it  is  a  workman's  business  to  watch  an  object  or  a  machine 
steadily  for  long  intervals.  The  biologist  looks  steadily  through 
microscope  from  early  morning  till  late  at  night.  All  the  con- 
ditions are  precisely  like  hypnosis,  except  the  suggestion,  which 
is  wanting.  Animals  can  be  hypnotized.  But  animals  gaze 
at  their  prey  by  the  hour  without  hypnosis. 

On  the  other  hand  hypnosis  is  produced  under  all  kinds  of 
circumstances,  sq  widely  different  that  the  only  possible  element 
common  to  all, is  the  suggestion  or  expectation.  Braid  showed 
that  patients  would  go  into  hypnotic  condition,  if  only  they 
thought  they  were  being  hypnotized,  whereas,  if  they  did  not 
know  that  they  were  being  operated  upon,  the  most  skillful 
hypnotists  could  not  have  any  effect  upon  them.  Bernheim 
states  this  clearly.     (See  preface  to  last  edition.) 

Again,  r^  :h  confusion  has  arisen  from  confounding  hypno- 
tism with  the  effects  of  suggestion  when  in  the  hypnotic  state. 
Catalepsy,  e.  g. ,  is  a  condition  of  muscular  rigidity  that  can 
often  be  produced  by  further  suggestion  after  the  subject  has 
become  hypnotized.  But  the  question  in  regard  to  catalepsy, 
is  not  *'  what  is  its  relation  to,  or  how  is  it  produced  by,  hyp- 
notism?" but  only  "how  does  the  body  become  rigid  in 
response  to  a  command  to  do  so?"  This  is  also  the  question 
that  we  would  be  glad  to  answer  in  regard  to  disease;  though 
at  present  we  are  more  concerned  with  the  facts  as  to  how  far 
the  bodily  conditions  are  changed  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
mand or  suggestion  of  change. 

One  has  only  to  think  of  dreaming — a  dream  where  the  stream 
of  thought  is  directed  by  some  person — to  understand  the  con- 
dition of  things  in  hypnosis.  The  characteristic  thing  about 
dreaming  is  that  one  does  not  question  the  reasonableness  of 
the  ideas  that  come  into  mind.  This  is  also  characteristic  of 
hypnosis,  and  upon  this  depends  its  value  in  therapeutics. 
Whereas,  in  the  normal  condition,  any  suggestion  is  met  bj'- 
other  considerations,  and  may  be  rejected;  in  dreams  or  in 
hypnosis,  no  opposing  ideas  are  met,  and  the  suggested  idea 


480  GODDARD : 

takes  possession  of  the  mind.  When  once  the  idea  has  pos- 
sessed the  mind,  there  is  a  tendency  for  it  to  work  itself  out 
into  a  physical  expression.  This  is  the  power  of  suggestion, 
and  the  essential  element  in  hypnosis  and  in  all  mental  thera- 
peutics, as  we  shall  show  later. 

The  power  of  suggestion  is  best  explained  by  reference  to 
the  nature  of  mind,  and  the  relation  of  body  and  mind. 
Given  an  idea  in  the  mind^  and  it  of  necessity  does  one  of  two 
things:  It  arouses  another  idea,  or  it  * '  generates  its  actuality, ' ' 
/.  e. ,  it  translates  itself  into  motor  terms.  In  lower  life,  this 
is  all  that  can  be  done.  This  we  call  impulsive  action.  If  we 
might  assume  in  the  amoeba  a  consciousness,  that  stands  to 
human  consciousness  somewhat  as  the  amoeba  body  stands  to 
human  body,  then  we  might  say  that  when  an  idea  of  move- 
ment arises  in  the  consciousness  of  the  amoeba,  its  only  pos- 
sible effect  or  sequence  is  the  translation  of  that  idea  into  the 
actual  motion.  Not  until  we  ascend  to  the  top  of  the  scale 
do  we  find  that  the  aroused  idea  frees  itself  by  arousing  another 
idea.  The  very  existence  of  animal  life  is  dependent  upon  the 
*--*^equence  of  idea  by  its  motor  equivalent.  A  sensation,  a  stim- 
ulus, gives  rise  to  the  idea — and  this  idea  in  turn  discharges 
itself  in  motor  form.  Thus  the  needs  of  the  animal  are  satis- 
fied. Now  the  life  of  the  species  depends  upon  the  perfection 
of  this  response,  hence  natural  selection  has  developed  this 
relation  through  all  the  life  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

But  the  replacing  of  the  motor  consequent  by  another  idea, 
could  only  happen  after  consciousness  had  so  far  developed  as 
to  hold  one  idea  while  another  was  being  formed.  A  growth, 
so  to  speak,  from  one  dimension  to  two.  The  amoeba  conscious- 
ness being  spoken  of  as  a  consciousness  of  one  dimension, 
while  the  other  is  two. 

In  man  the  idea  is  commonly  followed  by  another  idea  and 
that  one  by  another,  and  so  on  until  such  time  as  the  nervous 
tension  becomes  so  strong  as  to  discharge  into  the  motor  areas, 
then  the  motor  response  appears.  But  the  sequence  of  ideas 
being  a  far  later  development,  is  correspondingly  weak.  The 
idea  of  movement  is  met  by  an  idea  of  rest,  or  of  movement  in 
another  direction,  or  what  not;  the  result  is,  no  movement  is 
made.  If,  however,  no  second  idea  meets  the  first,  then  the 
motor  response  occurs  and  the  movement  takes  place. 

Now  in  all  forms  of  voluntary  suggestibility  the  subject,  of 
his  own  accord,  tries  to  make  the  sequence  always  ideo-motor, 
never  ideo-idea.     In  so  far  as  he  succeeds  in  carrying  this  out, 

1  This  form  of  expression  is  used  here  and  in  other  parts  of  this 
article,  for  brevity,  merely,  and  does  not  imply  an  intellectualistic 
standpoint. 


KFFBCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  48 1 

he  becomes  perfectly  suggestible.  In  sleep  opposing  ideas  are 
absent,  hence  hypnosis  is  the  condition  par  excellence  for  sug- 
gestion. 

Appwcation  of  thk  Foregoing  Theory  to  Mentai. 
Therapeutics. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  attempt  a  comprehensive  expla- 
nation of  all  the  forms  of  mental  therapeutics. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  adherents  of  any  one  form  I 
of  '  *  mind  cure, ' '  say  that  all  others  are  mere  hypnotism.  The  \ 
Divine  Healer  thinks  Christian  Science  is  hypnotism;  the 
Christian  Scientist  says  Mental  Science  is  hypnotism,  and  so 
through  the  whole  list  of  rival  schools.  In  the  strict  use  of 
the  word  hypnotism,  this  is  not  true,  since  there  is  no  "sleep 
condition"  involved  in  any  one  of  them.  In  every  form  with 
which  we  are  acquainted,  the  patient  is  in  full  possession  of 
his  "wakened  consciousness  " — except  in  the  avowed  hypnotic 
treatment,  and  even  here  sleep  is  often  very  slight  or  even  al- 
together wanting.  Bernheim,  Wetterstrand  and  others,  often 
report  "patient  did  not  sleep"  or  "did  not  even  close 
eyes;"  and  Dr.  Parky n  declares  that  he  prefers  that  his 
patients  should  not  go  into  complete  hypnosis — he  thinks  he 
gets  better  results  without  it. 

In  a  scientific  sense,  however,  it  is  true  that  a// mental  thera- 
peutics is  hypnotism,  i.  e.,  it  is  suggestion.  Suggestion  is  the 
bond  of  union  between  all  the  different  methods,  Divine  Heal- 
ing, Christian  Science,  Mental  Science,  etc.  And  the  law  of  sug- 
gestion is  the  fundamental  truth  underlying  all  of  them,  and 
that  upon  which  each  has  built  its  own  superstructure  of  igno- 
rance, superstitior    or  fanaticism. 

Man  is  a  creatare  of  suggestion.  The  differences  in  men 
consist  in  the  differences  in  the  suggestions  that  they  have 
received  and  the  ways  in  which  they  have  reacted  to  them. 
The  ideo-motor  man — the  man  who  instantly  translates  every 
idea  into  a  motor  consequent,  is  but  little  above  the  brute;  he 
is  a  vegetative  being,  and  his  form  of  reaction  will  suffice  for 
his  vegetative  needs,  if  he  is  not  made  the  victim  of  a  design- 
ing reasoner.  Exceptions  to  this,  are  those  acts  which  were 
formerly  considered,  but  now  having  been  uniformly  approved 
have  become  reflex  or  automatic,  and  mark  a  higher  rather 
than  a  lower  stage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ideo-idea  man — the 
one  who  inhibits  the  motor  response,  and  follows  the  idea  by 
another  idea  in  rapid  succession  until  such  time  as  it  is  wise  to 
follow  with  the  motor  expression — he  is  highest  in  the  scale. 
Between  these  two  we  have  all  degrees.  A  Christian  Scientist 
said  to  the  writer,  that  the  largest  part  of  his  work  and  his 
hardest  work  was  to  counteract  the  influence  of  hypnotism. 


482  GODDARD : 

He  was  only  expressing  a  general  truth  in  mystical  terms, — 
suggested  by  his  belief  in  mysticism.  What  he  really  meant 
was  that  his  hardest  work  was  to  counteract  the  effects  of  evil 
suggestion,  and  this  is  the  experience  of  all  who  are  trying 
'to  realize  higher  ideals. 

It  is  because  people  will  act  upon  suggestion  without  think- 
ing that  evil  has  entered  into  the  world.  And  here  we  must 
note  that  the  motor  side  follows  the  idea,  not  only  voluntarily 
and  consciously  as  when  I  follow  the  idea  of  striking,  with  an 
actual  blow,  but  also  involuntarily  and  unconsciously,  as  when 
the  thought  of  nausea  produces  the  muscular  movements  char- 
acteristic of  vomiting,  or  the  idea  of  an  accelerated  pulse  is 
followed  by  an  increased  heart-beat,  or  the  idea  of  a  diseased 
kidney  is  followed  by  actual  derangement  of  the  functions  of 
that  organ,  or  the  idea  of  health  is  followed  by  the  perfect 
functioning  of  all  organs.  More  will  be  said  of  this  unconscious 
reaction,  in  a  later  section. 

Confining,  now,  our  consideration  of  suggestion  to  its  rela- 
tion to  disease,  we  may  note  a  law  and  the  almost  infinite  num- 
ber of  ways  in  which  it  is  brought  into  action.  First,  in  the 
causation  of  disease:  the  idea  of  disease  produces  disease,  in 
direct  proportion  to  its  definiteness,  and  in  inverse  proportion 
to  the  strength  of  the  ideas  opposing  it.  By  the  first  clause 
we  mean  that  a  clear  and  definite  idea  of  a  specific  derange- 
ment of  an  organ,  will  produce  such  derangement  quicker 
than  an  indefinite  idea  that  there  is  somewhere  in  the  body  a 
diseased  organ.  E,  g.,  Mr.  C.  has  a  clear  control  of  his  heart 
action;  he  has  a  definite  idea  of  his  heart,  where  it  is,  what  it 
is,  how  it  works,  how  to  influence  its  working.  Mr.  G.  has 
no  such  control,  he  cannot  accelerate  or  retard  his  heart  beat, 
he  has  only  a  vague  idea  of  his  heart.  Now  Mr.  C.'sidea 
that  he  has  heart  disease,  will  produce  that  disease,  much 
quicker  than  G.'s  idea.  \By  the  second  part,  we  mean,  that 
an  idea  must  become  fully  accepted,  and  actually  possess 
the  mind,  with  no  possible  sign  of  opposition,  for  it  to  produce 
its  full  effect.  Manifestly,  these  are  both  ideal  conditions,  and 
upon  that  fact  depends  our  safety.  Otherwise  every  idea  of 
disease  would  produce  actual  disease  in  our  bodies.  They  are 
equally  ideal,  when  we  come  to  the  application  of  the  law  of 
suggestion  to  the  cure  of  disease,  and  upon  that  fact  is  based 
the  fallacy  of  most  of  the  schools  of  mental  therapeutics — those 
that  claim  that  all  diseases  can  be  cured,  and  in  all  persons. 

Let  us  turn  to  the  facts  with  regard  to  the  causation  01 
disease.  There  are  not  a  few  people  to  whom  the  mere  men- 
tion of  a  disease  is  a  suggestion  that  they  are  suffering  from 
it,  and  with  the  result  that  pain  and  often  symptoms  of  the 
disease  appear.     It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  medical  students 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  483 

frequently  suffer  from  the  diseases  of  which  they  study.  The 
vivid  descriptions  accompanied  by  pictures  of  the  diseased 
parts,  are  sufficient  suggestion  to  them  to  produce  the  motor 
response.  We  have  already  cited  a  remarkable  case,  of  the 
physician  who  produced  a  serious  duodenal  catarrh  (page  464). 

The  individual  differences  in  this  particular,  while  unexplained, 
are  yet  wide  and  of  great  importance.  Some  people  are  so  consti- 
tuted that  the  sight  of  a  sprained  ankle  causes  severe  pain  and 
lameness  in  their  own  ankle  which  has  received  no  mechanical 
injury.  The  sight  of  a  bleeding  wound  may  cause  a  red  scar, 
more  or  less  permanent,  and  correspondingly  located  on  the 
person  of  one  of  these  sensitive  observers.  At  the  other  end 
of  the  scale,  we  have  those  people  who  are  in  no  way  affected 
by  the  most  unusual  sights.  And  between  these  extremes  are 
all  gradations. 

Now,  while  we  cannot  explain  this  peculiar  ' '  sensitive- 
ness, ' '  this  physical  sympathy,  it  nevertheless  is  a  fact  and  cannot 
be  ignored.  It  is  manifestly  absurd  to  include  all  these  peo- 
ple in  one  category,  or  to  expect  the  same  results  from  the 
same  methods  with  all  people. 

If  it  is  true  that  suggestion  can  cause  disease,  as  well  as  account 
for  many  other  remarkable  phenomena,  we  have  paved  the  way 
for  the  next  step, — the  proof  that  suggestion  cures  disease, — 
for  as  Dr.  Hall  says,  *'  if  mind  causes  disease,  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  it  can  cure  the  diseases  that  it  causes." 

At  least  it  will  be  important  to  trace  the  role  of  suggestion 
through  the  different  forms  of  therapeutics.  We  shall  find 
that  it  takes  forms  varying  with  the  philosophy  of  those  affected 
by  it.  Among  primitive  people,  the  mere  similarity  of  a  plant, 
e.  g. ,  to  the  part  of  the  body  affected,  was  enough  to  suggest 
that  the  plant  would  cure  the  disease.  Witness  the  doctrine 
of  "signatures."  As  man  developed  in  intelligence  and  in 
civilization,  he  outgrew  this  form  and  required  a  stronger  sug- 
gestion. But  the  appeal  was  ever  to  the  mysterious — to  some 
force  or  power  that  was  just  beyond  his  understanding — and 
as  his  knowledge  advanced,  he  continually  pushed  that  upon 
which  he  pinned  his  faith,  farther  back  into  the  unknown. 
And  to-day  the  same  idea  is  true.  So  that  whether  the  treat- 
ment be  with  the  idea  that  the  gods  are  appeased  by  the 
swallowing  of  nasty  compounds,  or  that  certain  objects  in 
themselves  possess  the  healing  power,  or  God  answers  the 
prayer,  or  obedience  to  some  transcendental  law  of  mind  brings 
health,  the  principle  is  the  same.  The  unknown  is  powerful ; 
mystery  makes  the  suggestion  all  potent.  Schrader  and  Schlat- 
ter are  mysterious  men.  They  talk  little,  dress  peculiarly, 
and  claim  miraculous  powers.  Their  claim  is  undoubtedly 
much  enforced  by  their  appearance,  which  is  strikingly  sug- 


484  GODDARD : 

gestive  of  the  Man  of  Nazareth — at  least  as  the  mediaeval  artists 
were  accustomed  to  represent  him.  All  these  are  elements  that 
help  make  the  suggestion  acceptable,  so  that  when  they  profess 
to  heal  any  one,  that  person  is  strongly  impressed,  and  easily 
rises  to  a  condition  of  new  and  greater  hope  and  effort. 

In  Mental  Science  the  appeal  is  to  "  laws  of  mind ' '  by 
which  mental  states  not  only  control  physical  conditions,  but 
have  created  all  that  there  is  of  the  physical,  both  good  and 
bad.  As  it  has  created,  so  it  can  destroy.  Both  this  and 
Divine  Healing  have  an  element  in  common  that  is  a  power- 
ful factor  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  result.  This  is  the 
part  of  the  teaching  which  abstracts  the  patient  from  himself 
and  fixes  his  attention  on  matters  external  to  himself.  L^ater 
we  shall  discuss  this  point  more  at  length. 

Finally,  in  hypnotism,  we  have  the  same  appeal  to  mystery, 
though  it  takes  various  forms  according  to  the  intelligence  of 
the  subject.  The  individual  who  thinks  hypnotism  due  to  an 
odyllic  force,  is  taking  his  mysticism  in  its  most  eras  form. 
While  the  man  who  understands  suggestion,  and  voluntarily 
accepts  the  suggestions  of  the  operator  and  is  cured  of  his 
disease,  is  still  appealing  to  that  ultimate  mystery  of  the  rela- 
tion of  body  and  mind. 

We  have  now  seen  wherein  lies  the  strength  of  the  suggestion 
as  it  comes  from  the  different  sources,  and  we  can  see  why  each 
form  has  its  followers.  The  objections  that  arise  in  the  mind 
of  any  sick  person,  are  overcome,  now  by  one  argument,  and 
now  by  another.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  all  these  cases, 
that  a  powerful  aid  to  the  acceptance  of  the  suggestion  is  the 
longing  of  the  individual  for  health.  It  is  an  observation  of 
Caesar's,  that  men  easily  believe  what  they  wish  to  believe. 

Healers  like  Bradley  Newell  appeal  to  another  mysterious 
force — namely  magnetism.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  the 
various  patent  curatives  known  as  magnetic  belts,  etc. ,  which 
as  we  have  seen,  are  entirely  free  from  any  real  electricity  or 
magnetism,  and  owe  their  power  solely  to  the  expectation  that 
they  arouse  in  the  mind  of  the  patient. 

Patent  medicines  appeal  to  the  mysterious  power  of  certain 
powerful  drugs  supposed  to  be  contained  in  them.  The  sug- 
gestion is  made  potent  by  constant  and  continual  reiteration 
through  advertising.  The  pictures  and  testimonials  constituting 
a  suggestion  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  certain  class  of  minds 
to  resist. 

The  quack  doctor  has  much  the  same  explanation.  If  he 
advertises  in  newspapers  less,  he  makes  it  up  by  his  own  per- 
sonality and  his  claims  of  great  power,  which  he  parades  with 
an  air  of  honesty  and  humility  which  easily  catches  the  inex- 
perienced in  such  ways. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  485 

The  so-called  Divine  Healing  makes  its  suggestions  accept- 
able by  an  appeal  to  the  deepest  that  is  in  man, — the  religious 
instinct.  With  Bible  in  hand  it  requires  only  a  little  skill  to 
make  it  appear  that  the  Almighty  is  waiting  to  heal  every  ill 
that  man  ever  endured,  if  only  man  will  fulfill  the  conditions. 
Various  passages  of  scripture  are  easily  made  to  appear  to  de- 
clare all  this,  and  so,  many  a  devout  person  finds  in  these  sug- 
gestions the  means  of  rising  to  a  supreme  efibrt  with  an  entirely 
new  hope.  The  suggestion  is  freely  accepted  and  has  appar- 
ently free  course  to  *  *  generate  its  actuality. ' ' 

But,  as  we  have  seen,  although  the  suggestion  is  fully  ac- 
cepted, yet  there  are  physical  conditions  that  this  tendency 
toward  health  cannot  overcome  in  the  short  lifetime  of  an 
individual. 

The  law  of  suggestion  in  the  cure  of  disease,  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  The  idea  of  health  tends  to  produce  health 
in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  idea,  or  inversely  as  the 
opposition  to  be  met.  This  opposition  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
idea  of  health  comes  from  the  presence  of  other  ideas  or  beliefs, 
and  also  from  physical  conditions  which  require,  often,  long 
time  for  their  complete  correction.  The  time  required  weakens 
the  strength  of  the  fixed  idea. 

The  latter  is  the  most  serious  difiiculty  to  be  met,  and  con- 
stitutes the  weak  point  in  all  theories  and  practices  of  mental 
therapeutics.  It  appears  that  the  difierent  healers  have  become 
so  fascinated  by  the  heretofore  unknown  powers  of  the  mind, 
that  they  have  ignored  the  physical  side,  as  having  anything 
to  do  with  the  matter,  other  than  to  be  passive  and  allow  itself 
to  be  regenerated  as  the  mind  shall  determine. 

There  are  two  lines  of  thought  in  this  part  of  the  subject: 
First  we  have  the  difiiculty  which  comes  from  the  actual  ab- 
sence of  the  necessary  organs  or  tissues,  to  carry  out  the  sug- 
gestion. A  man  without  eyes  may  by  argument,  or  in  a  mo- 
ment of  religious  ex^citement,  be  led  mentally  to  accept  the 
suggestion  that  he  will  see.  But  not  having  the  necessary  or- 
gans for  that  purpose,  he  is  physically  incapable  of  carrying 
out  the  suggestion.  Some  healers  claim  that  "mind"  can 
and  does  create  organs  as  they  are  needed.  Proofs  of  this  are 
wanting,  but  we  must  admit  their  argument  that,  this  being 
a  matter  so  contrary  to  all  tradition,  the  mind  has  an  unusual 
amount  of  prejudice  to  overcome,  and  examples  that  can  be 
demonstrated  are  in  the  nature  of  things  hardly  to  be  expected. 
We  do  not  know  what  might  be  accomplished  if  the  mind  were 
free  to  accept  the  suggestion  without  opposition.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  perfectly  clear  that  there  is  one  element  omitted  which 
negatives  all  the  claims  of  the  healers.  Time  is  this  neglected 
element.     It  may  be  true  that  every  idea  has  a  tendency  to 


486  GODDARD : 

"  generate  its  actuality,"  even  to  a  lost  leg.  But  it  must  take 
time  for  that  idea  to  work  itself  out.  One  may  believe  that 
if  man  set  himself  to  grow  wings,  and  willed  it  persistently 
for  generations  and  ages,  he  would  achieve  his  purpose.  But 
when  we  come  down  to  the  lifetime  of  an  individual,  and 
that,  too,  when  it  is  half  gone,  life  is  too  short.  The  time  ele- 
ment cannot  be  neglected. 

A  second  point  strikes  deeper  yet.  It  is  the  reaction  of  the 
diseased  organ,  or  the  effect  of  the  loss  of  an  organ,  upon  the 
mind  itself.  We  cannot  deny  the  fact  of  such  influence.  All 
the  methods  of  mental  cure  assume  a  mind  in  fairly  normal 
state,  and  they  acknowledge  themselves  helpless  unless  the 
mind  of  the  patient  is  in  a  condition  to  react  intelligently  to 
their  suggestions.  But  we  know  that  there  are  many  con- 
ditions in  which  a  person  cannot  so  act.  We  also  know  that 
disease  has  its  own  effect  upon  the  mind.  We  do  not  know 
the  laws  governing  this  matter,  and  we  do  not  know  what  con- 
ditions of  body  make  it  impossible  for  the  mind  to  accept  sug- 
gestions that  would  be  easily  received  under  other  circum- 
stances. 

It  is  only  reasonable  to  assume  that  there  may  be  many  such 
conditions.  Hence,  in  accepting  a  form  of  mental  therapeutics, 
we  may  be  holding  a  true  theory,  but  making  a  sad  mistake 
by  attempting  to  apply  it  under  conditions  that  it  does  not  fit. 

We  come  now  to  the  question  of  suggestibility  from  another 
standpoint.  It  also  bears  upon  the  matter  just  discussed  and 
will  help  to  make  our  conclusions  clear.  We  have  admitted 
that  if  patients  could  fully  accept  the  suggestions  of  the  healer, 
there  might  be  more  decided  results.  The  thousand  and  one 
prejudices,  questionings,  etc. ,  etc. ,  keep  the  individual  from  giv- 
ing himself  up  entirely  to  the  idea  that  he  thinks  he  accepts.  We 
have,  however,  one  class  of  data  where  the  ideal  condition 
seems  reached  in  a  measure.  We  refer  to  the  hypnotic  cures. 
Here  the  reasoning  faculty  being  in  abeyance,  questionings  or 
prejudices  are  much  weakened  or  entirely  excluded.  In  fact, 
it  is  the  unanimous  conscensus,  that  the  one  characteristic  of 
the  hynoptic  condition  is  that  of  accepting,  with  little  or  no 
question,  whatever  is  suggested. 

The  following  table  compiled  from  414  cases  of  Drs.  Van 
Rhenterghem  and  Van  Beden,  shows  clearly  that  ( i )  the  deeper 
the  hypnosis  the  larger  the  percentage  of  cures.  (2.)  Even  in 
the  deepest  hypnosis,  not  all  cases  were  cured — even  of  those 
that  were  tried.  (3.)  Some  classes  of  diseases  are  far  less  ame- 
nable than  others. 

The  inferences  from  this  table  are  extremely  important,  and 
help  to  answer  several  practical  questions. 

The  first  point  referred  to — that  the  deeper  the  degree  of 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY. 


487 


hypnosis,   the  greater  the  therapeutic  effect — may  be  eluci- 
dated by  the  following  illustration  : 


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In  the  column  headed  "Neuropathic,"  it  will  be  seen  that 
of  the  32  people  upon  whom  the  treatment  had  no  effect,  only 


488  GODDARD : 

4  went  into  the  deeper  forms  of  hypnosis;  of  the  50  slightly 
benefited,  15  went  into  the  deeper  states  ("B"  or  "  C  ")  ;  of 
56  showing  decided  improvement,  30  went  into  the  deeper 
hypnosis;  and  of  the  64  cured,  41  went  into  deep  sleep  or 
somnambulism.  The  deeper  the  hypnosis  the  less  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  suggestion  of  the  operator ;  and  the  less  the 
opposition,  the  more  likely  that  the  suggestion  will  produce 
the  desired  effect, — health. 

This  fact  that  the  percentage  of  cures  is  greater  in  deeper 
hypnosis  than  in  light,  shows  the  difficulty  in  ordinary  prac- 
tice of  overcoming  the  patient's  objections  or  the  unconscious 
counter-suggestions  that  constantly  rise  from  the  ideational 
centers. 

A  second  point  clears  up  a  difficulty  that  we  have  already 
met  in  considering  the  claims  of  Christian  Science.  We  have 
seen  that  while  they  admit  failure  to  cure  all  diseases  at  pres- 
ent, they  yet  claim  that  the  more  perfect  development  of  the 
individual  in  the  new  thought,  the  more  complete  acceptance 
of  the  suggestion,  will  accomplish  the  cure  of  all  disease.  But 
in  hypnosis,  we  seem  to  have  a  state  that  is  ideal,  so  far  as  the 
absence  of  distracting  prejudices  are  concerned.  The  demand 
of  the  Christian  Scientist  for  a  test  under  conditions  of  com- 
plete acceptation  of  the  teaching,  seems  here  granted  and  with 
a  negative  outcome  that  all  diseases  are  not  cured.  Not 
even  are  all  cases  of  the  same  disease  cured.  Even  those 
most  skilled  in  pathology  and  in  hypnotism  cannot  tell  before- 
hand what  case  can  be  cured  by  the  treatment.  This  seems 
to  be  conclusive  proof  that  Suggestive  Therapeutics  must  take 
its  place  by  the  side  of  drugs  rather  than  to  assume  to  super- 
cede them. 

The  third  inference  corroborates  this  idea.  Some  classes  of 
disease  are,  as  a  rule,  cured  by  suggestive  treatment;  others 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  affected. 

It  must  be  admitted  at  this  point  that  hypnotism  itself  is  not 
at  its  perfection  yet.  The  operators  are  still  more  or  less  bound 
by  tradition,  and  the  belief  that  certain  ailments  cannot  be 
cured.  This  belief  they  unconsciously  communicate  to  their 
subjects.  But  in  view  of  all  the  facts,  it  is  altogether  improb- 
able that  the  results  can  be  materially  changed.  The  line  of 
division  between  curable  and  incurable  cases  may  be  some- 
what changed  so  as  to  put  a  few  more  on  the  curable  side;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  claim  of  Christian  Science 
can  ever  be  realized.  On  the  other  hand,  much  in  the  nature 
of  mind  and  of  body,  as  well  as  what  we  know  of  their  rela- 
tions, points  clearly  to  the  other  view. 


effects  of  mind  on  body.  489 

Psychological  Problems. 

The  facts  of  special  interest  to  psychological  science,  which 
stand  out  from  the  preceding  pages,  and  which  require  some 
further  discussion,  are  three  : 

First.  Pain  ceases  in  accordance  with  these  methods  of  treat- 
ment. 

Second.  Changes  in  tissues  of  the  body  are  produced  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  mental  condition. 

Third.  The  mental  attitude  of  patients  at  all  stages — before 
and  after  and  during  the  cure — is  one  best  described  in  terms  of 
belief,  or  more  explicitly,  in  terms  of  attention  as  modified 
and  controlled  by  more  or  less  conscious  beliefs.  Before  the 
cure,  the  patient  thinks  about,  and  attends  to,  his  pains  and 
symptoms ;  in  his  cure,  he  ceases  to  attend  to  these,  either 
neglecting  them  entirely,  or  attending  wholly  to  the  sensa- 
tions of  improvement  that  he  is  led  to  look  for.  After  his 
cure,  if  it  is  permanent,  his  attention  is  directed  outward,  to 
normal  human  interests  and  the  daily  affairs  of  life. 

Two  questions  arise  in  connection  with  these  facts,  viz.: 
What  is  pain  that  it  thus  appears  and  disappears  with  the 
fluctuation  of  the  attention  ?  and  how  does  a  mental  state 
affect  changes  in  body  tissues?  To  propose  to  answer  these 
questions  would  be  the  height  of  presumption,  but  we  may  be 
permitted  to  add  a  little  to  the  speculation  already  extant. 
Although  pain-pleasure  has  been  extensively  discussed,  and 
many  theories  advanced,  we  seem  to  be  still  far  from  agreement 
on  the  main  question  of  what  pain  is  or  its  physiological  ba- 
sis. Whether  there  are  special,  pain  nerves,  end  organs  or  brain 
centres,  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Wedinski  thinks  all  nerve 
fibres  can  feel  pain;  Kick  says  pain  is  mostly  in  the  spinal  cord; 
Wernicke  declares  that  all  basal  centers  with  gray  matter  in 
them  can  ache.  Edinger  makes  the  internal  capsule  the  pain 
center;  I^udwig  claims  that  he  cut  out  certain  parts  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  destroyed  pain  in  certain  regions. 

Marshal  (Pain  Pleasure  and  Esthetics,  N.  Y. ,  1894,  P-  204-5) 
saj^s: 

' '  Whence  we  have  the  working  hypothesis : 

"  ( I )  Pleasure  is  experienced  whenever  the  physical  activity 
coincident  with  the  psychic  state  to  which  the  pleasure  is  at- 
tached involves  the  use  of  surplus  stored  force — the  resolution 
of  surplus  potential  into  active  energy;  or,  in  other  words, 
whenever  the  energy  involved  in  the  reaction  to  a  stimulus  is 
greater  in  amount  than  the  energy  which  the  stimulus  habitual- 
ly calls  forth. 

"  (  2  )  Pain  is  experienced  whenever  the  physical  action  which 
determines  the  content  is  so  related  to  the  supply  of  nutriment 

JOURNAI,— II 


490  GODDARD : 

to  its  organ  that  the  energy  involved  in  the  reaction  to  the 
stimulus  is  less  in  amount  than  the  energy  which  the  stimulus 
habitually  calls  forth. 

"  In  general  we  may  also  say  that: 

' '  Pleasure  and  pain  are  primitive  qualities  of  psychic  states 
which  are  determined  by  the  relation  between  activity  and 
capacity  in  the  organs,  the  activities  of  which  are  concomitants 
of  the  psychoses  involved. ' ' 

Witmer,  in  what  is  probably  the  best  paper  that  has  appeared 
on  the  subject,  of  recent  date,  summarizes  as  follows :  (See 
'  *  Pain ' '  by  Lightner  Witmer,  in  20th  Century  Practice  of  Med- 
icine, Vol.  XI.) 

1 .  Pain  is  a  simple  unanalyzable  mental  content. 

2.  It  should  therefore  be  called  a  sensation. 

3.  There  is  no  conclusive  anatomical  evidence  for  the  exist- 
ence of  a  peripheral  sense  organ  or  nervous  end  organ  for  pain. 

4.  Nor  for  pain  nerves  or  peripheral  sensory  neurons. 

5.  Much  evidence  justifies  the  conclusion  that  all  or  some 
peripheral  nerves  may  under  adequate  stimulation,  act  with 
specific  pain-producing  function;  that  such  nerves  may  lose 
their  function  without  a  loss  of  other  functions  or  may  lose 
other  functions  without  losing  the  pain  function.  Thus  pain 
may  be  a  sensation  of  purely  central  nervous  origin.  The 
arousal  of  pain  by  stimuli  and  its*  presentation  in  consciousness 
along  with  other  sensations,  may  be  explained  by  the  simul- 
taneous association  of  pain  with  other  forms  of  stimulation — 
an  association  that  may  take  place  at  any  level  of  the  nervous 
system.     (Analogous  to  colored  sound.) 

6.  There  is  a  specialized  pain  tract  in  the  spinal  cord  which 
is  certainly  constituted  in  part  of  the  gray  column,  and  which 
may  be  composed  of  a  part  of  the  gray  column  of  both  sides, 
including  the  commissure  and  a  part  of  the  lateral  tract.  Into 
this  pain  tract  nerves  from  the  sympathetic  system  and  from 
the  internal  organs,  together  with  all  specialized  nerves  from 
the  periphery,  discharge  their  stimulation  when  this  is  rela- 
tively intense.  The  intensity  necessary  to  bring  about  this 
discharge  may  be  that  which  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the 
resistance  offered  by  the  tract. 

7.  This  tract  passes  up  through  the  optic  thalamus  and 
posterior  limb  of  the  internal  capsule,  the  '  *  carrefour  sensitif, ' ' 
into  the  cerebrum,  and  reaches  some  region  unknown,  but 
probably  a  part  of  the  somsesthetic  area.  This  hypothetical 
area  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  pain  center. 

8.  There  is  some  warrant  or  justification  for  considering 
the  pain  tract  in  the  spinal  cord  as  the  specialized  nerve  organ 
of  pain,  which  together  with  the  hypothetical  specialized  cortical 
center  constitutes  the  specific  organ  of  pain. 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  49 1 

9.  Any  part  of  this  central  pain  organ  may  be  stimulated 
in  the  cortex  or  below  it,  either  by  stimuli  discharging  into  it 
through  normal  physiological  processes,  by  spinal  or  cortical 
association,  by  irritation  due  to  disease,  and  perhaps  by  a 
vascular  disturbance  within  the  central  nervous  system. 

Grant  Allen  (Physiological  Esthetics,  N.  Y.,  1877,)  says: 

"  Pain  is  the  subjective  concomitant  of  destructive  action  or 
insufficient  nutrition  in  any  sentient  tissue.  Pleasure  is  the 
subjective  concomitant  of  the  normal  amount  of  function  in 
any  such  tissue."      (p.  29.) 

But  neither  of  these  definitions  recognizes  the  effect  of 
attention  on  pain.  This  is  perhaps  due  to  the  general  idea 
that  attention  only  effects  the  degree  to  which  the  pain  is  felt. 
It  is  of  course  a  common  experience  that  one  feels  their  pain 
more  when  they  give  attention  to  it,  whereas  anything  that 
can  distract  attention  lessens  the  painful  sensation.  But  this 
is  only  a  part  of  the  truth.  The  fact  is  clearly  proved  by  the 
experiences  of  mental  therapeutics,  that  the  sensation  of  pain 
is  absolutely  removed  by  these  methods  which  focus  the 
attention  on  some  extraneous  object  or  idea.  This  accounts 
for  the  many  supposed  cures,  which  prove  not  to  be  perma- 
nent— pain  is  stopped,  and  since  pain  is  the  chief  objective 
sign  of  disease,  patient  thinks  he  is  entirely  cured.  If  this  is 
not  the  case,  then  we  have  to  account  for  the  actual  change  of 
the  tissue  from  disease  to  healthy  condition,  in  such  a  remark- 
ably short  time  that  the  healers  call  it  instantaneous. 

Toward  an  explanation  of  these  facts,  may  we  not  assume 
an  hypothesis  something  like  the  following? 

Every  cell  of  the  body  has  its  own  sensibility,  and  reacts  to 
stimuli  in  a  certain  definite  way  if  the  stimulus  is  helpful  and 
the  opposite  way  if  the  stimulus  is  harmful.  If  we  think  of 
a  primitive  unicellular  organism,  we  can  easily  imagine  that 
in  time,  these  two  reactions  would  become  distinguished,  and 
consciously  pleasurable  and  painful  respectively,  according  as 
they  were  beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  life  of  the  organism. 
Then  as  we  ascend  to  the  multicellular  organ  and  differentia- 
tion begins,  one  cell  devoted  to  one  kind  of  work  and  another 
to  another  kind,  the  liability  to  injury  is  increased,  and  the 
power  of  resistance  is  reduced,  since  the  cell  having  developed 
greater  efficiency  in  one  direction  has  given  up  its  power  in 
another. 

But  here  a  new  element  comes  in.  The  very  fact  of  the 
associating  together  of  different  cells  necessitates  a  kind  of 
rough  acquaintanceship.  Each  cell  in  the  association  must 
be  stimulated  by  the  cell  adjoining  it  in  a  way  that  is  neither 
the  stimulus  of  a  food  particle  nor  yet  an  enemy.    The  recog- 


492  GODDARD : 

nition  of  this  difference  in  stimuli  is  the  beginning  of 
consciousness,  or  if  Cope's  view  of  archsestheticism,  or  primi- 
tive consciousness  of  the  individual  cell  is  correct,  then  we  shall 
call  this  consciousness  which  recognizes  adjacent  cells  as  part 
of  the  same  organism,  the  ''  general  consciousness"  in  accord- 
ance with  Stanley's  terminology.  The  extent  and  importance 
of  this  general  consciousness  increases  as  we  ascend  the  scale 
of  life.  When  we  reach  the  rudiments  of  a  nervous  system, 
this  general  consciousness  takes  a  controlling  interest  in  the 
corporation,  and  psychic  life  begins  in  earnest. 

Henceforth  we  have  a  well  regulated  plan.  We  may  liken 
the  organism  to  a  republic  composed  of  individual  states. 
The  general  government  is  concerned  with  the  welfare  and 
reputation  of  the  body  as  a  whole;  each  state — or  cell — attends 
to  its  own  affairs,  does  the  work  that  has  fallen  to  its  lot,  and 
settles  its  own  difl&culties  as  far  as  possible.  When,  however, 
the  difficulty  becomes  too  great,  an  appeal  is  made  to  the 
general  government. 

Now,  in  this  multicellular  organism,  trouble  is  constantly 
arising;  every  cell  is  constantly  receiving  unpleasant  stimuli 
and  experiencing  pain  because  of  its  own  sensibility.  Whether 
this  cell-consciousness  of  pain  will  rise  to  the  general 
consciousness,  seems  to  depend  upon  two  factors:  first,  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  pain  consciousness  of  the  cell,  and 
secondly,  the  amount  of  attention  given  to  it  by  the  general 
consciousness — to  revert  to  our  figure,  whether  the  general 
government  will  become  interested  in  a  state  trouble,  depends 
upon  the  magnitude  of  the  trouble  and  the  amount  of  business 
the  general  government  has  on  hand.  Experience  shows  that 
we  have  all  degrees,  and  every  possible  circumstance.  We 
may  give  our  attention  to  almost  any  organ  of  the  body  and 
in  a  short  time  we  can  find  pain  there.  Normally  it  is  high- 
ly probable  that  much  that  is  pain  for  the  individual  cell  or 
group  of  cells,  passes  without  ever  coming  to  full  conscious- 
ness. 

Finally,  attention  may  be  turned  away  from  the  cell  group 
and  strongly  fixed  on  some  extraneous  object  or  idea,  and 
then  a  pain  of  high  intensity  and  involving  a  large  area  may 
fail  to  make  itself  felt.  Instances  are  seen  where  a  person 
suffers  a  severe  injury,  even  a  fatal  wound,  but  under  excite- 
ment feels  no  pain  and  is  even  ignorant  of  what  has  happened. 

It  seems  reasonable  that  the  second  of  the  conditions 
enumerated  should  be  the  one  most  in  accord  with  the  highest 
welfare  of  the  organism,  especially  if  we  are  considering  an 
intelligent  being.  Whenever  an  injury  is  of  such  a  nature  or 
extent  as  to  endanger  the  life  or  efficiency  of  the  organism, 
the  attention  of  the  entire  being  must  be  turned  towards  its 


EFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  493 

restoration.  When,  however,  the  intelligence  has  done  all 
that  can  be  done  to  remove  the  trouble,  consciousness  may 
and  should  be  diverted  in  other  directions,  since,  as  Dr.  Leach 
says :  (  "  Albr  utt '  s  System  of  Medicine  ,"p.24i,)  "  Pain  and 
suffering,  by  their  influence  on  nutritional  processes,  tend 
directly  to  prevent  the  return  of  tissues  and  organs  to  normal 
state;"  or,  as  Dr.  Edes  puts  it,  "Attention  constantly  turned 
in  on  its  own  painful  surroundings  impedes  healthy  mental 
action  as  an  ingrowing  toe  nail  impedes  healthy  locomotion. ' ' 
(Kdes — Shattuck  Lecture  1895.  p.  37.)  Similarly,  any  injury 
of  any  less  extent  than  this,  need  not,  and  in  the  best  regu- 
lated organism  must  not,  come  to  consciousness.  And  finally 
the  absence  of  pain  in  the  case  of  serious  injury  is  a  calamity 
which  would  in  time  destroy  the  species. 

In  mental  therapeutics,  the  intelligence  is  appealed  to,  to 
do  precisely  what  we  have  just  seen  is  the  wisest  thing.  In 
different  ways  the  patient  is  induced  to  fix  his  attention  on 
some  idea  other  than  his  pain.  He  does  this  the  easier  from 
the  conviction  that  he  is  in  the  care  of  those  who  are  seeking 
his  welfare.  The  Christian  Scientist  tells  him  he  has  no  pain, 
and  so  distracts  his  attention  by  convincing  him  that  there  is 
nothing  there  to  fix  his  attention  on. 

In  hypnotism,  again,  the  attention  of  the  patient  is  fixed, 
perhaps,  on  the  supposed  power  of  the  operator;  finally,  in 
Divine  Healing,  the  patient  fixes  his  attention  on  the  Creator 
"  who  healeth  all  thy  diseases." 

The  relation  of  the  nervous  system  to  this  process  is  obvious. 
This  higher  consciousness  is  an  immense  advantage  to  the 
animal  possessing  it.  But  it  is  only  possible  where  all  the 
parts  are  so  related  that  the  cell  consciousness  of  one  part  can 
be  communicated  to  another  part.  In  the  lowest  multicellular 
animals  this  is  easily  accomplished  by  simple  contact.  But  as 
we  go  higher  this  was  not  sufficient,  and  those  animals  that 
had  no  better  plan  died.  Those  who  could  provide  a  line  of 
easier  conduction  would  survive.  Thus  may  have  arisen  the 
nervous  system  which  makes  possible  the  interchange  of  cell- 
consciousness  throughout  the  body.  The  place  of  transfer  or 
for  collecting  all  the  sensations,  is  the  central  nervous  system. 
And,  as  all  kinds  of  combinations  are  possible  here,  so  we  have 
all  possible  degrees  of  consciousness  resulting.  Perhaps  the 
simplest  is  the  reflex  arc  of  the  spinal  cord,  which  is  common- 
ly supposed  to  be  unconscious.  Then  come  the  reflexes  from 
the  lower  levels  of  the  brain,  giving  rise  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  of  consciousness.  The  most  complete  combination  of 
all  the  incoming  sensations  constitutes  full  consciousness. 
This  has  to  do  with  the  highest  welfare  of  the  individual. 
Health  and  the  highest  efficiency  is  obtained  when  this  total 


494  GODDAKD  : 

consciousness  is  made  up  of  sensations,  each  of  which  has  its 
full  value,  and  no  one  of  which  occupies  a  larger  place  in 
consciousness  than  it  deserves.  Under  such  circumstances, 
any  cell  or  group  of  cells  comprising  tissues  or  organs,  whose 
derangement  endangers  the  whole  body,  will  be  at  once 
attended  to,  and  the  higher  faculties  of  the  mind  brought  to 
bear,  to  restore  the  diseased  parts  to  normal  condition;  on  the 
other  hand  any  pain  which  arises  from  a  purely  local  trouble 
will  be  neglected  and  allowed  to  take  care  of  itself. 

Such  a  theory  as  this  assumes  nothing  inconsistent  with 
known  facts,  and  at  least  gives  a  possible  explanation  of  the 
matter  in  question. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  the  discussion  we  may  quote  from 
Stanley  (Evolutionary  Psychology  of  Feeling,  p.  32-4,): 

"The  earliest  living  aggregations  attain  but  a  very  slight  degree  of 
common  life,  and  very  slowly  do  the  cells,  under  the  pressure  of 
serviceability  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  give  up  their  indepen- 
dence and  become  interdependent,  each  thereby  giving  up  some 
functioning  to  be  done  for  it  by  others,  and  in  turn  functioning  for 
others.  Thus  it  is  but  slowly  that  a  stomach  is  specialized,  the  cells 
in  general  in  the  organism  long  retaining  and  exercising  some  digest- 
ive function,  which  is  properly  termed  sub-digestion.  In  this  way  a 
soup  bath  gives  nourishment.  If  psychic  function  specializes 
gradually  like  other  functions,  we  shall  have  in  the  same  way  a  sub- 
form  here,  a  sub-consciousness  which  stands  for  lower  centers,  and 
not  for  the  whole  organism  as  such.  The  wdder,  higher,  and  more 
specialized  psychic  center  does  not  at  once  extinguish  the  lower. 

"Now  what  is  a  higher  organism  but  an  involved  series  of  combina- 
tions of  combinations?  With  every  new  integration  a  higher  plane  is 
achieved,  and  the  vital  process  has  a  wider  functioning;but  the  psychical 
activity  so  far  as  it  does  not  pass  over  into  the  service  of  the  new  and 
higher  whole,  remains  as  sub-function.  With  every  new  stage  in  evolu- 
tion the  integrating  psychic  factors  only  partially  lose  themselves  in 
effecting  a  common  psychism  for  the  new  whole,  a  sub-consciousness 
and  a  sub-sub-cousciousness  etc,,  .are  still  carried  on  in  survival.  In 
man,  physiologically  speaking,  it  is  the  brain  consciousness  which 
is  general.  But  we  need  not  suppose  this  to  extinguish  all  the 
lower  ganglionic  consciousness  from  which  and  by  which  it  arose. 
If  psychic  function  be  correlative  with  other  function,  we  must 
expect  in  man  a  vast  amount  of  survival  sub-mentality  which,  while 
not  the  mind  of  the  man,  is  yet  mind  in  the  man.  The  individual 
knows  necessarily  only  the  general  consciousness,  for  this  only  is  his 
consciousness  and  constitutes  his  individuality,  yet  the  doctrine  of 
evolution  would  call  for  a  vast  deal  of  undiscoverable  simple  con- 
sciousness which  never  rises  to  the  level  of  the  whole  organism's 
consciousness,  A  cell  or  a  group  of  cells  may  be  in  pain  and  yet 
there  be  no  pain  in  the  individual's  consciousness,  and  so  unknown  to 
this  general  consciousness. 

"We  have  intimated  that  primitive  consciousness  may  occur  in  a 
sub-conscious  way  in  the  highest  organisms.  But  can  this  sub-conscious- 
ness ever  be  more  than  mere  survival  in  its  nature?  or  may  it  play 
essential  part  as  basis  of  higher  manifestations?  If  the  integration 
of  mentality  is  like  other  integration,  e.  g., — material  which  is  based 
on  molecular  and  atomic  activity — it  will  be  bound  up  in  the  activity 


KFFKCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  495 

of  psychic  units,  which  can  be  none  other  than  sub-consciousness. 
That  is,  any  common  or  general  consciousness  when  looked  at  from 
below,  and  analytically  is  the  dynamic  organic  whole  of  elements  ;  it 
is  a  product  of  activities  which  are  on  another  plane  from  itself. 
Roughly  illustrated,  I  may  say  that  my  finger  feels  pain  before  I  do. 
We  conceive  that  at  a  certain  intensity  a  sub-consciousness  tends  to 
rouse  a  general  consciousness,  and  for  a  time  maintain  it ;  and  losing 
intensity,  the  general  consciousness  disappears,  leaving  only  the  sub- 
consciousness, which  may  long  outlast  the  general  form. 

"  Sub-consciousness,  whether  as  survival  or  basal,  is  put  beyond  our 
direct  observation,  but  it  remains  a  necessary  biological  and  psycholog- 
ical hypothesis." 

I  have  quoted  somewhat  at  length,  because  of  its  bearing 
on  the  next  section  as  well  as  on  the  preceding. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  discuss  our  second  question:  How 
can  a  physical  change  be  effected,  in  correspondence  to  a 
mental  change? 

For  convenience  we  may  note  that  physical  changes  in  the 
human  body  in  its  relation  to  health  are  wrought  in  four  dif- 
ferent ways. 

First  we  have  the  voluntary  changes.  If  eyes  are  painful, 
one  closes  the  lids  and  shuts  out  the  light.  If  an  arm  or  a 
leg  is  the  seat  of  pain,  a  change  in  its  position  may  relieve  it. 
We  rest  or  we  exercise  a  muscle  or  organ  as  we  will,  according 
to  its  condition  or  the  condition  we  wish  to  produce.  W^ith 
the  aid  of  the  surgeon  we  remove  diseased  parts.  All  this  is 
familiar,  and  while  we  really  know  nothing  of  how  a  move- 
ment is  accomplished  by  the  will  to  move,  yet  we  are  satisfied 
to  leave  that  question  and  hide  our  ignorance  under  the  sound 
of  psychological  terms. 

Secondly,  we  apply  drugs  to  the  system,  and  by  chemical 
or  mechanical  or  molecular  action  produce  changes  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  system  or  some  part  of  it.  All  this  is  every-day 
therapy. 

Thirdly,  we  have  shown  in  the  preceding  pages  that 
outside  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  without  any  drugs, 
the  physical  condition  is  changed  according  to  some  law  of 
mind,  little  understood,  but  roughly  expressed  in  the  for- 
mula, * '  believe  you  are  well  and  health  results. ' '  As  we 
have  already  seen,  a  large  part  of  this  work  is  sufficiently 
explained,  by  the  simple  removal  of  worry  or  the  distraction 
of  the  attention  from  the  disease.  We  need  not  go  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  question:  why  too  much  attention  to  an  organ 
is  unfavorable  to  its  functioning,  and  the  dissipation  of  atten- 
tion favors  recovery.  Indeed  we  cannot  discuss  it  without  a 
fuller  exploiting  of  attention  than  is  fitting  here.  It  is  sufficient 
to  point  out  that  such  is  the  case — a  fact  which  all  will  rec- 
ognize— and  to  remark  in  passing  that  it  seems  most  likely 
to  be  a  relaxation  of  muscular  as  well  as  a  mental  attitude. 


496  GODDARD : 

The  result  of  attention  to  an  organ  is  an  unconscious  muscular 
contraction  which  necessarily  interferes,  as  a  rule,  with  the 
normal  functioning.  The  withdrawal  of  attention  relaxes  the 
muscles  and  allows  normal  action  and  nutrition. 

The  fourth  class  is  made  up  of  tho.se  cases  of  mental  effect 
where  the  simple  removal  or  relaxation  of  attention  does  not 
seem  to  account  for  the  result.  These  are  best  seen  in  hypnotic 
cures,  where,  in  accordance  with  the  suggestion  of  the  oper- 
ator, a  physical  change  is  wrought  unconsciously  to  the  patient, 
such  as  the  acceleration  or  retardation  of  the  pulse;  the  raising 
or  lowering  of  temperature,  etc. 

This  class  seems  to  demand  the  aid  of  some  hypothesis  of 
the  unconscious  or  sub-conscious  control  of  physical  states  by 
mental  activity.  Something  akin  to  volition,  but  which  is 
unconscious,  would  seem  to  be  necessary  to  account  for  the 
facts.  It  is  as  though  while  we  cannot  get  direct  control  of 
the  heart,  e.  g. ,  and  stop  its  beat  or  increase  its  rate,  yet  we 
can  convey  a  message  to  some  power  within  us,  but  of  which 
we  are  unconscious,  and  this  power  accomplishes  the  desired 
result.  This  is  the  idea  of  Mr.  Myers's  Subliminal  Conscious- 
ness Theory  (P.  S.  P.  R.  Vol.  VII,  pp.  345-6),  in  which  he 
argues  for  an  unconscious  intelligence,  which  directs  the  action 
of  the  involuntary  muscles,  just  as  a  man  directs  his  voluntary 
muscles. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  different  views  of  the 
unconscious;  the  reader  can  consult  Hartmann,  Cope,  Clifford, 
Waldstein,  Lewes,  Stanley,  and  others  who  have  written 
on  it. 

That  consciousness  holds  only  a  small  part  of  man's  mental 
stock,  is  recognized  by  all  psychologists;  also  that  evolution 
gives  good  reason  for  all  grades  and  degrees  of  consciousness. 
Perhaps  Myers's  statement  sums  this  up  as  well  as  any.  He 
says  (if^c.  cit.)  : 

'  *  We  may  regard  the  human  organism  as  an  aggregation  of 
primitive  unicellular  organisms,  which  have  divided  their  func- 
tions and  complicated  their  union,  in  response  to  the  demands 
of  the  environment  and  along  such  lines  of  evolution  as  were 
possible  to  the  original  germ.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  all  these 
processes — beginning  with  the  amoeboid  movements  of  the 
primitive  cells — were  accompanied  by  a  capacity  for  retaining 
the  impress  of  previous  excitations,  a  rudimentary  memory 
which  at  first  constituted  all  the  consciousness  which  our  lowly 
ancestors  possessed.  And  further — may  we  not  suggest — as 
evolution  went  on  and  more  complex  operations  were  developed 
while  the  primitive  processes  of  cell  change  became  stereotyped 
by  long  heredity,  the  memory  which  represented  these  earlier 
changes  sank  to  a  low  psychical  depth;  became  subliminal  and 


EFFECTS   OF   MIND   ON    BODY.  497 

could  no  longer  be  summoned  by  a  voluntary  eflfort  into  the 
super-liminal  sequence  of  conscious  states.  How  do  we  know 
that  any  psychical  acquisition  is  ever  wholly  lost  ?  or  even  that 
a  memory  is  the  weaker  because  it  has  sunk  out  of  voluntary 
control  ?  It  may  be  possible  by  appropriate  artifices  to  recall 
primeval  memories  and  to  set  in  motion  any  physiological  pro- 
cess which  could  at  any  moment  of  our  ancestral  history  have 
been  purposively,  however  blindly,  performed." 

This  seems  to  be  the  line  along  which  we  must  look  for  our 
explanation,  and  yet  in  the  hypothesis  of  Myers  there  seems 
to  be  a  flavor  of  mysticism  which  is  not  entirely  satisfactory 
and  not  easy  to  comprehend. 

May  we  not  describe  the  whole  process  as  follows  ? 

It  is  a  quite  generally  accepted  theory  now,  that  all  reflexes 
were  once  conscious  but  have  lost  the  conscious  element 
through  repetition  and  ease  of  performance;  consciousness 
itself  being  dependent  upon  a  sense  of  effort,  when  the  thing 
is  done  without  effort  consciousness  must  necessarily  vanish. 
This  is  on  the  physical  side,  and  the  motor  phase.  But  when 
any  given  act  was  conscious,  there  was  not  only  a  definite 
movement  of  certain  muscles,  whose  efforts  to  move  gave  rise 
to  consciousness,  but  there  was  a  definite  nervous  discharge  in 
the  cells  of  the  nervous  system.  The  volition  which  caused 
the  movement  had  its  concomitant  physical  element  some- 
where in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  This  whole  mechanism 
was  set  off  by  a  conscious  state  of  will,  or  an  idea.  Now, 
when  the  movement  became  automatic  or  reflex,  what  became 
of  the  brain  path  which  had  been  worn  by  generations  of 
conscious  effort?  Is  it  not  possible  that  they  too  remain,  not, 
indeed,  as  the  well  worn  trails  that  they  were  when  this  par- 
ticular movemement  was  a  conscious  movement,  but  yet  they 
remain  distinctly  different  from  the  parts  where  no  such 
paths  have  ever  existed  ?  They  are  like  the  old  wood  roads 
of  a  past  generation,  often  noticed  in  the  forest;  no  longer 
used,  much  overgrown,  but  still  recognizable  as  the  place  of 
a  former  thoroughfare,  and  still  the  route  that  would  be  picked 
out  if  a  new  road  were  to  be  constructed  for  the  same  purpose. 
May  it  not  be  that  the  new  volition  which  finds  no  conscious 
outlet  for  its  energy,  nevertheless  finds  an  outlet  along  this 
old  course,  so  slowly  indeed  that  it  gives  us  no  consciousness 
of  the  fact,  but  nevertheless  it  reaches  the  same  muscles  and 
accomplishes  the  same  result  that  the  old  volition  used  to  do  ? 
Like  the  traveller  who  returns  to  his  native  city  after  long 
years  of  wandering,  and  finds  nothing  recognizable  as  he  goes 
along  the  streets,  cannot  even  tell  the  direction  of  his  old 
home,  and  yet  all  unconsciously  to  himself  he  walks  in  the 


498  GODDARD : 

right  direction,  makes  the  proper  turns,  and  arrives  at  the 
very  house  he  used  to  call  home. 

We  do  not  know  how  to  influence  the  action  of  the  bowels 
directly,  but  the  simple  organism  which  was  our  remote 
ancestor,  knew  all  about  it,  because  his  whole  consciousness 
was  occupied  with  that  function,  and  whenever  it  was  neces- 
sary to  get  rid  of  the  waste  products,  he  went  about  it  just  as 
we  take  a  bath.  And  the  traces  of  the  old  act  are  with  us, 
since  it  is  only  necessary  for  us  to  fix  our  attention  on  the 
desired  movement,  and  somehow,  altogether  without  our 
knowledge,  the  desired  result  follows — the. volition  has  found 
its  way  through  the  old,  overgrown  path. 

Thus,  it  seems  to  us,  we  may  picture  to  ourselves  the  way 
in  which  an  idea  generates  its  actuality  without  doing 
violence  to  any  known  facts,  and  without  calling  in  the  aid 
of  any  power  more  mysterious  than  primitive  consciousness. 

Dr.Edessays,in  thisconnection(NewEnglandInvalid,p.53,) : 

*  *  It  appears  necessary  that  the  influence  which  is  to  promote 
such  a  psychic  change  as  must  take  place  in  cases  of  hysteria, 
and  consequently  in  many  of  chronic  invalidism,  that  which 
is  to  make  the  cerebral  hemispheres  again  resume  their  control 
of  the  muscles,  which  is  not  merely  to  diminish  the  extreme 
sensitiveness  to  pain  and  fatigue,  but  inhibit  that  active  search 
for  it  so  commonly  seen;  that  which  is  to  set  flowing  again 
that  nervous  current  which  promotes  nutrition  ;  in  a  word, 
that  influence  which  cures,  whether  in  the  hands  of  the 
physician  who  has  studied  the  case  and  who  knows  it  scien- 
tifically, or  of  the  charlatan  who  makes  no  pretense  to  such 
knowledge  or  shrewdly  guesses  at  it  from  the  failures  of  his 
predecessors,  must  reach  that  psychical  region  that  is  not  in 
full  view  of  the  ordinary  consciousness,  the  so-called  sublim- 
inal consciousness. 

*  *  It  is  apparently  in  some  lower  stratum  of  cerebral  action 
that  intellectual  convictions  are  moulded  into  confidence, 
desire  and  activity,  and  there  also  apparently  the  same 
convictions  may  arise  without  the  intervention  of  distinct  per- 
ception or  logical  reasoning.  There  are  those  who  hold  that 
this  region  may  be  reached  most  quickly  and  certainly  through 
hypnotism,  i.  e.,  the  patient  is  made  more  receptive  and 
suggestible  thereby.  We  have  seen  how  it  is  reached  by 
methods  which  have  but  little  to  do  with  the  reason,  and 
much  with  mystery  and  marvel.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
these  are  not  the  only  channels  through  which  an  impression 
can  be  made,  and  it  seems  probable  that  when  the  physician, 
by  beginning  with  the  ordinary  consciousness  and  by  oft- 
repeated  direction  and  encouragement,  sometimes  amounting 
to  a  re-education,  can  stimulate  the  motor  powers  of  the  will 


KFFECTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  499 

and  set  them  free  from  the  inhibitory  control  of  fear,  habit,  and 
hypochondriacal  delusions,  the  result  is  quite  as  complete  and 
permanent  a  one. ' ' 

Re:sume:  and  Conclusions. 

We  have  seen  in  the  foregoing  pages,  that  the  psychical  element 
is  large  in  the  cause  of  disease;  that  it  played  a  prominent  part 
in  primitive  and  folk  medicine;  that  it  is  the  sole  element  in  the 
so-called  Divine  Healing,  after  excluding  all  cases  where  some 
form  of  simple  therapeutics  might  account  for  the  cure;  the  same 
is  true  of  Christian  Science,  Mental  Science,  hypnotism,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  "regular"  medical  practice;  the  same 
element  enters  largely  into  patent  medicine,  patent  devices, 
fads,  and  so  through  a  long  and  ever  increasing  list.  We  have 
found  all  these  alike  in  principle  and  all  depending  upon  a 
fundamental  relation  of  body  and  mind.  This  we  have  found 
best  studied  is  hypnotism.  From  this  study  we  have  designated 
that  "  fundamental  relation,"  by  the  familiar  term  "sugges- 
tion. ' '  And  lastly  we  have  attempted  to  review  known  facts 
with  a  hope  of  correlating  our  data  more  closely. 

The  conclusion  from  all  this  is  that  while  the  mind  plays  a 
large  role  in  the  cure  of  disease — greater  than  is  realized — yet 
its  greatest  field  is  in  the'  realm  of  prevention.  Christian 
Science,  Divine  Healing,  or  Mental  Science  do  not  and  never 
can  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  cure  all  diseases;  nevertheless 
the  practical  applications  of  the  general  principles  of  the  broad- 
est mental  science,  will  tend  to  prevent  disease. 

Secondly  we  find  nothing  in  the  nature  of  mind  or  body, 
nothing  essential  in  Mental  Science,  that  is  incompatible  with 
drug  therapeutics  as  such.  We  find  no  good  reason  why  the 
two  systems  should  not  go  on  together.  Indeed  the  solution 
of  the  present  condition  of  rivalry  seems  to  be  a  close  alliance, — 
each  helping  the  other. 

While  we  find  nothing  to  warrant  the  overthrow  of  the 
science  of  medicine,  and  no  power  that  is  able  adequately 
to  take  the  place  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy  and 
pathology  or  the  skill  of  the  surgeon,  we  do  find  sufficient 
evidence  to  convince  us  that  the  proper  reform  in  mental  atti- 
tude would  relieve  many  a  sufferer  of  ills  that  the  ordinary 
physician  cannot  touch;  would  even  delay  the  approach  of 
death  to  many  a  victim  beyond  the  power  of  absolute  cure, 
and  the  faithful  adherence  to  a  truer  philosophy  of  life,  will 
keep  many  a  man  well  and  give  the  doctor  time  to  study  his 
science,  and  devote  himself  to  the  alleviating  ills  that  are  un- 
preventable. 

Of  Christian  Science  philosophy  we  find  no  justification  in 
any   of   its    distinctive    features.      The   special   features   that 


500  GODDARD : 

characterize  it  are  in  violent  opposition  to  all  that,  in  the  light 
of  history  and  present  knowledge,  the  highest  intelligences  as 
well  as  the  vox  populi,  regard  as  the  truest  philosophy  and  the 
best  theology. 

What  Christian  Science  has  in  common  with  Mental  Science, 
constitutes  its  sole  claim  to  regard.  Mental  Science  in  turn, 
owes  its  value  to  its  effort  to  make  practical  and  bring  within 
the  reach  of  all,  the  best  idealism  of  heathen  philosophy  and 
the  Christian  religion.  So  far  it  is  worthy  of  all  praise,  help, 
and  encouragement.  But  in  this  effort  success  has  already 
attended  it  to  such  an  extent  that,  lacking  in  scientific  analysis, 
it  has  built  up  some  erroneous  theories  which  must  eventually 
be  sloughed  off.  Such  is  the  whole  theory  and  practice  of 
absent  treatments,  in  so  far  as  it  involves  thought  transference. 
Whether  telepathy  be  true  or  not  we  do  not  pretend  to  say ; 
but  we  can  say  that  we  have  found  no  evidence  of  it  in  any  of 
the  data  that  we  have  examined,  and  we  thoroughly  believe 
that  every  case  where  it  is  assumed,  will  be  found  to  be  either 
coincidence  or  the  result  of  auto-suggestion. 

There  are  also  other  notions  which  are  too  crude  to  last 
long,  and  which  only  characterize  the  infancy  of  the  theory. 
But  aside  from  these,  Mental  Science  or  the  "New  Thought," 
as  some  of  its  adherents  now  call  it,  seems  to  teach  a  sound 
philosophy  and  much  practical  sense  in  regard  to  therapeutics. 
It  certainly  can  do  the  world  no  harm  to  have  a  body  of  peo- 
ple devoting  themselves  to  emphasizing  the  mental  side  of  life 
in  these  days  of  materialism.  Indeed,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to 
judge,  the  whole  movement,  as  represented  by  the  best  of  its 
promoters,  is  healthy  and  safe.  And  it  is  only  when  it  is 
carried  into  absurdities  that  it  becomes  dangerous. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  all  mental  therapeutics  is  the 
Jaw  of  suggestion — the  law  that  any  idea  possessing  the  mind 
tends  to  materialize  itself  in  the  body .  Hypnotization  is  the  idea 
of  sleep,  which  has  thus  materialized  itself,  so  that  the  sub- 
ject sleeps.  While  in  this  hypnotic  sleep  the  subject  easily 
accepts  further  suggestion  since  his  reason  no  longer  opposes 
the  suggested  idea.  The  idea  of  health,  which  is  then  sug- 
gested, tends  to  be  realized.  This  tendency  Yihioh  is  admitted, 
is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  actual  effect  claimed 
by  the  healers. 

In  Divine  Healing,  Christian  Science,  and  other  forms  of 
mental  healing,  the  reasoning  which  would  oppose  the  sug- 
gestion is  silenced,  not  by  sleep,  but  by  some  powerful 
argument,  dogma  or  assertion  of  the  healer.  If  the  patient 
accepts  the  teaching  of  the  healer,  without  question,  then  the 
ideas  which  the  healer  suggests  tend  to  work  themselves  out. 
And,  as  far  as  that  healer  is  concerned,  the  patient  is  in  a  state 


EFF:eCTS  OF  MIND  ON  BODY.  50I 

analogous  to  that  of  the  hypnotic  subject,  though  in  all  other 
respects  he  may  be  wide  awake. 

In  both  hypnotism  and  Christian  Science  it  is  the  fixed  idea 
in  the  mind  of  the  patient — placed  there  by  the  healer  or  oper- 
ator, or  suggested  by  a  book  or  elaborated  by  the  patient's 
own  reasoning — that  accomplishes  the  result  through  its  ten- 
dency to  * '  generate  its  actuality. ' ' 

In  hypnotism  we  find  no  occultism,  but  rather  a  practice 
making  use  of  perfectly  natural  laws  and  having  its  legitimate 
place  in  therapeutics.  It  is  perfectly  harmless,  and  the  only 
possible  danger  from  it  comes  from  ignorance  of  its  nature. 

Finally,  Divine  Healing,  as  commonly  understood,  has  no 
foundation  for  its  theory.  Not  only  are  all  its  results  readily 
accounted  for  by  the  laws  of  mind,  but  its  results  are  not  as 
great  as  those  of  the  avowed  mental  healer. 

The  theory  of  Divine  Healing  is,  if  we  mistake  not,  a  posi- 
tive perversion  of  religion.  Nothing  is  more  strongly  shown 
by  our  study,  than  that  the  most  striking  and  most  successful 
cures  are  wrought  by  drawing  the  patient  out  from  himself 
and  his  disease  and  fixing  his  attention  on  things  higher  and 
beyond  himself.  The  thought  that  is  fixed  on  another's 
interests  is  removed  from  one's  own  diseases,  and  the  organs 
thus  freed  from  attention  have  a  chance  to  recover.  Do  not 
dwell  on  your  ills,  is  the  key  note  of  it  all.  This  is  the  truth 
which  Mrs.  Eddy  has  so  travestied  in  her  doctrine  that  sin 
and  disease  do  not  exist. 

Now  this  altruism,  which  is  thus  seen  to  be  the  gist  of  all 
mental  healing,  is  the  very  essence  of  Christianity.  Religion 
has  in  it  all  there  is  in  mental  therapeutics,  and  has  it  in  its 
best  form.  It  teaches  temperance  in  the  broadest  sense,  high 
ideals  and  dependence  upon  the  Highest  alone.  This  pre- 
serves those  who  know  it,  by  practice  as  well  as  by  precept,! 
from  most  of  the  ills  that  make  up  the  list  of  those  curable  by 
mental  methods.  But  further,  it  teaches  a  wise  submission  to 
the  inevitable,  a  freedom  from  care  and  worry  and  the  spirit 
of  hopefulness.  And  these  are  the  exact  conditions  aimed  at 
by  all  mental  practices.  lyiving  up  to  these  ideas  will  do 
everything  for  us  that  can  be  done. 

The  state  of  mind  has  a  powerful  influence  over  the  body, 
both  for  the  cause  and  the  cure  of  disease.  Lofty  thoughts, 
high  ideals,  and  hopeful  disposition,  are  able  to  cure  many 
diseases,  to  assist  recovery  in  all  curable  cases,  and  retard 
dissolution  in  all  others. 

Whatever  the  fundamental  relation  of  mind  and  body  may 
be,  the  aim  of  all  conscious  effort  relative  to  physical  well- 
being,  should  be  to  become  unconscious  of  the  organic  life 
and  its  functioning. 


502  GODDARD : 

The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the  members 
of  the  Psychological  Faculty  of  Clark  University  for  numerous  sug- 
gestions— especially  to  President  Hall  for  continual  co-operation  and 
help  on  the  study,  and  to  Dr.  E.  C.  Sanford  for  valuable  help  through- 
out the  work,  and  for  advice  and  criticism  in  the  final  revision  of  the 
manuscript;  also  to  the  librarian,  Louis  N.  Wilson,  for  his  kindness  in 
procuring  desired  books.  For  the  paper  itself,  the  writer  is  solely 
responsible. 

To  persons  outside  of  the  University,  an  acknowledgment  is  also 
due,  but  they  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  by  name.  Physicians, 
clergymen,  "Healers,"  and  patients  have  been  uniformly  kind  and 
courteous,  and  have  freely  contributed  the  data,  without  which  the 
study  would  have  been  impossible.  To  them,  one  and  all,  I  desire  to 
express  my  thanks. 


THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  A  PROTOZOAN. 


By  H.  S.  Jennings. 


The  nature  of  the  psychic  activities  of  unicellular  organisms 
has  of  late  become  the  object  of  considerable  interest,  though 
little  work  dealing  with  the  problems  in  a  fundamental  way  has 
been  published  since  the  researches  of  Verworn.  The  writer 
has  recently  made  a  perhaps  more  thorough  study  of  the  life 
activities  of  a  typical  infusorian,  Paramecium,  than  has  ever 
been  made  heretofore  of  any  unicellular  organism;  the  results 
of  this  study  have  been  published  in  a  number  of  papers  in  physio- 
logical j  ournals.  ^  This  work  was  not  done  primarily  from  the  psy- 
chological standpoint,  and  the  papers  referred  to  give  nowhere  a 
full  and  connected  account  of  the  bearings  of  these  studies  upon 
the  psychological  problems  presented  by  the  behaviour  of  the 
Paramecia.  Yet  taken  together  they  enable  an  almost  com- 
plete presentation  to  be  given  of  the  psychology  of  this  animal; 
w^hile  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  Paramecium  is  in  this 
matter  typical  of  nearly  or  quite  the  whole  class  to  which  it 
belongs.  In  the  present  paper  an  attempt  is  made  to  bring  to- 
gether succinctly  the  observations  which  bear  upon  the  psychic 
powers  of  this  organism,  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  a  complete 
outline  of  its  psychology. 

Paramecium  is  well  known  in  every  biological  laboratory, 
living  by  thousands  in  pond  water  containing  decaying  vegeta- 
ble matter.  It  is  a  somewhat  cigar-shaped  creature,  about 
one-fifth  of  a  millimeter  in  length,  plainly  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  as  an  elongated  whitish  speck.  The  entire  surface  of  the 
animal  is  covered  with  cilia,  by  means  of  which  it  is  in  almost 
constant  motion. 

Now  what  are  the  phenomena  in  the  life  of  Paramecium 
which  require  explanation  from  a  psychological  standpoint? 

Examination  shows  that  under  normal  conditions  Paramecia 

^  Studies  on  Reactions  to  Stimuli  in  Unicellular  Organisms.  I. 
Reactions  to  Chemical,  Osmotic,  and  Mechanical  Stimuli  in  the  Ciliate 
Infusoria.  Journal  of  Physiology,  May,  1897,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  258-322. 
II.  The  Mechanism  of  the  Motor  Reactions  of  Paramecium.  Amet- 
ican  Journal  of  Physiology,  May,  1899,  Vol.  II,  pp.  311-341.  III. 
Reactions  to  Localized  Stimuli  in  Spirostomum  and  Stentor.  Amer- 
ican Naturalist,  May,  1899,  Vol.  XXXIII,  pp.  373-389,  IV.  Laws  of 
Cliemotaxis  in  Paramecium.  American  Journal  of  Physiology,  May, 
1899,  Vol.  II,  pp.  355-379- 


504  JENNINGS  : 

are  usually  engaged  in  feeding  upon  the  masses  of  Bacteria 
which  form  a  thick  zoogloea  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
which  they  are  found.  These  Bacteria  form  almost  or  quite 
their  entire  food.  A  first  question  then  might  be  :  How  do  they 
choose  their  food,  selecting  Bacteria  in  preference  to  something 
else  ? 

If  Paramecia  are  placed  on  an  ordinary  slide  such  as  is  used 
for  examining  objects  with  the  microscope,  together  with  a  small 
bit  of  bacterial  zoogloea,  and  the  whole  covered  wdth  a  cover- 
glass,  it  will  soon  be  found  that  almost  all  the  Paramecia,  which 
were  at  first  scattered  throughout  the  preparation,  have  gathered 
closely  about  the  mass  of  zoogloea  and  are  feeding  upon  it.  It 
will  be  seen  even,  that  many  Paramecia  which  cannot  on  account 
of  the  crowd  get  near  enough  to  the  mass  to  touch  it  are  push- 
ing close  and  shoving  their  more  fortunate  brethren,  all  appar- 
ently trying  to  get  as  near  to  the  delicacy  as  possible.  Some 
may  be  ten  times  their  own  length  from  the  mass,  but  never- 
theless crowd  in  from  behind,  apparently  with  the  greatest 
eagerness.  Here  we  have  a  related  problem.  How  do  the 
Paramecia  collect  thus  from  a  distance  about  the  mass?  And 
what  is  the  psychology  of  their  crowding  together  thus,  like  a 
human  crowd  about  a  circus  door?  In  the  human  crowd 
somewhat  complex  psychological  qualities  are  involved;  must 
we  say  the  same  for  the  Paramecia  ? 

If  we  mount  the  Paramecia  in  the  manner  above  described, 
but  without  the  mass  of  bacterial  zoogloea,  we  shall  soon  notice 
another  phenomenon  reminding  us  of  human  beings  under  like 
conditions.  The  Paramecia  do  not  remain  scattered  as  at  first, 
but  soon  begin  to  collect  into  assemblages  in  one  or  more  re- 
gions. It  appears  as  if  they  did  not  enjoy  being  alone  and  had 
passed  the  word  along  to  gather  and  hold  a  mass  meeting  in 
some  part  of  the  preparation ;  at  least  we  soon  find  them  nearly 
all  in  a  little  area  near  one  end  of  the  slide,  with  perhaps  another 
smaller  crowd  off  near  the  other  end,  while  all  the  rest  of  the 
space  is  empty.  Sometimes  such  a  crowd  becomes  very  dense; 
the  Paramecia  jam  each  other  after  the  most  approved  human 
fashion,  crowding  as  if  all  were  trying  to  get  near  some  popu- 
lar orator  in  the  center.  If  we  watch  such  an  assembly  for 
sometime,  we  find  that  the  interest  is  apparently  gradually  lost; 
the  Paramecia  begin  to  separate  a  little, — not  leaving  the  crowd 
entirely,  but  extending  the  area  and  wandering  about  its  edges. 
The  assembly  thus  becomes  more  and  more  scattered,  the  area 
in  which  the  Paramecia  swim  back  and  forth  being  continually 
enlarged;  but  a  rather  sharp  boundary  is  nevertheless  main- 
tained on  all  sides,  as  if  by  common  consent  no  Paramecium 
was  to  pass  farther  out  than  all  the  rest. 

Here  we  have  what  seems  a  decidedly  complex  psychological 


THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   A    PROTOZOAN.  505 

problem, — the  beginning,  or  perhaps  even  a  high  development, 
of  social  conditions.  In  the  culture  jars,  also,  we  find  the  Para- 
mecia  gathered  into  swarms,  and  any  proposed  psychology  of 
the  Protozoa  must  account  for  these  social  phenomena. 

,  Further,  we  find  that  Paramecia  seem  to  have  decided  pref- 
erences in  taste.  They  have  a  special  predilection  for  sour, 
gathering  with  apparent  eagerness  into  a  drop  of  any  solution 
having  a  weakly  acid  reaction,  while  their  pet  antipathy  is 
toward  anything  alkaline  in  character.  A  drop  of  fluid  having 
an  alkaline  reaction  is  therefore  left  severely  alone  and  remains 
entirely  empty  when  introduced  into  a  slide  of  Paramecia.  They 
also  seem  to  show  decided  preferences  as  to  heat  and  cold;  they 
collect  in  regions  having  a  certain  temperature,  leaving  a  colder 
or  warmer  area  to  gather  in  such  an  optimum  region,  just  as 
human  beings  do.  The  whole  question  of  how  animals  are 
attracted  by  certain  influences  and  repelled  by  others  is  one  of 
the  most  fundamental  problems  to  be  solved. 

Thus  the  ordinary  daily  life  of  a  Paramecium  seems,  on  the 
face  of  it,  to  present  many  complex  psychological  problems. 
Apparently  they  feel  heat  and  cold  and  govern  themselves  ac- 
cordingly, have  decided  preferences  as  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stances dissolved  in  the  water,  seeking  some,  fleeing  from  others; 
they  live  upon  one  definite  sort  of  food  and  find  ways  of  dis- 
covering a  mass  of  such  food  even  when  scattered  at  a  distance 
from  it,  and  finally,  they  are  social,  being  commonly  found  in 
swarms  together  and  finding  means  of  getting  together  even 
when  scattered  over  a  wide  area. 

From  observations  of  this  sort,  some  authors  have  concluded 
that  such  animals  have  a  complex  psychology,  lacking  few  of 
the  factors  to  be  distinguished  in  the  psychology  of  the  higher 
animals.  Thus,  Binet  says,  in  the  preface  to  his  book  on  The 
Psychic  Life  of  Micro-organisms  **We  could  if  necessary,  take 
every  single  one  of  the  psychical  faculties  which  M.  Romanes 
reserves  for  animals  more  or  less  advanced  in  the  zoological 
scale,  and  show  that  \}ii^  greater  part  of  these  faculties  belong 
equally  to  micro-organisms."  Thus,  it  could  be  maintained 
from  the  brief  summary  I  have  given  of  the  activities  of  Para- 
mecium that  these  animals  have  sensations  of  various  sorts, 
since  they  distinguish  heat  and  cold,  acids  and  alkalies;  that 
they  exercise  choice  in  that  they  gather  in  the  regions  of  certain 
agents,  while  they  turn  away  from  others;  that  such  choice  in  itself 
implies  intelligence-,  that  the  choosing  and  gathering  about  masses 
of  food  implies  a  memory  of  the  qualities  of  this  substance  as 
compared  with  others;  that  they  show  such  emotions  as  fear  by 
fleeing  from  injurious  substances  (Binet  expressly  states  this); 
that  finally,  acute  senses,  memory,  choice,  social  instinct,  in- 
telligence, and  a  whole  host  of  higher  mental  attributes,  are 

JOURNAI, — 12 


506  JENNINGS : 

necessarily  implied  in  the  phenomenon  of  their  seeking  each 
other's  society  and  gathering  together  even  from  a  considerable 
distance  into  crowds. 

Is  it  possible  by  a  closer  analysis  of  the  phenomena  to  sim- 
plify this  complex  psychology  which  seems  forced  upon  us  by 
the  observed  facts? 

First,  we  should  examine  a  little  more  closely  the  structure 
of  the  animal  to  see  what  is  here  available  for  the  production 
of  these  results.  Often  function  depends  upon  structure  to  such 
an  extent  that  what  appears  to  be  a  complex  activity  is  found 
to  be  only  the  automatic  result  of  the  simplest  movements  of  a 
peculiarly  constructed  organ  or  set  of  organs. 

Paramecium  is  an  elongated  animal,  with  one  end  (the  an- 
terior) narrower  and  blunter,  while  the  other  (the  posterior)  is 
broader  and  pointed.  On  one  side  of  the  animal  (the  oral  side)  a 
broad  oblique  depression,  called  the  oral  groove,  runs  from  the 
anterior  end  to  the  mouth,  in  the  middle  of  the  body.  Near 
the  opposite  side  (theaboral  side)  are  two  contractile  vacuoles 
imbedded  in  the  protoplasm.  The  mouth  is  a  small  opening 
at  the  end  of  the  oral  groove  in  the  middle  of  the  body;  from 
it  a  narrow  ciliated  tube,  the  gullet,  passes  into  the  internal 
protoplasm.  In  the  center  of  the  animal  are  imbedded  the  single 
large  macro-nucleus  and  the  single  small  micro-nucleus.  The 
entire  body  is  thus  a  single  cell.  Under  ordinary  conditions  all 
the  cilia  of  the  body  strike  backward,  which  of  course  drives 
the  animal  forward.  The  stroke  of  the  cilia  is  apparently 
somewhat  oblique,  for  as  the  animal  moves  forward,  it  at  the 
same  time  continually  revolves  on  its  long  axis:  in  this  way 
the  oral  and  aboral  sides  continually  interchange  positions. 

Now  the  structure  and  ordinary  movements  of  the  animal 
explain  a  certain  activity  which  in  higher  forms  may  be  asso- 
ciated with  some  degree  of  psychological  complication,  namely, 
the  taking  of  food.  Since  the  oral  groove  is  ciliated  like  the 
rest  of  the  body,  when  the  cilia  strike  backward  in  the  ordi- 
nary forward  motion  a  current  of  water  is  produced  running  in 
the  oral  groove  backward  to  the  mouth.  Small  particles  such 
as  Bacteria,  are  thus  carried  automatically  to  the  mouth.  The 
mouth  and  gullet  are  ciliated  and  the  cilia  strike  toward  the 
interior  of  the  animal,  hence  the  particles  arriving  at  the  mouth 
are  carried  by  the  cilia  into  the  interior,  where  they  undergo 
digestion.     The  taking  of  food  is  thus  purely  automatic. 

Moreover,  as  has  long  been  known,  Paramecia  and  similar 
animals  seem  not  to  exercise  a  choice  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
food  which  they  take.  Any  small  particles  such  as  will  pass 
readily  down  the  gullet  are  swallowed  with  the  same  avidity  as 
the  Bacteria,  it  matters  not  how  indigestible  they  may  be. 

But,  as  we  have  seen  above,  if  a  small  piece  of  bacterial 


THE   PSYCHOIvOGY   OF   A   PROTOZOAN.  507 

zoogloea  on  which  the  animals  feed  is  introduced  into  a  prepa- 
ration of  Paramecia,  the  latter  soon  find  it  and  crowd  around 
it.  It  seems  possible,  therefore,  that  the  choice  of  food  takes 
place  merely  a  step  sooner  than  with  higher  animals,  the  Para- 
mecia choosing  the  food  by  gathering  around  it, — then  taking 
whatever  comes.  To  test  this  we  introduce  a  bit  of  filter  paper 
into  the  preparation  in  place  of  the  bacterial  mass.  The  Para- 
mecia collect  about  it  exactly  as  about  the  zoogloea.  They 
gather  from  all  parts  of  the  preparation  and  crowd  upon  it  with 
the  same  apparent  eagerness  as  previously  upon  the  food  mass. 
The  same  results  are  gained  with  bits  of  cloth,  cotton,  sponge, 
or  any  other  loose  or  fibrous  bodies.  The  Paramecia  remain 
assembled  about  such  bodies  indefinitely,  the  oral  cilia  working 
away  at  bringing  a  current  to  the  mouth,  which  current  carries 
no  food  particles  whatever. 

Thus  it  appears  that  Paramecia  exercise  no  choice  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  substances  which  they  use  for  food,  gathering  in- 
differently about  loose  fibrous  bodies  of  any  sort,  and  swallow- 
ing particles  of  any  kind  or  none  at  all,  as  chance  may  direct. 
We  may  cut  out,  therefore,  any  psychological  qualities  deduced 
alone  from  the  supposed  choice  of  food,  putting  in  their  place 
merely  the  fact  that  Paramecia  react  in  a  peculiar  way  when 
they  come  in  contact  with  bodies  of  a  certain  physical  texture. 
The  reaction  consists  essentially  of  a  quieting  of  the  cilia  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  body,  while  those  in  the  oral  groove 
continue  to  strike  backward,  causing  a  current  toward  the 
mouth, — the  body  of  the  animal  remaining  nearly  or  quite  at 
rest.  It  is  important  to  recognize,  in  calling  this  a  reaction, 
that  it  is  not  shown  by  a  movement,  but  by  a  cessation  of  part 
of  the  usual  motion. 

Having  been  so  successful  in  reducing  the  matter  of  feeding 
to  simple  factors,  we  may  attack  at  once  the  most  complex 
problem  of  all — the  social  phenomena  shown  in  the  gathering 
together  of  the  scattered  animals  into  a  close  group,  as  already 
described.  Is  there  any  way  of  dispensing  with  the  sharpened 
senses,  memory,  social  instinct,  intelligence,  and  the  like,  which 
seem  to  be  involved  in  these  phenomena  ? 

The  possibility  suggested  itself  that  these  collections  might 
be  due  to  the  presence  of  some  substance  which  was  attractive 
to  the  Paramecia,  and  into  which  all  would  gather  with  one 
accord, — so  that  the  fact  that  they  approached  each  other 
would  be  a  secondary  result.  This  led  to  an  extended  study 
of  the  chemotaxis  of  Paramecia,  the  results  of  which  are  de- 
tailed in  the  first  of  the  papers  above  referred  to.  It  was  found 
that  Paramecia  are  attracted  by  all  acids,  and  that  in  the  case 
of  any  unknown  substance  having  marked  attractive  properties, 
it  can  be  predicted  with  a  high  degree  of  certainty  that  this 


508  JENNINGS : 

substance  will  be  found  to  have  an  acid  reaction.  Carbonic 
acid  (CO 2)  especially  was  found  to  exercise  a  strong  attraction 
on  the  infusoria. 

Now  these  animals,  like  all  others,  of  course  excrete  carbon 
dioxide,  which  must  therefore  find  its  way  into  the  water.  The 
quantity  of  CO 2  thus  produced  by  one  of  the  dense  assembla- 
ges of  Paramecia  was  shown  to  be  distinctly  appreciable  by 
chemical  reagents,  by  means  of  the  following  experiment: 
Paramecia  were  mounted  in  water  to  which  a  distinctly  reddish 
color  was  given  by  mixing  with  it  a  small  quantity  of  rosol. 
This  substance  has  the  property  of  being  decolorized  by  carbon 
dioxide.  The  rosol  does  not  injure  the  Paramecia,  and  they 
soon  gather  together  in  a  dense  collection,  as  in  ordinary  water. 
By  observing  the  slide  against  a  white  background  it  is  soon 
noticed  that  the  solution  is  losing  its  color  about  the  group  of 
Paramecia.  The  colorless  area  after  a  time  spreads,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  group  of  Paramecia  begins  to  break  up,  as  pre- 
viously described.  The  Paramecia  swim  back  and  forth  in  the 
colorless  area  (that  is,  the  area  containing  (CO2),  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  but  without  passing  its  boundaries.  The 
colorless  area  increases  in  size,  and  the  area  in  which  the  Para- 
mecia swim  back  and  forth  keeps  exact  pace  with  it;  the  two 
coincide  throughout. 

The  same  phenomena  may  be  produced  by  introducing  a 
small  bubble  of  CO 2  into  the  slide.  The  Paramecia  collect 
closely  about  the  CO  2,  pressing  against  the  bubble.  In  this 
way  a  dense  mass  is  soon  formed.  After  a  time,  as  the  CO 2 
diffuses,  the  mass  loosens;  the  Paramecia  swim  back  and  forth  in 
the  area  of  diffusing  CO  2,  not  overpassing  its  boundaries.  The 
phenomena  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  bubble  of  CO 2  are 
identical  in  every  respect  with  those  which  are  apparently 
spontaneous.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the  assembling  of 
the  Paramecia  into  crowds  is  due  to  the  presence  in  these 
crowds  of  CO  2  excreted  by  the  animals  themselves. 

Thus  it  appears  that  our  social  phenomena,  with  all  their 
implications  of  higher  mental  powers,  have  evaporated  into  a 
simple  attraction  toward  carbon  dioxide. 

But  how  do  the  animals  succeed  in  collecting  from  a  distance  ? 
At  first  they  are  distributed  throughout  the  entire  preparation; 
when  we  introduce  the  bit  of  bacterial  zoogloea  or  filter  paper, 
how  do  the  Paramecia  discover  its  presence,  so  as  to  collect 
about  it  ?  From  the  general  wreck  of  higher  mental  qualities, 
can  we  not  save  at  least  the  acute  senses  necessary  to  account  for 
these  phenomena  ? 

To  determine  how  the  Paramecia  succeed  in  finding  and  col- 
lecting about  a  small  solid  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  large  slide, 
it  is  necessary  to  study  the  ordinary  method  of  locomotion  of  the 


THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF    A    PROTOZOAN.  509 

animals.  "  If  a  preparation  of  Paramecia  on  a  slide,  contain- 
ing in  one  spot  a  small  bit  of  filter  paper  is  closely  observed, 
the  Paramecia  are  seen  at  first  to  swim  hither  and  thither  in 
every  direction,  apparently  without  directive  tendency  of  any 
sort.  .  .  Soon  a  vsingle  individual  strikes  in  its  headlong 
course  the  bit  of  paper.  It  stops  at  once,  often  starts  backward 
a  slight  distance,  and  whirls  about  on  its  short  axis  two  or  three 
times,  then  settles  against  the  bit  of  paper  and  remains. 
Quickly  another  and  another  strike  in  the  same  way  and  re- 
main. Now  the  excretion  of  CO  2  by  the  animals  gathered 
together  begins  to  take  effect;  the  region  becomes  a  strong 
center  of  attraction,  and  in  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  often 
less,  the  paper  is  surrounded  by  a  dense  swarm  of  Paramecia, 
containing  a  large  majority  of  all  those  in  the  preparation." 
(I,  p.  299.)  Thus,  the  finding  of  the  bit  of  paper  is  due 
simply  to  the  roving  movements  of  the  animals.  Moreover, 
for  gathering  in  an  area  containing  CO 2  or  other  acid  alone,  a 
similar  dependence  upon  chance  motions  appears.  There  is  no 
swimming  in  straight  radial  lines  to  the  area  of  CO 2  as  a  center; 
the  Paramecia  swim  at  random  until  they  come  by  accident  into 
the  region  of  CO 2 ;  there  they  remain.  The  precise  place  where 
a  group  of  Paramecia  is  formed  in  some  part  of  a  slide  into 
which  nothing  has  been  intentionally  introduced  that  would  act 
as  a  center  of  attraction  is  determined  by  chance  factors.  One 
or  two  individuals,  perhaps,  strike  by  accident  a  bit  of  solid 
matter  suspended  in  the  water,  or  a  slight  roughening  of  the 
cover  glass;  the  thigmotactic  reaction  is  set  up,  so  that  they 
stop,  and  as  a  result  the  region  becomes  a  center  for  the  pro- 
duction of  carbon  dioxide.  The  remainder  of  the  collection  is 
then  due  to  CO  2,  and  takes  place  in  the  manner  last  described. 

We  must,  therefore,  along  with  the  rest,  dispense  with  speci- 
ally acute  senses.  The  Paramecia  do  not  react  until  they  are  in 
actual  contact  with  the  source  of  stimulus,  and  for  coming  in 
contact  with  the  source  they  depend  upon  roving  movements 
in  all  directions. 

Thus  we  find  that  all  more  complex  psychological  powers 
deduced  from  the  "social  phenomena,"  as  well  as  those  from 
the  choice  of  food,  must  fall  to  the  ground.  For  explaining  all 
the  phenomena  with  which  we  have  thus  far  dealt,  but  three 
factors  are  necessary :  ( i )  the  customary  movements  of  the 
unstimulated  animal;  (2)  the  cessation  of  these  movements, 
except  those  in  the  oral  groove  and  gullet,  when  in  contact 
with  solids  of  a  certain  physical  character;  (3)  attraction 
toward  CO  2. 

We  have  still  r.emaining  to  be  accounted  for  psychologically 
the  attraction  toward  certain  reagents  and  conditions,  as  toward 
CO2  and  toward  the  optimum  temperature,  and  the  repulsion  to- 


5IO  JENNINGS: 

ward  other  reagents  and  conditions,  such  as  alkalies,  and  cold  or 
great  heat.  This  selective  attraction  and  repulsion  is  a  phenomenon 
of  great  importance,  seeming  in  itself  to  imply  a  choice  on  the 
part  of  the  organisms.  If  they  move  toward  certain  sources  of 
stimuli  and  away  from  others,  this  seems  to  involve  a  perception 
of  the  localization  of  things,  and  this  can  hardly  be  regarded 
otherwise  than  as  at  least  the  beginnings  of  intelligence.  More- 
over, from  its  apparent  general  occurrence,  much  theoretical 
significance  has  been  attached  to  it.  Now  how  does  this  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion  take  place?  Organisms  usually  move  by 
means  of  certain  organs  of  locomotion;  attraction  and  repulsion 
cannot  therefore  be  left  as  abstract  ideas,  but  it  must  be  shown 
how  the  attractive  agent  sets  these  organs  in  operation  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  bring  the  animal  nearer;  how  the  repellent 
agent  succeeds  in  aj0fecting  the  locomotor  organs  so  as  to  carry 
the  animal  away.  To  apply  this  to  the  particular  case  in  hand, 
when  a  drop  of  some  attractive  solution  is  introduced  into  a 
slide  of  Paramecia,  how  does  it  succeed  in  affecting  the  cilia  of 
the  animals  in  such  a  way  that  they  turn  toward  and  enter  the 
drop? 

Exact  observation  of  the  method  by  which  the  Paramecia 
enter  such  a-  drop  shows  that  this  question  is  based  on  a  false 
assumption.  The  animals  do  not  turn  toward  the  drop.  Such  a 
drop  diffuses  slowly,  so  that  its  margin  is  evident,  and  the 
Paramecia  may  be  seen  in  their  random  course  to  almost  graze 
the  edge  of  the  drop  without  their  motion  being  changed  in 
the  slightest  degree;  they  keep  on  straight  past  the  drop  and 
swim  to  another  part  of  the  slide.  But  of  course  some  of  the 
Paramecia  in  their  random  swimming  come  directly  against  the 
edge  of  the  drop.  These  do  not  react,  but  keep  on  undisturbed 
across  it.  But  when  they  come  to  the  opposite  margin,  where 
they  would,  if  unchecked,  pass  out  again  into  the  surrounding 
medium,  they  react  negatively — ^jerking  back  and  turning  again 
into  the  drop.  Such  an  animal  then  swims  across  the  drop  in 
the  new  direction  till  it  again  comes  to  the  margin,  when  it  re- 
acts negatively,  as  before.  This  continues,  so  that  the  animal 
appears  to  be  caught  in  the  drop  as  in  a  trap.  Other  Paramecia 
enter  the  drop  in  the  same  way  and  are  imprisoned  like  the 
first,  so  that  in  time  the  drop  swarms  with  the  animals.  As  a 
result  of  their  swift  random  movements  when  first  brought  upon 
the  slide,  almost  every  individual  in  the  preparation  will  in  a 
short  time  have  come  by  chance  against  the  edge  of  the  drop, 
will  have  entered  and  remained,  so  that  soon  all  the  Paramecia 
in  the  preparation  are  in  the  drop.  If,  however,  the  drop  is 
not  introduced  until  the  Paramecia  have  quieted  down,  it  will 
be  found  to  remain  empty;  this  shows  the  essential  part  played 
by  the  roving  movements  in  bringing  the  collection  together. 


THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   A    PROTOZOAN.  5II 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  animals  are  not  attracted  by  the 
fluid  in  the  drop;  they  enter  it  by  chance,  without  reaction, 
then  are  repelled  by  the  surrounding  fluid.  This  is  true  for  all 
apparently  attractive  reagents  or  conditions.  Paramecia  are  not 
directly  atti'aded  by  atiy  substance  or  agency;  the  assembling  in 
the  region  of  certain  conditions  being  due  to  the  repellent  power 
of  the  surrounding  fluid,  after  the  Paramecia  have  entered  by 
chance  the  area  of  the  conditions  in  question. 

There  remains  then  as  a  motor  reaction  only  the  repulsion 
due  to  certain  agents  and  conditions.  Is  this  repulsion  an  ulti- 
mate fact  in  the  psychology  of  the  animal,  or  is  it  possible  to 
analyze  it  further  ? 

The  first  thing  which  a  Paramecium  does  on  coming  in  con- 
tact with  a  drop  of  repellent  solution  is  to  reverse  all  its  cilia, 
so  as  to  swim  straight  backward, — at  the  same  time  revolving 
on  its  long  axis  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  it  was 
previously  revolving.  Next  it  turns  to  one  side  a  certain 
amount,  then  swims  forward  again,  on  a  path  which  lies  at  an ' 
angle  to  the  path  in  which  it  was  first  swimming.  Briefly 
stated,  it  adopts  the  very  rational  plan  of  backing  off",  turning 
to  one  side,  and  swimming  on  past  the  obstacle.  We  must 
apparently  concede  the  Paramecium  at  least  a  modicum  of  intel- 
ligence for  the  very  practical  way  in  which  it  meets  this 
emergency. 

But  suppose  the  animal  touches  the  margin  of  the  drop 
obliquely,  or  brushes  it  only  on  one  side  as  it  swims  past  it 
through  the  water;  what  course  will  it  then  take?  From  its 
sensible  behavior  under  the  previous  conditions  we  shall  expect 
it  to  sheer  off,  away  from  the  drop,  and  keep  on  its  way  undis- 
turbed or  at  a  slight  angle  to  the  original  path.  But  when  we 
observe  such  a  case,  we  find  that  the  Paramecium  backs  oflf, 
swimming  straight  backward,  as  before,  then  turns  through  an 
angle,  then  swims  forward,  exactly  as  in  the  previous  case. 
And  curiously  enough,  it  by  no  means  turns  directly  away 
from  the  drop,  but  fully  as  often  turns  toward  it,  so  as  to  strike 
it  squarely  the  next  time  it  moves  forward.  If  this  occurs, 
the  whole  operation  is  repeated ;  the  animal  tries,  as  it 
were,  for  a  new  opening.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  repeat 
the  operation  several  times  before  the  Paramecium  succeeds  in 
getting  away  from  the  repellent  object. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  animal  evidently  gives  much 
less  indication  of  intelligence,  and  the  fact  that  it  reacts  in  ex- 
actly the  same  way  under  such  different  conditions  is  especially 
fitted  to  shake  confidence  in  its  mental  powers.  Apparently 
the  swimming  backward  has  no  relation  to  the  position  of  the 
source  of  stimulus,  but  occurs  merely  as  a  result  of  the  fact 
of  stimulation,  without  reference  to  its  localization.     Whether 


5 1 2  JENNINGS  : 

this  is  true  as  a  general  statement  can  be  tested  by  giving  the 
animal  a  general  shock  without  localizing  the  source  of  stimulus 
at  all.  This  is  easily  done  by  immersing  the  Paramecia  directly 
into  solutions  of  such  a  nature  that  they  act  as  stimuli.  In 
such  a  case  the  stimulus  acts  upon  the  entire  surface  of  the 
animal  at  once,  so  that  there  is  no  obstacle  to  be  avoided  and 
no  reason  for  swimming  backward. 

Immersing  Paramecia  thus  into  solutions  of  different  kinds, 
it  is  found  that  the  first  thing  they  do  in  every  case  is  to  re- 
verse the  cilia  and  swim  backward.  Nor  is  this  all.  The  en- 
tire reaction  is  given,  just  as  when  the  source  of  stimulus  was 
at  one  end  or  one  side;  the  animal  first  swims  backward,  then 
turns,  then  swims  forward.  This  is  true  for  all  classes  of 
stimuli, — chemical  solutions  of  all  sorts,  water  heated  consider- 
abl}^  above  the  optimum  temperature,  water  at  the  freezing 
point,  and  solutions  active  only  through  their  osmotic  pressure. 
The  duration  of  the  different  parts  of  the  reaction  varies  much 
in  different  agents,  but  the  essential  features  of  the  reaction  are 
the  same  everywhere. 

It  therefore  appears  that  not  only  the  backward  swimming, 
but  also  the  turning  to  one  side  takes  place  without  reference 
to  the  localization  of  the  stimulus, — both  occurring  equally 
when  the  stimulus  is  not  localized  at  all.  But  what  determines 
the  direction  in  which  the  Paramecium  turns? 

Careful  observation  of  Paramecia  under  conditions  which 
compel  them  to  move  slowly  shows  that  after  stimulation  they 
always  turn  toward  the  aboral  side, — that  is,  the  side  opposite 
the  oral  groove.  The  direction  of  turning  is  thus  determined 
by  the  structure  of  the  animal,  and  has  no  relation  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  source  of  stimulus.  The  mechanism  of  the  turning 
is  as  follows:  after  the  first  reversal  of  cilia,  those  in  the  oral 
groove  begin  to  strike  backward  again,  tending  to  drive  the 
animal  forward,  while  the  remaiqder  of  the  cilia  on  the  an- 
terior half  of  the  animal  strike  transversely  toward  the  oral  side. 
This  results  in  turning  the  animal  toward  the  aboral  side. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  the  direction  of  motion  throughout 
the  entire  reaction  depends  upon  the  structure  of  the  animal 
and  has  no  relation  to  the  localization  of  the  stimulus.  The 
reaction  may  be  expressed  completely,  omitting  all  reference 
to  the  position  of  the  stimulus,  as  follows:  after  stimulation  the 
animal  swims  with  the  more  pointed  end  in  front,  turns  toward 
the  aboral  side,  then  swims  with  the  blunter  end  in  front. 

It  is  of  course  a  matter  of  chance  whether  this  turning  toward 
the  aboral  side  carries  the  animal  away  from  the  source  of 
stimulus  or  toward  it.  Frequently  the  latter  is  true;  in  this 
case  the  operation  is  repeated  when  the  animal  comes  again  in 
contact  with  the  stimulating  agent.     As  the  animal  revolves 


THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF    A    PROTOZOAN.  513 

continually  on  its  long  axis,  the  aboral  side  will  probably  lie  in 
a  new  position  at  the  next  turning,  so  that  the  animal  will  turn 
in  a  new  direction.  If  this  is  repeated,  the  chances  are  that 
in  time  the  obstacle  will  be  avoided. 

Thus,  not  only  is  it  true  that  Paramecium  is  not  attracted 
by  any  agent  or  condition,  but  also  we  cannot  say,  speaking 
strictly,  that  it  is  repelled  by  any  agent  or  condition.  Certain 
agents  set  up  a  reaction  in  the  animal,  the  directive  features  of 
which  depend  entirely  upon  the  structure  of  the  organism, — 
just  as  certain  stimuli  cause  an  isolated  muscle  to  react.  We 
cannot  say  that  the  Paramecium  is  repelled  by  the  stimulus, 
any  more  than  we  can  say  that  the  contraction  of  the  muscle 
is  due  to  the  muscle's  being  repelled  by  the  stimulus.  It  is 
true  that  the  source  of  stimulus  is  more  often  at  the  blunt  or ' '  an- 
terior "  end,  in  the  case  of  Paramecium,  so  that  swimming 
toward  the  sharp  end  does,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  usually  result  in 
taking  the  Paramecium  away  for  a  short  distance  from  the 
source  of  stimulus.  But  this  usual  position  of  the  source  of 
stimulus  is  from  a  physiological  standpoint  purely  accidental, 
and  the  reaction  produced  is  the  same  whether  it  occupies  this 
position  or  another.  If  the  animal  is  stimulated  at  the  posterior 
end,  it  swims  backward,  therefore  toward  the  source  of  stimulus; 
in  this  way  it  may  enter  a  destructive  chemical  solution  and  be 
immediately  killed,  though  the  same  chemical  acting  upon  the 
anterior  end  would  of  course  have  caused  the  animal  to  swim 
away.  This  is  seen  in  a  particularly  striking  manner  in  the 
larger  infusorian  Spirostomicm  ambiguiim^  which  is  so  large  that 
it  is  easy  to  apply  a  stimulus  to  any  desired  part  of  the  body. 
It  is  then  found  that  the  animal  reacts  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  whether  stimulated  at  the  anterior  end,  the  posterior 
end,  or  the  side,  the  direction  of  motion  having  absolutely  no 
relation  to  the  position  of  the  source  of  stimulus.  The  same 
is  true  for  Paramecium,  though  its  smaller  size  makes  the  dem- 
onstration more  difficult. 

A  strict  parity  is  therefore  to  be  observed  between  the  reac- 
tions of  Paramecium  and  those  of  an  isolated  frog's  muscle. 
Paramecium  responds  to  any  stimulus  by  a  definite,  well  char- 
acterized reaction.  ''  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  isolated 
muscle  of  a  frog.  The  intensity  of  the  reaction  varies  with  the 
nature  and  intensity  of  the  stimulus;  this  also  is  true  for  the 
muscle.  Under  certain  influences  the  Paramecium  remains 
quiet;  likewise  the  muscle.  The  directive  relations  of  the  mo- 
tions are  determined  both  in  the  Paramecium  and  in  the  muscle 
by  the  structure  of  the  organism,  not  by  the  position  of  the 
source  of  stimulus.  There  seems,  then,  no  necessity  for  assum- 
ing more  in  order  to  explain  the  reactions  of  the  Paramecium 
than  to  explain  the  reactions  of  the  muscle.     We  need,  there- 


514  JENNINGS: 

fore,  to  assume  nothing  more  than  irritability,  or  the  power  of 
responding  to  a  stimulus  by  a  definite  movement,  to  explain 
the  activities  of  Paramecium"  (II).  The  long  catalogue  of 
psychical  qualities  required  to  account  for  the  movements  of 
Paramecium  is  thus  reduced  to  simple  protoplasmic  irritability. 

The  method  by  which  Paramecia  collect  in  the  regions  of  in- 
fluences of  a  certain  character  and  leave  other  regions  empty, 
may  be  stated  in  general  terms  as  follows:  Certain  stimuli  cause 
in  the  animals  random  motions,  in  which  the  direction  is  fre- 
quently changed,  especially  at  the  moment  when  the  stimulus 
begins  to  act.  These  random  movements  result,  through  the 
laws  of  chance,  if  continued  long  enough,  in  carrying  the  Para- 
mecia out  of  the  region  of  influence  of  the  agent  causing  the 
stimulus.  Coming  thus  by  chance  into  a  region  where  such 
movements  are  not  caused,  the  Paramecia  remain;  if  this  in- 
effective area  is  small,  the  Paramecia  are  crowded  together 
within  it  and  give  the  impression  of  being  strongly  attracted 
by  it. 

"  It  is  evident  that  we  have  in  this  case  as  near  the  reaction 
postulated  by  Spencer  and  Bain  for  a  primitive  organism — 
namely,  random  movements  in  response  to  any  stimulus — as  is 
likely  to  be  found  in  any  organism.  The  motions  are  strictly 
random  in  character  so  far  as  the  position  of  the  source  of 
stimulus  is  concerned.  .  .  .  And  by  the  repetition  of  the 
reaction  the  direction  of  movement  is  frequently  changed, — 
always  without  reference  to  the  localization  of  the  stimulus. 
It  appears  not  to  have  been  foreseen  theoretically  that  such 
random  movements  would  of  themselves,  if  continued,  carry  the 
animal  out  of  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  agent  causing  them 
and  keep  it  from  re-entering.  To  accomplish  this  result  it  is 
only  necessary  that  the  direction  of  motion  should  be  changed 
at  the  moment  when  the  stimulus  begins  to  act  and  at  intervals 
so  long  as  it  continues  "  (II). 

An  examination  of  the  activities  of  a  number  of  other  uni- 
cellular organisms  in  the  light  of  the  observations  above  de- 
tailed shows  that  they  react  in  essentially  the  same  manner. 
For  each  organism  a  simple  statement  can  be  given  for  the  re- 
action to  any  stimulus.  For  Spirostomum  ambiguum  the  re- 
action is  as  follows:  the  animal  contracts,  swims  backward, 
turns  toward  the  aboral  side,  and  swims  forward.  Stentor  poly- 
morphus  contracts,  swims  backward,  turns  toward  the  right 
side,  and  swims  forward.  A  number  of  flagellates  also  have 
been  found  to  have  such  a  fixed  method  of  reaction.  In  all 
these  cases  the  direction  of  motion  has  no  relation  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  source  of  stimulus,  and  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
for  Paramecium  apply  equally  to  these  organisms. 

In  regard  to  the  position  in  the  psychological  scale  to  be  as- 


THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   A   PROTOZOAN.  515 

signed  to  Paramecium  the  following  may  be  said:  The  reac- 
tions of  Paramecium  are,  as  we  have  seen,  comparable  in  all 
essentials  to  those  of  an  isolated  muscle.  In  neither  case  has 
the  direction  of  motion  any  relation  to  the  position  of  the  source 
of  stimulus.  Reaction  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  a  relation 
to  the  position  of  the  stimulating  agent  has  rightly  been  re- 
garded as  a  first  and  lowest  step  in  perception;  this  lowest  step 
is  quite  lacking  in  Paramecium.  Moreover,  Paramecium  has 
no  "life  history"  in  the  sense  of  a  change  in  its  reactions 
such  as  between  the  reactions  of  a  young  and  an  adult  higher 
animal.  An  individual  undergoing  division  reacts  exactly 
like  the  ordinary  Paramecium,  as  do  likewise  the  halves 
immediately  after  division.  In  the  words  of  Professor  Bald- 
win, **the  fact  of  life  history  is  just  what  distinguishes 
an  organism  from  what  is  a  '  mechanical  arrangement. '  ' ' 
While  we  cannot  deny  that  Paramecium  is  an  organism, 
this  fact  shows  the  machine-like  nature  of  its  activities. 
An  animal  that  learns  nothing,  that  exercises  no  choice  in  any 
respect,  that  is  attracted  by  nothing  and  repelled  by  nothing, 
that  reacts  entirely  without  reference  to  the  position  of  external 
objects,  that  has  but  one  reaction  for  the  most  varied  stimuli, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  made  the  first  step  in  the  evolution 
of  mind,  and  we  are  not  compelled  to  assume  consciousness  or 
intelligence  in  any  form  to  explain  its  activities. 


A  STUDY  OF  ANGER. 


By  G.  StanIvEy  Hai.1.. 


Psychological  literature  contains  no  comprehensive  memoir 
on  this  very  important  and  interesting  subject.  Most  text-books 
treat  it  either  very  briefly  or  not  at  all,  or  enumerate  it  with  fear, 
love,  etc.,  as  one  of  the  feelings,  sentiments  or  emotions  which 
are  discussed  collectively.  Where  it  is  especially  studied,  it  is 
either  in  an  abstract,  speculative  way,  as  in  ethical  works,  or 
descriptively  as  in  books  on  expression  or  anthropology  or  with 
reference  to  its  place  in  some  scheme  or  tabulation  of  the  feelings, 
as  in  many  of  the  older  works  on  psychology  or  phrenology,  or 
with  special  reference  to  some  particular  and  partial  theory  as 
in  the  I^ange- James  discussions,  or  its  expressions  are  treated 
in  the  way  of  literary  characterizations  as  in  novels,  poetry, 
epics,  etc. ,  or  finally  its  morbid  and  perhaps  hospital  forms  are 
described  in  treatises  on  insanity.  Observers  of  childhood,  like 
Darwin,  Taine,  Preyer,  Perez,  Baldwin,  Mrs.  Moore,  Miss 
Shinn,  Sully  and  many  others  sometimes  ignore  it  as  too  painful 
a  trait  to  be  fully  described  by  fond  parents  or  relatives,  or  briefly 
characterize  single  outbreaks,  or  special  features  in  a  single  child. 
The  outlook  and  the  reactionary  stages  are  sometimes  confused, 
and  there  is  nowhere  any  conception  of  the  vast  diversities  of 
its  phenomena  in  different  individuals;  so  that  we  find  not  only 
great  divergence  but  the  most  diametrical  contradiction  in  de- 
scribing its  typical  physical  expressions.  In  some,  e.  g. ,  Stan- 
ley, it  is  S2ii  generis  and  unique  from  the  start;  and  for  others, 
e.  g. ,  Mantegazza,  it  shades  by  imperceptible  gradations  over 
into  fear  and  love  with  few  characteristics  solely  its  own.  Its 
physiological  basis  may  be  blood  composition,  digestive  or  he- 
patic changes  in  vascular  contractions,  abnormal  secretions, 
non-removal  of  waste  or  toxic  products,  over  lability  of  central 
nerve  cells,  reflex  muscle  tension,  etc.  At  present  the  general 
subject  of  anger  is  a  tumbling  ground  for  abstract  analysis  and 
a  priori  speculation,  which  must  be  gradually  cleared  up  if 
psychology  is  to  advance  from  the  study  of  the  will  to  the  feel- 
ing. Just  now  the  chief  obstacle  to  this  advance  is  strangely 
enough  the  I^ange-James  theory,  the  general  acceptance  of 
which,  puerile  as  it  is  in  view  of  the  vastness  and  complexity 
of  the  field,  would  do  for  this  general  tendency  of  psychology  a 
dis-service  comparable  only  with  that  which  Descartes' s  catchy 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  517 

dictum,  that  animals  were  mere  automata,  did  for  the  advance  of 
comparative  psychology  in  his  day. 

I  have  collected  the  following,  far  from  exhaustive  list  of 
English  bearing  on  this  state,  additions  to  which  in  English  or 
other  languages  also  rich  in  such  terms,  are  invited. 

Acrimonious:  sharp,  pungent,  biting. 
Aggrieved:  made  heavy,  severe,  looded. 
Affronted:  confronted  offensively. 

Angry:  root  d!«^=  straightened,  troubled.     Angor,   strangling.     An- 

gere,  to  choke,  stifle.     Arxio=throttle.     Awe  and  ugly  have  the 

same  root,  and  ache  is  related,  as  are  anxious  and  anguish.     Other 

etymologies  closely  relate  it  to  fear. 

Animosity:  hostile  spirit,  more  vehement  and  less  lasting  than  enmity. 

Antagonistic:  to  a  foe  or  adversary  opponent. 

Antipathy:  instinctive  and  involuntary  dislike,  repugnance,  distaste, 

disgust. 
Aversion:  turning  from. 

Bitter:  biting,  cutting,  sharp,  referring  to  the  sense  of  taste. 
Boiling:  as  a  fluid  from  heat.     Temper  has  a  boiling  point. 
Breakout:  restraint  or  inhibition  giving  way.     Cf.  ausgelassen,  not 

peculiar  to  anger. 
Brood:  to  incubate,  nurse,  keep  warm. 
Chagrin:  mortify,  keenly  vex  as  at  disappointment. 
Chafe:  as  when  the  epidermis  is  worn  off  to  the  quick. 
Choleric:  from  Latin  and  Greek,  cholera  =gall,  bile.     The  liver  was 

long  regarded  as  the  seat  of  anger  and  of  love. 
Contempt:  scorn,  despise,  mepris. 

Crabbed:  scratch,  claw,  wayward  in  gait,  not  letting  go. 
Cross=curly,  crimped,   crooked.     Cf.  a  "crook"   in  body  or  mind, 

cross-grained. 
Cruel:  morally  crude,  and  from  the  same  root,  pitiless,  loving  to  in- 
flict suffering. 
Crusty:  brittle,  short. 
Curt:  short  and  sharp. 

Dander  up:  dandruff,  scurf,  ruffled  temper. 
Defiant:  renouncing  faith  or  allegiance,  and  challenging. 
Demoniacal:  possessed  by  an  evil  spirit. 
Displeased:  designating  all  degrees  of  being  offended. 
Enmity:  inimical  to  an  enemy. 

Evil:  exceeding  limits,  bad,  depraved,  vicious,  not  peculiar  to  anger. 

Fierce  often  used  for  anger.  Ferus  (wild  savage)  cognate  with  fera 
(wild  beast).  Cf.  wild  with  rage,  savage  resentment,  mad  as  a 
hornet,  angry  as  a  bull,  cross  as  a  bear. 

Fight:  fighty. 

Flare  up:  Cf.  blaze  out,  inflame. 

Fit:  spasm,  convulsion,  spell,  not  peculiar  to  anger. 

Fractious:  fret,  rebellious,  warmly  restive,  easily  broken. 

Frantic:  phrenetic,  very  excited,  not  peculiar  to  anger. 

Frenzy:  same  root  as  frantic. 

Fretty:  abrasion,  corrosion,  chafing. 

Fume:  to  smoke.     Cf.  thumos,  spirit,  anger. 

Fury:  storm  of  anger,  possessed  by  the  furies. 

Gall:  ref.  to  liver  as  seat  of  anger. 

Glum:  frown,  stare,  sullen. 

Grim:  stern,  forbidding,  severe,  angry. 

Gritty:  sharp,  grains  of  sand,  pluck. 

Grouty:  turbid  as  liquor,  dreggy,  roily,  surly. 


5i8  hall: 

Grudge:  crumble,  crush,  ill  will  and  envy. 

Gruff:  rough. 

Grumpy:  Cf.  grim  and  many  Teutonic  words.     Gram=to  rage,  roar, 

akin  to  sorrow,  and  related  to  grin,  groan,  grumble,  make  a  noise. 
Haste:  too  quick  wrath  or  temper. 
Hate:  aversion,  extreme  detestation,  repugnance. 
Hostile:  with  enmity,  antagonistic. 
Hot:  warm,  heated. 
Huffy:  puffed,  swelled  with  rage. 

Impatient:  the  opposite  of  patience  and  long  suffering. 
Indignant:  at  the  unworthy  or  mean. 
Inflamed:  a  thermal  analogy,  combustible.     Cf.  flare  up. 
Insane:  unwell,  anger  is  a  brief  insanity.     Cf.  mad. 
Ire:  irascible,  iracund. 

Irritable:  excitable,  chiefly  applied  to  temper. 
Mad:  a  mad  state,  furious. 
Malevolent:  willing  or  wishing  evil. 
Malice:  malus,  bad,  with  ill  will,  malicious. 
Malignity:  Cf.  malign,  producing  malice. 
Morose:  fretful. 

Mucky:  like  muck,  nasty,  of  temper. 
Nasty:  used  of  bad  temper. 
Nettled:  stung  with  nettles. 
Obstinate:  standing  against. 
Offended:  struck  against. 
Old  Adam:  aroused. 

Passionate:  of  any  passion  but  prominently  of  anger. 
Peevish:  feebly  fretful,  literally  crying  as  a  child. 
Pet:  Cf.  pettish,  as  a  spoiled  child  or  pet. 
Petulant:  in  a  little  pet. 
Piqued:  pricked,  stung,  nettled,  angered. 
Possessed:  as  if  by  a  bad  spirit. 
Provoked:  called  out,  incited  to  anger. 
Put  out:  as  of  gear,  off  his  nut,  trolley,  etc. 
Putchy:  New  England  for  touchy. 
Quarrelsome:  prone  to  contend,  also  querulous. 
Rage:  Cf.  rabies:  a  furious  degree  of  anger. 
Rancid:  spoiled,  tainted,  rank,  applied  to  butter. 
Rancor:  Cf.  rancid,  something  that  rankles. 
Raving  mad:  as  a  horse,  also  roaring  mad. 
Refractory:  breaking  away. 
Repugnance:  contradiction,  fighting  against. 
Resent:  to  have  strong  feeling  against  or  take  offense. 
Retaliate:  pay  back  in  like. 
Revenge:  requite,  retribution. 
Riled:  as  mud  stirred  up  in  water. 

Ructions:  (belching)  is  widely  used  in  New  England  of  angry  states. 
Ruffled:  hair  or  plumage  towsled  or  stroked  the  wrong  way. 
Savage:  like  beasts  or  barbaric  men. 
Scorn:  literally  mockery,  disdain,  despise. 
Sharp:  used  of  temper. 
Snarly:  as  of  a  dog. 

Snappish:  short,  crusty,  tart,  disposed  to  bite. 
Sore:  literally  aching,  morbidly  tender  or  irritable. 
Sour:  acid,  mordant,  the  sours. 
Spite:  petty  ill  wiU. 
Spitfire:  a  hot  tempered  person. 
Splenetic:  the  spleen  was  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  seat  of 

anger. 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  5 19 

Spunk:  tinder,  sponge. 

Stark  mad:  stiff,  naked,  strongly  angry. 

Stormy:  violent,  gusty. 

Stern:  austere,  rigid,  severe. 

Stubborn:  stubbed,  strongly  obstinate. 

Sulk:  refuse  to  act  or  respond. 

Sullen:  glum  and  gloomy. 

Surly:  doggedly  rude,  rough. 

Tantrum:  literally  =sudden  impulse. 

Tart:  acidulous. 

Tear:   Cf.  Zorn=rend,  destroy,  rip,  burst,  tearing  mad. 

Tempestuous:  Cf.  stormy. 

Temper:  disposition,  hasty  of  teqiperament. 

Testy:  snappish. 

Tew:  used  in  New  England  for  the  fretting  of  infants. 

Touchy:  like  proudflesh. 

Ugly:  literally  horrid,  unsightly. 

Up  on  his  (or  her)  ear. 

Vengeance:  Cf.  vindictive,  retribution,  revenge. 

Vex:  literally  to  shake,  to  badger,  bother. 

Vicious:  Cf.  vitiated,  addicted  to  vice. 

Vile:  used  of  temper. 

Violent:  infuriate,  vehement,  impetuous,  turbulent. 

Volcanic:  explosive,  eruptive. 

Waspish:  sting  on  too  little  or  no  provocation. 

Wild:  untamed,  undomesticated. 

Wode,   wood:    Wut=mad,    furious,    frantic,   stirred   up.      Cf.  woden 

wutendes  Heer. 
Wrath  =cognate  with  writhe,  twist,  turn  to  and  fro,  and  with  many 

words  in  other  Teutonic  languages  with  like  meaning. 

After  a  learned  and  valuable  discussion,  Chamberlain^  sums 
up  the  etymological  meanings  of  words  for  anger  as  designating 
(i)  choking  and  strangling,  Eng.  anger  and  its  cognates;  (2) 
writhing  and  twisting,  wrath;  (3)  crookedness,  curling,  cross 
and  its  cognates;  (4)  bursting  and  tearing,  Ger.  zorn;  (5) 
hasty  movements,  fury,  Gr.  %vpo%;  (6)  seizing  and  grasping, 
ras^e  and  derivatives;  (7)  making  a  noise,  yelling^  Ger.  Grimm, 
Tahitian  riri;  (8)  malicious  talk,  slander,  Ger.  bose;  (9) 
mental  excitement,  Lat.  vates,  Gr.  /xt/vis;  (id)  swelling,  Gr. 
opyrj,  Samoan  huhti\  (11)  based  on  the  heart,  Kootenay,  san- 
ithvine  and  others;  (12)  on  the  liver,  gall,  bile,  spleen,  etc., 
and  other  words  in  various  languages  based  on  the  stomach, 
nose,  forehead,  etc.  Helpful  as  it  is,  this  classification,  as  will 
be  apparent  from  my  list  above,  is  not  adequate.  These  words 
are  interesting  reflections  of  the  ancient  volks'  conception  of 
anger  and  are,  as  would  be  expected,  nearly  all  physical. 

Older  medical  writers,  Gebhardus  (1705),  Slevoytius  (1711), 
Fickius  (17 18),  Clavillart  (1744),  Bender  (1748),  Regenhertz 


1  On  Words  for  Anger  in  Certain  Languages.  A  Study  in  Linguistic 
Psychology.  Am.  four,  of  Psychology,  Jan.  1895,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  pp. 
585-592. 


520  HAI,I. : 

(1757),  Estrevenart  (1788),  Beeker  (181 1)  and  Re^eubogen 
(1820),  discussed  the  physiological  effects  of  anger,  urged  its 
occasionally  beneficial  and  even  therapeutic  effects.  A  group 
of  French  writers :  Hi ver  ( 1 8 1 5  ) ,  Bemont  ( 1 8 1 6  ) ,  Bigot  ( 1 8 1 8  ) , 
Sallemund  (1823),  Boscher  (1833),  gave  more  or  less  elaborate 
descriptions  of  its  phenomena  and  therapeutic  treatment;  and 
Baunus,  Gallot,  Husson,  Ponte,  Schneider  and  others  have 
described  cases  of  sudden  death,  loss  of  consciousness,  convul- 
sions caused  by  it,  or  have  discussed  its  relations  to  drunkenness, 

H.  L.  Manning^  reports  a  case  of  rupture  of  a  cerebral  artery 
due  to  anger  at  an  animal  in  a  stable;  compares  brooding  to  a 
mental  canker;  thinks  it  may  cause  cancer  and  is  liable  to  fore- 
close a  mortgage  of  weakness  in  some  organs  at  any  time, 
urges  that  anger  has  the  same  sense  as  angina  and  that  peo- 
ple whose  temper  is  very  sensitive  are  very  selfish.  Pointe^ 
shows  how  violent  anger  may  cause  icterus,  hernia,  syncope, 
apoplexy,  mania,  hysterical  attacks,  mutism,  etc.  Many  records 
of  similar  cures  could  be  gathered  from  medical  journals. 

Forensic  medicine,  since  Platner's  important  treatise  on  ex- 
candescentia  furibunda,  in  1800,  has  dealt  with  anger.*  Misers 
are  inflamed  by  loss  of  gold,  the  proud  by  slights,  lovers  by 
petty  offences  by  or  against  their  mistresses.  Morbid  onsets 
of  anger  are  manias  of  brief  duration,  and  some  forms  of 
mania  may  be  characterized  as  long-continued  anger  without 
objective  cause.  The  impulse  is  irresistible  and  there  is  loss  ot 
psychic  freedom.  Again  the  provocation  may  be  so  strong  as  to 
break  down  all  the  inhibition  that  comes  from  restraining  motives, 
and  to  cause  the  mind  to  be  beclouded,  or  the  outbreak  may  be 
too  sudden  for  the  slower,  later  acquired,  and  long  circuiting 
apparatus  of  control  to  be  set  in  operation,  so  that  responsibility 
is  lessened  or  indeed  removed.  Friedreich  also  thinks  the  storm 
of  passion  may  temporarily  obstruct  the  power  of  self-direction. 
Feuerbach  says  * '  Murder  in  a  moment  of  passion  is  a  crime 
possible  for  the  noblest  natures, ' '  and  he  goes  on  to  describe 
conditions  under  which  the  act  would  not  only  be  justifiable 
but  noble.  Rare  as  such  cases  are,  he  urges  that  crimes  com- 
mitted in  sudden  anger  should  have  individual  study. 

The  murder  of  her  seducer,  by  Maria  Barbellina  (a  case  so 
well  studied  by  Hrdlicka),  committed  in  an  automatic  state 
not  remembered  afterwards,  was  essentially  anger  intensified  to 
a  full  and  typical  epileptic  attack. 

Rush*  urges  that  the  term  gentleman  implies  a  command  of 

^Journal  of  Hygiene,  1895,  p.  324. 
2  Gazette  des  Hospitaux,  1898,  p.  273. 

^  Cf.  Friedreich  :  Gericlitliche  Anthropologie,  1859,  ^h.  Ill,  p.  20,^ 
et  seq. 

*  The  Mind,  pp.  331,  et  seq. 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGER.  521 

this  passion  above  all  others,  cites  Newton's  mild  words  to  his 
little  dog,  which  set  fire  to  the  calculations  of  years :  '  *  thou 
little  knowest  the  mischief  thou  hast  done,"  mentions  a  clergy- 
man who  demonstrated  a  proposition  of  Euclid  as  a  sedative, 
commends  Thety's  mode  of  allaying  the  anger  of  her  son 
Achilles  by  exciting  the  passion  of  love,  advises  a  milk  and 
vegetable  diet  and  avoidance  of  all  stimulants,  even  the  mod- 
erate use  of  which  predisposes  to  anger,  advises  drinking  cold 
water,  and  in  extreme  cases  a  douche  with  it,  and  suggests 
that  if  due  to  weak  morbid  action  wine  or  laudanum  may  help. 

Savage  races  often  work  themselves  up  to  a  transport  of  rage 
for  their  battles  by  dances  and  yells,  and  rush  upon  the  foe  in 
blind  fury.  Sometimes  the  real  fighting  begins  over  the 
division  of  the  booty  with  sickening  sights  of  savage  ferocity, 
more  men  being  killed  thus  than  in  the  original  capture  of  the 
plunder,  and  blood  feuds  may  augment  the  horror  of  it  all.^ 
The  warrior's  face  is  made  up  in  the  most  fiendish  way,  his 
weapons  suggest  torture  more  than  death,  as  do  even  his  orna- 
ments, and  his  .scars  are  eloquent  of  the  most  desperate  en- 
counters. 

Running  amok^,  common  among  Malays  and  in  other  Oriental 
lands,  has  been  variously  described.  An  athletic  man,  who  thus 
gives  way  to  either  revenge,  religious  frenzy,  acute  mental  or 
bodily  suffering,  or  to  the  various  other  causes  assigned,  often 
shaves  off  all  the  hair  on  his  body,  strips  every  vestige 
of  clothing,  oils  or  greases  his  body  from  head  to  foot,  and 
armed  with  a  dagger  or  knife  runs  at  the  top  of  his  speed, 
stabbing  every  living  creature  he  can  get  at.  He  runs  straight 
ahead,  rarely  turning  corners,  never  entering  houses,  and  like 
an  enraged  human  tiger  never  stops  in  his  career  of  destruction , 
often  with  his  head  bent  low  like  a  battering  ram,  slippery  as 
an  eel,  smeared  and  dripping  with  blood,  till  some  one  kills  or 
at  least  stuns  him.  Formerly,  poles  with  prongs  were  kept  in 
every  village  to  ward  off  or  pin  the  Amokers  who  were  far 
more  frequent  than  now.  The  attack  is  not  due  to  intoxication 
nor  are  the  Malays  subject  to  ordinary  epilepsy,  but  it  occurs 
when  pain,  grief,  gloom,  and  loss  of  hope  nursed  by  brooding, 
bring  on  what  their  language  calls  heart-sickness.  When  Job 
was  tempted  to  curse  God  and  die,  or  when  we  are  goaded  to 
desperation  and  break  out  from  all  the  control  of  prudence  and 
speak  or  act  with  abandon,  reckless  of  consequences,  wounding 
friends  and  foes,  the  Malay  rushes,  slashes  right  and  left, 
plunges  into  the  sea,  etc.     When  medically  examined  they  are 

^I.  Thompson  :  Through  Masai  Land,  p.  255. 

2The  Amok  of  the  Malays,  by  W.  Oilman  Bllis,  M.  D.  J.  of  M. 
Science,  July,  1893. 

Journal — 13 


522  HALL  : 

in  an  excited  state  which  lasts  for  hours  or  days,  and  sometimes 
with  complete  amnesia  of  the  crisis.  Its  onset  is  very  sudden 
and  seems  uncontrollable  and  paroxysmal. 

In  the  Viking  Age}  each  champion  wanted  to  become  a  Ber- 
serker (fighter  without  a  shirt).  These  bravest  of  men  wrought 
themselves  into  such  a  frenzy  at  sight  of  their  foe  that  they  bit 
their  shields  and  rushed  forward,  throwing  away  every  weapon 
of  defence.  The  berserk  fury  was  utilized,  not  only  for  war 
but  for  performing  hard  feats  beyond  the  power  of  common 
people.  "  In  some  cases  this  fury  seems  to  have  overcome  the 
Berserks  apparently  without  cause,  when  they  trembled  and 
gnashed  their  teeth. ' '  When  they  felt  it  coming  on,  they  would 
wrestle  with  stones  and  trees,  otherwise  they  would  have  slain 
their  friends  in  their  rage.  In  their  greatest  fury  they  were 
believed  to  take  the  outward  shape  of  an  animal  of  great 
strength  and  perversity.  When  great  champions  went  berserk- 
ing  and  were  angry,  they  lost  their  human  nature  and  went 
mad  like  dogs.  They  vowed  to  flee  neither  fire  or  iron,  and 
in  days  of  incessant  warfare,  died  singing  their  brave  deeds, 
and  as  they  entered  Valhalla  could  hear  the  lay  of  the  scalds 
recounting  their  acts  of  prowess.'^  Sometimes  in  the  acme  of 
their  rage,  the  mouth  was  open  and  frothing,  and  they  howled 
like  beasts  and  spared  nothing  in  their  course.  Afterward  they 
were  weak,  and  calling  their  name  often  cured  them. 

At  quarter  races  in  some  parts  of  the  south,  near  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  cock  fights  where  the  birds  were  armed  with 
steel  spurs  with  which  they  cut  each  other  to  pieces,  wrestlings, 
quarrelings  and  often  brutal  fights  occurred.  In  the  latter, 
for  which  there  were  rules,  "gouging"  was  always  permissible. 
Each  bully  grew  a  long  thumb  nail  for  this  purpose,  and  if  he 
got  his  opponent  down,  would  take  out  his  eye  unless  he  cried 
"King's  curse."  Sometimes  ears  were  bitten  off,  and  the  yet 
more  terrible  mutilation  of  ' ' Abelarding ' '  might  occur.  These 
practices,  McMaster^  tells  us,  long  prevailed  as  far  north  as  the 
Maryland  border. 

The  Iliad  is,  as  the  world  knows,  the  story  of  the  results  of 
the  wrath  and  bitter  verbal  quarrel  of  Achilles  with  Agamem- 
non over  the  priest's  captive  daughter,  Chryseis. 

Orlando  Furioso,  in  his  long  search  for  his  pagan  love,  An- 
gelica, coming  suddenly  upon  conclusive  evidence  that  she  is 
false  to  him,  becomes  frantic,  and  seizing  his  arms,  rushes  to 
the  forest  with  dreadful  cries,  breaking  and  cutting  trees  and 

1  Du  Chaillu  :  The  Viking  Age,  Chapter  XXVI. 

^Simrock:  Deutsche  Mythologie,  p.  465. 

^History  ot  the  People  of  the  United  States,  Vol.  II,  p.  5.  I  am  in- 
debted for  this  and  several  other  references  to  the  Librarian  of  Clark 
Universit}',  Mr.  Louis  N.  Wilson. 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  523 

rocks,  destroying  a  grotto,  and  often  thus  terrorizing  the  coun- 
try for  days,  passes  raving  mad  through  France  and  Spain, 
swims  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  continues  his  devastations 
in  Africa.  For  300  verses  Ariosto  describes  in  vivid  terms  his 
desperate  deeds  of  supernatural  strength.  Orlando  is  insanely 
mad  and  is  restored  only  after  the  paladin  and  the  apostle  ar- 
rive at  the  magazine  of  good  sense  in  the  moon  to  find  his  soul 
securely  bottled  and  labeled,  which  they  return  and  force  him 
to  inhale,  when  he  is  restored. 

Modern  literature  abounds  in  description  of  anger,  e.  g. ,  the 
breaking  of  the  bull's  neck  by  Ursus  in  the  amphitheater  to 
save  the  life  of  Lygia  in  Quo  Vadis;  the  fights  of  Prasper 
and  Galors  in  the  Forest  Lovers;  Mulvaney's  story  in  Kipling's 
Soldier's  Three,  where  the  conflict  was  body  to  body,  too  close 
to  use  bayonet, and  the  men  could  only  push,  kick,  claw,  maul, 
and  breathe  and  swear  in  each  other's  faces,  and  knives  danced 
like  sunbeams,  and  cleft  heads  went  down  grinning  in  sections, 
revolvers  spit  like  cats  and  black  curses  slid  out  of  innocent 
mouths  like  morning  dew  from  the  rose.  The  brutal  killing  of 
Nancy  b}^  Bill  Sykes ;  the  fight  with  Squeers  in  Nicholas 
Nickleby;  the  conflicts  in  Scott;  and  from  ancient  mythology 
to  the  modern  stage,  all  shows  how  all  the  world  loves  fighters. 
Dante,  M.  D.  Conway  and  many  other  description  of  demons 
and  hell  abound  in  descriptions  of  anger.  Volumes  could  be 
easily  filled  with  such  characterizations. 

In  Ireland's  characterization  of  the  insanity  of  power, ^  there 
are  interesting  descriptions  of  extreme  and  morbid  anger. 
When  angry,  Claudius  Caesar  is  said  to  have  grinned  and  foamed 
at  the  mouth.  Agrippa's  rage  at  a  rival  was  so  great  that  after 
oile  of  them  was  executed,  she  had  the  head  brought  and  opened 
its  mouth.  Commodus,  by  the  sight  of  blood  in  the  arena  was 
aroused  like  a  tiger  on  the  first  taste  of  it.  He  fought  735 
times  in  gladiatorial  games,  took  pleasure  in  bleeding  people 
with  a  lancet,  and  the  companions  of  his  anger  often  fell  victims 
to  his  rage.  Mohammed  Toghlac  had  a  passion  for  shedding 
blood,  as  if  his  object  was  to  exterminate  the  human  race. 
Executioners  were  always  present  to  kill  or  torture  on  the  in- 
stant those  who  offended  him.  His  elephants  were  taught  to 
throw  his  enemies  into  the  air  and  catch  them  with  their  trunks, 
and  to  cut  their  bodies  with  knives  fastened  to  their  tusks. 
One  who  had  provoked  him  was  flayed  alive,  and  then  cooked 
with  rice,  and  his  wife  and  child  forced  to  eat  his  flesh.  Others 
were  tied  by  the  leg  to  wild  horses,  which  ran  through  forests 
till  only  the  leg  was  left.  Ivan  the  terrible  was  filled  with 
tigerish  impulses  by  every  suggestion  of  restraint.     His  jester 

iThe  Blot  upon  the  Brain. 


524  HALL  : 

displeased  him  and  he  threw  hot  soup  in  his  face  at  the  table, 
and  then  rose  and  stabbed  him.  He  forced  people  to  kill  their 
wives,  fathers,  mothers  and  children.  Death  did  not  appease 
his  rage,  and  sometimes  his  enemies  must  sit  at  the  table  for 
days  opposite  the  corpses  of  their  nearest  relatives,  whom  he 
had  killed.  He  interrupted  his  devotions  to  massacre  those 
who  had  provoked  him.  In  one  case  some  27,000  inoffensive 
people  were  killed  before  his  rage  was  placated.  He  killed  his 
favorite  son  and  heir  in  a  fit  of  anger.  Another  son,  who  was 
killed  young,  had  as  a  child  a  passion  for  seeing  slaughter,  and 
killed  animals  himself  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  blood  flow. 
t  Mantegazza  assumes  that  man  has  far  greater  capacity  for  pain 
\  than  for  pleasure,  and  can  hate  more  bitterly  than  he  can  love. 
\Love  and  hate  are  not  only  often  mixed  and  felt  towards  the 
same  person,  but  may  be  different  degrees  of  the  same  emotive 
force.  Anger  is  an  expression  of  egoism,  and  vanity  and  hyper- 
self  feeling  intensify  it.  Infants  hate  most  and  most  often 
if  their  feeding  is  interfered  with,  boys  if  play,  youth  if  love, 
adults  if  pride,  old  age  if  conservatism,  women  if  their  affec- 
tions are  disturbed.  .  Duels  in  their  early  stages  as  courts  of  honor, 
and  lawsuits  and  courts  of  arbitration  are  attempts  to  restrain  this 
passion  which  makes  homo  homini  lupus.  Religions  at  their 
birth  are  efforts  to  placate  the  anger  of  deities  and  mitigate  the 
fires  of  their  wrath,  for  God  is  conceived  as  angry  daily  with 
the  wicked,  and  hell  is  hot  with  his  vengeance.  A  long  list  of 
curses,  perhaps  elaborately  formed  and  ceremoniously  launched, 
and  damnatory  oaths  and  obscenities,  insulting  names,  especially 
of  animals,  imputing  deformities  of  soul  or  body  may  be  vents. 
Anger  may  emit  its  own  peculiar  smell ;  the  first  cry  of  the 
babe  is  perhaps  anger,  and  anger  may  be  directed  toward  self. 
In  great  haters  the  luxury  of  one  moment  of  rage  may  be  de- 
liberatel}^  purchased  by  years  of  pain,  and  a  city  may  be 
destroyed  for  a  single  man.  Its  strength  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  while  love  is  everywhere  and  alwaj^s  taught,  and  hate  and 
anger  everywhere  repressed,  the  latter  are  yet  so  much  stronger. 
It  has  all  degrees  from  the  most  bestial  fights  for  extermination 
up  to  irony,  satire,  criticism,  coldness,  neglect,  teasing  and 
many  other  forms.  One  can  be  angry  without  an  object,  but  if 
we  hate  we  must  hate  something.  Pardon  and  its  motivation 
are  lightly  touched  upon,  and  placation  of  gods  and  men  mark 
a  higher  stage,  and  the  long  strain  of  patience  is  a  noble  dis- 
cipline for  this  scBva  aninii  tenipesias} 

O.  Schwartzer  describes  a  form  of  morbid  transitory  rage  as 
follows:  "The  patient  predisposed  to  this,  otherwise  an  en- 
tirely reasonable  person,  will  be  attacked  suddenly  without  the 

1  Physiologic  des  Hasses. 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  525 

slightest  outward  provocation,  and  thrown  into  a  paroxysm  of 
the  wildest  rage  with  a  fearful  and  blindly  furious  impulse  to 
do  violence  and  destroy.  He  flies  at  those  about  him,  strikes, 
kicks,  and  throttles  whomever  he  can  catch,  dashes  at  every  ob- 
ject near  him  which  he  can  lay  his  hands  on,  breaks  and 
crushes  what  is  near  him,  tears  his  clothes,  shouts,  howls,  and 
roars,  with  eyes  that  flash  and  roll,  and  shows  meanwhile  all 
those  symptoms  of  vaso-motor  congestion  which  we  have  learned 
to  know  as  the  concomitants  of  anger.  His  face  is  red  and 
swollen,  his  cheeks  hot,  his  eyes  protrude  and  the  whites  are 
bloodshot,  the  heart  beats  violently,  the  pulse  marks  1 10-170 
strokes  a  minute.  The  arteries  of  the  neck  are  full  and  pul- 
sating, the  veins  swollen,  the  saliva  flows.  The  fit  lasts  only  a 
few  hours  and  ends  suddenly  with  a  sleep  of  from  8  to  12  hours, 
on  awakening  from  which  the  patient  has  entirely  forgotten 
what  has  happened." 

Kraepelin^  describes  morbid  irascibility  iracundia  morbosa  in 
born  imbeciles  of  higher  grade  whose  moral  nature  is  somewhat 
developed  and  who  have  considerable  school  knowledge.  On 
the  very  slightest  occasion,  they  go  off  as  if  loaded  into  an 
utterly  uncontrollable  frenzy  of  rage,  tremble  all  over,  stammer 
out  insults  and  curses,  inarticulate  cries,  bite  their  lips  and 
hands,  run  and  butt  their  heads  against  the  wall,  try  to  choke 
themselves,  tear  their  clothing  and  destroy  everything  within 
reach,  till  they  are  breathless,  reeking  with  sweat,  hoarse,  and 
too  exhausted  to  move.  Upon  the  stimulus,  the  explosion  fol- 
lows with  the  certainty  of  a  machine  Often  such  cases 
maintain  a  certain  orientation  and  avoid  attacking  persons,  but 
vent  their  fury  upon  lifeless  objects  as  in  gestures.  Such  at- 
tacks may  last  an  hour  or  days,  sinking  back  with  a  long 
asymptotic  curve  of  diminishing  irritability  to  the  normal.  They 
often  have  no  or  slight  memory  afterward  of  what  occurred, 
lament  their  infirmity,  beg  to  be  bound  or  shut  up,  have  all 
objects  with  which  they  could  do  injury  removed.  Kvery 
even  imaginary  infraction  of  their  hyperalgeric  egotism  and  self- 
ishness may  provoke  imperative  actions  perhaps  of  brutal 
passion. 

Ziehen'-^  describes  the  disposition  to  anger  which  is  often  asso- 
ciated with  abnormal  exhaltation  of  self- feeling  as  hyperthyaim. 
In  paralytic  dementia  primary  exhaltation  is  a  very  common 
intercurrent  stadium  and  is  a  cardinal  symptom  of  mania.  In 
the  characteristic  cyclus,  the  depressive  stage  more  commonly 
precedes.  At  the  beginning  and  end  of  an  anger  fit  the  periph- 
eral arteria  are  expanded,  sometimes  almost  to  the  point  of 

1  Psychiatric,  pp.  125  and  673. 

2  Psychiatric,  pp.  60  et  seq.,  141  et  seq.,  174,  242,  etc. 


526  HALIy  : 

congestion  in'  the  face;  but  at  the  acme  of  the  explosion  they 
are  contracted  and  palor  is  most  common.  Respiration  is  pro- 
longed and  deep,  the  pulse  wave  low,  the  lapse  of  association 
is  retarded,  followed  perhaps  by  an  explosive  acceleration, 
there  is  a  decrease  of  motor- discharge,  a  stage  of  initial  inhi- 
bition, succeeded  by  one  of  augmented  intensity  and  perhaps 
restricted  range.  The  play  of  motives  is  reduced,  reflection 
drops  out  and  sensation  is  applied  directly  to  motives  which 
are  rather  incoherent  and  unco-ordinated,  and  it  is  the  shunting 
out  of  the  association  plexus  that  causes  subsequent  amnesia. 
Furor  epilepticus  is  the  most  intense  manifestation  of  anger. 
As  a  symptom  of  paralytic  dementia  excessive  tearfulness  is 
often  associated  with  it,  and  may  more  or  less  take  its  place 
with  increasing  lability  of  mood  and  kind  of  action,  and  per- 
haps facial  mimesis  gestures  and  general  agitation.  Morbid 
irritability  is  not  infrequent  in  chorea. 

No  one  has  described  with  such  clearness  and  copiousness  of 
casuistic  material  as  Magnan^  the  slow  accumulation  of  anger 
in  paranoiacs,  whom  he  agrees  with  Tardieu  in  calling  the  most 
dangerous  of  all  the  insane,  who,  on  grounds  of  a  purely  hal- 
lucinatory nature,  steal,  insult,  shout,  without  having  given 
any  one  any  intimation  of  the  long  evolution  of  their  state  of 
consciousness.  Querulants  complain  of  all,  suspect  all  about 
them  of  changed  feeling  towards  or  of  designs  upon  them. 
They  imagine  their  friends  look  askance,  are  less  constant  in 
their  feelings,  are  gossiping  about  them,  or  are  fomenting  plots 
to  injure  their  business,  reputation,  etc.  All  is  perhaps  in- 
creased by  auditory  hallucinations  and  slowly  the  patient  feels 
himself  the  victim  of  persecutions  and  surrounded  by  enemies 
with  overt  or  covert  designs  upon  him.  Gradually  reactionary 
impulses  arise  and  gather  force.  The  injuries  must  be  resented, 
the  guilty  punished,  and  at  length,  the  persecuted  becomes  a 
persecutor  now  entirely  devoted  to  vengeance.  Insults,  de- 
nunciations, abusive  letters,  threatening,  and  perhaps  written 
in  red  ink  or  in  blood,  slanders,  murderous  attacks  and  every 
other  means  are  resorted  to  to  gratify  hate.  No  failure  dis- 
courages, and  then  reason  justifies  all  their  acts  as  the  inevita- 
ble retaliation  to  long  accumulated  and  extreme  provocation. 
He  feels  his  case  to  be  unprecedentedly  and  inexpressibly 
pathetic,  one  that  cries  to  heaven  for  an  avenger.  For  crimes 
thus  motivated,  when  the  patient  has  plainly  lived  completely 
into  his  morbid  romance  some  authorities  in  forensic  medicine 
recognize  either  partial  or  incomplete  irresponsibility. 

For  the  Herbartians,  whose  treatment  of  the  feelings  always 
must  be  very  inadequate,  anger  burns  outward  from  within, 

1  Paranoia,  chronica,  etc. 


A   STUDY   OF  ANGER.  527 

establishes  a  new  apperception  center,  or  pointe  de  rep^re,  for  a 
part  of  the  mental  content,  shakes  old  concepts  into  wakeful- 
ness, and  like  a  tide  adds  to  one  plexus  of  ideas  what  it  takes 
from  another,  and  has  a  long  and  slowly  dying  out,  somatic 
after  effect.  Although  perhaps  at  first  "sweeter  than  honey," 
as  Homer  calls  it,  it  belongs  on  the  whole  to  the  algesic  and 
depressive  group  of  emotions.^ 

Stanley^  characterizes  anger  as  more  offensive  than  defensive, 
as  aggressive,  expansive,  as  peculiarly  developed  in  the  carniv- 
ora  who  are  usually  solitary  because  predacious  habits  require 
a  wide  subsistence  area.  Its  origin  marked  a  most  important 
and  epoch-making  era,  as  important  for  psychic  morphology 
as  the  vertebrate  form,  giving  those  animals  that  acquired  it  a 
great  advantage  over  those  which  did  not,  and  it  is  a  great 
factor  in  the  evolution  of  personality.  Those  creatures  who 
can  injure  all  their  enemies,  and  men  who  make  their  acquaint- 
ances fear  to  make  them  mad,  are  more  likely  to  survive.  The 
greater  and  more  formidable  the  foe  the  more  fear  expels  anger 
and  prevents  its  ebullition.  In  a  certain  stage  it  is  wise  to  bear 
in  mind  that  any  friend  may  become  a  foe.  Tlie  weakness, 
which  instead  of  hitting  back  turns  the  other  cheek,  is  at  a 
certain  stage  a  disadvantage.  Weak  people  cannot  hate  or  be 
very  angry.  It  is  a  unique  passion,  complete,  and  a  genus  by 
itself  from  the  start,  and  so  must  be  known  introspectively  or 
not  at  all;  is  pure  at  first  and  its  hybrid  forms  evolve  later.  Its 
organs  are  claws,  fangs,  horns,  spurs,  and  weapons,  and  it 
tends  to  culminate  in  eating  the  adversary,  sometimes  even  in 
anthropophagy.  Hate  is  habitual  anger  and  is  retrospective, 
while  anger  is  prospective.  It  represents  a  wild  state  before 
and  below  civilization  which  has  domesticated  man.  Even 
lower  animals  are  very  sensitive  to  it  in  men.  While  it 
smoulders  and  even  when  it  breaks  out  the  intellect  may  look 
coolly  on.  It  cannot  be  undirected,  but  must  always  have  an 
object. 

For  Ribot*  anger  in  the  offensive  form  appears  early  (two 
months  Preyer — ten  months  Darwin),  and  in  its  motor  forms 
is  the  partial  contraction  of  muscles,  which  are  fully  active  in 
combat,  involves  fascination  for  the  sight  of  and  suffering,  and 
in  the  depressed  form  passes  over  into  hate  and  easily  becomes 
morbid,  and  even  epileptic  and  maniacal.  Irresistible  destruct- 
ive impulses  are  disaggregated  forms  of  anger,  and  show  grada- 
tion separated  from  each  other  by  imperceptible  stages  from 
pleasure  in  torturing  and  killing  to  satisfaction  in  reading  of 

1  Volkmann  :  Ivehrbuch  der  Psychologic,  Vol.  II,  p.  390. 

2  Evolutionary  Psychology  of  Feeling.     Chapter  X,  p.  127. 
8 Psychology  of  Emotion.     Chapter  III.    Anger. 


528  HALIv : 

imaginary  murders  in  novels,  etc.  All  destructive  impulses 
are  at  root  one,  and  heredity  and  education,  environment  and 
circumstances  develop  them  into  determinate,  habitual,  and 
chronic  directions.  It  may  increase  the  ptomaines  and  cause 
auto-intoxication,  and  in  the  lower  animal  forms  whose  bite 
when  angry  is  poisonous,  and  in  human  beings  modifies  the 
lacteal  secretions  of  nursing  mothers.  It  is  best  inhibited  by 
fear,  in  some  sense  its  opposite,  and  best  seen  in  some  carnivora. 
Stein metz^  holds  that  revenge  is  a  reaction  to  enhance  lowered 
self-feeling,  and  primordially  it  is  not  directed  against  the  ag- 
gressor, and  Ree  thinks  it  a  reaction  against  the  feeling  of  in- 
feriorit)^  inflicted  by  another.  At  first  there  was  no  discrimina- 
tion, and  wrath  might  be  wreaked  upon  any  one,  innocent  or 
guilty.  In  a  later  stage,  upon  this  theorj^  it  is  less  indiscrim- 
inate, and  some  fitness  is  demanded  in  the  victim,  as  in  cases 
of  blood  feud.  Last  of  all  it  was  found  that  the  wrong  doer 
himself  should  bear  the  punishment.  An  Indian  kicked  out 
of  a  store  kills  a  family  of  pigs;  a  relative  at  a  funeral  cuts 
himself  "in  a  fit  of  revenge  against  fate"  or  kills  some  poor 
or  defenceless  person;  the  Navajoes,  if  jealous  of  their  wives, 
kill  the  first  person  they  meet;  if  one  dies  from  an  unknown 
cause,  a  victim  is  selected  b}^  lot,  or  the  friends  of  the  dead  man 
kill  the  first  person  they  meet,  the  bearer  of  bad  news  may  suf- 
fer. All  these  facts  and  theories  are  combated  by  Westermarck^ 
who  urges  many  cases  where  carefully  directed  revenge  is  exer- 
cised by  animals.  From  the  very  lowest  forms  anger  is  aimed 
at  the  cause  of  the  pain.  This  weapon  against  injustice  and 
injury  resents  aggression  by  counter  aggression,  and  is  thus  a 
great  aid  in  self-conservation  and  self- forbearance.  Even  com- 
mon tribal  responsibility  is  a  protection  against  the  tendency  of 
revenge  to  single  out  the  guilty  person.  The  forms  and  details 
of  punishment  are  often  elaborated. 

After  teaching  this  subject  many  years  and  with  increasing 
dissatisfaction,  I  determined  to  try  the  questionnaire  method 
and  accordingly,  in  October,  1894,  ^^^  ^^st  of  an  annual  series 
of  topical  syllabi  on  Child  Study,  which  have  been  continued 
now  for  four  years,  was  published  on  anger  and  sent  to  nearly 
900  teachers,  parents  and  others  in  this  country  and  elsewhere. 
It  was  as  follows  : 

The  phenomena  wanted  are  variously  designated  by  the  following 
words  :  wrath,  ire,  temper,  madness,  indignation,  sulks,  sours,  putch- 
iness,  crossness,  choler,  grudge,  fume,  fury,  passion,  to  be  or  fall  out 
with. 

1  Ethnologische  Studien  zur  ersten  Entwickelung  der  Strafe. 
=^Mind.  N.  S.  VII,  1898,  p.  289. 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  529 

1.  Add  any  other  terms  or  any  euphemisms,  or  phrases  you  know 
or  can  get  from  children  indicating  their  feelings. 

2.  Describe  every  vaso-motor  symptom,  such  as  flushing,  paling, 
about  forehead,  cheeks,  nose,  neck  or  elsewhere.  Is  there  horripila- 
tion, chill,  shudder,  tremor,  prickly  feeling,  numbness,  choking, 
twitching,  sweating,  if  so  where  and  how  long.  Are  there  any  accom- 
panying sensations  of  color,  flushes,  taste,  smell,  npises,  (question 
for  each  sense).     Can  blood  pressure  be  tested? 

3.  Describe  all  changes  of  muscle-tension,  scowling,  grinding  teeth, 
opening  lips,  setting  of  eye,  clenching  fists,  position  of  arms  and 
attitude  of  body.  Is  there  nausea  or  a  tendency  to  either  contraction 
or  relaxation  of  sphincter  muscles  which  control  anal  or  urinal  pass- 
ages. 

4.  Describe  overt  acts,  striking  (how,  down,  straight  out, with  fist  or 
palm),  scratching,  biting,  kicking.  At  what  part  are  blows  or  attacks 
aimed. 

5.  What  is  the  degree  of  abandon  or  loss  of  self  control  ?  Is  it  com- 
plete and  is  the  rage  entirely  blind,  or  usually  is  some  restraint  shown 
in  intesity  of  blows  or  some  consideration  in  the  place  attacked  ? 

6.  Describe  long  delayed  anger,  the  venting  of  secret  grudges  long 
nursed,  and  deliberately  indulged. 

7.  Describe  intensity  curve  of  quick  and  slow  children. 

8.  Describe  reactions,  afterwards  physical,  mental  or  moral, whether 
lassitude,  contrition,  and  all  verbal  or  acted  signs  of  regret. 

9.  How  do  children  speak  of  past  outbreaks  of  anger  in  themselves, 
and  of  anger  in  others,  and  in  general  ? 

10.  What  treatment  have  you  found  good,  and  what  palliatives  do 
irascible  children  apply  to  themselves? 

In  description  be  photographically  objective,  exact,  minute  and 
copious  in  detail.  Tell  age,  sex,  family  life,  temperament,  nationality 
of  every  child.  Add  to  all  a  description  of  your  experience  with  an- 
ger in  yourself,  and  if  possible  get  a  few  of  your  adult  friends  whether 
good  or  ill  tempered,  to  write  theirs,  or  organize  a  little  circle  of 
friends,  mothers,  teachers,  neighbors,  t©  talk  over  the  subject  and  to 
observe  in  concert.  Above  all,  get  children  of  different  age  and 
temperament  to  talk  confidentially,  or  better  to  write  their  own  ideas 
in  response  to  such  questions  as  tell  some  things  which  make  you  an- 
gry; when  do  you  get  angry  easiest  ?  how  do  you  feel  and  how  act,  how 
check  it  and  how  feel  afterwards  ?  write  cases  of  others  getting  angry 
in  detail,  and  state  what  you  think  about  it  generally. 

This  is  a  subject  of  obviously  great  importance  for  moral  and  even 
physical  education,  but  there  is  almost  no  literature  worth  reading 
upon  it.  It  is  so  vast  that  it  can  be  best  explored  by  concerted  effort. 
The  undersigned  desires  to  investigate  the  subject  and  invites  you  to 
co-operation  by  sending  him  any  notes,  however  incomplete,  upon  any 
aspect  of  the  subject.  Or,  if  preferred,  you  can  start  with  these  hints 
and  work  out  your  own  data  and  print  your  conclusions. 

IvCt  us  try  the  concerted  method  of  work  and  in  some  way  pool  its 
results  for  the  mutual  benefit  of  teachers  and  for  the  good  of  the 
children  we  all  live  for. 

In  answer  to  the  above  questionnaire,  a  total  of  2,184  returns 
have  been  received  in  season  to  be  included  in  the  following 
report.  Miss  Lillie  A.  Williams,  of  the  Trenton  (N.  J.)  Nor- 
mal School,  sent  returns  from  244  persons,  of  which  121  were 
original  observations  of  children,  92  were  reminiscences,  28 
information  received  at  second  hand.     Principal  E.  H.  Russell, 


530  HALL : 

of  the  Worcester  (Mass.)  Normal  School,  sent  109  returns;  35 
of  which  were  reminiscences,  mostly  by  his  pupils  and  teachers, 
and  63  were  original  observations  on  children.  Mrs.  Grace  B. 
Sudborough  sent  1,016  answers  to  the  questions  with  opinions 
upon  hyperthetical  stories  involving  anger.  From  an  anony- 
mous source,  147  carefully  written  but  brief  essays  upon  per- 
sonal experiences  with  anger  were  received.  Miss  Carlisle,  of 
Norwich,  Connecticut,  sent  95  papers,  partly  studies  by  her 
normal  class  and  partly  answers  by  school  children.  From 
California,  65  papers  were  received;  from  an  unknown  source, 
59  papers;  from  Miss  Clapperton,  of  St.  George's  Training 
College,  Edinburgh,  77;  from  Miss  A.  E.  Wyckoff,  of  Brook- 
line,  72  personal  papers;  from  the  Springfield  Training  School, 
24  papers;  from  Dr.  F.  E.  Spaulding,  Superintendent  J.  A. 
Hancock,  Miss  Pedrick,  Miss  Flora  J.  White,  a  few  papers  each; 
and  from  Miss  Hughes,  then  of  the  Cambridge  (England)  La- 
dies' College,  31  carefully  prepared  papers  by  students,  with 
others  from  other  sources.  Besides  this,  a  large  list  of  literary 
references  have  been  gradually  accumulating  during  the  past 
five  years;  the  subject  has  been  made  several  times  a  matter  of 
discussion  in  my  weekly  seminary  for  the  comparison,  of  ex- 
periences; and  I  have  several  times  worked  over  portions  of  the 
subject  in  the  form  of  popular  and  class  lectures.  I  am  under 
special  obligations  to  Principal  M.  H.  Small,  of  Passaic,  N.  J., 
lately  my  student,  for  the  compilation  of  a  part  of  this  material 
and  the  selection  from  the  mass  of  material  of  some  of  the  typi- 
cal cases. 

It  need  not  be  repeated,  that,  as  I  have  already  said,  in 
compiling  such  material,  too  much  caution  cannot  possibly  be 
exercised.  The  returns  are  of  all  degrees  of  merit,  from  ex- 
tremely good  to  worthless,  and  it  requires  great  and  constant 
critical  acumen  to  sift  the  chaff  from  the  wheat;  and  the  value 
of  the  work  depends  chiefly  upon  how  accurately  and  thoroughly 
this  is  done.  The  great  advantages  of  this  method  are  also 
obvious  in  the  data  upon  this  topic,  for  the  range  of  individual 
differences  is  vast  and  the  fecundity  of  human  nature  in  so 
diversifying  the  expressions  of  this  sentiment  is  perhaps  nowhere 
more  apparent  and  gives  constant  and  often  deep  interest  in 
reading  over  the  returns.  Concerning  no  subject  have  I  felt  more 
strongly  the  necessary  limitations  of  individual  experience  and 
how  absolutely  necessary  as  the  basis  for  any  valid  psychology 
of  the  subject,  it  is  first  of  all  to  gather  a  vast  array  of  facts 
and  cases.  This  and  the  necessity  of  revising  current  theories 
upon  anger  will  explain  why  I  introduce  so  many  condensed 
accounts  of  concrete  cases.  This  tends  to  bring  psycholog}^ 
back  again  into  the  closest  contact  with  a  large  group  of  the 
most  vital  facts  of  life  and  to  rescue  it  from  the  narrowing  and 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  531 

one-ended  influences  of  theories  from  which  that  part  of  it 
which  treats  of  the  feelings  and  emotions  and  which  now  seems 
next  in  order  for  investigation,  is  now  so  gravely  afflicted. 
The  aspects  of  anger  are  very  man}'  sided  and  complex,  but 
we  see  here  the  intensity  and  bitterness  of  the  struggle  for 
survival  in  the  past  by  the  traces  that  are  left  in  modern  life. 
So  inadequate  and  partial  are  the  text-book  characterizations 
of  it  that  it  seems  well  to  begin  a  closer  look  at  this  most  intri- 
cate salient  group  of  phenomena  as  particularly  seen  in  self 
and  others. 

A.     General. 

1.  Scotch,  F.,  20.  When  in  a  real  passion  a  torrent  seems  to  rush 
through  me  with  terrific  force,  I  tremble  violently  and  feel  quite  faint. 
When  the  storm  is  not  too  deep  for  speech,  I  say  the  bitterest  things 
that  I  can  think  of,  though  often  aware  that  I  shall  repent  them  after- 
ward. Yet  I  always  want  to  be  by  myself,  not  to  listen  to  reason,  but 
to  stamp,  beat  myself  and  think  or  say  all  sorts  of  wicked  things. 
Above  all  I  pity  myself  most  intensely  and  end  in  a  torrent  of  tears. 
A  most  aggravating  fact,  however,  sometimes  is  that  I  cannot  utter  a 
word,  no  matter  how  eloquent  I  feel  I  ought  to  be.  The  storm  within 
is  too  furious  for  speech,  although  it  always  ends  with  rain.  The  tears 
are  a  sign  of  exhaustion  rather  than  repentance.  The  fits  last  a  few 
moments,  rarely  half  an  hour,  and  to  give  them  vent  clears  the  air. 
By  restraining  it  I  feed  on  it  and  it  lasts  and  rankles.  If  my  auger  is 
less  violent  I  avoid  speaking  to  the  persons  or  ignore  their  existence, 
but  my  icy  silence  will  melt  despite  my  resolution.  It  kills  love  and 
admiration  however. 

2.  M.,  31.  My  capacity  for  anger  is  great  and  deepens  into  indigna- 
tion, scorn  and  contempt.     I  can  despise  in  a  way  impossible  before. 

To  think  and  to  say  inwardly  that  my  antagonistic  is  a fool  vent- 

my  feeling,  sometimes  I  pity  him  and  yet  know  I  shall  revert  to  feel- 
ing him  a  fine  man,  I  am  usually  good  natured,  but  can  imagine 
causes  of  anger  in  those  I  love,  but  nothing  less  than  their  entire  an- 
nihilation or  that  of  the  whole  world,  including  myself,  can  satisfy. 
I  believe  I  should  have  the  courage,  fatalism,  criminality  or  whatever 
it  be,  to  follow  my  impulse  of  the  moment.  My  capacity  for  anger 
has  increased  with  the  breadth  of  my  psychic  life,  but  such  periods 
are  far  rarer  and  it  takes  more  to  rouse  it.  Now  I  sometimes  feel  a 
sort  of  pleasure  in  bad  treatment  which  was  expected  to  enrage  me. 

3.  Knglish,  F.,  19.  When  angry  I  feel  all  of  a  sudden  burning  hot, 
stifled  and  compelled  to  make  a  noise.  I  used  to  strike  people,  now  I 
strike  things.  I  used  to  be  promptly  carried  to  my  room,  now  I  seek 
seclusion  of  my  own  accord.  I  used  to  shed  tears,  now  I  feel  burning 
and  choke  till  my  nose  bleeds,  then  I  am  better.  Sometimes  I  grow 
icy  cold  and  feel  as  if  I  was  all  blanc  mange  inside.  This  feeling  is 
worse  than  the  heat,  for  I  seem  to  be  a  stone.  People  speak  to  me  but 
I  do  not  move;  question  me  but  I  do  not  answer.  They  think  I  am 
sulky.  I  am  not,  but  am  simply  frozen.  I  awake  the  next  morning 
with  a  sense  of  shame  ;  relief,  however,  predominates,  then  I  can  look 
at  things  in  the  right  light  and  I  go  around  apologizing  and  setting 
things  right. 

4.  M.,  30.  When  angry  I  feel  as  if  my  features  were  distorted,  as 
if  it  were  cowardly  not  to  look  the  offender  straight  in  the  eye  as 
pride  impels,  although  another  impulse  inclines  me  to  invert  my  eyes 
in  an  embarrassed  way.    I  am  conscious  of  my  mouth  and  do  not  know 


532  HAhh : 

how  to  hold  it,  but  this  gesture  makes  me  feel  ashamed  and  restrained. 
I  do  not  know  how  to  hold  my  hands  or  to  stand,  but  feel  conscious  of 
my  whole  body,  want  to  be  left  alone,  and  when  I  am  by  myself  I  relax 
from  this  strain,  then  I  seem  to  go  all  to  pieces.  I  collapse,  flop  down 
all  in  a  heap,  suffer  chiefly  from  mortified  pride,  feel  that  I  could  do 
almost  anything  rash,  but  from  this  state  of  utter  abandon  to  later 
self  control  I  get  back  in  time.  When  angry  I  never  can  talk  with- 
out crying. 

5.  Scotch,  F.,  22.  I  feel  when  irritable  like  a  volcano  liable  to 
burst  forth  at  any  unconscious  touch.  I  used  to  feel  on  fire  inwardly. 
It  is  most  painful  and  urges  me  to  break  or  knock  something  down. 
A  casual  remark  or  even  a  most  trivial  happening  increases  it.  I  do 
not  scold  or  rant  but  gather  up  all  my  force  into  a  few  cutting,  cruel 
words.  There  is  always  a  faint  background  of  knowledge  in  the  very 
height  of  the  storm,  that  words  remain  forever  and  that  the  good 
Lord  I  profess  to  follow  disapproves;  but  all  these  are  beaten  down 
and  although  I  know  that  my  words  hurt  both  others  and  myself,  I 
must  utter  them.  From  about  12  to  16  I  would  do  almost  anything 
to  wreak  vengeance,  often  striking  people.  I  feel  quite  capable  of  kill- 
ing a  person.  Even  now  I  sometimes  fear  [  shall  do  so,  although  as  a 
rule  my  rage  vents  itself  more  and  more  inside.  The  humorous  side 
of  my  anger  often  strikes  me  afterward,  and  then  its  sting  is  removed. 

6.  A  girl  of  10  became  so  angry  because  detained  after  school  that 
she  lost  all  control  and  gave  up  to  a  fit  of  passion.  Her  face  became 
very  pale,  then  flushed  to  a  dark  red,  purple  spots  came  and  went  on 
her  cheeks  and  forehead,  she  writhed,  twisted,  screamed  as  though  in 
bodily  pain,  and  at  times  was  almost  hent  double.  At  other  times  she 
would  sit  still  a  moment,  gasp,  shudder  as  if  to  choke,  and  then  begin 
to  scream  again.  She  seemed  to  be  sick  to  her  stomach.  She  never 
showed  any  regret.  She  was  once  very  angry  at  me  and  will  always 
dislike  me. 

7.  M.,  44.  When  huffy  or  in  a  tantrum,  a  man  I  know  has  a  vein 
in  his  forehead  swell  out  large ;  a  woman  of  60  lengthens  her  upper 
lip ;  a  woman  of  25  pushes  forward  both  lips ;  a  college  girl  I  know 
stiffens  her  under  jaw,  her  eyes  grow  glassy,  she  raises  her  head,  walks 
stiff  and  erect,  talks  in  a  jerky  way  which  she  calls  sputtering.  Hop- 
ping mad  is  a  phrase  literally  correct  for  some. 

8.  M.,  39.  In  some,  I  know,  anger  makes  the  face  white,  the  fea- 
tures are  set,  then  a  chiselled  look  will  appear  beautiful  in  a  way. 
Others  pitch  their  voice  low  and  speak  more  slowly  and  distinctly. 
The  face  of  one  child  I  know  is  completely  changed.  He  looks  wicked 
and  like  an  animal.  I  have  several  times  seen  this,  it  haunts  me  and 
I  hope  I  may  never  see  it  again.  The  cause  in  this  case  was  unjust 
and  ill  judged  punishment. 

9.  F.,  21.  I  saw  my  little  wiry  music  master,  a  man  of  70,  thor- 
oughly angry  once  at  my  wrong  and  careless  playing  He  danced  all 
around  the  room,  stamped,  shouted,  stammered,  and  left  the  house 
unceremoniously.  Some  friends  passed  him  around  the  corner  rush- 
ing and  muttering.  At  his  next  visit,  mother  asked  hira  how  I  was 
getting  on.  He  said  I  was  doing  spendidly  and  was  his  favorite  pupil, 
and  that  he  liked  to  have  me  give  him  trouble,  because  it  showed  that 
there  was  something  in  me. 

10.  F.,  20.  A  sensitive,  overworked  middle  aged  music  teacher,  with 
keen  artistic  nature,  when  angered  by  laziness  or  conceit  in  his  pupils, 
becomes  extremely  and  frigidly  polite, — by  this,  by  his  sarcasm  and  a 
slightly  strained  laugh,  his  indignation  can  be  detected.  Strong  as  his 
temper  is,  he  has  it  under  such  control  that  a  spectator  would  not  sus- 
pect it. 

11.  M.,  31.     A  most  tempery  women,  I  know,  with  a  tremendous. 


A   STUDY  OF  ANGER.  533 

will,  which  if  crossed  makes  her  talk  rapidly  and  recklessly  Her 
eyes  flash  and  I  have  known  her  to  kick  people  and  strike  them  in  the 
face.  She  seems  like  a  dog  run  mad.  If  she  really  hurts  people  or 
they  are  quite  upset,  her  rage  instantly  goes,  and  she  is  as  tender  as  a 
mother,  but  afterwards  she  has  a  bilious  headace.  She  often  justifies 
her  acts  afterwards  in  cold  blood. 

12.  M.,  21.  The  best  case  I  know  is  a  woman,  who  overwhelms 
people  with  abuse,  sometimes  flies  at  them,  becomes  hysterical  and 
then  sulks  for  days.  Once  she  resented  her  sister's  language  and 
destroyed  every  present  she  had  ever  received  from  her.  She  considers 
her  temper  a  matter  of  course  and  seems  to  make  no  effort  to  check  it. 

13.  F.,  17.  An  ugly  little  Italian  girl  of  15,  with  beautiful  hair 
like  spun  silk,  of  which  she  was  inordinately  vain,  flew  into  a  rage 
terrible  to  witness  when  it  was  towsled,  which  the  girls  took  delight 
in  doing.  She  said  little  but  a  terrible  demon  seemed  to  seize  her  and 
drive  her  into  a  passion.  Every  vestige  of  color  left  her  face,  her 
eyes  glittered  and  her  expression  was  almost  inhumanly  wicked  and 
cruel.  With  one  quick  look  at  her  tormentor,  she  would  spring  at 
her  with  feline  alertness,  and  generally  left  distinct  marks  of  nails  and 
teeth.  I  never  saw  signs  of  regret.  "It  is  to  be  hoped  that  her  face 
was  covered  with  blessed  shame  and  that  humanity  suffused  with 
cooling  streams  that  fiery  spirit." 

14.  F.,  38.  When  angry  my  face  grows  pale,  but  dark  about  the 
mouth.  I  feel  numb  as  if  my  circulation  and  physical  functions  had 
received  a  shock.  The  angrier  I  am  the  tighter  grows  the  muscle  ten- 
sion everywhere.  Every  attack  of  anger  is  followed  by  constipation 
and  urinal  continence,  also  lack  of  appetite,  thirst,  nausea  at  the  very 
sight  of  food,  and  also  an  acute  bilious  attack.  Nausea  once  lasted  six 
months  because  I  had  to  sit  at  the  table  with  the  object  of  my  anger; 
no  monthly  sickness  in  all  that  time.  It  is  ten  years  since,  but  the 
sight  of  that  person  still  brings  on  a  feeling  of  anger.  Of  contritition 
I  know  nothing. 

15.  I  saw  a  gypsy  man  and  woman  fighting,  screaming,  and  using 
the  most  awful  threats.  They  tried  to  bite,  choke,  seize  each  other  in 
all  tender  parts  of  the  body,  and  seemed  not  human  but  wild  beasts. 

16.  F.,  34.  A  South  African  girl,  if  told  to  do  anything,  instantly 
and  ostentatiously  disobeys,  and  calls  a  long  string  of  names.  She 
reminds  me  of  Angelica  in  the  Heavenly  Twins  ;  is  honest,  affectionate, 
generous,  fond  of  mad  pranks,  is  capable  but  hates  work,  and  sits  for 
hours  doing  nothing. 

17.  Am.;  adult;  female.  "I  do  not  remember  getting  violently 
angry  but  once.  A  friend  of  mine  spoke  unjust  words  of  a  neighbor 
of  whom  I  was  fond.  I  stood  it  for  a  few  moments,  then  I  commenced 
to  talk.  I  could  not  say  things  sarcastic  enough.  There  was  a  lump 
in  my  throat.  My  eyes  felt  as  though  they  were  open  to  their  widest 
extent ;  my  face  was  cold ;  breathing  rapid  ;  muscles  contracted,  and  my 
hands  were  clenched.  I  scarcely  heard  anything.  In  an  instant  all  this 
passed.  The  blood  began  to  be  pumped  up  through  the  arteries  in 
the  neck  in  powerful  pulse-beats  and  my  heart  seemed  to  fairly  jump. 
Gradually  the  muscles  relaxed  and  a  feeling  of  extreme  fatigue  came 
on.  I  could  scarcely  walk  home  I  trembled  so.  When  I  was  in  my 
own  room  the  tears  flowed  copiously.  For  a  time  I  was  almost  afraid 
of  myself.  That  night  there  seemed  to  be  something  pushing  me  on 
which  I  could  not  understand.     I  was  very  tired  when  this  occurred." 

18.  F.,  38.  I  teach  a  boy  of  fine  American  parentage  who,  when 
reprimanded,  parts  his  lips  slightly  and  looks  me  straight  in  the  eye 
a  little  as  though  he  were  laughing  at  me.  When  I  call  him  he  comes, 
but  sets  his  teeth,  bends  forward,  clenches  his  fists,  tries  hard  to  speak 

-but  cannot  uttter  a  word  till  he  cools  down  and  then  he  stutters, 


534  HAI.I. : 

which  he  does  at  no  other  time,  and  at  length  the  tears  come.  He  is 
very  bright,  excels  in  study,  likes  and  quotes  me  on  all  occasions. 
He' is  much  worse  at  home  and  his  mother  fears  he  may  become  a 
murderer.     He  never  shows  regret. 

19.  F.,  19.  A  girl  friend  has  a  peculiar  sneering  smile,  which  curls 
her  lips,  and  no  rebuke  or  threat  can  alter  her.  There  is  a  peculiar 
contemptuous  expression  in  her  eyebrows.  Her  silence  is  dogged  for 
days,  it  is  as  firm  as  a  rampart  against  friends  or  foes.  It  ends  in  some 
burst  of  defiance  and  is  usually  roused  by  blame.  Severity  increases 
it.     This  disease  the  poor  patient  seems  to  inherit  from  her  father. 

20.  M.,  30.  I  know  a  young  man  of  24  in  the  West,  who  is  well, 
strong  and  sane,  whom  I  have  seen  repeatedly  go  to  the  corner  of  a 
ball-room  and  lie  on  the  floor  and  pound  his  head  on  it  and  roll  from 
anger,  because  another  man  danced  with  his  best  girl.  He  drives  cattle 
and  sometimes  literally  cuts  a  pig  open  with  his  great  two-handed 
hog  whip,  or  rides  up  to  it  on  his  broncho,  seizes  it  by  the  hind  legs 
and  dashes  its  brains  out  on  the  ground.  He  is  generally  voted  a  good 
fellow,  says  little  and  never  attacks  human  beings,  but  only  writhes 
when  angry. 

21.  F.,  24.  My  former  chum  was  a  well-born  girl,  but  without 
discipline  and  could  never  be  crossed.  If  this  occurred,  she  seemed 
at  first  astonished  and  then  frozen  up  with  rage.  She  stood  once  two 
hours  without  moving  hands  or  feet,  her  head  thrown  back  and  a  fixed 
determined  look  in  her  eyes. 

22.  Pure  anger  makes  me  creep  from  head  to  foot.  I  never  want 
to  have  it  out  with  any  one  or  be  revenged,  but  feel  haunted  and  dis- 
cordant for  days.  I  must  be  alone,  and  have  my  door  locked,  with  no 
possibility  of  intrusion,  and  often  pile  all  the  furniture  against  the 
door  and  then  sit  or  lie  down  to  have  it  out.  or  perhaps  cry  myself  to 
sleep. 

23.  F.,  21,  When  I  had  once  lost  control  of  myself,  I  wanted  to 
push  away  everything  that  happened  to  be  near,  to  make  myself  alone, 
where  I  could  muse  on  my  wrongs  and  grumble  to  my  heart's  content. 
Whoever  happened  to  come  near  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  my  growls 
and  hear  everything  and  everybody  described  in  the  blackest  of  colors. 

24.  Eng.,  F.,  21.  In  rage  some  people  undergo  an  entire  change, 
and  their  eyes  grow  large  and  set,  the  face  is  rigid,  they  contract  the 
brows.  Some  vent  it  in  violent  motions,  in  quiverings  of  the  body, 
compression  of  the  lips,  or  bad  words. 

25.  F.,  19.  I  have  seen  men  ordinarily  sensible  speak  with  cruel 
sarcasm  and  grow  absolutely  infantile,  diffusing  bitterness  all  about, 
and  at  the  smallest  provocation  in  a  game  of  croquet. 

26.  A  lady  of  40  occasionally  loses  all  control.  She  slaps,  dances, 
says  the  most  cutting  things,  for  she  is  a  woman  of  remarkable  in- 
telligence, but  never  shows  any  compunction. 

27.  My  girl  when  angry  is  almost  insane  and  acts  like  one  possessed. 
She  attacks  anybody,  breaks  windows.  Her  second  dentition  seemed 
greatly  to  aggravate  her  temper. 

28.  F.,  39.  A  girl  of  1 1  when  provoked  throws  down  whatever  she 
has  and  rushes  at  her  enemy.  She  is  hot,  her  teeth  are  clenched,  and 
she  usually  goes  for  their  hair,  and  when  carried  away,  she  stamps 
and  cries  boisterously. 

29.  M.,  22.  When  maddest  I  used  to  sulk,  make  faces,  stamp 
upstairs,  my  neck  and  ears  would  burn,  my  teeth  grind,  my  fists 
clench,  and  although  I  felt  contrition  sometimes,  could  never  show  it. 

30.  M.,  29.  A  girl  of  17,  humored  and  sentimentalized  can  bear 
no  cross  to  her  inordinate  conceit.  Her  anger  makes  her  eyes  set  and 
glassy,  and  she  does  outrageous  things  and  ends  always  in  sulks  with 
no  remorse. 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  535 

31.  Eng.,  F.,  23.  Some  show  temper-by  being  bearish  and  boorish, 
others  swell  up  and  strut,  will  say  or  speak  to  anyone,  or  give  snappy 
answers.  I  think  that  rage  makes  red  people  white,  dark  people 
browner,  and  pale  people  pink.  The  better  the  complexion,  the 
greater  the  change  of  color. 

32.  F.,  36.  I  can  recall  but  three  violent  experiences  of  anger.  I 
felt  pent  up  and  congealed,  then  the  worst  of  my  nature  came  out.  I 
got  dizzy  and  my  head  felt  very  full.     I  seemed  to  tremble  inwardly. 

33.  F.  25.  Anger  makes  me  hot,  sticky  and  sweaty.  I  talk  fast 
and  loud.  In  extreme  cases  only  do  I  completely  lose  all  self  control. 
It  always  ends  in  a  shower  of  tears. 

34.  M.,  18.  When  very  mad  I  used  to  shut  my  eyes.  There  are 
some  people  I  long  to  maul  unmercifully,  also  cats,  of  which  I  have  a 
most  particular  hate.  The  boy  I  am  maddest  at  has  separated  me  and 
my  best  girl,  probably  forever,  and  I  am  laying  for  him,  if  I  have  to 
hang  for  it. 

35.  F.,  20.  The  slightest  provocation  in  the  way  of  getting  worsted 
in  games,  or  being  forced  to  do  hated  things,  made  me  scarlet  and 
crimson.  I  still  long  to  break  out  but  something  restrains  me.  I  can- 
not bear  to  have  any  one  speak  to  me  in  this  state,  and  if  they  do  am 
likely  to  burst  forth  in  a  torrent  of  tears.  My  reactions  are  usually 
penitence  and  fatigue. 

36.  A  colored  deaf  mute,  a  boy  of  15,  slow  mentally  but  well  developed 
physically,  resents  everything,  but  most  of  all,  allusions  to  his  color. 
He  shakes  his  fists,  his  eyes  bulge,  his  upper  lip  is  drawn  from  his  eye 
teeth,  he  grows  blacker,  draws  his  fingers  significantly  across  his 
throat,  and  his  gestures  and  threats  are  terribly  in  earnest,  but  it  all 
goes  off  in  this  way  and  he  harms  no  one. 

37.  F.,  21.  There  are  no  special  causes  or  times  that  put  me  in  a 
temper,  and  yet  I  sometimes  have  to  walk  up  and  down  on  tip  toe  or 
march  back  and  forth  in  the  garden  or  brace  myself  to  sit  still,  feel 
every  nerve  and  muscle  stretched  to  its  utmost  tension.  Sometimes 
when  I  am  angry  at  people,  I  incline  to  do  all  the  little  nasty  things 
I  can  think  of  to  them,  and  the  more  angry  I  am  the  more  lacerating 
things  occur  to  me.  Sometimes  I  cannot  say  these  things,  but  fear 
that  I  may  do  them. 

38.  One  bonnie  merry  Irish  girl  has  spells  of  mood,  during  which 
she  hardly  speaks,  but  her  moods  are  so  separate  that  in  one  she 
rarely  refers  to  the  others. 

39.  F.,  19.  When  alone  I  roll,  wriggle  and  weep,  but  keep  up  a  kind 
of  philosophizing  all  the  time  as  to  how  the  object  should  be  treated 
when  we  met. 

40.  F.,  23.  When  my  hot  and  furious  temper  culminates,  I  tremble, 
am  cold,  and  speak  out  recklessly  the  first  and  bitterest  things  I  know. 

41.  F.,  19.  A  girl  I  know  bursts  into  a  flood  of  passion  and  must 
make  a  noise  in  almost  any  way,  then  she  passes  into  the  sulky  state, 
and  it  takes  a  day  or  two  for  all  to  vanish. 

42.  M.,  31.  I  know  an  impatient  person  who  first  fidgets,  nostrils 
begin  to  twitch,  eyes  glare,  voice  is  raised  to  a  crescendo  and  after  the 
acme  there  is  a  diminuendo,  as  the  rage  subsides.  I  know  some  whose 
chronic  state  of  mind  is  sour  and  nothing  is  right. 

43.  Am.;  adult;  female.  When  I  get  very  angry  my  face  grows 
white,  and  it  seems  as  though  a  cold  hand  clutches  my  heart.  I  grow 
faint  and  dizzy,  and  see  green  and  black  and  red  all  whirling  together. 
My  breath  grows  short  and  my  body  gets  limp.  There  is  a  distressing 
feeling  of  nausea.  If  a  person  ill  treats  me  further,  I  rouse  up  and 
feed  him  sand,  whereupon  these  symptoms  disappear. 

44.  A  boy  of  14,  the  terror  and  leader  among  the  inmates  of  a  State 
reform  school,  when  angry  looks  the  person,  officer,  superintendent, 


536  HALL : 

or  whoever  it  may  be,  firmly  in  the  eye,  calls  him  the  vilest  names,  is 
outrageously  profane  and  attacks  them  like  a  mad  man. 

45.  F.,  23.  If  I  could  not  have  my  own  way  when  I  was  a  child, 
I  would  scream  and  jump  up  and  down.  There  was  no  control  until 
I  was  about  8,  when  the  form  of  my  outbursts  became  tears  and  angry 
words.     I  had  to  do  something  when  in  a  pet  if  only  to  rush  about. 

46.  F.,  26.  My  temper  takes  the  form  of  taking  things  amiss  and 
not  being  pleased  at  anything,  am  silent  and  gloomy,  with  a  feeling 
as  if  my  head  was  fixed  in  a  vise.  This  symptom  is  a  warning  and  the 
sensations  are  so  painful  that  I  make  a  desperate  effort  to  keep  pleasant. 

47.  My  mother  is  a  most  warm  hearted  and  affectionate  woman, 
but  when  angry  says  very  cruel  things,  which  one  does  not  like  to 
think  of.  She  has  not  been  the  same  person  since  my  little  brother 
was  born,  and  imagines  injury  where  there  is  none,  and  broods  over 
and  nurses  her  wrath  to  keep  it  warm.  My  father  too  is  hasty  and 
like  a  great  child  in  the  way  he  takes  offence,  but  he  does  not  brood 
like  mother.     I  have  inherited  his  type. 

48.  F.,  30.  I  have  no  feeling  and  no  mercy,  but  will  have  my  own 
way  and  prevent  others  from  having  theirs  if  I  can. 

A  few  typical  individual  outbreaks: 

1.  A  big  girl  in  a  country  school  told  me  to  get  up  and  give  her  my 
seat  near  the  fire,  and  when  I  refused  she  sat  heavily  in  my  lap.  I 
could  not  push  her  off,  and  soon  without  willing  to  do  so,  found  my 
teeth  set  pretty  deep  in  her  back.  How  often  I  have  wondered  if  I  did 
right.  The  question  loomed  up  into  big  proportions  and  haunted  me. 
I  thought  over  and  over  again,  "  she  was  biggest,  I  had  the  seat  first, 
what  else  could  I  have  done,"  etc.  I  cannot  tell  how  great  this  ques- 
tion grew  or  how  it  hung  like  a  pall  over  my  life  for  years. 

2.  F.,  45.  Once  I  was  angry  with  God.  It  was  too  dreadful  to  re- 
call; a  sense  of  helplessness,  the  futility  of  reviling  or  opposing  him, 
and  this  added  to  the  horror.  I  was  ill  and  could  not  hold  my  peace, 
but  had  to  look  up  to  the  sky  and  blaspheme.  My  brother  had  a  sim- 
ilar experience  and  told  me  that  he  felt  as  if  the  foot  of  a  giant  was 
on  his  neck.  I  told  a  clergyman,  who  called,  to  leave  the  house,  that 
the  Bible  was  a  volume  of  lies,  and  God  was  the  worst  liar,  for  he  had 
deceived  me  all  my  life.  I  have  repented  since  and  trust  I  am  par- 
doned. 

3.  M.,  40.  Once  I  was  said  to  have  pushed  down  my  brother,  who 
■was  badly  hurt,  although  in  fact  I  was  at  the  other  end  of  the  garden. 
I  would  not  say  I  had  not  done  it,  and  so  was  kept  in  bed  two  days. 
During  this  time  I  read  Gulliver  with  delight,  but  a  strong  background 
feeling  of  injustice  was  always  associated  with  this  book.  I  am  still 
angry  at  every  thought  of  this,  although  usually  I  am  quick  over  my 
tempers. 

4.  About  my  last  rage  was  at  the  age  of  13.  I  was  in  bed,  and  my 
sister  was  long  in  undressing,  and  then  left  the  lamp  in  the  farthest 
corner  for  me  to  put  out.  We  quarreled  fifteen  minutes;  then  I  put  it 
out,  but  when  I  got  back  to  bed,  pinched  her,  when  a  fight  ensued, 
which  resulted  in  both  of  us  sleeping  very  uncomfortably  at  the  op- 
posite and  cold  edges  of  the  bed  with  a  bolster  between  us. 

5.  F.,  48.  In  youth  I  took  refuge  from  the  very  few  crosses  of  my 
very  guarded  life  in  pride.  The  first  real  anger  was  at  the  age  of  42 
at  an  act  of  injustice  to  my  son,  which  stirred  me  fathoms  below  all 
previously  known  soundings  in  my  nature.  Each  time  that  I  permit- 
ted myself  in  the  sanctity  of  friendship  to  discuss  the  matter,  a  singu- 
larly vile  taste  would  arise  in  my  mouth  followed  by  extreme  nausea. 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  537 

That  mighty  maternal  instinct  of   protection,   which   runs  through 
all  higher  animal  creatures,  has  since  then  been  far  more  clear  to  me. 

6.  F.,  41.  My  older  brother  teased  me  until  I  said  I  wished  he  was 
dead.  As  soon  as  I  had  said  this  dreadful  thing,  I  was  terrified  lest  a 
judgment  from  heaven  should  fall  upon  me  by  causing  his  death  that 
day.  I  watched  anxiously  when  he  returned  from  his  work  and  recall 
my  remorse  far  more  distinctiy  than  I  do  the  anger. 

7.  M.,  24.  I  began  a  boyish  fight  which  lasted  nearly  an  hour  with- 
out anger.  It  ended  by  my  enemy  falling  and  pretending  to  be  dead. 
I  believed  he  was  and  felt  exultant  and  perfectly  satisfied  and  happy. 
Left  him  lying  at  the  fence  corner  and  went  home.  Knew  I  must  suf- 
fer at  the  hands  of  the  law,  but  was  fatalistically  resigned. 

8.  F.,  46.  When  I  was  ill  and  the  doctor  came  to  tell  me  of  my 
brother's  death,  I  struck  him  with  all  my  might;  and  all  that  is  usually 
grief  seemed  for  the  moment  turned  into  anger. 

9.  F.,  24.  My  last  great  rage  was  eight  years  ago  at  my  brother 
who  hurt  my  cat.  I  rushed  at  him,  screamed,  thumped  him  with  both 
fists  as  hard  as  I  could,  then  I  ran  out  of  the  room,  cried,  felt  ashamed, 
pretended  to  act  as  though  nothing  had  happened,  and  for  a  long  time 
felt  hot  and  miserable,  for  my  brother  kept  alluding  to  the  wounds 
he  said  he  had  received. 

10  F.,  45.  A  slum  boy  lately  struck  me  in  the  face  with  his  fists. 
My  face  grew  icy  cold  and  all  my  muscles  got  tense.  I  felt  my  lips  white 
and  wanted  to  hurt  him  physically.  I  could  have  done  it,  although  he 
was  a  large  boy,  and  should  have  done  it  but  for  my  dignity  as  a 
teacher.     I  wanted  to  put  him  on  the  floor  and  pound  him. 

11.  M.,  37.  My  present  temper  is  of  three  sorts — first,  actual  pas- 
sion; second,  impatience  or  ire;  third,  sulks.  Of  the  first  I  can  recall 
but  two  instances.  One  was  when  my  little  brother  would  not  stop 
teasing  me  to  show  him  something  when  I  was  very  tired.  I  broke 
out  in  words  and  was  checked  by  the  look  in  his  face.  I  could  have 
cried  as  I  could  at  this  moment  in  remembering  it.  When  a  friend 
urges  me  to  do  something  I  abominate,  I  have  several  times  measured 
strength  with  him. 

12.  M.,  23.  Once  when  I  was  about  13,  in  an  angry  fit,  I  walked 
out  of  the  house  vowing  I  would  never  return.  It  was  a  beautiful 
summer  day,  and  I  walked  far  along  lovely  lanes,  till  gradually  the 
stillness  and  beauty  calmed  and  soothed  me,  and  after  some  hours  I 
returned  repentant  and  almost  melted.  Since  then  when  angry,  I  do 
this  if  I  can,  and  find  it  the  best  cure. 

13.  F.,  43.  When  about  4  my  brother  shot  an  arrow  at  my  candle- 
stick, this  made  me  so  mad  I  ran  out  of  the  house  and  hid  under  a  hay 
stack,  resolving  to  make  him  miserable  by  being  lost,  and  determined 
to  die  from  starvation. 

14.  F.,  20.  I  offered  a  doll  to  my  little  niece  and  when  she  reached 
for  it,  I  took  it  away  and  told  her  she  could  not  have  it.  It  worked 
like  a  charm,  and  when  she  was  brought  up  to  the  proper  pitch,  I  took 
the  following  notes — face  very  red  and  swollen,  two  deep  wrinkles 
between  the  brows,  lips  firmly  pressed  together  but  later  open  to  their 
full  extent,  when  she  began  to  scream  at  the  top  of  her  voice.  She 
stamped,  kicked,  tried  to  slap  me  in  the  face  and  clenched  her  fist. 
Later  but  not  at  first  the  tears  came  and  she  sobbed  as  if  her  little 
heart  would  break.  Next  time  I  shall  study  her  laugh  which  will  be 
a  pleasanter  task. 

I.    Causes. 

The  following  cases  selected  and  abridged  from  many  are 
typical  and  suggest  that  women  have  more  provocations  than 

JOURNAI, — 14 


538  HALL : 

men,  but  usually  practice  control  better,  and  how  courtesy, 
respect,  sympathy,  consideration,  kind  and  fair  treatment  of 
others  and  even  of  animals  may  remove  many  of  the  incite- 
ments to  it. 

1.  F.,  20.  The  painful  feeling  at  the  time  and  the  self  scorn  after- 
ward make  angry  experiences  hard  to  recall.  The  chief  causes  are 
contradiction,  especially  if  I  am  right ;  slights,  especially  to  my  par- 
ents or  friends  even  more  than  myself ;  to  have  my  veracity  questioned; 
the  sight  of  my  older  brother  smoking  when  we  are  poor ;  injustice, 
dislike  or  hate  from  those  who  fear  to  speak  right  out ;  being  tired 
and  out  of  sorts,  etc.  In  the  latter  mood  the  least  thing  like  finding 
books  out  of  place ;  loss  of  step  when  I  am  walking  with  some  one ; 
indignity  to  a  poor  girl  by  the  teacher ;  stupidity  in  people  who  will 
not  understand — these  make  me  feel  as  a  cat  must  when  stroked  the 
wrong  way.  Injustice  is  the  worst  and  its  effects  last  longest.  To  be 
distracted  at  my  work;  unpleasant  manners  and  books;  hunger  and 
cold;  to  be  treated  as  if  I  were  of  no  account;  flies  that  will  keep 
lighting  or  buzzing  around  me;  to  stub  the  toe  or  have  it  stepped  on; 
to  forget  things  that  I  want  to  remember  or  to  be  unable  to  find  things; 
when  my  bicycle  hits  a  stone;  to  have  lost  a  button  or  have  my  hair 
come  down;  to  have  a  pin  come  out  or  my  clothes  rip;  these  things 
make  me  more  petulant. 

2.  F.,  26.  People  more  than  things  or  events  arouse  my  temper 
and  some  have  far  greater  power  to  do  so  than  others.  Their  mere 
presence  is  so  irritating  that  it  requires  a  great  effort  of  control  and 
my  aversion  is  often  apparent  to  others.  L/ife  with  such  persons 
would  be  intolerable,  and  would  bring  out  the  worst  side  of  my  char- 
acter. Special  causes  are  narrow  mindedness,  cruelty  to  animals, 
slander,  obstinacy  in  thought  and  deed,  want  of  sympathy  or  some- 
times a  trifle  unnoticeable  by  others,  touches  the  sore  spot,  times  of 
ill  health,  being  forced  to  do  over  what  I  had  done  as  well  as  I  could 
before,  times  of  low  spirits  which  with  me  alternate  with  high.  I 
pay  too  much  attention  to  details  without  grasping  the  whole,  and 
this  makes  trifles  irritate  me.  I  jump  at  conclusions  and  hence  am 
often  angry  without  cause. 

3.  F.,  29.  Whatever  limits  my  freedom  of  action  or  thought  is  the 
strongest  stimulus  to  wrath.  I  was  royally  mad  at  my  sister  because 
she  did  not  resent  an  injury.  I  can  deny  myself  as  much  as  others 
can,  but  cannot  endure  to  have  others  cross  me.  I  was  never  madder 
than  when  my  brother  would  make  a  noise,  when  our  mother  was  ill. 
My  causes  are  girls  talking  out  loud  and  distracting  me  in  study  hours; 
to  be  accused  of  idleness  when  I  have  studied  my  hardest;  blamed 
for  what  I  did  not  do  or  did,  or  my  health  being  below  par.  Some- 
times when  I  am  happy,  I  am  more  easily  angered  than  when  melan- 
choly, because  in  the  latter  case  everything  looks  gloomy,  so  that  one 
point  more  or  less  makes  no  difference. 

4.  English,  F.,  22.  I  have  a  great  variety  of  tempers,  especially  of 
the  irritable,  jealous,  sulky  violent  kinds.  The  violent  kind  is  caused  by 
injustice  to  others  or  extreme  flat  contradiction,  or  when  my  favorite, 
deepest  feelings  and  will  are  thwarted.  The  irritable  type  comes  from 
smaller  stimuli  like  being  kept  waiting,  being  hurried,  having  my 
skirt  trodden  on,  density  in  others,  etc.  Health  also  affects  it.  Jeal- 
ousy is  caused  by  those  I  dearly  love  preferring  others.  Sulks  are  due 
to  neglect  or  injustice  or  impertinent  coldness.  All  these  types  except 
the  irritable  are  more  under  control  than  in  childhood. 

5.  F.,  20.  If  accused  of  doing  what  I  did  not,  and  especially  what 
I  abhor,  I  am  so  angry  that  I  tell  my  accuser  that  she  would  do  the 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  539 

same.  If  I  am  hurrying  in  the  street  and  others  saunter,  so  that  I 
cannot  get  by,  or  a  person  I  like  makes  fun  of  me,  or  when  given  a 
seat  in  church  behind  a  large  pillar,  I  am  provoked,  and  the  more 
helpless  I  feel  the  more  ungovernable  my  temper  becomes.  Opposition 
enrages  me,  so  does  a  discordant  note  in  music,  especially  if  repeated. 

6.  F.,  23.  My  lines  have  fallen  in  such  pleasant  places,  that  I 
hardly  knov^^  how  anger  feels;  yet  injustice  does  rouse  ire  which  I  call 
righteous.  Sometimes  I  take  up  cudgels  in  behalf  of  imaginary  suf- 
ferers and  work  myself  into  a  state  of  passionate  fury.  In  such  men- 
tal inflammations,  epithets  and  phrases  suggest  and  form  themselves 
with  dreadful  facility,  and  I  express  myself  far  more  easily  than  at 
other  times.  Sarcasm  and  criticism  are  such  a  relief.  If  people  are 
perfectly  unjust,  I  can  treat  them  indifferently,  but  if  there  is  a  spice 
of  truth  in  what  they  say,  I  am  much  more  angry. 

7.  M.,  34.  When  despondent  the  worst  thing  is  to  have  made  up 
my  mind  to  do  something  and  failed.  Being  angry  at  myself,  I  am 
consequently  so  to  all  who  speak  to  me.  Frivolity  in  others,  asking 
needless  questions,  attempting  to  cajole  or  boot-lick  the  teachers, 
rouse  me;  so  does  doing  what  I  do  not  want  to  when  I  vent  rage  by 
doing  it  in  a  slovenly  and  discouraged  way.  Self  gratification  at 
another's  expense,  cruelty,  being  deceived  or  trapped,  or  when  dig- 
nity, self  respect  or  common  courtesy  are  outraged. 

S.  M.,  28.  Am  often  angry  with  myself  caused  by  my  own  faults, 
my  jealousy  of  friends,  so  that  I  can  rarely  rejoice  at  another's  success. 
This  is  bad  and  I  fight  but  cannot  overcome  it.  An  over  tidy  relative 
always  slicking  up  my  things,  the  necessity  for  hard  cramming  for 
examination,  interruptions,  being  laughed  at  is  perhaps  the  worst  of 
all.  Being  asked  to  give  or  do  things  when  I  am  just  ready  to  do  so 
of  my  own  notion,  having  my  school  work  soiled. 

9.  M,,  19.  My  causes  are  being  beaten  in  an  argument,  when  I  know 
I  am  right,  being  misunderstood,  being  kept  waiting,  and  worst  of  all 
being  told  I  am  stupid  and  ought  to  know  better,  especially  if  it  is 
true,  being  accused  of  cheating  at  games,  although  it  takes  many 
such  little  aggravations  to  bring  me  to  the  boiling  point. 

10.  F.,  48.  In  my  teens  very  divergent  opinions  or  beliefs  made 
me  angry.  I  blush,  throb,  grow  stiff,  and  have  a  peculiar  whirling 
sensation  in  the  head.  If  I  differ  in  argument  and  cannot  convince 
my  opponent,  or  if  he  says  what  is  false  or  strained  to  prove  his  case, 
or  worst  of  all  jealousy  makes  me  short,  sharp,  crusty,  and  pale  and 
savage  in  looks. 

11.  F.,  22.  The  causes  of  my  anger  are  if  people  act  against  reason 
or  their  better  knowledge,  or  lack  moral  courage,  pandering  of  all 
sorts,  seeing  nobodies  patronized,  slovenly  work,  want  of  system, 
method  and  organization,  being  expected  to  do  things  without  the 
means  or  conditions,  sudden  emotions  and  meanness. 

12.  F.,  25.  My  causes  of  anger  are  slowness  in  others,  being  kept 
waiting  and  expectant,  or  being  slow  myself  when  I  want  to  be  quick, 
when  I  am  angry  at  myself.  Another  cause  is  if  others  are  dense  and 
wooden,  if  my  curiosity  is  aroused  and  not  satisfied.  Perhaps  it  may 
all  be  resolved  into  my  not  having  my  own  way. 

13.  M.,  27.  I  am  angry  at  late  risers  in  my  own  house,  stupidity, 
disappointment  in  some  fond  hope  and  feeling  pushed  and  hurried. 
Any  kind  of  reproof  is  most  irritating.  To  sharply  deny  people  what 
they  want  is  the  best  means  of  arousing  their  temper. 

14.  F.,  14.  My  temper  is  worst  when  I  see  a  girl  put  on  airs,  strut 
around,  talk  big  and  fine.  I  scut  my  feet  and  want  to  hit  her,  if  she 
is  not  too  big.  Jealousy  at  hearing  others  praised  as  I  think  unduly 
as  paragons,  or  having  my  own  nature  dissected  or  discussed,  is  most 
irritating  to  me. 


540  HALi. : 

15.  F.,  22.  Aggression  toward  the  weak,  stupidity,  obstinacy, 
lying,  deceit,  and  a  sense  of  impurity.  A  person  I  neither  love  or 
hate  would  have  a  hard  task  to  put  me  in  a  temper. 

16.  F.,  36.  One  chief  cause  of  anger  and  even  fear  in  children 
would  be  removed  if  we  did  not  begin  their  training  with  dont's. 
Sympathetic  and  positive  indications,  if  wisely  administered,  cure  me. 

17.  F.,  46.  When  a  playmate  said  her  mother  was  better  than  mine, 
I  tipped  over  the  table  in  her  house,  rushed  home,  and  was  so  confused 
that  I  fell  down  stairs,  was  more  controlled  afterwards. 

18.  F.,  14.  If  I  am  made  to  stop  reading  a  story  in  the  most  inter- 
esting part  to  wash  dishes  or  mind  the  baby,  I  have  to  squeeze  something 
very  hard  or  make  faces,  and  sometimes  when  very  mad,  I  laugh. 

19.  F.,  14.  What  makes  me  mad  is  if  I  have  a  bad  headache 
or  my  brothers  and  sisters  get  to  fighting,  or  all  turn  and  plague  me 
when  mother  is  gone.  Sometimes  I  hit  and  sometimes  say  a  prayer 
to  myself,  and  try  not  to  mind  it. 

20.  F.  With  me  it  is  the  worst  and  the  commonest  cause  to  feel 
that  I  have  more  to  do  than  I  can,  to  hear  gossip  about  neighbors. 

21.  F.,  29.  When  tired,  I  am  irritable  and  fret  at  little  things, 
and  all  my  life  have  felt  that  I  was  not  understood.  This  causes  me 
to  brood.  If  I  am  excited  from  having  enjoyed  myself  very  much, 
then  I  am  easiest  angered. 

22.  F.,  31.  To  be  crowded  or  jostled,  told  to  do  something  by 
people  who  have  no  right,  to  see  slovenly  work,  to  be  ridiculed,  spied, 
tattled  about,  be  detected  in  wrong  doing,  is  my  chief  provocative. 

23.  F.,  19.  Harping,  nagging,  gloating  over  one's  own  or  others' 
wrongs,  rouses  me  and  I  give  my  friends  the  benefit  of  my  thoughts 
with  a  great  deal  of  volubility. 

24.  F.,  29.  Term  time  with  regular  work  is  better  for  temper  than 
vacation  when  all  sorts  of  things  may  turn  up,  and  when  there  is  not 
system,  yet  some  are  most  irritable  when  working  hardest. 

25.  F.,  30.  Tittle-tattle,  petty  talk  and  gossips,  flat  contradiction, 
interference  with  my  rights  or  affairs,  impertinence,  constant  interrup- 
tions, practical  jokes,  idiotic  laughter  or  anything  unjust. 

26.  M.,  26.  The  most  provoking  things  to  me  are  real  or  fancied 
slights  to  those  near  me  or  myself,  for  I  have  great  pride  which  is 
easily  wounded. 

27.  M.,  22.  If  indigestion,  which  is  a  form  of  irritability,  is  tem- 
per, then  I  often  feel  it.  I  am  easiest  angered  in  the  morning,  but 
later  in  the  day  can  face  difficulties  with  far  more  equanimity. 

28.  F.,  35.  My  childish  tempests  of  wrath  burned  hottest  when 
my  grandfather  used  to  trim  or  cut  down  trees  or  even  shrubs.  I 
told  him  God  made  them  that  way,  and  he  had  no  right  to  hurt  or 
change  them. 

29.  F.,  20.  Teasing  I  never  minded,  but  rather  enjoyed,  but  to  snub 
or  talk  down  to  me  in  a  top-lofty  way  arouses  all  my  ire. 

30.  F.,  31.  If  people  I  care  for  say  unkind  things,  it  hurts  me  so 
I  seem  to  turn  to  stone,  and  it  seems  as  if  I  can  never  love  them  more. 
This  rankles.  I  can  recognize  one  distinct  type  of  my  threefold  tem- 
per, which  comes  from  my  mother. 

31.  F.,  21.  To  have  to  do  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  work,  which 
my  people  invent  to  occupy  my  holidays,  makes  me  maddest.  I  speak 
sharply,  and  I  have  reasons,  for  I  am  not  a  naughty  girl,  who  needs  to 
be  kept  out  of  mischief. 

32.  F.,  44.  When  boys  use  vile  language  in  my  presence,  I  want 
to  smack  them  across  the  mouth.  Cruelty  to  objects  incapable  of 
resistance  and  injustice  to  children  rile  me  intensely. 

33.  F.,  39.  Familiarity,  which  I  have  not  evoked,  discussion  with 
those  who  have  not  even  tried  to  understand  my  point  of  view,  to  hear 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  54I 

myself  talked  about  or  discussed,  even  by  my  parents,  is  insuffer- 
able, 

34.  I  am  more  indignant  at  what  people  say  than  at  what  they  do. 
When  nasty  things  are  said,  I  lose  control  of  my  tongue  and  must  say 
what  comes  into  my  head  at  the  time.  I  hardly  know  what  I  am  say- 
ing, but  it  all  comes  back  later. 

Sponta7ieous  Anger.  I  think  we  must  admit  that  sometimes 
this  really  occurs,  although  it  is  a  very  interesting  and  uncer- 
tain question.  Prison  and  other  records  show  that  people  in 
confinement  sometimes  break  out  into  fits  of  destructive  rage 
with  no  apparent  cause.  Of  course  dislikes  may  deepen  to  an- 
tipathy and  aversion,  till  not  only  every  act  whatever  but  the 
very  presence  of  certain  individuals  may  irritate  to  the  point 
of  explosion,  and  there  may  be  a  long  summation  of  petty  vex- 
ations, but  it  would  seem  that  our  organism  is  so  made  that  this 
form  of  erethic  inflammation  may  reach  its  fulminating  stage 
without  any  cause  assignable  by  the  subject  or  observable  by 
others.  Sometimes  purely  imaginary  wrongs  to  imaginary  peo- 
ple excite  intense  moral  indignation.  If  there  are  spontaneous 
cases,  they  cannot  be  entirely  explained  by  love  of  this  kind  of 
erethic  state  as  such,  but  may  be  due  to  the  necessities  of  growth 
or  over  lability  of  nerve  cells  or  centers.  The  satisfaction  and 
real  physical  pleasure  too  that  sometimes  follow  anger  sug- 
gests that  it  has  its  place  in  normal  development.  Running 
amuck  is  sometimes  described  as  spontaneous,  like  rabies.  The 
determination  of  this  question  is  like  the  problem  whether  cry- 
ing and  some  movements  of  infants  and  animals  are  reflex  or 
due  to  purely  efferent  causes,  is  at  present  insoluble  nor  is  it 
crucial  for  the  Lange-James  theory.  Platner,  as  we  saw,  thought 
some  forms  of  mania  were  best  characterized  as  prolonged  anger 
without  observable  cause,  and  the  Berserk  rage  it  was  thought 
was  sometimes  unmotivated.  Michael  Angelo  is  described  as 
chipping  down  a  block  of  marble  to  the  rougher  outlines  in  a 
veritable  rage,  and  I  lately  read  of  a  man  and  wife  in  court  for 
fighting  who  agreed  that  they  were  peaceable  and  affectionate 
but  had  to  have  a  bitter  quarrel  every  few  weeks  over  nothing 
to  clear  the  air.  Play  and  mock  fights  often  contain  a  little  re- 
pressed anger  and  are  good  to  vent  it  harmlessly. 

1.  F.,  23.  When  I  was  17  I  had  a  long  spell  of  irritability,  was 
unhappy,  and  it  gave  me  pleasure  and  satisfaction  to  make  sarcastic 
remarks.  My  weakness  is  impulsiveness,  which  makes  me  unfit  for 
a  responsible  position.  I  try  to  lay  good  foundations  of  belief  and  get 
more  settled  feelings  for  my  own  determination. 

2.  M.,  41.  A  girl  up  to  17  in  good  health  had  fits  of  anger  with  great 
regularity;  about  once  a  month  she  was  violent  and  lost  all  self  con- 
trol .  No  small  vengeance  was  her  desire,  but  no  less  than  a  passionate 
desire  to  kill  the  offender.  Hatred  shown  by  looks  and  gestures  was 
intense,  and  the  fit  might  last  a  week. 

3.  F.,  7,  whose  mother  calls  her  every  endearing  name,  while 
describing  her  way  of  sitting,  eating,  speaking,  etc.,  suddenly  passes 


542  HALI. : 

to  a  rigid  slate,  and  she  once  on  recovering  from  this  vented  her  spite 
by  cutting  off  all  the  leaves  of  a  century  plant. 

4.  Girl  of  3  was  eating  lunch,  when  suddenly,  without  discernible 
cause,  she  cried  out,  tipped  over  her  milk,  rose,  threw  herself  face 
down  upon  the  floor,  screamed,  kicked,  beat  the  boards. 

5.  A  boy  of  14  was  sitting  in  school  dreamily  gazing  out  of  the  window 
when  suddenly  his  face  clouded,  and  scowled,  and  he  struck  his  fist  on 
his  slate  and  broke  it.  The  loud  noise  and  the  teacher  and  the  school 
brought  him  to  himself.  He  could  give  no  explanation  except  that 
he  felt  mad  and  must  strike  something. 

6.  M.,  31.  *When  a  schoolboy  I  was  a  great  fighter  and  if  I  had  not 
had  a  battle  for  some  weeks  was  literally  spoiling  for  a  fight.  Once  I 
went  to  the  barn  and  pounded  a  poor  cow  chained  in  her  stall  for  re- 
lief. Teasing  and  bullying  used  to  relieve  it.  I  sometimes  pounded 
a  rock  behind  the  corn-house  with  a  sledge  hammer. 

7.  M,,  25.  Anger  often  helped  me  out  in  my  work.  In  chopping 
wood,  mowing,  and  other  things  requiring  great  effort,  I  could  scarcely 
help  gritting  my  teeth  and  getting  mad  with  the  object.  I  used  often 
to  find  myself  helped  on  by  anger  at  sums,  knotty  translations,  etc. 

8.  M.,  37.  (Once assistant  physician  in  a  lunatic  asylum.)  I  knew 
an  epileptic  case  where  the  patient,  a  colored  man  of  perhaps  25,  had 
fits  that  seemed  to  be  nothing  but  spells  of  blind  rage.  He  would  attack 
every  one,  destroy  everything  and  injure  himself  till  he  became  un- 
conscious. He  felt  the  symptom  beforehand  and  was  put  in  a  padded 
cell. 

Personal  Antipathies  Based  on  Physical  Forms  and  Features. 
While  these  dislikes  sometimes  are  intense  enough  to  generate 
anger,  their  chief  effect  is  to  raise  the  anger  point,  so  that  a 
far  slighter  stimulus  is  necessary  to  produce  the  explosion  than 
in  the  case  of  those  who  instinctively  attract  each  other.  From 
very  copious  collections  of  questionnaire  material  for  a  very 
different  purpose,  it  appears  that  children  and  young  people 
are  very  prone  to  detect  resemblances  to  animals  in  faces,  and 
often  see  persons  whose  features  suggest  the  monke\^,  dog, 
parrot,  pig,  cat,  mule,  sheep,  rabbit,  owl,  fox,  lion,  etc,  and 
therefore  become  objects  of  special  aversion.  In  another  se- 
ries, prominent  or  deep  set  eyes,  shortness  of  stature,  cowlicks, 
ears  that  stand  out,  too  prominent  chin,  brows  that  meet^ 
large  feet,  high  cheek  bones,  pug  nose,  Adam's  apple,  long  nose, 
small  chin,  prominent,  large,  dirty  or  otherwise  exceptional  teeth, 
pimples,  red  hair,  light  eyes,  thick  lips,  a  stub  thumb,  bad 
breath,  bleary  eyes,  freckles,  fatness,  leanness,  birth  marks, 
deformities,  are  features  any  one  of  which  may  evoke  immediate 
antagonism  and  put  the  mind  in  a  critical  attitude,  so  that  with 
reference  to  persons  possessing  these  peculiarities  irritability 
exists  side  by  side  with  great  good  temper  for  those  who  are 
physically  attractive.  Girls  in  particular  often  single  out  some 
one  peculiarity  with  respect  to  which  they  are  especially  sen- 
sitized, and  in  some  cases  are  provoked  to  active  hate  in  a  way 
that  suggests  the  converse  of  the  fetishism  common  among 
sexual  perverts.     It  is  difficult  often  even  for  the  subject  to 


A   STUDY   OF  ANGKR.  543 

analyze  the  cause  of  these  repulsions  and  they  are  sometimes 
quite  unconscious  and  instinctive. 

F.,  21.  I  am  a  great  person  to  take  likes  and  dislikes;  and  if  the 
latter,  can  see  no  good  points  in  the  person.  I  often  judge  wrongly 
and  sometimes  can  conquer  my  aversion,  but  it  often  recurs. 

F.,  22.  My  little  brother  is  like  me  in  taking  unaccountable  aver- 
sion to  things  and  persons,  especially  the  former,  e.g.,  a  new  suit.  I 
have  an  insupportable  aversion  to  share  my  room  with  certain  people 
with  whom  I  like  to  go  around  with  well  enough,  so  too  I  cannot  see 
sick  people  without  anger,  unless  I  love  them  passionately. 

F.,  19.  I  believe  some  persons  have  elements  about  them  that  tend 
to  always  keep  others  bad  and  others  in  a  temper.  The  more  I  like 
people,  the  more  it  takes  to  make  me  angry  at  them  ;  and  the  better 
my  health,  the  stronger  must  be  the  provocation.  Examinations  make 
me  spiteful  toward  the  very  rooms  where  they  are  held,  and  here  some 
of  my  worst  scenes  with  Apollyon  have  occurred.  Generally  I  can 
stand  any  amount  of  banter,  but  sometimes  a  little  brings  a  storm  on 
some  luckless  head. 

Based  071  Peculiar  Acts  or  Automatisms.  In  this  list  we  have 
snuffling,  lisping,  making  faces,  swallowing,  rolling  the  eyes, 
peculiarities  of  voice,  accent,  intonation,  inflection,  sighing, 
shrugging,  the  kind  of  smile  or  laugh,  motions  of  the  head  and 
arms,  gait  in  walking,  posture  and  carriage,  hiccough,  stam- 
ering,  and  bad  manners  generally. 

Dress  and  Ornament.  Ear  rings  in  men  to  130  women  out 
of  679,  are  objects  of  intense  and  very  special  abhorrence. 
Thitmb  rings,  bangs,  frizzes,  short  hair  in  women,  hat  on  one 
side,  baldness,  too  much  style  or  jewelry,  single  eye  glass, 
flashy  ties,  heavy  watch  chains,  many  rings,  necklaces,  and  a 
long  list  in  this  class  show  how  dominant  unconscious  forces 
are  in  mediating  dislike,  which  in  some  souls  needs  little  inten- 
sification to  settle  into  permanent  hate.  Not  a  few  young  wo- 
men state  that  they  could  never  lead  happy  married  lives  with  the 
possessors  of  these  peculiarities,  no  matter  how  many  good  traits 
of  body  and  mind  atoned  for  them,  and  the  presence  of  persons 
possessing  them  is  described  as  a  constant  source  of  irritation, 
sufficient  in  itself  to  spoil  the  temper.  Special  aversions  of 
this  kind  must,  of  course,  be  the  results  of  considerable  devel- 
opment due  to  frequent  or  continued  exposure,  and  it  is  plain 
that  in  some  cases  the  antipathy  is  created  by  association  with 
other  disagreeable  qualities.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know, 
what  our  data  do  not  show,  whether  these  traits  are  conspic- 
uously present  or  absent  in  those  who  detest  them,  for  it  might 
throw  light  upon  the  question  whether  similar  or  complimentary 
characteristics  repel  or  attract. 

Habits.  Another  class  of  instinctive  aversions  for  which 
some  minds  develop  sore,  irritable  spots,  are  certain  habits  like 
smoking,  eating  onions  and  garlic,  untidiness  in  dress  or  toilet, 
want  of  punctuality  in  rising,  meals,  engagements,  etc.,  too 


544  HALL : 

rapid  or  too  slow  movements,  gossip,  cowardice,  too  great  bash- 
fulness  or  familiarity,  lying,  stupidity  or  density,  selfishness, 
cruelty  to  animals,  injury  to  flowers,  trees,  property,  etc.,  mean- 
ness, flattery,  affectation,  disorderliness,  too  great  primness  and 
preciseness,  excessive  poise  and  reserve  or  deliberation,  imposi- 
tion, laziness,  pandering,  criticism,  cheating  in  games,  and 
bragging.  While  individual  experience  in  many  cases  exposes 
individuals  more  to  one  of  the  above  chologenetic  agencies  than 
to  others,  there  are  undoubted  indications  of  a  tendency  to 
rutty  specialization  here,  so  that  if  education  may  be  defined, 
as  I  suggest  it  may,  in  part,  as  learning  to  be  most  angry  with 
those  things  that  most  deserve  it  and  maintaining  a  true  per- 
spective down  the  scale,  most  of  our  correspondents  are  not 
thus  educated,  and  we  have  here  another  example  of  the  res 
aiigusta  domi  of  the  mind  for  which  heredity  may  in  part  ac- 
count, but  not  wholly.  The  above  miscellaneous  qualities 
might  be  classified  as  aesthetic  and  moral.  The  deliverances 
of  conscience  and  a  good  taste  are,  however,  here  particularly 
interrelated.  Righteous  indignation  at  unethical  acts  shades 
by  imperceptible  gradations  into  the  milder  verdict  of  bad  taste, 
but  even  the  latter  is  not  without  significance  as  a  predisposing 
cause  of  anger. 

Limitations  of  Freedom.  lyiberty  is  a  precious  possession  and 
sedulously  guarded  by  instinct.  It  is  the  indispensable  condition 
of  the  completest  and  most  all  sided  growth,  and  cannot  be 
too  carefully  cherished.  In  an  atmosphere  of  repression  and 
of  donVs,  temper  usually  suffers,  while  one  of  the  best  cures 
of  habitual  anger  is  liberty,  and  complete  occupation  is  often 
a  preventive  to  it. 

The  Thwarting  of  Expectation  or  Purpose.  When  a  story 
breaks  off  at  the  most  interesting  point  and  the  mind  is  left  in 
suspense,  or  when  children  are  called  away  from  stories  just 
before  the  denouement  or  games  before  the  crisis,  when  they 
are  kept  waiting  or  if  curiosity  is  especially  aroused,  or  they 
are  fooled  and  deceived,  which  is  one  common  form  of  teasing, 
or  if  adults  fail  to  realize  the  plans  of  their  youth,  the  anger 
diathesis  is  called  into  play.  In  fact  science,  which  is  prevision, 
and  consists  largely  in  eliminating  shock  or  the  unexpected, 
has  as  one  of  its  functions  the  reduction  of  this  chologenetic 
factor.  Sudden  fright,  the  blocking  of  a  path  or  doorway  by 
an  obstacle,  the  stubbing  of  the  toe  or  running  into  a  post,  are 
perhaps  physical  analogues  of  the  same  thing.  We  might 
laugh  in  some  states,  if  Spencer's  theory  of  a  descending  in- 
congruity is  correct,  but  we  are  more  likely  to  be  indignant. 

Contradiction.  Akin  to  the  above  cause  is  that  of  meeting 
opposition  of  our  sentiments  or  ideas.  Even  when  very  differ- 
ent views  are  encountered  in  friends,  especially  if  they  are  per- 


A   STUDY   OF    ANGER.  545 

sistently  maintained,  as  well  as  when  the  direct  lie  is  given, 
the  conflict  of  mind,  will  or  feeling  arises,  which  may  evoke 
the  anger  erethism.  There  are  paranoiacs  to  whom  not  only 
the  thought  but  the  very  word  conflict^  or  even  discussion  ex- 
cites painful  symptoms,  while  the  interest  in  a  vigorous  alter- 
cation or  debate,  although  less  than  in  a  slugging  match,  is 
very  great. 

Invasion  or  Repressio7i  of  the  Self.  Bach  personality  hedges 
itself  about  with  certain  limits  which,  however  widely  they 
may  vary  for  friends  and  enemies,  are  more  or  less  fixed  for  each 
acquaintance  or  each  mood.  While  many  complain  of  not  be- 
ing understood,  a  frequent  excitant  of  anger  is  being  too  well 
known.  Hence,  prominent  among  the  assigned  causes  are 
being  spied  upon,  tattled  of,  gossiped  about,  criticised,  dis- 
sected, analyzed,  detected  or  even  reproved.  One  form  of 
plaguing  is  to  penetrate  with  undue  familiarity,  like  nicknames, 
the  adytum  of  selfhood,  and  mocking  and  ridicule  find  part  of 
their  effectiveness  here.  Here,  too,  belong  most  forms  of  im- 
pudence from  our  inferiors  and  insults  from  our  equals. 

Pride  and  a  certain  amount  of  self  respect  is  one  of  the  most 
irrepressible  qualities  of  our  nature,  so  that  slights,  contumelies 
and  undue  subjection  or  subordination,  even  slight  wounds  of 
vanity  that  are  inflicted  by  ostentatious  disregard  of  opinions, 
are  keenly  resented. 

Injustice.  Not  only  cruelty  to  animals  or  persons  taking  un- 
fair advantage,  but  injustice  to  self,  like  being  accused  of  deeds 
or  words  that  are  abhorred,  abuse  of  friends,  heroes,  favorite 
authors,  and  in  rare  cases  imaginary  indignities  to  imaginary 
sufferers,  are  chologenetic. 

Individual  Causes  of  a  Special  Nature.  Some  describe  with 
considerable  detail  not  only  as  special  provocatives  but  as  causes 
of  distinct  deterioration  of  temper,  frequent  experiences  like 
finding  books,  utensils,  tools,  etc.,  out  of  place,  persistent  at- 
tacks of  flies  and  mosquitoes,  the  perversity  of  walking  with 
those  who  will  not  keep  step  or  habitually  lose  it  themselves,  of 
having  the  toe  or  dress  stepped  on,  of  being  jolted  in  a  vehicle, 
crowded  or  turning  out  the  same  way  in  meeting  others  in  the 
street,  or  even  being  touched  by  strangers,  having  the  hair 
come  down  or  out  of  order,  the  approach  of  a  dog  or  cat,  etc. , 
busy  work,  being  given  too  much  to  do,  taunts,  meanness.  In- 
deed most  have  sore  points  or  anger  zones  which  may  be  based 
on  individual  weaknesses,  or  on  peculiarities  of  form  or  action, 
or  on  special  experiences  of  provocation. 

jealousy.     Jealousy  in  seeing  others  preferred  by  teachers, 

^See  the  interesting  case  described  by  Dr.  E.  Cowles.  Persistent 
and  Fixed  Ideas.     Am.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  I,  p.  222. 


54^  HALi. : 

friends,  acquaintances,  or  hearing  them  praised,  may  cause  not 
only  intense  misery  but  angry  outbursts. 

Subjective  Variations. 

Among  these  the  changes  from  the  general  feeling  of  eupho- 
ria and  well  being  connected  with  good  health,  which  is  the 
best  preventive  of  anger,  down  to  illness  and  pain,  which  are 
its  surest  promoters,  are  most  important.  Some  forms  of  disease 
and  early  convalescence  are  particularly  characterized  by  iras- 
cibility, and  children  who  are  in  abounding  health  have,  other 
things  being  equal,  perhaps  the  best  immunity  from  temper. 
Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  state  of  rest  or  fatigue.  In 
the  morning  after  a  long  vacation,  provocation  is,  as  every  one 
knows,  far  less  easy  than  in  the  state  of  exhaustion.  Hunger 
and  sleepiness,  too,  incline  to  anger,  and  satiety  to  good  temper. 
The  optimum  of  temperature  helps  the  disposition,  while  exces- 
sive heat  and  cold  make  it  fragile.  Dentition  and  menstruation 
are  very  important  sources  of  variation  of  the  anger  point, 
which  from  all  these  considerations  seems  to  be  even  more  fluc- 
tuating than  has  been  supposed.  General  prosperity  and  a 
sense  of  doing  well  and  getting  on  in  the  world,  as  contrasted 
with  ill  fortune  and  calamity,  makes  for  exemption  from  anger, 
as  does  a  general  good  conscience,  settled  and  tranquil  religious 
opinions,  good  friends,  an  optimistic  philosophy,  sufficient  but 
not  too  much  work  or  occupation,  and  in  general  absence  or 
removal  of  all  the  chronic  causes  of  frettiness.  The  states  of 
irritable  weakness  and  hysteria  are  characterized  by  fluctuating 
moods,  e.  g.: 

Heredity.  On  general  principles  it  would  seem  that  a  diathe- 
sis so  marked  should  be  as  hereditary  as  anything  in  our  psycho- 
physic  organism.  While  our  data  are  far  too  few  for  inference, 
it  would  seem  that  inheritance  has  here  a  wide  scope. 

F.,  39.  My  father  was  never  even  hasty,  but  my  mother  was  of  a 
cranky,  tempery  family.  I  am  for  months  and  for  occasionally  years, 
sweet  and  placid  as  my  father,  and  then  without  provocation  I  have 
spells  of  great  irritability  like  my  mother's  people. 

Eng.,  F.,  II.  My  aunt  who  brought  me  up  has  given  me  her  quick 
temper.     It  came  by  contagion  and  I  think  not  by  heredity. 

Eng.,  F.,  18.  My  father  is  the  calmest  and  most  placid  of  men.  My 
mother  one  of  the  most  fiery  of  women.  I  am  all  mother  in  this 
respect. 

Eng.,  F.,  20.  A  young  man  of  20  I  have  known  from  childhood  in- 
herits great  irritability  which  can  brook  no  restraint,  who  suffers  to  the 
point  of  tears  from  wounded  pride,  can  bear  no  teasing  or  reproof, 
directly  from  his  maternal  grandfather.  It  seemed  to  lie  dormant  for 
a  generation. 

Eng.,  F.,  23.  My  mother  is  very  irritable.  Her  father  had  a  whirl- 
wind temper  and  five  of  us  seven  children  have  it,  and  in  two  it  seems 
quite  absent. 

Scotch,  F.,  26.     One  brother,  one  second  cousin,  and  one  maternal 


A  STUDY  OF   ANGKR.  547 

ancestor  are  very  hot  tempered  like  me,  the  rest  have  more  or  less 
escaped. 

Absence  of  Temper.  Some  seem  born  untempered,  nothing 
flusters  or  rufiies  them.  They  are  passive,  easy,  lazy,  inert, 
apathetic,  and  while  often  imposed  upon  are  generally  liked, 
rarely  teased  or  abused.  Such  cases  usually  lack  not  only 
energy,  but  the  power  of  enthusiasm  and  capacity  for  erethic 
states  generally.  Too  good  a  temper  not  only  precludes  from 
the  luxury  of  intense  forms  of  manifesting  life,  but  is  usually 
associated  with  a  certain  insensibility,  lack  of  self  respect,  am- 
bition and  will  power. 

F.,  39.  My  provoking  good  temper  has  been  my  life-long  reproach. 
I  fear  it  is,  as  I  am  often  told,  apathy,  for  I  am  easy  going  in  matters 
in  which  I  should  take  more  interest.  Then,  too,  my  shyness  keeps 
me  from  showing  what  I  feel  deeply. 

F.,  21.  I  am  by  nature  rather  unimpassionate  and  indifferent,  have 
little  temper  or  impulsiveness  and  rarely  get  enthusiastic.  I  do  not 
consider  this  a  virtue,  but  it  is  not  because  I  am  too  lazy  to  show 
temper. 

F.,  28.  In  good  health  and  happy  circumstances,  I  have  yet  to  see 
a  sour  spirited  child.  I  think  it  would  be  possible  to  rear  many  chil- 
dren in  such  a  way  that  they  would  have  no  experience  of  anger. 

F.,  29.  I  know  a  girl  who  never  in  the  world  could  by  any  possi- 
bility be  roused  to  temper.  Her  temperament  was  so  inert,  she  says 
she  cannot  get  up  anger  when  she  knows  she  ought  to.  A  world  of 
such  people,  I  think,  would  be  very  monotonous. 

F.,  27.  I  often  liken  myself  to  a  happy,  clear,  busy,  sparkling 
brook,  rarely  interrupted  by  any  one  stirring  the  mud  at  the  bottom. 
I  can  be  roused,  however,  and  the  time  before  normal  conditions  recur 
depends  upon  the  depth  to  which  the  mud  was  stirred. 

F.,  18.  I  know  a  girl  of  very  hot  temper,  who  when  provoked  does 
not  give  way,  simply  and  solely  because  she  is  too  lazy  to  take  the 
trouble.     It  fatigues  her  to  control  herself. 

Teasing  and  the  Cry  and  Anger  Points.  Hectoring,  plaguing, 
baiting,  worrying  and  tormenting  in  all  their  many  forms 
are  largely,  though  not  wholly,  motivated  by  what  might  be 
called  the  psychological  impulse  to  see  what  another  will  do 
under  these  new  conditions  of  strain  or  temptation.  A  German 
student  told  me  he  never  felt  acquainted  with  a  new  man  enough 
to  know  whether  he  liked  or  disliked  him,  until  he  had  seen 
him  more  or  less  intoxicated.  This  sentiment  is  very  wide 
spread,  and  is  akin  to  Plato's  suggestion  that  counsellors  should 
discuss  topics  at  night,  when  drunk,  and  decide  them  in  the 
morning,  when  sober;  so  for  many  anger  removes  masks,  and 
what  Nordau  calls  the  conventional  lies  are  thrown  off  and  we 
seem  to  see  the  lower  strata  of  what  a  person  really  is  at 
bottom  alone,  or  in  the  dark.  Repulsive  instincts  and  habits 
manifest  themselves  better  sometimes  to  the  common  acquaint- 
anceships of  years.  Temper  is  tested. in  many  forms  of  hazing, 
fagging,  etc.,  to  see  if  the  victim  will  retaliate,  how  much 


54^  HALL  : 

provocation  is  necessary  to  bring  him  to  that  point  and  what 
form  the  reaction  takes.  If  peculiarities  of  body,  dress  or 
manner  are  salient,  these  are  likely  to  be  sore  chologenetic 
points  of  attack.  Girls  who  blush  easily  or  are  so  ticklish 
that  even  a  pointed  finger  sets  them  off,  have  red  hair  or  even 
deformities,  are  particularly  tempting  to  constitutional  teasers, 
who  are  usually,  though  not  always,  cooler  and  better  tempered 
than  their  victims.  These  experiences  are  really  very  often 
educative  and  develop  control  in  the  victim,  although  some- 
times exactly  the  reverse  is  true,  and  tempers  may  be  thus 
spoiled.  Teasers  with  a  strong  propensity  for  practical  jokes, 
playing  April  fools,  etc.,  who  are  usually  older  and  stronger, 
often  profess  and  sometimes  really  have  the  purpose  of  t^ching 
control.  When  anger  is  once  roused,  the  goal  with  some  is 
attained.  More  commonly,  ridicule  is  then  applied  which  in- 
tensifies the  rage,  and  other  methods  of  fanning  it  to  its  utmost 
often  give  the  keenest  enjoyment  to  the  provoker.  This  peculiar 
pleasure  in  witnessing  manifestations  of  anger  is  partly  due  to 
a  sense  of  superiority  of  poise,  and  no  doubt  partly  to  pleasure 
in  witnessing  primitive  psychological  forms  of  expression,  while 
the  factor  of  cruelty  and  sport  with  a  victim  in  one's  power  is  prob- 
ably the  strongest  motive  of  all.  The  tormentor  chuckles,  his  eyes 
sparkle  with  delight,  he  claps  his  hands,  dances,  jumps  up  and 
down,  rubs  his  hands,  slaps  his  leg,  points  his  finger,  taunts, 
jeers,  yells,  calls  it  fun,  and  all  this  tends  to  egg  on  the  victim 
to  extremes,  the  memory  of  which  is  well  calculated  to  cause 
regret,  mortification,  and  the  resolve  for  better  control  next 
time.^ 

With  the  cry  point,  no  less  variable  than  the  anger  point, 
the  case  is  very  different.  The  tormentor  often  stops  short  at 
this  point,  and  sometimes  the  mood  reverts  to  pity,  sympathy, 
and  regret.  This  is  especially  the  case  if  the  cry  is  one  of  col- 
lapse, surrender  or  real  grief,  with  no  impotent  anger  in  it;  but 
the  aggravation  may  be  pushed  still  further  with  accusations 
of  babyishness  in  quest  of  a  deeper  lying  and  later  reaction, 
and  particularly  a  boy  that  has  no  fight  in  him  is  despised. 

II.     Physical  Manifestations  of  Anger. 

Upon  this  topic  our  returns  are  fullest  and  have  been  care- 
fully tabulated  and  compiled  with  the  following  general  results: 
Vaso-motor  Disturbances.  Eighty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  best 
cases  describe  flushing,  and  twenty-seven  per  cent,  describe 
pallor  as  one  characteristic  of  anger.  The  heart  is  often  immedi- 
ately affected  and  sometimes  with  very  painful  cardiac  sensations. 

iSee  Burk:  Teasing  and  Bullying.  Pedagogical  Seminary ^  Vol. 
IV,  p.  336. 


A  STUDY  OF   ANGER.  549 

It  pounds  and  bounds,  there  is  a  feeling  of  compression,  and 
the  literature  elsewhere  referred  to  describes  several  cases  of 
death  from  cardiac  lesion  thus  caused.  Occasionally  some 
pulsation  is  felt  sometimes  painfully  in  a  particular  part  of  the 
body.  In  one  case  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  another  specifies 
the  wrist.  In  many  cases  severe  headaches  with  rhythmic 
intensifications  for  each  pulsation  are  caused  by  the  general 
disturbance  of  vascular  tonicity.  One  woman  describes  the 
enlargement  and  pulsation  of  the  temporal  artery  as  the  sign 
by  which  she  best  recognizes  temper  in  her  husband  and 
describes  a  peculiar  whirling  sensation  in  the  head.  Stigma- 
tization  over  a  large  V  shaped  area  in  the  forehead  occurs  in 
one  case,  the  face  may  become  mottled,  certain  local  pains 
sometimes  sharp,  which  attend  anger,  seem  thus  best  explained 
as  does  the  dizziness  and  faintness  often  mentioned.  The  nose 
grows  red  or  blue  in  one  case,  the  eye  balls  are  blood  shot,  and 
erethism  of  the  breasts  or  sexual  parts  may  occur.  In  one 
case  the  first  sign  of  anger  is  nose  bleed,  and  if  it  is  copious 
the  anger  fit  is  less  violent.  Menstruation  may  be  arrested, 
sometimes  suddenly,  and  other  psychic  weather  signs  indicate 
a  more  or  less  intensive  vaso-motor  storm. 

Secretions.  The  glands  are  no  doubt  far  more  closely  con- 
nected with  psyche  than  has  hitherto  been  supposed,  and  we 
shall  have  no  doubt  ere  long  a  glandular  psychology.  Of  course 
the  most  common  secretion  is  that  of  tears,  which  are  specified 
in  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  returns.  Tears  may  be  shed  when 
other  symptoms  of  crying  are  repressed.  Salivation  is  not  only 
more  copious,  although  in  later  stages  of  a  long  rage  it  may  be 
repressed  till  the  mouth  is  described  as  '  *  bricky  dry, ' '  but  per- 
haps its  quality  may  be  modified  from  the  stomach  or  otherwise, 
since  in  some  cases  a  bad  taste  is  characteristic  of  anger.  Its 
effect  upon  mammary  secretions  in  nursing  women  is  very 
marked,  sometimes  by  way  of  almost  total  and  sudden  sup- 
pression, often  by  some  modification  of  the  quality  of  the  milk, 
so  that  the  infant  is  made  ill.  Urinal  secretion  is  often  affected 
rarely  by  way  of  suppression,  but  is  commonly  more  copious, 
paler  and  with  less  deposits.  Popularly  anger  is  thought  to  be 
closely  associated  with  the  liver,  and  a  bilious  temperament  is 
supposed  to  be  peculiarly  irascible.  In  not  less  than  a  score  of 
cases,  attacks  called  bilious  are  ascribed  as  the  direct  effect  of 
anger.  No  less  frequent  results  are  constipation  and  diarrhoea, 
which  may  at  least  belong  in  part  here.  There  is  no  case  in 
our  returns  that  suggests  any  modification  of  the  action  of 
sebaceous  glands,  but  in  two  cases  a  rash,  once  said  to  be  all 
over  the  body,  follows  every  fit  of  anger  in  a  child;  and  in  the 
case  of  one  male  sexual  secretion  attends  every  violent  out- 
break.    It  would  be  very  interesting  to  know  how  common  this 


550  ■  hall: 

is,  and  a  collection  of  facts  here  might  throw  valuable  light 
upon  Sadism  and  Marrochism.  Sweating  may  be  copious  in 
cases  where  increased  muscular  action  fails  to  account  for  it. 
Whatever  may  be  true  of  other  emotions,  some  of  which  we 
know  to  be  closely  associated  with  glandular  action,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  the  relation  here. 

Salivation,  Swallowing  and  Nausea.  The  act  of  swallowing 
somewhat  like  that  of  winking  is  normally  repeated  at  brief  but 
varying  intervals  through  the  waking  hours.  Just  how  much 
is  due  to  the  summated  stimulus  of  accumulating  saliva  and 
how  much  to  the  constantly  increasing  lability  of  the  nervous 
center  involved  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  Of  these  two 
factors,  however,  there  is  abundant  reason  to  believe  that  each 
is  independently  variable.  Many  returns  specify  swallowing, 
often  several  times  in  succession,  as  one  concomitant  of  the 
early  stage  of  anger.  Occasionally  the  impulse  to  swallow  is 
strong  but  is  inhibited,  and  gagging,  lump  in  the  throat,  and 
temporary  paralysis  are  described.  This  beginning  of  the  per- 
istaltic action  that  forces  food  through  the  many  feet  of  the 
alimentary  tract  is,  of  course,  far  more  under  control  than  the 
latter  stages.  The  will  delivers  the  bolus  of  food  to  the  back 
of  the  mouth,  whence  it  is  taken  in  charge  and  propelled  by 
the  more  reflex  mechanism.  In  carnivora  the  attack  and 
slaughter  of  prey  is  the  normal  prelude  to  eating  it,  and  like 
salivation  this  movement  may  be  a  residuum  of  an  ancient  as- 
sociation without  assuming  any  earlier  canibalistic  stage.  The 
question  is  how  far  the  momentum  of  this  paleo-psychic  asso- 
ciation enters  into  the  psychoses  of  anger,  which  has  as  its  tap 
root  the  quite  different  impulse  of  defense  and  resistance.  That 
it  enters,  I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

Nausea  with  anti-peristaltic  symptoms  more  commonly  occurs 
near  the  end  or  in  the  reactionary  stage  of  an  anger  fit,  and 
sometimes  acts  as  the  chief  inhibitory  motive  to  the  impulse  to 
swallow.  Its  cause  here  seems  to  be  mainly  the  fatigue  from 
over  excitement  or  exertion,  any  form  of  which  may  cause 
it.  There  seems  reason  for  raising  the  query,  whether  these 
two  contradictory  functions  are  so  related  that  if  the  first 
is  overdone  without  sufficient  stimulus,  incipient  nausea  arises 
in  a  compensatory  way.  If  one  swallows  as  frequently  and  as 
long  as  possible  without  eating  and  when  in  the  normal  state, 
incipient  nausea  arises.  Swallowing  is  the  act  of  appropriating 
the  material  on  which  life  is  made,  and  nausea  means  the  repul- 
sion or  even  the  regurgitation  of  it,  so  that  its  symbolic  signifi- 
cance is  great  and  has  been  well  exploited  in  both  language 
and  in  aesthetics. 

Spitting.  In  common  with  other  secretions,  salivation  is 
often  increased  in  anger,  sometimes  as  would  appear  with,  and 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  —  55 1 

sometimes  without,  chewing  or  biting  movements.  In  some  of 
our  cases  the  saliva  is  copious  and  runs  from  the  mouth  upon 
the  clothes  in  a  profuse  and  offensive  way,  and  in  three  cases 
it  is  described  as  frothing  at  the  mouth,  and  in  one  as  white 
froth.  In  the  acme  of  the  stress  and  strain  of  fighting,  this  is 
puffed  or  blown,  sometimes  it  would  appear  purposively  and  at 
other  times  unconsciously,  upon  the  clothes  or  in  the  face  of 
the  opponent.  Just  what  all  this  phenomena  involves  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  but  it  would  appear  that  at  least  in  some 
cases  the  drooling  in  anger  is  partly  due  to  temporary  and  par- 
tial paralysis  of  the  lips  and  perhaps  of  deglutition.  lyocal  ex- 
haustion may  be  carried  so  far  that  it  would  be  no  more  possible 
to  spit  than  to  whistle.  To  associate  the  salivation  of  anger 
with  primitive  anticipation  of  savory  food  in  such  cases  may 
seem  a  long  cry,  and  yet  it  is  not  theoretically  impossible.  In 
creatures  that  kill  their  prey,  especially  if  it  is  large  and  in- 
volves an  erethism  like  anger,  this  association  may  have  been 
established  by  very  long  and  inveterate  experience.  Spitting 
proper  begins  consciously  with  what  might  be  described  as  a 
t-p  movement  by  slightly  protruding  the  tongue,  drawing  it 
in  rapidly  between  the  lips  and  projecting  its  load  of  saliva  by 
a  slight  explosion  of  air  compressed  in  the  mouth  after  the 
tongue  has  been  withdrawn  and  before  the  lips  have  closed. 
Children  in  the  second  and  third  year  learn  and  sometimes 
practice  this.  This  movement  has  apparently  little  utility  for 
the  child  and  is  essentially  a  sign  of  aggrjession.  It  requires 
much  delicacy  and  co-ordination  of  labio-lingual  movements, 
and  would  probably  be  impossible  in  a  creature  less  highly  en- 
dowed with  articulatory  capacity.  It  is  therefore  of  special 
interest.  Another  mode  of  spitting,  which  appears  to  be  later, 
is  what  might  be  called  the  p-t  movement,  in  a  sense  the  re- 
verse of  the  preceding.  It  consists  in  thrusting  out  the  saliva 
with  the  tongue  with  much  breath  pressure  after  the  manner 
common  among  tobacco  chewers.  This  movement  is  more  dif- 
ficult and  is  often  practiced  with  unpleasant  results.  From  the 
age  of  four  or  five  years  on  to  near  puberty,  spitting  may  be  a 
prominent  expression  of  anger.  At  first  it  commonly  seems 
directed  toward  the  face,  then  towards  the  shoes,  clothes,  hands, 
seat,  etc.  Contests  are  described  among  expert  spitters,  both 
as  to  greater  distance  and  greater  accuracy.  The  victor  in  a  fight 
sometimes  spits  in  the  eyes,  hair,  mouth,  etc. ,  of  his  prostrate 
enemy.  The  folk-lore  upon  this  subject  is  very  voluminous 
and  pertains  to  the  number  of  times  one  spits  ceremonially 
upon  given  occasions,  the  place,  direction,  etc.  It  is,  of  course, 
one  of  the  most  extreme  expressions  of  contempt  and  excites 
correspondingly  intense  repugnance.  Saliva,  of  course,  is  a 
very  effective  medium  of  contagion,  but  the  extreme  abhor- 


552  HALi.: 

rence  of  the  act  when  contrasted  with  the  attractiveness  of 
kissing,  which  often  involves  exchange  of  saliva  and  may  be 
contagious,  is  hard  to  explain.  Of  course  we  have  no  adequate 
evidence  of  sufficiently  venomous  ancestors  of  man  to  sustain 
an  argument  that  this  horror  is  a  toned  down  fear  of  virus- 
bearing  sputa.  The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  there  is  no 
positive  disproof  of  it  and  that  the  possibility  is  open.  That 
even  the  bite  of  normal  man  or  his  progenitors  is  poisonous  to 
another  member  of  his  own  species,  is  unknown.  The  other 
possibility  is  that  this  abhorrence  has  some  of  its  roots  in  long 
accumulated  experience  of  contagion  of  morbific  germs  through 
saliva  without  dermal  rupture,  and  that  we  have  here  an  in- 
stinctive prophylaxis  against  contagion,  which  has  given  the 
folk-lore  its  character  and  form. 

Respiration.  Modifications  of  breathing  are  among  the 
marked  accompaniments  of  anger.  Sometimes  deep  inhala- 
tion, often  through  the  nose  with  clenched  lips,  perhaps 
several  times  repeated,  as  the  need  of  increased  oxidization 
deepens ;  sometimes  rapid  breathing,  which  may  be  through 
the  mouth,  and  give  the  effect  of  panting  and  occasionally 
almost  gasping,  is  described.  Stutterousness,  almost  suggest- 
ing a  snort,  purring,  snoring,  choking,  gagging,  and  sobbing 
noises  that  almost  suggest  hysterical  globus — all  these  cannot 
adequately  be  accounted  for  by  increased  muscular  activity. 
Whether  the  type  of  respiration  changes  from  abdominal  to 
pectoral  or  conversely,  and  what  the  form  of  the  respiratory 
curves  through  a  fit  of  repressed  anger  are,  it  would  be  inter- 
esting to  investigate.  Amphibian  life  requires  periods  of  deep 
and  rapid  breathing,  alternating  with  longer  periods  of  rest, 
and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  preparatory  stage  of  anger 
symptoms  is  analogous  in  some  cases  to  preparation  for  a  long 
dive  with  violent  exercise. 

Noises.  In  twenty-eight  young  children  screaming  is  more 
or  less  fully  described  as  the  most  characteristic  expression  of 
anger.  Crying  is  a  language  all  its  own,  and  as  it  develops  in 
the  first  year  or  two  of  life  the  mother  or  nurse  readily  distin- 
guishes the  cry  of  hunger,  fatigue,  wetness,  pain,  etc.,  but 
none  is  more  characteristic  than  that  of  anger,  which  is  loud, 
sharp  and  generally  sustained.  A  little  older  children  develop 
sometimes  very  characteristic  snarls,  growls,  grumbles,  whoops, 
bellows,  chatters,  bleats,  grunts,  barks,  or  noises  that  some- 
times consciously,  or  more  characteristically  unconsciously, 
suggest  the  cries  of  animals.  Later,  occasionally,  specific 
words  of  warning,  threat,  defiance,  or  specific  oaths  become 
habitual  and  characteristic  of  rising  temper.  In  some  children 
anger  brings  on  a  fit  of  stuttering  or  a  peculiar  tremor  or  stac- 
cato, or  speech   may  be  interrupted  by  a  noise  suggesting  a 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  553 

sob.  In  older  people  the  voice  is  perhaps  the  most  sensitive  of 
all  the  registers  of  anger.  It  is  loud,  shrill  or  harsh,  with 
variously  modified  rhythms.  Later  yet  control  and  repression 
may  develop  a  peculiarly  slow,  calm,  low,  precise  utterance 
which  is  with  difficulty,  and  not  without  considerable  acquaint- 
ance, recognized  as  a  danger  signal.  One  woman  almost 
whispers,  with  little  phonation,  but  very  intense  labio-lingual 
expression,  and  unwonted  relations  of  these  two  elements  of 
speech  are  common.  Many  become  exceedingly  voluble,  irre- 
pressible and  almost  eloquent,  while  some  are  glum  and  mono- 
syllabic. Not  infrequent  is  the  habit  of  soliloquy,  and  many 
seek  solitude  in  order  to  find,  perhaps  in  monologue  and  perhaps 
in  other  forms  of  loud  vocalization,  the  readiest  vent  for  passion. 
One  woman  is  "conscious  of  no  modification  of  voice  in  anger 
except  a  slight  tendency  to  be  hoarse  afterward,  even  when 
she  has  not  spoken.  Perhaps  a  dozen  well-described  cases 
cannot  speak  or  make  a  noise,  but  are  vocally  paralyzed  or 
they  cannot  speak  without  crying.  Theories  of  the  origin  of 
language  like  those  of  Noire  postulate  a  very  close  connection 
between  the  intense  muscular  tension  and  loud  phonation.  The 
characteristic  cry  of  epilepsy  shows  the  same,  as  does  the  battle 
cries  of  various  savage  races.  College  yells  at  athletic  contests 
are  toned-down  cries  of  defiance. 

The  close  association  between  anger  and  noise  is  seen  in 
many  ways.  Some  stamp,  walk  with  heavy  or  with  shuffling 
steps,  must  pound  something  with  a  stick  or  with  the  fist,  or 
beat  a  loud  tattoo  with  the  fingers  or  feet.  One  young  woman 
goes  by  herself  and  slams  a  particular  door ;  a  girl  pounds  the 
gutter  with  a  stone  ;  a  boy  throws  stones  against  the  loose 
boards  of  the  barn  or  against  the  resonant  surface  of  a  large 
sugar  pan.  Several  work  ofF  their  anger  by  playing  or  even 
pounding  the  piano.  The  gratification  in  these  cases  appears 
to  be  not  solely  from  making,  but  also  from  hearing  a  loud 
nbise. 

Involuntary  Movements.  Of  these  there  is  a  long  list,  many 
of  which  fall  under  other  captions.  Changes  of  muscle  tonus 
are  seen  in  the  changes  of  the  voice  elsewhere  noted,  and  in 
the  relaxation  or,  less  often,  the  tonic  contraction  of  the 
sphincters,  which  causes  escape  or  retention  of  the  excreta. 
Horripilation  is  sometimes  described,  the  skin  becomes  rough, 
and  shuddery,  creepy,  crawly  sensations  occur.  In  one  case 
twitching  of  the  skin  on  the  right  leg,  in  one  upon  the  shoulder, 
and  often  tonic  or  clonic  or  choreic  movements  of  the  face  and 
fingers  are  described.  The  relation  of  voluntary  to  the  invol- 
untary activities,  which  is  always  a  variable  one,  suffers  in 
anger,  and  the  disturbance  and  the  readjustment  is  best  seen 
in  weak  persons  with  strong  temper  after  it  is  over,  in  which 

JouRNAiy— 15 


554  HALT. : 

arterial  and  cardiac  tension,  respiratory  rhythms,  etc.,  are 
modified. 

Attitudes  and  Postures.  In  anger  the  body  often  becomes 
more  or  less  stiflf  and  rigid,  is  drawn  up  to  its  full  height, 
sometimes  with  an  attitude  of  pride  that  suggests  strutting, 
the  legs  are  placed  apart  when  standing,  and  all  the  antag- 
onistic muscles  are  tensed  up,  so  that  there  is  a  great  expendi- 
ture of  energy,  sometimes  with  very  little  activity,  along  with 
which  goes  a  feeling  of  great  strength,  a  difficulty  of  making 
correct  or  quick  movements  which  may  otherwise  be  normal, 
and  which  reacts  sometimes  into  the  stage  of  collapse  later. 
Some  habitually  assume  a  characteristic  attitude  when  angry, 
usually  erect.  Two  seek  to  place  the  back  against  a  wall, 
post,  or  other  firm  background.  Two  are  impelled  to  sit  and 
eighteen  to  lie  down,  mostly  upon  the  face,  and  perhaps  to  roll, 
writhe,  squirm  or  wriggle.  One  must  throw  herself  into  a 
chair  sideways,  in  a  particular  manner,  with  feet  drawn  up. 
The  arms  are  more  commonly  held  down  by  the  sides  with 
slight  pronation  or  supination  movements,  with  fists  clenched ; 
sometimes  one  or  both  hands  are  placed  against  the  breast. 
One  young  man  always  thrusts  one  hand  into  his  coat  and  the 
other  into  his  pocket,  and  probably  a  large  number  of  more  or 
less  characteristic  positions  could  be  collected. 

Butting  and  Pounding  the  Head,  Many  infants  when  angry 
and  powerless  to  hurt  others,  strike  their  heads  against  doors, 
posts,  walls  of  houses,  and  sometimes  on  the  floor.  In  this 
gesture  the  head  maj^  be  struck  so  sharply  as  to  cause  pain  and 
crying,  but  more  often  it  is  pounded  several  times  wdth  a  viol- 
ence which  would  in  a  normal  condition  cause  weeping  but  does 
not  now.  In  some  children  bruises  and  discoloration  lasting 
for  days  results.  •  Occasionally  in  older  children  headaches  seem 
to  be  thus  caused.  This  expression  of  anger  rarely  outlasts 
early  childhood,  but  sometimes  persists  into  adult  years,  as  in 
one  striking  case  elsewhere  in  our  returns  of  a  young  man  who 
habitually  pounded  his  head  on  the  floor  when  his  best  girl 
danced  with  another.  Sometimes  the  head  is  struck  violently 
with  the  fist  and  quite  often,  not  only  in  infancy  but  in  boyish 
fights,  butting  is  a  mode  of  aggression.  Some  boys  love  to 
butt  and  attain  great  ability.  One  is  described  as  running  a 
rod  at  full  tilt  and  injuring  a  companion  dangerously  in  the 
stomach.  Another  boy  practiced  butting  hard  objects  to  attain 
virtuoship.  Blows  with  the  head  are  often  described  as  side- 
ways; the  forehead  or  particularly  the  corner  of  the  forehead, 
being  the  point  of  contact.  This  is  interesting  when  we  reflect 
on  the  number  of  horned  species  in  the  human  pedigree.  Why 
should  man  hook  like  a  cow  or  butt  like  a  sheep  or  hammer 
with  his  head,  and  that,  too,  when  the  skull  is  thin  and  elastic, 


A   STUDY  OF   ANGER.  555 

and  the  brain  so  delicate  an  organ  ?  Surely  there  is  nothing 
in  the  present  human  environment  to  adequately  explain  why 
such  an  experience,  which  undoubtedly  causes  more  or  less  of 
a  shock,  can  give  satisfaction  or  relief  in  anger  save  on  the 
general  theory  that  it  demands  augmented  motor  and  sensory 
experiences.  Early  vertebrates,  both  aquatic  and  terrestrial 
move  head  first,  and  there  is  thus  a  long  ancestral  experience 
of  removing  obstacles  and  breaking  way  through  the  water 
with  the  head.  That  there  is  some  relation  between  these 
manifestations  of  anger  and  previous  phyletic  experience,  I 
think  can  at  least  not  be  denied.  In  children  incipient  anger 
often  manifests  itself  by  the  threatening  sideway  nod  which 
very  clearly  suggests  danger  and  seems  to  be  the  residuum  of 
an  older  mode  of  going  at  things.  In  anger  the  head  is  often 
thrown  down  and  the  eyes  partly  closed  as  if  in  preparation, 
and  square  nodding  in  front,  especially  if  repeated  and  with 
accompanying  pressure  of  the  lips,  is  a  threat.  When  the  fore 
extremities  were  engaged  in  locomotion  or  otherwise,  the  head 
played  a  more  important  role  in  aggression  than  in  bipeds.  Often 
in  children  we  have  the  opposite  anger  gesture,  instead  of 
going  at  things  head  first  the  head  is  thrown  back  out  of  reach 
and  out  of  the  way  of  attack.  Several  boys,  however,  in  our 
returns  seem  to  be  proud  proficients  in  having  skulls  unusually 
thick  with  which  they  hammer  the  heads  of  their  more  tender 
opponents,  until  they  cry  for  mercy;  whereas  others  particu- 
larly dread  combats  lest  this  part  of  the  organism  should  be 
injured. 

An  occasional  expression  of  anger  is  stamping  upon  the 
toes  or  feet  of  the  opponent  or  upon  other  parts  of  his  body, 
when  he  is  down.  This  is  sometimes  done  with  the  heel  and 
with  great  cruelty  and  deliberation.  One  boy  injured  for  life 
two  fingers  of  his  adversary  in  this  way.  Stamping  perhaps 
really  begins  in  the  foot  movements  of  infants  before  they  can 
walk,  who  angrily  kick  out  with  the  sole  of  the  foot  against 
persons,  the  wall  or  any  other  object.  In  older  children  to 
stamp  the  ground  or  floor  is  an  admonition  always  to  be  heeded, 
for  it  is  a  menace  of  starting  to  go  at  the  adversary.  In  many 
savage  dances  stamping  the  ground,  sometimes  with  bare  feet 
and  with  great  force,  is  an  expression  of  annihilating  an  imagin- 
ary foe.  Sheep,  some  birds,  and  other  animals  do  the  same. 
In  only  one  case  does  the  child  make  a  movement  described 
as  pawing  to  get  at  an  antagonist;  but  the  writer  remembers 
a  case  in  his  boyhood  where  this  was  carried  to  a  marked  ex- 
tent, although  probably  in  imitation  of  bulls.  Stamping  sug- 
gests having  the  enemy  under  foot  and  thus  complete  triumph. 
A  vigorous  up  and  down  movement  can  tread  out  life  very  ef- 
fectively.    Our  returns  show  that  soon  after  learning  to  walk, 


556  HAI.I. : 

children  vent  anger  thus  first  with  no  reference  to  an  adversary, 
but  later  looking  or  pointing  to  him  and  thus  launching  a  threat, 
where  often  an  attack  would  not  be  ventured.  The  first  seems 
quite  automatic  and  unconscious,  possibly  the  noise  itself  may 
have  been  one  factor.  When  there  is  no  alternation  but  with 
one  foot  and  repeated,  the  gesture  surely  has  some  unique 
significance. 

Making  Faces.  Violent  anger  often  distorts  the  features, 
both  by  engorgement  of  blood  and  changing  muscle  tension. 
Often  this  is  described  in  the  returns  as  bringing  out  strange, 
perhaps  repulsive  and  even  animal  traits  and  resemblances,  and 
it  may  extend  to  nearly  every  part  and  feature  of  the  face, 
modifying  its  natural  hue,  bring  out  veins  and  wrinkles, 
and  occasionally  unilateral  modifications.  Not  infrequent- 
ly the  subject  is  painfully  conscious  of  looking  unusual  and 
of  having  strange  facial  sensations,  and  this  and  the  instinct- 
ive corrective  impulse  often  aggravate  the  difficulty.  Al- 
though there  is  very  great  individual  difference  in  this  respect, 
the  face  sometimes  betrays  sentiments  almost  as  delicately  as 
the  voice.  Many  facial  movements,  too,  are  unconscious.  In 
early  childhood  the  very  common  vent  of  anger  is  consciously 
making  faces.  Our  returns  do  not  permit  reliable  statistical 
inferences  concerning  the  frequency  of  the  different  types  of 
contortion.  Opening  the  mouth  and  protruding  and  often 
moving  the  tongue,  especially  out  and  in,  turning  the  end  of 
it  up  to  show  the  under  side,  running  it  down  toward  the  chin, 
flattening  it,  wagging  it  sideways — are  specified  and  suggest 
contempt  and  perhaps  insult.  Drawing  back  the  upper  and  the 
under  lip  to  show  the  teeth,  especially  pouting  or  protruding 
the  lips,  stretching  the  mouth  laterally  as  far  as  possible,  draw- 
ing down  its  corners,  projecting  the  under  lip  and  more  rarely 
the  upper  one,  twisting  the  jaw  sideways,  projecting  the  lower 
one,  drawing  in  one  or  both  lips,  opening  and  shutting  the 
mouth,  sometimes  in  a  gnashing  way,  a  special  kind  of  nasal 
sneer,  and  other  movements  hard  to  describe  that  suggest  very 
repulsive  smells,  tastes,  perhaps  to  the  point  of  nausea,  and 
movements  that  suggest  the  threat  of  biting,  occur.  The  up- 
per part  of  the  face,  is  on  the  whole,  less  involved,  and  vast  as 
the  individual  differences  are  in  facial  mobility,  they  are  greatest 
of  all  for  the  forehead.  Some  have  little  power  to  raise  the 
eyebrows  or  produce  longitudinal  wrinkles  above  them,  and 
perhaps  still  less  power  to  frown  with  vertical  wrinkles,  and 
fewer  yet  can  produce  both  at  once.  There  is  less  unilateral 
power  of  movement  in  the  upper  part  of  the  face.  The  eyes  may 
be  open  very  wide,  emphatic  and  frequent  winking  makes  them 
flash  and  sometimes  they  are  nearly  or  quite  closed,  but  more 
often  rolled  up,  down  or  sideways,  to  show  the  white.     Some 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGER.  557 

children  become  almost  virtuosos  in  making  faces  and  this 
propensity  seems  to  culminate  shortly  before  the  dawn  of  ado- 
lescence. The  number  of  combinations  of  all  the  possible 
movements  here  is  vast,  and  one  cannot  look  over  the  literature 
upon  the  subject  without  being  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
Darwin,  Duchanne  and  the  Delsarteans  have  as  yet  barely  en- 
tered this  interesting  field.  Head  positions  and  movements 
are  another  factor  which  serves  to  bring  out  the  effect,  and 
children  often  use  the  fingers  to  intensify  eye  and  mouth  dis- 
tortion, while  gestures  and  noises  aid  to  set  them  in  relief. 
Interest  in  facial  expression  is  deep  and  instinctive.  All  chil- 
dren study  the  face  and  especially  the  eye  as  an  index  of  feeling 
and  disposition,  and  the  variously  toned  fear  and  pleasure  in 
them  suggest  the  strange  passion  of  savages  for  masks  as  seen 
in  their  dances,  many  of  which  even  introduce  marked  animal 
features.  Pleasant  expressions  of  the  face  are  habitual  for  happy 
moods  and  for  friends,  and  the  principle  seems  to  be  that  the 
degree  of  departure  from  one's  best  expression  indicates  the 
degree  of  dislike.  Many  facial  expressions  are  no  doubt  directly 
intended  to  strike  terror,  but  others  are  suggestive  of  various 
degrees  of  repulsion.  Reverence  and  respect  have  their  own 
characteristic  physiognomy,  while  contempt  even  parodies  or 
else  seeks  the  contrary  of  it  by  the  law  of  opposition.  Very 
deep  seated  is  the  instinct  of  fear  at  very  unusual  expressions 
of  face  in  those  we  know. 

Biting.  Sixty-eight  females,  forty-eight  males.  From  our 
returns  it  would  appear  that  this  anger  act  culminates  a  few 
years  before  puberty  and  has  perhaps  a  slight  and  brief  incre- 
ment at  its  dawn.  Very  young  children,  soon  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  first  teeth  which  are  small  and  sharp,  not  only  try 
them  on  all  sorts  of  things  but  in  anger  can  make  a  painful 
impression  upon  fingers,  nipples,  skin,  etc.  Some  children  run 
up  to  an  enemy,  inflict  a  quick  hard  bite,  and  retreat  with  no 
other  aggressive  act.  Others  bite  firmly  and  hold  on  with 
tenacity,  and  fewer  in  our  returns  chew  what  is  bitten  in  anger. 
In  their  fights,  biting  often  plays  an  important  role  with  chil- 
dren. In  a  few  cases  children  bite  their  doll,  the  foot  or  tail 
of  dog  or  cat,  sometimes  the  place  to  take  hold  is  chosen  with 
deliberation,  and  the  grip  is  so  firm  that  it  is  with  difficulty 
that  it  is  released.  We  have  records  of  idiots  that  seek  to  tear 
flesh  in  their  rage.  In  many  a  brawl  in  the  lower  classes, 
noses,  lips,  ears  are  chewed,  and  occasionally  bitten  off  and 
other  damage  is  inflicted  elsewhere  with  the  teeth.  I  once  saw 
a  man  in  a  cheap  show  who  earned  his  living  by  killing  rats 
with  his  teeth  in  a  small  pen,  with  no  aid  from  his  arms.  He 
seized  and  shook  them  near  the  back  of  the  neck  and  was  rarely 
bitten  himself.     In  the  sex  aberration  of  masochism,  biting 


558  HALi. : 

sometimes  plays  an  important  and  even  a  dangerous  role  in  the 
organism.  The  biting  of  anger  shades  off  into  gripping  and 
grinding  the  teeth,  which  is  so  long  a  manifestation  of  it  even 
in  adults,  connected  with  the  act  of  retracting  the  lips  to  show 
them.  Sometimes  one  method  of  control  of  anger  is  to  bite 
the  tongue  or  lips  till  they  bleed,  or  to  grate  the  teeth.  A  Balti- 
more murderer,  under  sentence  of  death,  once  told  me  that  if  he 
had  had  a  little  stick  of  wood,  which  he  always  carried  in  his 
vest  pocket  to  bite  when  he  was  angry,  he  would  not  have  in- 
flicted the  fatal  blow  for  which  he  was  to  die.  Of  course  the 
jaws  in  man  are  degenerating  from  the  size  and  strength  they  had 
in  his  prognathic  ancestors  and  in  his  rodent  or  carniverous  rela- 
tives in  the  ancestral  line,  but  just  as  his  type  of  dentition  is  com- 
posite, so  this  function  seems  made  up  of  factors  from  both 
ruminants  and  carnivora  now  almost  inextricably  mixed.  A 
large,  strong  jaw  still  suggests  firmness  and  a  small  one  weak- 
ness of  character,  and  in  children  as  in  adults,  there  are  the 
greatest  individual  differences  here.  Some  seem  made  to  per- 
form the  gymnastic  feats  of  sustaining  their  whole  weight, 
lifting  or  swinging  heavy  objects  by  the  teeth  alone.  Both  the 
first  and  second  teeth  often  pull  unusually  hard  and  we  may 
have  here  the  basis  for  a  position  in  what  ma}^  be  called  dental 
psychosis.  A  distinction  is  repeatedly  noticed  in  our  returns 
between  the  square,  even  biting  of  young  children  and  the 
more  dangerous  side  grip,  which  is  preferred  when  the  eye 
teeth  appear.  Our  returns  do  not  suggest  whether  the  biting 
of  anger  shows  an  increment  at  this  stage  of  development. 

Tv\'o  things  seem  certain.  First,  that  even  modern  civilized 
man  has  more  or  less  adjustment  between  dental  structure  and 
function,  the  latter  being  proportionately  less  than  the  former. 
The  passion  of  children  for  biting  sticks,  chalk,  rubber,  pen- 
cils, slates,  chewing  gum,  etc.,  suggests  that  the  biting  of  anger 
may  be  intensified  by  the  fact  that  this  function  is  declining 
and  is  both  vented  and  mitigated  by  such  activities.  If  man 
ever  approximates  an  edentate  stage  with  less  mandibular 
power  it  will  no  doubt  coincide  with  modification  in  this 
respect.  The  other  suggestion  which  I  venture  is  while  the 
sneer,  the  spasmus  cynnicus  of  pathology,  may  no  doubt  be 
gestures  which  are  relics  of  dental  attack,  the  kiss  seems  to 
have  a  very  significant  and  opposite  function.  Its  meaning  seems 
to  be  that  where  danger  once  was  greatest,  when  we  reflect 
that  the  maws  of  their  enemies  have  been  the  grave  of  most 
species,  that  now  not  only  a  truce  but  complete  trust,  and 
even  pleasure,  reign.  One  feeble-minded  child  is  described  as 
making  the  gesture  to  kiss,  but  when  the  lips  were  presented 
set  his  teeth  firmly  into  and  almost  through  them,  and,  in  the 


A  STUDY  OF   ANGKR.  559 

Opinion  of  the  reporter,  actually  sucking  with  pleasure  the 
blood  that  flowed. 

In  adults  the  mouth  often  twitches,  the  lips  are  white, 
pressed  or  cold,  and  in  the  reaction  the  teeth  often  chatter.  In 
650  well- described  cases,  grating  the  teeth  is  mentioned  in  27  per 
cent.;  showing  them  in  21,  quivering  lip  in  18,  compressed  in 
1 1 ,  pouting  in  9.  Some  describe  a  peculiar  * '  mouth-conscious- 
ness," others  chew  the  tongue  or  inner  wall  of  the  cheek,  swal- 
low, choke,  cannot  speak,  etc.  Such  expressions  as  '*  Would 
like  to  devour,"  "  feel  like  eating,  tearing,  rending,  crushing," 
occur  with  dental  experience.  Whether  these  are  the  last 
vaso-motor  or  involuntary  automatic  residues  of  what  was 
once  a  fully  unfolded  carnivorous  psychoses  we  can  only  con- 
jecture. M.  D.  Conway,  in  his  demonology,  describes  the 
devils  or  ex-gods  of  most  primitive  peoples  as  having  for  their 
chief  characteristic  capacious  maws  and  dreadful  mouths,  with 
great,  sharp  and  cruel  fangs.  The  marks  of  many  dances 
and  ceremonies  of  the  North  American  aborigines  ^  are  thus 
distinguished,  and  the  instinctive  fear  of  big  teeth,  so  charac- 
teristic of  infants  is  a  psychic  indorsement  of  the  same  fact. 

Scratching.  This  is  mentioned  in  142  cases  as  a  character- 
istic expression  of  anger,  and  is  described  more  or  less  fully  as 
habitual  in  the  cases  of  thirty-eight  males  and  eighteen  females. 
The  age  at  which  it  is  most  common  is  from  two  to  nine  years; 
and  at  fourteen,  judging  from  our  meager  data,  it  entirely 
stops  in  males  and  is  greatly  reduced  in  females.  While  boys 
predominate  in  early  childhood,  the  proportion  is  apparently 
reversed  in  adolescents  and  adults,  women  with  their  conserva- 
tive organism  then  predominating.  Instead  of  being  clenched, 
the  fingers  are  hooked  rigidly  and  the  movement  is  from  the 
elbow  and  more  from  the  shoulder,  and  from  up  downward. 
The  point  of  attack  is  generally  the  face,  more  often  the  eye, 
although  neck,  hands,  arms,  and  even  the  clothes  are  often 
scratched.  In  several  cases  anger  at  dolls,  animals,  inanimate 
objects  and  even  self  are  expressed  by  scratching.  One  child 
lacerates  her  own  face  when  angr3^  Two  scratch  the  paint 
off  doors  and  articles  of  furniture  against  which  their  rage 
is  excited.  Several  have  inflicted  serious  laceration  upon 
younger  children  and  infants,  but  in  most  cases  the  favorite 
point  of  attaok  seems  to  center  about  the  eye  itself,  into  which 
it  sometimes  seems  a  strong  childish  instinct  to  stick  a  finger. 
Our  data  give  no  indications  that  there  is  here  any  trace  of  an 
old  instinct  to  attack  the  throat  or  any  covered  parts  of  the 
body.    Occasionally  in  anger  the  hands  are  so  tightly  clenched 

^In  My  Study  of  Fears.  Amer.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VIII, 
note,  p.  312. 


560  HALL : 

that,  either  with  design  or  incidentally,  the  nails  are  forced 
into  the  palms.  It  would  almost  seem  that  some  children  have 
a  love  of  scratching  the  skin  as  a  motor  activity  independently 
of  the  sensation  of  stimulus  or  relief  of  itching  alopg  the 
afferent  tracts.  In  the  felidse  and  in  other  animals,  both  in 
and  near  the  conjectured  line  of  human  evolution  where  claws 
are  best  developed  in  structure  and  function,  these  movements 
seem  among  the  first  group  to  be  acquired,  especially  by  the 
forelegs  after  and  superposed  upon  their  locomotor  functions. 
These  movements  are  more  specialized  and  accessory  than 
walking,  and  among  the  climbers  have  a  great  but  very  dif- 
ferent role.  This  may  be  set  down  as  one  of  the  first  uses,  then, 
not  merely  of  the  digits,  especially  of  the  pentadactyl  hand, 
and  this  psychic  co-ordination  with  dental  function  is  close. 
The  infant's  finger  nail  is  much  sharper  than  the  adults,  is 
more  curved,  and  hence  has  more  sustained  rigidity,  while  the 
skin  of  infants  is  thinner  and  more  tender.  Hence  the  greater 
effectiveness  of  this  mode  of  attack.  Very  interesting  are  the 
few  cases  in  which  scratching  is  not  mentioned,  but  in  which 
one  of  the  marked  signs  of  anger  which  our  correspondents 
describe  in  themselves  is  the  purpling  of  the  flesh  under  the 
finger  nails.  Interesting,  too,  are  four  cases  where  in  anger  a 
shudder  which  suggests  scratching  a  file,  rusty  saw,  or  some 
other  object,  is  provocative  of  incipient  horripilation  or  some 
nervous  spasm.  This  function  is  so  co-ordinated  with  struc- 
ture that  careful  and  regular  cutting  of  the  nails  may  reduce 
it,  as  does  the  enforced  wearing  of  gloves  or  artificial  tips 
where  the  habit  is  abnormally  strong.  Some  people  shudder 
whenever  they  hear  a  noise  that  suggests  scratching  hard 
objects  or  the  earth,  and  the  very  thought  of  scratching  a 
brick  or  stone  causes  *'  sinking  "  symptoms  of  a  very  marked 
nature  in  F.  18.  lyong  after  this  habit  has  passed  away,  many 
people  describe  as  a  symptom  of  anger  the  feeling  that  they 
would  like  to  tear  the  flesh  of  the  offending  person.  Again, 
some  children  cultivate  long  nails,  less  for  use  than  for  orna- 
mentation, as  several  Oriental  religious  sects  make  it  a  sin  to 
cut  the  nails,  even  if  they  penetrate  the  hand.  Nails  have 
sometimes  an  important  industrial  use  in  occupations  requiring 
fineness  and  exactness.  A  few  barefoot  boys  are  described  as 
scratching  the  antagonivSt  with  their  feet.  Civilization  has  so 
long  required  trimmed  and  shortened  nails  that  it  is  possible 
that  this  has  had  an  effect  upon  their  reduction.  The  habit  of 
biting  the  nails  to  the  quick  has  very  likely  a  kindred  psychic 
origin  with  the  impulse  to  trim  them.  Very  curious  is  the 
survival  in  some  of  our  cases,  particularly  females,  of  habitu- 
ally trimming  the  nails  to  a  point  more  or  less  sharp  or  obtuse. 
How  many  modern   industries  that   involve  scratching,   like 


A   STUDY   OF  ANGER.  56 1 

movements  such  as  writing,  have  any  relation  with  any  such 
ancient  function,  it  is  impossible  to  tell. 

Pinching  and  Pulling.  This  culminates  relatively  late  in  child- 
hood and  continues  at  least  to  maturity,  and  probably  through 
life.  The  strength  of  the  opposing  thumb  must  become  well 
developed  before  it  can  be  effective.  Small  children  pinch  the 
skin,  often  without  bringing  the  nails  to  bear;  the  ear  and  nose 
are  thus  attacked  and  pulled.  The  arm  is  often  thus  made 
black  and  blue;  the  back  of  the  neck  is  seized  and  pinched  till 
the  victim  obeys  the  command  to  say  ' '  Shakespeare  ' '  or  some 
other  words,  or  to  do  some  ordered  and  unusually  humiliating 
act.  Strangulation  is  sometimes  thus  attempted  and  the  sexual 
organs  may  be  thus  assailed.  Along  with  this  action  often 
goes  pulling  and  shaking,  indeed  infants  often  pull  hair  and 
beard  before  they  learn  to  oppose  the  thumb,  and  the  difficulty 
of  disentangling  these  from  the  baby's  grip  suggests  arboreal 
life,  in  which  the  young  thus  hold  to  the  shagg}^  sides  of  their 
parents  as  they  moved  among  the  tree  tops,  an  act  which  natu- 
ral selection  has  developed  by  eliminating  those  that  let  go  and 
fall.  While  the  child  rarely  shakes  an  object  grasped  with  its 
teeth,  objects  clenched  with  the  hands  are  often  shaken.  Both 
ears  are  grasped  and  the  head  violently  pulled,  twisted  and 
shaken.  One  or  both  arms  are  thus  used  as  handles  by  which 
to  shake  the  body,  so  that  the  pain  may  be  either  in  the  pinch, 
in  the  pull,  or  in  the  shake.  Where  nails  are  used,  the  flesh 
may  be  dented,  bruised  or  occasionally  cut,  and  two  instances 
are  cited  where  poisoning  is  believed  to  have  been  thus  con- 
veyed by  bacteria  under  the  finger  nails.  The  ears  are  some- 
times permanently  mutilated  or  distorted  in  this  way,  and  far 
more  serious  is  the  injury,  and  once  the  death,  reported  from 
' '  Abelarding. ' '  In  some  conflicts  handfuls  of  flesh  from  the 
breasts  or  any  other  part  of  the  body  are  clutched  and  grave  in- 
ternal injury  done.  In  one  case,  hair  is  said  to  have  been  pulled 
out  by  the  roots  and  the  scalp  torn.  In  two  descriptions  of  a 
fight,  the  tongue  was  thus  attacked.  In  one  case,  the  mouth  was 
forced  open  for  this  purpose,  and  Mantegazza  tells  us  that  it 
has  been  thus  torn  out  and  the  lips  and  the  alae  of  the  nose 
torn.  In  some  forms  of  fighting  the  antagonists  seek  to  pinch 
the  fingers  of  their  opponents,  and  particularly  to  twist  and 
double  them  up  to  the  point  of  dislocation.  Sometimes  any 
part  of  the  body  is  grasped  for  a  hold  as  one  would  grasp  the 
clothes  or  through  them.  The  variety  of  tortures  possible  in 
this  way  is  great,  and  all  must  have  been  developed  since  the 
hand  acquired  its  biped  strength  and  dexterity.  Not  only  folk- 
lore, but  popular  tradition,  describes  hand  power  developed  to 
such  an  extent  that  by  a  single  favorable  grip  an  enemy  has 
been  disemboweled. 


562  HALL : 

Kicking.  This  we  distinguish  from  stamping  as  a  lateral 
movement  at  right  angles  to  it.  It  begins  later,  is  far  more 
common,  and  lasts  through  life.  In  most  children  the  move- 
ment is  front,  but  in  some  the  stroke  is  backwards  with  the 
heel  when  it  is  more  downward.  The  front  stroke  must  dis- 
criminate very  carefully  if  the  foot  is  unarmed  with  a  shoe 
where  the  blow  is  applied,  for  if  it  were  a  hard  place  in  the 
antagonist's  body  the  agent  suffers  more  than  the  patient. 
Hence,  the  abdomen  or  the  posteriors  are  common  points  of 
attack,  the  latter  particularly  permits  the  infliction  of  greater 
force  and  the  blow  has  less  danger.  With  shoes  or  boots  any 
part  of  the  body  can  be  attacked,  and  the  injury  and  danger 
is  far  greater.  Some  oriental  forms  of  wrestling  might  be  de- 
scribed as  almost  solely  made  up  of  tripping  and  kicking,  where 
the  arms  and  hands  have  nothing  to  do.  I  once  saw  two  boys 
fight  solely  by  trying  to  scratch  with  the  feet.  Heavy  foot 
gear  makes  this  expression  of  anger  almost  approximate  in 
prominence  that  which  it  holds  among  some  of  the  ungulata. 
One  object  is  here  often  to  overthrow  the  adversary  and  is 
peculiar  perhaps  to  bipeds,  who  have  assumed  the  erect  position 
and  for  whom  balancing  upon  a  few  square  inches  of  foot  sur- 
face with  the  center  of  gravity  so  high  above,  is  quite  a  feat  of 
equilibrium,  and  makes  a  fall  often  dangerous  and  an  upright 
position  always  a  little  precarious.  The  usual  strong  forw^ard 
kick  as,  e.  g. ,  in  football,  and  which  is  susceptible  of  a  good 
deal  of  culture,  is  a  mode  of  aggression  which  must  have  been 
originated  however  distinctly  after  the  erect  position  had  given 
the  posterior  limbs  their  strength  and  weight.  It,  like  many 
other  primitive  modes  of  anger,  has  an  extremely  rich  symbolic 
and  metaphorical  philology. 

Huggi?ig^  Striki7ig  ayid  Throwing.  Young  children  often 
vent  anger  by  hugging,  and  it  is  especially  common  among 
girls.  The  offending  person  or  even  animal  is  thus  punished. 
As  an  aggressive  method,  this  movement  may  become  very  ef- 
fective and  makes  for  strangling,  the  compression  of  crushing, 
and  bones,  joints  and  tendons  may  suffer  thus. 

Anger,  however,  is  essentially  repulsive  and  the  gesture  of 
pushing  away  is  more  common.  From  the  latter,  it  would 
seem  from  such  data  as  are  at  hand,  striking  evolved.  The 
first  blow  in  infants  is  a  literally  repulsive  or  standing  off  gest- 
ure. Although  animals  kick,  butt,  and  strike  with  paws,  etc., 
man  might  almost  be  called  in  a  peculiar  sense,  the  striking 
animal.  His  blows,  although  at  first,  perhaps,  scratching 
movements,  and  at  any  rate  more  likely  to  be  from  above  down- 
ward, change  later  into  slaps,  and  last  of  all  comes  the  straight 
out  blow  with  the  fist.  This  can,  as  pugilism  shows,  be  made 
exceedingly  effective  with  the  unarmed  hand.     The  skill  and 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGER.  563 

dexterity  in  choosing  the  place  and  time  of  a  blow,  throwing 
the  whole  momentum  of  the  body  into  it,  to  say  nothing  of 
foreseeing  and  warding  off  the  blows  of  the  adversary,  make 
the  development  of  this  very  human  mode  of  attack  susceptible 
of  great  perfection,  and  constitute  the  charm  of  slugging  and 
mauling  contests  according  to  fixed  rules,  which  eliminate  forms 
of  onslaught  phyletically  lower. 

With  the  use  of  weapons  began  a  new  era.  Even  a  stone  or 
stick  gives  greatly  increased  efficiency  and  adds  to  the  danger. 
Clubs,  axes,  spears,  and  a  great  variety  of  savage  implements 
of  warfare  enhance  many  fold  the  dangers  of  conflicts  and  have 
prompted  the  invention  of  shields  and  other  defensive  and  pro- 
tective implements.  It  would  seem  from  our  knowledge  of 
apes  to  be  well  established  that  they  can  use  clubs  and  stones 
at  least  for  certain  purposes,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  these  have 
ever  been  a  factor  in  their  combats. 

Throwing  introduces  yet  another  development  from  the 
striking  out  blow.  A  missile  is  propelled  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  body,  and  bows,  guns,  etc.,  have  made  this  the  most 
effective,  as  it  is  the  last,  mode  of  offensive  warfare. 

We  have  space  for  but  a  few  cases. 

1.  M.  Fits  of  anger  are  plain  in  a  child  7  months.  She  holds  her 
breath  a  moment,  seems  expectant,  grows  red  in  the  forehead  and 
cheeks,  straightens  out  stiff  and  rigid,  trembles,  chokes,  and  laughs 
merrily. 

2.  M.,  8  months.  Throws  himself  on  his  back,  lies  rigid  and  still, 
but  yells  at  the  top  of  his  voice. 

3.  M.,  15  months.  Strikes  himself  savagely  in  the  face,  pounds 
his  head  but  never  any  one  else,  spits  at  us  and  cries  "  Go  way." 

4.  M.,  2.  Was  set  down  hard  on  a  chair  for  disobeying.  He  grew 
pale,  then  red,  sweat  profusely,  made  mouths  as  though  trying  to 
talk,  but  his  teeth  chattered.  I  only  saw  this  once  and  am  sure  it 
has  not  occurred  within  the  past  fifteen  months. 

5.  F.,  26.  A  boy  of  3  began  to  bite  when  in  a  temper.  He  always 
bites  and  kicks,  throws  anything  and  flushes. 

6.  F.,  21.  A3  year  old  girl  of  violent  temper,  once  punished  by 
being  kept  home  from  a  ride,  broke  out  in  sobs  that  appeared  uncon- 
trollable. Suddenly  she  stopped  short  and  calmly  asked  if  papa  was 
in.  Being  told  no,  and  realizing  that  there  was  no  possible  restraint 
from  that  quarter,  she  resumed  her  sobs 

7.  Eng.,  F.,  41.  I  know  a  boy  of  from  3  to  5  who  had  marked  re- 
laxation of  all  the  sphincter  muscles  when  angry. 

8.  F.,  41.  A  delicate  boy  from  3  to  5,  when  angry,  flushes  all  over 
his  face,  neck  and  ears.  Anger  so  completely  absorbs  him  that  once 
he  was  undressed  during  a  mad  spell  and  did  not  know  it. 

9.  F.,  4.  Prayed  one  night  for  the  hired  men.  The  next  day  one 
of  them,  a  disagreeable  tobacco  user,  kissed  her;  that  night  she  prayed 
unctiously,  "God  bless  papa,  mamma,  etc.,  but  dear  God,  damn 
Mr. ." 

10.  M.,  4.  In  a  tempest  of  sudden  anger  strikes  any  one  in  the  face 
with  all  his  might.  This  he  used  to  do  when  he  was  a  year  old,  but 
in  a  moment  he  wanted  to  kiss. 

11.  Papa  told  M.  to  sit  down.     It  was  his  evening  play  hour.     He 


564  HAI.I. : 

drew  himself  up,  looked  his  father  full  in  the  face  and  said  "you 
dasshopper"  three  times,  and  then  obeyed. 

12.  M.,  4.  In  a  passion  has  a  blind  rage,  has  thrown  forks  and 
knives  at  people,  broken  dinner  plates  and  glass,  etc. 

13.  F.,  5.  Is  usually  bubbling  over  with  fun,  but  when  crossed, 
rules  the  household,  which  has  a  terror  of  her  tantrums.  She  screams, 
rolls  on  the  floor,  sticks  out  her  tongue,  turns  up  her  nose,  and  takes 
it  out  in  making  up  all  manner  of  horrid  faces. 

14.  Eng.,  F.,  28.  Children  I  have  observed  stand  perfectly  still, 
open  the  mouth  wide,  and  begin  to  scream.  Later  they  dance  wildly, 
brandish  the  arms  and  hit  anybody.  Others  lie  on  the  floor  and  roll, 
pound  their  heads,  roar,  sit  and  rock;  others  bite  and  scratch;  tears 
are  a  sign  that  the  repentant  mood  has  begun  to  react. 

15.  F.,  19.  Some  children  I  have  seen  turn  white  or  red,  howl, 
strike  blindly.  Boys  control  their  feelings  far  less.  A  little  boy  lay 
in  the  mud  and  screamed  because  I  would  not  buy  him  candy.  I  had 
to  pick  him  up  and  carry  him  home  yelling. 

16.  F.,  41.  A  little  girl  in  a  pet  first  seems  pleased  with  herself 
and  looks  to  her  companions  for  admiration.  She  shakes  herself,  set- 
tles into  stolid  sulks,  which  sometimes  last  two  days,  then  cries,  re- 
lents, and  is  extra  good. 

17.  Two  little  boys  were  set  down  to  write,  but  there  was  only  one 
pencil,  which  was  given  to  the  elder.  The  younger  flushed,  flashed, 
and  said  "  Do  you  fink  I  can  write  wid  my  finger  like  God?  " 

18.  F.,  31.  A  little  girl  constitutionally  obstinate,  when  in  a  tem- 
per would  grow  red  as  a  turkey  cock  about  face  and  neck,  which 
would  seem  to  swell  with  anger.  Her  eyes  filled  with  tears,  but  she 
never  cried.  She  readily  asked  forgiveness  and  never  bore  ill  will. 
When  people  are  slow,  she  wriggles,  writhes,  bites  her  lips,  snatches 
your  work,  and  wants  to  do  it  herself. 

19.  A  girl  of  6,  who  has  ambition  as  her  ruling  passion,  is  most 
enraged  by  her  jealousy.  If  she  is  excelled  in  writing,  she  will  try 
to  sponge  out  the  work  of  others,  and  to  scratch  them,  lie  down  in  the 
grass  and  kick  and  cry,  because  she  cannot  jump  as  high  as  her  mates. 

20.  M.,  28.  My  temper  was  so  dreadful  that  I  did  not  mind  what 
it  cost,  it  must  have  way.  As  a  child  I  would  scream,  kick,  rush  at 
things  and  throw  objects  in  the  fire  or  out  of  doors,  if  my  plans  were 
frustrated.  To  put  me  to  bed  disturbed  the  whole  house,  so  that  my 
nurse  usually  gave  way  to  me.  Every  point  I  scored  made  me  worse, 
I  was  often  wild  and  utterly  unreasonable. 

21.  F.,  19.  A  sweet  little  girl  of  6  I  know  has  outbreaks  of  pas- 
sion, that  seem  to  pass  beyond  control,  when  she  stands  and  howls 
quite  unconscious  of  everything.  When  it  is  all  over  she  often  can- 
not recall  the  cause  of  her  temper.  The  only  thing  that  helped  her 
was  diversion  or  some  soothing  action,  like  stroking  her  hand.  When 
it  is  all  over  she  seems  to  have  forgotten  both  it  and  the  cause. 

22.  F.,  28.  When  I  am  inwardly  impelled  to  say  unpleasant  things 
to  people,  I  tremble,  am  short  of  breath,  my  teeth  chatter,  and  often 
have  a  pain  in  my  stomach,  which  causes  sudden  diarrhoea. 

23.  M.,  28.  When  angry  for  sometime  I  twitch  painfully  in  the 
palm  of  my  left  hand  and  also  in  the  veins  of  my  left  wrist.  In  both 
these  instances  the  pain  is  very  much  like  the  shock  from  a  strong 
battery.  It  seems  as  if  the  blood  was  trying  to  get  out  of  the  small 
vessels  causing  them  to  stretch  and  snap  back  with  violence. 

24.  Eng.,  F.,  27.  I  know  a  child  who  has  fearful  fits  of  temper, 
after  which  a  rash  breaks  out  all  over  her  body.  Once  she  rushed 
into  a  tub  of  cold  water  with  all  her  clothes  on. 

25.  F.,  19.     When  angry  with  the  cat  I  used  to  squeeze  it  tight, 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGKR.  565 

pull  its  tail,  stroke  it  the  wrong  way,  put  my  finger  in  its  eye,  and 
through  childhood  my  anger  generally  vented  itself  by  hugging 

26.  F.,  22.  I  literally  boil.  The  angrier  I  am,  the  more  compressed 
and  internal  it  gets  and  the  more  silent  I  become.  If  I  speak,  I  cry. 
My  intellect  is  confused  or  rather  does  not  move  under  the  pressure 
put  upon  it.  If  I  thoroughly  start  crying,  the  fit  wears  itself  out, 
but  if  the  cause  requires  action,  I  can  stop  crying.  The  effort  to  de- 
liberate sets  my  mind  flying. 

27.  F.,  23.  When  I  am  angry  I  feel  as  if  a  demon  was  inside  me 
tearing  me  to  pieces,  and  if  it  must  come  out  before  I  can  be  happy. 
Commonly  it  is  vented  in  vicious  little  speeches,  and  deeds,  aimed  not 
particularly  at  the  object  which  caused  it,  but  at  every  one  and  every- 
thing. I  take  a  sort  of  pleasing  misery  in  contemplating  the  pain  I 
inflict. 

28.  F.,  29.  Some  children  are  white  with  rage,  but  more  are  crim- 
son. They  pinch,  bite,  scratch,  and  stiffen  themselves.  One  little 
girl  is  so  rigid  that  she  can  be  picked  up  by  her  waistband,  and  held 
perfectly  horizontal  in  the  air.  The  sulky  kind  that  hold  temper  is 
the  worst. 

29.  M.,  34.  Symptoms  of  anger  as  I  have  seen  them  suggest  the 
etymology  of  the  word,  which  means  compression  of  the  neck,  strang- 
ling, etc.  This  expresses  my  experience  of  it  better  than  the  words, 
spleen,  vexation,  ire,  wrath,  rage,  resentment,  malice,  hate,  indigna- 
tion or  any  others. 

30.  I  know  people  who  change  color,  contort  the  face  and  even 
body.  The  hands  clench,  the  muscles  stiffen,  the  eyes  flash  and  flame, 
the  voice  changes  its  pitch,  time  and  quality.  Some  strut  and  other 
children  dance,  fall,  butt,  etc. 

III.    Anger  at  Inanimate  and  Insentient  Objects. 

Vents. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  disposition  to  kitk  the  stone 
against  which  one  inadvertently  stubbed  a  toe,  to  pound  or 
even  kick  a  door  against  which  we  have  hit  the  head  between 
our  groping  hands  in  the  dark,  and  our  returns  abound  in  cases 
of  pens  angrily  broken  because  they  would  not  write,  brushes 
and  pencils  thrown  that  did  not  work  well,  buttonholes  and 
clothes  torn,  mirrors  smashed,  slates  broken,  paper  crushed, 
toys  destroyed,  knives,  shoes,  books  thrown  or  injured,  etc. 
These  violent  reactions  by  which  often  the  individual  is  himself 
injured,  and  in  several  cases  seriously,  occur  not  only  in  chil- 
dren but  in  adult  and  cultivated  men  and  women.  A  man 
finding  that  the  blossoms  of  a  favorite  and  much  nurtured  pear 
tree  were  blasted  for  the  third  time,  hacked  it  and  barked  it  in 
a  fit  of  rage,  until  it  had  to  be  cut  down.  A  man  of  over  forty 
fell  over  a  roll  of  barbed  wire  at  night,  and  the  next  day  threw 
the  whole  into  a  bonfire  and  dumped  it  in  a  fish  pond  with 
much  satisfaction.  A  farmer  laying  a  stone  wall  found  the 
stones  so  round  and  smooth,  that  they  slipped  down  several 
times,  and  in  a  fit  of  anger,  as  he  says,  and  not  to  split  them 
into  better  shapes,  he  mauled  them  till  he  was  tired  with  a 
sledge  hammer.     In  one  case  described  at  length,  a  young  car- 


566  HALi. : 

penter  injured  many  times  and  even  spoiled  his  own  expensive 
tools,  because  he  was  so  clumsy  and  inexpert  that  they  would 
not  work  right;  and  the  destruction  of  one's  own  or  others' 
property  by  this  impulse  is  frequently  recorded.  A  few  cases 
are  appended. 

1.  F.,  20.  When  a  door  will  not  stay  latched,  my  little  brother  of 
6  bangs  it  very  hard  several  times,  sometimes  kicks,  strikes,  and  even 
butts  it. 

2.  F.,  19.  Boy  of  4  grew  often  angry  with  his  blocks,  kicked  and 
threw  them,  saying  every  time  "Take  that  and  that." 

3.  M.,  19.  I  once  fell  on  a  large  stone  and  hurt  myself  badly  and 
vowed  I  would  smash  that  stone  sometime.  Some  weeks  passed  be- 
fore I  got  a  stone  hammer,  broke  it  to  pieces,  and  threw  the  fragments 
in  a  fire. 

4.  M.,  25.  If  when  cracking  nuts  or  driving  a  nail,  I  hurt  my 
finger,  I  am  so  mad  I  have  to  smash  something  instantly  with  the 
hammer.  Once  my  boot,  which  had  been  wet  over  night,  was  so  stiff 
in  the  morning  I  could  not  get  it  on.  In  rage  I  pounded  it  well  with 
my  hammer. 

5.  M.,  9.  Pinched  his  finger  in  the  door.  Cried  a  while,  then 
stopped  and  kicked  the  door,  hurt  his  foot,  cried  again,  kicked  it  again 
less  intensely,  scolded  it  and  dared  it  to  hurt  him  again. 

6.  F.,  20.  My  brother  M.,  5,  became  angry  with  his  drum  and 
broke  it  into  pieces.  He  fell  on  his  rubber  skates  aged  7  and  broke 
them  both. 

7.  F.,  18.  I  have  vented  anger  on  nearly  all  my  toys,  and  could 
not  keep  them  long  if  they  were  destructible.  When  angry  I  often 
drum  with  my  fingers,  tap  my  feet  or  if  alone  pound  and  stamp  around. 

8.  F.,  16.  If  I  cannot  play  my  exercises  right,  I  pound  the  keys. 
If  my  sums  go  wrong,  I  throw  and  sometimes  break  my  slate.  I  have 
torn  books,  clbth  that  I  could  not  cut  right,  and  smashed  wood  and 
sometimes  bang  the  tools  in  the  manual  training  room. 

9.  M.,  17.  When  I  could  not  learn  something  in  my  lessons,  I 
used  to  sling  the  book  across  the  room.  My  toys  have  suffered  a  good 
deal. 

10.  A  boy  of  8  cut  himself  with  a  knife,  threw  it  in  rage  against  a 
stone,  and  finally  broke  it  with  another. 

11.  A  boy  of  4  hits  every  large  object  against  which  he  hurts  him- 
self, and  throws  all  smaller  ones. 

12.  M.,  28.  As  a  boy  if  I  spoiled  what  I  was  whittling,  I  would 
throw  or  smash  it  if  I  could. 

13.  M.,  18.  When  I  used  to  bump  my  head,  I  wished  with  all  my 
soul  that  I  could  make  the  thing  I  hit  suffer  for  it. 

14.  F.,  19.  When  angry  I  used  to  kick  rocking  chairs.  This  made 
them  rock  and  this  made  me  more  angry,  because  they  seemed  alive. 

Such  things  are  often  done  with  a  kind  of  lurking,  nascent 
self  pity,  sometimes  with  a  trace  of  self  contempt,  but  more 
often  with  a  bottom  feeling  of  the  humorous  absurdity  of  it  all. 
Where  pain  is  caused,  such  reactions  serve  as  a  vent,  but  on 
the  whole  we  seem  to  have  here-  a  momentary  lapse  back  to  a 
primitive  animistic  stage  of  psychic  evolution  in  which  the 
distinction  between  the  things  that  have  life  and  feeling  and 
those  that  lack  both  was  not  established.  At  any  rate  our  or- 
ganism acts  as  if  the  offending  brick,  stubble  or  tool  was  capable 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  567 

of  feeling  the  effect  of  our  resentment.  This  very  strange 
group  of  phenomena  can  only  be  partially  explained  by  urging 
that  most  causes  of  pain  are  animate  objects,  and  that  it  is  a 
second  thought  or  long  circuit  reflection  that  does  not  have 
time  to  act,  that  this  particular  cause  is  lifeless;  while  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  direct,  vent  upon  the  object,  as  well  as  in- 
trospection in  such  cases,  shows  that  it  is  not  a  case  of  stimulus 
and  undirected  reaction. 

Ve7tts.  Besides  the  direct  action  upon  the  cause  of  the  of- 
fence, very  many  indirect  ways  of  w^orking  off  anger  are  com- 
mon, and  this  is  often  the  beginning  of  control. 

1.  M.,  24.  Biting  my  lips  until  they  ache  and  bleed  is  far  more 
effective  as  a  restraint  for  me  than  the  puerile  method  of  counting 
ten.  Music  helps  me  and  if  I  can  get  at  a  piano,  I  can  play  off  my 
rage.  My  aunt  knits  off  her  temper,  and  a  cousin  always  plays  Schu- 
mann's Schlummerlied,  so  that  when  we  hear  that  we  know  she  is 
angry,  but  will  soon  be  pleasant.  If  a  piano  is  not  at  hand,  she  suf- 
fers greatly. 

2.  F.,  Once  I  was  so  angry  that  I  could  not  sleep  until  I  got  up, 
wrote  the  person  a  most  violent  letter,  venting  all  my  rage,  and  then 
tearing  it  up  in  the  middle  of  the  night.  Then  I  went  back  to  bed 
and  slept  sweetly.  Girls,  I  think,  are  more  angry,  stay  so  longer,  and 
do  not  forgive  an  injury, as  soon  as  boys.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
girls  from  12  to  15. 

3.  F.,  24.  I  am  reputed  good  tempered,  but  this  is  false,  for  I  can 
fume  and  seethe  within,  when  outwardly  I  am  perfectly  calm.  I  have 
a  habit  of  giving  inner  vent  to  my  anger  by  thinking  cutting  remarks ; 
this  relieves  me,  while  the  object  of  my  indignation  never  suspects  it. 

4.  F.,  22.  When  my  feelings  are  injured,  I  have  now  learned  to 
be  able  to  turn  aside  to  something  else.  I  cannot  always  do  it,  but 
this  checks  most  outbreaks.     I  can  often  hold  myself  to  my  study. 

5.  M.,  31.  A  cultivated  lady  of  25,  wife  of  a  well-known  univer- 
•  sity  professor,  is  sometimes  so  angry  that  she  goes  into  the  back  shed 

and  chops  wood  furiously,  and  says  that  something  far  worse  would 
happen  if  she  was  denied  this  vent. 

6.  F.,  23.  When  angry  I  used  to  pick  up  stones  and  throw  them 
at  something  hard.  The  throwing  relieved  me  some,  but  if  they  broke, 
the  relief  was  much  greater. 

7.  F.,  9.  Vents  anger  upon  her  hat  and  particularly  her  coat.  Has 
sometimes  broken  things  on  the  table  in  a  pet,  and  in  her  tantrums  is 
liable  to  seize  almost  anything  anywhere. 

8.  F.,  19.  My  youngest  sister  gets  maddest  if  she  cannot  find 
things.  She  always'pounds  something.  Her  motto  seems  to  be  "  Pound 
if  not  found." 

9.  F.,  27.  When  I  have  been  very  angry  I  have  just  stood  and 
pinched  myself  and  bit  my  finger  until  I  screamed.  I  used  to  want 
to  tear  something. 

10.  F.,  16.  When  I  am  very  angry  or  feel  it  coming  on,  I  want  to 
run  to  a  particular  place  and  pound  the  tin  gutters  for  relief. 

11.  M.,  10.  Used  always  if  possible  to  vent  his  anger  upon  stones; 
F.,  7,  on  doors;  M.,  11,  on  bees. 

12.  F.,  18.  My  anger  is  generally  vented  on  my  clothes.  I  go  up 
stairs  into  my  room  and  sling  them  around  and  sometimes  dance  on 
them. 

13.  American;  Adult;  Female.     When  violently  angry  would  grind 


568  HALL : 

her  teeth,  walk  back  and  forth  between  two  rooms  so  as  to  slam  the 
door.  Sometimes  she  would  take  a  pillow  and  shake  it  until  exhausted . 

14.  I  always  used  to  fly  to  the  piano,  or  get  my  pet  kitten  to  com- 
fort me  when  I  found  my  temper  rising. 

15.  M.,  26.  I  know  a  woman  with  a  bad  temper  who  when  exas- 
perated plays  the  piano  or  sings  to  herself,  which  latter  is  considered 
by  her  friends  as  a  danger  signal. 

16.  F.,  28.  When  I  was  a  girl  and  got  angry,  I  used  to  shake  my  hair 
all  over  my  face  and  make  wry  faces.  It  was  very  easy  for  me  to  speak 
out  and  tell  very  disagreeable  truths.  When  trying  hard  not  to  talk, 
I  play  scales;  and  when  very  angry,  octaves.  To  repress  rage  makes 
it  far  worse  than  to  blurt  it  out. 

17.  I  know  a  child  who  always  relieves  her  ill  temper  by  kicking  a 
particular  post.     Her  eyes  are  half  shut  and  afterwards  she  shakes. 

18.  A  nervous  boy  of  8  several  times  a  day  gets  so  angry  he  throws 
himself  on  the  ground  and  screams  as  if  he  were  being  killed.  He  is 
growing  thin  and  I  think  his  temper  will  wear  him  out. 

19  F.,  27.  For  three  years  I  had  a  pupil,  nice  in  many  ways,  but 
addicted  sometimes  to  say  things  quietly  that  nearly  drove  me  mad. 
I  always  restrained  myself,  but  once  found  that  I  had  broken  a  new 
pencil  that  I  had  in  my  hand  short  off  in  my  efforts  to  control. 

10.  M.,  27.  When  slightly  angry  I  can  best  let  off  my  feelings 
harmlessly  by  swearing.  If  madder  I  feel  like  knocking  out  part  of 
my  wrath,  and  make  awful  vows  of  vengeance  which  I  do  not  live 
up  to. 

21.  F.,  32.  I  can  now  generally  control  my  naturally  strong  tem- 
per, I  think  volumes,  but  say  nothing.  It  would  be  a  luxury  to  wreak 
myself  upon  expression,  but  I  refrain  from  prudential  reasons.  I 
know  people  would  pay  me  back.  I  try  to  feel  benevolently  towards 
all,  to  make  allowances  when  I  feel  injustice,  to  switch  off  my  anger 
into  a  sort  of  philosophical  indifference.  Sometimes  I  get  relief 
by  working  it  off  in  an  imaginary  scene  with  the  offender.  My  op- 
ponent says  severe  things  and  I  answer  still  more  severely,  but  always 
go  off  complete  victor.  This  appeases  rage,  although  I  inwardly  laugh 
at  and  despise  myself,  while  giving  this  triumphant  scene.  I  have 
invented  an  instrument  of  slight  torture  which  I  apply  to  myself,  but 
which  I  shall  not  tell.  It  has  helped  me  much.  A  plain  two  minute 
talk  once  by  my  older  brother  helped  me. 

22.  F.,  44.  I  get  some  relief  occasionally  by  prancing  about  and 
ejaculating,  especially  if  my  heart  thumps  and  my  head  aches  too 
much.  Sometimes  I  write  a  letter  or  even  an  essay  on  the  subject,  and 
then  put  it  into  the  waste  paper  basket,  and  it  has  served  its  purpose 
of  giving  outward  expression  to  inner  wrath.  If  all  anger  has  to  be 
checked  and  I  have  to  attend  to  conventionality,  I  sometimes  have  one 
of  my  fainting  spells. 

A  man  I  know  saws  and  chops  wood  in  the  cellar,  some 
pound  stones,  children  break  toys,  pinch  themselves  pound 
their  own  heads,  bite  their  fingers,  one  child  jumps  into  cold 
water,  some  tear  their  clothes,  one  must  tear  something,  any- 
thing, one  pounds  the  gutter  pipe,  another  shakes  a  pillow, 
one  bites  a  coin,  several  play  the  piano,  one  kicks  a  post,  one 
pulls  her  hair  over  her  face,  some  sing,  take  it  out  in  imagining 
extreme  retaliations,  in  inventing  instruments  of  torture,  in 
imaginary  dialogues,  fights,  or  other  scenes  in  which  the  oppo- 
nent is  put  at  a  great  disadvantage.    Profanity  is  a  very  common 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGKR.  569 

vent,  and  many  people  have  curious  forms  of  expression,  some 
comic,  while  in  others  it  is  simply  round,  honest  swearing 
never  heard  at  any  other  time.  Scathing  remarks  are  shouted, 
whispered,  or  perhaps  merely  thought.  Some  mutter,  others 
walk  it  off,  etc.  This  varies  all  the  way  from  slight  divergence 
from  the  object  to  something  connected  with  it  by  some  law  of 
association  or  even  utterly  unrelated  to  almost  inversion,  as 
where  excessive  kindness  or  politeness  to  the  enemy  is  the  only 
efifect  observed.  In  some  cases  certain  automatic  movements 
like  tapping,  rocking,  etc.,  sewer  ofif  the  tension  harmlessly. 
Just  how  far  the  pent-up  energy  of  anger  can  be  metamor- 
phosed from  malignant  to  benignant  work  is  an  interesting  and 
practical  problem  for  pedagogy,  as  well  as  for  psychology.  If 
education  could  transmute  and  utilize  for  good  this  great  power, 
turning  the  wrath  of  man  to  praise,  a  great  service  would  be 
done.  The  fact  that  some  vents  tend  to  become  stereotyped 
and  almost  like  a  kind  of  ritual  of  ^  rage  suggests  much  plas- 
ticity, while  the  general  fact  that  plenty  of  exercise  and  work, 
physical  or  even  mental,  provided  it  be  not  excessive,  directly 
tends  to  lessen  irascibility  is  full  of  suggestion  in  this  respect. 

Vents  are  resultants  of  two  impulses  more  or  less  contradic- 
tory, one  to  react  directly  against  the  offending  object  and  the 
other  to  struggle  to  inhibit  that  reaction.  The  consequence  is 
increased  psycho-physic  tension  and  diversion  to  another  point 
of  escape,  as  a  horse  paws  if  it  cannot  go.  Complete  control 
would  not  be  suppression,  but  arrest  of  all  forms  of  expression 
for  the  rising  pressure.  AUbut  thinks  that  what  he  calls  ten- 
sion, somewhat  in  this  sense,  is  one  of  the  chief  psychometric 
criterions  by  which  to  measure  both  sanity  and  brain  power. 
To  check  all  vents  of  strong  indignation  would  be,  according 
to  the  current  theories  of  the  physical  basis  of  emotion,  to 
annihilate  it,  for  if  these  are  correct  rage  cannot  exist  without 
at  least  heightened  tonicity  and  blood  pressure,  etc.  These 
latter  then,  if  necessary  concomitants,  are  not  vents,  and  con- 
trol would  be  conceived  as  restricting  it  to  these  more  involun- 
tary tensions  and  preventing  overt  acts. 

Change  with  Age.  While  infants  scream,  stiffen,  hold  the 
breath,  strike,  scratch  themselves,  chatter,  kick,  sob,  throw, 
roll,  etc. ,  age  almost  always  brings  repression  of  these  mani- 
festations and  increased  control.  The  adult,  instead  of  being 
impudent,  may  become  sarcastic ;  instead  of  dancing  up  and 
down,  may  walk  with  heavy  tread  to  and  fro;  instead  of  shout- 
ing, may  talk  to  himself  and  use  his  tongue  instead  of  fists ; 
and  while  peevishness  and  irritability  are  less,  remorse, 
reason,  reflection,  toleration  of  offences  become  dominant.  As 
the  mind  grows  there  is  more  space  for  subjective  expenditure 
of  energy,  and  to  think  unutterable  things  that  are  not  uttered 

JOURNAI,— 16 


570  HAI.I. : 

or  to  put  into  words  the  rising  tide  of  indignation.  It  takes 
longer  for  an  attack  to  reach  its  apex  and  it  subsides  more 
gradually ;  the  effects  are  often  less  in  the  somatic  and 
more  in  the  psychic  sphere  ;  while  the  fact  that  the  home, 
school,  church  and  state  reprCvSS  by  their  various  rules 
and  methods  the  grosser  manifestations  of  wrath,  tend  to 
make  it  rise  to  forms  of  expression  that  are  more  sanctioned 
because  more  refined.  Conscience  in  some  becomes  a  helpful 
deterrent,  which  is  reinforced  by  religion.  Physical  causes  are 
less  frequent,  while  a  larger  area  is  exposed  to  psychic  causes, 
and  while  capacity  for  anger  often  grows  with  strength  and 
years,  its  frequency  is  generally  greatly  diminished.  At  ado- 
lescence it  especially  becomes  more  inward,  while  a  new  set  of 
causes  becomes  operative.  In  old  age  temper  may  become 
serene  and  sweet,  but  if  otherwise,  anger  grows  impotent  and 
often  contemptible  in  its  manifestations  as  its  characteristic 
expressions  become  more  limited  and  stereotyped.  Middle  life 
is  the  period  when,  if  once  thoroughly  aroused,  it  can  be  most 
destructive,  not  only  physically  but  in  the  world  of  worths. 
But  this  is  the  age  of  most  intense  preoccupation,  most 
exhausting  work  for  body  and  mind,  hence  on  the  whole, 
because  other  interests  are  so  absorbing,  of  greatest  immunity. 
A  certain  choleric  vein  gives  zest  and  force  to  all  acts,  and 
increased  manifestation  of  temper  is  one  of  the  signs  of  weak 
wills  and  decaying  intellectual  powers. 

1.  M.,  19.  I  used  to  abandon  myself  to  anger,  but  since  the  age  of  14 
I  have  lived  in  circumstances  which  absolutely  require  self-control. 
I  have  grown  to  philosophize  more  before  letting  go,  and  can  sometimes 
stop  long  enough  to  reflect  whether  I  am  really  right  or  wrong.  The 
dominant  thought  is  the  effect  of  the  acts.  As  a  child  I  used  to  feel 
that  I  could  not  act  or  squeal  loud  enough,  and  often  wanted  to  kill 
the  offender.  Temper,  I  think,  first  shows  itself  in  acts  and  then  in 
words. 

2.  F.,  31.  As  a  child  I  must  have  been  a  perfect  spitfire  and  would 
fight,  kick  and  strike  like  a  little  animal,  and  must  have  been  as  soul- 
less as  Undine.  Another  little  girl  as  bad  as  I  fought  with  me,  and 
we  sometimes  tore  each  other's  hair  for  ten  minutes.  I  usually  came 
off  with  a  great  deal  of  triumph.  About  11,  chiefly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  an  older  girl,  I  began  to  unfold  a  little  heart  and  soul,  and  to 
realize  that  life  was  a  little  more  than  self-feeling  and  self-pleasing, 
when  my  childish  temper  quite  disappeared. 

3.  F.,  20.  In  the  morning  before  I  am  fully  awake,  my  temper  is 
most  ticklish.  I  am  slow,  but  when  thwarted  and  fully  roused  I  am 
so  transported  with  rage  that  I  can  neither  move  nor  speak.  If  I  can 
strike  or  throw  something,  m)'  feelings  are  relieved  as  if  a  thunder- 
storm cleared  the  air.  I  end  with  passionate  crying.  Now,  when  I 
am  beginning  to  feel  these  inner  convulsions,  I  can  control  them 
better,  and  my  remorse  afterwards  is  deeper  than  it  was  in  childhood. 

4.  F.,  21.  I  find  it  unexpectedly  hard  to  analyze  my  temper.  It  is 
bad,  and  I  fight  it  constantly.  When  I  feel  myself  going,  I  have 
forced  myself  to  read  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ.  At  first  I  was 
unmoved,  but  soon  tears  came  and  I  was  all  right.     The  old  feeling  of 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  57 1 

fighting  myself,  as  real  as  if  with  fists,  has  passed  away.  As  a  child  I 
used  to  roll,  to  kick,  and  once  bit  my  tongue.  I  now  talk  into  myself. 
I  still  have  the  feeling  that  we  have  a  right  to  stand  up  sometimes 
on  our  dignity,  but  still  know  that  we  should  have  more  love  and  trust 
toward  our  fellow  beings.  I  have  a  real  sense  of  union  with  unseen 
powers  and  try  to  feel  a  oneness  with  the  human  race ;  and  when  I 
can,  this  helps  me  greatly. 

5.  F.  I  have  diligently  cultivated  my  natural  bad  temper,  so  as  to 
give  it  the  hasty,  fiery  form  instead  of  the  sulky  one. 

6.  F.,  21.  I  think  I  take  offence  quicker,  but  control  it  easier  than 
when  young.  I  feel  temper  to  be  childish  and  due  to  a  slow,  weak 
will. 

7.  F.,  21.  My  temper  has  changed  little  since  childhood.  Perhaps 
it  was  then  quicker  and  for  different  reasons,  but  not  getting  what  I 
wanted  has  always  been  the  chief  provocative. 

8.  F.,  22.  From  12  to  16  my  temper  was  so  bad  that  my  mother 
was  in  despair.     Now  the  worst  outbreaks  have  about  ceased. 

9.  M.  My  temper  is  greatly  improved  since  childhood.  I  am  still 
quick  to  wrath,  but  it  does  not  last.    Small  things  trouble  me  most. 

10.  M.,  18.  Now  I  can  control  my  fists,  but  not  my  tongue.  When 
I  do  make  a  few  remarks,  I  generally  have  the  best  of  it.  Father  says 
I  shall  have  to  be  knocked  down  a  few  times  before  I  know  enough  to 
shut  up. 

11.  M.,  27.  My  disposition  to  passion  has  grown  less  because  of  a 
more  favorable  milieu. 

12.  F.,  30.  My  anger  confession  is  that  when  a  child  I  slammed 
doors,  made  faces,  was  impudent ;  while  now  temper  makes  me  irri- 
table and,  alas,  that  I  must  confess  it,  I  scold. 

13.  F.,  26.  When  small  I  would  throw  myself  down  ;  later  clench 
my  fists  and  stamp.  Am  far  better  tempered  than  I  was,  for  much 
that  once  angered  me  does  so  no  more.  I  have  gained  control  over 
words  and  acts  and  feelings,  and  now  can  foresee  causes  of  anger  and 
thus  avoid  them. 

14.  F.  My  temper  as  a  woman  is  so  changed  from  that  of  child- 
hood that  they  seem  to  belong  to  two  different  beings.  Once  explo- 
sive, I  am  now  more  morbid,  peevish,  and  irritable.  I  believe  it  is 
because  my  life  has  been  so  unsuccessful. 

15.  F.  As  a  child  I  rarely  got  into  a  violent  rage  with  others  of  my 
own  age,  and  think  the  reason  was  that  I  always  spoke  or  struck  out 
at  ones,  and  thus  relieved  my  feelings  before  they  had  time  to  gather 
full  force.  With  my  superiors,  however,  fear  kept  my  anger  down 
until  it  would  grow  to  an  outburst.  I  always  ran  to  an  empty  room, 
banged  the  door,  raged  and  sobbed  till  I  was  tired  out.  Now,  instead 
of  crying,  I  clench  my  teeth  and  drive  the  nails  into  the  palms ;  my 
heart  beats  so  fast  that  I  feel  choked  and  my  head  seems  as  though  it 
would  split. 

16.  F.,  29.  I  am  less  passionate  than  when  younger,  because  I  con- 
sider all  sides  and  realize  how  easily  people  misjudge;  try  to  be  chari- 
table, and  think  those  with  unpleasant  or  selfish  ways  worthier  of  pity 
than  of  blame.  I  want  to  help  people  struggle  against  their  weak 
nerves,  for  I  have  my  own. 

IV.     Reaction. 

When  the  spasm  or  crisis  of  anger  is  passed,  it  leaves 
the  system  exhausted  in  exact  proportion  to  the  violence 
of  the  attack,  and  inversely  as  the  strength  of  the  victim. 
Many  are  faint,  cold,  tremble,  feel  weak,  perhaps  drop  down 


572  HAI,!, : 

almost  in  a  collapse  of  fatigue,  and  with  symptoms  of  prostra- 
tion. They  have  headaches,  nausea,  bilious  attacks,  tears, 
general  mental  confusion,  restlessness,  depression,  a  sense  of 
growing  old,  perspiration.  Many  of  these  physical  symptoms 
are  direct  reactions  from  an  over-expenditure  of  energy.  There 
are  often  peculiar  and  individual  sensations,  like  bad  odors, 
tastes,  ringing  in  the  ears,  optical  symptoms,  prickling  and 
twitching,  palpitation. 

The  psychic  reactions  most  frequent  are  mortification  of 
having  appeared  at  great  disadvantage,  humiliation  for  having 
showed  low  level  and  perhaps  bestial  traits,  a  sense  of  shame 
for  lack  of  control,  poignant  regret,  self  pity,  qualms  of  con- 
science for  having  broken  through  resolutions  or  other  forms 
of  restraint,  renewed  resolves  for  the  future,  etc. 

In  some  cases,  along  with  this,  and  still  more  rarely  predom- 
inating over  them,  is  a  pleased  sense  of  exaltation  arising 
largely  from  the  natural  exhilaration  due  to  an  increased  sense 
of  vitality  and  probably  from  a  sense  that  justice  has  been 
done,  judgment  executed,  the  truth  spoken,  the  basis  for  new 
and  better  understanding  laid,  etc.  In  this  case  there  is  no 
question  of  regret  or  contrition  unless  for  the  physical  results. 
Here  belong  some  of  those  cases  who  profess  to  have  never  felt 
a  sense  of  guilt,  however  strong  the  outbreak.  This  in  some 
cases  is  d^ie  to  the  concurrence  of  emotional  strength  with 
intellectual  weakness,  which  prevents  forever  complete  reaction 
to  a  normal  state.  Some  souls  tend  to  remain  with  reference 
to  the  offending  cases  where  the  last  wave  of  passion  left  them, 
and  although  a  friendship  has  been  broken  forever,  justify 
themselves.  This  occurs  either  where  mental  elasticity  is  less, 
or  the  power  to  cherish  grudges  greater,  than  normal. 

Yet  another  type  rushes  precipitately  to  the  opposite  extreme 
of  self  humiliation  and  abasement.  They  are  abject  in  apolo- 
gies, take  over  much  blame  upon  themselves,  make  it  a  virtue 
to  claim  more  than  their  share  of  the  fault,  and  pour  out  their 
souls  in  superlatives  of  confessional  self  immolation  and  pleas 
for  precipitate  forgiveness. 

Another  better  poised  type  shuns  all  ostentatious  reversion, 
and  though  perhaps  feeling  that  they  have  been  a  bit  brutish  and 
treasuring  the  lessons  of  regret  and  even  remorse,  from  dispo- 
sition or  conviction,  never  ask  pardon  but  quietly  ignore  the 
outbreaks,  are  perhaps  a  little  over  sweet,  but  feeling  that  least 
said  is  soonest  mended,  glide  back  without  a  word  to  old  rela- 
tions. This  steadier  type  does  not  usually  go  quite  to  extremes 
of  manifesting  temper,  and  this  mode  of  atonement  is  no  doubt 
on  the  whole  sanest  in  some  cases. 

In  some  the  reaction  is  chiefly  moral  and  religious,  and  prayer 


A  STUDY   OF  ANGER.  573 

and  other  spiritual  exercises,  together  with  those  of  conscience, 
play  a  prominent  reactionary  role.  . 

Some  are  able  to  react  into  a  sense  of  the  humor  and  ridicu- 
lousness of  it  all.  Instead  of  being  bestial,  vile,  undignified, 
disgraceful  or  unhealthy,  it  is  simply  preposterous  and  absurd; 
and  the  penalties  of  ridicule  and  caricature  self  inflicted  may 
become  habitual,  and  very  efficient  as  a  means  of  restraint. 

1.  Irish,  F.,  27.  I  tremble  all  over  sometimes  for  an  hour  when  a 
temper  fit  is  passed. 

2.  F.,  21.     When  it  is  over,  I  am  exhausted  and  cold  and  tearful. 

3.  M.,  18.  When  reacting  from  a  bad  mad  I  cry,  regular  sobs 
choking  me  all  over,  although  tears  are  less  plentiful. 

4.  M.,  31.  A  violent  outbreak  leaves  me  worn  out  in  body  and 
mind.  I  am  strong  and  healthy,  but  after  my  last  could  hadly  stand, 
and  I  felt  as  if  I  had  grown  older,  sadder  and  changed. 

5.  F.,  22.  When  the  passion  is  spent,  then  comes  the  weeping  fit, 
and  then  great  prostration. 

6.  F.,  22.  After  I  have  broken  out  badly,  I  am  tired  and  restless 
for  days.     My  mind  whirls  on  its  own  way  and  takes  in  nothing. 

7.  F.,  41.  After  a  mad  fit,  I  am  pale  and  faint,  my  hands  tremble 
so  that  I  cannot  use  them  and  I  have  to  sit  or  even  lie  down  from  sheer 
relaxation. 

8.  F.,  31.  Anger  makes  me  feel  worn  out  but  peaceful.  I  am  often 
frightened  that  I  can  get  so  angry,  and  often  have  a  nervous  headache 
later. 

9.  I  am  usually  thought  to  be  good  tempered.  The  reason  is  that 
it  takes  the  form  of  a  sort  of  muddled  wretchedness,  which  I  can 
usually  save  up  till  night  and  fight  out  alone.  I  am  always  left  weak 
physically,  but  mentally  better. 

10.  M.,  18.  I  once  almost  killed  a  tyrant  boy  in  our  school,  who 
bullied,  but  did  not  feel  half  as  bad  as  after  whipping  my  horse. 
When  I  had  done  so,  I  would  cry  for  an  hour  with  my  arms  around  its 
neck, 

11.  F.,  33.  I  know  a  girl  of  13  who  whines,  scolds  and  is  cross  all 
day  and  the  next  day  she  is  abed  with  a  bilious  attack.  These  alarm 
her,  and  she  is  trying  to  control  herself. 

12.  F.  When  a  spell  of  rage  had  worn  itself  out,  I  always  reflected 
that  I  would  be  out  of  favor  and  get  no  petting.  Until  10  I  had  no 
other  regret  and  did  not  know  it  was  wrong.  I  remember  vividly 
when  first  told  it  was  a  fault,  and  when  I  tried  to  stop  I  was  corrected 
by  being  sent  to  a  corner,  and  sobbed  violently.  Few  things  I  ever 
did  were  harder  than  when  I  made  myself  pick  up  a  book  I  had  flung 
down,  and  go  on  with  the  interrupted  lesson.  I  often  try  novel  read- 
ing with  success.     Am  very  sympathetic  with  ill-tempered  people. 

13.  F.,  40.  I  react  by  feeling  that  I  have  been  a  brute,  try  to  meet 
my  enemy  as  if  nothing  had  happened,  think  it  rarely  wise  to  apolo- 
gize, on  the  principle  **  least  said,  soonest  mended." 

14.  F.,  17.  I  am  generally  very  contrite  and  want  to  make  up  by 
taking  more  of  my  share  of  the  fault,  and  find  that  sometimes  prayer 
helps. 

15.  F.,  21.  Although  in  anger  I  feel  very  bitter  and  full  of  burn- 
ing hate  toward  all  mankind,  my  reaction  is  intense  remorse,  though  I 
never  speak  of  it. 

16.  F.,  26.  My  feeling  afterward  is  a  misery  too  great  to  speak  of 
or  even  write.  I  know  it  a  most  dreadful  sin,  and  remorse  is  deeper 
in  proportion  as  the  object  was  dearly  loved. 


574  HALL : 

17.  F.,  24.  When  I  give  way  to  uncalled  for  or  long  cherishe<1  an- 
ger, I  feel  sore  and  angry  at  myself,  afterwards  realizing  how  horrid  I 
am  and  how  much  sweeter  others  are.  I  rarely,  however,  think  much 
about  anger  after  it  is  all  over. 

18.  F.,  20.  My  reaction  is  shame,  seeing  the  other  side,  difficulty 
in  speaking  to  the  person  in  a  natural  tone  of  voice,  realizing  how 
small  the  cause  was  and  feel  that  I  have  been  a  great  silly.  It  makes 
me  wretched  that  I  cannot  take  things  more  calmly. 

19.  F.,  19.  It  is  far  harder  to  express  contrition  in  words  than  in 
acts,  and  yet  if  others  do  not  apologize,  my  liking  for  them  cools  in 
spite  of  myself. 

20.  F.,  28.  A  storm  that  has  long  smouldered  in  me  rages  on  often 
for  a  long  time,  especially  if  my  sister,  usually  its  cause,  is  thoroughly 
and  at  once  subdued.  I  feel  humiliated  in  my  own  eyes  because  I 
have  failed  in  what  I  have  most  desired,  namely,  control. 

21.  F.,  38.  I  easily  forget  causes  of  anger,  but  never  the  feeling, 
and  my  constant  dread  is  lest  I  shall  be  stirred  up  anew. 

22.  F.,  21.  When  I  think  it  over  afterwards  and  see  how  foolish  it 
was,  I  see  that  I  must  forgive  as  I  would  be  forgiven  and  resolve  to  be 
more  sensible  next  time,  but  alas  ! 

23.  F.,  24.  My  reaction  is  never  referring  or  thinking  of  it,  or 
perhaps  saying  I  did  not  mean  to  hit  or  being  a  little  more  affectionate 
than  usual,  amending  by  extra  docility  and  sweetness  with  much 
inward  disgust  with  myself.  Sometimes  I  overwhelm  the  object  of 
my  anger  with  kindness. 

24.  F.,  20.  My  contrition  is  not  very  deep  and  I  detest  reconcili- 
ation scenes,  but  glide  back  to  normal  relations  without  a  word.  To 
say  I  am  reconciled,  before  I  feel  quite  so,  helps. 

25.  F.,  21.  At  the  highest  pitch  of  frenzy,  i  do  not  care  what  I  say 
or  do,  only  striving  to  make  it  the  worse,  but  later  my  remorse  is  awful 
and  aggravated  by  punishment  from  parents.  -At  these  periods  all  my 
wrong  deeds,  especially  those  known  to  my  own  self,  would  rise  up 
and  I  would  resolve  to  confess  to  my  father.  I  never  came  to  the 
point  of  doing  so,  because  I  feared  the  knowledge  of  them  would 
break  his  heart  and  usually  ended  by  resolving  to  wait  until  he  was 
on  his  death  bed. 

V.     Control. 

Some  children  grow  on  towards  maturity  with  no  instruction 
that  it  is  well  to  control  anger  and  feel  that  not  to  fight  on 
every  provocation  is  a  sign  of  cowardice.  These  cases  are 
very  rare,  and  experience  soon  teaches  every  child  the  necessity 
of  some  restraint.  The  simplest  method  is  to  command  the 
voice,  to  speak  slow,  low,  after  a  pause,  and  with  steady  and, 
if  possible,  kindly  tones.  Another  is  to  relax  in  the  jaws, 
arms  and  elsewhere  the  instinctive  muscle  tension  and  to  undo, 
step  by  step,  the  attitudes  and  facial  expressions  after  first 
restraining  acts.  The  mirror  sometimes  makes  a  sudden  reve- 
lation of  ugliness  that  is  a  great  aid.  Repulsive  and  extreme 
exhibitions  of  anger  in  others  prompt  good  resolves  by  way  of 
warning,  as  do  examples  of  great  control  by  emulation.  If 
one  can  assume  even  approximately  the  muscular  expressions 
of  the  opposite  state,  anger  cannot  long  persist ;  for  its  nature 
is  very  closely  bound  up  with  tensions,  not  all  of  which,  how- 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  575 

ever,  are  under  control  of  the  will.  That  effort  in  this  direc- 
tion is  of  very  great  psychic  and  pedagogic  value  there  can 
be  no  doubt.  This  we  may  call,  perhaps,  the  most  direct  way 
of  control. 

Next  comes  the  presence  of  others,  especially  those  who  are 
respected,  loved  or  not  very  well  known.  To  have  made  an 
exhibition  of  temper  before  a  stranger  is  so  mortifying  as  to 
usually  reinforce  all  the  instincts  of  control.  Some  confess  to 
having  a  very  ugly  or  even  dangerous  temper,  but  declare  that 
no  person  has  ever  seen  its  malignity.  In  other  cases,  persons 
with  a  reputation  of  good  and  even  sweet  tempers  among  their 
friends  give  way  in  the  presence  of  one  or  two  members  of  their 
own  household  to  the  vilest  and  ugliest  outbreaks.  In  some 
families  irascible  children  get  on  far  better  away  from  home, 
not  only  because  their  tempers  are  less  likely  to  be  spoiled  by 
indulgence,  but  because  of  the  constant  pressure  of  restraint 
by  the  presence  of  those  who  do  not  know  them  well. 

With  the  inflammable  type,  counting  three,  ten,  turning 
around,  any  act  or  formula  securing  a  little  delay  allows  the 
slower  acting  powers  of  control  to  be  heard  from.  Some  tem- 
peraments can  thus  almost  entirely  burn  the  smoke  of  their 
own  anger  calentures,  and  for  the  flashy,  petulant  t\-pe  of 
diathesis  this  alone  may  sometimes  quite  sufiice. 

Reflection  of  a  moral  or  religious  sort  becomes  more  eflective 
as  maturity  is  approached.  The  repetition  of  a  Bible  text  or 
some  proverb  not  only  secures  delay,  but  brings  in  antagonistic 
motives.  Recalling  the  compunction  of  conscience,  the  neces- 
sary acts  and  words  of  atonement,  bringing  in  a  vivid  sense  of 
divine  watchfulness,  the  beaut}^  of  love  and  service  even  to 
enemies,  remembering  that  they  may  have  as  much  cause  for 
anger  as  we.  Sometimes  ceremonies  or  prayerful  exercises  are 
effective. 

Diversion  is  a  great  and  most  effective  panacea.  If  the  mind 
can  be  occupied  with  something  else  at  once  that  absorbs  it 
and  prevents  brooding,  it  soon  glides  imperceptibly  into  good 
nature  and  comes  back  to  the  standpoint  from  which  offences 
can  be  regarded  with  equanimity. 

By  some  or  all  of  these  methods,  some  bring  themselves  to  a 
habitude  of  displaying  and  soon  to  feeling  special  kindness  to 
those  who  injure  them,  although  few  learn  to  turn  the  other 
cheek  to  the  smiter.  Indeed,  current  ethical  standards,  even 
in  the  best  people,  hardly  justify  a  literal  fulfillment  of  this 
Christian  prescript.  Literature  furnishes  a  few  examples  of 
ascetic  ideals,  according  to  which  imperturbability  is  almost  in 
a  metamorphical  and  even  literal  sense,  as  if  thus  superogatory 
merit  were  accumulated  or  treasure  laid  up  in  heaven.  A 
young  convert  at  Orchard  Beach  once  told  the  writer  that  he 


576  HAI.I. : 

never  knew  such  joy  as  when  he  was  buffeted  and  insulted  in 
his  work  of  soul  saving,  and  alwaj^s  indulged  in  ejaculatory 
thanks  to  God  when  he  was  cursed,  struck,  pelted  with  mud, 
snow  or  otherwise  foully  treated  as  a  result  of  the  crude  meth- 
ods of  slum  work  to  which  his  zeal  had  impelled  him.  The 
ethics  of  this  frame  of  mind  may  well  be  doubted,  and  the 
world  admires  the  Quaker,  who  at  a  certain  point  of  provoca- 
tion, lays  aside  his  gray  and  his  creed  to  drub  an  aggressor. 

1.  F.,  i8.  I  check  rage  by  asking,  is  it  right? — and  try  to  weigh 
the  facts.  Since  I  was  14  I  have  realized  how  wrong  anger  is  and  can 
generally  control  it.  It  is  very  violent,  but  people  do  not  know  my 
struggles  to  curb  it.  Above  all  things,  I  hate  scenes.  All  our  family 
are  irritable  and  nervous,  and  we  have  to  steady  ourselves.  We  all 
get  on  better  when  away  from  home.  I  sometimes  try  to  think  of  all 
the  times  my  enemies  have  been  nice  to  me. 

2.  F.  If  I  give  way  to  my  temper,  I  soon  feel  well  and  in  love 
with  the  world  and  with  every  one  in  it  again ;  but  if  restraint  suc- 
ceeds, I  am  miserable,  overcome,  want  solitude,  and  feel  that  a  heavy 
weight  is  hanging  over  me,  or  like  a  smothered  volcano  liable  to  burst 
forth. 

3.  F.,  30.  I  have  but  once  or  twice  in  my  life  let  myself  go,  and 
then  went  off  like  a  whirlwind  and  stopped  when  I  was  ready.  I 
almost  never  lose  control.     To  restrain  general  irritability  is  far  harder. 

4.  F.,  15.  A  lot  of  girls  last  winter  turned  on  me,  threw  snow  and 
called  me  names.  I  wanted  to  pay  them  back,  but  something  told  me 
not  to.  I  felt  as  if  it  were  some  one  talking  right  to  me.  The  girls 
said  I  was  a  coward,  but  still  I  did  not  hit  them.  The  Bible,  you 
know,  says  forget  and  forgive. 

5.  F.,  40.  If  one  I  love  angers  me,  I  am  simply  benumbed.  Bitter 
speeches,  which  I  know  would  rankle,  occur,  but  are  never  uttered. 
Between  love  and  this  assertion  of  my  words,  self-conflict  is  short, 
sharp,  and  generally  results  in  perfect  silence.  I  have  noticed  that  I 
tap  my  foot  and  often  open  and  shut  my  hands  and  perhaps  my  teeth. 

6.  F.,  24.  My  temper  has  grown  more  tolerant  of  late,  for  I  can 
sometimes  check  it  by  reflecting  that  others  may  know  better,  may  be 
right,  or  have  a  right  to  their  own  opinion,  that  it  is  useless  to  strive 
or  will  be  all  the  same  a  month  or  100  years  hence. 

7.  F.,  28.  I  find  it  hard  to  think  before  I  speak  or  to  control  my 
words,  but  I  try  to  turn  my  thoughts  to  something  pleasant.  If  I 
have  the  chance  to  do  a  person  with  whom  I  have  been  angry  a  good 
turn,  and  if  I  do  it,  which  is  not  always  the  case,  then  all  self  feelings 
go.  If  my  enemy  makes  advances  by  doing  me  a  good  turn,  the 
anger  goes,  but  then  I  feel  remorse. 

8.  M.,  32.  To  aid  children  in  self-control,  they  should  be  taught 
command  of  the  voice  and  hands,  attitudes,  and  awards  and  punish- 
ments should  be  meted  out  with  great  delicacy  and  tact. 

9.  F.,  22.  I  find  some  help  by  holding  my  face  in  my  hands  and 
smothering  my  screams,  but  must  be  alone  where  I  can  gesticulate  and 
act  out  a  little. 

10.  M.,  27.  When  angry  I  am  in  a  state  of  miserable  tension  all 
over.  I  feel  it  first  about  the  head,  in  the  the  temples  and  forehead. 
I  am  conscious  of  unwonted  secretions  in  the  stomach.  I  can  lately 
help  myself  a  little  by  forcing  my  attention  to  the  drawn  muscles  and 
relaxing  them.     This  makes  me  at  least  a  little  calmer. 

11.  F.,  28.  Control  of  anger  I  think  comes  largely  from  imitation. 
If  children  see  others  check  rage,  they  learn  to  do  so. 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  577 

12.  F.,  19.  Ouce  I  chanced  to  look  in  the  glass  when  I  was  angry, 
and  I  did  look  so  perversely  ugly,  that  I  now  think  twice  before  letting 
go.  My  face  gets  broad,  heavy,  babyish,  the  corners  of  my  mouth  go 
down  and  I  frown  awfully. 

13.  F.,  27.  Once  my  favorite  uncle  dropped  into  the  nursery  and 
found  me  on  the  floor  kicking  and  screaming.  He  was  shocked  and 
said  I  looked  more  like  a  beast  than  a  little  girl.  I  was  so  ashamed 
that  it  cured  me  entirely. 

14.  F.,  20.  The  more  strangers  are  about,  the  less  my  irritability 
troubles  me.  Their  presence  is  the  best  control.  I  am  far  worse  at 
home.  When  vexed  I  try  hard  to  think  of  something  else  or  say  to 
myself  how  much  better  it  is  to  control  myself  or  recall  possible  out- 
breaks. 

15.  M.,  50.  A  murderer,  awaiting  sentence  for  crime  done  in  a 
flash  of  anger,  whom  I  know,  told  me  he  always  carried  a  stick  in  his 
pocket  to  chew  when  in  a  rage  to  prevent  such  an  outbreak  as  that  he 
was  to  die  for.  When  the  fatal  provocation  came,  the  stick  was  lost, 
and  could  he  have  readily  found  a  substitute,  he  is  sure  he  would  have 
done  no  harm. 

16.  I  rarely  felt  guilty  for  rage  and  perhaps  did  not  use  to  recognize 
my  feelings  as  anger.  There  was  no  such  self-condemnation  as  when 
I  had  lied.  I  did  not  apply  Bible  sayings  about  my  anger  to  myself. 
As  I  showed  anger  chiefly  to  brothers  and  sisters  next  me  in  age,  no 
adult  knew  how  bad  my  temper  was  except  the  governess,  who  was 
the  only  one  who  ever  spoke  to  me  of  the  wickedness  of  anger. 

Abandon.  In  really  rare  cases,  there  is  either  no  power  of 
control  whatever,  or  else  what  power  there  is  can  be  easily 
broken  down,  so  that  the  individual  is  entirely  at  the  mercy  of 
his  anger.  If  this  is  great,  he  becomes  literally  insane  or  in- 
furiated, like  animals  suffering  from  rabies.  This  is  sometimes 
seen  in  idiots,  degenerates,  imbeciles  and  other  defectives.  All 
fear  of  persons,  punishment  and  other  consequences  is  lost,  and 
the  individual  is  absolutely  helpless  and  blind  in  the  storm  of 
rage.  In  excessive  and  prolonged  provocation,  when  man  is 
brought  to  bay  and  knows  his  case  to  be  hopeless,  and  that  he 
can  only  sell  his  life  dearly  as  possible,  a  somewhat  similar  con- 
dition supervenes.  This  is  not  courage  but  fury,  and  the 
destructive  impulse  may  be  so  strong  as  not  to  stop  at  any 
manifestation  of  suffering,  danger,  or  even  death  to  the  victim, 
but  may  impel  to  nameless  mutilations  of  corpses  and  the  im- 
pulse to  annihilate  even  self  and  others  in  the  highest  pitch  of 
frenzy.  Boys,  who  easily  and  really  become  blind  mad,  are 
usually  defective  or  morally  insane,  and  all  extreme  manifesta- 
tions are  generally  restrained  before  strength  or  knowledge 
enough  is  acquired  to  make  them  dangerous,  or  they  become 
amokers.     p.  521. 

I.  M.,  40.  My  boy  striked  when  angry  never  quite  straight,  chooses 
a  safe  place  like  the  shoulder  and  often  with  pounding  down  blows. 
Girls  I  have  noticed  are  more  likely  to  strike  down.  A  lady  I  know 
when  very  angry  speaks  with  the  sweetest  face  and  voice.  Her  man- 
ner is  more  charming  than  at  any  other  time,  but  the  things  she  says 
sting  bitterly. 


578  HALL : 

2.  M.,  29.  Up  to  9  or  ID  my  brother  was  so  passionate  as  to  be  al- 
most dangerous,  and  no  punishment  or  disgrace  affected  him.  He 
would  strike  wildly  without  aiming  his  blows;  has  thrown  stools,  ham- 
mer, stones  and  various  things  at  me.  We  all  used  to  be  terrified  and 
I  used  to  knock  him  down  and  sit  on  him  till  he  was  quiet,  unless 
some  came  to  the  rescue. 

3.  F.,  38.  I  have  a  strong  and  secret  dread  lest  anything  should  ex- 
cite my  anger.  It  is  dreadful  and  I  am  always  in  hopes  nothing  will 
occur  to  rouse  it.  I  fear  it  like  physical  pain.  It  is  mental  pain  which 
I  believe  leaves  a  scar. 

4.  M.,  30.  The  mother  of  a  14  year  old  boy  had  always  vented 
much  anger  upon  him,  when  one  day  for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  he 
broke  out  with  an  awful  volume  of  oaths,  which  paralyzed  his  parents 
and  made  them  feel  that  he  must  be  very  carefully  dealt  with  or  he 
would  be  dangerous.  It  was,  however,  all  game  which  he  had  put  up 
deliberately  and  over  which  he  chuckled. 

5.  My  boy  of  8  is  passing  through  an  irritable  period  connected,  I 
think,  with  second  dentition.  He  flies  into  a  fury,  throws,  strikes, 
says  he  is  crazy,  and  his  body  feels  drawn  up.  I  can  see,  however, 
that  he  has  sense  enough  left  to  avoid  doing  the  worst.  His  father, 
who  is  very  nervous,  believes  in  using  the  whip  in  extreme  cases.  This 
makes  the  boy  pale,  cold  in  his  extremities,  and  nauseated.  His  older 
half  sister  is  aggressive  with  him,  so  that  his  provocations  are  strong 
and  frequent. 

VI.     Treatment. 

Worst  of  all  is  humoring  and  the  over-indulgence  by 
which  too  fond  parents  are  prone  to  spoil  the  temper  of  only 
or  sickly  children  by  excessive  indulgence.  Even  good 
dispositions  degenerate  to  moroseness  under  this  regimen  and 
a  vigorous  application  of  Dr.  Spankster's  tonic  in  such  cavSes 
may  work  wondrous  and  sudden  cures. 

For  strong,  healthy  children,  whose  will  is  not  absolutely  dis- 
eased by  balkiness,  whipping,  if  judiciously  adininistered,  great- 
ly reinforces  the  power  of  self  control.  With  young  children 
it  must  often  be  a  blow  on  the  instant  and  without  a  word  of 
warning  or  moralizing,  and  if  there  is  a  little  instinctive  indig- 
nation, it  is  all  the  better;  and  if  not  felt  anger  should  often 
be  simulated  by  the  parent  or  teacher.  This  gives  a  quick 
sense  of  the  natural  abhorrence  w4th  which  such  conduct  is 
regarded  and  teaches  the  child  limitations  beyond  which  its 
conduct  becomes  outrageous  to  others.  Dermal  pain,  which  is 
not  so  bad  as  sickly  sentimentality  regards  it,  thus  comes  to  be 
associated  with  moral  pain,  both  in  self  and  others,  where  out- 
breaks occur. 

Another  effective  method  is  neglect.  By  this  the  child  is 
simply  ignored,  set  aside  from  ordinary  relations  of  intercourse, 
perhaps  isolated  as  disagreeable,  troublesome  or  sick,  and 
thus  comes  to  feel  by  their  temporary  loss  what  the  ordinary 
relations  of  love,  in  which  they  live,  really  mean  and  are.  It 
is  let  alone,  treated  with  silence  and  affected  indifference  or 
even  coolness  or  sadness.     The  social  instincts  are  so  strong 


A   STUDY   OF  ANGER.  579 

that  the  child  soon  wishes  to  kiss  or  make  other  signs  of  desired 
atonement,  and  to  be  taken  back  to  the  hearts  of  its  friends  as 
before.  This  method  can  be  well  developed  and  sustained,  but 
with  some  has  its  own  peculiar  dangers  and  must  not  be  car- 
ried too  far. 

Some  are  best  helped  by  being  left  to  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  their  acts.  If  they  break  their  toys  in  a  pet,  they 
go  without  them.  If  they  injure  their  clothes,  bed,  books,  pets, 
they  must  be  left  to  feel  a  sense  of  loss  after  the  ruffled  temper 
is  calmed.  If  they  litter  the  nursery  or  playground,  they  must 
slick  it  up,  or  if  valuable  things  are  endangered,  they  are  taken 
away.  If  they  treat  others  badly,  their  friendship  is  ostenta- 
tiously cooled.  Thus  they  are  made  to  anticipate  the  penalties 
of  adult  life. 

In  some,  especially  in  small  children  and  in  those  with  a 
keen  sense  of  humor,  the  risibilities  may  be  appealed  to,  and 
the  child  provoked  to  laugh  by  diversion  to  funny  acts,  by  cari- 
caturing its  own  deeds,  words,  tones,  appearance,  and  thus 
rage  may  be  suddenly  neutralized  by  its  opposite. 

Plain,  straight  talk  is  often  effective.  Sharp,  incisive,  graphic 
descriptions  of  their  conduct,  its  effects,  how  it  is  regarded,  its 
consequences  when  they  are  adult,  often  brings  a  realizing 
sense  which  increases  their  self-knowledge  in  most  wholesome 
directions.  No  one  can  read  these  returns  without  pleading 
for  judicious  scolding,  provided  the  time,  occasion,  person,  etc., 
be  well  chosen.  All  languages  are  far  fuller  of  words  describ- 
ing bad  than  those  applied  to  good  conduct,  and  these  drastic 
expletives,  thus  at  hand,  should  be  made  good  use  of.  Per- 
haps it  would  be  injudicious  to  advocate  even  a  mild  use  of 
profanity  as  a  mode  of  clenching  or  rebuking  certain  manifesta- 
tions of  temper,  but  surely  if  there  is  anything  in  the  world 
that  merits  damnatory  and  diabolical  terms,  it  is  the  extreme 
manifestations  of  rage. 

In  some  cases  I  believe  anger  should  be  worked  off  by  legit- 
imate and  regulated  fighting.  There  are  certain  states  of 
mind,  sometimes  provoked  by  certain  offences,  for  which  no 
ordinary  modes  of  treatment  are  adequate;  and  to  stand  up 
squarely  in  a  give  and  take  conflict,  whether  with  fists  or  wnth 
straight  out  pieces  of  one's  mind  to  each  other,  teaches  a  whole- 
some vSense  of  responsibility  and  also  gives  a  hearty  man-making 
type  of  courage.  Every  irascible  boy  at  least  should  know  how 
to  box.  Nothing  is  a  better  school  of  control  than  to  face  an 
equal  in  a  fistic  contest,  and  know  that  the  least  loss  of  temper 
involves  a  wild  blow,  a  loss  of  guard,  and  a  bloody  nose  or  a 
black  eye;  while  victory,  other  things  being  equal,  is  sure  to 
rest  with  him  who  can  take  a  stinging  blow  in  the  face  or  any- 
where without  losing  his  head  and  thus  missing  an  opportunity. 


58o  HALL : 

Prophylactics  should  not  be  forgotten  in  cases  that  require 
special  treatment.  These  are  first  of  all  good  health,  which 
always  makes  for  serenity,  active  and  sufficient  exercise  with 
regular  work,  absence  of  which  is  one  of  the  surest  modes  by 
which  anger  material  is  accumulated.  Primitive  man  had  no 
regularity  of  meals,  w^orking  hours  or  occupation,  but  days 
and  weeks  of  idleness  alternated  with  and  prepared  for  by 
periods  of  excessive  strain  in  hunting,  migration,  warfare,  etc. 
Into  such  life  rhythms,  criminals  and  degenerates  still  tend  to 
lapse,  and  a  balanced  regulation  of  income  and  expenditure  of 
energy  is  the  best  palliative  of  every  infirmity  of  disposition; 
congenial  stated  occupation  acts  especially  as  an  alterative  for 
those  types  of  anger  that  tend  to  spontaneous  monthly  or  other- 
wise recurrent  explosions.  Removal  from  irritating  causes  like 
relatives  with  similar  types  of  sulks  or  irritability,  teasing  chil- 
dren, and  a  general  atmosphere  of  kindness,  affection,  and 
freedom  often  work  great  changes. 

1.  F.,  i8.  If  riled  I  must  be  left  by  myself,  for  every  attempt  of 
others  to  soothe  my  ruffled  feelings  increases  my  irritation. 

2.  F.,  19.  No  fear  of  punishment  ever  had  the  least  deterrent  or 
restraining  influence.  I  always  wished  as  a  child,  when  angry,  that 
I  was  grown  up  and  could  lay  out  the  unjust  person. 

3.  F.,  20.  A  serious  talk  to  me  about  my  bad  temper,  when  I  was 
16,  helped  me  very  much  to  both  self  knowledge  and  self  control. 
My  grandmother,  who  was  very  bad  tempered,  came  to  live  with  us  a 
few  years  ago,  and  she  was  such  an  awful  lesson  of  what  I  should 
grow  to  be  at  her  age,  that  I  improved. 

4.  F.,  27.  I  think  children  should  have  it  out  with  their  rages, 
and  that  when  the  reaction  comes,  considerable  reproof  or  punishment 
has  its  best  effect.  To  remove  causes  of  anger  and  find  change  of 
games,  or  playmates,  to  give  diverting  occupations  and  high  ideals 
are  best. 

5.  F,,  23.  I  was  allowed  to  lead  in  playing  with  other  children. 
If  they  did  not  do  as  I  said,  I  always  declared  that  I  would  not  play 
and,  unfortunately  for  me,  this  soon  brought  them  to  terms.  This 
hurt  my  temper. 

6.  F.,  21.  As  a  child  I  had  few  playmates,  was  much  alone,  and 
so  rarely  lost  my  temper.  I  had  most  things  that  I  wanted  and  so 
had  occupation  enough  to  keep  me  from  wanting  much  that  I  could 
not  have. 

7.  F.,  As  a  mother  of  three  children,  whose  father's  family  is  full 
of  nervous  disease,  I  think  perfect  health  the  only  cure  of  bad  temper. 
The  world  is  at  best  abnormal  and  civilization  especially  so.  To 
make  happiness  a  habit  is  to  bring  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven.  If 
this  can  be  evolved  from  a  psychological  laboratory,  all  hail  to  the 
laboratory. 

8.  M.,  31.  My  mother  once  whipped  me  and  then  kneeled  down 
and  prayed  for  me.  The  latter  made  me  more  angry,  only  in  a  silent 
way,  than  the  former.  A  moral  lecture  of  being  talked  good  to,  or 
talked  at,  rarely  fails  with  me. 

9.  Once  F.,  5,  threw  a  favorite  toy  against  a  shelf.  I  put  it  up 
there  for  two  weeks.  She  cast  stolen  glances  at  it  daily.  I  also  ask 
her,  when  in  a  pet,  to  say  quietly,  "  He  that  ruleth  his  spirit  is  greater 
than  he  that  taketh  a  city,"  and  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath." 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  58 1 

10.  A  very  sunny-tempered  boy  about  twice  a  year  had  fits  of 
uncontrollable  rage,  destroying  everything  within  reach.  These  spells 
nearly  ceased  when  he  was  about  9,  but  after  one  of  them  his  nursery 
looked  as  if  swept  by  a  small  cyclone.  We  never  alluded  to  it,  but  let 
the  litter  lie  until  he  took  an  impulse  to  clean  it  up. 

11.  My  little  brother,  when  in  a  passion,  gets  red,  stamps,  sticks 
to  his  will  to  the  end,  and,  if  spoken  to,  hits  out  in  all  directions.  He 
is  usually  locked  up,  but  the  poor  door  suffers.  When  calmer,  he  is 
let  out,  but  no  notice  is  taken  of  him  until  a  few  days  later,  when  he 
is  spoken  to  seriously. 

12.  F.,  34.  My  little  4-year  old  girl  inherits  considerable  temper, 
and  when  she  shows  it  I  tell  her  she  is  sick  or  disagreeable,  and  to  go 
away  by  herself.  She  soon  comes  back  smiling  and  I  tell  her  the  sun 
is  shining  again. 

13.  F.,  21.  Sulkiness  was  my  chief  trait,  but  I  suddenly  and  for- 
ever left  it  off  when  I  was  12,  when  I  went  to  live  with  my  grand- 
mother, who  gave  me  a  new  treatment  of  simply  ignoring  me  when  I 
was  sulky.  She  seemed  to  forget  that  I  existed  at  such  times  and 
this  made  me  miserable. 

14.  M.,  28.  A  boy  of  9  I  know,  when  angry,  used  to  have  real 
spasms.  The  physician  long  treated  him  for  extreme  nervousness, 
but  he  grew  no  better.  Another  physician  said  it  must  be  whipped 
out  of  him.  His  parents  followed  this  instruction,  and  although  he 
was  very  stubborn,  peevish  and  fretful,  it  was  whipped  out  of  him 
and  he  never  had  another  spasm. 

15.  M.,  41.  When  my  children  were  crying  angry,  I  used  to  say, 
you  can  scream  ten  minutes  longer,  and  they  would  have  sufficient 
relief.  Often  watching  the  clock  would  divert  them.  Neither  I  nor 
the  nurse  ever  say  don't  to  our  children. 

16.  F.,  21.  We  can  cause  in  M.,  II,  the  worst  fits  of  rage  by  making 
him  laugh  against  his  will.  Punishment  brings  on  a  headache  ;  with 
uniform  kind  and  sympathetic  treatment,  all  goes  well. 

17.  My  lo-year-old  brother  once  cut  me  with  a  knife  in  rage.  We 
learned,  however,  that  if  we  cried  out,  you  have  hurt  my  sore  corn, 
he  would  always  melt  to  laughter,  and  would  soon  become  peni- 
tent and  ask  pardon.  His  passion  rarely  left  any  trace  after  five 
minutes. 

18.  M.,  42.  Two  children  were  very  ill  when  they  and  the  doctor 
said  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  cry.  Hence  they  were  indulged  till 
their  tempers  were  spoiled.  Any  cross  drives  them  into  an  ungovern- 
able fury.  They  shriek  and  rave  until  exhausted.  Their  face  is  so 
changed  that  one  would  not  know  them,  and  they  seem  ready  for  any 
black  deed.  Curiously,  if  at  the  worst  stage  of  their  passion  some 
funny  word  can  catch  their  attention,  they  are  calmed  and  laugh,  and 
it  all  goes  in  a  moment. 

19.  F.,  27.  At  the  age  of  8  or  10  I  fell  into  a  state  of  feeling  injured 
when  everything  said  or  done  seemed  aimed  at  me.  This  state 
recurred  at  intervals  for  many  years  and  died  out  only  when  a  great 
friendship  and  love  came  into  my  life.  When  I  say  stupid  things, 
forget  or  remember  too  late,  or  plans  have  to  be  changed,  I  still  am 
likely  to  look  down,  pout,  stamp,  be  silent,  etc.  The  sick  are  irritable 
brooding  over  their  imagined  wrongs,  and  self-conscious.  The  best 
way  to  cure  this  state  is  to  break  out  suddenly  with  some  funny 
remark  or  read  a  letter  or  something  interesting,  and  it  is  amusing  to 
see  the  change.  Troubles  are  forgotten  and  happiness  returns  thus 
quickly,  especially  if  several  are  together. 

20.  F.,  24.  Sometimes  I  can  watch  myself  all  through  a  tantrum, 
contemptuously,  and  perhaps  laugh  at  my  own  excitement. 


582  HALL  : 

21.  F.,  22.  When  disagreeable  and  provoking  things  are  said,  I 
now  try  to  laugh  it  off,  and  I  find  this  very  often  succeeds. 

22.  F.,  26.  When  other  people  are  angry,  it  makes  me  calm ; 
while  if  I  am  angry  and  they  are  calm,  it  makes  me  far  more  angry. 

The  Long  During  Forms.  Instead  of  exploding,  some  chil- 
dren sulk  for  hours  and  days  with  little  power  to  work  it  off 
otherwise  than  by  making  themselves  miserable  and  diffusing 
an  unpleasant  atmosphere.  This  corroding  state  is  both  cause 
and  effect  of  narrowed  psychic  range  and  easily  grows  into 
suspiciousness  and  may  pass  from  the  passive  over  into  active 
and  aggressive  manifestations.  It  is  hard  to  maintain  this  state 
without  heightened  self  consciousness,  which  is  prone  to  im- 
agine slights,  inuendoes,  neglect,  dislike,  and  may  even  fancy 
hostile  schemes  and  plots.  With  a  little  morbid  taint,  sus- 
picions of  persecution  may  arise,  especially  in  weak  natures, 
and  from  this  the  passage  to  overt  acts  of  vengeance  has  been 
admirably  described  by  Magnan.  Most  sulkers  and  brooders, 
however,  while  good  haters  do  not  pass  readily  over  to  vengeance. 

The  law  of  retaliation,  an  eye  for  an  eye,  etc.,  is  deeply  seated 
in  the  human  soul,  and  is  closely  connected  with  both  the  sense 
and  with  all  the  institutions  of  justice.  Ancient  and  mediaeval 
law  was  based  upon  the  conception  of  injury  for  an  injur}*,  and 
elaborate  tables  of  equivalents  were  developed.  While  courts 
now  take  the  administration  of  graver  matters  of  justice  under 
their  charge,  much  is  still  left  to  private  settlement.  In  the 
scores  of  minor  matters,  we  see  in  society  this  instinct  of  pay- 
ing back  in  the  same  coin  and  which  safeguards  so  much  that 
is  precious  in  life.  Do  others  who  do  you,  rather  than  the 
golden  rule,  is  more  germane  for  the  natural  and  even  for  the 
twice  born  man. 

Hate  may  be  conceived  as  prolonged  and  more  mentalized 
anger  which  may  or  may  not  express  itself  in  overt  acts. 
Usually  it  awaits  occasion  before  it  is  heard  from  and  it  is  often 
a  strong  factor  in  tests  of  popular  suffrage,  where  those  who 
believed  themselves  surrounded  by  friends  find  to  their  chagrin 
veins  of  disfavor  where  least  expected. 

Revenge  seeks  more  than  justice  and  would  pay  back  with 
interest.  It  may  be  long  cherished,  even  in  the  animal  world, 
where  grudges  are  harbored  until  there  spite  can  be  vented. 
Here  we  find  long  cherished  and  matured  plans,  the  results  of 
accumulated  malice  perhaps  of  months  or  years  often  involving 
calamities  far  beyond  merit  and  not  infrequently  involving  others 
in  the  doom  of  the  victim.  Among  lists  of  infernal  machines, 
slow  poisoning,  well  schematized  and  insidious  detraction,  slan- 
der, libel,  alienation  of  dearest  friends,  destruction  of  financial 
credit,  moral  or  religious  repute, — of  all  this  literature,  court 
records  and  individual  observation  abound.     There  are  those 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  583 

who  can  give  the  entire  energy  of  their  lives  for  long  periods 
and  even  spend  their  treasure  and  take  very  grave  risks  to  taste 
the  sweets  of  vengeance  upon  an  enemy.  They  are  incapable 
of  forgetting  or  forgiving,  and  their  souls  are  soils  in  which  all 
seeds  of  injury  grow  to  preposterous  dimensions.  Such  natures 
are  constitutionally  secretive,  taciturn  or  cryptobiotic,  and  hug 
or  nurse  trifles  sometimes  purely  imaginary  until  they  fill  the 
whole  field  of  their  mental  vision.  Had  such  souls  the  same 
creativeness  in  art,  literature  or  good  deeds,  they  would  be  great 
benefactors,  but  their  passion  is  malevolence  and  destruction  is 
far  easier. 

1.  M.,  27.  A  boy  of  9  bore  a  long  grudge  against  a  shop  keeper 
and  for  weeks  sought  an  opportunity  to  smash  his  $60  glass  window. 
Pea  blowers  and  small  stones  were  often  thrown  and  at  last  it  was 
broken.  The  boy  was  glad,  would  not  apologize  and  went  to  a  reform 
school,  although  told  that  he  would  be  released  upon  asking  pardon. 
The  worst  children  are  those  who  harbor  grudges  and  vent  spite  after 
a  long  interval,  during  which  it  seems  to  accumulate  like  compound 
interest. 

2.  M.,  24.  Boy  of  12  saved  his  money  and  bought  salt  to  put  on 
the  neighbor's  lawn,  and  when  asked  why,  gave  a  long  list  of  mean 
things  the  neighbor  had  done  to  disturb  his  play.  He  said,  "  Now  I 
am  revenged,  we  are  even,  and  I  am  happy." 

3.  M.,  25.  I  know  a  man  not  of  strong  will  but  conceited,  who  is 
more  discriminating  and  persevering  in  his  revenge  than  in  anything 
else.  This  he  makes  a  holy  thing  and  his  chief  object  in  life.  He 
could  wait  for  years  to  pay  off  his  debts.  He  would  even  study  the 
character  of  children,  and  relatives  of  his  victims,  to  find  the  tender 
spot.     Remorse  he  had  none. 

4.  F.,  21.  In  exceptional  cases,  as  of  insult,  I  recall  and  brood  over 
every  detail,  holding  long  imaginary  conversations  with  the  person, 
giving  her  good  chunks  of  my  mind.  In  one  case  I  kept  doing  this 
over  and  over,  nursing  my  hate  for  two  years.  Then  it  suddenly  went 
away,  leaving  only  a  half  humorous  contempt  for  the  person.  Even 
if  anger  fades,  I  never  willingly  have  the  slightest  intercourse  with 
such  an  one.  I  have  always  been  thought  to  have  an  unforgiving 
character,  and  as  a  child,  often  did  bodily  harm, 

5.  F.,  30.  I  know  a  woman  who  refused  to  speak  to  her  husband 
or  her  daughter  for  a  week,  although  living  in  the  same  house  with 
them.  She  is  glum,  and  thought  all  the  time  she  was  a  paragon 
of  virtue  and  controlled  her  temper  because  she  did  not  speak. 

6.  F.,  26.  I  believe  in  standing  up  for  myself  and  in  speaking  with 
greater  warmth  and  assurance  of  being  right  than  I  really  feel  some- 
times. Years  ago  a  friend  spoke  hotly  to  me  and  I  coolly  told  her  she 
was  unjust.  We  agreed  to  part  although  I  wanted  to  get  right,  but 
brooded  over  it  for  years.  My  subject  of  love  was  impaired  by  a  sense 
of  injury,  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  overcome  it. 

7.  F.,  30.  A  friend  of  mine  is  irritable,  her  spells  lasting  for  days 
every  month.  She  never  smiles  unless  bitterly,  contradicts  everything. 
The  world  and  all  the  inhabitants  appear  corrupt.  Her  lips  are  firmly 
set  and  her  eyes  are  staring  and  freezing.  This  mood  is  followed  by 
exaggerated  mirth. 

8.  F.,  18.  When  in  temper  I  cannot  be  spoken  to.  I  cherish  a 
dislike,  call  up  all  previous  misunderstandings,  real  or  imaginary, 


584  HAI.L  : 

aggravate  present  case  and  make  myself  very  wretched.     I  struggle  to 
get  out  of  these  states  but  am  more  and  more  powerless  to  do  so. 

9.  F.,  42.  When  I  was  16  a  classmate  lied  to  the  teacher,  saying 
she  had  helped  me  in  an  examination.  I  could  not  go  to  her  without 
betraying  the  girl  who  told  me,  so  I  worked  six  months  hard  from 
sheer  revenge,  and  got  a  higher  grade  certificate  than  hers  at  examina- 
tion. This  proved  that  she  could  not  have  helped  me.  All  this  time 
I  could  not  say  the  forgiveness  clause  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  but  she 
never  knew  I  was  angry. 

10.  F.,  27.  I  would  sulk  if  reproved  and  nurse  my  wrong,  feeling 
that  I  was  a  martyr  until  I  reached  the  point  when  I  would  weep.  I 
would  pout,  refuse  to  smile,  answer  snappishly  or  not  at  all,  and 
always  strove  to  do  the  opposite  of  what  was  wanted. 

11.  M.  I  felt  a  certain  triumph  in  sulking  but  do  not  then  wish 
to  be  alone,  as  I  do  in  anger.  I  imagine  that  the  offender  implores 
my  pardon,  which  I  take  pleasure  in  refusing.  Sometimes  when  I 
have  sulked  long  enough  and  the  person  to  whom  I  am  sulking  feels 
contrite,  I  sometimes  wish  I  could  force  myself  to  the  point  of  saying 
"  forgive  me,"  but  I  cannot. 

12.  M.,  25.  My  father  had  terrible  fits  of  anger,  which  occasion- 
ally went  on  for  days  during  which  he  would  be  almost  completely 
silent ;  while  my  mother,  who  is  chiefly  irritated  by  slowness  as  I  am, 
is  exceedingly  voluble  and  loquacious  when  angry. 

13.  M.,  25.  If  offended  I  often  try  to  sulk  in  a  very  dignified  way, 
but  find  it  hard  to  keep  this  up  long. 

14.  M.,  31.  My  irritability,  which  I  inherit  from  my  father  and 
which  differs  from  strong  passion,  makes  me  feel  as  if  I  wanted  to  set 
everything  and  everybody  around  me  flying,  and  then  to  be  absolutely 
alone. 

15.  F.,  32.  I  feel  better  if  I  can  speak  my  mind.  I  have  been  so 
angry  that  I  have  felt  I  was  possessed  by  an  evil  spirit,  but  it  all 
seemed  so  senseless  afterwards. 

16.  M.,  25.  If  I  dwell  on  things,  anger  grows,  so  I  am  usually  angriest 
sometime  after  the  cause,  but  rarely  show  it  at  the  time. 

17.  F.,  34.  I  never  had  but  four  outbursts  of  passion,  and  these 
were  when  19,  21,  29,  and  33.  The  cause  was  always  unjustice  to  self 
or  friends,  and  I  felt  a  horrid  pain  at  what  caused  the  anger,  and  im- 
mense relief  at  giving  vent  to  the  storm  within.  I  never  felt  ashamed 
but  often  sorry. 

18.  F.,  28.  Anger  must  have  scope  or  it  accumulates  with  me. 
Blame  rouses  it  most,  next  comes  interference,  although  I  know  that 
often  when  this  is  by  friends,  it  is  an  expression  of  interest. 

19.  Scotch,  F.,  19.  My  nasty  temper  never  smoulders,  but  it  is 
ablaze  and  over.  I  feel  I  must  do  something  or  explode,  and  must 
either  say  bitter  scathing  things  or  take  violent  exercise. 

20.  ,M.,  38.  My  boy  of  11  when  angry,  screams,  speaks  fast  or  in 
a  gruff  tone,  and  likes  to  break  things.  His  reactions  are  emphatic 
and  take  the  form  of  asking  pardon  of  superiors,  and  showing  excessive 
kindness  to  his  inferiors.  If  his  anger  has  free  vent,  he  shows  no  de- 
sire for  revenge  later. 

21.  F.,  27.  My  tempers  first  simmer,  then  boil,  then  explode  in 
way  that  make  me  shake  from  head  to  foot.  I  am  so  unsettled  for  a 
long  time  afterwards  that  I  find  a  walk  the  best  way  to  work  off  the 
effects. 

22.  F.,  26.  If  I  repress  rage  entirely,  from  shame  or  any  other 
cause,  it  lasts  much  longer.  I  brood  over  it,  exaggerate  the  injustice 
and  find  it  harder  to  reason  myself  into  a  happy  mood  of  kindness 
toward  the  offender. 

23.  F«,  37-     I  most  dread  those  people,  who  when  angry  are  pre- 


A   STUDY   OF   ANGER.  585 

ternaturally  cool,  precise  and  impressive.     This  is  really  the  most 
terrible  kind  of  passion,  for  you  fear  it  may  break  out  in  anything. 

24.  Smothered  anger  that  is  not  allowed  to  effervesce  may  become 
lasting  and  warp  character,  so  that  it  is  often  hard  to  choose  between 
the  much  and  too  little  control. 

25.  F.,  21.  I  do  not  rage  but  am  irritable,  and  love  to  appear  in- 
different and  even  cut  my  acquaintances.  Injustice  makes  the  most 
permanent  resentment. 

26.  My  daughter  of  12  is  saucy,  impudent,  when  she  is  provoked, 
but  rarely  revengeful. 

27.  F.,  28.  Grumbling  and  fault  finding  is  the  worst;  sometimes 
trials  through  the  day  come  out  in  the  form  of  petulance  or  fretful- 
ness  when  children  go  to  bed. 

Different  Ways  in  which  hidividuals  regard  their  ow7i  Anger 
States.  The  condition  of  rage  is  almost  always  regarded  as 
very  distinct  from  that  of  normal  consciousness.  The  natural 
untaught  child  has  at  first  little  sense  of  moral  wrong  in  this 
state,  but  soon  connects  painful  impressions  with  it  in  his  own 
experiences,  which  make  for  control.  The  instinct  of  seclusion, 
strongest  with  girls,  and  the  bearing  a  great  deal  before  giving 
way,  both  attest  the  many  fears  connected  with  this  state. 
Threats  often  imply  peculiar  dangers  if  this  second  personality 
once  becomes  ascendant.  Boys,  who  boast  how  strong  they 
are  and  the  cruel  things  they  might  do  if  mad,  as  though  their 
anger  was  a  dangerous  and  concealed  weapon;  anger,  which 
adds  more  or  less  consciously  to  its  intensity  by  feigning  impulses 
to  do  unutterable  things — all  these  are  often  effective  in  intimi- 
dating not  only  comrades  but  often  parents  and  teachers.  The 
simulation  of  anger  often  so  admirable  as  a  pedagogic  method, 
the  dramatic  assumption  of  many  of  the  symptoms  and  expres- 
sions of  rage,  are  sometimes  very  effective  in  preventing  fights, 
and  a  due  sense  among  adults  in  society  of  the  danger  to  per- 
son, property,  or  reputation  of  making  active  enemies  and  in- 
tensifying dislikes,  is  wholesome  and  sanitary.  To  arouse  this 
demon,  which  may  carry  away  those  about  us  in  a  frenzy  of 
rapt  passion,  is  a  danger  that  should  never  be  forgotten,  for 
where  abandon  is  complete,  the  dearest  friend,  the  fondest  wife, 
child  or  even  parent,  may  suffer  an  almost  complete  reversion, 
and  hate,  as  inverted  love,  may  become  the  most  intense  and 
rancorous  of  all.  A  single  spasm  of  anger  has  sometimes  the 
power  in  some  souls  of  expelling  affection  forever  beyond  the 
power  of  pardon  or  even  truce,  and  perhaps  this  **  old  Adam," 
as  a  potentiality,  exists  in  every  soul  and  may  break  through 
every  fetter. 

I.  F.,  30.  Righteous  wrath  makes  my  moral  sense  keener,  but 
this,  I  find,  is  very  wearing  to  the  nerves.  To  have  a  strong  feeling 
of  "  served  him  right,"  when  a  mean  thing  is  done,  is  almost  a  part 
of  conscience.  During  the  first  stage  of  venting  anger  upon  an  oppo- 
nent there  is  a  grim  satisfaction,  but  fortunately  for  the  race  this  soon 
leads  to  shame. 

JouRNAiy —  17 


586  HALL : 

2.  F.,  19.  After  a  mad  spell  I  sometimes  feel  repentant,  often 
indifferent,  and  always  very  glad  that  my  temper  helped  me  to  do 
what  I  wanted  to  do  but  otherwise  never  should  have  done. 

3.  M.,  29.  I  believe  in  causes  of  offence;  it  is  better  to  have  the 
matter  out,  for  a  good  rage  freely  vented  gives  an  easement  like  the 
"  peace  which  passeth  all  understanding,  which  nothing  else  can  give 
and  which  is  not  of  this  earth."  I  know  people  who  will  not  soeak 
to  you  for  a  week,  when  you  are  quite  at  a  loss  for  the  cause,  andpre- 
fer  hasty  tempers  to  the  sulks. 

4.  M.,  30.  I  plead  for  more  anger  in  school.  There  is  a  point 
where  patience  ceases  to  be  a  moral  or  pedagogical  virtue,  but  is  mere 
flabbiness. 

5.  M.,  31.  In  my  experience  as  a  teacher  it  is  often  an  excellent 
thing  to  simulate  or  pretend  anger  in  dealing  with  young  children. 
Some  faults  are  better  punished  with  a  little  heat  of  anger  than  in 
cold  blood. 

6.  F.,  29.  I  prefer  to  deal  with  fiery  than  with  sulky  people,  and 
am  sure  that  a  pretty  good  temper  is  desirable  if  not  in  excess.  It  is 
sometimes  well  to  speak  out  that  we  may  know  and  be  known,  and 
avoid  misunderstandings. 

7.  F.,  22.  A  strong  temper  well  under  control  is  a  great  force,  and 
may  be  used  for  good.  Heaven  knows  I  hope  it  may  prove  so  in  my 
case. 

8.  F.,  19.  I  am  so  often  in  the  wrong  that  I  seldom  have  a  chance 
for  righteous  indignation,  but  I  look  forward  to  it  some  day,  for  I 
really  like  to  get  into  a  passion. 

9.  M.,  24.  It  is  certainly  a  great  relief  to  get  in  a  rage  once  in  a 
while,  but  I  think  it  should  be  done  in  solitude. 

10.  F.,  21.  The  excitement  is  the  pleasant  part  of  my  temper, 
and  I  grumble,  fume  and  scold. 

11.  F.,  20.  A  girl  of  prickly,  contradictory  disposition,  balanced 
by  much  judgment,  if  angry  never  speaks,  but  acts.  Once  when  17, 
and  told  to  replace  some  trimmings  she  had  scissored  into  100  pieces 
from  her  hat  because  she  did  not  like  them,  she  was  roused  to  higher 
spirits,  the  deeper  the  disgrace.  Her  merriest  evenings  were  when 
she  had  been  in  trouble  during  the  entire  day,  and  so  had  thrown  off 
all  restraints  and  revelled  in  the  freedom  from  responsibility  of  being 
good.     All  her  moods  were  afterwards  atoned  by  a  storm  of  tears. 

12.  Scotch,  F,,  24.  I  can  generally  check  temper  at  an  unkind  or 
sarcastic  remark  and  occasionally  do  not  show  it  at  all.  Only  once 
within  the  last  ten  years  do  I  remember  giving  entire  vent  to  temper, 
when  I  suddenly  flew  up  inwardly  and  boxed  my  brother's  ears.  He 
looked  so  astonished  that,  although  I  was  trembling  with  rage,  I 
could  hardly  help  laughing.  I  have  found  it  a  not  altogether 
unpleasant  sensation  to  be  in  a  great  rage.  It  wakes  me  up  and 
makes  me  feel  very  much  alive.  I  do  remember  once  more  giving 
way,  and  I  shook  my  bigger  brother  till  I  thought  I  could  hear  his 
teeth  chatter.     If  unwell  or  busy,  I  often  feel  very  bitter  and  cross. 

13.  F.,  19.  The  satisfaction  and  relief  that  used  to  make  the  after 
feeling  decidedly  pleasant  is  less  now  than  formerly,  for  now  it  often 
leaves  me  unsatisfied,  which  it  never  did  before. 

14.  Scotch,  F.,  26.  When  I  am  angry,  if  any  one  is  at  hand,  I 
speak  with  greater  heat  than  I  really  feel  in  order  to  keep  up  my 
anger.     It  is  a  kind  of  luxury. 

15.  F.,  28.  I  used  to  boast  and  be  very  proud  of  my  hot  temper. 
It  left  me  revengeful,  sulky  and  skulking.'    Now  I  regret  it. 

j6.  F.,  22.  If  deeply  offended,  I  feel  dried  up  toward  the  person 
for  weeks  and  months.  If  I  speak  to  the  object  of  my  wrath,  my 
voice  sounds  strange  and  abrupt  to  myself.     I  once  stood  for  hours  in 


A  STUDY  OF   ANGBR.  587 

front  of  a  teacher  whose  rules  I  had  broken,  with  occasionally  a  long- 
ing impulse  to  give  way,  but  something,  I  suppose  false  pride,  pre- 
vented. I  felt  too  strange  and  excited  to  be  unhappy;  the  latter  came 
later.  Now  rage  is  a  sort  of  intoxication.  I  am  exhilarated  with  a 
sort  of  unnatural  happiness. 

17.  Many  boys  are  as  I  was,  fond  of  talking  of  their  herculean 
strength  if  angered,  warning  others  not  to  make  them  mad,  lest  they 
be  annihilated  when  their  rage  is  unchained.  Such  boys,  if  angry, 
often  look,  threaten  or  feign  to  atttempt  the  most  murderous  things 
for  effect,  having  themselves,  however,  fairly  well  in  command  all  the 
time. 

18.  '*  Don't  get  me  mad,"  said  M.,  10,  "for  if  I  am  I  can  lick  K.  S. 
and  B.  (boys  of  16  to  18)  and  the  teacher  himself.  I  hit  the  old  man 
just  once  in  the  nose  and  made  him  bleed.  He  has  not  licked  me 
since." 

19.  **When  I  get  mad,"  said  M.  11,  "I  don't  know  what  I  am 
doing.  I  might  take  out  my  dirk  (he  only  had  a  small  pocket  knife) 
and  cut  your  throat  or  cut  your  heart  out  and  eat  it,  or  rip  you  any- 
where like  a  stuck  pig.    I  should  not  know  what  I  did  till  afterwards." 

20.  "Ivook  out,  don't  do  that,  stop,  or  you  will  get  me  mad  !  " 
boys  often  say,  speaking  of  this  state  as  if  it  were  a  kind  of  demoni- 
acal possession  in  which  they  were  no  longer  accountable. 

21.  When  I  am  misjudged,  as  I  often  am  (for  this  is  the  way  I  put 
to  myself  the  fact  that  my  sister  is  far  more  attractive  than  I  and  gets 
all  the  attention)  I  show  my  temper  by  pretending  to  show  non- 
chalance. "  I  care  for  nobody  if  nobody  cares  for  me  "  is  the  spirit, 
although  I  do  care  very  much  indeed.  Often  I  never  wished  to  set 
matters  right,  but  gloried  in  being  a  martyr. 

22.  M.,  28.  I  act  on  the  impulse  and  speak  straight  out  what  I 
think,  say  how  maddening  it  is,  give  others  a  piece  of  my  mind,  tell 
them  how  they  should  act.  If  they  think  I  make  too  much  fuss  and 
keep  cool  themselves,  I  am  all  the  madder.  I  always  say  all  that  I 
mean  and  feel  easier  for  having  spoken  out,  but  always  regret  it  later. 

23.  F.,  24.  If  my  temper  is  upset,  I  feel  disobliging  and  disagree- 
able. I  never  had  physical  signs  of  it,  and  have  learned  to  avoid 
those  I  cannot  live  pleasantly  with.  When  passion  rises  I  have  to 
weep,  and  must  hide  lest  the  cause  of  my  anger  should  think  my 
tears  are  those  of  penitence,  instead  of  righteous  indignation. 

27.  Psychological  observations,  like  charity,  are  best  begun  at  home, 
and  I  have  all  my  life  been  at  home  with  almost  nothing  so  much  as 
temper,  although  I  never  spoke  willingly  about  it  before,  save  once 
to  the  clergyman  who  prepared  me  for  confirmation  at  the  age  of  16. 
My  confessions  are  not  complete,  but  I  do  not  know  how  to  write  some 
things. 

Love  and  Dread  of  Seeing  Conflict  in  Anger.  Both  our  re- 
turns and  common  experiences  show  that  many,  and  especially 
women,  have  great  and  sometimes  morbid  dread  of  any  mani- 
festations of  anger  as  of  all  other  uncontrolled  states.  In  an- 
imals, females  are  often  described  as  watching  with  compla- 
cency the  conflict  of  their  rival  males  for  their  possession,  and 
it  seems  probable  that  the  intense  horror  of  this  state,  which 
many  females  report,  is  associated  more  or  less  unconsciously 
with  the  sexual  rage  which  has  followed  it. 

The  great  interest  and  pleasure  in  a  fight,  which  boys,  men, 
and  sometimes  even  women  manifest,  is  well  attested  in  the 


588  HAI.I. : 

history  of  gladiatorial  contests,  tournaments,  the  wager  of  battle, 
pugilistic  encounters,  duels,  whether  by  students  or  according 
to  codes,  wrestling  and  many  other  popular  diversions,  the 
crowd  that  always  gathers  to  see  men,  boys  or  even  dogs  fight, 
cock  fights  and  bull  fights,  etc.,  are  further  attested.  The 
spectator's  first  impulse  is  to  see  fair  play,  and  to  have  the 
contest  prolonged  and  continued  until  one  or  the  other  of  the 
contestants  is  subdued,  and  sometimes  the  thumbs  go  down, 
and  even  death  is  postulated.  The  writer  himself  confesses  in 
his  own  experience  a  quite  unparalleled  tingling  of  fibre  and 
a  peculiar  mental  inebriation,  he  has  himself  felt  in  experiences 
of  this  kind,  which  as  a  psychologist  and  especially  as  a  student 
of  this  subject,  he  has  felt  justified  in  giving  himself.  The 
common  experiences  of  life  seem  dull,  there  is  a  zest  of  heroic 
achievement,  of  staking  all  for  the  chance  of  victory,  of  doing 
and  daring  with  the  greatest  energy  and  risk,  and  that  despite 
the  brutality  and  the  sense  of  degradation  which  comes  from 
defying  the  ban  of  social  condemnation  placed  upon  witnessing 
such  scenes.  They  give  a  sense  that  is  to  a  great  degree  true, 
that  life  is  warfare,  that  the  struggle  for  survival  never  inter- 
mits, is  always  intense  and  bitter  upon  whatever  plane  life  is 
lived,  that  offensive  and  defensive  resources  must  never  be  out 
of  reach,  and  that  in  a  sense  every  one  must  be  either  a  good 
fighter  or  a  coward.  Compared  with  the  utterly  unregulated 
fights  of  quite  barbaric  human  beings,  all  these  forms  of  con- 
flict are  more  or  less  refined  by  rules  or  by  customs,  and  one 
moral  which  familiarity  with  them  impresses  is  that  muscular 
strength  and  agility  and  the  power  to  use  fists  and  other  natural 
weapons,  and  even  some  kind  of  code  by  which  under  certain 
circumstances  certain  wrongs,  which  the  law  cannot  reach,  can 
be  promptly  and  summarily  dealt  with,  is  a  distinct  advantage 
to  the  ethical  nature  of  man  and  a  real  safeguard  of  the  high- 
est civilization. 

1.  The  sight  of  anger  in  others  causes  an  awe  struck  yet  interested 
wonder  in  the  spectator,  and  every  one  flocks  to  see  a  quarrel.  A  boy 
of  II  jigged,  danced  and  leaped  up  and  down  on  witnessing  a  quarrel 
between  two  girls,  although  they  attempted  no  physical  violence,  but 
simply  stared  at  each  other  and  said  bitter  things  in  a  low  distinct 
voice.  If  the  quarrel  is  by  older  people,  spectators  on  the  other  hand 
retire  in  almost  inverse  proportion  to  their  sex,  age,  and  strength. 

2.  F.,  26.  My  brother,  17,  once  was  roused  to  a  frenzy  at  his 
brother  attacking  him  brutally  and  looking  awfully.  He  was  taken 
to  his  room,  and  I  sat  by  all  night  fearing  murder,  or  something  else 
still  more  dreadful,  to  follow.  The  next  day  he  was  silent  and  sullen, 
but  gradually  became  himself  again.  This  experience  I  cannot  even 
now  think  of  without  shuddering. 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  589 

Alas  for  those  who  consume  the  power  of  arrest  or  control 
too  frequently  or  too  completely.  Many  are  angels  or  demons 
just  in  proportion  as  they  are  rested  or  fatigued.  The  state 
called  irritability  is  due  to  loss  of  inhibition,  and  when  this  is 
gone  man  is  the  victim  of  whatever  morbid  impulses  may  be 
evoked,  and  some  forms  of  insanity  consist  essentially  in  the 
loss  of  this  higher  power  of  restraint  and  the  liberation  in  un- 
checked violence  of  lower  instincts.  Not  only  anger  but 
mania,  acute  and  active  melancholy  and  suicide  are  often  thus 
explained.  Intensity  of  impulse,  like  the  power  of  control, 
varies  through  all  degrees.  Some  have  perhaps  all  the  wild 
passions,  hysterical  impulses,  and  criminal  propensities  in 
great  power,  but  keep  them  so  in  leash  that  their  strength  and 
perhaps  their  very  existence  is  not  suspected  by  their  nearest 
friends  till  some  unusual  strain  removes  the  power  of  repression 
for  a  brief  interval  when  they  break  out  with  overpowering 
mastery.  To  have  and  to  control  them,  however,  in  some 
cases  seems  to  give  the  tension  with  which  the  best  work  of 
the  world  is  done.  One  function  of  education  and  civilization 
is  to  restrain  and  tutor  the  too  quick  form  of  response  we  call 
temper.  It  is  always  a  waste  of  energy  which  passes  from  the 
potential  to  the  kinetic  form,  so  that  control  is  storage  of 
strength  for  either  endurance  or  for  action.  The  irritable 
diathesis  involves  the  loss  of  all  sense  of  proportion  as  well 
as  perfect  dignity,  and  weakens  discipline,  and  ''temper  is 
a  weapon  we  hold  by  the  blade."  We  can  see  thus  how 
irritability  is  often  a  stage  in  the  recovery  from  disease.  This 
lower  power  of  reflex  is  restored  before  the  higher  power  of 
control. 

I^ange's^  theory  of  emotions,  as  is  well  known,  makes  vaso- 
motor changes  primary,  even  to  those  of  the  neuro- muscular 
system.  Sadness  and  fear  are  at  root  vascular  constructions 
with  consequent  diminution  of  voluntary  innervation,  while 
joy  and  anger  are  vascular  dilation  with  augmented  innerva- 
tion. Joy,  sadness,  anger,  etc.,  are  not  m3^sterious  energies 
causing  physical  states  and  changes;  but  we  must  drop  this 
psychic  hypothesis  and  say  conversely  that  sadness,  e.  g. ,  is 
simply  a  more  or  less  obscure  feeling  of  the  vascular  phenomena 
which  accompany  it.  If  these  latter  could  be  eliminated,  nothing 
would  remain  of  anger  save  a  memory  of  its  cause.  In  every 
emotion  there  is  an  initial  fact,  idea,  image  or  sensation,  but 
the  emotion  itself  is  nothing  but  a  sense  of  those  organic  changes 
which  precede  and  condition  it.  To  prove  such  a  theory,  as 
Dumas  well  says,  we  must  suppress  all  the  visceral  and  periph- 
eral changes  and  see  if  this  involves  the  loss  of  the  emotion; 

^Les  Emotions.    Paris,  1895. 


590  HALL : 

but  this  can  never  be  done,  and  hence  the  theory  is  safe  from 
experimental  proof  or  disproof.  Perhaps,  however,  some  pro- 
portion may  be  established  between  emotional  intensity  and 
vascular  instability.  This  view  is  essentially  mechanical,  basing 
feeling  on  physiological  reflexes.  The  view  of  James  ^  is  that 
"  bodily  changes  follow  directly  the  perception  of  the  exciting 
fact  and  that  our  feeling  of  the  same  changes  as  they  occur  is 
the  emotion."  "  We  are  sorry  because  we  cry,  angry  because 
we  strike,  afraid  because  we  tremble,  etc.''  These  bodily 
changes  are  not  merely  vascular  but  are  innumerable  and  are 
all  felt.  For  the  finer  as  distinct  from  the  coarser  emotions, 
weakened  repetition  of  once  useful  acts,  the  Darwinian  analo- 
gous feeling  theory  and  that  of  easiest  drainage  channels,  which 
are  probably  not  the  smaller  muscles  but  by  way  of  the  pneno 
gastric  and  sympathetic  nerves,  are  the  three  explanatory  prin- 
ciples. 

No  one  adequatel}'  informed  on  the  physiological  basis  of 
psychic  life  will  for  a  moment  question  this  general  view  of  the 
primacy  of  physical  changes  and  no  one  who  accepts  the  most 
cardinal  principles  of  modern  epistemology  will  hesitate  to 
affirm  another  psychic  element  and  to  deny  that  the  physical 
changes  are  the  feelings.  Not  only  ought  these  two  precepts 
to  be  almost  platitudes  in  psychology  and  have  interest  only 
for  those  still  numerous,  as  the  discussion  of  the  Lange-James 
theory  has  shown,  who  hold  that  the  soul  is  more  or  less  enti- 
tive,  but  the  same  principles  apply  to  every  form  of  intellection 
as  well,  save  only  that  instead  of  muscle  tensions,  blood  pres- 
sures, etc.,  we  must  substitute  more  subtile  changes  in  the 
highest  nerve  centers.  This,  too,  is  the  only  fruitful  presup- 
position of  modern  psychology,  vague  and  general  as  it  must 
be  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge.  In  all  thought 
brain  changes  must  be  postulated  as  preceding  in  time  and  as 
all  conditioning.  A  far  better  and  fuller  statement  of  this 
principle,  so  far  as  the  emotions  are  concerned,  has  just  been 
made,  independently  of  and  in  entire  ignorance  of  the  Lange- 
James  view,  by  Sutherland,*  who  makes  an  admirable  digest  of 
recent  biological  and  psychological  researches  which  seem  to 
point  to  the  conclusion  that  henceforth  we  must  conceive  that 
the  emotions  are  to  the  intellect  somewhat  as  the  sympathetic 
nervous  system  is  to  the  cerebro-spinal. 

In  general  terms,  we  may  say  that  the  brain  begins  with  the 
vertebrate  series,  and  that  the  visceral  ganglia  that  preside 
over  nutrition,  circulation  and  perhaps  vascular  tone,  and  the 

1  Psychology.     Vol.  II,  pp.  449-450. 

2  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Moral  Instincts.  1898.  Vol.  II, 
pp.  210-307.     The  Nervous  Basis  of  the  Emotions. 


A  STUDY   OF   ANGER.  59 1 

involuntary  and  non-striated  muscles  affecting  nutrition,  tem- 
perature, sex,  etc.,  are  the  twilight  region  where  the  keys  to 
the  solution  of  the  psychology  of  feeling  must  be  sought. 
Most  of  the  history  of  life  as  recorded  in  the  rocks  since  the 
amphioxus  has  been  devoted  to  the  development  of  muscles 
and  to  laying  the  basis  of  all  that  they  presuppose  for  the  soul; 
and  the  suggestion  is  irresistible  that  the  roots  of  our  emotional 
life  must  be  traced  back  to  those  paleologic  ages  where  prever- 
tebrate  life  had  its  fullest  development.  The  feelings,  there- 
fore, are  indefinitely  older  than  the  will,  as  it  is  older  than  the 
intellect.  Mosso  and  others  have  lately  laid  stress  on  the  idea 
that  the  physical  expressions  of  the  most  different  emotions  are 
often  more  or  less  similar,  especially  if  they  are  intense.  It  is 
no  doubt  true  that  strong  feelings  are  so  widely  irradiated  as  to 
affect  every  part  and  organ  of  the  body;  and  although  pleasure 
states  are  more  closely  related  with  expansion  and  extensor 
muscles,  and  pain  with  ameboid  and  cellular  contractions  and 
in  the  higher  forms  with  the  flexor  muscles,  it  seems  improbable 
that  emotions  so  opposite  as  anger  and  love  should  not  be  as 
strongly  contrasted  in  their  expression.  Probably  our  emo- 
tional psychology  has  now  only  advanced  to  a  stage  of  devel- 
opment more  or  less  corresponding  to  that  stage  in  general  psy- 
chology when  it  was  first  clearly  seen  that  the  brain  and  not 
the  heart  was  the  general  organ  of  mentation,  and  perhaps  we 
are  now  at  the  dawn  of  a  period  of  ganglionic  psychology. 


PSrOHOLOGIOAL  LITEEATUEE. 


Studien  Uber  Hysterie  von  Dr.  Jos.  Brewer  and  Dr.  Sigm.  Freud. 

This  little  book,  although  it  appeared  in  1895,  is  not  so  generally 
known  by  psychologists  perhaps  as  both  its  interest  and  importance 
warrants.  With  a  different  purpose  than  the  great  work  of  Legrand 
Du  Saulle,  the  present  study  limits  itself  to  those  cases  of  hysteria 
which  are  of  psychic  origin.  These  are  much  more  numerous  than 
has  commonly  been  supposed,  and  can  almost  invariably  be  traced 
back  to  some  lesion  of  the  psychic  sexual  region.  Psychical  hysteria 
is  defined  as  "  der  Erregung,  welche  abstromt  oder  abreagirt  werden 
muss."  The  excitant  is  of  a  compulsory  nature  and  being  ideational 
in  origin  is  frequently  hidden  from  the  individual  himself.  It  may 
often  be  reproduced  by  the  aid  of  a  light  hypnosis  or  by  pressing  the 
patient  to  the  point  of  confession,  and  upon  such  possibility  and  the 
degree  of  its  success  rests  the  therapeutic  procedure  of  the  authors. 
The  key  note  of  the  discussion  lies  in  the  endeavor  to  find  the  causes  or 
occasions  of  hysteria  in  sudden,  painful  experiences,  shocks  of  some 
sort,  frequently  sexual,  apparently  present  for  the  first  time  but 
really  originating  in  years  past.  The  clearest  dependence  is  estab- 
lished between  psychic  lesions  or  shocks  and  the  resulting  hysterias 
with  their  various  sensory  and  motor  disburbances. 

The  Inhalts-Verzeichniss  enumerates  the  following  topics: 

Part  I.  The  Psychical  Mechanism  of  Hysterical  Phenomena,  a  re- 
print from  the  Neurologischen  Centralblatt  for  1893. 

Part  II.  A  history  of  cases,  carefully  detailed  and  with  much  of 
psychological  suggestiveness. 

Part  III.  Restatement  of  the  author's  theory  and  an  attempt  to 
fijid  a  basis  for  the  facts  noted  in  cerebral  dynamics. 

Part  IV.  This  section,  not  the  least  fruitful,  deals  with  the  psycho- 
therapeutics of  Hysteria. 

Three  propositions  embrace  the  carrying  power  of  the  author's  dis- 
cussion. First:  Hysteria  is  for  the  most  part  psychic  and  founded 
upon  reminiscence.  As  is  explicitly  stated,  the  shock  as  agent  does 
not  immediately  provoke  the  symptoms,  but  the  memory  of  the  psy- 
chic shock  acts  as  a  sort  of  strange  or  foreign  body,  remaining  active 
for  years  after  the  first  impress.  Second:  The  emotional  force  and 
pathological  effectiveness  of  such  reminiscences  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  normal,  adequate  reactions,  either  instinctive  or  expressional,  are 
denied  them.  Hysterias  are  conditioned  upon  hyperaesthesic  mem- 
ories. Third:  Such  memories  and  emotionally  surcharged  rem- 
iniscences tend  to  form  separate  groups,  giving  rise  to  the  well  known 
phenomena  of  distraction,  double  consciousness,  sensory,  motor,  and 
organic  disturbances. 

The  hysteric  consciousness  has  a  field  of  its  own,  its  reactions  mul- 
tiform and  varied,  subject  to  no  apparent  laws.  Completed  in  its 
course  of  development,  it  leads  to  a  sundering  of  the  soul  itself. 
Herein  it  may  be  likened  to  the  self  of  the  hypnotic  state,  many 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  former  are  paralleled  in  the  latter.  So  the 
authors  would  place  beside  the  formula,  "  Hypnotism  is  artificial  hys- 
teria," the  other  proposition,  "The  basis  and  conditions  of  hysteria 
are  found  in  the  existence  of  hypnotic  Zustanden."    Thus  the  problem 


PSYCHOIvOGICAIv   I.ITKRATURE.  593 

of  pathological  associatioiial  groups  of  hyperaesthesic  memories,  so 
influential  and  effective  of  bodily  conditions,  pools  itself  with  the 
efficacy  of  hypnotic  suggestion  in  general. i 

The  authors  assume  a  tendency  to  keep  constant  the  intra-cerebral 
excitation.  The  regular  normal  expression  of  the  emotions,  the  satis- 
faction of  the  fundamental  needs  of  our  being,  the  activities  of  our 
routine  life  are  all  aids  in  maintaining  nervous  stability.  Shocks  of 
various  sorts  from  without,  sudden  fright,  extreme  sorrow  or  joy,  over 
repression  from  within,  too  much  monotony  and  uniformity  may  quick- 
ly raise  the  tension  to  the  point  of  danger.  The  vegetative  organs 
are  normally  insulated  from  the  activity  of  the  cerebrum,  but  under 
the  circumstances  stated,  or  others  akin,  the  over  tension  of  the  cere- 
bral excitation  may  break  through  its  accustomed  bounds,  diffuse 
itself  over  wider  areas,  shunt  itself  into  new  paths.  As  with  electric 
currents,  weakened  places  of  insulation  may  be  broken  through,  the 
continuity  of  connection  may  be  destroyed,  or  a  "  kurzer  schluss  " 
formed,  thus  laying  a  neurological  basis  for  both  the  positive  and 
negative  phenomena  of  hysteria.  Here  belongs,  too,  what  Oppenheim 
calls  the  "  anomalous  expression  of  the  emotions,"  the  purely  motor 
part  of  hysteria. 

The  unique  feature  of  the  book  is  the  method  of  cure  as  applied  to 
psychic  hysterias.  In  many  cases,  the  complete  confession  of  the 
circumstances  and  occasion  of  the  original  psychic  shocks  was  suf- 
ficient to  cause  the  phenomena  of  hysteria  to  vanish.  In  other  cases, 
a  light  degree  of  hypnotism,  or  the  "concentration  "  of  the  patient's 
attention  by  Bernheim's  method,  serves  to  aid  the  patient  in  recalling 
and  reliving  the  occasioning  factors.  These,  plainly  and  fully  detailed 
in  words,  lead  to  the  abrogation  of  the  bodily  disturbances  likewise. 
Communication  enlightens,  discharges,  relieves  the  tension,  even  if  it 
be  not  held  with  the  priest  and  followed  by  absolution. 

The  psychic  process  which  was  the  point  of  departure  must  be 
reproduced  in  a  manner  as  life-like  as  possible,  brought  in  statum 
nascendi,  and  then  detailed  or  confessed.  Cramps,  neuralgia,  hallu- 
cinations, functional  ailments,  paralyses,  anaesthesias,  once  in  full 
intensity,  have  been  caused  to  vanish.  For  example,  the  hysteric 
patient  Frau  Emmy  (to  which  Freud  devotes  about  fifty  pages  in 
detailing  history,  diagnosis,  and  cure)  is  the  subject  of  successive 
traumatic  experiences,  early  sexual  precocity  and  knowledge,  severe 
fright  in  various  ways,  attacks  on  the  part  of  her  brother,  who  is  a 
morphine  iiend,  death  of  her  husband,  etc.,  all  stored  and  surcharged 
with  emotion,  knit  together  into  a  pseudo-personality.  These  con- 
stituted a  latent  cause  of  hysteria,  which  always  tobk  the  direction  of 
some  factor  in  this  complex  group  of  associational  states.  Treatment 
and  cure  were  peculiarly  difficult  because  "the  second  condition," 
the  hysteric  personality,  had,  as  it  were,  so  many  roots,  was  so  deeply 
imbedded  and  appeared  under  such  diverse  forms  and  activities.  The 
treatment  consisted,  however,  as  in  all  cases  of  psychic  hysteria,  in 
securing  repeated  confession  of  all  the  shocks  and  morbidities  and 
discharging  the  memory  of  the  same  day  by  day  as  they  appeared. 

A  distinct  tendency  in  this  interesting  discussion  is  to  rehabilitate 
the  sexual  element  as  of  prime  importance  in  hysteria — a  standpoint 
which  is  more  or  less  repudiated.  Freud,  fresh  from  the  school  of 
Charcot,  as  he  himself  says,  was  prone  to  look  upon  the  sex  element 
in  hysteria  as  a  misnomer,  but  was  led  to  a  change  of  view  by  a  careful 

^  DelbcEuf  s  experiments  and  theory  of  cure  by  release  of  attention  from  the  "  life 
■of  relation  "  are  suggestive,  in  this  connection. 

De  rOrigine  des  effets  curatifs  de  I'hypnotisme.  Paris,  i8S8.  A  brief  statement  of 
theory  may  be  found  also  in  Mind  O.  S.,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  148  ff. 


I 

594  PSYCHOLOGICAI,   LITERATURE. 

study  of  the  remarkable  cases  detailed  in  Part  II.  The  appareutly 
correct  inference  from  statistics  that  hysteria  (which  Dr.  Weir  Mitch- 
ell calls  the  domestic  demon)  increases  notably  during  the  adolescent 
stage  of  girls  and  immediately  succeeding  marriage  in  women,  as  well 
as  the  recent  clinical  records  of  Gattel,  shows  that  the  female  diathesis 
is  peculiarly  susceptible  to  hysteric  phenomena,  just  as  paresis  at  the 
present  stage  of  evolution  is  somewhat  characteristically  a  male  dis- 
ease. In  fact,  the  great  functional  changes  and  duties  of  woman, 
which  mean  periodic  unstability  and  tensional  activity,  might  argue 
as  much. 

The  book  will  thus  prove  suggestive  to  those  hide-bound  psycho- 
logical thinkers  who  are  over-dogmatic  in  fixing  the  limits  of  the 
normal  in  conscious  life,  as  well  as  those  who  view  the  abnormal  as 
ipso  facto  of  no  direct  value  to  the  task  which  psychology  has  ever  in 
hand,  the  systematic  explanation  of  conscious  experiences. 

Erwin  W.  Runkle. 

History  of  Intellectual  Development  on  the  Lines  of  Modern  Evolu- 
tion, by  John  BeaTTie  Crozier.  London ;  Longmans,  Green  & 
Co.,  1897.     Vol.  I,  pp.  519.     Copious  index. 

This  book  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  volumes  in  which  the  author 
sets  himself  the  task  of  expounding  the  Intellectual  Development  of 
the  world.  In  this  volume  the  subject  is  brought  down  to  the  closing 
of  the  schools  of  Athens  by  Justinian.  The  evolution  of  Greek, 
Hindu,  Hebrew  and  Christian  (to  519  A.  D.)  thought  are  treated.  In 
succeeding  volumes,  Mohammedanism,  Mediaeval  Catholicism,  the 
Revival  of  Learning,  the  Reformation,  Modern  Metaphysics  and 
Modern  Science,  with  the  Doctrine  of  Evolution  are  to  be  dealt  with  ; 
and  the  results  of  this  comprehensive  survey  of  Intellectual  Develop- 
ment will  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  present  problems  of  religion, 
philosophy,  politics,  political  economy  and  sociology. 

Hegel,  Comte,  Buckle  and  Spencer  have  already  made  attempts  to 
reduce  this  history  to  fixed  and  determinate  laws.  But  these  attempts, 
though  admirable  and  splendid  in  themselves — as  efforts  of  the  human 
mind  to  find  itself — as  scientific  histories  were  foredoomed  to  failure. 
Not  until  our  own  times  has  a  sufficient  body  of 'historical  facts  been 
brought  together  to  justify  an  attempt  to  reduce  them  to  fixed  and 
scientific  laws.  Hegel  was  obliged,  therefore,  to  enunciate  a  single 
general  law  for  the  whole  field  of  intellectual  development,  instead 
of  enunciating  a  number  of  more  closely-fitting  laws  for  its  separate 
divisions  and  sections.  Comte  in  his  "three  stages  "  shows  how  the 
social  and  moral  phenomena  of  the  several  periods  were  connected,  but 
his  law  was  too  wide  and  general  to  determine  their  intellectual  curve 
and  line  of  evolution.  Buckle  made  no  appreciable  advance  upon 
Comte.  He  merely  presents  the  same  thesis  under  different  terms ; 
and  turns  what  purports  to  be  a  scientific  enquiry  into  a  magnificent 
piece  of  special  pleading  in  the  interests  of  a  particular  stage  of  intel- 
lectual development — the  scientific  or  "inductive."  As  with  Hegel 
and  Comte,  so  with  Spencer.  His  great  law  of  evolution  is  too  wide 
and  comprehensive  for  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  special  prob- 
lem of  intellectual  development.  The  law  of  endless  differentiation 
as  a  cosmic  principle  is  of  prime  importance,  but  is  barren  as  an 
explanation  of  the 'limited  problem  in  question.  The  sky,  though 
spanning  the  world,  and  being  the  abode  of  the  gods,  is  useless  to 
protect  man  from  wind  and  rain.  The  important  point  is  not  the 
knowledge  that  a  new  germ  of  religion  or  morality,  once  planted  in 
the  minds  of  men,  will  unfold  in  infinite  differentiations  ;  but  rather 
the  important  thing  to  know  is  how  a  specific  intellectual  advance 


PSYCHOI.OGICAI.  LITERATURE.  595 

takes  place,  how  a  specific  idea  becomes  modified  into  another  specific 
idea. 

To  enunciate  such  a  special  law  or  laws  under  which  the  intel- 
lectual evolution  of  the  world  proceeds,  is  the  aim  of  this  present 
work.  The  author  finds  three  types  of  cause  entertained  by  the 
human  mind — these  three  being  determined  by  the  notion  they 
have  formed  to  themselves  of  the  nature  of  the  cause  or  causes 
by  which  they  conceive  the  world  to  have  been  produced.  These 
he  denominates,  for  convenience,  Religious  Causes,  Metaphysical 
Causes,  and  Scientific  Causes.  Upon  these  three  causes  as  constant 
factors  in  the  intellectual  history  of  the  world,  he  seeks  to  recon- 
struct the  history  of  Intellectual  Development.  Instead  of  regarding 
Philosophy,  as  Hegel  has  done,  as  a  swelling  torrent  which  whirls 
into  its  own  current  Religion  and  Science  as  mere  tributaries  and 
spoils,  he  has  figured  it  as  only  one  form  of  thought  among  several, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  laws  and  modes  of  procedure.  Taking  his 
stand  upon  the  human  mind  in  its  ensemble,  not  upon  some  segment, 
he  uses  each  of  the  corresponding  causes  in  turn  as  a  fixed  point  by 
which  to  measure  the  other — like  the  surveyor,  who  uses  the  height 
of  a  tree  to  measure  the  extent  of  a  field,  and  the  length  of  a  field,  the 
height  of  a  tree. 

The  author  confesses,  with  fine  tolerance,  that  the  belief  in  a  stu- 
pendous and  overarching  Supernaturalism  everywhere  enfolding  and 
pervading  the  world,  is  largely  personal  conclusion  and  not  necessary 
transferable  to  other  minds.  It  is  therefore  not  pressed  upon  the 
reader,  but  is  left  to  his  deep  moods  with  their  finer  and  truer  spiritual 
affinities  and  intentions.  W.  S.  S. 

U Idialisme  Social  par  E.  Fournie;re,  Bibliotheque  Gdnerale  des 
Sciences  Sociales.     Paris.     Felix  Alcan,  1898. 

The  author  is  a  convinced  socialist ;  at  the  same  time  a  true  scientist. 

Formerly  humanity,  being  unable  to  conceive  of  an  ideal  on  earth, 
looked  for  its  ideal  in  a  life  of  dreams,  after  the  present  life.  At  the 
present  time  the  necessity  for  so  doing  no  longer  exists.  Science  has 
so  developed  as  to  afford  no  means  for  the  realization  of  happiness  in 
this  world. 

The  old  science — e.g.^  the  discussions  on  the  Universalia  during  the 
Middle  Ages — stood  entirely  aloof  from  practical  life.  To-day,  although 
engaged  in  work  independent  one  of  the  other,  they  both  strive  towards 
attaining  the  same  end.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  examples  showing 
how  much  the  recent  scientific  discoveries  have  advanced  mankind 
towards  the  ideal  of  a  socialist. 

It  will  be  found  that  two  other  steps  in  the  same  direction  have  been 
taken  :  co-operation,  and  the  division  of  labor,  which  even  more  than 
the  development  of  science  are  a  proof  of  the  socialistic  character  of 
modern  life.  It  is  true,  however,  that  much  remains  to  be  done  in 
establishing  the  relation  between  the  work-giver  and  the  worker, 
which,  as  yet,  is  a  sort  of  slavery,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  salary  does 
not  represent  the  full  value  of  the  work  done,  the  work-giver  retaining 
part  of  the  profit.  On  the  other  hand  capitalism  is  in  a  process  of 
transformation,  it  is  becoming  impersonal,  that  is,  corporations  take 
the  place  of  private  capitalists  in  large  enterprises — a  new  triumph  of 
Socialism — and  those  are  cases  even  where  the  laborer  has  his  share 
in  the  profit,  where  he  has  become  an  associate  in  the  business. 

From  the  standpoint  of  economics  the  result  of  the  latter  movement 
will  be  that,  owing  to  the  progress  science  has  made,  production  will 
be  so  abundant  that  the  cost  of  living  will  be  reduced  to  nothing.  All 
this  is  advanced  in  the  strongest  and  most  logical  manner. 

Not  so  the  second  part :  the  development  of  the  social  institutions . 


596  PSYCHOIvOGICAI.   I^ITERATURE. 

First  the  family.  Capitalism  has  demoralized  family  life.  Women, 
having  to  work  in  factories,  are  obliged  to  leave  their  homes.  But 
there  is  some  advantage  in  this  state  of  affairs ;  earning  her  bread 
herself,  has  given  to  woman  her  social  independence.  She  now  is,  or 
will  be,  a  "social  all  "  just  as  well  as  man. 

The  relations  of  the  individual  to  the  State  will  continue  to  develop 
further.  Democracy  has  taken  the  place  of  monarchy,  and  the  modern 
man  does  not  admit  that  the  State  has  any  jurisdiction  in  private  af- 
fairs, but  that  it  must  confine  itself  .strictly  to  the  administration  of 
public  matters.  Mr.  Fourni^re  thinks  that  the  time  will  come  when 
public  laws  will  be  useless,  because  man  will  comply  with  what  he  has 
himself  established,  he  being  at  the  same  time  ruler  and  subject.  This, 
as  will  be  readily  seen,  is  more  than  socialistic  idealism ;  it  is  the 
anarchistic  ideal  of  society. 

Will  the  socialistic  ideal  ever  become  a  reality?  Mr.  Fourniere  be- 
lieves in  it.  The  first  thing,  then,  is  to  have  mankind  understand  this 
ideal,  to  have  a  clear  image  of  it  in  its  mind,  so  that  it  may  learn  to 
live  up  to  it.  A.  Schinz. 

Le  Suicide.     By  Emile  Durcheim.     Felix  Alcan,  Publisher,  1897. 

This  recent  French  work  on  suicide,  though  marred  by  provincial- 
ism and  prejudice  affords  some  views  that  are  of  real  value. 

The  author  is  a  professor  of  Sociology  at  a  provincial  University  and 
has  evidently  seen  very  little  literature  of  recent  date  on  the  subject, 
for  his  latest  statistics  are  mostly  those  of  1870  to  1875  and  are  largely 
quoted  from  Morselli's  "Suicide,"  published  in  1882  in  the  Interna- 
tional Scientific  Series. 

A  more  recent  work,  "  Suicide  and  Insanity,"  by  Dr.  S.  A.  K.  Stra- 
han,  published  by  Swan,  Sonnenschen  &  Co.,  in  1894,  in  the  same  series 
with  Gronlund's  "Co-operative  Commonwealth,"  the  Social  Science 
Series  has  statistics  for  1880  and  in  some  cases  for  1890.  Durcheim 
shows  prejudice  in  arguing  that  Catholicism  is  less  favorable  to  insan- 
ity than  Protestantism,  founding  his  view  on  statistics  of  Catholic  coun- 
tries, though  on  his  own  figures  suicides  are  only  half  as  frequent  in 
England  as  in  Austria.  Later  figures  give  England  74  suicides  per 
million  inhabitants,  and  Austria  144. 

The  real  fact,  which  none  of  these  writers  seem  to  have  touched,  is 
that  suicide  is  most  prevalent  in  rationalistic,  intemperate  countries. 

The  real  advance  of  the  French  work  on  its  predecessors  is  in  the 
parallelism  traced  between  suicide  and  alcoholism  (distilled  liquors). 
The  Scandinavian  temperance  movement  may  diminish  suicide  in  the 
near  future. 

A  remedy  is  also  presented,  though  it  is  only  mentioned  as  a  punish- 
ment. 

It  is  taken  from  the  New  York  Penal  Code  of  1881,  which  punishes 
attempted  suicide  with  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  two  years,  or  fine 
or  both.  Strahan  and  also  Durcheim  show  that  suicide  is  no  real  sign 
of  insanity.  H.   I/.  EvERETT. 

La  Religion  et  les  Sciences  de  la  Nature^  par  F.  BE'TTEx.  Geneve, 
1898.  pp.  296. 
The  author  first  discusses  progress  and  actual  evolution,  then  the 
relations  between  Christianity  and  science,  and  finally  characterizes 
and  points  out  the  dangers  of  materialism.  Religion  is  not  knowl- 
edge, but  life  ;  and  many  of  its  postulates  could  be  founded  on  science, 
to  which,  however,  some  are  opposed.  The  physical  is  for  the  sake 
of  the  moral  world.  For  the  Christian  there  are  three  revelations  : 
conscience,  nature,  Scripture.  It  is  suggestive  that  25,000  copies  of 
this  work  have  been  sold. 


PSYCHOI.OGICAI.  LITBRATURK.  597 

Religions  Philosophie  auf  Psychologischer  und  Geschichtlicher  Gru7id- 
lage,  von  August  Sabatier.  Freiburg,  1898.  pp.  326. 
Sabatier's  religious  philosophy  rests  upon  psychological  and  his- 
torical grounds,  and  is  here  authoritatively  translated  into  German. 
First  the  psychological  origin  and  nature  of  religion  are  considered. 
Then  follow  religion  and  revelation,  miracle  and  inspiration,  the 
religious  development  of  man.  The  second  part  discusses  Chris- 
tianity, beginning  with  Hebraism  and  the  origin  of  the  Gospels  ;  then 
discusses  the  essence  of  Christianity  and  its  historical  forms.  The 
third  part  treats  of  dogma,  what  it  is,  its  historical  life  and  develop- 
ment, the  science  of  dogma  and  the  critical  theory  of  religious 
knowledge. 

General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  by  Charles 
Augustus  Briggs.  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1899.  pp. 
688. 
This  is  a  very  greatly  enlarged  tenth  edition  of  the  author's  Biblical 
Study,  1888,  which  has  been  revised  yearly  for  fifteen  years  in  con- 
nection with  text-book  work  and  is  now,  on  the  twenty-fifth  anniver- 
sary of  the  author's  professorate,  dedicated  to  the  students  and  alumni 
of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary.  The  author's  aim  has  been  to 
take  a  very  comprehensive  and  systematic,  but  somewhat  superficial 
view  of  the  very  many  special  topics  involved.  Very  much  of  it 
deals  with  what  may  be  called  externals,  such  as  titles,  names  of 
authors,  dates,  etc.,  and  those  who  look  for  much  information  on  any 
of  the  special  topics  will  be  disappointed.  Even  such  topics  as  the 
general  teachings  of  Ritchl  or  Rothe,  Vatke,  Baur,  or  even  just  what 
the  higher  criticism  holds,  are  treated  so  incidentally  as  to  give 
almost  no  real  information.  We  distinctly  question  the  pedagogic 
method  of  such  instruction,  and  think  a  true  introduction  should 
give  far  more  prominence  to  the  ideas  of  the  different  authors,  and 
that,  for  instance,  Paulsen,  in  his  Introduction  to  Philosophy,  solves 
this  problem  far  better. 

Die  Gleichnisreden  Jesu,  von  D.  AdoIvE  Jui^icher.  Freiburg,  1899. 
pp.  643. 
The  author  is  one  of  the  younger  representatives  of  the  new  the- 
ology and  it  is  this  book  upon  which  his  reputation  largely  rests. 
The  present  volume  is  devoted  to  thirty-three  parables,  likenesses,  and 
illustrations  used  by  Jesus  ;  and  this  affords  the  author  an  opportunity 
of  not  only  displaying  his  very  wide  range  of  textual  knowledge,  but 
also  of  illustrating  in  the  most  effective  way  the  leading  tenets  of 
liberal  or  higher  criticism,  which  he  represents. 

The  Evolution  of  Christianity,  by  Ramsden  Bai^mforTh.  I^ondon, 
1898.  pp.  161. 
The  true  view  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  forces  that  made  it  are  first 
characterized  from  the  inside.  The  beginnings  of  Christianity,  which 
depend  upon  the  question  whether  Jesus  was  divine  or  human,  and 
the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  follow.  The  organization  and  doctrine 
of  the  church,  the  mediaeval  reawakening  and  the  definition  of  true 
religion  are  the  other  topics.  The  author's  standpoint  is  distinctly 
liberal  and  ethical,  and  his  creed  is  the  Fatherhood  of  God  and  the 
Brotherhood  of  Man. 

Ethics  and  Revelation,  by  Henry  S.  Nash.     The   Macmillan  Co., 
New  York,  1899.     pp.  277. 
The  writer  discusses  the  relations  between  ethics  and  religion,  the 


f 

598  PSYCHOLOGICAI.   I.ITERATURE. 

spiritual  significance  of  the  free  state,  comparative  religion  and  the 
principle  of  individuality,  the  church's  conception  of  revelation, 
prophecy  and  history,  Christ  and  the  creative  good.  Their  aim,  con- 
formably to  the  will  of  the  founder  of  the  Bohlen  lectureship,  is  to 
show  "that  the  Bible  marks  out  the  road  along  which  conscience 
must  travel  if  it  would  treat  our  life  on  earth  with  abiding  serious- 
ness." The  writer  is  a  professor  in  the  Episcopal  Theological  School 
at  Cambridge,  and  the  author  of  Genesis  of  the  Social  Conscience. 

A  Manual  of  Patrology,  by  Wai.i,ace  N.  Stearns.     Charles  Scrib- 
uer's  Sons,  New  York,  1899.     pp.  176. 

This  is  a  concise  account  of  the  chief  persons,  sects,  orders,  etc.,  in 
Christian  history  from  the  first  century  to  the  Reformation,  with 
select  biographical  references.  An  infolded  map  and  chart  with  sev- 
eral tables  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  work,  which  is  almost  as 
concise  as  a  dictionary. 

Essay  on  the  Bases  of  the  Mystic  Knowledge,  by  E.  Recejac.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1899.  pp.  287. 
The  writer  first  discusses  the  various  attitudes  of  the  mind  towards 
the  absolute,  empiricism,  criticism,  etc.,  then  the  mystic  conscious- 
ness which  knows  God  through  the  heart  is  characterized,  together 
with  the  symbols  expressing  such  knowledge.  Mystic  esotericism  is 
simply  the  intensified  state  of  consciousness  we  know  as  inspiration. 
Mystic  intuition  reveals  freedom  and  God,  but  is  always  in  part 
incommunicable.  The  mystic  city  is  the  characterization  of  an  ideal 
state  in  which  the  heart  and  not  the  head  shall  dominate. 

Die  Functionsstorungen  des  Grosshirnes^  von  Ai^bert  Adamkiewicz. 
Hanover,  1898.  pp.  242. 
This  concise  and  comprehensive  study,  after  a  general  account  of 
physiology,  psycholog5^,  histology  and  symptoms,  takes  up  first  the 
mechanical  and  then  the  functional  diseases  of  the  cortex,  the  latter 
including  all  the  anomalies  of  sleep  and  dream ;  and  thirdly  stimulus 
and  laming  are  discussed.  The  second  part  is  devoted  to  a  summary 
of  what  is  known  concerning  cortical  areas  and  localization  ;  and  the 
third  treats  of  the  substance  of  the  hemispheres,  cells,  fibres,  etc. 
Three  interesting  colored  charts  are  appended. 

Vererbung  und  Entwicklung,  von  Max  KassowiTz.  M.  Perles, 
Wien,  1899.  pp.  391. 
Of  the  fifty  chapters  that  compose  this  volume,  which  although 
finished  in  1897  is  now  printed  with  a  little  change,  the  most  impor- 
tant are — the  origin  of  life;  the  primeval  cell  and  nucleus;  assim- 
ilative continuity;  changes  by  mechanical  influences;  correlation 
between  blood  vessels  and  bones;  changes  by  nervous  stimulation; 
individual  adaptation;  the  impotence  of  natural  selection;  sexual 
selection;  the  inheritance  of  acquired  character;  innate  nerve 
mechanism;  amphimixis;  Lemarck  and  Darwin;  germinal  selection; 
social  instincts. 

Essays  in  Psychical  Research,  by  Miss  X.  (A.  Goodrich-Freer). 
George  Redway,  London,  1899.  pp.  330. 
These  papers,  collected  from  various  periodicals,  discuss  haunted 
houses,  crystal  gazing,  the  divining  rod,  hypnotism,  obsession,  psychic 
healing  and  Saint  Columba.  They  are  written  in  a  lively  and  inter- 
esting style  and  from  a  sympathetic  standpoint. 


PSYCHOI.OGICAI.  LITERATURE.  599 

Arbeiten  aus  dein  Gesammtgebiet  der  Psychiatrie  und  Neuropaih- 
ologie,  von  R.  v  Krafft-Ebing.    J.  A.  Barth,  Leipzig,  1897-1899. 
pp.  207. 
These  four  volumes  in  one  comprise  some  score  and  a  half  of  mis- 
cellaneous papers  published  by  the  author  in  various  journals  between 
1878  and  1898.     The  topics  most  fully  treated  are — transitory  insanity 
on  a  neurasthenic  basis;  the  imitation  of  organic  nervous  diseases  in 
hysteria;  clouded  and  dreamy  states;  imperative  ideas,  sexual  psycho 
and  neuropathy;  the  latter  comprising  over  100  pages  of  new  matter. 

Lehrbuch  der  Psychopathologischen  Untersuchungs-Methoden,  von  R. 
SOMMER.  Berlin  u.  Wien,  1899.  pp.  399. 
This  valuable  work  comprises  an  introduction  on  methods  in  scien- 
tific psychopathology  and  four  parts:  (i)  optical,  (2)  moto-graphic 
methods  on  knee,  pupil,  hands,  etc.,  (3)  acoustic,  and  (4)  on  psychic 
states  and  conditions,  including  memory,  number  work,  association 
and  time.     There  are  in  all  85  curves  and  figures. 

La  Dissolution  Opposie  a  V Evolution  dans  les  Sciences  Physiques  et 
Morales^  par  Andre  IvAIvANDB.  F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp.  492. 
After  one  chapter  each  upon  mechanical,  physiological,  and  psycho- 
logical dissolution,  the  author  discusses  social  dissolution  and  its 
consequences  in  law.  The  latter  is  brought  about  by  excessive  divi- 
sion of  labor,  assimilation  of  sexes,  the  dissolution  of  family  and  of 
ethnic  groups. 

V Instability  Mentale,  par  G.  L.  Duprat.  F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  PP- 
310. 
We  have  here  an  essay  on  the  data  of  psychopathology.  All  mental 
functions  are  characterized  by  instability,  personality  no  less  than 
others,  and  morbid  stability  is  especially  seen  in  sex  function  and  age. 
The  practical  conclusion  is  an  account  of  what -the  author  calls  mental 
therapeutics  and  preventative  pedagogy.  The  writer's  standpoint  is 
purely  psychological  and  is  largely  based  upon  the  distinction  between 
psychic  continuity  and  discontinuity.  Philosophers  should  not  give 
over  to  doctors  the  business  of  curing  mental  diseases,  but  should 
themselves  study  the  pedagogy  of  firmness  and  coherence  of  will  and 
character. 

Primer  of  Psychology  and  Mental  Disease,  C.  B.  Burr,  M.  D.     F.  A. 
Davis  Co.,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Chicago,  1898.     pp.  116. 
This  little  manual  is  designed  for  use  in  training  schools  for  attend- 
ants and  nurses.    It  is  an  extremely  elementary  primer  in  psychology, 
morbid  and  especially  normal. 

Psychiatrie  und  Seelsorge,  von  A.  Romer.     Berlin,  1899.     pp.  343. 

Dr.  Romer  presents  here  a  guide  for  the  recognition  and  avoidance 
of  the  nervous  evils  of  our  time.  The  psychoses  he  treats  are  grouped 
under  the  three  heads  of  organic,  idiopathic,  and  constitutional.  Very 
interesting  is  his  discussion  of  transitory  losses  of  responsibility  as 
contrasted  with  permanent  loss.  The  last  part  of  the  book  is  devoted 
to  a  discussion  of  the  assumption  and  consequences  of  his  doctrine 
and  of  answering  four  objections  to  it.  That  it  exhausts  the  body  at 
the  expense  of  the  mind,  that  it  denies  freedom,  that  it  reduces  the 
worth  of  personality,  and  is  unbiblical.  The  conclusion  of  the  work 
discusses  the  personality  of  the  shepard  of  souls  among  the  insane, 
and  he  pleads  for  the  institution  of  such  a  special  office  as  practica- 
ble and  necessary. 


# 

6oo  PSYCHOIvOGICAI,   LITEJRATURK. 

Wild  Animals  I  have  Known,  bj''  Ernest  S.  Thompson.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1899.  pp.  358. 
This  is  a  volume  of  stories  about  wolves,  crows,  rabbits,  dogs,  foxes, 
mustangs,  partridges,  with  copious  and  other  artistic  illustrations, 
and  written  in  a  charming  style,  which  characterizes  this  clever  author 
artist. 

The  Brain  Machine,  its  Power  and  Weakness,  by  Ai,be;rt  Wilson. 
J.  and  A.  Churchill,  lyondon,  1899.  pp.  J51. 
This  is  one  of  those  books  in  which  a  man  evidently  of  years  and 
experience  has  undertaken  to  put  down  his  general  view  of  life.  He 
happens  to  be  a  doctor,  and  holds  that  prosperity  in  this  world  and 
perhaps  salvation  in  the  next  depends  upon  the  health  of  the  brain 
cell.  Hence,  together  with  a  discussion  of  cranial  nerves,  automatisms, 
speech,  etc.,  marriage,  religion,  crime,  alcohol,  suggestion,  education, 
and  many  other  topics  are  discussed.  The  latter  part  of  the  book 
contains  thirty-seven  rather  rude  cuts  of  various  objects  illustrating 
his  subject. 

Geschichte  des  Lebensmagnetismus  und  des  Hypnotismus ,  von  H.  R. 
Paui,  Schroeder.  I^eipzig,  1899. 
In  the  five  lieferung,  ending  with  page  288,  that  have  so  far  appeared, 
the  author  has  brought  his  history  down  into  the  time  of  Mesmer. 
His  work  abounds  in  various  illustrations  and  pictures  of  prominent 
representatives  in  the  fields  treated. 

Hypnotism  and  its  Application  to  Practical  Medicine,  by  Otto  Georg 
Wetterstrand.     G.  p.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York  and  lyondon, 
1897.     pp.  166. 
Dr.  Petersen  has  rendered  a  very  valuable  service  to  both  psychol- 
ogy and  medicine  by  translating  the  valuable  contribution   of  Dr. 
Wetterstrand  on  this  important  subject.     The  very  remarkable  cures 
and  ameliorations  of  stuttering,   hysteria,   chorea,   light  psychoses, 
insomnia,  neuralgia,  spasmodic  movements,  alcoholism,  incontinence, 
etc.,  by  this  author's  method  of  prolonged  and  artificial  hypnotic 
sleep,  constitute  not  only  a  contribution  to  modern  medical  methods 
but  also  to  psychology. 

Twentieth  Century  Magic,  by  Nevii.  Monroe  Hopkins.  New  York 
and  London,  1898.  pp.  160. 
This  book  deals  largely  with  the  construction  of  the  newest  magical 
apparatus  in  which  mechanical,  electrical  and  other  experiences  are 
involved.  The  magician's  stage  and  tables  are  first  described,  then 
five  new  and  rather  choice  bits  of  mechanical  magic.  Chemical  and 
electrical  magic  follow.     In  all  there  are  just  100  illustrations. 

Sexualismus  und  Aetiologie,  von  G.  Herman.  Leipzig,  1899.  pp. 
116. 
This  is  the  first  part  of  the  first  volume  of  a  natural  history  of  love 
designed  as  a  contribution  to  sexual  physiology.  The  author  styles 
himself  professor,  and  his  captions  are  energetics  and  polarity, 
organs,  contrectation  and  detumescence,  living  substance,  physio- 
cratic  and  psychocratic  procreation.  These,  perhaps,  give  sufficient 
intimation  of  the  mystic  character  of  this  work,  which  is  nevertheless 
based  to  a  great  extent  upon  a  study  of  recent  morbid  and  normal 
physiology. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE.  6oi 

Psychologic  Comparec  de  Vhomme  et  de  la  femtne,  par  C.  Renooz. 
Paris,  1898.  pp.  576. 
In  the  first  part  the  author  discusses  masculine  and  feminine  psy- 
chology in  general,  with  sections  on  egoism,  envy,  anger,  doubt,  pes- 
simism, modesty,  chastity,  etc.;  in  the  second  part,  the  relations  of 
the  sexes  are  treated,  morbid  and  normal;  and  in  the  third,  the  strug- 
gle and  rivalry  between  the  two  resulting  in  the  supremacy  of  man; 
in  the  last,  the  effort  to  equalize  the  liberty  and  opportunity  and  to 
lay  down  laws  for  each. 

The  Last  Link;  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  the  Descent  of  Man^  by 
Ernst  Haeckki..  London,  1898.  pp.  156. 
The  author  here  attempts  to  resum^  his  more  comprehensive,  sys- 
tematic phylogeny  and  present  a  concise  picture  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  descent  of  man.  The  evidence  from  comparative 
anatomy,  paleontology,  etc.,  is  first  stated,  and  then  the  various 
stages  from  worms  up,  twenty-six  in  number,  are  briefly  characterized 
and  two  new  illustrative  charts  are  printed.  The  second  part  of  the 
book,  beginning  with  page  80,  is  devoted  to  short  biographic  sketches 
of  great  biologists,  and  to  notes  on  the  theory  of  cells,  factors  of  evo- 
lution and  geologic  time. 

A  System  of  Ethics,  by  Friedrich  Paui^SEN.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  New  York,  1899.  pp.  723. 
While  less  concrete  and  empirical  than  Sunderland's,  the  present 
treatise  is  far  more  so  than  we  should  expect  from  the  author.  Five 
chapters  outline  the  history  of  moral  philosophy,  nine  its  basal  con- 
cepts, and  nine  more  the  doctrines  of  virtues  and  duties.  Sub  heads 
abound  in  practical  themes  like  drunkenness,  clothing,  poverty  and 
wealth,  modesty,  suicide,  temperance,  justice,  effects  of  welfare  on 
character,  nihilism,  egoism,  relations  between  science  and  religion, 
immortality,  freedom,  compassion,  love  of  home,  country,  gratitude, 
lying,  and  flattery. 

V  Automatisme  Psychologique,  par  PiERRE  Janet.  F.  Alcan,  Paris, 
1899.  pp.  496. 
This  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  this  important  work  distinguishes 
first  between  total  and  partial  automatisms.  Under  the  first  head, 
catalepsy,  somnambulism  and  suggestion  are  discussed.  Under  the 
second,  subsconscious  activities,  anesthesias,  and  psychic  disag- 
gregation. 

La  Psychologic  Naturelle,  par  W.  Nicati.     Paris,  1898.     pp.  423. 

M.  Nicati  is  bitterly  opposed  to  current  psychology  because  of  its 
implications  of  supernaturalism  and  regards  it  as  essentially  a  phy- 
sical science  tributary  to  others  and  divided  into  two  general  parts — 
one  dealing  with  individuals  and  the  other  with  society.  Just  as  the 
parts  of  the  individual  are  related  to  each  other,  so  individuals  are 
related  to  society,  and  the  present  work  is  preliminary  to  a  larger 
general  and  social  psychology.  The  present  work  treats  solely  of 
colors  and  is  devoted  to  discussions  of  their  scales,  the  mechanism  of 
color  in  the  senses  and  nervous  centers,  its  gradations ;  and  the  second 
part  treats  of  individual  psychology,  regarding  individuality  as  a  com- 
mon attribute  of  forces  as  affirmed  in  the  distinction  bet\yeen  soul  and 
body,  and  as  culminating  in  determinations  of  the  intensity  of  psychic 
and  nervous  force  shown  in  electricity,  cellular  tropisms  and  move- 
ment, general  sensibility,  etc.  The  chapter  on  emotions  makes  it  a 
basis  of  sensation,  memory,  knowledge,  etc.    Intelligence  is  a  mechan- 

Journai,— 18 


i 

602  PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE. 

ism,  and  in  rudimentary  forms  is  seennn  viscera  and  vaso-motor  ganglia 
as  well  as  in  the  basal  ganglia  of  the  brain,  which  he  thinks  the  cere- 
bral seat  of  instinct;  while  higher  intelligence  is  manifested  in  the 
brain.  Psychic  harmonies  are  classified  as  intensity,  space  and  time, 
and  are  grouped  in  symphonies  not  without  analogies  to  music.  In 
general,  unique  and  stimulating  as  is  the  author's  standpoint,  original 
as  are  his  many  illustrations,  it  must  be  granted  that  he  has  under- 
taken a  work  which  in  the  present  conditions  of  our  knowledge  must 
for  a  long  time,  to  say  the  least,  remain  incomplete  and  unsatis- 
factory. 

UAvenir  de  la  Philosophie,  par  Henri  Berr.  Paris,  1899.  PP-  S^^* 
Professor  Berr  attempts  here  to  sketch  the  synthesis  of  knowledges 
founded  upon  history.  First  a  brief  sketch  of  philosophy  since  Des- 
cartes is  presented  as  a  basis  of  critical,  positive  and  ethical  conclu- 
sions. Philosophy  is  to  transform  its  metaphysical  into  scientific 
problems,  and  to  effect  a  great  synthesis  not  only  of  knowledge  but  of 
life  and  religion,  which  is  to  affect  man  and  society  in  the  profoundest 
and  most  beneficent  way. 

Psychologie  als  Erfahrungswissenschaft  von  Hans  Cornewus.   Leip- 
zig, 1897.     pp.  445. 

The  problem  here  attacked  is  the  epistemological  basis  of  psycholo- 
gy, which  he  would  base  on  purely  empirical  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
metaphysical  conceptions.  The  contents  of  consciousness,  memory, 
recognition,  association,  abstraction,  speech,  definition,  and  feeling 
are  the  elementary  facts.  On  their  bases  are  discussed  unity  and  ex- 
pectation, subject  and  object,  the  unity  of  personality.  The  third 
chapter  attempts  psychic  analysis  of  the  unnoticed  contents  of  con- 
sciousness ;  and  in  subsequent  chapters  sensation,  memory  and  fancy, 
the  objective  world,  truth  and  error,  feeling  and  will,  are  treated. 

Die  Seelentheorie,  von  F.  Hanspaui,.    Berlin,  1899.    pp.  292. 

The  laws  of  natural  egoism  and  adaptation,  together  with  the  pedi- 
gree of  the  human  spirit,  might  have  been  the  title  of  this  book. 
In  one  chapter  the  influence  of  speech  upon  the  brain,  in  others  the 
effects  of  association,  the  relations  of  egoism  to  society,  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  Darwinism,  the  justification  of  punishment  by  the  State, 
are  discussed.  From  these  standpoints  the  author  attempts  to  show 
that  the  soul  is  as  old  as  the  body  and  begins  with  the  primeval  cell, 
that  it  has  persisted  in  a  chain  of  continuous  development  for  mil- 
lions of  years,  and  will  perhaps  develop  into  unknown  forms  millions 
of  years  hence;  for  life,  egoism,  will  and  understanding  are  all  one 
and  the  same  thing,  whether  in  plant,  animal  or  man. 

System  der  Philosophie,  von  Josef  Mui.i,ER.  Mainz,  1898.  pp.  372. 
The  fruit  of  twenty  years  of  philosophical  study  is  here  presented 
in  condensed  form  in  the  belief  that  it  fills  a  gap.  Philosophy  now 
is  less  in  need  of  originality  than  of  accuracy.  The  center  of  the 
author's  view  is  his  theory  of  consciousness.  The  book  falls  into 
three  general  divisions:  (1)  epistemology,  logic  and  metaphysics; 
(2)  psychology;  (3)  ethics,  with  an  appendix  on  the  philosophy  of 
religion. 

Der  Wille  und  die  Freiheit,   in  der  neuern  Philosophie,  von  Max 
Krieg.     Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1898.     pp.  40. 
This  physiological  study  is   divided  into  two  parts — pre-Kantian 
and  post-Kantian.     Under  the  first,  Descartes,  Spinoza,  Leibniz  and 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE.  603 

the  English  philosophers  are  discussed ;    under  the  latter,  Fichte, 
Schelling  and  Schopenhauer, 

La  Nouvelle  Monadologie,  par  Ch.  Renouvier  et  L.  Prat.  Paris, 
1899.  pp.  546. 
A  careful  characterization  of  the  nomad  is  first  given  from  various 
standpoints  in  all  its  orders  and  relations.  The  composition  of 
monads  follows  and  there  are  chapters  each  on  passion,  will,  society, 
and  justice.  As  an  orderly  digest  of  Leibniz'  work,  it  is  the  most 
co-ordinated  and  systematic  we  have  ever  had. 

Esprits  Logiques  et  Esprits  Faux,  par  Fr.  PAur<HAN.  F.  Alcan, 
Paris,  1896.  pp.  362. 
The  most  important  part  of  this  perhaps  too  neglected  book  is  the 
characterization  of  logical  types.  The  equilibrators,  the  reasoners, 
the  outrancers,  the  pugnacious  type,  the  contrastors,  the  associators 
by  contiguity  and  by  resemblance.  The  false  or  illogical  minds  are 
those  characterized  by  predominance  of  directive  ideas  or  of  insuf- 
ficiency of  them,  of  abnormal  phenomena,  the  sentimentalists,  the 
detailers,  the  frivolous  and  the  puerile. 

Psychologie  der  Verdnderungsauffassung y  von  L.  W11.LIAM  Stern. 
Breslau,  1898.  pp.  264. 
The  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  change  are  due  to  perception,  re- 
production and  comparison.  The  fineness  of  it  is  measured  by  an 
elaborate  technique  for  each  sense.  The  psychic  excitability  for 
changes  and  their  law  is  affected  by  fatigue,  rapidity  of  motion,  inten- 
sity, direction;  and  under  these  captions  the  entire  discussion  of  the 
book  falls.  It  is  illustrated  by  various  tables  with  curves  and  some 
apparatus. 

R.  Rothe's  Speculatives  System^  voxi  H.  J.  Hoi,tzmann.  Freiburg  i. 
B.  1899.  pp.  269. 
It  is  one  of  the  noteworthy  signs  of  our  time  that  Richard  Rothe's 
opinions  should  now  attract  so  much  attention  in  theological  circles. 
No  doubt  he  deserves  a  place  next  to  Schleiermacher's  as  one  of  the 
most  original  religious  thinkers  of  modern  times,  and  it  is  therefore 
a  very  opportune  piece  of  work  to  digest  his  views  in  a  compendious 
form.  First  his  speculative  principles  are  treated,  then  his  general 
view  of  God,  the  world  and  man,  next  his  principles  of  ethics,  in- 
dividual, piety  and  love,  -then  his  doctrines  of  sin  and  atonement, 
virtue,  duty,  State,  church  and  the  final  close  of  all  things.  From 
superficial  glances  through  a  few  chapters  we  think  this  work  is  well 
and  conscientiously  done. 

CriUriologie  Gin^rale,  par  D.  Mercier.  F.  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp. 
371- 
The  general  theory  of  certitude  is  here  treated  in  its  origin  in  the 
different  fields  of  ontology  and  logic  in  its  relations  to  doubt,  scepti- 
cism and  dogmatism,  and  especially  with  reference  to  the  philosophic 
theories  of  the  criterion  of  knowledge.  The  different  forms  of  criti- 
cism and  the  problem  of  objective  reality  conclude  the  book. 

Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
London,  February  and  May,  1899. 
The  long  articles  in  this  first  number  of  a  new  series  are  on  The 
Hill  Tribes  of  Central  India  ;  Caves,  Shell  Mounds  and  Stones  in  South 
Africa ;  Totemism ;  and  the  Presidential  Address,  January,  1899,  by 
F.  W.  Rudler. 


6o4  PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE. 

Nouvelles  Esquisses  de  Philosophie  Critique y  par  A.  Spir.  F.  Alcau, 
Paris,  1899.  pp.  146. 
A  brief  life  of  the  author  fills  the  first  twenty-seven  pages.  The 
topics  discussed  are :  The  Nature  of  Common  Sense ;  The  Role  of 
Idealism :  Force,  Change,  Order,  Finality  and  Evolution  in  Nature ; 
The  Foundations  of  Religion  and  Morals;  and  Immortality. 

The  Emotion  of  Joy,  by  Gkorge  Van  Ness  Dearborn.  Psychologi- 
cal Review,  April,  1899.  pp.  70. 
The  chief  conclusions  here  reached  are  that  extra  emotions  consist 
in  outward  expansive  and  in  contraction  of  extensor  muscles,  to  which 
habitual  inhibitions  of  civilized  life  supply  the  apparent  deficiency  in 
the  kinaesthesic  theory  of  human  emotions.  The  contraction  of  ex- 
tensor muscles  is  more  pleasant  than  that  of  flexors. 

Die  Abstinenz  der  Geisteskranken  und  ihre  Behandlung,  von  Her- 
mann Pfister.     F.  Enke,  Stuttgart,  1899.     pp.  88. 
This  is  a  discussion  of  the  causes,  symptoms  and  cures  of  the  per- 
sistent refusal  of  food,  so  often  found  in  the  insane  asylums. 

Conduct  and  the  Weather,  by  Edwin  G.  Dexter.  Psychological 
Review,  May,  1899.  pp.  103. 
In  this  very  interesting  study,  the  author  sums  up  results  of  his 
own  continued  investigations  upon  the  subject,  from  which  he  reaches 
the  following  conclusions :  that  meteorological  conditions  directly 
affect  metabolism;  they  also  influence  the  reserve  energy  capable  of 
being  utilized  for  processes  other  than  those  of  the  vital  organs;  they 
influence  the  emotional  state  and  the  two  last  determine  conduct. 
The  latter,  and  also  death  and  labor  of  mind  and  body,  bear  very  dif- 
ferent relations  to  reserve  energy. 

Zur  Analyse  der  Unterschiedsempfindlichkeity  von  Ivii<i«iE  J.  Martin 
und  G.  E.  MuEi.i,ER.  J.  A.  Barth,  Leipzig,  1899.  PP-  233. 
This  comprehensive  and  very  acute  experimental  investigation  was 
conducted  by  an  American  lady  in  Miiller's  laboratory  in  Gottingeu. 
After  describing  the  methods  of  experiment,  the  second  chapter  dis- 
cusses the  enormous  differences  of  the  numbers  obtained  in  right 
judgments;  the  third  takes  up  the  influence  of  time;  the  fourth,  mis- 
cellaneous circumstances  which  influence  the  differential  sensibility 
investigated;  and  the  fifth  treats  of  adjacent  or  supplementary  com- 
parisons. 

Einleitung  in  die  Vergleichende  Gehirnphysiologie  und  Vergleichende 

/!yjj/rAo/<7^zV,  von  Jacques  LoEB,    J.  A.  Barth,  Leipzig,  1899.     pp. 

207. 

This  interesting  comparative  study  of  brain  and  soul  is  conducted 

with   special   reference   to   invertebrates  and   describes   experiments 

upon  actinia,  echinoderms,  worms,  orthopods  and  mollusks;  discusses 

the  theory  of  animal  instincts,  heredity,  the  relation  between  brain 

and  soul,  and  suggests  future  points  of  attack  for  the  study  of  the 

mechanics  of  brain  and  activity. 

Elements  of  Alkaloidal  Aeitiologyy  by  A.  M.  Brown.     Henry  Kimp- 
ton,  London,  1889.     pp.  86. 
This  is  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  auto-intoxication  in  disease 
and  is  a  popular  summary  of  a  larger  work  by  the  author,  and  gives 
the  views  of  Selmi,  Liebrich  and  Gautier. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   LITERATURE.  605 

Die  Nervenkrankheiten  des  P/erdes,  von  Hermann  Dexi^KR.     Franz 
Deuticke,  Leipzig  und  Wien,  1899.     pp.  277. 
This  interesting  and  very  original  book  discusses  the  subject  under 
four  heads — diseases  of  peripheral   nerves,  of  the  spinal  cord,  of  the 
brain  in  its  different  parts,  and  neuroses. 

Studies  from  the  Psychological  Laboratory,   Directed  by  James  R. 

Angei,L.      University  of   Chicago  Contributions   to   Philosophy, 

Chicago,  1899.  Vol  II,  No.  2,  pp.  615. 
This  interesting  pamphlet  contains  the  following  studies :  one  on 
overestimation  of  vertical  as  compared  with  horizontal  lines  ;  a  study 
in  habit ;  the  relations  between  certain  organic  processes  and  conscious- 
ness ;  habit  and  attention  ;  modifications  of  the  relations  of  dermal 
and  optical  space  ;  the  intensity  of  light  as  affecting  visual  estimates 
in  depth  ;  the  most  important  paper  being  the  third. 

The  Psychology  of  Reasoning,  par  Alfred  Binet.  Open  Court  Publish- 
ing Co.,  Chicago,  1899.  pp.  191. 
This  work  is  based  on  experimental  researches  in  hypnotism.  After 
defining  perceptions  and  images,  the  author  describes  reasoning  in 
perception  and  the  mechanism  of  reasoning,  and  insists  that  the  two 
are  at  root  the  same.  Reasoning  is  a  kind  of  supplementary  sense, 
the  single  type  of  all  intellectual  operations  and  is  an  organization  of 
images. 

University  of  Iowa  Studies  in  Psychology,  Edited  by  G.  T.  W.  Patrick. 
1899,  Vol.  II,  pp.  163. 
To  this  interesting  volume  Professor  Patrick  himself  contributes! 
articles  on  The  Analysis  of  the  Taste  Perception  and  Some  Peculiari- 
ties of  the  Secondary  Personality,  while  Dr.  Seashore  determines 
various  psychological  statistics  and  describes  new  apparatus. 

La  Prostitution  Clandestine  a  Paris.    Par  le  Docteur  O.  Commence, 

mddecin  en  chef  du  Dispensaire  de  Salubrity  de  la  Prefecture  de 

Police.     Paris,  Libraire  C.  Reinwald,  Schleicher  Fr^res,  Editeurs, 

1897.     Vol.  XI,  pp.  567. 

This  is  a  solid  and  authoritative  book,  written  by  one  who  has  had 

unusual  facilities  for  the  study  of  its  subject,  and  who  has  spared  no 

pains  to  attain  to  acurate  results.     M.  Commenge  began  collecting  the 

material  for  his  work  in  1887 ;   and  we  may  truly  say  that  he  has  done 

for  "private  "  prostitution  what  his  predecessor,  M.  Parent-Duchatelet, 

did  for  "  public." 

The  chapters  are  entitled  :  the  causes  of  prostitution  in  general,  and 
of  private  prostitution  in  particular ;  arrests,  and  their  results ;  the 
Dispensaire  de  Salubrity,  and  its  special  function  with  regard  to  un- 
registered prostitutes ;  classification  and  statistics  of  venereal  disease  ; 
the  Infirmerie  de  Saint-Lazare ;  the  sources  of  supply  of  unregistered 
prostitutes  ;  their  previous  occupations  ;  their  life  subsequent  to  medi- 
cal treatment  and  discharge;  registration  and  control.  The  writer 
makes  a  strong  plea,  on  statistical  basis,  for  state  control  and  police 
registration.  E.  B.  T. 

Contributo  alio  studio  deW  automatismo  psicologico  per  autosug- 

gestione^^XTioW.     G.  Antonini.    Riv.  Sperim.  di  Fren.    (Reggie 

in  E.),  Vol.  XXIV  (1898),  pp.  626-654. 

This  interesting  study,  meant  to  throw  light  upon  the  mediumistic 

and  spiritistic  phenomena,  which  of  late  have  almost  monopolized 

the  attention  of  certain  psychologists,  deals  with  the  autosuggestive 


6o6  PS^^CHOr.OGICAL   LITERATURE. 

psychic  automatisms  of  T.  Teresa,  a  young  woman  28  years  of  age, 
whose  first  hysterical  attack  occurred  in  1890,  brought  on  probably 
by  persecutory  ideas,  and  who  wrote  a  number  of  letters  in  the  name 
of  other  persons,  conscious  knowledge  of  which  she  seemed  not  to 
possess.  Dr.  Antonini  considers  the  case  one  of  great  importance, 
since  the  phenomena  are  remarkably  like  those  of  the  slate  and  other 
writers  among  the  so-called  "mediums."  The  autosuggestion  in 
both  cases  is  much  the  same  and  to  the  persecutory  delirium  of  Teresa 
may  correspond  the  "faith"  of  the  mediums,  both  giving  a  certain 
logic  to  their  productions.  AivEX.  F,  ChambkrI/AIN. 

L' Isterismo  infantile.  Studio  critico  e  contributo  clinico  del  Dott. 
AuREiyio  LrUi.  Ibid.^  pp.  745-771. 
In  this  article  Dr.  Lui  gives  an  excellent  resume  of  the  most  recent 
discussions  of  infantile  hysteria,  besides  two  observations  of  his  own 
and  bibliography  of  over  50  titles.  The  frequency  of  hysteria  seems 
to  be  greatest  between  the  eighth  year  and  puberty ;  girls  suffer  some- 
what more  than  boys,  but  in  the  early  years  the  difference  may  be  very 
small,  the  sexes  being  as  yet  not  so  markedly  divergent ;  heredity  and 
errors  in  the  education  of  the  child  are  important  factors ;  onanism 
has  rather  a  predisposing  than  a  causal  value ;  bad  nutrition  and  its 
train,  infectious  diseases,  imitation,  etc.,  play  their  significant  rdle. 
Noteworthy  is  the  enormous  psychic  hypersesthesia  and  excessive  im- 
pressionability and  irritability  of  character  in  hysterical  children,  and 
their  tendencies  towards  precocious  development.  One  must  be  careful, 
however,  to  distinguish  the  simply  nervous  from  the  hysterical  and 
by  watching  the  development  of  the  psychic  habits  of  the  child  detect 
the  outburst  of  real  hysteria.  While, suggestion  in  the  waking  state 
is  universally  commended,  much  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to 
hypnotic  suggestion  as  a  therapeutic  in  infantile  hysteria,  Dr.  Lui 
holding,  with  Joffroy,  that  the  latter  should  only  be  used  in  the  gravest 
cases,  if  at  all.  Ai,EX.  F.  Chamberi^ain. 

SulV  Influenza  delV  insonnio  sperimentale  sul  ricambio  materiale. 

J^icerche  del  Dott.   Giui.10  Tarozzi.   Riv.  di  Patol.   Nerv.  e  Ment. 

(Firenze.)  Vol.  IV  (1899),  pp.  1-23. 
Detailed  account,  with  many  tables  of  experiments  concerning  the 
effects  of  insomnia  upon  the  organic  metabolism  of  adult  dogs.  The 
general  conclusion  is  that  **  there  exist  special  mechanisms,  regulative 
of  the  metabolisms,  and  when  the  function  of  these  is  once  interrupted, 
'organic  failure'  rapidly  supervenes,  followed  by  death," — in  the 
cases  under  consideration  death  occured  at  from  one  to  4  days.  It 
would  appear  that  under  these  abnormal  conditions  the  elimination 
of  N  is  sensibly  increased  only  at  a  very  advanced  period  of  the  ex- 
periment— the  augment  continuing  till  death;  the  Hg  SO4  and  the 
P2  O5  present  no  constant  characteristic  modifications,  while  the  CI 
diminishes  constantly  in  the  last  days  before  death. 

Ai,Ex.  F.  Chamberi^ain. 

Ricerche  sperimentali  suW  origine  di  alcuni  errori  delta  memoria 
del  Dott.  Jacopo  Finzi.  Ibid.,  pp.  loi-iio. 
The  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  author,  whose  researches  are  to 
appear  in  Kraepelin's  ^rd^/^^w,  is  that  "the  errors  of  memory  are, 
within  certain  limits,  a  normal  phenomenon  in  the  process  of  the  fix- 
ation of  recollection," — the  principal  source  of  error  being  in  the  ac- 
tion of  the  impressions  previously  fixed. 

Ai,EX.  F.  Chamberi*ain. 


BOOKS  RECEIVED. 


L'Ann^e  Philosophique  (ge  ann^e,  1898).  Publi^e  par  M.  F.  Pillon, 
avec  la  collaboration  de  MM.  Renouvier,  Hamelin  et  Dauriac. 
F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  316.     Price,  Fes.  5. 

L'Aun^e  Psychologique  (se  annde,  1898).  Publiee  par  Alfred  Binet, 
avec  la  collaboration  de  H.  Beaunis  &  Th.  Ribot.  Schleicher 
Frferes,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  902.     Price,  Fes.  15. 

BiNET,  AivFRED.  The  Psychology  of  Reasoning  based  on  experimental 
researches  in  hypnotism.  Translated,  from  the  second  French 
edition,  by  Adam  Gowans  White.  The  Open  Court  Pub.  Co., 
Chicago,  1899.     pp.  191. 

Church  A.,  and  Peterson,  F.  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases.  With 
305  illustrations.  W.  B.  Saunders,  Philadelphia,  1899.  pp.  843. 
Price,  I5. 

DuPRAT,  G.  Iv.  Iv'Instabilit^  mentale.  Essai  sur  les  donn^es  de  la 
psycho-pathologie.  F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp.  310.  Price, 
Fes.  5. 

Gerard- Yaret,  L.  Iv'Ignorance  et  I'lrr^flexion.  Essai  de  psycho- 
logic objective.     Felix  Alcan,  Paris,  1898.     pp.  296.     Price,  Fes.  5. 

GrasseriE,  Raoui<  de  i<a.  De  la  psychologic  des  religions.  F^lix 
Alcan,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  308.     Price,  Fes.  5. 

Hanspaul,  F.  Die  Seelentheorie  und  die  gesetze  des  natiirlichen 
Egoismus  und  der  Anpassung.  Carl  Duncker,  Berlin,  1899.  pp. 
292.     Price,  Mk.  5. 

Lai^ande,  Andre.  La  dissolution  oppos^e  a  revolution  dans  les 
sciences  physiques  et  morales.  Fdlix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp.492. 
Price,  Fes.  7.50. 

Levy  Bruhi,,  L.  Lettres  in^dites  de  J.  S.  Mill  a  Auguste  Comte. 
F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  560.     Price,  Fes.  10. 

Mercier,  Mgr.  Crit^riologie  g^n^rale  ou  th^orie  g^n^rale  de  la  cer- 
titude.    F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  371.     Price,  Fes.  6. 

Muensterberg,  Hugo.  Psychology  and  life,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.,  Boston  and  N.  Y.,  1899.     PP-  286.     Price  $2. 

Paulsen,  Friedrich.  A  system  of  ethics.  Edited  and  translated 
with  the  author's  sanction,  from  the  4th  revised  and  enlarged 
edition  by  Frank  Thilly.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1899. 
pp.  723.     Price,  I3. 

Proceedings  of  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Association  at  the 
54th  annual  meeting  held  in  St.  Louis,  May  10-13,  1898.  Published 
by  the  Association,  1898.     pp.  417. 

Rareth,  F.  De  la  m^thode  dans  la  psychologic  des  sentiments. 
F61ix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.     pp.  305.     Price,  Fes.  5. 


6o8  BOOKS  r:ECEivKD. 

Rec^Gae,  E.  Essay  on  the  bases  of  the  mystic  knowledge.  Trans 
lated  by  Sara  Carr  Upton.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1899. 
pp.  287.     Price,  $2.30. 

Sajous,  Charles  E.  de  M.  Annual  and  Analytical  Cyclopaedia  of 
practical  medicine.  Vol.  III.  Dislocations  to  Infantile  Myxoede- 
ma.     F.  A.  Davis  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1899.     pp.  600. 

Spir,  a.  Nouvelles  esquisses  de  philosophic  critique.  Pr^cdd^es 
d'une  biographic  de  I'auteur.  Felix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899.  pp.  146. 
Price,  Fes.  3.50. 

Thomas,  P.  Fel,ix.  Morale  et  Education.  F^lix  Alcan,  Paris,  1899. 
pp.  171.     Price,  Fes.  2.50. 

T1E1.E,  C.  P.  Elements  of  the  science  of  religion.  Part  2.  Ontolog- 
ical.  Imported  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1899.  pp.  286. 
Price,  $2. 


IISTDEX. 


ORIGINAL  ARTICLES. 

Tfie  Migratory  Impui^se  vs.  Love  of  Home.    Linus  W.  Kline,    i. 
The  Appi.icabii<ity  of  Weber's  Law  to  Smei^i,.    Eleanor  Acheson 

McCulloch  Gamble.    82. 
Minor  Studies  from  the  Psychoi^ogicai.  Laboratory  of  Cornei.i< 

University.    E.  B.  Tichener. 

XVII.    Cutaneous  Perception  of  Form.    D.  R.  Major.    143. 
Hydro-Psychoses.    Frederick  E.  Bolton.     169. 
Individual,  Memories.    F.  W.  Colegrove.    228. 
Methods  in  Animai,  Psychoi^ogy.    Linus  W.  Kline.    256. 
Minor  Studies  from  the  PsychoIvOGicai,  Laboratory  of  Ci<ark 

University.    E.  C.  Sanford. 

XII.    On  Neari^y  Simui^taneous  Cwcks  and  Fi^ashes.     Guy 
Montrose  Whipple.     280. 

XIII.  The  Time  Required  for  Recognition.    F.  W.  Colegrove. 
286. 

XIV.  Notes  on  Mentai,  Standards  of  Length.    F.  W.  Cole- 
grove.   292. 

Notes  on  the  Castration  of  Idiot  Chii^dren.    Everett  Flood.    296. 
On  the  Words  for  "  Fear  "  in  Certain  Languages.    A  Study  in 

Linguistic  Psychoi^ogy.    Alex.  F.  Chamberlain.    302. 
A  Study  of  Taste  Dreams.     Will  S.  Monroe.    326. 
Individuai,  Psychoi^ogy:     A  Study  in  Psychoi^ogicai,  Method. 

Stella  Emily  Sharp.    329. 
Pain  and  Strength  Measurements  of  1,507  Schooi,  Chii^dren  in 

Saginaw,  Michigan.    Ada  Carman.    392. 
Suggestions  toward  a  Laboratory  Course  in  Comparative  Psy- 

CHOi^oGY.     Linus  W.  Kline.    399. 
The  Effects  of  Mind  on  Body  as  Evidenced  by  Faith  Cures. 

Henry  H.  Goddard.    431. 
The  PSYCH01.0GY  OF  A  Protozoan.    H.  S.Jennings.    503. 
A  Study  of  Anger.     G.  Stanley  Hall.    516. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  LITERATURE. 

I.— Subject  Index. 

Adolescence,  insanities  of,  310. 

Esthetics,  155 ;  and  morals,  316. 

Animal  Intelligence.     See  Comparative  Psychology. 

Anthropological,  153-155;  Acculturation,  154;  Family,  origin  of,  153; 
Family  types,  154 ;  Imitation  in  art,  155  ;  Journal  of  the  Anthrop- 
ological Institute,  603 ;  Language,  155;  Phallicism,    321;    Racial 


6lO  INDKX. 

mixtures,  157;  Religion  of  Egypt,  316;  Sepulture  and  funerals, 

314. 
Archives  of  Neurology  and  Psychopathology,  311. 
Association  of  ideas  in  the  child,  306. 

Bibliographies  :  General,  161 ;  Neurology  and  psychology,  318. 

Biological:  Atavism,  323;  Biomechanics^  308;  Degeneration.  322;  De- 
termination of  sex,  321 ;  Foundations  of  Zoology,  320.  See  also 
Comparative  Psychology,  and  Evolution. 

Book  notes,  306. 

Books  received,  167,  328,  607. 

Child  Study,  159,  160,  306  ;  Infantile  hysteria,  606. 
Comparative  Psychology,  149,  152,  158,  162,  600,  604,  605. 
Conduct  and  weather,  604. 
Correspondence,  163. 

Dreams  of  Taste,  326. 

Emotions  :  Joy,  604.     See  also  Feelings. 

Ethics,  148,  316,  319,  323,  597,  601. 

Evolution,  312  ;  and  dissolution,  599 ;  and  inheritance,  598  ;  Mechanico- 

physiological  theory  of,  323 ;  of  Christianity,  597 ;  of  man,  601  ; 

of  the  soul,  602  ;  Atavism,  323.     See  also  Heredity. 
Experimental  psychology :  in  England,  165  ;  Wreschner's  experiments 

on  lifted  weights,  165  ;  Discriminative  sensibility  for  lifted  weights, 

604. 

Feelings,  education  of,  319 ;  Shame  in  men  and  women,  153.     See  also 

Emotion. 
Forthcoming  books,  166. 
Fourth  dimension,  323. 

Gates's  laboratory,  163. 

Genetic  Psychology.     See  Child  Study,  and  Comparative  Psychology. 

Heredity  and  development,  598;  and  environment  in  man,  154;  and 
evolution,  598 ;  and  modern  nervousness,  311 ;  of  nervous  diseases, 
155;  Individual  heredity,  322. 

Hypnotism,  323,  600 ;  Autosuggestion,  155,  605  ;  Psycho-therapeutics, 
155- 

Illusions  of  memory,  161. 

Individual  psychology :  Artists,  scholars,  and  writers,  156 ;  Logical 
types  of  mind,  603. 

Instincts,  moral,  148;  sexual,  160  (see  also  Sex). 

Intellectual  development,  594,  602. 

Medical:  Autointoxication  in  disease,  604;  **  Annual  and  Analytic 
Encyclopedia  of  Practical  Medicine,"  312. 

Memory,  false,  161 ;  errors  of,  606. 

Miscellaneous:   "Affirmations,"  314. 

Mental  and  moral  hygiene,  599. 

Mental  types.     See  Individual  psychology. 

Neurological,  151 ;  Action  current,  151 ;  Amceboidism  of  the  cells, 
317;  "Brain  Machine,"  600;  Central  nervous  system,  322;  Cere- 
bral circulation,  151 :  Comparative  brain  physiology,  604.  Diseases 
of  the  nervous  system,  159,  310,  311,  313,  598,  599;  heredity  of, 
155 ;  Aphasia,  313 ;  Functional  diseases  of  the  cortex,  598 ;  Hys- 
teria, 592,  infantile,  606 ;  Nervous  diseases  of  horses.  605;  Neu- 
rasthenia from  sexual  causes,  316 ;  Neuroses  and  fixed  ideas, 
310. 

Notes  and  news,  165,  326. 


INDEX.  6ll 

Pedagogical:  Education  of  women,  307;  Hand  and  eye  training,  161  ; 
Herbartian  pedagogy,  158 ;  Ignorance,  161 ;  Orthography,  306 ; 
Pain  in  education,  153;  Pedagogy  of  the  feelings,  319;  Physical 
education,  161 ;  Unified  education,  157. 

Perception,  160;  of  change,  318,  603. 

Philosophical :  A  new  philosophy,  318  ;  Classification  of  Sciences,  161  ; 
Criteriology,  603;  Critical  philosophy,  604;  Destiny  of  man,  315; 
Dynamic  idealism,  313  ;  Karly  American  philosophers,  324 ;  Energy 
and  reality,  314;  MuUer's  System  of  Philosophy,  602;  Mysticism, 
598 ;  New  monadology,  603  ;  Patrology,  598  ;  Philosophy  of  Secr^- 
tan,  313,  of  Tolstoi,  313;  Plato,  310;  Principle  of  sufficient  reason, 
317;  Problems  of  Philosophy,  314;  Riddle  of  existence,  315; 
Rothe's  Speculative  System,  603;  Spiritual  consciousness,  315; 
Theory  of  knowledge,  323, 602.    See  also  Psychology,  and  Religion. 

Physiological :  Cerebral  circulation,  151 ;  Experimental  insomnia  and 
metabolism,  606. 

Psychiatry  and  Neuropathy,  599;  Fasting  of  insane,  604;  Insanities  of 
adolescence,  310 ;  Legal  Psychopathology.  316 ;  Mental  instability, 
599;  Methods  of  investigation  in,  599 ;  "Primer  of  Psychology  and 
Mental  Disease,"  599. 

Psychic  automatism,  601,  605. 

Psychical  research,  598. 

Psychological  literature,  148,  306,  592. 

Psychology  as  a  natural  science,  601,  602. 

Reading,  324. 

Reasoning,  605. 

Religion,  160,  308,  312,  316;  and  Christendom,  324 ;  and  natural  science, 
596;  philosophy  of,  597;  Early  Christian  Theism,  323;  End  of 
Christendom,  316 ;  Ethics  and  revelation,  597  ;  Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity, 597  ;  Faith  of  the  future,  317  ;  Holy  scripture,  597  ;  Life  of 
Jesus,  308 ;  Parables  of  Jesus,  597 ;  Patrology,  598 ;  Sex  worship, 
321.     See  also  Anthropological. 

Rhythm,  159. 

Senses :  Color  vocabulary  of  poets,  156,  320 ;  Ear  and  lateral  line  or- 
gans, 152;  Skin  sensations,  314;  Taste  dreams,  326. 

Sex,  160,  320,  321,  322,  600,  601;  Body  of  man,  315;  Masturbation,  158; 
Men  and  women  psychologically  compared,  153,  601 ;  Prostitution, 
605;  Psychology  of  sex,  321,  322;  Sexual  causes  of  neurasthenia, 
159,  316,  instinct,  160,  320,  perversion,  320,  321. 

Sociological:  Clandestine  prostitution,  605;  Polygamy,  320;  Social 
idealism,  595  ;  Social  position  of  women,  307  ;  Suicide,  596. 

Studies  from  the  Psychological  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, 605  ;  of  Iowa,  605. 

Subconsciousness,  156,  318. 

Text  books  :  Primer  of  Psychology  and  Mental  Disease,  599 ;  Titche- 
ner's  Primer,  158 ;  Ziehen's  Leiifaden,  156. 

Twentieth  Century  Magic,  600. 

University  news,  165. 

Welby  Prize,  165. 

Will,  and  freedom,  602 ;  education  of,  155 ;  loss  of,  324 ;  theories  of, 
319- 


6l2 


INDEX. 


II. — Names  of  Authors. 

(The   names   of  those  who   have  contributed  oriHnal    matter   are 
prmted  msMAi,!,  CAPiTAi^s.) 


Adamkievicz,  A.,  598. 
Adams,  W.  M.,  316. 
Alexander,  Archibald,  319. 
Allinson,  Alfred,  320. 
Amdlineau,  K.,  314. 
Angell,  James  R.,  605. 
Antonini,  G.,  605. 
Arrdat,  lyucien,  317. 

Baldwin,  Elizabeth  L-,  162. 
Balmforth,  R.,  507. 
Bastian,  H.  C,  313. 
Bernard-Leroy,  E.,  161. 
Berr,  Henri,  602. 
Bcrtrand,  Alexis,  157. 
Bettex,  F.,  596. 
Bevis,  A.  W.,  161. 
Billia,  L.  M.,  153. 
Binet,  Alfred,  605. 
B01.TON,  F.  B.,  169. 
Brass,  A.,  315. 
Brewer,  Joseph,  592. 
Briggs,  Charles  A.,  597. 
Brinton,  D.  G.,  154. 
Brooks,  W.  K.,  320. 
Brown,  A.  M.,  604. 
Biicher,  M.  K.,  159. 
Burr,  C.  B.,  599. 

Canton,  William,  159. 
Carman,  Ada,  392. 

Chabaneix, 156. 

CHAMBKRI.AIN,  Ai^Ex.  F.,  153, 154, 

155,  302,  605,  606. 
Cole,  lyawrence  T.,  323. 
C01.BGROVE,  F.  W.,  228,  286,  292. 
Commenge,  O.,  605. 
Cornelius,  Hans,  602. 
Costello,  W.  C,  320. 
Crozier,  John  B.,  594. 

Dantec,  Felix  I^e,  322. 
Dearborn,  G.  Van  N.,  604. 
Delbruck,  Anton,  316, 
Dexler,  Hermann,  605. 
Dexter,  E.  G.,  604. 
Deyber,  Rend,  317. 
Dodd,  Catharine  I.,  158. 
Dodge,  Raymond,  324. 
Dorman,  M.  R.  P.,  161. 
Duprat,  G.  Iv.,  599. 
Durcheim,  Emile,  596. 


Ellis,  Havelock,  314,  321. 
Erdmann,  Benno,  324. 
Everett,  H.  ly.,  596. 
Ewald,  Paul,  324. 

Fere,  Ch.,  155,  311. 
Finzi,  Jacopo,  606. 
Fi^ooD,  Everett,  296. 
Fourni^re,  E.,  595. 
Freud,  S.,  592. 

GAMBI.E,  E1.EANOR  A.  McC,  82. 
Gates,  Elmer,  163. 
Gattel,  Felix,  159,  316. 
Gilbert,  George  H.,  308. 
Goblot,  Edmond,  160. 
GoDDARD,  Henry  H.,  431. 
Goodrich-Freer,  A.,  598. 
Greene,  C.  W.,  151. 
Groos,  Karl,  162. 
Gyel,  E.,  318. 

Haeckel,  Ernst,  601. 

Hagen,  Karl  von,  321. 

Hai,!,,  G.  Stani^ey,  158-164,  306- 

325,  516,  596-606. 
Hanspaul,  F.,  602. 
Herckenrath,  C.  R.  C,  316. 
Herman,  G.,  600. 
Hibben,  John  G.,  314. 
Hogan,  Louise  E.,  159. 
Holtzmann,  H.  J.,  603. 
Hopkins,  Nevil  M.  600. 
Howard,  Clifford,  321. 
Howell,  W.  H.,  151. 
HuEY,  E.  B.,  324. 
Hutchinson,  Woods,  312. 

Janet,  Pierre,  310,  601. 
Jenkins,  O.  P.,  310. 
Jennings,  H,  S.,  503. 
Jones,  Adam  L.,  324. 
Jordan,  David  S.,  312. 
Julicher,  D.  A.,  597. 

Kassowitz,  Max,  598. 
Kwne,  Linus  W.,  i,  149,  256,  399. 
Kohlbrugge,  I.  H.  F.,  323. 
Krafft-Ebing,  R.  von,  599. 
Krieg,  Max,  602. 

Lalande,  Andrd,  599. 
Lampdri^re,  Anna,  307. 


INDEX. 


613 


I/awrence,  Isabel,  161. 
Lee,  Frederic  S.,  152. 
Lembke,  Paul,  155. 
Lemon,  J.  S.,  314. 
Lemox,  D.,  161. 
Levy,  Paul  E.,  i55- 
Lloyd,  A.  H.,  160,  313. 
Loeb,  Jacques,  604. 
Lourie,  Ossip,  313. 
Lui,  Aurelio,  606. 
LuKENS,  Herman  T.,  163. 

McGee,  W.  J.,  154. 
Major,  D.  R.,  143. 
Martin,  Lillie  J.,  604. 
Mehnert,  Ernst,  308. 
Mercier,  D.,  603. 
Mills,  Wesley,  158. 
Monroe,  Wili,  S.,  306,  326. 
Mueller,  G.  E.,  604. 
MuUer,  Josef,  602. 
Miiller,  Rudolf,  323. 

Nageli,  Carl  von,  323. 
Nash,  Henry  S.,  597. 
Nicati,  W.,  601. 
Nonuemann,  Friedrich,  316. 

Oppenheim,  Nathan,  159. 

Partridge,  G.  B.,  155. 

Patrick,  G.  T.  W.,  605. 

Paulhan,  Fr.,  603. 

Paulsen,  Friedrich,  601. 

Pfister,  Hermann,  604. 

Piat,  C,  315- 

Pick,  Leopold,  323. 

Pillon,  F.,  313. 

Prat,  L.,  603. 

Pratt,  Alice  Edwards,  156,  320. 

Prizibram,  Walter,  160. 

Raymond,  F.,  310. 
R^c^jac,  E.,  598. 
Regnault,  F^lix,  155. 
Reich,  E-,  316. 
Renooz,  C,  601. 
Renouvier,  Ch.,  603. 
Ribert,  L^once,  318. 
Rohleder,  H.,  158. 
Rollin,  H.J.,  157. 
Romer,  A.,  599. 
Roux,  Joanny,  160,  322. 


RuNKi^E,  Erwin  W.,  592. 

Sabatier,  August,  597. 
Sajous,  C.  E.  de  M.,  312. 
Sanford,  E.  C,  150,  151,  152,  280. 
Schenck,  Leopold,  321. 
Schiller,  Herman,  306. 
ScHiNZ,  AivBERT,  595. 
Schroeder,  H.  R.  P.,  600. 
Secr^tan,  Charles,  313. 
Seth,  James,  319. 
Sharp,  StelIvA  E.,  329. 
Sherman,  F.  D.,  157. 
Smali.,  W.  S.,  148, 156,  307.  308, 

594. 
Smith,  Goldwin,  315. 
Solotaroff,  H.,  153. 
Sommer,  R.,  599. 
Spir.  A.,  604. 
Sprague,  F.  H.,  315. 
Stearns,  W.  N.,  598. 
Stern,  L.  W.,  318,  603. 
Sturrock,  A.,  161. 
Sutherland,  Alexander,  148. 

Talbot,  E.  S.,  322. 
Tarnowsky,  B.,  320. 
Tarozzi,  Giulio,  606. 
Taylor,  A.  R.,  160. 
Taylor,  John  M.,  324. 
Thomas,  F.,  319. 
Thompson,  E.  S.,  600. 
Thorndike,  E.  L-,  i49- 
TiTCHENER,  E.   B.,  143,    150,  156, 

165,  605. 
Tolstoi,  Leo,  313. 
TripIvETT,  Norman,  155. 

Urban,  Wilbur,  317. 

Verworn,  Max,  322. 
Viazzi,  Pio,  153. 

Wachtelboru,  Karl,  323. 
Washington,  W.  M.,  323. 
Weinmann,  R.,  323. 
Wetterstrand,  O.  G.,  600. 
Whippi^E,  G.  M.,  280. 
Wille,  Walter,  310. 
Wilson,  Albert,  600. 

Zichy,  Theodor,  154. 
Ziehen,  Th.,  156,  306. 


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