HANDBOUND
AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/americanjournalo10halluoft
J T o^^^
THE AMERICAN
Journal of Psychology
Founded by G. Stani<EY Hai^i, in 1887.
Vol. X. JULY, 1899. No. 4-
THE
AMERICAN
J9
JQURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY
EDITED BY
G. STANLEY HALL,
E. C. SANFORD, AND B. B. TITCHENER,
Clark University. Cornell University.
WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF
F. ANGEiyiy, Leland Stanford, Jr., University; H. Beaunis, Univer-
sities of Nancy and Paris; A. F. Chamberi^ain, Clark Uni-
versity; V. Henri, Paris; C. F. Hodge, Clark Uni-
versity; A. KiRSCHMANN, University of Toronto;
O. KiJi^PE, University of Wiirzburg; W. B.
Pii,i,SBURY, University of Michigan ; G. W.
Storring, University of Leipzig;
A. Wai,i,er, London. r/^T
y
1
VOIv. X.
CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS.
I^ouis N. Wilson, Publisher.
1898-99.
f
•
<(,l~^
THE AMEEICAE"
Journal of Psychology
Founded by G. Stani^ey Hai^i, in 1887.
Vol. X. OCTOBER, 1898. No. i.
THE MIGRATORY IMPULSE VS. LOVE OF HOME.
By Linus W. Ki.ine, Fellow in Psychology, Clark University.
Introduction.
The migration of animals and peoples, the wandering of
tribes and roving impulse of the individual, have been woven
into legends and myths, carved upon stone and written upon
parchment, ever since the advent of human thought.
The predatory advance of the locust,^ the measured flight of
certain butterflies,^ the martial like procession of caterpillars
and ants ^ have long inspired wonder, superstition and thought,
** The * human race is more concerned in the movements and
migrations of fish than in the question of their permanent
abode. ' ' To the ancients the flight of birds was a token of
prosperity or adversity according to the direction of the flight.
If an eagle flew over from left to right or from right to left,
the former was regarded a good omen, the latter an evil one.
Among the hieroglyphs on the monuments of the Pharoah's
are represented wild-goose fowling as these birds were making
their annual migrations through the Nile Valley. The ^prophet
Jeremiah in rebuking the seared consciences of the Jews,
spoke in this fashion : Yea, the stork in the heavens knoweth
her appointed times and the turtle and the crane and the
swallow observe the time of their coming ; but my people
know not the judgment of the Lord.
The folk-lore of many tribes, the beginnings of many great
^Figuier : The Insect World. Page 302.
2 Couch : Illustrations of Instinct, pp. 145-150.
^Huber : Ants.
*Baird, Spencer F : U. S. Fish Com. Report, 1886, p. 47.
^Jeremiah 8 : 7.
2 KI.INE :
nations in addition to historical facts, consist of migratory
legends and myths of wandering.
The tradition of the Hebrew, which tells of their migra-
tion into Palestine from the countries across the Euphrates, is
substantiated by their tribal name, ibri, i. e., one who has
crossed. The Doric traditions of an imigration from Thrace
and Macedonia through Epirus into Greece is confirmed by lin-
guistic facts. The legendary account of the migration of
Cadmus, leading to the foundation of Thebes, the checkered
and wandering life of ^neas, previous to his marriage and
settling in Italy, the adventurous and romantic journey of
Ulysses from Troy to Ithaca have given to literature its classic
wanderers for all time.
All tribes of the Maskoki stock of Indians,^ likewise the
Washoe around Carson City and Tinne-Appache of New Mex-
ico possess migration legends intermingled with myths and
mythic ideas. Many of the ^Polynesian tribes have similar
traditions.
In recent times Germany and Austro- Hungary have estab-
lished stations for observing bird migration. Scientists of
Great Britain utilize part of her lighthouse service for collect-
ing data on bird movements. In our own country many men
of the weather bureau service have divided their time between
observing weather phenomena and collecting data on the
flight of birds.
Several attempts ^ have been made by naturalists and anthro-
pologists* to trace out the migrations.^ of man from his
^primitive home until he had peopled the whole earth. Jour-
nahsm ' has recently given some space to accounts of roving
and tramps life. Within the past two years some systematic
study has been devoted to Truancy,^ chiefly^" along statistical,
sociological and anthropometrieal lines.
The writer was brought face to face with this instinct while
in conversation with a few of the beneficiaries of the associated
iGatschet, A. S. : A Migratory Legend of the Creeks, p. 218, Phil.
1884.
^Sittig, Otto : Compulsory Migrations in the Pacific Ocean. Smith.
Report, 1895, pp. 519-35-
3 Sittig Otto : loc. cit.
* Mason, O. F.: Amer. Anthro., Vol. II, No. 3, 1894, Migration and
the Food Quest.
^Brinton, G. D. : Races and People.
^Miiller, Friedrich : Allgemeine Bthnographie.
7 Noble, C. W. : Border Land of Trampdom. Pop Sci. Month, Vol.
ly, p. 252.
sFlynt, Josiah: Century Vols. XXIV and XXV, 1893. Same
author in Atlantic Month. Vol. LXXVII, p. 88.
^ Fifty-ninth Annual Report, Board of Ed. of Mass.
I*' Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. V, No. 3, 1898.
MIGRATORY IMPUI^E. 3
charities of Boston. A description of one will suffice, for in
respect to this trait they differed but little.
A young man of American parentage who had just recovered
from a spell of sickness in a Boston hospital presented himself
to the manly department of the association asking for money
to purchase a ticket to Springfield, Mass. He seemed very
anxious to get work again and had a strong hope that he could
do so were he only in Springfield. He produced evidence
showing that he was a skilled workman and had given satisfac-
tion to his employers. It was found that he had come from
New York and to New York he had gone from Springfield,
Mass., to which latter place he now longed to return, though
he had neither home nor relatives in the place. He had paid
his respects to each of these four cities within five months.
No particular reason could he assign for leaving any one place,
except that he thought a change was good for him. After
remaining a certain length of time in a place, familiar objects
and places became distasteful, even the odors of the shop would
haunt him and at times the very sight of shop comrades would
appear repulsive. Peace of mind came only by breaking away
and entering into the life of a new place. He recognized pain-
fully that it was not the way to provide for a rainy day nor to
become a practical citizen.
Says Flynt : ' * ^ I have known men on the road who were
tramping purely and simply because they loved to tramp.
They had no appetite for liquor or tobacco, so far as I could
find, also were quite out of touch with criminals and their
habits; but somehow or other they could not conquer that
passion for roving. In a way this type of vagabond is the
most pitiful that I have ever known ; and yet is the truCvSt
type of the genuine voluntary vagrant To re-
form him it is necessary to kill his personality, to take away his
ambition and this is a task almost superhuman. Even when
he is reformed he is a most cast down person. ' '
* ' Ten ^ years ago four young men of this city took a pedes-
1 Flynt, Josiah : Century, Oct., 1885, p. 941.
2 One of over 500 cases taken from Rubrics II and IV. See Syllabus
below.
TOPICAL SYLLABI FOR CHILD STUDY.
(Series for Academic Year 1896-7).
III. Migrations, Tramps, Truancy, Running Away, ktc,
vs. LovK OF Home;.
I. Consider whether you know any small child with a propensity
to run away ; and if so describe the circumstances — why, when, where
it went, whether alone, and planned, or impulsively, and all the
details and incidents of each case ; its adventures, how it was found,
4 KI.INE :
trian trip to the Delaware Water Gap. They were all of good
families and of excellent habits. On returning home three of
them resumed their every-day life, but F., who was about
twenty years old, after staying home several days disappeared
and did not return for several weeks. When he came back he
told the alarmed family that he had been on another tramp.
Since that time he has been all over the United States work-
ing only when he could not obtain food or lodging otherwise.
He returns home at intervals but stays only for a few days, and
does not appear to have formed any bad habits, but cannot
overcome the desire to wander. He still seems to have affec-
tion for those at home, yet cannot content himself to stay with
them. As none of his relatives have led adventurous lives,
his parents cannot account for his strange behavior. ' '
whether deterred later by its experiences, at what age this disposition
appeared and when it ceased and why.
II. Describe the same with boys and girls in their teens, who leave
home for love of adventure, anger, impatient of restraint, to start life
for self, etc., definite plans or none. Give every incident of cause,
experiences, hardships, etc., you can find out.
III. Describe any case of truancy from school or church, its
motives, traits of the child, mode of concealment.
IV. In your own experience what are the charms of travel in order
of interest, whether of a trip to Europe, a ride or bicycle journey, a
lonely walk of a day's duration, globe-trotting, etc. Have you ever
left home aimlessly, and before leaving had you lost property and
friends or been injured in feelings ? Have you been tempted to
** disappear," and what reasons, or left home to "do the world " or
" paint the town ?" Have you ever suffered intense hunger, and if so
describe your feelings.
V. What do you know of tramps ? have you ever interviewed one,
or can you do so ? what have you ever read or heard of them ?
VI. Do you know people who move frequently, and if so, state
why, where, how often and all you know of them.
VII. Do you know anything of gypsies or can you find out any.
thing ?
VIII. Do you know an inveterate visitor, call-maker, gad-about
person, who must be always on the street or on the go ? If so describe
them carefully, and see if you can account for it ; or of boys with a
passion to start out for themselves exceptionally early in life.
IX. The same of any one who loves home so intensely that he or
she will only very reluctantly go away for, or be away nights.
X. What are the elements in your own love of home in order — as
love of father, mother, brother, sister, the house, hills, trees, and
natural scenery, familiar ways of life, etc.
XI. Describe any case of homesickness you know of and especially
if you have experienced it yourself.
XII. Describe your own experiences with spring fever, ennui that
impelled you to go or be far away, longings in the distance, desire to
break away and see the great world and take a part in its actions.
Have you ever felt thus concerning a future life as connected with
either religion, love or conflict ?
In each case specify each of the following points : i, age ; 2, sex ;
MIGRATORY IMPUI^E. 5
Here, then, is an activity of the soul, woven into legends
and folk-lore, is discussed in history and science, and affects
profoundly the social and domestic life of a people. An instinct
that destroys for the time being even the activities that provide
for the immediate wants of life, that drives out considerations
for home, relatives and friends, that overpowers the sympa-
thetic, the domestic, the home-making spirit of man, that un-
fits him for static toil and conditions, and impels him to seek a
change, the new, strange and untried.
Modern biologj^ in its interpretation oi form and function be-
gins its work with the undifferentiated organ or organism in
question, and follows it through its phylo-ontogenetic devel-
oping paths, both by the methods of experimental morphology
and comparative anatomy until present conditions are reached.
The verdict of thCvSe methods, especially the former, is that the
efficient causes in the process are first, ^ "internal causes,
3, nationality ; 4, occupation of parents ; 5, are one or both living? 6,
do they own their homes? 7, is their food and clothes good? 8,
toys; 9, books; 10, pin-money; 11, affections; 12, has the child any-
physical defects? 13, is it oldest, youngest or only child? 14, is it
quick-tempered? 15, sensitive ; 16, demonstrative ; 17, laugh and cry
easily; 18, cheerful; 19, active; 20, generous; 21, fond of playmates
or reticent and inclined to be alone ; 22, does it seek to govern others
and does it obey readily? 23, love or shun crowds; 24, or dark;
25, animals ; 26, deep water ; 27, out of door life, fondness for woods,
fields, etc.; 28, does it love music, does it dance? 29, a good color
sense, and what are its favorite colors? 30, is it careless or tidy and
dressy? 31, has it had pets, is it good to animals? 32, careful of prop-
erty ; 33, and of others' rights ; 34, made a collection of things ; 35,
is it persistent in carrying out tasks? 36, is it inquisitive and talka-
tive? 37, were there ample opportunities for taking exercise, were
games and sports encouraged ? 38, was there plenty of physical or
manual labor at home? 39, must there have been long hours of seden-
tary work at home and in school ? 40, always specify the season of the
year of every incident if possible ; 41, was their immoderate love of
sight-seeing, being out evenings, camping out, hunting, excursions,
picnics, etc.?
XIII. What have you observed concerning the migrations and the
homing instincts of animals, cats, dogs, cows, horses, hens, rabbits,
pigeons, fish, ducks, etc., etc.? What have you read, and can you
send or refer to any literature or reports of cases ? What have you
observed of any lower forms of life that move freely at first and then
become sessile or fixed as parasites, of nuptual flights of insects?
XIV. What special literature can you refer to on tramps, home-
sickness, truancy, gypsies or on any other aspect of this topic?
In any case giving the full name of any part of it is optional with
the one answering.
Kindly send your answers to
G. STANLEY HAIvL,
or L. W. KIvINE.
ClvARK UnIVKRSITY,
Worcester, Mass., Oct. 26th, 1896.
1 Davenport, C. B.: Experimental Morphology, Part I, p. 8.
6 KI,INE :
which include the qualities of the developing protoplasm ; ' '
second, ' * external causes, which include the chemical and phy-
sical properties of the environment in which the potoplasm is
developing. ' '
The genetic psychologist has taken his cue from the biolo-
gists, and accordingly — after making certain assumptions, a
feature common to all sciences, concerning the relations of
mind ^ and body,^ heredity and the like, unnecessary to discuss
here — goes back to primitive psychic life, and investigates both
the causes and the processes in its development until it reaches
conditions found in the adult form. The factors believed to be
operative in originating and determining the causes of psychic
differentiation are ( i ) those inherent in the principle life itself ;
{2)cosmic, including chemical substances, moisture, heat, pres-
sure, light and electricity, and their innumerable combinations
and ever changing relations to each other and to life ; and
(3) social, meaning by the latter all those influences that proceed
from members of the same family, tribe and species, together
with all other species, both plants and animals. Dr. Brinton *
writing on the role played by social influences in psychical
differentiation says : ' ' The psychical development of men and
nations finds its chief explanation, less in the natural sur-
roundings, the climate, soil, and water currents, as is taught
by some philosophers, than in their relations and connections
with each other, their friendships, federations and enmities,
their intercourse in commerce, love and war. ' ' To present the
point of view of the present investigation, to sensitize our
minds as to the delicacy of the interaction between cosmic
forces and life, and the nature of the latter' s response, I pro-
pose to give, very briefly, indeed, the results of some experi-
ments and observations on temperature,'^ one of the most vital
forces operating on organic life.
i"The process of psychical evolution runs parallel with the evolu-
tion of organic life." Paulsen: Introduction to Philosophy, p. 143.
2 " The key-note of modern biology is evolution; and on the hy-
pothesis of scientific monism here adopted. . . . We are not only
logically justified in extending our comparative psychology so as to
include within its scope the field of zoological psychology, but we are
logically bound to regard psychological evolution as strictly co-ordi-
nate with biological evolution." Lloyd Morgan: Introduction to
Comparative Psychology, pp. 36-37.
^Brinton, G. D.: loc. cit.
* It should be remembered that temperature is only one among
many determining developmental factors, and that what is presented
here is merely a type of a large number of studies made on the be-
havior of protoplasm in the presence of chemicals, density of fluid
medium, gravity, electricity and light. Doubtless the most compre-
hensive modern works of experimental morphology are Loeb's Un-
tersuchungen z. Physiologischen Morphologie, d. Thiere, 1892; M.
Verworn's Algemeine Physiologie, 1895 ; and C. B. Davenport's Ex-
perimental Morphology, 1897.
MIGRATORY IMPUIySB. 7
What quantitative limitations does temperature impose upon
life?
The range of life in temperature is less than ioo° of the tem-
perature scale. " SoMelicate is the adjustment between liv-
ing matter and the conditions by which it is environed that if
the mean temperature of the earth were raised or lowered
through only a few dozen degrees, the teeming creatures of
air, water and land, would cease to exist." Upon this point
Professor Shaler^ observes : ' ' The range of heat which life can
sustain may be taken as less than ioo° ; but in the sun we
have a temperature which cannot well be estimated as less than
a hundred thousand degrees Fahrenheit, and in the depth of
the earth is probably to be measured by tens of thousands of
degrees on that scale, while in the realm of ether between
the solar and terrestrial spheres there is a degree of cold which
is certainly to be reckoned as some hundreds of degrees below
zero. Amid these contending extremes of heat and cold life
must find its narrow place." If these inconceivably large
numbers be expressed in linear terms, we have a line one hun-
dred thousand inches in length, an extension of about one mile
and a half, let the space of each inch represent one degree
Fahrenheit. On that scale mark off a space of eight feet
near one end and this trifling part of the length of the whole
line gives us a diagrammatic representation of the ratios
between the temperatures of the solar system and those in
which organic life can be maintained. This delicate adjust-
ment of life to temperature is clearly expressed by spatial
limitations. " It is highly probable that at no time since the
beginning of life in the unstable material forms as we know it,
has temperature conditions necessary for life existed much over
five miles above the level of the sea even at the equator. ' '
Relations of life to temperature considered experimentally . The
casual observer knows that fow^ls droop their wings, that swine
hunt the wallow and the ox the shade of the oak in hot
weather. Every farmer, gardner and florist knows well that
the effectiveness of the hot-bed and green-house in producing
vigorous, healthy plants, depends upon a very narrow range of
temperature.
The experimental investigations of Velten,* Kerner,'* Men-
delssohn,^ Verworn,^ Loeb'^ and others show quantitatively the
1 McGee : Anthropological Society, Washington, D. C, 1894.
^Shaler, N. S.: Interpretation of Nature, pp. 67, 68-117.
^Velten. Quoted by Davenport: Experimental Morphology, pp.
226-227, 1897.
* Kerner ^ The Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 557-8.
(Tr. by Oliver.)
^Mendelssohn : Archiv. fur die ges, Phys., Band 60, 1895.
^ Verworn : Allgemeine Physiologie.
■^I/oeb: Untersuchungen z. Phys. Morphologie, d. Thiere.
8 KI.INE :
exceeding sensitiveness of protoplasm to temperature. Kngle-
mann,^ Kdward,^ Mendelssohn, Cambell,* Davenport, have
demonstrated that in general protoplasm is more responsive
the closer we approach its optimum temperature — a tempera-
ture of about 30°c.
A more direct line of evidence showing the relation of the
activities of protoplasm to temperature is found in the fact that
organisms, in general, absorb more oxygen and excrete more
carbon dioxide the higher the temperature within certain limits.
This has been sufiiciently proven by the germination and
growth of seedlings,* by the increase of rhythmic movements of
the contractile vacuole of infusoria in rising temperature.^
Numerous^ experiments on air breathing' animals confirm the
same general law, and, furthermore, establish a relationship®
between the oxygen absorbed and the carbon dioxide given
off. But nowhere do I find experimental evidence on the
quantitative differences between either the absorption of oxygen
or the excretion of carbon dioxide at the optimum of an organ-
ism and at temperatures above and below that point.
I present here in detail a series of experiments carried out
on tadpoles^ with a view to gain some evidence on this
problem. The first^° part of the problem was to ascertain
1 Englemann, Th. W.: Flimmeruhr u. Flemmermiihle Zwei, App.
Z. Register d. Flemmerbewegung. Pfliiger Archiv. f. Phys., pp. 501-
502, Vol. XV, 1877. (See Fig. i and F. af 6.)
2 Edward, Chas. L.: Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. IV,
1888, pp. 19-35.
3 Campbell: Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. IV, pp.
123-145-
*Vine, S. H.: Physiology of Plants, p. 198. (See table.)
^ " From all these facts we may conclude that, within certain limits,
an increase of temperature increases metabolism, and a diminution of
temperature diminishes it." Davenport: Experimental Morphology,
p. 225.
^ Regnault et Reiset : Recherches chimiques sur la respiration des
Animaux des diverses classes. Annales de chemie et Physique, pp.
299 et seq.\ 3me Sfer ; Tome 26, 1849.
■^ Colosanti : Ueber den Einfluss der umgebenden temperatur auf den
Stoff wechsel der Warmbliites Pflug. Arch., Vol. XIV, pp. 92, 469,
1877.
8 Page: External Temperature Affecting the Amount of CO2, etc.,
Jour, of Phys., Vol. II, p. 228, i879-'8o.
^ I chose this form of animal because it lends itself readily to a vari-
ety of experiment with comparatively simple apparatus, and also on
account of its delicate and ready response to changes of environment.
1'^ For this purpose a zinc trough 20cm deep, i6cm wide and 2.3
meters long, supported by a wooden frame, was constructed. To the
bottom of the trough i6cm from one end a tin box 12cm wide, 15cm
long and 6cm deep was soldered. The box received water through a
hole cut in the zinc. Water was conducted to the hole through a
stand pipe soldered to the inside bottom of the trough. The tin box
served two purposes : first, it admitted a direct application of the
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 9
whether or not the tadpole will choose voluntarily his optimum.^
( I ) Sixty-seven tadpoles were placed in the middle of the
rectangular trough, the temperature of the water being 4°c
throughout. They leisurely distributed themselves equally
throughout its whole extent. Heat was now applied to the
left end, the right end resting on iced sawdust. When the
left end reached i6°c the tadpoles began to congregate in that
region, and especially about the standpipe. No one remained
very long in any one place, though they did not appear at all
uncomfortable. Each movement was attended by a leisurely
indifferent motion of the tail, as if the rising temperature was a
source of comfort. The temperature at the right end at this
moment was 6°c, containing only a few tadpoles which seldom
moved. At 2o°c the left end was crowded, thus showing that
for that temperature they are positive thermotactic. At 24°c
the tadpoles showed marked discomfort. The movements were
no longer of an indifferent lazy waggle, but were decided and
quick, showing that they were beginning to experience un-
comfortable quarters. As yet, however, there were no move-
ments in a definite direction. Between 25°c-26°c migrations
began toward the right end, which had risen to a temperature
of i5°c. At 27°c migrations to the right end were continuous,
and at times not a single creature remained in the region of the
left end. Tadpoles occupying an intermediate position between
the two ends, temperature i8°c, sniffing, as it were, a warmer
region toward the left, frequently darted suddenly for it, only
to find themselves in hot water, out of which they immediately
migrated. The eight thermometers at twelve inches apart reg-
istered temperatures shown in Fig. I, Diagram i. (2) When
the temperature of the left end reached 36 °c and the right end
26°c the heat was turned off. The left end was allowed to
cool by the ordinary process of radiation into the air of the
room, while the right was hastened by artificial means. When
the latter had fallen to i8°c during 12 minutes, the left end
registered 28 °c, toward which, but not to it, a slow movement
began and increased more and more as the temperature fell at
both ends. When the left end had fallen to 24^c and the right
flame to its surface, and thereby protecting the zinc bottom, and
second, the water heated in this vessel transmitted its heat to the zinc
over a surface equal to the area of the tin vessel ; thus preventing an
excessively high temperature in one spot, which would have resulted
by a direct application of the flame. Depth of water in trough was
two and one-half inches. A board strip containing one-quarter inch
holes six inches apart was laid lengthwise of the trough. Ther-
mometers were thrust through eight of these holes, and allowed to
dip two inches below the surface of the water.
1 A summary of these experiments appeared in Ped. Setn.^ Vol. V,
No. 3, 1898.
lO KI.INE :
end to io°c the migration toward the left were about complete.
A few remained behind entangled in the ice, besides a few
scattering ones at intermediate points, but the great bulk were
huddled in together at the left end tadpole fashion. The cool-
ing continued until both ends reached, respectively, i8°c and
i9°c. The temperatures of the intermediate thermometers were
noted and the number of creatures in the region of each
counted, which is shown in Fig. II. This is a clear expres-
sion of negative thermotropism at temperatures below iS^'c.
Now, since they move away from a temperature of 26°c
tow^ard a lower one, and away from a temperature of i8*^c
toward a higher one, it is evident that there must be a temper-
ature somewhere between these two points which is agreeable
or most favorable for the tadpole — its optimum.
(3) The tadpoles were removed from the trough, and the
left end was raised to 35 °c, the other reduced to o^c. Fifty
fresh tadpoles were then put into the tank at a point register-
ing lo^c. Within five minutes they took the position indicated
in Fig. III. I removed them from the tank to a vessel con-
taining water at i2*^c — temperature in which they were then
being kept, where the}^ remained 45 minutes, after which they
were transferred again to the tank and put in at a region regis-
tering 26°c. In a very short time the position indicated in
Fig. IV were taken. The several temperatures were kept
constant for ten minutes, during which time the number at the
temperatures were counted, but at no time were the numbers
materially changed from those already given. At times there
was more or less moving, now toward the cooler region, now
toward the warmer, but their little excursions nearly always
ended in the region between i9°c and 24°c.
The conclusion is that the optimum for the tadpole is be-
tween i9°cand 24°c. This conclusion is supported by three
other facts. ( i ) Their respiration curve rises very suddenly at
24°c. [See Chart I]. (2) The maximum amount of CO 2 is
produced between tq^c and 24°c. (3) Their refusal to eat in
temperatures above 24°c. (They will eat, however, in tem-
perature as low as io°c). The curves^ of Chart I indicate the
1 The apparatus consisted of a tall narrow glass jar, depth 28cm, and
diameter 9cm. It was filled with water. The tadpoles were confined
within narrow limits, and prevented from direct contact with the bot-
tom of the glass jar by a partition spaced off by two circular pieces of
wire gauze 8.5 in. diameter, placed horizontally in the jar 6.5cm apart.
These two wire platforms were held in situ by a wooden rod thrust
through their center and resting on the bottom of the jar, which was
placed in a sheet-iron kettle containing five liters of water. The bot-
tom of the glass jar was allowed to barely touch the surface of the
water in the kettle. These conditions secured a slow and uniform
rise in temperature. Two thermometers were placed at different
levels within the space confining the tadpoles.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE.
II
Diagram I.
Thermotropism of tadpoles.
3
0°
2
T
2
5'^
23''
1
8^
1
8° 17°
15°
(
)
•
I
■
9
10
7 10
26
Fig. I.
19° 17' 16° 14° 11° 8° 5° 0° ,
49 7 4 2 1
0 1 3
Fig. II.
35° 32° 26'
23° 21° 10° 5'
0 062834 22
Fig. III.
40° 26° 23° 20° ^^^ ''^° 8
0 7 24 5 4 7 3 0
Fig. IV.
The vertical lines represent thermometers. The lower row of figures
indicate the number of tadpoles in the region of different temperatures.
The upper row of figures indicate temperature in degrees centigrade.
12 KI.INK:
effect of rising temperature on the respiration of tadpoles. The
temperature was raised from o°c to 30^0 in 165 minutes,
or i°c in 5.5 minutes. The lean, unfed tadpoles began to
breathe at 4°c, those well-fed at 6°c. At these temperatures I
was able to count from 20 to 24 respirations per minute. Often,
o|| Chart I. Respiration of tadpoles in rising temperature.
^ !•», ^ 111122222222222333333333334444 hrs.
" S. 25 28 42 45 50 00 05 10 15 22 28 34 37 42 49 55 01 04 10 12 20 24 30 35 40 46 55 00 05 10 14 tnins.
FED TADPOLES /
UNFED TADPOLES
/
/ /
A
/
1
/
1
1
/
/■
r
1
J
/
1
1
J
^- i^"
/'
(
/
1
J
/■
^J/-
^>-^
jy-
_^y
I I r I I I I t I I I I 1 1 I I I 1 \ I I I I
' ' ' I 1 1 I 1 I 1 I I I I 1 r I 1 I 1.1 1 I I.I
Q<j jo ^Q ^o ^o ^o gQ ^o 30 90 10" ii» i2« I3«i4°i5«i6'' 17'' i8"'i9°20°2i«22«23'='24°25'2 26«27«28'?29«3o«Tem
however, no respiration could be detected below 5°c. From
5°c up to 2o°c the increase is quite uniform. At 2i°c the
obese tadpoles increase their respiration 54 to the minute, the
lean ones defer any sudden rise until 24°c. Divergence in
their curves begin at i7°-i8°c. Attention is called to the
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 1 3
fact that the increase in respiration from 24°c to 3o°c,or through
6°c equals that from 5°c to 24°c, or the increase through
i9°c. Thus showing that any increase of temperature above
24°c produces effects altered in character to those of like incre-
ments below that point. Another inference made here is that,
since metabolism is a function of respiration (taught long ago by-
physiologists) , and that the latter stands in causal relation to
temperature, metabolism bears a vital relation to temperature.
The second part of the problem was to enquire more closely
into the nature of this relation. What is the quantitative differ-
ence between the metabolism at the optimum and at tempera-
tures above and below that point, as indicated by carbon
dioxide^ produced at different temperatures ? ^
The determination of CO 2 produced by air breathing animals
is usually effected by aspirating the exhaled air over barium
hydrate or a soda solution contained in Pettenkorf or U tubes.
The difference in the weight of the tubes before and after the
aspiration of the expired air is taken as the weight of CO 2 pro-
duced after making certain corrections.
With water breathing animals the problem is more complex.
Water is a solvent of carbon dioxide. The extent of the
solvency depends on the temperature and pressure. In this
instance the normal pressure was lessened by the aspirator em-
ployed to supply the water containing the tadpoles with oxy-
gen. This diminution of pressure favored the escape of a
portion of the carbon dioxide from the water. The prob-
lem narrowed into the estimation* of the carbon dioxide left in
the water and of that which continually escaped into the tubes.
The amount found in the former I have termed the * ' volumetric
1 The inference that a quantitative determination of CO 2 is a measure-
ment of metabolism is based on the following well-known facts :
" Oxygen is concerned with the integrating, the anabolic process, on
the other hand carbon dioxide is one of its several disintegrating or
katabolic products. These two constituents are not only always present
in metabolic processes.butareof such prime importance to the process
that a quantitative determination of either or both is a fair measure of
metabolism itself." . . . Quoted from article on Truancy, Fed. Sent.,
Vol. V, No. 3, p. 383. See same article for literature on the relation
of O to CO 2 in life processes, also Howell's American Text-book of
Physiology for criticisms on the constancy of the ratio of the oxygen
absorbed to carbon dioxide produced.
2 It is not the purpose to determine the absolute amount of metabol-
ism, such a task is some distance ahead present laboratory methods.
The object here is to estimate the relative amounts at different tem-
peratures, and regard these quantities as merely indices to what the
absolute quantity may be at a given temperature.
^The apparatus consisted of a three mouthed glass jar, capacity
seven liters. The jar was connected on one side with U tubing and
a gas meter — the tubing was filled with pumice stone and con-
centrated sulphuric acid — and on the other with a series of seven U
14
KLINE :
o
o»
o
t^
uo^'i:^
00
CM
<^i:« rt
1
1
^
g^sl
o
O
o
o
o
°0
o
CM
^
H
<N
C4
CO
CM
8
1
</2
g
2
'
-K.
bflfrt U rt
-s»
•2?^ 3 a
Tt-
vo
Tj-
CO
<JN
?»
Ol
t-H
l-H
)_)
ON
lO
1
ON
'^
00
t>.
t-^
00
S
zdc
O
o
o
o
O
o
•^
o
lO
(N
CO
"Kk
f <=^3 3
M
t^
00
VO
o
VO
«
.SfTSo
"^
00
ON
On
t^
lO
^
vO^M
CO
CO
t-*
vO
r^
!>.
^^^
o
O
o
O
o
o
O
O
O
O
O
O
K
"S c 2
u-5
On
i_i
in
-:!-
o
^
i
a o-S
lO
00
Tj-
o
t^
00
.S3 ^
ON
t>-
o
0
ON
> u ^
oj O «
t-t
c<
CM
CM
tH
Q
O a
k
U "O
^
•H'B^
o
o
O
o
o
o
r^
lO
u-5
u-5
lO
o
o
-^
M
i-(
ON
r^
CM
00
^
3 "j:; HI
(N
o
O
l-H
t-H
\>
IftO"
■<\
> a
k
a
o-S
o
O
O
O
o
o
k
^IB
l_l
rO
CO
00
r-
00
ON
ON
ON
ON
ON
00
"^
<;»
CJ
1
V
1
12
-
-
-
-
:
"^
'a
h4
^^
C8
00
^
l-l
CO
Ti-
^1
00
r^
•^
t^
ON
VO
"5>
<
lO
CO
CO
lO
t--
6
Tt-
Tt-
^
VO
VO
VO
"»<»
S
ai
a
si
M
-
-
-
-
-
^
a
_l«
«
H
•^H
rHice
r^Hf
^
\n
lO
U-)
Tl-
'^
lO
:5i
"K»
^
^
^-o
O
o
O
o
0
o
1
o o,
►H
t-t
IH
1-t
ti
^•o
^
"5
!^
^
^
^
^
'C*;
M
N
CO
^
»o
VO
ols
an
•
>^ a
o
^
^
^
,.
>.
w
;?;
^
^
"
d a to^^ g5 § a « rt °
2 o -y m o ^ a O ^ ^-M -^
'=' S-^w (u^-^ "5 <u J> a> 13
tTnd ^ U ^ i«5^ « * J« O
o r^ I .5i '^. 'go 2 a, a I I ^
or^ I .2i:ij bio
<l^ cn^ s
'§ rt ^ S-2 « rt rt 0'^.2;t^
■d h/1 .. ^2 bjo.^ rt "^ cd ?5
#rf J2 _J £3 r»-( ^^ _i ^1 /^
•J;: aj 5=!
a^.y P<
-=10 0
rt tn S g > O dt°»d 3 <u
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 15
portion,"^ and that found in the latter the *' gravimetric por-
tion. ' ' The sum of the two being the whole amount exhaled.
A detailed statement of the experiment and results are given
in Table I. This Table shows that a maximum amount of CO 2
is produced at the optimum, 2o°c, and that the amounts de-
crease for temperatures above and below the optimum and fur-
ther that the fall is much more rapid toward the lower temper-
atures than toward the higher ones. [See Curve in Chart II.]
If then we regard the production of CO 2 as a fair index of the
amount of normal metabolism in an organism we are justified
in the conclusion that for this species of embryos, maximum
metabolism is coincident and very probably a function of opti-
mum temperature. Page's^ experiments on the dog show
that a minimum amount of CO 2 is produced in a temperature
of 25°c anS that the amount increases above and below 25°c,
which is probably about the optimum for this mammal. [See
Curve in Chart II.] Thus the warm^ blooded animal presents
reverse conditions.* The fact emphasized here, however, is
tubes and a large Waulff flask. The first and seventh tube contained
concentrated sulphuric acid and pumice stone, the first caught any or-
ganic matter issuing from the jar containing the tadpoles, the seventh
caught organic and moist particles coming from the Waulff flask at
times of a negative pressure, the remaining five tubes contained potas-
sium hydrate slightly moistened . The difference in the weight of these
tubes thoroughly dried and corked, before and after the aspiration is
the weight (with one correction) of the CO 2 that escaped from the
water.
The estimation of the amount of CO 2 that remained behind in the
water was made by the quantitative method devised by Pettenkorfer,
(For description see Fresenius, Quant. Anal., Amer. Ed., p. 834.)
^The water to be tested was siphoned from the jar into a 100 cc bu-
rette and from thence into a bottle corked with ground glass. The
CO 2 of the air in the room and of the water used was deducted from
the sum of the "volumetric " and "gravimetric" portions. The air
aspirated was corrected for temperature and pressure. The CO 2 in
the room was determined by both the lounge and Regnault methods.
The CO 2 of the tap water was determined by the Pettenkorfer method.
2 Page : External temperature affecting the amount of CO 2, Jour,
of Phys., Vol. II, p. 228, 1879-80.
^ Body temperature of warm blooded animals is kept constant by
all parts of the body being constantly oxidized, so that when the ex-
ternal temperature is low much burning is needed to maintain the
requisite temperature, and consequently much carbon produced ; also
if the external temperature is above that of the body it hastens oxid-
ation. That the relative amounts of CO 2 produced at any temper-
ature below the optimum for coldblooded animals should bear a direct
proportion to that temperature is evident, but why the amount should
decrease above the optimum is not so clear. It is suggested that prob-
ably the higher temperatures destroy or disorganize the normal
physico-chemic life processes, since the heat rigor of tadpoles is
reached at 34* — 35*^c.
* Edward Smith shows that the quantity of CO 2 given off in man is
inverse as the change of the temperature ; the vital changes lessening
with increase of temperature. Food, p. 11.
1 6 Ki,iNS :
that there is a comparatively yJ^^</ rate of metabolism in opti-
mum temperature for both species.
The next question of importance is, what effect has maximum
Chart II.
Curves showing the relation of the production of CO 2 at different tem-
peratures for dog and tadpole.
165
160 h— DOG
155 [— TADPOLES
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
lio
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
\ - /
/
"5 h \ /
\ y
«h /
/
y
/
I ' I ' I ' I ' 'I I' 'I I' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
,0 jo 3O40 50 y> ^o go 9»io°ii<>i2«i3<'i4»i5»i6''l7''l8»l9°20°2l»22»23<'24»2S'>26''27«28»29'30''3l»i2»33»34°35<'
metabolism on the tadpole, as a whole ? To secure experi-
mental evidence on this point a group of ten tadpoles was sub-
jected to their optimum for two months. A second group of
MIGRATORY IMPULSE.
17
10 were kept in a temperature^ varying from 6°-8°c below
their optimum the first month and 4°-7°c below the second.
The results are given in table II, which show that the tadpoles
enjoying their optimum increase more rapidly in both weight
and length. ^
It appears then that optimum temperature, maximum met-
abolism and most rapid growth are causally related ; another
TABI.K II.
Showing the rate of growth of ten tadpoles in their optimum tempera-
ture, and of ten others in 4°c-8^c. below the optim,um,.
In optimum.
Below Optimum.
Difference
of Increase.
Date.
Wt.
Gain.
Ivcngth.
Gain.
Weight.
Gain.
I^ength.
Gain.
Wt.
Ivcngth
Nov. 28,
1896.
Dec. 26,
1896.
Jan. 26,
1897.
39 ^'''^•
45 T
50.2"
6 Grs.
5.2 "
7.II cm.
7.57 "
7.88 '*
.46 cm.
.31cm.
38.5 Grs.
43 "
47 "
4.5 G.
4 "
6.81 cm.
7.16 "
7.41 '*
•35^^-
.25 "
1.5 Grs
12 "
.11 cm.
.06 **
inference is, that the optimum is chosen because that particular
temperature is a factor in the organism's well-being, that it
affords just that temperature stimulus necessary to set agoing
the physico-chemical activities in harmony with that pitch or
rhythm which natural selection has determined for that species.
The same interpretation, in the absence of conflicting evidence,
may be extended to all thermotactic organisms, i. e. , a positive
thermotactic response is an effort of the organism, guided by
the * * differences in the intensity of heat to which the two poles
^ Two glass jars of same shape and size were used. They contained
equal quantities of tap water into which was put same kind and as
near as possible equal amounts of grasses and foods. The jar, in which
it was desired to keep a known and constant temperature, was placed in
a copper kettle containing on an average nine liters of water. The
bottom of the glass jar barely touched the surface of the water. In
this way the temperature of the water in the jar was maintained between
2o*'c - 23°c. The temperature of the second jar varied with that of the
room, which during the months through which the experiment ex-
tended fluctuated between I2*i-i8**c. The experiment was extended
through the months of February and March, but serious and frequent
mishaps set in that rendered the results worthless. Although the ex-
periment ran smoothly during the months reported, the force of the
results is weakened by the short period of the experiment.
2 Drs. Davenport and Castle report tadpoles as growing more rapidly
under constant temperature of 24*^-25^, then those subjected to 150c.
The results of my experiment had been described some time before
their work came into my hands.
JOURNAI,— 2
1 8 KiviNE:
of the body are subjected," to seek a temperature, in agree-
ment with its physico-chemical constitution.^
Malling-Hansen's^ discoveries of the intimate relation be-
tween temperature and growth of man are quite pertinent to
our present problem. He demonstrates a rhythmic response
of growth in both weight and height to the large and small
portions of the sun's corona as they are successively presented
to us by the sun's 27^ days' rotation. The greatest height
of the growth curve is coincident with the time in which the
larger sector is presented, as this recedes, thus lessening the out-
put of solar heat toward us, the curve falls, but rises again,
though not so high, when the small sector of the corona is
turned on us. That is, there are two waves of the growth
curve comprehended within about 27)^ day period, which
waves are coincident with the earthward appearance of the large
and small sectors of the corona. This is interpreted as a deli-
cate cosmical adjustment of life to temperature.
Enough has been said of only one of the cosmic factors to
illustrate its delicate adjustment with life. But it is difficult to
see, even though we were to consider every possible cosmic
factor from the same point of view, how they have been effective
in either bodily or psychic differentiation until we consider some
of the inherent properties of protoplasm itself.
How does it conduct itself along the narrow path marked
out by cosmic forces? The laboratory attempts to answer the
question, in part, by experimentation which aims to test the
capacity of protoplasm for acclimatization.^ These experi-
ments include acclimatization to^ chemical agents,^ to Mesicca-
tion, ^temperature,' changes^ in food, etc. The general ver-
dict is that protoplasm is automatic adjustable^ that it hiisbands^
and profits by its experience within its milieu. It appears that
the teachableness and the ability to profit by it are among the
chief distinguishing features of protoplasm. In fact the his-
tory of morphology, of adaptation, of evolution itself is writ
1 "It (protoplasm) is highly sensitive to changes in temperature
migrating if possible so as to keep in the temperature to which
it is already attuned." Davenport, Experimental Morphology, p. 263.
2 Malling-Hansen : Perioden im Gewicht der Kinder und in der
Sannenwarme, Copenhagen, 1896.
3 Davenport, C. B. : lac. cit., pp. 27-32 ; 65 ; 85-88 ; and 249-58.
* Sewall, Henry : Experiments on the Preventive Innoculation of
Rattlesnake, Jour, of Physiol., Vol. VIII, pp. 203-210, 1887.
^I/oew, O.: Ueber den Verschiendenen Resesturf grail im Proto-
plasm Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol., Vol. XXXV, pp. 509-516, 1885.
^lyance, M. Denis: Sur la reviviscence des Jardigre des comp.
Rend., Vol. CXVIII, pj). 817-818, 1894.
■^ Mendelssohn : too. cit.
8 Semper: Animal Life, p. 133.
9 Davenport, C. B. : too. cit., pp. 253-254.
MIGRATORY IMPUIvSEJ. 1 9
large with the effort of life to secure the completest adjustment
possible both on the bodily and psychic sides.
The delicate adjustment between life and cosmic forces, the
continual effort of life to maintain this adjustment, on the
one hand, and the rhythmical, periodical manifestation of the
migrating instinct par excellence on the other, suggest the im-
portance of considering the mode or nature of the interaction
between life and external forces.
Accordirfg to Fiske ^ and Spencer ^ all cosmic forces obey a
rhythmical motion which is a corollary from the persistence of
force.
We may reasonably assume that the primitive megazobn
found itself in this maze of cosmical rhythms. Heat, light,
soimd, wind, electricity, etc., beat upon these primordial
creatures in rhythmic waves. We may imagine that one of
the first tasks of this life was to get in rapport with these innu-
merable cosmic movements.
In fact existence, survival itself, and the evolution of the
organism were conditioned largely on a rhythmical adjustment
to the inorganic forces of creation. " Those ^ spontaneous
compounds whose internal rhythms chance to accord with the
external rhythm enjoy the greater probability of survival and
thus rhythmic interaction between the internal and the exter-
nal may be developed through the exclusion of the non-
rhythmic, elimination of the ill- rhythmic and the preservation
of the duly rhythmic." What is this adjustment but a con-
tinual effort of life functions to operate in unison with cosmic
rhythms. Accordingly we find rhythms prevailing through
all life processes both physiological and psychical.
The elaboration and assimilation of food into the body tissue
in excess of waste and repair is rhythmical, that is to say,*
growth obeys this law. The ^ menstrual life is associated with
a well-marked wave of vital energy which manifests itself in
the temperature of the body, in the pulse rate, etc., etc.
These several phenomena have a striking coincidence to both
the lunar period and sun's rotation. The ^ pulse shows an
annual rhythm maximum in winter and minimum in summer.
The daily bodily^ temperature is higher in the evening than
that of the morning. The return of zymotic diseases in some
countries show a remarkable regularity and appear to stand in
1 Fiske, John : Outline of Cosmic Philosophy, Vol. I, pp. 297-313.
2 Spencer, H. : First Principles, pp. 256-257.
^ McGee, W. J. : Karth the Home of Man, p. 5.
"* Mailing — Hansen : loc. cit.
^Stephenson, Wm. : Am. Jour. Obstet,, Vol. XV, 1882, pp. 283-294.
« Coste F. H. Perry: Nature, Vol. XLIV, 1881, p. 35.
"^ Bucknill and Tuke : Psychological Medicine, 4th Kd., p. 317.
20 KI,INE :
causal connection with certain climatic elements. In India, ^
for example, the fluctuations of the death rate by fever coin-
cide with the variations in the range of temperature.
That these innumerable cosmical and physiological rhythms
have greatly influenced the soul and have stamped upon it
highly colored rhythmical activities are evidenced in every
period and condition of human history, in every field of human
thought and feeling.^ It is manifested among primitive
peoples by the readiness and completeness with which they
surrender themselves to music and dancing, by their strict
observance of annual festivals and celebrations.
The early mind was impressed by this universal principle.
Their gods and demons did things rhythmically. They visited
the earth, made war and peace, and discharged their hercu-
lean tasks for the most part with strict periodicity. ^
Spencer has pointed out that philosophic thought obeys this
principle. Now Platonic idealism is all-pervading, now the
materalism of a Hobbes, then the ebb of Hegelian idealism
gives way to the flow of materalism of the third quarter of this
century.
Further, our volitional nature pulsates rhythmically. Mar-
riages'* in every country show a more or less periodicity.
The time of the year for marrying in different countries is
somewhat influenced by custom, religious beliefs, harvest^
time and the return of spring.
^ Lefl&ngwell raises the question concerning the influence of
spring upon the ratio of legitimate to illegitimate births.
* ' Among human beings is there yet remaining any trace of
that instinct which leads birds to mate when winter goes, and
which in earlier periods of man's development was perhaps
as strong as with other animals?" *' If it exists should we
find any difference in and out of the marriage relation ?' ' The
birth rate of ^France, Norway, Sweden, Holland and Italy
1 Hill, A. S. : Nature, Vol. XXXVIII, 1888, p. 245.
2 The psychological aspect of the subject is treated indirectly in
every modern exposition of sound, retinal revelry, fatigue and atten-
tion. Bolton has treated the subject directly and especially as it is
manifested in music, verse and poetry. Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. VI, pp.
145-238-
^ Kelly, W. K. : Indo-European Traditions and Folk-Ivore.
* Farr, Dr. William : Vital Statistics, p. 76, London, 1885.
5 Hill, A. S. : Nature, Vol. XXXVIII, p. 245, 1888.
® I/effingwell : Influence of Seasons upon Conduct, p. 115.
' Observations tend to show that the largest number of conceptions
in Sweden fall in June ; in Holland and France, in May-June ; in
Spain, Austria and Italy, in May ; in Greece, in April. That is, the
farther south the earlier the spring and the earlier the conceptions —
Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology, 1895. In Massachusetts the
largest number of marriages is shifting from late fall and the New
Year, which prevailed down to 1870, to April and June — Mass. State
Board of Health, 1896, p. 731.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 21
show that the ratio of illegitimate births between the spring —
summer months and the fall — winter months is greater than
the ratio of the legitimate births covering the same period.
The ratio of the totals for the countries just named for legiti-
mate births between spring — summer months and fall — winter
months is 24 : 23 and for illegitimate births for the same
periods the ratio is 26 : 22 — pointing to a permanent seasonal
influence on the reproductive functions and to the genial effect
of spring upon the procreative functions. More striking,
however, is the evidence of periodicity in the tendency to those
relationships which occasion illegitimate births. Under like
conditions the excess of the seasonal ratio of illegitimate births
over that of the legitimate is a direct expression of the remnant
of that passion implanted in man when pairing in spring time
was almost universal. The strength of the reverberation of
this passion is inversely to the respect for the prevailing cus-
toms, religion and law.
The relation between spring and certain bodily and mental
conditions finds emphasis in a large group of phenomena
arising from spring fever and ennui. The following are typi-
cal cases of one hundred and twenty received on that subject.
(See Syllabus, Rubric XII.)
1. M., 20. Whenever I am afflicted with what I have always called
spring fever I feel sleepy and tired and have no ambition to study.
2. F., 19. Feel sleepy, languid, no ambition; strength seems to
have left me, and every duty seems a great trouble.
3. F., 17. I have no power of concentration, feel that I must be out
of doors all the time, am drowsy and ache all over. lyike to sleep —
can eat only certain things.
4. M., 25. Was physically weak, or rather inert, so that I could
hardly drag one foot after the other and the queerest longings beset
me — now for a gust of wind to fan my face, now for an apple (would
have given almost anything for an apple once), and then I wished in-
tensely for a swift ride. This fever of queer, delicious lassitude and
longing lasted nearly three weeks and during that time I was of
practically no use on the farm.
5. F,, 16. Felt as though all energy had fled, and that I was such
a weak mortal — not fit for this life which needs so much energy and
brightness.
6. F., 18. Wanted to sleep, or meditate, or dream the time away.
It seemed too much trouble to think, to speak or to act. Some very
romantic or thrilling storv interested me somewhat, but I soon wearied
of it.
7. F., 19. I wanted to lounge around in the open air — never want
any one to bother me.
8. F., 17. I feel tired of everything, and that I cannot drag out
another day — things are weary, stale, flat and unprofitable.
9. F., 18 Could I only break away and go somewhere by myself
where the sun is bright and warm and where I can hear birds singing,
find a nice comfortable position and spend my time in day-dreaming,
I should be perfectly happy.
10. F., 17. Felt as though there was absolutely no life in me and
22 KLINE :
that I should go wild if I did not get away from everybody and be
alone in the wood or on the water in a quiet bay.
11. F., 22. Lose interest in my work, study is a burden. The feel-
ing is impossible to describe. It is a longing for something, I know not
what. Often I have sat quietly and tried to analyze it but cannot.
12. F,, 19. I feel dull, drowsy, can't hurry, prefer to drag along as I
please. Sometimes I like to walk slowly along some shady path or
sit down under a shady tree and dream my life away. I have had a
desire to be married and have a home of my own. I think I have
planned where it shall be and how furnished, a dozen times. Perhaps
it is very foolish ; but I do it very often.
13. M., 30. This spring a strong wave of sentiment came over me to
see an old chum and sweetheart. I could hardly restrain myself
from setting out instantly to see her which would have been a long
journey.
14. F., 20. Spring fever affects me most about June or when
school closes. Then I have a great longing to skip two years. This
longing is connected with love. I expect to have a house of my own
at that time, and O ! how anxious I am to see that time. It is hard for
me to work patiently. I like my studies because they take my mind
away from thinking too much about this much desired thing.
15. M., 26. I feel most these impulses as often as once a month, at
least. And when school is over the tendency is irresistible. I
always rush off somewhere. I feel every year as though so much of
student life was becoming unendurable. I must get out and do some-
thing. I often feel so in regard to love. It is the Lord of promise.
I feel oftentimes as if I had waited long enough, and I must fall in
love with and marry somebody.
16. M., — . Physician says : " In my youth I had frequent attacks
of ennui, and sometimes desired to break away from home and see the
great world, but since blessed by a good wife and daughter and a
pleasant home, together with more philosophic views of life which
came with age, such feelings have gradually faded away."
Longing in the distance, desire for widfer liberties and space,
hunger, are often strongest at this period. (100 cases of this
group.)
17. F., 38. From the age of 20 to 30 I felt spring fever strongly,
longed to see strange sights in other countries, felt myself hemmed
in and stifled.
18. F., 19. I have often felt during the spring months as if I
would like to find employment among strangers — never desired to go
any great distance away from home.
19. M., 22. I longed to be out of doors, and to sit under the trees
alone and meditate.
20. F., 19. The feeling of longing in the distance comes over me
at this time. I try to think what it is, but I cannot. There seems to
be something. I have often thought how I would like to have a
family, how I would enjoy taking care of the children.
These cases interest us only so far as they contribute evi-
dence to the proposition that there are still left remnants of
instinct feelings interwoven and combined with the repro-
ductive functions that stand in causal relation with the cosmic
forces of spring time. To summarize the general and salient
characteristics : the majority report a tired, languid, worn-out
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 23
feeling ; a feeling of lassitude ; a restless, trembly nervous
feeling ; a dull, drowsy, hesitating condition. Many complain
of headache, no life or energy left, felt as though the blood had
ceased to circulate. The air of the room feels poisonous,
stifling and suffocating. They long for fresh air, to get out
under the wide sky, to lounge and sleep, to lie on the grass
and have bugs and beetles crawl over them, to be let alone, to
sit down quietly and read, to sit under a shady tree and be
read to, to dream, to meditate, to walk slowly in shady paths,
to sit quietly in a boat in some secluded bay. Some become
quite anti-social and want to be let alone. They wish to for-
get work and duty. It is hard to think, to concentrate, to
direct the attention. Work is distasteful and unsatisfactory.
They lose interest and ambition in the work of the moment,
and desire a change.
Others wish to begin life anew, to enter upon some great and
uplifting work, to be a good Samaritan, to be independent, to
make a success of things, to cross swords with the world.
Many state that they experience passions of love, desire to be
married, day-dream over their future home, how it shall be
built, how furnished, and how they will delight to care for the
children.
These passions, dreams and fancies do not always pass away
as such, but according to statistics already quoted express
themselves by increasing the number of marriages and concep-
tions during the vernal season. Could it be that lassitude,
restlessness, the inability to think, to concentrate the atten-
tion, so frequently mentioned, are due to the shifting of the
main bulk of the metabolic processes from the vegetative to the
reproductive functions. The fact that thought processes — es-
pecially attention — are associated with increase blood supply-
to the brain, lends color to the view, that when thought is
difficult — in the absence of fatigue and other ordinary causes —
an increased blood supply is attracted to the reproductive
organs.
A very interesting and instructive correlation exists between
the age of the individual and the season of the year in which
running away from home occurs. (See Chart III.) From
one to eight by far the majority leave during the summer. At
four, spring takes the lead of autumn and winter, and con-
tinues to increase until the seventeenth. The summer curve
begins at eight, to fall gradually until at ten, where it follows
closely the autumn and winter curves to the sixteenth year, join-
ing the spring curve at seventeen. The feeble and even height
throughout all ages is noteworthy in the winter curve. The
same description applies to the autumn curve, save that it is
higher at the majority of ages, especially at nine and ten.
24 KI.INE :
where it even rises above the summer curve. These two
curves regarded separately contain but little interest, merely
showing that all ages behave about alike at these seasons ; but
when compared with spring and summer they indicate that
man, like the rest of organic life, hovers about his hibernating
quarters. The spring curve, though interesting even alone,
derives additional import by comparison with those of the
other seasons. From one to seven the number leaving in spring
are about equal to those of autumn and winter. At eight the
curve makes a considerable rise, leaving the winter and autumn
curves far below. Doubtless the phenomenal rise at this age
is associated with the child's love of nature and the varied out-
door activities paramount at this period of childhood. The
spring runaway is a reaction against the prison life of winter,
together with a strong tendency to revel in the out-door
charms of spring. Chart IV shows that the nature curve
attains its greatest height from eight to eleven, inclusive. A
second and larger rise occurs in the fourteenth year, which
continues through three successive years, falling slightly in
the fifteenth year.
Now from one to twelve years or thereabouts, the child is
neuter respecting much that belongs to both primary and sec-
ondary sexual differentiation. Up to this time he is a vegetative
animal, his activities being determined by atavistic tendencies
and by forces that affect the vegetative functions. At about
the thirteenth year, however, the physiological^ changes and
peculiar psychosis that take place as a result of the functional
development of the reproductive organs expose the organism to
a new play of forces that eventually topple the unsettled phys-
iological and psychical elements over into a field of periodic
activities recognized as sexual, or as irradiations of these func-
tions.
Considering the data as a whole, that furnished by mar-
riages, spring fever psychosis, and that of the runaways, we
are j ustified in the inference that both youth and manhood up
to thirty odd years, are more susceptible to the feelings of sex
and its irradiations at that season of the year when the " will
to live ' ' is making a universal effort.
Thus far I have tried to develop three general notions : (i)
the delicate and vital relation that exists between life and cos-
mic forces 1(2) that the first and most fundamental effort of
1 For literature on these changes see Ranke : Grundziige der Phys-
iologie, 1881. Das Volum des Herzens und die Weite der grossen
Arterien-Pubertatsentwickelung des Herzens S 490-94 ; Lancaster :
Ped. Sent., Vol. V, No. i. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adoles-
cence. Donaldson: Growth of the Brain, also Clouston : Neuroses of
Development.
26 KLINE :
life is to keep in rapport, in attune with cosmic and, I should
add, social forces ; (3) that as a result of the first two condi-
tions life processes, both psychical and physical, have be-
come rhythmical ; and that the higher the organism the
more complex the rhythmical adjustment, e. g., the savage
must keep in unison with his tribe. He must hunt, dance,
fight and celebrate victories with his fellows. The life of the
modern man is a web of rhythms ; he must not only respond
with the rest of creation to cosmic rhythms, but also to the
manifold periodicities of civilized life. He must keep in
unison with the movements of his trade, with the pul-
sations of his profession and his society. He must keep
step with the fads and whims of his club or drop out.
The thesis maintained here is, that migration is one method
adopted by an organism to maintain its psycho-physiological
activities in attune or rhythm with those of the organic and in-
organic world.
It has become a universal mode by which organisms restore
and maintain the factors essential to their well-being, be it for
light, heat, pressure, food, relation to society, position in
trades, profession or what not. It is the mode employed by
nomadic^ societies'^ to make good the exhaustion and failure of
the food supply, by the peasant who comes to America, thereby
relieving the pressure of oriental social conditions. The pil-
grimages to Rome, Jerusalem and Mecca, are efforts to main-
tain a more complete adjustment to certain complex religio-
sociological customs and rites.
The children's Crusade* at the beginning of the 13th cen-
tury is perhaps an illustration of the greatest attempt of a
body of human beings to regain peace and well-being to the
body and soul by migrating. "^ Coxey and his army, as others
have done elsewhere, embraced the principle to relieve their
social and economic strains and stresses. The planomaniac
breaks the monotony of the home by daily gadding the street.
1 Spencer, Herbert : Synthenic Philosophy; Chapter on Rhythm.
2McGee, W. J.: Amer. Anthro., Vol. VIII, No. 4, 1895.
8 The history of that period records that war and turmoil were every-
where supreme. Desolation and poverty covered vast districts ; star-
vation entered many homes. Society was disorganized, law and
religion a mockery. No time for reading or study, — the densest
ignorance settled over the land. In the midst of all this St. Bernard
came preaching the failure of the preceding crusades, due to the sinful-
ness and wanton folly of the pilgrims and soldiers. The Holy Sepul-
chre must be reclaimed by innocent hands. Who were such ? The
children of the land : accordingly 20,000 German boys and girls, 10 to
16 years of age, and 30,000 from France at once took up the cause
which so soon ended in every form of misery.
-^Gray, Geo. Z.: The Children's Crusade or an Episode of the 13th
Century.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 27
The well-to-do-citizen, and globe-trotter yielding to the popu-
lar fashion joins the annual summer wave of European tourists.
The American student to hold his place at the crest of his pro-
fession feels it necessary to join the semi-pilgrimage to Euro-
pean universities.
SECTION A.
Migration of Animals.
Wiid Animals.
This section embodies in a brief form the observations and
theories of naturalists on migrations among lower animals.
Crustaceans. "The adult lobster^ never moves up and
down the coast like the migratory fishes, but is of a far more
sedentary disposition." In the spring months of April and
May, however, large numbers appear to move from deep water
toward the shore. In the fall they retire to deeper water again.
This is proven from the fact that they are caught in from three
to ten fathoms of water from May until November ; for the
rest of the year fishing is conducted in thirty-five to forty
fathoms. If the spring is late and the water cold the lobster
keeps away from the shore. The land crabs of the West
Indies^ are generally found in great numbers in holes and
cavities among the mountains ; but every spring they descend
in immense bodies to the coast, .... pursuing so
direct a line to the place of their destination that scarcely any-
thing will divert their course. ^ * ' When they have efiected
the purpose for which they undertook their journey, they
slowly return, weak and exhausted ; and not long after, mil-
lions of the little crabs, which have been hatched on the shore
may be seen making their way up to the mountains. ' '
Insects. The predatory onslaught of the locusts has been
witnessed over all temperate and tropical regions and has quite
a place in history. We read in Exodus : * ' And the locusts
went up over all the land of Egypt and rested on all the coasts
of Egypt : very grievous were they For they
covered the face of the whole earth, so that the land was
darkened ; and they did eat every herb of the land, and all
the fruit of the trees .... and there remained not an}^
green thing in the trees, or in the herbs of the field, through
all the land of Egypt. ' ' Similar descriptions are found in Pliny,
Cauch,* Figuier,^ Swainson,^ Wallace' and others of this ruth-
1 Herrick : The American Lobster, p. 20, Washington, D. C, 1895.
^Heilprin : Distribution of Animals, p. 41.
^Swainson : Habit and Instinct, p. 263.
^ Cauch : Illustrations of Instinct, p. 151.
^Figuier: The Insect World, p. 302.
^ Swainson : loc. cit.
^ Wallace, A. R. : Geographical Distribution of Animals, Vol. I, p.
32, 1876.
28 KLINE :
less reaper of all kinds of foliage whatever. Such expressions
as the following are used in attempting to express their num-
bers : ' * Such was its density that when they flew low one
person could not see another at the distance of twenty paces. ' '
** It totally intercepted the solar light." " Like a shower of
snow, when the flakes are carried obliquely by the wind."
Mr. Barrow describes a migration of locusts of Southern Africa
in 1797. They literally covered an area of nearly 2,000 square
miles. When driven into the sea by a northwest wind they
formed upon the shore for fifty miles, a bank three or four feet
high ; and when the wind was southeast, the stench was so
powerful as to be smelt at the distance of 15 miles. Their
movements are always with the wind, sometimes preceding a
strong wind. The same is true of the well known dragon-fly
"storms" of South America. Their migrations, like many
other insects, never occur at stated times and seasons as those
of higher animals, but depend on various concurrent causes ;
as the humidity of the preceding season, the intensity and
direction of the wind, barometric pressure and food supply.
^ Hudson says : ' ' The cause of the flight is probably dynam-
ical, affecting the insects with a sudden panic and compelling
them to rush away before the approaching tempest. The
mystery is that they should fly from the wind before it reaches
them, and yet travel in the same direction with it." I venture
to suggest that their sudden appearance from five to fifteen
minutes before the wind storm is due to the well known barom-
etric ^ rise preceding wind and thunder storms.
^ On the other hand the migrations of several species of but-
terflies and the nuptial flights of ants obey seasonal and
climatic influences. Butterflies (notably the painted lady) fly
in huge numbers in France, England, Italy, Switzerland and
1 Hudson, W. H. : The Naturalist in La Plata, pp. 130-134.
2 Davis, W. M. : Elementary Meteorology, 1894, p. 250.
^ Cauch cites several instances of sultry, moist, warm weather inter-
rupted occasionally with showers and thunder storms which were also
periods of wave movements of the dragon-fly. **As to the great
multiplication of these insects about the end of May in the present
year, it is by no means mysterious. From the beginning of that
month to the 21st, the weather had been exceedingly rainy ; rivers
and lakes overflowed and spread their inundations over immense
areas of low grounds, whereby myriads of the pupae of the Libellulae,
which under other circumstances, would have remained in deep water
and become the prey of their many enemies, were brought into shal-
low water ; and the hot weather from May 21st to May 29th converted
those shallows into true hot beds. Numerous thunderstorms (at
Weimer there were four) during that week must have greatly encour-
aged their rapid development into perfect insects ; and so those
clouds of winged insects rose almost at once from the temporary
swamps and were immediately obliged to m,igrate in order to satisfy
their appetite as these species are very voracious.'''
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SK. 29
Brazil. In the European countries their flight is from south
to north during the spring and summer months. In Brazil
their movements are from north to south, or from northwest
to southeast. They are usually from the dry arid districts of
the interior towarci the verdant forests of the sea coast during
May — June. ' ' We could mention many facts tending to favor
the opinion that all these butterfly migrations are made toward
these verdant tracts, for the purpose of breeding or rather
of depositing their eggs. ' ' Huber has associated special cli-
matic conditions with the nuptial flights of insects. * * Let ^ us
retire to a meadow on a fine summer's day at a time when they
first make use of their wings. " " Ants^ are now and then
induced to change their residence. Should it be too much in
the shade, too humid, too exposed to the attacks of passen-
gers, or too contiguous to an enemy's quarters ....
they leave it to lay the foundations of another. This I have
denominated migration. " " During these flights impregnation
occurs, and their wings are shed after alighting. ' '
Fish. Their migrations are variously classified : in time ;
they are either regular, i. e., seasonal, or irregular, many species
of the anadromous fishes furnish examples of seasonal migra-
tion, long and irregular absences of the bluefish and chub
mackerel from our shores represent the latter : In direction,
it may be said that they migrate roughly in three planes : (i)
a horizontal plane extending toward or from the equator — such
movements are largely controlled by temperative conditions ;
(2) a plane at right angles to the first, to or from the shores,
caused by the fish seeking a stratum of water of an agreeable
temperature, and also by the stimulus of the spawning season.
Ichthyologists are now of the opinion that movements in this
plane constitute the great majority of their migrations ; (3)
a vertical plane to which Goode ^ has given the name ' ' bathic
migrations. ' ' Such movements are controlled by temperature,
winds, currents and light. It is generally thought that the
causes of these several movements are due to changes in tem-
perature, a desire for suitable places for spawning and to
search for food. Winds, currents, light and density of the
water are also regarded as minor factors.
The most potent of these factors, however, is temperature.
I shall enumerate only a few of the best confirmed observations.
Temperature. The optimum temperature for the menhaden
is 6o°-7o° Fahrenheit, that of the herring is 45°-55° Fahren-
heit. The former is a warm, the latter a cold-water species.
1 Huber : Ants, p. 96.
^Cauch: loc. cit., pp. 148-152.
8 Goode, G. Brown: U. S. Report, Fish and Fisheries, p. 51, 1877.
30 KI.INE :
Accordingly,^ when the menhaden desert the Gulf of Maine
they are replaced by the herring. Cold weather drives the
menhaden to the warm strata (bathic migrations), while it
brings the herring to the surface. The relation between the
distribution of herring and the degree of heat in the water
has an important bearing upon the herring fisheries ; '* since, ^
when the heat of the surface water is above 55 °F. herring are
seldom seen ; as this decreases they make their appearance.
This is so well established that now the herring fishery on the
coast of Scotland is largely regulated by the temperature ob-
served, and when it is decidedly above 55° the herring are not
looked for. ' ' The^ extent of the catch of anchovies along the
shores of Scotland during the fishing season is (at least largely)
dependent on the temperature of the water during* the mid-
summer months of the preceding year.
Search for Food. Baird observes that oceanic currents have
a more or less influence upon the distribution of fishes. This,
however, depends more upon their pursuit of the less inde-
pendent algae, jelly-fish, crustaceans, ascidians, etc., that float
hither and thither with the currents. Prof. Mobius (quoted
by Beard) , in investigating the food of the herring in the Ger-
man seas finds that the abundance of herring in any one season
is in strict proportion to that of the shrimp. A direct and
combined effect of food and temperature upon fish movements
is found in San Francisco Bay. This bay receives the waters
of two very large rivers, which bring down constantl)^ a large
amount of minute animal and vegetable life, much of which finds
a congenial home in the bay, thus furnishing a large and varied
quantity of food for its fish life. The temperature of the bay
is almost constant, varying only a few degrees at any season of
the year. The constancy of these two most important factors
(food and temperature) throughout the year ought to reduce
migrations to a minimum. Observations confirm this supposi-
tion.'* The ofl&cial report reads: "That the conditions are
extremely favorable to the support of aquatic life is demon-
strated in the rapid increase and permanent residence (italics
mine) of the several fine food-fishes introduced from the At-
lantic coast by the government. Some of the fishes thus
acclimatized are naturally anadromous, but in San Francisco
Bay, contrary to their usual migratory habits, they do not
appear to have any desire to spend much, if any, of their ex-
1 Goode, G. Brown : U. S, Fish Com. Report, p. 72, 1877.
2 Baird, Spencer F.: U. S. Fish Com. Report, p. 55, 1886.
^Bottemanne, C. J.: p. 340, Vol. I, Jour. Marine Biolog. Ass'n.
* Wilcox, W. A.: Fisheries of the Pacific Coast, U. S. Fish Com. Re-
port, 1893.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 3 1
istence in the ocean." Another^ example of the sufEciencj^ of
food and limited range of temperature checking the wandering
of fish is furnished by the menhaden that may be found at all
seasons of the year along the coasts of Ga. and S. C. Only a
partial migration occurs in mid- winter, which is now believed
to extend only a short distance seaward.
IVznd, Light, etc. Herr von Freedon (quoted by Goode)
finds that warm winds and clear skies of the North German
seas are coincident with large catches, and vice versa} "A
bright sunny day," says Baird, "will frequently call up forms
that are never seen at any other time, while others, again, only
approach the surface on cloud}^ days, or even in the night, ex-
clusivel3^" Experts testify that along the shores of Scotland
thunder storms of some magnitude and extent affect seriously
the quantity of the catch on the following day. If any are
caught, it is at extreme depths.
Movements Affected by Enemies. Salmon are known to en-
tirely abandon a particular section of sea coast by the onslaughts
of the white whales and porpoises. In^ the fall of '94, owing to
the vast numbers of bluefish and squeteague (deadly enemies
of the menhaden) in the vicinity of Montauk Point, large
schools of menhaden were detained in Gardiner and Neapeague
bays weeks beyond their usual time of departure, and were un-
able to reach the ocean until their enemies had left. About
October 21st the bluefish disappeared, and the departure of the
menhaden rapidly ensued. In fact, so great is the fear of the
menhaden for the bluefish — a veritable corsair — that the for-
mer are known to reverse the course of their annual migra-
tions for several weeks should the latter appear in their front.
Reproductive Instinct. The movements associated with the
reproductive period give the clearest evidence of a migrating
instinct. Moving from an uncomfortable to a comfortable tem-
perature, seeking light of proper intensity, pursuing and cap-
turing prey are activities of the more simple, reflex type — a
reaction to a simple stimulus. True, migrating movements are
in obedience to stimulus, but a stimulus of a very complex sort,
it \s periodic 2cti& persistent leading to the execution of large and
definite tasks, impelling* the species to a particular spot at a
fixed time. They are peformances larger than individual ex-
lU. S. Fish Com. Report, p. 40, 1877.
2Baird, S. F.: loc. cit., p. 57, 1886.
8 Smith, H. M.: Bulletin of U. S. Com., 1895, p. 299.
*The long journeys of catadromous fish give unmistakable evi-
dence of an inherited activity ("primary automatic" by some
authors, "congenital" by others). "This species of fish, represented
by the eel, are born in the sea, ascend the rivers and reach their
maturity in two to four years, and then, when mature, descend to the
ocean to spawn, and possibly never leave it again."
32 KLINE :
perience, and too clear-cut and purposive to be ascribed to im-
mediate sense experience. As sexual maturity approaches
the stimulus, which has its origin in the developing repro-
ductive organs, urges it to leave the ocean and, entering
the mouth of a river, to journey upward, often thousands of
miles, to its source in the mountains. Classical examples of
this sort are the seasonal migrations of the^ salmon,^ tunny ^
herring,^ shad and sturgeon up rivers or into quiet estuaries
for the purpose of spawning.
Birds. The mystery^ and superstition that has hovered
about bird movements are dissolving before sober and careful
observation. The problem is by no means solved, but it has been
brought from the region of folk-lore^ and the mere * ' wonder '
stage ' ' and given a seat alongside other unsolved problems as
anger, hunger, fear, etc. True, the progress for the past
twenty years has been so feeble and unsatisfactory that some
scientists^ discourage theoretical speculations on the subject,
regarding them not only useless, but a positive injury to real
observations of nature. Despite these backward conditions
two groups of theories are set forth. To the first group I have
applied for the want of a better term kinetogenetic, and to the
second group physiogenetic ; meaning by the former such
theories as make food, geological, and the several climatologi-
cal elements the effective causes in originating the instinct, by
the second, the periodic physico-chemical processes that are
coincident with the reproductive and moulting seasons.
Kinetogenetic. Faber (quoted by Homeyer) says : ' ' That
nature divided every individual into two irresistible impulses ;
the wandering impulse (wafiderungstrieb) , and the homesick
impulse (heimwehtrieb)." The bird shows the former when
it leaves the place of its nativity and repairs to a region usually
1 Romanes : Animal Intelligence, p. 294.
2 " At this time the king of fishes (salmon) is in physical perfection,
with few rivals in beauty or strength or fierce energy or indomitable
courage and perseverance ; but its strength, is soon fully taxed in sur-
mounting the obstacles and in fighting the rivals which oppose its
progress, until at last, worn and thin, torn and mangled by battle,
and battered by rocks ? and whirlpools ? (question marks mine) with
its skin in rags, its fins crippled and bleeding, .... nothing
of its kingly nature remains except the indomitable impulse, which
no hardships can quench, still urging it upward, until, if any life
is left, it at last reaches the breeding-ground." W. K. Brooks,
Pop. Sci. Month, Vol. IvII, 1898, pp. 784-85. (Prof. Brooks's article
appeared after this section had been written.)
^Swainson: loc. cit., p. 263.
* Wallace, A. R.: Geographical Distribution of Animals, p. 19, 1876.
^ Newton : Birds, Ency. Britannica.
^Wallace, A. R.: loc. cit., p. 21.
7 Brooks, W. K.: loc. cit., p. 786.
8 Homeyer, B. P.: Die Wanderungen Der Vogel, Leipzig, 1881.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 33
characterized by new foods and climatic elements, the latter by
its return after a season to its birthplace.
Darwin's theory is that the ancestors of migratory animals
were annually driven by cold or want of food, to travel slowly
southwards, .... and that this compulsory travelling
would become an instinctive passion.
Palmen^ undertook in 1876 to verify Darwin's theory from
the study of geological history. He worked out in detail nine
great routes traversed by birds in their passage from Greenland
and northern Eurasia to Africa, southern Asia and the East
Indies. A glance at the routes shows that the presence of
water in the past and present in the form of rivers, lakes, seas
and ocean is the major factor in determining the bends in the
course of their flight. These routes pertain to bog and water birds.
They are quite circuitous, e. <r, , the most direct route for the
crane living on the shores of the Baltic, to its winter home in
northern Africa, is across the Alps and along the east shore of
Italy. Its actual route is up the Rhine to near its source, and
down the Rhone to the sea, and then along the west shore of
Italy and Sicily across to Africa. The most direct route for
the wagtail from Greenland to a warmer climate is along the
eastern coast of North America, instead of this it strikes boldly
out to the S. E., across the Atlantic toward the shores of Nor-
way and the British Isles. Ornithologists are agreed that most
of our eastern birds come to us through Mexico, and in return-
ing to their winter homes in Central America, they travel
through Texas and Mexico, and are unknown in Florida and
the West Indies.^ Others have come to us through Florida,
and in returning to their winter quarters do not pass through
either Texas or Mexico. This is best illustrated by the bobo-
link, an eastern bird, which breeding from New Jersey north-
ward to Nova Scotia, has spread westward until it has reached
Utah and northern Montana. But, and here is the interest-
ing point, these birds of the far west do not follow their neigh-
bors and migrate southward through the Great Basin into
Mexico, but .... retrace their steps [and leave the
United States by the roundabout way of Florida, crossing
thence to Cuba, Jamaica and Yucatan, and wintering south of
the Amazon. ' ' While in some cases the relation of the route
to the conditions for procuring food is clearly evident, in
species like the wagtail, eiderduck and bobolink, no such rela-
tion exist at present. This fact brings to the front the per-
manency of the routes, and fully justifies the inference that
not only the impulse to migrate, but also the direction, is an
inherited tendency.
iPalm^n, J. A.: Die Zugstrassen der Vogel, I^eipzig, 1876.
2 Chapman, F. M.: Bird Ivife, Appleton, 1898.
JOURNAI, — 3
34 KI.INE :
The bobolink of Utah did not learn their route in one genera-
tion ; they, in all probability, inherit the experience of countless
generations, slowly acquired as the species extended its range
westward. But how shall we account for the eiderduck,the wag-
tail and puffin, wholly disregarding land forms in a portion of
their route, and faithfully following them in others. Weis-
mann, Darwin, Palmen and others, believe that these routes
are older than the present topographical conditions, that what
is now sea^ was land in a past geological age, furnishing way
stations of food just as the littoral and fluvial routes do at the
present time.
The study of route migration emphasizes two things, ( i ) that
the migrating impulse is, at least, partly inherited. (2) That
its antiquity dates back to former geological periods. It has
also directed the attention of the movements of single species,
and given hints on the relation of bird movements to food, but
it does not account for the origin of the vast movements.
Allen, ^ Spencer,^ Darwin* and others say in substance, that the
instinct grew out of a series of freezings and thawings of the
glacial epochs, that bird life must have been crowded south-
ward, and the struggle for life thereby greatly intensified. The
less yielding forms may have become extinct ; those less sensi-
tive to climatic changes would seek to extend their range by a
slight removal northward during the middle intervals of sum-
mer, only, however, to be forced back again by the recurrence
of winter. These incipient migrations must have been grad-
ually extended and strengthened as the cold wave receded, and
opened up a wider area within which existence in summer be-
came possible. What was at first a forced migration would
become habitual, and through the heredit}^ of habit give rise to
1 This may be illustrated by the route taken by the crane and eider-
duck from the mouth of the river Rhone to the shores of Africa. In-
stead of striking directly across the sea from the Rhone, they pass
along the west coast of Italy, via Sicily, and from thence to Africa.
It is pretty well established that the Mediterranean Sea was divided
into two halves by an isthmus between Sicily and Africa, which birds
followed in their migration north and south. This strip of land began
to sink gradually, the flat places becoming bogs, and later so many
little straits, the higher places would form a chain of islands, Sicily
being the last surviving link in the chain. These bogs and islands in-
stead of inducing the birds to change their course would, if anything,
rather tend to strengthen their preference for it on account of the
variety and quantity of food furnished by such land forms. So that
by the time of a complete submergence the inherited tendency for
this particular route would have become so strong that it impelled
them to cross this vast sheet of water.
2 Allen, A. J.: Scribner's Month., Vol. XXII, pp. 932-938, 1881 ; also
Bulletin, Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. V, 1880.
^Spencer: Prin. Biology, p. 412.
* Darwin : Origin of Species, p. 342.
MIGRATORY IMPUIvSK. 35
the instinct. Temperature and food are the principal factors in
this theory.
The metabolism of the bird exceeds that of all other verte-
brates. This calls for abundant and nutritious food, and
especially during the breeding season. So vital is this relation
that Wallace is disposed to regard the migrating instinct — " as^
an exaggeration of a habit common to all locomotive animals
of moving about in search of food. ' ' Indeed Hudson^ has found
that abundance of food may change the time of the breeding
season.
^ " In the island of Goree the swallows remain through the
whole year because the warmth of the climate enables them to
find food at all seasons. ' ' Allen* has shown that the distance
traversed by the migratory kind in passing from their summer
to their winter homes is in direct relation to their habits in
respect to food. Yet while the effect of food upon bird life is
direct and vital, it does not explain satisfactorily the periodicity
of the impulse, the regularity to a day with which some birds
return to their nesting places. In fact it does not account in
many cases for the southward movements. The swift^ and
cuckoo both in America and England leave for the South when
nature is in her richest abundance and the temperature fairly
constant. Many birds leave their winter homes in the tropics
in the height of the tropical spring when insect and vegetable
food are daily increasing. They leave a land of plenty for one
from which the snows of winter have barely disappeared, often
coming so early that unseasonable weather forces them to retreat.
This advancing, checking, stopping suddenly or even retreat-
ing temporarily led Prof. Cooke* to study the relation between
meteorology and migration. His extensive data suggests a
correlation between successive ' * bird wave "or " migration
wave ' ' and the ' * warm waves ' ' in the atmosphere. The inves-
tigation was not a complete one and is doubtless subject to
errors and corrections.'^
It seems clear in some cases that temperature exerts a direct
influence upon their movements, but it sheds no light upon those
very definite migrations that occur in equable temperature and
abundance of food, e. g., swift, cuckoo, bobolink. Many East-
1 Wallace, A. R.: loc. cit., p. 21.
2 Hudson, W., H.: loc. cit., p. 63.
3 Ribot, Th.: Heredity, p. 16.
* Allen, A. J.: Scribner's Month., loc. cit.
^ Couch: loc. cit., p. 138.
^ Cooke, W. W.: Report on Bird Migration in the Miss. Valley,
1884-85.
■^ A further attempt has been made to represent graphically the migra-
tion of birds and the composition of the avi-fauna changing with the
season. W. W. Stone, The Auk, Vol. VI, p. 139.
36 KLINE :
ern species move southward not according to temperature
changes, but rather with respect to food changes.^ Wallace
and Chapman contribute evidence showing that temperature
and weather elements in general have very little to do with the
time of their arrival or departure. They consider temperature
effective only as far as it effects food supply. The Pine War-
bler's wide area ( i6 degrees parallel of latitude) of nidification is
a case in point showing that temperature alone is not the factor
that determines bird distribution and migration. Again, if
food and climatic elements were the sole factors in originating
the impulse, the periodic migrations within the tropics would
remain mysterious, because, there, these factors are compara-
tively uniform throughout the year.
Physiogenetic. I think it quite probable, that, if a careful
record of a bird's metabolism were kept throughout the year,
and expressed graphicallj^ it would show among other things
two distinct evelvations, a large one at the approach and during
the reprodutive period, and a smaller one at the moulting sea-
son. Facts are not wanting which lend this supposition some
degree of certainty.
It is well known that both physiological and mental changes
more or less varied, occur in nearly all species from crustaceans
to and including species of anthropoid apes, during the pro-
creative period. Darwin^ in his thesis of sexual selection pre-
sents an immense number of facts on this point, especially on
the changes that occur in secondary sexual characteristics.
These changes reach their climax in birds. The voice, plumage,
comb, wattles and weapons of various sorts are all brought to
their greatest possible perfection. These secondary sexual
changes are paralleled by more fundamental and important
ones in the primary organs before their flight. In^ the case of
sea birds dissection shows an enlargement of the sexual organs
before their flight — those of the male enlarge first. The deposit
of eggs by the trout and salmon soon after their arrival to the
spawning areas is evidence of ovarian activity even before migra-
tion began. The parturition* of the seal occurs within a day
or two after her advent to the rookery. Stork, ^ geese, and
members of the Hirundinae^ family display unusual activity
previous to their flight.
These periodic ' * self-assertions ' ' of the reproductive energy
induce physico-chemical changes throughout the whole organ-
1 Newton, Prof. : See article in Bncy. Britannica.
2 Dawin : The Descent of Man, pp. 270-555.
3 Chapman, F. M. : The Auk, Vol. XI, 1894, pp. 12-17.
* Elliot, H. W. : An Arctic Province, p. 282.
^Swainson : loc. cit.y p. 261.
^ Cauch : loc. cit., p. 130.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 37
ism, thereby ill-adjusting it to external conditions which
before favored and promoted well-being. Influenced by this
new development of organs and energy their very nature seems
altered ; and while the climate they formerly delighted in has
thus grown irritating and irksome, they feel a craving for one
in which the procreative impulse may best be carried into effect.
Similarly, the ' ' moulting season " works physiological changes
of the greatest importance for the individual. If the physico-
chemical changes of the procreative period are in the interests
of the species, the race, those of the moulting season are for
the individual. During this season hens cease to lay, birds quit
singing. Naturalists speak of them as ' ' moping. ' ' Peafowls
hide, courting and love antics cease. Rich^ food and excited
antics are requisite to the moulting process. * * This feverish
condition is accompanied with a higher degree of sensibility,
which renders irksome and aggravating those impressions of
the air which before were pleasing. An appetite for new kinds
of food may be a natural accompaniment of this state of the
body. The moulting process, per se, occurs in migratory birds
as soon as they complete their southward journey. These
considerations point strongly to the conclusion that both the
homeward and outward migrations have a physiological basis,
and that these processes serve as a stimulus to the nervous
mechanism which discharges in terms, so to speak, of migra-
tions. There are also two other motives associated with the
breeding seasons that set in motion almost all forms of life.
The first includes all those activities connoted by ' 'sexual se-
lection, ' ' the second is the search for suitable breeding areas.
Animals, which are at all other times solitary, including most
carnivora, seek the opposite sex of their species during the
rutting season. The lion, tiger and the entire family of Feli-
dae, both wild and domestic, lead solitary, selfish, vegetative
lives, except during the season of love. The sexes of the arctic
reindeer keep apart except at the courting season. The same
is true of the wild turkey, ^ the grouse, and certain vultures of
the U. S. The male chaffinches in Sweden never migrate.
The females go south in September and return to Sweden in
April, where they are fought for to the finish by the males.
Pairing, according to Darwin, is effected by the ''law of bat-
tle." Describing it among birds, he says, * ' when many males
congregate at the same appointed spot and fight together, as in
the case of grouse and various other birds, they are generally
attended by the females which afterwards pair with the victo-
rious combatants. ' ' The point urged here is that the desire
iBrehm, Dr. A. E.: Bird Life, p. 372.
^Darwin : Descent of Man, p. 416, etc.
38 KI.INE :
for a mate or mates brings together periodically great aggre-
gations of life, that otherwise would have met perhaps by
chance. May not the desire for a mate and the repeated bodily
experiences excited in what was at first accidental meetings
and pairings have become permanently associated, so that the
desire for a mate is immediately followed by a journey for one,
or to the ''breeding ground?"
The search for suitable breeding areas, it appears, is prompted
by two causes : first, suitable food and shelter for the young ;
second, the well known desire that so many animals have for
seclusion during the reproductive period. In fact nearly every
species of the great backboned series will seek at the approach
of this season some retired part of their haunts or range in
which to bring forth their young. Probably the second desire
grew out of the first, especially out of the necessity for shelter
for nest, eggs and helpless young.
The female of the reindeer^ of Norway, of the common stag^,
of the long-tailed deer of the British Isles, of several species of
^monkey"* isolates herself from her congeners and other forms
of life for a fortnight or more during parturition. The annuaP
return of the seal to her "rookery," at the breeding season is
absolutely necessary for the perpetuation of the species. The
young seal from the moment of birth to a month or six weeks
is utterly unable to swim. Especially is it necessary that birds
should select safe breeding grounds, nests, eggs and birdlings
are fragile, helpless objects, an easy and tempting prey to ene-
mies. There is no wonder to be attached, then, to the fact that
birds above all other creatures are most circumspect* about the
location of their breeding sites.
In England the chafiinches and a host of other birds spend
the winter in the open country but at the approach of spring
come to the gardens, hedgerows and fruit trees because these
places offer better security for nesting than the wood or heath.
The starling spreads itself over the country of Cornwall in the
winter and in the spring immense flocks desert their food area,
though only to proceed to the distance of a few miles, for the
sake of a place in which to hide their nests. Chapman men-
tions several species of tropical sea birds that resort each year
to some rocky islet, " rookery," where they may nest in saifety.
1 Darwin : The Descent of Man, p. 503.
2 Swainson : loc. cit., p. 275.
^Hartman: Anthropoid Apes, pp. 247-48.
''Heape, W.: Philo. Trans., Parti, p. 413, 1894.
5 Elliot, H. W.: loc. cit., p. 287.
^ It is not to be understood that birds are conscious of the superior
advantages of these sites any more than they are conscious of the fit-
ness of the materials (grasses, hair, sticks or mud) used in nest build-
ing.
MIGRATORY IMPUIySB. 39
These movements are usually regarded as non-migratory, and
yet the object is the same, and the migration as regular as that
which prompts a wagtail or a puffin to wing its way from the
Mediterranean to the arctic regions.
^Brehmsays: "The act of migration stands in a certain
way connected with the business of breeding and moult."
^ Wallace has emphasized the necessity of separating the sub-
sistence and breeding areas making food and safety during the
nesting period the causal elements or initiative factors.
These two authors, taken together, correlate the reproduc-
tive and moulting processes and the instinct for seclusion with
that of migration. To cover the facts of periodicity, of all real
migrations, the immense distance, and direction of some of the*
routes, I should restate and add to the above theories in some-
what this fashion : The incipient factors in originating the
migrating instinct are the COINCIDENCES of the physico-chemical
changes and the instinctive desire for seclusion and for suitable
breeding areas with the periodicity of the seasojis. If it had hap-
pened that secluded and suitable pairing and breeding grounds
had always been selected in an east and west line from their
area of ' ' subsistence, " it is probable that the powerful instinct as
we know it, would never have originated, because the climatic
and food elements could never have co-operated with the pro-
creative factors ; on the other hand it appears as equally
improbable that the instinct should have originated in the
absence of the desire for seclusion or suitable breeding grounds
or the ever recurring physiological changes which mark the
annual cycle of bird life.^
This theory explains a number of facts connected with bird
migration that are otherwise mysterious.
Males of many species precede the females in the northward
journey ; this correlates with the male sexual organs develop-
ing first. Birds that do not sexually mature the first year in
the feeding area either migrate only a small portion of the way
or not all. Barren birds of a migratory species remain south
all their lives, only at times do they make a portion of the
journey — doubtless due to imitation and the social instinct.
1 Brehm, Dr. A. E. : loc. cit., p. 368.
2 Wallace, A. R. : Nature, Vol. X, 1874, p. 459.
3 Chapman says — in the Auk, Vol. XI, 1894 — "It is not improbable
that the period of reproduction may have been coincident with the
return of the warmer part of the year and in addition to the desire for
seclusion and the pressure exerted by the crowded conditions of exis-
tence, which then prevailed ("during glacial epoch), was potent in
inducing birds to seek breeding grounds in the north during the
summer. The only criticism offered against this theory is the time
(glacial period) and the place (northern zones) it offers for the origin
of the instinct. Arboreal tropical life is now believed by naturalists
to be the natal home of birds.
40 KLINE :
The arrival to the breeding ground is much more regular and
uniform than their departure, the latter is usually governed by
the success of breeding. They come burdened with the great
task of procreation which gives instinctive purpose and pre-
cision to their movements, they leave in obedience to vegetative
functions. The theory accounts for their leaving breeding or
feeding area when to all appearances temperature and food are
ideal.
lyOWER Mammals. Omitting the voluminous literature on
this topic I shall mention only briefly the more significant facts.
Movements to which the term migration is applicable are
seen in ten or twelve species of rodents, certain wolves and
bears, several species of rengulate and a few primates.
Classical examples of the instinct among rodents are the
military-like advances of the squirrel, the hare and notably
those of the lemming.^ The movements begin in the spring
or fall and may continue during severe weather. The object is
apparently to enlarge their food area which is made necessary
by an unusual multiplication ^ of the species and an unfavor-
able food season.* "Wolves^ everywhere descend from the
mountains to the lowlands in severe weather, and bears not
infrequently migrate in great numbers to escape the rigors of
an extreme winter.
Porcupines in Persia migrate north and vsouth with the
seasonal changes of temperature.
Reindeer and antelope, especially the latter, migrate in some
countries as regularly as the fishes and birds, — the females of
some species going farther north than the males.
Food, enemies and change of seasons influence the move-
ments of monkeys.
On the whole it appears that, although the movements of
the lower mammals are due to the same causes that control
animals moving in air or in water, yet they are less precise,
definite and periodical. True, unmistakable traces of the
instinct are present, manifesting itself in flashes, as it were,
sometimes impelling the creatures to distruction, e. g., mouse
and lemming.
Domestic Animals.^
For the sake of completeness, but more particularly for em-
phasizing certain observations made in the present section and
1 Romanes : Mental Evolution in Animals, p. 282.
^Swainson : loc. cit., p. 250.
3 Heilprin : Distribution of Animals, p. 40.
* Wallace, A. R. : loc. cit., p, 18.
^The material presented here is in answer to Rubric XIII of the
syllabus. Two hundred and fifty cases were received on ducks, tur-
keys, chickens, cats, sheep, cows, horses, etc.
Doubtless they will seem very commonplace, so they are, but to
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 4I
by way of introductory to the love of home, I treat here
the migrating and homing phenomena of domestic animals.
Fowi,S. I. "I have observed that animals, such as cats, dogs, hens,
hare, cows and horses are attracted to home life, while fish, ducks,
turkeys and guineas are not — they like to wander."
2. ** Our chickens often wander but are sure to return before night
fall, while our turkeys always wander away, and sometimes they
stay."
3. " Have known hens and turkeys to stay away during the day
and lay their eggs in the fields or woods and come home at night."
4. " A neighbor had a hen that would come to our place to roost
but always went home to lay.''''
5. "When we kept turkeys they used to wander from home;
especially to build nests."
6. '' When a hen ' stole her nest,' we found it hard to locate it,
because the hen would not go to it when any one was looking."
7. ** Have known Mrs. C. to watch her turkeys for two hours at a
time to find where they laid. She was often compelled to follow
them over a mile away into some underbrush."
The writer has performed the very monotonous juvenile
task of following the wanderings of a turkey-hen until she saw
fit "to take ' ' her nest. If sTie detected my watching, her
course was most often turned leisurely in the opposite direction,
and she would postpone going on for several hours ; some-
times, if watched too closely, she would not visit the nest that
day. Usually when she "made up her mind" to go, she
struck a bee-line for the nest as fast as she could run.
8. ** Had given up one of my hens as stolen or killed, when to my
surprise one day she entered the yard and presented me a dozen little
chicks in a very ' fussy fashion.' "
9. *' Have a number of times missed hens and gave them up for
lost, but after some time they would come up with a few little
chicks."
10. " We gave up keeping turkeys because it was impossible to
keep them at home."
11. ** It was very hard to keep ducks on the farm, although we had
a brook and pond ; they were forever gone, — would wander a mile or
two below the house staying two or three days, when back they would
come — as soon as fed and rested a day, away they would go again."
12. "... . Sold a couple of ducks to a neighbor three miles
away. About a week after a tremendous noise in the yard awoke the
household. It proved to be the quacking and gabbling of the ducks.
Never before had I seen an animal make so great a display of
pleasure."
13. "... Drove my young chicks over a week old at evening into
a new coop, but left the door open until late, as it was a very warm night.
When I returned to shut the door of the new coop, they had all left.
the writer therein lies their value. The naive innocence, simple-
mindedness and freshness with which they are told precludes all
suspicion that their observations were influenced by preconceived
theories and biological conceptions as to the deeper significance of
what they saw.
42 KLINE :
Going to the old one I found them all cuddled in a heap beside the
closed door." ^
Cats. 14. *' My cat goes away frequently, stays three or four days
perhaps — always glad to see us on his return."
15. " Our cat goes off for two or three days, and then returns. He
is treated kindly and well fed, but just roams off, we can expect him
within a week."
16. " . . . This cat used to go away every month, and stay
about a week, then come back. Its journeys were regular."
17. " . . . Owned a cat that would stay in the woods for three
months at a time, she would then return home with four or five kit-
tens."
18. " Had a cat that would take care of her little kittens in an old
basket at the next door neighbor's. She brought her kittens over
home three times a day to be fed."
19. " When the little kitten of our old cat got big enough to run
around we used to play with it a great deal. One day it disappeared.
Thorough searching proved in vain. The old cat was around every
day, but no kitten. One day the old cat was spied going across the
field. I followed. She led me across two large fields to a patch of
oats. Went to the edge of them and called. Out came that little
kitten as fat as a butter ball. We think the mother hid it because we
fondled it too much."
The last six cases are typical of 36 that illustrate a role by
the procreative factor in wandering.
20. " Have observed that cats had much rather have one place in
which to sleep."
21. ''Cats will seldom leave permanently their old home, even
after the family has moved away."
22. " When we moved into our new house we left behind a large
cat that had been in the family for several years. My father was very
fond of the cat. He would go down to the old house with food for the
cat, but he would not eat. He howled day and night, but whenever any
of us went down to the old place he would jump on us, roll over and
purr, and act wildly glad. My father could not bear the idea of its
grieving and starving itself to death, so the cat was brought to the
new home. He was crazy with joy. He ran up and down stairs, on
top of the furniture, rubbed against and smelt of everything, climbed
up on us, walking right up our skirts into our arms, remaining but a
moment, then down again, and following us about like a dog. After
awhile he settled down and went to sleep."
Fifty cases like the last five were received on the home instinct
of the cat.
Dogs. The following cases are typical of the wandering
and homing instincts of dogs :
23. "Our dog went back to his old home, three miles distant,
every Saturday night, and returned every Monday morning regu-
larly."
24. " Owned a dog that was very fond of going off on long journeys
by himself. Sometimes he would be gone two or three days, and
would come home worn out and in every way ready for rest. After
he had stayed home several days he would be ready to start out again."
1 1 have before me numerous observations on the homing of pigeons,
but such facts are every-day occurrences, as observations and cur-
rent literature abundantly testify. The cases are therefore omitted.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 43
25. * * Had a dog that would travel a week, then stay at home a week,
until finally he disappeared."
26. " Have a dog that persists in running away. Is kept tied, will
leave home as soon as untied to go to where there is a dog. He will
not go away during the winter."
27. " Know a dog that spends a great part of his time at a neigh-
bor's, although his master is good to him."
28. " Dogs will often go off on journeys lasting two or three days
or longer, but will return after that time."
29. ** Brother bought a hound from an old man living some miles
from our home. The dog returned next day. We went after him a
number of times. Even after the old man died the dog would make
trips to his old home."
30. *'My parents owned a fine setter. They sent him to a farm
forty miles away, to be trained. On taking him from the wagon
when the farmer reached home, he got away and came home. He
ran right up stairs into a room where my mother lay sick, putting his
forefeet on her bed He was not to be driven from her bed-
side that night."
31. "A member of my family was a witness to the following inci-
dent : A farmer living near North Bend on the Ohio, transported his
farm products on a flatboat down to Vicksburg. On one of these
trips he took a highly prized dog. At the landing place at Vicksburg
the dog disappeared. About a month after the owner had returned
the dog came home poor and half-starved. He had travelled hun-
dreds of miles, swam rivers, threaded forests, forded swamps and
faced starvation to return to his home."
Sheep. 32. " Flock of sheep in the spring have started about the
usual time for the range where the older ones of the flock had pas-
tured for two or three years. The pastures were on high hills, and
the warmth and dampness of spring may have produced a degree of
discomfort that reminded the sheep of the fresh pastures, breezes
and hillside springs, where, shorn of their fleeces, they had enjoyed
previous summers."
Cows. 33. "A man in our neighborhood has a cow that runs
away from home. She will be gone for a day or more, and then will
come back again."
34. "Our cow had spells of going away every month last sum-
mer."
35. ** Mr. C. had a cow that would leave home every chance she
could get, and would go into the country. Sometimes found ten miles
away from home."
36. " A cow that will make her escape from pasture and return
home, at a distance of several miles, at every opportunity."
37. "A herd of young cattle belonging to my grandfather escaped
from a wild pasture about the last of September, and came home, a
distance of twelve miles."
38. " Sold a cow to a man living about twenty-five miles away over
rough hills and streams. She came back in a few days and stood by
the gate until we let her in. She was again taken to her owner, but
soon returned. It was very cold weather. We drove her away and
made her stay outside of shelter, but without avail. Fearing she
would die of hunger and cold we bought her back."
Horses. 39. " Horses always come toward home faster. Have
known very few to wander away from home."
40. '* Horses become attached to home if it is one in which they
are treated kindly. Know a horse raised and owned by one man until
the horse was quite old. He was then sold to a person who kept
44 KI.INE :
him, not far from his former home, but the horse was so homesick
that he refused food and water, and would immediately start for home
on being released. He was not allowed to return to his old home
and consequently died of homesickness."
41. "Have known dogs, horses and cows, to suffer so intensely
from evident homesickness, and so little food did they eat that great
weakness and emaciation resulted. The diagnosis was confirmed by
allowing such animals to be taken to their homes, when appetite and
health promptly returned."
42. " Horses and cows will often wander in search of more or bet-
ter food, but will soon return."
These cases indicate sufficiently the causal efficacy of food
(case 42), temperature and seasons (32), in impelling domesti-
cate creatures to wander ; and likewise emphasize strongly
that the procreative processes ill-adjust periodically, the organ-
ism to its home, and further, that along with these physiologi-
cal changes are co-operating the instinctive desires for pairing
and seclusion during the periods of nest-building, laying
(cases 4, 5 and 6, etc.), parturition. In some cases the whole
periods of gestation is one of seclusion (case 17). Cats, dogs,
cows, and even horses will often hide their young (case 19),
especially if one fondles or pays them considerable attention in
any way. The many advantages derived by seclusion from
members of their own and those of other species during this whole
period are self-evident. A hen will lay in the woods, and
come home to roost and feed. A cat will keep her kittens in a
basket at the next neighbor's barn, but brings them home
three times a day for meals, a cow nurses and conceals her
calf in a thick copse, but pastures in the open field. Thus
domestic animals, like the birds, often make an efifort to sep-
arate the reproductive from the vegetative areas even during
and after the period of gestation.
The periods of heat in the cat, dog and cow, are coincident
with their leaving home. Doubtless the horse would prove no
exception if he were allowed equal freedom. It appears that
the periodical physiological changes of the sexual organs com-
pletely overpower whatever adjustment the organism may have
effected on a vegetative basis, and impels it to seek forces that
will restore its equilibrium. Good food, comfortable quarters
and kind treatment (case 27) are no longer attractive. The
male of both the feline and canine races leave their comforta-
ble vegetative quarters to become the paramour of a female of
their respective species, and this too in the face of repeated bit-
ter experiences, strength challenged on every hand, deadly
combats waged with other male suitors, many a kick and cuflf
delivered by man, and of privations and hunger continually
besetting them.
The appreciation and love for home in domestic animals is
wide spread and oftentimes very intense and pathetically ex-
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 45
pressed. A new cot, a new kennel, a new manger of strange
smells and sights, a new master with new and strange methods
of treatment produce at times acute cases of nostalgia in dogs,
cats and horses.
The observations of this section indicate that temperature is
the chief cause in the majority of fish movements, likewise of
lobster and a few mammals, as squirrels, monkeys and porcu-
pines. In so far as it affects the food supply it may be re-
garded as an indirect cause among all species. Food and
atmospheric pressure seem to be the dominant forces among
many insects, e. g. , locusts, grasshoppers, etc. The procrea-
tive instinct is operative in all the species considered save the
lobster, and probably the locust. With certain land crabs,
butterflies, fish and eels, all birds, many rodents and the wan-
dering of all domestic animals, the procreative instinct, I am
persuaded, is paramount.
No one factor acting alone is responsible for the instinct.
It is the product of a nexus of forces co-operating and supple-
menting each other. But when the relative intensities of the
many factors are considered, together with the circumstances
and the order in which they operate, it appears that the pro-
creative instinct is the initiative, the primal factor, and that
cosmic forces give precision, definiteness, and periodicity to its
expression.
Section B.
Migrations of Primitive Man. The present section is con-
cerned with the wanderings of primitive man, to the end of
exposing in rough outline the customs, habits and characters
of a migrating people. The conception of the migrating
instinct thus seen in the race may improve our position for
interpreting the instinct as expressed by the individual.
Ethnologists,^ generally, subscribe to the assumption that
man must have begun his career on some fertile island^ or
region in the tropics.^ While here his food consisted of the
fruits and herbs of the forest. He was a frugiferous animal.
Increase in his numbers soon forced him to migrate into regions
less secure and blessed with a less genial climate. These forced
movements compelled him to face a host of new conditions, e.g.,
new climate, new food and a new array of enemies. As he
migrated farther and farther away from the tropics the food
supply came gradually to be seasonal instead of perennial. To
secure food during the interim of the fruit bearing season he
drew on the lakes and rivers for fish — his first artificial food.
1 Morgan, l/cwis H. : Ancient Societ)^ p. 20.
2 Ivyell, Sir Charles : Antiquity of Man, p. 433.
^Mason, O.T. : Migration and the Food Quest. The Amer. An-
thropologist, Vol. II, No. 3, 1894.
46 KI.INE :
They " were universal in distribution, unlimited in supply and
the only kind of food at all times attainable.
It is quite probable, too, that after coming within range of
seasonal changes his dependence upon stream and forest for
food compelled him to migrate back and forth to some extent
with the seasons."
^Brinton says : ''These periodical journeys extend hundreds
of miles and embrace the whole tribe. This must also have
been the case with primeval man when he occupied the world
in paleolithic times. His home was along the shores of seas
and the banks of streams. Up and down these natural high-
ways he pursued his wanderings until he had extended his
roamings over most of the habitable land." ^Such is the
case among modern primitive peoples who control as yet but
few of the forces of nature.^ While fish food rendered man
to some extent independent of climate and locality he was
forced to limit his excursions along sea shores and river courses
until he had acquired sufficient skill with bow and arrow to
kill his prey at a distance. Skill with these implements per-
mitted distant excursions into the forest ; fruit and fishing
areas might now be deserted at a less risk of perishing from
hunger. The chase became the highest of arts, the strongest
incentive to wandering in all probability that man has ever
received.
These three stages, the frugivorous^ fishing and hunting
furnished admirable conditions for the origin and growth of the
wanderlust spirit. Their periods were long and the stimulus
intense. There is much evidence from geology and paleon-
tology showing that these periods may count their years by
tens of thousands, that the transition from the frugivorous man
to the nomad is many times longer than from the dawn of
history to modern times. If psychic evolution has at all
paralleled structural in point of time, there are strong reasons
for believing that man was merely a fruit gatherer longer than
a fisherman, a fisherman longer than a hunter, a hunter longer
than a nomad and the latter longer than a farmer and home-
maker in the modern sense.
1 Brinton, G. D. : loc. cit., p. 74.
2 Mason sets forth the view that America was accidently settled by
some remote ancestors of the red man who left their home in the Bast
Indies in quest of food and crept slowly but surely along the coasts of
China, Japan and Aleutian shores until they reached the shores of
Western North America. Ivikewise Otto Sittig (Smithsonian Report
1895, pp. 519-35) says that the islands of the Pacific were peopled by
compulsory migrations. The frail crafts of the natives of the Malayan
Archipelago while in search of fish and other food were accidentally
caught by contrary wind and current and carried to more distant
islands.
3McGee, J. W. : The Amer. Anthro., Vol. VIII, No. 4. 1895.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE;. 47
Victor Hehn says : ' ' We cannot sufficiently estimate the
slowness and difficulty of the transition from a wandering hun-
ter's life to the taming and tending of cattle, nor of that from
nomadic freedom to a settled domicile. Necessity must have
been very pressing before the shepherd could resolve to dig up
his pasture land, to sow grain, to wait for its growing . . .
. and so tie himself down to one spot like a prisoner and a
slave In the same way the hunter felt cattle
breeding a kind of slavery. Armed with bow and arrow . .
. . he freely roamed the woods If he had
the luck to kill a wild bull, he could feast for days." Hunt-
ing must have become unprofitable, indeed, before the less skill-
ful, hampering and humdrum arrangements of cattle tending
were resorted to as a means of support.
Among the many factors arguing that man has and is pass-
ing through these several stages are those represented (i) in the
primitive ways of the Tasmanian, Bushmen, many Indian
tribes, Gypsies, Bedouin, and nations of the Mongoloid type ;
(2) by a large class of individuals in civilized society that
neglect home life and throw off responsibility at every angle to
become a planomaniac, a globe trotter, a Thoreau, a Robinson
Crusoe, or a Captain Kidd ; (3) by the atavistic activities of
childhood, e. g., fondness for water, ^ tree climbing, hunting
trading and bartering, etc.
To get a composite view of the planomaniacal ^ type I quote
from one hundred and forty- four cases ^ bearing on that sort of
an individual.
I- ^'1 35* ** I^eaves home nearly every day immediately after
breakfast to go visiting — is discontented and unhappy when compelled
to stay at home."
2. F., 48. '*On the go from morning till night — sometimes only
running to see her nearest neighbor, sometimes going away on the
cars — she keeps this up four or five months at a time, then suddenly
stops and will not leave her yard for several weeks, nor does she care
to receive company during her stay-at-home spells."
3. F. " Married, does not stay at home more than two hours dur-
ing the day — spends her time in running about. She is young and
does not have very much to do, perhaps she gets lonesome."
4. F. ** Seems restless, is out calling every day — can't stay at
home long at a time, although home and home-life is attractive and
pleasant."
5. F., 50. ** Married, educated, raised a family who are ignorant
through neglect. Kind hearted, picks up and visits for a week, or
will wait on the sick for weeks at the neglect of her home duties."
6. F., 30. "Good natured, smart, good cook and yet she allows
her little girls to come home from school and prepare their own din-
ners. She leaves often after breakfast and does not return till bed
time. She does not seem to do it to get rid of work, as often she will
1 Truancy, Ped. Sent., Vol. V, No. 3, pp. 396-419.
2 Rubric VIII of Syllabus.
^Ninety-five per cent, reported are females.
48 KI<INK :
be helping some one to do just what she has left undone at home."
(Many cases of this kind.)
7. F. " Married, quick and active, will take one child in her arms
and have the others following after. Household duties do not worry
her in the least. She says life is too short to waste it in the house."
8. F., 30. ** Has a fixed day to visit each of her friends every week
— can't be found at home more than two days in the week."
9. M., 52. "A comfortable home, good clothes and food, but will
not stay at home. Always finds some news to carry from one place to
another, and is always ready to eat.^^
10. F. "Has a large family, always on the go in all sorts of
weather, will keep her children out of school to stay with the little
ones. Her calls are of a gossiping-seeking sort." (Five cases of this
nature.)
11. F., 50. *'Not interested in the duties of home, neglects them
to go calling, cannot bear to be alone."
12. F. "So fond of calling that she will bring her cooking to our
house. There is no special reason for her doing so."
13- ^-y 50- '* Married, four children, always on the street, or
shopping, will visit the same store several times a day."
14. F., 25. "Unmarried, never satisfied at home, has no taste for
reading or domestic life. Ivoves to talk and carry news."
15. F. " Always making calls. I think it is to find out other
people's business. Is the first to call on a new neighbor."
16. F., 40. "Always on the street, delights in gathering and
redistributing news." (Cases like the last three are most numerous.)
17. M., 48. " Neglects his family and farm to talk with neighbors,
is fond of trading horses, etc., visits all public gatherings."
18. M., 56. "Had a good farm and well stocked, suddenly
abandoned it to his family, and went calling from neighbor to neighbor.
Fond of children, well read, would work hard for a neighbor, but
would never receive any pay — would only occasionally do a hard
day's work at home."
19. F. "A member of every club and society in which she can gain
a foothold, dips into everything, has done a little of everything, fond
of doing committee work."
20. F., 30. "Neglects home to visit and be with other people.
Good to sick and needy, will do menial work away from home that
she will not do at home. Is fond of going to weddings, funerals, par-
ties, etc."
21. F., 30. "Is noted for going to funerals and public gatherings
of all sorts."
22. F., 40. "Always looking after the needy and sick, a great
church goer, attended all week and Sunday meetings, and all funerals
that she possibly could. Her friends once saw her going to the funeral
of a noted pugilist, though they could not understand how she could
possibly be interested in the deceased."
The funeral and club goers form somewhat a separate group,
yet illustrate the lack of home interests and aversion to static
conditions.
24. M., 22. " Married, seldom at home, fond of horse trading."
^The impotency of the home spirit, the desire to lead a semi-
roving life and the attendant psychoses of such a people are
1 Rubric VI of Syllabus. 217 cases reported, 23% of which were
forced to move because of a failure to pay rent.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SK. 49
further illustrated by people who move frequently. The fol-
lowing are instances of families who move often for some other
cause than failure to pay house rent.
25. "A lady and her daughter spend much of their time looking
for a new boarding place. They are rich and hard to please."
26. "A farmer, lost a good farm by bad management, has tried sev-
eral occupations, is discontented, moves every year to a new farm,"
27. " M. moves about every two years, always to a different part of
the same town. He is always changing his occupation."
28. " Husband indolent with little business ability, wife is ignorant
and slovenly, move twice a year. It has come to be a habit."
29. " This family is never contented, think if they could be in some
other place all would be well. Within four years they have moved
seven or eight times."
30. '* This family moves every spring and fall. The man has very
poor calculation and generally thinks that if only he were somewhere
else he might do great things."
31. " This family moves to avoid cleaning house. They endeavor
to move into one already cleaned."
32. " This farmer has moved every year for 28 years, moved every
spring thinking he would get a better farm."
34. "A lady has moved four times in five years, — although she owns
several houses, she lives in a rented one. She is a very restless per-
son."
35. ** This family moving into a new place think it delightful and
can't praise it enough. They soon grow dissatisfied and move again.
They move back and forth from city to country. They are always in
an unsettled frame of mind and think they can do better somewhere
else:'
36. " Bach time this family moves, they think they are getting a
better place. They move every tw^o or three months. They have
moved from a house and then back to it again in a few months."
37. "I know many families who move frequently. They always
think the new tenement, which may be no better, has some advantage.
They do not often get less rent, neither do they leave unpaid rent be-
hind ; sometimes they do not even change landlords, nor do they go
beyond a radius of a mile for years."
38. " Have known this family for twenty years. They move on the
average every six months. They have always lived in the same city,
pay their rent — are respectable people. Each time they move they
paint, varnish, and paper throughout, build new cupboards and begin
cultivating grass and flowers, only to be left in a few months for an-
other neighborhood.
39. " Family of four, all well educated, are continually moving
about, from one part of the city to another ; they will have a very
nice home for about a year, then sell all their furniture and begin
boarding. After a short time they become dissatisfied, buy new furni-
ture and go to housekeeping again."
40. " This family is not content to remain long in any one place,
grow tired of house and surroundings. They are nice people, much
respected."
41. *• This family moves about because they never like their neigh-
bors. They usually move two or three times every year."
42. "I know a man with a family of nine, moves from two to five
times a year. He is a horse jockey, works but little, loafs around the
post office, stores and other places." ( Bight casesof this character.)
43. "They move about every four months, are regarded as shift-
JOURNAI, — 4
50 Ki,iNE :
less, unstable in character, contented in one place as long as there is
novelty, but soon become discontented and move." (This '* shiftless "
class forms i8 % of the number who pay their rent.)
44. " My grandfather would never stay in one house more than six
months. He said he got tired of seeing the same things. They say
he was just the same when a boy, was always changing his room and
rearranging things. As a young man he was always changing his
boarding place."
The planomaniac flees from domestic cares, has no interests
for modern civilized ways, and will not fuse with them. He
could not, if he would, for he belongs ( using geological ana-
logues) to a different and earlier formation. We should not
wonder at his dread of solitude ( cases 3, 4, 5, 11), at his being
lonely in the midst of modern environment. To such his mind
is vacant, hence his pursuit for diversion, and search for his
kind. Zimmerman ^ says * ' Vacant souls are always burden-
some to their possessor ; and it is the weight of this burden
that impels them incessantly in the pursuits of dissipation for
relief." How primitive and semi-roving are these traits:
"always ready ^ to eat" ( case 9 ), desire to barter* ( cases 17,
24), working^ by fits and starts" (case 18), "shiftless"
cases ( cases 28, 42, 43 ), "slovenly ^ and unkempt in person,"
indifferent to and with seeming inability to fight dirt.^
It appears, too, that the desire to rove is not abated with
advancing age, not even with the increase of domestic and
business cares. The cases cited indicate that there are persons
in the midst of all degrees of intelligence and culture that mini-
mize the value of a permanent home, that persist with seem-
ing delight in a roving and nomadic life. Their lives are de-
voted in searching for the new, getting acquainted with the
unfamiliar, gathering and distributing news, and dipping into
new enterprises. They are possessed by a consuming curi-
osity, frequently of the idle sort.
The concomitancy of the roving and curiosity instincts in the
same individual suggests a common origin, if not a causal rela-
tion. The conclusions'^ of naturalists^ and genetic psychologists®
are to the effect that curiosity arose from the hunger and fear
1 Zimmerman: Solitude, p. 12.
2 "These Indians are disposed to gluttonize in idleness, when oppor-
tunity arises, when their power for consuming is no less striking than
their power of abstaining. This characteristic of the tribe is pos-
sessed by other primitive peoples." W. J. McGee, Amer. Anthro.
Vol. VIII, No. 4, 1895.
8 The Bedouins possessed this trait in a high degree. See Ency. Brit
* Ellis Havelock : The Criminal, p. loi.
^Lubbock, Sir John : Prehistoric Times, p. 432.
^Bancroft, H. H. : Native Races.
'Darwin : The Descent of Man, p. 71.
^Romanes: Animal Intelligence, p. 279.
^ James: Psychology, Vol II, p. 429.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE. 5 1
instincts. The motives for animals to investigate the unfamil-
iar, it would seem, are twofold, (i) to see whether or not the
object in question is harmful, (2) to see whether or not it is
palatable. Likewise the passions for excessive call making,
gadding about, ' ' the first to call on a new neighbor, ' ' continual
shopping ( but rarely purchasing) , sampling and ' ' sizing up ' '
the material and mental furniture of a newcomer may have
originated out of the necessity, common to all organisms, to
know what is harmful and friendly, nourishing and distasteful
in their milieu.
Interwoven with this curiosity plexus of motives, sometimes
separated from them, is a longing for the unexpected, moving
with the hope, Micawber-like, * ' That something may turn
up," imagining that the other side of the road is always the
better. They have an insatiable desire for conjuring with that
unknown factor that lurks in the untried, to commit their for-
tunes to the play of the mysterious and unconscious forces of the
universe which to so many lend an irresistible charm to a new
game, new neighbors, a new house, a new farm, a new posi-
tion, a new enterprise. In gambling it is the element of chance,
in trading and barter it is termed luck. Hence it is that we
find so many of these people doing a shiftless, bartering and
gambling business where the conditions of chance and luck
have their fullest swing. In all probability these conditions
were at their best during the life of the primitive hunter and
trapper. Here the degree of probability that labor will be
proportionately rewarded is at a minimum. The ratio of re-
ward to labor becomes so infinitely small that he comes to
regard his rewards and successes due to chance rather than
personal effort. One should not wonder, then, at barbarous
and semi-civilized people persistently and continually creating
conditions in which chance is at a maximum. Trapping, hunt-
ing and fishing are pursuits that reward more by chance than
deliberate effort or certainty. Daily bread is the reward oione
lucky arrow, spear, trap or net out of a hundred of such instru-
ments and not by the sweat of the brow. The psychology of
longing to be in some other place, for new conditions, for spec-
ulating, for gambling, is a reassertion of the old associations
between chance and reward formed when the welfare of man
was largely dependent on the mysterious forces of chance.^
Probably the gypsy is the best type of a wandering people
^The origin of many forms of gambling, and games of chance and
lot as opposed to skill among the Chinese, Koreans, North American
Indians and many other primitive tribes, lends considerable support
to this theory, in that they all can be traced back to throwing the ar-
row, or tipped and feathered bamboo reeds as well as species of dice.
. . . See Stewart Culin : Korean Games.
52 KLINE :
who have kept intact the customs and habits that once uni-
versally prevailed. The gypsy ^ that we know is quite differ-
ent from those of other countries in their manner of getting a
living. In Egypt they practice the art of serpent charming and
conjuring ; in France and Spain the girls sit as professional
models ; in England we meet Gypsy Methodist preachers, actors,
quack doctors, chimney sweeps, carpenters, factory hands. In
every land the men are workers in metals, musicians and horse-
jockeys ; are never scientists, barristers, or men of large affairs.
In this country they travel about over the country in light-
running canvass covered wagons, laden with their goods
and chattels. They subsist by fortune-telling, horse-jockey-
ing, tinkering, sometimes by selling small articles, trading,
gambling, by theft and deception. They are dirty ^ both in
person and cooking, lazy, fond of drinking and smoking.
They are charmed by gaudy dress and jewelled ornaments. In
no country have they ever been known to farm. A few own land
in this country, but they seldom occupy it, preferring the
wagon and highway instead. They keep both dogs and
horses, being very fond of the latter. They have deep emo-
tions, enjoy life, are highly imaginative, and extremely fond
of music.
The gait of the gypsy is not jerky, angular, and individual,
but rhythmical, racial, swaying from side to side, generating,
roughly, from the hips up, sections of an inverted cone. The
negro has a similar gait. This animal-like motion is due to
the dominance of the fundamental muscles in walking as op-
posed to the finer, accessory muscles that stamp individuality
upon the Caucasian gait. Prof. Shaler observes that the gypsy
will not follow the sidewalk and brick pavements. They pre-
fer the middle of the road.
The origin, together with the traits of a wandering people,
have thus far been sought in the vegetative, the food getting
side of man. There are impulses and irradiations from the
reproductive functions whose significant bearing on the wan-
dering instinct call for consideration.
The evidence furnished by Bancroft,^ Wester marck,'' School-
1 For an extended account of the probable origin and customs of
gypsies, see histories by C. C. Leland, or George Borrows.
2 This is not universally true as the following will show, quoted
from a competent observer : ' ' This party of gypsies were scrupu-
lously clean, had lots of silverware, dishes, etc., all of which were as
clean as could be. The children, too, were cleanly and neatly
dressed."
8 Bancroft : Native Races, Vol. I, p. 351.
* Westermarck : The History of Human Marriage, p. 34.
MIGRATORY IMPULSK. 53
craft/ Hill,^ EHis^ and others, indicate strongly that in one
stage of human evolution an annual pairing season took place
in the spring or early summer months. Westermarck, after an
exhaustive research on this subject, says : *' It is, therefore, a
reasonable presumption that the increase of the sexual instinct
at the end of spring or in the beginning of summer, is a survival
of an ancient pairing season depending upon the same law that
rules in the rest of the animal kingdom." The evidence of
the preceding section shows that there is an intensity increase
in the human sexual functions during the spring, not yet sup-
pressed by law, religion and social customs. There is every
reason to believe that pairing was decided by the " law of bat-
tle. ' ' This archaic habit is known in anthropological litera-
ture as wife capture. That this custom was once general, if
not universal, is inferred from the symbols* of capture^ that are
so wide^ spread among all peoples' at the present time. Sev-
eral mythic legends, as Pluto and Proserpine, Boreas and
Orithya, Theseus and Helen, the Romans and the Sabines have
in all probability their foundation on the custom of systematic
capture of wives among such ancient races.
The desire for, and methods of selecting a mate inaugurates
practically the same activities as are displayed by lower crea-
tures when accomplishing a similar purpose, viz., the '* law of
battle ' ' and wandering. Olaus Magnus^ represents the tribes
of northern Europe, as continually at war with one another,
either on account of stolen women, or with the object of steal-
ing women. In Australia the capture of wives is a signal for
war, and as the tribes have little property, except their
weapons and their women, the women are at once the cause of war
and the spoils of victory. The same is essentially true of the
Bonaks of California, the Tasmanians and Maorians. The
coin-men of Patagonia make excursions every year at the time
of ' ' red leaf ' ' from the mountains in the north to plunder
Fuegians of their women, dogs and arms. McLennan thinks
that the modern groomsmen or ' ' best man ' ' is the legitimate
descendant from the early fighting and protecting protege of the
bridegroom.
War waged for any cause whatever, necessarily strengthens
1 Schoolcraft : Archives of Aboriginal Knowledge, Vol. II, p. 224.
2 Hill, A. S.: Nature, Vol. XXXVIII, p. 250.
3 Ellis, A. B.: Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XXXIX, No. 2, pp.
207-22.
^Westermarck : loc. cit., pp. 283-402.
^ Wood, Edward J.: Wedding Day in all Ages and Countries, 2 vols.
^Mclyennan, J. F.: Studies in Ancient History, Chapters I, II, III,
IV, V.
^ Ellis, A. B.: loc. cit.
^ Quoted from Mclycnnan's Studies in Ancient History, p. 55.
54 KI.INE :
the wandering instinct — the aggressor in pursuit of his prize,
and the aggressed exchanging domestic duties for those of
defense and regaining losses. Out of such conditions arose
the themes of the greatest poems of antiquity, those of Homer
and Virgil have made Ulysses and ^neas classic wanderers for
all time. Peggotty wandering in search for Emily, Adam Bede's
false betrothed tramping the highway in bitter shame and re-
morse, the untiring search of Evangeline for her lover over an
entire primeval continent, St. Elmo's aimless wandering after
killing his rival, are all mental creations that do no violence to
human nature. Indeed tragedies and romances are most often
the cradles of future wanderers.
The art of wife getting attained its most delicate and refined
form in the nth and 12th centuries, as set forth and practiced
by the Troubadours and Courts of Love.
So charming and seductive were their lives and methods of
wooing, that every nobleman of any merit, many princes of
royal blood, and even four kings became ardent devotees.
Love was their theme, their Alpha and Omega, music and
wandering the methods of its exposition. They write : ' ' It^
is love that makes me sing. " ' * For sweet love do I labor
night and day in the improvement of my lays. " " For love
sing the birds, and for love sing I." Says Rowbotham : " The
leading and characteristic feature in the life of every trouba-
dour was, that he was expected ' to go through the world,'. .
* to go from court to court.' At the first breath of spring
(italics mine) the troubadour mounted on his steed . . .
sallied out in quest of listeners, and prepared to indulge in
what adventure might befall him on the way."
That the activities and attendant passions of ( i ) the annual
pairing seasons, (2) of wife capture in its various forms and
consequent wars, (3) of the various forms of symbolism of wife
capture and (4) of the ever recurring romantic episodes among
civilized peoples everywhere, have impressed the human soul,
and have differentiated it in a special way is highly probable.
The product of this differentiation is the instinct that impels man
to desert home and vegetative stores and seek a world where
the procreative functions and its higher irradiations may assert
themselves. It would be absurd to interpret the precocious
runaways of adolescence, the roving life of many individuals or
the life of the vagrant as a direct expression of the procreative
functions seeking conditions for satisfaction as witnessed in
wild and domestic animals. Scott^ has argued that these fun-
damental passions may be irradiated, long-circuited or trans-
1 Rowbotham, J. Frederick : The Troubadours and Courts of Love,
p. 226.
2 Scott: Sex and Art, Amer. Jour, of Psy., Vol. VII, pp. 153-226.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 55
posed into a hierarcy of activities ranging all the way from the
gross sensuous impulse of a marauder to the idealistic senti-
ments of youth that urges him to go forth espousing freedom's
cause, waging war to reclaim a holy shrine, or to a missionary
in any good work. Between these two extremes may be men-
tioned passions to start life, seeking wider liberties, for adven-
ture, yearning for space, for solitude and the like.
The impulse to go off at the approach of the menstrual^
period, the desire for seclusion during parturition,'^ and the
passion for a wedding tour can only be mentioned here as
subjects for investigation. No adequate data exists on this
phase of the subject.
Historical Migrations. This subject presents three items of
interest, ( i ) the degree of civilization of a migrating nation en
masse, (2) the direction of the route, (3) the climatic condi-
tions of the country from which the nations move, and of that
to which they go. The organization of a migrating people has
usually been of a comparatively high^ state. They have been
skilled in the several arts of war, in making and using weapons,
and in handling great bodies of men. According to Von Hell-
wald* the direction of the migratory streams will be found
always to lie in the axis of the greatest longitudinal extension
of the continent. The historical migrations^ in the old world
have been from the high plateaus of Eurasia in the east to the
narrow land areas in the west. In America they have pro-
ceeded from the broad land areas of the north to the mild
tapering peninsula of the south. Doubtless the mountain ranges
that lie in the long axes of continents determine to some extent
the direction. Both the temperature and wind of large water
areas are more uniform than that of great land areas. Countries,
therefore, wholly or partially surrounded by water areas, or that
are so situated as to have their shores bathed by strong sea cur-
rents, and their surfaces blown over by winds coming from large
sea areas, enjoy the most delightful climates in the world. ^
The countries along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, south-
^ The writer is informed by a student of psychology that his wife
when a girl in her teens at home and at college experienced a vague
impulse " to go off," not to hide specially, but to be alone, a few days
before each monthly flow. Several girls of her intimate acquaintance
professed to her a like experience.
2 When the time of a Schoshone woman's confinement draws near,
she retires to some secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and re-
mains there alone for about a month. Bancroft : Native Races, Vol.
I, P- 437-
3 Lubbock, Sir John : loc. cit., p. 586.
*Von Hellwald, Frederick: The American Migrations, Smithsonian
Report, 1866, pp. 328-45.
^Cram's Universal Atlas, p. 269, 1893.
^ Davis, W. M.: Elementary Meteorology, p. 338, 1894.
56 KLINE :
ern California, portions of Chili, etc. , are freed from extremes
of temperature, winds, and floods and frequent undulations of
atmospheric pressures. England, East China and Japan are
lands whose climates, though in the great land areas or just
adjacent to them, are tempered and uniformed by sea winds
and currents. In such countries, e. g,, Egypt, Japan, East
China, Greece and Rome, are found the oldest and most per-
manent institutions of man. In them civilization was cradled
and wrought out the deeds that form the bulk of history.
On the other hand the great land areas of the N. temperate
zones are characterized by wide annual ranges of temperature,
in some regions long drouths followed by short but heavy rain-
fall, and by a wide spread and frequent undulations in atmos-
pheric pressure.^ Such climates are found on the eastern and
southern shores of the Baltic, the northern lands of Russia,
northern and central Asia, and the large interior of North
America stretching north of the Missouri and northwest of the
Great Lakes. The Steppes of Turkestan, the great desert of
Gobi and Takla-Makin^ with moving dunes of sand, portions
of Arabia and Persia are all dry lands with a relative large
range of temperature.
The uncertain changeable geographico-climatic conditions of
these land areas, it seems, would foster and emphasize the sev-
eral migrating traits already surveyed, would furnish just the
right stimuli to set agoing from time to time the old migrating
instinct implanted in the race in prehistoric times. Such lands
cradled the Tartar, the Hun, Visigoth, Vandals, the Bedouin —
the children of want and hard circumstances, the hardy,
brawny, restless races, in whose blood there is a good mixture
of iron, and which have come forth periodically to destroy the
luxurious and the wealthy,* to lay in ashes the arts and culture
that flourish where the forces of nature are more uniform and
less rigorous. At the present time, according to Tarde* and
Below, the life of the pastoral people in the Sahara, as on the
plateau of central Asia, is passed in circular migrations, re-
turning to their points of departure. He thinks that caravan
life, like sea life, has incited others to a roving life through
imitation. Commerce conducted in any form whatever, as
caravans, railways or ships, is a powerful stimulus to wander-
1 For physiological effects of elevated climates, frec^uent undulations
in atmospheric pressure, etc., see Hand-book of Medical Climatology,
p. 6i, by Dr. S. Edwin Sully, also Warren P. Lombard in Amer. Jour.
Psy., Vol. I, pp. 5-71.
^Heden, Dr. Sven : McClure's Magazine, Dec, '97. **It was all
sand-moving dunes of sand. The days were very hot, the nights were
bitterly cold. The air was full of dust."
3Holworth, Sir H. H.: History of Monguls, Chap's Hand III, Part I.
*Tarde, M. G.: Revue Scientifique, Vol. XI,V, p. 747, 1890.
MIGRATORY IMPUI.SE.
57
ing. The tenacity with which trainmen cling to the railroad,
the stolid backwardness shown by the Mississippi River steam-
boat employees to quit boat life and enter other pursuits, are
instances justifying Tarde's conclusions. A commercial peo-
ple are cosmopolitan — rarely if ever homesick. It would seem
that certain occupation predispose to restlessness and roving.
5
•" o V
o o.<«
3«
s*s
>5
3§
<S ■>* -^ fO-^ M
c< O P< vo -^t/l rf O OJ CS ro
CO CO -^ M r^f ONCO O ON Tj- lO
MMMCOC<COrjCOWMM
•siBio; OK
•^YBva^^
•31BK
CO CO "^00 vo N 1>.M rl-rJ-irjrl-'<^<M CS
-^ ^ '^ "^ Tl- lO lO Tl-vO
cO'^TtrOrfioO •^M ONN OnOO •rt- cO m
lOMVO fO'^-<;tlOMVOOO -^-^M cO(S OCO t^OO
M N W COCS CS CDCS COM CO'^rl-lOCOM M
CO »0 ONOO lO M t^ »O00 VO COVO CO lOOO "^VO CS
M CS CO •^ tOvO t«^00 <y* O
N CO -^ lOVO t^OO Ov
vS
ss
M M CS C0c0c0>0c0f^ ^»OiO lOVO VO t^" t~^
i
■^ -^ 1^00 OMH ri-rtcO»0<N »OOnO m MVO
MMM MM(N(N<MMM
■^
W
>5
Q 0 t^ «N ovoo 00 00 w N 00 t~^vo r^vo vo t^ i^ »o
O 0 t--00 t>*iO-^cOr}-»Ot^-«^cOcOcOW CS m <S
a
^
^
The Instinct in the Individual. The migratory instinct, to-
gether with the comcomitant traits, so far as they can be
58 KiviNE :
made out in childhood and early youth, were treated at some
length in my paper on Truancy.^ It remains to note briefly
in the light of all that has preceded the role played by the
instinct in maturer^ life. Our study thus far suggests that
its germs are perhaps in every one — at least such is the view
here adopted. The instinct is not an anomalous thing. It
had a legitimate birth, and is an essential function of the soul.
At what age or ages, under what conditions it will most prob-
ably control one's activities, and what will be its form of ex-
pression, /. e., whether seeking a fortune, love of adventure,
or fleeing from restraint, or what not, are suggested from the
returns of the questionnaire, — Rubrics I and II.
For total number of cases of runaways, number of each sex,
distribution according to age, and the relation between ages
and the different causes for running away, see Table III and
Chart IV. The manner of running off" is partly a function of
age (Chart III). All children that run off from one to three do
so impulsively.^ Three to eight years shows a gradual falling
in the impulse curve with a rise in the planning curve (Chart
III). The child's growing interests and respect for home and
parents' and the consequent desire to conceal his misdemeanors
are probably factors at work here. From eight to twelve the
curves are reversed. This corresponds roughly to the period
of slow growth of brain, body, weight and height. It is a
time, too, when the child partially slides out from under the sole
care and companionship of parents, and sets up a social circle
of his own. He is less sensitive and considerate to his parents'
reproofs and wishes. Respect weakens, he waxes bold, ques-
tions authority. This dare-devil spirit may account for the
child doing things impulsively, openly and above board. The
ways and manner of leaving home, however, multiply with
age. The curves (Charts III and IV) showing the relation
between ages and different causes for leaving, are based on too
small a number to merit a detailed description; they do, how-
ever, emphasize this fact, that childhood and youth are affected
differently by the same causes, and further that the causes in-
1 Truancy as Related to the Migratory Instinct : Ped. Sem., Vol. V,
No. 3, 1898.
2 It is needless to say that the data for a thorough study is yet to be
collected. There is much literature of an idealized sort, descriptive
of the professional tramp. But the tramp by no means expresses all
of the roving instinct — not all wanderers are tramps. Indeed, if ad-
hering to fixed habits, customs and conditions excludes the roving
instinct, then the tramp is not dominated by the migratory impulse,
for he is exceedingly staid in all his ways. A study of tramps and
vagrants, then, will not suffice our present purpose.
3 See cases and comment: Ped. Sent., Vol. V, No. 3, pp. 387-90.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 59
crease as the indivividual comes to sustain wider and wider
relations with society. For example, injured feelings in child-
hood may arise through an unfavorable comparison of their
lot with that of their playmates, and from real bodily wrongs,
or from objective conditions and processes while the feelings
of adolescence are generally disturbed by subjective and imag-
inative conditions. His moulting ego is excessively sensitive
to personal rights and honor, his good intentions are misin-
terpreted. The injured feeling curve attains its maximum in
the fifteenth year. Again, childhood and adolescence are
affected diametrically opposite by solitude. The former flees
from loneliness, the latter often seeks it. Childhood goes to
nature (Chart IV) for companionship, adolescence for solitude.
Probably one of the most faithful sources of wandering in
adolescence is restricted liberty, or impatience under restraint.
The following are two cases from more than a hundred bearing
on this point.
1 . F. , 34. " Until I was twelve, I cannot recall having ever gone from
home with pleasure, but during my early teens I began to feel a sense
of oppression from remaining at home which became highly accentu-
ated by the age of fifteen. I was then allowed to leave home to teach
a little rural school. The sense of freedom I experienced was intoxi-
cating (and not mildly). Yet I was under no real restraint at home.
I simply felt restrained there. I think I had an irritating desire to
find how I alone stood with the world, to feel myself detached from
all that bound me. During this time I thought much of ' independ-
ence,' delighted in long lonely walks — often pictured to myself the
freedom of the gypsy and delighted greatly in all tales and poems
idealizing the gypsy girl."
2. F. " The noise of a city and the crowds of people always make
me impatient to get away. I don't like even a day with houses in
front of me — even brown stone, vine wreathed, is a burden to my
spirit. I can get along in a very small room for myself and my
belongings but I must have some space outside my window. When I
had to live in the city I had such longings to escape that I would take
a car in dead of winter and go to the end of the route and then walk
until there was not a house or a person in sight and so get my
equilibrium."
A Student of tramps and vagrants writes me :
"It is my impression that the narrow, cramped conditions under
which boys often live, without sufficient variety and wholesome
interests in their lives, is responsible for much of the constant recruit-
ing in the ranks of the tramp army. It is unnatural for young people
to live a life of dead monotony, and the boy who breaks away in sheer
desperation, without an education to equip him for any better life,
soon drifts to trampdom and becomes irreclaimable to serious life."
While the charms of travel woo many to a roving life, trav-
elling, especially on water, cures many of a roving passion.
The following are from 280 cases of Rubric IV on the charms
of travel :
Charms of Travei<. 3. M., 26. "I enjoy a walk into far away
country places for the sake of the sensation of delicious freedom, of
•5.
I
I
V
\
/ ■
'^-.
•V
/
\ V
^
/
•
\ A
V i
//
//
(
//
\\ _
\.
x\
\\
/
/
/ \
( \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ /
\ /
\ _
i
\ /
■^
1
\
{ (^
•
1
\- 1
/
\ ^
0^
I
\,^'
^ \
1
^%l
L
A
/\
-V
•-A \
J^
>^ \
/T -
/ \i
^ \
2
^v V
N Y
en tc o>
a 3 111 ui
Z H QC H
\. \
j
3 z => i*" ^
w 1?! H "- §
.•^ ^ < =i 2 M
> i
/
JURED F
VEOF Al
VE OF r
1 START
ISEE OP
NELiNE!
( -
5 3 3 ? ? 2
\
i 1 ! 4- :!
.
j^ '""^
\
1 i 4-i
:
/^ ^-i ^
] \ \ i- I
J
\ Wtl
/
111+ =
/
\
* Tj- o r o c
#
\
O lO 00 ® Ol «
/
\ .
o . . . . *
;F
z * •
! 1 1
lilt
1 I
1
MIGRATORY IMPUI^E. 6 1
the perfect mental abandonment. One feels as if he had shaken off
the dead weight of mental contact, and the far off stretches of country-
promise more of the same kind of liberty."
4. M., 24. " I like being aboard a ship for the feeling of endless
space and a sort of liberation from conventions that it brings. A
long walk into a new part of the country has a charm for me. And
I have enjoyed herding cattle on the prairie because it set me free
from self -consciousness."
5. F., 33. " Have often felt as though the house, although comfor-
table and handsome, was choking me, and the moment I got my foot
on the doorstep for a walk, even though a deep snow prevailed, I felt
better. I feel intense pleasure when walking in the twilight — alone,
have an elasticity of step and elation which makes me wish twilight
would last for hours so that I could walk miles. Am in no sense a
gad-about, and I hate call-making, but cannot hear the whistle of a
locomotive without a tingling of the blood and a longing to be off —
indefinitely, anywhere. Have led a sedentary life."
6. F., 21. " Either a trip on the ocean or a long ride on the train
has great interests for me. The former soothes, puts me at peace with
the whole world ; the latter excites me, I feel boisterous, can hardly
keep still, no matter how peaceful the scenery, it seemed that I
could always see something wild about it, something that answered
to my feelings."
7. M., 26. ** The chief interest of travel to me is the seeing of new
things. My hobby in the way of change is to get out into the country
for about two days at a time, drop everything, cut loose from every
thought that binds me to my work and walk in the woods. With me
there is a peculiar emotional tone that goes with thoughts of travel."
8. M., 30. ** The novelty of seeing new things and having new ex-
periences are the attractions of travel. I sometimes get tired of
habitual surroundings — I think from the monotony and sameness of
repeated experiences."
9. F., 16. "A day's walk through the woods has the greatest
charm for me. The freedom, the wildness, the quietness, the birds,
flowers, all answering to an inner feeling of joyousness ; a feeling of
being at hotne with nature."
10. F., 20. " The new sights. I like, too, the onward motion, the
feeling that I am going."
11. F., 19. "I think I never had a desire to run away, but some-
times in spring I have had desire to go for a walk by myself ; I have
gone to walk through the fields and woods. It seems as though I
wished to enjoy it alone and not speak to any one."
12. M., 20. "In my experience the bicycle has held the most
interest in the charms of travel. It is akin to flying, the swift motion
and delightful breezes fanning your head are pleasant sensations."
The thirst for travel is a product of a nexus of factors. In
our 280 returns, however, two groups of motives have domi-
nated. First they show that travelling is a favorite means to
destroy monotony, it breaks up the tedium of the hour ; it
shelves old experiences and sensations, that have induced a
sort of mental cramp or fatigue. Travelling relieves this
cramp by furnishing a superior sort of new psychical and
bodily activities ; second, they indicate strongly that the
desire to experience sensations of motion is unique among
human passions. Josiah Flynt says : ' ' The possibility of
62 KI,INB :
riding everywhere afforded by our net work of railways is
alluring to the boy and often wins many to trampdom."
Shaler thinks the love of adventure (chart IV) can best be
satisfied by going to sea.
The sensation of motion, as yet but little studied from a
pleasure-pain standpoint, is undoubtedly a pleasure giving
sensation. For Aristippus the end of life is pleasure which he
defines as gentle motion. Motherhood long ago discovered its
virtue as furnished by the cradle. Galloping to town on the
parental knee is a pleasing pastime in every nursery. The
several varieties of swings, the hammock, see-saw, flying-
jenny, merry-go-round, shooting-the-chute, sailing, coasting,
rowing and skating, together with the fondness ^ of children for
rotating rapidly in one spot until dizzy, and for jumping from
'high places, are all devices and sports to stimulate the sense of
motion. In most of these modes of motion the body is passive
or semi-passive, save in such motions as skating and rotating
on the feet. The passiveness of the body precludes any im-
portant contribution of stimuli from kinaesthetic sources.
The stimuli are probably furnished, as Dr. Hall and others
have suggested, by a redistribution of fluid-pressures (due to
the unusual motions and positions of the body) to the inner
walls of the several vascular systems of the body.
I^ove of adventure (see table III chart IV) is apparently
prompted by a variety of motives, e. g. , by rebellion against
restraint, love of freedom, of travel, thirst for knowledge,
chivalry ; and also by the dare-devil, iconoclastic spirit that
revels in the unexpected and courts fortune through the factors
of lottery and chance.
Rubrics I, II, concerning runaways, and IX and XI, pertain-
ing to homesickness, etc. , are treated in a comparative way
(table IV) as interesting from a sociological standpoyit and
as a further introduction to the material of section C.
Probably the most general and fundamental group of facts
are those pertaining to the home and parents. The percentage
of orphans in both lovers of home and runaways are compara-
tively small.
Tenanting is much more common among parents of run-
aways— 35% as against i8% for lovers of home. The
conditions of the home are classified into poor, moderate,
comfortable and bountiful. The largest number of homes in
both groups belong to the comfortable class. An examination
of all the classes shows that the runaways bear by far the
greatest number of inferior homes in an economic sense.
1 Hall, G. Stanley : Study of Fears : Am, Jour. Psy., Vol. VIII,
No. 2, p. 157.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE.
63
Nineteen per cent, of the runaways come from poor homes as
opposed to no per cent, of home lovers. It is unnecessary
to comment on the rest of the items compared — the table is
self-explanatory.
Tabi,e IV.
Showing the comparative sociological conditions, traits, etc., of five
hundred (500) runaways and two hundred and twenty-five (22^)
lovers of home (ages 1-20 years).
Runaways.
Per cent.
lyOVERS OF HOME. Per cent.
r Both living
86
80
Parents.-^ Partially orphans
II
16
( Wholly orphans
3
3
Do not own their homes .
35
18
r Poor
19
0
Conditions! Moderate
30
6
of home. 1 Comfortable .
40
58
Bountiful
II
23
Not affectionate .
45
9
Physically defective .
12
0
Numerical [?"f" , '
relation in J Youngest .
23
25
20
32
the family. \%^^^^ ;
23
28
2
45
Sensitive ....
62
90
Demonstrative
60
32
Laugh easily
70
79
Cry easily ....
62
73
Generous ....
74
87
Careless in dress
52
10
I/ike crowds
79
36
Shun crowds
21
64
Careful of property
61
90
Regards others rights
. 64
93
Made no collection
45
12
Persistent in tasks
74
85
Summary.
The discussion of migration of animals indicates that the
most general initiative factor that disturbs the psycho-physio-
logical adjustments is the procreative function, but that the
mode and time of its operation is greatly modified by cosmic
forces.
We do not trace with equal certainty the operation of the
same factors in the same order and effectiveness in originating
and controlling the instinct in man for the obvious reasons that
he has freed himself to a great extent from these archaic
forces and in a measure controls them ; besides he has set up a
social cosmos, as it were, of his own that must be obeyed.
Despite these hindrances, however, we do get traces here and
there of the persistency and eflfectiveness of the inner, the
cosmic and the social forces involved in the differentiation
64 KI,INE :
of the instinct. The movements of primitive man were con-
trolled, in all probability, by the distribution of certain foods,
by the physical geography of the country, and by the change
of seasons. The factors of climatology together with the
topography of the country have greatly controlled, if not
actually touched oflf, the instinct as seen in historic migrations.
The passions for local roving, " gadding about," frequent
moving and gypsy ing is a reassertion of the old psychoses that
was formed when to know friend and foe were essential to self-
preservation, and when the highest conditions of lot aud chance
were assiduously courted. Spring fever, ennui, psycho-physi-
ological disturbances of spring, and of the lunar as well as cer-
tain solar periods, then, too, the vernal increase in the num-
ber of marriages and in the number of illegitimate births ; the
. strengthening of the love of adventure, for independence and
freedom at the onset of puberty ; the greatest number of run-
away adolescents occurring in the spring — all alike point to
the general conclusion that the procreative functions and their
irradiations and cosmic periodicities are joint factors in the
differentiation of the migratory instinct. They are the factors
that have ever periodically disturbed whatever adjustment that
man may have effected with his environment on a vegetative
basis.
Finally, the migratory instinct is general, if not universal.
It is merely a matter of degree — sometimes very slight, too —
from the mental throes, perturbations and secret threats of
leaving home by the adolescent to their actual occurrence. The
gradual passage from the adolescent who fights and smothers
these several subjective upheavals and remains at home, or
from the one who subdues the desire for change and continually
adjusts himself to present tasks to the one who is overcome and
breaks away is paralleled by the fine shades from sanity to in-
sanity, or from the feint inner thoughts of to the actual com-
mitting of crime. ^
We are not then dealing with anomalous elements and char-
acters. The germs and even at times the full fruition are in
us all, partly as a heritage and partly acquired. (See cases
I and 2.)
1 Ferri, E. : Criminal Sociology, p. 43 — "Every man, however pure
and honest he may be, is conscious now and then of a transitory no-
tion of some dishonest or criminal action. But with the honest man,
exactly because he is physically and morally normal, this notion of
crime which simultaneously summons up the idea of its grievous conse-
quences, glances off the surface of the moral conscience . . . with the
man who is less normal and has less forethought, the notion dwells and
finally prevails."
MIGRATORY IMPUIvSK. 65
SECTION C.
I.OVK OF HOME.
The love of home is indeed an archaic theme in literature.
An activity of the soul that arose very probably soon after the
sex broad-ax dichotomized organic life. To build a home, fur-
nish and protect it absorb the quintescence of the energies of
the greater part of living species^ The instinct is expressed
oftentimes in an unmistakable manner by the unnatural and
waning activities of wild animals in captivity longing to return
to their familiar haunts.
Werwom^ found that many lowly forms of pelagic life,
although under the very best conditions, decrease considerably
in volume in a few days, many die within less than a week.
He kept heroes alive three weeks. One beroe that measured
2 cm. long, after 14 days captivity was only 6 mm. long.
^ Young shows that in vessels of the same shape the larger
the area of the vessels, the greater the growth of tadpoles con-
fined therein. *De Varigny has found the same to be true of
the pond snail. He interprets this dwarfing as a physiological
or mechanical impedimenta to movements, i.e., he would make
free exercise one of the functions of growth. Darwin observes
that insular animals are smaller than their continental congen-
ers. For instance, in the Canary Islands the oxen of one of
the smallest islands are much smaller than those of the others,
although all belong to the same breed ; the same is true of their
horses. Spencer says ' * It is well known by all anglers that
trout and other fishes are small in small streams and large in
larger rivers."
According to Bates, only one of the largest species of the South
American turtles will live long in captivity, the smaller ones
die in a few days. Snapping turtles generally refuse food and
remain shy and fierce, but taken young can be brought to feed.
Sea snakes cannot be kept alive many days even in salt water.
The vipers all vomit their food after being taken captives and
will seldom take any further nourishment except water. ^Jordan
found that female newts kept in confinement all winter were not
so apt to lay eggs in the spring as those freshly captured. The
1 The agricultural achievements of the ant common in several lands^
the variety of architectural designs for the home and the certainty
and cleverness of their execution as seen in the life history of ants,
bees, fish, birds and both lower and higher mammals, furnish abun-
dant examples of the large bulk of animal activities exerted for the
realization of a and its belongings.
^Werworn: Plfiig. Archiv., Vol. L, 1891, pp. 439-440.
3 Young : Arch, des Sci. Phys. et Nat., Vol. XIV, 1885.
*De Varigny : Experimental Evolution.
^Jordan : Habits and Developments of Newts, Jour. Morphology,
Vol. VIII, pp. 269-366.
JOURNAI,— 5
66 KI.INE :
duckbill ^ and pouched mole in spite of all care and attention
live but a very short time in captivity. Hartmann, Chaillou
and others give several instances of young monkeys dying soon
after capture. Captured adult pumas ^ invariably pine away
and die. Delboeuf ^ allowed two different species of lizards
to run together in his laboratory for over two years. One dis-
appeared suddenly fot three weeks, during which time the
second one refused all food, and had no relish for insects and
earthworms until the absent one returned. A species of snake
(pelias berus) usually refuses all food ; but if the floor of its
cage is made to look like its native moor it will sometimes feed
voluntarily. Cornish ^ says nearly all animals dislike solitude
and confinement. Tame hawks and falcons, if kept alone in a
room mope and lose condition, and in some species a suicidal
instinct is developed. Merlins kept in solitary confinement
destroy their claws and toes.
These citations, though by no means exhaustive, illustrate
that not only forcible curtailing or limiting conditions for ex-
ercise, but a sudden change of environment, feeding grounds
or even loss of companionship will cause dwarfing, sickness
and even death to wild animals.
Instances ^ of the love for home among domestic animals and
their intense mental sufferings when away per force were given
in Section A.
Some of the factors making for the love of home in man are
set forth in the cases below. ^
1. F., 19. ** I think that the order is mother first, father and broth-
er equally. I like to think of my surroundings, at home in this order,
the sittng-room, the two maples in the yard, the brook and the sur-
rounding hills."
2. F., 20, "The elements in my own love of home are first my
father, then sister, brothers, the house, and familiar spots on the
farm."
3. F., 17. **. . . Father and mother and next my sister and brother —
then the home feeling which I have but which I cannot possibly ex-
plain."
The family as a whole or the member in the manner given
in these three cases, of course, take precedence over all other
elements in all the returns, therefore, they are omitted in the
rest of the cases.
4. F., 25. Scenery and past association.
5. F., 20. House, water, hills, trees, familiar ways of life.
6. F., — . House, natural scenery, familiar ways of life.
1 Bennett, G.: Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia, i860.
■^ Hudson : The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 44.
^Delboeuf, J.: Pop. Sci. Month., Vol. L, pp. 395-99, 1897.
*Cornish, C. J.: Animals at Work and Play, '96, pp. 31-38.
° Selected at random from 200 answers to Rubric XIII of Syllabus.
^ Selected at random from 160 answers to Rubric X of Syllabus.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 67
7. F., — . Friends, location and familiar scenes.
8. F., 18. House, hills, and mode of living.
9. F., 25. Natural scenery and associations connected with it.
10. M., 19. Of my father, mother, brother, it would be hard to
tell which I love most. They are all a part in my life. But of the
house and surroundings, hills and valleys, there is that lasting feeling
which ties me to it.
11. F., 21. Hill, trees, and natural scenery around my own home
seem dearer to me than those of any other place.
12. M., 25. Familiar ways of life, all the familiar parts of the
house ; its nooks and crannies, where old associations and memories
cluster thick as swarming bees ; the plot of ground about the house,
and lastly the outlook from its doors and windows, such as hills, trees,
lawns, etc.
13. F., 22. The room where we sit together evenings, my own
room, my bird and other household pets, the scenery, especially the
mountains.
14. M., 22. House itself, trees that stand before it, a hill back of
it.
15. F., 26. Familiar books and furniture, and the sincerity and
naturalness of home relations.
16. M., 27. Habit I think enters strongly into my love of home —
accustomed faces, furniture, surroundings, etc.
17. M., 30. Familiar haunts, chance to relax and feel easy.
18. F., 21. Distant hills, domestic animals and pets, home habits
and family ways.
19. F., 22. The house itself because I was born there — then the
woods and fields, which abound in nooks so pleasant to me, familiar
ways of the people about the town.
20. F., 18. Naturalness of home life, the cozy surroundings, 'trees,
flowers, the peaceful river and sceneries, the sociability of friends.
21. F., 18. Ways of the home, everything seems familiar, the good
times we all have together, freedom of the home, always open to my
friends and all friends of the family.
Ninety per cent, of the cases are females. By far the great
majority (62%) rank mother first, father second (30%).
Some (3.7%) say that the members of the family do not sep-
arate out into individual preferences. They regard the family,
as a whole, the strongest factor. Two per cent, rank parents
first, followed by other members of the family. A very few
( I % ) think a brother or sister is first choice. Females have
more preferences among members of the household, or, at
least, hesitate less to undertake an analysis.
After members of the family the most common element is
the natural scenery about the home (85%). This^ consists of
garden, lawn, familiar spots on the farm, trees, grove, river,
brook, lakes, water falls, hills, distant mountains. Then, too,
sunrise and sunset — on the prairie, or on the mountain, or
from my window. The house itself (70%). Because I was
born there — always been my home, its cozy rooms, especially
my room, all my things are there. Familiar ways (65%),
1 Per cents are estimated on the number of times the.factors are men-
tioned.
68
KI.INK :
the sincerity and naturalness of home life, the home ' ' feeling, ' '
quiet way and way we do it, time for meals, table manners,
evening chats. Freedom of the ho7ne (43%), place to relax
and feel easy, absence of restraint by strangers, freedom to talk
without fear of offending, to go where and when I please, free
use of all the house. Relatives and friends (25%), genial
ways, interested in me, good times together. The relative
strength of these several elements is illustrated diagramatically
in Diagram II. One is surprised at finding sympathy so low
among the elements enumerated. Phrases like the following
occur : Sympathy for my work ; for my troubles ; for my in-
clination ; for my plans.
Diagram II.
Showing the relative values of a few elements in the love of home.
Parents
Scenery
House
Familiar ways
Freedom
Relatives, friends
Animals
Pleasant memories
Furniture
Sympathy
One of the Family
Religion and Church
Out-door life
Cheerfulness
The love of home, it appears, is a complex of at least three
general groups of factors : first, the personnel of the family ;
second, the variety of home life, both as to activities and
material objects, especially objects in nature ; third, the rela-
tion of the first two groups to self. If this relation is one in
which the self-regarding interests have been administered to,
the intensity of home love is usually a strong one.
It is noteworthy that those whose home affections are ex-
clusively for members of the family, were the children of
parents that moved frequently, or lived in tenement flats, and
thus were robbed of the associations of trees, hills, mountains,
lakes, and so on. The following cases are typical :
22. F., 25. "My love of home is almost entirely personal, as we
live in New York city flats."
23. F., 21. "I love my home because it is the place where my
MIGRATORY IMPUI^E. 69
mother and father live. The hills do not especially strike my sense
of the beautiful or thejpicturesque, as they only vary from about four
inches to one foot in height. We have one tree in our yard, and it
would not take very long to count the leaves on it. The natural
scenery consists of rows of brick houses."
24. F., — . " My love of home is very strong, but I don't know
that I can specify the elements in it. I think it cannot be the house
or natural scenery, for until I was about grown I had never lived more
than a year or two at the same place (being an itinerant preacher's
daughter). I grew up with the feeling that wherever papa and
mamma were was home."
25. F., 33. " I have known three homes. All handsome. In two
of them my position was that of sister, in the third, wife. I find that
the sense of home exists only with the sense of personal possession and
responsibility, and congenial ways of life.'''
Some factors lying apparently at the basis of the affections
for home are emphasized by answers to Rubric IX. Bigbty
per cent, of the cases (104) are females.
26. F., 20. " Always hated to stay away from home, feeling that
something might happen to my people, or that my mother might die
before my return."
27. F., 18. Until within a few years past never objected to be
away from home. Ivost her father at 12, and since then will only very
reluctantly leave her mother over night.
28. F., 15. Would never go out to parties or out with other girls.
At her mother's wish she packed her trunk and made ready to spend
a summer vacation in the country. She started several times, broke
out crying each time, and finally gave it up.
29. F., 22. Gets homesick away over night even with her sister.
30. M., 38. Very systematic in habits, does everything by clock-
work. Sociable and full of fun, but never goes away from home even
for a night. Has been in the same ofiice for 20 years. As a boy did not
care to gad about the streets.
31. " Common thing for people of middle life to say it is an effort
for them to get away from home, and that they can sleep better in
their own beds. Know a lady of 25 who never likes to go on a vaca-
tion. A week away seems very long, .... is not happy or at
ease until in her home again."
32. M., 30. Very conscientious, an indefatigable worker, could
never rest away from home unless his family were with him. Wants
but a few friends.
33. M., 64. Does not like to be with crowds, never stayed away
from home many nights in his life, dislikes to get out sight of the
house.
34. F., 17. A regular home girl, good housekeeper and manager.
Dislikes to meet strangers. When 12 or 13 would go occasionally to
spend the night with a cousin, but scarcely found sleep. She seemed
to be attacked with all the horrors of homesickness, would cry nearly
all night. Afraid that mother might die that night.
35- I^-» 55- Married and lived on a farm, no family. She and her
husband very often do not speak for weeks. She is fond of company,
but never leaves home except to go to the market. She is very am-
bitious to make money. I think that is why she stays at home so
closely. She is afraid to leave home lest something might go to ruin.
36. F., 88. Has, and always has had the intensest love for her lit-
tle wee shabby home. She cannot bear to be away from it a moment
just for sheer love of it. Just as a loving mother cannot bear to leave her
70 KI,INE :
little baby. She cares for it in a way that is almost caressing in its
fondness and prettiness. She permits no one to do a thing for her.
She cleans it, scrubs it, and keeps it dainty with the utmost joy. I
know from things she has said to me that it would pain her to have any
of her dearly beloved house utensils carelessly used or handled. She
once gave me a pretty piece of old-fashioned ware because she said that
her grandchildren would be likely to break it if it was left to them,
and she did not like to think of it ever being broken.
Last summer (her 88th year) she made her own garden, planted
and hoed it. She had it plowed, but that was all. She could not bear
to have any one touch it but herself. Her two sons, who live near by,
would gladly do everything for her. Whenever I go there she takes
me all over the little baby house, down cellar, into the woodshed, the
pantry, shows me her cistern, her dishes and everything, just as we
used to show off our playhouses when children. She is a woman of
exquisite, native refinement ; her thoughts are all very poetic and lovely
thoughts.
Section B (Table IV) calls attention to the home life of
home lovers as usually congenial and quite comfortable in a
material way. Their lives are industrious, quiet, uneventful,
conservative. ^Guppy says : "It was the boast of a wealthy
old Devonshire yeoman, 150 years ago, that he had never
crossed the borders of his native country, and I cannot believe
that in this respect he differed greatly from his fellows. . .
This gave solidity of character to which the long persistence
of families in the same locality and in the same stations is
mainly due." They love order, fond of systematic work, and
beheve that there is a virtue in doing things at fixed times.
Some spend life happily in one place tinkering and puttering
away at odd jobs. Cases 50, 54, 55 and 56, represent a large
class that make few friends, retiring in disposition ; dread
meeting strangers, entering a new place, or even sleeping in a
strange bed ; are in constant dread when among strangers
either of boring some one or getting bored. They have more
fears than rovers and gad-abouts. Although they shun crowds,
hospitality and open friendship are found at their homes.
Many are fond of company, and delight in the duties of hostess.
Habit, born of necessity, doubtless explains much of the
phenomena. Some are suddenly and almost pitifully attached
to their homes through some shock occasioned by a death in
the family (case 48), or by sickness contracted away from, or
by some other unexpected misfortune. They come to feel that
to leave home will in some mysterious way precipitate a dire
calamity. This feeling and nervousness often becomes so in-
tense at leaving that the journey is abandoned. Thus sorrow
and disappointment may greatly intensify the home feeling.
The dread of meeting persons, shunning the effort to bear
up the ' * dead weight ' ' of the presence of strangers, the fear
^Guppy, H. B.: The Homes of Family Names.
MIGRATORY IMPUIjSE. 7 1
of not being welcome, of injuring some one's feelings indicate,
at least, a strong coincidence between the fear of persons and
the love of home. Dr. Hall ^ finds that the fear of persons
ranks third, exceeded only by the fear of thunder storms and
reptiles.
They may grow homesick or timid or their resolution to stay
away may break down at the approach of night. They are
afraid " mother might die " (case 56) ; something " at home
might go to ruin" (case 57) ; "something fatally done"
(case 45), or that they will never see home again, that they
themselves may die that night. One after returning home
examines every shrub and flower in the yard to see if they are
unharmed (case 34), another goes straight to her room to see
if all her things are as she had left them, and so on. May not
this unusual unrest and anxiety about home and its belongings
be a remnant of the bitter and costly experience that man along
with so many other species must have sufiered through the
neglect of properly guarding or hiding the home.
Many species of life must have had some such experience,
otherwise the origin of the widespread instinct to post sentinels
or place some obstacle in the way of approach to the home is
still unsolvable.^ The home of whatever species, being the
center of family possessions has always been the one tempting
object for attack and pillage. Even civilization like modern
frontier life is not without its lessons of wrecked homes in the
absence of its natural protectors. It would be a wonder if
these bitter experiences during the evolution of the home from
the ill-provised tent of the nomad to the modern brown front
had left no trace upon the soul.
The feeling of comfort and ease based on habit, ^ familiarity
and freedom is nowhere fostered as in the home. The feeling
that our ways are better ways, the difficulty to adopt one's self
to other ways of life than those learned in childhood are just
so much data on the general laws of habit. It weds every one
of us to the manners, nooks and crannies, hills, valleys, lakes
and forests of our own home and neighborhood. The sense of
familiarity so frequently mentioned is but a function of habit.
We like the feel of things, welcome under all circumstances,
the "warmth and intimacy," the naturalness of home rela-
tions. What is this naturalness but a maximum reduction of
friction through habit ? Along with familiarity runs a deeper
iHall, G. Stanley : Amer.Jour. Psy., Vol. VIII, No. 2, 1897.
2 Ants, bees, species of fish like the stickleback, species of birds,
monotremes, prairie dogs, many herbivorous and several species of
monkeys post sentinels to give the danger signal or do battle for the
home when attacked by the enemy.
^James, William : Psychology, Vol. I.
72 KI,INE :
feeling, that of freedom. At home I can do what I like, have
a chance to relax and feel easy, and throw off conventional
restraint.
The fact that natural scenery ranks next to members of the
family as a factor in the love of home justifies further investi-
gation— far more than this paper contemplates.
There is little doubt now but that "gods^ of the early world
are the rocks and the mountains, the trees, the rivers, the sea."
The primitive mind did not even distinguish animate from in-
animate objects, but both alike possessed life, passions and
spirits. Along with this belief in the general animation of
everything went the belief in metamorphosis. Their gods were
creative. "In Greece^ the stories of the descent of man from
gods stand side by side with ancient legends of men sprung
from trees or rocks, or of races whose mother was a tree and
their father a god. Similar myths, connecting both men and
gods with animals, plants and rocks, are found all over the
world and were not lacking among the Semites. ' ' In addition
to being objects of worship, trees, rivers and mountains have
always been favorite places for worship. The word kirk, now
softened into church from quercus oak, indicates early religious
use of trees. Preferences for certain waters in rituals is evi-
denced by Naaman's indignation when he was told to bathe in
the Jordan instead of the rivers of Damascus. Again we read :
" The hour cometh when ye shall neither worship in this moun-
tain . . . ."
The application of flowers and plants to ceremonial purposes
is of the highest antiquity. Of forests Coulter^ says : ' ' There
is solemnity about them, a quiet grandeur, which is very im-
pressive, and the rustling of their branches and leaves has that
mysterious sound which caused the ancients to people them
with spirits. We still recognize the feeling of awe that comes
in the presence of forests." Rivers and springs, trees and
plants have long administered to the ills of man. The moun-
tains have furnished him shelter from storms and enemies. The
feeling of the child and adolescent for stream and forest has
already been indicated. Truly, the race has lost none of its
attachment for these archaic friends.
The love of home viewed from the standpoint of nostalgia
adds emphasis to matter already presented and gives renewed
interest to somewhat old psychological problems. Some typ-
ical cases of nostalgia are presented, taken from 176 reports on
that topic. Six per cent, of the members report as having never
been homesick. Eighty-seven per cent, are females. This
1 Fergusson : Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 54.
2 Smith, W. Robertson : The Religion of the Semites, p. 86.
3 Coulter, J. M.: Nature and Art, Vol. I, p. i, 1898.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 73
large percentage I think is due to the fact that eighty-six per
cent, of those that answered the syllabus were females. No
sharp line can be drawn between loneliness and homesick-
ness. The latter is oftentimes preceded by a brief period of the
former.
1. M., 4. Whose parents had moved to a new neighborhood, said
even before the house furniture had been put in order, "Let 'stake
the cows and go back home."
2. M., 5. Became very lonely and homesick to return to the old
home from which parents had just moved. When questioned why he
wished to return, said, "I want to get my playthings." They consist-
ed of a stick horse, a few pebbles and broken dishes.
3. F., 21. " When I first entered school I was homesick for several
weeks. If lessons were hard and I found much difficulty in mastering
them, I would get a longing for home that would not leave me until
after a night's sleep."
4. F., 19. " Have never experienced intense feelings of homesick-
ness, although I have longed to be at home at times when dissatisfied
with my surroundings or my work. The feeling wore off with in-
creased interest in my work."
5. F., 20. Experienced homesickness only for a short time and
then it was mostly due to lack of employment.
6. M.. 5. Went to stay all night with a neighbor only a few rods
away from home. Became so homesick that he had to be carried home
even in the night.
7. F. "At about eight visited an aunt. At night I would cry my-
self to sleep thinking of the pleasant ways at home, I felt forsaken
and forgotten, worried about accidents that might happen at home.
I was afraid some one would die before getting home."
8. M., 21. "At 10 went to spend the night away from home for the
first time. Made it all right during the day. At night was seized
with a tremendous longing to be at home. I was helping to shell
peas, put one in my mouth but could not swallow, I felt so badly.
Without saying a word put on my hat and walked home two miles in
the dark."
9. M., 19. "Could not eat, whenever I would try I would choke
up. Felt sick all over. Did not want to say anything — was thinking
of home all the time — could not think of anything else. There was
sort of a smarting sensation in my stomach, and I felt faint.'''
10. F., 18. (First term in boarding school.) ''Ifelt dazed and
for a long time I could not realize why I was where I was."
11. M., 24. "I cried every day for three weeks about sundown.
I could not tell why I cried, for I had been very anxious to go away
to boarding school and would not have gone home had I had the
opportunity."
12. F., 10. "I used always to get homesick if separated from my
mother ; but if she left me at home, it was not so bad as when I left
home — suppose the familiarity of home surroundings lessened the
sickness."
13. F., 22. "At 12 while in school became homesick and finally
ill. The physician said their could be no marked improvement while
I remained from home, as that was my one thought. I had not been
home but a few hours when I ate a hearty meal and slept well, and in
one week was well again, while the day I came home I had to be
carried up stairs."
14. "All new girls at this school were placed in the back part of
the hall, which was dark and gloomy. Looking out of my window I
74 KI.INE :
could see any number of tin roofs, chimneys, back-yards, and servants
passing in and out. These sights together with the coldness of the
older students made me dreadfully homesick."
15. F., 22. At seven stayed away from home a week, could not
eat anything and was always looking to see some house or scenery
that looked like home.
16. F., 10. Was sent away to a school for girls — she was eager to
go. Enjoyed the change at first but soon gave way to extreme home-
sickness. At the end of three months of school life she had become
really ill — was very thin, ate almost nothing, had a heavy cough and
was believed to have consumption. She was sent home and recovered
in a few days.
17. F., 18. " Got along well during the day, but at nightfall
would choke up and when the crickets, the "Katydids" (cicadae)
and the low wind began to make a noise I broke down and cried my-
self to sleep."
18. "I was homesick once, at home, too, — (father and mother had
gone away for some time). I was all alone in the old house. The
feeling was similar to nausea only in a less degree with such a longing
for some one to come."
19. F., 18. "I lost my appetite, could not be comforted, did not
wish to talk, would get dizzy when I walked across the floor."
20. F., 23. " Do not lose my ambition to work but feel doleful,
lose my appetite, so that I almost come down sick. Have a bad feel-
ing all the time in the region of my stomach which ceases with the
homesicknes. I think homesickness is the most appalling thing
under the sun. It swoops down on one before one knows it and you
cannot get rid of it." >
21. F., 17. " An indescribable longing. I seemed sick all inside
myself and all choked up."
22. F., 18. "I would always get sick at my stomach and often
vomit. My family would laugh at me when I reached home and say
it was homesickness. There is a feeling of pain, as well as I can
locate, a little lower than my heart."
23. F., 30. "I always have a smothering sensation — everything
seems closing in on me."
24. M., 22. "I feel melancholy, down hearted. There seems to
be a lump in my throat — I feel that a good cry would help."
25. M., 23. "I lost both appetite and weight, had to give up work
and go home."
26. F., 25. " My dreams of home make me homesick."
27. F., 18. "I felt unloved and unloving to all around me and
could only conceive of happiness at home."
Age. Forty-three per cent, of these cases (166) occurred
for the first time at ages 16, 17 and 18 years. Eighty per
cent, occurred for the first time from ages 1 2 to and including
18 years. The large number occurring at 16, 17 and 18 is due
to the fact that conditions for homesickness were presented for
the first time at these ages, e. g.^ entering school or college,
taking a new position, entering the navy or army.
Hack Tuke ^ thinks there are no general rules for its occur-
rence in the different sexes, ages and temperament. Papillon^
says: ** Nostalgia attacks by preferences, young people and
iTuke, Hack: Die. of Psy. Medicine, Vol. II, p. 858.
2Papillon, Fernaud : Pop. Sci. Month., Vol. V, pp. 215-20, 1874.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 75
those just entering youth, affecting all temperaments without
distinction."
'* Adolescence is really the age for predilection to nostalgia/'
says Widal/ ** It is the age of delusion and of love. The
young man is still under the influence of his childish memories
which dispose him to recall the place where he has been happy
and to magnify the charms of native land as soon as he
encounters the first deception of life. ' ' An army ^ surgeon
writing on the evils of youthful enlistment, and nostalgia
says : "Among young prisoners of war it is the most compli-
cated disease to be encountered. ' ' Both the French and German
army surgeons confirm this view ; and all agree that fresh
youthful troops from rural districts are often a positive hin-
drance to the efficiency of an army because of their predi-
lection to homesickness. Widal believes that there are vague
signs of it in babyhood. "Although this affection may be
incompatible with the infant, it is none the less true that,
instinctively the nursing child is affected by all that surrounds
it, and the tears which it sheds when one changes its food or
removes its rattle are already vague feelings of nostalgia."
My impression, based on medical literature and other material,
is that in quality or intensity (cases 9, 25) nostalgia is just as
severe and if allowed will lead to as fatal results before and
after as those cases occurring in adolescence but that the latter
is more predisposed to an attack than either childhood or man-
hood.
Sex. Tuke thinks no rules can be laid down regarding its
relations to sex. Widal thinks woman is less subject to nos-
talgia than man because she can enter into new conditions and
receive new influences without herself suffering any great
change. This notion squares with the general theory that she
is more conservative than man. "Whatever may be the
migration of woman her manner of life is less changed and
like the ancient wanderers she carries her household gods
with her." These are the reflections of a French army sur-
geon who had studied nostalgia in camp, prisons and hospitals,
all three presenting the pink of conditions for the ravages of
the disease. Had he been a physician to a cotton or woolen
factory, a female boarding school, or a modern normal school,
it is probable that his notions would have been considerably
modified.
While the present study (eighty-seven per cent, females)
indicates that women are more liable to the sickness, I hesitate
1 V. Widal : Die. Bng. des Sci. Medicales, pp. 357-380.
2 Peters, DeWitt C. (U. S. A. Surgeon); Am. Med. Times, Vol. VI,
1863.
76 KLINK :
in the absence of a wider range of data to draw any conclu-
sions on this point.
Temperament and Nationality. It is generally agreed that
the most diverse temperaments pay equal tribute to nostalgia,
so that an attempt to make any classification on that basis
is of no value. I find, however, that the majority of the
cases are sensitive, not a few nervous, timid, sociable, affec-
tionate; but they fear a crowd, dread meeting strangers, delight
in the simplicity and shelter of domestic life. Another class
occurring often enough to mention is the phlegmatic, the taci-
turn. They are described as *' difficult to entertain," "prefer
to be by themselves, " " interests are odd or provincial. ' '
They move in a self-created world. With but few exceptions
the cases are Americans of Anglo-Saxon stock. A few pitiful
cases of foreigners unable to speak our language are reported.
A French writer says : ' * That every one imagines that his
native soil is distinguished from others by signal favors, by
particular and rare attributes, and that nature has need of this
illusion in order to keep each man in his own home. ' ' Widal
thinks that the predilection to nostalgia is inversely to the
degree of civilization of a people. Sagos, quoted by ^Papillon,
says ' * that love of country is strongest with those who are
nearest to a state of nature." Savages living under the
rudest forms of civilization, in the most uninviting climates,
grieve when they quit them. A Lapp brought to Poland
where every kindness was shown him, was seized with incur-
able sadness, and at last escaped and returned to his inhospita-
ble country. Greenlanders taken across to Denmark risk
certain death by trusting themselves to slight canoes to cross
the ocean separating them from their own land. Pocahontas,
fondled and caressed by London society, grew homesick for
Virginia's woods and finally wasted and pined away. The
Psalmist^ records Israel's yearning for their Judean homes
while captives in Babylon. " By the rivers of Babylon, there
we sat down, yea we wept, when we remembered Zion. We
hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof. . . .
How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land?"
Nationality. Switzerland is the classic land of nostalgia.
The love of freedom and independence of the inhabitants, their
love of family life, the pure air of the mountains, the charm-
ing scenery of which the accentuated outlines become etched
into their very souls are all elements that make for love of
home. Next come the French. The disposition to the dis-
ease diminishes roughly in proportion as one advances toward
the middle of the country^ (France).
1 Papillon, Fernaud : lac. cit., p. 218.
2 Psalm CXXXVII, Verses, i, 2, 4.
3 Based upon thousands of cases in French military hospitals.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 77
English and Germans leave their country with less reluc-
tance than the citizens of other countries. More cases occur
among German troops in foreign lands than among the
English, whose adventurous and cosmopolitan spirit (his coun-
try is wherever his flag floats), his commercial predilection
immune him from nostalgia without removing in the least his
attachment for his country.
Dr. Peters^ describing the ravages of homesickness among
fresh troops quartered in New Orleans (1862), says : "This
was notably true of soldiers from New England, where it
appeared that the love for home was very strong. ' '
Dr. Calhoun^ writes : * * It is a matter of common remark
in this army that troops from the country have a much larger
percentage of deaths than those recruited in the cities." He
thinks that the peculiar susceptibility to nostalgia of those
from rural districts is due to the fact that a country boy is
more at home, seldom takes his meals at other than the family
table, seldom sleeps away from home, has less temptation to
leave it, and thinks more of it and its influences than he who
in the city spends his days in the workshop or counting-room,
and his nights at the thousand and one places of amusement a
city afibrds ; then, too, the city boy gets his meals at the res-
taurant or the boarding-house.
Facilitating Conditions. By these I mean the variety of con-
ditions in which nostalgia occurs and the factors that may
aggravate it. Fifty per cent, of the cases reported occurred
on entering school — even the first day of school. Others
occurred while making a visit in the country from the city, or
vice versa, or in beginning the first school, taking a new posi-
tion among strangers, moving to a new neighborhood, to a
foreign land, being left alone at home, taken sick away from
home ; again seeing or meeting some one from home, or even re-
ceiving a letter, is sufficient at times to touch off" the pent-up
feelings.
Idleness, the mother of a motley host of delinquent off"-
spring, is exceedingly prolific in this disease (case 5). Among
soldiers* and sailors, idleness, coupled with suspense and lim-
iDr. Peters: lac. cit., pp. 75-6.
2 Calhoun, Th. J.: Nostalgia as a disease of field service. Medical
and Surgical Reporter, Vol. XI, p. 131, Phil., 1864.
3 In military life the beginning and the close of service is marked by
increased nostalgia. "When I took charge of the division they were
losing men by death daily. That it was not due to local causes was
proved by the fact that adjoining regiments exposed to the same local
influences, lost none, and of the patients at our division hospital,
with the same diseases (typho-malarial fever and camp dysentery),
those from the 120th N. Y., Vols, died under the same treatment that
the others got well on. The regiment is from one of the river counties
78 KI.INE :
ited freedom, is more than the ordinary soul can endure with
equanimity. It wrings the cold sweat from the stoutest.
According to my returns nightfall exceeds all other elements
in aggravating and intensifying the sickness. (Cases 12, 16,
18, 23, 35.) The stillness of the night, the chirping of
crickets, the whispering of the leaves, the sough of the wind,
new and strange noises, real or imagined, all intensify the
gloom and forsakenness of the unfortunate. Dr. Hall's^ study
of Fears emphasizes the wonderful horrors that night holds in
store for so many, even though surrounded by every comfort
and protection. Less frequent aggravations are the reception
of letters and articles from home ; dreams about home ; the
feeling of goneness on facing the real after awakening ; friends
offering sympathy ; hearing a familiar song. So strong and
disturbing was the influences of a certain air on Swiss soldiers
in the service of the French that it was forbidden to be played
in their hearing.
Psychical Effects. It usually begins by feeling lonely, desolate,
forsaken. ' * Longing for a lost past, " " low spirited, " * * loss of
ambition, " " hard to cheer up, " "no interest in surround-
ings." Desire to please, natural coquetry and regard for the
opposite sex disappear. Some report: "I wanted to cry;"
"wanted to scream ;" "cried most all the time ;" " cried my-
self to sleep ;" " could think of nothing but home ;" " thought
all the time on objects at home ;" " felt as if I would go in-
sane." Sometimes it comes very suddenly. "It swooped
down on me ;" "felt as though everything was closing in on
me;" "there is a smothering sensation;" "feeling of utter
despair came over me all at once. ' ' They may become icon-
oclastic. " Wanted to destroy everything in my way ;" " had
no mercy on man nor beast until I reached home." In its last
stages hallucinations and delirium set in, followed by complete
prostration, stupor, syncope and death.
Bodily Phenomena. The three most general, if not universal
effects, are (i) loss of appetite, (2) gastro-enteric troubles,
(3) irregularity in respiration interrupted by sighing. Vague,
erratic pains — variable in intensity — accompany all the symp-
toms, and become more and more localized in the head and
stomach. Vomiting often begins early (case 31), the same is
true of animals — the eyes become more and more fixed, dull,
of New York state. Nearly all who died were farmers. Those who were
sent on furlough got well, while those who remained died. But a still
further proof is present. The battle of Chancellorsville cured the
regiment, and it has since enjoyed as good health as any in the
division. This leads me to the remark, that Battier is to be consid-
ered the great curative agent of nostalgia in the field:' Theodore
J. Calhoun, loc. cit., pp. 131-32.
1 Hall, G. Stanley : loc. cit.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 79
and languid and sunken in their sockets. The face is anemic,
the whole body begins to emaciate ; the pulse is irregular and
weakened, heart palpitates, temporal arteries throb. The
mouth is dry and sticky. Nervous dyspepsia is very common,
more often accompanied by diarrhoea, sometimes by constipa-
tion, ending in an absolute refusal to take food. There is in-
continence of urine, spermatorrhoea, menstruation may be
checked or suppressed altogether. Sexual functions are dulled.
Pulmonary phthisis is sometimes mistaken for consumption
(case 1 6). In a word, anabolic processes gradually approach a
minimal activity, while the katabolic hasten to the maximal.^
Sagar says : * * It appears that the soul of the nostalgic no
longer resides in the body, that it has broken oiF all commerce
with it. All, however, agree to a general bodily phthisis
sometimes more or less pronounced in the lungs.
The foregoing^ facts and considerations impress one that nos-
talgia is a very fundamental reaction of an organism to fairly
describable groups of stimuli. These groups QlT^ primarily , it
seems to me, the absence or loss of the Familiar, the presence
of the Strange and Untried, and secondarily restricted lib-
erty, change of food, habits of life and the like. The first group,
especially, will engage us here.
Cases like 9, 10, 18 and 19 have suggested, what appears to
be a probable solution — at least a point of view permitting
legitimate speculation. Faintness, a dazed feeling, nausea
and dizziness are the well known disorders of seasickness and
vertigo.
Seasickness^ is caused by a derangement of the nerve centers
that control the equilibrating mechanism of the body. The
sense^ of equilibrium is furnished by every possible bodily sen-
sation — both kinaesthetic and sensory. To retain^ this sense,
it is necessary that the information, derived from whatever
source, should harmonize. Disturb the harmony and vertigo
immediately ensues. Contradictory impressions not only dis-
turb but often stop the equilibrating functions. Nowhere are
these confused sensations so baffling as at sea. The point of
1 Physicians, like Haspel and Larrey, believed that it was caused on
the physical side by brain and spinal lesions, cerebral hemorrhages
and swellings of the arachnoid membrane, or by gastro-enteric lesions.
These views are now discredited.
2 Calhoun says "Nostalgia is an affection of the mind. It must be
treated with that in view." Hack Tuke thinks that it always repre-
sents a combination of psychical and bodily disturbances. Sauvage de-
scribes it by four words : morasitas, pervigilio, anorexia, asthenia,
which signify sadness, sleeplessness, want of appetite and exhaustion.
^Hudson, W. W.: Cause, Nature and Prevention of Seasickness.
* Howell : Amer. Text Book of Phys., pp. 846-47.
5 Eisner, H. L., Dr.: The Medical News, Vol. LX, pp. 477-80, 1892.
8o KLINK :
rest (center of gravity) in the human body on a tossing ship is
being constantly shifted. Persons unacquainted with these
phenomena attempt consciously and unconsciously to make
compensatory movements in order to maintain the old habitual
land-sense of equilibrium ; thus inaugurating a struggle be-
tween equilibrium of habit and the equilibrium under novel
conditions (sailors are adjusted to this novel sense of equilib-
rium). These repeated attempts to maintain an arbitrary cen-
ter of gravity as it were, produce seasickness^
Nostalgia, it is true, is not a direct disturbance of the phys-
ical sense of equilibration, it appears as a secondary effect.
The patient has, however, lost his psychical orientation. Just as
the seasick patient has his center of gravity and consequently
his physical plane of reference constantly eluding his bodily
adjustments, so the nostalgic has his " psychical plane of ref-
erence ' ' — composed of familiar scenes, friends, sense of secu-
rity and the like — rendered uncertain and bewildering, through
his inability to interpret and to enter into familiar relationships
with the new world about him. To get on in this new world
new adjustments must be made, old brain paths must be dropped
and new ones formed. He must fuse with a new stratum.
The greater the unfamiliarity the severer will be the nervous
shock and stress in trying to make a new adjustment, or to
establish new relationships. As we have seen, many do not try
to make a * ' fusion ' ' at all, do not seek a new ' * plane of refer-
ence," do not attempt to build new brain paths, but rather
yield passively to their prison-world with wonder, timidity and
fear. One experiences the beginnings of this phase of nostalgia
on entering a familiar room in which the furniture has been
rearranged or a piece taken out, or when one attempts a me-
chanical performance in a new situation, e.g., wanting or eating
in a new place at the table, or when one looks into the garden
or on the lawn where a conspicuous tree has been cut down.
The shrivelling and contracting effects of nostalgia on the
ego are unique. Especially does this seem true of the social
ego. In a strange land no one appreciates, applauds and sym-
pathizes with my efforts, my boon companions are gone, I am
isolated, cut off, but a mere machine grinding out a bit of the
world's work.
Migrant vs. IvOver of Home.
The migrant is cosmopolitan, has manifold interests, and finds
profitable objects and kindred spirits in a variety of situations.
1 For a detailed description of the anatomical and functional rela-
tions of the organs (believed to be) involved in vertigo. See Dr. E.
Woakes, Brit. Med. Jour., Vol. I, pp, 801-41, 1883.
McBride: Medical Times, London, 1881.
H. S. Lee : Jour. Phys., Vols. XV and XVII, 1894-95.
Howard Ayres : Jour. Morph., Vol. VI, 1892.
MIGRATORY IMPULSE. 8 1
He may be found in the commercial, speculative, daring, pro-
gressive, macroscopic interests of the world. The lover of
home is provincial, plodding and timid. He is the world's hod-
carrier. His interests are identified with the conservative and
microscopic affairs of society.
AcKNOWivEDGMENT. This thesis crystallized under the
influence of President Hall's lectures on the genesis of Fears,
I am, therefore, partly indebted to him for the subject itself,
and am very thankful for constant help and inspiration during
its treatment. I have received friendly help and criticism from
Dr. W. H. Burnham and citations to literature by Drs. Cham-
berlain and Sanford to whom I offer my best thanks. To Mr.
Wilson, the University I^ibrarian, I am greatly indebted for
meeting me more than half way in securing rare books and
special literature.
JOURNAIv— 6.
THE APPLICABILITY OF WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL.
By ElvEANOR ACHKSON MCCULI^OCH GambIvE, Ph. D.,
Cornell University.
CONTENTS.
Introduction.
Progress of the Experimental Proof of Weber's Law.
Object and Scope of this Paper. Its connection with Zwaardemaker's
Olfactoraetric Work.
Zwaardemaker's Terminology.
Defect of All Psychophysical Measurements.
The Peculiar Difficulty of Olfactometry, viz., the Indeterminateness
of Olfactory Qualities.
Zwaardemaker's Classification of Olfactory Qualities.
Antecedent Probability of the Applicability of Weber's Law to Smell.
Chapter I. Method.
Section i. Factors which Determine the Intensity of the Smell-
Stimulus for the Normal Organ.
(I.) The Quantity of Vapor Thrown Off by the Odorous Body.
(II.) The Rate of Diffusion of the Odorous Vapor.
(III.) The Rate and Manner of Breathing.
Compensation of Smells.
Direct and Indirect Olfactometric Methods.
Methods of Valentin, Fischer and Penzoldt, Dibbits, Ottolenghi,
Passy, Frolich, Arousohn, Savelieff.
Section 2. Control in Zwaardemaker's Olfactometric Method of the
Factors which Determine the Intensity of the Stimulus.
Treatment of the Two Factors of the Genetic Unit.
The Method of Henry.
Adhesion to the Inhaling-Tube.
Control of the Diffusion-Rate of the Vapor.
Control of the Manner and Rate of Breathing.
Section 3. Anosmia and Hyperosmia.
Method of Testing the Openness of the Nasal Passages.
The Effect of Exhaustion.
Section 4. Psychophysical Methods Employed.
An Imperfect Method of Finding the Stimulus-Ivimen.
The Method of Just Noticeable Differences.
Intervals between Stimuli and between Determ'inations.
The Method of Minimal Changes.
A Modified Form of the Method of Just Noticeable Differences.
The Subject's Tendency to Judge in Terms of Hand-Movement.
The Method of Right and Wrong Cases.
Chapter II. Apparatus and Materiai^s.
Section i. The Standard and the Fluid-Mantle Olfactometers.
(I.) The Standard Olfactometer.
(II.) The Fluid-Mantle Olfactometer.
Section 2. Preparation of Odorous Materials.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 83
(I.) Preparation of Odorous Substances Used in Solid Form.
(II.) Preparation of Odorous Substances in Solution.
Section 3. Other Arrangements and Appliances.
Chapter III. Resui^ts.
Section i. The Several Subjects and their Stimulus-Limina.
Table I. A Table of Stimulus-Limina. Remarks.
Section 2. Results Obtained by the Method of Just Noticeable Dif-
ferences.
Table II. Consecutive Results for One Subject, T. Remarks upon
the Constant Sources of Error.
Table III. Complete Results for One Solid and One Liquid Sub-
stance.
Rough Summary of Results by Series.
Table IV. Approximate Values of Ar Obtained for Pairs of Stan-
r
dard Stimulus-Intensities Sensed under the Same Conditions.
Curves Illustrating Parts of Table IV.
Lists of the Substances Used hy the Several Subjects.
Table V. Approximate Values of Ar Arranged to Show Variations
for Individual Subjects. r
Table VI. Approximate Values of t^r Arranged to Show Variations
for Different Substances. ~
Curves Illustrating Part 3 of Table VI.
Remarks on Tables V and VI.
Some Incidental Exhaustion-Phenomena.
Section 3. Results of Other Methods.
Table VII. Results of the Modified Form of the Method of Just
Noticeable Differences.
Table VIII. Results Obtained for Red Rubber by the True Method
of Minimal Changes.
Table IX. Results Obtained by the Method of Right and Wrong
Cases.
Table X. Results of a Rough Attempt to Gauge the Applicability
of the Method of Right and Wrong Cases to Smell.
Summary and Conci^usion.
Introduction.
So long ago as 1834, in a paper entitled " De Tactu," Ernst
Heinrich Weber first stated the law which bears his name, the
first law of psychophysics. Working by the method afterwards
called by Fechner " the method of just noticeable differences,"
he had discovered the law in its application to pressure and
strain.^ Before i860 it had been proved to hold also for noise
and brightness. Since the establishment of the first psycho-
logical laboratory, which occurred in the academic year 1878-9,
and, oddly enough, but a few months after Weber's death, the
validity of the law for the four sensation qualities mentioned
has been over and over again confirmed.
Before i860 Volkmann, Renz, and Wolf, by the method of minimal
changes, had proved its applicability to noise. Bourger, Fechner, and
1 Wundt : Physiologische Psychologie, 4th ed., I, p. 381.
84 GAMBLE :
Volkmann, by their "shadow-experiments," and Masson with his ro-
tating disks, had shown its validity for brightness. Fechner had also
established Weber's conclusions in regard to strain by the method of
right and wrong cases. In the last twenty years, Tischer, Merkel,
and Starke, by the method of minimal changes ; Merkel and Angell
by the method of mean gradations ; and Ivorenz, Merkel, and Kampfe,
by the method of right and wrong cases, have confirmed for noise-
intensities the results of Volkmann ; Helmholtz, Aubert, and Krapelin
have established for brightness the results of Masson ; and Merkel,
using the method of minimal changes, has also proved the conclu-
sions of Weber and Fechner in regard to strain. In the last six
or seven years, the experiments of Merkel by the method of aver-
age error have proved the extension of the law to those strain-
sensations in terms of which we measure distance by the eye, and
the experiments of Schumann by the same method give some indica-
tion of its extension to strain-sensations involved in our estimate of
intervals between one-half second and three seconds.
In case of the sensation-modalities for which the law has not
been proved, and in the case of tone, there are great difficulties
in graduating the intensity of the stimulus. Articular sensa-
tions, indeed, are not themselves graduated intensively. In
the case of tone, the difficulty is mechanical, — that of grad-
uating minutely the objective intensity of simple periodic
vibrations. In the case of the two temperature qualities, which
are peculiar in depending on different intensities of a stimulus
from a physical point of view the same in kind, and in passing
into each other through a conscious indifference-point, the ex-
treme adaptability of the so far unknown and inaccessible periph-
eral organ makes the intensity of the physiological stimulus
begin to fall towards the indifference-point upon the applica-
tion of any new physical stimulus, and thus prevents the phys-
ical stimulus from being a measure of the physiological. The
sensation, moreover, varies in intensity with the extent of sur-
face stimulated and with the weight of the stimulating body.
The qualities of taste and smell form manifolds of indefinitely
related terms, which must be investigated separately. In the
case of taste, the list is at least closed. The intensity of the
taste sensation, however, is a function (i) of the degree of sat-
uration of the solution tasted ; (2) of the magnitude of the area
excited ; and (3) of the movement, diffusion, and pressure of
the substance tasted within the buccal cavity. No very satis-
factory way of keeping all but one of these factors constant,
while that one is varied, has as yet been found, though the in-
vestigations of Camerer, who worked by the method of right
and wrong cases, make the law of Weber appear to apply to
salt and bitter.
As for the applicability of Weber's law to smell, the object of
this paper is to offer a mass of experimental difference-deter-
minations, with a statement of the * ' checks ' ' or controls to
which they must be subjected. This enumeration of possible
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 85
errors involves a discussion of the essentials of a satisfactory
olfactometric method, and a detailed description of the method
and apparatus actually employed. The literature of difference-
determinations in smell amounts practically to pages 180- 181
and pages 188-194 in Die Physiologie des Geruchs of Dr. H.
Zwaardemaker, now professor of physiology in the University
of Utrecht. The work was translated into German from Dr.
Zwaardemaker's manuscript by Dr. A. Junker von I^angegg, and
was published in Leipzig in 1895. The experiments to be de-
scribed are in the main a realization of suggestions of Dr,
Zwaardemaker's, of which some are contained in his book, and
some few were made in personal letters. The olfactometric
method used was, of course, his. This method was first applied
in 1888, and is now familiar in most psychological laboratories.
To quote from Science, XV, 44: " Dr. Zwaardemaker of Utrecht
has constructed an instrument which he calls an olfactometer.
It consists simply of a glass tube, one end of which curves up-
ward to be inserted into the nostril. A shorter movable cylin-
der made of the odoriferous substance fits over the straight end
of this glass tube. In inhaling, no odor is perceived so long
as the outer does not project beyond the inner tube. The far-
ther we push forward the outer cylinder, the larger will be the
scented surface presented to the inrushing column of^ air, and
the stronger will be the odor perceived."
We are indebted to Dr. Zwaardemaker for the words * ' olfac-
tometry " and "olfactometer" (replacing the older "osmom-
eter"), " odorimetry " and " odorimeter." Olfactometry is
that branch of psychophysics which is concerned with the
measurement of the keenness of smell. ^ The distinction be-
tween the keenness and the delicacy of smell must be kept in
mind. On the delicacy of smell depends the discrimination of
olfactory qualities. On its keenness depend the bare sensing of
odors and the discrimination of them as more or less intense.^
Odorimetry is a "side-issue" of olfactometry. It is con-
cerned not with the sense-organ, but with the measurement of
the intensity of smell-stimuli considered as objectively as possi-
ble.^ For the unit of keenness of smell, Zwaardemaker uses
the word "olfactus," and for the normal stimulus-limen for
each odorous substance he employs the companion word ' * ol-
facty."* If, for example, a subject's stimulus-limen on the
olfactometer is 10 mm. when the normal stimulus-limen used is
1 Die Physiologie des Geruchs, p. 78.
^P. II. Cf. also Vintschgau, Die Physiologie des Geruchsinnes und
des Geschmacksinnes, in Hermann's Handbuch der Physiologie, 111, 2,
p. 270.
3 Zwaardemaker : op. cit., p. 174.
* Pp. 92, 134.135.
86 GAMBLE :
5 mm. , then his stimulus-limen is two olfacties, and his olfactus
y^. The olfacty used by olfactometry becomes for each sub-
stance the unit of odorimetry. Odorimetry is correlated with
photometry and phonometry. Both olfactometry and odorime-
try are branches of " olfactology " (to anglicise another word
used by Dr. Zwaardemaker). This again is correlated with
optics, acoustics and haptics.
The interdependence of olfactometry and odorimetry is not
unique. The unit of photometry, /. e. , the unit for the meas-
urement of light in the physical sense, is the illuminating
power for sensation of the light of some standard candle. " We
have no adequate objective method." writes Prof. Kiilpe, '* of
ascertaining the intensity of the non-periodic and aperiodic
concussions which form the substrate of simple or complex
noises, independently of the statement of the observer whose
sensitivity we are testing. The phonometric determination of
sound intensities in psychophysical experiments is usually car-
ried out upon a principle similar to that employed in photom-
etry. As the objective stimulus-values in the apparatus em-
ployed,— say, elastic balls falling from a measurable height
on a resisting plate, — are determined by way of a subjective
comparison, the results are purely empirical, valid only for
the material used, the special circumstances of the observation,
etc."i
The peculiarly unsatisfactory character of the determina-
tions of olfactometry and odorimetry is due chiefly to the fact
that olfactory qualities, unlike visual and auditory, are not de-
marcated. It is true that it is more difficult to keep uniform
the duration and extension of smell-stimuli than it is to regu-
late these attributes for other stimuli, with the possible excep-
tions of temperature and taste. It is also true that the great
gulf of psychophysics, our ignorance of the physiological pro-
cesses which everywhere link the strictly physical to the psy-
chological, is wider in the cases of temperature, taste and
smell, than in the cases of vision, audition, pressure and strain.
Yet, at best, the measurements of physics must always be in
terms of sensation, and the measurement of sensation must
always be in terms of physics.
It seems wise to emphasize at the outset the initial difficulty
which makes all quantitative work in smell more or less un-
systematic, viz., the indeterminateness of olfactory qualities.
It is at present necessary to regard as a simple and separate
quality the odor of every substance which from a physical
point of view is unmixed ; yet, for several reasons, it is un-
^ Outlines of Psychology, tr., p. 156.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 87
likely that there are as many elementar> odors as there are
simple substances.^
One reason is, that it is extremely improbable that either the
structure of the fibres or endings, or the substance of the olfac-
tory nerve, is differentiated to correspond to the innumerable
odorous substances which we encounter; and, on the other
hand, it is probable by analogy with other sense-organs, that
there are ' ' specific energies ' ' of smell which are limited in
number and capable of combination.^
A second reason is that we have experimental evidence that
the action of the sense organ is differentiated into more and less
separable processes. We have sure evidence in the results of
exhaustion-experiments, which were first instituted by Frolich
and Aronsohn.^ For example, a subject whose organ is
fatigued by the continuous smelling of tincture of iodine can
sense ethereal oils and ethers almost or quite as well as ever,
oils of lemon, turpentine and cloves but faintly, and common
alcohol not at all. We have also evidence of vSome slight value
in the recorded traces of partial anosmia.'* Unfortunately, very
few such cases have been described by persons who took ex-
perimental precautions, and such cases as are noted in medical
literature fail to show typical anomalies comparable to the uni-
form phenomena of color-blindness or " tone-islands," which
have played such an important part in the formation of theories
of vision and audition.^
A third reason is that there are countless instances of smell-
fusions in which the components cannot be detected. Nagel
intimates that there is no proof of the existence of smell-
fusions in which different components can be sensed as differ-
ent at the same instant, and points out that, in this respect,
smell-mixtures resemble color-mixtures rather than clangs.®
Zwaardemaker, following Aronsohn and bearing in mind the
usages of the perfume trade, holds that only similar odors will
^It should be noted that the words "simple" and " mixed " or
" compound " are used here in the sense of physics proper, and not in
the sense of chemistry. Smell, in the physical sense, is undoubtedly
a property of the molecule, not of the atom. Indeed, most of the
elements are odorless. Sulphur and hydrogen, themselves odorless,
form sulphuretted hydrogen, one of the most offensive smelling gases
known.
2 Nagel : tjber Mischgeriiche und die Komponentgliederung des Ge-
ruchsinnes. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesor-
gane, XV, pp. 82-83.
8 Zwaardemaker : £?/. «7., pp. 203, 204, 256-257. Aronsohn: Unter-
suchungen zur Physiologi des Geruchs. Archiv fiir Physiologie^ 1886,
pp. 342-346.
* Zwaardemaker : op. cit., p. 259 sq.
^ Nagel : op. cit., p. 87.
*Pp. 90-91.
88 GAMBLE :
mix.^ He believes, on the basis of his own experiments, that
if dissimilar odors of different intensities are mixed, the weaker
odor will cancel part of the odor of the stronger, and will itself
be lost, and that if dissimilar odors of the same intensity are
mixed, both will disappear or will give but a feeble indetermi-
nate fusion.^ Zwaardemaker does not, as alleged by Nagel,
adduce his conclusions in regard to mixture as a buttress to
his localization and irradiation theory, though he does seek to
explain the facts of mixture and compensation, as he under-
stands them, in harmony with this theory.* Nagel, as opposed
to Zwaardemaker, believes, on the basis of his own experi-
ments, that any two smells will unite in a mixture which
for an instant, at least, will make a simple impression of
new quality.'* He has never found an instance of complete
"compensation," but he agrees with Zwaardemaker that a
mixture of several smells is in general weaker than its indi-
vidual components, and that some combinations of strongly
odorous substances are almost odorless.^ Nagel offers no ex-
planation of the phenomenon of compensation, nor does
Zwaardemaker explain it satisfactorily even on the basis of his
irradiation-theory. Perhaps it is safe to conclude that most
smells will mix. As Nagel suggests, there is no occasion in
the perfume trade to mix nauseating or hircine smells with
the odors of flowers, spices and resins.
A fourth and final reason for believing that there are not as
many simple odors as there are unmixed substances, is that
many simple substances have been found by experiment to have
composite odors. Chlorphenol and nitrobenzol are good ex-
amples of such substances. ^
Now, if there are a limited number of specific energies of
smell, and if most smells are mixed, our ignorance of the ele-
mentary smells, and our consequent inability to isolate them,
have serious consequences for the value of olfactometric work.
This will be clearer if we consider the two methods which are
used to discover whether a smell is simple or composite. The
method of Passy consists in gradually increasing the dilution of
odorous substances, and depends upon the principle that since
the stimulus-limina of different odors are different, they must
disappear successively as the intensities of the different stimuli
are diminished equally.' However, it is at least possible that
'^Op. cit., p. 280.
2 Pp. 167 and 284.
8 P. 279.
4 op. cit., 95.
5P. loi.
6 Pp. 96-97. '
T P. 96.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 89
odors which have very different stimulus-limina should have
the same difference-limina. The other method is that of ex-
haustion, and depends on the fact that different odors exhaust
the organ with different degrees of rapidity, so that a com-
pound odor, continuously smelled, will alter in quality as first
one and then another of its constituents disappears. One may
smell continuously the substance to be tested, or may smell it
before and after smelling repeatedly an odor very similar in
quality. The principle of the method is the same in both
cases. The permanency of the mixed odor depends primarily
on the equality of rate at which its different constituents
fatigue the organ. The more numerous the constituents, the
more permanent the quality of the mixture. This fact is well
recognized in the perfume industry. Fortunately for the trade,
the odor of almost every flower (Sawer mentions jasmine as a
unique exception)^ may be simulated by compounding the
odors of other flowers. The odor of violet, for example, is
given by a blend of the odors of acacia, rose, Florentine iris,
tuberose and almond. The odors of most flowers, again, are
possessed by certain chemicals. To the mixture is usually added
some substance, such as styrax, amber, or vanilla, which
evaporates slowly, and smells strongly enough to compensate
parts of the other odors. This is done that quantities of the
other odorous substances large enough to allow for evaporation
may be put into the solution without raising the intensity of
the smell to the neighborhood of the terminal stimulus-
intensity.^ If, now, most smells are mixed, and if mixed
smells alter in quality as the organ becomes fatigued, and if
different olfactory qualities have not the same limina, then in
quantitative work in smell, we are seeking to determine values
which are continually changing according to laws which we do
not know.
There is no classification of olfactory qualities, which is even
provisionally satisfactory from any point of view but a per-
fumer's. We give to odors the names of the objects which most
commonly give rise to them, or to something similar to them. We
speak of a ' ' fishy smell ' ' as loosely as Homer, in the days when
the terminology of color was in its infancy, spoke of " thewine-
hued sea." Yet the name of an odor is clearly and indisputa-
bly applicable only to the smell of that object from which the
name is taken. ^
Giessler's classification of odors may be of value to psy-
chology proper, but is of no value whatever to psychophysics.
1 Sawer : Odorographia, First S(
2 Zwaardemaker : op. cit.y p. 285
8 P. 208.
First Series, p. 94.
90 GAMBLE:
The most satisfactory method of arriving at a classification of
smells seems to be the method of exhaustion ; but the results so
far obtained do not furnish any basis for such a system. Nagel
points out as the greatest difficulty in the way that when the
organ is fatigued by one smell, its sensitivity does not remain
quite unimpaired for one large group of odors, and utterly fail
for another group ; but on the contrary, is usually more or less
impaired for all odors. ^ Analysis by exhaustion is complicated
experimentally by the fact that smells do not fall away steadily,
but oscillate at the stimulus-limen, as do minimal sensations
in other departments. In the case of smell this oscillation de-
pends on slight variations in the rate and manner of breathing,
as well as on the ordinary ebb and flow of the attention. The
apparent "rivalry" of odors is due to this fluctuation at the
limen.^ Moreover, it is only the last component of the mixture
to disappear, which is ever really isolated by the exhaustion-
process.
Zwaardemaker adopts, with some modification, the old classi-
fication of Linnaeus, which really has only a subjective basis,
though Zwaardemaker attempts, without signal success, to give
it a chemical one. On the principle that even a most unsatis-
factory system is better than none, some pains have been taken
in the experiments to be described to procure smells from as
many of Zwaardemaker' s classes as possible, and to compare
results for representatives of the same class and of different
classes. Zwaardemaker' s classes of pure olfactory qualities are
as follows :^
I. Ethereal smells — including all the fruit odors (a class
taken from I^orry).
II. Aromatic smells — including all such odors as that of
camphor, spicy smells, and the odors of anise and lavender,
lemon and rose, and almond.
III. Fragrant smells — including the odors of most flowers,
of vanilla, and of such gums as tolu and benzoin.
IV. Ambrosiac smells — including the odor of amber, and all
the musk odors.
V. Alliaceous smells — including the odors of garlic, asafcet-
ida, gum ammoniac, vulcanized India rubber, fish, bromine,
chlorine and iodine, etc.
VI. Empyreumatic smells — including the odors of toast,
tobacco smoke, pyridin, naphtha, etc., (a class taken from von
Haller).
VII. Hircine smells — including the odors of cheese, sweat,
rancid fat, etc., etc.
1 Op. cit., p. 86.
2 P. 98.
^Op.cit., pp. 233-235.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 9 1
VIII. Virulent smells — including such odors as that of
opium, '* Odor cimicis," etc.
IX. Nauseating smells — including the odors of decaying
animal matter, of faeces and the like.
The pungency of smells is not an olfactory quality, but is
due to the excitation of filaments of the trigeminus, which are
freely distributed in the Schneiderian membrane. The sensa-
tion is more like pressure than smell. When very strong it
becomes a tickling, and sneezing ensues. Persons who have
congenital or pathological defects of smell are said to have cul-
tivated these sensations by attention to such an extent that
they do duty for smells proper.^ Some smells which are not the
flavors of food sensed in expiration, seem to be tastes, as well
as smells. For example, we think of the odor of boiling syrup
as sweet, and say that curdled milk " smells " sour. This is
probably due to early association, which has indissolubly
fused certain taste- memories with certain smell-sensations of
peripheral origin.^ It may, however, be due to the entrance
of sapid particles through the nose into the pharynx.^ Smells
are often blended with pressure sensations other than pungency
and with temperature sensations.* It is probable that there
is an element of pain in an impression of pungency, while
smells often give a ''feeling of weight," pure and simple.
Whenever the subjects in these experiments spoke of the heat,
taste, pressure, pain, or pungency of an odor, their remarks
were carefully noted, on the supposition that such factors in the
total impression were disturbing in a quantitative investigation
of olfactory qualities proper.
Zwaardemaker's differentiation of the specific energies of
smell and localization of their actions on the olfactory mucous
membrane is not to our present purpose. We may simply
note in passing that he arranges the zones of their operation in
horizontal order, since the height to which the air current is
carried in the nose makes no difference in the quality of an
odor ; and that he rather ingeniously places the nauseating and
virulent smells farthest back and closest to the pharynx, in a
region where they may excite the reflexes of vomiting and
coughing by mere irradiation of nervous excitation without the
connecting link of central processes ; puts the hircine and am-
brosiac odors in the middle, on account of the connection of hy-
peraemia of the "corpora cavernosa nasal ia " with the blood
supply of the generative organs ; and locates the fragrant, aro-
matic and ethereal smells farthest to the front, since the
1 Pp. 236-237.
2p. 211.
*Pp. 211-212.
*P. 212.
92 GAMBLE :
sneezing-reflex is most easily excited in the anterior portion of
the nasal cavities/ Nagel's remark that Zwaardemaker's locali-
zation-theory leads to * ' irresolvable contradiction ' ' is not quite
clear, but he is certainly right in saying that the theory has no
adequate basis. Aside from the lack of experimental evidence,
the arrangement of the several zones is too fancifully neat to
carry conviction with it; but Zwaardemaker himself empha-
sizes the fact that the essential part of his theory is simply the
arrangement of the operations of specific energies of smell cor-
responding more or less exactly to the classification of Lin-
naeus on the olfactory mucous membrane in the order of these
classes.^
Before bringing these introductory remarks to a close, it may
be noted that, aside from any experimental evidence which may
be offered, it is probable that Weber's law does apply to such
smells, mixed and unmixed, as we daily encounter. In the
first place we have the analogy of several other modalities of
sensation for believing that the law applies to simple olfactory
qualities. In the second place it has never been proved that
Weber's law applies merely to unmixed sensations. It has
been neither proved nor disproved for clangs, but many expe-
riences of ordinary life would lead us to believe that it does
apply to musical chords as wholes. Thus it may apply to
smell-fusions as wholes, and approximately correct difference-
determinations maj^ be obtained for these wholes even while
their character is gradually altering. Since, in the present
state of our knowledge, no one can even pretend to be working
with simple olfactory qualities, all difference-determinations in
smell must proceed upon the assumption of this possibility.
Experimental results must be the only decisive evidence for or
against the theory, so that it is needless to discuss it farther in
this place.
In the third place the distinction drawn by Passy between
*' insistent " and *' intensive " smells, which is based upon a
classification of smells in the popular mind and confirmed by
other scientific men, is explained by the supposition that
Weber's law applies to smell with different values of Ar for diff-
r
erent qualities. In Zwaardemaker's language, and in the ordi-
nary language of this paper, the smaller the "minimum percept-
ible " of a substance, the more intense its' odor. Passy uses a
term, " pouvoir odorant," — which we may translate *' insist-
ency,"— for "intensity" in our sense. Hesays : "Tout lemonde
sent que le camphre, le citron, le benzine sont des odeurs for-
1 Pp. 262-265.
2 P. 265.
wkber's law to smbll. 93
tes, la vanille, I'iris des odeurs faibles," though vanilla has an
insistency one thousand times greater than that of comphor.
Besides this subjective basis of distinction between weak odors,
however insistent, and strong or intensive odors, he has five ob-
jective differentiae, (i) Weak smells have vague differences of
intensity. For example, vanilla and coumarine soon reach a
maximum of intensity which cannot be increased. Greater
concentrations simply become unpleasant. (2) Individual dif-
ferences are more evident for weak smells. (3) The daily
variations of sensitivity are more evident for weak smells. (4)
Exhaustion has more effect on weak smells. (5) Strong
smells hide the weak.-^ In view of the first objective difference,
Zwaardemaker explains the subjective difference as follows :
As the strength of a sensation is estimated by the number of
grades of intensity by which it surpasses the liminal sensation,
and as the terminal stimulus is by definition that degree of in-
tensity beyond which increase cannot be shown for our human
sense organs with our mechanical appliances, it is obvious that
odors with large difference-limina must be subjectively weak,
and that subjectively weak odors must have large difference-
limina. Thus, the very rapid attainment by some smell-
stimuli of the terminal intensity would seem to indicate that
Weber's law applied to olfactory qualities, and that the differ-
ence-limen differed from quality to quality.^
Unfortunately our own experimental results are at variance
with the second clause of the theory. They make Weber's law
appear to apply to smells as we find them, but show no great va-
riation of Ar from substance to substance. The difference-limina
r
even of camphor and vanilline seem much the same. If our fig-
ures are accepted as trustworthy, some other explanation than
the simple one of Zwaardemaker must be found for the distinction
of Passy . May it not be that, for phy logenetic reasons, ' ' intense' '
smells have more affective value, more of what Miiller calls
*' Eindringlichkeit,"* than have the smells which Passy calls
" insistent?" Or may it not be that the smells most useful to
human life exhaust the human sense-organ less after many in-
crements than smells less useful do after a few increments,
although the increments are relatively equal throughout ? The
need of some such explanation will be more or less clear as the
figures to be offered are more or less convincing.
ipp. 191-192.
2 Pp. 192-193.
^The " Eindringlichkeit" of a sensation depends in part upon its
intensity, and in part upon its affective value (G. E. Miiller, Zeitschr.
f. Psych, und Physiol, der Sinnesorgane, X, pp. 25-27).
94 GAMBLE :
Chapter I. Method.
Section i. Determination of the intensity of the Smell- Stimulus
for the Normal Organ.
If all the nervous elements concerned in smell are in a nor-
mal condition, and if "compensation " does not come into play,
the intensity of an odor depends on the number of odorous par-
ticles in gaseous form which are acting on the olfactory nerve-
endings at the time. Perhaps it is safe to say that the intensity
is ordinarily a function of the number which are acting on the
rod-cells of the olfactory mucous membrane. ^ Whether or not
individual rod-cells are subject to cumulative stimulation, we
do not know, for we do not know even whether the stimulation
is chemical, thermal, or electrical,^ but we do know that the
intensity of the smell seems to depend on the extent of mem-
brane and therefore on the number of rod-cells stimulated, —
always supposing that the rod-cells are the olfactory cells proper.
Now the number of odorous particles which act at any given
time on the olfactory membrane of the normal nose depends,
first, on the quantity of vapor which the fragrant body is
throwing off; secondly, on the rate of the diffusion of this
vapor ; and thirdly, on the manner and rate of breathing. L<et
us consider these facts separately.
I. The Quantity of Vapor Thrown off by the Odorous
Body. ' * Whether ' ' says Zwaardemaker, ' ' odorous particles
are set free by evaporation or chemical reaction, the mass of
odorous molecules which are given off from a solid body or the
surface of a liquid is, ceteris paribus^ in compound proportion
to the time of exposure and extent of surface exposed.*
Zwaardemaker has invented a ' * genetic unit ' ' for the measure-
ment of odor in the physical sense. It is the number of seconds
of exposure multiplied by the number of square millimeters of
surface exposed.* It is unnecessary to say that the genetic
unit differs from substance to substance. The ' ' other factors ' *
which must remain equal, if the genetic unit of a given sub-
stance is to be constant, are the moisture, weight, and temper-
ature of the atmosphere and the amount of ozone present in it.^
That heat and dampness affect the intensity of odors is a
matter of common observation. Yellow wax smells twice as
strong in summer as in winter. Heat promotes evaporation.
Dampness also promotes the vaporization of such solids as are
1 Zwaardemaker : op. cit.y p. 7 ; Foster: Text Book of Physiology y
6tli ed., p. 249.
2 Zwaardemaker : op. cit., pp. 276-277.
* P. 26.
6 P. 28.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELIv. 95
soluble in water, but, on the other hand, retards the diffusion
of odorous vapors. The temperature of the laboratory in
which smell experiments are in progress should be kept as uni-
form as possible, and thermometer and barometer readings
should be taken whenever the stimulus-limen is determined.
Uniformity of temperature was not secured in our own experi-
ments.
II. The Rate of Diffusion of Odorous Vapor. Cloquet
pointed out in 182 1 that odors diffuse in the air as one gas
diffuses in another, — gradually, and without interruption by
reflection or refraction. — so that if the air is at rest, the
strength of a smell will be inversely proportional to the distance
of its source, though the speed with which different odors
travel varies much.^ Now the air from which we draw our
breath is, under ordinary circumstances, almost never free
from currents. For phylogenetic reasons, no gas is odorous
which is not heavy enough to remain near its source if undis-
turbed. Yet the wind may carry such gases for miles near the
surface of the ground. Nor can we, in view of the dynamic
theory of smell, and of Liegois's theory that odorous particles
are largely diffused in the form of tiny liquid drops which
afterwards vaporize, unhesitatingl)^ apply the laws of diffusion
of gases to smells. Zwaardemaker has, however, proved by a
series of experiments that the transmission of odorous vapors
in tubes takes place at the same rate for different distances
from the source, unless these distances are very considerable.^
From an inhaling-tube, all currents of air, except the suction-
current created by the inspiration, are excluded.
III. The Rate and Manner of Breathing. Not all the air
which passes through the nose comes in contact with the olfac-
tory mucuous membrane. The current of air drawn into the
nose from without is divided by the lower turbinal bone into
two portions. From the stream which takes the direct path to
the choana under this bone and along the floor of the nose, no
odorous vapor reaches the olfactory membrane. Each nasal
cavity is divided by the middle turbinal bone into two cham-
bers. In the upper chamber, which extends from the pointed
roof of the nose to the under edge of the middle turbinal bone,
the side wall and the septum are almost parallel, and only
about two millimeters apart. The olfactory membrane is
spread over the upper surface of these parallel walls, forming
the regio olfactoria of Todd and Bowman. According to von
Brunn only the uppermost part of the upper turbinal bone and
the surface of the septum just opposite are covered by the ol-
2Pp.3i-34,39.4o.
96 GAMBi^K :
factory membrane.^ In ordinary breathing, the highest point
in the upper stream is, according to Franke, the under edge of
the upper turbinal bone, and according to Paulsen and Zwaar-
demaker, the under edge of the middle turbinal bone.^ In the
rapid and violent breathing with expanded nostrils which we
call " sniffing," the air is carried about 2 mm. higher,^ — i. e.,
into the forward and under part of the upper chamber. In
either case, odorous particles can reach the olfactory membrane
only bj^ diffusion, but more of them will penetrate to it in
sniffing than in quiet inspiration. The upper chamber is an
annex, not an integral part, of the breathing-passage.
Odorous particles probably do not accumulate in the upper
chamber. During inspiration, the air in the passages traversed
by the current is thinned, and as soon as inspiration ceases, the
air in the upper chamber rushes down to the middle meatus, to
be renewed from the pharynx during expiration.* If so much
odorous matter has been taken in as to saturate the air in the
pharynx, we sometimes get a smell in expiration even when
we are not eating. Ordinarily, however, the very weak stimu-
lus from the pharynx, coming after the very strong stimulus
from without, is not sensed.^ Fick, indeed, advanced the hy-
pothesis that when odorous particles come in contact with the
olfactory membrane, they are at once dissolved in the thin fluid
which covers the bottom of the sensitive hairs, and that when
so dissolved, they cease to act.* These particles may, how-
ever, accumulate to some extent on the Schneiderian mem-
brane, especially, if it is in a catarrhal condition. Of course,
we get the flavor of food only in expiration. The course of
the air in expiration is almost the same as in inspiration, but
Bidder is probably right in supposing that a smaller amount
passes above the lower turbinal bone.^
Under ordinary conditions, the more rapid the breathing, the
more intense the smell. Sniffing is to be forbidden in olfacto-
metric work, not merely because it carries the air higher in the
nose, than does * ' regular breathing, ' ' but because, both by in-
creasing the suction-force and by widening the entrance, it
takes more air and therefore more odorous particles into the
nose in a given time. The spaces from which air is drawn
through the nose are cones with their points at the nostrils.
We may see their size and shape in the clouds of vapor formed
ip. 6.
2 Pp. 46-57, 67.
*P. 202.
*P.6o.
6 P. 62.
6 P. 60.
'P. 42.
WEBER'S I.AW TO SMELI.. 97
by our exhalations in cold weather. The spaces from which
odorous particles are drawn are portions of these larger spaces.
The breathing-spaces are projections of the whole of the nasal
cavities; the "fields of smell" are projections only of those
cavities from which odorous particles reach the olfactory mem-
brane. They are separated from each other by about a centi-
meter. In snifl5ng, through the expansion of the nostrils, the
fields of smell become wider than the ordinary breathing-spaces,
but as the inspiration is short and quick, they are not so deep.^
If then the strength of a smell-stimulus is to be measured
with some degree of accuracy by the genetic unit, the tempera-
ture and moisture of the air, the diffusion-rate of the vapor,
and the subject's manner and rate of breathing must be kept
as uniform as possible.
As for the compensation-error, there is no intrinsic stimula-
tion of the olfactory membrane as there is of the retina and the
ear. Owing to exhaustion, the subject cannot smell his own
breath in expiration. He can indeed smell it in inspiration if the
current is puffed upward to the nostrils. This fact seems to
show that, given the same amount of odorous matter in the air
current, we get a stronger smell in inspiration than in expira-
tion. On the other hand, the difficulty of securing an absence
of smells from external sources for a subject who has at all
cultivated his organ by attention, transcends the difficulty of
securing such silences and darknesses as are satisfactory for
experimental purposes. Of course, no substance which, as such,
is to be used as a test, should be dissolved in an odorous
medium, such as alcohol, ammonia, or ether.
Zwaardemaker classes the methods which have so far been
employed to find the stimulus-limina of smells as direct and
indirect.^ By the direct methods the subject seeks to find the
stimulus-limen of an olfactory quality in terms of the greatest
dilution of an odorous vapor which can give a just noticeable
sensation of that quality. By the indirect methods, he seeks
to find the stimulus-limen in terms of the smallest quantity of
the odorous substance which can be sensed under certain defi-
nite and easily procurable conditions. The direct methods aim
at absolute results where absolute results are unattainable.
" It may be possible," says Zwaardemaker, " to determine the
area of an inspiration made in an effort to smell, but the exact
ascertainment of the amount of odorous gas which in this in-
spiration comes in contact with the olfactory cells has so far
proved an impossibility."^ The indirect methods aim at rela-
tive results, but their procedure is exact. They furnish a
1 Pp. 68.77.
2 Pp. 79-80.
3 p. 80.
JOURNAI,— 7.
98 GAMBLE :
basis for the comparison of individuals with reference to their
keenness of smell, and of substances with reference to their
value for the sense, and thus may indirectly lead to some
knowledge of the greatest degree of dilution in which an odor-
ous substance can be detected.^
The method which Valentin invented in 1848 may be called classi-
cal, since it is mentioned in most of the standard text books of
physiology. It was direct, and consisted in taking a certain volume
of odorous gas and mingling it with a hundred volumes of air, taking
a certain volume of the mixture and mingling this again with a hun-
dred volumes of fresh air, and so on until the last mixture gave a just
discernable odor. Valentin varied his procedure by allowing the
vaporization of smaller and smaller quantities of a highly concen-
trated solution of an odorous substance in a definite amount of air, or
by mingling smaller and smaller quantities of it with a mass of
water of a given volume. ^ It is plain that a certain amount of the
odorous substance must adhere to the vessel in which such a mixture
is contained, so that the amount of odorous substance taken away
from the receptacle for a new admixture will never be so large as the
ratio of the gas or liquid removed to the whole volume would indi-
cate, and that this error must increase as the experiment proceeds.
As for the use of highly concentrated solutions, it involves two
serious disadvantages, the blunting of the sense by exhaustion and
the adhesion of odorous particles to objects in the laboratory.^
The invention of no other direct olfactrometric method is recorded
before that of the method employed by Fischer and Penzoldt in 1887.
Avoiding Valentin's progressive dilutions, these investigators sought
to determine how much mercaptan and how much chlorphenol must
be introduced into the whole mass of air in a laboratory of a certain
size in order to give an odor just noticeable to a person entering the
room. The walls of the laboratory were perfectly smooth, the floor
was of stone, and the equal distribution of the odorous gas to all parts
of the room was secured by the motion of fans. The solutions were
scattered with a fine spray.* Unfortunately, these solutions were
alcoholic.
In the same year H. C. Dibbits arrived at a partial determination of
the stimulus-limen for the odor of acetic acid. Acetate of zinc
is decomposed. in the presence of water, and an insoluble basic salt
and free acetic acid are formed. Dibbits, during the course of six-
teen hours, allowed 60 litres of damp air to pass over a mass of salt
which had been freed from water of crystallization, found the loss of
weight to be 16.8 mg., and calculated the proportion that the weight
of the acetic acid set free must bear to this loss of weight to be ^i^-.
As 24 mg. of acetic acid must have been communicated to 60 1. of air,
and as the odor was discernible in this air, the stimulus-limen of
acetic acid must lie under 0.4 mg. per litre.^ While the methods of
Fischer and Penzoldt and of Dibbits are comparatively accurate, it is
obvious that they are impracticable for difference-determinations.
A method employed in 1889 by Ottolenghi for testing the olfactory
sensitivity of criminals is a modified form of Valentin's, and is essen-
tially the same as the method recommended by Passy in 1892.
IP. 80.
2 Valentin : Grundriss der Physiologie, p. 515.
^Zwaardemaker: op. cii., p. 79.
^ American Journal 0/ Psychology, I, p. 357.
^ Zwaardemaker : op. cil., p. 84,
webkr's law to smell. 99
Ottolenghi used 12 aqueous solutions of essence of cloves contained
in similar bottles in similar quantities. The solutions were graduated
from 1 : 50000 to 1:100. The subject began with the weakest solution
and took the bottles successively until sensation commenced. Passy
dissolved a certain weight of odorous material in a given weight of
alcohol, mingled a certain fraction of the solution with a given weight
of pure alcohol, and so op, until he had obtained a graduated series of
saturations. He then put single drops of his solutions into bottles of
the same size, and arrived by the method of just noticeable stimuli at an
estimate of the stimulus-limen in terms of saturation-strength and the
area of his bottles. 1 Ottolenghi's combinations of essence of cloves
and water were not true solutions. Passy's results are vitiated by the
compensating effect of the odor of the alcohol. Both methods involve
an error due to the constant loss of odorous material by the mere
opening of the vessels for the subject to smell their contents, by in-
halation, and by condensation on the walls of the vessels. Zwaarde-
maker suggests that fairly satisfactory results might be obtained on
Ottolenghi's principle if one (i) employed only solutions in distilled
water, (2) made very short inspirations, (3) used very large inhaling
vessels, and ( 4) avoided all odorous substances the vapor of which
is easily condensed. 2 Theoretically, if the series of saturations could
be minutely enough graduated, this method might be employed for
difference-determinations, but practically, the use of many large in-
haling-vessels would make it too clumsy.
The first indirect method was invented by Frolich in 1851, three
years after Valentin invented his direct method. Frolich gauged the
keenness of smell by the distances at which odorous substances could
be sensed under uniform conditions. He put up in tightly corked
test-tubes such substances as ethereal oils, resins, spices, and musk
mixed with starch in such proportions that however different in
quality, the odors might be the same in intensity. The subject closed
his eyes, the tube was uncorked and moved toward him, and both
the distance at which the substance was first sensed and the time at
which judgment was passed were marked. ^ Frolich seems, however,
to have made little use of his time-estimates. As the odors with
which he worked are slowly diffused, the mass of odorous vapor may
be thought of as moving with the tube. Yet results based on such a
rough hypothesis cannot be very reliable.^ Moreover, the assump-
tion that odors so unlike in quality are of the same intensity, since
they can be just sensed by the same person at the same distance, begs
the question of the value of the hypothesis mentioned, and Frolich
seems to have had no other means of determining their comparative
intensity except guess-work.
Aronsohn's famous method, devised in 1886, though indirect upon
the ordinary theory of smell which makes the odorous particles act
in gaseous form on the olfactory membrane, must be classed on Aron-
sohn's own premises as direct. His hypothesis is that odorous parti-
cles are in solution when they act on the nerve-endings. This
assumption, for which J. Miiller is chiefly responsible,^ is based (i)
on the fact that fishes and amphibia have peripheral and central or-
gans similar to the organs of smell in birds and mammals, and (2) on
the fact that the nasal membranes are normally covered with mucus,
1 Pp. 98-99.
2 P. 99.
3 Pp. 80-81.
*P. 81.
5 P. 62.
lOO GAMBI^E :
and that the drying of this mucus, as in the first stage of rhinitis,
impairs the sense of smell. Tortual and Weber had indeed proved
that odorous liquids when introduced into the nose " do not smell,"
and Weber had also found that the sense is for a time impaired if
warm or cold water or sugar and water are poured into the nasal cavi-
ties and retained there for a few moments.^ Aronsohn explained these
phenomena by supposing that strong solutions of odorous matter and
liquids of foreign temperature if brought in contact with the delicate
olfactory membrane must necessarily have a pernicious effect. He
found, on the other hand, that very small quantities of odorous sub-
stances dissolved in normal saline solutions can be sensed if the
mixture, at a temperature of about 40° C, is poured into the nose from
the height of about half a meter. Weber had used cologne and water
in the proportion of i : 11. Aronsohn used oil of cloves, for example,
in salt and water in the proportion of i : 500. His olfactometric
method consisted simply in determining how weak a solution of an
odorous substance could be sensed if injected at the temperature
proved empirically to be most favorable for its detection.^ If Aron-
sohn's premises are correct, not only is his method direct, but the
worst difficulties in the measurement of smell-stimuli are eliminated.
In criticism of these premises, however, Zwaardemaker points out (l)
that aquatic mammals have organs which resemble the organs of
smell in land mammals, but are rudimentary, as if useless under
water ; (2) that the dryness of rhinitis is confined almost exclusively
to the Schneiderian membrane and is conjoined with hyperaemia and
swelling which obstructs the passage of air; (3) that the cilia of the
olfactory cells protrude through the covering of mucus ; and (4)
that most odorous substances are not at all or are but very slightly
soluble in water. Books on the perfume-industry are filled with the
discussion of ethereal oils, of spices, gums, and the like. In a room
saturated with perfume or tobacco smoke, a bit of cotton wool will
take up the odor, while a glass of water will not. Moreover, as
Zwaardemaker believes, it cannot be shown that Aronsohn succeeded
in filling the cavity which contains the olfactory membrane so en-
tirely with liquid that all bubbles of air were excluded. It is very
difficult to drive all the air out of blind pouches.^
In 1893, I^r. N. Savelieff in the laboratory of Morokschowetz con-
structed an olfactometer on a principle entirely different from Zwaar-
demaker's. There were two flasks of glass, each with two corks.
Through one cork in each, the two flasks were connected by a glass
tube bent twice at right angles. Through the other cork of one was
inserted a glass tube which reached to the bottom. Through this tube
a mixture of ethereal oil and water was poured. The liquid did not
reach the end of the connecting tube. Through the remaining cork
of the second flask, which was filled only with air, was inserted a
glass inhaling-tube which divided into a nose-piece for each nostril.
The odor of the liquid was weakened by successive additions of water,
and the intensity of the stimulus was measured through the propor-
tion by weight which the ethereal oil bears to the water.* As Zwaar-
demaker suggests the method of Savelieff has this great disadvant-
age, that its results do not stand in simple relations to the real stim-
ulus-intensities. The intensity of the stimulus will vary according
to the height of the liquid in the first vessel, and according to the ad-
1 Weber : Archiv f. Physiologie, 1847, P« 351-354-
2 Aronsohn : op. cit., 1886, pp. 324-332.
3 Op. cit., pp. 62-66.
* Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1893, p. 343 sq.*
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. lOI
hesion of odorous material in different parts of the apparatus. Sav-
elieff*s method would indeed be fairly satisfactory for clinical pur-
poses if real solutions were used instead of mixtures of ethereal oils
and water. It is a great disadvantage, however, to begin an experi-
ment by exhausting the sense-organ with a saturated solution. ^
Section 2. Control in Zwaardemaker' s Oifactometric Method of
the Factors which Determine the Intensity of the Stimulus.
Zwaardemaker's measurements ol the smell-stimulus are in
terms of but one factor of the genetic unit, — viz., in terms of
the amount of odorous surface exposed. The time for which
different extents of surface are exposed is supposed to be kept
constant by the regularity of the movement of the hand which
manipulates the odorous cylinder. All of these time-values
are so small that their variation may well be disregarded.
In 1890, Henry, a French scientist, instituted in the interests of the
perfume industry a modified form of Zwaardemaker's method, and
took the time values into account. His instrument differs from
Zwaardemaker's only in the substitution for the odorous cylinder of a
porous paper cylinder, hollow, closed at the bottom, and saturated
from a surrounding glass reservoir with the fumes of an odorous
liquid. The glass inhaling-tube enters from the top, and the subject
raises it with a uniform movement while he is making the inspiration
required. Stimulus-intensity is reckoned in terms of the surface of
the paper cylinder exposed, and of the time which the odorous vapor
has had for diffusing into it since the lifting of the inhaling tube.^
As for this second factor, by which alone Henry's method differs from
Zwaardemaker's, Passy suggests that the time-rate of evaporation of
a liquid under a membrane differs from the time-rate of the same fluid
in the open air. Henry supposes that the pressure of vapor on the
paper cylinder is constant, but on the contrary, since its surface is
wholly covered at the beginning of the experiment and is gradually
uncovered as the glass tube is raised, the pressure of vapor will con-
stantly decrease.^ At any rate, Henry's apparatus will not answer for
difference-determinations, as it would render procedure in both direc-
tions impossible.
Much more serious in Zwaardemaker's method than any
error which may arise from irregularity in the subject's move-
ments is the error due to the adhesion of odorous particles in
the glass inhaling-tube. These particles may condense on the
sides of the tube or, if the substance is soluble in water, may
dissolve in the moisture which forms on the inside during in-
spiration. A correction can be made for adhesion only for the
"minimum perceptible," and only for a determination taken
with the perfectly dry and clean inhaling-tube and a saturated
porcelain cylinder. It may be made as follows : Let the
length of the inhaling-tube ordinarily used be x and let a be
the value of the stimulus-limen as found with it. Then let a
1 Op. cit., pp. loo-ioi.
"^Comptes rendus de V Academic des Sciences, Feb. 9, 1891.
^ Zwaardemaker : op. cit., p. 94.
I02 GAMBLE :
shorter inhaling-tube of the same diameter and the length y be
pushed for about 2 mm. into the odorous cylinder. Through
the other end of this cylinder, which is usually the movable
part of the instrument, let a third tube of the same diameter be
pushed. By moving this third tube backward and forward,
the extent of odorous surface exposed to the air is varied. Let
the stimulus-limen found under these conditions be b. Then
a- b will be the difference in the stimulus-limen made by the
adhesion of odorous particles to a tube of the length x^y.
The correction to be made for adhesion to a tube of the length
X will be as much greater as x is greater than x^y. If cylin-
ders of solid odorous substances be used, this correction cannot
be made, even for the stimulus-limen, since it is so exceedingly
small. It is impossible, moreover, to take many determin-
ations even of the stimulus-limen in an hour with a perfectly
dry and clean tube. As for the difference-limen, it is both
theoretically and practically impossible to make the adhesion-
correction, for to know how much greater for sensation a
given stimulus is than the liminal stimulus, one would have
to know beforehand that Weber's law applied to that particular
olfactory qualit3^ and what the exact value of Ar for the quality
r
was. The effect of adhesion, in the first inspiration or at
least in the very first few inspirations, is to decrease the
strength of the stimulus, but after the first or at most after the
second or third inspiration, the effect is rather to increase
the strength of the stimulus, since the odor from the matter
adhering to the inhaling-tube more than compensates for the
loss of the odor of the matter which continues to adhere.
The tube must be carefully dried after it has been washed,
and the subject must be trained not to breathe back into it.
Yet on a damp day, the moisture left on the inside of the tube
by the inspired air is no inconsiderable source of error. Bun-
sen computes the possible thickness of such a layer at o.ooioi
mm. If a glass tube is 15 cm. long and 5 mm. wide, the area
of its bore will be 23.57 qmm. This would make the weight
of a layer of moisture of the thickness given by Bunsen 2.38
mg. If the odorous substance is in aqueous solution, this
moisture may be left out of account, but if no moisture comes
from the cylinder itself, it may vitiate the results of the experi-
ment. Since the dampness of the air varies from day to day,
this error cannot well be corrected.^ All that one can do is
faithfully to take the barometer-readings in the hope of finding
in them possible explanations of erratic judgments. The ex-
perimenter must be careful to cool the inhaling-tube after dry-
ipp. 124-125.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. IO3
ing it over the spirit-flame, not only on account of the risk of
distracting the subject's attention with -a warm tube, but on
account of the danger of heating the inside of the odorous
cylinder.
Since the source of the odorous vapor is connected with the
subject's nose by a tube of known length, the diffusion of the
matter is, outside of the body, obviously under complete control.
The subject's breathing is, indeed, a seriously variable element,
but its variation is by no means the greatest practical draw-
back to the method. Sniffing must, of course, be watched for
and peremptorily forbidden. The mere expansion of the nos-
trils does not increase the intensity of the odor as it does under
ordinary circumstances, but rather decreases it, since the field
of smell is artificially limited, and the widening of the en-
trance to the nose simply increases the amount of air which
dilutes the odorous gas. Under ordinary circumstances, as we
have seen, the more rapidly one breathes, the stronger the
odor one will get. If one uses the olfactometer, this is not
true. Since the diffusion-rate within the cylinder is constant,
increased rapidity of breathing will increase the degree in
which the odorous particles are diluted with air on their en-
trance to the nasal passages. Thus, the more slowly one
breathes, within a certain limit, the stronger the smell one will
get. The air must be drawn in with enough force to carry part
of the current above the lower turbinal bone. If the air simply
takes the straight path to the choana along the floor of the
nasal cavity under the lower turbinal bone, there will be no
smell. Zwaardemaker believes that each subject with a little
practice will discover for himself the best rate of breathing for
obtaining the strongest smell from a given stimulus, so that, in
a manner, the breathing rate will be self- regulating.^ Our
own experimental results seem to bear out this conclusion. In
Section i of Chapter III, each subject's mode of breathing is
noted, but its peculiarities can scarcely be traced in the
numerical results. The inability of most of the subjects to
arrive at difference-determinations with one inspiration must, of
course, have aggravated the adhesion-error. Henry regulates
the breathing of his vsubjects by putting about the chest a belt
which allows only a certain expansion. Such an appliance
must, however, have the effect of distracting the subject's at-
tention and making the breathing unnatural. Following
Zwaardemaker' s example, we did not even stop the nostril not
in use. The inhaling-tube was thrust into the forward'' half
of the nostril to the depth of half a centimetre.
_______
2 A substance pressed against the back of the nostril can hardly be
smelled at all, as its vapor will take the direct path to the choana.
I04 GAMBI.E :
We may say, then, that the most unsatisfactory features of
Zwaardemaker's method are (i) the adhesion-error, and (2) a
tendency which the subject, if he manipulates the odorous
cylinder, has toward judging in terms of hand-movement.
This difficulty will be discussed in another place.
While the intensity of the stimulus depends in the case of
any sense upon the condition of the peripheral organ, no sense-
organ is so likely to vary either through obstruction or through
exhaustion as is the organ of smell. Let us now consider the
variations from the normal condition to which this organ is
most subject.
Section j. Anosmia and Hyp erosmia}
Whether pathological or non-pathological in origin, anosmia
is of three sorts, — respiratory, essential or toxic, and nervous.
Respiratory anosmia is due to obstruction of the nasal passages,
from asymmetry of the nasal skeleton, from hyperaemia of the
respiratory or Schneiderian membrane, or from accumulation of
mucus. Toxic anosmia may be due to poisons in the inspired
air, — a form not yet investigated, — to injurious fluids introduced
directly into the chamber containing the sense-epithelium (as
in Aronsohn's experiments), to poisons, such as morphine,
pulverized and blown into the nose, or to certain forms of
blood-poisoning, such as chronic nicotine-poisoning. The
anosmia of smokers cannot be wholly attributed to their
catarrh, though a light, acute nicotine-poisoning does not
seem to produce a loss of smell. Nervous anosmia may be
congenital, — /. e., due to imperfect development of the olfac-
tory vesicle in the brain, — or may be senile, — due to degenera-
tion of some of the nervous elements which condition the
sense, — or may be due to exhaustion of the olfactory nerve,
or to dryness of the epithelium. If we rule out exhaustion, we
may say that respiratory anosmia is vastly more common than
toxic or nervous. The more peripheral parts of every sense-
organ are more subject to injury and disease. Thus, the mus-
cles and lenses of the eye give much more trouble than the
retina and the optic nerve. In the case of smell, the sensory
epithelium is well protected by its secluded position.
As to hyperaemia of the respiratory mucous membrane, its
blood supply is controlled much more by the exigencies of
breathing than by those of smell. It is largely under the sway
of local reflexes. The fibers of the trigeminus which ramify
through it are closely connected with fibers of the sympathetic
nervous system. Too profuse secretion of mucus is the most
common mechanical hindrance to smell. On the other hand,
ipp. 136-165.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 105
too small a secretion has a disastrous effect on the sense-
epithelium. It seems that the tiny hairs of the rod-cells re-
fuse to do their work if they become dry. The action of all
the mucous glands of the nose may be increased by injecting
strychnine, and decreased by injecting atropin into the mem-
branes. Too much atropin, however, produces irritation and a
flow of tears.
Hyperosmia may also be respiratory, — due to certain asym-
metries of the skeleton or to anaemia of the respiratory mem-
brane,— or toxic, or nervous. In hysterical subjects, hyper-
osmia is common. Anaemia of the respiratory membrane may
be produced by smelling such substances as cocoa-butter, or
cedar- wood, which rather powerfully affect the trigeminus.
The two forms of anosmia, which vary in the same subject from
day to day, are respiratory anosmia from obstruction of the nasal
passages by mucus, and nervous anosmia from exhaustion. It
is possible at any time easily to discover whether the nasal
passages are obstructed or not. The test can be made by ex-
haling on a concave metal mirror held at the level of the
mouth. The clouds of condensed vapor give the true shape of
transverse sections of the breathing-cones. They are divided
from each other, and if the nasal passages are in a normal con-
dition, they are symmetrical, and broader than they are long.
As they pass away, they should each divide into an antero-
medial and a postero-lateral division of about the same size.
As divided, the spots should still be roughly symmetrical. The
division is due to the projection of the *' triangular cartilage "
and the lower turbinal bone from the side wall of the nose.
This division of the air current occurs in all mammals.^ Patho-
logical alterations in the raucous membrane of the nose and
asymmetry of the nasal skeleton may alter the size and shape
of these divisions, but rarely prevent them from appearing.
The antero-medial division alone represents the current of air
which passes above the lower turbinal bone. The form and
position of the field of smell in an ordinary inspiration, there-
fore, corresponds roughly with this division, and would do so
exactly if it were not for the slight difference in the course of
the currents of inspired and expired air.^
The influence of exhaustion is more insidious. It varies
from subject to subject, from substance to substance, and from
one intensity of a substance and one general condition of a sub-
ject to another, so that numerical corrections are out of the
question. Fortunately or unfortunately, the effects of adhe-
sion and exhaustion are for the most part opposite. This
^P. 73.
2 Pp. 73-74.
I06 GAMBLE :
Opposite influence makes one's numerical results more nearly
correct than they would otherwise be. On the other hand, it
makes the exact influence of each source of error more diSicult
to read from the figures. Yet it is not particularly difficult to
detect the effect of the exhaustion when it is at all marked, and
to exclude the most unreliable determinations. In our expe-
rience of thirteen different subjects, complete or marked
anosmia from exhaustion, if it occurred at all, usually came on
very suddenly.
Section 4.. Psychophysical Methods Employed.
Before difference-determinations were made at all, the stim-
ulus-limen was usually found as accurately as possible for the
substance and subject concerned. The subject, starting with
the end of the odorous cylinder even with the end of the inhal-
ing-tube, moved the cylinder outward until he obtained a smell.
If this smell seemed to him more than liminal, he moved the
cylinder back for a short distance, and continued to move back-
wards and forwards until he had satisfied himself as to the point
at which he obtained a just noticeable sensation. The method
of moving steadily in both directions, — from a point considera-
bly below to a point just above the limen, and from a point con-
siderably above to a point just below the limen, — was tried, but
was abandoned. It is often impossible, on account of adhesion
in the tube or in the nasal passages, or on account of memory
after-images, or cumulative stimulation, to move from a point
of intensive stimulation to a point at which sensation entirely
disappears. Memory after-images certainly occur. The exist-
ence of true after-images of peripheral origin has not been
proved in the case of smell. ^
The only difference- determinations for smell, so far on record,
are a few which Zwaardemaker performed for yellow wax and
vulcanized rubber. The method which he employed, and the
method which so far seems practicable, is Fechner's rough and
simple method of just noticeable diff*erences. One gives the
subject a standard stimulus, and then after an interval, which
one makes as nearly uniform as possible, a second stimulus
which is appreciably greater or smaller. He himself then
moves the cylinder until he makes the stimulus just greater
or just smaller than the standard. When in the neighborhood
of the stimulus, he moves back and forth as he likes, until he
has satisfied himself of the accuracy of the determination.
Thus, as there is near the limen procedure in both directions,
the method may be classed as a gradation-method. The in-
terval between the two stimuli averaged in our experimenls 2^
1 P. 260.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELI.. 107
seconds with the standard olfactometer, and 5 seconds with the
fluid-mantle olfactometer. With the small olfactometer, it was
never less than 2, and almost never greater than 4 seconds. It
was ordinarily 2. With the large olfactometer, it varied from
4 to 6 seconds. The difficulty in manipulating the large olfac-
tometer more quickly will be described in another place. The
interval between determinations was much more variable. It
was usually about a minute, except when the tube was cleaned.
Our determinations were broken into short series in which
t^ro and A^w were found alternately. The series were divided
from each other by the necessary cleanings of the inhaling-
tube. With some substances, we washed and dried the tube
after every 8 determinations, wiping it out with dry absorbent
cotton in the middle of the series. With other substances, we
washed and dried it at the end of every 4 determinations. It
took about a minute to give the tube a dry wipe, making the
interval between half vSeries about 2 minutes. After practice,
it took about 3 minutes to wash, wipe and dry the tube, mak-
ing the interval between series about 4 minutes. These time
estimates are all rough. We were not intent on time-determi-
nations ; the subject had often incidental remarks to make on
his own experiences ; and there were various untoward acci-
dents,— water spilled, tubes broken, wire dropped, etc. The
subject used his two nostrils alternately ; all our records were
kept for the two nostrils of each subject as for two different
persons. We changed the order of determinations in successive
series that exhaustion and adhesion might equally affect ^ro
and Artt for the right nostril and for the left. For example, 4
series might run thus :
(i) Ar(?f. R. N., Ard7f. L. N.,
(2) l\rui. L. N., Arz^f. R. N.,
(3) iirui. R. N., h.ru f. L. N.,
(4) Ar^f. L. N., I\ro f. R. N.,
With the standard olfactometer, after some practice in clean-
ing the tube, we took usually 32 determinations in an hour ;
with the fluid-mantle olfactometer, 24. It was not worth while
to take more even if there was time, as the effect of exhaus-
tion became too marked. Fortunately, the odors of the solids
used with the small and easily handled olfactometer, were less
exhausting than the insistent smells of most of the solu-
tions.
With an unpracticed subject, we used one standard a day.
With a practiced subject, we took determinations first with a
weaker, then with a stronger standard on the same day. If
the substance was very exhausting, we worked first with a
weaker, then with a stronger, then with a weaker, then with a
A ru f. R.
N.,
A ru f. L.
N.
Art? f. Iv.
N.,
l\ro f. R.
N.
/\ro f. R.
N.,
/\ro f. L.
N.
A ru f. L.
N.,
I\ru f. R.
N.
I08 GAMBLE :
Stronger standard. The subject was always warned of a change
in the standard.
Two grounds of objection to the method of just noticeable
differences are mentioned by Wundt. They are the haphazard
choice of the more intensive stimulus, which may light upon
a stimulus unnecessarily large, and thus weary the subject's
attention and sense-organ unnecessarily, and the irregularity
and immeasurability of the moving back and forth in the
vicinity of the difference-limen, — the " Tatonnieren. " It
should be noted, however, that as exhaustion increases during
the act of determination, A ro would always be too large and A ru
too small, were it not that adhesion has a precisely opposite
effect, which is increased by the time-error. Thus, there is
really a rude double cancelling of errors.
The true method of minimal changes involves great practi-
cal difl&culties if applied to difference-determinations with
Zwaardemaker's olfactometer. On account of the adhesion in
the inhaling-tube, either two olfactometers must be used, and
both inhaling- tubes cleaned after every comparison of two
stimuli, or only such substances must be used as are insoluble
in water and do not condense on the inner surface of the in-
haling-tube. Zwaardemaker tried the method with vulcanized
India-rubber, and believes it to be practicable for this sub-
stance.^ We, too, tried it with the tube of red vulcanized
India-rubber sent from Holland, and obtained very satisfactory
results. (See Table VIII. )
We also tried a combination of the two methods mentioned.
Giving the subject a variable stimulus objectively equal to the
standard, we bade him make it subjectively equal, — for it
would tend to seem subjectively less from the effect of exhaus-
tion,— and then after pausing to let us take the reading, to
make it subjectively just greater than the standard. Then he
was directed to make a variable stimulus very appreciably
greater, just equal subjectively. Next, after making an ob-
jectively equal stimulus subjectively equal, he made it sub-
jectively less. Lastly, he made an appreciably weaker stimulus
subjectively equal to the standard. Some of the results obtained
by this method are given in Table VII. They are arranged
in connection with results obtained for the same subject, sub-
stance and standard by the method of just noticeable differ-
ences. The uncertainty of a method in which the subject
exhausts an already wearied organ by hunting for subjective
equality before proceeding to the determination proper, is
obvious. Therefore, the two sets of results tally surprisingly
well.
ipp. 189-190.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. I09
With any form of the method of just noticeable differences
in which the subject himself alters the stimulus of comparison,
there is liability to serious error from the subject's inclination
to judge in terms of movement. When he has found that a
certain hand-movement has made the stimulus of comparison
just noticeably greater or less than the standard, he will expect
the same movement to make it just noticeably greater or less
again. He will be all the more tempted to judge in terms of
hand-movement from the fact that he has been all his life form-
ing estimates of space in terms of the sensations produced by
movement, and has probably never thought of taking pains to
compare the intensity of two odors. This tendency varies
much in different subjects. Its presence may be suspected
when the mean variation of a series is very small. Fortunately,
it acts in such a way as rather to conceal the operation of
Weber's law, if applicable, than to make it appear applicable
if it were not. If, for example, one finds A r to be 5 mm. for a
standard of 20 mm., and by repeating the series of movements,
obtains the same value of A r for a standard of 40 mm., Ar will
r
be % in the one case, and ^ in the other.
As a matter of fact our results offer evidence for the law
which is strong to an almost suspicious degree. Yet it is not
probable that a trained subject would, or that an untrained
subject could deliberately alter his movements, when the stand-
was varied, so as to keep the value of Ar approximately the
r
same, and it is absolutely impossible that twelve subjects out of
thirteen should all do so. Such a procedure would argue a
miraculous combination of psychophysical knowledge, accurate
memory, industry and malice.
We also made some attempt to test the applicability of the
method of right and wrong cases. At the time we tried it,
which was early in the course of our experiments, we found it
utterly impracticable. The fact that more than half the mis-
takes were made in thinking the second stimulus weaker than
the first or equal to it, would indicate that exhaustion was the
disturbing factor. Since, however, the subject seems genuinely
to recognize the stimulus of comparison in the gradation-
methods as greater or less than the standard, it is probable that
the difficulty with the method of right and wrong cases is
largely the utter confusion it produces in his mind. Most
persons are not used to smelling attentively and have to
** learn " a given smell-intensity.
no GAMBI^E :
Chapter II. Apparatus and Materiai^.
Section i. The Standard and Fluid-Mantle Olfactometers.
In our experiments, we employed the single "standard ' ' olfac-
tometer and a double form of the ' ' fluid-mantle ' ' olfactometer.
Both instruments were supplied from Utrecht. The sliding
tubes used with the standard or small olfactometer were formed
of the odorous material itself, and covered with an outer tube
of glass. Porcelain cylinders, saturated with odorous solu-
tions, and fitted into larger glass tubes, have been largely used
by Zwaardemaker in connection with this simple instrument.
We, however, used the porcelain cylinders only with the large
or fluid-mantle olfactometer. We shall reserve the considera-
tion of the preparation of the odorous substances to the next
section. Here we shall describe the screen and inhaling-tube
of the small instrument, and all the appurtenances of the large
instrument, except the odorous solutions.
/. Standard Olfactometer. The glass inhaling-tube has a total
length of 15 cm. and a bore of 5 mm. The glass varies in different
tubes from i to 1}^ mm. in thickness. The portion which curves up-
ward to fit into the nostril is never more than i}i cm. long. Zwaar-
demaker says that the angle of the bend seems to make no difference
with the results of the experiment. He himself makes it a right an-
gle, but Reuter makes it an angle of 40 degrees.^ A metal sleeve
carrying a raised bead at the edge towards the bent end of the tube
and buttoning into a metal ring in the center of the small wooden
screen is fastened to the tube in such a position as to allow 10 cm. to
project beyond the screen. This portion is graduated into twenty
divisions of 5 mm. each. The securing of the metal to the tube is a
serious problem in practice. We were able to find neither odorless
glue nor cement which would withstand the constant washing of the
tube, and the drying over the spirit-flame, a performance which must
be repeated from four to a dozen times in a single hour. We finally
solved the difficulty for ourselves by pasting with freshly dissolved
gum arabic a strip of paper to the tube, and working the metal ring
down over it, where it fitted so tightly as not to be removed without a
process of soaking. The graduated tubes can be easily duplicated by
any glassware firm.^ They are so frequently broken in cleaning by
an unpracticed operator, that no extended course of experiments
should be undertaken without laying in a stock of them.
The screen is a square bit of cherry wood, — 7>^ cm. broad by 10 cm.
high by i cm. thick, — furnished with a handle and 'coated with var-
nish which is supposed to be odorless. The screen must, however, be
freely exposed to the air, and when new, must be well sunned, or it
will have a decided smell of its own. Its double purpose is to serve
as a handle, and to protect the nostril not in use from the odor of the
sliding cylinder. The subject in making his determination holds the
handle of the screen in his left hand and moves the cylinder with his
right.8
ip. 104.
2 Messrs. Eimer and Amend, of New York, courteously duplicated
for us all of our imported tubes.
3 The standard olfactometer can be made in any laboratory. See the
WEBER S LAW TO SMELL. Ill
//. Fluid-Mantle Olfactometer. In this instrument, the constant
saturation of the hollow porcelain cylinder is secured in the following
manner : A section of wide glass tubing is secured between two cir-
cular and cork-lined end-plates of metal. One of the metal plates, —
that which when the instrument is adjusted is nearer to the subject,
— is furnished with three equidistant rods, inside of which the disks
of cork and the glass tube fit. The three rods terminate in three
screws with detachable heads. The screws pass through holes in the
other metal plate. The plates are bored at the center to circular open-
ings, 8 mm. in diameter, which coincide with the bore of the enclosed
porcelain cylinder. The cylinder itself, which has exactly the length
of the glass tube, — lo cm., — is held in place simply by the pressure of
the end-plates. The glass inhaling-tube passes through the screen
into the bore of the cylinder. The odorous solution is put into the
space between the cylinder and the glass tube with a pipette through
one of two holes, 2 mm. in diameter, which are left one in each of the
two metal plates, and closed with cork-lined screw-heads. It would
be better if there were two of these holes in each plate, for it is ex-
tremely difficult to force a sluggish liquid, such as glycerine, against
the pressure of the air into the space around the cylinder. If the
rubber of the pipette is flaccid, it becomes almost impossible.
The "shells" thus constructed for mantling the cylinder with
liquid, are mounted in a horizontal position on a wooden table, — 27.7
cm. long by 16.4 cm. wide, — which can be adjusted to the required
height above a heavily leaded base. Bach of the shells can be
moved to and from the observer along a way of hard wood. The rack
and pinion movement is governed by milled heads, — diameter 2|^ cm.,
— projecting from the table to right and left within easy grasp of the
subject's hand. A scale and pointer enable the observer to determine
how far the cylinder is moved.
The inhaling-tubes are made with the same bore and of glass of the
same thickness as the graduated tubes used with the standard olfactom-
eter. Those sent from Holland turn, one to the right and the other
to the left before curving upward to be inserted in the nose. The
metal sleeves, within which the tubes are cemented, do not bolt into
the holes in the screen, but flare off each on its outer side into flat fan-
shaped pieces of metal, which are screwed to tally with a mark on the
screen. We made no experiments with these tubes, but used instead
tubes of the same bore and thickness of glass, either with a somewhat
shorter upright, or with but one curve. The tubes with one curve are
precisely like the inhaling-tubes of the standard olfactometer, except
that the part which extends through the screen is longer and is not
graduated. It is a mistake to use two-jointed tubes at all, unless both
nostrils are to be used, as in compensation-experiments. The extra
curve seems to make no difference in the results, but it makes the
tubes much harder to clean. The total length of our two-jointed
tubes was 18^ cm., and that of our one-jointed tubes, 17)^ cm. 11. 3
cm. of every tube used must project beyond the screen. We fitted
our tubes into hollow plugs of cherry wood turned to order in the
shape of corks, so as to pass easily into the holes of the screen, and
directions given in Sanford: Experimental Psychology y p. 371. Scrip-
ture's blotting-paper olfactometer as, made by Willyoung, is rendered
useless by the vulcanized India-rubber of the inhaling-tubes. We sub-
stituted for the inner glass-tube, rubber-tube, and nose-piece, a glass
tube bent at right angles and expanded into a nose-piece at its upper
end. The dimensions of this tube, however, make it very breakable,
and it is quite impossible to clean it except by blowing through it.
112 GAMBLE:
to fit tightly when pushed home. To keep the tubes themselves from
slipping backwards and forwards in the plugs, we gummed strips of
paper to the glass at the edge of the wood. Lumps of these strips
will continue to adhere even after many washings. These home-made
substitutes for the heavy metal attachments are very serviceable.
We should advise all who purchase the instrument to strengthen
the table with metal cross pieces on its under side. The upward
warping, which is inevitable, narrows the ways and throws the inhal-
ing-tube out of alignment with the porcelain cylinder. The result is
a stiff movement of the rack and pinion on the one hand, and a per-
petual breaking of inhaling-tubes on the other. Moreover, if the
warping has gone far, the whole table is liable to split. We have also
found it necessary to shave the edges of the wooden blocks which
carry the shells, and to reduce the friction caused by two spring-
brakes placed alongside of the ways. It would be much better if the
carrying blocks were moved with cranks, rather than by the milled
heads. The exertion necessary to turn the screw and the chafing of
the hand by the milling are distracting to the subject's attention.
Moreover, the intervals when the experimenter is turning the head
to give the stimulus of comparison are undesirably long. Great care
must be used in the selection of any oil which is applied to the in-
strument. We once used clock oil, and afterwards had extreme
trouble in eradicating the odor.
The porcelain cylinders for these olfactometers are made by Hooft
and Labouchere in Delft, and composed of pure kaolin. They must
be kept continually immersed in water, and this must be removed at
least daily to minimize the odor of the clay. They must not be dried
before they are introduced into their glass coverings. The ends are
perfectly smooth, and are glazed for use with the standard olfactome-
ter. The outer and inner surfaces remain porous. All the cylinders
used, whether made of porcelain or of the fragrant material itself,
have a length of lo cm., and a bore of 8 mm., so as to slide easily
along the inhaling-tube, and to cover, in case of the standard olfactom-
eter, the graduated portion of the tube lying beyond the screen.
The external diameter, — counting the thickness of the protecting
shell of glass, when present, — varies from 14 to 16 mm.
Section 2. Preparation of Odorous Materials.
In Table VI (Chapter III, Section 2) the odorous materials are
arranged in their order according to Zwaardemaker's scheme
of olfactory qualities. We shall here describe them in groups
according to their mode of preparation. We shall consider first
the preparation of the tubes of solid odorous matter, and after-
wards discuss the solutions used to saturate the porcelain cylin-
ders.
/. Preparation of Odorous Substances Used in Solid Form. The
solid odorous materials from which tubes or hollow cylinders were
prepared were vulcanized India rubber, black, red, and gray ; cedar,
rose-wood and musk-root ; Russian leather, yellow wax, paraffine, glyc-
erine soap, mutton-tallow, cocoa-butter and solid oil of mace, asafoet-
ida, gum benzoin, tolu balsam, and a combination of gutta-percha
and gum ammoniac in equal parts by weight. Tubes of red and black
India rubber, and of gutta-percha and gum ammoniac came with the
standard olfactometer from Utrecht. All the other cylinders, and a
second tube of gutta-percha and gum ammoniac, were home-made. It
is necessary that all such cylinders should be fitted into glass tubes
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. II3
of the same length in order that no odor from their outer surfaces
may pass around the screen.
India rubber has three great qualifications for use in experiments in
smell, (i) It can be smelled for a long time by most subjects with-
out blunting the organ ; (2) its odor is not easily obscured by other
odors, and (3) adheres comparatively little to the inhaling-tube. Two
of our subjects {C. and Sh.), however, complained more of smarting
in the nose when using rubber than when using any other substance.
The age and mode of preparation of different sorts of rubber, and the
amounts of sulphur in them, make some difference in the quality and
slight differences in the intensity of the smell. The intensity, is, on
the other hand, virtually the same at all degrees of temperature be-
tween 13** and 30*^ C. The cylinder may be prepared by cutting 10
cm. from a rubber tube with a bore of 8 mm., and working it into a
glass tube of the same length. The rubber must be clean and new,
and, in particular, must never have come in contact with illuminating
gas. Although the odor of the rubber when fresh is not easily dis-
guised by other smells, yet the substance easily loses its own odor
and takes that of other substances. An inhaling-tube or the broken
fragment of one should, therefore, be left in the cylinder so as to
cover its inner surface when not in use. Such tubes must never be
allowed to lie about unprotected on the shelves of a wooden cup-
board. If not sealed by containing the inhaling-tube, they should be
rolled up in clean glazed paper and shut up in a jar by themselves.
Our cedar and rose-wood cylinders were turned to order. A block
of wood 2j^x2^x4j^ ins. will make four of these tubes. Bach was
held in its place in the outer tube of glass by a small bit of " instant
crockery -mender " applied to the wood before putting it in. The fit
is so tight that the odor of the paste cannot escape. These cylinders
also are very liable to lose part of their odor, and should be carefully
protected. Messrs. McKesson and Robbins, of New York, furnished
a single piece of musk-root large enough to make two cylinders. One
crumbled in the turning, but the other broke evenly around the cir-
cumference into two sections, which were pushed so tightly into a
glass tube as to stay in place of themselves. The crack was almost
invisible, and as it was 6 cm. from one end of the tube, it did not ren-
der the cylinder really defective. From the Russian leather, — which
was genuine, and not the "Russian leather" of America, which is
tanned with birch instead of sandal wood, — a piece 24 mm. wide and
10 cm. long was cut, and was fitted into a tube so as exactly to cover
the inner surface. Cylinders may be prepared in the same way from
India rubber sheeting.
The other substances were all melted and moulded . The glycerine soap
was Pear's, the mutton fat employed was fresh from the butcher's, the
cocoa-butter,paraffine (the kind used by histologists), gum benzoin and
gum ammoniac were such as can be bought of any retail druggist. We
obtained of McKesson and Robbins " solid " oil of mace and the pure
juice of asafcetida done up in small tin cans, and also a quantity of
gutta-percha in narrow fibrous sticks or slabs, and of tolu balsam en-
tirely freed from impurities. For the outside mould, the permanent
glass shell must, of course, be used. The glass tubing was cut before-
hand in our case into lengths of 10 cm,, and these moulds were corked
at one end, so that the tube of odorous matter was never quite
so long as its shell. For the inside mould, we used an inhaling-tube,
or the long straight part of one which had broken at the curve. The
tube may be kept upright by digging a hole for the end of it in the
cork. This end should be plugged to prevent the liquid from working
up into the tube, through which it is sometimes necessary to pour
JOURNAI« — 8.
114 GAMBLE:
warm or cold water. All the odorous substances in this group were
melted in a water-bath. We crumbled or shaved them into a small
beaker, which we floated by means of a ring of cork in a large
beaker of water over a Bunsen burner. We tried to melt the gums
in a sand-bath, but succeeded only in charring them. The mass
which we obtained by melting the gum ammoniac and gutta-percha
together was of lighter color than that sent from Holland, and was
not entirely free from the fibres of the gutta-percha. It was spongy
and easily moulded by the fingers into any desired shape. The soap,
paraffine, cocoa-butter and tallow are readily manipulated. They
solidify in a very few moments if the outer tube is immersed in cold
water, and the removal of the inner mould presents no difficulty.
Tubes of these materials were kept all the summer in a room of which
the temperature occasionally rose to 94^^ F., and sustained no damage
by the heat. The tubes of soap, however, sometimes shrivel in a few
days independently of the temperature. The longer the paraffine is
heated the stronger the odor. Zwaardemaker succeeds in giving it an
odor as strong as that of tallow or musk-root. We did not try heat-
ing it longer than an hour and a half, and our paraffine tubes gave the
weakest of all our scents. Tubes of tallow are easy to make and to
keep, and do not exhaust the subject's sense-organ to any appreciable
extent, and are therefore especially to be recommended.
The oil of mace has a consistency like that of table-butter. It melts
rapidly, and solidifies almost instantly when the outer mould is
plunged into ice water, but tends to stick to the inner tube, and to
come out with it in perfect shape. To remove the inner tube by itself,
we filled it with ice water, and then hastily poured a little hot water
over the outer mould. When once made, the mace tubes should be
kept in a cool place, and the jar in which they stand should not be
set on end. While they are in use, they must be grasped only with
the tips of the fingers, and must be cooled every few moments with ice
or snow. The juice of asafoetida, when pure, never becomes solid
enough to be moulded. We poured small quantities of it, when
melted, upon a mass of pulverized carbonate of magnesia, and worked
the two materials together with our fingers, as one works flour into
a very soft dough. We put lumps of this mixture into an outer
mould, heated it in the water bath for a few moments, and then
forced the inner tube down through the mass as nearly parallel with
the outer mould as possible. After many attempts, we succeeded in
making several satisfactory cylinders. Their odor, in spite of the
adulteration of the asafoetida, is only too strong.
The gums never become very liquid in melting, and they solidify
almost instantly when removed from the heat. We found it difficult to
pour the gum benzoin, and impossible to pour the tolu and the mixture
of gutta-percha and gum ammoniac, into the space between the inner
and outer moulds. We poured this mixture and the tolu into the
outer tube when empty, and then forced the inner tube into its place,
as in the case of the asafcetida. When the fragrant substance is a
gum, this inner tube must be greased. We coated it rather thickly,
but evenly, with lanolene, which is as nearly odorless as grease can
easily be found, and which evaporates quickly. All these tubes of gum
retain their odors well, but the tolu is likely to melt out of shape in a
hot room.
Before these cylinders are used, the section of odorless substance
exposed at the outer end must be covered. We employed a little rin^or
cap of glazed paper gummed to the surface. Even with this precaution,
the odor of the asafcetida, mace, butter and Russian leather, is quite
apparent when the instrument is closed by pushing the odorous tube
weber's law to smell. 115
as far in as possible. It apparently proceeds from such space as there
is between the inside surface and the inhaling-tube. The inhaling-
tube, on the other hand, must not fit too closely in the inside of the
odorous tube, for if it does, the subject will be able to move it only in
irregular jerks, and it will, moreover, scrape off shavings from the in-
side surface of a cylinder of soft material, such as asafoetida or oil of
mace. When it is used with the Russian leather, a bit of paper may be
gummed around it to make it fit somewhat more closely. Kven this,
however, does not keep the smell of the leather from making itself
apparent in the space from which one breathes through the tube. We
attempted to find "negative stimulus-limina " for the troublesome
substances, in the following manner : We used a graduated inhaling-
tube 4 cm. longer than the ordinary one, and adjusting the cylinder
over the 10 cm. nearest the screen, moved out to find the limen.
The device was not successful. The odor still diffused itself through
the space from which the air was drawn. All the determinations of
difference-limina for these substances involve a constant error, 7--
namely, the addition of an increment, which we have no means of
measuring, to every stimulus represented on the tube.
//. Preparation of Odorous Substances in Solution. Of the odor-
ous substances used in solution, the caryophylline, citral, vauilline,
coumarine and heliotropine were among the " De Laire Specialties,"
and were, with the ethyl butyrate, tincture of musk, and oil of cam-
phor, the gift of Messrs. Dodge and Olcott, of New York. "The
De Laire products," writes a representative of Dodge and Olcott,
"are not an embodiment of the simple chemical formulas suggested
by their names. They are compounds after secret recipes, and their
names denote only the odor or flavor or other quality which it is
claimed they reproduce or imitate. De Laire's caryophylline, for
example, is not the caryophylline of your chemical formulas, a dis-
tinctly isolated aromatic principle, but a preparation, having doubt-
less as its base one of the clove-oil products, which is intended to
supply the perfumer with the bouquet of the clove-pink." We have
retained the De Laire spelling of their own specialties. The chemical
formulae of butyric ether, valerianic acid, allyl sulphide, and pyridin
are, respectively, C3 H5. C4 H^ Og, C5 Hjo O2, (C, H5) S, and C5
H5 N. The butyric ether used was a commercial product, but the
valerianic acid was obtained at the chemical laboratory of the Uni-
versity, and the allyl sulphide and pyridin, as well as the oil of anise,
were had of the Theodore Metcalf Company, of Boston.
Our solvents, mixtures, and concentrations were as follows :
Oil of camphor in liquid paraffine, a mixture, 1:500
Caryophylline in pure glycerine, a true solution, 1:500
Oil of anise in liquid paraffine, a mixture, 1:1665^
Valerianic acid, in water, a true solution, 1:1500
Ethyl butyrate, " " " 1:1000
Citral, in liquid paraffine, " " 1:500
Vanilline, in pure glycerine, " " 1:125
Coumarine, in liquid paraffine, " " 1:1000
Heliotropine, in liquid paraffine, " " 1:125
Natural Musk, the ordinary alcoholic tincture, in water,
a mixture, 1:125
Allyl Sulphide, in liquid paraffine, a true solution, 1:1000
Pyridin, in water, a true solution, 1:500
Laudanum, the ordinary alcoholic tincture, a true solu-
tion, unmixed.
Some of the musk was of course precipitated by the addition of so
much water, and floated about in dark brown specks, a state of affairs
anything but desirable.
Il6 GAMBLE:
We are aware that all the concentrations are startlingly high. We
could not, however, use lower concentrations if we were to fix our
standard-stimulus in two places on the scale. With a few exceptions,
our stimulus-limina were much higher than those given by Zwaarde-
maker as normal. These facts will be noted later in detail. Zwaarde-
maker recommended vanilline in glycerine in the concentration qf
i:iooo and coumarine and allyl sulphide in paraffine in the same con-
centration as especially well fitted for difference-determinations. We
did use the coumarine and allyl sulphide in these concentrations, but
most of our subjects obtained no odor whatever from the vanilline at
i:iooo, and in no case did the stimulus-limen fall for both nostrils
below 36 mm.
For coumarine, heliotropine and tincture of musk, stimulus-limina
were found in a satisfactory manner. With all the other substances,
an odor was apparent when the pointer of the fluid-mantle olfactom-
eter stood at zero. The odor, undoubtedly, came from the space
between the inhaling-tube and the inside of the porcelain cylinder,
as great pains had been taken to wash away every drop of liquid from
the metal plates. It is almost impossible so to adjust the inhaling-
tube that it will not scrape against the clay at some point, and to
paste paper around it would be out of the question, since the paper
would continually rub and wipe the odorous surface. The odor was
apparent 4 cm. from the end of the ordinary inhaling-tube when the
cylinder was supposed to be sealed. All the determinations of differ-
ence-limina for these substances also are, therefore, subject to a
constant error, but not so great an error as occurs in the results for
the troublesome solids with the exception of Russian leather. The
odor of the solutions when the instrument was closed was usually
barely liminal.
When water was used as a solvent, it was, of course, distilled. The
measuring-glasses and the bottles used should be rinsed well with
distilled water, or at least with water which has been freshly steril-
ized by boiling just before the liquids are poured into them. An
aqueous solution becomes unfit for use if long exposed to the light.
Zwaardemaker advises that the fluid-mantle of the porcelain cylin-
der be changed every two days. We usually not only changed the
mantle, but made a fresh solution, as often as this. It is safe to use
the same glycerine or parafl&ne solution for days or even some weeks.
The glycerine is much more diflScult to put into the receptacle than
the parafl&ne, and for citral and caryophylline it is not so able a
solvent. It is diflficult, however, to obtain and keep liquid paraffine
quite free from a slight odor, somewhat pungent and somewhat like
that of vaseline. Alcoholic solutions are, of course, more or less
undesirable, as we have noted before. If Af were known to bet he
r
same for all qualities, there would be no objection to using such solu-
tions, but to assume that it is, is to beg one question at issue. We
could not manage the musk and the opium, however, in any other
form.
Section j. Other Arrangements and Appliances.
For cleaning the inhaling-tubes, one needs a funnel of which one
end is small enough to fit into the bore ; two small light vessels, —
tin cups are best, — for pouring water back and forth through them ; a
roll of absorbent cotton ; a piece of pliable brass wire ; some listerine ;
and a small alcohol lamp. After a tube is washed, it must be wiped
inside and out with absorbent cotton before it is dried more thoroughly
over the spirit-flame, else it will break. We used listerine occasion-
webbr's law to smell. 117
ally as a deodorizer during a set of experiments, and always as a
disinfectant at the end of the hour. Its own odor is easily washed
away. As it takes some time for a porcelain cylinder to become
thoroughly impregnated with an odorous solution, it is convenient to
have test-tubes with tightly fitting corks, in which a number of cylin-
ders may be put to soak at the same time. Unless they can be kept
in a dark cupboard, it is well to wrap up these tubes in several plies
of black calico. Bottles of yellow glass, such as perfumers recom-
mend for the safe keeping of heliotropine, might well be used for all
the solutions, but if they are not available, the ordinary bottles of
colorless glass can be wrapped up in black cotton cloth. The less
woolen cloth about the room, the better. We keep our solid cylinders
in "self-sealing" preserve jars. When the cylinder with its fluid-
mantle in place is not in use, the bore should be corked to keep the
inner surface from drying off. It may, indeed, be filled with the solu-
tion and corked when it is put away for some time. In this case, all
drops of liquid must be wiped out with absorbent cotton before the
experiments begin. If it seems likely that much odorous substance
has condensed on the inner surface, the whole bit of apparatus, glass
shell and all, may be immersed in water. The bore should then be
filled for a few hours with the odorous liquid.
The walls of the room in which our experiments were made are
covered with oiled paper, and the floor is covered with oil-cloth which
has a coating of shellac. The room has at present this defect, that
when the wind blows in certain directions, it is impossible to create
through it a draft of air which does not pass first through a hall
frequented by students and therefore dusty, and by no means free
from odor. When the standard olfactometer was used, the subject
sat between the observer and the window, and at right angles to the
observer, so that the light shone through the graduated inhaling-
tube. When the fluid-mantle olfactometer was used, subject and
observer sat at right angles to each other at the end of a low table.
Chapter III. Results.
Section r. The Several Subjects arid their Stimulus- Limina.
Individual variations in the sense of smell are so great that
it is necessary to preface a chapter on experimental results with
an account of the subjects. The following notes upon our sub-
jects in alphabetical order are thrown into "noun-form" for the
sake of brevity.
Be. (Dr. I. M. Bentley), a trained subject.
Organ impaired by acute catarrhal troubles and easily exhausted.
Breathing spots always blurred and ragged at the division lines, —
indicating a catarrhal condition of the membranes, — and never quite
symmetrical.
r\ usually determined with one inspiration ; A.r determined with
from 2 to 4 inspirations.
Movements of cylinder long'and slow, but few.
Position indicative of strain.
Bi. (Miss K. M. Bickham), a wholly untrained subject. General
physical condition neurasthenic.
Organ twice operated on (in '95 and '96) for hypertrophy of the
Il8 GAMBLE:
membranes. Superfluous portions removed from both sides. No
catarrh now apparent.
Breathing spots usually well-rounded and symmetrical with neat
division lines.
r\ and A/' determined with but one inspiration.
Movements of cylinder rapid with little repetition.
Position indicative of strain.
C. (Miss M. H. Carter), o. partially trained subject.
Organ very easily exhausted. Membranes subject to sudden con-
gestions of blood and mucus upon nervous fatigue. Adenoid growth
as a child. (The growth was not cut away, but disappeared of itself.)
Breathing spots ragged, ill-defined, and almost never symmetrical.
Breathing during an experiment irregular and violent. Tendency
to sniff obstinate. r\ and Ar usually determined with i or 2 inspira-
tions.
Movements of cylinder rapid with little repetition.
Position indicative of much strain.
D. (Mr. S. J. Druskin), a partially trained subject.
Breathing spots perfect, as a rule.
rX and A^ usually determined with i or 2 inspirations.
Movements of cylinder at first rapid and few ; after practice, tenta-
tive with noticeable repetition.
Position indicative of but slight strain.
K. (Mr. T. Kairiyama), a trained subject.
Organ much impaired by hay-fever and other catarrhal trouble.
Breathing spots fairly symmetrical as a rule, but ragged at the
edges.
r\ and Ar usually determined with i or 2 inspirations. Expiration
violent (" to clean out the smell ").
Movements of cylinder tentative but few.
Position indicative of but slight strain.
M. (Miss B. B. Macleod), a wholly untrained subject.
Breathing spots seldom quite symmetrical arid never well defined.
No catarrh before the current winter.
r\ and Ar usually determined with i or 2 inspirations.
Movements of cylinder always irregular from want of practice.
Position easy.
N. (Mr. A. C. Nutt), 2. partially trained subject.
Organ : Easily exhausted. Sensitivity somewhat higher on the
right side, as a rule. (The subject complained of "feeling left-
handed " on the left side.)
Postero-lateral half of left breathing-spot usually missing (a fact
showing chronic obstruction of the left inferior meatus). Both spots
ill-defined.
r\ and Ar determined usually with 2 or 3 inspirations.
Movements of cylinder slow and tentative with but little repetition.
Position indicative of strain.
P. (Mr. C. A. Perry), o, partially trained subject.
Organ much impaired by chronic catarrh. Diseased portions
removed from the lower turbinal bones on both sides.
Breathing spots rarely symmetrical. Secondary division quite
apparent in spite of the operation mentioned. Spots ill-defined.
r\ and Ar usually determined with one inspiration.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. II9
Movements of cylinder slow and tentative with but little repetition.
Position indicative of but slight strain.
Rob. (Mr. E. P. Robins), a trained subject.
Breathing spots rarely symmetrical or perfectly defined.
r\ and Ar almost invariably determined with one inspiration.
Move'fnents of cylinder slow and tentative with but little repetition.
Position indicative of but little strain.
Rog. (Miss L. R. Rogers), 2l partially trained subject.
Breathing spots rarely symmetrical or very well defined.
r\ and Ar usually determined with 2 or 3 inspirations.
Movements of cylinder slow with much repetition.
Position indicative of but slight strain.
Se. (Mr. W. B. Secor), a trained subject.
Organ : Sensitivity somewhat. higher on the right side as a rule.
Postero-lateral half of left breathing spot usually very small or
missing as with N. Spots ill-defined.
r\ and Ar usually determined with 2 or 3 inspirations , m,ovem,ents
of cylinder slow with some repetition.
Position indicative of strain.
Sh. (Dr. Stella E. Sharp), a trained subject.
General physical condition neurasthenic.
Organ easily exhausted.
Right breathing spot usually larger than left, edges of both spots
clearly cut.
r\ and /\r usually determined with one inspiration, movements of
cylinder slow with little repetition.
Position indicative of much strain.
T. (Dr. Ellen B. Talbot), a trained subject.
Organ somewhat easily exhausted. Portions of both lower turbinal
bones removed to prevent congestions of mucous in the upper passages.
Sensitivity somewhat higher on the left side.
Breathing spots well rounded and clearly cut. Secondary divisions
imperfect. (When the nasal passages were clear the division was
represented only by indentations at the edges of the spots.)
r\ at first determined with one inspiration ; later in the work, with
2, 3, or even 4 as a more satisfactory procedure. Ar usually deter-
mined with 2 or 3 inspirations.
Movem,enis of cylinder very slow and cautious with much repeti-
tion.
Position indicative of but little strain.
In the notes just given a subject is called " trained "if he had had
a fair amount of experience in general introspection. Only Be. had
had any training in smell-experiments before the beginning of the
course described in this paper. Some months earlier we had made a
futile attempt to find his difference-limen with the weaker Utrecht
cylinder of gutta-percha and gum ammoniac by the method of minimal
changes. A subject is called '• partially trained " if he began psycho-
logical laboratory-work about the time when these experiments com-
menced. The word "repetition" is used in connection with the
manipulation of the cylinder to denote the moving backwards and
forwards at the limen.
The breathing spots of all the subjects varied much from day to
day. Sometimes they were broken up into several bands, always run-
ning rather from front to back than laterally. Often one narrow
I 20 GAMBLE :
medial strip would separate from one or the other. In most cases a
more or less jagged and blurred outline showed the adhesion of
clots of mucous to the passage-walls. In fact, twelve out of the thir-
teen subjects had suffered or were suffering from frequent " colds "
or from hypersecretion more or less chronic. As a function of the
turbinal bone is to deflect a part of the inspired air to the upper
passages, its removal damages the sense of smell. The sensitivity of
7". was higher on the left side of the nose, from which, as she reported,
the smaller amount of bone had been taken, but the small remains of
the secondary division of the breathing spots did not indicate that
more bone had been removed on the one side than on the other. The
obstruction of the inferior meatus would not, in itself, do much mis-
chief to the sense, but it must indicate a dropping of mucous from the
upper passages. It is of some interest to note that the subject (Z>.)
whose spots are most perfect is a Russian. He came, however, to live
in New York city at the age of twelve. K. is Japanese, but has been
long enough in this country to suffer severely from the catarrhal cli-
mate. Rob.^ one of the best subjects, comes from Prince Edward's
Island. The homes of the other ten are scattered over the States from
Eastern Massachusetts to California, though none are farther south
than Missouri.^
When it is said that Ar was determined with one, two, or more inspi-
rations, it is meant that the stimulus of comparison was manipulated
during one, two, or more inspirations. More than one inspiration was
almost never taken to " learn " the standard. It seemed better to risk
the increase of adhesion by allowing a subject to take as many breaths
to a determination as he wished than to make him try to form a judg-
ment when the force of an inhalation was decidedly on the wane.
Many of the subjects considered a judgment with one inspiration an
impracticable ideal. D., K., Se. and Sh.y and in a smaller measure
Be. and P., had a bad habit of suspending an inspiration, and not of
sniffing, but of " holding the breath " momentarily during an inspira-
tion. This practice must have tended to weaken the stimulus by
allowing the air in the upper chamber to rush downwards to the mid-
dle meatus. Be., N., P., Rob., Se. and T. noticed that the stimulus
was stronger during the latter part of an inspiration. This may point
to cumulative stimulation of the rod-cells, or it may merely mean an
access of attention and an unconscious sniff. Se.y who had the habit
of suspending an inhalation, noticed the increase most after a strong
inspiration, and Z>., K. and Sh., who had the same habit did not
notice it at all. And it is clear that this peculiar mode of breathing
would tend to prevent cumulative stimulation. On the other hand,
Be.., P. and T. noticed the increase most when the stimulus was near
its limen, and this looks as if it were a matter of attention and breath-
ing-rate, especially as T. did not hold her breath. Be. remarked that
the least difference of attention altered the stimulus. Rob. thought
the first part of an inspiration gave the fairest measure of an inten-
sity, and Be. and Se. relied on it " in easy judgments," but judged by
the latter part of the inspiration if the stimulus were weak or vague.
N. and P. asserted that they judged " by the impression as a whole,"
but N. confessed to a tendency " to emphasize the last whifif." T. re-
versed the procedure of Be. and /*., usually judging by "the last'
whiff," but repeating the inspiration and relying on the first impres-
sion if the determination were difficult. With Rof^. exhaustion often
supervened in a long inspiration. If is clear that if the intensity of
1 Spraying the subject's nose at the beginning of the hour might be
a useful expedient, but we did not try it.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL. 121
a stimulus alters with the duration of an inspiration as well as with
the manipulation of the instrument, the subject must make more than
one inspiration to determine a limen, unless the judgment is very-
easy. It is probable that the first part of the inspiration, before the
smell "blossoms out," gives the best criterion of the intensity of a
stimulus. We would suggest that cumulative stimulation of smell
would be a profitable subject of investigation.
In an effort to smell with the standard olfactometer, C, Z>., K., P.,
Rob., Rog., Sh. and T. all tipped the head to the left if using the
left nostril, and to the right if using the right, pointed the outward
end of the inhaling-tube in the same direction as the head was tipped,
and slanted the screen in the opposite direction. This odd uniformity
is perhaps explicable. On entering the nose the air ordinarily streams
a little toward the septum and the opposite directions in which the
subject slanted his head and the screen tended on each side to throw
the opening of the nose-piece into an acute angle with the septum,
while the turn given to the instrument in the horizontal plane threw
the opening a little toward the front of the nose. On the other hand,
Se. exactly reversed these directions on each side, and so did Be., ex-
cept that he turned the tube to point in the same direction as the
screen was slanted, so throwing its inner opening towards the back of
the nose. Bi. slanted both head and screen to the right when using
the right nostril, and to the left when using the left. This was prob-
ably a mere matter of attention to one nostril or the other. She was
not consistent in the pointing of the tube. N. turned everything to the
right. Unfortunately, no written notes were taken of the hand used,
but it was usually the right, the hand farther from the experimenter.
All the subjects tended to tilt the hand forward and the screen back-
ward,— probably in their desire to get " nearer " the stimulus. Almost
all, unbidden, closed their eyes.
T. once mentioned verbal associations as an aid in memorizing the
stimulus. This expedient was not common, ^e. wrinkled his fore-
head and nose in a marked degree, and once noted a tendency to judge
in terms of strain, especially about the eyes. Some substances were
pungent to a disturbing extent to every one, but C. and D. com-
plained much of "pain" from odors which no one else thought
pungent. D. explicitly distinguished the sensation from pressure.
He thought coumarine both pungent and "sour." Both C. and
D. said that they received simply sensations of pressure from
some stimuli. With D. sensations of smell merged in sensa-
tions of pressure as the organ became exhausted. C. said that
when she tried to smell the black rubber with the left nostril she
merely felt as if she were " breathing a feather," or as if the inside of
her nose were "pressed with a soft wad." Yet the judgments made
with this nostril agreed pretty well with those made with the other.
Be. occasionally spoke of sensations of pressure or pain from the
stimuli. Most of the subjects expressly denied temperature-associa-
tions. Be., however, said that tolu and heliotropine were cold; M.
that cocoa-butter was cold ; Rob. that vanilline was cold ; and N. that
white tallow and musk-root were warm, and camphor cold, and that
every smell grew warmer as it grew stronger. He thought of helio-
trope as "warm, dark and deep," in contrast with ylang ylang, which
was " light and fluffy."
The comparative sensitivity of the subjects may be judged from the
following Table :
122
GAMBLK :
TABI.E I. A Table of Stimulus-Limina.
Part I. Stimulus- Limina Arranged to Show Individual Variations.
SUBSTANCE.
sosiril.
Be
Bl.
c.
D.
K.
M.
N.
P.
Rob.
EOg.
S8.
SH.
T.
Z.
M
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Mm.
Black rubber,
R.
36
4
(22)
(43)
(35)
12
(61)
I
(12)
7
(38)
ly.
34
5
(23)
(59)
II
(50)
I
(23)
10
(30)
Gray rubber,
R.
(35)
I
(19)
(I)
5
(7)
ly.
8
(29)
6
(22)
(I)
9
^10)
Red rubber,
R.
L.
CI)
(0)
(4)
(5)
7
Russian leather.
R.
L.
0
0
0
0
0
0
ID
Paraffine,
R.
12
20
(21)
(14)
10
Rosewood,
R.
6
8
8
7
(54)
(67)
3
II
3
Cedar,
R.
L.
(4)
(5)
(27)
(29)
(10)
(12)
5
10
31
13
20
Gum benzoin.
R.
7
7
(19)
(17)
(6)
(8)
10
Gum ammoniac
(i)R.
(I)lv.
(7)
(9)
(8)
(8)
(12)
& gutta-percha:
(17)
(10)
(21)
(I) First
Utrecht cylinder.
(2)R.
(9)
(2) Second
Utrecht cylinder.
(2)1..
(8)
(3) Home-made
(3) R-
9
2
cylinder.
(3)Iv.
18
4
Yellow wax.
R.
I/.
2.5
Cocoa-butter,
R.
10
8
(16)
(17)
(7)
(4)
7
12
I
Tolu balsam.
R.
I..
14
19
4
3
I
I
(62)
(49)
I
6
9
5
I
Musk-root,
R.
Iv.
4
8
7
5
Mutton-tallow,
R.
4
6
2
5
Asafoetida,
R.
0
0
0
0
0
0
Oil of Mace.
R.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
L.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Coumarine,
R.
17
(2)
(20)
(6)
(8)
(I)
(25)
(12)
(12)
(4)
(27)
(36)
L.
23
(2)
(6)
(12)
(3)
(21)
(II)
(10)
(5)
(54)
(33)
Glycerine soap.
R.
(19)
(15)
(12)
(13)
(7)
(4)
2
Heliotropine,
R.
L.
24
39
(33)
(33)
(9)
(10)
Musk.
R.
L.
(8)
(2)
(7)
(7)
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL.
123
Table I. — Continued.
Part 2. Stimulus- Limina Arranged to Show Variations Due to
Practice and to Differences of Temperature.
SUBJECT.
SUBSTANCE.
NOSTRUM.
Value of rX in cm.
THERMOMETER
READING.
Be.
Tolu balsam
R.
L.
(32)
(35)
53^F
R.
14
60
L.
19
K.
R.
L.
(24)
(28)
54
R.
(21)
52
L.
(22)
R.
4
64
L.
3
Rosewood
R.
L.
(16)
(29)
59
R.
(13)
64
L.
(22)
R.
6
62
L.
8
P.
Cocoa butter
R.
(27)
(26)
62
R.
(19)
62
Iv.
(27)
R.
7
66
I..
12
All the values of r\ given in this Table are averages of several de-
terminations taken on the same day. Those enclosed in parentheses
were found when the subjects had had little or no experience with the
substances in question. Those not so enclosed were found after the
respective substances had been used by the several subjects in differ-
ence determinations. In the first part of the Table, the limen given
is in every case the last limen found for the subject and substance,
and all the last limina found are given. The second part of the Table
simply contains results selected by way of illustration, but all the
limina found for the subject with the substance in question are
included.
In Part i, all the substances but the last four are taken in order
from a Table in which Zwaardemaker arranges various materials for
solid odorous cylinders in the order of their intensity.^ The limina
in the column headed Z are those given by him in another Table as
normal at a temperature of 15° C. or 59° F.2 The temperatures at
which our records were taken lay for the most part between 60° and
70'' F. Our limina ought, therefore, to be lower than his, instead of
higher. We cannot satisfactorily explain the difference between our
results and his in the matter of stimulus-limina. That the limina of
Americans should be higher than those of Dutchmen is not indeed
surprising, but the entire change in the rank of the substances is.
According to Dr. Renter, as cited by Zwaardemaker, the gum ammo-
niac and gutta-percha cylinder is forty times as strong as the vulcan-
^Op. cit., p. 118.
2P. 167.
124 GAMBI^E:
ized rubber, and the musk-root is five times stronger than the former.
The tallow, Zwaardemaker says, is stronger still. We regret that we
could not find stimulus-limina oftener. The washing of the tube
consumed so much time that this was impossible. We feel that the
results embodied in Table I are the most unsatisfactory part of our
work. Yet if allowances be made for exhaustion in some of the
results of C. and Sh.^ and for expectation gradually controlled by
practice in the cases of Bi., M. and Rog., the Table will serve its
purpose.!
We have not space to give our temperature records in full. They
varied so irregularly that the arithmetical mean by no means repre-
sents the most common reading. As the steam had to be kept shut
off when we were not in the laboratory, the exact regulation of the
temperature involved serious practical difficulties, and for most of our
work it was a matter of minor importance, for in difference-determi-
nations variations of temperature and moisture affect the standard-
stimulus and the stimulus of comparison equally, and may, therefore,
be disregarded. Indeed, our barometer-records, though carefully
kept, proved to be wholly a work of supererogation, for in the case of
the very few substances (glycerine soap, coumarine, heliotropine,
vanilline, and allyl sulphide) which were somewhat soluble in water
and yet not in aqueous solution, we did not succeed in finding stimu-
lus-limina on different days.^ Practice lowered the stimulus-limina
in a conspicuous manner, but the effect of variations in temperature
can *only occasionally be traced in the complete results. Part 2 of
Table I illustrates this fact with fairness.
It only remains to say that Be., C, K., N., Se. and T. worked twice
a week for at least part of the year and the others once.
Section 2. Results Obtained by the Method of Just
Noticeable Differeyices.
Since in the nature of the case numerical proof of the applica-
bility of Weber's law to a given sense department cannot be
thrown into the form of averages, and since we have not
space for the great mass of figures which we have at hand,
we must offer first samples and then summaries of our evi-
dence, and content ourselves with them. Tables II and
III are the samples, and Tables IV, V and VI are summa-
ries from different points of view. Tablel V constitutes the
most decisive proof of the validity of the law. Tables V and
VI are intended to confirm the conclusion to be drawn from
Table IV, and to show the probable value of Ar. In Tables
r
III, IV, V and VI, every value given or enumerated is an av-
erage of the results of one day's work with one subject, nostril,
substance and standard. All the work done with this method,
however unsatisfactory, is represented in Tables V and VI.
1 The writer's own limina are lower than those of any of the subjects.
Abnormal keenness of smell has persisted from childhood, in spite of
the usual share of "colds."
2 For the effect of atmospheric moisture in Zwaardemaker's method,
see Chapter I, Section 2.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL .
125
Tabi,e II. Consecutive ResuIvTs of One Subject, T.
Date.
Substance.
Nostril.
No. of
values
aver-
aged.
r
/\ro
/\ru
Ar
Ar
r
Disturbing
factors.
Nov. 9,
Tolu
R.
6
20
4(2)
7(3)
hVz
4
balsam
L.
5(2)
5(1)
5
4
13,
R.
6
30
2(1)
14(2)
8
4
Iv.
3(2)
9(5)
6
5
16,
R.
3,4
20
1(1)
6(4)
i%
6[Z]
L.
3,3
4(2)
4(2)
4
5[Z]
R.
4
30
6(3)
8(2)
7
4
L.
4(2)
7(4)
^%
5
19.
R.
4,3
20
4(1)
1(2)
^%
Z [Z]
L.
3,3.
5(3)
6(4)
sy2
4[Z]
R.
4
30
6(2)
7(3)
6>^
5
L.
4(4)
5(3)
4J^
Z
30-
Russian
R.
4,2
24
7(2)
3(1)
5
5[Z]
leather,
L.
6(1)
5(2)
5%
4
R.
4
44
8(2)
9(2)
^y^
5
L.
10(3)
12(3)
II
4
Dec. 10,
R.
4
24
3(2)
6(3)
aYz
5
L.
6(4)
7(2)
ey^
4
R.
4
44
6(4)
10(3)
8
6
L.
8(3)
11(4)
9>^
5
14,
Asafoetida,
R.
3
8
5(4)
4(1)
4K
A
L.
6(0)
7(1)
ey^
A
R.
3
13
4(3)
10(2)
7
A
L.
2,3
5(1)
8(1)
ey^
2 [2]
Russian
R.
2
9
5(3)
-[Z]
Exhaustion.
leather,
L.
3,1
4(2)
o(-)
2
5 [6]
16,
AsafcEtida,
R.
2,1
8
3(3)
6(-)
4>^
A[Z]
( General )
< fatigue. \
( Exhaustion. )
L.
3,1
4(1)
z'A
2 [5]
R.
3
13
3(2)
6(2)
4>^
3
Iv.
2,3
8(1)
5(2)
ey^
2 [3]
Russian
R.
3,2
9
6(4)
1(1)
3>^
3 [3]
leather,
L.
3,1
5(1)
3(-)
4
2 [6]
20.
Asafoetida,
R.
1,3
8
3(-)
3(2)
3
3[Z]
Exhaustion.
L.
1,1
3(-)
o(-)
i^
5 [-]
R.
3.2
13
6(1)
6(1)
6
2 [3]
L.
3,2
7(1)
3(2)
5
3 [3]
Russian
R.
1,2
9
lo(-)
1(2)
s'A
A [6]
Exhaustion.
leather,
L.
3,1
3(1)
i(-)
2
5[Z]
Jan. 8,
Cedar,
L.
4
22
8(2)
8(3)
8
3
Exhaustion.
II,
R.
4,2
22
\^''\
6(2)
7
3 [5]
( Exhaustion. )
1 Pungency. J
L.
3,4
63
8(3;
7
3 [4]
L.
42
ii(i)
10(1)
io>^
4
22.
Asafoetida,
R.
2
12
8(4)
8(0)
8
A
General fatigue.
L.
5(3)
8(1)
ey
A
R.
2
22
14(2)
13(2)
ny
A
L.
8(1)
14(0)
II
2
Feb. I,
R.
3
22
8(2)
8(1)
8
3
L.
8(3)
8(3)
8
3
R.
3
12
10(1)
8(1)
9
A
L.
9(2)
7(1)
8
A
5.
Coumarine,
R.
3
56
14(2)
7(4)
io>^
5
12,
Heliotropine,
R.
4
28
15(2)
11(0)
13
2
126
GAMBLE :
TabIvK II. — Contimied.
1 1
No. of
; 1
Datr.
Substance.
Nostril.
values
aver-
r
Aro
1
Aru Ar
Ar
r
Disturbing
factors.
aged.
Feb. 12,
Heliotropine,
L.
13(1)
11(2)12
2
R.
3
48
18(0)
l^{l)\l'7%
3
-
L.
20(2)
15(1) i7>^
3
i8,
R.
2
28
17(0)
14(2)
13(0) 15
Il(o)il2K
A
2
R.
2
48
18(1)
15(0)
i6>^
3
L.
19(5)
14(0)
i6>^
3
26.
R.
2
27
13(0)
10(0)
ii'A
2
h.
12(1;
8(1)
10
3
R.
2
47
19(1)
14(3)
16/2
3
L.
1,2
i6(-)
9(2)
I2>^
4
Mar. I,
R.
3
27
13(1)
8(0)
ioy2
3
General fatigue.
Iv.
12(2)
8(0)
10
3
R.
3
47
18(1)
15(0)
i6>^
3
.
Iv.
18(0)
15(1)
i6>^
3
3.
Valerianic
R.
3
i8
15(2)
9(1)
12
A
( Pungency. )
1 Exhaustion, i
acid,
Iv.
14(2)
7(3)
io>^
A
R.
2
38
18(1)
13(1
i5>^
3
Iv.
2,3
16(2)
9(2)
I2>^
3
8,
R.
2
18
13(0
3(2)
8
2
L.
3
12(1)
4(2)
8
2
R.
2
38
16(2)
6(4)
II
4
L.
1,2
i8(-)
5(0)
llVz
3
i8,
R.
I..
2,1
2
18
15(2)
15(3)
4(-)
3(2
9
A
2
C General fa- "j
J tigue. Nose- I
1 bleed during f
R.
2,1
38
24(2)
ii(-)
17/2
2
tthe day. J
L.
2
20(1)
11(0)
is'A
3
i9>
R.
2,3
18
ii(i)
12(0)
5(1)
2
r Irritation of \
\ nasal mem- !
L.
2
—
—
—
1 branes. f
R.
3,2
38
16(1)
10(4)
13
3
[ Exhaustion. J
L.
2
17(1)
10(3)
i3>^
3
21,
R.
3
3,2
18
13(1)
13(0)
7(2)
7(1
10
10
A
A
Irritation of '
nasal mem-
• branes.
R.
3
38
16(1)13(1.)
14/2
3
1 Smell of
L.
2
18(1)
11(2)
H'A
3
(.tobacco.
26.
Citral,
R.
2
13
8(1)
5(2)
e<A
2
' Irritation of
nasal mem-
L.
3,2
8(1)
4(2)
6
2
branes.
R.
ly. •
2,1
3,2
28
13(0)
12(2)
8(-)
7(1
9^
3
3
' Homatropin
freshly put
jntothe eyes. J
Apr. i6,
R.
1.2
13
7(-)
0(0)
z'A
4
L.
2
8(1)
2(1)
5
3
R.
3
28
12(0)
4(2)
8
4
L.
2,3
12(1)
5(2)
^A 3
T. whose results seem best fitted to be used as an illustration, worked
twice a week, as a rule, during the time covered by this Table. No
difference-determinations obtained from her during this time by the
method of just noticeable differences have been omitted. In October,
we worked with her once a week, but were occupied chiefly in finding
stimulus-limina. She also worked for us several hours late in the
spring with results which did not differ materially from those em-
bodied in the table. The fourth column of the Table gives the number
of values averaged to obtain the figures given in the columns headed
weber's law to smell. 127
A^^ and Ar«. If two figures stand on a line in the fourth column, the
first refers to /\ro and the second to A^«. One figurerefers not toi)oth
together but to each alike. The numbers in parentheses are all mean
variations. A dash in parentheses means that the number by which
it stands is not an average. In the column headed Ar, for the sake
r
of brevity values greater than ^ are indicated by the letter A ; values
equal to )/% or less, but nearer to >^ than to ]/>,, are indicated by the
figure 2 ; values equal to Yj, or nearer to Yi than to )^ or to X. by the
figure 3 ; values equal to % or nearer to % than to Yi or to \, by the
figure^ ; values equal to \ or nearer to \ than to % or to \y by the fig-
ure 5 ; values equal to \ or greater, but nearer to \ than to \, by the
figure 6 ; and values less than \, by the letter Z. Every subject
sometimes moved the cylinder beyond the standard, and the reading,
if taken at all, could be written only as a minus quantity. This cross-
ing of the standard almost never occurred with the fluid-mantle
olfactometer, and when it did the error was so easily explained that
the reading was not taken. Between November 9 and the time when
the liquids were first used, two sets of averages were obtained, the
first by excluding and the second by including these negative quanti-
ties when they occurred. In Tables IV, V and VI, only values
representing no negative quantities and differing from averages of
the same series with the addition of such quantities by less than %
are included in the enumeration. The averages enclosed in square
brackets in Table II were found by including minus quantities in the
average values of /^ro and /\ru. From all unbracketed averages, nega-
tive quantities are excluded. A dash in square brackets indicates
that the corresponding value of /\r is itself a negative quantity.
The effect of some of the disturbing factors which are con-
stant can best be illustrated in connection with this Table.
Besides exhaustion, adhesion, and the tendency to judge in
terms of hand-movement, which we call for short "the move-
ment-error," some obstruction of the nasal passages, some
slight compensating-smells, such as that of the absorbent
cotton used to wipe the inhaling-tube, and some distraction of
the attention in manipulating the large instrument, must be
taken for granted with all the subjects. Only marked ex-
haustion is expressly noted in Table II. Another source of
error which comes into operation with asafoetida, oil of mace,
Russian leather, and all the liquids except coumarine, helio-
tropine and musk is the escape of odor between the cylinder
and the tube. The effect of this circumstance, which was
mentioned in Section 2 of Chapter 2, must be to make the
value of Ar too large, because it makes the standard larger
r
than the instrument indicates. If, for example, r on the in-
strument is 20 mm., but really is 25 mm. , and A r is found to be
5 mm., then A^will be nominally ^ while really it is \.
r
As we explained in discussing the disadvantages of the
method of just noticeable differences, the effect of the move-
ment-error is to make the value of A r smaller for the larger
128 GAMBLE:
standards, and thus to conceal the operation of Weber's law.
If we look now at the values of A r in Table II, we shall see at
r
a glance that this variation exists. It should be noted that
no variation in the order of the standards will eliminate the
movement- error. If the smaller standard is given first and a
certain habit of movement acquired, this habit will make A r
r
for the larger standard too small. If the habit is acquired «in
connection with the larger standard, it will make A r for the
r
smaller too large. It is true that if the standards were alter-
nated by single determinations, rather than by short series, a
habit of movement would be less likely to establish itself, but
such a procedure is excessively confusing to the subject in the
case of smell, and, moreover, all work done with the smaller
standard after the organ is blunted with the larger is more or
less unsatisfactory. If the distance between the standards
and the stimuli offered as decidedly greater or less were kept
not absolutely but relatively equal, the movement- error would
be concealed. The fact that these distances cannot be kept
absolutely equal, if the stimulus of comparison is to be accepted
as such by the subject, is in itself no small confirmation of
Weber's law. As a matter of fact, they were kept as nearly
equal as possible, both to avoid concealing the movement-error
and to minimize exhaustion by strong stimuli. They often
varied in the same series as the subject's organ became blunted
to all differences and then recovered itself, but in general for a
standard of lo or 15 mm., the difference was made 10 mm. ;
for a standard of 20 or 30, 15 ; for a standard of 40 or 50, 20,
and for a standard of 60 or 70, 25.
The moving back and forth at the limen is some safe-
guard against the error, yet the tendency of A^ to be smaller
r
for the larger standards is apparent in the results of subjects
whose attention was good and whose movements were careful.
Thus, it is particularly well-marked in the work of Se. , who
was certainly not inferior to any of our subjects. Moreover, the
same tendency showed itself when the different standards were
used on different days, and a habit in such nice adjustments
could scarcely persist from day to day or week to week with so
little practice. If (i) the movement-error is one explanation
of the variation, (2) the escape of odorous vapor is in some
cases another. The equal though unmeasured increment is
a larger fraction of the smaller standard than of the larger.
If our standards are 20 and 40 and the increment is 4, while
webkr's law to smell. 129
Ar= }( in both cases, then A r will be 6 in one case and 1 1
r
in the other, and we must write the values of A r f J and f|.
r
We believe that (3) a fortuitous circumstance in connection
with the standard olfactometer is another factor in the same
result. Usually, the last movement made by the subject is an
outward movement. He moves from a point decidedly differ-
ent from the standard to subjective equality, and then a little
way back again, — in and out once or oftener. In moving the
cylinder the hand is apt to slip, and the accidental increment to
A r is a larger fraction of the smaller standard than of the larger.
Adhesion is not a factor in the case, for it is larger for the
larger standard, varies with the length of the determination,
has an opposite effect upon l\ro and i\ru^ and is balanced in
an indefinite way by exhaustion.
It should be noted in Table II that at first /\ru is usually slightly
larger than l^ro, but that with practice this variation is reversed. The
natural effect of exhaustion is to make l\ro larger than Ar«, for ex-
haustion does not affect the standard stimulus and stimulus of com-
parison equally, but progresses all the time that the latter is manipu-
lated. This tendency is in a manner checked by the time-error and
by adhesion. (See Chapter I, Section 4.) Now Be., the one subject
who had had some experience in smell-experiments before the begin-
ning of this course, tended from the first to make /\ro greater than l\ru.
All the other subjects at first made /\ru greater than A^<?, but all ex-
cept Rog., Se. and 5^. changed the tendency with practice or began
to do so. Rob., N. and T. altered it very soon and decidedly. With
►S*^. the values were usually almost equal. This alteration with prac-
tice seems to show that exhaustion causes more disturbance than ad-
hesion and the time-error put together. This is what we should
expect, for although the subject rested while the tube was being
cleaned, yet the removal of adhesion was absolute, while the recupera-
tion of the organ was less complete each time.^ We never can be
quite sure, however, whether exhaustion is really decreasing the
strength of stimuli regularly, or is blunting all differences or making
all movements haphazard. When a subject complained that his nose
felt "hot," "dry," "rough," "scrapy," "sore," or "numb," his
movements were often erratic, and the smaller stimulus sometimes
seemed as strong as the larger, which probably stunned the already
weary organ instantly. The dryness, no doubt, was due to the vigor-
ous breathing. The tongue of a fever-patient will become much more
parched and black if respiration through the nose is obstructed.
The original tendency to make Aro decidedly smaller than Aru, and
the difficulty of finding the lower stimulus-limen are probably due to
the same cause. Both cumulative stimulation and memory after-
images might produce the tendency, though both would be counter-
acted in a measure by the moving to and fro at the limen. Against
both, the subject would learn to guard in a measure. Be. mentioned
" after-images " of cocoa-butter, and Se. of tolu balsam. Frequently
a subject would complain that he could not " get the strong smell out
of his nose."
^ Zwaardemaker : op. cit., pp. 203-204.
JOURNAI, — 9.
I30
GAMBLE :
In the mean variations, as a whole, it is impossible to trace any
tendency to be larger in judgments made with reference to the larger
standard. Though the larger standard was usually given last, the
effect of exhaustion in producing erratic judgments towards the end
of the hour seems to have been balanced by a certain lack of practice.
At the beginning of the hour, there is a sort of conscious awkwardness,
characteristic of these smell-judgments when first attempted. It is
impossible to draw from our figures any conclusion in regard to the
delicacy of quantitative sensible discrimination in smell. The varia-
tions were evidently controlled to a great extent by the peculiari-
ties of the instrument and the subject's habit of movement, and
it must be confessed that from day to day the effect of practice
upon them was not very clearly marked. All the subjects had
smaller mean variations when using the fluid-mantle olfactometer,
but this fact can hardly have been due to practice, for, although the
other instrument was used first in every case, Rob., Rog. and T. re-
turned to it after using the large instrument for a while, and showed
the same mean variations as they did at the beginning. Moreover,
the difficulty of turning the screw-head of the large instrument and
Tabi,e III.
Complete Results for One Solid and One Liquid Substance.
SUBSTANCE.
Gray
rubber,
Coumarine,
SUBJECT.
Be.
D.
Se.
Be.
Bi.
C.
D.
K.
M.
N.
P.
Rob.
Rog.
Se.
Sh.
17 17 22 19 14^ 17 r,«rl -3 5
g'7> TS") T4» T¥) TF w. 7"^ ana y ^ 5-,
/e w. f i and yW
8 ^j 22 13 ^T 19
Tg" W. y-g", -g-g- W. y-g-
14xTr 18 15 -mr 19 15 ^T 13 14 ^7. 20
16 14
"5T
VAI^UES OF
Ar
1 O X •*
3^^> "ST
1 2 „. 17 1 2 ^7- 17 1 6 -oy
24 17 25 23 ^r 25 25 2
19^. 27 17 ^T 27
24 12^
17 25 23xTrr 25 25 22-prT 29
si, •t2» T^ W. -g-^, -5-^, -5-2- W. -92,
1 9 ^T 2 7 1 7 XTT 2. 7.
TY W. 9^, "S^Y W. -9 2"
14 „r 18 15 ^r 19
¥2 W. y2"» ¥2- W. y^
16 20^,7 27 18-r^T 29
TrV* T 2- W. TT2-» T2- W. yxT
it o
7T
4 23
■5'2
72-
5
24 w
25
T2"
w. tVV, ft w. tVt , ft w. ttV
*f, Ifw. Jf, ii-w. II, ifw.ff
9. R 9 1 2 6
26
Ifw.
J 2 6 2 1 -prr -^_
^7 3 8 2 7 w 33 19 TTT 21.
if w. ff , M w. M
T^ w. If. if w. li, H w. H. M w. *f
if, T%, H w- If . tt ^- H
21
TTT
1 8
"ST)
^T ^* T5^
wkber's law to smkll.
131
the propensity of the movable cylinder of the small instrument for
slipping are quite enough to explain the fact. The mean variations
of Rob., Rog., Se. and Sh. closely resembled those of T., both in size
and in degree of uniformity. Those of Be., Bi., C, M. and N. ran
higher, and were more irregular. This fact was undoubtedly due to
hasty movements in the cases of Bi., C. and M., and to exhaustion in
the cases of Be. and N. D.'s mean variations were large and irregu-
lar in the beginning, but improved with his manner of moving the
cylinder, and K.'s also were large at first, but finally approximated to
Z'.'s. P.'s were suspiciously small, as small with the fluid-mantle as
with the standard olfactometer, and indicated the movement-error
beyond a doubt.
Results connected by W. ("with") were found on the same day
for the same nostril. The values obtained with gray rubber were
chosen for illustration because vulcanized rubber was used with three
different methods, and those obtained with coumarine were taken
because this scent was used with all the thirteen subjects. Both sets
are fair samples of the whole mass of results. The series of Be. and D.
with gray rubber, and of Bi., C, K., 31., N., Rob. and Sh. with cou-
marine, give pretty clear indications of the validity of Weber's law.
That of 5<?.with rubber, and those of D., P., Rog. and Sh. with couma-
rine, indicate the operation of the law simply by the fact that as a
rule the numerators of the fractions with the larger denominators are
larger. The series of Be. and T. with coumarine are too short to
prove anything by themselves. A series in which the numerators of the
fractions with the larger denominators are persistently smaller than
those of the fractions with the smaller denominators or equal to them
may be counted as tending to disprove the law.
In the complete set of results — counting the results of one subject
with one substance as one series — there are 55 series for solids. Out
of these, 15 indicate Weber's law clearly ; 14 indicate it faintly ; 11 long
Tabi,e IV.
Ar
Approximate Values of —7 obtained for Pairs of Standard Stimulus-
Intensities Sensed under the Same Conditions, — viz :
Subject, Nostril, Substance, and Hour.
Ar
(0
(2)
(2)
(2)
(I)
(I)
(2)
(2)
r:=i2a
r —
r:=.2a
/•
T
r=za
or2a^
r-=^a
a-^{a
r — a
or2a-\-
r a
a-^{a
A. V.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
C.
>?^(A)
20
3
14
II
10
7
I
J^(2)
7
7
5
5
35
I
H
4
/3(3)
34
13
7
10
35
57
46
32
^(4)
9
32
21
7
6
34
17
32
J (5)
3
II
9
12
3
3
3
12
% (6)
5
4
3
5
I
4
YAi-L)
I
3
I
13
I
2
5
Total,
74
74
61
61
95
95
90
90
132 GAMBLE:
> /z y2 Vs 'A I i a
40 40
Curves Ii,i,ustrating the Vai^uks of At for Soi^ids when r = a
r
AND 2 a OR 2a-\-. (See Table IV.;
series are of doubtful interpretation ; 13 series are too short to prove
anything ; and 2 tend to disprove the law. Out of 39 series for liquids,
24 indicate the law clearly, and 11 do so faintly, while 3 are too short
to count, and only i tends to disprove the law.
We may now proceed to the Tables which summarize the evidence.
As noted before. Table IV enumerates only values for standards
which can be paired as sensed under the same conditions. The left
column of each pair of columns enumerates values obtained for the
smaller standards in the pairs. The columns headed (i) enumerate
values for standards of which one was twice as strong as the other,
or more than twice as strong. The columns headed (2) enumerate
values for standards of which one was less than twice as strong
as the other. All values obtained for standards which can be paired
are included. A. V. stands for " Approximate Values," and C. for
" Cases."
We believe that we have accounted for the tendency of Ar
r
to be somewhat smaller for the larger standards. In Table IV,
however, it is clear that the errors to which this tendency is
due do not serve to conceal the operation of Weber's law. If
certain absolute differences of smell-intensity were sensed and
A r for a given standard were yz, then for a standard twice as
r
strong it should be ^, not %.
Tables V and VI are arranged to show such variations as
occur from subject to subject, and substance to substance. That
it may be seen that each subject used a variety of substances,
and that the different subjects used the substances in different
wbber's law to smell.
133
60
%
X
<i
60
Curves IIvI^ustrating the Vai^ues of A^ for Liquids when r= a
r
AND 2 a OR 2 a-\-. (See Table IV.)
Of these curves, the heavy lines give the values for the smaller,
and the broken lines for the larger standards. The ordinates give the
number of cases, and the abscissae approximate values.
orders, we preface the Tables with the following list of sub-
stances as used in order by each subject :
Be. Black rubber, tolu, cocoa-butter, asafoetida, Russian
leather, gray rubber, coumarine, heliotropine, valerianic acid,
citral.
Bi, Cocoa-butter, coumarine, vanilline.
C. Gum benzoin, oil of mace, cedar, coumarine.
D. Gray rubber, gum benzoin, oil of mace, coumarine, oil
of camphor.
K. Tolu, rose-wood, asafoetida, Russian leather, gum am-
moniac and gutta-percha from Utrecht, oil of mace, coumarine,
musk, ethyl butyrate.
M. Cocoa- butter, coumarine.
N. Black rubber, tallow, musk-root, rose-wood, oil of
mace, heliotropine, oil of camphor, vanilline.
134
GAMBI^E :
P. Gum ammoniac and gutta-percha, home-made, glycer-
ine soap, oil of mace, coumarine, oil of camphor.
Rob. Glycerine soap, gum ammoniac and gutta-percha,
home-made, oil of mace, coumarine, vanilline, cedar, gum am-
moniac and gutta-percha from Utrecht.
Rog. Black rubber, parafiine, coumarine, oil of camphor,
caryophylline, gum benzoin, oil of anise, laudanum.
Se. Tolu, rose-wood, tallow, asafoetida, musk-root, gray
rubber, oil of mace, coumarine, musk, ethyl butyrate, citral,
caryophylline, allyl suphide.
Sh. Black rubber, cedar, gum ammoniac and gutta-percha,
from Utrecht, coumarine, oil of camphor.
T. Tolu, Russian leather, asafoetida, cedar, coumarine,
heliotropine, valerianic acid, citral, pyridin and yellow wax.
The fact that the order was not varied more extensively and
more systematically was due to practical difficulties with the
apparatus.
Tabi^e V. Approximate: Vai^ues
OF -— Arranged to Show
Variations
for
iNDiviDUAi. Subjects.
Nature
Number of cases j ^TSiTf 1^^^^ 1
Total
Subject.
of
Stimuli
>5^(A)
J^(2)
>^(3)
5<(4)
H5)
J (6)
<S(Z)
numoer
of cases.
Be.
S.
6
9
4
6
3
I
29
L.
5
5
i6
5
5
I
I
38
Bi.
S.
4
4
I
3
12
Iv.
I
9
4
I
3
2
20
C.
S.
6
2
7
3
5
I
2
26
L.
3
6
3
12
D.
s.
9
4
3
6
I
23
L.
7
6
3
16
K.
S.
3
6
13
5
I
28
L.
2
6
12
9
I
30
M.
S.
I
2
3
L.
I
2
4
I
8
• N.
S.
4
2
13
13
5
3
8
48
L.
I
I
lO
7
3
2
24
P.
S.
5
4
2
I
2
14
L.
3
6
4
3
16
Rob.
S.
i6
4
ID
II
I
2
44
I..
2
I
8
7
I
I
20
Rog.
S.
. I
4
5
5
3
18
Iv.
I
21
6
3
I
32
Se.
S.
8
4
II
14
10
3
2
52
Iv.
I
19
40
29
3
92
Sh.
s.
2
2
4
4
12
Iv.
I
9
3
4
I
18
T.
s.
8
5
II
13
10
2
2
51
Iv.
6
II
24
6
I
4
52
Total,
78
95
251
175
76
27
36
738
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL.
135
It will be seen that there is very little variation in the value
of A r from class to class of substances. All of Zwaardemaker's
r
classes are represented among either the solids or the liquids
except Class IX, that of nauseating smells. We could not
obtain Anagyris foetida or Indian stink- wood (" Scatolholz ")
in the American market, and we did not try soon enough
to get it from Europe. Variations in the results of individual
subjects are, however, due to variations in the substances used.
TABI.E VI.
Approximate Values of Ar arranged to show Variations for
r
Different Substances.
PART I. SOIvIDS.
Substance. .
Number of
cases/ equal to or )
I approximating /
Total
number
of cases.
>i(A)
K2)
i(3)
K4)
H5)
K6)
<KZ)
Yellow wax. I,
I
3
4
8
Russian leather. I,
2
4
3
5
6
I
21
Oil of mace. II,
25
II
10
4
50
Cocoa-butter. II (?),
3
2
5
5
3
5
23
Rosewood. II,
I
10
10
2
I
24
Cedar. II,
9
2
3
4
18
Tolu balsam. Ill,
2
8
6
2
2
20
Gum benzoin. Ill,
6
2
8
6
5
2
I
30
Musk-root. IV,
I
6
7
2
I
3
20
Black rubber. V,
I
4
5
6
4
6
26
Gray rubber. V,
2
4
10
5
I
22
Asafoetida. V,
14
6
5
25
Gum ammoniac and gutta-
percha.
(i) Weaker cylinder fr.
Utrecht,
I
3
4
3
2
I
14
(2) Stronger cylinder fr.
Utrecht,
I
I
5
7
I
I
16
(3) Home-made cylinder,
10
2
I
I
I
15
Paraffine. VII,
3
3
2
8
Mutton-tallow. VII,
5
3
4
12
Glycerine soap,
2
4
I
I
8
Total,
60
37
83
86
5'
18
25
360
Values for oil of mace, asa-
fcetida, and home-made
cylinder of gum ammo-
niac and gutta-percha,
49
19
16
4
I
I
90
Final result,
II
18
67
82
50
18
24
270
136
GAMBLE :
TabIvK VI. — Continued.
Approximate Values of A^ arranged to show Variations for
r
Different Substances.
PART II. WQUIDS.
Substance.
Number of cases { J^^^^^.^^ |
1, approximating j
Dtal
tnber
ases.
>KA)
K2)
K3)
i(4)
K5)
i(6)
<KZ)
fl 0
Oil of camphor. II,
I
7
26
8
6
4
52
Caryopliylline. II,
I
2
10
5
2
20
Oil of anise. II,
6
I
I
8
Valerianic acid. II,
10
7
12
2
31
Ethyl butyrate. II,
2
12
8
6
28
Citral. II,
8
2b
9
I
44
Vanilline. Ill,
ID
7
I
4
2
24
Coumarine. Ill,
3
II
34
31
7
3
89
Heliotropine. Ill,
I
4
14
3
6
I
I
30
Musk. IV,
2
15
6
I
24
Allyl sulphide. V,
5
3
8
16
Pyridin. VI,
2
2
4
8
Laudanum. VIII,
2
I
I
4
Total,
18
58
168
89
25
9
II
378
PART III. SOI.IDS AND I^IQUIDS.
Nature of Stimulus.
Number of cases | _T.^\.^°.^J_ |
L approximating J
Total
number
of cases.
>KA)K2)
K3)
K4)
K5)
K6)
<KZ)
Solid,
Liquid,
II
18
18
58
67
168
82
89
50
25
18
9
24
II
270
378
Total,
29
76
235
171
75
27
35
648
Almost all the values for solids in which A r exceeds V^ were
obtained with asafoetida, oil of mace, or the home-made cylin-
der of gutta-percha and gum ammoniac. Thus, out of 9 values in
which D. exceeded Yz for solids, 7 were f mnd with oil of
mace, and out of 16 values in which Rob. exceeded ^, 10 were
ft)und with the home-made cylinder of gutta-percha and gum
ammoniac, and 4 with oil of mace. We believe that it is per-
fectly fair to exclude these cylinders from our final results.
And if we do so there is little variation from substance to sub-
stance. The odor of asafoetida and oil of mace was very per-
ceptible when the instrument was closed, and the mace would
240
220
WEBKR'S I.AW TO SMELL.
i i i
137
<J
200
180
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Curves Showing the Approximate Vai^ues of — in the whoi^e
Course of Experiments by the Method of Just Noticeabi^e
Differences. (See Table VI, Part 3.)
The heavy line gives the values for both solids and liquids ; the
dotted line gives the values for solids, and the broken line for licjuids.
The ordinates give the number of cases, and the abscissae approximate
values.
138 GAMBLE:
scrape off on the iiihaling-tube. While Zwaardemaker's mix-
ture of gum ammoniac and gutta-percha is black and brittle
like licorice, ours was yellowish gray, contained strings of
gutta-percha, and made the inhaling-tube cloudy and sticky.
We did succeed in obtaining stimulus-limina with it when the
inhaling-tube was first cleaned, but we believe that the end of
the tube was probably soiled most of the time during difference-
determinations. We have not excluded the results for Russian
leather because its odor, like that of most of the liquids, was
just liminal when the instrument was closed, and the results
harmonized with the others. Since most of the liquids had this
error of the equal but unmeasured increment, it is not sur-
prising that the values of A r run higher for them than for
7'
solids. It will be noticed that they run highest for valerianic
acid, which was particularly troublesome in escaping from the
instrument. Yet as the results for coumarine, heliotropine,
and musk show yi as the most common value, we must con-
clude that the value of l\r lies somewhere between yi and }(.
r
Some of the substances showed an interesting difference of
quality with difference of intensity. Thus several subjects
thought that oil of camphor smelt like nutmeg when weak, and
like turpentine when strong. The slight odor of the paraffine
appeared when a strong stimulus was given with coumarine.
T. said that heliotropine smelled like heliotrope on the left
(the better) side of her nose, and like bitter-almonds on the
right. (As a matter of fact the two smells are closely allied.)
Se. said that the tallow smelled like onions in his poorer nos-
tril. Fluctuations at the limen were also noted. Coumarine
and heliotropine, when weak, were said to come " in whiffs" or
"waves," and /C, always spoke of weak smells as "scat-
tered."
Section J. Results of Other Methods.
Table VII gives some of the results obtained by the method
of just noticeable differences modified in the direction of the
method of minimal changes, as described in Chapter I, Section
4, and shows the agreement of these results with those reached
by the ordinary method. C. M. stands for "Combination
Method."
We used red rubber with the true method of minimal
changes because Zwaardemaker had done so. The cylinder
was obtained from Utrecht. The experiments of which the
results are given in Table VIII extended through five labora-
tory-hours. It is needless to say that the instrument was
manipulated entirely by the experimenter.
WEBER'S LAW TO SMELL.
139
Tabi,e VII.
Results of the Modified Form of the Method of fust Noticeable
Differences.
H
i-r
S?^
0
w
SUB-
STANCE.
METHOD
AND
I
if
Ar^'
Aro"
Arz^"
Ar«'
Arc
Arw
Ar
Ar
r
t3
03
Standard
^
pcj-*S
D.
Gray
m.)
R.
4
9
8
6
10
9
8
8>^
2
rubber,
L.
II
8
3
7
ID
5
7/2
3
i^^,}
R.
4
18
9
3
II
14
7
10/2
4
L.
18
9
4
8
14
6
10
4
lr = i9/
R.
4
2
6
4
.S
L.
7
6
6>^
3
{^=39}
R.
4
12
10
II
4
L.
9
10
9/2
4
K.
Rose-
{r^^«}
R.
3
15
5
2
II
10
7
8X2
3
wood,
L.
IT
6
3
16
9
10
9>^
2
{%^^
R.
4
14
4
5
8
9
7
5
L.
12
6
9
14
9
12
10^2
4
{.^=^1
R.
2
10
5
7
10
8
9
8/2
3
L.
8
7
8
4
8
6
7
3
{^=4^}
R.
L.
2
10
II
6
6
3
4
9
10
8
9
6
7
7
8
6
5
{VJ.)
R.
9
9
9
3
L.
13
15
14
A
/J NDl
I r=42 /
R.
8
16
12
4
Iv.
7
14
io>^
4
Table VIII.
Results obtained for Red Rubber by the True Method of Minimal
Changes.
SUBJECT — SH.
r=io mm.
40 mm.
Gradation =2 mm.
A^=4 mm.
^1
given before i
r.
r given before rj .
Ar^'
Ar<?"
/\ro
Aro'
Aro"
Aro
R.N.
6
6
6
12
6
9
L.N.
6
10
8
6
8
7 ■
Arw'
Ar«"
Aru
Ar«'
Arw"
Aru
R. N.
12
6
9
6
12
9
L.N.
8
4
6
8
12
10
Ar
Ar
Ar
Ar
R.N.
L. N.
7^
7
r
'4.
8i
H^r-^-
Final result : R. N. Ar=8^ mm. Ar=ff =|+
140
GAMBLE :
Zwaardemaker concluded that for a standard of from 2 to 5
cm., the difference limen was about 1.5 cm., and that for a
standard of from 5 to 9 cm. , it was about 3. 5 cm. This would
make the value of A r run from about Yz to about ^. Our
own results agree fairly well with his, and are a verj' pretty-
confirmation of the results obtained by the method of just
noticeable differences. The writer intends to use the method
of minimal changes much farther.
In contrast with these excellent results are those of the
next Table :
Table IX.
Results obtained by the Method of Right and Wrong Cases.
SUBJECTS— C, D., K., N., ROB., ROG,, AND T.
Instrument— Standard Olfactometer. Substances — Black Rubber
or Tolu Balsam.
Mistakes made in
TOTAI.
Number
OF
Cases.
r AND ri.
Right
Cases.
Wrong
Cases.
TAKING THE SECOND
stimui.us for
Weaker
WHEN Stronger.
20 and 25
37
19
12
56
50 and 70
30
10
9
40
20 and 30
47
19
12
66
30 and 50
33
II
5
44
20 and 40
42
22
18
64
30 and 60
4
2
6
20 and 50
39
II
8
50
20 and 60
7
I
I
8
The stimuli given were never equal, and the judgment
' ' equal ' ' was counted a mistake. The results of all the sub-
jects are massed.
As we said before, while exhaustion makes the errors nearly
all run in one direction, confusion due to the unfamiliarity of
olfactometric work is probably most at fault. More experi-
ments should be made with the standard olfactometer and
trained subjects. It is difficult to use the large olfactometer
with this method, because the intervals between stimuli must
be made very long or the subject can guess from the time spent
in manipulation how they have been changed.
As a rough method of testing the applicability of the method
of right and wrong cases to smell, we blind-folded one subject,
stopped his ears with absorbent cotton, and required him to tell
which way we had moved from a given standard on the large
olfactometer. The results are given in the following Table :
wkber's law to smkll.
141
TABI.E X.
Results of a Rough Attempt to Gauge the Applicability of the Method
of Right and Wrong Cases to Smell.
SUBJKCT-
-K.
SUBSTANCE—
ETHYI, BUTYRATE
4J
0
k
f
0 0
1.
ii'3 9
tn
cd
0
0
u
1
1
0
If
5
"So
to
0
0
u
a
s
8
2
Mm.
20 to 30
20 to 10
95
115
46
27
II
6
152
148
Mm.
40 to 60
60 to 40
100
106
35
29
6
5
141
140
We see that here again the number of mistakes was very
large. Yet these were the last experiments made with K. ,
who had worked for us twice a week throughout the year, and
who had used butyric ether successfully in experiments by
the method of just noticeable differences. He was, however,
very tired at the time these last experiments were made. The
second stimulus still is more often mistakenly taken for
the weaker than for the stronger, showing that in these ex-
periments also exhaustion outweighed adhesion and the time-
error put together. (The tube was cleaned after every eight
comparisons.)
Summary and Conclusion.
In beginning our investigations, we saw that we could not
isolate simple olfactory qualities, and that an attempt to prove
Weber's law for smell was justified only by the assumption
that it might apply to fusions. We also saw that the fact
that some olfactory qualities show but few grades of intensity
pointed to a rise towards the terminal intensity by geometrical
progression. Although Zwaardemaker explains the fact partly
by the supposition that different smells have different differ-
ence-limina, we believe that two smells with the same differ-
ence-limen may exhaust the human sense-organ with very
unequal degrees of rapidity, so that one may reach the termi-
nal intensity much sooner than the other.
Aside from the condition of the sense-organ, the intensity of
a smell depends ( i ) on the amount of odorous surface exposed
to the air, (2) on the time that it is exposed, (3) on the condi-
tion of the air in regard to temperature, moisture, etc. , which
controls the rate of evaporation, (4) on the diffusion-rate of the
142 GAMBI.E :
vapor, and (5) on the rate andmanner of the subject's breathing.
The great incidental difficulties in olfactometric work are ( i )
the variability of the organ through obstruction by mucus or
(2) exhaustion, (3) the adhesion of the odorous matter to
parts of the apparatus, and (4) the presence of compensating
smells. The freedom of the nasal passages may be tested, but
exhaustion can neither be prevented nor measured, nor can
adhesion and the presence of compensating odors be absolutely
excluded. We employed Zwaardemaker's olfactometric method
in which (i) the measure is the amount of odorous surface
exposed, (2) the time of exposure may be disregarded, (3) the
diffusion-rate of vapor is under control, and (4) the subject's
breathing is supposed to be self- regulating. We did not (5)
succeed in regulating the temperature of our laboratory, but
its variability was not of primary importance in difference-
determinations. Adhesion makes the method of minimal
changes impracticable for most substances with Zwaardemaker's
method of smell- measurement, and exhaustion contributes to
make the method of right and wrong cases very difficult. We
therefore used the method of just noticeable differences. This
psychophysical method involves an error from the subject's
tendency to judge in terms of hand-movement. Another
occasional source of error, incidental to our apparatus, was the
escape of some odors between the inhaling-tube and cylinder.
Both of these circumstances tend to make the values of A r
r
smaller for the larger standards. Adhesion and the ordinary
time-error tend to balance exhaustion. In spite of the four
most serious sources of error, (i) exhaustion, (2) adhesion,
(3) the movement-error, and (4) the unmeasured increment to
some stimuli, we found Ar to be about Yi in 36% and about
r
% in 26% of our determinations. It was about ^ in 12%,
about I in 12% , about i in 4% , greater than ^ in 5% and less
than \ in 5 % of the determinations. The slight use we made
of the other gradation-methods confirms the general result.
There is no great variation from one substance to another, or
from one of Zwaardemaker's classes to another.
There is much yet to be done and said in olfactometric work
— "of making of books there might be no end" — but we
believe that enough has been said and done to offer some
evidence that Weber's law applies to smell and that the value
of A r lies between one-third and one-fourth.
MINOR STUDIES FROM THE PSYCHOI.OGICAI,
LABORATORY OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
Communicated by E. B. Titchener.
XVII. Cutaneous Perception of Form.
By D. R. Major, Ph. D.
The object of the following experiments was the determina-
tion of the limen of form at various parts of the cutaneous
surface. Although the investigation is not yet concluded, it
seems worth while to publish the results so far gained: espe-
cially as there is no literature upon the subject {^cf. Henri,
Raumw. d. Tastsiiuies, 1898, p. 53).
The forms employed were angles, open circles, filled circles
and filled triangles. ^\{^^ angles (of 35°) were made by fasten-
ing strips of sheet rubber to wooden handles. The lengths of
side used were 3 to 10 mm., inclusive. The open circles were
cut from glass tubing (thickness of glass about .5 mm.), the
cut edge of which was ground. The outside diameters ranged
between 2 and 1 1 mm. Th^Jilled circles were made from solid
glass rods, in the same way : diameters 2 to 12 mm. The tri-
angles (equilateral) were cut from hard rubber blocks, and
fastened to wooden handles : sides 2 to 9 mm. In each series
the increment of difference was i mm. The method employed
was that of just noticeable stimuli, as described by Kuelpe
(^Outlines of Psych., pp. 55 f.). The subject closed his eyes,
and the form was pressed firmly down upon the skin, at the
place selected. As soon as the subject had cognised (or defi-
nitely failed to cognise) a form, he opened his eyes, and drew
upon paper a figure which corresponded to the cutaneous per-
ception. The judgment of cutaneous form was thus recorded
in terms of a visual translation. This procedure recommended
itself in view of the fact that movement was above all things
to be avoided ; we were investigating the cutaneous, not the
tactual appreciation of form. It may be said at once, however,
that one of the subjects (G), who is of the tactual type and
has small power of visualization, could hardly be restrained
from movement (wrinkling the skin, shifting the fingers, etc.,)
in. spite of all cautions. With the other two subjects no such
difficulty was found.
144
MAJOR :
The subjects — Dr. I. M. Bentley (B), Dr. E. A. Gamble
(G), and Dr. W. Manahan (M) — were all trained in psycho-
logical methods, and knew in a general way the object of the
present enquiry. The procedure with knowledge was, of
course, followed in experimentation. B soon became aware
that only four forms were being employed ; G and M showed
no trace of any positive opinion on the matter. The surfaces
tested were the tip of the tongue, the tip of the middle finger
of the right hand, and the central portions of the red areas of
upper and lower lips. It was a mistake to work upon all four
with the same forms in a single investigation, since informa-
tion gained from the points of greater discrimination is almost
inevitably transferred to other points, whose limina are thus
unduly lowered. The results proved that the dimensions
taken were not small enough, in the following cases : angles,
on the tongue and under lip ; open circles, on the tongue ;
filled triangles, on the tongue. (The results from G, where
they stand alone, throw no light on this question, for the
reason given above.) On the other hand, the dimensions
were too small to allow of liminal determinations on forehead,
cheek, ball of thumb, and volar side of wrist. No other sur-
faces were tried.
Results. The following Tables show the results for the
three subjects on the four surfaces. Under L is given the
average form limen ; under m. v. the average departure of the
single determinations from L ; under no. the number of single
determinations made. It must be remembered that a single
determination implies the performance of experiments in two
directions, ascending and descending; so that, e.g., lo L's
required 20 series of experiments. The m. v.'s of the partial
limina were very small ; hence neither they nor the limina
themselves are shown in the Tables. The thick figures indi-
cate that the limit of the instrument was reached, or, in other
words, that the recorded L may be too large.
T^ABI^E I.
Tip of tongue. Unit i mm.
SuDjeci
A'
0
•
▲'
I..
M. v.
NO.
I..
M. v.
NO.
Iv.
M. v.
NO.
Iv.
M. v.
NO.
I
M
3
I
8
10
10
2
2
2
-
4
4
4
6
4
4
1-3
I
1
3
5
4
2
•5
10
8
8
1 On tongue and lips these figures were placed always with the apex
pointing upwards or downwards upon the longitudinal axis of the
body. Variation of direction made no difference in judgment. On
MINOR STUDIES.
Tabi,e II.
Tip of finger. Unit i mm.
145
Snbject.
A
0
•
▲
I..
M. V.
NO.
L.
M. V.
NO.
I..
M. V.
NO.
I..
M. V.
NO.
B
G
M
4
5
5
■I
II
10
6
A
•3
I
3
4
3
5
4
6
I
•7
1-3
3
4
3
4
4
5
I
I.I
2.3
4
TABI.E III.
Upper lip. Unit i mm.
subject.
A
0
•
▲
I..
M. V.
NO.
t.
M. V.
NO.
I,.
M. V.
NO.
I..
M. V.
NO.
B
G
M
5
4
4
.6
•4
.6
8
8
9
3
•5
~7
4
3
4
6
5
6
2
1.2
5
4
4
6
5
5
2
1-3
•7
II
I
Tabi,e IV.
Lower lip. Unit i m^m.
A
0
•
▲
snbject.
J..
M. V.
NO.
I..
M. V.
NO.
!<•
M. V.
NO.
I,.
M.V.
NO.
B
4
I
5
J
.2
4
6
1.5
3
7
2.1
7
G
3
-
9
-
3
5
1-5
4
4
I
6
M
8
-
6
3
•3
3
6
1.7
4
7
2
5
It appears from these Tables that, within the limits of our
experiments, the surfaces tested rank, as regards capacity of
form cognition, in the order : tip of tongue, tip of finger, lips.
(Between upper and lower lip there is no appreciable differ-
ence.) It appears further, that the cutaneous surfaces differ
in their behavior according as the stimuli are surfaces or out-
lines : thus the lips are at a disadvantage when the filled circle
and the triangle are applied. A different selection of stimuli
might therefore lead to a different order of rank. The fact is
brought out in Table V, which is obtained by massing the
results from the three subjects.
the finger tip, all four possible positions were employed. Unfortu-
nately, we have no separate records for the longitudinal and transverse
directions. The introspective notes, however, show (for all three sub-
jects) that cognition was subjectively a little easier when the forms
lay transversely upon the surface, ,
Journal, — 10
146
MAJOR :
Table V.
Lintina of form in
PI.ACE.
A
0
•
4
Tongue . . .
Finger ....
Upper lip . .
Lower lip . .
3.7
4.7
3*i
2
3
2.7
2.7
4.7
5.7
2.3
4.3
Av
4
2.6
5-3
'4.5
We see from these figures that theybrw most easily cognised
by the four surfaces is the open circle. It is, perhaps, hardly
safe to draw any general conclusion from them as to the order
of cognition of the remaining three forms. We may remark,
however, that the filled circle was as unsatisfactory as the open
circle was satisfactory to work with. This accounts for the
smaller number of series given for these two forms in the
Tables.
Practice — in some cases extending over a month — was given
with each instrument for each place upon the skin. Its effect
was twofold. Practice at a given spot increased the subject's
power of discrimination (or rather cognition) of form at that
spot.^ And practice at a spot of finer discrimination was, as
we have said above, of influence upon the cognition of form at
spots of coarser discrimination. The latter fact is clear from
our introspective records, especially from those of B. There
can be no doubt that the influence was enhanced by the char-
acter of the method employed, i. e., by the requirement of
translation from hap tics into optics.
It need hardly be said that the value of a limen is never an
absolute value. I^imina will vary as the conditions of experi-
mentation vary. Our subjects had all had general practice,
and worked according to a procedure with knowledge. While
we have reason to think that the limina of these three subjects
would have been practically the same if obtained by a proce-
dure without knowledge, experiments (not yet completed)
upon subjects lacking in general practice promise to give a
higher limen, particularly by a procedure without knowledge.
They indicate, too, that the values will difier with the admis-
sion or rejection of visualization.
Subliminal judgments. The following Tables show the
^ The values given. by Titchener {Outline of Psychology y p. 164) —
triangle, 3.5 mm. on tongue, 7 mm. on finger-tip — are massed values
taken from our three subjects at what proved to be about halfway
through the stage of practice. On the theory of practice see Henri,
Raumw. d. Tastsinnes, pp. 27 ff.; Tawney, Phtl. Stud., xiii, 163 ff.
MINOR STUDIES.
147
nature of the subliminal judgments of form passed by the three
subjects. They tell their own tale of individual tendency.
Tabi,e VI.
Subliminal judgments. Tip of tongue.
Subject.
A
•
▲
B
G
M
• 1
Blur.
Blur.
Blur.
9 or blur.
Tabi,e VII.
Subliminal judgments. Tip of jinger.
SnDject.
A
•
A
0
B
G
M
0 or '^
-or,v
-or,v
Blur.
0
Blur.
•
— or A
A
Blur.
Blur.
TABI.E VIII.
Subliminal judgments. Upper lip.
snliject.
A
•
A
0
B
G
M
^ or Blur.
— or /v
0
Blur.
Blur.
Blur.
— or 0
• or 4i
Blur.
Blur.
Tabi,e IX.
Subliminal judgments. Lower lip.
Sutiject.
A
A
0
B
G
M
f^ or Blur.
- or ,v'
• or '^2
Blur.
0
Blur.
Blur.
— or Aor,v
• or ^
Blur.
Blur.
llM
2 In
practic
practic
e experic
e experiu
tients.
lents.
1
PSYCHOLOGICAL LITEEATURE.
The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct, by Alexander Suth-
erland. I/ondon : Ivongmans, Green & Co., 1898. 2 vols., pp. 797.
The volumes are well printed — an excellence of no small moment to
the much taxed modern eye. Other superficial excellences are : A
comprehensive table of contents, an ample index, and a preliminary
chapter outlining the scope and method of work.
In the preface the author makes special acknowledgment of in-
debtedness to Darwin and Adam Smith. To the former he owes the
general direction of his ethical thinking and, more particularly his
method of investigation and demonstration. "Full half of the book
is a detailed expansion of the fourth and fifth chapters of his Descent
of Man.'' " His (Darwin's) progress in these chapters reminds us of
the march of some active and brilliant general who outlines a great
conquest, but leaves behind him many a fort, and city, and strong
place, to be subsequently beleaguered by plodding oflEicers, each con-
cluding in his own province, by time and labor, what his commander
had effectively done in design." To the latter he owes the more defi-
nite direction of his thesis. " Adam Smith would in all likelihood have
revealed the origin of our moral instincts, had he only possessed a
mere suspicion of that greatest of biologic truths which Darwin was
subsequently to establish. He saw that morality was founded on
sympathy, but nowise perceiving whence that sympathy could possi-
bly be derived, the whole remained involved as much in mystery as
ever."
The author thus states his thesis : "It is the purpose of this book
to show, how from the needs of animal life as they rose and developed,
there sprang, at first with inexpressible slowness, but imperceptibly
quickening as it advanced, that moral instinct which, with its con-
comitant intelligence, forms the noblest feature as yet visible on this
ancient earth of ours." He waives all the "grander and deeper"
philosophic considerations that encompass his enquiry, and devotes
himself solely to tracing "the growth of our moral instincts from their
humble source among the lower animals, with absolutely unbroken
continuity thrpugh lowliest savage to the noblest of men, always as a
biologic process."
The book presents three stages of treatment. In the earlier chap-
ters the growth of sympathy is traced. Parental care is adduced as
the condition of the "emergence, the survival, and subsequent ascend-
ency of the more intelligent types." The second stage of the argu-
ment shows how sympathy having " thus entered on its first humblest
existence," has deepened and expanded, giving rise to "the moral
instinct, with all its accompanying accessories, the sense of duty, the
feeling of self-respect, the enthusiasm of both the tender and manly
ideal of ethic beauty." Finally, there is the exposition of a theory of
the physiological basis of those emotional susceptibilities which we
collectively call by the name of " sympathy." (This theory coincides
PSYCHOI.OGICAI. LITBRATURK. 1 49
very nearly with the "visceral theory" of Prof. James, but was
formulated in ignorance of Prof. James's work.)
The thesis is supported by a wealth of detailed evidence drawn from
the widely varying fields of zoology, physiology, anthropology, his-
tory, jurisprudence and philosophy.
As a scientific history of "the growth of our moral instinct" this
book has two elements of weakness. In the first place, it is an apology
and not strictly a history. Adam Smith's doctrine of " morality
founded on sympathy" is assumed as a proposition to be demon-
strated. Under such conditions an impartial investigation of the facts
of moral evolution would be well nigh a superhuman task. In the
second place the author's evident disregard of psychology is a grave de-
fect. You scan the index in vain for a citation from a " simon pure "
psychologist. This disregard is especially exasperating in view of
the author's use of such indefinite psychological terms as " instinct"
without even a provisional definition. His treatment, too, of sym-
pathy is somewhat invertebrate. It is defined as "that general ten-
dency which makes men grieve at the pains and rejoice in the
pleasures of their fellows," .... the capacity of contagiousness
in emotion." The physiological conditions of sympathy are set forth
with admirable and convincing thoroughness ; but the psychological
conditions, which can hardly be of less significance in the history of
the progressive development of sympathy, are not mentioned. As a
matter of fact, the history of the origin and growth of the moral instinct
is essentially a chapter in the history of psychogenesis. In the hands
of one not a psychologist the subject is bound to suffer.
More specific points of criticism are the failure to take account of
the sex factor in the origin of sympathy, which seems to be ascribed
wholly to parental instinct; and the practical ignoring of the
heredity problem. The author seems to hold to the Darwinian doc-
trine of transmission. Weissmann is not mentioned.
On the whole this book adds little to clear thinking along the line
of moral evolution ; but on the other hand it has not a little of moral
dynamic in itself. Its purpose is dogmatic, but the controversial
temper is generally absent ; and a kind of noble idealism permeates
all the pages. W. S. S.
Animal Intelligence : An Experimental Study of the Associative
Processes in Animals, by K. Iv. Thorndikk. Monograph Supple-
ment, No. 8, of the Psychological Review.
This monograph of 109 pages presents the results of a series of ex-
periments conducted for two years on dogs, cats and chicks, with a
view to ascertain the time required and mode in forming their mental
associations, together with a determination of their delicacy, number
and permanency.
The method used was to confine the animals in enclosures from
which they could escape by some simple act, such as pulling at a loop
of cord, pressing a lever, or stepping on a platform. The animals, as
far as possible, were kept in a uniform state of hunger. This,
together with the desire for freedom and discomfort in confinement,
were the factors played upon throughout.
He found that the creatures could not learn to do any act from being
put through it, " and that no association leading to an act could be
formed unless there was included in the association an impulse of the
animal's own. lyearning, whether among domestic animals or their
keepers, is a process in which the learner must shoulder the great
bulk of the task.
The interpretations that will probably provoke discussion and
I50 PSYCHOI.OGICAI. I.ITERATURB.
adverse criticism are the following: ist, that animals, excepting
primates, cannot and do not learn the simplest acts from seeing their
fellows do them ; 2nd, " that the elements in the associative processes
are sense-impressions, plus a past ' impulse and act,' rather than
between two sense-impressions, one past, and one present." He would
argue, if I interpret him aright, that in order for the product of the
associative processes to be advantageous to increase intelligence, one
of the elements must be an impulse from the motor side as opposed to
the idea which maintains that the associative elements in animal psy-
chosis may be between sensations or even between memory images of
an elaborate order. For those of us who have an abiding interest and
faith in comparative psychology as an important auxiliary to the
study of mind, the chief value of the paper lies in its testing a simple
method whereby more of the facts of animal psychosis may be set
forth. Iv. W. K1.INE.
A Primer of Psychology, by Edward Bradford Titchbnbr. The
Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1898. Price, |i.
A good elementary text-book is by no means easy to write ; it is a
most searching test both of the real condition of the science for which
it is written and of the degree in which the writer has mastered his
subject. To write up " results " for Archives or technical journals
is one thing, to distil off the vital essence of a science for beginners
is quite another. Such a book ought not to be a mere description of
the "wonders" of the science in question, still less an abstract
account of its theory ; it must show the theory alive and luminous in
phenomena actually present.
The peculiar merit of Prof. Titchener's primer is the successful
attempt to do just this. The general treatment is not only concrete
and sufficiently untechnical, but each of the fifteen chapters is fol-
lowed by a section of " Questions and Kxercises," intended to lead
the student not only to the better comprehension of the text, but also
to an intelligent observation of his own mental experiences. When
practicable these observations are given an experimental form, and an
appendix is devoted to a convenient list of apparatus and materials,
with names and addresses of makers, and prices.
The book, however, covers a much wider field than that of labora-
tory psychology. After introductory chapters on the nature and
methods of the science, the topics of sensation, feeling, and attention
are taken up in that order, to be followed by those of perception,
idea and association, emotion, simpler forms of action ; then memory
and imagination, thought and self-consciousness, sentiment, and com-
plex forms of action ; the work is concluded by a chapter on abnormal
psychology, and another on animal and child psychology and the
relation of psychology to ethics, logic and pedagogy. As will be seen
from this list, the order of treatment is somewhat peculiar. In the re-
viewer's opinion it is not altogether happy, — certain logical and sys-
tematic advantages having been gained at the expense of a natural
pedagogical approach.^
The present state of psychological science is apparent in the vary-
ing interest of the chapters, those upon matters little touched as yet
by the newer methods being painfully skeletonesque. For this, of
course, the author cannot be held responsible. It is to be regretted,
however, that he did not give more explicit attention to mental
^ It is perhaps fair to say that the plan is simpler than the chapter headings
would suggest, being the usual threefold division treated successively at different
levels of complexity: i, Sensation, Feeling, Attention ; 2, Perception (with idea
and association), Smotion, Simple Action ; 3, Higher Intellect, Sentiment, Complex
Action.
PSYCHOLOGICAI. LITERATURE. 151
hygiene based upon psychological principles, especially as the book
is intended for normal and high school students. A few minor inac-
curacies also and inadvertencies of expression might well receive
attention in another edition; e.g., on p. 33 it seems to be implied
that imagination is dependent on changes of blood supply, on pp. 44-
45 in considering giddiness the otolith organs are mentioned, but the
semicircular canals are not, and on p. 50 the intensity of moonlight
is taken much too high. The book is valuable enough, however,
to carry off many more than these deficiencies, and will, no doubt,
prove extremely helpful even to many above the level for which it
was first designed. E. C. S.
The Influence of High Arterial Pressures Upon the Blood-Flow
Through the Brain. W. H. HowEi.iv. American Journal of
Physiology, I. (1898), 57-70.
The physiology of the cerebral circulation is a difficult and obscure
matter, and has been made even more difficult of comprehension by
the supposition that, because the brain itself is practically incompress-
ible and encased in an inextensible skull, any enlargement of the
arteries under increased blood pressure must bring about a corres-
ponding compression of the veins, which would hinder the outflow of
the blood, and, in case of a sudden and great rise of arterial pressure,
might produce anaemia by preventing it altogether. Recent experi-
ments by several observers, however, have made clear that this
reasoning was somewhere at fault, for when the arterial pressure in
living animals has been made very high by the administration of
drugs, the outflow has not been diminished. Prof. Howell has carried
these experiments further, and, it would seem, entirely closed the
question by showing in the case of dogs previously killed, that even
very great pressures {e.g., 500 mm. of mercury, or about 9.7 lbs. per
square inch) do not cause any decrease of the outflow from the cere-
bral veins ; in other words that ' ' the circulation in the braiu behaves
in this respect precisely as it does in the other organs of the body ;
the greater the arterial pressure the more abundant is the flow of
blood." The arterial enlargement is indeed compensated by com-
pression of the veins (and they even show a pulse, due, apparently, to
the increase of compression at each arterial pulse) but their total bore
is considerably greater than that of the arteries, so that they are never
seriously occluded, while the large sinuses, which might suffer more,
are protected by tough dural sheaths. E. C. S.
On the Relation Between the External Stimulus Applied to a
Nerve and the Resulting Nerve Impulse as Measured by the
Action Current. C. W. Greenk. American Journal of Physi-
ology, I. (1898), 104-116.
Experiments were made on the excised nerves of frogs, terrapin,
cats and dogs. The curves for the relation of the stimulating current
and current of action, plotted from the results, show three stages :
The first rising sharply from the abscissa and practically straight, the
third also straight and nearly parallel to the abscissa, and the second,
a curve with its concavity toward the abscissa, connecting the other
two. The first stage extends from the smallest stimuli awakening
any response up to the intensity required to bring out maximal mus-
cular contractions and considerably beyond ; it is the expression of an
arithmetical ratio, each increase in stimulus bringing out a propor-
tional and decided increase in the current of action. The third also
represents an arithmetical ratio, but the increase fbr each unit of
stimulus, while still proportional, is quite small. In the nerves of
152 PSYCHOI.OGICAI. UTERATURB.
dogs the author finds, as Waller found for the nerves of frogs, that
the first straight portion of the curve is preceded by a short curved
portion, convex toward the abscissa. The point of interest for psycho-
physics lies in the fact that, so far as inference from these experi-
ments is justifiable, the relation of stimulus and sensation generalized
by Weber's law (which many have considered a matter of neural
physiology) lies in the activity of some other portion than the nerve
fibre. K. C. S.
The Functions of the Ear and the Lateral Line in Fishes. Fred-
eric S. IvEE. American Journal of Physiology, I. (1898),
128-144.
As a basis for discussing the relation of the ear and the organs of
the lateral line Dr. Lee summarizes the results of his admirable
studies on the equilibration sense and the ear, already published,
together with others not as yet published in detail. The ear of fishes
performs both dynamical and statical functions. The dynamical are :
First, recognition of rotations (mediated by the semicircular canals
and their nervous mechanisms), and second, recognitions of move-
ments of translation (mediated by the otolith organs of the utriculus,
sacculus and lagena). The statical function, recognition of position
in space (gravity sense), is also mediated by the otolith organs. An
ear might seem to imply hearing, but this is not the case in fishes, —
Ivee's experiments, like those of Bateson and Kreidl, showing these
creatures to be without hearing in the ordinary sense of the word,
though sensitive to jars.^
lyce has also experimented on the lateral line organs in dog-fish,
toad-fish and butter-fish with results that point strongly to an equi-
librative function as that of these organs also, which agrees with the
morphological derivation of the ear from a specialized group of these
line organs.
What has probably been the evolutionary history of the developed
ear of higher forms is thus sketched by the author : " The primitive
function, not improbably, was the appreciation of movements of the
water against the body and movements of the body in the water, com-
bined with appreciation of contact, and, hence indirectly and crudely,
of position in space ; by the exercise of this function, through func-
tional connection with the locomotor mechanism, the equilibrium of
the body was maintained. In some unknown way a bit of this sensory
system became cut off from the rest and enclosed within the skull ; it
still retained its power of appreciating bodily movements and contact,
and this power became refined and differentiated ; the capacity of
appreciating rotary movements was separated from that dealing with
progressive movements and position in space, and the two were asso-
ciated with distinct organs, the semicircular canals on the one hand,
and the otolith organs on the other, which were appropriately con-
structed to subserve their respective functions. Thus, a well-marked
sensory organ for equilibrium was evolved in fishes. When aquatic
animals began to leave the water and live a shorter or longer time
upon the land, and the possible advantage of a sense of hearing was
presented, a portion of this sensory organ of movement became still
farther differentiated ; a new patch of sensory nerve-terminations
* I^ee summarizes one of Kreidl's studies as follows: "In a subsequent paper
Kreidl explodes the oft-repeated tale of hearing by fishes that come for their food
at the sound of a bell, by investigating carefully the action of trout at the famous
old Benedictine monastery in Krems. Austria. He proved that the fishes come
because they see the man who brings the food, and appreciate the vibrations of the
water caused by his step and communicated through the stone basin ; and that,
when these are excluded, the sounds of the bell have no effect."
PSYCHOI.OGICAL I.ITERATURE. 153
appeared, the papilla acustica basilaris ; apparatus for conveying the
waves in the air directly to the membranous ear was developed ; and
thus the power of appreciating the movements we call sound was
acquired." E. C. S.
I limiti del pudore neWuomo e nella donna. Pio Viazzi. Riv. mens.
di Psich. forense, Antrop. crim., ecc. (Napoli), Vol. I (1898), pp.
164-175.
In this article, Viazzi, the author of a work on " Sexual Criminals,"
in which he sustained in detail the view that woman has a greater
sense of shame than man, abandons that opinion, returning to the
conviction of Sergi, that by reason of her less amorous sensibility,
woman has necessarily less sense of shame than man, though she
seems to evince and to display more. Woman's use of shame as a
means of seduction, — shame in the sense of hiding or avoiding what
would excite repugnance or disgust and endanger her amorous
conquests ; the graver consequences for her of the coitus and the
social consequences of unchastity and infidelity, which cause not a
little calculation to enter into her sense of shame, until ultimately it
departs from the sphere of feeling and enters the region of deliberate
reasoning as to consequences of lack of shame ; the greater interest
woman has over man in showing herself modest and shamefaced — all
this lessens the amount of real shame-sense to be attributed to the
female sex. A great deal of her apparent shame is merely the clever
psychical counterfeit. The pallid frigidity of woman on certain occa-
sions, may be the shadow of shame, but only the ghostly shade.
Man's wider range of sexual reactions (shown also in the pathological
side of love and its fetishisms) carries with it a greater bulk of shame,
lyow-necked dresses and exposed breasts still wait their anologues in
the drawing room and the theater from men. Women are led to be
shameless more easily than men, and shameless in public. For evolu-
tionary reasons, a deeply-felt sense of shame, an organic sense of it are
naturally stronger in the sex, whose ego is best protected and
defended. A. F. C.
II dolore neW educazione. Iv- M. BiIvIvIA. Nuovo Risorgimento,Vol.
VIII (1898), pp. 187-193.
The question whether man is free or not seems to be settled by the
answer to the question : Can he inflict pain upon himself for a certain
end? Not every pain, or all pain is educative, but without pain there
can be no greatness, no virtue, no true happiness, no work, no science,
no education. Study is pain, thought i* pain, pain is virtue.
A. F. C.
The Origin of the Family. H. Soi^otaroff. American Anthropol-
ogist, Vol. XI (1898), pp. 229-242.
The primary form of the family, according to M. Solotaroff, is "the
mother free to contract or dissolve sexual bonds — and the group of
children resulting from these sexual relations." The assertion of
man's bio-psychic activities and individualities, and the growth, with
the vicissitudes of environments of the need of sexual favors, help
and protection for herself and her children "have led the woman
slowly out of bondage of economic care for her family group, but led
her into marital bondage, while the most powerful tendency toward
socialization among primitive men, expressing itself in various ways,
has incidentally expressed itself, also, in occasional sexual permis-
cuity as the outcome of the ecstacies of play — one of the most potent
instincts of the social sentiment." In his general views the author
approaches Westermarck, rejecting the theory of primitive promis-
cuities. A. F. C.
154 PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
Piratical Acculturation. W. J. McGer. Ibid., pp. 243-249.
The four stages or phases of acculturation are sketched by Professor
McGee, as follows: "The first phase is characteristic of savagery;
it is expressed in the imitation of weapons and symbols, with the
esoteric purpose of invoking new deities ; it may be styled martial
acculturation. The second phase is characteristic of barbarism,
though arising earlier and perishing later ; it is expressed in semi-
antagonistic mating between tribes, with the initial esoteric purpose
of strengthening tribal pantheons ; it may be called marital accnltura-
tion The third phase is characteristic of civilization,
though it begins in barbarism and plays a role in enlightenment ; it is
expressed in interchange of goods with the purpose (at first esoteric
and afterwards exoteric) of personal profit or gain ; it may be designa-
ted commercial acculturation. The fourth phase is characteristic of
enlightenment, though its beginnings may be found much lower ; it
is expressed in the spontaneous interchange of ideas for the purpose
of increasing human power over nature ; it may, provisionally, be
styled educational acculturation." The first two phases are essentially
piratical, the last two essentially amicable. A. F. C.
The Factors of Heredity and Environment in Man. D. G. Brin-
TON. Ibid.y pp. 271-277.
After pointing out the divergence of scientific opinion upon the sub-
ject (Lombroso says " milieu can annihilate all ethnic traits," while
CoUignon holds to hereditary transmission of anatomical peculiari-
ties," together with " a difference of brain, revealed by a special
direction of the thoughts and the display of special mental powers "),
Dr. Brinton emphasizes the fact that "the progress of man is his
progress of gaining independence from nature, of making her forces
his slaves, and not leaving them his masters " — hence "the depend-
* ence of man on his environment is not a fixed quantity," for " in the
most favored spots to-day it is reduced almost to a zero, so far as its
influence on man's higher, soul-life is concerned." Besides there are
two psychical elements, temperament and character, which "are
largely independent both of heredity and environment." Tempera-
ment, Manouvrier calls ' ' the determining cause of the intellectual
and moral traits of the individual," and character is "the essential
personal element in humanity." It is neither inherited nor acquired,
and "it probably begins with the very inception of the individual
life ;" while "in its essential traits it forever bides the same, resisting
all external agencies;" it is that "which in the last analysis [as
Wundt demonstrates] prompts the decisions, guides the actions, and
carves the destiny of men and nations." The theories of atavism
are weaker to-day than yesterday, and the advances in the study of
cellular pathology have won whole territories for variation and the
heredity of acquired characteristics. The peculiar traits of races may
be pathological, the result of that perfect adaptation to one environ-
ment which brings in its train unfitness for any other. " Blood will
tell," it is true, but just as much temperament and character.
A. F. C.
Familientypus und Familiendhnlichkeiten. Graf Theodor Zichy.
Correspbl. d. deutschen anthrop. Ges. (Miinchen), 1898, (Vol.
xxix5,s. 41-44; 51-54.
An interesting study of the features of the Hapsburgs and the
Bourbons. The author concludes : i. Nearly everybody has the
features of some near ancestor, but the whole series is necessary for
perfect orientation. 2. An inherited family type is not infrequent,
PSYCHOI.OLICAI. LITBRATURK. 155
but by no means the rule. 3. Between children of the same parents
resemblances are frequent, but mostly only during youth. 4. The
resemblances between parents and children are most noticeable in the
youth of both. 5. Here and there very striking resemblances to
very remote ancestors occur. A. F. C.
r
LHmitation dans VArt. Fki,ix RegnauIvT. Rev. Sci., 4e sdrie,
Tome X (1898), pp. 335-336.
Art has all along its history been prone rather to imitation than to
invention — the former is easier. Relics of imitation and repetition
are to be found in the symmetries of classic art and architecture.
Studien zur deutschen Weidmannssprache. Paui, IvKmbke. Ztschr.
f. den deutschen Unterr., XII. Jahrg. (1898), S. 233-277.
A valuable discussion of the vocabulary of the German "hunter's
dialect," with appropriate consideration of such words (^hetzen,
Luder, naseweis, unbdndig, Wildfang, Hundejunge, Hundsbube,
wittern, stobern, etc.) and phrases {durch die happen gehen, auf den
Strich gehen, ^tc.) which have passed into the literary language of
the day, the student-language or other clannish forms of speech
among the various social classes. It is interesting to note the influ-
ence of the "hunt" in a Mecklenburg dialect, where, e. g., the
carouse after the hunt is called Najagd ; a dance is K tapper j agd ;
distinguished people are Hochwild ; de liitt lagd ("little hunt ") =
when a player has many small trump cards; of an old maid they say
ut de jagdboren Johren is se rut ("she's past her hunting time").
Many hunting proverbs are also noted. A. F. C.
V Education Rationnelle de la Volonti, Dr. Paui. Emii^k Lrvy.
Paris, F^lix Alcan, 1898. pp. 231.
The thesis of this work is contained in the first sentence of the
opening chapter. "We propose to show that it is possible to preserve
our moral and physical being from many affections, and if any evil
comes to one or the other to draw from our own nature relief or
cure." The book is divided into two parts, (i), theoretical; (2),
practical. The fundamental psychological law upon which the
theory of autosuggestion is based is the fact that every thought is the
beginning of action. The will acts more effectually when it acts un-
consciously, or without effort, that is as a result of suggestion. Sug-
gestion is of two kinds : suggestion from without, and autosuggestion ;
but there is no essential difference between these.
Many ailments of the body as well as of the mind are habits. Moral
hygiene consists in the fixation in the organism of healthy physical
and mental habits.
In the second part of the book many cases are given in detail of
the cure by autosuggestion of emotional troubles, of habits, of func-
tional disorders of circulation and digestion. While, according to
Dr. Iv^vy, psychotherapy does not claim to be all there is of therapy,
there are cases in which nothing can take its place, there are other
cases in which it acts better than any other curative agent. And in
all cases it is useful. G. E. Partridge.
Moderne Nervositdt und ihre Vererbung, von Ch. Fere. Arzt am
Bic^tre. Dutch Dr. Hubert Schnitzer, Berlin.
The book is chiefly a discussion of heredity as affected by nervous
diseases. Fer^ asserts himself a follower of Darwin and an opponent
of the Weismann theory of the continuity of the germ substance. His
156 PSYCHOIvOGICAL LITERATURE.
position is that the conditions of life affect the individual organism,
and exert an important modifying influence on the protoplasm.
The influence of heredity is far from being limited to psychic dis-
eases. It extends also to the most organic and functional diseases of
the nervous system, and, further, every nervous disease is connected
with an anatomical change.
Interesting chapters dealing with degeneracy and hereditary asym-
metry are given.
The book is especially valuable as a guide to the literature of the
subject, a very large list of authors being cited.
The translator has done his work well. The lucid style of the
French author is well maintained throughout in the translation.
Norman Tripi^ett.
r
Le Subconscient chez les Artistes, les Savants et les Ecrivains, par le
DoCTEUR Chabaneix, mddecin de la marine. Preface de M. le
Docteur Regis. Paris, 1897. pp. 124.
In this preface Dr. Regis defines the ''Subconscient " as the peculiar
state between sleeping and waking ; between the conscious and the
unconscious.
It is this state that Dr. Chabaneix has studied in the cases of a
number of authors, artists and scientists. Noting the frequency among
such men of somnambulism, neuropathy, hallucinations, etc., the
author was desirous of determining whether they were particularly
subject to "subconscious" dreams, and if so, what part the subcon-
scious played in their works. He gives the experience of Mozart,
Goethe, Heine, Voltaire, Schopenhauer, Wagner, Tolstoi, and many
other equally famous men, both historic and contemporary.
He shows that the subconscious appears with great frequency among
men of talent and genius, and in the case of many it figures in their
productions to a remarkable degree.
Dr. Regis says the study brings to light one of the psychologic con-
ditions under which the great works of the human mind are produced.
It establishes also that the personality of men of talent and genius so
diversely interpreted, is more often due to nervous erethism than to
mental derangement, and that the great creators are often lost in their
subconscious abstraction.
The work contains a bibliography of some seventy titles ; also a
table of the authors cited.
The Use of Color in the Verse of the English Romantic Poets, by
A1.1CE Edwards Pratt. Chicago : The University of Chicago
Press, 1898. pp. 118.
This work is a thesis for the doctor's degree in the Department of
English of Chicago University. The author presents an exhaustive
study of the use of color by the seventeen principal English poets
from I/angland to Keats. The study includes the entire product of
each poet considered, except Thomson ; and the results have been
catalogued and classified. The classification is made in two ways:
According to color groups ; and according to distribution among fields
of interest. The tables and charts give a graphic representation of
the subject. The work furnishes some suggestive material for the psy-
chologist. W. vS. S.
Leitfaden der physiologischen Psychologie in 15 Vorlesungen. Von
Th. Ziehen. 4te Aufl. Jena, G. Fischer, 1898. pp. 5, 263.
Professor Ziehen's Leitfaden, published in 1891, is well known to
American students of psychology in the translation of Messrs. Beyer
and Van L/iew (2d ed., 1895). It is with this, in the absence of the 3d
PSYCHOLOGICAIv I.ITKRATURB. 157
German edition, that the reviewer must compare the present volume.
The following are some of the more important changes : I,ecture II,
" Sensation, Association, Action," has new paragraphs on the devel-
opment of the brain in the vertebrate series ; Lecture III, " Stimulus,
Sensation," a new derivation of Fechner's measurement-formula, and
modifications in the discussion of Weber's law; Lecture IV, "Taste,
Smell, Cutaneous Sensations and Sensations of Movement," a para-
graph on the static sense and the alimentary organic sensations ; Lec-
ture V, " Sensations of Hearing," remarks on the timbre of vowels ;
Lecture VI, "Sight" (the whole lecture has been revised, with the
assistance of Professor Koenig), paragraphs on visual perceptions of
movement and on certain optical illusions ; Lecture VII, " Temporal
Attributes and Affective Tone of Sensations," added remarks on after-
images, references to the time-sense, and changes in matter and
arrangement throughout the second half of the lecture ; Lectures IX
and X, minor additions in the discussion of emotion and of association
of ideas ; Lecture XI, paragraphs on the activity experience in atten-
tion, and on the relation of attention to intensity of sensation ; Lecture
XIV, new matter in the paragraphs dealing with the development of
action and with simple reaction experiments ; Lecture XV, consid-
eration of objections to the associative theory of will. The new indices,
of subjects and authors, are most welcome, as are the numerous cita-
tions of recent literature in the foot notes.
It is plain, from this summary, that the fourth German is a great
improvement upon the second English edition of the Leitfaden. It is
regrettable that Professor Ziehen has seen fit to retain the polemical
treatment of Wundt's apperception theory in text and preface. He
has, apparently, never understood that theory ; though a reading of
the Grundriss and Vorlesungen, in their recent issues, would be
amply sufficient to show him that he has misrepresented Wundt's doc-
trine. E. B. T.
Yetta Sdgal, by H. J. Roi^wn. New York, G. W. Dillingham & Co.,
1898. pp. 174.
Yetta S^gal is a novel, the aim of which is to familiarize the public
with the idea of race-mixture as the final step in the mental and
physical development of mankind. In the course of the story an
American Jewess marries a man who is part American, part negro,
and part Spaniard ; and a Japanese woman, one of whose grandparents
was European, finds a husband who is half English and half Swede.
With the merits of the story as story we are not here concerned.
There can, however, be no doubt of the psychological importance of
the fact upon which the author — apart from his references to the
Antilles and citations of Herbert Spencer — lays stress : the fact that,
in a civilized community, " positive assurance is now impossible as to
the racial purity of any individual."
L' Enseignement Integral,'' Ai^Kxis BerTrand, Professeur de Phi-
losophic k I'Universitd de Lyon. F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1898.
"Unified instruction" is really, according to the author, instruc-
tion in all the human sciences for every human being. This book is
another and strong appeal for reform in the lack of popular educa-
tion. Whatever secondary education exists, is not well suited to all
classes. There is an aristocracy of learning, whereas there should be
perfect equality. No provision is made for the instruction of the sons
and daughters of mechanics, laborers and farmers, and these, the
mass of the people, are as capable as any of profiting thereby. The
great gap comes between the ages of thirteen and twenty.
Descartes and Comte, as national philosophers, are taken as guides
158 PSYCHOLOGICAL LITBRATURE.
in support of the new movement ; for the proposed system is partly in
operation in Lyon and other cities. In the author's outline for popu-
lar secondary education Comte is roughly followed, and according to
this philosopher there are three periods in positive education. The
first is purely physical and under the mother's direction. The second,
between the ages of seven and fourteen, is aesthetic ; the study of
the arts and languages. The third is scientific, conforming closely to
the " hierarchy of the seven fundamental sciences." These sciences
are arranged in a logical series ; mathematics, astronomy, physics,
chemistry, biology, sociology, and morals. The study of the classics
brings in a bifurcation, fatal to an utilitarian and unified instruction.
The introduction of co-education marks probabl}'^ the greatest innova-
tion in the proposed new system.
This secondary instruction in the sciences would be given in two
schools ; the first or institutes, would be evening schools, and the
course would last seven years. The second, the colleges, would differ
from the first only in that the students devote full time to study and
finish in four years. Chapter three gives the details of the author's
unique plans for these schools. F. D. Sherman.
Introduction to Herbartian Principles of Teaching, by Catharine I.
DoDD, of Day Training Department, The Owens College, Man-
chester, 1898. London : Swan, Sonnenschein & Co.; New York :
The Macmillan Company, pp. 198.
The author of this work has fittingly prefaced it with an introduc-
tory notice by Dr. W. Rein, of Jena. She has undertaken the task of
transplanting the methods and principles of Herbartian pedagogy into
the elementary schools of England. A summary of the general prin-
ciples of education, and the Herbartian doctrine of interest and in-
struction furnish the English readers with the fundamental concep-
tions of education as seen in the writings of Herbart and his followers.
A good description is given of the course of instruction followed in
the culture-epoch schools of Germany. The most interesting feature
of this work is the attempt to adopt these culture-epochs to the needs
of children of the English race. The legends and history of Germany
are changed for those of England. Miss Dodd closes this interesting
work with a brief history of the rise and development of the Herbartian
movement in Germany.
The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence, by WesI/Ey
Mii.i,s, M. A., M. D., D. V. S., F. R. S. C. Macmillan, N. Y.,
1898. pp. 307.
At last we have these very careful and objective studies that have
appeared in a fragmentary way in many forms and places, put together
into a more or less systematic whole. Part I is occupied with describing
animal intelligence and comparative psychology ; Part II deals with
squirrels, with special reference to feigning, and to hibernation. Part
III treats the psychic development of young animals and its physical
conditions, brain growth and its relation to psychic development ; and
part IV represents various discussions. The work is of great acumen,
and a very valuable addition to the literature of the subject, but is
handicapped by a title too large for it. The author's strong point
is fidelity and patience of observation and description rather than
generalization or discussion. The book is so diversified that it needs
the admirable index which it has.
Die Masturbation, von Dr. H. Rohi^eder. Berlin, 1898. pp. 319.
This " monograph for physicians and pedagogues" is written in
conformity to the motto that the " diseases of society can be no more
PSYCHOIX)GICAlv I^ITERATURE. 1 59
cured than can those of the body without speaking of them openly
and freely." The work is elaborate and systematic, discussing litera-
ture, definitions, history, forms, diffusion, onanism among animals,
etc. The causes are divided as those lying in the body, as laziness,
moral weakesss, over liveliness, precocity, bodily defect, etc.; and
those out of the body like education at home and in school, faulty
dress, food, abnormal fear, unwholesome occupation. The results are
specified for nerves, senses, digestion, muscles, respiration, cerebel-
lum, etc., and therapeutic^ occupy most of the last hundred pages.
Ueber die Sexuellen Ursachen der Neurasthenie u. Angstneurose, von
Dr. FEI.IX GatteIv. Berlin, 1898. pp. 68.
The author, a nerve specialist in Berlin, has evidently been pro-
foundly influenced by Kraus, Hecker, and Brener, and Freud's recent
brilliant studies on hysteria, and depends on the basis of 100 sexual
cases in the clinique of Krafft-Ebing. The general thesis is that the
neurosis of onanists always occurs where there is a restraint of the
sexual desire, and full neurasthenia can arise only as a result of mas-
turbation.
Arbeit und Rhythmus, by M. K. Bucher. Allg. Phil. Hist. Classe
Sachs Ges. der Wiss., Bd. 17, No. 5. Leipzig, 1896.
This important and fascinating monograph shows by many illustra-
tions how half civilized people are prone to work rhythmically and
even in concert and to sing. Work is thus argued to be the cause of song
and poesy, dance and the drama. This conclusion is illustrated by
hypothetical stages of development of lyric and epic poety. Rhythm
is potent as a means of unifying work and creating voluntary com-
munities of laborers. Machinery has weakened and in many cases
threatens the decay of the rhythmic impulse. If it goes, the super-
structure of music will also be endangered.
W. V. Her Book and Various Verses, by WiIvLIAm Canton. Stone
and Kimball, N. Y., 1898. pp. 146.
This very tasteful little book is made up of prose records of very
cute doings, and especially sayings of the heroine, V. G. The bushes
have their hands full of flowers ; the buds are the trees' little girls ;
Jesus is cleverer than we are ; did the church people put Jesus on a
cross? her new words, fussle, sorefully, ficky, etc., are stated in prose,
and the author then lapses into brief versicles describing the inci-
dents poetically.
A Study of a Child, by Louise K. Hogan. Harper's, N. Y., 1898.
pp. 220.
This attractively printed and bound book is illustrated by over 500
drawings by the child. There are eight chapters, the first representing
the first year of Harold's life, and so on to the eighth. Following the
chronological order the author finds it unnecessary to observe any
other, and there is no index to aid the reader. The first year notes
are particularly fragmentary, and are only seven pages. Many of the
notes are interesting and suggestive, and many are very inane. There
are almost no attempts to draw conclusions of any sort, but only
objective accounts of specific things the child did and said.
The Development of the Child, by Nathan Oppenheim. Macmillan
Co., N. Y., 1898. pp. 296.
The author is the attending physician to the children's department
of Mt. Sinai Hospital Dispensary in New York city, whose supple-
mentary culture enables him to discuss in an interesting way the
l6o PSYCHOLOGICAI. LITER ATURK.
relation of heredity and environment ; the place of the primary school
and of religion in a child's development ; the value of child testimony ;
the evolution of the juvenile criminal ; the bearings of the mode of
development as productive of genius or defect, institutional life and
the profession of maternity. The book is on a far higher plane than
such works of Taylor and Hogan noticed in this number, but is sug-
gestive rather than conclusive, indicating a certain immaturity of
view, and frequently a disposition to expatiate in what are almost the
commonplaces of the subject. Still it is a book to be heartily com-
mended to parents.
Psychologie de V Instinct Sexuel, par Dr. Joanny Roux. Paris,
1899. pp. 96.
This is an admirable- little compend of the subject. Starting with a
r^sumd of the leading current conclusions of biology on the subject,
the author passes to the discussion of the general theory of fecunda-
tion and thence of love. Its merit consists in the author's wide
acquaintance with recent scientific literature in the various fields, and
in his lucidity and conciseness of statement.
Citizenship and Salvation, or Greek and Jew, by A. H. Lloyd, Ph.
D., Assistant Professor of Philosophy, University of Michigan.
Little, Brown and Co., Boston, 1897. pp. 142.
In Part I the author describes the death of Socrates and its influence
on Greek thought, and then on Roman. In Part II he describes and
discusses the death of Christ in Judea and the fall of Rome. Part III
is devoted to an account of the resurrection or the Christian state.
The Study of the Child, by A. R. TayIvOR, M. D., President of the
State Normal School of Emporia, Kansas. D. Appleton and Co.,
N. Y., 1898. pp. 215.
This book is Volume XLIII in Dr. Harris's Educational Series, and
makes an attempt to study and present the results of the study of
children. It claims no originality, but only to fit the reader to enter
upon the study of children. It treats the senses, consciousness, apper-
ception, attention, symbolism, sayings, feelings, will, intellect, con-
cepts, self, habit, character, manners and morals, normal and abnormal.
It seems to the writer of this note that the title might, with minor
modification, just as well have been the study of the adult, or psy-
chology, according to Froebel, Herbart and Harris. The book is
abstract, and contains almost nothing genetic and little that is con-
crete ; but is a restatement of stock matter in the general field of
mental philosophy with such adjustments as show that from that
standpoint child study has a place, and this is something to be grate-
ful for.
Versuch einer Darstellung der Empfindungen, von Wai^ter Prizi-
BRAM. A. Holder, Wien, 1898. pp. 28.
This posthumous work, edited by the author's brother, attempts
*' to bring sensations as immediately given purely psychic facts into a
mathematical system, the formulas of which shall be a complete
desciption of single sensations in general, and discussable under the
special cases." It is impossible to describe the system in brief form.
Five large tables present the chief terms and forms used.
Essai sur la Classification des Sciences, par Edmond G0BI.0T. F.
Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 296.
The first chapter discusses the formal unity of sciences, logical
dualism, and the common laws of the development of all sciences, viz.,
PSYCHOTX)GICAL LITERATURE. l6l
induction, mathematics, and deduction in the sciences of nature. The
main body of the book is an exposition of the system of sciences
which falls into the following order : Arithmetic, algebra, geometry,
mechanics, including cinematics and dynamics, cosmology, biology,
psychology and sociology, including aesthetics and morals. Other
sciences are sub-sections of these.
L' Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance, by E. Bernard-Leroy. Paris,
1898. pp. 249.
The author sent out a long questionnaire to educated people request-
ing accounts of striking experience of having been in a new place.
Of his returns he selects and prints in full 86, which make the last
150 pages of his book, the first being devoted to discussions. Reject-
ing Ribot's theory that there are two successive and perfectly
conscious impressions, the first real and the second hallucinatory, he
holds recognition to be a unique kind of "intellectual sentiment"
associated with re-known phenomena. The manifestations of this
sentiment may become almost chronic. It is not necessary to assume
a difference between sensation and perception, or between impersonal
impressions and those where the subject is conscious.
Classified Reading, by Isabei^ Lawrence. Published by the author,
St. Cloud, Minn., 1898. pp. 423.
This is a descriptive list of books for school, library and home.
Pedagogy, child study, geography, history, English, and miscella-
neous, the latter including manual training, drawing, physical culture
and music, are the chief topics. There are wide margins for additional
literature. It is easy to find fault with every such book both for what
it includes and excludes, but on the whole this can be most heartily
commended to every teacher or student of geography, history or
English, as a very valuable companion and helper in their work.
Ignorance, by M. R. P. Dorman. London, 1898. pp. 328.
The author undertakes to study the causes and effects of ignorance
in popular thought and to make educational suggestions. No one
before has attempted to reduce ignorance to a science. Its effect is
traced on art, letters, capital, economy, state, woman, and collective
and individual ignorance are distinguished. The author emphasizes
unconscious causes and cures. Large ideas in small minds, the retire-
ment of the fittest, new superstitions of ultra idealism, ultra spirit-
ualism, uncritical orthodoxy, the substitution of feeling for the ease
with which women conceal ignorance by following custom, the degra-
dation of the pulpit, press, stage, methods of advertisement, etc., are
among the causes of ignorance to be contended against.
The Elements of Physical Education, by D. Lemox, M. D., and A.
Sturrock. Blackwood, London, 1898. pp. 241.
This is a teacher's manual copiously illustrated with 147 cuts of
children practicing free gymnastics and using ball, wand, dumb-bells ;
and some 40 pages of new gymnastic music, by H. E. Loseby. The
first 67 pages are taken up with very elementary anatomy and physi-
ology. It is a practical and interesting book.
A Course of Practical Lessons in Hand and Eye Training for Stu-
dents, 1-4, by A. W. Bevis. London, 1898.
These are four handbooks of some 150 pages each, illustrating a
new course of work adopted by the Birmingham English School
Board, and are full of new and suggestive work.
Journai, — II
1 62 PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
The Play of Animals, by Kari, Groos. Tr. by Elizabeth L. Baldwin.
Appleton & Co., New York, 1898. pp. 341.
It was a happy idea to translate this valuable book from the Ger-
man, and Miss. Baldwin has done her task ver)' acceptably. Professor
Baldwin writes a characteristic preface of eleven pages, and a re-
printed appendix of four pages quoting from himself, or referring to
his work some fourteen times, claiming four out of nine factors of
organic evolution, and offering a series of criticism, ** even though to a
thinker like Professor Groos they may be trivial and easily answered."
On the whole the work of Groos is commended, but were not most of
its best ideas either hinted at or better expressed, or were not most of
the facts more truly stated by Professor Baldwin at some distinctly
previous date ?
CORRESPONDENOE.
Dr. Herman T. I^ukens has written the following personal letter to
the editor. It was with no thought of publication, but Dr. L,ukens
has kindly consented to let it appear in the Journal, without change :
My Dear Sir :
I have just been out to Chevy Chase to see Dr. Klmer Gates and
his laboratory. The work on enlargement of the laboratory is still
under way, so that I did not see things and apparatus in working
order, but in heaps. He has raised the old building one story, and
built a new first story. It is a fine situation on the same lot with his
residence, with ground enough around for two or three new buildings
besides a fine lawn. The property is his own, laboratory and all, but
he has received donations of various amounts (I think he said $320,-
000) from Mrs. Phebe Hurst and others to aid in special investiga-
tions. His work covers the whole range of the sciences. He has just
invented a way of getting an electric current from the action of sun-
light without the intervention of dynamo or engine. He started in on
the study of looms some time ago, and in nine months had sixty-eight
new inventions of improvements in the loom ; one of these inventions
he disposed of for ten per cent, royalty, receiving ^62,000, with which
he is building his new laboratory now. He employs a force of trained
assistants, machinists, etc. His metallurgical room is for investiga-
tions in alloys. He proposes to make a complete series of 10,000 (or
so) varying percentages of alloys of certain two metals, and test the
properties of the alloys. He is at present on optics and acoustics. He
proposes to put up a building in which will be museum, laboratory
and all apparatus needed to demonstrate every known fact about sight
or sound. Then he will take a class through by his method of work,
which goes by regular stages : (i) Sensations, (2) Images, (3) Concepts,
(4) Ideas, (5) Thoughts, ist order, (6) Thoughts, 2nd order, (7)
Thoughts, 3rd order. He aims to get as many different sensations as
possible. Out of these come images of objects. These are grouped
by likeness into concepts. Then the concepts are each to be related to
every other one. He keeps going over and over the material trying to
find relation of concepts systematically, i. e., of every possible pair.
He lays much stress upon this mechanical completeness of the system.
He goes to bed at 8.30 and gets up at 5.30, works till i or 2, and gives
afternoon to social life and relaxation.
He and his wife began to prepare themselves for parenthood a year
or two before they created their last child. They avoided all onesided
specialism and aimed to develop all the good emotions and exercise
their minds on the whole round of human knowledge. During preg-
nancy his wife avoided all evil passions, anger, envy, etc., and cultivated
good emotions, social and altruistic instincts, art, literature, dramas,
the sublime in nature, heavens, the spirit of the cosmos, etc. The child
was born at full time, without any pain, and the whole process of
birth took only two and one-half hours. He has two bright children,
on whom he has been trying various new ideas. The oldest at 21
months, he says, knew 11,000 words.
He is at work on sexual perversion, invisible rays of the spectrum,
164 CORRKSPONDKNCE.
conditions of work, etc. He has records for twenty years of his own
activity and environment, atmospheric potential, electrical poten-
tial, barometer, wind, etc. He has an army of readers working for him
in the gigantic task of sifting facts out of scientific books. He is try-
ing to get all the alleged facts collected, and then test these and weed
out the theories and mere "accepts," thus reducing the great mass of
rubbish to a small compass of accessible facts, — a scientific Bible, as
he says ; for what is more sacred than truth, and what more satanic
than falsehood ? He showed me a great mass of manuscript material, —
an attempt to work over the Standard Dictionary and extract the
words that stand for new ideas in sound and light. These are on cat-
alogue cards for purposes of classification, and filled several large
drawers.
He has a great mass of notes that have been collecting for 20 years,
and which he proposes to begin to edit in a series of books which will
bring out his ideas better than anything else he has thus far done.
These will include best regimen for work, scientific rearing of chil-
dren, method of invention, encyclopaedic Bible of science, etc.
Dr. Gates has a lovely home, into which he has put a large part of
himself. It shows the man of ideas and of resources. He is affable
and cordial, gave me unstintingly of his time and attention, and spoke
freely of everything. He seems to me to have made a great mistake
in not publishing, so as to get the criticism of fellow workers and the
steadying influence of co-operation in investigations. But he is sin-
cere, has the scientific spirit, and is a man of original ideas who will
be more and more known as the years go by.
NOTES AND NEWS.
Dr. Wreschnrr's Weight Experiments.
lu my review of Dr. Wreschner's Beitrdge zu psychophy sicken Mes-
sungen (this Journal, IX, 591 ff.), I noted the fact that the author
nowhere states whether his subjects were informed of the time-order
of the experimental series. " Were the subjects told the time-order
of the first double series or not? Presumably not, since the pro-
cedure at large was procedure without knowledge. . . . The knot
is cut if the subjects were acquainted with the time-order in every
case ; but this is nowhere stated." (P. 593.)
Dr. Wreschner has requested me to give publicity to the following
statement : "The subjects were always told beforehand whether a P
I or a P II series was coming. The method was only so far without
knowledge that the magnitude of the weight of comparison was un-
known to the subjects in each experiment. I regret that I did not
expressly say this in the chapter ' Das Versuchsverfahren ;' but a re-
mark upon the matter occurs on p. 210 (2 lines from the top)."
I am very glad to call attention to this correction, which is of great
importance for any estimate of Dr. Wreschner's theory of the time-
error. I may add that the sentence on p. 210 was one of the two or
three puzzling passages that led me to note the omission pointed out
in my review. E. B. T.
EXPERIMENTAI, PSYCHOI.OGY IN ENGI.AND.
During the absence of Dr. W. H. Rivers with the Borneo Expedi-
tion, the courses in Experimental Psychology at University College,
Ivondon, are given by Mr. E. T. Dixon, known by his mathematical
publications in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, and by his
work on visual space recently published in Mind.
» The Wei«by Prize.
The Welby Prize of ;^5o, offered for the best essay on the subject of
"The Reasons for the Present Obscurity and Confusion in Psycho-
logical and Philosophical Terminology, and the Directions in which
we may look for Efficient Practical Remedy," has been awarded to
Dr. Ferdinand Tonnies, of Hamburg. A translation of the successful
essay will shortly appear in Mind.
University News.
Mr. Henry Wilde, F. R. S., of Manchester, has endowed in the
University of Oxford a Wilde Readership and a John lyocke Scholar-
ship in Mental Philosophy.
Dr. R. Macdougall has been appointed assistant director of the Psy-
chological Laboratory in Harvard University ; Dr. F. G. Lancaster,
professor of Psychology and Pedagogy at Colorado College ; Dr. C. II.
Judd, professor of Experimental and Physiological Psychology in the
Schpol of Pedagogy, New York University; Dr. D. S. Miller, lecturer
in Psychology at Columbia Univiersity ; Dr. E. Thorndike, instructor
in Psychology at the Western Reserve University ; Mr. G. M. Whip-
1 66 NOTES AND NEWS.
pie, assistant, and Dr. I. M. Bentley, instructor in Psychology at
Cornell University ; Dr. E. A. Gamble, instructor in Psychology, Wel-
lesley College.
In accordance with the request of the Government of Venezuela,
and of the Committee on Organization, the III Pan American Medical
Congress has been postponed to meet in Caracas in December, 1900.
Forthcoming Books.
The following books on psychological subjects are announced as in
preparation :
Baillifere, Tindall & Cox: "Aids to Psychological Medicine," by
T. A. BkadIvE; "Handbook for Attendants on the Insane," by
authority of the Medico-Psychological Association.
Cambridge University Press : " An Introduction to Psychology," by
G. F. Stout and J. Adams.
J. & A. Churchill : " Clinical Lectures on Mental Diseases " (C1.0US-
ton), with new plates.
C. Griffin & Co.: " Mental Diseases," by W. B. Levi^is.
Longmans & Co.: "Psychology in the Schoolroom," by T. F. G. Dbx-
TER and A. H. GARI.ICK.
The Macmillan Co.: "First Experiments in Psychology, an Ele-
mentary Manual of Laboratory Practice," by E. B. Titchener.
Scientific Press, Ltd.: " Medical Aspects of Education," by P. G.
Lewis ; " Mental Nursing," by W. Harding.
W. Scott, Ltd.: " Degeneracy," by E. S. Tai^bot.
Swan Sonnenschein & Co.: "Aristotle's Psychology," by W. A.
Hammond ; Wundt's " Physiological Psychology," trs. by E. B.
Titchener.
University Correspondence College Press : " Manual of Psychology,"
by G. F. Stout.
THE AMERICAN
Journal of Psychology
• Founded by G. Stani^ey Hai.1, in 1887.
Vol. X. JANUARY, 1899. No. 2.
HYDRO- PSYCHOSES.
By FrbdeRICK E. Boi^TON, Late Fellow in Psychology, Clark
University.
In this study we wish to investigate the influence that water
has exerted in shaping and moulding man's psychic organism.
The thoughts expressed in literature have been greatly influ-
enced by pelagic conditions. Not only are there accounts of
water spirits, nautical tales, etc. , but almost every page bears
evidence through metaphor of the modifications of thought and
expression by water. Note the phrases ' ' stemming the tide, ' '
" current of thought," " flowing robes," " torrents of joy," "a
total wreck, " " drown grief, " ' * sinking in adversity, " " ebbing
life," etc. The poets have been especially inspired by the sea,
the brook, the rill, etc. Many of the poems relating to water
have been set to music, and have played a great r61e in re-
ligious worship. Hymnology is replete with allusions to water.
What is now poetical allusion was in primitive times the ex-
pressions of belief. The poetry of to-day was the philosophy
of yesterday. So, too, mythology chronicles as mere tales for-
mer firm beliefs. In this we find abundant evidence of the
great influence water exerted upon savage peoples. Nearly all
primitive peoples had their water spirits, and even the rivers
and seas were supposed to be alive. The literature of all
nations abounds with tales of fountains of youth, rivers of life,
etc. Omens, superstitions, sayings relating to water and to water
gods are numerous. Philosophy, religion, medicine, mythology,
have all been influenced by various ideas concerning water.
Besides the foregoing, all people have feelings about water
which are only partially explainable by present relations and
circumstances. Much may be explained by the vastness, the
activity, the feeling of, individual experiences, etc., but there
I 70 BOLTON :
is still a residuum wholly unaccounted for by individual expe-
riences and by the phenomena themselves. Apparently, only
the psychic history of the race can offer adequate explanations.
If the causes do not not appear in the phenomena, the cause
must be in the soul itself. The soul in its long period of de-
velopment must have passed through experiences, the present
manifestations of which are but reverberations of a remote psy-
chic past. To trace the genesis of these conceptions and feel-
ings and to study the reaction of people, both in the past and
in the present, toward this phase of nature is the object of this
investigation.
Evidences of Man's Pelagic Ancestry.
There are several lines of argument which give such abund-
ant proofs of man's pelagic ancestry that little doubt of it re-
mains in the minds of scientists. Chief among these on the
physical side are the proofs afforded by Embryology, Mor-
phology, Paleontology and Pathology. Recent valuable additions
have been made by a study of survival movements. By show-
ing transitory characteristics in process, much may be gleaned
indirectly from a study of these groups of animals which were
once land animals, but which have returned to the sea.
Each of these classes of evidence, with the exception of that
drawn from Paleontology, will be passed in review.
Embryological, ua. General. Man, like all other animals,
begins life as a unicellular organism. The earliest stages of
development which the human embryo passes through, so far
as is known, resemble those of all other animals. The only
difference between the development of the human embryo and
the embryo of other animals is that the human embryo goes
away beyond all other organisms in its unfoldment. But so
close are the resemblances among the earliest embryonic stages
that differences are unrecognizable. Some one has said, James,
I think, that for some time no human being can determine
whether a given embryo will turn out a frog or a philosopher.
Romanes says^ that when man's " animality becomes estab-
lished, he exhibits the fundamental anatomical qualities which
characterize such lowly animals as polyps and jelly-fish. And
even when he is marked off as a Vertebrate, it cannot be said
whether he is to be a fish, reptile, a bird or a beast. Later it
becomes evident that he is to be a Mammal, but not till later
still can it be said to which order of mammals he belongs. ' '
Not only do the embryonic forms of all vertebrate animals,
resemble each other in their general characteristics, but special
organs or systems of the higher mammals, can be traced out in
^Darwin and after Darwin, I, 119.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 171
the various stages of development. It is well known that re-
semblances of the mammalian embryos to lower vertebrates
flash out as each new step is attaint. As Prof. Drummond
has put it we have " first the resemblance of the Fish, then of
the Amphibian, then of the Reptile, lastly of the Mammal."^
b. Nervous System. Considering the development of the cen-
tral nervous system we find that different stages of the human
embryonic brain have close homologies in some of the great
groups of lower animals. Man's brain passes through a series
of stages of increasing complexity. These stages are only tem-
porary in the human embryo, while they represent the maxi-
mum development of the group corresponding to each stage.
Prof. H. DeVarigny says : '* One may easily detect in the evo-
lution of the human brain a stage corresponding to that of the
brain of fishes ; but while the fishes permanently retain this
brain-structure, an advance occurs in man, and the brain
acquires characters of the reptilian encephalon ; later on it pro-
gresses again, and acquires bird characters, and finally it
acquires those characters which are peculiar to mankind. Here
again, ontogeny demonstrates phylogeny."^
c. Circulation a^id Respiration. Romanes sums up what
Darwin and others had first pointed out concerning the devel-
opment of the foetal circulatory and respiratory organs by say-
ing that, ' ' at the time when the gill-slits and the gill-arches are
developed in the embryonic young of air-breathing Vertebrates,
the heart is constructed upon the fish-like type. That is to
say, it is placed far forwards, and from having been a simple
tube as in the worms, is now divided into two chambers, as in
Fish. Later it becomes progressively pushed further back
between the developing lungs, while it progressively acquires
the three cavities distinctive of Amphibia, and finally the four
cavities belonging only to the complete double circulation of
Mammals. Moreover, it has now been satisfactorily shown
that the lungs of air-breathing Vertebrata, which are thus des-
tined to supersede the function of gills, are themselves the
modified swim -bladders^ or float which belong to Fish. Con-
sequently all these progressive modifications in the important
organs of circulation and respiration in the air-breathing Ver-
tebrata, together make up as complete a history of their
aquatic pedigree as it would be possible for the most exacting
critic to require."*
Rudimentary Organs. In almost all animals and plants we
find rudimentary or vestigial organs which serve no purpose in
^The Ascent of Man, p. 72.
2 Prof. Henry DeVarigny: Experimental Evolution, p. 35.
^See Darwin : Descent of Man, pp. 160-61.
* Romanes' Darwin and after Darwin, I, 154.
172 BOI.TON :
the present life of the organism. Some of these appear only in
the embryo, then become absorbed or pass away, leaving little
or no trace of their presence. Kverybod}^ knows of the gills,
tail, and swimming apparatus which frogs and toads possess
during the tadpole stage, and which remain in adult life only
as vestigial structures. There is a species of salamander {sala-
mander atra') which lives high up among the mountains, brings
forth its young full formed like the mammals, but whose tad-
poles, or young, possess exquisitively feathered gill-slits. If the
young chance to be removed from the body of the mother
before the close of the normal period of gestation, the young
salamanders will swim away like fish if placed in water. When
born at full term they will drown as will the adult animal if
placed in water. These organs, adapted to aquatic life, and
which have ' ' reference to ancestral adaptations, repeat a phase
in the development of its progenitors."^
The life history of individuals cannot in every case, of
course, present a full and complete recapitulation of its ances-
tors. To preserve all useless structures would be a waste of
energy and material, and nature is never prodigal. The law of
use and disuse are ever operative. As soon as structures lose
their functions they tend gradually to disappear. If detri-
mental they are the sooner dropped ofiF.^ The vestigial or obso-
lescent structures which come regularly under our notice in
any class of individuals are undoubtedly those which sub-
serve some unknown purpose during embryonic life, or they
are such as have only recently ceased to function. Those that
appear occasionally, but are absent in the normal individuals,
are probably the reverberations of long-since abandoned organs,
but have become reawakened through stimulations that have
called forth functions similar to those possessed by the organ in
question, or they may belong to arrested development. To
this class many pathological' freaks and abnormalities may un-
doubtedly be referred. Romanes says that ' * the foreshortening
of developmental history which takes place in the individual
lifetime may be expected to take place, not only in the way of
condensation, but also in the way of excision. May pages of
ancestral history may be recapitulated in the paragraphs of
embryonic development, while others may not be so much as
mentioned."^
Vestigial Structures in Man. In the human body there are
numerous obsolescent organs, which persevere in form only,
and give unequivocal evidence of former ancestry. There are
in all upwards of 130 that have been discovered. The vermi-
^ G. H. Lewes, in Darwin's Origin of Species, p. 398.
2 Romanes' Darwin and after Darwin, I, 103.
* Darwin and after Darwin, I, pp. 103-4.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 73
form appendix is one of the best known. It is as fuU}^ devel-
oped during foetal life as in adult. The muscles by means of
which the external ear is moved is demonstrable only in ex-
ceptionally atavistic individuals. The panicules carnosis, or
muscles by means of which animals move the skin, still exhibit
vestiges of former function in man. Club-feet are said to be
atavistic reminiscences of remote ancestors, meaning no more
nor less than baboon feet.^
" Prominent among these vestigial structures are those
which smack of the sea. If embryology is any guide to the
past, nothing is more certain than that the ancient progenitors
of Man once lived an aquatic life. At one time there was noth-
ing else in the world but water-life ; all the land animals are
late inventions."^ After emerging from the annelide and mol-
luscan stages, what was to become man remained in the water
until evolution had produced a fish-like stage ; ' ' after an am-
phibian interlude he finally left" the watery domain, but
* ' many ancient and fish-like characters remained in his body
to tell the tale."^
One typical vestigial structure which dates back to sea ances-
try is the plica semi-lunaris or the remnants of the nictitating
membrane of fishes. It is a semi-transparent curtain-like mem-
brane formed on the inner side of the eye as a vertical fold of
the conjunctivia,* which apparently is of great utility in sweep-
ing across the eye to cleanse it. It is very common among
birds, some fishes, reptiles, and amphibians,^ and most verte-
brates.* In man only a small fold 6r curtain draped across one
side of the eye, and Romanes states that it is rudimentary only
in animals above fishes.'^
The most unequivocal rudimentary structures which give
indication of water ancestry are the visceral clefts, or gill-clefts,
in the neck-region. These were the first discovered vestigial
structures to indicate the probable line of descent. These
structures are first seen in the amphioxus, the connecting link
between invertebrates and vertebrates. " In all water-inhabit-
ing Vertebrates which breathe by means of gills the thin
epithelial closing plates break through between the visceral
arches, and indeed in the same sequence as that in which they
arose. Currents of water, therefore, can now pass from the out-
side through the open clefts into the cavity of the fore gut, and
^ Drummond : Ascent of Man, p. 96.
^Drummond : The Ascent of Man, p. 83.
^Loc. cit.y p. 85.
* Text-book of Embryology, Hertwig-Mark, p. 487.
* Darwin: Descent of Man, p. 17.
* Hertwig-Mark : A Text-hook of Embryology, p. 487.
Darwin and after Darwin, I, 74.
174 BOLTON:
be employed for respiration, since they flow over the surface
of the mucous membrane. There is now developed in the
mucous membrane, upon both sides of the visceral clefts, a
superficial^ close, network of blood-capillaries, the contents of
which effect an exchange of gases with the passing water.
Ivikewise in the case of the higher (amniotic) vertebrates,-^ both
inner and outer visceral furrows, together with the visceral
arches separating them, are formed ; but here they are never
developed into an actually functioning respiratory apparatus ;
they belong, consequently, in the category of rudimentary
organs. Upon the mucous membrane arise no branchial leaflets ;
indeed the formation of open clefts is not always and every-
where achieved, since the thin epithelial closing membranes
between the separate visceral arches are preserved at the bot-
tom of the externally visible furrows. ' '
The number of gill-clefts and visceral arches decreases in the
ascending scale of vertebrate life. In some of the lower species,
as the selachians, there are seven or eight, while birds, mam-
mals and man, possess but four.^ The number of external
openings, also, is found to constantly decrease as we ascend the
scale of life. In the higher mammals and man they would
scarcely be known were it not for their detection in the embry-
onic stage. But they are discernible in the chick embryo on
the third day of incubation, and they may be seen distinctly in
the human embryo according to His when the embryo has at-
tained a length of three or four millimeters. They begin to
become obliterated by the fourth week of foetal life.^ But still
says Drummond * ' so persistent are these characteristics [gill-
slits] that children are known to have been born with them not
only externally visible — which is a common occurrence — but
open through and through, so that fluids taken in at the mouth
could pass through and trickle out at the neck. . . . Dr.
Sutton has recently (Evolution and Disease, p. 8i) met with
actual cases where this has occurred. ... In the common
cases of children born with these vestiges the old gill-slits are
represented by small openings in the sides of the neck, and
capable of admitting a thin probe. Sometimes, even, the place
where they have been in childhood is marked throughout life
by small round patches of white skin."* Dr. Hertwig also
mentions the fact that fistulae, which penetrate from without
inward for variable distances, sometimes even opening into
the pharyngeal cavity, are to be met with in human beings.
1 Text-book of Embryology, Hertwig-Mark, pp. 286-7.
"^Ibid., p. 287.
8 Hertwig-Mark : Text- book of Embryology, pp. 288-9.
* Drummond : Ascent of Man, p. 81.
HYDRO-PvSYC HOSES. 175
These are explainable as being still open clefts of the cervical
sinus. ^
The ultimate metamorphosis of the embrj^onic gill-clefts is
still a question of much interest. There is little doubt but that
the thymus and probably the thyroid gland are derived from
the visceral clefts.^ The thymus is derived, according to Kol-
liker, Born and Rabl, from the third visceral cleft. Some
authorities, among them De Meuron and His, difftT in minor
points, principally as to the number of clefts involved,^ but in
the main they agree. The thj^mus is found in all animals, begin-
ning with the fishes. Even in the fishes it is derived from epi-
thelial tracts of the open gill-clefts still functionally active.
Dohrn holds that the thyroid gland is the remnant of ancient
gill-clefts of the vertebrates. Although this is disputed by
Hertwig he still admits that ' ' it appears to be an organ of
very ancient origin, which shows relationship to the hypo-
brancial furrow of Amphioxus and the Tunicates. ' "* It, at
any rate, gives strong evidence of the close relationship, being
developed ' ' from an unpaired and a paired evagination of the
pharyngeal epithelium,"^ and in the region of the former vis-
ceral clefts, and b}^ good authorities it is claimed to be developed
from them. The so-called accessory thyroid gland is conceded
by all to have thus arisen. The unpaired fundaments which
contribute toward the thyroid are not wanting in a single
class of vertebrates/ Dohrn makes several bolder hypotheses
concerning the metamorphosed products of the embryonic
clefts. He maintains (i) " that the mouth has arisen by the
fusion of a pair of visceral clefts, (2) that the olfactory organs
are to be referred to the metamorphosis of another pair of clefts,
a view which is also shared by M. Marshall and others,
(3) that a disappearance of gill-clefts in the region of the
sockets of the eye is to be assumed, and that the eye-muscles
are to be interpreted as remnants of gill-muscles.'" Hertwig,
however, dissents from some of these views. But, most em-
bryologists are agreed that the middle and outer ear are
derived from the upper portion of the first visceral cleft and its
surroundings. In fishes there is no external auditory apparatus,
and these organs, which in man develop into an ear, subserve
another purpose. The Eustachian tube represents a partial
closure of an original cleft ; the tympanic membrane is devel-
1 Hertwig-Mark : Text-book of Embryology, p. 290.
"^Ibid., p. 316.
^Ibid.,^. 316.
, * Hertwig-Mark : Text-book of Embryology, p. 317.
^ Loc. cit.
^ Loc. cit.
' Hertwig-Mark : Text-book of Embryology, p. 288.
176 BOLTON:
Oped from the closing plate of the first visceral cleft and sur-
rounding portions of the arches ; and the external ear is derived
from the ridge-like margins of the first and second visceral
arches.^
* ' Ears are actually sometimes found bursting out in human
beings half way down the neck in the exact position — namely,
along the line of the anterior border of the sterno- mastoid mus-
cle— which the gill-slits would occupy if they still persisted.
In some families, where the tendency to retain these spacial
structures is strong, one member sometimes illustrates the
abnormality by possessing the clefts alone, another has the
cervical ear, while a third has both the cleft and a neck ear —
all these, of course, in addition to the ordinary neck ears.^"
Survival ^Movements. An exceedingly interesting and im-
portant study, and one which sheds much light upon the pres-
ent problem, was carried out by Dr. Alfred A. Mumford, of
England.^ He noticed the peculiar paddling or swimming
movements which a young babe, a few days old, made when
it was placed face downwards with only hands and feet touch-
ing the floor, its head and abdomen being supported by a hand
placed under each. Being struck with the great similarity of
these movements to those made in propulsion through a waterj'
medium he began a systematic study of infants* movements.
Besides confirming and extending many of the recent observa-
tions concerning an anthropoid relationship he makes state-
ments which are much more far-reaching.
He has noted that the position of the limbs at birth and dur-
ing the first few weeks of infancy tend to assume the primitive
developmental position, viz.: "folded across the chest, thumb
towards the head, and with the palm towards the thorax ; but
more often the palm is away from the chest- wall, and is
directed anteriorly by means of extreme pronation, the dorsum
of the hand often lying on or near the shoulder, sometimes an
inch or two outside. As the child wakes up the elbows begin
to open out and the palm is pushed outwards in a way that would
be useful in locomotion, especially in a fluid medium. In fact
it is the movement of the paddle. ' ' These movements are de-
scribed as slow rhythmical movements of flexion and exten-
sion, such as one sees among animals in an aquarium. They
occur often in series of three at a time during a quarter of a
minute, followed by alternating pauses. These are interpreted
as vestigial movements of a former amphibian existence, which
were of fundamental importance before forelimbs developed.
i/^zV/., pp. 505, 511.
2 Drummond : Ascent of Man, p. 89.
3 Brain, 1897.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 177
This is supported by the shape of the hand, which is one of
the most highly developed of bodily organs in function, but in
some repects least modified of all the skeleton. ' ' In shape and
bones it is more like the primitive amphibian paddle than is
the limb of any other mammal."
We also know that there are many reflex movements known
as vibratory or oscillatory, which are especially common among
children, though by no means confined to them. Among them
are those of tapping, swaying, and others of a rhythmical
nature.^ Swaying from side to side is very noticeable in
small school-children. They sway from side to side and for-
ward and backward. Fish swim, in part, by similar move-
ments, and in view of man's pelagic line of ascent, it is not
improbable to suppose that swaying and possibly other reflex
rhythmic and oscillatory movements may be recrudescences of
former aquatic life. That they are atavisms, seems borne out
by the fact that intellectual fatigue increases such automa-
tisms.^ That is, fatigue causes a temporary relaxation of the
control exercised by the higher and more recently developed
psychic centers and a reversion toward more primitive condi-
tions. It is probable that all automatic movements, as well as
expressive movements, are weakened repetitions of movements
that were once of utility.*
Origin of Animai^ Life.
Not only have speculative philosophy and mythology claimed
for everything a sea origin [see later sections in this paper] but
science has actually demonstrated that the beginning of life
was in the sea — near the bottom. This is as true of vertebrate
as well as of invertebrate life."* Dr. Brooks writes : *' We may
feel sure even in the absence of sufiicient evidence to trace their
direct paths, that all the great groups of Metazoa ran back to
minute pelagic ancestors."^ Another authority writes that
' ' for the present we may conclude that the proximate ancestor
of the vertebrates was a free-swimming animal intermediate in
organization between an ascidian tadpole and amphioxus."
The same writer claims that the ultimate or primordial ancestor
^See Dr. T. I^. Bolton's article on Rhythm, Am. Jour, of Psych..
Vol.VI, p. 145.
2 Ivindley : Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort, Am. Jour, of Psych. ^
Vol. VII, p. 506.
3 See Lindley, loc. cit.
*W. K. Brooks: The Genus Salpa Mem. Biol. Lab., Johns Hopkins
Univ.. p. 153.
* W. K. Brooks : The Genus Salpa, p. 159 ; see also p. 163.
178 BOLTON:
of the vertebrates was a worm-like animal with an organization
approximating the bilateral ancestors of the echinoderms.^
Science has also shown us that a great body of animals have
been gradually crawling out of the sea. ' ' From almost every
countr}^ pond, or ditch, or swamp," says Miss Buckley, " a
chorus of voices rises up in the spring-time of the year, calling
to us to come and learn how Life has taught her children to
pass from the water into the air ; for it is then that the frogs
lay their eggs, and every tadpole which grows up into a frog
carries us through the wonderful history of animals beginning
life as a fish in water with water-breathing gills, and ending
it as a four-legged animal with air-breathing lungs. "^
All the amphibians, or double-lived animals, are jnst emerg-
ing from the water. We find them in all stages of transition,
some having only just begun to emerge, while in others the
transition is so nearly complete that their former identity is
scarcely discernible.^
But the young of all amphibians begin life in an aqueous
medium, thus recapitulating, as all animals do, the life of the
race. In embryonic, or tadpole life, all amphibians possess gills
for extracting oxygen from the water, and organs for water
locomotion. It is only w^hen they reach an adult stage that
they possess organs which equip them for terrestrial existence.
Animal Retrogressions to Aqi^atic lyiFE.
But there have been man 3' retrogressions in the process.
Many animals after rising step by step above the fishes,
and through the backboned animals until they reached a rank
only a little below the primates, for some reason have gone
back to the sea. The French song says '* on revient tojours k
ses premiers amours." Among those that have completely
forsaken the land and assumed fish-like characters such as to
almost elude detection are the whales, porpoises, and dolphins.
Their fish-like forms and marine habits seem to indicate affini-
ties with the fishes. But their internal structure, breathing,
and mode of reproduction and suckling the young proclaim
their mammalian kinship. They resemble quadrupeds in their
internal structure, and in some of their appetites and affections.
Like quadrupeds they have lungs, a midriff, a stomach, intes-
tines, liver, spleen and bladder. The organs of generation and
Heart are quadrupedal in structure. " The rudimentary teeth
of the whalebone-whales, which never come into use, are final
1 Arthur Willey : Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates,
p. 291.
2 Arabella Buckley: Winners in Life's Race, p. 71.
3 Dr. W. K. Brooks: The Genus Salpa, Memoirs fr. the Biol. Lab.,
Johns Hopkins Univ.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS. 1 79
links in the chain of evidence." says Professor OvSkar Schmidt/
' ' that the whalebone-whales are the last members of a trans-
formed group which commenced with animals with four toes and
numerous teeth, and which, by the gradual diminution of the
dentition, have become whalebone- whales. " Tlie fins still re-
tain the bones of the shoulder, forearm, wrist and fingers,
though they are all enclosed in a sac and could render no ser-
vice except in swimming. The head is also mammalian save
in shape, which has become modified and fish-shaped for easier
propulsion in the water. The mammalian skull with all the
bones in their proper anatomical relations to one another are
still preserved.^ Prof. Schmidt says in regard to the dolphin
that the "hind limbs, like those of the Sirenians, have disap-
peared externally without leaving a trace of their former exist-
ence ; the rudimentary pelvic bones that are concealed in the
flesh — sometimes with the last remnant of the thigh bone, very
rarely with the shank — bear witness, however, to their having
possessed ancestors with four legs. ' ' ^
There are several species of animals that exhibit the trans-
formation still in process. Such, for example, is the polar bear,
which is about half aquatic. This animal really gave us the
first hint that some mammals may revert to a water stage of
existence.^ His body, much longer and more flexible than that
of common bears, eiiables him to adapt himself to water loco-
motion. His feet have become decidedly broad, his head
pointed, and his ears small, thus enabling him to propel him-
self through his aqueous habitat with ease. Other bears hug
their prey, while this one uses teeth and claws entirely. The
soles of his feet have become provided with long hair, which
provide against slipping on the ice. They have largely lost
their hibernating habits, arid fish and hunt throughout the
winter.^ The seals show by the shape of their skull, dentition,
and mode of life that they are carnivorous animals that have
adapted themselves to a life in water. Their limbs are meta-
morphosed into fin-like rudders.
Instead of a perfect fish-like tail he has two legs flattened
together, with nails on the toes. These are obvious superflui-
ties, but remain as an inheritance from ancestors to which they
were of use, but they have now become modified by the present
fish-like habits of the animal. Sea otters, the nearest relatives
of the seal, have also become pure fish-eating animals. The
^The Mammalia, p. 248; see, also, J. G. Romanes, Darwin and after
Darwin, I, 50.
^Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin, II, 51.
^The Mammalian, p. 250.
* Arabella Buckley : Winners in Ivife's Race, p. 295.
^ Op. cit., pp. 295-8.
l8o BOLTON :
Sirenia,^ which comprise the dugougs and manatees resemble
the true Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises) in their
adaptation to an aquatic mode of life and the absence of pelvic
limbs, but are probably more nearly allied to the Ungulates.
These now aquatic animals are plainly retrogressions from the reg-
ular land type. They are somewhat fish-like in form, the posterior
portion of the body being developed into a caudal fin. Hind limbs
are lacking, and the forelimbs have been modified into swim-
ming-paddles or flippers. The ear has lost the external con-
cha. A few bristles still cover the thick skin and tell of former
life. They are vegetable feeders (called herbiverous Cetaceans
by Cuvier). There are two mammary glands, pectoral in posi-
tion. The pelvis is rudimentary, some teeth are rudimentary,
and some species possessed a rudimentary femur. They date
back to the Eocene Tertiary period, while the cetacea probably
extend to the secondary period.
Among reptiles which represent these atavistic traits there
are the oceanic turtles, and the sea snakes ; among the birds,
the penguin, whose wings are scarcely different from the true
fins of fishes. Then, again, from the mammals might be named
the web-footed, duck-billed platypus, the web-footed opossum
of South America, the beaver, and the walruses and sea lions. ^
In all these classes of animals that have returned to aquatic
life, we notice that in the process of evolutipn the most marked
changes have taken place in the least typical structures, — those
which are least strongly inherited, such as skin, claws and
teeth. The aqueous medium necessitates a change of covering.
Instead of fur, which we know (from the few straggling bris-
tles) they once possessed, a smooth surface, offering little re-
sistance is advantageous. To still maintain adequate bodily
heat a covering of fat under the skin is acquired. The whale
has evolved a layer of blubber in some cases one and one-half
feet thick. The changed medium modifies the locomotor organs
— does away with the necessity of legs and necessitates, instead,
swimming apparatus. The anterior end becomes more pointed
to reduce resistance to the minimum. It should be noted, how-
ever, that the head retains essentially all the functions it pos-
sessed, being modified only in form. In all cases the eyes
become much reduced in size. In whales they suffer so much
reduction that they can scarcely be found. The same change
is taking place in the eyes of seals, polar bears, walruses,
and other animals of this type. Dentition has suffered so much
change that whales possess only rudimentary teeth that never
cut the gum. In the living species of sirenians the jaws carry
1 Nicholson : Manual of Zoology, Chap LXVI.
2 Arabella Buckley : Winners in Life's Race, p. 299.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS. l8l
more or fewer molar teeth, which have flattened crowns, while
the front of the upper and lower jaws is furnished with rough
horny pads or plates. In the genus Rhytina, now extinct,
there were no true teeth, but the places of these were taken by-
plates of horn. Incisors are also present, but they do not cut
the gum, except in the case of male dugongs. Nostrils become
situated on the upper surface. The anterior organs of locomo-
tion suffer much less change in form than the posterior, though
they assume entirely new functions. In general the bones of
the shoulder, forearm, wrist and fingers, are retained, although
they become encased in a fin-shaped sac, so as to become better
fitted for swimming.
The entire posterior end, as well as the hind legs, undergo a
most radical metamorphosis. The hind legs are no longer
needed for walking, and soon atrophy entirely or become
merely rudimentary. In the whales, porpoises, and other ani-
mals, which have completely forsaken the land, the hind legs
have completely disappeared externally, and only the rudi-
mentary bones give evidence of the species ever having pos-
sessed legs. Synchronously with the atrophy of the hind legs
there occurs a loss of the sacrum and pelvis. In the sirenians
there is no true sacrum, and the pelvis is only rudimentary.
The lungs instead of degenerating become enormously enlarged,
and enable their possessors to remain under water great lengths
of time. The whalebone whale can remain under water for an
hour at a time without reinflating its lungs.
The reversion to an aquatic medium seems to be promotive
of great increase in size. This is probably due to several
causes. First, the expenditure of energ}^ in locomotion is
greatly reduced; second, the ease of securing food is greatly
increased, the whale having only to open his mouth as he
swims to entrap myriads of minute marine animals; third, it is
probable that the loss of a pelvis is advantageous, as much
larger young may be born without injury than when the pelvis
is present. Among land vertebrates we know that many of the
largest and most promising of the various species succumb to
the dangers, attending birth, arising from a narrow pelvis.
Psychic Reverberations. We cannot hope to unravel all of
man's mental history with any such demonstrable certainty as
we can reconstruct his past physical history. Mental states are
the most fleeting and least preservable entities, and although
we must logically conclude that the record of no psychosis is ever
effaced, yet the majority become so intricately blended and
interwoven and overgrown with other more recent acquisitions
that no psychology will ever be able to reconstruct the entire
race history. Only the most oft-repeated and most far-reaching
psychic acts leave traceable evidences. But patient and careful
I 82 BOLTON:
work will enable us to understand much of man's psychic past
through survivals and rudimentary organs, just as we have
been aided in tracing psj^chical development. But just as all
psychic organs are less demonstrable than physical, so rudi-
mentary psychic phenomena are less capable of proof than
vestigial physical structures. There is, however, unquestioned
evidence of numerouus rudimentary psychic traits and many
others which, though not capable of rigorous demonstration,
give strong evidence of their origin. Traces of peculiar mani-
festations of the souls of our remote ancestors are to be met
with in " the present reactions of childish and adolescent souls,
or of specially sensitized geniuses or neurotics. ' ' There are
also times in the life of the normal individual when the control
maintained by the higher and more recently acquired centers is
apparently suspended, and the lower and older centers then
given full sway seem to step in, and the resulting psychical
phenomena present traces of long past activities. Such condi-
tions are evidenced in sleep and dreams. Idiots present childish
and even animal mentality, showing that the higher centers
have failed to function. Instead of evincing rudimentary psy-
chic phenomena in the true sense, they are cases of arrested
development. Their lives are made up of those activities that
are common to animals and to humanity in its infancy. Again,
there are certain modes of thought that crop out in the form of
omens, superstitions, sayings, proverbs and signs, to which we
ordinarily attach no importance, but often hear and repeat. All
these have a meaning to the psychologist. They are to -him
vestigial or rudimentary organs, and suggest use in a remote
past. " Few things," says Black, ^ " are more suggestive of the
strange halts and pauses which mentally a people makes than
to note how superstition springs up in the very midst of modern
education." They are to the psychologist what gill-slits are in
pathological cases of arrested development. Children are very
prone to be superstitious, which is also true of savages.
The range of atavistic psychoses is practically unlimited.
Admitting memory to be a biological fact we assume that every
impression leaves an ineffaceable trace, by which we mean that
vestiges or predispositions or habit-worn paths of association
are formed which will function again when properly stimulated.
Conservation of impressions is a state of the cerebral organ-
ism. The effect once produced by an impression upon the brain,
whether in perception or in a higher intellectual act, is fixed
and there retained. The retention of any act in memory, ac-
cording to James, ^ is an unconscious state, purely physical, a
1 Folk Lore in Medicine, p. 218.
aprin. of Psych., I, 655.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 183
morphological feature. According to Ribot we may assume
that persistence of memories, "if not absolute, is the general
rule, and that it includes an immense majority of cases. "^ This,
of course, applies only to the persistence of memories during
the individual's life, but, as Dr. Hall has pointed out,^ "we
may fancy, if we like, that on some such theory as, e. q^.,
Mach's of hereditary, or a form of memory by a direct con-
tinuity of molecular vibration in cells or their elements (Weiss-
mann's biophor's, Wisner's plasomes, de Vrie's pangens,
Nageli's micellae, etc.), or in any less material way," that
these traces or vestiges are continued, and may, even though
apparently forever effaced, reappear in future generations in
children or pathological cases. Multitudes of impressions, even
in the individual's existence, may never be recalled, but the}"
might be if the proper stimulus occurred, or if more recent
memory modifications were removed, and the older memories,
as it were, set free. Evidence in support of such a theory is
furnished by pathological cases. Events long since apparently
forgotten often reappear in disease. This is accounted for by
the destruction of the more recent and higher centers. Accord-
ing to Ribot the law of regression is that a progressive dissolu-
tion of the memory proceeds from the least organized to the
best organized, from the new to the old. In physiological terms
' * degeneration first afiects what has been most recently formed. ' '
In psychological terms ' * the complex disappears before the
simple, because it has not been repeated as often in expe-
rience." Hence, may not such cases give us glimpses of the
remote psychic past, even of the paleo-psychic age?
In sleep we have similar conditions. The higher centers
having relaxed their control, there flash into consciousness
great accumulations of old experiences that we did not know we
possessed. Those which are the most retrospective and atavis-
tic take us back through the remote periods of the development
of the race consciousness. In the psychic life of sleep our con-
sciousness may extend backward to embrace all that our ances-
tors have lived and felt and bequeathed to us as an indestructi-
ble organic patrimony." Some of the somnolescent phenomena
certainly point to aquatic existence. Consider the sensations
of flying, hovering, swimming, floating, and jumping indefi-
nitely, as with seven-leagued boots. Nearly everybody can
bear testimony to these sensations. Sometimes it is a sort of
skating or gliding across countless miles of country or of ocean,
sometimes it is a giant-like striding from mountain-top to moun-
tain-top, sometimes the perfect eagle-swoop through the blue of
1 Diseases of Memory, p. 185.
^Amer.Jour. of Psych., Vol. VIII, 173.
184 boi^Ton:
space, effortless and superb. Many testify to taking hundred-
mile steps, for jumping contests imaginarih^ performed in sleep
are of such a character as would excite the admiration of the
fabled gods. These states undoubtedly arise from disturbed circu-
lation and respiration, for both of these acts are much deranged
in an actual fall through space. And, as Dr. Hall suggests,^ * * as
lungs have taken the place of swim-bladders, the unique
respiratory action of hovering, as in nightmare, with all the
anakatsesthesic phenomena, and perhaps the elusesthesic sen-
sations of a falling, which are quite distinct from the former,
although not without common elements, suggest the possibility
that here traces of function have survived structure. . . .
Our ancestors . . . . floated and swam far longer than
they have had legs .... and why may there not be
vestigial traces of this, as there are of gill-slits under our
necks ? . . . . Although it cannot be demonstrated like
rudimentary organs, I feel strongly that we have before us here
some of the oldest elements of psychic life, some faint reminis-
cent atavistic echo from the primeval sea. ' '
The study of methods of suicide offers some very interesting
data to the psychologist. The characteristic mode of procedure
adopted by different nations throws light upon racial psy-
chology, while the differences in the methods employed by men
and women in accomplishing this terrible deed throw consid-
erable light upon sexual psychology. All statistics show very
strikingly that many more women than men commit suicide by
drowning. And women choose this method more often than
any other. This represents a fundamental psychic difference
between men and women. The woman represents the oldest
and most primitive features of the race ; the man that which is
more recent and artificial. This is also true from a biological
standpoint. Woman's body seems to be somewhat more primi-
tive and conservative than man's. This is witnessed in her
greater nearness to the quadrupedal position, in the length of
body, smaller size, etc. Woman represents that which is more
conservative in the race. In woman there are seldom abnor-
malities of bodily structure, and variations are much less pro-
nounced than in man. ** From an organic standpoint, there-
fore, men represent the more variable and the more progressive
element, women the more stable and conservative element in
evolution In various parts of the world anthro-
pologists have found reason to suppose that the primitive racial
elements in a population are more distinctly preserved by the
women than the men."^ Of their mental characteristics the
'^ Am. Jour. Psych., VIII, Jan., 1897, p. 158.
2 Havelock BUis : Man and Woman, p. 367.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 85
same authority writes that " on the psychic side women are
more inclined than men to preserve ancient customs and ancient
methods of thought. ' ' ^
If it be true that women are phylogenetically nearer primi-
tive human beings than man, it is not strange that in methods
of suicide they should choose the primitive and more natural
means oftener than man. It would be strange were the statistics
otherwise. The theory has often been advariced that the
methods of suicide selected have a close connection with the
occupation of the persons during life. To illustrate, a soldier
would choose firearms, a druggist poison, etc. The theory is
probably in a large measure true, but it in no way vitiates the
theory that the most primitive and most conservative choose
the most primitive methods. Statistics show that men prefer
active methods, w^hile women prefer passive methods. Women
give themselves to the power of natural forces or elements,
as, for example, to gravity when the}^ throw themselves
from heights or into the water and then wait for the
end, while men make themselves the active agent in
manipulating some artificial contrivance, a pistol, a rope, a
bomb-shell, or the like. Many more women than men suicide
by taking poison, which Dr. Chamberlain has pointed out to
be an atavistic tendency. Women were the earliest agricultur-
ists, and earliest learned the use of vegetables as articles of
diet, as curatives, and as agents of destruction. From these
early employments of women she learned to be a vegetarian, a
trait she still possesses, and she earliest learned the use of poison-
ous herbs. The result of this last still reverberates through her
organism, and to-day when woman determines to exterminate
a fellow-being or an animal, poison is about the only means
sought, while a man would employ a gun, a knife, or an explo-
sive. In attempting her own life, though poison is often
resorted to, a more primitive method is more often chosen.
" Throughout Europe the law roughly stated is that men hang
themselves ; . . . . with modifications this rule probably
holds good all over the world. "^ In India, where the people
represent a more primitive stage, according to Cheevers,* six
out of every seven women who commit suicide seek drowning
as a means. The proportion of men who drown themselves is
also greater there than in other countries. In the Celto-Latin
nations, France, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, drown-
ing among women shows the highest percentages of any coun-
tries. For some reason or other among the Slavic nations
^ Havelock Ellis: Man and Woman, p. 368.
^Havelock Ellis : Man and Woman, pp. 334-5.
* Quoted by Ellis: Man and Woman, p. 335.
Journal, — 2
1 86 BOLTON:
drowning is at a minimum.^ Strange to say, the atavistic ten-
dencies are becoming stronger, according to Havelock Ellis, who
says that ' ' hanging has become much rarer in both men and
women, while drowning and poisoning have become commoner
in both. That is to say, that women have become more
womanly than ever in their preference for the passive methods
of suicide."^
May not many cases of suicide by drowning and the other-
wise unexplainable " drawing power" of water so frequently
experienced, be explained by supposing a temporary or perma-
nent suspension of control by the higher psychic centers allow-
ing a recrudescence of the old love for aquatic conditions. The
fear which has been later formed, and which normally is in
equilibrium with the love of water becomes overbalanced, and
hence the desire to jump in. The philosopher, August Comte,
during a fit of temporary insanity insisted on plunging into the
lake with neither thought nor intention of drowning. The re-
turns to my syllabus furnish many cases which attest to the feel-
ing that water exerts a peculiar attraction for many individuals.
The sight of waves, billows, or in fact any water, makes some
desire to ride upon it ; many want to plunge in, and others are
tempted to follow the streams. Some cannot go bathing with-
out feeling an imperative impulse to go down forever ; to leave
care and pain ; to end life ; so they won't know any more, etc.
One says she always thinks like Longfellow : " Oh that the
river might bear me away on its bosom to the ocean wild and
wide." During trouble many long to escape from it all by
plunging in and being engulfed by the rushing waters.
Water in Primitive Conceptions of Life.
We shall see that in all early Greek philosophy water was an
integral part in all conceptions of life. Some assumed it to be
the origin of all things ; others said that water was one of the
primitive elements, and that all plants and animals either came
from or were made of water. The same ideas were current in
mythology, and are prevalent among some people to this
day. Peoples like the Egyptians, and those in southern and
western Asia, who lived in countries subject to periodic drouths,
were not long in concluding that water was necessary to the
germination and growth of plants. During dry weather vege-
tation withered ; during periods of abundant rain it waxed vig-
orously. They very naturally ascribed to water the powers of
a supernatural being. It became to them not a condition of
life, but the origin of life itself.
1 Havelock Ellis : Man and Woman, p. 336.
•^Ibid.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 87
The potency aud life-giving properties ascribed to water are
shown in Egyptian writings where ' ' it appears in such phrases
as * spirit of water, ' the source. It is a conspicuous hiero-
glyphic in the verb ' to live ;' also in ' living' and light. "^
Among the Ojibwas it is supposed to have magic power over
life and death. It is not strange that among the Egyptians,
where the annual overflow of the Nile meant life itself, that
water deities should assume so important a place. The river
was presided over by the god Nikis. The most important
Egyptian festival was the one held at the annual summer
solstice in honor of the Nile.^ At this time an invocation was
made to the river deity for the inundation. An image of the
god Nilus was encircled by a serpent, and from beneath the
rocks of a cataract a hydra poured forth sacred water.
The idea of resurrection undoubtedly grew, in part, out of
the common observation of plant life. Vegetation flourishes
during a season, appears to lose all vitality during a succeeding
season , but when spring returns it becomes once more rej u venated.
Again, plants flourish, produce seed, and wither away. The
seed in turn, under proper influences, germinates aud produces
new plants. It was but a step to arrive at the belief that man
also, after death, must live again. We have seen that the
primitive mind regarded water as the rejuvenating principles of
all plant life, and hence it will not appear strange that the
notion should be extended to include the resurrection of man.*
Among the ancient Egyptians the ceremonials of the dead all indi-
cated an expected resuscitation of life, and water was always made
the emblem of rejuvenescence, whether in connection with human
dead or with plants. In the Book of the Dead, water was the
symbol of revivification. They * * believed in the resurrection of
the dead through the same fertilizing power as that which re-
generates the plant world. '"^ Primitive peoples generally, we
may say, have taken cognizance of water in the ceremonials over
the dead. And the return of life is always spoken of in connec-
tion with it. In Egypt funeral processions always had to pass by
the sacred lake, which was near every city, and consecrated to
the dead. In their funeral rituals the departed soul is repre-
sented as a ship with four rudders pointing to the four cardinal
points. The ancient Hindoos buried the dead beneath the bed
of a stream whose current was temporarily turned aside. The
Greenlanders say that when one sleeps by the river he can hear
the singing of the dead. Some Australians say that the soul,
which they call the " little body," goes into the sea at death.
^ Ellen Bmerson : Rain Ceremonials, American Anth., Jul., 1894.
^Frazer: The Golden Bough, I, pp. 15-17.
^ Op. cit.^ I, p. 93.
. * Ellen Emerson : Rain Ceremonials, Am. Anth., Jul., 1894.
1 88 BOLTON:
Various symbolisms were early adopted to signify water. In
Egypt it w^as Ptah, the frog, the " Father of Fathers," who
was a symbol of the vital principle in water, its principle of re-
organization. The hieroglyphic representing Ptah was regu-
larly placed in the tombs of the dead. Its office was at
some future time, to reunite the scattered parts of the body.
Among some Indian and various other tribes the serpent sym-
bolizes the watery element, air or breath, which are necessary
to life.^ We have also noted in various rain ceremonials the
position of frogs, toads and serpents. In Babylonia, Thammuz
was supposed to be resurrected by the water of life which the
goddess Aphrodite brought up from Hades. That water was
regarded by the Indie Aryans as the source of all things is
shown in the Rig Vedas which tell us that *' waters contained
a germ from which everything sprang forth. " The Peruvians
worshipped Mama-cocha, the mother sea, from which had come
everything, even giants, and the Indians themselves. In Peru
water was everywhere worshipped, and it was believed that the
Incas originated in lake Titicaca, while other fabled tribes came
from fountains and streams.^
The rain ceremonials performed by various peoples for the
purpose of securing rain are of exceeding interest. Although
the details vary considerably the ceremonials may all be classed
under a few heads. Sometimes rain is sought to be produced
by sympathetic magic, ^ that is, it is believed that by imitating
some of the attendant phenomena they can influence the course of
nature. For example, by beating on a kettle to imitate thunder,
knocking two fire-brands together and causing sparks to fly to
imitate lightning, and sprinkling water from a vessel by a
bunch of twigs, as is done in some parts of Russia, the people
believe that rain will be produced.* Many tribes take a mouth-
ful of water, spirt a part of it into the air, thus making a fine
mist, to simulate rain. This is common among the Omaha
Indians and certain other tribes.^ In Germany and France it
is said to be customary to throw water upon the last sheaf cut
at harvest. The same custom prevailed in England and Scot-
land until recently. In Transylvania among the Roumanians a
girl wears a crown made of the last cut grain. When she comes
home all hasten out to meet her, and throw water upon her until
^See Ellen Emerson : Rain Ceremonials, Am. Anth., July, 1894, for
account of Egyptian and N. Am. Indian rain ceremonials; also
Weather-making, Ancient and Mod., Mark W. Harrington, Smith-
sonian Rep., 1894.
2 Dr. Chamberlain : The Child and Childhood in Folk Ivore, pp. 38-9.
3 Ellen Emerson, op. cit.
* Frazer : Golden Bough, I, p. 13.
6 Op. cit., p. 15.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 89
she is completely drenched. This is done to insure rain for
next year's crop.^ Sympathetic magic among the savages, Mr.
Frazer regards as exactlj^ analogous to the modern conception
of physical causation. A man-god in this view, is only an in-
dividual who is believed to possess the power of influencing
nature to a high degree.'-^
Another way of trying to secure rain is by coercion of the
rain-god. In some parts of China a huge wooden or paper
dragon, representing the rain-god is carried about in a proces-
sion. If no rain follows" they curse it and demolish it. The
Senegambians throw down their fetishes, drag them about the
fields and curse till rain falls. ^ Still another way is to disturb
the gods in some way. Troubling the sacred springs by throw-
ing impurities into them is believed by the Dards to bring rain.
Other springs need only to be looked at and the whole province
secures rain.^ Sometimes an appeal is made to the pity of the
gods. The Zulus kill a " heaven bird," throw it into a pool,
' ' then the heavens melt with tenderness for the death of the
bird ; it wails for it by raining, wailing a funeral wail. "^
Various other methods are resorted to in diffverent parts of the
world. The Samoan rainmakers wet some sacred stones when
they wish rain, and put them into the fire when they desire
dry weather.^ In China Ke-mung, who is man-shaped and
dragon-headed, haunts the Chang River and causes rainstorms.^
In the same country water-spouts are said to be caused by
dragons fighting in the air.* The Dodola or girl dressed in
clothes made of grass, herbs and flowers, who goes about from
house to house and sings while the housewife pours water over
her, is a common rain-charm in southeastern Europe. It is
found among the Servians, Greeks, Bulgarians and Rou-
manians.^ Beating, pinching, and beheading frogs is quite a
common rain-charm among the Orinoco Indians, and Idlling
the frog is an old German rain-charm.^
Water in Philosophical Speculation.
Not only among savage tribes has water played an important
T61e in their mythological explanation of the world, but even in
philosophic thought water has been the subject of much specu-
lation. It assumed an important place in early Greek cosmo-
1 Op. cit., I, p. 286.
2(9/>. «7., I, p. 12.
^Op. cit., I, p. 18.
^ Op. cit.y I, p. 19.
^ Loc.cit.
^Tylor : Early History of Mankind, p. 133.
'Denny's Folk Lore of China, p. 98.
^Conway: Demonology and Devil-lore, II, 107.
190 BOLTON :
logical theories. The Greek philosophers were not the first to
form theories of the origin of the universe ; such theories, more
or less mythlogical of course, were extant among all tribes.
But the Greeks were the first to seriously attempt to understand
nature. Burnet says " the real advance made by the scientific
men of Miletos was that they left off telling tales. "^ They had
noticed the constantly changing aspects of nature, the eternal
flux as Heracleitus later puts it, and their minds began to
grope and yearn for some unitary principle to which the eter-
nal succession of changing objects could be reduced. They did
not, it is true, abandon the speculation concerning origins, but
their scientific contribution was the search for a unitary prin-
ciple in what was present. ' ' They gave up the hopeless task
of describing what was when as yet there was nothing, and
asked instead what all things really are now?"^ Parmenides
asserts that * ' nothing comes into being out of nothing, and
nothing passes away into nothing." But they observed the
continual coming into being and corresponding passing away
of particular things. From this it was natural to pass to the
assumption of a substratum which was the ultimate and only
reality. As *' nothing comes from nothing, nothing can pass
away into nothing, there must then be something which always
is, something fundamental, which persists throughout all
change, and ceases to exist in one form only that it may reap-
pear in another."^
It is interesting to note the cause of the change in cosmo-
logical doctrine among the early Greeks. Much of the change
was undoubtedly due to the increased knowledge of the sea,
which had hitherto represented to them the boundless, at least so
far as mortal knowledge was concerned. What was unattaina-
ble, beyond reach, unexplainable by natural means, was placed
beyond the sea. Their world was bounded by the sea, it
rested upon the sea, the mythical heroes dwelt in or beyond
the sea. But with the increase of maritime knowledge in
the 5th and 6th centuries B. C, old conceptions had to be
abandoned for something new. At the time the Odyssey
was composed, Odysseus met with Circe, the Cyclops, and
the Sirens, not in the near and familiar ^gean, but in
the " West," which meant to them beyond the known sea.*
But with the increase of geographical knowledge it was dis-
covered that the monsters and beings purported to be the
inhabitants of countries beyond the sea, were no longer
ij. Burnet: Early Greek Philosophy, p. 8.
2 Burnet: op. cit., p. 8.^
3 Burnet: op. cit., p. 10.
*Geo. Grote : Hist, of Greece, I, 342-3.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. IQI
there, and a doubt of their ever having been there arose. ^
About this time they changed the name of the " Inhospitable
Sea" to the "Hospitable Sea."^ They had determined the
location of the " far country," and Jason was made to bring
the Golden Fleece from a definite place Kolchis.^ Burnet says,
" above all, the Phokaians had explored the Mediterranean as
far as the Pillars of Herakles, and the discovery that the ' end-
less paths ' of the sea they knew had definite boundaries must,
as Grote has said, have moved men's minds in much the same
way as did the discovery of America in later days."*
To return to their cosmological theories, we can readily
understand how in their search for the eternal, original, unitarj''
substance through whose changes and motions all else arose,
that they should turn to those things which were either ever
present, most abundant, or presented the greatest possibility of
change, but which at the same time appeared to possess some
simple form beyond which further change was impossible. This
the various philosophers thought the)^ discovered in the ele-
ments,— earth, air, fire and water. Some chose one, some
another, and still others believed that all were necessary for a
satisfactory explanation.
Thales, the founder of the Milesian school, and probably the
first of the cosmologists in seeking a primary, fundamental
matter, something which would answer the question : Of what
is the world made ? proposed the answer : water. All special
existences were but modes of this primary substance. He saw
about him '* constant transformations — birth and death, change
of shape, of size, and of mode of existence — he could not regard
any one of these variable states as Existence itself
He looked around him, and the result of his meditation was the
conviction that Moisture was the Beginning. He was impressed
with this idea by examining the constitution of the earth.
There, also, he found moisture everywhere. All things he found
nourished by moisture ; warmth itself he declared to proceed
from moisture ; the seeds of all things are moist. Water when
condensed becomes earth."® Further, as Burnet points out the
process that evaporation was continually going on around
them, the phenomenon which rural people call the "sun draw-
ing water " was then as observable as at the present day, and
the conclusion was probably similar. The Greeks went a little
further than the rustic of to-day, and asserted that this water
passing into the sky by evaporation went to feed the heavenly
^Op. cit., p. 334.
2J. Burnet: Early Greek Philosophy, p. 14.
^Ibid.
*Ibid.
s Geo. H. Lewes : Hist, of Phil, from Thales to Comte, Vol. I, p. 7.
192 BOLTON :
fires. After coming down in rain they thought it changed into
earth. Then from the phenomena of mists and subterranean
springs they believed that earth once more was converted into
water. They did not connect springs with rain, and the waters
underneath the earth were regarded as an independent source
of moisture.^
Anaximander (6io B. C.) did not agree, saying that the ele-
ments "are in opposition to one another, — air is cold, water
moist, and fire hot, — and therefore if any one of them were in-
finite, the rest would cease to be by this time."^ He regarded
the world, according to Burnet, as a boundless mass or body
out of which * * our world once emerged by the * separating out *
of the opposites, moist and dry, warm and cold."^ But, although
Anaximander made a great advance over the ideas of Thales,
no longer considering the earth as a disc resting upon the
waters, the potency of moisture or of water was still clearly
visible in his system. His ideas of the origin of living creatures,
as chronicled by Theophrastus,* are as follows : " Living creat-
ures arose from the moist element as it was evaporated by the
sun. Man was like another animal, namely, a fish, in the be-
ginning." Hipp. Ref,, i, 6 (R. P., i6 a).
* * The first living creatures were produced in the moist ele-
ment, and were covered with prickly integuments. As time
went on they came out upon the drier part, and, the integu-
ment soon breaking ofi", they changed their manner of life."
Aet.=/y«<:., V, 19. I (R. P., ib.).
' * The sea is what is left of the original moisture. The fire
has dried up most of it and turned the rest salt by scorching
it." Ket.—Plac, iii, 16. i (R. P., 14 c).
Anaximenes (588 B. C.) appears at first sight to have taken
a different element from any of his predecessors as the one
underlying substances from which all things come. According
to the account given by Theophrastus " from it . . (air)
. the things that are, and have been, and shall be, the
gods and things divine, took their rise, while other things came
from its offspring." Hipp. Ref, i, 7 (R. P., 21).^ Burnet
explains, however, that " the ' air ' of which Anaximenes spoke
was not at all what we call by that name. The word aijp is
still used in its old Homeric sense of vapor or mist. The dis-
covery that what we call air was corporeal, and not identical with
empty space, was first made by Empedokles. In all the earlier
ij. Burnet: Early Greek Philosophy, p. 45.
2 Quoted by J. Burnet from Aristotle's Phys., Early Greek Philoso-
phy, p. 51.
^ J. Burnet : Early Greek Philosophy, p. 61.
* These references quoted by J. Burnet, Early Greek Phil., pp. 73-94-
^ Loc. cit.y p. 77.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES . 193
cosmologists drjp means water in a vaporous state more or less
condensed."^
Below are quoted several passages of the opinions of Tlieo-
phrastus which give the key to the cosmology of Anaximenes.
' ' When it is dilated so as to become rarer, it becomes fire ;
while winds on the other hand are condensed air. Cloud is
formed from Air by * felting,' and this, still further condensed,
becomes water. Water, condensed still more, turns to earth ;
and when condensed as much as it can be, to stones, ' ' Hipp.
Ref., Aet. (R. P., 21). ^
Thus we see Anaximenes practically returning the view of
Thales, making everything come from the 6J]p or moisture, and
even holding that the disc-shaped earth floated upon it.
Xe7iophanes, though not making himself clear concerning his
cosmological theories, seems to incline largely to the Anaxi-
mandrian view. Though he denied the conception of a primary
substance^ he says :
' ' All things are earth and water that come into being and
grow."' R. P., 86.
" For we all arise from earth and water." R. P., 86.**
Heracleitus (504 B. C), not satisfied with former cosmology
sought a new principle, out of which the diversified world
might be made, which would change into everything else, and
which would be produced by everything changing back into
it. This he thought he found in " fire — real fire, of course,
'that burns and crackles,' as Teichmtiller put it."* Many
interpreters, however, regard this fire as only symbolic, and
claim that the word was used with the same significance as
Anaximenes had used air, that is meaning mist or moisture."^
Be this as it may, Heracleitus regarded fire, water and earth,
as the fundamental forms which water assumed in its transfor-
mation* in his celebrated ' ' flux ' ' theory gives to water great
prominence.
Theophrastus records that ' * he called change the upward
and the downward path, and held that the world goes on
according to this. When fire is condensed it becomes moist,
and when collected together it turns to water ; water being con-
gealed turns to earth (the conjecture of Theophrastus); and this
he calls the downward path. And, again, the earth is in turn
'^Loc. cit., p. 78.
^ Loc. cit., p. 81.
'^ Loc. cit., p. 124.
^Loc. cit., p. 115.
^Ibid.
« Op. cit., p. 148.
''Op. cit., p. 148 for discussion of interpretation; also Zeller, Pre-
Socratic Philosophy, II, 51 ff.
8 Zeller: Pre-Socratic Philosophy, II, 51.
194 BOLTON :
liquified, and from it water arises, and from that everything
else ; for he refers almost everything to the evaporation from
the sea. This is the path upwards."^ R. P., 29.
From Hyppolytas,who probably represents Heracleitus accur-
ately, in Mr. Bywater's edition we learn that Heracleitus
believed that " the transformations of Fire are, first of all sea
(and half of the sea is earth, half fiery storm-cloud"). R. P.,
28 b.^
** The earth is liquified, and the sea is measured by the same
tale as before it became earth. "^ R. P., 31.
Heracleitus believed that there was a constant flux between
fire and water. One prevailed for a time, then the other, but
that neither gained the permanent ascendancy. The balance
was maintained by the " measures," as he called them. Meas-
ures of * ' ever-living fire ' ' were ever going out, while compen-
satory " measures " were being kindled.* He writes, "so long
as things as they are, fire and water will always be too, and
neither will ever fail." Ps. Hipp., De Diaeta, i, 3.'*
By the oscillation between fire and water Heracleitus ex-
plained the change of seasons, and day and night. I^ike the
heavenly bodies man, also, oscillates between fire and water.^
Hippolytas interprets Heracleitus as saying :
'* The dry soul is the wisest and best."^ R. P., 34.
' ' For it is death to souls to become water, and death to
water to become earth. But water comes from earth ; and from
water soul."* R. P., 30 B.
" It is pleasure to souls to become moist."* R. P., 38 b.
"A man, when he gets drunk, is led by a beardless lad,
knowing not where he steps, having his soul moist. " * R. P. , 34.
Empedocles held that there were four fundamental and pri-
mary elements, fire, earth, air and water. ^ According to him
plants and animals are composed of fire and water in definite
proportions. Likewise man sprang from the earth, at first
composed of shapeless lumps of earth and w^ater, thrown up by
subterranean fire, which gradually shaped themselves into
human members under the influence of Love.^
Anaxageras followed in a large measure the cosmological
doctrines of Anaximenes. He taught that plants and animals
all originated in germs which came down in rain-water.^
1 Burnet : op. cit., p. 151.
2 Burnet : op. cit., p. 135.
* Fragment 20. Quoted by Burnet, op. cit., p. 135.
* Burnet : op. cit., p, 135.
5 Burnet: op. cit., p. 162.
® Burnet : op. cit., p. 138.
'Zeller: Pre-Socratic Philosophy, II, p. 125, et seq.
^Zeller: op. cit., pp. 159-161.
*Zeller : op. cit.y p. 365.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 95
These cosmological theories, trivial as they may now appear,
were of the utmost significance. Who would for a moment ques-
tion the great importance of the atomic doctrine of elements ?
Probably no other hypothesis in ancient or modern times has
been vSo potent in determining our knowledge of the physical
universe. Now, in all these crude attempts to answer the
question proposed by Thales, we can distinctly foresee the
struggles toward, if indeed not the germs of, a future atomic
theory. They were searching for the primitive, fundamental,
unchangeable something from v/hich all else was derived.
" Greek philosophy began as it ended, for what was lasting and
abiding in the fl*ux of things."^ Thales postulated water as
this abiding something, Anaximenes arip or mist, Heracleitus
fire, which, however, could not exist without water, Empe-
docles, earth, air, fire and water. Others asserted one or a
combination, but in all these theories water played the chief, or
at least not unimportant r61e in answering Thales conundrum.
Sacred Waters.
We have shown how water came to be regarded as pos-
sessed of life-giving powers through its connection with the
growth of vegetation. Living or running water came to be re-
garded as of special sanctity. Early civilizations largely
inhabited countries having periodic rainfalls, so that with the
rainy season and overflowing streams, the apparent visitation of
some supernatural powers were particularly noticeable. Grad-
ually certain streams, lakes, pools, wells and fountains, became
set apart as sacred. The sources of streams were held as par-
ticularly sacred. Temples and other sanctuaries were fre-
quently erected on the banks of streams, and the stream formed
an important part of the sacra of the place.
We have evidence of the sacredness of many rivers in the
Orient. The Phcenecians and the Carthaginians held many
rivers to be divine. Belus, Adonis, ^sclepius and the Kishon,
were all held in veneration; also the pool of Aphaca, which
was the most famous of all holy places. Several of these holy
places were named from the ancestral gods. The river Tripolis
is still called the Cadisha, or holy stream. The Jordan, in
Biblical times, was the sacred stream of the Hebrews, as were
the Abana and Pharpar of the Syrians. In Damascus the
Barada was sacred, and figures of the river-gods Chrysorrhoa
and Pegai often appear on Damascene coins. These gods were
probably prominent in religious w-orship. The Euphrates was
sacred to the Syrians, and bore an important part in the ritual
of Hierapolis. From the river the goddess was thought to have
1 Burnet : Early Greek Phil., p. 13.
196 BOI.TON :
been born. The Aborrhas or Chaboras, the chief tributary of
the Euphrates in Mesapotamia, was held sacred as the place
where Hera (Atargatis) bathed after her marriage with Zeus
(Bel). According to tradition the Orontes was carved out by
a dragon which disappeared in the earth, at its source. The
river Cadas bears a name which implies its ancient sanctity.
Besides sacred streams, fountains, waterfalls, wells, pools,
etc., were regarded sacred. Each village in Syria had its own
well and its own high-place or little temple. In Canaan they
were generallj^ outside of the villages. Sacred springs were gen-
erally sought in places to which long pilgrimages had to be
made. Such shrines were Mamre, Aphaca, Dan and Beersheba.
Sometimes they were within the temples, and again, as at An-
tioch, the water and the groves surrounding formed public
parks where pleasure and religious observances were combined.
Both legend and religious ritual give evidence that, at least
in earliest times, the sacred waters themselves were deemed in-
stinct with divine powers, and not that beings resided in them
which possessed these magic gifts. The latter idea came in,
but it is not the primitive one. Many of the legends attempt
to explain how the waters became impregnated with super-
natural powers. Many ancient accounts seem to indicate that
the blood of the deity flows in the waters. In Paradise Eost,
following Lucien in the Syrian account,
" Smooth Adonis from his native rock,
Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood
Of Thammuz yearly wounded."^
The red color of the river was supposed to come from the
blood of the god killed. A fountain at Joppa was said to be
colored from the blood of a sea-monster. In another class of
legends the life of the water is derived from the blood of the
gods who descend into them and die. This was said of the
Euphrates, into which Hierapolis and Ascalon plunged and
were changed into fishes. This, says Mr. Smith, is but another
way of bringing the divine water or divine fish into harmony
with anthromophic ideas. Aphrodite is said to have been born
of the seafoam, which is but another way of saying that a deity
had given its life to the water. Fish were taboo in Syria,, and
sacred fish were found in all sanctuaries. Sacred fish are still
kept in pools at the mosques of Edema and Tripolis.
The early inhabitants of Switzerland probably worshipped
the lakes. Ancient writers indicate that the Gauls, Germans
and other nations, considered many lakes sacred. " According
to Cicero, Justin and Strabo, there was a lake near Toulouse in
which the neighboring tribes used to deposit offerings of gold
1 Paradise Lost, I, 450, following Ivucien in Dea SyriUy viii.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 97
and silver. Tacitus, Pliny and Virgil, also mention the exist-
ence of sacred lakes. "^ Gregory of Tours tells of a sacred
lake on Mt. Helamus which was worshipped, and offerings of
clothes, skins, etc., made to it.
Besides being sacred many of these waters were deemed to
possess life-giving powers to all who drank of them or bathed
in them. It was but an extension of the notion concerning the
relation of rain and water in general upon vegetation to its
effects upon man. Stories of fountains of youth abound in all
lands, and the significance is great. It betokens the wide-
Spread faith that has been held concerning water as a life-giving
agent, and the close identification of water with life. The magic
draught of the fairy story, the Greek ambrosia, the Vedic Soma
or anirita, which gave immortality, the Zend haoma, waters of
strength and waters of weakness, rivers of life and fountains of
youth, all seem intimately connected through the primitive
notions from which they all arose. These draughts were
the source of all strength and powers, panaceas for all ills. By
imbibing magic waters, or bathing in them the old were made
young, the infirm strong, and the blind to see.
In India there is a lake and river in which bathers could
become as young or as old as they chose. Cambyses had heard
of the long-lived Ethiopians, and despatched messengers to
spy out their conditions of life. The Ethiopians were reported
to live a hundred and twenty years, and the secret was that
they bathed in a magic fountain. In the Hawaiian legend
Tahita Kahiki, or the land far away may be found the wai ora
waiola, or water of life, and the wai ora roa, or water of endur-
ing life. These waters remove all sickness, deformity, or de-
creptitude from those who plunge beneath them.^ The Sand-
wich Islanders have a tradition of a river in the spirit- world
called Water of Life, which makes the aged young, and allows
them to return to earth to live another life. Similar ideas have
been found in the Malay Islands. Batara Gurr saves himself and
the other gods from a poisonous drink by discovering a well of
life. Nurtjaja compels the bandit Kabib to disclose to him the
springs of immortality which flow beneath the caverns of the
earth. Europe is not lacking in stories of miraculous fountains.
** Ibu-el-Wardi places the Fountain of Life in the dark south-
western regions of the earth. El-Khidar drank of it, and will
live till the day of judgment." Prester John wrote to Manuel
of Constantinople in the 13th century that "at the foot of
Mount Olympus bubbles up a spring w^hich changes its flavor
hourly day and night, and the spring is scarcely three days
journey from Paradise, out of which Adam was driven. If any
^ Sir John Lubbock: Pre-Historic Times, p. 222.
198 BOI.TON:
man drinks thrice from this spring he will from that day feel no
infirmity, and he will as long as he lives appear the age of
thirty.^ Sir John Maundeville is said to have identified the
mountain a century later as Polombo, near Ceylon. (Tylor
gives it as Mt. Cy tec*. ) He wrote that there ' * is a fayre Welle
and a gret that hathe odour and savour of all Spices; and at
every hour of the day he changethe his odour and his savour
diversely. And whoso drynkethe 3 tymes fasting of the Waters
of that Welle, he is hool of alle maner of sykenesse that he
hathe And men se)^, that that Welle cometh out
of Paradys; and therefore it is vertuous."^
During the Middle Ages the belief was current that one who
bathed in the Euphrates in the springtime would be immune
from disease the remainder of the 3^ear. This power also ex-
tended to the vegetation along its banks. Near the sacred Belus
grew the colcasium plant which healed Heracles after his com-
bat with the Hydra. Ezekiel speaks of the sacred waters that
issue from the New Jerusalem, giving life wherever they went.
The leaves of the trees along its banks were believed to have
medicinal virtues. The fountain of youth was a much sought
for object even in subsequent times. Ponce de Leon is said to
have searched long and anxiously for it among the Bahamas,
and the everglades of Florida, and even penetrated the New
World as far as the Mississippi River in search of that which
would rejuvenate his ebbing powers.
Healing Waters. Belief in the curative and even life-giving
powers of certain water has persisted down to the present time.
* ' The healing power of sacred water is closely connected with
its purifying and consecrating power, for the primary concep-
tion of uncleanness is that of some dangerous infection; origi-
nally an infection of holiness, but later on of impurity.'"^
(Studied more in detail later on.) There are numerous records
of enchanted wells until recently, and possibly still regarded as
possessing miraculous powers. Great Britain, Scotland and
Ireland, furnish them in great numbers. Among the most
noted was St. Winifred's in Flintshire, Wales. Its waters were
deemed almost as potent as those of the pools of Bethesda. All
human ills were supposed to be relieved by drinking from it or
being bathed in it. The spot from whence the spring issues is
the spot upon which St. Winifred's head fell when struck off by
Prince Caradoc. It has many visitors to this day. In 1635
Sir George Peckham prolonged his devotions too far, ' ' having
continued so long mumbling his paternosters and Sancta Wini-
1 W. Robertson Smith : Rel. of the Semites.
^W. Robertson Smith: Rel. of the Semites, p. 68.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 1 99
freda orea pro me, the cold struck into his body, and after his
coming forth from that well he never spoke more. ' ' ^
Hither came Wm. the Conqueror, his grandson, Henry II, and
the first Edward; here, too, many of the Gunpowder Plot con-
spirators, and later James II. In 1876 the Duke of Westmin-
ster leased the well to the corporation of Holywell for a thou-
sand years at a sovereign a year. At a recent date the following
articles left by cured patients might have been seen by the
curious visitor : 39 crutches, 6 canes, a hand-hearse, and a
pair of boots. It is said of the two wells at Newton, near St.
Neots, that "never went people so fast from church, either
unto a fair or market, as they go to these wells. "^ In the par-
ish of Wembdon, during the reign of Edward IV, immense
concourses of people flocked to St. John's Well, and were said
to be restored to health through its curative properties. With
Chader Well, on the Island of St. I^ewis, and also a well in
Dumfriesshire it was either kill or cure: if convalescence did not
immediately follow, death did.
Sacred wells were often the mediators in the transference of
disease. At St. Elias's Well, Denbighshire, disease is trans-
ferred by casting into the well a pin, along with a pebble,
marked with the intended victim's name. If the victim hears
of it disease often occurs as a result of suggestion, but believed
to have been transferred by magic. To remove the disease, the
pebble is taken out and the victim's name erased from the
magician's book.' At the holy well, Tubber Quan, near Car-
rick on Suir, the faithful were, and probably are, wont to resort
on the last Sunday in June to supplicate St. Quam and St.
Brogaum. If cures are to be granted they appear as two won-
derful trout. In Wales epileptic patients go to St. Telga's
Well, half way between Wrexham and Ruthin. The patient
goes to the well after sunset, washes in it, and makes an
offering of four pence. With a fowl under his arm he walks
around the well three times, reciting the Lord's Prayer. He
then sleeps all night in the church with the Bible for his pillow.
In the morning another six-penny offering is made to the well.
If the fowl dies the disease is supposed to be transferred.''
A few years ago a lady was sketching on the banks of a
river in Ireland when she ' ' saw a young girl .... lead-
ing a boy with a halter round his neck. When the pair reached
the river the boy went down on his hands and knees, and so
led by the girl crossed the river, bending his lips to drink.
They then recrossed in the same fashion; he drank as before
and she led. Then they went up the hill home. But presently
1 W. G. Black : Folk Medicine, p. 103.
2 W. G. Black: Folk Medicine, p. 39.
^ Loc. cit,, p. 46.
200 BOLTON :
they again appeared coming down the hill. This time, how-
ever, the boy led the girl, otherwise the ceremony was the
same. ' Me an' Tom's very bad with the mumps,' explained
the little girl, raising her hands to her swollen neck and cheeks,
* so I put the branks on Tom an' took him to the water, an'
then he put them on me. We be to do that three times an' its
allowed to be a cure.' And a cure did result."^ In the early
part of the century sufferers from the whooping cough. Catho-
lic and Protestant, drank holy- water from a silver chalice in the
hope of a cure. Nurses in Gloucestershire used invariably after
public baptism to wash the infant's mouth with the holy water.
It was said to be a safeguard against toothache. Such a value
was placed upon this water that to prevent the people stealing
it, the fonts had to be kept locked. In the Puritan portion of
western Scotland it was looked upon as having power to cure
many disorders. Further, it was a preventive against witch-
craft, and eyes bathed in it would never behold ghosts.^ It is
said of the Borgie Well, at Cambuslang, near Glasgow :
** A drink of the Borgie, a bite of the weed,
Sets a' the Cam'slang folk wrang in the head."
On the 26th of June, every year, people flock to Saw Beach,
Maine, for a healing dip which the waters are thought to pro-
vide on that day.
The Chinese do not like to have running water near their
dwellings because it runs away with their luck. Scotch and
English peasants believe it will bear away evil, and thus attach
great value to it. Some think that to possess desirable qualities
the stream must run east, others think south. The latter is
usually regarded the more auspicious, being particularly
efficacious in cure of witchcraft, a series of three mighty
plunges being required for a cure. In Northumberland whoop-
ing-cough was cured by porridge cooked on a griddle held
over a south-running stream. At one time the number of
patients was so large that they could get but a spoonful at a
dose.
Offerings. A further proof that the divine potency was sup-
posed to reside in the water is shown by the form of religious
ceremonies observed when offerings were made to the water.
At Mecca and at the Stygian waters in the Syrian desert gifts
were cast into the holy sources. Even at Aphacus, where the
goddess Astarte was believed to descend into the waters, the
pilgrims cast into the pool webs of linen and byssus, gold and
ij. G. Black: Folk Medicine, pp. 105-6, from Univ. Mag., Aug.
1879, P- 219-
2 J. G. Black : op. cit.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 20I
silver jewels and other valuable materials. At Abraham's Well,
Mamre, the heathen visitors cast into it libations of wine, cakes,
coins, myrrh and incense, and illuminated the well at night
with lamps. ^
The custom of leaving rags and other worthless things at
holy wells still exists in Ireland and Scotland as well as in re-
mote parts of the world. A traveller in Persia found a tree
near one of these wells hung with rags, which had been left
there by people afflicted with ague. An African explorer found
a tree hung full of rags. Old clothes, crooked pins, pebbles,
shells, rusty nails, coins and other useless objects, all form ap-
propriate offerings. The superstitious adoration was so great
in the reign of King Edgar that it was forbidden by the i6th
canon issued in 960, and it was condemned by the canons of
St, Anslemus in the next century. In the reign of King Canute
it was also interdicted by law. The practice has been limited
since the Reformation. But there is still scarcely a parish in
Ireland but has its own holy well.^
Oracular Powers. Holy waters have often been places of
oracle and divination. They were supposed to indicate by some
sign the favorable or unfavorable disposition of the divine
power, and also to show whether certain gifts were acceptable
or not. At Aphaca acceptable offerings sank, and unacceptable
ones were thrown back by the eddies. The gifts deposited one
year were thrown back the next, which was regarded as an ill
omen, betokening the fall of Palmyra. In Greece holy wells
gave prophetic inspiration to those who imbibed their waters.
The oracle at Antioch was obtained by dipping a laurel leaf
into the water. The oracular power of water has often been
used to determine the curability or incurability of disease. In.
recent times it was customary at St. Orwald's Well, Holywell
Dale in North Lincolnshire, Great Cotes, St. John's Well,
Aghada, Cork and at other places, for people to try to discover
by the floating or sinking of their shirt, whether one would re-
cover or not. At their departure they usually hung a part of
their shirt or a rag upon a bush near by as an offering.* One
form of oracular manifestation is seen in the ordeals such as
those used in trial of witches, which survived until recent
times. In 1759 King James I published his [in] famous trea-
tise on demonology. One of the methods prescribed for testing
witches and sorcerers was to find an anaesthetic or analgesic
spot on the body of a person, which was an indication of league
^ W. Robertson Smith: Rel. of the Semites, p. 162.
^Gabrielle M. Jacobs, in Godey's Magazine, Feb., 1898; see also
Brand's Popular Antiquities, Vol. II, for interesting chapter on sacred
wells and fountains.
«W. G. Black: Folk Medicine, p. 73.
JOURNAI, — 3
202 BOLTON :
with the devil. The other was the trial by water. He wrote: " it
appears that God hath appointed (for a supernatural sign of the
monstrous impiety of witches) that the water shall refuse to receive
them in her bosom that have shaken off them the sacred waters
of baptism and willfully refused the benefit thereof."^ In
Hadramant when a man was injured by enchantment, all the
suspected witches were brought to the sea or a deep pool, weights
were tied to them, and they were thrown into the water. Those
who sank were adjudged immune, while those who did not
sink were declared guilty because the waters rejected them.^
In ancient religions it was criminal for persons ceremonially
impure to approach sacred waters. Arabian women during
menstrual periods were forbidden, for their children's sake, to
bathe in the Dusares. At the present no one dares enter the
valley of the Sheik Adi, which has a sacred fountain, without
first ceremonial purification of person and clothing. Aristotle
described a sacred oil-spring of the Carthaginians which would
flow only for those ceremonially pure. Drinking certain water
was often prescribed as an ordeal. The waters of Asbamae,
near Tyana, were sweet and beneficial to those who were
truthful, but perjurers were at once afflicted with dropsy and
wasting. Those who swore falsely by the Stygian waters
died of dropsy within the year.^ The Hebrews prescribed the
drinking of holy water for women suspected of infidelity to
their husbands. The guilty were immediately afflicted with
dropsy on drinking it.
Many superstitions are still current regarding the super-
natural power of water to bring harm to offenders. Sayings
and proverbs are also prevalent which, though not now believed,
represent actual beliefs of more primitive times. One of the
oldest superstitions regarded it as certain that ill would befall
the rescuer of a drowning person. The older form of the supersti-
tion maintained that the rescuer would himself be drowned. In
this primitive conception it was believed that the water was a
spirit, or contained a spirit or nixy who was naturally angry at
being deprived of his victim, and who would revenge himself
by drowning the one who tried to thwart him.**
To dream of deep or muddy water is regarded as a sign of
trouble. Dripping water is a sign of death. It is lucky to
have rain fall on a corpse or an open coffin. To cross water cures
disease. A stormy wedding day betokens a stormy life. Sev-
eral in my syllabus returns speak of superstitions concerning
water that have affected their own or others' actions. An old
1 Quoted by Baros Sidis : The Psych, of Suggestion, pp. 336-7.
2 W. Robertson Smith : The Rel. of the Semites, p. 163.
3 Op. cit., pp. 163-4.
*J. Fiske: Myths and Mythmakers, p. 215.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS. 203
man going to the beach met a girl and happened to brush
against her. He was drowned that day, and the girl was much
frightened lest the same fate should befall her. She was heard
to remark that she must be careful and not go out too far when
she went bathing or she would surely drown. A man in Sweden
besought his brother not to cross a certain lake because some
one was sure to drown there within twenty-four hours.
F., 41. About a year ago I experienced a great trouble. The follow-
ing day it rained very hard. Seemed as if nature were weeping with
me.
F., 18. My mother and another lady both dreamed on three differ-
ent nights that I was in my canoe and was drowned. At the time the
"flood gates" at Park Island were in a dangerous condition. My
mother and her friend were sure I would be drowned, but the gates
have been repaired, and I am still alive.
Fishers folk are very superstitious, and regulate most of
their lives according to superstitious beliefs connected with the
sea. Birth and death are dominated by the ebb and flow of
the tide. This is illustrated by Dickens^ in referring to the
death of Barkis. "People can't die along the coast," said
Mr. Peggoty, * except when the tide's pretty near out. They
can't be born unless its pretty nigh in — not properly born, till
flood. He's a goin' out with the tide. Its ebb at half arter
three, slack water half-an-hour. If he lives till it turn, he '11
hold his own till past the flood, and go out with the next
tide,' .... and it being low water he went out with
the tide."
Water Dkitiks.
Folk-tales and mythology of all lands abound with accounts
of spirits who inhabit the water. They are a product of the
universal animistic conception of the primitive minds which,
failing to differentiate the non-ego from the ego, personify
whatever happens to be an object of contemplation. ** To the
lower tribes of man, sun and stars, trees and rivers, winds and
clouds, become personal animate creatures, leading lives con-
formed to human or animal analogies, and performing their
special functions in the universe, with the aid of limbs like
beasts, or of artificial instruments like men."^ Water with its
ceaseless motion and constantly varying shapes offered wide
scope for the savage imagination.
Proteus, the old man who tends the seal of Poseidon, lived
near the river Aigyptos, and each day, when the heat was
greatest, he raised himself from the deep and rested on the sea-
1 David Copperfield : Gadshill Ed., Vol. II, p. lo.
2E. B. Tylor: Primitive Culture, I, p. 285.
204 BOLTON :
shore. He first became fire, then a snake, and finally assumed
many aspects before returning to his original shape. He is said
to be the Farmer Weatherby of Norse tales. The daughters of
Nereus are the Nereids or Naiads, denoting water dwellers. The
word Nereid is usually applied to those living in the sea,^ and the
latter to those inhabiting fresh water. The Greek goddesses,
Nymphe or Latin Lymphse, belong to the water. Lymphati-
cus, of Latin origin, corresponding to Nympholeptos, denoted
the man smitten by the Nymphs. The Nymphe were some-
times divided into the Oreads and Dryads. In the Vedas they
are the Apsaras or movers in the waters, and are endowed with
wisdom. Besides the Nymph^ there were the swan-maidens of
Aryan mythology, who were akin to clouds and vapors. They
swam about on seas formed by the blue heavens, and navigated
by the self-guided barks of the Phakians. Thetis, although
called a Nereid, is akin to Proteus, and can change her form
at will. Poseidou is lord of the Thalassa or troubled waters.
Okeianos, whose slow-moving stream no storm can ruffle,
dwells in the far west. He is the source of all things. ' ' From
him flow all rivers and all the tossing of floods, all fountains
and all wells. He is, in short, the spring of all existence."'^
Neptune is not strictly a god of the sea, but " the god of the
clouds as the source of all moisture and water."* The Sirens
are the witches of the shoals, while Scylla and Charybdis are
the demons of the whirlpools. These are universally known,
though under different names. Father Marquette met with
the same belief among North American Indians with reference
to a river whirlpool.
In Australia special water demons infest pools and bathing
places. In the natives' theory of disease and death no person-
age is more prominent than the water spirit, who afflicts all
who go into unlawful pools or bathe at unlawful times. The
Greenlanders preserve animistic ideas concerning water. When
they come to an untried- spring an Angekok, or the oldest
man, must drink first to free it from a harmful spirit. The
Algonquin hunter says, ' * the spirit, he maketh this river
flow." In all rivers, lakes or cascades, he believes there are
spirits or mighty manitus. The Winnebagoes on reaching a
body of water make a present or sacrifice to the spirits who
reside there. The Peruvians used to scoop up a handful of
water and drink it, praying the river deity to let them cross or
to give them fish. Indians of the Cordilleras take a ceremonial
sip before they will pass a river on horseback. Most African
^ G. W. Cox : Mythology and Folk Lore, pp. 202-4.
2G. W. Cox: op. cit., p. 204.
8 Ibid.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 205
tribes display well the rites of water worship. Among the
Manikas every spring has its spirit to which oblations are
made. In the Okra district, lakes, ponds and rivers, are wor-
shipped as local deities. The KaflSrs and Tartars venerate
streams as personal beings, or as the abodes of personal deities.
Water holds a very prominent position in Finnish mythology,
and nothing in nature indicates a more supernatural origin.
Many of the sayings are still beliefs. The people call them-
selves Suomilainen or fen-dwellers, since they live in a land of
swamps and marshes. Vapor baths are a national character-
istic. Many streams and lakes are called holy, and receive
sacrificial tributes. They have a current superstition that
rivers may resent being enslaved when a new mill is being con-
structed,^ just as the Romans believed that the Tiber was
offended when chained by a bridge. Their chief water- god,
Ahto, lives with his cold and cruel-hearted spouse, Wellamo,
at the bottom of the sea. The general term for inhabitants of
the water is Ahtolaisset, which means water-people. Allotar
is the wave-goddess, Koskenneiti the cataract maiden, Wella-
nos the eternal people or people of the foam and billows. In
the Vedas the river is personified. Sometimes they are the
good mothers who watch over and care for the people. They
were believed to control the growth of vegetation and animals,
and were addressed as gods who must be propitiated to retain
good will.^ Norse and Russian mythology are full of allusions
of river- spirits. Matthew Arnold's Forsaken Merman is un-
doubtedly founded upon the Russian myth in which Russalka,
the drowned girl, marries a Vodyamy or Merman. The rivers
of Russia are thought to have been persons. In Iceland seals
are regarded as descendants of the Pharaohs who perished in
the Red Sea.* Thus we might trace the prevalence of water
spirits in all countries, — in the remote Orient as well as the
Occident.
Mr. Tylor says* that to the savage mind ' * water acted not
by laws of force, but by life and will; that the water spirits of
primeval mythology are as souls which cause the water's rush
and rest, its kindness and its cruelty; that lastly man finds, in
the beings which can work him such weal and woe, deities
with a wider influence over his life, deities to be feared and
loved, to be prayed to and praised and propitiated with sacri-
ficial gifts. ' '
Paradise has usually been conceived by primitive people as a
land beyond the sea, or a place surrounded by water, which must
1 Max Miiller : Cont. to the Sci. of Myth., I, 269.
2 Kalavala, the national Finnish epic.
« W. R. S. Ralston : The Songs of the Russian People, p. 148.
^ Primitive Culture, II, 209.
206 BOI.TON :
be crossed at death. The belief in an earthly paradise existed
for centuries. " The features of this earthl3^ paradise are for the
most part similar to those familiar to us in Biblical description.
It contained the fountain of immortality, from which sprang
the four rivers which flowed to the four quarters of the earth.
Purling brooks ran with the far-famed ambrosia."^ This gar-
den of delight was often sought, but only those in league with
the gods could find it. Nereus, the sea-god, succeeded in
piloting Hercules to the spot.^ A 14th century Icelandic saga
describes the position of the Deathless Land as across a strait
which was to be entered by a stone bridge, guarded by a
dragon. In Japanese legend there exists an Island of Eternal
Youth.* It is beyond the horizon, and some fortunate observers
have seen a wonderful tree rising far above the waves. The
tradition was slow to die, and there are probably people who
still believe, as did Sir John Maundeville in the 14th century,
that the Garden of Eden exists somewhere upon the earth if it
could only be found. After describing its cosmogenic position
he relates that 'Vin the highest place of Paradise, exactly in
the middle, is a well that casts out four streams," the first is
called the Ganges, the second the Nile, the third the Tigris,
and the fourth the Euphrates. * * And men beyond say that
all the sweet waters of the world, above and beneath, take their
beginning from the Well of Paradise, and out of that well the
waters come and go.*
Rivers of Death. The *' land of the blessed " is, as we have
noted, quite universally separated from the abode of mortals by
some body of water, now by a gulf, now the stormy sea, or
again by a river which must be passed beyond the grave. The
idea is preserved among all civilized people in sacred worship,
by scripture and hymnology. The land of promise is quite
universally across the ' ' River of Jordan ' ' or similar waters.
Stories of ' ' rivers of death ' ' and ' ' bridges of the dead ' ' are to be
met with in all tongues. The rivers Styx and Lethe have come
down in our language as symbolic of death. There is a large
quantity of Polynesian mythology relating to the gulf of death,
though the bridge conception is lacking. Souls are obliged to
cross this gulf in canoes or by swimming. In the ancient Orient
the Vedic Yama, King of the Dead, crossed the rapid waters
to guide our Aryan ancestors. The modern Hindoo is sup-
posed to grasp the cow's tail when death comes, and is thus
safely ferried over the dreaded river Vatarini. In ancient
Egypt and modern Brittany Charon carried in his boat the
1 Mrs. J. H. Philpot: The Sacred Tree, p. 136.
'^Loc. cit.
^Op. cit., p. 141.
* Travels in Early Palestine, p. 276.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 207
procession of the dead to their long home. The ancient Scan-
dinavians used to place their distinguished heroes in a ship,
set it on fire and cast it afloat, or bury them in boats on shore. ^
The Finns, the Guinea Negroes, the Khonds of Orissa, and the
Dyaks of Borneo, all have myths relating to rivers of death.
Some North American Indians have tales of the bridge
of the dead, but more frequently the water must be crossed
in canoes to reach the "beautiful island." A storm always
wrecks the wicked souls, and the heaps of their bones are
to be seen under water as evidence of the fact. The Ojibwas
are obliged to cross the Heaven Gulf on the way to the * ' land
of spirits, ' ' and the wicked are drowned by their burden of
sins.^ Not even ghosts will cross living water. Witches, also,
cannot do so, as we know in the case of Tarn O'Shanter, they
were baffled when he reached the Bridge o' Doon. Sometimes
the milky- way and the rainbow are called the bridge of souls.*
That the soul after death has a perilous journey is believed by
many people. The Algonquins believed that the wicked perished
in crossing the lake to the happy land. The Choctaws are said
to walk a peeled log, and the wicked slip off into the boiling
gulf. The Moslem's bridge of Ks-Sirat was sharper than a
knife-edge. The Australian natives, who are without an idea
of God, believe that their souls after death fly to the clouds or
cross the ocean to a distant land. Finns believed that those
journeying to Tuonella were required to voyage over nine seas
and over one river, the Finnish Styx, black, deep, and filled
with hungry whirlpools and angry waterfalls.
There is great tenacity in old impressions, especially when
connected with the sanctity of religious doctrines and feelings.
The primitive beliefs relating to the location of paradise, the
river or gulf separating it from the present, and the difficulty
of passing this water still survive in poetry and hymnology.
From a few hymn books I have collected nearly two hundred
different phrases and lines relating to rivers of life, fountains of
life, healing waters, havens of rest, crossing wild and stormy
billows, shore beyond the river, etc. (See sec. on Water in
Literature. )
Many curious customs have arisen as a result of the belief in
rivers of death. Various ways of aiding the departed on their
journey have been invented. The custom of placing a coin in
the hand of the corpse with which to pay the boatman who
ferries them across the river is still found among Scandi-
navians, the peasants at Altmatkt, Germany, and among some
^ John Fiske : Myths and Mythmakers, p. 49 ; also Thalma, by Marie
Corelli.
2B. B. Tylor : Early Hist, of Manhood, p. 362.
* John Fiske : Myths and Mythmakers, p. 57.
2o8 BOLTON :
Irish at wakes, and among peasants in Cleveland, England.
Some Hebrews in America are said to place a towel and soap
with the corpse for use in crossing the river. In Brittany is
the Baie des Ames (Bay of Souls), where souls are said to be
launched for their voyage.
Water Itself Animate. Bearing in mind these early con-
ceptions of primitive peoples regarding the supernatural powers
and animation of water, it is not difficult to conceive how cer-
tain waters came to be sacred, while all folk -tales and my-
thology abound with accounts of waters of life, waters of
strength, waters of weakness, etc. Nor will it be difficult to
understand how by a slight extension of the idea of the super-
natural power of living water came the conception of ceremonial
renewal of life. Water was early ascribed as the dwelling-
place of the gods, which is evidenced by survivals in the my-
thology of all countries. Mythology and folk-tales of all peo-
ples abound with stories of nymphs, water- gods and goddesses,
that reside in the waters. But evidence shows us that the
more primitive conception regarded water itself as endowed
with life. All nature suggests to the savage mind the con-
ception of living force, and primarily supernatural life belongs
to the objects themselves. W. Robertson Smith says of the
Semites^ ' ' that the supernatural was conceived in a generally
savage fashion, and identified with the quasi-human life
ascribed to the various species of animals or plants, or even
of inorganic things. For, indeed, certain phenomena of inor-
ganic nature directly suggest to the primitive mind the idea of
a living ageilt Of all inanimate things that which
has the best marked supernatural associations among the Sem-
ites is flowing, or as the Hebrews say, * living water.' In one
of the oldest fragments of Hebrew poetry the fountain is
addressed as a living being "^ (Num. XXI, 17-18.) We
have previously noticed that water was conceived among many
primitive peoples as being the source of all life to vegetation,
and was also supposed to possess the power of restoring the
dead to future life. These ideas, coupled with the knowledge
of the function played by drinking water and, also, the fact
that bathing refreshes and invigorates, led naturally to the
belief that water externally applied produces magical changes
in human life. From these early beliefs and superstitions, the
religious and legal ceremonial bathings, the precursor of later
baptismal rites arose.
^Rel. of the Semites, p. 126.
2Rel. of the Semites, p. 127.
hydro-psychoses. 209
Lustrations and Ceremonial Purifications by Water.
Many writers ascribe to ceremonial purifications an origin
purely purgative in character, but we shall see that the idea of
a supernatural virtue inherent in the water is the most promi-
nent and original feature instigating the ceremonies. The
usual medium employed in lustrations is water, though some-
times other substances, as sand or salt, were used in default of
water. But undoubtedly in these cases, also, the agent was
believed to possess more than simple cleansing properties.
Salt, we are certain, was regarded as sacred by many primitive
peoples.
One writer^ has suggested in accounting for the ceremonial
of Christian baptism that John the Baptist simply utilized an
observance largely in vogue in Oriental countries. This is un-
doubtedly true of Christian baptism, but the idea that cere-
monial purifications, prior to this time, arose owing to the dust
and heat making cleanliness and comfort demand very frequent
bathing of the whole body, is not tenable. This custom may
have been prevalent in that country, and in that advanced stage
of civilization found by John the Baptist, but ceremonial purifi-
cations and lustrations date back to remoter times, and are
found among the most primitive peoples of to-day. Though the
idea of cleansing is found in some or perhaps most of the cere-
monials, yet many circumstances indicate other ideas connected
with their origin. Certainly the idea of bodily cleansing is very
remote among some of the most ardent disciples. Tylor states*
that " these ceremonial practices have come to mean something
distinct from mere cleanliness. Kaffirs who will purify them-
selves from ceremojiial uncleanness by washing, are not in the
habit of washing themselves or their vessels for ordinary pur-
poses, and the dogs and the cockroaches divide between them
the duty of cleaning out the milk baskets.
I believe, however, that instead of "coming to mean" as
Dr. Tylor interprets it, that the ceremonials always have been
only partially indicative of either literally cleansing bodily un-
cleanness or symbolizing purification from spiritual contamina-
tion. This meaning has been read into the facts in the light
of modern baptism. But the older idea considered that the
fetish could in some magic way renew, revive, rejuvenate, or
even remove undesirable qualities. There was a belief in some
inherent sacredness and magic power of the medium itself with
little or no thought of the literal cleansing properties. From
time immemorial the Ganges has been held sacred. Whoever
bathed in it was cleansed and rejuvenated. The new-born babe
1 A. W. Eaton : Heart of the Creeds, p. 135.
'^ Primitive Culture, p. 434.
2IO BOLTON:
is bathed in it, the sick sprinkled with its water, and the dead
are plunged into it. It is carried to the Hindu hous'es and used
in the temples. Now, were water symbolic of cleansing, only,
any water would suffice. But it must be particular water, pos-
sessed of supernatural powers.
According to the legendary lore of the Greeks at the feast of
Pales, the goddess of the flocks, shepherds purified themselves
by washing in fresh dew, or by aspersion with consecrated
water, sprinkled from a laurel or an olive branch.^ The
Scriptures record that 894 years B. C, Naaman was sent by
Elisha to wash in the Jordan seven times to be cured of leprosy.
After dipping himself seven times he came forth clean, with flesh
like a little child. All these illustrate how, from the more primi-
tive belief in the universal life-giving power of water, certain
waters became set apart as sacred, and still possessed of cura-
tive powers and revivification. The symbolism of spiritual
cleansing is plainly a later idea. The myths and legends of
fountains of youth, waters of immortality, and later facts relat-
ing to sacred wells, rivers, etc., elsewhere described, corrobor-
ate this view.
Among all peoples ceremonial lustrations have been prac-
ticed long before baptismal rites, symbolic of spiritual cleansing
were known. Long before the Christian era ceremonial puri-
fications by water were common, and are also common among
savage tribes at the present time who know nothing of bap-
tism. Some savage tribes, it is true, know and practice bap-
tism which they have learned from missionaries, but lustrations
were known to them before the ceremony of baptism was
learned. Sacred^ and profane literature record that ceremonial
purifications were to be observed after such occurrences as
childbirth, theft, touching a corpse, adultery, the conjugal act,
etc. Lustral water was placed at the doors of the Greek tem-
ples so that priests could purify the profane. Usually before
entering a temple the hands and feet were washed. This was
also true among the Hebrews.' The Hebrews were taught to
regard running water as having greater power of purification
than still water. The Incas of Peru to be purified from guilt
bathed in the river and repeated the following: " O, thou
River, receive the sins I have this day confessed unto the sun;
carry them down to the sea, and let them never more appear."*
Among the Essenes and the Pharisees ceremonial bathing took
up a great part of the time, so that it was very natural that
John the Baptist should adopt that method of consecration in
1 Baring Gould : Origin and Derivation of Rel. Belief, p. 398.
2Lev. XII, XV, etc.
*Ex. X, 29, 30, 40 ; Lev. 8, etc.
* Baring Gould: Origin and Deriv. of Rel. Belief, pp. 399-401.
H YDRO-PS YCHOSES. 2 1 1
Christ's time. It was simply making sacred a custom which had
long been in vogue.
Infant Baptisin. The lustration ceremonials for infants,
prevalent among almost all primitive peoples, contain many
suggestions that indicate belief in the magic power of water.
In many cases these infant baptisms, as well as some of the
ceremonials above noted, are for the purpose of removing tapu
or taboo as well as cleansing. Among many tribes a new-born
infant is taboo until ceremonial purification has removed the
taboo. Some tribes do not baptize the infants until three or
four months old. During this period the mother is also taboo.
This does not refer to uncleanliness in the ordinary sense
of the term. The taboo may refer in some cases to physical
uncleanness, but the more primitive conception is that the
object of taboo is in some mysterious manner associated with
dangers arising from the presence of supernatural spirits, which
are to be avoided as one would avoid infectious diseases. All
taboos are produced through awe of the supernatural. The
new-born, as the woman in childbed, or during her courses, or
the person who touches a corpse, are all taboo because every-
thing connected with generation of the species, and also with
disease and death seem to involve supernatural powers of a
dangerous sort. There is a type of taboo arising out of respect
to the gods, where certain holy things must not be touched,
but it is not because of the offense given. On the contrary, it
is because the taboo will sanctify whatever it touches, render-
ing it unfit for ordinary uses. For example, " a slave or other
person not sacred would not enter a wahi tapu, or sacred place,
without having first stripped off his clothes; for the clothes,
having become sacred the instant the precintsof the wahi tapu,
would ever after be useless to him in the ordinary business of
life."^ *' The fundamental notion," says Smith, is that the
tabooed object " is merely not safe for ordinary people to use;
it has, so to speak, been touched by the infection of holiness,
and so becomes a new source of supernatural danger."^
In higher stages of thought the idea approaches the popular
notion that the unclean object has become hateful to God, and
should be shunned by all who wish his favor. But according
to the more primitive and fundamental notion, holiness was
contagious, and things that came in contact with such taboo
needed purification just as much as distinctly corrupted ob-
jects.* To show that unclean things are tabooed because of
the inherent supernatural condition supposed to be connected
iW. R.Smith: Rel, of the Semites, p. 432. Quoted from Short-
land's N. Zealand.
* Op. cit., p. 431.
3 W. R. Smith : Rel. of the Semites, p. 431 ; also Isaiah LXV, 5.
212 BOLTON :
with it, ii is known that some of the most tabooed things, as
menstruous blood, bones of the dead, etc. , are the most potent
charms. According to Mr. Smith, "the heathen Arabs used
to tie unclean things, dead men's bones, menstruous rags, upon
children to keep away th^jlnn and the evil eye."^
* * Primarily purification means the application to the person of
some medium which removes a taboo and enables the person to
mingle freely in the ordinary life of his fellows
Purifications, therefore, are performed by the use of any of the
physical means that re-establish normal relations with the
deity and the congregation of his worshippers — in short, by
contact with something that contains and can impart a divine
virtue. For ordinary purposes the use of living water may
suflftce, for, as we know, there is a sacred principle in such
water. "^ Blood, also, in its most primitive sacrificial idea was
not used to wash away impurities, but to carry to the worshipper
something of holy life. The idea of expulsion of an impurity
is perhaps involved with the adding of sanctity. The evil may
be dispossesed by inoculation with a more desirable life. This
idea is seen in the Catholic Church in the exorcism of devils
from the catechumen before baptism.*
In southern Egypt the child is bathed for the first time on
the 40th day. From that time on it is no longer taboo, but
pure. The same custom is chronicled of many primitive peo-
ples, e. g. , the Aryans, Turanians, Polynesians, Semites, cer-
tain tribes in the Canary Islands, some Negroes and Indians.
Long before the Christian era among the Norwegian Lapps, a
Finnish people, infant baptism was a national custom. At the
time of the ceremony the child was given a name and conse-
crated to a good, lucky and prosperous life. After every dis-
ease this ceremony was repeated and the child received a new
name. This probably symboHzed a new birth, received through
the sacred potency of water, after which the child lost its old
name and identity, and consequently could no longer be found
by the evil spirits. New Zealanders baptize the child when eight
days old. AH the women of the neighborhood dip branches in
water and sprinkle the child. At the end of a month the child
receives a second name and a new baptism. The Tohunga
(priest) dips a green twig into water and sprinkles the child,
at the same time repeating his blessing in such ancient lan-
guage that few understand it. This would indicate its remote
origin. In the northern part of New Zealand the child is
^ Op. cit., p. 429.
2 W. R. Smith : Rel. of the Semites, pp. 405-6.
* Op. cit., pp. 406-7. For a general discussion of some of these topics
see same work, Taboos, p. 143, et seq.; Sacrifice, p. 405, et seq., Note
C, p. 432.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 2 1 3
dipped. The Papuans bathe (ceremonially perhaps) the child
as soon as it can walk, when it receives a name. This is re-
peated several times. Many tribes do not bathe the child at
all for months. The Uveans of the South Sea sprinkle the head of
the child, and, like most primitive peoples, make the first bath of
the child an occasion of festivity . In Java the child's head is shorn
on the 40th day, and it is plunged into the river. Among the
Battas the neighbor women await the birth of the child, which
is immediately carried to the men, who take it to the nearest
stream, give it a dip, while the father gives it a name. The
Fiote Negroes baptized at three or four months, the child
being dipped and sprinkled by all the community and given a
name. The Basuto Negroes cook up some magic decoction and
sprinkle the child with this. Upon the birth of a child among
the Yoruba's of western Africa they send for the priest and
ask for the name of some dead ancestor who intends to re-
inhabit the child's body. They look upon this as a rebirth of
the soul. They baptize and sprinkle the child's eyes with
sacred water. In the lowlands of Scotland a new-born babe
was bathed in salt water and made to taste it three times. The
solution was considered strengthening to the child, and also
obnoxious to the evil eye.
All these ceremonial lustrations indicate the widespread be-
lief in the regenerating and life-giving power of water, and
also its efficacy in removing taboo, so that the child could enter
into harmonious relations with its new existence. Although
I shall not enter into the subject of Christian baptism, we can
easily recognize the older materialistic conception in the sym-
bolism of spiritual regeneration which water holds in Christian
baptism to-day.
Water in Literature.
Space will permit only the briefest mention of the great
influence that water has had upon literary expression. Poetry
has kept alive the old animistic theory of nature. The poets,
like children, are deeply animistic, and their expressions reflect
the closeness with which they keep in touch with nature.
Poetry is largely a conventionalization of child-like ideas. To
quote Dr. Tylor there are moments in the civilized man's life
when * ' he casts off hard, dull science and returns to child-
hood's fancy, [and] the world-old book of animated nature
is open to him anew. Then the well-worn thoughts come
back to him, of the stream's life that is so like his own; once
more he can hear the rill leap down the hillside like a child, to
wander playing among the flowers; or can follow it as, grown
to a river, it rushes through a mountain gorge, henceforth in
sluggish strength to carry heavy burdens across the plains.
214 BOLTON:
In all that water does, the poet's fancy can discern the person-
ality of life. It gives fish to the fisher, and crops to the hus-
bandman; it swells in fury and lays waste the land; it grips
the bather with chill and cramp, and holds with inexorable
grasp its drowning victim."^ Hence it is only a natural ex-
pression of animistic feelings to say
" The bubbling brook doth leap when I come by,
Because my feet find measure with its call."
Or with Michael Bruce in Lochleven that
** The vales, the vocal hills,
The woods, the waters, and the heart of man,
Send forth a general song."
And with Joseph Warton, who added —
" And that all nature conspires to .
Raise, to soothe, to harmonize the mind."
The ocean has always impressed the poets strongly. Barry
Cornwall's characterization of the ocean expresses the senti-
ments of many. ^
" O, thou vast Ocean ! ever-sounding Sea!
Thou symbol of a drear immensity !
Thou thing that windest round the world
Like a huge animal, which downward hurled
From the black clouds, lies weltering and alone,
Lashing and writhing till its strength be gone.
Thy voice is like the thunder, and thy sleep
Is a giant's slumber, loud and deep.
. . . . Oh ! wonderful thou art, great element ;
And fearful in thy spleeny humours bent,
And lovely in repose ; thy summer form
Is beautiful, and when thy silver waves
Make music in earth's dark and winding caves,
I love to wander on thy pebbly beach.
Marking the sunlight at the evening hour.
And hearken to the thoughts thy waters teach —
Eternity — Eternity — and Power ! "
The same writer says of the streamlet:*
** Gently it murmurs by
The village churchyard, its low plaintive tone,
A dirge-like melody,
For worth and beauty modest as its own
May not its course express.
In characters which they who run may read,
The charms of gentleness.
Were but its still small voice allowed to plead?"
1 E. B. Tylor: Primitive Culture, II, p. 209.
2 Address to the Ocean.
8 The Cataract and the Streamlet.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 2 1 5
The poet Swinburne calls the sea "fair, white mother,"
"green girdled mother," "great, sweet mother," "mother
and lover of men, the sea." ^
James Russell lyowell regards the fountain as typifying great
happiness.
" Into the starlight, Rushing in Spring,
Happy at Midnight, Happy by day !
. . . . Ceaseless aspiring, ceaseless content,
Darkness or sunshine, thy element : —
Glorious fountain ! Let my heart be
Fresh, changeful, constant, upward like thee !"
— The Fountain.
Dr. Biese^ says of the peculiar charm of one of Goethe's
scenes in Faust: " Die Herrliche Sommerabend-scene liegtim
Keime mit den Worten: Ach demals, wie oft habe ich mich
mit Fittigen eines Kranichs, der Ufer des ungemessenes
Meeres gesehnt, aus den schaumenden Becher des Unendlichen
jene schnellende lycbenswarme zu trinken und nur einen
Augenblick in der eingeschrankten Kraft meines Busens einen
Tropfen der Seligkeit des Wesens zufiihlen, das alles in sich
und durch sich hervorbringt. ' ' Again he quotes Pindar as
saying :
** Des Menschenseele gleicht dem Wasser:
Vom Himmel Kommt es zum Himmel steigt es,
Und welder nieder zur Brde Muss es ewig wechselnd."^
Dryden's writings are full of references to water.
Miss Reynolds says,* as illustrative of Dryden's use of simili-
tudes drawn from water, note the following: " Revenge and
rage are sudden floods; joys are torrents that overflow all
banks; contending passions are tides that flow against cur-
rents; fame is a swelling current; anger is adammed-up stream
that gets new force by opposition; a ruined life, destroyed for-
tunes are shipwrecks; love is like springtides, full and high, or
like a flood that bursts thro' all dams, or like a stream that
cannot return to its fountain, or like the tides that do not turn;
the disappointed lover dies like an unfed stream; the mind of a
capricious tyrant is like a vast sea, open to every wind that
blows; the army of the enemy comes like the wind broke loose
upon the main; an obdurate foe is as deaf to supplication as
seas and wind to sinking mariners; an open mind is a crystal
brook; grief undermines the soul as banks are sapped away by
streams; the voice of a mob is like winds that roar in pursuit
1 See Dr. Chamberlain's Child and Childhood in Folk Lore, p. 39.
2 Alfred Biese : Naturgeftilhs, p. 385.
3 Alfred Biese : Naturgefiihls, p. 390.
. * Myi;a Reynolds : Treatment of Nature in Eng. Poetry, pp. 28-9.
2l6 BOI.TON:
of flying waves; unspeakable anger is like water choking up
the narrow vent of the vessel from which it is poured; and so
on through a long list. ' '
Religious rites and ceremonies are great conservators of
ancient thoughts and customs. In hymnology we find in-
numerable metaphorical expressions of former literal beliv^fs.
From a very few books I have collected nearly two hundred
such verses, of which the following are typical:
" Behold I freely give, The living water, thirsty one,
Stoop down and drink and live."
" When death's cold, sullen stream
Shall o'er me roll."
" Safe into the haven guide "
" Bear me o'er life's fitful sea."
*' Till I reach the golden strand.
Just beyond the river."
" There's a precious fountain.
Free to all a healing stream."
*' Foul, I to the fountain fly."
FKKLINGS of PEOPI.K AT PRESENT ToWARD WATER.
In the light of the preceding investigation let us consider the
reactions of people toward water at the present. To carry out
this study a syllabus (M. XV, Water Psychoses) was issued in
February of the present year. Only a part of the list of ques-
tions contained in the syllabus have been considered in this
paper. To some others the returns were too meagre to furnish
any important data; others may be worked up in a subsequent
paper. About 800 individual papers, some covering as many
as 20 pages of letter paper have been considered in this report.^
Feelings Toward Water in General. Many like to be near
water, and to watch it because it makes them feel happy, or
because it has a ' ' soothing effect. ' ' Some have ' ' feelings of
reverence such as they feel nowhere else, and they wish to be
noble and pure." To some it *' seems like a friend," " a great
comfort," others " feel like confiding to it their sad thoughts."
^ I am under great obligations to the following persons who furnished
large numbers of returns from their pupils : Professor Will S. Mun-
roe, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass. ; Professor lyillie A.
Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. ; Professor E. J. Swift,
State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. ; Principal B. M. Beaman,
Fairchild, Wis. ; Principal E. H. Cassels, Tomah, Wis. ; Superinten-
dent R. B. Dudgeon, Madison, Wis. ; Principal E. L. Bolton, Tunnel
City, Wis. ; Principal Sarah E. Davies, Atlanta, Ga.; Miss S. Elizabeth
Smith, Kaukauna, Wis. ; Superintendent J. M. Barrow, Columbus,
Miss. To the various assistant teachers, all the pupils, and those who
sent individual returns, my obligations are also gratefully acknowl-
edged.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 217
Various reasons are given for liking it, such as: "it is so musi-
cal," " it affords such a variety of amusement," " so restful,"
"have natural instinct for it," "love it because it attracts
me," "seems like human beings," "seems to soothe me,"
" seems to sympathize with me," " because it goes on its jour-
ney as a man does, sometimes placid, sometimes turbulent,"
etc.
The time of day and the state of the weather exercise a
strong influence over the feelings. Bright, pleasant days bring
feelings of "unutterable peace," "happy recollections,"
" joyousness," etc. When bright and windy some record feel-
ings of " passionate joy, difficult to analyze because of their
very intensity." To be near water in cloudy weather " makes
me moody," " profoundly melancholy," etc. In the morning
or at sunset a "keen delight" is felt. At dusk or in the
moonlight " feelings of awe, wonder, sadness," "desire to be
alone and not to be spoken to," " solemnity," etc. One records
that if sky is dark and wind high " I feel as if I must let the
water carry me somewhere — it matters not where, but some-
where away from myself."
Storms produce various effects. Some fear them, but more
enjoy them, especially if they are used to being near water.
Expressions concerning them are variously given, as: " the
roaring and the rocking are pleasurable, " " something about
the vast amount of water with its easy, uncontrollable motion,
ever changing, yet repeating the same forms that makes me ex-
ultant in its power," " was filled with the beauty and might of
the waves," "one word, grandeur," "felt as though could
scarcely breathe, " " always feel as if water were alive and send-
ing out its arms for prey," " seems like a great monster which
would not hesitate to wreak its vengeance upon anything within
its reach," " the rougher the sea the better I like it," etc.
Run7iing water seems to produce a different effect from large
expanses. As was noted elsewhere the Jews held running or
living water in especial reverence. Small streams bring ' ' a
sort of dreamy, happy feeling," " an inward pleasure and hap-
piness and excite to more vigorous action," "relief from sad-
ness and reveries are of pleasant things," feelings of "jollity
and fun." Brooks to many seem possessed of life — " like chil-
dren, happy and gay," while rivers " typify greater maturity
and exhibit purposeful action," Many record that they often
steal away from all persons just to sit by a stream and watch it
and listen to its music. They sit and meditate ' ' upon the
works of God." The beauties of ripples, eddies, color, its
swiftness, its music, its majesty, all seem subjects for a poet's
theme. One says that she ' ' often fits words of poetry to the
tune made by the rippling brook." A little girl of 5 said
JOURNAI. — \
2i8 BOI.TON:
brooks ' * must lead charmed lives, now flowing in the bright
sunlight, babbling over the pebbles, now running through some
quiet wood, where only the rustling of the leaves or the chirps
of the birds disturb them."
Large expanses produce a quite different class of feelings.
Such expressions as the following are very numerous: When
viewing large expanses **I feel insignificant, stricken with
awe, as though the supernatural were in the water," " makes
me happy, contented, yet restless," ** uncontrollable feelings
of longing and half sadness, " "sorrowful, especially if alone,"
* ' should like to be as pure as they are, " " wish to always
watch and never leave," " always loved the grand old ocean,
and ever shall," " feelings less personal than when near small
bodies, thoughts of a universal interest, of the God of the uni-
verse and of nature, rather than of a personal God," "enrap-
tures me so I cannot help exclaiming at the grand spectacle,"
' * awes me with its mightiness, " " sad feelings increased, ' '
" desire to get to the place called the horizon," " wish to sail
far away and explore unknown depths," " feelings of awe,
reverence and solemnity," "it reveals nature's vastness and
my own insignificance," " seems as if gazing into eternity,"
' ' feelings of sublimity ; the absorption of my soul into the uni-
versal soul," "produce a yearning toward one far off divine
event to which the whole creation moves, " " Nothing so fair ;
so pure and at the same time so large, as a lake, perchance,
lies on the surface of the earth," (Thoreau) "feel utterly pow-
erless in its presence, " " suggests power, deep thought, ability
to keep grave responsibilities secret ; representative of great
persons, their silent yet powerful actions, compels me to sub-
mit to nature's plan and to realize that all its workings are in
more perfect harmony than those of any individual. ' '
Waves ^ billows, etc., are always objects of especial interest
because of the activity and force displayed. The following
expressions are typical : ' ' make me feel as nothing compared
with them," "ripples make me feel jealous; sometimes think
of them as the laughter of children," "waves seem to be at
play," " through waves nature displays her mighty power,"
"seem like great, lifeless monsters, moved by a mighty hidden
force," "produce delight and admiration for their grandeur
and beauty," "ripples make me think of our deeds, — some-
times good, sometimes bad ; waves of our sorrows and joys, —
how they swell and swell until they can grow no more, then
suddenly burst, " " remind me of waters of time, pessimists,
shallow-minded men, unable to accomplish ends without fric-
tion ; brute force instead of persuasion, selfishness, treachery."
To be on the water intensifies many of the emotions ex-
perienced when only looking upon the water.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 219
The vastness of the universe, the power, beauty and gran-
deur of nature's hidden forces, the insignificance of individuals,
the oneness of nature, the strength of the ties of kinship and
friendships, the awful solemnity of being alone with nature
probably never can be so forcibly realized as when in mid-ocean
during a midnight storm. Brave hearts quake with fear, stal-
wart forms tremble, the pious and the blasphemous seek com-
fort and protection in prayer ; all feel that the power of God is
manifest and that his creatures must bow before his will.
When on the water " I feel nature's vastness and my own
insignificance, " " whenever alone with nature I feel how grand
it is and how insignificant I am, but when on the water the
feeling is much stronger," "have feelings of solemnity and
think how soon the waves could swallow me up, " " feel solem-
nity and reverence for God ; that I am a part of this great
world and that I have my duty to perform in making it beau-
tiful," "in a boat I always feel caged," " have joy ousness,
solemnity, reverence, awe, and humility, but never real sad-
ness. ' '
Children' s Animistic Conceptions of Water, The next three
rubrics deal with the animistic conceptions of water which
children have. We find that most of the answers are from
children or are reminiscent experiences of older persons which
refer to child life. The child, like the savage, conceives all
nature endowed with life and it is only later at the approach
of adolescent years and the dawning of self-consciousness that
the differentiation between himself and surrounding nature
becomes complete. Most children regard water, and in fact
all nature, as endowed with life. Some ascribe to it ani-
mal life, others human life, and many talk to it. With few
exceptions they think of it as talking but many do not think
they can understand it. The older ones think of its animation
in a more metaphorical way and not with the reality of child-
hood. In these childish expressions so frankly and candidly
given we have the pages of the earliest stages of man's life
opened to view. The savage heard the voice of nature talk to
him with tongues understood only by the primitive mind ; the
child recapitulating the race history understands those same
voices. The poet, like the child and the savage, penetrates
what is invisible to ordinary mortals, and is cognizant of the
same unseen powers. These he discloses to us through his
versifications. To the ordinary mind these voices become
hushed through the complex of psychic influences necessary
to mature existence.
Water as Endowed with Life. i. F., 12. Often think the water has
wild life like animals.
2. M., 12. Think of it as a person ; it seems as if it could talk.
220 BOIvTON :
3. F., 15. Seems as if it had life like a roaring lion.
4. F., 13. Appears to be planning to do some wrong.
5. F., 17. The noise of the ocean and of rapids give me a feeling
that they have life.
6. F., 17. Never talk to water. It seems to have life but not like
animals or persons ; it gives one a different feeling.
7. F., 15. When it attempts to drown me I think it has life.
8. F., 14. The waves seem like snakes.
9. M,, 14. The waves make me think they are coming to catch me.
10. F.. 17. Billows, eddies, ripples seem endowed with life. They
seem to think then act. Often think of the waves as temptations.
11. M., 12. Think of the water as being kind of snaky.
12. M., 18. Reared in the country and always thought of the water
as being somewhat of a friend to me.
13. F., 14. Seems alive ; don't know what kind of life, but the
waves seem to be groaning.
14. F., 18. Used to think it had life, but different from ours ; it
was always a puzzle to me.
15. F., 17. Used to think it had life like a person and was made to
take care of little children.
16. F., 20. When small thought it had work to do, and that it
hurried along so fast because it had n't time to stop.
17. F., 17. Used to imagine the water had life ; knew that it really-
had n't, but liked to think it had and that it was like a person.
18. M., 18. When a child, frequently thought it had life aud was
talking as it rippled over its stony bed.
19. F., 19. In a storm the waves and billows dash against one
another and crowd and jostle each other as though their bed was too
small for them.
20. M., 13. Think of water having life like a person.
21. F., 9. Seems alive, so human.
22. M., 12. Think it is like animals because so wild.
23. F., II. Think of it having life like an intelligent animal.
24. M., II. Think it like a person, because it is so bright and
knows how to work.
25. F., 30. I am happier in the instinctive feeling that water has a
kinship of life with me, than when I am under the rebuke of reason
concerning such things.
Talk to Water, i. M., 18. When small, I sometimes talked to wa-
ter and asked it if it would be good and not wash away my water wheels.
2. F., 5>^. Was sailing a boat ; the string broke and the boat went
sailing away. She said, " Water, if you don't bring back that boat I'll
tell mamma." Another time was heard to say to the brook, " I won-
der where you go to ? Do you ever get tired ? I know I should." She
says water must have life or it could n't move. Thinks it feeds on grass
and sticks. Thinks rivers and brooks talk, but she cannot understand
what they say. Thinks it must be saying, ** How happy I am ! Nothing
to do but play all day."
3. F., 20. Used to scold when the ocean washed my sand houses
away, calling it " a mean old thing!" After building them up again,
1 would say, " Come on now and enjoy it!"
4. F., 12. Have talked to it in my mind, if not in words, many
times and said I would like to plunge into it.
5. F., 15. I talk to it as if it were a person I love very much and
tell it all my little troubles,
6. F., 41. As a child I said, "Pretty water, I like you. Where are
you going ? Take me with you."
7. M., 19. Never talked to water, but always recited a certain piece
of poetry when near the shore.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSKS. 221
8. F., 17. Used to ask the ocean to tell me what it saw way out
from land and to tell me about the little girls it saw.
9. F., 18. Used to sympathize with water when rocks or stones were
in its way, and would scold the stones and talk pityingly to the
water.
10. F., 22. When watching waves chasing each other I have said
to the one I wished to beat, " Oh, hurry, hurry ! " Used to draw a
line before my sand houses and say, " Now, you mustn't come any
further." When the houses were washed away, I said, "Horrid
thing!"
11. F., 6. Scolded the river after a boy had been drowned. To
punish it would not go near it for a week. When did go, thought the
river was glad to see her.
12. F., II. Never talked to it, but have often thought I should like
to.
13. F., 10. Sometimes like to talk to it. Was sitting beside it and
told it it made me feel cool and that I loved its little rippling music.
14. F., 18. Used to say, " Pretty, babbling brook, singing, laugh-
ing brook!"
The following paragraph gives some expressions that children
think the water seems to use:
F., 10. "Ripple, ripple, ripple." M., 10. "Flip, flap, flip, flap."
F., 12. "I am tired of running so long." M., 12. "For men may
come, and men may go, but I go on forever." M., 13. "Come." M.,
10. "I chatter over stony ways." M., 12. " Bubble, bubble, bubble."
F., 13. "Come, bathe in this nice, warm water." F., 13. "Come
along, we have no time to play." M., 12. "Roll on, roll on." M.,
15. "I will swallow you up." F., 12 "Hiawatha, Wa-wa Tasi."
M., 16. " Don't get near me or I'll take you out with me." M., 11.
** Come, jump in." M., 13. " Won't you come in and have a swim."
M., 14. " L<et me get hold of you and I will swallow you up." F., 14.
" I am stronger than you are." M., 11. "lam on my way to the
ocean." M., 12. "I go on forever." M., 12. "I'm coming on
through hills and vales and over stones to meet the ocean." M., 16.
" Keep away from me. I '11 drown you if I get the chance." F., 3>^.
After wading in the brook, told that the water said, " Oh, stay a little
longer! Come along with me, I'll catch you." M., 10. " Trick, trick,
trick." F., II. "What part of you, little river, is the widest? and
what kind of fish are swimming about in the water?" M., 10. "I
would like to know your history and about your drifting ships." F.,
12. " Have you had a pleasant jonrney ? Do you expect to carry large
ships? "
Water seems to be talking . i. M., 12. Think it the most delight-
ful thing to be near water, to watch it flow, and hear it tell of its won-
derful adventures.
2. F., 15. I think the water seems to talk ; it sounds like some
sweet lullaby.
3. F., 18. In running it seems to be talking all the while.
4. M., 20. As a child, when playing in streams, I imagined the
ripples sang, " Go home, go home ! "
5. F., 18. The waterfalls seemed to laugh, but when dashing
against the rocks I used to think it scolded because rocks were in the
way.
6. F., 17. Thought the water answered what I said but thought I
was too little to understand, but would when I grew older.
7. F., 41. It seemed to say it was very busy rushing on to the sea.
8. F., 20. ' Its music I hear, but it is a music entirely different to
222 BOLTON :
my imagination from that of any human music — a music of nature,
separate and distinct, as is also the wind's.
9. F., 17. At the beach the water used to seem to say, ** Come on
down, little girl, I love you." Once when I had ventured too far and
my clothes became wet, I told my mother the waters had told me to
come down and they would n't hurt me.
10. M., 12. Seems to be complaining, especially when there are
rocks in a creek. Seems to be moaning when the tide comes in.
11. F., 19. When I first heard the ocean waves (at 13) I imagined
they were saying something to us which we did not understand. Some-
times I thought them singing mournful songs. Always thought the
waves were like queer people. Just as we were the inhabitants of the
earth, they were of the water.
12. M., 10. Seems to say: "I have lived a hundred years and
more, have fish, whales, snakes, and many other things."
13. F., II. Seems to laugh on days when the sun is bright and
moan sadly on a dark day.
14. F., II. Think it talks, because trees talk. Think by their
moaning they comfort the fish.
15. M., 12 It talks. Don't know what it says, but it knows.
16. F., II. The largest bodies seem to talk and tell you great stories.
17. M., 13. Seems to be talking but not a language like ours ; has
a language of its own.
18. F., II. Says " I work," and many other things.
19. M., II. Some water seems to say " Follow me, follow me."
20. F., 10. Sometimes seems to tell me to bathe in it and it will
refresh me. Also tells me of the journeys it takes.
21. M., II. Seems to say " Come in and play, come in and play."
22. F., 17. Water was always talking to me, telling me of its little
•scrapes and trials and the fun it had.
Earliest Feelings toward Water. The general concensus of
testimony relating to babies' actions on being first placed in tub
baths, is that the water causes momentary fright when it first
comes in contact with the skin. Almost without exception the
verdict is that after the first shock and surprise are over babies
take extreme delight in being in the water. This they manifest
in various baby ways — by splashing about, by cooing and prat-
tling, smiling and laughing, and by remonstrating against
being taken out. After a few times at most the bath becomes
a pleasurable event, and is looked forward to with keen delight.
Of course, some exceptions are recorded, but they are very few
indeed. When a little older, children often object to having their
faces washed, but many reminiscent items indicate (although
this question was not asked) that it is because children feel that
it is a waste of legitimate playtime, and is not because of any
objection to the water. The following answers are typical of
great numbers received:
1. F. Mother says the first time I was put into a tub of water I
didn't make a sound, but clenched my hands and stiffened my body.
2. An experienced nurse said most babies objected to their first bath,
but usually changed.
3. F. Mother says when I was a baby I loved water and was still
as a mouse when she washed me.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 223
4. M., 7 mo. When put into the bath kicks and squeals with de-
light, but cries when his mother takes him out.
5. F. Mother says I enjoyed tub baths very much, and liked to
play in the water.
6. F. Mamma says I used to jump for joy when she mentioned the
word water.
7. M. Mother says at sight of water I used to want to jump right
in.
8. F., 12. When about i>^-2 yrs. old, one washing-day, I was all
dressed to go out, bonnet and coat on, I climbed upon the chairs and
got right into the tub with all my clothes on. Did n't mean to be
naughty : was always a good child, but it was because I liked water.
(A little boy did the same thing.)
9. F., 14, When small was afraid of water. Thought only fish
could stay in it.
10. M., 14. Have always loved to be in the water. Remember the
first time put into a tub — was about a year old.
11. F., 17. As a child liked to paddle and wade in water because I
liked the feel of it.
12. F., 18. When a child was very fond of being near water, but
was always afraid of reptiles. Think all children like to play in
water.
13. F., 23. Did not like to bathe when a child, but it was because
of the cold when they took me out.
14. F., 10. Ivike to paddle and wade in water. Enjoy bathing but
shudder at coldness. Earliest fears of water were because afraid of
drowning.
15. F., 17. When a child loved it. Seemed to be my dearest play-
mate.
16. F., 20. Most enjoyable hours of my childhood were when we
children went to the woodland brook to wade.
17. F., 14. Earliest recollections were of seeing some persons im-
mersed, and I shouted " See them going into the pretty water."
18. F., 20. When about 12 loved to ride on rafts so well that I tried
to construct one myself.
19. F., 17. When a child, during a storm at sea, would run away
and just stand and watch it for hours from the shore. Never wanted
to talk to any one. When all others were frightened, I was delighted.
My love for the ocean is almost a passion : would rather be near it
than anywhere else in the world.
20. F. Thought when water was happy it danced along in the sun-
shine, and when it was sad it was still. I was then sad, too.
21. F., 20. As a child loved small streams and always longed to lie
down on the grassy banks and gaze upon the water as it danced along.
22. F., 18. Was fond of playing in puddles. Am told I used to sit
under our old pump and pump water over myself.
23. F., 17. When I see streams always want to put my hand into
the water.
24. F., 18. Was always running out in the rain and running away
to the brook, where found, minus shoes and stockings, paddling around
in the water.
25. F., 22. Many times when a child I ran away to go and play in
the water. Had to be watched continually. Three times I ran away
to the docks, fell off, and was nearly drowned each time, but all this
did not frighten me away.
26. M., 7. So fond of the water almost impossible to keep him
away from it. Would go swimming in deepest part of the brook as
often as he could without his mother knowing.
. 27. F., 17. Earliest love for water was when very small. Father
224 BOLTON :
took me in bathing and swam way out, while I was perched "piggie
back " fashion. Thought it the nicest thing a little girl could do.
28. F., 20. At 3 my parents had hard time to keep me out of the
water. After being dressed for the afternoon would wander to the
stream to watch the boys fish and swim. Parents always knew where
to find me.
29. M., 7-8. Always preferred companionship of water to children.
Often begged to have a lunch and go and stay all day, returning only
when sought. When he returned to the city would pine for the sea-
shore and seemed to live only for the next summer. Was a different
child when away from water.
30. F., 15. Likes water so well that when washing dishes she plays
and dabbles in the water. Seems pleased and generally sings. (In
one way, exceptional.)
31. M., 7. Forbidden to go near the water, but used to manage to
go almost every day and remain in by the hour. In spite of all pun-
ishments this transgression continued.
32. F., 23. When 5 went to beach. Saw the waves and screamed
with fright. Would not go in nor allow my mother to. She picked
me up and in spite of myself carried me in. Soon liked and do yet.
33. F., II. Loved the water in the river when I first went to bathe.
Was very anxious to get into it.
34. F., II. Like to paddle in it because I like to see the water
splash.
35. F., 13. Like to wade and go as far out as I can without getting
my clothes wet.
36. M., 12. Like to bathe in all kinds of water.
37. F., II. Like to ride on planks and rafts because it has such a
good feeling and is such fun.
38. M., 12. Love the water like a fish; don't know any boy who
doesn't.
39. M., II. Like to wade and paddle because I like to get wet.
40. F., 14. Don't know of any one who doesn't like to wade and
paddle. Children think it a great loss if near the water and cannot go
in.
41. M., 13. Like to ride on planks, and when way out in the river
we push each other off to get a good ducking.
42. M., 10. Would often conceal his books underneath the piazza,
and generally go to the water.
43. Was out with a boy of 7 in one of worst storms of sleet, and
yielded to his coaxing to sail chips down the gutter. It was the noon
hour and he forgot his dinner. Soon many little boys joined. Do not
believe one of those boys would have willingly forsaken that fun for
the best dinner that ever tempted a child.
Bathing, i. M., 16. Says of course he likes to bathe in streams
or he would not walk to the bay, two miles away, every day.
2. F., 15. Often walked a mile to take a bath in a stream.
3. F., 17. To be in water gives one a feeling of exhilaration.
4. F., 22. Used to enjoy bathing in fresh water. Generally feel the
water on my skin with great pleasure.
5. F., 19. Before 13 did not care for the water. Then was taken
rowing, and have liked it ever since.
6. M., 13. Am very happy when the boys say ** let's go two-fin-
gers."
7. F., 15. Like to paddle in water because the water has a feeling
different from anything else.
8. F., 10. Love to paddle in shallow water when there are no snakes
nor blood-suckers.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 225
9. M., 12. Feels sorry for the children of the far North, who,
though so near the water, cannot bathe in it.
10. F., 17. Enjoy bathing very much. Think it is because of the
water upon the skin and the buoyancy.
11. M., 20. Used to like paddling in shallow water, but was afraid
of deep water. Always shudder on going into deep, cold water.
12. F., 19. Always enjoyed plunge baths, though I shudder at the
thought of going in streams because of the coldness of the water.
13. F., 22. As a child was so fond of bathing in streams that often
went in three times a day.
14. F., 20. At the thought of going in used to shudder because I
thought it so cold, but the first plunge over it was a pleasure for me.
15. F., 30. Enjoy a sea bath with a feeling of mixed pleasure and
fear; do not like a plunge tub bath; can't quite raise my will to the
point of putting my head under water, but when at the beach let the
surf meet me more than half way. Much of the shudder is from the
cold, but more, I believe, from dread of being submerged.
The last two rubrics give fairly representative expressions
relating to being in the water. Although some do not enjoy
bathing and swimming, yet the majority of the returns indicate
a passionate love for it. Many of the dislikes noted corroborate
the deductions made by Dr. Hall in his study of water fears.
The thought of the coldness of the water on taking the first
plunge or after getting out brings the " shivers " to many, and
act as a deterrent factor. It is safe to assert that could all tem-
perature conditions be regulated perfectly, few would hesitate
about bathing. Long centuries of wearing clothing has sensi-
tized the body to feel keenly the changes of temperature. Sav-
ages, peoples inhabiting warm climates, and boys accustomed
to daily ' ' swimming and sunning ' ' through the summer forget
all about the possibility of disagreeable sensations. Even with
babes it is only the first shock that friglitens, and then
they love the wafer passionately, often crying to remain in.
The first contact produces a shock upon the dermal sense
organ, causing a gasp and often a tremor, but it is because of
the newness and not the disagreeableness. Again, the fear of
smothering from submergence as in 15 is frequent. Fear
of snakes, blood-suckers, and other water animals (8), deep,
dark water (11), motion of the water are frequently men-
tioned as deterrents, but the " feel " and buoyancy are always
listed with the pleasureable and attractive features. It is a
matter of every-day observation that most children are ex-
tremely eager to be in the water, to play and paddle about in it,
or to play in tubs of water. After every summer rain they can
scarcely resist getting out and splashing in the pools in which
they caper and frisk about in high glee. If allowed to, during
the rain they will run out hatless and shoeless and let the rain
pelt down upon them. Many boys in the country have been
known to get out of sight, strip off all their clothing, and take
the keenest delight in staying out in the driving rain. The
226 BOLTON:
beaches, river banks and brooks during the summer months
could attest to boys' love for water. Under severest protest they
will run away to go swimming, and undoubtedly more cases of
school truancy in the summer are attributable to this attraction
than any other. One gentleman of middle age says that noth-
ing is so restful to him as to plunge into the water and float
around, oftentimes upon his back, gazing into the soft blue sky.
This universal love for water seems not to be due to expe-
rience alone, for all babes exhibit it in their earliest days, if con-
ditions are supplied. It seems partly instinctive and of more
than recent philogenic origin, and at least suggests a survival of
the old time life in an aquatic medium. This is not demon-
strable, but the weight of all testimony is in that direction.
How else can we account for the passionate love of children
to paddle, to splash, ride on rafts, run out in the rain ; for
their intense delight in swimming, even going without meals,
walking long distances, enduring severe punishments, etc.,
just for the sake of being in the water? Many of these char-
acteristics are exhibited by adults when the conventionalities
of civilized life can be thrown off.
Pedagogic Significance. The natural tendency of children
to get near to nature, indicates that while children are passing
through this animistic stage that they can be brought into
sympathy with the great book of nature without appealing to
artificial and esoteric interests. They already commune with
nature and should be encouraged and aided in understanding
and appreciating more of its beauties. At this stage it should
not be minutely dissected and studied apart from its natural
setting. The child idea of oneness and harmony should not be
carelessly destroyed. Injudicious teaching may create ideas
that the soundest philosophical teaching of maturer years will
fail to correct. The unity of nature which the child mind and
the savage instinctively apprehend should be strengthened, not
weakened. Nature should not be dissected and sliced and
teased apart until nothing related remains. By so proceeding
all interest is destroyed and the most fundamental and import-
ant lessons to be taught are abortive. The child on looking at
the ocean or river or streamlet, feels them to be sentient beings
like himself only of a different form. Even older persons say
they seem so, and some say they are happier in the instinctive
feeling that water has a kinship of life with them than when
conceiving it otherwise. The ocean's boundlessness produces
feelings of nature's vastness and one's own insignificance.
Awe, humility, and reverence, the basal ideas in religion, are
prompted, as so many of the returns show, by gazing upon vast
bodies of water.
HYDRO-PSYCHOSES. 227
The various forms of water are most eloquent teachers. They
appeal to the child's imagination in a way that no human be-
ing could. So many say that they want to be alone by the
water to contemplate, to reflect. Their thoughts are turned
from the disunited artificial life, enforced by the usual modes of
living, and turned toward the unity and harmony which they
discover for themselves when brought into contact with nature.
Contact with nature is a more genuine eloquent exhortation to a
contemplation of the Divine than all the preachers without the aid
of nature. When alone with the forests, the rocks, or the deep,
for companions, one's thoughts turn instinctively toward the
contemplation of the universal, which cannot but lead to a search
for the primal cause, for the constant, the all powerful, — for God.
From a purely pedagogical point of view the study has much
suggestiveness. The child that is impressed with the thought
of "how large the world must be!" and with " wonder about
what could be seen if the eye could penetrate space" has
aroused in him the most fundamental conditions of the
learner, viz. , wonder and curiosity. A permanent interest of
this general form is to be most earnestly sought in all instruc-
tion. To wonder what and why, and to determine to under-
stand more, is the highest type of interest. It surpasses all the
passing, definable, artificial interests. This is interest self-
determined, and if cultivated will prove permanent.
Child life loves nature. These returns show that many of
the happiest of childhood hours are spent directly in contact
with it. To separate the child from nature is like separating
the savage from his forest home. The child, like the race, may
develop later interests in other directions, but the transition
must be natural and gradual, and the feeling of oneness with
nature should never be relinquished. From the wading and pad-
dling and swimming in the brook, and from the sound of the
merry music of brook and cascade to the more mature con-
templation of the majestic ocean, there is a charm and a delight
which are the rightful heritage of childhood and youth. To
rob childhood of the beauties and teachings of nature is to do
violence to the normal course of development. The childhood of
the race was spent in delightful contact with nature ; the child,
ontogenetically recapitulating the phylogenetic development
of the race, craves instinctively for communion with nature.
I am indebted to President G. Stanley Hall for the assign-
ment of the problem, and for much sympathy and many helpful
suggestions in carrying out the foregoing research. In this
place I also desire to express my gratitude to the other mem-
bers of Clark University who have aided me in many ways in
prosecuting the work.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES.
By F. W. CoivEGROVE, Honorary Fellow in Psychology,
Clark University.
This paper comprises one of nine chapters which treat of
memory or memories. The preceding sections contain (a) An
Historical Orientation; (b) A Biological Orientation which
treats of racial memory and traces the individual psychical
memory through different stages of life from man down to the
vorticellae; (c) The Diseases of the Memory — an original study
based upon new material; (d) The Relations of Brain to Mind;
(e) Memories. The subsequent chapters treat of Appercep-
tion and Association, Attention and Interest, and the final
chapter is a summary of the leading pedagogical principles
suggested throughout the work. The purpose of this paper is
to give the results of a study of the memories of normal people
from nine months to ninety years of age.
At the outset a real difficulty is met which is well illustrated
in the following extract from ''Recollections of Childhood,"
by Sony a Koval^vski. She writes: ''When I begin to sort
out and classify my earliest recollections, the same thing
always happens with me: these recollections disperse before me.
At times it seems to me that I have found the first definite im-
pression which has left a distinct trace in my memory; but as
soon as I concentrate my thought on it for a while, other im-
pressions of a still more remote period begin to peep forth and
acquire form. And the difficulty of it is that I cannot myself
in the least determine which of these impressions I really re-
member; that is to say, I cannot decide which of them I really
lived through and which of them I only heard about later
on, — in my childhood — and imagine that I recall, when, in
reality, I only remember the accounts of them. Worse still I
can never succeed in evoking a single one of these original rec-
ollections in all its purity; I involuntarily add to it something
foreign during the very process of recalling it." She then de-
scribes a scene in childhood, and adds: " As I reflect upon the
matter now, I think I must have been two or three years old,
and that the scene took place in Moscow where I was born."
After the first memory she recalls ' ' a series of detached but
tolerably clear pictures" as of "picking up pebbles," and
"my sister's doll which I threw out of the carriage window."
INDIVIDUAIy MEMORIES. 229
So many people have had the experience described by this
' ' marvel of mental development ' ' that the question may fairly
be asked — can most people ascertain their earliest memories
with sufficient accuracy and certainty to render them trustwor-
thy data for scientific results ? In order to test whether the
difficulty would prove insuperable, one hundred persons were
personally interviewed, most of whom were more than sixty-
five years of age. The results of these interviews were such
as to lead to the belief that after all deductions are made
there is a large residuum which is reliable. Moreover the very
difficulty alluded to is explained, at least in part, by the hy-
pothesis advanced later in this study. The questionnaire read
as follows:
1. What is your earliest memory? However trivial, or childish,
your earliest experience is wanted. Be sure that it is a memory and
that no one has told you.
In 1,2, 3, give your age at the time, at least the probable age.
2. In like manner, give your second and third earliest memories.
3. What is your earliest recollection of your (a) father, (b) mother,
(c) sister, (d) brother, (e) playmates, (f ) of any injury from a fall or
a blow ?
4. Of what four consecutive years have you the best recollection ?
5. Of what four consecutive years, after the first four have you the
poorest memory?
6. Can you state examples of false memories experienced ? e. g.
Have you recalled as real what you had merely dreamed, heard or
read ? Give, if possible, a case of transposed memory in which what
happened earlier was recalled later, and what happened later was re-
called earlier.
7. What book read before you were nine years of age do you recall
best?
8. Do you recall pleasant or unpleasant experiences better ?
9. What studies have best developed your memory ?
10. Give a condensed account of any case of loss of memory caused
by a blow on the head, a fall or by disease.
11. Describe fully any aids to memory which you have found use-
ful. How do you fix in mind and recall (a) figures, dates, dimensions,
(b) forms of faces, microscopic structures, leaves, crystals, patterns,
figures on the wall, carpet or dress, phrases in music and the cut of
dresses? (c). How do you fix and recall passages of prose and poetry,
declamations, and recitations? Why and how do you memorize fine
passages ? In learning foreign languages, describe devices for fixing
new forms and phrases. Describe your system of keeping appoint-
ments. What memorandum do you keep, what book is used and how
do you make entries? As a student, how full notes do you take in the
class room? How would you teach a boy to remember things on
time ? Do you store up facts and dates, with no definite idea of how
you will use them?
12. State cases in which the memory is so good or bad, that it
weakens the other powers of the mind.
13. Describe cases of exceptional forgetfulness in old and young,
stating whether it was due to distraction, abstraction, loss of mental
power, or heredity.
As a rule, does defect in memory in children appear in the field of
.things done, known or felt ?
230 COLKGROVE :
14. As you advance in years do you find the interval between the
power to determine whether you have had an experience and the
ability to define, locate and name the experience wider or narrower?
How is this in the kindergarten, high school, college, middle life, and
old age ?
The tabulation required almost incessant labor for five
months. The results were first tabulated^ upon two rolls of
paper whose combined length was fifty-two feet by one foot
eight inches in breadth. A second tabulation was made in
which the memories (which could be readily studied from the
first tabulation) were arranged under a large number of head-
ings (over sixty), these headings being drawn from the papers
themselves. Such topics were used as hovel occurrences, re-
peated or protracted occurrences, gustatory memories, auditory
memories, memories of father, mother, brothers, sisters, more
distant relatives, other persons, deaths and funerals, sickness
and accidents to self, sickness and accidents to others, memories
of time, number, etc. Under novel occurrences or single im-
pressions were included such memories as, seeing the ocean
for the first time, drowning a cat, pet bird died, etc. By pro-
tracted or repeated experiences w^ere included such memories
as bringing water for mother in a little pail, the dress a person
wore, etc.
To this topical syllabus 1,658 replies were received in time
for tabulation. Of this number 1,372 were from white people;
605 males and 767 females. 182 were from negroes; 94 males
and 88 females. 104 returns were furnished by Indians; 64
males and 40 females. The Indians represented 25 different
tribes. The tabulations were made according to age in periods
as follows: I, ages 1-4: II, ages 5-9; III, ages lo-ii; IV, ages
12-13; V, ages 14-15; VI, ages 16-17; VII, ages 18-19; VIII,
ages 20-29; IX, 30-39, etc. The last decade was practically
80-89, although a few males and one female 90 years of age
sent returns, which were tabulated separately. The purpose
in tabulating two year periods from 10-20 was to note the
changes in memory, if any occurred, during this period of
growth. The returns furnished many memories besides the
first three. While the whole number of early memories did
not differ essentially in character from the first three, the for-
mer furnish broader data for safe conclusions.
The youngest child whose memory was obtained was eleven
months of age. She had apparently two definite memories.
These experiences may not enter into the list of permanent
memories. Yet a few adults state that they remember expe-
1 1 am indebted to my wife for the painstaking tabulations.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 23 1
riences as early as one year of age/ and no definite limit can
be set for the age of the earliest memories. The earliest mem-
ories of children under five years of age show the following
range: The first number mentioned in each group of two rep-
resenting males, and the second number females.
Novel occurrences or single impressions: fifteen, thirty-one;
Protracted or repeated occurrences: sixteen, nine; Visual
memories: twelve, sixteen; Auditory: four, two; Emotional:
one, one; Gustatory; — , three; Motor: eight, nine; Tactile;
one, two; Father: two, three; Mother: five, one; Grandparents:
one, — ; Brothers and sisters: two, one; Playmates: four, one:
Other persons: three, two; Temperature: one, — ; Topograph-
ical: seven, two; Logical: six, — ; Clothing: five, one; School:
— , two; Home: — , one; Visitors: — , two; Visiting: — , one;
Running away: — , one; Corporal punishment: — , one; Dolls;
one, nine; Sickness and accidents to self: five, three; Sickness
and accidents to others: one, — ; Deaths and funerals: one, — ;
Domestic fowls and animals: two, three; Fright: one, one;
Colors: three, five; Playthings: four, four; Gifts: two, seven,
Christmas: one, six; Playing: one, two; Activity of others: one;
three; Attendant circumstances: one, — ; Intellectual: one, — ;
Physical pain: one, — ; Number: — , one; Trees: — , two; Me-
chanical: one, — ; Teasing others: one, — ; Time: one, — ;
Where slept: one, — .
It will be seen that the males have the greatest number of
memories for protracted or repeated occurrences, for people and
clothing. They excel also in topographical and logical mem-
ories. The females have the better memory for novel occur-
rences and single impressions, for Christmas, gifts, and, as
would be expected, for dolls.
In the 5-9 period, the males again excel in the memory for
protracted and repeated occurrences, the females for novel oc-
currences or single impressions. The motor memories here
have a marked increase in the case of the females, and a slight
increase for the males. The memory for all persons shows a
noticeable increase with the females. For the males the per-
sonal memory improves for near relatives only. In the case of
each there is a better memory for the activity of others.
In the next period — age 10 and 11 — motor memories de-
crease for the females and increase for the males. Memories of
near relatives increase in the case of both, while memories for
other persons decrease. Memories of sickness and accidents to
self and of playing are emphasized.
In the 12-13 period the percentage of memories for novel oc-
1 This accords with the researches of V. and C. Henri. See popular
Science Monthly for May.
232 COIvBGROVE :
currences decreases in the case of the females, while those for
protracted experiences increase. Both males and females show
a decrease in memories for near relatives, and an increase in
those for playmates and other persons. Sickness and accidents
to self are remembered less by males and better by females than
in the preceding period. Memory for the activity of others in-
creases in the case of the males and decreases in the case of
the females.
In the period which includes those fourteen and fifteen years
of age it is worthy of note that the motor memories nearly cul-
minate for the males, but decrease in the case of the females.
These memories seem to harmonize with the psychical and physi-
cal life of the period. Mischievousness and destructiveness are
well remembered. The males have a decrease in the proportion
of memories of novel occurrences and an increase in those for re-
peated occurrences. The reverse is true in the case of females.
The males show a marked decrease in memories for relatives and
playmates and an increase in those for other persons. Topo-
graphical memories increase in the case of each, as do visual
and auditory memories.
In the period 16-17 ^^^ relations are again reversed so far as
novel occurrences and protracted experiences are concerned, the
females showing an increase in memories for the latter and a
decrease for the former. In the case of the males the oppo-
site is true, and the percentages become essentially the same
as in the period 12-13. ^^^ females show a slight increase
in memory for all near relatives and playmates, and a greater
increase in memory for other persons. The males show an
increase in memories for playmates and relatives, and a de-
crease in memories for other persons. The females have a
marked increase in the memory for fears, the males for the
activity of others.
In the period 18-19 there is an increase in the visual mem-
ories for each sex, and the auditory memory of the females im-
proves. The memory for the activity of others shows an increase
in the case of each, and it is strongly emphasized for the males.
The females excel in the proportion of memories for protracted
or repeated occurrences, and the males in that for novel occur-
rences and single impressions.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Drs. Lancaster, Starbuck and
others, have found that puberty exerts a great influence upon
the entire psychical life. In order to test its effect upon
memory the exact pubertal age was obtained by Miss Williams
of no females who had answered m}^ questionnaire. Of the
no cases, in 37 puberty occurs in the period of best memory;
in 9 it occurs in the period of poorest memory; in 50 it occurs
between the periods of best and poorest memory; in 14 it occurs
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 233
after the periods of both best and poorest memory. In i6 cases
it occurs at the beginning of the best remembered period. In 4
cases it occurs at the close of the best remembered period. In
5 cases it marks the division between the best and poorest
memory. In two others it occurs at the close of the period of
poorest memor}^
The returns give evidence that the period of adolescence is
one of great psychical awakening. A wide range of memories
are found at this time. From the fourteenth year with girls
and the fifteenth with boys, the auditory memories are strongly
developed. At the dawn of adolescence the motor memory of
boys nearly culminates, and they have fewer memories of sick-
ness and accidents to self. During this time the memory of
others persons and the activity of others is emphasized in case
of both boys and girls. In general at this period the special
sensory memories are numerous, and it is the golden age for
motor memories. Now, too, the memories of high ideals, self
sacrifice and self forgetfulness are cherished. Wider interests
than self and immediate friends become the objects of reflection
and recollection.
The decade 20-29 is perhaps to most people as important a
decade as any. At this period there is a marked change in the
memory content. For the second time the proportion of mem-
ories for novel occurrences and for protracted or repeated ex-
periences is nearly the same in the case of males and females.
The males show a noticeable increase, and the females a
marked decrease in visual memories. The same is true of the
auditory memories. The memory for grandparents nearly cul-
minates in the case of the females, and increases in the case of
the males. The females show an increase in logical memories,
and a more decided increase in topographical memories than do
the males. Memories of sickness and accidents to self decrease
with the males and increase with the females, while in the case
of both there is relative decline in the memories of sickness and
accidents to others.
In the decade 30-39 memories involving reflection and thought
seemingly ripen. The logical, intellectual, topographical and
visual memories for the males culminate here, also those for
time, number, colors and father. The visual and auditory
memories of the females culminate, while the intellectual, logi-
cal and topographical nearly reach the zenith. Memories for
joy, quarrels, pride, jealousy, Christmas, physical pain and
weariness disappear. The predominant memories are of a
thoughtful cast. This is a conservative period, as no new mem-
ories are introduced.
In the decade 40-49 memories for persons tend to fall away.
One is almost surprised to find the motor memories of the
JOURNAI. — 5
234 COI.EGROVE :
females ascend and reach their maximum. Their tactile mem-
ories also advance and culminate in the next period.
In the decade 50-59 the motor memories of the males cul-
minate and again appear strong from 80 to 89. We have seen
that they nearly reach their maximum at 14, and in all subse-
quent periods they are well represented. According to Ribot
the motor elements are primary in all emotions, and they seem
to be among the most abiding of memories. The memory of
the males for physical pain and weariness culminates from 60
to 69; that of both males and females for school culminates
from 70 to 79; and that of the males for wearing dresses from
80 to 90. The boy's first trousers are remembered best in the
first and last periods of his life. In the last decade the chief
classifications are still represented, but it is noticeable that the
auditory and tactile memories entirely disappear in this period.
Memories are no longer found for grandparents, sickness and
accidents to self, gifts and Christmas. On the other hand
visual memories and those for near relatives are well repre-
sented.
As already stated in the replies to the questions calling for
the first three memories, a much larger number than three was
frequently given. Moreover other questions called for earliest
memories of relatives, playmates, etc. , so that a much larger
number of memories was obtained than the first three of each
individual. White persons reported, as the second tabulation
shows, 6,222 memories, 78 per cent, of which were novel oc-
currences or single impressions, and 22 per cent, protracted or
repeated experiences. The males had 76^ per cent, memories
for novel occurrences, and 23^ per cent, for repeated impres-
sions. With them the memory for novel occurrences culminates
in period VII, ages 18 and 19, when they constitute 83! per
cent, of all memories. With females the memory for novel
occurrences culminates in period III, ages 10 and 11, when they
constitute 89 per cent, of all memories. They drop to 58I per
cent, with the males during the two periods 70-79 and 80-89,
but rise at 90 to 84! per cent. With the females they also drop
to 58j^^ per cent, in the period 80-89.
The memories of repeated occurrences in the case of the
males culminate in the first period (ages 1-4), when they con-
stitute 5 if per cent, of the memories. They become 35! per
cent, in period X, ages 40-49. With the females they are 223^
per cent, in the first period, ages 1-4, and do not form a greater
proportion except during three periods: VII, ages 18 and 19,
when they are 27! per cent., XI, ages 50-59, and XIV, ages
80-90, when they become 3ItV and 4ifV per cent., respectively,
of the whole
The fact that different memories culminate at different periods
INDIVIDUAL MKMORIRS. 235
may be significant. In not a few instances they seem to bear a
relation to the whole mental life of the period. In order to
determine this relation more definitely we shall now consider
the periods when the memories more frequently found become
a chief factor and reach their highest percentage. The visual
memories are 27^ per cent, of the whole for the males, and
31 per cent, for the females. In the case of each they are a
large factor in the first period, 1-4, when the child is exploring
the world. With both males and females they culminate in
the fourth decade, 30-39. In this period observation is rip-
est. In the case of the males the percentage is low in the
8th and 9th decades — 70-89, and improves in the tenth, as if
second sight were obtained. The auditory memories become
accentuated with the males in period VI, years 16 and 17, and
culminate in years 20-29. With the females they become em-
phasized in period V, years 14 and 15, and culminate in years
30-39. The periods of culmination are epochs when the audi-
tory sense is much used as a rule. Men and women are busy,
** hear what is going on," and do not spend much time in
reading. It is worthy of note that in the period 80-89 for females
and the 90 period for males, an age when the hearing is poor,
there are no auditory memories. The motor memories come
in great profusion at 14 and 15 for the males. At this period
the motor memory is intensely motor, of a break bone and acci-
dent nature. On the other hand with the females at this period
there is an actual falling ofi" of 4 per cent, in motor . memories.
The motor memories, however, in case of the males, culminate
in years 50-59 by a margin of 3^^ per cent, over the 14 and 15
period, and with the females reach their maximum at 40-49.
This may not easily be explained, but it is a period of life
when activities have fallen away little, if any, and achievement
and the results of activity are the objects of reflection.
The memories of brothers, sisters and playmates, culminate
in the seventh period for females, and in the eighth for males,
and then steadily diminish until second childhood begins. The
memory of females for the mother exceeds that of the males by
4^ per cent., while males have a better memory foi: the father
than females. The memories of the males for their grandpa-
rents reach the highest points at (a) 5-9, (b) 30-39, (c) 60-69;
those of the females at (a) 5-9, (b) 20-29, and (c) 50-59, the
years (a) when they have most to do with their grand-
parents in their own home, (b) when their children are small
and their own parents first become grandparents, (c) when
they become grandparents themselves. The natural interval of
ten years between the ages of males and females in the last two
cases may be noted. Memories for deaths and funerals are re-
called by the females almost equally well in the years from 60
236 COIvEGROVE :
to 90, and are not strongly marked before this time. Those of
the males culminate at 90, but are very marked from 70 to 79.
Is it not true that the memories of any period are in harmony
with the general psychical life of that period, and do they not
to a certain extent partake of its qualities ? These facts sug-
gest that what is remembered does not primarily constitute
definite memories, but a memory complex. From this com-
plex, at subsequent periods of life, those parts are selected out
and made distinct which are en rapport with what may be
termed the memory tone of the period; e. g., if the period be
one in which the auditory sense is much used, or be one of
great logical activity, auditory or logical memories will be prom-
inent. This hypothesis explains the cases of individuals in whom
certain types of memory are pronounced. It also explains those
cases in which persons assert that they cannot single out early
memories. " It is all one mass, ' ' they say. Such minds are little
given to reflection upon the distant past. They have not tried
to separate the single elements of the complex. When they
consent to reflect for a time, they are usually able to differen-
tiate single elements and to arrange them in serial order. Yet
what these elements are will differ with the age of the indi-
vidual or with his memory tone. The memories for sickness
and accidents to self culminate for the females in years 12 and
13, and for the males in years 14 and 15. Sickness and acci-
dents of others are best recalled by the females in years 14 and
15; by the males in period 12 to 13. Females have the better
memory for sickness and accidents to others. Males have the
better memory for sickness and accidents to self. The activities
of others are best recalled by both males and females in the
closing periods of their lives.
In the general average for the whole life it is interesting to
note that the females have a slightly higher percentage of
visual, auditory, gustatory and tactile memories than the
males. The gustatory memory is 3^^ per cent, for the females,
and culminates in the first period, while among the males it is
2.^ per cent., and culminates in period 5-9. Memories for
odors are very few, being ^ of one per cent, for the males, and
■^ of one per cent, for the females. The males have two per
cent, more logical memories. The females have from 2^ to 4
per cent, better memory for mother, playmates and other per-
sons. They have 7^ per cent, better recollection of brothers
and sisters, and 7 per cent, less of topographical memories than
the males. Motor memories, father, grandparents, gifts, play-
things and fears, are about equally recalled by each, but the
females have double the memories for playing. The female
memory for dolls is 3^ per cent. , and culminates in the first
period, years 1-4, when it is 22 >^ per cent, of all memories.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 237
The male memory for clothing is 6 per cent, , the females 7^
per cent. The males have 7 per cent, of school memories, the
females 5}^ per cent. The memories of the males for home are
I ^ per cent. , of the females fV ^^ one per cent. The males
have nearly 8 per cent, of memories for domestic animals and
fowls, which culminate in period 40-49; the females have only 2}^
per cent. ofsuch memories, which culminate in period 50-59. Time
has 2^-^ of memories with each. Number memories are 1% per
cent, for the males, and a little less than one per cent, for the
females. Memories of colors are 4^ per cent, for the females,
3^ per cent, for the males. The males have 2f per cent, of
memories of deaths and funerals; the females i)2 per cent.
Memories of trees are 1% percent, with the females, and |- of
one per cent, with the males. The following memories should
also be mentioned: Picture taken; pride; visit to dentist; quar-
rels; storms; money; jealousy; shame; lie; selfishness; curiosity;
birthdays; being lost; deceit; stealing; picnics; circus; parades and
soldiers; praise; temperature; visiting; 4^ percent, for females,
2%, males; visitors 2% per cent, for females, 1%, males; re-
proof, which is remembered ^ as well as corporal punish-
ment; running away; mud pies; crying and grief; anger; attend-
ant circumstances; fishing; swinging; hair; sliding; physical
pain; fatigue; malice; losing things; being praised; enemy;
birthday; laughed at; playing horse; imitation; where slept;
destructiveness; being kissed; disobedience; church; wedding;
surprise; jealousy; teasing; mischief; guilt: blood; charity; re-
venge; working; supernatural; love; sorrow. The last eight
memories are found for the first time at senescence.
The average age for the three earliest memories at different
periods under the age of 25 is shown by the curves here given.
The continuation of the same curves during the remaining peri-
ods is described in Figs, i and 2. The three lower lines repre-
sent the early memory of the males, and the upper ones of the
females. The heavy line represents the first memory ; the broken
line the second, and the dotted line the third memories. Distance
to the right represents the age of the person reporting ; distance
upward indicates the age of the person at the time of the occur-
rence remembered. For the first memory during the entire
period, it is less than three years. The first rise in the curve
is naturally marked because it begins low at the age of one. It
drops at 4^ and five for the first two memories, which may be
due to some acquired ability to reflect upon the past. Children
under this age have not been given to reflection, and it is very
difficult to get them to bring forth the memories which later
years will prove that they already possess. There is a rise
in all of the curves at adolescence which is emphatic in the
case of four of them. This shows that from the age of 13 to 15,
238
COI.EGKOVE
Fig. I.
-1 r- -T-
•' ■••. ! '
^' ■■^^- [J-
*" ^ ..■■^- ^^. '" '" " ^~- -•-.-. l'"-^-'''-7-|-.i '■
••• • 1 ''■ --' — i— . -- ""^^ .-*- — r~ '— ~~[ '
— r--^^T^~^'fTi^=~~~~~^ ii rt~r
„ .2 \/
n ^Z
\ll!iZlA3J:>i*^S 6 7 S 8 10 11 U 0 14 IS 16 IT l« 19 i- Zl
Fig. II.
1
.- ■' '' " •■• 1
/"^ ' ■•■..•■ / ^-^ ,' ^^ "^^
'" ^^\>V^'''" ~ z^-^--^"
;2 N>-==-. -::;^
'■?'
,« ^^ ' X
■a 2 U J 3A -> 4\ 5
boys and girls do not recall so early memories as others do
before and after this period. At this period the present is
large and the future makes a strong appeal. While the store-
house of memory is very rich now, perhaps the temperament or
the psychical tone is now wanting in accordance with which
painstaking reflection calls forth the earliest experiences. At
any rate the earliest memories of boys at the age of 14 average
almost four years, and for the girls it is more than three. At
35 the curve for the males descends and approaches two years,
which is the average age for the first memory of boys at nine
and five years of age. The curve for the earliest age of the
females descends slightly at 30 and 40, and then fluctuates,
rising slightly at 80 to descend again. The curve for the males
rises at 70 and descends gradually, later terminating in the
height reached at 6, 10 and 11.
The curves for the second and third memories call for no dis-
cussion as the representation is apparent. They show, how-
ever, a tendency to sympathize with the first. One fact seems
clear from this study: There is not a progressive fading-out of
memories as life advances and declines. The range of subjects
recalled may narrow a little toward the close, but if a corre-
sponding amount of data could be gathered, even this might
be doubtful. The garrulous mode of talking prevalent among
old people seems to be due to complete associations in which
few petty details are omitted. Moreover the memory of the
aged goes back practically as far as does that of young peo-
ple, and is as clear and vivid. On the farm at my early
home is a trout stream whose waters are clear and cold. In
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIKS. 239
childhood I saw the tree-tops and mosses mirrored in the clear
waters. The stream has narrowed down a little owing to the
cutting away of the forest. The branches now reflected there
have changed somewhat, not b}^ time, but by elements at work
in time. If in old age I see them, the branches may be the
same, but changed a little more. Such is the memory stream,
narrowed a little, it may be, in the passing years, but the waters
flowing as clear as ever from the same springs, mirror the old
experiences.
Comparing the Indian males with the white males of the
same period, the Indians show a higher percentage of mem-
ories for hearing, taste, mother and playmates, crying and grief,
corporal punishment, trees, quarrels, and almost double for
domestic fowls and animals. They have a higher percentage
of tactile memories, and a smaller per cent, for dress and per-
sons not relatives. The following memories are wholly or
chiefly Indian: Fishing, snakes, squirrels, negroes, hunting
(bow and arrows), lakes and streams, and tobacco.
Comparing Indian females with white females of the same
age, the Indians have a larger percentage of auditory, gusta-
tory and motor memories, also for father, mother, playmates,
fear and dolls; much greater for crying and grief, and double
the percentage for domestic fowls and animals. They have a
smaller percentage of memories for persons not related, dresses
and other clothing, fewer topographical and logical memories,
and less for sickness and accidents to self and others, and for
the activity of others. The following memories belong wholly
or chiefly to the Indians: Lakes, rivers, wolves, coons, owls,
fishing, skating and negroes.
The Indians who sent returns represent 25 different tribes,
and may be considered fairly representative. Some of the
tribes are in a low state of civilization, but many came from
families of wealth and culture. Many of these memories may
be termed crystallized racial experiences, and the question
arises whether the memory tone is not modified by atavistic
tendencies. As will be seen later, their memories for pleasant
and unpleasant occurrences savor of racial experiences. The
curves for the first three memories of both males and females
average higher than those of the whites. That for the earliest
memory of the males fluctuates between three and four until
the age of 21 is reached. At this point it drops below 3, rises
from 21 to 22, drops again, and with the curve for the second
memory reaches its Ipwest point at 26. The third memory for
this period is high. The curve for the earliest memory of
the females reaches its lowest point by a rapid descent at 25.
The second and third memories average 4 and 5, respectively,
and are liable to reach the age of nine.
240 COI.EGROVK :
The curves for age, of the negroes, at the time of the first
three memories show a higher average than those for the
whites. The earliest memory of the males is usually found
between three and four. The curve representing it is lower
than 3 at the ages of 14 and 15; it also descends to three
at the ages of 23, 24 and 27. It is high from 16 to 18,
and culminates at 22. The second earliest memory ranges
from 4 to 6, but at the age of 14 drops below 4. The curve
for the third earliest memory fluctuates from 4)^ to 9. The
curve representing the earliest memory of the negro females
descends to 2 at the age of 25, and at this period the second
earliest memory descends to 3. The curve for the first is higher
at the age of 26, when it is 4-}-. The curve for the third
memory is noticeably high during the period from 14 to 16.
The first and second are high from 15 to 17. The curve for
the third memory is high again from 19 to 25, when it de-
scends. The curve for the second memory, like that for the
first, falls at 22, and both reach a very low point at 25.
The negroes do not seem to differentiate the memories from
the memory complex until late in life. This may be due to the
poverty of the mental experience in early life. The memory
tone is monotonous. Further evidence of this is a strong ten-
dency to remember by comparison. Such an event occurred in
"Garfield's or in Harrison's administration," or "after I
went to school." But the best educated negroes, as would be
expected, have sharply defined and well differentiated early ex-
periences. Their memories, too, have less of the grotesque
character. The story of hardships, wrong and suffering is
deeply imprinted on many memories.
It was to be expected that the negro females would place
emphasis upon dress. The racial experience also crops out.
One could hardly find an Indian or white child afraid of a
candy sheep's head because the teeth showed, but this was the
earliest memory of a negress.
The replies to questions 4 and 5 were tabulated together
with replies to questions asked persons past fifty years of age
regarding the decades best and poorest remembered. The
years best remembered by males of all ages are the i6th and
17th, which are equally well recalled. The 15th year comes
next, followed by the 19th and 14th in the order given. The
poorest remembered year is the 8th, and the second poorest the
7th. From 46 to 50 there comes a tendency to remember the
last 4 years or the last decade most poorly, and the red lines
representing the best remembered years, and the black lines
representing the poorest remembered years mingle together.
After this period, as a rule, the last 4 years, or the last decade
is least remembered. There are notable exceptions, however.
INDIVIDUAI. MEMORIES. 24 1
A few represent the whole life, after the first 4 years, as best
recalled, and know no poorest memorj'. The statement is
made by persons pavSt 80 that they still recall passing events
well, in which they become interested, and to which they give
attention. Middle aged people frequently designate the years
20-25 <^'* 25-30 as the best remembered, for the reason that im-
portant changes were then occurring.
The poorest remembered year for the females also is the 8th,
and the next poorest recalled is the 7th. Their best remem-
bered year is the 15th. At the age of 50 the lines representing
the best and poorest recalled years mingle freely, and after this
the tendency is to recall the last 4 years or the last decade
with the greatest difficulty. Here, too, are notable exceptions.
It is worthy of note that the years poorest recalled by all per-
sons are the 8th and 7th respectively. For all persons the
years best recalled are those characterized by the great psychi-
cal and mental awakenings of adolescent life. It is true that
after 50, proper names, at least, are not so well recalled. An
explanation given by the returns is that middle aged people
have many more acquaintances and fewer intimate friends.
The early memories abate little to the last. At every period at-
tention and interest are the handmaids of memory.
The sixth question called for false memories. The returns
fully justify the discussion in a previous chapter as to the in-
fluence of dreams. There are inverted memories, and defective
localization in the past is fairly common. The period 16-19 is
that in which false memories are most common. The expe-
rience at this age is fairly common to both sexes, but the males
are able to give fewer definite examples. Yet, while false mem-
ories are more common at this period, no time of life seems free
from them.
Y. F., f., age 16. Read of robbery in paper, and told it as seen.
A. N., f ., age 16. Told playmate a dream, and was punished for lying.
A. B., f., age 17. Four years ago I dreamed a person was dead, and
supposed it was true until I met her a year ago.
M. C, f., age 17. Dreamed of a fire, and the next day asked if a
friend went to it.
Iv. C, f., age 17. Dreamed that price of potatoes had gone up, that
mother had told me so. Found out my mistake at the dinner table.
F. C, f., age 17. Dreamed mother had bought me a new dress.
Looked for it all over the house.
M. D., f., age 19. Told teacher of a visit to Washington. Had never
been there.
H. D., f., age 17. Dreamed uncle had come to visit us. Next morn-
ing asked mamma if uncle had come down to breakfast yet.
T., f,, age 9. Mistook event near close of voyage home from Scot-
land to have been on the outward voyage.
M., f., age 17. Visited a friend five summers ago. The friend vis-
ited her seven summers ago. M. states that she made the first visit,
and no amount of explanations and dates changes her mind.
242 COI.EGROVK :
T., m., age 19. Member of foot-ball team, in writing from memory
a report of the games in which he played, often related events as oc-
curring at the beginning of the game which, as a matter of fact,
.occurred later. This was brought to his notice by men who stood on
the side lines and kept running notes of the game.
F, W., m., age 26. College graduate. Thought aunt told me some-
thing coming home from a funeral 8 or 10 years ago. Recently
learned that she and I returned from the funeral in different car-
riages, and that it was told me by another relative.
A. F., m., age 18. Often thought I was at a feast in the woods before
I was born.
R. C, m., age 15. Have an impression of having done something
ages before.
C. B., m., age 17. Dreamed there was a train of cars in the closet
for me, but found none.
E. L., m., age 14}4. Dreamed I had a bushel of pennies, but could
not find them.
A. H., m., age 19. Dreamed of landscapes which I never saw. They
seemed real.
Some of the dreams may remain permanently as real, but
they are apt to be corrected by experience.
Question seven called for the book read before the age of 9
which is best recalled. Books which appeal strongly to the
imagination constitute a large portion of those mentioned. The
influence of rhyme also apparently aids the memory. The books
most frequently mentioned, 180 in all, fall under the heading
of light stories and nursery rhymes. While short children's
stories are included, the Mother Goose Melodies, Jack and the
Beanstalk, etc., make up a large part of this heading. The
younger people, especially, recall the pictured story books
which they have seen in rich profusion. Here might have been
placed Little Lord Fauntleroy, mentioned by 14, and Babes in
the Woods, by 3.
The second division comprises novels which lead school
books by the slight margin of 92 to 90. The list of novels is
largely increased, however, by books mentioned separately,
and which were not included in the above estimate. Such are
Pilgrim's Progress remembered by 20, Black Beauty by 17,
Uncle Tom's Cabin 14, Oliver Twist 3, Beautiful Joe i, Tom
Brown's School Days i. Rip Van Winkle 3.
Fairy Tales b}^ Grimm, Andersen and others, come next, 82,
not including Cinderilla 25, Arabian Nights 5, ^sop's Fables
2, Blue Beard 8.
Returning to novels one separated from the general list is
designated almost as many times as are all other novels. It is
Robinson Crusoe mentioned 71 times. The Swiss Family Robin-
son is mentioned 25 times, Gulliver's Travels twice. Of other
books Bible stories are designated by 43, didactic works by 11,
biography by 14, history by 13, natural history by 16. Little
Men by Miss Alcott is mentioned by 9, and Little Women by
INDIVIDUAI. MEMORIES.
243
16. A middle aged man writes that he recalls Little Men bet-
ter than any book he has ever read. Essays are mentioned by
3, Moody and Sankey Hymn Book by i. The Scrap Book and
Brownies have one vote each. Peck's Bad Boy is mentioned
twice.
The pedagogical significance is unmistakable. What appeals
to the child's imagination interests him, and as a result remains
in memory. Historical and didactic novels are most potent of
the permanent influences. Scott and Lord Lytton, not men-
tioned here, if read early will be remembered. The Bible stories
are the portions of sacred Scripture best suited to the child.
Biography is well remembered and most instructive. There
could be no better reading to appeal to the permanent interest
of the young, than some of the best of Jowett's Dialogues of
Plato.
Pleasant and Unpleasant Memories.
* * The thought of our past lives in me doth breed perpetual
benediction."
A large number of replies were received to the inquiry, ' ' do
you remember pleasant or unpleasant experiences better ?' ' The
replies are illustrated by the curves here given.
The figures at the bottom give the age of the persons inter-
viewed; the height of the curves gives the relative number of
replies; the heavy lines representing those who remember the
pleasant better, the broken lines those who remember the un-
pleasant better, and the dotted lines the number who could
make no choice. It is the relative rise of the curves represent-
ing the pleasant and unpleasant memories, and not the absolute
rise of one at any point or points that is significant.
Fig. III.
Z\
1 \
2^ t X
1 f ^
t-H
1 ,_j 7l _
t ±1 lA. ._
41 M-. ^ .lI^^
it' ^\jL
-, :?JEI lAlL 4l_
1^1 c^ x^iX ]t
iijSL ' 4 yS 21 j^
t jl 2 o^sti i^L. X
J '^z\n -T ih
^v •• ^ '' K I \i^t---\.
^ ^^ ' ■••••••% 3'^^r^3E5L '^^
Jl ■' ^/\ •• ^^^_L
li 14 1$ M n 16 18 20 U 21 21 24 2S io is 4« \S M SS fit CV )» Tf SO 8!
Curves representing the pleasant and unpleasant memories of white males.
As will be seen the pleasant and unpleasant memories of the
male whites rise and fall together until the age of 21. At 22,
244
COI.EGROVB :
in the case of the males, the curve for unpleasant memories is
the higher, after which the pleasant memories are in the as-
cendency. After the age of 30, unpleasant memories are little
recalled by the males.
The unpleasant memories have a larger share in the woman's
mental life than in that of the man.
Fig. IV.
4)
_J
4-
I-
t-
"^ _
;
■\
1 N^
« '
"J r
; ;
I -t I I
" -L 1 A
-X 1 A
' \ 7^ ^^
A il.
'7 t At
' z_ r ^
[_: ~1
U- '^
[7 : ^_5
ul t
%• ^A "t
• -^ ^i 'i
^ j.^^1^ •■•• 5 " u
i^N/^ L :•••: Cl: ax
ti '■ ■■■ tru/" 7v_ j\
7-T '■■ -Et^2i 7- X -iv-iX
\ fJ ^ -1 Sl^' i /^jS iZtt
7 ^ "^ ■••• 4^---- 35 i'Xtzu.t
. L -^ :■ •• ^^^ •■•ZIS^E--3>J/^SS
± ^/ •••••' ± _ jr
21 2) if 2{ JD JS fs *£ iO JS
CS 7a 75 60 6S 80
Curves representing the pleasant and unpleasant memories of white females.
The unpleasant memories play the important r61e in the case
of the Indian and Negro males. One can hardly fail to see in
it a suggestion of persecution and slavery. The Indian females
show a slight tendency toward remembering unpleasant expe-
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES.
245
riences best, and share the sorrowful experiences of their
Fig. V.
"" "^ Fig. VI.
~
1
A
1
>\
1
>
.
■■,\
/
\
//
\
/
\
X
H
\
/
\
■••■J\
/
■■f
1
1
\\
/
L/
A^*
' K
/
7\
' ■■'
,'•.
|\/l\l 1
\.
/'••
n 1
/.M 1
J3 H- IS IC 17 la 19 20 21 22 23 24 Z$ Z% 2T 28 23 JO
23 24 2f 2e
Curves representing- the pleasant and un-l Curves representing the pleasant and un-
pleasant memories of Indian males, [ pleasant memories of Indian females.
brothers. On the other hand, in the case of the negro females,
unpleasant experiences play a very minor part indeed. With
them a dress of striking color appears easily to efface grief.
Fig. VIII.
Fig. \
.
:ii:ij\iiiiii=::
'II. : /:_^
:ii:i:i-i ::i::b\:i:::i::
8 J.^
I : III iiiid : : :::
s tr — k'r;
:ii:::::ii .*=;: ==:\:::::::
'=== ;^-\?^
r^^5;^"^b
21 22 23 2* 25 2£ 27 28 29 JO 34 JR
14 15 l< 17 18 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 Z6 2?
Curves r
rves representing the pleasant and un-| Curves representing the pleasant and un-
pleasant memories of Negro males. | pleasant memories of Negro females.
For many years the warning against memoriter work has
been so persistent that one almost feels like apologizing for ask-
ing the question — "what studies have best developed your
memory?" The thesis that memory ought not to be trained
has been supplemented by the other that it cannot be trained.
These ideas have made for advancement. They have also
wrought injury. Have college students the ability to-day that
they had fifteen years ago, to reproduce an author's thought
and to think while upon their feet ? The question in the topi-
cal syllabus called forth a great number of replies. Almost all
of the studies in the curricula of High Schools, Normal Schools
and Colleges are mentioned. We must allow for the fact that
studies most commonly pursued will be mentioned most fre-
quently. History easily takes the precedence, being mentioned
229 times. Some specify learning the dates, but with the great
majority the work of fixing the salient points at different
epochs, and wide collateral reading, are believed to have aided
the memory. It is but natural that a close ally, geography,
should come next. It is mentioned 147 times. Arithmetic
comes next, having 124 votes. Many specify the committing
246 COLEGROVK :
of the rules and tables. The tables for denominate numbers
form an admirable memory drill. Geometry is mentioned 66
times, and algebra 27 times, while mathematics is mentioned
55 times. In certain schools where mathematics are well
taught they have a large percentage of votes. Latin is men-
tioned 67 times, some add " when taught in the old way." No
other language is to be compared with the Latin in the num-
ber of its adherents, although Greek is mentioned 8 times,
(manj^ more have studied Latin than Greek). French 7 times,
German twice, and Language by 19. If this be true of foreign
languages we are not surprised to find that English Literature
has 74 votes, English grammar 47, poetry 45, general reading
36, recitations and declamations 30. Many state that their
memory has been improved by memorizing gems of literature.
Spelling is mentioned 27 times, science (general science) is
mentioned; chemistry and physics are each named 5 times,
physiology 14 times, botany twice, and zoology three times.
Music is mentioned 8 times. Other studies named are Moral Phi-
losophy I, Psychology 11, Drawing i, Catechism 3, Bible verses
9, Pedagogy i, Political Economy and Civil Government i each.
The Indians mention short-hand and phonography as helpful in
training the memory. They also give other studies mentioned
by the whites. The negroes, with two exceptions, refer to
text-books and other books mentioned by the whites. It is
probably true, as stated in another chapter, that nature assigns
memory limits to each individual. There is as little doubt that
within the limits assigned by nature the memory is susceptible
to training, and is developed more by some studies than by
others.
The request contained under heading 10 of the syllabus —
" give a condensed account of any case of loss of memory
caused by a blow on the head, a fall, or by disease," elicited a
number of suggestive replies. These results are not significant
as compared with the carefully collated results in chapter 3,
studied under medical supervision. They show, however, that
loss of memory due to traumatism and disease are fairly com-
mon and carefully observed by the folk consciousness. In-
stances given are as follows:
I. J., m. Head injured during foot-ball game. Could not remem-
ber signals.
Grandmother in usual health lost all memory for i^ days.
M., f. Suffered nervous prostration, had to learn A. B. C.'s over.
She afterward became a High School teacher, but was forgetful.
E. G., f., age 19. Crossing the ocean forgot all had learned. It came
back at age of 15.
M., f., age tYz. Broke arm. Next day asked why it was tied up.
Had forgotten the name of the pussy cat, etc.
B., age 8. Scarlet fever, forgot everything, and had to learn over.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 247
A number of instances were given in which the secondary automatic
movements of children were lost by disease.
E-, m., age 2. After a fever he had to learn to walk over again.
Man fell. He did not know his own name for 2 years. After the
death of his wife it all came back to him.
Man fairly educated, after typhoid fever had to learn to spell.
M. W. Fell down stairs three years ago. Cannot remember names
since, nor can he identify persons.
F. Can recall nothing which transpired before an illness at 6.
Child fell from barn. Forgot being on the barn.
Quinine affects the memory of one.
L. L., f., age 15. Crossed Pacific Ocean at 4, sick, forgot Chinese
language. It came back upon return to China 2 years later.
That the memory is affected by the state of the physical health
is a widespread, popular belief, due to experience. A " close,
stuffy room," and " lack of mental power due to fatigue," are
mentioned as prejudicial to a good memory.
B. M., f., age 18. Broke limb at 9, took chloroform. Memory for
years 1-9 poorer since. She attibutes it to the chloroform. Others
believe that chloroform has affected their memory.
H. K., Indian, age 24. "I was playing foot-ball, and once while
running with the ball I was tackled by an opponent, who threw me on
the flat of my back, with his own weight on top of me, my head striking
the ground at the same time or a little before my body did. I got up
in a little while, said I was not hurt for I felt no pain, so they began
playing. They called the signals and I stood still. I could not place
the meaning of the numbers. I did not even know my own number,
so after the play was made I stepped to the other ' half-back ' and
asked him what my number was. Before the fall I knew the signals
as well as any man on the team. Of course I had to retire from the
field. I could not remember from one minute to the next. I knew
what I was doing, and knew at the time that I could not remember a
thing. There were three days that I could not remember anything. It
just seemed that a door would shut on everything I did, and in less
than a minute I would be doing the same thing over again."
A well known pedagogical principle is that vivid impressions
are easily recalled. With frequency, recency, and emotional
congruity, vividness plays an important role in association. In
order to test the abiding character of a vivid experience 179
middle aged and aged people were asked in personal interviews
the following question : " Do you recall where you were when you
heard that Lincoln was shot?" An affirmative answer required
the exact location, an example of which is the following reply:
* ' My father and I were on the road to A — in the State of
Maine to purchase the ' fixings ' needed for my graduation.
When we were driving down a steep hill into the city we felt
that something was wrong. Everybody looked so sad, and
there was such terrible excitement that my father stopped his
horse, and leaning from the carriage called: * What is it, my
friends? What has happened?' ' Haven't you heard?' was the
reply — ' Lincoln has been assassinated.' The lines fell from my
father's limp hands, and with tears streaming from his eyes he
248 COLEGROVE :
sat as one bereft of motion. We were far from home, and much
must be done, so he rallied after a time, and we finished our
work as well as our heavy hearts would allow. ' '
Not all the replies were«*so vivid as this one, but only those
were accounted as affirmative which contained facts as to time
of day, exact location, and who told them.
J. P., age 76. I was standing by the stove getting dinner, my hus-
band came in and told me.
M. B., age 79. I was setting out a rose bush by the door. My hus-
band came in the yard and told me. It was about 11 o'clock a. m.
H. R., age 73. We were eating dinner. No one ate much after we
heard of it.
J. T., age 73. I was fixing fence, can go within a rod of the place
where I stood. Mr. W. came along and told me. It was 9 or 10 o'clock
in the morning.
Iv. B., age 84. It was in the forenoon ; we were at work on the road
by K.'s mills; a man driving past told us.
Of the 179 persons interviewed, 127 replied in the affirma-
tive, and were able to give full particulars; 52 replied in the
negative. A few who gave a negative reply recalled where
they were when they heard of Garfield's death. Inasmuch as
33 years have elapsed since Lincoln's death the number who
made an affirmative reply must be considered large, and bears
testimony to the abiding character of vivid experiences.
Many helpful pedagogical suggestions were received from High
School, Normal and College students in reply to question 1 1 .
Figures are mentally represented as clearly as possible, — a * ' pict-
ure of them as they look printed or written. ' ' A child thought of
the figures to be carried in division as ' * gone up in the attic. ' '
He would ' ' call up attic to see if anything was there. ' ' One
" locates them on a certain page of a book." Several "write
them a few times." Association helps. A college student
writes, ' ' I associate figures with what is familiar. If I hear
that Mr. A. receives $5,000 salary, I say to myself that is 5 times
as much as my old school teacher got. After this the salary is
easily recalled." Place localization, and association are chiefly
relied upon. Some have a kind of mnemonic system, and group
or reverse the numbers. One associates the figure 8 with a
doughnut. 3. 141 6, the ratio between the diameter and the cir-
cumference of a circle is fixed by serial association, repeating
the figures in order. 3. — 1.4.1.6. (3, one 4, one 6). The same
aids are employed for dimensions. The most efficient mnemonic
aids for dates is to associate them with important events, e. g. ,
1492, 1776, etc. Dates of minor importance are associated with
these. Charts are recommended. Some make rhymes for dates,
getting the idea, perhaps, from the way the presidents or the
rulers of England are remembered. One sees figures in a wind-
ing row.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 249
Faces are recalled by types. After fixing the type to which
it belongs, the eyes, hair, nose, cheek-bones, complexion and
scars are noted. A college student writes: "I try to trace a
resemblance between a strange face and one I know. ' ' A mid-
dle aged woman takes careful notice of the hand. She has a
poor memory for faces, but can often locate the person by the
hand. A normal student writes the initial of the person or
place on the left hand. After it has been erased she still vis-
ualizes it there. One analyzes the features. ' * If any feature
resembles a well known face it is easily recalled. ' '
Microscopic structures and crystals are fixed by drawing
them. Drawing is the chief aid. Here, too, clear visualiza-
tion counts. ' ' I see them floating before my eyes. ' ' lyocali-
zation in place is a help.
I^eaves are remembered by the form, color, number of lobes,
the veining, margins, and by comparing them with other
leaves. Figures of wall-paper and carpets are associated with
the room, house, or are localized in time. Here forms are also
fixed by drawing, ' ' even by tracing them in the air. ' ' The
color, shape, and above all striking characteristics of figures
are noticed.
Phrases in music are recalled by playing, or by attempting
to play, or by humming the tune. College student, m. , age
22. *' I recall the time intervals and note the first part of the
theme; I recall the rest by association." Female, age 17, nor-
mal student writes: " I remember phrases in music by thinking
if they are similar to phrases in any selections that I have
heard." Constant repetition and association of the selection
with the person who played or sang it are helps frequently
used. *' If I get one measure as tone, — be it first or last, — the
rest comes without effort." Female, age 34, recalls sounds,
not appearance of notes. Her memory for sounds was strength-
ened by taking music lessons. One recalls music by an imag-
inary curved line going up and down with the tone. One
thinks of whole rests as heavier than half rCvSts, and conse-
quently falling below the line. One boy thinks of the notes
as Chinese climbing a fence. With another it is secondary
automatic, — "my fingers remember the music." The Indians
find that sheer determination helps them to remember music,
as other experiences.
The negro males gave, — by sound, visualizing, position of
notes on the staff", some initial note is the key to the whole,
music just comes up. Negro females remember (a) phrases in
music by accent, (b) by sounds, time and words, (c) where
they saw them last, (d) by mental picture of the notes. The
familiar mnemonic sentences are given for sharps, flats and
keys: " God deluged all earth by floods," *' Foolish boys eat
JODRNAI, — 6
250 COLEGROVK :
apple dumplings greedily," "Fred Coburn goes down after
each boy. ' '
It is worthy of note that some excellent musicians recall
music better after an interval. They cannot immediately re-
produce it if they have enjoyed it intensely. Sometimes an
interval of a day or two is necessary in order to recall it well.
It is quite possible that there is a modification of the basilar
membrane which serves as a basis for subsequent recall. Fur-
thermore it is true that many people find that a time interval
is necessary to recall well any experience. K. C, f., age 17,
recalls better now what happened in all school grades than
when she was younger. Male, age 20, " I can define and
locate my former experiences better now than I could a year
or so after they happened. " Female, age 19, "I can recall
now things that happened 8 or 10 years ago, which I could not
recall 4 years ago. ' ' Apart from a maturer mind perspective
seems to be necessary to many in order that they may have a
good memory.
The cut of dresses is recalled by association with the person
who wore the garment. New features are noted. The differ-
ent parts, as neck, yoke and skirt, are studied by one. Asso-
ciation with place and person is the chief aid.
Passages of prose and declamations are memorized by paying
attention to the thought. After the thought is fixed it easily
clothes itself in language. Not a few, however, memorize me-
chanically, attention being especially paid to the beginnings
and endings of sentences. Repetition and reading aloud are
frequently mentioned. Clear mental representation and a purely
local memory are of service. Male, 17. "I usually memorize
by imprinting the object and its surroundings on my mind like
a negative. In memorizing I^ew Wallace's "chariot race,"
comprising 16 pages, I read it through twelve times. I im-
printed the photograph of the page on my mind, and then read
what I saw." In poetry the answers bear out the conclusions
of Ebbinghaus and Miiller and Schuman, as to the influence of
rhythm. It plays the chief r61e. One is aided by fixing upon
the initial letters of each line. Another gets the thought,
" and the words which are so closely associated with thought
in poetry come of their own accord. ' ' Repeating aloud is of
service, but form and structure are usually mentioned as the
essentials to be considered. Practice improves. One learns
easily who memorizes a selection every day and rehearses all at
the close of the week. A college student writes, " first of all a
feeling of confidence is necessary in all recollection. Doubt
breaks the train. ' ' The memory must be trusted.
Much the same suggestions are given as to the manner of
memorizing fine passages. Slow repetition aids one or two.
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIBS. 25 1
The reasons given for memorizing these passages are (a) beauty
of thought, (b) beauty of expression. " The author expresses
the thought better than I can." " When depressed these beau-
tiful passages come up and encourage me." Other reasons are:
"To enrich my mental life," " prevents day-dreaming, " "con-
venient when no book is at hand," "for pleasure and enjoy-
ment ' ' is an answer repeated frequently.
Few devices were given for fixing forms and phrases of for-
eign languages. Comparison with similar phrases and forms
in the mother tongue is found to be serviceable. Even where
the native language is as poor as the Indian this device is
found useful. The less familiar are associated with the better
known. The beginning of the list of German prepositions, aus,
bei, mit, nach, etc., are associated by one with the phrase
" the house by the meat-market."
A large number of devices are given for keeping appoint-
ments. Females change rings, insert paper under a ring, pin
paper on dress, etc. There are other favorite mechanical de-
vices. Chairs are turned over, and other furniture disarranged.
A middle aged man hid his hat to remind him of an appoint-
ment. Next morning he hunted up another hat, but did not
recall why the one usually worn was gone. One associates
appointments with the hands of the clock at the hour fixed.
Not a few find it necessary to repeat the appointment again and
again. Others are aided by a memorandum. As a rule those
who say that their memories are utterly untrustworthy do not
use notes. Yet W., m., age 26, writes that the only appoint-
ment he has missed for years is one which he noted down.
Female, age 16, writes, "to keep an appointment I write the
first letter of the person or place connected with the appoint-
ment on my left hand. Even if it be erased I still imagine it
there." Clear mental representation is the great help in such
cases. Three visualize in colored terms. Female, age 19, re-
calls the letter A in black on red background. Female, age
21, " words seem colored. My name is red, my sister is yel-
low. I often remember by color." Male, age 18, "I remember
figures by color. ' '
There is a wide diversity of opinion as to how full notes a
student should take, and almost all degrees of copiousness
are indicated. Female, age 37, believes her memory was in-
jured by taking full notes at the normal school. Again, "too
many notes make the general idea of the lecture indistinct. ' '
One writes that the state of his health determines how full
notes he takes. If the physical tone is low he is obliged to
take more copious notes. Some are best aided by jotting down
the headings and by giving attention unreservedly to the lecture.
A normal student writes out very full notes, and never thinks
252 COLEGROVE :
of the contents of the lecture until she leaves the lecture room.
Some take "key" words with which the rest is associated.
Concentration of attention and " hand and arm " memory are
required as a rule by taking quite copious notes. To take few
notes is a work of art, and the essentials must be seized upon.
The consensus of opinions received would seem to favor few
notes. Where full notes are taken they are not often re-
viewed.
The inquiry: "how would you teach a boy to remember
things on time?" brought out a large number of specific direc-
tions, many of which were of a nature to make the fate of the
lone Indian attractive by comparison. The normal students
would have him keep a memorandum book; deprive of some
pleasures, give tardy mark; keep after school as long as late;
exclude from class and association with other pupils; if late at
dinner, give very scanty meal; write down and fix things for
him to do in a natural order; mark o; be on time myself for an
example; make him go and get what he had forgotten; tell him
true story of boy in trouble on account of forgetfulness; punish
if late, and reward for being on time; make him do two or
three times as much when he wants to do something else;
study the boy; exclude from school; make him write the thing
forgotten 20 times; have him repeat what he was to do and
when; make him take the natural consequences; whip; lecture;
strengthen his memory by having him commit poetry; have
him write several hundred times what he had forgotten ; give
him tasks to perform that could be done only at one time;
teach the sin of forgetting; try to interest him; first, ask w^hy,
second, keep after school; strengthen his memory by giving
him short lessons to learn; show him how it would affect his
father's business if his father were not on time; " I once told a
forgetful boy to be sure and forget, and if he did I would give
him a pretty card. He remembered."
The academic and collegiate students favor corporal punish-
ment. One states that it worked well when he was a boy.
The Indians also suggest this remedy. A very sensible sug-
gestion comes from a college woman: " If a boy could not re-
member things on time, I would try to give him opportunities
for practice; I should try to form an association between the
thing to be done and the required time or something which
would happen then." The suggestions to study the boy, and
make him take the natural consequences; try to interest him;
and ask him why, are good from a pedagogical standpoint.
A large number of young people state that they store up
facts and dates with no definite idea of how they will use them.
This statement applies more to facts than dates. It is a trait
more characteristic of young men than young women. Male,
INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES. 253
age 20, writes: " I collect facts as I would dollars, expecting
to use them in many different ways." While peering into the
future, and uncertain as to what resources shall be called out,
the young man stores up facts from all sources, with but little
thought as to their use.
In reply to question 12, instances are frequently given of a
tenacious memory for history or literature, accompanied by lit-
tle ability for original thought. Such students are usually de-
ficient in mathematical ability. One young girl learns a page
easily, but she has to recite it in order, or all is a blank to her.
Male, age 19. Recalled all that he heard or read, but his con-
versation and writings were masses of quotations.
On the one hand it is recognized that a rich mental life is
impossible without a good memory; on the other, very complete
association is often attended by poor constructive power.
The request made under heading 13 of the syllabus called
forth a wealth of material. Certain cases due to abstraction are
as follows: A young lady went to telegraph for an umbrella left
on a car; she had been holding it over her head for 30 minutes.
A lady walked into the parlor with a $10 bill in one hand, a
match in the other. She put the bill in the stove and saved
the match. A college professor forgets to eat his meals. A
boy broke his ribs, and forgot all about it in two days. A man
picked up a pebble and put it in his pocket; took out his
watch and threw it into the ocean. A lady tried to tie her
horse with the blanket and cover him with the line. A boy
returned from the store three times to find out what his mother
wanted. A lady was called away by an important message be-
fore breakfast, forgot until late in the day that she had eaten
neither breakfast nor dinner. Gentleman, age 50, came down
from his study and asked his wife if she knew where his pen
was, he thought the children had mislaid it. She told him if
he would take it out of his mouth he would talk more plainly,
^oy, age 9, sent to store for extract of peppermint, brought pare-
goric; sent back with a bottle labelled peppermint, brought
vanilla; third time sent he brought the peppermint. College pro-
fessor, expert in numbers, is frequently seen with one black
and one tan shoe on. A minister became absorbed in a book
and forgot that it was Sunday. Man walked home and left his
horse in the village all night. The same man went home from
church and left his wife.
A great share of cases of lack of memory are due to abstrac-
tion, or to absent mindedness, which Mach terms ' ' present
mindedness. " It often characterizes people of great ability
along narrow lines of thought. The following is an instance
of lack of memory due to fatigue: Female, age 22. " At the
age of 16 I had been travelling all day, I went to the ticket
254 COI.EGROVE :
office at the last change of cars, but could not think where I
was going, yet I had lived in the town i6 years.
There are a few instances given in which loss of memory
is due to distraction. A middle aged woman heard of her son's
death by drowning. She could not remember her husband's
address in order to telegraph him, although she had written
there hundreds of times. " Aunt recalls nothing that happens
since her husband's death,"
Defective memory in children is ascribed to things known.
There are many instances reported in which forgetting oc-
curred in the field of things done, many of these cases, how-
ever, are evidently cases of temporary forgetfulness due to
abstraction. All of the Indians, with a single exception, state
that things known are most easily forgotten. As to abstrac-
tion, no period of life is free from its influence. Not a few
draw comfort from the facts frequently cited, that Samuel
Johnson, when he had stepped from the sidewalk would con-
tinue for a long distance with one foot in the gutter and one on
the walk; that Pestalozzi did not know enough to put up his
umbrella when it rained; that Sir Isaac Newton supposed he
had eaten when he saw the chicken bones on his plate; and
that Edison forgot his wedding day. Still the fact remains that
no period of life is free from noticeable abstraction. The boy
with book in hand forgets to go to dinner after he has rung the
bell; the young woman goes to different parts of the house, she
knows not why; middle age hunts for the thimble on its fin-
ger, or the pen in its mouth; while old age is troubled that it
cannot find the glasses on its nose.
Loss of mind and heredity are much less frequently cited as
causes of forgetfulness than abstraction or distraction due ta
disease.
The fourteenth question was very abstract, and in some in-
stances was evidently misunderstood. The answers came chiefly
from young people. Of those who apparently answered in an
intelligent manner 140 believed that the interval between being
aware of an experience and the ability'- to define, locate and
name the experience grows narrower as we grow old. Often
the period up to middle age onl}^ is considered. One qualifies
the statement " until old age;" two state that this is true until
college is reached; while many consider that it holds until mid-
dle age. Not a few of the replies are the outgrowth of indi-
vidual experiences, and would not apply after the age of 20 or
22 is reached. 125 state that the interval grows wider. Sev-
eral state that this is especially true of middle age. The fact is
recognized in the returns that the interests of middle life are
greater, and the range of one's acquaintances is wider, and
that this influences the interval necessary for recognizing and
INDIVIDUAI. MEMORIES. 255
defining an experience. This may not be the only factor, but
it seems to offer, at least, a partial explanation. A fruitful
field of inquiry is thus opened up and the ground broken. Pro-
longed and painstaking study of this problem may be richly
repaid.
The writer acknowledges his indebtedness to President G.
Stanley Hall for his unremitting interCvSt and helpful sugges-
tions, to Dr. K. C. Sanford for practical plans as to working up
the returns, and to Dr. Burnham for criticism. He is deeply
indebted to the many educators in colleges, normal schools,
academies and high schools, for returns sent to the question-
naire. Their unselfish work remains as a most pleasing recollec-
tion. Mention must be made of Miss Lillie A.Williams, of the
Trenton (N. J.), Normal School, for a great amount of excel-
lent work; also of Miss Sarah W. Smith, of Medina, Ohio. A
large number of papers were sent by President A. H. Heine-
man, of Haskell Institute, Ks., President Charles Meserve, of
Raleigh, N. C, and by Booker T. Washington, of Tuskegee,
Ala.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
By IviNUS W. KWNE, Ph. D.
The diflferentiation of comparative psychology, as a branch
and method to general psychology, has been comparatively slow.
Its growth, however, has been natural and healthy, and its
contributions to the study of mind are ever increasing in value.
A complete historical account of this differentiation would be
quite premature ; yet it may be worth while to note in passing
that several of the special problems of psychology, — for example:
emotions, instinct, habit, heredity, etc., have been treated on
very broad lines by such all-around scientists as La Marck,
Brehm, Darwin, Kingsley, Wallace and Agassiz. A little later,
men like Naegal, Huxley, Romaines, Lubbock, Graber, and
Spalding, began to focus down and make experiments and ob-
servations on the senses, habits and intelligence of animals.
Running somewhat parallel with these two groups of more
purely scientific writers are the speculative and philosophic pens
of Oken, Lewes, Spencer, Schneider, Weismann, Biichner, Cope
and others who have evaluated and ennobled the facts of or-
ganic life by indicating their significance on the more serious
and time- honored problems of mind and philosophy.
At present, definite problems, as the formation of association
processess,^ imitation, habit and instinct, are put to animals
by playing upon some one or more fundamental instincts and
taxic motions like those of hunger, sex, discomfort in solitude
and prison, preferences for certain colors, geotaxis, chemotaxis,
tonotaxis, etc. The ablest representative for psychology in this
work is Lloyd Morgan, whose careful and critical interpretations
of the objective manifestations of mind through bodily activities
have done much to make comparative psychology reputable as a
science, and even now essential to a comprehensive understand-
ing of the more fundamental problems of mind. Wundt like-
wise has criticised to great advantage the usual erroneous and
loose interpretations of animal activities. Criticisms of this
type should not cease yet awhile.
The matter of interpretation at this stage, however, it seems
to me is secondary. The most urgent need at present is more
and better methods to get at the facts, which, when once dis-
covered, will receive ample and proper attention.
^Thorndike, Edward I/.: Animal Intelligence. An experimental
study of the associative processes in animals. N. Y., June, 1898.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 257
The systematic study of animals thus far has been conducted
along two lines : oue, for a better name, we shall call the nat-
ural method. This consists in observing carefully and continu-
ously the free life of an animal, for example: Huber, Moggridge,
and McCook on ants, Audubon on birds, Figuier on insects,
Mills^ on our domestic animals ; the second line of work may
be termed the experimeiital method. Here the animal is sub-
jected to certain conditions essential in putting a question, and
that favor the performance of activities that shall contribute
material for answering a problem.
Both methods are necessary to a more abundant ingathering
of facts. Both are frequently used by the same investigators,
e. g. , Lubbock and Bethe* on ants, and Morgan on birds. Both
have their share of errors and abuses. In the natural methods
the cleverness of animals is sometimes overestimated, anecdotes
of a questionable foundation are given too much credence. In
the experimental method, conditions too artificial are liable to
be created, thereby inhibiting the free expression of the animal's
acts. Fear is too often present, dominating and modifying every
act. A recent investigation makes exclusive use of the second
method, which seems to me exposes the results to serious criti-
cism. I shall revert to this investigation later in this paper.
Partly as an illustration of the use of these two methods com-
bined, partly to reinforce observations already made, and lastly
to present a bit of new material, I present the results of experi-
ments and observations made on vorticella, wasps, chicks and
rats.
Vorticella Gracilis.^
The object here was to discover what activities, if any, have
a psychological significance or value. The activities may be
subsumbed under the following rubrics : Self-preservation, repro-
duction, and "miscellaneous." The first includes all those
movements, whatever, both of the whole and parts of the cell,
exerted in food-getting, ejecting detritus, placing the mouth in
a more advantageous position for receiving food, contracting the
stalk to escape an enemj^ or when cilia touch any large body,
dead or alive, etc.
The reproductive activities need no specification. Miscel-
laneous activities include all those movements for which we can
^ Mills, Wesley: Animal Intelligence. 307 pp. The Macmillan Co.,
18^8.
" Bethe, Albrecht : Diir fur wirden Ameisen und Biemen psychische
Qualit aten zuschreiben ? Pfliiger Archiv fiir Physiologie. Bd. LXX
1898.
3 I am greatly indebted to Dr. C. F. Hodge for many valuable sug-
gestions in carrying out this experiment.
258 KLINE :
assign no cause, e. g. , violent contraction of the stalk at a time
when the field is free from any disturbing element that might
be revealed by the microscope, food abundant, and body fairly
well filled. Probably a study directed with a view to ascertain
its chemotaxic and tonotaxic reactions would make some of these
activities meaningful. I turn to the activities of self-preserva-
tion and note first the movements of the body as a whole. If the
long axis of stalk and calyx is in and with a current of water/
the calyx is soon turned across the stream, forming an angle
with the stalk. It is evident, owing to the well-known bell-shape
of the calyx and the position of the cilia, that thus turning the
bell would greatly facilitate food getting. Is there a psychical
element in such a movement, i. e., is the movement the outcome
of the exercise of a psychical force? It appears to me that an
afi&rmative answer is open to two serious objections: First, it can
be explained in several other equally as plausible terms. The
reaction to hunger alone is sufficient to account for the move-
ment, and when we reflect that the habitat of V. is on grasses
bathed by currents, natural selection might well be invoked as
the principle that has impressed a reflex or mechanical move-
ment of this sort on the cell. Then again, the inequality of
the density of the current on the sides of the bell is a stimulus
sufficient to cause a reaction expressed in movement (Jonotaxis).
Reactions of this sort occur in paramcecia,^ hydra,* frog, and the
human conjunctive ; second, to ascribe a directing role to what-
ever psychoses that may be present in these forms to activities
of this sort, precludes further investigation — just as the "fiat
creation hypothesis ' ' of the middle ages kept men from enquir-
ing into the more rational ways of world growth.
The mouth cilia are so directed as to either receive or reject
small particles of matter. These activities have been cham-
pioned as ps3'chical. That the cilia do these things there can
be no question, but that they are movements directed by a
psychosis, i. e., are really selective, expressing choice, is quite
another question. Before this question can be scientifically
discussed, it seems to me another question must first be deter-
mined, viz. : Have vorticellae a choice in food — do they not
^A current of sterilized water carrying yeast cells from a large flask
was kept flowing under the cover slip. The water was drawn from the
flask through a glass syphon, down to a capillary point, placed at one
end of the cover slip, and a filter-paper drip attached to the other end.
The microscope used was a Zeiss, apochromatic series, comp' ocular
12 objective i6 mm., which gave a magnification 190 diameters, and
sometimes ocular 6, objective 4 mm. was used — magnification 375 dia-
meters. The vorticellae were found in great abundance from flags
placed in an aquarium three weeks.
^Jennings, H. S. : Reaction of Ciliate Infusoria. Journal of Physi-
ology, Vol. 21, 1897, pp. 258-321.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 259
receive both digestible and indigestible material alike, and
when filled eject both alike? It is a physical impossibility to
receive even all the digestible material that comes their way.
If given yeast they will receive 2, 3, or 4 grains at once and
will then whirl the others away for 5, 10, sometimes 15 minutes
before admitting any more. So that what has been interpreted
as a selective process may be a reaction to "enough." To get
facts that would answer the question one would have to first
find a material^ that they reject^ altogether, then mix it with a
palatable food, say yeast grains, and note their reactions toward
the mixture.
I present in Table I the notes from my diary on a typical ex-
periment with vorticella. It presents nothing essentially new
or different from the work of Drs. Hodge and Aiken, save that
yeast is a food for all the V. that I observed.
Again, do they discern between enemies and friends, between
what is harmful and unharmful? If they do, we should expect
to see the stalk contract in the presence of certain objects and
remain extended in others or even remain in contact with them;
and if they do not, we should expect the stalk to contract when
the calyx comes in contact with any rigid, resisting, unmanage-
able object, organic or inorganic, dead or living matter. The
latter condition is just what we do find. Vorticella takes no
risks, trusts nothing, as it were, but contracts the stalk when-
ever the sensitive parts of the calyx or cilia meet with any re-
sisting body whatsoever. I have observed the stalk contract
when yeast cells and other food material came floating by in
unmanageable quantities, or when the peristomal region came
in contact with a large colon}^ of bacteria — if the colony is small,
they are hurled away b}^ the cilia. I counted 118 stalk con-
tractions due to the calyx hitting a dead leaf fibre. How long
it had been reacting to this particular object, and how much
longer it would have continued, had no accident intervened, can
only be conjectured.
It seems to me all that we can say here is that the sense of
touch mediates bigness, and persistence or rigidity, and reactions
to such stimuli imply nothing more than simple mechanical
reflexes.
Under the category of reproductive activities it is sometimes
urged that the attachment of the free-swimming zoid near the
base of the calyx is an expression of choice of selection on
the part of the zoid, and therefore psychic. The zoospores of
the cryptogamic world do equally as clever things in selecting
^This problem was suggested to me by Dr. Adolf Meyer.
*The substance would have to be partly insoluble, at least in water,
and of low specific gravity. I suggest pepsin, lycopodium powder,
a few of the salts of calcium and barium, ground glass and the like.
26o
KLINE
the right oospore in which to penetrate. My fondness for mys-
ticism and the * * brand-new' ' is too feeble to urge me to invade
the botanist's realm searching for psychological material.
The presence of a psychoses is not denied. There may be
feelings corresponding to the stimuli bigness, rigidity or per-
sistence, whenever the organism mechanically responds to such.
All that I aiSrm is that these activities give no indication that
they are the outcome of the exercise of a psychical principle.
Table containing the observations on Vorticella gracilis.
Experiment 12.
Date and time. Contraction of Stalk.
Kov.
22,7
,00 A.M.
45 "
05 "
45 "
*' 9-45 "
" 9-55 "
" 10.00 "
" 10.10 "
" 10.30 *'
None.
None. Stalk well
extended.
Regularly.
Feeble.
4 X per min.
Less frequent.
None.
Once,whenalarge
torulae struck the
body near the
mouth parts.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Remarks.
Cilia moving slowly. Vesicle closing
about 3 per min.
Feeding occasionally. Takes in yeast
grains.
Stopped feeding.
A swift current bearing yeast grains has
just started up. The long axis of stalk
and bell are in line with current.
Feeding again. Taken in two yeast grs.
Takes in yeast grs. occasionally, permits
the great majority to go by after being
twirled rapidly by the cilia. It is a phy-
sical impossibility to take in all the
yeast grains that come by, or, for that
matter, other food material. The food
revolves around a common center. The
diameter of each revolution of any one
revolving food mass grows shorter.
The food thus approaches the center,
but not quite, as it gradually works to-
ward the mouth when nearing com-
plete digestion.
Feeding slowly. Takes in 3 or 4 yeast
grs. at once, then sets them to revolv-
ing with the great mass of food.
Has turned the bell almost at right
angles to the stream, (the stalk is in
line with the stream). This offers a
better position for taking food.
Two yeast grains, after making one
revolution, were hurled out not seri-
uosly injured.
Ejected yeast detritus, i, e.y cells that
had been digested to a shapeless mass.
Followed two yeast grains through one
revolution ; time, 4 min. and 45 sec,
about.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY.
261
Table containing the observations of Vorticella gracilis.
(Continued.)
Date and time. Contraction of Stalk,
Remarks.
Nov.
22,10.35
10.45
10.55
11.03
" 11.30 **
" 11.55 A.M.
'• 12 M.
None.
Once, violent.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Regularly.
•* 12.15 P.M.
" 12.20 "
Rapid and vio-
lent.
Irregular but
strong.
" 12.45 "
None.
" 12.55 "
None.
" I.15 "
" 2.00 ♦'
No. 2 violent and
rapid.
Feeble.
" 2.15 "
Occasionally.
•' 2.16 "
None.
" 2.18 "
Twice, violent.
" 2.30 ♦'
None.
" 2.40 "
None.
" 3.00 "
Occasionally.
A torulae of six grains rest on the base
of the bell. V. does not move — in-
different to their touch. Heretofore,
when a similar bunch was caught
about cilia and lip, contraction of
stalk followed at once.
Threw off the chain of torulae at base.
It had supported the chain 15 min.
Revolution of food not regular. Some-
times it moves by jerks.
The body has been distended with yeast
grs. for one hour.
Yeast cells in all degrees of digestion.
Body growing shorter and thicker.
Body has two mouths — a clearage line
can be made out. At one edge of the
field V. No. 2, that has likewise been
under observation from the beginning,
is also dividing. Differed from V. No.
I only in feeding; has eaten less yeast,
digested all.
Division complete with No. 2, making
two bells attached to the same stalk.
At close of clearage No. 2 daughters were
roundish, dumpy, now becoming more
bell shaped.
No. I has completed divison. Neither No.
I nor No. 2 have taken food for 45 min.
No. 2 has begun to feed — taken in three
yeast grains.
No. 2 has lost her daughter. No. i eat-
ing yeast grains again.
No. I daughter bell detached. No. r
throwing out digested material. Cur-
rent has slowed up, yeast grains
scarce.
Cilia are developing about the base.
Has stopped feeding, ejected most of
detritus. Mouth cilia moving slowly
and body elongating.
Body rotating around stalk and quiver-
ing with violent action. Current nil.
Broken off from stalk and swimming
away, having been under observation
7 hrs., 18 min.
Current in region of No. 2 has run con-
tinuously.
Feeding on yeast and other material that
has somehow fallen into the current.
Stuffed with yeast, body bent obliquely
to the stream.
262
KLINE :
Table containing the observations of Vorticella gracilis.
(Concluded.)
Date and time. Contraction of Stalk.
Nov.
22, 3.
" 3
" 4
" 5
" 5-IO
5-35
" 6.
" 6,
'* 6.
" 7-
" 7-
23> 7-
05 "
30 P.M.
45 "
00 "
15 "
30 A.M.
8.00
9.00
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Once. Bell struck
by a monster.
Feeble.
Occasionally.
Violent.
4 X per min.
Few.
Every time cilia
twirls bacteria or
run into a mass
too thick to be
twirled.
Violent.
Remarks.
Yeast grains revolving — being digested.
Ejecting detritus, taking in yeast grs.
and other foods.
Vesicle contracts about 3 x per min.
For the last hour but little feeding, no
yeast received, body filled with it.
Food massed being churned, moved back
and forth through the long axis of bell
instead of revolving.
Filled like a balloon, takes in a yeast gr.
occasionally. The great majority are
made to pass on.
Food mass revolving again.
Body shortening and thickening.
Second division has begun.
Cleavage line distinct. Two mouths.
Division complete.
No. 2 still in the field — bacteria have
developed during night to an alarming
degree.
Body well filled.
Had stopped feeding for some time.
Developed cilia and at 9 A. M. floated
away. It had been under observation
26 hrs., 12 hrs. and 15 min. of which
were constant.
Wasps. (^Polistes rubiginosus.')
Se7ise of Smell.
The apparatus^ consisted of a board 48 inches long and 15
inches wide, on which was built a glass hallway 18 inches long,
I J^ inches wide and i inch high. One end of this long hall
opened into two halls of similar dimensions, save their lengths,
which was 9 inches. These short halls diverged from each
other at an angle 70°. Both led into a single box, which was
usually kept dark. These short halls I called "forks." The
floor and top of the halls were glass. The odor was dropped
on cotton batting the size of a pea. Odorous cotton was placed
in the fork about 3 inches from the end of the long hall. At
the same time the opposite fork contained a bit of odorless cot-
^For valuable help and suggestions in the construction of apparatus
and experimentation, I desire to thank Mr. Willard S. Small.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 263
tou — the object being to present as far as possible similar con-
ditions to the eye. The apparatus was placed directly in front
and about twelve feet from a window. The end containing the
dark box was kept toward the window. The wasps used were a
large, reddish, yellow-bodied, black-winged social species, Poli-
sies rubigi?iosiis, sent me from Virginia. While being introduced
into the glass hall at the end away from the light, they were
handled by broad and very pliable forceps. Gentle handling
must be observ^ed. At the close of each experiment the halls
were thoroughly deodorized. This requires much time. The
experiment should be performed on bright days, and in a tem-
perature not below 60 F. The following odors were used :
asafoetida, bergamot, carbolic acid, cinnamon, cologne, oil of
cologne, cloves, pennyroyal, tar, turpentine, violet, sassafras,
alcohol and spearmint. I have copied below three experiments
from my notebook, the rest are presented in tabulated form.
Odor : Carbolic Acid. Number of Wasps used : Four.
Odor on the Right,
Wasp No. I. Stopped about four inches in front of the forks — rubbed
antennae vigorously with fore leg for about 30 seconds, then took the
left hand fork to the dark box.
Wasp No. I. Stopped about six inches in front of the forks and after
much hesitation and turning back and walking nearly the whole length
of the hall, he went in on the left side.
Wasp No. I. Walked straight down left fork without halting.
Wasp No. 2. Stopped about four inches in front of forks, then turned
back. Approached again, crawled back and forth from fork to fork;
at last crawled up to the top glass of the right fork and crawled into
the box back down.
Wasp No. 2. Much excited — mad — crawled right over odorous cot-
ton and went in box via right side.
Wasp No. 2. Approaches forks slowly, much brushing of antennae ;
at last takes left fork to box.
Odor on the Left.
Wasp No. I. Went in via left — crawled over the odorous cotton.
Wasp No. I. Went in via left, hugged the sides of the wall while
passing the odor.
Wasp No. 2. Went via right, after much hesitation at forks.
Wasp No. 2. Went via left, but avoided the odor by hugging the
side of the wall.
Wasp No. 3. Went via right fork after halting one minute at the
forks.
Wasp No. 3. Went via right ; seemed much confused.
Wasp No. 3. Went via left after much hesitation and turning back
and forth ; hugged the under side of the top glass.
Wasp No. 4. Went via right; seemed pure chance.
Wasp No. 4. Went via right after much waving of antennae and
examining both roads.
Wasp No. 4. Stopped at forks, started down left, recoiled, and
crawled back to the far end of the gallery ; returns, stops at forks,
cleans antennae, then goes via right fork.
264 KLINE :
Summary.
Sixteen tests, thirteen of which showed conclusively that the
odor was sensed, and eleven that it was objectionable.
Odor : Tar. Number of Wasps Used : Two.
Odor on the Right,
Wasp No. I. Went via left fork ; pure chance.
Wasp No. I. Went via left ; seemed not yet to have sensed it.
Wasp No. I. Went via right ; gave no attention to tar.
Wasp No. 2. Went via right fork ; indifferent to tar. Cannot tell
whether tar was even sensed.
Wasp No. 2 went in via right fork ; came out of dark box into right
fork, walked over the odorous cotton; seemed quite indifferent.
Odor : Absolute Alcohol. Number of Wasps Used :
Four.
Odor 071 Right.
Wasp No. I. Halted four minutes about three inches in front of
odor, brushed antennae vigorously, then crawled up the side of wall of
right fork and passed into dark box.
Wasp No. I. Went via left fork ; this time seemed pure chance.
Wasp No. I. Went via left fork, halted some time about two inches
in front of odor, reared back, and finally took left fork to dark box.
Wasp No. 2. Turned down right fork, ^topped about 2>^ inches be-
fore odor, waved and stroked antennae vigorously, reared back and
plunged forward repeatedly, finally crawled in back down, on under
side of top glass.
Wasp No. 2. Halted at forks, brushed antennae, went in via left fork.
Odor on Left.
Wasp No. 3. Went in via left fork ; avoided odor by hugging the
side walls. Was mad and excited.
Wasp No. 3. Went via right ; still mad.
Wasp No. 4. Walks slowly down gallery ; stops at forks, waves
antennae and strokes them vigorously ; then crawls up to the top glass
and starts down the left fork ; stops just before getting to odor, turns
back and forth in much confusion ; finally turned back and went via
right fork.
Wasp No. 4. Went via right fork ; did not halt anywhere on the
road.
Wasp No. 3. Started down left fork, stopped in front of odor for
some time, then turned back and forth repeatedly, finally crawled in
via left fork, hugging side of the wall.
Wasp No. 3. Went via right, did not stop at forks.
Put 3 and 4 in long gallery together. No. 3 crawled down right side,
did not halt at forks, kept straight ahead to dark box via right
fork ; and No. 4 stopped after entering the left fork, turned back
and went via right fork.
Summary for Tar and Alcohol.
Tar may be sensed ; it certainly is not objectionable. The
twelve tests with alcohol show that it is sensed and that it is
decidedly objectionable.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOIvOGY. 265
Unobjectionable. Objectionable. Doubtful.
Tar Asafoetida Cinnamon
Turpentine. Bergatnot Violet
Carbolic Acid Sassafras
Cologne^
Oil of Cologne
Cloves
Pennyroyal
Alcohol
Spearmint
Conclusions, (i) wasps readily sense odors; (2) some are
much more objectionable than others, e. ,^. . spearmint caused
the most violent reactions. They moved up and down the
galleries as if frightened or pursued by an enemy ; (3) some
odors, as tar, turpentine, are not disagreeable ; (4) there is
much evidence showing that the sense of smell fatigues — more
observations, made with the greatest precautions, are needed to
make this conclusive.
Chicks.
I used chicks of two incubations of about five weeks apart.
The first group were returned to their rightful parent at about
the age of eighteen hours. To the second group I was foster
parent fourteen days, and from their standpoint many days
longer, for they often ran joyfully to me and followed me when
I went among the farm poultry. They knew no other parent.
Both groups, which were cross-breeds of Plymouth Rock, Leg-
horn, and Minorca, w^ere taken from the hen eight to twelve
hours before they had pecked through their shells, and kept
awhile in warm water and then transferred to an incubator.
Group one, consisting of two little birds. At the age of four
hours I placed them on a large newspaper spread on the floor.
Their repeated efforts to stand erect invariably resulted in their
toppling over sometimes forward, sometimes backward to a
complete somersault. The tarso- metatarsus (featherless por-
tion of the leg) does foot duty at this age, so that the distal end
of the leg when standing is the tibio-tarsus. Walking is
really running, darting forward from 16 to 30 inches and end-
ing in a sprawl. After attempts to stand or walk, they take
cat-naps.
These naps occur every few minutes, during which time the
neck is stretched at full length on the floor and the head rest-
ing on one side. They nap most frequently in direct patches
of sunlight. On awaking, clumsy attempts are made to smooth
out the matted down — their only feathers — which had been un-
^ It was thought that the objectionable element in cologne was the
alcohol. The oil of cologne contains no alcohol, but they still avoided
it, even though a very small drop was used.
J0URNA.1,— 7
266 KLINK :
kempt from the beginning. Only bright objects or strongly
contrasted colored objects are noticed and pecked; large letters
on the paper, bright threads in the carpet, at crawling flies,
but with no success; bits of white pine, at their own and each
other's toes, and at each other's bills, eyes and combs. At
times they try to hover or cuddle under each other. I hold
my hand over them under which they huddled close together.
They act similarly toward almost any object held gently to
their backs and heads — a stick of wood, a flannel rag, a shoe,
a sock, a tin pan.
A^e, six hours. Gave them crumbs of dough and bits of ^gg
shells at which they frequently pecked but very seldom swal-
lowed. They seized fairly well whatever they aimed at, but
seemed to have trouble in holding it and getting it adjusted
for deglutition. They follow, although their pursuit is inter-
rupted by frequent falls, any comparatively large moving ob-
ject: a hat, a folded garment, a tin pan, the cat, a person. I
walk by one piping the want note, which by the way is their
earliest and most frequent note, to a doorway ten feet distant,
pass through the doorway over a sill ten inches wide inclined
at an angle of fifteen degrees, the lower edge one and one-half
inches high, into the next room and step behind the door.
The chick makes the door sill in two runs, and to my surprise
gets upon and over the inclined door sill and enters the room
to a distance of eight or ten feet, looking and piping to the
fullest capacity of its voice. Finally it takes a nap.
Age, eight hours. One swallows a dead fly after mangling it.
I clap my hands close to their heads, make a loud hissing
noise, they take no notice of either noise. I thrum on a guitar;
this startles them, but they settle down so soon as the noise
ceases and sleep, especially if the thrumming lasts from 30 to 45
seconds. Later they chirp the want note vehemently. I
sneeze — they stop chirping for some seconds. Striking a pan
has the same effect.
Group two consists of four chicks. Chicks Nos. i and 2 born
August 28, 4 p. M., No. 3 August 29, II A. M., and No. 4 at 3
p. M.
77 hours old. August 29, 9 a. m. Nos. i and 2 now 17
hours old are placed in their poultry yard, 4 ft. wide, 5 ft. long
and 2 ft. high — built in an attic with southern exposure. I
give them cracked wheat, bits of half matured maize. They
peck at the larger pieces of food and succeed in getting them
into their mouths, but allow them to fall out. At last No. 2,
the larger and brighter of the two, after making three trials to
swallow a half a grain of wheat succeeds in the fourth attempt.
They do not confine their attention long — 15 seconds to about
30 seconds — to the different foods, in fact they are more con-
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 267
cerned about the objects in their new quarters. Everything
attracts them with about equal force. They have had no ex-
perience from which to form preferences. (// to i8 hours
old.) Accordingly all objects within reach must be exam-
ined— the large letters and figures of the newspaper, the
cracks in the floor, the wood work of their yard. They
follow moving objects occasionally. The walking mechanism
is fairly co-ordinated and under control. They never topple
over backwards, and rarely tumble while moving forward.
Loud and sudden noises shock them — not quite fright, for
they never try to escape. Banging on a tin pan, thrum-
ming a guitar, tooting a horn, clapping the hands, causes them
to start, squat and shudder.
2 p. M. No. 2, 22 hours old, catches and swallows a wing-
less fly. I drop an earth worm {Lumbricus) before them. No.
I looks at its serpentine movements, steps back skittishly, and
gives for the first time the well known danger churr, ap-
proaches the worm, pecks it, wipes his bill, pecks again and
then lets it alone. I give them two more worms. No. 2 spies
and approaches one, strikes it twice, wipes his bill, and lets
them alone. Their bills are yet too weak to seize earth worms.
4 p. m.y chicks one day old. I heard an unusual piping in
my poultry yard. No. 2 had jumped out of the warm box — a
feat five inches up and a fall fourteen inches — into the yard.
He is now the sole occupant. When I approach he scurries
behind the box and crowds close up in the corner of the yard.
This is the first time that he seems afraid of me, or has shown
signs of genuine fear. I drop earth worms in the yard a
second time, both show signs of fright and do not even peck at
them.
No. 3, born 11 a. m. Placed it on a newspaper at 3 p. m.
Its efforts to stand, walk and swallow, closely parallel those of
I and 2. It made three attempts to follow me, and one to over-
take an old garment folded up and dragged slowly by it. I
did not permit it to overtake the garment. Later drew it by
several times, but it took no further notice of this garment. It
sleeps when not molested.
No. 4 or " the lonely chick," born August 29, 3 p. m. This
chick is completely isolated from all others of its kind for four
days less eight hours. His food is confined to bits of half
matured maize and occasionally cracked wheat and water. Of
course he gains a knowledge of the food qualities through ex-
perience.by pecking at the several objects of his prison, e. g.y
specks in the carpet, nail heads, rollers of table, large letters in
the newspaper, etc.
Second day. August 30, 7 A. m. No. 2, as before, has
jumped out of his box and shows signs of fear at my approach.
268 KLINE :
but when I hold out my hand he runs to it and eagerly sur-
veys it. Yesterday he avoided his excrement after four expe-
riences pecking at it. This morning he shows evident signs of
disgust at the first trial.
9 A. M. I place a tin of water on the floor. All three run
up and peck the brighter portions of the vessel while walking
around it. I trouble the water gently by rocking the vessel.
No. 2 sees the ripples, stretches his neck to examine, at the
same time stepping back and uttering the danger churr. This
is not at the motion of the tin, for they have been accustomed
to this all along. When the surface of the water quiets, No. 2
approaches and begins pecking at shiny places as before. In
doing this he throws a bit of cracked wheat lying on his head
into the water, he seizes and swallows it as usual and smacks
his bill, as if tasting, then thrusts it into the water up to his
eyes, turning his head up he drank after the characteristic
chick fashion. This was an entirely new movement, for bill,
head and neck. It was executed to perfection. He dips his
bill in twice more and as deep as before. This seems unpleas-
ant, for he walks away hurriedly each time and wipes and
scratches his bill. A bit of spider web thoroughly filled with
wood dust bored out by a bee fell into the yard. No. 2 pecked
at it six times. It gives him no satisfaction. He let it alone.
Nos. I and 3 then give their attention to it. They soon desert
it.
10.30 A. M. Offer them water a second time. No. i dis-
covers it for himself somewhat as No. 2, i. e., by pecking at
a speck on its surface. Both i and 2 now drink together.
No. 3 steps up and watches the motions of No. i in a single
act of drinking. He immediately begins to drink. No. 2
has learned to thrust his bill in at the ordinary depth. I offer
them an earth worm for the third time, this time as food, in
my hand. All come up and look in. No. 2, who leads in
everything, sees it crawling, gives the danger note, at this the
others look more intently, then all walk away. They fear
more things with age. Sounds that yesterday were unheeded
are to-day listened to with surprise and fear. They shy away
short distances whenever I approach. My hand, to which they
have become accustomed, brings them back. Evidently they
have not become acquainted with my body as a whole.
4.30 p. M. I give them bits of yellow pine in one portion of
their yard and cracked grains of yellow maize in another. The
morsels of food look not unlike. They eat the maize as usual.
No. 2 seizes a bit of pine, fumbles it in his mouth, drops it,
tries another, drops it likewise, and pays no further attention
to the wood. No. 3 tries three different pieces before swal-
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 269
lowing one. He swallowed two bits, then turned to the heap
of maize.
5.30 p. M. I gave them bits of starched muslin cut about
I mm. square from old collars and cuffs. All three attack the
little pile eagerly. No. i swallowed a piece; No. 3 ran off with
quite a large piece; the others gave chase. This heightened,
apparently, the desire of each to secure it. They snatch it
from each other's mouths until No. 3 despatches it. They re-
turn to the muslin, look at it, pick up pieces lightly and drop
them. Their appetites for muslin soon quail. It was the last
that I persuaded them to eat. Competition even at two days
old spurs them on to more prodigious tasks. No. 2 has tried
repeatedly to swallow a whole grain of maize, but without suc-
cess. No. I attempts to snatch it away. The grain passes
back and forth from mouth to mouth, while chasing each other
around the yard, until finally No. 2, although hard pressed,
makes an unusual effort to swallow it and succeeds.
4 p. M. No. 4, the chick in solitude now one day old, is
offered a tin of water. Gives it no attention. Drop food near
the sides of the vessel, and later a few bits in the water. It
seizes the food on the water, thereby getting water in its
mouth. The stimulus touches off the drinking apparatus, for
it at once goes through the drinking movements. But the
water seems to frighten it very much. It runs off some dis-
tance; wipes its bill repeatedly. 1 coax in vain for it to return
to the tin of water.
Third day. August 31, 9.15 A. M. I give Nos. i, 2 and 3
green cabbage worms for the second time. No. 2, as usual,
gave danger churr, all walk away. They still fear earth
worms. Nos. i and 3 contend over a bit of muslin, but soon
neglect it. I threw them several bits of muslin — all came up
and looked at it and then walked away. They treat pine wood
similarly. Show joy when I sprinkle wheat and Indian meal
on the floor by running up and flapping their wings. They
devote more time to preening their feathers and stretching in
the sun. I thrum the guitar as on first day. No. 2 scurries
away behind the warm box, and 3 runs and squats as if hid-
ing. I wave the guitar over the yard once. No. i runs
screaming to the farthest corner and tucks^his head under the
edge of the paper that forms the wall to their yard. A wasp
flies against the window. No. 2 gives the danger sign, the
rest listen. A sailing cloud throws a rapidly moving shadow
across their home, it frightens them very much.
10 A. M. No. 4, now nearly two days old, is again offered
water. It looked in the vessel then walks away, did this three
times.
September i, 8 a. m. Nos. i, 2 and 3 still avoid earth
270 KI.INE :
worms, caterpillars and green canker worms. They learned to
drink milk yesterday in much the same way as they did water.
They show no sign to-day of having seen it before. They ap-
proach it cautiously, peck around the edges of the tin for six
minutes, and after much stretching and craning of their necks
in looking at the milk, begin to drink it. Their experience
with the white boring grub is interesting. Nos. i and 2 are
afraid of it, No. 3 seizes the grub while curled up, looking not
unlike a grain of corn. No. i gives chase, and, as usual, the
desire for the worm is increased until No. 3 swallows it. I
give them three more grubs. The grubs begin crawling, and
so long as this is kept up the chicks give the usual danger note
and crane their necks forward in fear and wonder. The small-
est of the grubs stops crawling, No. 3 seizes and swallows it at
once. This, I judge, encouraged him to try the second largest.
No. 2, by imitation, seized the largest grub, which I had con-
sidered too large for them to swallow. The others endeavored
to share so large a morsel with No. 2. This precipitated quite
a tussle, which ceased by the lucky one despatching the grub.
12 M. I take Nos. i, 2 and 3 on an outing, as it were, of one
hour and forty-five minutes, into a large grass plot. While here
their behavior, more than ever, impresses me of the great
importance that experience plays in their acquaintance with
the chicken world. They were unusually active the entire
time, pecking at the diifferent grasses, seeds, sticks, dried
leaves, bees, crawling ants. The bright husks of the pepper
weed and the seeds of the short wire grass received their first
attention because of their brightness. I concealed two black
watermelon seeds under a tuft of grass, farther on a yellow
seed, and in a third place the seeds of a cantaloupe. They
discovered all three in due time — each discovery was attended
with notes of surprise, and the investigation set out with cautious
pecking. It seems that their nerves are keyed for responses
to every stimuli of sight and sound, that their organism is es-
sentially nervous, responding and adjusting to a novel environ-
ment. No. 3 spied an earth worm coming out of the ground.
He seized it at once, and pulled and tugged at it not unlike
robin red-breast in a similar feat. This was the first earth
worm eaten. No. 4 (the lonely chick) is not thriving like his
congeners. His body is becoming short and rounded, * ' dumpy;"
the head is drawn in close to the body. When not eating he
pipes the lonely want note. His efforts to make friends with a
half-grown cat was an amusing performance. Its first ad-
vances were met by gentle soft taps from the kitten, for which
attention it chirped the satisfied note, and made repeated at-
tempts to cuddle up in the kitten's fur. This appeared to
annoy her felineship. She began moving backwards on three
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 27 1
feet, using a fore foot to bar the chick's too familiar advances.
Her pats finally grew to taps, then to slaps, and at last to a
severe box that sent the chick rolling over several times. This
experience destroyed the chick's desire for further affiliation
with the cat. Nos. i, 2 and 3 after eating a full meal spend
much time in making their toilet, basking in the sunshine and
engaging in mock fights. These and other activities essen-
tially chick-like, are the fullest and most varied after a sump-
tuous meal.
Fourth day. September 2d. They still show signs of fear
when I drop a small earth worm before them. But this time
No. 3 seizes one before it begins crawling. This whets the
appetites of the others. I divert the pursuer's attention by
dropping another worm, it is seized and carried to one corner
to be devoured. They now seize small moving worms, but
large crawling ones overtax their courage. They are now in-
difierent toward green cabbage worms, do not even show signs
of fear in their presence. White grubs are attacked and
eaten, if not crawling; the crawling grub presents a sight too
hideous for them, even at the age of four days.
No. 4 — the lonely chick — now nearing the age of four days,
is brought from his isolated quarters to my poultry yard. He
presents a dumpy, ill-conditioned form and a fretful, timorous
attitude, yet always ready to eat. The three approach and
station themselves in a semi-circle about the stranger. Nos. i
and 2 give the astonish or surprise chuckle. All three stretch
their necks and peer scrutinizingly at the intruder as if ' * to
look^ him out " of their presence. No. i advances and strikes
him a severe blow on the head. He attempts to return it, but
is struck again and seized by the head and pulled and jerked
about in battle royal fashion. At this treatment he screams the
shrill cry of distress and tries to escape from the 3^ard. He is
nagged for some minutes, and finally permitted to stand in one
comer and utter those lonely piteous cries that he has been
making ever since he began to walk.
I now distribute several kinds of food in distant parts of
their yard, thereby increasing the unwelcome stranger's oppor-
tunities for getting his breakfast. He makes good use of the
advantage, and snatches a morsel now here, now there. Al-
though he is occasionally struck at, it is apparent that his
presence is becoming more tolerable, and in time will be
suffered to remain in peace. And so he was at the expiration
of two hours with all four basking together in a parallelogram
of sunshine. They lie on one side, stretch the free leg and
^The reader will understand this phrase as merely descriptive of
their appearance and nothing more.
272 KI.INK :
wing at full length. So well at ease had No. 4 become that
while thus stretched out on the floor, he raised the free ex-
panded wing and fanned it gently back and forth showing
every sign of comfort. This is the first time he has shown
genuine contentment. It took companionship to make his life
complete. I gave them grubs and earth worms, which were
eagerly devoured, after which I offered them green cabbage
worms. This was No. 4's first experience with worms of any
sort. He had just witnessed the others eat grubs and earth
worms with impunity. So when the green cabbage worms
appeared, he did not hesitate to devour them while the others
stood back or walked away. But his spirited and ravenous
dealing with the worms induced the others to rob him of a
worm — a lively chase ensues which ends in the competitors
devouring, fragments of the worm.
The only activity during their outing to-day (ages four and
five days) that deserves notice is that of wallowing on the hard
ground and shuffling the wings after the manner of full feath-
ered birds when taking a sand bath. The motion of the wing,
when sand is present, both gathers and throws the sand over
the entire body not unlike a shower bath. The movement
appears complex.
Fifth day. September 3, 7 A. m. Cabbage worms are
offered No. 4 the second time. Nos. i, 2 and 3 stand aloof.
No. 4 eats one, wipes his bill vigorously several times, returns
to the squirming heap, shakes his head. He never ate cabbage
worms after that. My chicks have a peculiar way of shaking
or slinging the head — as if in disgust, at the sight of an object
disagreeable to their taste. Again during their outing they in-
dulge in attempts to wallow on the hard ground. They made
a similar attempt on the floor. They now appear to know their
' ' outing grounds. ' ' So soon as placed on the ground they
run and dart hither and thither and flap their wings, and en-
gage in mock fights.^ This usually begins by a sudden and
simultaneous darting about and clapping the wings, and then
rushing together giving each other light pecks. They are less
timid, pay less attention to the various noises and sights about
them, and wander farther away from me and from each other.
When these little excursions isolate them the lost note is piped.
They always find their way back. To-day for the first time
they give evidence of wishing to perch in high places. No. i,
after walking around a basket, five inches high, several times
and looking at its top, mounts to its rim, and as soon as he has
balanced himself sits down. Later at roosting time he tries to
1 See Wundt, pp. 357-8, and Karl Groos: The Play of Animals. D.
Appleton Co., N. Y., 1898.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 273
fly to a horizontal stick four inches high, forming a part of
the yard's frame- work. He also flies up the side of the paper
wall and pipes the distress note when he wants to go to roost.
He invariably chooses the same corner of the wall over which
he attempts to make his escape, and although he mounts only a
very small fraction of the wall, his efforts never tire in covering
that small distance. I offer them again bits of muslin and pine
wood, which they have not seen for three days. The muslin
is ignored, several pieces of pine are picked up and dropped by
each one. No. 2 finally swallows a piece — the fifth that he had
examined. He walks away and wipes his bill. Four days later
1 offer them pine wood. It received no attention this time even
though I continued to sprinkle it before them as I do grain.
Sixth day. September 4th. After eating their breakfast,
wallowing in fresh, loose ground and preening feathers, Nos.
2 and 4 engage in a mock fight. No. 4 sits on the bottom rung
of a ladder, the top of which rests on the top of the yard en-
closure, thus affording an outlet, should they make an effort to
use it. This occurred at 8 A. m. At 8.45 No. 3 walks half-
way up the ladder and sits down. No. 4 attempts to fly up to
No. 3, but fails. No. 3 gets up and continues his way up the
ladder; at a height of 18 inches he stops, looks about, both feet
and wings tremble and quiver. Steadying himself, he turns
around and descends the ladder to a height of 10 inches, sits
down and completes his toilet in apparent ease. They now
seize earthworms whether moving or crawling.
An instinctive movement was made by No. 2 at the close of
his toilet exercise, that is both comical and instructive. After
smoothing out the pin feathers of his breast and straightening
out the sprouting remiges, he stretched up at full height,
flapped his wings against his sides in approved gallinaceous
style, and at the close of the wing movements swished and
wiggled the little bunch of cottony pin feathers that occupy the
place of the future tail feathers — a beautiful illustration of com-
plete development and co-ordination of both nervous and mus-
cular apparatus long before there is any need of their func-
tioning; for the tail feathers over which these nerves and
muscles have control did not show themselves until three weeks
later.
Seventh day. September 5th. I notice that they are quite
sensitive to changes of temperature. No. i stepped on a
motionless earth worm. The foot was taken off with a sudden
jerk. It had not noticed the worm. I laid a cold copper wire
down, one stepped on it and immediately jerked the foot up.
Their room has a southeast exposure. The first rays of the
sun fall on the right wall of their yard about one foot from the
floor. They spend much time in looking at the bright spot.
274 KLINE :
It descends obliquely to the floor, reaching it in about twenty
minutes. They have now learned to stand ready waiting for
the warm rays to fall on them. These September mornings are
chilly. The direct sunlight reaches the left side of the yard by
noon. They follow it up as it crosses the yard whenever they
make their toilet or wish to cat-nap.
8.30 A. M. No. 3 mounts the ladder and climbs the rungs
quite a distance, sits down at a height of 1 1 inches. Nos. 2
and 4 stand under him, stretching and peering their heads up,
and try to fly up. It did not occur to them to walk to the lower
end of the ladder and walk up. This is the third time that No.
3 has perched on the ladder, and every time 2 and 4 have tried
to reach him by flight, standing directly under, notwithstanding
too, that both have seen No. 3 begin his ascent at the end of
the ladder.
'5 p. M. No. 4 for the first time walks to the top of the lad-
der. This gave him a view of the world outside the poultry
yard. He looked intently in several directions and at times
uttered notes of surprise and the * ' wonder chuckle. ' ' He
walked a short distance from the end of the ladder out on the
top of the wall of the yard. He looked first on the outside, then
on the inside, as if in doubt which way to fly. He finally flew
down in his old yard. No. i for the past three days grows very
restless at the approach of night and tries to escape as before
described. He walks around the four sides of the yard; on
reaching the fourth corner he attempts to fly oyer. He is as
persistent in his efforts as a bee against a window pane. He
has ample opportunities for learning to use the ladder, but pays
no attention to it when he wishes to escape. All have taken a
turn in walking up the ladder, save No. 2, who is very large
for his age, with wings undeveloped. He never shows discon-
tent. His fellows have small bodies but rapidly growing wings.
They grow restless. No. 4 has made two more excursions ta
the top of the ladder. An outside ladder butts against the in-
side one at the top of the yard wall. No. 4 stepped on this
ladder, walked down two rungs, uttered a cry of fear, stepped
off" backwards on to the inside one and walked down into the
yard.
Eighth day. September 6th, 6.45 A. m. Gave them green
canker (cabbage) worms. They gave the surprise chuckle,
finally No. 4 seized one, then all gave chase until he swallowed
it. All return to the worms, but refuse to take hold. They
begin to clamor for food.
7.30 A. M. They have had a sumptuous breakfast. Preen-
ing feathers, mock fights and the like follow. No. 4 has walked
to the top of the ladder four times since breakfast. He has
stepped on the outside ladder twice. The others still watch
METHODS IN ANIMAI. PSYCHOLOGY. 275
him as if they too would like to climb up. During the forenoon
he climbed the ladder fourteen times. Sometimes he would
step on to the outside ladder but never ventured to walk down.
After his noon meal he walked up the ladder and out on the top
of the poultry yard fence. He walked back and forth leisurely
on the wall and while attempting to catch a passing fly he
slipped off and dropped on the outside. He showed signs at
once of desiring to return to the yard. He walked around and
under the outside ladder. It was made exactly like the inside
ladder and leaned against the wall at the same angle, but it
never occurred to him to use it. During the space of an hour
he walked back and forth along the wall thirty-two times, and
put his head through a small crack, looking into the yard,
thirty-eight times. Toward the end of the hour he became
more reconciled to his lot and began to search for food.
Ninth day. For some time they have been pulling off bits
of paper forming the wall to their yard to get the flour
paste used in their wall paper. To-day they pecked and
pulled at a piece that turned in until they made an opening
large enough through which to escape. They walked out. I
put them back. They went at once to work and pulled it in
and up. Out they went again. This was repeated until I
fixed it securely. I kept them in their poultry yard until the
age of fourteen days. They never learned to use the two lad-
ders as a means of egress and ingress, although I frequently
put them through the movements of climbing one ladder and
descending the other. ^
Conclusions.
1. Both hearing and sight are dull during the greater part
of the first day. They develop very rapidly the second and
third day, being highly sensitive on the third to any and all
sounds and noises.
2. Pecking is better developed from the first than swallow-
ing, in fact the muscles for holding the head erect, for con-
trolling the jaws, and the process of deglutition are very weak
the first 8 or 10 hours.
3. Fear increases with the development of sight and sound.
4. The instinct to follow soon fades out. Hovering and cud-
dling together are instinctive. Both Morgan and Mills seem to
think that hovering under the hand or following it is due to
the warmth it affords them. I find they follow any small mov-
ing object at first. Later the hand becomes a very interesting
object; their attachment grows out of its being their only source
of food.
1 To expect them to learn a task by forcing them through it, has im-
pressed me since as a very artificial if not an actually absurd thing to do.
276 KLINE :
5. Mock fights begin the third day, and shade over into
serious business the sixth week.
Wundt^ regards mock fighting as the only type of play
among animals, and interprets it along with Karl Groos^ as a
schooling to the serious struggles of adult life.
The different degrees of permanency of their associations
suggest a problem for extended work among several species.
They rejected pine wood after a few experiences at the age of
three days, but three days later they ate it again, while expe-
riences with muslin on the third day was lasting. They were
six days getting acquainted with earth worms, and eight days
with the canker worms.
They learn to do some things by imitation, e. ^., drinking,
learning to eat certain foods, escaping from their enclosure,
while other tasks of apparent equal simplicity are not learned.
Though the fortunate one performs the trick before them every
day. No. 2 learned to escape from the " warm box " at one
day old, the others, more agile in most things, never learned
the trick. I quit putting them into the box the fifth day. Dr.
Thorndike^ inclines strongly to the belief that domestic animals
do not imitate each others performances. This belief is founded
on the results from experiments conducted exclusively on what
I have called the experimental method. Describing his method he
says: " It was merely to put animals when hungry in enclos-
ures from which they could escape by some simple act, such as
pulling at a loop of cord, pressing a lever, or stepping on a
platform." The motives, then, played upon were hunger, de-
sire for freedom, and surely in many cases fear — especially
would this likely to be true with the young brought into novel
situations. Imitative activities form a good part of play activ-
ities— not all play is imitation, nor vice versa, but much of the
two are on common grounds, and find their fullest expression
under similar conditions. What are these conditions? Just
the opposite to those created in his experiments, viz., free-
dom, security from harm, satiety, in a word — well being. Noth-
ing so shrinks and inhibits completely the fullness and variety
of an organism's activities* than prison^ life* and fear."^ Dr.
Thorndike first teaches a chick to escape from a certain situa-
tion, then places along side of this one that ' ' knows the ropes ' '
1 Wundt : Human and Animal Psychology, p. 358.
'^ Groos, Karl : The Play of Animals. Translated edition, 1898.
3 Thorndike, Edward Iv.: Loc. cit., p. 6.
^ Verworn, M.: Pfliig. Archiv., Vol. ly, 1891, pp. 439-440.
^Cornish, C. J.: Animals at Work and Play, pp. 31-38, 1896.
•^ Jordan : Habits and Developments of Newts. Jour. Morphology,
Vol. VIII, pp. 269-366.
7 Kline, L. W.: Am. Jour. Psy., Vol. X, No. i, 1898.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 277
others entirely ignorant, and says by his experiment * ' imita-
tion if present will surely come forth." To get a particular
tone from a musical instrument we must play on certain defi-
nite keys. Dr. Thorndike has played the wrong keys. It
seems to me all that we can say at present is that some indi-
viduals of a species learn some things by imitation. I heartily
agree with Professor Mills who finds wide individual aptitudes
among members of the same brood, or family.
White Rat.
The object of the experiment with the white rat was to as-
certain its susceptibility to profit by experience, to test its
quickness to learn by appealing to its most dominant and char-
acteristic activity in food getting, the readiness with which
contiguous associations are built up.
For this purpose stimuli was addressed to the rats' pawing
and digging^ activity by means of the following device: (i)
A box 8 inches long, 7 inches wide, 6 inches deep, whose sides
were of wire, top of glass and bottom of wood, was put into
their home box, which also served for an observation box.
At one end of the floor of the small box a piece 3^^ inches
long and 2 inches wide was sawed out. The box was raised
above the level of the floor by resting on two strips i^
inches thick; (2) sand and sawdust was heaped up loosely
around the sides of the box until it rose a little above the level
of its floor; (3) food (dog biscuit and cheese) was put in the
box.
The observation box, containing two rats, was 18 inches
long, 14 inches wide and 14 inches deep, one side was wire,
one end glass, the rest of wood. The rats knew practically no
other home, they had been reared in much the same sort of
box. Before beginning the experiment I left the experiment
box in their home several days, so that they had become quite
familiar with it. Their exceeding timidity makes such pre-
cautions necessary.
Experiment 1. January 9th, 2 p. m. Both rats at once at-
tacked the box, crawled up the sides, over the top, and went
round and round in a very monotonous fashion — always smell-
ing. They persevered nearly an hour. At 3 p. m. their move-
ments were less decided, seemed more haphazard and indiffer-
ent. One gave up and returned to the nest, — the second,
somewhat more frisky, began scratching the sawdust in that
very instinctive fashion which I have observed them do under
1 1 am not yet satisfied that I have appealed to its dominant trait or
method of food getting. On a priori grounds I had thought that the
gnawing activity was the best developed — a tentative experiment
threw doubt on this and suggested the one used.
278 KLINE:
all sorts of conditions, even when they are well fed. It appears
to be a "wild trait in a tame animal," as Robinson^ has char-
acterized such more or less useless instinctive performances
among our domestic animals.
The hole thus accidentally dug happened to be at the end of
the box where the piece had been taken out of the floor. The
rat immediately poked its nose into the new opening which
was not large enough to admit its head. It seemed to be
frightened, ran to its hiding place, came out after about a
minute, smelled cautiously about the hole, and dug away
more material, then scampered away as before. These acts
were repeated several times, until an opening quite too large
had been made. It then ventured cautiously up into the box,
snatched the food and carried it to its hiding place at 3.30 p.
M. , after working one hour and thirty minutes.
Experiment II. January loth, 3.45 p. m. Thej' behaved
to-day much like the preceding, i. e., climbing up the sides,
walking over the top, except that they spent more time about
the place where they had excavated the day before — seemed to
have located the place in an indefinite sort of fashion. They
frisked and fidgeted about 4 minutes, then one began digging
with a will, and did not stop this time until the work was com-
plete. But, as before, they hesitated to enter at once into the
hole and box, they frisked nervously about for some time —
coming up, peeping into the hole, then scampering off. At
3.53 p. M., or after eight minutes' work, one ventured in after
the food.
Experiment III. January nth. Set experiment agoing at
2.12 p. M. One came out of nest about a half-minute before
the second. They did not climb up the sides and over the top
of the box, but confined their movements about the place where
they had made the burrow the two preceding days. After
smelling around i^ minutes, No. i went to work and in a half
minute a hole of sufficient size was made. This time there was
no hesitation ; it went right in. Snatched the food at 2. 14 p. m.
Time in getting food 2^ minutes.
Experiment IV. January 12th. Experiment began 4.17
p. M. Rats came out immediately, climbed up side of box,
then on to top, walked about sniffing the air, crawled down,
and went at once to the usual digging place. At 4. 20 it took
food out. Time, 3 minutes.
Experiment V. January 13th, 4.15 p. m. Rat No. i, only,
came out. Approached the box leisurely, sniffed the air quite
often. Stood erect, with forepaws against the box. Suddenly,
1 Robinson, Lewis : Wild Traits in Tame Animals, 326 pages. Edin-
burgh and London, 1898.
METHODS IN ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY. 279
as though the idea had just possessed it, it got down and began
the usual excavation. Stopped when half done, walked away,
came back, finished the opening, and took food at 4.iS}4 p. m.
Time, 3)^ minutes. The indifference manifested in this experi-
ment I think is due to their being too well fed. No. 2 did not
even leave his nest until No. i had started home with his food.
It is evident that they have learned how to get their food (dur-
ing the experiment it was given in no other way), and that
they must have greatly profited by their jirs^ experience — the
first attempt to reach the food required i hr., 30 min. ; the
second attempt, 24 hours later, only 8 minutes. I am not per-
suaded, however, that the elements in the associative chain,
whatever the psychologist may decide their nature and number
to be, have as yet taken on any very stable and clear form.
They seldom begin digging at the proper place, sometimes will
begin holes in several different places, and they will not dig at
all until they have made several examinations of the box. All
these preliminary activities may fade out in time.^
The methods presented here enable us in a comparatively
short time to point out more distinctly, and that, too, in an
elementary way, the dividing lines between instinct, ^intelligence,
and habit, e. g, , it was instinct that prompted my chicks to
perch, or my rats to scratch up the sawdust ; it was intelligence
gained through chance experience, that enabled the chicks to
escape from the yard, and the rats to get food from the box ; it
was habit that made the chicks go in a particular roosting box,
unsolicited, at the approach of night, while they were wholly
indifferent to another box and would escape from it if put in it.
To Dr. Edmund C. Sanford I desire to express my best
thanks, not only for suggesting the work itself, but for valuable
help and timely suggestions at every turn during its execution.
^ I have since performed 8 more experiments. The time has been
reduced to 30 seconds, and many of the useless preliminary perform-
ances have been dropped.
2 Morgan C. Lloyd : Habit and Instinct.
MINOR STUDIES FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
LABORATORY OF CLARK UNIVERSITY.
Communicated by Edmund C. Sanford.
XII. On Neari^y S1MU1.TANEOUS Clicks and Flashes.
By Guy Montrose Whippi^e, A. B.
Judgments of the time order of nearly simultaneous clicks
and flashes have been studied by several investigators, but with
discordant results. Exner^ and Gonnesiat^ find that the order
click- flash can be recognized when the interval of time between
the two stimuli is less than when the order is flash-click.
Bloch,* Tracy* and Miss Hamlin,^ on the contrary, find that
the order flash-click is the more easily recognized.
In explanation of this difference Miss Hamlin suggests,
on the basis of her own and Tracy's work, that it " depends on
the fact that series of pairs of stimuli were used in one case
[Exner's] and single pairs in the other. In his experiments
on personal equation Gonnesiat finds rhythm a very important
factor, and it may have been effective in these experiments of
Exner's." The present study has chiefly in view a compari-
son of the ' series ' and * single pair ' methods when judged by
the same subjects.
Apparatus a?id Method. The apparatus consisted of an ar-
rangement for producing the clicks and flashes, and of a double
set of switches, one of which could be used to cut out single
pairs of stimuli for observation, when single pairs were under
investigation, while the other served to reverse the order from
click-flash to flash-click without altering the other parts of the
apparatus. The arrangement for producing the clicks and
flashes consisted of a double revolving disk of special construc-
tion, so arranged as to make contact for an instant in two in-
'^Pfiuger's Archiv, XI, 1875, 403-432.
"^ Richerches sur V equation personnelle. Paris, 1892, pp. 138-140.
^ Revue scientifique, XXXIX, 585.
^ American Journal of Psychology, V, 567 f.
6/(&zrf.,V, 564-575.
MINOR STUDIES. 28 1
dependent electrical circuits. ^ One of the disks was fixed per-
manently upon the shaft of the instrument, and was divided
into degrees; the other could be turned upon the shaft so as to
alter the separation of the contact points (of which each disk
carried one), and was provided with a vernier, by means of
which the setting of the disks with relation to each other could
be read to one-tenth of a degree. These disks were driven at
the required speed by a small electric motor, the speed of the
motor being properly reduced by the interposition of gears and
pulleys. The actual clicks were given by a telephone, and the
flashes by a Geissler tube and induction coil, both controlled
by the instrument just described. The tube was encased in a
blackened box, but seen directly through a horizontal slit 115
mm. long by 6 mm. wide. The room was partially darkened
during experimentation.
It is hardly to be expected that an apparatus driven in such
a manner by an electric motor should be wholly constant in
rate. Careful timing showed a difference in rate of about o. i
sec. per revolution, — from 8990- to 7960-, — during a five minutes*
run of the apparatus. This, however, is less important in the
present instance than the irregularity from revolution to revo-
lution, which was such as to give a maximal mean variation of
10.90- in an average of eight determinations taken at random
from the records of a single minute. This variation is larger
than could be wished, but as the contact points of the two disks
were never more than 27° apart, it involves a variation of only
o.8<r in the time values of interest for this study. This varia-
tion makes the measurements rough, but leaves them of suf-
ficient accuracy, it is believed, for the questions to be deter-
mined.
The time for any set of tests was found by calculation from
the setting of the disks and the time for 100 revolutions of the
disks taken with a stop-watch giving fifths of a second.
The rates at which the pairs of stimuli recurred when they
were used in series were approximately: one-half, one, two,
three and four seconds. Ten consecutive pairs were included
in each series. When single pairs were used the intervals from
test to test were taken at the operator's convenience.
The method of right and wrong cases was employed, the
subjects being given an equal number of click-flash and flash-
click orders irregularly mixed, and being required to register
* While the instrument was arranged for two independent circuits,
it was found simpler in use to make the two circuits partially coinci-
dent, and by proper wiring to use only a single battery for producing
both clicks and flashes.
JOURNAI, — 8
282 WHIPPI.E :
an answer one way or the other each time, guessing, if in
doubt. ^
The number of trials given at each rate was never less than
ICO, and often more. The usual precautions against fatigue and
expectant attention were taken, and to counteract the effects of
practice, in part, each subject was given an hour's training
before beginning serious testing. Part of the subjects, also,
started at slow rates of speed, and part at fast. Of the sub-
jects, C, P. and S. were accustomed to laboratory tests, the
others not. S. had served also as subject for Miss Hamlin.
The results of the tests are given in Table I, according to the
subject, and in Table II in briefer form, according to the
various rates of speed. In the first Table "kind" indicates
whether a single pair or a series of pairs of stimuli was used.
The second column gives the interval in seconds at which the
pairs of stimuli recurred when the series method was used. In
counting the tests each order presented was counted as one;
thus 200 tests means 100 trials of the click- flash order and 100
of the flash -click order, "Time" is the interval separating
the stimuli, given in thousandths of a second. The last two
columns indicate the time necessary to give 75% of right
answers, calculated according to Fullerton and Cat tell 's Table. ^
In Table II, the results of these calculations have been col-
lated to show at a glance the individual variations and the
effects of the various rates of speed. The bracketed times rep-
resent the results of verification tests, being in each case a rep-
etition at the close of the whole experiment of the particular
form of test on which the subject began.
Tabi,E I.
Subject
C,
Time
Interval
% correct.
necessary to
give 75^
Date.
Kind.
in sec.
No.
Time.
c.
F.
rt. cases.
C. F.
Jan. 10.
Singles
—
200
74.1
67
83
114 53
" 12.
Series
3
150
15.6
70
93
20 7
" 17.
<<
2
ICX)
26.9
72
82
31 20
" 18.
<(
I
100
40.0
66
78
66 35
" 24.
<(
y^
100
10.8
64
70
20 14
" 26.
Singles
200
67.5
63
62
Av.
138 150
, 61 45
1 Further experiments, by the method of minimal changes, are now
in progress. Since their completion has been unavoidably delayed,
and since the series taken by the method of right and wrong cases are
complete in themselves, it seems best to publish this study at the
present time.
2 Fullerton and Cattell : On the Perception of Small Differences,
Univ. of Penna., 1892.
MINOR STUDIES. 283
Subject P.
Jan. 10.
Series
I
200
42.5
78
100
37
—
" II.
<(
%
2CX)
42.3
72
80
49
34
" 22.
<j
2
100
20.5
88
88
12
12
" 25.
((
3
ICX>
13-9
78
90
12
7
" 27.
**
4
100
10.7
84
68
7
16
" 29.
Singles
—
200
25.2
83
81
18
19
Feb. 3.
Series
I
100
19.1
68
82
Av.,
28
23
14
17
Subject W.
Jan. 15.
Singles
—
200
69.4
60
89
183
38
" 25.
Series
4
100
10.6
94
96
5
4
" 27.
((
3
100
Subject
10.8
94
94
Av.,
5
64
5
16
Jan. 14.
Singles
—
200
76.4
74
77
80
69
" 15.
Series
4
100
16.4
64
80
32
13
'• 26.
"
3
100
16.6
88
96
10
6
" 27.
'*
2
100
21.8
74
92
23
10
Feb. 3.
<(
I
100
22.5
72
66
26
37
" 4.
((
%
100
41.6
66
66
68
68
" 14.
Singles
200
Subject
45.8
Sm.
81
94
Av.,
35
39
20
32
Jan. 14.
Series
I
150
38-7
78
86
34
24
" 15.
(<
Yz
ICX)
Subject
43.1
S.
78
74
Av.,
40
37
45
35
June II.
Series
I
100
35.0
74
90
37
18
" II.
Singles
—
100
53.3
84
86
36
33
" 13.
Series
2
100
22.2
78
96
20
9
" 14.
**
K
100
34.8
72
84
40
24
" 15.
Singles
ICX)
50.9
80
84
41
35
Av., 35 24
An examination of these Tables will show that the results ob-
tained, with few and unimportant exceptions, accord with those
of Bloch, Tracy and Miss Hamlin, and are contrary to those of
Kxner and Gonnesiat; in other words, that the click-flash order
requires a longer interval of time for recognition than the flash-
click^ order. In seeking for an explanation of her results. Miss
^ The tendency to take the flash as coming earlier was noticed by
some of the subjects themselves. Ck., for example, during one test
said: "They all seem like flashes [first]. I have to work hard to
make any clicks first." S. found it rare to get a click distinctly first,
and hence answered "click first," for any cases where they appeared
simultaneous or with the flash only slightly ahead. The flashes were
commonly distinctly separate from the clicks when they actually came
first.
284
WHIPPLE :
Hamlin suggests in place of Exner's theory of optical inertia,
that the stimulus of the greater attention-claiming quality will
be apt to be considered first in point of time. With this view
the writer of the present paper finds himself in full agreement.
i
Vii
10 r^ vo N xn -rt
T^ M M ro fO W
^
6
M to ■* a\ *^ >o
VO N VO CO fO fO
CO
^
ft
M CO VO 'Si- W
P5
6
8 ^ 58 ^ ^
5
H
to
1 — 1
M
^
6
1 — 1
00
to
10 1 t^ Tt 00
CO 1 CO M M
ON
6
VO CO d CO CO
%
w
to
0 P« 0 CTv
CO
M
6
M CH CO 0
CO M CS N
^
to
to
t^ t>i »0 VO
VO
6
0 <s 10 0
M
-*
to
VO Tt- CO
M M
M
6
>- ■" s,
«o
i
1
to
to*
1 8 ^
. . 1 — 11 1
1
u 1 § §
M
to
t ^ % s ^
M
o
M
M
00
<
I
ti
J
a p^ ^ a c/3 to
1
1
The prominence of the flash in consciousness is further attested
by the tendency, that nearly all the subjects noticed in them-
selves, to connect the click causally with the flash, which seemed
to travel along the tube. If the click seemed at the end of the
MINOR STUDIES. 285
tube where the flash appeared to originate, it was called first;
if at the other end, the click seeming a result of the flash, like
thunder after lightning, it was called last. Whether the atten-
tion-claiming powers depended on a greater intensity in the flash
or a greater weakness, cannot now be said with certainty. The
flash appeared to some to be a more intense stimulus to the eye
than the click to the ear; to others the reverse was true. Most
of the subjects felt unable to compare them. Meumann^ found
that a strong stimulus could catch the attention, and thus be
placed earlier: Drew^ that a faint stimulus had the same effect.
Probably both tendencies are found under different conditions.
It appears most probable that the weakness of the flash, or
rather the necessity of attending to it, is the factor most effective
in these experiments. The flash necessitates accommodation and
a watching of the box; while the click seems to force its way into
consciousness unaided. It would be interesting to repeat the
experiments with a visual stimulus arranged to illuminate the
whole visual field with a sudden glow, so that the elements of
visual attention could be reduced to equality with the aural.
Another point of interest is the fact also brought out in all of
the experiments of Miss Hamlin and in most of Drew's work,
that the external conditions of the experiment determine
strongly the direction of the subject's attention, and that any
attempt at voluntary attention defeats itself and reduces the
number of correct answers.
It yet remains to speak of the effect of a series of stimuli as
compared with single pairs, and of the various rates of succes-
sion of the pairs in the series. Inspection of Table II shows
that the tendency to perceive the flash first is the same in all
the rhythmical series as in the single pairs, and therefore that the
difference of result between Exner and Gonnesiat on one hand,
and Miss Hamlin and her supporters on the other, cannot be due,
as she suggests, to this difference in method. It will be seen,
further, that at all speeds a series of stimuli decreases the least
observable interval, and that with the exception of a single sub-
ject in a single test, this time decreases directly as the length
of time between the pairs of stimuli increases.
The subjects all testified that at the rates designated as
' four, ' and usually at * three, ' no effect of rhythm was per-
ceptible. S. had only occasional feeble rhythmic effect at ' two. '
In these forms, the experiment is obviously reduced to ten
chances of diagnosing the same single pair. For this reason
the slow rates were not given to all the subjects. Under these
1 Beitrage zur Psychologic des Zeitsinus, Phil. Studien, IX, 291 ff.
2 Attention : Experimental and Critical, American Journal of Psy-
chology, VII, i895.'96, 539 ff.
286 WHIPPI^E :
circumstances, too, the extremely low intervals perceptible are
not surprising. The usual method was to make a decision on
the first pair, and then see if the others confirmed it. In the
two-second series rhythm was generally noticeable and helpful;
the one-second rate was most agreeable and pleasant ; the half
second very lively; the four-second " deathly slow " and *' ner-
vous. * ' It should be mentioned that at the fastest rate the
apparatus did not always function perfectly, occasionally skip-
ping a click or flash. Subjective control and introspective
analysis of method seemed also quite difiicult at this rate, and
here S. reported that the clicks and flashes failed to combine,
but formed independent series.
To recapitulate briefly, this study has shown:
1. That the flash-click order can be recognized when the in-
terval is shorter than that required for the click-flash order.
2. That this holds true for a series of pairs of stimuli as well
as for a single pair.
3. That the serial repetition of the pairs materially reduces
the time interval necessary for right judgment.
4. The cause of this seems to be a retardation of the click due
to greater attention-claiming quality attaching to the flash.
XIII. The Time Required for Recognition.
By F. W. Coi^EGROVE.
The method employed in the following rough study was ex-
tremely simple. Sixty-eight pictures, three to four inches in
length and two to three inches inches in height, were cut from
an old magazine and pasted upon cards. These were inserted,
one at a time, in the clips of the Cattell Fall-chronometer and
exposed by the sudden falling of the screen. At the instant of
exposure, the falling screen released one pendulum of an elec-
trical vernier chronoscope, the other being released by the sub-
ject as soon as he was able to decide whether he had seen the
picture before or not.^ If the picture was recognized, the sub-
ject reacted with his right hand ; if unrecognized, with his
left. Five or six reactions to the letters R (right) and L (left)
were taken before and after each sitting, and the discrimination
times thus found furnish both a control of the other experiments
and a means of finding the pure recognition time free of all pe-
ripheral processes.
^ For the mode of operating the vernier chronoscope, see this Journal,
Vol. IX, 191-7, Jan., 1898.
MINOR STUDIES.
287
In the tables below, however, these simple discrimination times
have not been deducted, but, on the contrary, the full time of
response has been retained.
Five subjects were tested, all of whom had had some labora-
tory experience and two of whom had had a good deal. Five
pictures, numbers i, 2, 6, 44 and 68, were shown each subject
before beginning and he became familiar with them. He also
saw them again before each sitting. In what follows they are
termed the * ' well-known pictures. ' ' On the first day of ex-
perimenting these were shown in irregular order with other
pictures from the series. On the second day both the * ' well-
known pictures ' ' and the new ones of the first day could be
drawn upon as known pictures to mix with a second group of
unknown pictures ; and on the third day the pictures of both
the first and second days, and so on.
A considerable mass of records was thus obtained, both for
the time required for recognizing the "well-known pictures,"
and for the time required for other pictures after one, two, three,
four or more exhibitions. It is hardly necessary to mention
that the first recognition, except in cases of mistaken reactions,
occurs on the second exhibition and so on. The results for the
earlier and later recognitions of the well-known pictures are
given in Table I. In forming this table, the series of recog-
Tabi,e I.
Showing Times for Signaling the Recognition of the Well-known
Pictures ; Times in o.ooi Seconds.^
EARI^IER RECOGNITIONS.
I.ATER RECOGNITIONS.
Subject.
No. of Ob-
servat'ns.
Time of Re-
cognition.
M. v.
No.ofOb-
servat'ns.
Time of Re-
cognition.
M. V.
w
15
524
58
15
451
35
Y
22
490
119
27
432
38
S
17
615
65
19
516
55
K
23
571
124
26
474
68
Q
23
434
IIO
23
424
71
Average,
527
459
^ The times are given in the usual unit for convenience of the reader,
though, as the unit of the chronoscope itself was 0.02, no significance
is attached to the third figure of the results. It might be expected
that with the method of division described in the text the number of
288
COLEGROVE
I
^
8
I
^
I
s
a
>
^ '^ (2^ 1 1 1
1
V
§. ?^ v^ g g
Tt lO Tl- VO lO
8
a
go
JO ^ -* M M 1 M
VO
M
>
^ ON T^ 00 ON 1 1
CS CO M t^ lO 1 1
M M M
B
*
lO tJ- VO lO VO o o
CS CO O "-• C^ -"^ M
VO VO VO lO -^ »o lO
1
O.CI
go
VO 00 t-^ « lO M M
W «N M w
a
CO
>
^ ^6 ^ S \ 1 1
M M
i
"3; r^ O O O O
VO VO »0 »0 VO VO
VO
JO JO VO M M 1 1
o
>^
>
8 8^ ^ ^ 2 i 1
§
H
lO to «0 lO rj-
lO
0,5
j:^ ^ :? ^ ^ 1 i
^
M (N !>. O 1 1 1
•-■ 00 -^ «o 1 1 1
g
H
lO t^ t^ O O O Q
a 55 s> s "^ ^ a
vS
0^ »0 vO N w M M
tH M
^
^ : :: ^ - :
en
H4 M CO -^ »0 V
O
!>.
0)
u
>
<
MINOR STUDIES. 289
nitions for each picture was divided in the middle, if the num-
ber of recognitions was even, and the first part taken for
the column of earlier recognitions, the second for that of later
recognitions. If the number was odd and the full series could
not be evenly divided, the middle term was discarded and the
remaining parts treated as if the series had been even.
These figures show that the full time of signaling the recog-
nition of a well-known picture lies somewhere between 424 to
615, and that it is shorter in the second half, where the familiar-
ity was greater. This quickening may be due in part to in-
creased skill in reacting. Two of the five subjects show a similar
gain in reacting to the letters R and L, and with one subject, Q,
the difference is more than that between the early and late trials in
Table I, making the pure recognition times respectively 68 and
89. But it must be due chiefly to increasing familiarity with
the pictures. Four of the five subjects show the same relation
in the pure recognition times as in the table. The average pure
times, found by subtracting 316 and 311 from 527 and 459 re-
spectively, are 211 and 148.
The same thing is shown, though somewhat irregularly, when
the successive recognitions of other pictures are examined, as
in Table II.
How this increased speed of recognition should be regarded,
whether as a hastening of the recognition process or as a gradual
change in the character of that process from one which is more
or less conscious toward one which is wholly automatic, or as
involving both tendencies, is, unfortunately, not shown by the
data at hand.
Beside this general question there are several of a subordinate
interest, namely: Is there any difference in quickness of response
when a picture is signaled as unrecognized? Is the quickness
of response different when errors are made, i. e. , when a known
picture is signaled as unknown, or vice versa} Is there any
difference in the quickness with which different pictures are
recognized ? Such data as the experiments have furnished upon
these points are gathered in the following paragraphs.
In Table III the time for the firsi recognitions has been taken
from Table II, instead of the average time of all recognitions,
as corresponding more nearly with the condition present when
the pictures (before unknown) are signaled as unrecognized.
It will be observed that three subjects (W, S and K) take
longer to determine and signal a recognized picture than an un-
recognized one ; and two, Y and Q, take longer for the unrecog-
observations would be the same for the same subject in both early and
later recognitions, and such would be the case except for differences
introduced by failures in the functioning of the apparatus, and by erro-
neous reactions on the part of the subjects.
290
COLEGROVE :
Tabi^E III.
Showing Comparative Quickness in Signaling Recognized and Un-
recognized Pictures.
RECOGNIZED PICTURES.
UNRECOGNIZED PICTURES.
Sub-
ject.
No. of
Cases.
Time.
M. V.
No. of
Cases.
Time.
M.V.
W
Y
S
K
Q
19
33
26
25
550
644
625
490
Ill
100
129
124
95
52
40
48
49
43
618
583
587*
586
564
Ill
88
95
121
99
♦One record, nearly four times as large as that next it in size, was omitted in
making this average.
Tabi,e IV.
Showing Comparative Quickness in Erroneous Reactions,
WRONGLY SIGNALHD AS KNOWN.
WRONGLY SIGNALED AS UNKNOWN.
Sub-
ject.
No. of
Cases.
Time.
M.V.
No. of
Cases.
Time.
M. V.
W
Y
S
K
Q
9
19
6
10
16
624
536
550
614
461
2CX>
118
137
128
71
20
27
15
31
10
617
586
635
570
516
88
116
98
105
140
nized. This appears to be due to a difference in mental attitude,
which will perhaps be clearer after a consideration of the results
where errors were made. Y, Q and K show the same ten-
dencies in Table IV as in Table III ; the times of W when in
error are practically the same without regard to the nature of
the error; while for S the relation of Table III is reversed.
The small number of cases and the large M. V. make it seem
likely that this difference in the case of S is accidental, and ex-
amination of the separate determinations confirms that opinion.
MINOR STUDIES. 29 1
The proportion of errors of each sort for the different subjects
is, however, more characteristic than the times. The percent-
age of cases in which the error consisted in signaling as known
a picture which had not really been seen before, is as follows :
W 31, Y 41, S 29, K 24 and Q 62. W, S and K evidently tend
less to false recognitions than Y and Q. Furthermore, if the
records of the observers in all the tables be compared, it will be
found in every case that subject Q made the quickest responses,
and that in every case but one (t. e., in wrongly signaling
known pictures as unknown, Table IV, second half), Y stands
next him in speed, while K, W, and S are always slower, though
their order among themselves is different in different tables.
Y and Q appear to err by being hasty.
The first inference, perhaps, would be that Q and Y belong
to the motor type of reagents and carried their motor habit into
these recognition experiments ; and there was more or less in
Q's manner of reacting to justify such an inference. Yet, if this
were the case, something of the same tendency ought to appear
in the records for signaling the presence of the letters R and L.
The records, however, fail to show such a tendency ; Q is slow
as compared with the rest, and Y, though quick in the early
part of the series, was excelled by both S and W in the latter
part. It seems more probable, therefore, that Q and Y were
somewhat on the lookout for known pictures, while the rest
expected unknown pictures.
The grading of the pictures according to their difficulty of
recognition was made on the basis of the errors recorded against
them and checked by a subsequent calculation of the times re-
quired for certain special groups ; all of the * ' well-known ' '
pictures were excluded in this consideration.
Ten pictures had no errors at all or but a single failure in
recognition recorded against them. They gave, together,
thirty-three recognition times, with an average value of 568,
and a M. V. of III. Six pictures, on the other hand, failed
of recognition on four or more occasions. These gave, together,
ninteen recognition times, with an average value of 583 and a
M. V. of 155.
Any statement of reasons for this slowness must be largely
conjectural, but the pictures recognized with difficulty seem
lacking in interest, either in the situation presented or because
they involve a multitude of nearly co-ordinate details. The
pictures that were most often recognized falsely (2. e. , signaled as
known when shown for the first time) , were a group of three draw-
ings of country houses, all executed in a similar and somewhat
peculiar manner, and not easily distinguishable in their general
aspects, though offering no difficulty when placed side by side.
Next these in suffering errors of this kind was a group of eleven
292 COIvRGROVE :
pictures, a number of which showed resemblance in subject or
treatment to other pictures in the series. As was to have been
expected from the nature of the experiment, the general effect
is more important in both cases than details.
The general results of this study may be summed up as fol-
lows : The central processes of recognition in the case of ordinary
magazine pictures take place in a fifth of a second or less, on
the average, the time decreasing as the familiarity increases.
Whether the judgment that a picture is known takes place
more quickly than the judgment that it is unknown, seems to
depend on the mental attitude of the subject — more quickly if
he expects the exhibition of known pictures, less quickly if he
expects the reverse. Differences in the facility of recognition
are found with different pictures, depending chiefly, it would
seem, upon their ability to arouse interest, or, in other words,
to compel attention.
XIV. Notes on Mentai. Standards of Length.
By F. W. Coi,EGROVE.
The ability to make estimates of length presupposes some
sort of mental standard which is applied to the length in ques-
tion. The existence of such standards is very easy to demon-
strate, and has even been found a serious obstacle in certain
forms of psychophysical experimentation. Some effort has been
made to find how accurately these mental standards coincide
with the external units that they represent, but so far as the
writer is aware no one has tried to investigate the nature of
these scales and their mode of application. The present frag-
ment unfortunately does not go far toward filling this gap, but
may, at least, call attention to the matter as a subject for in-
vestigation. It would be interesting from the point of view of
individual psychology if we could know, for a considerable
number of persons, the nature and origin of their full equip-
ment of mental standards — for weight, capacity, temperature,
angular measure and money value, as well as for length.
The method of the present study was simple in the extreme,
and the results can be briefly stated. Fifty circles, differing in
diameter by sixteenths of an inch, and forming a continuous
series from one and a half inches to four and nine-sixteenths
inches, were drawn upon cards of convenient size. A similar
set of straight lines of length equal to the diameters of the
circles was also prepared, and was submitted with the circles
to the subjects for estimation. The subjects were ten in num-
MINOR STUDIES.
293
ber, including one who estimated the circles but not the lines.
Six were university students (four were of the psychological
department), and of the remaining four, one was the wife of a
university student, one a carpenter, and one an expert ma-
chinist. The combined results of both series and for all sub-
jects are exhibited in the following diagram. The short lines
I. J.
I
f-r
TT
FT
FT
TTT
Ttt
ri
nr
ittIttH
*L.
3.
projecting downward from the horizontal are intended to rep-
resent the objective scale, as ordinarily cut on measuring rules.
The portions at the left of the one and a half inch mark and to
the right of the four and nine-sixteenths inch mark are put in
in broken lines to indicate that while not actually found on any
of the cards presented, they were trespassed upon by estimates
of the subjects. The longer lines erected upon the upper side
of the horizontal are intended to indicate the relative frequency
of estimates of the extent given by the division of the scale
above which they stand. The estimate * * three inches, ' ' for
example, was recorded no times; that of "two and fifteen-
sixteenths " (next line to the left) 4 times; that of " three and
one-eight" (next line to the right) 10 times. The detached
line at the extreme right shows the relative frequence of esti-
mates based upon other than the 2, 4, 8, 16, division of the
inch; they were chiefly thirds, with occasional fifths and sixths;
no other irregular fractions were given by the subjects.
It is easy to see from the diagram that estimates in six-
teenths are infrequent. The eighth divisions are maintained
throughout from one to four and a half inches. The quarters
294 COLEGROVK :
are well marked, and the halves and whole inches best of
all. The estimate " three inches," approximately the middle
extent of the range used, was the most frequently given. In
the eighths and quarters there is, as might be expected, a
tendency to diminish in frequency from left to right, and this
would doubtless have been much more marked had the range
been more extended. Such a decrease in the fineness of the
estimation scale with increase in its extent is easily verified
in introspection, and is probably a case of the same sort of
relativity that finds expression in Weber's I^aw, at least in its
application to visual extents.
In a certain sense the diagram above may be said to represent
the average mental scale from one and a half to four and a half
inches, but it is in no sense to be taken as a picture of such a
scale. The mental scale is probably a much more complex
affair. It seems likely that most of us carry separate standards
for the principal extents; i, i^, 2, 2}^, 3 inches, and soon,
and in estimating, classify first according to these. Then, iif
pressed for finer judgments, we estimate the excess or defect of
the given extent in comparison with the nearest of these stand-
ards in such fractions of an inch as we have at command, and
so arrive at a final estimate. The grouping of the sixteenths
near the whole inches to be observed in the diagram, would
accord well with such a process.
The subjects showed considerable individual differences in
their fineness of estimate. Of the twenty-two estimates in-
volving sixteenths, seventeen were given by the machinist, four
by the lady and one by one of the psychologists.
Several subjects rarely estimated in eighths, and one used
no eighths and only five quarters in fifty judgments. These
differences are doubtless largely due to differences in practical
familiarity with the measuring rule, but also perhaps in part
to a difference in the seriousness with which the task was under-
taken. The unusual fractions, thirds, fifths and sixths, were
used to some extent by five subjects ; with one exception, by
those whose scale was not otherwise very finely divided. The
use of these unusual divisions seems to indicate reliance upon
a standard inch divided off-hand as occasion required.
The experiments, as arranged, were not adapted to test the
objective truth of the estimates, but there seems to be a general
tendency toward under-estimation. It was expected that this
would be marked in the case of the circles, following the well-
known illusion which affects circles when compared with squares
of equal breadth, but the circles do not appear to have been
more underestimated than the lines.
With a view of studying the ability of the subjects to estimate
extents of less than an inch, the following variation of the
MINOR STUDIES. 295
experiment was tried With eight of the previous subjects, the
machinest not being included, however. A Brown & Sharpe
micrometric gauge was set at the even tenths of an inch from
o. I to the full inch and the subjects were asked to estimate the
separation of the jaws. In this case all the subjects but one
used divisions as fine as sixteenths, and one went as far as sixty-
fourths. The remaining subject gave no fraction with larger
denominator than six. One gave estimates in unusual frac-
tions (thirds and fifths) but no one ventured on a decimal
division.
Other tests were made in which the subjects drew their
standards for the whole inches from one to five, and still others
in which the lines were estimated from memory after a few
minutes interval, but not in sufficient number to warrant pres-
entation of the results.
NOTES ON THE CASTRATION OF IDIOT CHILDREN.
By Everett Fi,ood, M. D., Supt. Hospital Cottages for Children,
Baldwinville, Mass.
Bibliography and Brie:f Abstracts.
T. B. Curling, Diseases of the Testis, London, 1843.
Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Sciences Med., 1873. Cas-
tration, BOUISSON.
History of Circumcision, P. C. Rbmondino, 1891. F. A. Davis
Co.
Pickering, Races of Man, p. 153.
Dr. Robert Boal read before the Illinois State Medical Society
a paper under the title * * Emasculation and Ovariotomy as a
Penalty for Crime and the Reformation of Criminals."— /<?wr.
Am. Med. Association, Sept., i8g^.
Dr. A. Lapthorn Smith, Montreal, Can., reports the case of
Miss X., age 25, ovaries and tubes removed 7 years ago. Still
has the same sexual feeling as before and indulges excessively.
Dr. E. J. Munroe, of Bordeaux, reports observations in two
cases of ovariotomy in young women, which showed an effect
on the voice exactly the opposite of what is brought about in
the male by castration. The higher notes were lost and the
voice fell from soprano to mezzo-soprano. — Boston Med. and
Surg. Jour.
In a paper entitled "The Crimes of Medical Men," in the
Medical Herald for June, 1896, Dr. W. O. Henry mentions as
one crime the failure to urge legislation to prevent marriage of
criminals or to have them castrated. — Record, Sept., 1896.
In the Annals of Surgery, Sept., 1896, Dr. A. T. Cabot dis-
cusses the question of "Castration for Enlarged Prostate," in
which the writer takes, on the whole, an unfavorable view of
the operation as compared with the older one of prostatectomy.
Dr. White, one of the editors of the Annual, combats some of
his conclusions. "The large proportion of cases mentioned by
Dr. Cabot in which mental disturbance followed the operation
is noteworthy, even if it is not directly attributable to the oper-
ation." A large mortality has followed the operation of cas-
tration in the aged for enlarged prostate.
Dr. Pilcher, Supt. of the Institute for Imbeciles and Weak
Minded Children, at Winfield, Kan. , has been bitterly denounced
NOTES ON THE CASTRATION OF IDIOT CHILDREN. 297
by newspapers in Winfield and Topeka for castrating several
boys, inmates, who were confirmed masturbators. His prede-
cessor, Dr. Wile, had treated these boys five years without
benefit, and Dr. Pilcher, taking a rational view of the subject,
performed the operation for the same reason that he would per-
form any other surgical operation — for its curative effect. There
is a strong probability that he will be indicted for mayhem, to
the everlasting disgrace of the civilization of the nineteenth
century. — Texas Med. Jour.
The House Committee on Public Health of the Kansas Legis-
lature has made a favorable report on the bill which does away
with the penitentiary sentence for men convicted of assaulting
women, and substitutes castration. The Social Purity League
of Topeka has been urging the passage of this bill, and the
leaders of the league claim enough votes in both houses to pass
it, and have secured the promise of Gov. Leedy's signature.
They say that following the lead of Kansas, ten other States
will pass the same law at their next session of legislature. —
Med. Record.
*' Castration in cases of sexual perversion and for habitual
criminals has been revived in able papers read before the Chicago
Medico- Legal Society, by Daniel, of Texas, and Way, of the
Elmira Reformatory. The arguments advanced did not receive
a very cordial endorsement from the members present, and the
possibility of the adoption of the measure advocated is slight.
It is too radical a change to be made in a hurry, and the fact
must not be lost sight of that any such experimentation is con-
trar}^ to the laws of nature and will receive almost universal
condemnation. " — Cutting.
A writer in the London Lancet gives us some information on
the subject of the demand and supply of eunuchs in China.
The emperor and certain members of the royal family are alone
entitled to keep eunuchs. His majesty maintains at least 2,000,
but no prince of the blood or imperial princess has a right to
more than 30. In the production of Chinese eunuchs four chief
factors prevail, viz. : greed, predilection, poverty and laziness.
Many parents sell their male children to the mutilators, or them-
selves castrate them in the hope of eventually sharing their
earnings. Both penis and scrotum are removed by a single
sweep of the operator's knife or scivSsors. A small piece of wood
or pewter is inserted into the open urethra and the wound
washed with pepper and water. The patient is then walked
for three hours without rest, and for the following three days he
is allowed no drink, while the plug fills the urethra. On the
fourth day the plug is removed and if the urine flows he is looked
upon as cured; but, should the overstrained bladder refuse to
act, he is left to die. Fatal cases amount to about three per cent.
JOURNAI,^-9
\-.>
298 FI.OOD :
' ' In Siluria boys are castrated in a certain village and dressed
in women's clothes." — Uncertain authority.
Hammond refers to castration as a religious ceremony in New
Mexico.
There is a wide-spread belief that squirrels castrate each other,
but after reading much pro and con I feel pretty well satisfied
that the very frequent cases where the testicles are missing is
due to a parasitic disease which destroys the gland.
Dr. Edmund Andrews, of the Northwestern University,
Chicago, writes for the American Medical Journal of Jan., 1898,
that the following effects of castration on animals are noted.
The elk experimented upon did not shed their horns in the fol-
lowing season, as is usual with them, but the old horn remained.
The severe weather froze the horn at the tips and these tips
came off and then numerous small sprouts came out. These in
turn were nipped in the following season and sprouted in smaller
parts and this went on until a pair of large nobby bunches of
bone stood up on the heads. If protected, these horns would
probably attain an immense growth.
The ox. When the calf is castrated he grows to be a larger
and taller animal than the bull but his neck and forequarters
are thinner. His cerebellum becomes larger than that of the
bull and his horns become both thicker and longer. The voice
is changed in pitch while lowing but not in bellowing.
The horse grows larger if castrated young and the bridle teeth
do not seem to be changed as occurs in the full male.
Sheep. The wethers do not become especially larger. The
wool of the ram is, however, much more oily and of less value.
The cat. These animals grow larger and are good mousers.
They are fonder of petting.
Thecapo7i, castrated chicken, grow larger, the flesh is delicate,
the spurs undeveloped, the colored comb and wattles remain
small. Some of them develop a nursing instinct and take good
care of a brood of chickens.
In general terms, if an animal is castrated young he develops
the distinctively male peculiarities in only a slight degree, yet
some species produce much larger horns than the perfect male.
The ox and gelding do not completely lose their sexual passion,
but make frequent efforts to copulate with the females in heat.
Physical effects of castration in man seem to be that if cas-
trated young they grow taller and have larger frames. They
are also fatter. The hair on pubes and face does not grow.
Cheeks look round and prominent, chin apt to be double, no
beard. The voice in boys below age of puberty is about like
that of a woman, but after puberty it is found an octave lower
than that of the woman. The timbre never attains the richness
and flute-like splendor of the adult woman.
NOTES ON THE CASTRATION OF IDIOT CHII.DREN. 299
Mental effects of castratio7i. If castrated late in life the sexual
desires are not abated, but if in early childhood it is practically
lost. Eunuchs are charged with special envy and jealousy, but
this does not seem substantiated. They are only zealous in their
duty of defending the women whom they are in charge of.
Dr. Robert P. Harris, of Philadelphia, in an article on Con-
genital Absence of the Penis, in Philadelphia Medical Journal
of January 8th, 1898, offers the following conclusions among
others : The eunuch has usually longer legs, a light pelvis,
and is defective in the growth of his chest and arms. His long
bones are light and have a larger hollow in them than in the
full man. If not taller, he is often very fat, and attains a weight
of 200 or 300 pounds.
"A complete antithesis to the Jumpers is presented in the
sect of the so-called White Doves or Skoptzi. These are a secret
sect in Russia, belonging to the Christian belief, but secretly
practicing castration, and believing that thereby they insure
purity. They are certainly a wonderful people, with many ex-
cellencies, though fanatics in this belief."
An editorial in the Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion of October 23d, 1897, concludes that the psychic and
physical effects of castration are less pronounced the later in
life the operation is performed. The general argument is in
favor of great care in performing the operation in women, and
a conservatism that has not as yet been practiced.
Castration is hinted at in Mat. xix, 12 ; Deuteronomy xxiii,
I , two mutilations analagous to complete castration are men-
tioned.
A castration bill was introduced into the Michigan Legislature
providing for the castration of all inmates of the Michigan Home
for the Feeble- Minded and Epileptic before their discharge; also
for that of all persons convicted of a felony for the third time,
and of those convicted of rape, in 1897.
Of the 26 >male cases here operated on, 24 were operated on
because of persistent epilepsy and masturbation, one for epilepsy
with imbecility, and one for masturbation with weakness of
mind.
The results of the tabulation show that the cases were at time
of operation about half of them under 14, four 16, five 17, two
were more than twenty, and the balance of 15. The time since
the operation has been in most of the cases some years, but in
four the operation has been done within a year. The mortality
has been nothing, and the operation is regarded as very safe and
simple even with adults, though there has been a high mortality
in the aged castrated for enlarged prostate.
In these cases they have been operated on under an anesthetic
and some have been circumcised at the same time. A large
300 FLOOD :
number of other cases have been circumcised alone and all with
good results.
Two of these cases had large varicocele which was all cut
away at the time of castration.
The mental and moral condition was fair in 9, good in 2, and
poor in the others ; this has become better in 3 cases and re-
mained unchanged in the rest ; two were kleptomaniacs, and
this manifestation has nearly disappeared since the operation ;
one was salacious, improved since operation ; one was solitary,
not so much so now; four were passionate and quarrelsome and are
now much less so ; one persistently eloped but now never attempts
it ; two were gluttonous and remain so ; one was monkeyish
and is still much the same ; one was imbecile and is now more
so ; four ceased to have fits, though without much mental change,
soon after the operation ; the voice remains soft in five cases and
is not perceptibly altered in the others. Masturbation has
ceased in all the cases but one ; that comes on at times only and
lasts for a few days.
In one of the female cases, not included in the 26, masturba-
tion is quite prominent at intervals, but at such times the girl
is insane and demented. There has been gain in weight, aside
from growth, in all cases but 3. The sexual appetite seems to
be now missing in all the cases but 2, and in them appears only
periodically. Erections sometimes occur but without erethism
except in the instances where masturbation still occurs. No
extra growth of legs or body has been noted in these cases, and
could not well be, as they are nearly ali still in the growing
stage and have not as yet shown abnormal size. The temper
has been improved in all instances but 4, where it remains un-
changed. There is less pugnacity in all the cases, and less of
anger, obstinacy and self-will. It seems that the cases grow
more sympathetic and altruistic, and in some the emotional
nature in general is better balanced and more nearly normal.
In all these cases the written consent of the parents has been
obtained.
This class of work has been very little done anywhere, as
public opinion has been much against it, and even among med-
ical men no encouragement has been given until recently.
The effect upon the epileptic seizures appears to have been
good in all cases. Some have ceased having the attacks alto-
gether, though one has had an attack after two years of im-
munity, but it was brought on by over-eating. All the cases
have the attacks less often and with less severity.
Only five of these cases have had bromide since the operation
and they with diminishing doses, now reduced to five or ten
grains once dail}'. All the others have been without medicine,
NOTES ON THE CASTRATION OF IDIOT CHII.DREN. 30I
except that they have had tonics, such as Co. Tinct. Gentian,
and cod liver oil, at intervals.
Fourteen of the cases are Americans, six Irish, one Scotch,
one Swedish, the others being of unknown extraction. At
present, 17 of the cases still reside in this Institution, 3 are in
lunatic hospitals, five are at home with parents, and the where-
abouts of one unknown.
ON THE WORDS FOR ''FEAR" IN CERTAIN LANGUAGES.
A STUDY IN LINGUISTIC PSYCHOLOGY.
By Alex. F. Chamberlain, Ph. D., Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
In a previous essay^ the writer discussed anger-words, and reference
to this will be necessary since not a few fear-words are akin to those
used to denote anger.
I. Fear, if we trust the etymology of its English name, is "an ex-
perience;'''' Skeat tells us that the word was "originally used of the
perils and experiences; of a yi2.y -faring.'' The Anglo-Saxon fder
meant " a sudden peril, danger, panic, fear ;" cognate are Icelandic yiir,
"bale, harm, mischief," Old High German yara, var, "treason, dan-
ger, fright," Modern German Ge-fahr, "danger, peril, risk." Re-
lated also are : 'Liotin periculum, " peril, trial, danger " {irom perior,
the root of peritus, "experienced, skilled"), experientia^ "expe-
rience, trial, proof;" Greek Tretpa, "attempt, stratagem, trick,"
vepdu) " I go through." The common radical of all these terms is
the Indo-European root Per, " to pass through, to travel, to /are (as
our own English word from the same stock has it)." In Old Norse
/dr has the additional signification of " plague, pestilence, misfor-
tune," which may go to somewhat explain our expression " a plague
of fear." JFear, then, emphasizes " what one has passed through."
II. " All of a tremble''' is a popular description of the state of fear
or terror, and not a few of our fear-words contain this primitive idea.
We say " trembling, shaking, quaking with fear," and these expres-
sions find their analogues in many other tongues. George Fox tells
us in his "Journal " that "Justice Bennet [in 1650] was the first to
call us Quakers, because I bade him quake and tremble at the word of
the Lord," and all over the world the " fear of the Lord " has been
largely associated with quaking and trem,bling .
The English word terror (French terreur, Latin terror^, goes back
to the same root which gave birth to Latin terrere (older form, ter-
sere), "to dread, to be afraid," and, originally, "to tremble;" Rus-
sian triasti {triasate), " to shake, to shiver;" Lithuanian triszeti, " to
tremble;" Sanskrit tras, " to tremble, to be afraid," trdsa, " terror" —
the radical of all being Indo-European ters, "to tremble, to be
afraid." Of similar meaning, ultimately are tremor and cognate
words derived from the Latin, and the derivatives of Greek T/)^w,
" I tremble, quake, fear, dread, am afraid of."
The German Furcht (the Middle High German vorhte signified
" fear, anxiety, apprehension ") is the abstract of the verb fUrchten,'*
cognate with Gothic /aurhtj an, " to fear, to be afraid of," to which is
related the adjective-participle fauhrts, " fearful, timid," faurhtei,
" fear." The Teutonic radical /(?rA, together, perhaps, with the roots
of Latin querquerus, '• shivering with cold," and Greek x«PXa^P<^» ** I
tremble," goes back to the Indo-European ^^r/?; or qerk,''\.o trem-
ble." Another word embodying the same idea is Gothic reiro, " trem-
ble, terror" — reiran, "to tremble." To " tremble like an aspen " is
» Amer.Jour. Psychol., Vol. VI, pp. 585-592.
WORDS FOR "fear." 303
a very ancient Indo-European figure of speech. The Latin pavor,
"quaking, trembling, throbbing with desire, joy, fear," "anxiety,
fear, dread, — the god of fear is personified as Pavor, — to be afraid, to
fear, to tremble," and the Greek #6/3os, with all the phobias to which
it has given rise in the various civilized languages, have at their base
radicals which signify "to tremble." The corresponding verbs in
Greek ^o/S^w and ^^/SoTjat are related to Sanskrit bhi, " fear," bibheti,
"he is afraid," Lithuanian baime, "fear," bijitiSy "to be afraid,"
bajiis, "terrible," baish, "terror," while the modern German beben,
" to tremble, quake," goes back to the same Indo-European radical.
We speak in English of " shivering with terror, or fear," and it is
interesting to note that in the " Gest Hystoriale of the Destruction of
Troy," an English Romance circa 1390 A. D., we find " Achilles at the
choice men cheuert (shivered) for anger."
The French vi or ^craindre, " to fear," belongs here also, being de-
rived from the Latin tremere.
The radical meaning of English shudder is to " tremble."
III. Another closely related series of words is that in which the
basal idea is agitation, move^neiit, stir. Here belong the Latin
metus, " agitation, anxiety, fear, dread, terror," metuere, " to fear, to
be afraid of," — allied perhaps to tnotus, " moved, affected, disturbed."
Trepidation, — the Latin trepidatio signified "confused hurry, alarm,
consternation, terror, trepidation," — has a curious etymology. Festus,
the ancient grammarian, glosses the old Latin trepit by uertit, adding
the remark " unde trepidus et trepidatio, quia turbatione mens uer-
titur." The Latin adjective ifr<?/?Ww5, " trembling, alarmed, fearful,
anxious," etc., would then seem to signify " in a state of disturbance,
as if the mind is being continually turned about or agitated (Skeat)."
The Old Latin trepere is cognate with Greek Tp^ireiv, "to turn,"
and also with Latin torquere {\s\iQ^nc& torture) , the basis of all being
the Indo-European radical t-rk, "to turn, to twist." -So when we
speak of being tortured by our fears we are but repeating a very old
figure of speech. A coward we often say " writhes with fear."
IV. A common expression in English is " to start with fear," with
which may be compared the colloquial " to almost jump out of one's
boots;" we have also the derivative " to startle.^'' The same idea is at
the basis of the modern High German Schreck, "terror, fright, fear,
horror," the Old High German verb screckdn signifying, "to start up,
to leap, to hop," the Middle High German substantive schric, " a sud-
den start, terror," and the causative verb schrecken, " to cause to
start, to make afraid." The radical is skrik, "to leap, to move sud-
denly, to start."
A cognate idea resides in the Modern German sich entsetzen, "to be
startled at, to be terrified, to shudder," and the substantive Entse-
tzen, "terror, dread, horror, fright." The Middle High German ent-
setzen signified, " to cast down, to disconcert, to fear, to be afraid of,"
the Old High German intsizzen (there is also a M. H. G. from entsit-
zen), " to come out of one's seat, to lose one's composure, to fear, to
be afraid of." In Gothic we find andasets, " horrible," andsitan, " to
be terrified." These words are all based upon the Indo-European
root sed, " to sit," with a privative, or disjunctive prefix (Mod. Ger-
man ent, Gothic and). The idea at the root of Entsetzen, is " start-
ing from one's seat in terror."
V. The sinking of the heart and of the vital organs generally is a
familiar conception of "fear" among primitive peoples, and one
which appears very often in picture-writing and sign-language, as
Col. Mallery has pointed out. Our own language furnishes cognate
expressions, "to have one's heart in one's boots," "to feel one's
304 CHAMBERI.IN :
heart sink," etc. Being " down-hearted " is thus a very early form of
fear.
Perhaps, here belong also the Yoruba (a West African language)
aiyafo mi, " I am afraid," literally, " the heart jumps me," daiyafo,
" to frighten," etc., although the jumping is here the other way. We
say, analogously, in English " my heart leaped into my mouth," in
speaking of certain aspects of fear.
VI. The ghost in '* Hamlet " describes several of the known symp-
toms of fear :
** I could a tale unfold, whose lightest word
Would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres.
Thy knotted and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to stand on end,
Ivike quills upon the fretful porpentine."
The last mentioned symptom is illustrated by the etymology of the
word horror. The I^atin horror, *' a standing on end, bristling, terror,
dread," and horrere, **to stand erect, to bristle, to be afraid, aston-
ished, amazed, to startle with fear," etc., as the older form {horsere)
of the verb (cf. hirsutus, "rough, hairy, shaggy") shows, refer to
the "bristling of the hair in fear." In Sanskrit hirsh, "to bris-
tle," is said of the hair, "especially as a token of anger or pleasure "
(Skeat).
Virgil refers to the bristling of the hair in the Aen., II, 774 :
Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus hsesit.
VII. The " freezing of the blood " finds cognate expression in some
of our fear-words, and besides we speak often enough of " the cold
shivers " of fear, and "the cold sweat" that accompanies it. Our
English afraid is the past participle of the verb affray " to frighten,"
which Skeat traces through the Old French effreier (effraier, esfreer),
" to frighten," to a I^ow Latin exfrigidare {iromfrigus,'' cold ")," to
freeze with terror," — in L/atin frigidus meant " dead or stiffened with
cold or fright," and Horace even uses it in the sense of " fearful." A
common phrase in English is *' numbed with fear."
VIII. Our English dismay, " to terrify, to discourage," comes, ac-
cording to the Skeat, from Old French dismayer (cf. Spanish des-
mayar, " to dismay, to dishearten, to be discouraged, to lose heart "),
which seems to have been supplanted very early by the verb esmayer,
" to dismay, to terrify, to strike powerless " — the intransitive sense of
which " to lose power, to faint, to be discouraged," would appear to
be the older. Desm-ayer and esm,ayer, according to the best authori-
ties, are derived from the Old High German magan (Mod. Germ.
"tnogen. Mod. Engl, may), with the Latin prefixes dis-, ex-. The
" loss of power " is the basal idea here. From Old French esmayer
comes Modern French dm,oi, " fright, terror." Cognate also is the
Italian smagare, " to lose courage." The English word misgiving
has somewhat of the idea in dismay. With us, in English " to lose
heart " is "to give way to fear."
IX. The Latin consternatio (whence our consternation), signified
" consternation, fright, tumult;" the corresponding verb is conster-
nare, "to stretch on the ground, to prostrate, to terrify, to alarm, to
dismay " — the participle consternatus meaning " cast down, prostrate,
frightened." The basal idea is seen in Latin sternere, "to throw
down, to throw to the ground," from the Indo-European radical st-r,
"to spread out." We employ a somewhat similar figure when we
speak of " abject fear."
X. We often speak of persons being " rooted to the ground with
WORDS FOR "FBAR." 305
fear," "transfixed with fear," etc.; from fright people often stand
" stock still." In Gothic we find usgaisjan, " to terrify," usgeisnan,
" to be terrified," cognate with Old Norse geiska-fullr, " filled with
terror," and Lithuanian gai'szti, "to swoon." Related also is the
Latin ha^rere (older form hcssere), " to cling to, to stick, to be unable
to move away " — the radical of the whole series being Indo-European
ghaiSy "to stick." We still say of a valiant man that "he will not
stick at anything."
BOOK NOTES.
G. S. H.
Die Ideenassoziation des Kindes. Von Th. Ziehen. Berlin : Reu-
ther und Reichard, 1898. pp. 66. Price, Mk. 1.50.
A scientific study of the association of ideas, Professor Ziehen notes
with surprise, has scarcely yet been made ; although from a theoretical,
no less than a pedagogical, point of view, no field promises richer re-
sults. Galton has, it is true, done something with the associated ideas
of adults, but in the domain of genetic psychology one finds only the
most incidental references to the subject, and Professor Ziehen's study
is an attempt to break new ground. His test was carried on with forty-
two boys, from eight to fourteen, in the practice school connected with
Rein's Padagogische Seminar at the University of Jena. Certain mon-
osyllabic words — the names of well-known objects — were at stated
intervals pronounced to the boys and they were required to give the
immediately suggested idea. The children usually answered in a word
and these answers, or associated ideas, Professor Ziehen groups (i)
rapid (springende) associations and (2) reasoning (urteils) association.
" Rose — red " illustrates the first group. There is manifest absence
of reasoning, and ideas of time and space are not taken into considera-
tion. In the second group the child answers, **The rose is red."
Here a definite rose is considered and time and space are indicated.
The idea presented is also connected with the resulting idea.
Verbal associations constituted less than 2% of the associations made
by the children, but Professor Ziehen concludes that such associations
are more common among adults and most common in persons having
mania or some form of mental debility. A form of association — some-
what related to verbal association — namely, word-completion, he found
more general among the children, as, for example, postal — card ; heart
— shaped; post — office, etc. The most significant facts brought out
in Professor Ziehen's study are (i) the universal application of the
law of contiguity with the young child — only in verbal associations
was there any hint of the working of the law of similarity, and the
verbal associations, it will be recalled, were not numerous; and (2)
the strong emotional element in the associated ideas of children. This,
says Ziehen, explains why the memory-images of school excursions
form so readily and are reinstated so easily.
Wiiyi, S. Monroe.
Studien und Versuche uber die Erlernung der Orthographie. Von
Herman Schii^ler. Berlin : Reuther und Reichard, 1898. pp.
63. Price, Mk. 1.50.
The spelling problem, notes Professor Schiller, in his introduction,
is far from settled — German contemporary pedagogical thought to the
contrary, notwithstanding. The results obtained in the schools, which
are far from satisfactory, justify some investigation into the psycho-
logical basis of accurate spelling. The customary way of acquiring
word-forms, assumes the author, is primarily through the eye and the
ear. In order to have the accurate orthography of a word, the pupil
must heaVy see, pronounce and write the new word ; and in order to
BOOK NOTES. 307
test the relative value of visual, auditory and motor methods in spell-
ing instruction, Professor Schiller devised a series of words which
were in eleven different ways propounded to classes of boys ranging
in age from eight to nine. The following were the variations of the
tests : I. Words pronounced by teacher, the pupils holding their
mouths firmly closed; 2. Words pronounced by teacher, the pupils
repeating the same in a low tone ; 3. Words pronounced by teacher,
pupils repeating the same in a loud tone ; 4. Words pronounced by
teacher, and the pupils write the words in the air; 5. Teacher writes
the words on the board, the pupils close the mouth firmly, and look
at it an instant ; 6. The same, the pupils pronounce the words in a low
tone; 7. Same, the pupils pronounce the words in a loud tone ; 8. Same,
the pupils write the words in the air ; 9. The teacher pronounces the
words, the pupils spell the same, that is, name the letters and syllables
in the words ; 10. The same, the pupils pronouncing the words in low
tones ; 11. The same, the pupils pronouncing the words in loud tones.
Each test was repeated eight different times with words which had
not been taught to the boys and which must have been more or less
new to them. The efl&ciency of the different methods was judged by
the errors made in subsequent efforts to correctly render the lists of
words learned. It should be borne in mind that each list had eight
repetitions ; and, as to relative size and difficulty of words in the dif-
ferent lists, the balances were pretty approximate. The following com-
parison with regard to errors made suggests the efficiency of current
methods of teaching spelling : Words written on board by teacher and
copied by pupils, they pronouncing at the same time in low tones, 277
errors ; the same, pronouncing in loud tones, 298 errors ; words written
on the board by teacher, and then written in the air by the pupils,
344 errors ; words pronounced by the teacher and then orally spelled
by the pupils, 356 errors ; words written on the board by the teacher
and then pronounced in loud tones by the pupils, 589 errors ; the
same, pronounced in low tones, 642 errors ; the same, with the mouth
firmly closed, 763 errors ; words pronounced by the teacher and writ-
ten in the air by the pupils, 772 errors ; the words pronounced by the
teacher and repeated in loud tones by pupils, 1,213 errors ; the same,
repeated in low tones, 1,801 errors ; the same with closed mouth, 1,902
errors.
A study of the errors leads one to conclude (i) that merely hearing
words pronounced is the least effective way of learning to spell ; (2)
that exposing the word-form to the eye reduces the number of errors ;
(3) that seeing the word-form and copying the same produces a mini-
mum of error ; (4) that writing in the air reduces the number of errors
in both the seen and heard lists of words ; and (5) that loud speaking
— with one exception — proved more effective than low speaking. Pro-
fessor Schiller made similar experiments in a I/atin class, employing
the same method, but substituting the Latin for the German words,
and the results agree substantially with those already noted. He
reaches three tentative conclusions from the study ; ( i) necessity of
absolutely correct pronunciation of all words used by the teacher ; (2)
dictation should be less used and copying more generally employed
during the early years of school life ; (3) more time should be given
to writing words in the air.
W11.1. S. Monroe.
Le rdle social de la Femme. Devoirs. Droits. Education par Mme.
Anna L/AMperi^re. 1 vol. \n 12 diQ\a.Bibliothequede Philosophie
contemporaine, 2 fr. 50 (F^lix Alcan, dditeur).
This book does not pretend to be a complete study of the subject,
but rather presents some general views which the author thinks should
308 BOOK NOTES.
be opposed to the partisans of ' la compagne f^ministe.' According to
Mme. Lamperi^re, the function of woman in society should be abso-
lutely different from that of man ; she should be his co-laborer, not
his competitor ; she should be employed as organizer, not as producer;
in a word, the social function, i. <?., duty, of woman, is to expend her-
self for society, for the race, as her domestic function is to expend
herself for the family.
The identity of the rights of man and woman is rejected. The 'right'
of the human being is merely the right to the full development of his
faculties ; but the faculties of woman are other than the faculties of
man, though "of equal, if not superior, importance for the harmonious
organization of the individual life and the social life."
The supreme right of woman is to be protected.
Starting from these ideas, Mme. Lamp^ri^re studies diverse situa-
tions of woman, notably a /' atelier and in marriage. She concludes
by treating of the "education of this educator," which should be
" conformable to biologic laws," and sets forth the object and the laws
of t\iQ Socidtd d' dtudes/eminines, created precisely with such education
in view.
The Students' Life of Jesus, by George Hai^ley Gii^bert, Ph. D.,
D. D. The Macmillan Company, 1898. pp. 412.
This book aims to present succinctly and accurately the facts of the
objective life of Jesus. No attempt is made to discuss in detail the
teaching of Jesus ; and the subjective side of his life is considered only
as it is revealed in the Gospels. The book is in no sense interpretative.
The author adheres pretty rigorously to his purpose of stating "the
facts as directly and clearly as possible."
The Introduction, of about eighty pages, is devoted to establishing
the historicity and authenticity of his sources, which are the Synoptic
Gospels, the fourth Gospel, and the other New Testament writings,
containing references to the subject. The author states the problem
clearly in each case, and carries on the discussion with thorough can-
dor ; but his apologetic attitude leads him at times to lean rather
strongly upon the argument from ignorance.
The rest of the book presents schematically the outline of the life,
constructed from the aforesaid sources. The work is done critically,
giving evidence of ample technical scholarship.
Though the author distinctly disavows any intention of adding any
interest to the work not inherent in the facts, one cannot help feeling
that the value of the book would have been enhanced by a slight in-
fusion of warmth and color in the disposition of the facts.
W. S. S.
Biomechaniky von Dr. Brnst Mehnert. Privatdocent an der Uni-
versitat Strassburg. Jena, 1898. pp. 177.
This is a philosophical discussion of the principles of organogene-
sis. Although the great biogenetic law that the individual recapitu-
lates the stages of the development of the species to which it belongs
is true in a large sense, the order in which it has developed does not
follow their phyletic age, but is subject to much relative change. The
heart, for instance, in the individual develops before the blood ves-
sels, but this reverses the phylogenetic order. The walls of the large
vessels develop before the blood corpuscles, while the converse was
true in the development of the species. Ontogenetic age in all such
cases is an index only of the intensity of kenogenetic energy. Re-
tarded development of an organ on the other hand is an indication of
regressivity, and Mehnert has collected much evidence of these cases,
showing that abbreviation and retardation of different organs of a
BOOK NOTES. 309
creature, which is their bearer, are ontogenetic processes that are
constantly operative. The latter may affect the date of the first ap-
pearance of an organ, the differentiation of its tissues among each
other, or the entire processes of growth of a part or all of them.
Organs are progressive according to the degree of their vitality. The
rapidity of the growth of a part is directly as the degree of develop-
ment acquired by the phyletic process. Each organ also has its own
growth center more closely connected with and dependent on the
organism of the series from which it has descended than it is upon
those structurally or functionally near it or the organ of which it is a
part. In other words of all its determinants, those that are inherited
are the most important. This is especially true of periods of sudden,
explosive growth functions, the interconnection of organs and rela-
tion to the environment, and all other individual or epigenetic fac-
tors are real and important, but subordinate determinants, so that
embryological growth is purest.
It may be further assumed that ripe determinants and a directive
?rogramme of energy develop more than those that are immature,
he eozoon or paleoatavistic bases of heredity are the formative prin-
ciples of fundamental organs. These bases condition all others and
are constant. The neoatavistic factors on the other hand are the in-
tensity and rapidity of development due to later and more individual
influences upon heredity. The earlier part of the life of an animal is
more established and more conformable to Weismannism, while the
latter part of each individual life is more characterized by the evolu-
tion of acquired qualities. Lower animal, especially aquatic forms,
that have been subjected to unfavorable conditions, produce young
before they are mature or full grown ; and these young then tend to
stop in their own development at the stage where their parents were
when they were produced. Growth might almost be defined as get-
ting loaded up with inherited qualities. Although even epigenetic
cells developed under the influence of function may be short lived,
still assuming the monophyletic origin of animal life, and also assum-
ing that maturity and death are longer delayed as we ascend the
scale of being, more and more weight must be assigned to the later
acquired than to the earlier and more stable qualities.
Basal and lapidary as is the biogenetic law, the work of Appel, Kei-
bel, Mehnert, and many others have demonstrated that the excep-
tions to it are numerous and important. Kach higher animal is com-
posed of organs phyletically old and new, and the order of their
development maybe greatly changed- So great is this " heteroch-
rony " that it may be said in general that the time at which an organ
appears is dependent upon the time when it is needed for use, and
organs decay as their functions cease. Every animal is, therefore,
a mixture of high and low qualities. In many respects many of the
lower animals excel man. The generalization here important is that
by youthful parents heredity is more confined to older and lower
qualities, so that those who attain sexual maturity early do not ad-
vance the phyletic series. Species and individuals on the other hand
that attain propogative power late make for progress of the stock, be-
cause they had not only the wealth of heredity in its completeness, but
contribute individual additions, infinitesimal though they may be.
Early marriages, therefore, tend to the decay of culture and civiliza-
tion, and all conditions that make for its " neotenia " are retrogress-
ive, and each generation must reacquire everything anew because
parents transmit nothing not transmittsd to them. Conversely, if we
follow Mehnert, hyperheredity due to long delay of propogation may
be a factor for accounting for the overgrowth of the horns of certain
3IO BOOK NOTKS.
stags, some of the monsters of the 'geologic past, and other hyper-
trophied organs of individual species and functions, even those of
genius.
Die Psy chosen des Pubertdtsalters , von Wai^ter Wii,i,k. Leipzig u.
Wien, 1898. pp. 218.
We have here a careful description of 135 cases of psychic diseases
during pubescence, which the author places between 14 and 23, which
he has observed during the last fifteen years at the Insane Asylum of
Basle. He concludes that there is no specific pubertal insanity, but
that puberty gives a peculiar character to their psychoses, all of which
may occur at this age. Atypic and mixed phases are unusually fre-
quent. The most common hebephrenic traits are frequent and cause-
less changes of moods, a certain superficialty that prompts stupid
jests in the midst of lamentations ; expressions of world pain during
the jolliest hours ; sudden changes of thought form with the most
bizarre construction of sentences ; extravagance, talkativeness, echola-
lia ; impulsiveness in action ; a theatrical reference to spectators and
other degenerative traits play the leading role here. Contradictions
are frequent, and delusions of greatness and a sense of exaltation alter-
nate with the most depressive unworthiness. Moreau specifies sudden
changes from sadness to gaiety ; spells of unusual activity ; extreme
confidence often combined with chorea and catalepsy. Regis thinks
pubertal insanity, more often moral, shows itself in morbid acts and im-
pulses rather than in the intellectual sphere. Savage says psychic ab-
normalities are like those of early childhood, only more expressed, and
that all its many phases tend to issue in weakmindedness. At no time
is dysmenorrhea so liable to intellectual disturbance. Blanford
thinks violence more common than delusion and that St. Vitus Dance
is characteristic. Trowbridge distinguishes between short duration
and true psychoses, the latter being usually incurable. In all, perio-
dicit}^ with lucid intervals is common. Moral perversions of boys are
prone to take the form of cruelty or crime, while girls are more liable
to shameless and erotic perversity ; while egotism and self satisfaction
are common to both sexes.
Nevroses et Idees Fixes, par Prof. F. Raymond et Dr. PierrE
Janbt. F. Alcan, Paris, 1898. Vol. I, pp. 492 ; Vol. II, pp. 559.
The first of these two heavy volumes, with sixty-eight cuts, is devoted
to experimental studies on disturbances of will, attention, memory,
emotion and fixed ideas ; and the second, with ninety-seven cuts, de-
scribes clinical cases and gives suggestions as to treatment. The
copious analytical index at the end permits ready reference to all the
rich material. Few will perhaps agree with the somewhat extreme
standpoint of the author, which describes so many and varied affecta-
tions as traceable directly and indirectly to fixed ideas, but it must be
admitted that the cases tend to favor the views of the close association
between mental and nervous disturbances. The strong point of the
work is the interpretation of individual cases. The writer is fully
alive to the partial truths that may be contained in the current notions
of mental healing. Such topics as confusion, aboulia, emotive delirium,
impulsive obsession, somnambulism, chorea, tics, visceral spasms,
contractures, allochiria, subconscious hallucinations, hysterical hemi-
anopsia, insomnia, due to fixed ideas and possession, are illustrated,
and explanations of very suggestive, if not always conclusive, charac-
ter, are given.
The Passing of Plato, by O. P. Jenkins. Stanford University Press,
1897. pp. 23.
Here is a Professor of Physiology in the Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni-
BOOK NOTES. 31I
versity, who notes the fact that the Greeks originally were sympathetic
lovers of nature, till Socrates and Plato, who," with the purest and best
of motives, unconsciously did the race a disservice that became a bar
to progress for the ages to follow." The mind can make any hypothesis
so there was no trouble to attain any required definitions, " and to de-
fend the whole of these it was necessary to do away with the rest of
the universe." These "innocent diversions of Plato," were followed
by Aristotle, to whom " mental flights were more attractive than his
studies of bugs and fishes." Then follow many other systems evolved
from the " lazy philosophy of Plato," but pure thinking, which spread
over the worlcl like cobwebs over the lawn on a summer's day, all in-
spired by Plato. Despite many hopeful signs, these conceptions and
methods hang like the old man of the sea upon the neck of the present.
Now science is changing all this.
Any well trained student in the history of philosophy will recognize
the partial truth of the above, and if he has read I/ange's Positivism
vs. Idealism, he may detect a similar spirit here, but the author's ex-
treme onesidedness ; the surprising lack of historical perspective ; his
failure to recognize one of the axioms of evolution as applied to man ;
to say nothing of the fact that Plato was never so much studied as
to-day, and that by men as much in S5'mpathy with physiological and
biological sciences as himself, altogether make this a very strange
note to be sounding at a university commencement.
Moderne Nervositdt und ihre Vererbung, von Ch. Fere. Berlin,
1898. pp. 284.
The influence of heredity upon the origin of mental and nervous
diseases are — this assumes that there is no nervous disease not con-
nected with anatomical change, and the author undertakes to apply
the general laws of biology in this field to pathology. Many diseases
and malformations are considered, and even epilepsy and hysteria, it
is assumed, must have a physical and transmissible basis. To estab-
lish his thesis, the author at the outset makes very material qualifica-
tions of the extreme views of Weismaun and his followers ; lays con-
siderable stress upon the mutability of nervous diseases, especially
these transmitted from one generation to the next ; and undertakes in
some respects to suggest morbid equivalents. He believes that all
degenerative tendencies can be successfully combated, provided
there is a fit hygiene of propagation which consists mainly in system-
atic rest beforehand and the most favorable nutritive conditions. The
author's reportory of casualistic material is large, and twenty inter-
esting cuts of inherited abnormalities and deformities are given.
Archives of Neurology and Psychopathology . Vol. I, Nos. i and 2.
1898.
This new archive is most sumptuously bound and printed, and is to
be published in four annual numbers per volume, price, I3 a year. It
is to be published under the auspices of the New York State Hospital
and the Pathological Institute, by permission of the State Commission
in Lunacy. It is to be edited for the former by Drs. G. A. Blumer, C.
W. Pilgrim and S. H. Talcott ; and for the latter by Drs. Ira van
Gieson, Boris Sidis and H. B. Deady. The longest and most impor-
tant article in the present number is entitled," The Correlation of Sci-
ences in the Investigation of Nervous and Mental Diseases," by Ira
van Gieson, which occupies about 235 pages. A briefer preliminary
communication by Van Gieson and Sidis on " Neuron Energy and its
Psychomotor Manifestations," makes up the entire number. The
archives will contain studies on abnormal mental life and their neural
cojicomitants based on psychology, psychopathology, experimental
312 BOOK NOTEvS.
physiology and pathology, cellular biology, pathological anatomy,
comparative neurology, physiological chemistry, anthropology and
bacteriology.
Annual and Analytical EncyclopcEcLia of Practical Medicine^ by
CharIvES E. de M. Sajous, M. D., and loo associates assisted by
corresponding editors, collaborators, and correspondence. Illus-
trated by chromolithographs, engravings and maps. F. A. Davis
Co., Philadelphia, New York and Chicago, 1899. Vol. II, pp. 607.
The two volumes already issued come down to and include diph-
theria. Most of the sections in the entire work are prepared under
the immediate supervision of the editor, and are submitted to mem-
bers of the assistant staff for revision and correction. Each author
can change, erase and add. This second volume inaugurates the plan
of work as regards elaboration. Some of the best articles in the pres-
ent volume of interest to psychologists are on deaf-mutism, catalepsy
and cocainomania.
The volumes thus far published are of very attractive appearance,
printed in large clear type on two column pages, and tastefully and
conveniently bound, and what is perhaps best of all in most cases
bring down the literature of the more important subjects to the present
year. Such a work was greatly needed in practical medicine, and the
high character of the authors, as well as the work which has thus far
appeared, is sufficient to stamp the encyclopaedia as an honor to
American scholarship, a necessity for practical physicians and a con-
venience, not to say a luxury, for psychologists.
Foot-notes to Evolution, Series of Popular Addresses on the Evolution
of Life, by David Starr Jordan, Ph. D., President Leland
Stanford, Jr., University, with supplementary addresses by Pro-
fessors E. G. Conklin, F. M. MacFarland, J. P. Smith. Appleton
and Co., N. Y., 1898. pp. 392.
These papers on organic evolution were originally given as oral lec-
tures before University Extension Societies in California, and some
have already appeared in the Arena and Popular Science Monthly. It
is not intended as a text-book on evolution, although most of its
phases are touched on, partly because the different topics are very
unequally treated. President Jordan's papers are entitled — the kin-
ship of life ; evolution, what it is and what it is not ; the elements of
organic evolution ; the heredity of Richard Roe ; distribution of
species ; latitude and vertebrae ; the evolution of mind ; degeneration ;
heredity insufficiency ; the woman of evolution and the woman of
pessimism ; the stability of truth ; the struggle of realities. There
are twenty-eight illustrations and five full page plates. The topics
are treated in a very lucid and popular way, and the book marks an
important addition to the illustrations and demonstrations of the de-
velopment theory.
The Gospel According to Darwin, by Woods Hutchinson. Chicago,
1898. pp. 241.
This book is an effort to glance at some of the influences affecting
human hope and happiness from the evolutionary standpoint, and to
show how this attitude has a broad and a secure basis for courage and
happiness in the present and for hope in the future that the message
of Darwin is really the gospel of good, and that the natural is as won-
derful as the supernatural, so that we need not longer limit our wor-
ship to the mysterious. Darwinism, as the author conceives it, has a
wonderful power to broaden and deepen religious interest in the
spirit of worship. The chapters are entitled — the fifth gospel, the
BOOK NOTES. 31 3
omnipotence of good, the holiness of instinct, the beauty of death,
life eternal, love as a factor in evolution, courage the first virtue,
strength of beauty, the benefits of over population, the duty and
glory of reproduction and the economics of prostitution, the value of
pain, lebensulst. The author is eloquent and poetic, and in many re-
spects suggests Drummond, but has less sympathy with conservatism.
Les Pensees de Tolstoi, d'apres les Textes Russes, par Ossip-IvOURIe;.
F. Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 179.
In this little book with a preface dedicated to Ribot, the writer
selects pregnant quotations from Tolstoi, and groups them under the
heads of life, man, society, religion, power, patriotism, militarism,
riches, work, happiness, science, art, education, feminism, love, mar-
riage, the good, evil, truth, the ideal, and death. A complete list of
Tolstoi's works are appended, and also a list of works in different
countries that have been influenced by Tolstoi. Each quotation is
numbered for cross reference to sources.
La Philosophic de Charles Secretan, par F. Pii,i.on, F. Alcan, Paris,
1898. pp. 197.
Secrdtan is known as the philosopher of liberty, from the title of his
chief work which treats of liberty, human and divine, in a special con-
nection with the three great Christian dogmas of creation, fall and
redemption. Liberty and the philosophy of Christianity are for him
synonomous terms. The material of the books falls into the three
natural chapters of metaphysics, morals and critical observations.
Dynamic Idealisfu, by A. H. Lloyd, Ph. D. Chicago, 1898. pp. 248.
This is an elementary course in metaphysics of psychology first
entered upon in lectures before the students in the University of
Michigan. Psychology without metaphysics is useless if not absurd,
and real psychology is metaphysics. The author has been more in-
terested in the relation of the psychological theory to dualism or
monoism than to any of its mere external details. Only metaphysical
principles can make any process really complete. The first duty of
psychology is to give the distinct doctrine of the soul. The organs
of the soul are after all the true definition of it. The author discusses
in the first part, the world and things including change, organism,
body, outer world ; secondly, ideas not as forms but as forces ; con-
sciousness as interest, etc.; and thirdly the world of acts, the will,
the living ideal. The appendix contains a study of immortality in
outline.
A Treatise 07i Aphasia and other Speech Defects, by H. Chari^ton
Bastian. London, 1898. pp. 366.
Five of the seventeen chapters of this work are reproductions with a
few additions from the author's Lumleian lectures, and treats the sub-
ject in a more complete way than has hitherto been attempted. Theo-
retical opinions are in general avoided and very many typical cases,
some of which are from the author's own observation, are presented,
especially where the necropsy was carefully made. Speculative classi-
fications are to a great extent omitted, and some attempt is made to
simplify the nomenclature. The relation between thought and lan-
guage, classification of speech defects and those of writing, due to
structural or functional degradation, amnesia, etiology, and modes of
recovery, amimia, prognosis and treatment are perhaps the studies
most fully treated. This work in general, comprehensive as it is, well
illustrates the fact that we really know far more about sensory than
we do about motor aphasia, and quickens the hope that the long
promised and long delayed work of Dejerine will soon appear.
JOURNAI. — 10
314 BOOK NOTES.
Histoire de la Sipultureet des Fundrailles dans VAncienne Egypte, par
E. Ameuneau. Paris, 1S96. (Annales du Mus6e Guimet) pp. 336
and 345.
These volumes, the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth of the Museum,
consist of the history of sepulture and funeral rites in ancient Egypt,
and are illustrated by 112 wood cuts. The profound influence of the
form of Egyptian belief in immortality dominated art, architecture,
etc., and no country is fuller of monuments of this belief than Egypt.
The monuments, tombs, etc., are described historically, and with great
detail ; although all the chapters are exceedingly objective, the author
does not hesitate to pause for interpretations suflScient to deiine his
standpoint for the reader.
Affirmations, by Havei^ock E1.1.1S. London, 1898. pp. 248.
" How happy the world might be if there was no literature but the
Bible, if Augustine, Aquinas, Calvin, and thousands of smaller men,
had not danced upon it so long, stamping every page into mire."
The author has been all his life casting away knowledge gained from
books aud literature and coming toward that haven of knowledge
where a child is king. Very different from this is the literature of life,
and the author uses Nietzsche, Casanova, Zola, Huysmann, and St.
Francis, essays on whom make up the book, as stalking horses to creep
up more closely to the life his soul loves so well. He has a special
predilection for questionable themes and deems it useless to discuss
others, although certainty is the end of all. He desires to settle a few
things, clean out the Augean stables, and recall the simple, eternal
facts of existence. Yet for every man his own afl&rmations are always
the best. The essays are written in a sprightly style, and while they
presuppose some things about the author treated, make the best of
all introductions to them.
The Problems of Philosophy, by John G. Hibben, Ph. D., Stuart Pro-
fessor of Logic, Princeton University. New York, 1898. pp. 203.
As an introduction to the study of philosophy, the author's design
is to indicate between points at issue on controverted questions
without details or exhaustive criticism. It is assumed that the student
who is beginning the history of philosophy will find himself at a loss
to understand the relation between earlier and later periods, and will
lack proper perspective to appreciate the drift of opinions. After the
plea for philosophy, the successive chapters discuss the problem of
ontology, cosmology, psychology, epistemology, logic, ethics, political
science and sesthetics. The standpoint is that of idealism, the method
lucid, and the book attractively printed and bound, and conveniently
indexed.
The Skin Considered as an Organ of Sensation, by J. S. Lemon, Ph. D.
Gardner, Mass., 1899. pp. 56.
Dr. Lemon, a former pupil of Clark, here treats the genesis of touch
and of the skin and nervous system ; the resumes of different theories
about these topics and central localization ; analyses of different skin
senses and the recent experimental investigation upon them ; discusses
illusions, etc. The strong point of the paper is perhaps the author's
study of the earlier history and literature of the subject. From one to
half a dozen writings by 128 authors are appended.
The Doctrine of Energy. The Theory of Reality. By B. L. L. Lon-
don, 1898. pp. 108.
The author has previously published essays entitled, " Matter and
Energy," and "Are There Two Real Things in the Physical Universe?"
BOOK NOTES. 315
His theory was that the present conception of energy supersedes the
idea of matter and by itself explains all the real elements in all physi-
cal phenomena. This view is now presented from the metaphysical
standpoint. What we call volition in all its forms is dependent upon
the unseen energetic substratum "whose transmutations to volition
merely initiates and works, and it is natural to suppose that all the
motions and transmutations of this energy are similarly originated by
the supreme intelligence or will." Intelligence and this unseen basis
on which all its actions are exerted and out of which its perceptions
are derived, are the two real entities which reason must predicate.
Sense phenomena result from their interaction and are a mere quality
of that phenomenal world which contains neither of the real entities.
Der Korper des Menschen, von Dr. A. Brass. Wernigerode a. H.
1898.
This is the first installment of the first of three volumes, entitled
development history, which is to contain an atlas with many illustra-
tions in color. All is to be written in a way to represent the present
state of science and to be easily intelligible by all. This first section
of sixt5''-two pages, four of which are devoted to wood cuts and three
to colored engravings, treats of sex and reproduction. Technical terms
are avoided when possible, and when not, they are very briefly ex-
plained, and the style is certainly very simple, and many facts are
stated as though written from a large fund of information.
Guesses at the Riddle of Existence and other Essays on Kindred Sub-
jects, by Goodwin Smith. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1898.
pp. 244.
Three of these five papers have appeared in the North American Re-
view or Forum, and all are written according to the view that amidst
all the religious doubts and perplexities of the present are that our
salvation can only be found in uncompromising allegiance to the truth.
The spirit is not agnosticism but hopeful inquiry ; despite the collapse
of proofs of a supreme being, our hearts affirm him. The church and
the Old Testament ; the miraculous element in Christianity ; morality
and theism are some of the other topics treated.
Spiritual Consciousness, by Frank H. Sprague. Wollaston, Mass.,
1898. pp. 238.
Men have been fed on the dry husks of materialism until they cry
out for something better. Spiritualism, Christian Science, spiritual
healing, theosophy mark an earnest desire to reach the inmost kernel
of life. This and the tendency of the age toward unity are everywhere
noted, and in a few points are sought. These tendencies are discussed
in chapters entitled : what is truth ; realization of ideals through right
thinking ; the outer and inner world ; consciousness ; Christianity ;
growth of society ; the problem of evil ; spiritual basis of love ; mani-
festations of the spiritual principle ; music, art and nature. There is
almost no reference to literature, and the earnestness and seriousness
of the author are impressed on every page.
Destinie deV Homme, par M. 1'Abbe C. PiaT. Paris, 1898. pp. 244.
The primary certainties in the world are psychological, that is, spir-
itual, and their quality and intensity are fundamental. The unknow-
able is especially found in our passions. Eternity of the ideas does
not imply that of human thought, and we cannot reason from their
nature to the quality of the soul. Our theory of impersonal reasons
cannot be proven. Liberty cannot solve the problems of the uncon-
scious limits and bases of our mental being. Thought and nerve action
31 6 BOOK NOTKS.
are a mysterious solidarity. The fundamental beliefs of the world
are: purpose, thought, love, action. Materialism has no possible
proof, spiritualism rests on the solid basis of teleology and must grow
with time.
Ueber die sexuellefi Ursachen der Neurosthenie und Angstneurose,
von Dr. FEiyix GatTEI.. Berlin, 1898. pp. 68.
The author has collected and tabulated 100 cases from which he
draws the conclusion that the neuroses of anxiety always tend to occur
wherever there is excessive retention of libido ; while pure neurathenia
occurs only as a result of masturbation. In none of the 100 cases he
collects was the sexual life normal.
Gerichtliche Psychopathologie, von Dr. Anton Dei^bruck. I^eipzig,
1897. pp. 224. _
The author is a specialist in the Insane Asylum of Burgholzli and
privatdocent at Zurich, a pupil of Forel, and addresses his brief text-
book to students, physicians and jurists. After discussing the nature
or legal responsibility, methods of investigation and the qualifications
of experts, the writer takes up the leading types of mental diseases,
including poisoning, neuroses, including epilepsy, histeria, constitu-
tional disturbances and arrested development. Perhaps the topics
best treated are : imperative ideas, moral insanity, morbid impulses,
simulation. The clinical material occupies but very little space ; a
digest of laws and a copious index are appended.
ProbVemes d' Esthetique et de Morale, par C. R. C. Herckenrath.
F. Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 163.
The writer is a professor in a Holland I/yc^e, and presents briefly his
views on beauty, sublimity, tragedy, comedy, laughter, morality and
its evolution, the moral sentiments and the relations of aesthetics and
social science.
Christentuni' s Ende, by Friedrich Nonnemann. Munden, 1898.
pp. 145.
Lest the startling title of this book .should give alarm, it may be
said at the outset that it is introduced by a dream, and is written novel-
wise and most ecstatically. Christianity ends in Jesus Christ, to whom
be thanks, praise and love forever.
Die Entwickelung der Religiositat und das Werk der Religion, von
Dr. E. Reich. Zweiter Band.
Das Werk der Religion und der Kampf gegen das Verhangniss. 1898.
Zurich, pp. 426.
The author here writes in his characteristic prolix but entertaining
style with voluminous and apt quotations on the categories and essence
of time and eternity ; the practice of religion by means of hygiene and
education ; morals and culture. The agents by which the warfare is
waged against fate are : society, humor, temperament, energy, feeling,
character, genius, religion ; and fate is found in false societies of social
organization, politics, insanity, alcoholism, nervousness, gambling,
other forms of evil and sin, and degeneration generally. The book
should be regarded, not as a treatise that adds essentially to its topic,
but as an interesting and stimulating collection of opinions with sen-
sible and interesting comments from many fields, especially that of
anthropology, in which the author's learning is so extensive.
The Book of the Master, by W. Marsham Adams. Putnam Sons,
New York. pp. 204.
The author describes the Egyptian gospel of the light born of a virgin
BOOK NOTES. 317
mother. It traces a clue afforded by the comparison of the secret pas-
sages and chambers in the great pyramid with those described in the
second papyrus, familiarly known as the " Book of the Dead," but
originally entitled "The Book of the Master of the Secret House."
Both reproduce the same religion, one in stone, the other in words.
He finds no symbolism in either, but undertakes to express in clear
form, where all may follow, an outline of the deeply veiled doctrines
of the earliest recorded religions, which certainly, as he interprets it,
was full of majesty and beauty. He describes the prevalent ideas of
the resurrection in Egypt ; the religion and light ; the festivals of the
sun and moon ; the temples of the virgin mothers ; the entrance of
light and instruction ; the initiation of the postulant ; the illumination
in truth ; the master of the secret. The book contains some thirty
illustrations.
Les Croyances de Demain, par Lucien Arreat. F. Alcan, Paris, 1898.
pp. 178.
Despite its ambitious title, the pretensions of this booklet are modest.
The author does not attempt to define the faith of the future, but only
to hint at a few of its features. At best the system of philosophy is
only a pocket mirror to see nature in ; but our author wishes to be
naive and ignore all philosophies. His standpoint is that of the par-
liament of religions at the Chicago Exposition. His view is, on the
whole, optimistic. The certitudes which make the first part of his
book are that religion will enlarge its horizon, extend its sphere of
activity, but his sentiment will always guide man Justice is written
in the very mechanics of nature, and moral evolution is certain ; and
so is both the individual and historic sanction. The second part, or
conjectures, discusses the cosmos, the soul, God, science and education.
Religions will be less exclusive ; their harmony will be more em-
phasized and their differences less ; nature will be seen to be neither
cruel nor beneficent ; and the highest human service consists in turning
its energy toward the improvement of the social life. The doctrine of
personal immortality will grow dim ; that of a personal God may be
superseded by the definition of the ideal sum of phenomena ; philoso-
phy will take the place to some extent of theological dogmas ; inter-
national barriers will be broken down ; risks minimized ; the feeble
eliminated ; and peace will reign. Ivife is what we make it, and es-
pecially what we wish to make it. We must, therefore, believe in the
good and have energy to bring it to pass.
Etat Actuel de la Question de V Acsboisme Nerveux, par Rene; Dey-
BER. Paris, 1898. pp. 127.
The conclusions of this doctor's thesis are that protoplasmic move-
ment plays an important part in cell action generally, and that nerve
cells differ from others in having peculiar means of prolongation and
retraction, suggested by their very structure. Visual cells of the
retina and motor functions although their plasticity may be less than
those of the pyramidal cells in the brain. This amoeboidism or den-
tritic prolongation of neurons exhibit almost every possible transition
from temporary pseudopodia to vibratory hairs. In those organs
where the existence of centrifugal fibres is demonstrated, central cells
command movements of cells of less importance, and chromoblasts.
These may be called in a sense veritable nervi-nervorum.
History of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, by Wii^bur Urban, Ph.
D., Reader in Philosophy, Princeton University. Thesis, Feb-
ruary, 1898. pp. 88.
After stating the problem, the author characterizes pre-Leibnitzian
3l8 BOOK NOTKS.
thinking, and then the philosophical motives of I^eibnitz ; Kant's idea
of sufficient reason as the basal principle of metaphysics ; the strug-
gle between Trendelenburg's logic and Herbart's metaphysical mo-
tives; and describes the Sigwart and Wundt view of sufficient reason
as the base of logic.
Psychologie der Verdnderungsauffassung, von L. Wm. Stern. Bres-
lau, 1898. pp. 264.
The author is a privatdocent in the University of Breslau, and at-
tempts to answer the question, how change can be known, or what
are the psychic roots of this category, and what are its various modes
of operation in the field of the different senses ? The best part of the
work is the second, which gives an excellent presentation of the tech-
nique and methods of experimental determinations of minimal
changes to show the psychic excitability for them and to develop
their laws. Incidentally the effects of signals, fatigue, surprise and
expectation, optimal time, etc., are discussed, and on the whole the
topic is treated in a way so stimulating and suggestive that the author's
conclusions will, we think, generally commend themselves to experi-
menters.
Essai dHine Philosophie Nouvelle, par Leonce Ribert. F. Alcan,
Paris, 1898. pp. 562.
The plan and purpose of this volume is unique; although the author
only claims the virtues of the diligent compiler and popularizer, he
undertakes to present the general conclusions of cosmogony and the
nebular theory, celestial mechanics, geology, laws of heat, chemical
affinity, light, electricity, paleontology, animal life, savage and bar-
barous man, and to draw the general results of Greece, Rome, the
Middle Ages, to criticise current systems, and to draw from it all met-
aphysical and moral conclusiqns. He believes the idealism of the
future will rest on the solid basis of fact, and the new philosophy
owes its origin for him to new conclusions of the special sciences
about nature. It is thoroughly ideal and metaphysical, but not posi-
tivistic.
L^Etre Subconscient, par Dr. E. Gyei^. F. Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 191.
Dr. Gyel at first describes obscure facts in normal and abnormal
psychology. The latter, treated at considerable length, involves hyp-
notism, telepathy and psycho neuroses generally, with attempts to
explain all the established phenomena. The three laws that he draws
from it all are the evolutive laws of progress, effort and solidarity,
and thus reaches a new explanation of evil, of morals and the social
question. He believes thus he can reach the philosophy of the future
based on positivistic knowledge and guided by deductions in strict
conformity with the scientific spirit.
Jalresberight iiber die Leistungen und Fortschritte aufdem Gebiet der
Neurologie und Psychologie. I. Jahrgang. Karger, Berlin, 1898.
This large volume of 1,508 pages in the first resumes the best of its
over 3,500 papers on nervous and mental diseases that appeared during
the year 1897. Professors Flatan, Jacobson and Mendel, all of Berlin,
are the chief editors. Fifty-three names, many of them prominent,
are named as collaborators. The range of topics is wide, including
therapeutics and criminal anthropology. Besides a general index,
outlining its plan of arrangement, there are two full indexes, one of
topics and the other of authors' names, at the end. The difficulties of
such an undertaking, especially for the first year, are immense, and
nothing but German industry could cope with them. All psycholo-
BOOK NOTES. 319
gists, as well as neurologists and alienists, will most heartily welcome
this as a boon of the highest practical value for their work. In few
topics is its really valuable literature more widely scattered in many
languages and in publications of more various kinds. As far as we
have examined this great work, we find nothing in it not worthy of
hearty commendation, and all interested will share our earnest hope
that the yearbook will meet the encouragement it so well merits and
be continued.
With Pillon's Aunee Philosophique now in its ninth year ; the Ann^e
Psychologique of Binet and Henri; the Ann^e Biologique of Delage,
the student of psychology, in the large sense of that word, has aids to
his work that are not only valuable, but indispensable.
V Education des Sentiments, par F. Thomas. Paris, 1899. pp. 287.
Intellectualism has been the ideal of education, but in the present
reaction against its ideals there is a tendency to study and train the
sentiments. Pleasure is a guide and aid, and pain makes pleasure more
intense and puts us on our guard against many evils. Neurasthenia,
which increases pain, is combated by change of work, rest, exercise,
country life, rules of hygiene. Fear is educable by judicious exposure
to it, anger by restraint, curiosity by rational gratification, etc. The
instinct of property, self-esteem, social inclination, friendship, patriot-
ism, sympathy, pity, love of truth, of play, the beautiful and good, are
all educable by various means. The book is very interesting and
suggestive.
A Study of the Ethical Principles, by Jamks Seth. Chas. Scribner's
Sons, New York, 1898. pp. 470.
This third and enlarged edition makes this one of the very best of
modern books upon the subject. It is the outcome of years of contin-
uous reflection and teaching in which the author has sought to re-
think the entire subject, and to throw some light upon the real course
of thought to ancient and modern times. He has particularly striven
to recover and in part restate the contributions of the Greeks, espe-
cially Aristotle. He prefers to be called an eudaemonist in the orig-
inal sense of that term. The present edition contains a new chapter
on the nature of ethics which explains the more limited view of this
field which further reflection has forced upon the writer. In the second
part a new chapter on moral progress has been added, and a sketch of
literature is appended to each chapter.
Theories of the Will in the History of Philosophy, by Archibai^d Ai,-
EXANDER. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1898. pp. 357.
The writer, formally Professor of Philosophy in Columbia College,
here attempts the concise account of the theory of the will from the
earliest Greek thought down to about the middle of the present cen-
tury. He modestly disclaims the title of history because he has only
included the theories of the more important philosophers. He holds
that historical treatment is indispensable to the proper presentation
of the subject, and closes his view with the theory of L/otze with an
intimation that it will be continued later. Theory, the author thinks,
has tended to make us regard no psychical states as self explanatory,
but rather as a result of antecedents or as compounds of simpler ele-
ments. This is seen in the tendency to seek the germs of adult psychic
states in the infant mind, and even in animals, as well as to take the
brain into account. These facts inspire the hope that the genesis of
conscious volition may be explained more clearly. Will is considered
in the Socratic period, in stoic and epicurian theories, in Christian
theology, in British philosophy from Bacon to Reid, on the continent
from Descartes to Leibnitz, and in Germany from Kant to Lotze.
320 BOOK NOTES.
The Foundations of Zoology, by Wii^liam K. Brooks. The Macmil-
lau Co., New York, 1899. pp. 339.
This book, which has been for some time awaited with interest, is
the fifth in the Columbia University Biological Series, and is rather
singularly dedicated to " Hobart College where I learned to study,
and I hope to profit by but not blindly follow the writings of that
great thinker on the principles of science, George Berkeley." The
titles of the twelve lectures, which compose the book, will give the
best idea of its wide scope and great importance — Huxley and the
problem of the naturalist ; nature and nurture ; LaMarck ; migration
in its bearing on LaMarckism ; zoology and the philosophy of evolu-
tion; a note on the views of Galton and Weismann on inheritance;
Darwin and the origin of species ; natural selection and the antiquity
of life ; natural selection and natural theology ; Paley and the argu-
ment from contrivance ; the mechanism of nature ; Louis Agassiz and
George Berkeley.
The Use of Color in the Verse of the Efiglish Rotnantic Poets, by
Ai,iCE Edwards Pratt. Chicago, 1898. pp. 118.
The use which has been made of color and color terms by Pope>
Thomson, Gray, Goldsmith, Cowper, Scott, Coleridge, Wordsworth*
Byron, Shelley and Keats, required a careful reading of the poets,
and the cataloguing of each usage of color. The results for each
poet are classified, first by color groups, and second as distribution
among various fields of interest. Nine colors or color groups are used,
and twelve fields of interest : viz. — man, dress, manufactured articles,
animals, minerals, flowers and fruits, sky, land, waters, miscellaneous
objects, color as color, and abstractions. Four hundred thousand
lines of verse were read, and two interesting charts are appended, one
on color words applied to human eyes, hair, skin ; and the second, on
those applied to sky, cloud, air, vegetation, hills and deep water. In-
terest in color culminated in two periods — with Goldsmith represent-
ing the lowest stage between them. Scott, Wordsworth and Shelley
are near the apex of the first, and the romanticists, after Tennyson, of
the second maximal use.
The Sexual Instinct and its Morbid Manifestations from the Double
Standpoint of furisprudence and Psychiatry, by Dr. B. Tarnow-
SKY, Translated by W. C. Costello and Alfred AUinson. Paris,
1898. pp. 239.
This important work, which first appeared in a briefer form in Rus-
sian, in 1885, is here at last translated with a considerable number of
fresh observations, which, however, do not especially modify the au-
thor's theory. He adopts as the motto of his book the sentence of
Havelock Ellis to the effect that now that the problems of religion and
labor have been more or less either settled or placed on a practical
basis, the question of sex and the race, which rests on it, now becomes
the chief problem for coming generations to solve. " Sex lies at the
root of life, and we can never learn to reverence life until we know how
to understand sex." The book is very attractively printed and bound
and contains a frontispiece of the author.
A Plea for Polygamy. Paris, 1898. pp. 280.
This anonymous book, with an edition strictly limited to 300 num-
bers, is a serious and earnest argument, based chiefly on anthropologi-
cal rather than biological grounds, that polygamy is practical and in
some respects and under certain circumstances not only justifiable, but
highly advisable. The author thinks it would prevent a social evil ;
that monogamy prevents and retards marriage, which is not only a
BOOK NOTES. 321
duty, but an inalienable right for all who wish it, etc. The author's
view is extreme, and his accusations against monogamy are bitter ; his
list of great men in the past who have been open or covert polygamists;
his analysis of love and the primary laws of marriage exhibit little
scholarship, strong prejudice, and a propensity for extreme views.
Psychology of Sex, by Havei^ock Kiyiyis. Vol. I. Sexual Inversion.
University Press, lyondon, 1897. pp. 204.
This first volume is largely a translation of the author's work pub-
lished a year earlier in Germany. From the latter work, however,
some matter has been omitted, but more has been added. As a youth,
living in an Australian city, where the ways of life were seen, Mr.
Ellis resolved, twenty years ago, that one main part of his life work
should be to make clear the problems of sex. He has a deep sense of
the evils of ignorance, and suppression of efforts that can never be
suppressed, but may easily be perverted ; and pleads in a preface the
cause of sincerity against that of reticence. In the days of the great
treatise of Sanchez, the church dealt faithfully with this subject, now
it ignores and slights it. A later volume is to be devoted to normal
phenomena in this field.
The Determination of Sex, by Dr. IvEOpoi^d Schenck. The Werner
Co., Chicago, Akron and New York, 1898. pp. 222.
This is called an authorized translation, but the name of no transla-
tor is given, neither are we informed where the original papers of the
author are found. The style of the translation is exceedingly unsatis-
factory, leaving the reader often in great doubt as just what the sen-
tences mean. The general conclusion, however, is plain enough, and
is, as is well-known, that sex is determined in the very early months
of pregnancy by the presence or absence of sugar in the urine, which
the author's extremely delicate phenylhydrazine test detects even the
faintest trace of. If the diet during this period can be so determined
that no sugar is'given off, a male child is the result. If it is thus ex-
creted, a female child is produced. The very wide range, however, of
variation in this habit requires a very careful individual study, and
the preliminary study of dieting must precede impregnation for some
weeks or months.
Die Geschlechts-Bestimmung des Werdenden Menschen, von Kari, von
Hagen. BerliD, S. W., 1898. pp. 60.
This brochure attempts to sum up what we knew and what we know
on the predetermination of sex. Assuming the general correctness of
Schenck's theory, of which the author gives a somewhat popular state-
ment, he attempts to draw certain practical diathetic rules concerning
marriage, food and regimen ; supplements the theory with a number
of very bold conjectures of his own ; and introduces a number of striking
psychological conceptions.
Sex Worship : An Exposition of the Phallic Origin of Religion, by
CiviFFORD Howard. Washington, D. C, 1897. pp. 166.
The author makes sex worship the basis of religion in the world. It
was universal and primitive, and has left its mark on, not only all
religions, but all languages and institutions. It was inspired by
the phenomena of nature, and many of its most formal m5'steries
were springtime celebrations of the regeneration of life. Now in
India there are millions of true Phallic worshippers. Even the high-
est theologies are its product, and God himself is love. So diverse and
changed have been its effects that many really worship at its shrine
without knowing it. The author shares what to us is extravagance of
322 BOOK NOTES.
nearly all writers upon this subject, the propensity to see Phallic em-
blems symbolized everywhere and in everything. His work on the
whole is earnest and respectable, but shows few traces of the scholar-
ship really required to treat this subject critically and well.
Psychologie de V Instinct Sexuel, par Lk Dr. Joanny Roux. Paris,
1899. pp. 96.
This is the best little compend on this great subject that we have
seen, and is written with the wide knowledge of the best literature.
The first chapter on the basis of sexual need leads up to the conclu-
sion that this takes its rise in every part of the organism, and its ex-
citing cause is similar to that of the desire for food. The second
chapter discusses the nervous centres of this function and its relations
successively with olfactory, visual, auditory, tactile and gustatory
sensations. The third chapter discusses choice, from the lowest ani-
mals up to man, with the usual account of the theories of 3chopen-
hauer and Hartmann. The fourth part treats of the higher forms of
love, the role of intellectual, moral and emotional qualities, and the
evolution of the affectional nature.
Degeneracy : Its Causes, Signs and Results, by Eugene S. Talbot, M.
D. London, 1898. pp. 372.
The author is a Fellow of the Chicago Academy of Medicine, and
presents here the results of twenty years of labor in a limited medical
department of biology. He writes especially for educators and par-
ents, and avoids laying stress on any one cause of degeneracy, nor
will he venture to rigidly distinguish abnormality from disease or
atavism from arrested development. He considers the stigmata of
heredity, consanguineous and neurotic intermarriages, intermixture
of races, toxic agents, the school strain, degenerate cranium, nose,
face, eye, ear, teeth, and jaw, reversion, mental and moral degen-
eracy, and illustrates his work with 117 interesting and mostly new
cuts. The author is bold, original and suggestive, and his work is a
contribution of real and indeed great value, more so on the whole than
anything that has yet appeared in this country.
Evolution Individuelle Heriditi, par FeIvIX IvE DanTKC. F. Alcan,
Paris, 1898. pp. 306.
This is a theory of quantitative variation, and considers the subject
under three general heads : I. The monoplastids, both sissipare and
those with so-called cyclic evolution. II. The polyplastids, first from
the standpoint of their individual evolution, and second from that of
heredity. III. He discusses certain facts and theories connected with
heredity such as embryogenic acceleration ; Cope's diplogenesis ;
Delage's theory of actual causes ; with a final chapter on teleology.
Beitrdge zUr Physiologic des Centralnervensystetns , von Max Vbr-
WORN. Jena, 1898. pp. 92.
This first part of a more comprehensive work of the above title is
not the so-called hypnosis of animals. The author first describes with
some detail the phenomena in birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibia,
fish and crabs, with the attempted explanation of Circher, Zeemack,
Preyer, Huebel and others; and then characterizes the chief phe-
nomena in man with the theory of the biotomic process which he as-
sumes in neurons. The characteristic posture of hypnotized animals
he holds is due to a corrective reflex which requires the muscles in-
volved to remain in tonic contraction, and is the same if the cerebrum
is removed. It is all simply the inhibition of voluntary activities
that we always observe when strong sensory impressions are intense.
BOOK NOTES. 323
A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution, by Cari,
VON NageIvI. Chicago, 1898. pp. 53.
This little hand-book by V. A. Clark, a student in the University of
Vermont, working under the direction of F. A. Waugh, is a very care-
ful summary of Nageli's mechanico-physiological theory of evolu-
tion, and will prove a real convenience to students.
The Formal and Material Elements of Kant's Ethics, by Wii^IvIAM
M. Washington. New York, 1898. pp. 67.
This thesis treats the fundamental principles of the metaphysics of
morals, the critique of pure practical reason, and the metaphysics of
ethics .
The Basis of Early Christian Theisfn, by lyAWRENCE T. Col,k. New
York, 1898. pp. 60.
The writer nrst treats the Greek and Roman theistic arguments, then
presents the patristic point of view and the patristic use of the theistic
argument, and finally eclectic theism, which he advocates.
Der Hypnotismus, von Kari, WachteIvBORN. Leipzig, 1898. pp. 98.
Has hypnotism a place in practical medicine? The author pleads
that it is not only utterly worthless, but is a dangerous and in fact a
poisonous thing. Even if its first effects are good, the reaction is
detrimental to body and soul. It may and doubtless has advanced
man's knowledge.
Das Hypnotische Hellsch-Experiment, von Rudoi^f Mui<IvER. Leip-
zig, 1898. pp. 322.
This pamphlet is only an extract from two volumes of the above
title, and the whole is a plea for the recognition of hypnotism as an
important method of scientific psychic investigation.
DieerkenntnifstheoretischeStellungdes Psychologen, von Rud. Wein-
MANN. Leipzig, 1898. pp. 252.
This is at the same time a contribution to the foundation of the
realistic mode of thought as the only one possible. The realism here
represented is confessedly an hypothesis, but one which admits of the
greatest simplicity and correctness of description.
Der Ativismus, von Dr. I. H. F. Kohi^brugge. Utrecht, 1897. pp. 31.
The conclusions of the first paper is that all so-called atavistic anom-
alies call forth neutral variations (neutral in relation to future race
types) either by change or arrest of development. Arrests are caused
by disturbances, mostly casual and unknown, occasioned often by un-
equal distribution of Energy of growth. There is a power of variation
about the centre, so that variation is always liable to be progressive or
retrogressive. The second article consists very largely of a collection
of opinions of various eminent biologists upon the subject.
Die vierte Dimension, von Dr. Leopoi^d Pick. Leipzig, 1898. pp. 46.
This writer holds that a surface can be conceived as a section of two
bodies. The question whence bodies can be thought to have arisen
leads logically to a fourth dimension of space. Length, breadth and
thickness do not exhaust the essence of body. We never see body,
but only surface. Higher creatures might see the partition of the
material and immaterial, inner extension or the fourth dimension,
and this really unknown numeral of things, which may be defined as
Ausdehnung nach innen. Man stands on the threshold between the
third and fourth dimensions.
324 BOOK NOTES.
Religion und Christentum, von Paui, E)wai,d. Leipzig, 1898. pp. 39-
Christianity is the ideal of all religions, an affirmation of the super-
sensuous, and based upon an eruption of the supersensuous into
earthly life. It is proper, therefore, to speak of its objective basis,
and its best definition is communion with God. Christ is its center,
and yet throughout it is the true expression of the inner nature and
needs of man.
The Repair of Will-Loss, by John M. Taylor, M. D.
In these three lectures, which are abstracted and reprinted from the
International Clinics, the writer seeks to illustrate how certain differ-
ences arising in puzzling medical situations may be met. He assumes
that long protracted ill-health is almost sure to end in misconduct.
It is difficult to get hold of those who most need medical aid or re-
proof. The basis of all treatment is nutritional. Every subject re-
quires very special and detailed study and great personal care.
Early American Philosophers, by Adam L. Jones. New York, 1898.
pp. 80.
This Columbia University thesis presents a concise account of Wil-
liam Brattle, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwalader, Thomas Clapp, and a
fuller characterization of the life, education and opinions of Samuel
Johnson and Jonathan Edwards.
Psycho logische Untersuchungen Uber das Lesen auf Experimenteller
Grundlage, von Benno Erdmann und Raymond Dodge. Halle,
Max Niemeyer, 1898. pp. 360.
After a brief introductory analysis of the process of reading, the
authors resume the results of previous experimental studies in this
field, criticising extensively the work of Cattell, Grashey, Wernicke,
and Goldscheider and Miiller.
The authors began their experimental study with an investigation
of the alternating " reading-pauses " and eye-movements. The eye-
movements were observed in a mirror while the subjects (the authors
and one other) read familiar or unfamiliar passages from Helmholtz's
Optik and Lock's Essay on Human Understanding. The average an-
gular excensions are found to vary, in the different subjects and texts,
from 3*^45' to 5° for comparatively unfamiliar passages, from 4^14' to
5^36' in familiar passages. They state the number of fixations re-
quired in writing, proof-reading, and in reading a foreign language.
By telescope observations on reader's eye the first fixation of each line
is found to fall within the line, and the last falls still farther within.
Assuming that the results of the measurements of the speed of
eye-movements, made by Dodge and others (as described later), are
valid for the reading-movement, the authors argue that during \\ to
If of the reading-time the eye remains fixated, and that, during the
movement, recognition of letters or words is impossible.
The extent of the " reading-field " is next studied, first by having
subjects describe periphery of points fixated on printed page ; second,
and mainly, by "experimental isolation of the reading-pauses and
fields." The projection apparatus used in exposing reading matter is
described at length, as is also the Dodge Chronograph used in connec-
tion with it and already described elsewhere.
Wishing to make the length of exposure as nearly that of reader's
usual fixation as possible, while still excluding reacting eye-move-
ment during exposure, the authors proceed to determine the eye's re-
action-time in the following manner : From a point first fixated the
subject moved to a second fixation point 12 mm. distant on the ap-
pearance there of a small letter c. Simultaneously with this c a large
BOOK NOTES. 325
letter O was exposed so as to fall just within the blind spot with the
eye in first fixation, but becoming visible the instant the eye was
moved. The length of the O's exposure necessary to make it visible
was taken as measure of eye's reaction-time, subject to a slight cor-
rection. The minimum time was shown to be between 1880- and 2300-,
the experiments not being extensive enough to determine it more defi-
nitely.
The experiment is certainly most cleverly planned. The times
given seem rather long, and it is to be hoped that other experiments
may assure us of their validity.
Exposures for .1 second of letters and words gave results not very
different from those obtained by Cattell and Goldscheider in their
shorter exposures. Words were read at greater distanc_es and in
shorter exposures than TeHersT^iidoiif authors are thus led to argue
strongly'agaliJSTThe tfieofy of " Buchstabirend Lesen " even in the
modified form in which it seemed to have support in the work of
Goldscheider and Miiller.
The determining-letter theory of the latter is criticised, and the
conditions of the reproduction of the " Wortklangbild " are discussed
at length.
The authors then make an exhaustive criticism of the " psychologi-
cal presuppositions for the derivation of psychic times," and later a
special discussion of their derivation for the processes in reading.
The results of the psychometric investigations made at Leipzig by
Prof. Cattell are subjected to a merciless dissection, and some of the
methods and deductions current in psychometry are given a shaking-
up which is interesting, to say the least.
The last two chapters report the results of experiments on adequate
sound-reactions to printed letters and to words of various lengths and
degrees of familiarity. A careful analysis is made of the psychic com^^
ponents of these reactions, and the relations which they bear to the \
corresponding processes in actual reading. — -^
In an appendix on "the angular speed of eye-movements," after
reviewing the work of Volkmann and of Lamansky, the experiments
of Dodge are described.
Dodge used a modification of the Helmholtz-Lamansky method of
counting the after-images from light stimuli given at regular intervals
during the eye's movement. Movements of 5** required 150- ; 15°, 300- ;
30°, 50<r, nearly twice the times given by Lamansky.
Dodge's clever extraction of apparently valid results from the mis-
used data given in Volkmann's experiments is deserving of notice.
On the whole, this is by far the best and most extensive work thus
far on the Physiology and Psychology of Reading. Though it stop
short of much more that is essentially important, it treats the subject
in some of its most vital parts, and has many good things which can-
not be touched upon here. It is to be regretted that the authors have
not practiced the American art of condensing, which might well have
given us the book's essentials in not more than half its present bulk.
The unity of the work as a treatise on reading would be much en-
hanced by relegating to the appendix much of the description of
apparatus, and by the separate publication of the " criticism of psy-
chic times." E. B. Huey.
NOTES AND NEWS.
A Study of Taste Dreams.
In a former issue of this Journai. (Vol. IX, pp. 413, 414) I gave the
results of some experiments on the visual elements of the dreams of
my students of psychology in the State Normal School at Westfield,
Massachusetts. More recently I have experimented with my students
for taste dreams. The conditions imposed by the test required that
the mouth be washed out just before retiring, and that a clove be
crushed and allowed to remain on the tongue. This was continued for
ten successive nights and the details of the remembered dreams written
out the morning following. Twenty women fulfilled the conditions of
the test and reported a total of 254 dreams.
A strong visual element was reported in 123 of the dreams ; a marked
auditory element in 17, and a pronounced motor element in 36. Sev-
enteen taste and eight smell dreams were reported. The significant
fact in the study is the large proportion of taste and smell dreams.
With three of the students cloves were involved — one of "tasting cloves
very distinctly," and another of "eating cloves." One dreamed of re-
citing in school on the importation of cloves from the Molucca Islands.
This, she thinks, may have been due to a recent lesson on commercial
geography on spices and condiments. Several students reported dreams
involving the tasting (and eating) of fruits, the orange being oftenest
mentioned. One dreamed of eating nuts and one of eating spiced food.
A student who dreamed of tasting wormwood thinks it may have been
suggested by a discussion which took place in the psychology class
just before the taste experiment was undertaken. I had asked the
class to suggest some substance that might be used to induce gustatory
dreams and one student had recommended wormwood. A brief dis-
cussion followed in which most of the students opposed the selection
of wormwood and advocated instead cloves.
Equally interesting were the eight smell dreams. One student
dreamed of "smelling and seeing spices." Another " a distinct smell
dream of food cooking ; can assign no cause, as it was impossible for
the odor from the kitchen to reach me." One dreamed of inhaling the
fragrance of a cowslip blossom, and she adds that the cowslip had been
drawn in school the preceding day. One reports that she dreamed of
modelling (in sand) the continent of Asia, and that some sweet-smell-
ing peas grew from the sand. This dream may have been occasioned
in part by the fact that she had modelled in sand a relief map of Asia
the preceding day, and in part by the planting of some seeds in saw-
dust a few days before in the science department, in order to study
processes of germination.
Several of the more remotely suggested taste dreams were curious.
One student, for example, dreamed that the building in which she was
sleeping was on fire. She attributes the dream to the last remark
which she made to her room-mate before falling asleep : "I shall have
to remove this clove ; it is burning the mouth out of me."
NOTBS AND NEWS. 327
Comparing the test in the present instance with that previously re-
ported, the following percentages are obtained :
IMAGERY.
TASTE TEST.
VISUAL TEJsT.
Visual element,
48%
60%
Auditory element,
7%
5%
Motor element,
14%
10%
Gustatory element,
7%
3%
Olfactory element.
3%
i>^%
The close relation existing between the taste and smell senses and
the comparatively large increase in the percentage of gustatory and
olfactory dreams would seem to suggest the peculiar character of the
experiment as the cause, especially since several of the dreams in-
volved not merely gustatory and olfactory imagery {i. e., thinking
about them), but real tastes and smells. Wiivi, S. Monroe.
BOOKS EEOEIYED.
Grogs, Kari.. Die Spiele der Menschen. Gustav Fischer, Jena,
1899. pp. 538. Price, Mk. 10.
GyeIv, E. L'^tre subconscient. Felix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 191.
Price, Fes. 4.
IvAMPERiERE, Anna. Le r61e social de la femme. Devoirs, droits,
Education. F. Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 175. Price, Fes. 2.50.
MuEivivKR RUDOI.F. Das Hypnotische Hellseh-Experiment im
Dienste der Naturwissenschaftlichen Seelenforcshung. II Band.
Das normale Bewusstsein. Arwed Strauch, I^eipzig, 1898. pp.
322. Price, Mk. 4.
REnouvier, Ch., et Prat, I^ouis. Iva nouvelle monadologie. Armand
Colin et Cie, Paris, 1899. pp. 546. Price, Fes. 12.
RiBERT, IvEONCE. Essai d'une philosophic nouvelle suggerde par la
science. Felix Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 562. Price, Fes. 6.
Stern, L. WiIvI<iam. Psychologic der Veranderungsauffassung.
Preuss u. Jiinger, Breslau, 1898. pp. 264. Price, Mk. 6.
Tai^boT, Eugene S. Degeneracy ; Its causes, signs and results.
(The Contemporary Science Series, Vol. 35.) Walter Scott,
London, 1898. pp. 372. Price, 6 shillings.
THE AMERIOAlsr
Journal of Psychology
Founded by G. Stani^ey Hai^i, in 1887.
Vol. X. APRIL, 1899. No. 3.
INDIVIDUAI, PSYCHOLOGY : A STUDY IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL METHOD.
By Stei^IvA Emii^y Sharp, Ph. D., Cornell University.
Part I. Historical and Critical.
§ I . Individual Psychology.
The systematic consideration of the problems grouped under
the name of " Individual Psychology "is of but recent date.
Indeed, the only treatment of the whole subject for its own sake
is that contained in a paper published in 1895,^ by Mm. Binet
and Henri. A great deal of work has, however, been done by
others, outside of France, which properly belongs to this branch
of Psychology; notably the investigations by Prof. Kraepelin
and his followers in Germany, whose object is by psychological
methods to study the mentally abnormal in comparison with
mentally normal individuals. For the sake of this comparison
the variations in the psychical processes of normal individuals
must. Prof Kraepelin says, first be studied; but the methods
employed are such only as are demanded by the comparison
that is the main object of the investigation.^
Many American psychologists have made researches in the
1 A. Binet et V. Henri : La psychologie individuelle. In UAnnee
psychologique, Vol. II, 1895, pp. 411 ff.
In a foot note to the article La mdsure en psychologie individuelle
{Revue philos., Vol. XLVI, p. 113), M. Binet makes the claim that
he is the first French psychologist to employ the term " Individual
Psychology."
'■^ E. Kraepelin : Der psychologische Versuch in der Psychiatrie. In
Kraepelin's Psychologische Arbeiten, I, i, pp. i et seq. See also
Axel Oehrn : Experimentelle Studien zur Individual-Psychologic.
Ibid.y pp. 92 ff.
o6'
SHARP
field of Individual Psychology ; but there has been no unity
of method among the investigators, nor have the results been
systematized or their value estimated. An important char-
acteristic of most of this work, however, is the large propor-
tion of anthropometric tests, which are accorded an import-
ance equal to those which are strictly mental.^ In the class of
the more exclusively psychological investigations may be
named the experiments of Prof. Jastrow concerning the com-
munity of ideas between men and women, made at the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, and similar experiments made by Prof. M.
W. Calkins at Wellesley College ;^ as well as a brief study in
Individual Psychology by Miss C. Miles, which makes use of
the method of the questionnaire.*
It is clear, then, that any treatment of Individual Psychology
almost neceSvSarily involves a consideration, more or less com-
plete, of the work done by Mm. Binet and Henri. For this
purpose it is well to ask first of all what views these authors
take of the scope and relations of Individual Psychology. In-
dividual Psychology, they maintain, takes up the thread of
investigation at the point where General Psychology leaves it.
' ' General Psychology studies the general properties of psychi-
cal processes, those, therefore, which are common to all indi-
viduals; Individual Psychology, on the contrary, studies those
psychical processes which vary from one individual to another:
it seeks to determine the variable qualities, and the extent and
manner of their variation according to the individual."
Memory maj' very well illustrate the point. The law of
memory is as follows: the time necessary to fix impressions in
1 Tests employed by Prof. Jastrow at the World's Fair of Chicago in
1893. Analyzed in L' Annie psychologiquey Vol. I, p. 532. See also
J. McK. Cattell, Mental Tests and Measurements. Mind, 1890, Vol.
XV, pp. 373 ff.; J. A. Gilbert : Researches on the Mental and Physical
Development of School Children. Stud. Yale Laboratory, II, 1894 ;
J. McK. Cattell and ly. Farrand, Psych. Rev.,Wo\. Ill, 1896, pp. 610 ff.;
J. Jastrow and G. W. Morehouse : Some Anthropometric and Psy-
chologic Tests on College Students. Am. Jour, of Psychology, Vol.
IV, pp. 420 ff .
2 The original account of these experiments appeared in an article
entitled A Study of Mental Statistics, in the December, 1891, num-
ber of the New Review, under the heading " The Community of Ideas
and Thought-Habits of Men and Women." It appeared also in the
article Community and Association of Ideas: a Statistical Study, by
J. Jastrow; Psych, Rev., I, p. 152 (1894). Similar experiments made
at Wellesley College by C. C. Nevers, under the direction of M. W.
Calkins, Psych. Rev., Vol. II, p. 363 (1895), gave a different result. A
criticism of the latter by Prof. Jastrow appeared in the Psych. Rev.,
Vol. Ill, p. 68 (1896). A reply to this by Miss Calkins is found in the
same volume of the Psych. Rev., p. 426; and a further reply by Prof.
Jastrow, p. 430. Both investigations are discussed and criticised by
Amy Tanner, Psych. Rev., Vol. Ill, pp. 548 ff.
^ Am. Jour, of Psychology, VI, p. 534-
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOI.OGY. 33 1
memory increases at first proportionally to the number of im-
pressions; but, after a certain limit, the ' time of acquisition '
increases more rapidly than the number of impressions. This
law of memory is common to all; no one can escape it; but the
law does not say that the limit, beyond which the time neces-
sary to retain the impressions is no longer proportional to the
number ol impressions, is fixed and common for all. This
limit is a variable property of memory, and here Individual
Psychology comes in, and investigates the subject in its differ-
ent aspects; it enquires in what measure this limit varies in
different individuals, and whether it remains constant in one
individual for different kinds of impressions. If A and B, after
one hearing, can remember ten and seven letters respectively
out of twelve, can they remember with the same relative readi-
ness an equal number of figures, colors, or what not? Indi-
vidual Psychology goes on, further, to enquire if there is any
relation between the position of this limit and the psychologi-
cal 'self of the individual, — as, for example, his age; or
between the limit of memory and some other psychical process.
§ 2. The Psychology of Structure and of Function.
Before proceeding to a more detailed statement of the prob-
lems of Individual Psychology, as set forth by M. Binet and
his collaborator, a digression must be made in order to con-
sider a distinction that has lately been drawn between the
points of view of * experimental * and of ' descriptive ' psy-
chology. This distinction is set forth by Prof. Titchener in
an article entitled ' ' The Postulates of a Structural Psy-
chology."^ A comparison is here made between the science of
biology, in its widest sense, and that of psychology. The for-
mer may be approached from any one of three points of view.
" We may enquire," says Prof. Titchener, " into the structure of an
organism, without regard to function, by analysis determining its com-
ponent parts, and by synthesis exhibiting the mode of its formation
from the parts. Or we may enquire into the function of the various
structures which our analysis has revealed, and into the manner of
their interrelation as functional organs. Or, again, we may enquire
into the changes of form and function that accompany the persistence
of the organism in time, the phenomena of growth and decay. Biology,
the science of living things, comprises the three mutually interde-
pendent sciences of morphology, physiology and ontogeny."
If a more general view is taken, and regard is had for the
whole number of living beings as parts of a collective life, we
have, corresponding respectively to the three branches named,
the more general sciences of taxonomy or systematic zoology,
the science of classification; oecology, which deals with ques-
1 Philosophical Review, Vol. VII, pp. 449 ff. Sept., 1898.
332 SHARP :
tions of geographical distribution, of the function of species
in the general economy of nature; and phylogeny, the biology
of evolution, dealing with the problems of descent and of trans-
mission.
The same principle of division here employed in biology may
be applied with equal validity to psychology.
" We find a parallel to morphology in a very large portion of * ex-
perimental ' psychology. The primary aim of the experimental psy-
chologist has been to analyze the structure of mind ; to ravel out the
elemental processes from the tangle of consciousness His
task is a vivisection, but a vivisection which shall yield structural,
not functional results There is, however, a functional
psychology over and above the psychology of structure. We may re-
gard mind, on the one hand, as a complex of processes, shaped
and moulded under the conditions of the physical organism. We
may regard it, on the other hand, as the collective name for a
system of functions of the psychophysical organism. The two
points of view are not seldom confused. The phrase ' associa-
tion of ideas,' e. g., may denote either the structural complex,
the associated sensation group, or the functional process of recogni-
tion and recall, the associating of formation to formation. In the
former sense it is morphological material, in the latter it belongs to
what I must name (the 'phrase will not be misunderstood) a physiolog-
ical psychology. Just as experimental psychology is to a large extent
concerned with problems of structure, so is * descriptive ' psychology,
ancient and modern, chiefly occupied with problems of function.
Memory, recognition, imagination, conception, judgment, attention,
apperception, volition, and a host of verbal nouns, wider or narrower
in denotation, connote, in the discussions of descriptive psychology,
functions of the total organism."
So much for the 'morphological' and 'physiological' psycholo-
gies, which are indeed the most important. The other branches
of biology have also their counterparts. Ontogenetic psy-
chology, the psychology of individual childhood and adoles-
cence; taxonomic psychology, dealing with the classification of
the emotions, impulses, temperaments, the typical mind of
social classes, etc. ; the functional psychology of the collective
mind, which has as yet been but little worked out; and, lastly,
phylogenetic psychology, enriched by the labors of the evolu-
tionary school, complete the list.
§ 3. The Problems of Individual Psychology.
Mm. Binet and Henri class the problems of Individual Psy-
chology under two main headings. It is called upon:
1. to study the variable properties of psychical processes; to
find how, and to what extent, these processes vary from one
individual to another; and
2. to ascertain the relation of the processes to each other in
a single mind; to find out whether they are mutually depend-
ent, or whether there are some fundamental processes upon
which all the others depend.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 333
A . The First Problem of hidividual Psychology.
The first problem has two aspects, according as emphasis is
laid upon the processes themselves, or upon the individual who
experiences them. The first aspect is the one with which In-
dividual Psychology must necessarily start. How and to what
extent mental processes vary from one individual to another is
the question which must be answered, to furnish, as it were,
the materials for further investigation. Then we may go on to
ask if these variations follow any regular laws, corresponding
to the classification of individuals into groups by profession,
sex, age, etc.
A considerable number of independent investigations have
been made in the line of this first problem of Individual Psy-
chology, under both its aspects. Sensations are the processes
which have been subjected to the greatest amount of research,
on account of their value for some practical end. The tests in
regard to individual variations in visual sensations, such as
color blindness, which have been made among engineers, pilots,
and in other professions whose members are called upon to rec-
ognize color signals, are experiments of this kind. Mm. Binet
and Henri state, as the result of a brief historical survey of the
work in this field, that " the individual differences for sensation
are very feeble and insignificant in relation to the differences
in the higher faculties. ' ' Hence much of the work done is of
comparatively little value for Individual Psychology, which
seeks to characterize individuals and classes according to the
variations which they exhibit in the mental processes compos-
ing the ' real ' or ' actual ' mind of every- day life.
Other researches have been carried out, in which the em-
phasis has been laid, not upon the variations themselves, but
upon their relation to the individual; and the individual's men-
tal proccvsses have been studied in reference to the class to
which he belongs. The investigations of Prof. Jastrow and
Miss Calkins regarding the Community of Ideas in men and
women (mentioned above) come under this head. The in-
vestigations of what may be called 'professional psychology'
also belong here, and would be of the highest importance for
Individual Psychology were it not that they fail to apply a
strictly scientific method. As it is, however, they are rich in
suggestions of more exact work, and may thus lead to system-
atic research along the same lines. -^
^ ly. Arr^at : Psychologie du petntre. Paris, 1895. This considers
anthropological as well as psychological traits, and the author has
drawn his material largely from literature, biographies, and docu-
ments of all kinds concerning artists of every time and country.
Owing to the imperfect nature of the material, the conclusions are
334 SHARP :
The question now arises whether the first great problem of
Individual Psychology should be classed as an enquiry of
' structural ' or ' functional ' psychology. In the first place,
is the material with which the Individual Psychologist works
the same as (or similar to) that which lends itself to the in-
vestigation of the Experimental Psychologist? The Experi-
mental Psychologist takes mental processes in as simple a form
as he can find them. By means of laboratory methods, he ex-
ercises the most rigid control over conditions, in order that all
complicating factors may be excluded, and that the result may
represent as nearly as possible the working of the elemental
factors. Thus the Experimental Psychologist, acknowledging
that a pure sensation is an abstraction, — that it never occurs in
our concrete experience, — yet endeavors by artificial means to
secure in his subjects states of consciousness in which the de-
sired sensations are sufiiciently isolated from their respective
contexts to give information as to their properties and the laws
governing the variations of these properties.
Does the Individual Psychologist adopt a similar method of
procedure? Is it his aim to take the simplest existing pro-
cesses, in order to investigate any possible individual varia-
tions, and thus to account for unlike results from the building
up of unlike materials ? It is by the answer to this question
that two groups or schools of Individual Psychology are differ-
entiated. M. Binet and the French psychologists answer " no;"
Prof. Kraepelin and the German psychologists answer ' ' yes. ' '
The American psychologists make no explicit statement on the
subject, but their practice is rather with the German than with
the French school. The German school maintains that, at
least for the present, only simple mental processes can be
studied with the exactness necessary for scientific work. " Die
Probleme der Individual-psychologie konnen bisher nur in
necessarily exceedingly general. Prof. James denies this work the
adjective ' scientific'
ly. Dauriac : Psychologic du ntusicien, Articles I-VII. R&vue philos.y
Vol. XXXV, pp. 449» 595 ; Vol. XXXIX, pp. 31, 258, 404; Vol. XLII,
pp. I, 155-
Harmon: Psychologic dumilitaire prof essionel. Paris, 1894. This
is a work which belongs to sociology more than to psychology. It
traces the moral effects of army life and the reaction of these upon
society.
A. Binet et J. Passy : Etudes de psychologic sur les auteurs dra-
matiques. L^Annee psychoL, I, pp. 60 ff. The creative imagination
is here the chief subject of investigation. A number of French drama-
tists give information, either by word of mouth or in writing, regard-
ing the composition of their works ; the choice of subject, the method
of literary labor, the 'furniture ' of the mind duriug inspiration, etc.
The ' interview,' like the questionnaire, is a valuable auxiliary method ;
but the results therefrom cannot claim the validity of the stricter
laboratory procedures.
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOI.OGY. 335
ganz einfachen Formen psychischen Geschehens gesucht wer-
den."^ Mm. Binet and Henri make explicit and repeated
statements of the opposing standpoint in the article which we
have been considering. On p. 417 is found the passage here
translated. * ' The higher and more complex a process is, the
more it varies in individuals; sensations vary from one indi-
vidual to another, but less so than memory; memory of sensa-
tions varies less than memories of ideas, etc. The result is,
that if one wishes to study the differences existing between two
individuals, it is necessary to begin with the most intellectual
and complex processes, and it is only secondarilj^ necessary to
consider the simple and elementary processes."
An examination of particular investigations which have been
made by representatives of these two schools will enable us to
judge whether the principles of each have been strictly adhered
to. Kraepelin and Oehrn must be taken as the German rep-
resentatives. Kraepelin, in the first number of the ' Psy-
chologische Arbeiten,' lays down the principles, methods and
aims of the work which he proposes to undertake. Oehrn — in
part, at least — carries out these methods, and the results are
embodied in the second article of the same number of this
periodical.
Since for Kraepelin men are divided into two great classes,
the mentally normal and the mentally abnormal, all individual
differences are summed up for him under the one great cate-
gory of mental capacity. It is his aim to learn as much as pos-
sible about the psychology of the abnormal mind. For this
purpose investigations of the normal mind are first necessary,
and then further investigations of the normal mind, under cer-
tain abnormal conditions which produce consciousnesses com-
parable to those normally present in the insane. The differences
in mental capacity, therefore, which Kraepelin considers sub-
ject to experimental investigation, are those which are most
directly connected with physical conditions. The kinds of
mental capacity to be thus investigated he classes under the
three heads of capacity for the perception of sensory stim-
uli, for the association of ideas, and for voluntary movement.
The psychophysical conditions which are studied under these
three heads are the influence of practice and the persistence
of the effects of practice, the capacity of the special mem-
ories, the influence of fatigue and the capacity of recovery from
fatigue, the depth of sleep, and the capacity for concentration
of the attention. Prof. Kraepelin states that this list is as far
as can be from exhausting the conditions which it is possible
and even necessary to determine experimentally; but he affirms
1 Max Brahn : Zeit fur Ps. u. Ph. d. Sintiesorganeydi. XII, .p. 280.
33^ SHARP :
that it is upon the basis of an investigation such as this that
the study of personalities must be founded.
The operations, suggested by Kraepelin and adopted by
Oehrn, that are chosen as affording means for the investigation
of these conditions are as follows: i. Perception: the counting
of letters, the search for particular letters, proof reading. 2.
Memory: the learning of twelve nonsense syllables, and of
series of twelve figures. 3. Association: the addition of series
of one-place numbers. 4. Motor functions: writing from dic-
tation, and reading as fast as possible.
The time aspect alone of these operations is noted experi-
mentally. The absolute durations of the processes, and their
mean variations, give information in regard to the general
mental capacity of the individuals tested, and to the relation of
the processes to each other in respect of complexity, etc.
The fluctuations in the rate of the processes during periods of
continuous work, or after stated intervals of rest, show the in-
fluence of practice in increasing the efficiency of work, of fatigue
in decreasing this efficiency, and of rest in increasing the effi-
ciency by means of the removal of fatigue, or decreasing it by
obliterating the effects of practice, according to the length of
the rest interval. A strict numerical expression is given to all
the facts thus deduced. " If we wish to be instructed," says
Oehrn (p. 144), " concerning the psychical efficiency of a per-
son, we ask first concerning the quantity of work he can do in
a certain time, or the time necessary to do a certain amount of
work. We shall, therefore, have to consider in the ^rst place
the individual differences in the absolute duration of the func-
tions investigated " {i. e., the average time, in thousandths of
a second, that it takes to count one letter, to read one syllable,
to write one letter, to make one addition, or to learn one num-
ber or syllable). " The second question is as to the quality of
the work, by which alone the value of the quantity may be es-
timated." A direct answer to this latter question Oehrn does
not attempt to give in his work, but considers the omission of
secondary importance, since all of his subjects had attained a
degree of education where large differences in the quality of the
particular processes tested could hardly enter. " Further, it
is of importance," he continues, "for judging an individual,
to know if he is in condition to work with constancy. If this
is not the case, the quality of the work must suffer on the one
hand, while on the other, large fluctuations will also indicate a
diminution of quantity, since they are to be taken as evidences
of fatigue. Hence the more numerous and larger the fluctua-
tions are, the lower must be our estimate of the psychical en-
ergy of the individual considered." The mean variations in
time give numerical representations of these fluctuations.
INDIVIDUAI^ PSYCHOLOGY. 337
" Finally, we have to ascertain how the subjects behave in re-
gard to practice and fatigue. It is necessary to distinguish
between that practice which enters into a single experi-
ment, . . . and the permanent practice which manifests
itself, in a repetition of the experiment, by a shortening of
the time necessary to perform the work." The mean variations
and the relation of practice and fatigue in an individual are
considered as of more importance forjudging his capacity than
the absolute duration of his work. Tables are given, presenting
the numerical results in each of these regards, obtained from
every one of Oehrn's ten subjects. From the Tables a compari-
son of the vSubjects could be made; but Oehrn leaves this com-
parison to be made by the reader. He is chiefly concerned to
show that by the aid of the method he has described it is pos-
sible to obtain a conception of the psychical status of an indi-
vidual. To establish a normal status would be the task of far
more extended investigations.
Contrast with this work in Individual Psychology an investi-
gation made in France, by Mm. Binet and Henri, on Memory
for Sentences (Memory for Ideas). ^
In the memory of figures or letters, it is chiefly auditory,
visual or tactual sensations that are retained: the memory is
one of relatively simple conscious elements. Memory of isolated
words approaches this in its essential character; for, though
the sense of the words enters here, and the memory is partially
a memory of ideas, yet it is impossible in experiments upon the
memory of isolated words to determine how much influence
upon the subject's power of recall is due to the sense cf the
words, and how much is due simply to the subject's desultory
memory, or memory of separate, unconnected impressions.
Hence it is necessary to investigate the memory of ideas by it-
self.
Mm. Binet and Henri chose eight sentences, or closely con-
nected groups of sentences, ranging in length from 1 1 to 86
words. These sentences were read before the pupils of several
classes in four elementary schools in Paris. The children were
required to reproduce the sentences in writing immediately after
hearing them. The attention of the pupils was properly di-
rected, since an explanation of the requirement was given to
them in advance. The main work in the investigation was,
^ A, Binet et V.Henri : La mdmoire des phrases (MSmoire des idies) .
In L'Annee psychologique, I, 1894, p. 24. This article appeared before
that on Individual Psychology by the same authors, and the investi-
gation is not explicitly termed an investigation in Individual Psy-
chology. The test employed is, however, closely similar to one pro-
posed in the latter article, and represents very fairly the kind of
material which the writers believe Individual Psychology should em-
ploy.
338 SHARP :
of course, the interpretation of the results handed in by the
pupils. The number of children submitted to the experiments
was about 510.
One of the chief difficulties in the interpretation of results
lies in the fact that not every word in the sentence or sentences
represents an independeiat idea. One cannot say that there are
just as many ideas in the sentence as there are words. Pro-
nouns, articles, prepositions, etc. , have no meaning apart from
other words with which they are closely connected; and short
phrases are remembered as a single idea. Hence it became
necessary to separate the sentences into word-groups, each
group representing as nearly as possible one idea. Here is an
example of this division of one of the shorter sentences: a sen-
tence of 20 words and 8 groups of words:
Le petit Emile | a obtenu | de sa m^re | un joli | cheval m^canique |
en recompense | de sa bonne conduite | a I'dcole. |
In the longer sentences or series of sentences the division be-
comes more difficult and assumes a more or less arbitrary char-
acter. A passage of 60 words and of 19 groups may show this:
Une vieille paysanne | agde de 64 ans, | la veuve Mouillet, | qui
habitait une petite maison | sur la route deserte j des Recolets | avait
conduit I son troupeau | dans les champs. | Pendant qu'elle faisait de
I'herbe pour ses aniraaux | une vipere ] cach^e derriere | les fagots —
s'^lancja sur elle | et la mordit | a plusieurs reprises | au poignet. | La
pauvre femme | en est morte. |
The results obtained from the investigation were, in brief,
these. I. Memory for sentences (or ideas) shows a slight
but constant increase with age. This was ascertained from the
fact that in the higher classes more groups of words were com-
pletely retained, and fewer words totally forgotten, — i. e., en-
tirely left out, without any substitution whether right or
wrong, — than in the lower classes where the pupils were
younger. 2. The memory for sentences is, in certain fixed
conditions under which these experiments were tried, twenty-
five times superior to the memory for isolated words. 3, The
number of forgotten words increases rapidly with the length of
sentences or series of sentences; for a sentence of 20 words (8
groups) it was g\, while for a series of 80 words (24 groups)
it was \. 4., The losses of memory fall upon accessory parts
of the sentence, not upon the essential parts, i. e., not upon the
parts that are logically or psychologically important. 5. In short
selections there are more substitutions of synonymous words
than there are completely forgotten words, but in long selec-
tions the reverse is the case. In short sentences, though the
particular words may be forgotten, the ideas are remembered,
and the child invents his own terms. We find, therefore, a
large number of synonyms. In long selections, however, the
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 339
ideas themselves are too numerous to be remembered, and the
completely forgotten words outnumber the synonyms. <5. Chil-
dren have a tendency to simplify the syntax, and to replace
the words read to them by other words taken from their own
more familiar vocabulary. This Mm. Binet and Henri call
* verbal assimilation.' 7. When sentences are somewhat long,
children show a tendency slightly to alter the meaning of the
sentence. These alterations are frequently by way of additions,
and may be of two kinds, intellectual and emotional.
It will be seen that the only factors in this problem that
lend themselves to numerical expression are ( i ) the quantity of
words or groups remembered, substituted, or forgotten by any
pupil; (2) the number of pupils who remember or forget any
particular word or group; and (3) the age of the pupils who
remember best or worst.
The character of the material employed in this investigation
is clearly and confessedly of the complex type. Although the
sentences are mainly concrete, as suited to the child mind, they
yet imply a considerable faculty of generalization and a syn-
thetic power of attention in combining the various ideas into a
situation. The mental processes involved are therefore highly
complex, and the investigators have here used the material
which they assert to be most suitable for the examination of
the Individual Psychologist.
Has the material of the German psychologists the opposing
character of extreme simplicity ? The only simplicity that
Kraepelin claims for his work is simplicity of method (method
of continuous work). This has to do, not with the measure-
ment of single independent acts, but with the continuous per-
formance of regularly connected similar acts. The acts or pro-
cesses themselves are not simple. Oehrn has analyzed each
into three phases: the centripetal phase, or process of percep-
tion; the central phase, or process of association; and the
centrifugal phase, or process of movement. The three phases
vary in importance and duration in the different kinds of opera-
tions used in the experiments, and the fluctuations observed in
continuous work may therefore be due to alterations in that
phase of the whole process which is predominantly involved in
the exercise in question. This analysis is, however, far from
being an analysis into the simplest psychological elements,
made for the sake of detecting variations in these elements.
We are free to conclude, therefore, that the material used by
the Individual Psychologist is, as a rule, less simple than that
upon which the general Experimental Psychologist spends his
best efforts.
Nevertheless, the distinction between the German and French
schools is not invalidated by this statement. There is a con-
340 SHARP :
siderable degree of difference in the complexity of material
employed by these two schools, and there is a still greater dif-
ference in method resulting from the difference in material.
The more exact methods of the Germans are inapplicable to
the tests which the French insist upon as of primary import-
ance to the Individual Psychologist. It is, perhaps, on account
of this difference in method that Mm. Binet and Henri, by a
slight confusion, exaggerate the difference in the material em-
ployed by themselves and by other Individual Psychologists. The
specific criticism which they pass upon Prof. Kraepelin's work,
however, is not so much that it lacks complexity as that it
lacks scope. The experiments are too partial, they say, and
for that reason entirely fail to characterize an individual.^
The position of Mm. Binet and Henri may be more clearly
understood if we notice briefly some of the ' mental tests '
proposed by American psychologists. The tests given by Prof.
Jastrow at the World's Fair at Chicago^ are among the most
complete. There are here five different experiments for touch
and cutaneous sensitivity; five experiments for sight and touch
together (such as the equalizing of movements by sight);
twelve or more experiments for sight alone, including appre-
ciation and division of lengths, rapidity and acuteness of
vision, etc. Other tests have to do with memory for letters,
lines, colors and forms, and with simple reaction times. Place
is also given to anthropometric tests of height, development of
the head, and the relation of mental to physical development,
etc. It will be seen that these experiments have chiefly to do
with sensations and simple movements. Even the memory
tests have regard to memory for sensations rather than to
memory for ideas.
Other lists of tests given by American psychologists show the
same characteristics. Prof. Cattell, in an article in Mind,^
gives the results of two different series of tests, one numbering
ten and the other fifty. The first series is as follows: (i)
pressure measured by the dynamometer; (2) maximal rapidity
of arm movement; (3) minimal distance between two points on
the skin which can be perceived as two; (4) pressure necessary
to produce pain; (5) least perceptible difference for weight of
100 gr.; (6) time of simple reaction to an auditory impression;
(7) time necessary to name a color; (8) division of a length of
50 cm. into two equal parts; (9) reproduction of an interval of
ten seconds; and (10) number of letters retained after a single
hearing. The longer series is analogous to this, the same rel-
ative importance being given to the elementary processes.
iP.432.
2 These are analyzed \n L'Annde psychologique, Vol. I, p. 532 ('1894).
^Mental Tests and Measurements. Mind, 1890, Vol. XV, p. 373.
INDIVIDUAIv PSYCHOLOGY. 34I
The " Researches on the Meutal and Physical Development
of School Children," by Dr. J. A. Gilbert/ employ the follow-
ing tests: (i) muscle sense; (2) sensitivity to color differ-
ences; (3) force of suggestion; (4) voluntary motor ability; (5)
fatigue; (6) weight; (7) height; (8) lung capacity; (9) reac-
tion-time; (10) discrimination-time; and (11) time-memory.
All these tests are subject to exact numerical measurement.
The muscle-sense was measured by the least perceptible differ-
ence in gr. of lifted weights; sensitivity to color-difference was
measured by the shades of red-colored fabric picked out by a
child as being alike (every piece of fabric being in reality
slightly and measurably different in shade); force of suggestion
was determined by the difference in gr. between two weights of
the same bulk but unequal weight, which the child picked out
as being equal respectively to a weight large in bulk and one
small in bulk which (unknown to the child) were of equal
weight. For the experiments on voluntary motor ability and
fatigue, reaction-time, discrimination-time and time-memory,
Dr. Gilbert constructed an apparatus which he calls the reac-
tion-board. This board holds a magnetic tuning fork, vibrat-
ing one hundred times per second; a double-post switch; a
stimulating apparatus; a reaction key; a tapping apparatus; a
commutator, and an Kwald chronoscope. The electric current
is supplied by two Grove batteries. Voluntary motor ability
was measured by the number of taps the child made on the
tapping apparatus in five seconds, and fatigue by the per cent,
of loss of rapidity of tapping after the movement had been con-
tinued for 45 seconds. Reaction-time and discrimination-time
were measured by the chronoscope, in hundredths of a second.
The time-memorj" was measured by allowing the chronoscope
to run a certain length of time, and then starting it a second
time, and requiring the child to press the key when the second
running had lasted as long as the first. The difference between
the two periods of time marked the accuracy of the time-
memory. Weight, height, and lung capacity were measured by
standard instruments suited to these purposes.
The detail which has been given is sufficient to illustrate the
difference in material and method between the French Indi-
vidual Psychologists, and those engaged in similar work in
America. It may be said, therefore, in general, that there is a
wide divergence in opinion and practice among the investiga-
tors of Individual Psychology, as to whether the first problem
of the science, on the score of material and method, is properly
of a structural and morphological character, or whether it
should be classed as belonging to a functional or * physiologi-
'^ Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, II (1894), p. 401.
342 SHARP :
cal ' psychology. The Americans make it approximate to
the former character; the Germans seem to favor the former in
regard to method, but hold a middle position in regard to ma-
terial; while the French psychologists depart as far as possible
from the point of view of morphology, both in material and in
method. The American view is founded upon no explicit
theory of Individual Psychology. It may, therefore, be tem-
porarily set aside. Considering only the French and German
psychologists, we find that Individual Psychology seems, on
the whole, rather to fall outside of structural psychology. It
might be, however, that strict analysis of the results obtained
from the study of complex processes would give information in
regard to the ultimate elements. Is this, in reality, the case?
The outcome of the researches we have hitherto noticed would
seem to indicate a negative reply. But it is too early, yet, to
look for an entirely decisive answer. Until a more thorough
investigation of the methods proposed by Individual Psy-
chology, or possible to it, is carried out, the question must be
left undecided.
B, The Second Problem of Individual Psychology.
Individual psychology has to study not only the variations
of mental processes from one individual to another, and the re-
lation of these to individuals or classes of individuals, but
also the relations of the mental processes to each other in the
mind of one and the same individual. Are all the mental pro-
cesses definitely related and correlated ? Is there one process
more important than all the rest, so that a variation in this
process involves a perfectly definite variation in all the other
processes? Or, on the other hand, are there a large number
of mental processes, practically independent of each other, and
capable of assuming an almost infinite variety of combinations
in as manj^ individuals ?
Again we have to ask whether this inquiry by Individual
Psychology is of a structural or physiological character. The
answer is not far to seek; it is, in fact, implied in the very form
in which the questions of this second problem clothe them-
selves. It is the investigation of the relation to each other of
the various ways of working of the psychological organism. It
is, therefore, the psychological problem which corresponds to
the general problem of physiology. As the latter asks what are
the basal functions of the living physical organism, so the former
seeks to find in the mental sphere those activities whose rela-
tions to each other and to the psychological organism are
analogous to those existing between functions in the sphere of
physical life. The problem may, and does, imply analysis; but
it is an analysis of which the common activities of every-day
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 343
life form the starting point, and their better understanding, the
goal. The atomistic point of view is abandoned, and the
mental activities of man are taken, as it were, in the large; and
the various relations of these activities, partially seen and
understood by common observation, are confirmed, explained,
and rendered explicit by the use of the experimental method.
This is the task laid down as the second problem of individual
psychology, — a task which belongs, therefore, to the psy-
chology of function.
The difficulties attendant upon an investigation of the ques-
tions involved in this branch of Individual Psychology are very
great. The mental processes which make up the sum of every-
day psychical activity are of so complex a nature that it may
be doubted whether experimentation can be applied in such a
way as to yield results which meet the requirements of scien-
tific precision. Mm. Binet and Henri have, however, dis-
cussed three methods by which investigation may be carried
on. (i) The first method is that of abnormal cases; wherein
advantage is taken of instances where there is extreme devel-
opment or enfeeblement, or even loss, of some psychical pro-
cesses, to study the consequent modification of other processes.
Where there is a loss of memory, e. g. , we may try to find the
effect of such loss upon imagination, power of concentration
of the attention, etc. That is to say, the object is to ascertain
whether the presence of an abnormal activity involves a defi-
nite deviation from the normal on the part of other mental
processes. The collection of a large number of investigations
of this kind would show the relation in which these processes
stand to one another. There is, however, a difficulty. How
shall we determine the amount of deviation from the normal,
which one process must possess in order to entail a correspond-
ing deviation of other processes? This question must be
answered by means of experimentation, before the more gen-
eral problem can be solved.
This method has been employed to some extent, and has
furnished some important information. By its means was
ascertained the fact of the independence of the partial mem-
ories;^ the fact, i. e., that we "can have an extraordinary
memory for figures, without in the least excelling in memory
for letters, or colors, or any other impressions whatever."
Moreover it has shown that a total loss of some partial mem-
ories may fail to show any influence upon the other partial
memories.^
(2) Another method, one that is applied to normal indi-
^ By A. Binet: Psychologiedes grands calculateurset joueurs d'ichecs.
2 Mm. Ribot and Charcot, quoted by Binet and Henri.
344 SHARP :
viduals, may be stated thus: " In a single individual one may
vary a psychical process, and see if this variation involves
changes in other processes in the same individual." For this
purpose only those processes are chosen which are useful for
the comparison of individuals. Experiments upon sensations,
manner of fatigue, etc., are thus eliminated. The practical
application of this method is attended with great difficulty,
owing to the complexity of the conditions. It depends, evi-
dently, upon the possibility of placing an individual, by arti-
ficial means, in such a condition that certain mental processes
shall be performed in the way in which they take place nor-
mally in certain other individuals. An individual who gave a
quick reaction time, owing to great power of attention, might,
by having his attention artificially distracted, lengthen his re-
action time until it corresponded to that of other individuals
who normally gave long reaction times from small power of at-
tention. Given a constant correspondence between length of
reaction time and degree of concentration of the attention, and
the rapidity of reaction of an individual might be taken as an
index of his power of attention.
This method has been applied by Prof. Kraepelin, in his in-
vestigation into the influences of slight poisons upon certain psy-
chical processes: these poisons producing, in a normal individual,
effects analogous to those caused by certain mental diseases in
their early stages. Valuable as the method may be in theory,
however, its range of application is necessarily limited, and it
is, according to Mm. Binet and Henri themselves, more useful
as a source of suggestion than as affording specific results.
(3) The third method, which is likewise the simplest and
most practicable, is that in which the experimenter chooses in
advance a number of psychical processes, and proceeds to study
them in several individuals, noting whether the individual dif-
ferences in the different processes run parallel to each other,
and correspond in a regular manner. From such correspond-
ence he can infer the existence of a more or less close relation
among the different processes. The experiments of Oehrn and
Gilbert, which have been commented on above, are partial ap-
plications of this method, as are also the various ' mental
tests ' proposed by American psychologists. The disadvantage
of the latter, according to Mm. Binet and Henri, is that they
are calculated to give but little information in regard to the
second problem of Individual Psychology, since they pay but
slight regard to the complex processes. The method itself has
the advantage of serving equally well for the study of either of
the two problems of Individual Psychology. The results may
be looked at with a view to ascertaining the variations which
occur in the chosen processes from one individual to another,
INDIVIDUAI, PSYCHOI.OGY. 345
and the relation of these variations to the sex, age, profession,
etc., of the individuals in whom they are observed; or the re-
sults may be studied in regard to the correspondences which
may constantly manifest themselves between the different pro-
cesses in any single individual. For the latter point of view,
however, it is necessary that the processes chosen for investi-
gation shall be of that complex character which distinguishes
the every-day activities of one individual from those of other
individuals. Mm. Binet and Henri affirm this with emphasis.
They say (p. 426): " Is it necessary to know that A has a finer
tactual sensibility than B, that he can distinguish between two
colors better than B, or that he can move his arm faster than
B, in order to distinguish these individuals from each other ?
Certainly not. On the other hand, how could one try to char-
acterize them, and to distinguish them from each other, if one
had no data concerning their imagination, their memory, their
power of attention, their power of observation, their power of
analysis, their reasoning, their stability of will, their affective
life, etc.?" That these activities are more difiBcult to investi-
gate than the elementary activities is a disadvantage which
these authors believe is of comparatively small importance,
since in the ' ' superior psychical faculties, ' ' to use their termi-
nology, there are stronger individual differences, and hence
the need of precision is not so great.
The method of ' mental tests ' is that most available for
present use, and, since the particular tests which have been
proposed by others are considered by Binet and Henri to be in-
adequate, these authors give a long and detailed list of tests
which they consider will bring to light the strongest individual
variations, a knowledge of which in one individual will give a
general idea of that individual, and serve to distinguish him
from others belonging to the same class.
The tests are grouped under the following heads. I.
Memory: (a) visual memory of geometrical design, (b) memory
of sentences, (c) musical memory, (d) memory of colors, (e)
memory of figures. II. Nature of mental images: (a) letter
squares, (b) interrogation. III. Imagination: (a) passive im-
agination (method of blots and of abstract terms), (b) con-
structive imagination (development of a theme), (c) imagina-
tion of design (composition or completion of a picture), (d)
literary imagination (construction of sentences using given sub-
stantives or verbs). IV. Attention: (a) duration of attention
(series of reaction times or successive reproduction of lengths
from memory), (b) range of attention (counting of metronome
beats and execution of several simultaneous acts). V. Faculty
of comprehension: (a) talent for observation (analysis of a ma-
chine), (b) fineness of discrimination (discrimination of syno-
JOURNAI, — 2
346 SHARP :
nyms and criticisms of sentences). VI. Suggestibility: (a) of
sensations and perceptions (identification of lines and percep-
tion of odors), (b) of imagination (expectant attention), (c)
of emotivity (apprehension, fear), (d) of involuntary and un-
conscious movements. VII. Esthetic sentiment: (a) prefer-
ence in geometric forms, colors, perfumes, (b) questionnaire.
VIII. Moral sentiments (method of pictures). IX. Muscular
force and strength of will (persistence in muscular effort). X.
Motor skill and sureness of eye. ^
The general conditions which the proposed tests must fulfill
are given by the author as follows. They should be simple,
that is, they should require little apparatus; the time for the
whole number of tests should not exceed an hour and a half
for one individual; they should be varied in such a way as to
avoid fatiguing the subject; and the means of determination
should be as independent as possible of the personality of the
experimenter, in order that the results obtained by one experi-
menter may be compared with those of another.
A casual reading of the descriptions given of the various
tests will convince one that the first condition is fulfilled. The
apparatus required are small as to number and simple in char-
acter. In regard to the requirement of time, however, the re-
sult is not so satisfactory. One test alone, that of the memory
of sentences, of a progressively abstract character, could take
scarcely less than a quarter of an hour: add to that the ten or
fifteen minutes allowed for the development of a theme for con- .
structive imagination, and it will be seen that the time is going
far too quickly to allow an application of even a majority of
the remaining tests. This fact has a bearing also on the next
requirement, that there should be as great a variety as possi-
ble in the tests in order to avoid the disturbing effects of tedium
and fatigue; for, although a certain variety in the experiments
is advantageous for keeping up the interest of the subject, yet
a crowding of many dissimilar tests into a brief space of time is
equally disadvantageous. The aim is, of course, in these ex-
periments to have the processes tested as nearly like those of
every-day life as possible, and a monotonous repetition of ex-
actly similar operations would defeat this aim. There is, how-
1 A number of these tests were applied by Dr. E. Toulouse in the
psychological part of the investigation of which M. Emile Zola was
the subject. The whole investigation is described by Dr. Toulouse in his
book Enquete medico-psychologique sur les rapports de la superiorite
intellectuelle avec ndvropathie. Paris, 1896. Inasmuch as the psycho-
logical tests employed are not the main reliance of the investigator
in the formation of his judgments, but are considered only as giving
confirmation to the judgments based on general observation of the
subject, of his written works, etc., the essay can scarcely be called a
purely experimental study of Individual Psychology.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 347
ever, in every-day life, as the mind turns from the performance
of one set of operations to another, a certain period of prepara-
tion. If the attention is, as it were, wrenched from one sort
of activity to another very different sort, without any prepara-
tion, confusion is apt to ensue. So in the activities experi-
mentally controlled, too sudden changes do not conduce to the
most favorable conditions of the attention. In the tests laid
down by Mm. Binet and Henri, therefore, the requirement of
variety in arrangement is a just one, for the attention demands
a frequent change of object. A radical change of object, how-
ever, requires time for the readjustment of the attention to the
new conditions; and time must, therefore, be provided in suf-
ficient measure. As much effort is expended and consequently
as much fatigue is produced by working hard as by working
long; it is poor economy to save time at the expense of effort.
The chief reason why Mm. Binet and Henri make the require-
ment of brevity for the tests is the practical difficulty of secur-
ing the subject of experimentation on more than one occasion.
This difficulty does not seem to be an unsurmountable one, as
it probably would apply only to a restricted number of cases.
When such cases do occur, judgment must be exercised in bal-
ancing the rival claims of variety or range of tests and of suf-
ficient time to perform the tests most efficiently.
Whether the last requirement is fulfilled, whether, that is,
the results of different experiments using these tests are per-
fectly comparable, is a question which can be decided only upon
a further consideration of the individual tests. Owing to the
complex material which is investigated, it is easy to see that
this condition is a hard one to comply with perfectly. M.
Binet treats of this subject in a separate article, La misure
en psychologie individuelle} There is a quantitative aspect to
most of the experiments, and this may be measured with a fair
amount of accuracy. There are two possible methods of meas-
urement, the first being a measurement of the results obtained
while the test remains the same. Thus in memory, for exam-
ple, accuracy may be measured by the amount by which the
reproduced series falls short of the original series. The rapidity
with which a certain amount of work is performed may meas-
ure some other processes. Enumeration and evaluation may
also give numerical results, but of much less precise a character.
The second method of measurement consists in a graduation
of the experiment, the results being reduced to a maximum of
simplicity. An example of this method would be, finding the
maximal number of objects which a subject could retain after
looking at them for five seconds. First three objects are shown,
^ Revue philos., Vol. XLVI, Aout, 1898.
348 SHARP :
then four, then five, etc. , until the maximum is reached. The
gradation of tests in terms, not of number but of kind, is difii-
cult, as, e. ^., where sentences become more and more abstract.
M. Binet states that the measurement of which he is speak-
ing is not a physical or absolute measurement, but only a
method for the classification of individuals. There is no fixed
standard by reference to which all individuals may be evaluated;
but of certain specific individuals one can say that under cer-
tain fixed conditions, when A's memory of isolated words is 12
and that of B is 6, A's memory of isolated words is better
than B's. It would be unwarranted, however, to say that A's
memory for isolated words is exactly twice that of B, since
all the words may not have the same value for consciousness.
All methods of measurement have for their aim the classifi-
cation of all the individuals tested according to a quantitative
scale. The tests, however, bear another aspect beside that of
quantity. Quality must also be considered; and here it is nec-
essary to class individuals according to different categories. M.
Binet does not go into detail in regard to the possibilities of
such a classification, but he suggests that the tests might dif-
ferentiate literary and scientific types, or emotive (moral or
egoistic) types.
Part II. Kxpkrimental.
§ 4. Description of Tests,
The following experiments were undertaken during the aca-
demic year '97- '98 as a study of Individual Psychology based,
in general, upon the theories, and to a large extent upon the
specific suggestions of Mm. Binet and Henri, as contained in
their article La psychologie individuelle. The theory was pro-
visionally accepted that the complex mental processes, rather
than the elementary processes, are those the variations of which
give most important information in regard to the mental char-
acteristics whereby individuals are commonly classed. It is in
the complex processes, we assumed, and in those alone, that
individual differences are sufficiently great to enable us to dif-
ferentiate one individual from others of the same class. Many
of the particular tests recommended by the French psycholo-
gists were also adopted, but were considerably modified in the
general conditions of their application by the purpose of our
own investigation.
The aim of this work was ( i ) to ascertain the practicability
of the particular tests employed, and (2) to answer the more
general question as to the tenability of the theory upon which
they are based, in so far as this can be judged by the experi-
ments. In other words, we desired to assure ourselves whether
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 349
investigations of this kind enabled us to advance, at least, to-
ward a solution of the problems of Individual Psychology;
whether those individual variations, and those correspondences
which are necessary for classifying individuals, and for esti-
mating the relative importance of the several processes in a
single individual, could thereby be discovered.
In view of these aims, and also of the criticisms of the gen-
eral conditions demanded by Mm. Binet and Henri for the ap-
plication of the method of ' tests, ' the procedure was neces-
sarily different from that laid down by these psychologists. To
make sure that the tests give real individual differences, and
not chance variations, it is necessary to apply them to the same
individuals, not once, but several times, in order that it may
be observed whether the variations in the different individuals
maintain a constant relation to one another at various times
and, consequently, under varying subjective conditions. In-
stead of single tests, therefore, series of similar tests for each
activity were arranged. This necessitated, of course, a very
large extension of the time beyond the limit allowed by the
French investigators. The advantages of a short period of
varied experimentation were, however, to a large degree at-
tained. The experimental work of each subject was divided
into periods of one hour each, and separated by intervals of
one week. Within a single hour-period the tests were varied
as much as possible. As a rule, only one or two experiments
belonging to the series of a particular test were given. ^ In this
way the tedium and fatigue due to monotonous repetition of
similar operations were avoided, and a fair degree of interest in
the work was maintained by the subject. The additional pre-
caution was taken of separating by intervals longer than a
week the experiments which were found to be especially trying
or disagreeable to the subjects; as, e. g., the development of a
theme, or description of a scene or event, employed as a test for
constructive imagination.
Since the experiments were of this detailed character, the
number of subjects was necessarily restricted. The fact that
the investigation was for the purpose of dealing with varia-
tions in individuals of the same class, afforded a further reason
for this restriction. The subjects consisted of seven advanced
students in the Sage School of Philosophy, three men (B, B.
R, and W. M), and four women (T, G, V. M, and L. R),
all ot whom had had training in introspection. In the experi-
mental work the subjects were divided into three groups; two
groups of two subjects each, and a third group of three sub-
1 Tests of memory for figures, words and letters, were exceptions to
this rule.
350 SHARP :
jects. This arrangement was made owing to the fact that a
large number of the experiments could be performed as readily
by two at a time as by one. A group of three presented some
difficulty to the experimenter, but not of a serious nature. As
a rule, the system of grouping worked well, and caused much
saving of time.
Certain of the tests which are especially adapted for collective
study were given not only to these groups, but also, by the aid
of Prof. Titchener, to the less advanced students taking the un-
dergraduate (junior year) course in Experimental Psychology.
The first ten minutes of the lecture hour were usually devoted
by Prof. Titchener to this work, the test in every case being
conducted by him. Occasional failure of attendance on the
part of some members of the class causes a corresponding in-
completeness in these results. They are useful, however, as
allowing comparison between the less and the more completely
trained students.
Though the tests as above described are intensively of
greater range than those of Mm. Binet and Henri, they are ex-
tensively much more restricted. Only those tests were retained
which have to do most directly with the intellectual activities.
The aesthetic sentiments were touched upon in a very tentative
manner in our investigation, while the moral sentiments,
strength of will, etc., were either left out of account altogether,
or entered only indirectly as results from tests which were ap-
plied primarily for a different purpose.
We are now ready to consider the tests in detail.
I. Memorv.
I. Memory of Letters. Twenty sets of 12 letters each were pre-
pared. As the object was to test the memory for isolated characters,
it was desirable to avoid the formation of syllables by successive let-
ters, in so far as this could be done without the total banishment
of vowels from the series. The apparatus employed was Jastrow's
Memory Drop, by means of which one letter at a time might appear
before the eyes of the subject from behind a small opening in a screen.
The movements of the drop must be made by hand ; the experimenter
regulated them by making them coincide so far as possible with the
beats of a metronome marking intervals of one second. Each letter,
therefore, was exposed to the view of the subject for approximately
one second. The experiments took place in this way. The subject
was seated at such a distance from the screen that the letters could be
clearly seen. A series of twelve letters was then exposed, one by one,
as above described. The subject was required immediately to recite
the twelve letters in their order. If any mistake was made, the ex-
periment was repeated ; the letters being again exposed, and the sub-
ject again required to recite them correctly. This whole operation
was repeated until the subject was able to name the twelve letters
without error. The number of times it was found necessary to expose
the series was noted. The answers to questions put by the experi-
menter in regard to the manner in which the letters were memorized,
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOI.OGY. 35 1
as well as observation of the results of the various repetitions, gave
information in regard to memory type, and therefore served to sup-
plement the results obtained from another test, the purpose of which
was the discovery of the nature of the subject's mental images.
This experiment differs from many others which are to follow, in
that it could be performed with only one subject at a time ; and also
in the fact that several sets of similar series of letters were given to
the subject in a single hour.
2. Memory of Figures. This test is almost precisely similar to the
one above. The chief differences result from the fact that with figures
the available characters are fewer, and hence in a series of twelve
there must necessarily be some repetitions. Further, the figures, un-
like letters, no matter how arranged, make an intelligible combina-
tion. The tendency to continue the separate figures is hindered some-
what,— in cases, almost entirely, — by the manner in which they are
given successively ; but in so far as the tendency to combine is ex-
hibited, it shows an approach toward the memory of ideas, In the
preparation of the series of figures it was our aim to avoid putting any
two figures in their natural or inverted order, or immediately repeat-
ing the same figure. The experiment was conducted in the same
manner as that described above.
J. Memory of Words?- This test has two parts. In the first place
the experimenter read a series of 7 disconnected words, at the rate of
about two words a second, and the subject was required immediately
to recite these in order. If any word was left out of this recital, it
was named by the experimenter, and any error was corrected. A
second series of 7 words was then read, and the subject was required
to recite them as before ; then a third series, and so on, until seven
series of seven words each had been read and recited. For the second
part of the experiment the subject was required to name, in the
order in which they occurred to him, as many as possible of the
whole 49 words. In the first case one had immediate memory of ver-
bal sounds; while in the recapitulation, which occurred at an interval
of at least three minutes from the time of reading of the first short
series, the auditory memory of the words had had time to be dimmed,
and the sense of the words became a more important factor for
memory. The difference in number of words remembered when taken
series by series, and when taken as a whole, indicates the relation
which subsists between the immediate memory and the memory of
conservation in the individual tested. Four sets, each containing 7
short series, were given to all our subjects. The conditions of this
test, also, required that one subject should be taken at a time.
4. Mem,ory of Sentences. There were given two types of experi-
ments under this head; (a) one in which the passage to be remem-
bered was confined strictly within the limits of a single period, and
(b) another, in which the passage was longer, comprising in somecases
two, three, or even more sentences. For convenience, we may term
the first type that of short sentences, and the second that of long sen-
tences. All the sentences, both long and short, were graduated into
five series, according to their degree of abstractness. This graduation
was more or less arbitrary. It was difficult to define five distinct de-
grees ; it was occasionally a matter of some little doubt, therefore,
which of two successive degrees should claim a particular sentence.
Although, however, the difference in abstractness between one degree
and the next was often slight, the difference between the extremes of
1 See A. Binet et V. Henri. La memoire des mots. VAnnee psychologique, Vol. I,
1894, pp. 1-24. Also E. Toulouse. Enquete medico-psychologique sur les rapports de la
stiperiorite intellectuelle avec la nevropathie. J^mile Zola. 1896.
352 SHARP :
the series could not pass unnoticed. The following series of short
sentences will serve as illustration :
I. A huge fire of logs blazed on the great kitchen hearth, and, at a
table covered with maps and papers, neatly set in order, the general
sat writing.
II. The Chinese regard us as strictly just and truthful, and it is
only when we disabuse them of that impression that they show us any
disrespect.
III. Whatever comes from the brain carries the hue of the place it
came from, and whatever comes from the heart carries the heat and
color of its birthplace.
IV. If the Necessitarian doctrine be true, then there is not merely
no foundation either for morality or religion, but no basis either for
divine or human law.
V. Thought is necessary to make even feeling or sensation to be
conscious feeling or sensation ; and thought can take place only
through discrimination, or perception of difference.
The sentences were chosen from literature : magazine articles,
novels, essays, and philosophical works. Fenimore Cooper, Carlyle,
Huxley, Leibniz, and many others furnished their quota. Of the
short sentences there were twenty sets of five series each, making one
hundred sentences in all, ranging from 22 to 28 words in length. Two
sets, only, of the long sentences were employed, making ten sen-
tences, ranging from 51 to 64 words in length. All the sentences, both
long and short, were given to the seven advanced subjects, while ten
sets of short and the two sets of long sentences were given to the
juniors.
The experiment was performed in this' way. A short sentence was
read aloud to the subject at the rate of about three words in two sec-
onds, care being taken that all words should receive, so far as possi-
ble, equal emphasis. The subject was required to write down the sen-
tences immediately after the reading. One set of five sentences was
usually given to the advanced subjects in a single experimental hour.
Sometimes two, and sometimes three sentences w^ere given to the
juniors at one meeting of the class. The subjects were requested,
after writing the sentence, to underline once those words which they
felt sure were remembered correctly, twice those words of which they
were doubtful, and three times those words which they felt pretty
confident were different from the words dictated. When words had
completely fallen out of consciousness, the subjects left spaces, the
length of which indicated the supposed gap in memory. The sen-
tences were 'marked' under four headings: (i) verbal accuracy,
that is, the number of words correctly remembered; (2) order, that is,
the number of words occupying their proper position in the sentence;
(3) sense, that is, the number of words which, either from the fact
that they reproduced those in the sentence read, or that they were es-
sentially synonymous with them, preserved the sense of the original
sentence ; (4) certainty of memory, that is, the number of words which
were marked very doubtful (underlined three times) plus one-half
the number of words which were marked somewhat doubtful (under-
lined twice). All these estimates were reduced to percentages, that
the results of all the short sentences might be comparable. This sys-
tem of marking has its disadvantages, as it depends in some degree
upon the personal judgment of the marker. Especially is this the case
with regard to the sense of sentences. Substitutions or errors in com-
paratively unimportant parts of a sentence may change the meaning
slightly, but not essentially; still, the sentence can hardly be classed
in such a case as reproducing perfectly the sense of the original sen-
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOLOGY. 353
tence. As all the sentences, however, were marked by one person, the
error throughout is a fairly constant one, and the results obtained from
different individuals may be, with justice, compared. The long sen-
tences were intended to conform more nearly to those employed by
Mm. Binet and Henri, ^ in the investigation briefly described above in
Part I, with the exception that our sentences were graduated accord-
ing to degree of abstractuess. Their method of estimating the results
was likewise followed. Each sentence was divided into groups, each
group containing one important word with, perhaps, some subordinate
words linking it to the rest of the sentence, that the number of groups
might coincide with the number of ideas. The necessarily somewhat
arbitrary character which this division assumes was before noticed,
and is, of course, inimical to precision in results. The points noted
in the results were : (i) number of the groups in a sentence which
were retained intact ; (2) number of words completely forgotten; (3)
number of synonyms employed ; and (4) number of other substitu-
tions. It should be said that the test of long sentences was conducted
in a similar manner to that of short sentences, the only difference
being in the reading. No effort was made to have the reading monoto-
nous, but every word was given its normal emphasis and inflection.
5. Memory of Sounds. To make a detailed test for memory of
sounds would have required an amount of time for preparation and for
experiment which it was impracticable to give in this investigation.
We were content, therefore, with propounding to the subjects certain
questions in regard to the readiness and accuracy of their musical
memory. They were as follows :
1. Can you carry an air at all ?
2. Can you reproduce an air after hearing it once? In your head?
By whistling or singing ?
3. How accurate is this reproduction (if it has been tested) ?
This test was applied both to the advanced students and to the
juniors.
II. Mental Images.
I. Letter Squares. This test was one described and recommended
by Mm. Binet and Henri. White cards were prepared, three by four
inches in size, and divided by black lines into twelve equal squares,
each square containing in its center a large printed letter. As the
longer side of the card was taken as the horizontal, there were four
letters on a horizontal line and three on a vertical. Ten different com-
binations of letters were chosen for these cards, to be used in ten dif-
ferent experiments. There were other cards, precisely similar to
these, except that the small squares were left blank. The experi-
ments were first conducted in this way. Each of the subjects had
before him, on the desk or table, right side up, a card of blank
squares, and also, face downward, a card containing the printed let-
ters. The requirements of the experiment were explained to him.
Upon the signal of the experimenter he should turn up the printed
card, and learn the letters and their respective positions in the
squares. Twenty seconds were to be given for this. At the second
signal of the experimenter, the subject should turn down the printed
card, and proceed immediately to reproduce the letters upon the
blank cards in their proper places. The subject was further requested
to write on the reverse of the (originally blank) card the nature of the
'^A. Binet et V. Henri. La memoire des phrases. V Annie tsychologique, Vol. I, pp.
24 ff. See also La psychologte indtvid^elle, ibid.. Vol. II. The same type of test was
used likewise by Dr. Toulouse in the investigation mentioned in a previous foot-
note.
354 SHARP :
mental images from which the reproduction was made. Five of the
experiments were made in this manner: in the remaining five a modi-
fication was made in regard to the time. The subject was allowed
only five seconds between the first and second signals for studying the
letters. There was then an interval of thirty seconds, before the ex-
perimenter gave a third signal to fill the blank cards. This had the
effect of making the introspection of memory images more easy. It
also increased the number of errors; and, as Mm. Binet and Henri
make the usefulness of the test to depend principally upon the study
of the nature of the errors made, this fact is of importance. Like-
sounding letters may be substituted for the correct ones, thus indi-
cating the presence of auditory images ; or errors may be traced to a
similarity in form of the letters substituted, etc. The letters in the
printed squares were arranged in a variety of ways. The last letters^
in each horizontal line occasionally rhymed, and in rare cases con-
secutive letters formed syllables. i
2. Questions. Under this heading may be placed the information
gained from the writing on the reverse of the blank cards, mentioned
above, as well as that obtained in questioning the subjects in connec-
tion with the tests for memory of words, letters and figures.
III. Imagination.
1. Passive Imagination, (a) Method of blots. This test is also
one mentioned by Mm. Binet and Henri, and is similar to that used
by Dr. Dearborn. ^ The blots were formed very much after the fashion
described by the latter writer. A drop of ink was allowed to fall
upon a small Bristol-board card, and a piece of paper was placed over
the card and rubbed with the finger. In this way a variety of forms
were made on different cards ; ten cards, in all, being employed. This
test was applied to the advanced students only. A card bearing a blot
was handed to the subject, who was requested to name all the objects
suggested by the form of the whole blot or of any part of it. He was
allowed to turn the card about in any direction. The objects sug-
gested were written down by the subject. Five minutes were allowed
for this experiment. The number of objects seen in the blot, their
kind, and the manner of reporting them, gave information in regard
to the passive imagination of the individual tested.
(^) Associations with Abstract Terms. These experiments con-
sist in interrogating the subject as to what he represents to himself
when such words as 'force,' 'infinity,' 'justice,' etc., are said, and
also as to his possession of number forms or visual schemes for the
arrangement of months, seasons, etc.
2. Constructive Im,agination. (a) Mechanical imagination. Two
tests were used for this : a German toy called the " Magic Box," and a
'puzzle' watch. The magic box was a box of tin about 3 inches in
diameter, through the center of whose lid projected the tip of a mag-
netized revolving rod, actuated through an internal mechanism of
gears and fly wheel by a thrust on an arm projecting through the side
of the box. A small triangular piece of tin with rounded corners, to
which could be attached paper dolls or animals, would, of course, if
put upon the cover of the box near the rod, be drawn around as the
magnetized pivot revolved. This toy was shown to the subjects, as
well as the method of starting the motion by pushing the projecting
^ One set of letters was taken from the example given by Mm. Binet and Henri.
Three others were copied from those used by Dr. Toulouse. Certain errors on the
part of the printer made slight changes in these latter, however.
' G. Dearborn. Psychological Review, May, 1897, pp. 309 ff. Cf. the same author,
A Study of Imagination. Am. Jour, of Psychology^ Vol. IX, pp. 183 ff.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOI.OGY. 355
arm ; but they were requested not to handle the toy. The requirement
made of the subjects was to explain the mechanism causing the move-
ment of the tin standard around the cover of the box. The two points
in the explanation should have been (i) the magnetic connection be-
tween the revolving rod and the tin standard, and (2) the particular
internal mechanism by which the revolution was initiated and main-
tained.
In the puzzle watch the works were confined within a small cres-
cent-shaped portion of the cylindrical space, while the rest of the
watch, except the nickel rim, was completely transparent, having
glass faces front and back. All that could be seen in looking through
this portion was the hands, the rod on which they were carried, and
the gilt numerals on the glass dial-plate. There was, therefore, no
visible mechanical connection between the hands and the works. The
subjects were required to explain the movement of the hands. This
was caused by the revolution of an inner glass plate held in a toothed
metal ring. Both in this experiment and in the one above the subjects
were given five minutes for a written explanation, but an extension
of time was granted if desired. These tests were carried out with the
advanced students only.
{b) Iviterary Imagination. Three kinds of experiments came under
this head: (a) the construction of sentences, (b) the development
of a given theme, and (c) the choice of a topic for composition. The
construction test was performed in this way : Three substantives or
three verbs were read to the subject, and he was required to write in
five minutes as many and as varied sentences as possible, embodying
in each the three words given. Ten experiments with substantives,
and ten with verbs were tried with each of the advanced students. The
same number of experiments was given to the Juniors, but there was
a modification in the time requirement, — only two minutes instead of
five minutes being allowed for the composition of the sentences. In
order, however, to have results directly comparable with those ob-
tained from the advanced students, two tests with substantives and two
with verbs were also given to the Juniors, in which five minutes were
allowed for the composition of the sentences. In each case the num-
ber and quality of the sentences were noted. For the next test, that
of the developing of a theme, two sets of topics were chosen, one set
for narration or description, and the other for exposition. Ten niinutes
were given for writing. Three topics for narration (or description)
and three for exposition were given to all^ the advanced students. The
third test consisted in naming ten titles for essays, five coming under
each of the above named classes, and requiring the subject taking the
experiment to choose from the ten given the five upon which he would
prefer to write papers, provided that such writing were demanded of
him. The topics given for test (b), development of a theme, were the
following : (i) For imaginative treatment : " Capture of a Fortress,"
" The Escape of a Prisoner," and " A Forest Fire." (2) For exposi-
tion : " The Delays of Justice," "The Influence of Newspapers," and
"The Mission of Music." The topics given for test (c), choice of
titles, were these: "In a Snowstorm," "A Polar Landscape," "A
Puritan Sabbath," "My Opposite Neighbor," "Man Endowed with
the Power of Flight," " Civilization not Regeneration," "Wisdom in
Charity," " Friendship of Books," "Fiction as a Vehicle of Truth,"
and "The Eloquence of the Bar and that of the Pulpit." A sort of
modification of the last two tests was given to the Juniors. On two
occasions they were granted a choice between two titles (one of each
type), from which they should sketch out a plan for an essay. The
^ With the exception that W. M. failed to take one of the topics for exposition.
356 SHARP :
time allowed for this was five minutes. The topics submitted on the
first occasion were : " The Capture of a Fortress " and " The Friend-
ship of Books ;" on the second occasion, " The Escape of a Prisoner "
and " The Influence of Newspapers." The length of the written com-
positions, their manner of development, the kind of topic chosen, and
the character of the plans made for them, are sources of information
as to the imaginative type of the individual. Further information was
sought by general questions in regard to individual tastes and tenden-
cies, such as the favorite reading of the subject, his fondness for re-
flective games, the theater, opera, etc.
IV. Attention.
1. The degree of attention habitually exercised by an individual was
measured by the quickness and accuracy with which a certain given
task was performed. The task chosen for this purpose was the can-
cellation of every letter a from the words of a printed page. In order
that the operation might not become too mechanical, the subject was
sometimes requested to cancel the letter e instead. Proof pages (12
mo.) of the English translation of Kiilpe's *' Introduction to Philoso-
phy " were used for the cancellation, the pages averaging about 350
words. At a signal from the experimenter the subject began reading
to himself at a normal rate, crossing every a as it came to his notice,
but never going back to cancel those overlooked when they were first
passed over. As soon as the page was finished the subject gave a
signal. The experimenter was thus enabled to read from the stop-
watch the time required for the cancellation. The number of errors
was afterward determined. Eight pages were thus submitted to each
of the advanced subjects for experiment ; but, as the subject matter
was a possible means of distraction from the work of crossing out a's,
other printed pages of a different character were also used. One page
of concrete description (376 words) was prepared and printed without
the use of punctuation, spacing or capitals. Another page of philo-
sophical matter (340 words), a page of disconnected words, and a page
of ' pied ' matter, were printed in the same manner. Copies of these
pages were used for experiments in the same way as those described
above. In the Kiilpe proof all the subjects had different pages, while
in the other tests the copies were exactly similar for each kind of
page. In the latter case, therefore, results from the different subjects
were immediately comparable, since no complication could arise from
difference of subject matter. All the subjects cancelled the a's from
eight pages of proof, one page of concrete matter, one page of abstract
matter, two pages of disconnected sentences and one page of * pied '
matter.
A further experiment upon the degree of attention was tried with
the seven advanced subjects by requiring them to read aloud, first, a
page of concrete description, printed without punctuation, capitals or
spacing ; and, secondly, a similar page of exposition of abstract
thought. The time necessary for each reading was noted, as well as
the correctness of the words and expression. The first page consisted
of a description of the situation and equipment of a blockhouse upon
a densely wooded island. The most notable feature of this page was
the frequent occurrence of monosyllabic words ; while that of the
second or abstract page consisted in the repetition of certain words,
such as 'subject,' 'object,' 'relation,' 'absolute,' 'power,' 'force,' etc.
The first page was slightly longer than the second, the number of
words being 376 and 340 respectively.
2. Range of Attention. To test the subjects in regard to range of
attention, a single experiment was tried in conformity with that sug-
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOLOGY. 357
gested by Mm. Binet and Henri. The subject was required to read
aloud with normal rapidity and expression a passage of ten lines from
a contemporary novel. The time taken by this reading was noted.
The subject was then requested to read the same passage in precisely
the same way as before, but while doing so to write on a sheet of
paper beneath his hand the letter a as many times as possible. Again,
the subject was requested to reread the passage, this time writing a b
repeatedly. During a fourth reading, abc were the letters required to
be written. A fifth and last reading was then requested, during which
the subject should write as far down the alphabet as he could without
altering his reading ; while if the alphabet were completed and time
still remained, he should begin again at a and write as before. The
chief difficulty in this experiment was in maintaining a uniform rate
in the reading throughout the five tests, for the tendency in almost
every case was to lengthen the reading in those tests which involved
the simultaneous writing of letters, thus allowing time for a rapid
oscillation of the attention from one set of acts to the other, and de-
stroying their simultaneity. Where success was attained, however, in
keeping the reading unchanged, the number of letters of the alphabet
written by the subjects gave information in regard to individual dif-
ferences in ability to perform practically simultaneous acts and thus
in range of the attention ; while in the cases where there was a de-
cided lengthening of the reading during the performance of writing,
this very fact was an indication of lack of such ability.
V. Observation; Discrimination.
This corresponds to the heading termed by Mm. Binet and Henri
the 'faculty of comprehending,' and comprises phenomena known
under various names, such as talent of observation, keenness 0/ mind,
good sense, judgm.ent,Qtc., owing to the difficulty of precise definition.
By it is meant the power to perceive relations, to distinguish the real
and essential from the apparent and accessory ; the ability to analyze
and systematize. The lack of analysis of the processes involved makes
exact investigation impossible, but certain tests have been adopted
which are calculated to throw light upon the individual differences in
this aspect of mind. Of these tests, the first two — those which have
especially to do with observation — may be classed also as tests of
memory ; but since the memory is immediate, while the time of ob-
servation is very short, the individual differences seem to be attribu-
table to the latter rather than to the former. The first test was applied
after this manner. The reproduction of a picture, cut from a magazine,
with the title carefully trimmed off, was shown to the subject for a
period of thirty seconds, after which he was requested to write out a
full description of what he saw, five minutes being allowed for the
writing. This experiment was tried upon all the advanced students
with two different pictures. The first picture, entitled the "Golden
Wedding," was more satisfactory than the second, "An Interrupted
Duel," in that it contained far more variety of detail, more unmis-
takable feeling, and somewhat greater scope for difference of interpre-
tation. Both pictures, however, contained more detail than could be
exhausted by an attentive observation of thirty seconds. This test is
very similar to that described by M. Binet in his article La description
d*un objet,^ the chief difference being that the picture — in this case
exposed to the observation of children — represented a scene from a
familiar fable, and the subjects were so informed before looking at it.
The time of observation was two minutes, instead of thirty seconds.
^ ly'Ann^e psychologique. Vol. Ill, pp. 296 £f.
358 SHARP :
The results from this test, as from those of imagination, seem to be
mainly valuable as indicating certain individual types.
The second test under Observation is similar to the first and may be
briefly dismissed as having in itself small value. A small colored card,
representing a lady rather brilliantly dressed standing before a dressing
table upon which reposed variously tinted bottles and boxes, was
shown to the subject for the space of five seconds, after which he was
requested to write down all the different colors he had observed on the
card, together with the location of each. This test, like the first, may
be reckoned one of observation rather than of memory, since the colors
of the pictured card were not that to which attention would naturally
be primarily directed ; moreover, the colors were few and could easily
be remembered if noticed. Hence the number of colors actually re-
membered was an indication of the degree in which they attracted
the attention of the observer. Since, however, the experiment was
given but once, the result could not be taken as showing a permanent
attitude of mind.
The third test departed entirely from the sphere of sensible per-
ception, and had to do with thought relations. A pair of synonyms
was given to a subject, and he was allowed five minutes for writing
down the distinction between the words in regard to their meaning
and use. Six pairs of such words were given to the Junior class and
seventeen to the advanced students.
VI. Taste and Tendencies.
Under this heading are grouped the remaining experiments, the
object of which was to test in the several individuals the appreciation
of the beautiful as expressed especially in art, music, and literature.
In these tests the assumption is made that the taste for an art will
carry along with it a knowledge of that which is universally conceded
to be the best work in that sphere, as well as some knowledge of the
authors of it. This seems to be a warrantable assumption, if we take
into consideration the individuals tested ; since all must have had
opportunities (college libraries, magazines, etc.,) to learn of that
toward which their natural tastes directed them. Art, music, and
literature form the basis for the investigation ; art being taken in the
restricted sense as comprising painting and sculpture.
I. Art. Three tests belong here, (a) For this test, a selection of
twelve paintings was made from among those which are given the
very highest place in that art. Photographic reproductions of these
were used. A subject was given a photograph, and allowed five min-
utes for noting in writing five things : title, artist, school, and approx-
imate date of the original , together with a brief description from the
photograph itself. The paintings chosen were these : Raphael's Sis-
tine Madonna^ Michael Angelo's Last Judgment^ Iveonardo da Vinci's
Last Supper, Rubens' Descent from the Cross, Correggio's Holy
Night, Titian's Assumption of the Virgin, Murillo's Im,m,aculate
Conception, Rembrandt's Night Watch, Volterra's Descent from the
Cross, Guido Reni's Beatrice Cenci, Velasquez' Portrait of Himself,
and Guido Reni's Aurora. These photographs were given not only
to the advanced subjects, but also to the members of the Junior class.
As there was but one photograph of each painting, and as the time
available was not sufiicient to allow five minutes for considering each
photograph, the experiment was performed upon the Juniors in this
way. Each photograph was numbered upon the back, and all were
distributed among the cldss, face downward. The experimenter then
gave instructions, reading the questions (given above) to which answers
should be written. A signal was then given : the subjects wrote
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 359
down at the head of a sheet of paper the number on the back of the
photograph. Another signal, and the photographs were turned, and
one full minute allowed for writing the answers. Then the photo-
graphs were passed on, from each student to the next, and the signals
were repeated as before.
Tests (b) and (c), given to the advanced students only, consisted in
allowing five minutes each for the subject to write (b) the names of
as many noted pieces of sculpture as possible, and (c) the names of
as many artists renowned in the sphere of painting or plastic art as
could be written in the given time.
2. Music. Here the tests are similar in nature to those above, (a)
The subject was required to name, on paper, as many musical com-
posers of renown as possible in five minutes, (b) The subject, being
given a list of ten musical composers, was required to name one compo-
sition or important class of composition produced by each. Five
minutes was the allotted time for this also. The list of composers
comprised the following : Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, Mozart,
Wagner, Liszt, Schumann, Rubinstein, Handel, and Schubert, (c)
The test previously described under the partial memory of sounds
(power to remember and reproduce musical airs) has a bearing upon
this part of our subject.
A modified form of these tests was given to the Juniors. They were
required to write (i) a list of six musicians, (2) one production under
each name, (3) the style of each, i. <?., his favorite form of composition,
and (4) to answer the question: ** What did Wagner introduce into
Grand Opera?"
3. Literature, (a) Selections were chosen from eight prominent
English prose writers, and read aloud to the subjects. After the read-
ing of each, the subject wrote whom he considered to be the author of
the selection, as well as the source of this judgment : whether memory
of the particular passage, or inference drawn from the style or subject
matter. The writers and selections were as follows : Macaulay, The
Progress of England, from Essays on Sir James Mackintosh ; Ruskin,
The Open Sky, from Modern Painters; Bacon, Of Studies, from the
Essays ; Dickens, Mrs. Gafnp^s Apartment, from Martin Chuzzlewit;
De Quincy, A Wonderful Dream,, from Confessions of an English
Opium Eater; Carlyle, Labor, from Past and Present ; Thackeray,
Family Prayers, from The Newcomes ; and Scott, Raleigh's First
Interview with Queen Elizabeth, from Kenilworth.
(b) Similar selections were chosen from eight English and American
poets, and the test was performed in the same manner as the above.
The subjects were informed that the poetry might be taken from either
English or American writers. The passages selected were these :
Wordsworth's Ode to Im,m,ortality, first two stanzas; Shakespeare's
Midsum,m,er Night's Dream, speech of Theseus on Imagination;
Tennyson's In Mem,oriam,, LIU; Milton's Ode to His Blindness ;
Browning's Rabbi Ben Ezra, stanza "Thou Fool!" etc.; Bryant's
To a IVaterf owl, last three stanzas ; Holmes' The Chambered Nautilus,
last two stanzas; and Spenser's Fairy Queen I, 4: 4, 5 (The House
of Pride) .
4. A further test of tastes and tendencies consisted in the questions
put to the subjects as to the character of their favorite reading, their
fondness for the opera, the play, and for reflective games such as
whist, chess, etc. See above, under III.
§ 5. Results.
We have next to consider the results obtained from the tests
that have been outlined. They may be considered from two
36o
SHARP :
points of view, quantitatively and qualitatively. Some tests
best lend themselves to a numerical expression of results, while
the outcome of others must be estimated chiefly in terms of
quality. Among the former are the tests of the first group,
those upon rnemory.
I. Memory.
I and 2. Memory of letters and memory of figures. These may be
considered together, since the tests were closely similar and performed
in the same manner.
Tabi,b I.
MEMORY OF LETTERS.
MEMORY OF FIGURES.
SUBJECTS.
Average times
exposed.
Fluctuation
limits.
Average times
exposed.
Fluctuation
limits.
B.
G.
V. M.
W. M.
E. R.
L. R.
T.
(2)
3
(I)
«"^
3-2
(5)
3-95
(4)
3.3
1—6
1—4
2 — 12
2—5
3-6
2—7
1—6
(3)
2.9
(I)
2.6
(5)
4.55
(4)
3
1—4
1—3
2—5
2—4
2—5
3—9
2—4
Table I gives for each individual (i) the averages, taken from twenty
experiments each of letters and figures, of the times necessary to ex-
pose a series of twelve before it is correctly repeated, and (2) the
fluctuation limits, that is, the highest and the lowest number of ex-
posures required for the memorizing of one series by the different in-
dividuals. The small figures in brackets at the left of the first and
third columns indicate the order of the averages from the lowest to the
highest, or the order of the individuals in regard to rapidity of memor-
izing from the most to the least rapid.
A comparison of the results from the last five experiments with letter
series with those from the first five makes evident the effect of practice.
In the last experiments also, the individual differences decreased. In
the figure series the effect of practice in the last experiments was less
apparent. This was, no doubt, partly due to the fact that the practice
gained in the memorizing of letters facilitated the memorizing of the
figures from the first.
A glance at Table I will show a certain correspondence between the
order of averages for letters and that for figures. Where changes have
taken place, it is between those individuals whose averages were con-
tiguous. Thus, 2 and 3, and 6 and 7 changed places, but there is no
INDIVIDUAI, PSYCHOLOGY.
361
indication of a strongly developed partial memory for either letters or
figures alone, on the part of any individual, which would make a radi-
cal difference in the order of averages for the two kinds of experiments.
The Table shows, in general, a slightly better memory for figures than
for letters, with one marked exception (L. R.). Memory of figures
might have been easier for several reasons. The practice mentioned
above, gained from the similar memorizing of letters, the permanent
practice gained in the course of education, and the fact that figures, in
whatever order, make an intelligible combination, all would contribute
to greater ease in learning figures. In the case that shows a decided
divergence from this rule, the cause probably lies in the fact that
the subject tried to rely upon her visual memory, and that, as there
was necessarily a recurrence of some figures in a series of twelve, the
repetition tended to fatigue the attention and confuse the mind of the
subject in regard to the order of the characters. The decrease in the
variety of form doubtless made the figure series harder to remember
than the letters. The Table shows not only a lowering in the averages
for memory of figures, but a lowering, in the case of every individual
but the one above excepted, of the upper limit of fluctuation.
The mode of memorizing the letters and figures used by the subjects,,
as learned from observing them and also from their own reports, shows
no coincidence between any particular memory type and any special
ability or disability for memorizing.
3. Memory of words,
Tabi,e II.
SUBJECTS.
B.
G.
V. M.
W. M.
E. R.
L. R.
T.
Av. per
cent, of
words re-
produced
in short
series.
^5)
81. 1
84.2
84.1
(6)
77-5
75.6
82.2
98.5
Av. per
cent, of
words re-
produced
in recapit-
ulation.
(2)
34-6
(I)
54.3
(5)
27.9
(3)
34.1
(7)
19.0
(6)
27-5
(4)
29.6
Difference,
(3)
(I)
(5) ,
(2)
(6)
(4)
46.5
29.9
56.2
43-4
56.6
54.7
(7)
68.9
Table II gives on its first line the average percentage of words of
short series which were immediately repeated by the subject after the
series was read to him. The percentages represent for each individual
the results obtained from four sets of seven short series each. The
second line of the Table gives the average number of words mentioned
JOURNAI, — 3
362 SHARP :
by each subject in recapitulating from memory as many as possible of
the whole forty-nine words contained in a set of seven series of seven
words each. The averages in this line were also made from four sets
of such series. The third line of the Table gives the average percent-
age of loss sustained by the memory in the time intervening between
the repetition of the short series and the recapitulation. The first
line, then, indicates individual differences in the immediate memory
of verbal sounds ; the second line, individual differences in the memory
of conservation ; and the last line, individual differences in loss.
The words used in these tests were of varied character, comprising
names of particular objects, qualities, virtues, general and abstract
terms, in wholly disconnected order. The results showed no marked
individual differences in the kind of words remembered. A fair pro-
portion of the abstract terms were remembered by all the subjects.
In general, the position of the words in the original series gave no clue
to individual differences in the recapitulations. The words in the first
and last parts of the sets were usually those best represented in the
recapitulations of all the subjects. In the case of Z"., however, the
tendency to remember best the words in the last short series was more
marked than in the others.
Table II shows in the first line an order among the individuals quite
different from that observed in the previous Table. Z"., who there held
the fourth place, here stands far higher than any other ; and V. M.
and L. R. change from the sixth and seventh to the third and fourth
places. This change is largely due to the fact that the remembered
stimuli are auditory instead of visual. In the short series it was chiefly
a succession of sounds that was remembered, as is attested by the fact
that, where mistakes by substitution occurred, they were almost inva-
riably of like-sounding words, such a.s flower ior floor, or furnish for
furnace ; while, in the recapitulation, the errors are usually additional
words suggested from analogy of sense, such as dog suggested by cat,
cold by winter, and accident by horror. In the recapitulation, the
order among the individuals returns very nearly to what it was in the
first two tests.
4. Memory of Sentences, (a) Memory of Short Sentences.
Table III gives under four headings the average percentages obtained
from twenty sentences under each of the five groups. The sentences
increase in abstractness from Group I to Group V. The average length
of sentences under each group is given at the foot of the Table. The
exact meaning of the four headings under which the percentages are
classified has been before stated. The complete results from which
these averages are drawn show for a single subject, in a single group
of similar sentences (similar in regard to abstractness), fluctuations
larger than the differences in the averages of widely separated groups.
This is evidence of the complexity of the factors which enter into these
experiments. The differences in the length of the sentences (though
these are not large), the differences in construction, the use of words
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
363
•
0
T^
CI
VO
t^
VO
»o
m
H
'A%UIV1130
o\
r>.
Tf
r^
00
N
l>»
^
00
ON
Ov
ON
00
ON
On
t>.
■*
M
00
-*
CI
Tl-
>
0
U
P4
•asnas
c2^
S
§8
s
<SS'
M
00
ON
5 •£
CI
00
H
"^l-
ON
rf
0
g
H
S
•aapjo
%
%
ON
^
s^
%
a
« II
c4
•iCoBjnoDV
>o
M
0
"^
On
CO
10
>
IBqjSA
^
ON
^
On
^
00
^
<5
,« 1
t^
^
VO
10
CO
0
!>.
to
Ui
•vCiniB^jao
06
t^
00
VO
d
^
t;:-
CJ
>
^
^
00
ON
ON
ON
00
ON
u
Si ::g
M
00
VO
CI
CO
00
00
M
0
•asnas
00
!5
ON
^
Sn
^
^
%
V£>
'^
•<*
CO
M
CO
VO
»{
H
MapJO
r^
00
ON
ON
00
92l
g^
1^^
0
0
ON
ON
ON
ON
ON
ON
g II
>
<3
•iCoBjnDOV
^
CO
CI
vq
0
CI
q
>
<
IBqj3A
^
00
00
CO
CO
c53
CO
ON
rn
W
N
Tl-
to
CO
00
CO
»]
H
•iC;niB:>j30
a
00
t^
VO
10
CO
On
V
M
ON
ON
ON
00
ON
0^
t^
0
H
00
CI
in
t>.
M
i
•asaas
10
t^
VO
^
CO
M
CI
r. ^
&4
00
ON
On
00
On
ON
"o ^
0
M
00
rl-
VO
ON
CI
0
^ "g
Pi
0
-<<
japJO
^
s^
8^
^
S;
8;
§
s II
•XDBjnODV
t^
rO
t^
CO
VO
VO
t^
>
0
XBqj3A
00
00
00
a
^
s
^
ON
<1
tn
0
10
»o
»o
10
00
l^
M
•X;niB;j30
M
t>.
%
t>.
10
VO
00
4;
ON
On
ON
ON
ON
o^
a
fO
VO
00
rt
CO
»o
I^
^
0
•3SU3S
^
S^
ON
a
^
S;
^
0
g
ON
nO
10
ON
10
t^
0
p<
0
U
^
uapao
^
s;
§!
■8,
s^
a
8
?. II
g
•iCaBjnoDV
10
»o
fO
00
CO
«o
10
0
XBqj3A
c^
^
^
00
^
^
S;
<5
tn
»o
rO
"*
00
CO
«o
M
ai
•X:^uib;j30
•^
00
00
r^
t^
U-)
ON
V
<7\
ON
ON
ON
ON
ON
ON
"> 0
yo
^
10
VO
CI
»o
CO
i
•asnas
§B
%
3;
a
^
S2
ON
S;
§
0
04
00
0
0
Tf
CI
VO
0
%
uapao
■8-
$
8^
%
■§>
■s,
8
M
jU II
•ADBjnoov
ON
»o
M
»o
ON
'^
to
>
<
IBqjSA
^
s^
§8
^
VO
§8
%
^
d
'd
^
(A
p^
PQ
H
>
^
w
l4
364
SHARP
which may chance to be somewhat unfamiliar to the subject, and, per-
haps, more important than all, the varying subjective conditions under
which the experiments are performed, produce results of more varying
character than those which come from differences in the abstractness
of the sentences. One page from the original results, chosen at ran-
dom, will show the lack of constancy in the averages under any one
group of sentences.
Specimen Page of Original Results.
SUBJKCT B,
Sentences.
%
Verbal
Accu-
racy.
%
Order.
%
Sense.
%
Cer-
tainty.
Sentences.
%
Verbal
Accu-
racy.
%
Order.
%
Sense.
%
Cer-
tainty.
1, 111,22
2, 111,23
3, 111,23
4, 111,24
5, 111,24
6, 111,24
7, 111,24
8, 111,25
9, 111,25
10, III, 25
11, III, 25
12, III, 25
13, III, 25
14, III, 26
15, III, 26
16, III, 26
17, III, 27
18, III, 28
19, III, 28
20, III, 28
lOO.O
83.1
95-7
87.5
95-9
62.9
95-9
84.0
86.0
80.0
76.0
79-3
70.4
82.2
89.3
92.9
95.5
lOO.O
loo.o
loo.o
100. 0
lOO.O
loo.o
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
96.0
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
96.5
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
69.6
lOO.O
95-9
lOO.O
75.0
lOO.O
78.3
lOO.O
84.Q
92.0
lOO.O
88.0
lOO.O
100.0
84.7
lOO.O
96.5
lOO.O
lOO.O
'93-2
93-5
91.4
95-9
93.8
lOO.O
98.0
96.0
98.0
76.0
90.0
90.0
84.7
94.3
98.1
lOO.O
92.9
94.7
lOO.O
1, IV, 22
2, IV, 22
3, IV, 23
4, IV, 23
5, IV, 23
6, IV, 23
7, IV, 24
8, IV, 24
9, IV, 24
10, IV, 25
11, IV, 25
12, IV, 25
13, IV, 25
14, IV, 25
15, IV, 25
16, IV, 25
17, IV, 26
18, IV, 26
19, IV, 27
20, IV, 28
100. 0
77-3
95-7
95-7
lOO.O
67.4
83.4
83.4
83-4
40.0
56.0
56.0
96.0
92.0
80.0
¥.
77^8
57.2
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
lOO.O
100. 0
95.7
95-9
lOO.O
95-9
92.0
96.0
92.0
lOO.O
lOO.O
96.0
96.6
lOO.O
lOO.O
963
96.5
lOO.O
86.4
lOO.O
100. 0
100. 0
91.4
87.5
83.4
87.5
72.0
76.0
56.0
100. 0
92.0
92.0
lOO.O
96.1
96.1
lOO.O
85.8
93.2
95.5
lOO.O
97.9
95.7
93-5
98.0
93.8
95.9
74.0
92.0
76.0
90.0
96.0
92.0
lOO.O
96.1
91.2
Average
78.7
99.1
85.7
90.2
74.4
97.6
87.1
88.7
The results from sentences given to the Juniors show precisely the
same characteristics, and hence will not be given here.
Table III shows that the columns headed order of words and degree
of certainty of the subject indicate small differences between the in-
dividuals in these respects, although in the groups of the more abstract
sentences individual differences in regard to the certainty of memory
increase. Again, slighter individual differences are seen in sense than
in verbal accuracy^ the former being very frequently preserved when the
latter is at fault. Considering, then, the verbal accuracy alone, we
find, except in the case of one subject, that there is no constant lower-
ing of the percentages as the sentences become more abstract. Between
contiguous groups of sentences, where differences in concreteness or
abstractness are slight, the length of the sentences appears to have a
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOI.OGY.
365
decided influence. For example, all subjects but one {B.) have a higher
percentage of verbal accuracy for Group II, which averages shorter
sentences, than for Group I ; while in Group III, whose sentences
average longer than those of Group I, there is a lowering of the per-
centages for verbal accuracy on the part of each subject. A just com-
parison of the individual differences in the different groups should,
however, take into consideration all of the four headings for marking.
It may be made from Table IV, which gives the averages of the four per-
centages for each individual under each group, as well as the general
average from all the percentages of all the sentences.
Tabi^E IV.
I
II
III
IV
V
General.
■ %
%
%
%
%
%
B.
6
91.7
6
91.4
5
90.9
6
86.9
6
85.6
6
89.2
G.
%6.8
%7.8
%5.8
3
94.7
96.7
2
96.4
V. M.
3
95.0
3
97.5
2
95-9
2
94.9
4
90.4
3
94.7
W. M.
92.8
5
93.7
6
90.6
92.9
3
90.5
5
92.1
E. R.
'89.x
7
90.4
84.0
6
86.9
7
85.2
^,.
Iv. R.
4
94 -o
4
95.9
4
92.3
%9.8
^88.4
4
92.0
T.
I
98.2
'98.5
'96.7
97.7
2
96.6
'97-5
In Table IV several things may be noted. Every individual (except
B., whose I and II figures are practically equal,) attained his
highest percentage in Group II, that which averages the shortest
sentences. The position of the lowest percentages varies with the in-
dividuals. For T. and W. M.y this percentage is practically the same
in Group III, which averages the longest sentences, and in Group V,
which contains the most abstract sentences : a slight difference in
lowness being in favor of the latter. For E. R. the percentage shows
that it is Group III which is most difficult, while for B., V. M., and L.
R.y it is Group V. The remaining subject, G., has her lowest average,
strange to say, in Group IV, which is intermediate both as to length
and abstractness between III and V. For all subjects, however, the
percentage in Group V is lower than in Group I, the amount of the
difference varying in',the individuals as follows: ^.,6.1%; G^., 0.1%;
V. M., 4.6%; W. M., 1.3%; E. R., 3.9%; L. R., 5.6%; and T., 1.6%.
366 SHARP :
In regard to the order in which the individuals stand in the different
groups, as indicated by the small figures in the Table, it will be seen
that no subject keeps the same order throughout. T. shows the greatest
constancy. The subjects may, however, be grouped in a general way.
7"., G., and V. M. hold the first three places ; W. M. and L. R. corn-
next, and B. and E. R. last. This grouping agrees, too, with the order
of results in the general averages.
If the order seen in the last column of Table IV be compared with
that observed in Tables I and II, — that is, the order of the subjects in
regard to memory of letters, figures, and words, — it will be found that
the former approaches most nearly the order in the immediate memory
for words. In the test of sentences, as in that of words, the stimuli
were auditory impressions, to be reproduced immediately after dicta-
tion. In the case of sentences, however, the sense of the words had
much more influence ; for although the words were read by the experi-
menter very monotonously, as if they formed an unconnected list, and
the interpretation was left to the subject, yet this, when made, could
not but prove a material aid to the memory. For both these reasons
the order is very different from that observed in the memory for letters
and for figures, while only slightly different from that for the imme-
diate memory for words.
Considering the test in general, it may be said that, in sentences of
the length here used, abstract sentences are very little more difficult
than concrete for any of the subjects (including the Juniors). More-
over, in regard to the availability of the test, the results shown are of
too meager and indecisive a character to be at all in proportion to the
time and labor necessary for the selection, classification and correction
of the sentences.
(b) Memory of Ivong Sentences.
Table V gives in full the results, for the advanced students only, of
the test of long sentences, where two sentences are given for each of
the five degrees of abstractness. A word should be said in regard to
the categories under which the marking is made. The number of
words forgotten means only those which have entirely dropped out
from the memory, those for which no substitution, even though inac-
curate, is made. The number of groups retained embraces only those in
which there is absolutely no change in verbal form. The 'number of
synonyms' means the number of words in the original passage for
which synonymous words or phrases are substituted. These substitu-
tions may have a more contracted or expanded form than the original,
but contractions are by far the more numerous. The fourth category,
* number of substitutions,' means the number of words in the original
passage which are represented in the reproduction, but not with suf-
ficient accuracy to be classed as synonymous substitutions, plus the
words in the reproductions which have no counterparts in the original
passage. Substituted forms may be words which mean something
different from the original, although related to it by analogy ; or they
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
367
may be whole sentences or parts of sentences which express fairly well
the main idea of the original, while ignoring all minor points of sig-
nificance, and with an entire change of syntax and verbal form ; or,
again, they may consist in the addition of words not found in the
i
bio
1
to
•snoprnpsqns
JO ON
r^ 0 vo M 0 fo^
to
P.
3
2
be
PQuT
■s
0
S5
•snonnrmsqns
JO ON
00 lOVO "d-^ M vo
g
•stUi^nouiJs
JO OK
M M
•suxiCuonXg
JO -ON
t^ M H to M N 0
s
sdnoaS jo ox
M W CO W ff) fOVO
•paniB^aj
sdnojS JO -ON
VO t^lO»OM Tl-<N
M
SpJOAV JO -OK
t^vo t^ 0\ Tl- TtCO
•ua^^oSaoj
spaoAV JO -ON
'^^JJ.SJOjoo
«
i
> .0
t
•snopn;i;sqns
JO -OK
M M M
tc
a
,bo
•suonn^nsqns
jo ON
M 10 0 (SOOOO M
M CS M M M
%
•suiXuonXs
JO ON
0 >0 fO 0 0 l^ M
•suiXuoniCs
JO -ON
M COMVO 0 0 M
%
•pauiB^aj
sdnojS JO ON
rO 0 CO rf M lOOO
•panxBtjaa
sdnojS JO -ON
0 C< «OM N rl- 0
M M M M
§8
•u3;ioSjoj
spjoAi. jo -on
M M to ONVO 00 0
W CI C« M
•u3:j;oSjoj
spjoM jo 'ON
M t-l «
M
a
i
.be
1
>2-
•snopn^psqns
JO -ON
M M M to 0 »0 M
in
a
.bo
CQ (0
•suoqnjusqns
jo ON
Tt fi"t\D 0 MVO
•sxuXnon^S
JO ON
0 COM to fO M 0
•sraXuouiCs
JO ON
M
c^
•pauTB^aji
sdnoaS jo on
<N 00 CO »0 M M ON
•p3nTB:j3.i,
sdnoaS jo -on
0 »OVO ON to 0 VO
s
M
•na^tloSjoj
spjoM. JO -ON
CN M M M M M
•n3:t;o2aoj
SpJOAV JO -ON
0 M OMO fOOO »o
rO M M to W
S
i
§
.a
1
•suoi;n:)psqns
JO ON
CO
i
M M
1
£;5
•suopn:^i:^sqns
jo ON
0 to 0 CM VO M to
M W
^
•sxuiCnouXs
JO ON
0 0 Tf Tt ro ro M
•sra^nonXs
JO ON
Tj-lOfOM tow "<*
•paniB^sj
sdnojS JO -ON
M M
•pauiB^aj
sdnoaS jo on
00 (N M « Tj- M OV
to
M
M
•u^;:^oSJOJ
spaoAv JO -ON
M MOO 0 0 0 ON
CS W M M
•u3:^ioSjoj
spaoAv JO -ON
0 M a>vo ov t^ to
M
J
i
1
• s^opn:^^;sqns
JO ON
« -"^ M M SO M 0
ft
w
be
!f5
•suopn;psqns
JO ON
t^ M W CO fO»0 M
S
•sraiCnouAS
JO ON
0 '^d-iOM WVO M
•sraXuouXs
JO -ON
•Tt tOt^O toi^co
^
•p3UXB:j3J
sdnoj3 JO -ON
M C4 M M M M M
•p3mB:^3j
sdnoaS jo -on
0 N Ov 0 CO t^ 0
M (N M M M M W
M
•ua;:toSaoj
SpjOAV JO ON
»0000 rj- too Tf
M M M N
•ua-^oSjoj
SpjOM JO -ON
VO N t^MVOOOvO
M CS M
0
M
original. The latter kind is not of frequent occurrence. It will be
seen that the Table does not represent the results precisely. It gives
the number of words/br which substitutions are made, but not the
368
SHARP
number of words substituted ; neither does it tell just how closely the
latter conform to the former in meaning. The four categories em-
ployed seem, however, to be those most practicable for marking the
sentences employed in this test.
Table V shows that here, as in the preceding test, there is a con-
siderable lack of constancy in the results. The memory of long sen-
tences requires a high degree of attention on the part of the subject,
and any accidental subjective condition which may serve to distract
him will produce an effect on the results which no consideration of the
objective conditions can account for. The same individuals show
often a wide discrepancy of results between two sentences of the same
degree of abstractness and of almost the same length and number of
words. The totals, however, show here, as in the test with short sen-
tences, that the most abstract sentences are more diiEcult to remember
than the concrete. The total number of groups retained steadily de-
creases from I to V. The total number of words completely forgotten
is considerably greater in V than in I, although in length the sentences
do not greatly differ. In III, where the sentences are long, the number
of words forgotten is almost as great as in V ; a result which also agrees
well with that observed in the previous experiment. In general, the
number of synonyms increases as the sentences become more abstract,
and the number of substitutions increases in even larger proportion.
TabIvE VI.
Number of words
forgotten in all
the sentences
Number of
groups retained
in all the sen-
tences.
Number of syn-
onyms in all the
sentences.
Number of sub-
stitutions in all
the sentences.
6.
6.
6.
2.
B.
166
70
33
121
G.
I.
89
134
'■ 3S
'■ .6
V. M.
'• 148
3-
79
I.
60
'■ 66
W. M.
^ 179
4-
78
'■ 58
6.
49
B. R.
4.
124
7.
45
4.
40
224
I.. R.
'■ 118
'■ 78
2.
59
3-
94
T.
104
2.
93
'■ ,8
4.
78
Table VI shows a summary of results. It gives for each subject the
total number of words forgotten, groups retained, etc. Individual
characteristics here manifest themselves. For B. this characteristic
is the large number of words completely forgotten, for G. the large
number of groups accurately remembered, for E. R. the large number
of substitutions ; while for the remaining subjects the number of words
completely forgotten seems the most prominent characteristic.
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOLOGY.
369
Several things are to be noted in regard to the order as indicated by
the small figures. The order in the number of groups retained is the
same as in the general averages for memory of sentences, with the
exception that T. and G. have changed their places as i and 2 respect-
ively. It has been seen that T. excelled when immediate auditory
memory was called into play. Here the sentences are so much longer
than the preceding ones that the auditory memory has been forced
into greater subservience to the memory of ideas, and hence the loss
of rank follows. That the order in columns i and 2 differs consider-
ably arises from the fact that, where groups are not exactly retained,
they need not all be dropped out, but may be expressed, with more or
less exactness, in a different verbal form. It is to be noticed, also,
that the order in column 4 and that in column 2 are almost precisely
reversed ; that is, those who have retained the greatest number of
groups have employed the least number of substitutions, and vice
versa. All this throws some light upon the relative reliability of the
memory in the subjects tested . G, shows not only the largest number
of groups retained and smallest number of forgotten words, but also
a preponderance of synonymous words over substitutions. W. M.y
whose number of forgotten words is large, has also a preponderance
of synonyms over substitutions. In all other cases the substitutions
outnumber the synonyms. This is markedly the case for ^. i?. ; B.
shows the same characteristic in a lesser, but still large, degree. Both
kinds of changes in expression result from what Mm. Binet and Henri
call ' verbal assimilation.' The subject gives to a passage, as it enters
his mind, the stamp of his own personality, imparts to it his own
habits of thought.
5. Memory of Musical Sounds.
The responses to the three questions : (i) Can you carry an air at
all? (2) Can you reproduce an air after hearing it once? In your
head? By whistling or singing? and (3) How accurate is your repro-
duction (if it has been tested)? — have been tabulated for the advanced
students as follows.
TABI.E VII.
Reproduce after single
Carry
Air'
audition.
Accurate?
Mentally?
Physically?
B.
Yes.
Seldom.
No.
Not tested.
G.
Yes.
No.
No.
Only after learning.
V. M.
Yes.
Often.
Partially.
r Mental reproduction
\ rate. Physical, not
accu-
W.M.
Yes.
Partially.
Partially.
Fairly accurate.
E. R.
Yes.
Yes.
Sometimes.
Not tested.
L. R.
Yes.
Partially.
Partially.
Yes.
T.
Yes.
Partially.
Partially.
Yes.
370 SHARP :
The memory for musical sounds cannot be compared with that for
letters, figures, etc., since no direct test was given for the former.
The answers above tabulated are, moreover, not sufficiently precise to
warrant any exact comparison between the individuals in regard to the
readiness and accuracy of their musical memory. All that can be said
is that B. and G. appear to fall within a different group from
the other subjects. That musical memory is something quite distinct
from mere auditory imaging is shown by a comparison of GJ*s line in
this Table with the corresponding line in Table VIII.
II. Mental Images.
Letter Squares. — In this test the errors made are intended to form
the basis of a judgment in regard to the kind of mental images em-
ployed by the subjects in their reproduction of printed letters. The
largest error, however, lay throughout in incompleteness ; that is, the
omissions far outnumbered the actual mistakes. Again : the number
of right letters placed in the wrong squares exceeded greatly the
number of wrong letters, i. <?., of letters which did not appear on the
printed card at all. The omissions are, for the most part, non-com-
mittal as regards mental images; the errors of position are often
equally so ; while the wrong letters used do not invariably make the
kind of images a matter free from doubt. The subject's report of in-
trospection, therefore, which accompanied each experiment, is of great
value, and, when considered along.with the errors made, may be taken
as giving reliable information. A summary of the information thus
gained may be given as follows.
Tabids VIII.
B. Visual images most prominent, motor next' and auditory least.
G. Auditory and m.otor images prominent, visual very slight.
V. M. Visual very prominent, motor next, and auditory least.
W. M. Visual very prominent, auditory and motor both important.
B. R. Motor most prominent, auditory next, visual rarely present.
Lr. R. Motor and auditory prominent, visual slight.
T. Auditory and m,otor images prominent, visual slight.
One of the most noticeable characteristics shown by the introspec-
tive reports is that, in the case of one subject {L. R.)y the letters were
rarely remembered directly, but usually through a verbal association
formed at the sight of the printed card, this verbal association being
in tactual and auditory terms. Other subjects sometimes used verbal
associations to aid the memory, but to a much less extent. The in-
direct method was, however, common among the Juniors. The an-
swers obtained from questioning the subjects in connection with the
tests for memory of words, letters, and figures, confirm the conclusions
in the above summary. Beside these questions each subject was re-
quested to state where, in his opinion, he should be placed under the
degrees of mental imagery (visual imagery) as classified by Francis
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
371
Galton in his Inquiries into Human Faculty^ p. 93. This classifica-
tion was made from responses received from a large number of individ-
uals questioned in regard to the illumination, definition, and coloring
of their mental images. The classification is in full as follows :
Degrees of Mental Imagery. Highest. — Brilliant, distinct, never
blotchy.
First Suboctile. The image once seen is perfectly clear and bright.
First Octile. I can see my breakfast table or any equally familiar
thing with my mind's eye quite as well in all particulars as I can do
if the reality is before me.
First Quartile. Fairly clear; illumination of actual scene is fairly
represented. Well defined. Parts do not obtrude themselves, but
attention has to be directed to different points in succession to call up
the whole.
Middlemost. Fairly clear. Brightness probably at least from one-
half to two-thirds of the original. Definition varies much, one or two
objects being much more distinct than the others, but the latter come
out clearly if attention be paid to them.
Last Quartile. Dim, certainly not comparable to the actual scene.
I have to think separately of the several things on the table to bring
them clearly before the mind's eye, and when I think of some things
the others fade away in confusion.
Last Octile. Dim, and not comparable in brightness to the real
scene. Badly defined, with blotches of light; very incomplete ; very
little of an object is seen at one time.
Last Suboctile. I am very rarely able to recall any object whatever
with any sort of distinctness. Very occasionally an object or image
will recall itself, but even then it is more like a generalized image
than an individual one. I seem to be almost devoid of visualizing
power as under control.
Lowest. My powers are zero. To my consciousness there is almost
no association of memory with objective visual impressions. I recol-
lect the table, but do not see it.
Below is given the result of the self-classification of our seven sub-
jects under the above divisions.
B.
G.
V. M.
W. M.
B.R.
L. R.
T.
First Oc-
tile or j)os-
sibly first
Quartile.
Last
Octile.
First
Octile.
First
Octile.
Last
Suboctile.
Last
Quartile.
Last Quar-
tile or pos-
sibly mid-
dlemost.
This result also agrees admirably with that given in the summary
above.
III. Imagination.
7. Passive Imagination, (a) Method of Blots. The results obtained
from the experiments under this method are susceptible of quantita-
tive expression, but their qualitative aspect is of equal, if not greater,
importance. The numerical results are given in Table IX, in which
is shown, for each subject, the number of objects seen in each of the
ten different blots, and the number of their sum.
The small figures at the left of the last column in Table IX indicate
the order of the subjects in respect to the readiness of their flow of ideas,
372
SHARP :
Tabi,b IX.
Number of Objects seen in Blots.
Blot I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
Total.
B.
5
7
8
5
9
I
5
14
14
13
I.
8l
5-
G.
I
4
4
6
5
2
4
3
3
6
38
3-
V. M.
6
6
lO
6
6
5
7
8
8
6
68
7-
W.M.
4
3
3
I
4
3
2
3
3
I
37
2.
70
E.R.
4
4
5
3
6
I
5
4
2
3
L. R.
6
8
7
6
6
7
8
6
6
lO
4.
T.
3
5
4
6
3
6
5
9
8
6
55
or the relative number of associative connections which are at the im-
mediate command of the subjects. The kind of associations peculiar
to the various individuals must, however, also be considered. The
associated objects most frequently mentioned are animals ; familiar
fruits, plants, tools, household utensils, etc.; scientific objects such as
geometric figures, mathematical symbols, schematic drawings, maps,
etc.; objects suggested by literary reminiscence; and finally, objects
from fable and mythology, such as monsters, fairies, witches, satyrs
and centaurs. -5., who stands first in regard to number of objects seen
in the blots, holds also a high place in respect to variety, since his
reports show not only the names of animals and familiar objects, but
associations derived from science and a few from mythology. E. R.
and M. W., who occupy a low position in respect to number of asso-
ciations, have a corresponding place in regard to variety, since the
associations are restricted almost exclusively to names of animals and
familiar objects. Of the other subjects, V. M. and L. R. have shown
a somewhat greater variety than G. and Z"., especially in the way of
fable and literary reminiscence. These differences in variety may be
called the individual differences in regard to the source from which
associations are habitually drawn. The reports from this test, how-
ever, show further peculiarities, — individual differences which, in gen-
eral, subsist between single associations, and differences in the manner
of reporting all the associations. For example : a particular blot may
call up in the mind of a subject, through association, a number of ob-
jects similar to this in form, and he enumerates the objects one after
another ; while to another individual the same blot seems filled with
pictures representing some action or situation, which are reported,
often with touches of fancy or sentiment. This difference in the
reports is sufficiently marked and sufficiently constant to form a basis
for the classification of the individuals into two classes : one class rep-
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOLOGY. 373
resenting the constructive or imaginative type, characterized by the
putting together of concrete details in such a way as to form a signifi-
cant whole ; the other class, representing what may be called a mat-
ter-of-fact or scientific type, characterized by a process more purely
analytic in its nature. The following reports from three subjects on
Blot IX may serve to make plain the characteristic difference.
/. Associations few and non-constructive.
An eagle. Stuffed turkey. Head and neck of a musk-rat.
2. Associations many and varied, hut non-constructive.
Ghost. Tadpole. Lizard. Ichthyosaurus. Mountains. Wigwams.
Totem poles. A plain. A monument. Rocks. Pine trees. Sphinx.
Satyr's head. Unknown animal (similar to giraffe).
3. Associations numerous and constructive.
Giraffe. Prehistoric bird in flight. Fairy riding on a humble-bee.
Bit of tropical jungle, with trailing gray mosses and pools of water.
Japanese lady. Bit of landscape with two hills and a valley between —
an army encamped under one hill. Moss-grown log floating in water.
Fabulous monster (grifiin perhaps), walking off on his hind legs with
a small Hottentot under his arm.
The constructive tendency is most prominent in V. M. and L. R.
who also, next to B., stand first in point of number and variety of
associations; it is plainly discernible in G. and 7"., though to a less
degree in the latter than in the former ; B.^E. R., and W. M. must be
classed as belonging to the other type.
(b) Test of associations with abstract terms, number forms, etc.
None of the subjects had fixed associations with abstract terms, not
even those subjects who are remarkably good visualizers. That this
is the case tends to confirm the fact, observed by Galton, that persons
dealing with highly generalized or abstract ideas habitually suppress
any mental imagery that may tend to arise with them, and thus the
very tendency disappears. No elaborate forms for the mental arrange-
ment of number was reported by any of the subjects. B., however,
arranges the months in a vague circle with winter on the top and
summer opposite ; and G., who has a color association with all words,
letters, and figures, has extra and especial colors for the seasons, which
take the form of disks arranged on the circumference of a circle.
The latter fact is noticeable because the subject, apart from these color
associations, visualizes very little.
2. Constructive Im,agination . (a) Mechanical Imagination. The
tests under this heading were two, the Magic Box and the Puzzle
Watch. It will be remembered that the two points of explanation
which the subjects should have given in regard to the first were the
magnetized pivot, and the inner mechanism of gearing and fly wheel
connected with the side-arm by means of which the impulse was given.
The explanation of the Puzzle Watch lay in the connection of hands
and works by means of an inner glass revolving disk and the regula-
tion of the relative movement of the hands by means of tiny gearings
in the central pivot. The explanations given by the different subjects
may be tabulated as follows.
374
SHARP :
Tabi,e X.
Magic Box.
Puzzle Watch.
B.
1. Magnetized pivot.
2. Coiled spring- inside released
by lever pushed in.
First hypothesis, hands moved by
magnetism, corrected in favor of
second hypothesis : a plate of glass
revolving with hands and a little
system of cogs for relative motion.
G.
1 . Alternate attraction and repul-
sion by electric current through
pivot.
2. Electric battery inside; cir-
cuit closed by lever.
Perhaps hands were magnetized
in some unknown way.
V. M.
No explanation.
Perhaps the hands were magnet-
ized.
W. M.
1. Magnetized pivot.
2. Spiral spring inside.
Three hypotheses. First was per-
fectly correct. Second (which he
preferred), invisible wire connec-
tion. Third (preferred to either),
magnetization.
E. R.
1. Magnetized pivot.
2. Some kind of clock work in-
side.
Two inner glass disks, one revolv-
ing with pivot of minute hand and
other with hour hand.
L. R.
1. Magnetized pivot.
2. Coiled spring inside tightened
by pulling lever out.
No explanation.
T.
I. Attraction exerted through lid
of the box by
2. A magnet inside made to move
about in some way.
Suggested magnetism, but failed
to see how it could be made to work.
In the first test the explanations given by B., W. M., and L. R.^
are almost identical, while that of E. R. is similar but more indefinite.
T. and G, come next in order with explanations which show that the
correct idea is more nearly grasped by the former, while V. M. gives
no explanation at all. In the second test, B., after giving the hypothe-
sis which suggested itself to nearly all the subjects (magnetism),
changed this in favor of the correct explanation ; while W. M.y who
gave the correct explanation first, afterwards preferred to it two other
erroneous hypotheses. E. R. gave properly the main idea of the ex-
planation. A noticeable difference in the reports of the two tests is
that L. R.y who gave one of the best explanations of the Magic Box,
could offer no suggestion in regard to the Puzzle Watch. Z"., G., and
V. M.y whose reports were on slightly different levels in the first test,
all suggest the same vague hypothesis in the second. Taking into
consideration the reports from both tests, and especially the lapse on
the part oi L. R.,it may be said in general that the subjects most pro-
ficient in mechanical inventions are B., IV. M., and E. R., a group
which coincides with that classed in a previous test as belonging to
the matter-of-fact or scientific type, a type showing analytical tenden-
cies. The process here was mainly one of analysis ; the coincidence in
the grouping, therefore, is one that might have been expected. The
classification of the subjects into two groups, with B., JV. M.y and E. R.
on the one side and V. M., T., G.y and L. R. on the other, is also a
INDIVIDUAI. PSYCHOLOGY.
375
grouping according to sex. This may be significant, owing to the fact
that men are, as a rule, more familiar with mechanical devices than
women.
(b) Iviterary Imagination, (i) Development of sentences.
TABI.K XI.
Sentences developed using given
substantives.
Sentences developed using
given verbs.
Average number
of sentences de-
veloped from one
group of words.
Average quality
of the
sentences.
Average number
of sentences de-
veloped from one
group of words.
Average quality
of the
sentences.
B.
6.
3-5
^- 56
6.
2.6
^- 6,
G.
2.
5.8
'■ 68
2.
5.4
4.
71
V. M.
W. M.
4.
4-5
5-
3-7
2.
108
6.
55
4.
2.8
69
B. R.
7-
3-2
7.
49
7-
2.5
7-
54
Iv. R.
3.
4.9
3.
105
3.
4.4
3-
128
I.
I.
I.
I.
T.
6.6
T13
5.8
133
Table XI gives averages obtained from ten experiments with
substantives and ten with verbs, five minutes being the time
allotted for the development of sentences in each experiment.
The columns of the Table headed quality demand some explana-
tion. In general, quality stands for the degree of elaboration
of the sentences, taking into consideration the length, rhetori-
cal form, and especially the range of ideas expressed in a single sen-
tence or in a series of sentences formed by the use of the same ' given '
words. The sentences made showed three distinct degrees or stages
of elaboration, which may be designated hy A, B, and C, and smaller
degrees of difference, intermediate between, or shading into these,
which may be represented by the symbols of plus and minus. Sen-
tences in which the three 'given' words were connected into a sentence
by the use of as few words or ideas as possible were classed as A.
Sentences which, by the addition of supplementary ideas, were more
complete and definite in themselves, or which implied a context, were
classed as B; while C was taken to designate those sentences in which
the ideas were still further supplemented, and the literary form was
correspondingly of a somewhat more elaborate character. For con-
venience in making averages, a numerical value was placed upon each
of these symbols as follows: ^^=50, A — =40 and ^+=60; .5= 100,
^—=80 and ^+=120; C=20o, C— =160 and ^+=240. According to
this evaluation it will be seen from the Table that B's sentences from
376 SHARP :
substantives average in quality between A and A-\-, and his sentences
from verbs average between A-\- and B — . The other numbers under
'quality' are to be similarly interpreted. An instance of a sentence
under each of the three main headings may serve to make the distinc-
tion between them more apparent.
Sentences formed by the use of the substantives, citizen^ horse,
decree.
A. "Decrees are made for citizens not for horses." (The connection
of the words here is simple and mechanical.)
B. "That stalwart citizen on the great gray horse is a man to be
trusted with the decree." (This implies a concrete situation.)
C. "All the well-to-do citizens of the village, each mounted on a
horse, rode through the streets, proclaiming their dissatisfaction with
the new decree." (A situation is here more fully outlined.)
A brief glance at Table XI shows two things: first, that every sub-
ject averages fewer sentences composed from * given ' verbs than from
* given ' substantives ; and, secondly, that every subject averages
higher in quality in the latter than in the former. The reason for both
facts lies in the greater definiteness with which the substantives deter-
mine the sentences : it is comparatively easy to make numerous sen-
tences from definite substantives by changing the verbal connections,
but it is difficult thus to change the entire character of the different
sentences. The order that subsists among the individuals in regard
to number of sentences is the same under substantives and under
verbs, while the order in respect to quality is likewise the same under
the two headings. If the order under number and under quality
be compared, it will be seen that for three subjects, Z"., Z. R.y and E.
R., the order remains the same, at i, 3 and 7 respectively, both for
substantives and for verbs ; while, for the other subjects, the order is
not radically changed. In general, then, the subjects who made the
most sentences also made the most elaborate, and those who made the
fewest sentences made also the simplest and most unimaginative. If
the subjects are grouped according to their order in regard to number
and also in regard to quality, the groups will be found to agree with
those observed under the Method of Blots. The group which there
showed a tendency toward constructive imagination, here show the
same tendency, by their superiority in constructing sentences both as
regards number and quality ; while those who there showed a compar-
ative lack of that tendency, here manifest the same characteristic by
their lower rank in the construction of sentences. Within the con-
structive group T. has in this test advanced to the first place, showing
that, to her mind, words possess a suggestiveness superior to that of
mere visual outlines.
(2) Development of a theme.
The only quantitative estimate that can be satisfactorily made in
this test is the average number of words which a subject uses in the
development of a theme : the number of words corresponding roughly
with the number of ideas presented. The average number of words
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
377
used by the various subjects in developing three themes by narration
or description, and three by exposition are given below.
TABI.E XII.
B.
G.
V. M.
W. M.
B. R.
L. R.
T.
Narration
or descrip-
tion.
7-
124
5.
155
2.
179
3-
174
6.
150
I.
259
4.
173
Exposition.
7-
94
^•^38
3.
159
4-
147
6.
120
I.
222
2.
184
It may here be seen that all the subjects, save one, write longer
themes on imaginative topics than on those requiring the treatment by
exposition ; that is, the topics which have to do with concrete things
seem to lend themselves to more spontaneous expression than do the
topics which involve the activity of the more purely intellectual pro-
cesses. T. forms the marked exception. To judge from the length of her
themes, those of exposition seem to be composed with even greater
readiness than the narratives. The order subsisting among the indi-
viduals in regard to length of themes is slightly different in the two
kinds of writing. This is due, however, to the exceptional difference
in length on the part of T. ; if this were left out of account, the order
among the subjects would remain the same in the two cases. A compari-
son of this order with that in regard to the average number of sentences
constructed by the different subjects (see Table XI) shows, as the
most striking difference, that here W. M. has advanced to a position
in the first group, while G. has fallen from the second to the fifth
place. There are also smaller differences in the order among the in-
dividuals in the two groups. These alterations in the order are not
of themselves, however, sufficient to warrant a change in the classifi-
cation of the individuals by imaginative type. The qualitative differ-
ences in the themes must also be taken into account.
Narration and description deal with particulars, not with gen-
eralization. This imposes on both the same task of seeking out
those parts and characteristics of the object which are most indi-
vidual, most unlike those of the class to which it belongs ; all the
details chosen are selected with a view to bringing out this unique
character of the whole object or event. The material is concrete, the
process is mainly synthetic. Exposition, on the other hand is inven-
tion dealing with notions or generalized ideas ; its business is to set
forth the meaning of things, to make clear their nature, scope, and
relations. ** Exposition is thus," in the words of Prof. Genung, "the
handmaid of all accurate and clearly-cut thought." Narration and
description demand vividness or picturesqueness of diction, and a
certain dramatic force; exposition calls only for clearness and sim-
plicity.
JOURNAI, — 4
378
SHARP :
An attentive perusal of the particular themes under consideration
with the above qualifications in mind shows, in regard to the imagin-
ative themes, constant individual differences. L. R., T., and V. M.
here, as before, belonging to the constructive type, exhibit in the highest
degree the requisite qualities of concreteness, vividness, etc. B. and
G. seem to be on substantially the same level, their themes being less
vivid, more matter-of-fact, with a tendency to generalize the scene or
event, and with very slight emotional coloring; the themes of E.
R. and W. M. show these characteristics to a more marked degree.
The other set of themes, those dealing with exposition, gives little
clue to individual differences, partly because the topics themselves
are not such as to admit of very wide choice in the matter of treatment,
and partly because the long course of intellectual training which all
the subjects had enjoyed tended to lessen, in this sphere, the differ-
ences due to mental constitution.
(3) Choice of Topic.
Tabi,e XIII.
.
•0 .1
V c*
a
4>'
%
■ti
Man P^udowe
with the
Power of
Flight
.S-c
a.S
-c 8
^0.
ed uA
2*^
TheEloquenc
of the Bar
and that of th
Pulpit.
B.
X
X
X
X
X
G.
X
X
X
X
X
V. M.
X
X
X
X
X
W.M.
X
X
X
X
X
E. R.
X
X
X
X
X
L. R.
X
X
X
X
X
T.
X
X
X
X
X
Table XIII shows the five topics chosen by each of the different in-
dividuals from the ten given topics, five of which were for imaginative,
and five for expository writing. The results are chiefly interesting in
their collective character. All the subjects showed a preference for
the second class of topics, the number of these chosen by all the sub-
jects being almost twice as great as the number of imaginative topics.
The usual proportion in the choice of imaginative to expository topics,
as shown in the table, is 2 : 3, the only exceptions being in the cases of
G. and L. R., whose proportion is i : 4. The imaginative topics least
often chosen are those which make severest demands upon the imagin -
ation of the writer. That two of these least popular topics were
selected by the three subjects who have been classed as showing less
constructive imagination than the others is worthy of note. This,
together with the fact that of the subjects who chose the larger pro-
portion of expository topics, one has always been classed with the
constructive type, and the other has usually been so classed, seems to
INDIVIDUAIv PSYCHOLOGY.
379
indicate that a particular power of imagination or comparative lack
of it does not necessarily imply a preference for or against the exer-
cise of that power in a given case. Tastes and abilities are not always
co-ordinate.
The modification of the last two tests given to members of the Junior
class show likewise a strong preference for expository subjects over
imaginative : two subjects only chose the latter. The outlines for
essays which accompanied the topics chosen were not sufficiently
diverse in character to form a basis for classifying the individuals.
IV. Attention.
I. Degree of Attention, (a) Cancellation of vowels.
TABI.E XIV.
Pages with Spacing.
Pages without Spacing.
Percentage
Percentage
Percent-
age of
Error.
Time
of Error re-
Percentage
Time
of Error re-
(sec).
duced to
of Error.
(sec).
duced to
mean time.
mean time.
3-
5.
B.
8.7
189
8.6
4.
6.2
212
5-5
4-
G.
9.0
214
9-9
2.
4.0
3-4
272
4.0
I.
I.O
V.M.
3-9
196
1.2
200
5.
7-
W.M.
12. 1
175
10. 1
6.
9-3
198
8.3
3.
E.R.
11.9
198
12.3
7-
1.8
226
ly. R.
18.3
196
18.8
I.
3.0
8.2
214
7.9
T.
3.6
164
2.0
209
1.8
Table XIV shows that, in the case of every subject, the time neces-
sary to cancel a's from pages without spacing exceeds that for pages
with spacing, but that the percentage of error in the former is less
than in the latter. That is to say, the demands upon the attention
were greater in the pages where absence of spacing, punctuation, and
capitalization necessitated the perception of each letter as a unit.
The separate direction of the attention upon every letter required
more time than the perception of the letters grouped into words, with
the added process corresponding to the question, **Does this word
contain an a?"; but it also insured greater accuracy. The associative
process indicated by the question might easily be crowded out by the
more interesting associations called up by the meaning of the words
and sentences. Distraction, then, operated in the case of proof pages
to increase the percentage of error, while in the pages without spacing
the increased difficulty of perception caused an increase in the time
necessary to perform the task.
38o
SHARP :
The reductions in the third and sixth columns of the Table were
made in order to get a relative estimate of the individual which should
take account of both quickness and accuracy. The assumption made
is that in a given individual, maintaining a constant degree of atten-
tion while doing a piece of work, the percentage of error is inversely-
proportional to the time taken for the work. Under this assumption
the percentage of error of each subject was reduced to a common time,
the mean of the time for all subjects, and thus all individual differ-
ences were reduced to terms of error. The order of individuals in
regard to this error is different in the different kinds of pages. E.
R. rises from the sixth to the third place when the distraction due to
the sense is removed : B. and W. M., however, are comparatively lower
in rank in the second class of pages than in the first. Other diver-
gences of order are more slight.
In the first half of the Table, we find, apparently, three groups : T.
and V. M.,—B., G., W. M. and E. R.,—L. R. ; in the second half, also
three groups : T., V. M. and E. R.,—B. and G.,—L. R. and W. M.
(b) Comparison of ease (estimated by rapidity) in reading a page
of concrete description (without spacing, etc.,) and a similar page of
exposition of abstract thought.
TABI.B XV.
B.
G.
V. M.
W. M.
K. R.
L. R.
T.
Time of reading
concrete page.
5-
m. s.
4.38
6.
m. s.
7.12
2.
m. s.
3.10
4-
m. s.
340
7-
m.
15
3.
m. s.
3.10
I.
m. s.
2.23
Time of reading
abstract page.
5.
m. s.
3.36
6.
m. s.
4.12
2.
m. s.
2.48
3.
m. s.
2.40
7.
m. s.
6.45
4.
m. s.
3.5
I.
m. s.
2.5
Table XV shows that in the case of every individual the time for
reading the abstract page was less than that required for the concrete
page. There are several reasons why this should be the case. The
practice gained by reading the concrete page was of assistance in read-
ing the abstract page which came after. The abstract page had some-
what fewer words (340) than the concrete page (376), and also longer
words, which are easier to distinguish than sequences of short words.
Moreover, a considerable number of the longer'words in the abstract page
occurred several times, e.g.^ such words as 'philosophy,' * thought,' 'ab-
solute,' 'consciousness,' etc. It cannot, therefore, be said that the
superior rapidity of reading the abstract pages is altogether caused by a
higher degree of attention resulting from the greater interest excited by
the nature of the thought. The order of the subjects in regard to rapid-
ity of reading is almost the same in the two pages ; the only change in
order being in the cases of W.M, and Z.^., whose rank alters from fourth
and third to third and fourth respectively, — indicating that W. M.
found the abstract page relatively easier to read than L. R. The order
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
381
of individuals as seen in Table XV and in the third and sixth
columns of Table XIV are hardly comparable, since in the former no
estimate is made of the correctness of the reading. Moreover the re-
sults in Table XV are made out from single experiments, while those
in Table XIV represent the canceling of a's from eight pages with
spacing and five pages without spacing. The latter results, therefore,
have greater validity.
We regret that these two tests should be so bare of results, since
they promise (if more skilfully performed) to yield indications of
prime importance as to the make-up of the individual consciousness.
We had expected to discover individual differences of much more defi-
nite character and much greater amount. The tests evidently involve
processes of a highly complex nature, and the conditions must be very
carefully regulated if reliable results are to be obtained.
2. Range of attention, (a) Writing letters while reading a passage
of ten lines.
TABI.E XVI.
Times of Readings.
i
Number of Letters Written.
Difference in
time between
5th and I st read-
ings.
irtionofthe
enceintime
number of
ibet writ'n.
ISt.
2d.
3d.
4th.
5th.
A.
A. B.
A. B.C.
Alpha-
bet.
Prop(
differ
to the
alphf
s.
S.
s.
s.
s.
S.
7-
B.
28
38
42
50
113
47
62
78
91
85
•94
2.
.15
5.
•45
4-
•23
3-
.20
6.
•57
I.
.08
G.
22
22
22
21
28
29
34
39
40
6
V.M.
29
30
30
30
50
40
56
57
46
21
W. M.
26
27
27
27
29
27
28
36
13
3
E. R.
27
27
29
27
31
31
40
48
20
4
L. R.
22
25
26
25
37
41
44
51
26
15
T.
27
29
30
31
29
36
40
45
25
1
2
Table XVI is largely self-explanatory. The time of reading, in gen-
eral, increases with the complication of the accompanying acts. The
amount of this increase varies greatly in different individuals. The
number of a, b's is greater than the number of a's, but not twice as great;
and the number of a, b, c's is greater than the number of a, b's, but not
three times as great as the number of a's. That is to say, it is more
difficult to write ab repeatedly while reading than to write a simply, but
the sequence between these two letters, a and b, is so easy and natural
that it is not twice as difficult to write the two letters as to write the
one; a subject, therefore, always sets down in the aggregate more letters
382 SHARP :
when required to repeat a, b than when writing a's. The case is
similar with a, b, c. The conditions are different, however, in regard
to the alphabet. There the number of characters and the sequences
are so greatly increased that the total number of letters written is,
in several cases, less than the number of a's ; and even where the
number of letters is not less, the time taken for the reading and
writing is increased. The extreme complication of the acts accom-
panying the reading, in the case of writing the alphabet, tends to
distract the attention from the reading, thus lengthening the time of
reading, and to cause a decrease in the total number of letters written
during the reading. Sometimes one effect predominates over the
other : in ^., e. g., it is the lengthening of the time, in T. the decrease
in the number of letters. The last column but one of Table XVI gives
the amount of increase of the time for the fifth reading over that for
the first (or normal) reading. The last column, giving the proportion
of this difference of time to the number of letters of the alphabet
written, indicates the degree of simultaneity (if this expression be
permitted) of the two acts. The smaller the increase in time and the
greater the number of letters written the smaller is the proportion, and
the more nearly simultaneous is the performance of the two acts.
The order of the individuals in regard to range of attention as thus
indicated in the last column of Table XVI does not correspond to
any previous grouping of the subjects.
V. Observation : Discrimination.
I. Descriptions of Pictures. Of the two pictures used in these
tests, "The Golden Wedding" and "The Interrupted Duel," the
former, to a greater degree than the latter, gave results which varied
from one individual to another. The first picture possessed far more
detail, the composition was less simple, and the interpretation was
somewhat less obvious. The descriptions of the " Golden Wedding "
show that the observation of the subject may be primarily directed
to the particular objects or details of the picture, or to the general
arrangement of the objects, that is, the composition of the picture, or
to the meaning of the picture, the story which it conveys, the details
observed being such as lead up to this interpretation, or explain
and apply the interpretation which is given first. The different ways
in which the same picture appeals to the various individuals indicate
differences in mental constitution. The appeal may be primarily to
the intellectual activities of perception, or, through perception, to
the imagination and feelings. The descriptions written by V. M., L.
R., and T. give prominence to the interpretation of the picture, but
differ in use of details. In the case of V. M., the details are fairly
numerous, concrete in their nature, and seem to be carefully chosen
with a view to substantiating the interpretation ; in that of L. R., the
details which are abundant and minute are given first, and then
followed by an interpretation of the whole. In T.'s description the
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 383
details are less specific in character. The account of the picture
given by G. contains a general interpretation, a mention of two or
three prominent figures, and a general arrangement of the groups of
people. The descriptions of E. R., W. M., and B. are characterized
by entire absence of interpretation ; but these subjects also vary in the
use of detail. E. R. had no recollection of the composition of the
picture at all, and mentioned, therefore, only a few objects in the
form of an enumeration. B.^s description contains mention of a
large number of persons and objects, but fails to give any clear idea
of the composition of the whole ; while that of W. M. contains less
detail, but conveys a somewhat more complete idea of the total scene.
The whole number of different objects (including persons, furniture,
utensils, etc.,) mentioned is 20: the number of these specifically
referred to in one description varied according to the individual, from
6 to 13. W. M., E. R., and T. mentioned 6; G., i ; V. M., 8 ; B., 11 ;
and L. /?., 13. There was a considerable variety, therefore, in the
objects selected for mention by the different subjects. — In the " In-
terrupted Duel " the total number of different objects mentioned was
15, and the proportion of these objects named in the different descrip-
tions was much larger than in the case of the other picture. 8 and 12
were the limits of variation. G., W. M., and T. named 12 ; B, ii\ V.
M., 10; and L. R., S\ E. R. failed to recall the picture at all. Since
the scope for selection of objects was in this picture more limited,
the descriptions of the different individuals were more similar in
character. This similarity was further enhanced by the fact that the
picture so plainly revealed the subject it was intended to represent,
the result being that an interpretation of the picture was given by all
{E. R. excepted), though that of L. R. was erroneous, owing to
her failure to observe the minor group in the picture. The individual
differences observable in the descriptions of the "Golden Wedding"
tend to become neutralized in the " Interrupted Duel " by the greater
use of interpretation on the part of B. and W. M., and a somewhat
less use of ithy L. R., T. and G. In V. M., however, the tendency
to interpret is, if anything, emphasized, and her description takes
the form of a narrative, explaining the situation portrayed in the
picture. For the reasons assigned above, the "Golden Wedding"
is the picture better suited for a test of this kind. The results from
it, therefore, may be accepted as revealing more characteristic differ-
ences in the individuals. These results are, as a matter of fact, in
substantial agreement with those obtained in the tests for imagination.
2. Observation of Colors. In this test, it will be remembered, the
subject was not given full information before the beginning of the
experiment. It was only after he had looked at the card for the
stated time (five seconds), that he was requested to name all the
prominent colors on the card, with their respective situations. As the
experiment could not be repeated under precisely the same conditions,
384
SHARP :
the test was given but once, and the results, therefore, may not be
such as would be precisely confirmed by further testing.
Tabi^e: XVII.
Percentages correctly
given.
Percentages incorrectly-
given.
Mean of (cor-
rect per-
Colors.
Situations.
Colors.
Situations.
centages-
errors).
6.
B.
50
25
0
12.5
31-25
I.
68.70
5-
37.00
4.
37-50
2.
62.50
G.
75
62.5
0
0
V. M.
37
37
0
0
W. M.
62.5
12.5
0
0
E. R.
25
0
12.5
0
L. R.
62.5
62.5
0
0
3-
T.
50
50.0
0
0
50.00
The results are interesting as showing that the subjects who are the
best visualizers observed the colors and the place they occupied in the
picture less well than did others whose mental images are predomi-
nantly in some other sense department. E. R., however, who proved
to have the fewest and faintest visual images, seemed here, as in the
previous experiment with pictures, to have the least power of repro-
ducing visual impressions. Since the same subject showed relatively
much greater facility in the reproduction of letters and figures under
the method of procedure with knowledge, it is probable that in the
case of the pictures attention was not sufficiently aroused to enable
the subject to form verbal associations with the visual impressions.
If these associations had been formed, especially with the colors,
which were so few, they could hardly fail to be recalled so soon after
their formation. It is to be further observed that the order indicated
in the last column of Table XVII does not agree with the order in
regard to particular objects mentioned in connection with either of the
pictures of the previous tests. The general grouping of subjects,
however, is somewhat similar in the two cases, if descriptions of pic-
tures are considered in respect to their total merit ; the chief differ-
ences being that G. and W. M. have in Table XVII advanced from
their former positions. This fact may be of significance, when it
is remembered that these two subjects excelled in the memory of un-
connected visual impressions (letters and words).
3. Discrimination of Synonyms.
The discriminations were marked in regard to quality according to
the scale of A, B and C, as described under the test of Development
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
385
of Sentences, — quality in this case, however, signifying the degree of
clearness and completeness of a discrimination. C, here as before,
signifies the highest quality. The results of the averages of the
numerical values given to the discriminations of the different subjects
make it appear, as seen in the Table, that the value of B.^s discrimina-
TabIvE. XVIII.
Average quality
Average length
Total number
Total number
of discrimina-
tious.
of discrimina-
tions (words).
of derivations.
of examples.
5-
7-
3-
B.
89
2.
25
6.
0
14
G.
106
30
0
2
4.
2.
2.
V. M.
6. ''
54
4-
5
17
W. M.
76
7-
44
5.
0
2
E. R.
77
36
0
2
3-
I.
I.
L. R.
103
65
0
44
I.
3.
4.
T.
119
49
0
5
tions average about midway between B — and B, that of G.^s between
B and B-|-, and so on. The remaining columns of the Table are self-
explanatory. The limits of variation in quality for the different sub-
jects the Table shows to be very narrow. The lowest quality (76) is
almost B — , and the highest (119) is just less than B+. The tendency
of the past training of all the subjects was towards cultivation of the
powers of intellectual discrimination. There is no strongly marked
parallel between clearness and completeness of the discrimination,
and number of words used in its expression. G.^s discriminations are
notable for clearness combined with conciseness of statement ; for
the rest, there seems to be a slight balance of clearness in favor of the
longer discriminations. The tendency to illustrate the thought by
means of concrete examples is shown most strongly in L. R., V. M.,
and B. Of these the two former have exhibited the same tendency
toward the concrete in the development of themes. On the whole,
this test, like that of th.e development of the topics for exposition, is
of somewhat too general a character to bring out individual differ-
ences in regard to those activities in which the subjects most resemble
each other by reason of their previous training and of the tendencies
which lead to the choice of this training.
The discriminations of synonyms by members of the Junior class
were more uneven in quality ; but the presence of a considerable num-
ber of excellent discriminations tended to bring the mean value for
the Junior students very nearly to that of the more advanced students.
386
SHARP
VI. Tastes. (Esthetic Tests.)
The Art, Music and Literary tests, which may be roughly classed
as Esthetic tests, gave the results noted in Table XIX.
Tabi,E XIX.
Art Tests.
Music Tests.
iviTERARY Tests.
a
o
Number
named in five
minutes.
ill
U d; $3
IP
§3
Percentages of cor-
rect answers as to
compositions by given
Composers.
Percentages of correct
answers.
0.1
<
■I
Si
3 to
<
<
1
is
11
feo
Sources of
given poetic
selections.
B.
54
21
18
16
90
62.5
62.5
25
G.
51
18
7
8
50
37-5
50.0
50
V.M.
43
15
12
II
40
87.5
62.5
50
W.M.
8
7
9
3
30
62.5
25.0
0
E. R.
ID
2
7
9
20
50.0
62.5
50
L. R.
55
12
9
9
50
62.5
50.0
25
T.
63
37
14
25
100
75-0
87.5
75
The comparative results for the different subjects are more clearly
shown in Table XX, in which the subjects are classified into the
groups into which the numerical results in Table XIX seem to
make them naturally to fall. The second part of Table XX sum-
marizes for each subject the positions, according to groups, occupied
throughout the tests, and gives also the final order of the subjects
considering the aesthetic tests as a whole.
If it is assumed, as has been done in these tests, that a subject's
knowledge of the best works and workers in the fine arts is some
criterion of his appreciation of these arts, and if it is further assumed
with Professor Kiilpe that "the aesthetic feeling originates in a
relation of the perceived impression to the reproduction which it ex-
cites ^'''' i. e., that an impression which has a considerable, but not in-
tense, degree of effectiveness for reproduction produces pleasure, it
is interesting to note the final order of subjects, as seen in Table
XX, in comparison with the order of subjects in regard to the aver-
age number of objects called up by association with given blots of
ink. The similarity of order in this test and in that of blots is suffi-
cient to call for remark. V. M. (2), G. (5), E. R. (6) and W. M. (7)
remain the same in both ; but while the order of B.^ L. R.y and T.
was (i), (3) and (4) respectively for blots, it became (3), (4) and (i)
in the later test. The reason for this difference in order is not clear.
The questions in regard to favorite reading, preference for theater
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY.
387
•dnojo
manoa
N
•dnojo
c M CO fO tJ- f^
•dnojQ
pnoD3S
g CO Tj- rj- »0 "* »0
■dnojo
05
g Tt- M -* M 00
•japao
XBug pnB
^ ^ ^ ^
to« li^d <N> t^^ vdW 4t4 mH
•dnoJO
qrjjnod
^ ^
^ ^
0
U
fid
6 ^ ^
^ i. "i
w d w
^ > ^
p^' ^^ p^'
W pq t4
6 i
^ 6
p^* p^' p^
^^ w w
^ > >
M « d
ft
3
2
0
1
fa
>
6
H H «
>
> H H
KH
M
■|i'
388 SHARP :
or opera, fondness for reflective games, etc., produced answers which,
in several cases, threw light upon changes in the grouping of the sub-
jects in the three different classes of aesthetic tests. It is unnecessary
to cite the answers here ; it is enough to state that the questions
proved to be worth asking.
The art tests with photographs and the music tests which were
given to the Juniors showed, as a result, a uniformly lower percentage
of correct answers in both cases. The individual differences were of
slightly smaller range but were fairly constant throughout the tests. ^
§ 6. Conclusion.
It is not our intention to print in this place a complete sum-
mary of the results of all experiments for the different indi-
viduals. Such a summary, has, of course, been made by us;
but, in the first place, it leaves too many gaps to allow a definite
differentiation of each individual from all the others, owing
largely to the limited bounds within which the enquiry was
purposely confined, while, secondly, we have considered it best
that the reader, if he will, shall make such a summary for him-
self, and in this way form his estimate of the value of the tests.
Our aim was principally to investigate the merit of a general
method: to find the value for Individual Psychology of experi-
mentation applied to the more complex mental activities, as
well as the practicability of certain specific tests, many of which
had been suggested by the advocates of such experimentation.
It will be remembered that we noted above two main problems
of Individual Psychology; the first problem having reference
mainly to variaidons themselves, that is, to the way in which
psychical processes vary in different individuals, and according
to classes of individuals; the second, to the relations among
variations. The latter, to be sure, includes the question how
individuals varj^ in regard to psychical processes, but it goes
on further to ask how these individual variations are related to
each other, when the whole range of mental processes is con-
sidered. It is this part of the problem to which attention has
been directed in the present investigation, by means of the third
method mentioned in the preliminary discussion, i. e., the
' method of tests. '
* A remark should be made in regard to the absence of detailed discussion of re-
sults from the Junior students. The purpose in view when the tests were first
given to the Juniors was to compare results from the class as a whole with the
general results from the advanced students. Since, however, the exclusive use of
the collective method restricted the number of tests which could be given to the
Juniors, and the occasional absence of different individual members of the class
caused incompleteness in the tests that were given, it was impossible to compare,
step by step, the variations as seen in the advanced students with those observed in
the Juniors. The comparison, therefore, could be made only in a general way.
This comparison has, nevertheless, been found to be useful, and a careful working
over of all the results convinces us that the idea upon which it was based was well
warranted. Had the scope of the testing been somewhat more extended, results of
interest and importance could, we believe, have been obtained.
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY. 389
The results, we believe, have shown that, while a large pro-
portion of the tests require intrinsic modification, or a more
rigid control of conditions, others have really given such in-
formation as the Individual Psychologist seeks. Thus the
tests for Imagination proved to be important as forming a basis
for a general classification of the individuals, according to
fairly definite types; and results from other tests gave some
force of confirmation to this classification, as e. g., the test on
Observation by description of pictures. In general, however,
a lack of correspondences in the individual differences observed
in the various tests was quite as noticeable as their presence.
The total change in the order of subjects in the memory of
single short series of words and in the recapitulation of the
words of seven short series, the fact that those subjects who
showed best observation of colors were not the best visualizers,
are instances of this lack of correspondence, of which many
others could be cited. Whether the fact indicates a relative
independence of the particular mental activities under investi-
gation, or is due simply to superficiality of testing, can hardly
be decided. While, however, we do not reject the latter pos-
sibility, we incline to the belief that the former hypothesis is
in a large proportion of cases the more correct.
But little result for morphological psychology can be obtained
from studies of the nature of the above investigation. So
many part-processes are involved in the complex activities,
and the manner of their variation is so indefinite, that it is sel-
dom possible to tell with certainty what part of the total result
is due to any particular component. It is doubtful if even the
most rigorous and exhaustive analysis of test-results would
yield information of importance as regards the structure of
mind. At all events, there is not the slightest reason to desert
current laboratory methods for the ' method of tests. '
The tests employed, considered as a whole, cannot be said
to yield decisive results for Individual Psychology if applied
once only to individuals of the same class. This statement the
above discussion of tests seems perfectly to warrant. Series
of such tests are necessary in order to show constant individual
characteristics. The tests, to be sure, (i) if enlarged in
extent to cover a wider range of activities, might be useful
for roughly classifying a large number of individuals of very
different training, occupation, etc. , provided that the greatest
care were taken that the conditions in the case of each in-
dividual should be as favorable as possible. And, on the
other hand, (2) certain groups of tests, especially selected
for a particular purpose, and applied, once each in series,
to a limited number of individuals, might yield valuable in-
formation on points which particular circumstances rendered
390 SHARP :
of practical importance. As engineers, pilots, and others who
have to act upon information from colored signals, are roughly-
tested for color blindness, so other classes might often profit-
ably be submitted to a psychological testing of those higher
activities which are especially involved in their respective lines
of duty.
All this, however, is largely beside the point ; much prelim-
inary work must be done before such special investigations can
be of any great worth. This appears plainly from the present
investigation where the positive results have been wholly in-
commensurate with the labor required for the devising of tests
and evaluation of results. In the present state of the science
of Individual Psychology, there can be little doubt that the
method of procedure employed by M. Binet is the one most
productive of fruitful results : that, namely, of selecting tests,
and applying them to a number of individuals and classes of
individuals with a view of discovering the chief individual
differences in the mental activities to which appeal is made.
To this should be added, however, an exhaustive study of
the results from series of similar tests given to a small number
of individuals at different times and in varying circumstances,
in order to discover how constant the differences are, and how
much of the variation may be due to changes in mental and
physical condition, environment, etc. When this procedure
has been followed for tests that cover all the principal psychical
activities, then the investigation of limited groups of individuals
for the purpose of characterizing them in respect to their men-
tal differences may be undertaken with hope of easy and ac-
curate results. The previous study will have made clear the
many conditions involved, and the best way of modifying the
' test method ' to suit varying circumstances.
In fine, we concur with Mm. Binet and Henri in believing
that individual psychical differences should be sought for in
the complex rather than in the elementary processes of mind,
and that the test method is the most workable one that has yet
been proposed for investigating these processes. The theory
of the German psychologists, who hold that the simplest mental
processes are those to which the investigator should look for a
clue to all the psychical differences existing among individuals,
we believe would be productive of small or, at any rate, of
comparatively unimportant results. Whether the anthropo-
metrical tests so largely used by American workers in this
field of psychology will lead to any such correlation of these
traits with those of a purely psychical character as has been
suggested by some pursuing the inquiry, is a question which
must be left for the future to decide. No adequate data are as
yet at hand, and (as has been stated above) the American
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOI.OGY. 39 1
workers have formulated no explicit theory of Individual
Psychology. The method here outlined should (and may),
however, be rendered more exact by modifications in accord-
ance with the procedure of the German investigators of
Individual Psychology. A combination of the principal
characteristics of the two methods is, then, it seems to us, best
calculated for the attainment of satisfactory results.
PAIN AND STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS OF 1,507
SCHOOL CHILDREN IN SAGINAW, MICHIGAN.
By Ada Carman, Washington, D. C.
These measurements of least sensibility to pain, together
with those of greatest strength, were made on 1,507 public
school children in Saginaw, Michigan, through the permission
and courtesy of Mr. A. S. Whitney, school Superintendent.
The instruments used in these experiments were a temple
algometer and a hand dynamometer.
The temple algometer was designed by Arthur MacDonald,
specialist in the U. S. Bureau of Education, and consists of a
brass cylinder, with a steel rod running through one of the ends
of the cylinder. This rod is attached to a spring and the cylin-
der is provided with scale and marker. The scale is graduated
from o to 4,000 grammes. A brass disk 15 millimeters in di-
ameter, at the end of the rod, is covered with flannel, so as to
exclude the feeling of the metal when pressed against the
skin.^
The disk is pressed against the temporal muscle, and as soon
as the subject reports the pressure to be in the least disagree-
able the amount is read from the scale. The purpose is to ap-
proximate as near as possible to the threshold of pain.
The Collin dynamometer was used.
Before the experiments were made the pupil answered the
following questions in writing :
Name,
Age,
Sex,
Order of birth, ist, 2d, or later born,
Color of hair,
Color of eyes,
Right or left handed.
Nationality of father and mother.
Education of father and mother,
Occupation of father and mother.
When the pupil could not answer any of the questions he
was helped by his teacher or by the experimenter. At least
twenty -five per cent, did not know the color of their hair, and
at least fifty per cent, did not know the color of their eyes.
1 Described and illustrated in the Psychological Review, July, 1898.
PAIN AND STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS.
393
Most of the children were of foreign parentage of the labor-
ing classes, by which is meant artisans and unskilled laborers.
The tables give in grammes the least sensibility to pain by
pressure on the temporal muscle, and in kilogrammes the
greatest strength by grasp of hand.
Tabi,e I.
Boys.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Left
Temple-
Averages.
Right Hand.
Left Hand.
Ages.
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
lO
96
2253
219I
16
14
II
104
2359
2337
19
15
12
123
2359
2337
21
18
13
152
2447
2432
22
20
14
lOI
2629
2523
26
23
15
79
2738
2656
30
27
16
53
2824
2700
35
30
17
33
3036
3023
40
35
18
15
3267
3077
42
38
10-18
756
2493
2466
24
21
Table II.
Girls.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Temple.
Left
Temple.
Right Hand.
Left Hand.
Ages.
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
10
86
1874
1827
II
10
II
102
2107
1983
13
12
12
132
1873
1788
15
14
13
107
2017
1997
18
16
14
84
1955
I961
20
17
15
82
2218
2165
21
18
16
66
2433
2283
21
18
'Z
48
2360
2330
23
22
18
25
2478
2374
24
22
19
19
2937
2705
23
20
10-19
751
2097
2030
17
-16
Journal— 5
;94
CARMAN :
TABI.E III.
First born — Boys.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Left
Temple.
Right Hand.
Left Hand.
Ages,
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
lO
20
2180
2178
15
12
II
40
2420
2363
18
16
12
31
2421
2390
21
18
13
55
2537
2461
22
20
14
25
2390
2208
27
23
15
23
2354 '
2189
26
16
20
2845
2603
38
33
17
8
3288
3163
43
37
18
4
,3575
3275
40
37
10-18
226
2506
2405
24
21
Table IV.
First born — Girls.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Temple.
Left
Temple.
.Right Hand.
Left Hand.
Ages.
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
10
29
2167
2193
II
10
II
21
2136
2133
13
12
12
36
1956
1815
15
14
13
29
2174
2140
18
16
14
24
1973
1985
20
16
15
23
2203
1963
22
19
16
24
2369
2169
20
17
17
18
2344
2386
23
21
18
7
2236
2086
20
20
19
4
2825
3125
22
19
10-19
215
2163
2096
17
16
Table V.
Second born — Boys.
Nearest
Ages.
No. of
Persons.
Right
Temple.
Averages.
Left
Temple.
Averages.
Right Hand.
Averages.
Left Hand.
Averages.
10
II
12
13
14
\l
17
j8
28
15
28
31
28
15
15
4
2102
2520
2218
2442
2702
3000
2723
3050
3213
2009
2570
2115
2490
2613
2847
2708
3500
3113
16
18
21
23
25
31
^8
40
14
16
19
21
23
27
28
35
33
10-18
172
2519
2489
24
21
PAIN AND STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS.
395
Tabi,e VI.
Second born — Girls.
Nearest
Ages,
No. of
Persons.
Right
Temple.
Averages.
I.eft
Temple.
Averages.
Right Hand.
Averages.
Left Hand.
Averages.
lO
11
13
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
28
35
32
24
18
16
9
2
6
1746
2120
1652
1948
2194
2258
2572
2183
3225
3100
1714
1929
1633
2023
2142
2289
2397
22II
3150
2717
II
13
15
17
20
23
20
21
28
21
10
II
13
15
17
19
19
22
21
21
10-19
189
2069
2008
17
15
Tabi^e VII.
Later born — Boys.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Temple.
I.eft
Temple.
Right Hand.
Iveft Hand.
Ages.
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
10
48
2372
2302
16
14
II
49
2260
2245
18
15
12
64
2374
2409
20
17
13
66
2375
2381
23
20
14
48
2711
2635
26
23
15
41
2857
2849
30
25
16
18
2881
2803
33
29
17
17
2912
2732
39
35
18
7
312I
2943
45
42
10-18
358
2527
2493
24
21
TABI.E VIII.
Later born — Girls.
Nearest
No. of
Right
Temple.
Iveft
Temple.
Right Hand.
I.eft Hand.
Ages.
Persons.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
Averages.
10
29
1703
1534
II
II
11
46
2004
1957
13
12
12
64
1938
1843
15
13
13
54
1908
18
16
14
42
1843
1869
19
17
15
40
2208
2221
20
17
16
26
2406
2317
21
19
17
21
2498
2333
24
23
18
16
2491
2403
25
24
19
9
2878
25II
24
21
10-19
347
2080
1998
18
16
396
CARMAN :
Taking the tables of boys we find (Table I) that the sensi-
bility to pain decreases as age increases, except at the age of
twelve. The strength of grasp shows a regular increase. The
left temple is more sensitive than the right temple.
Sensitiveness to pain decreases in order of birth (Tables III
— VIII), first born boys being more sensitive than second
born, and second born more sensitive than those of later birth.
The strength of grasp is the same.
Divided into light and dark, based on color of eyes and hair,
the boys with light eyes and hair are less sensitive and less
strong than those with dark eyes and hair.
Ages.
No. of
Persons.
Average Sensibility.
Average Strength
of Grasp.
Right
Temple.
I.eft
Temple.
Right
Hand.
Iveft
Hand.
Dark,
Ught,
ia-18
ia-18
356
400
2462
2570
2408
2518
25
23
22
20
Of the 756 boys, 5 per cent, were left-handed, with an aver-
age of
Right Temple,
2439
Iveft Temple.
2359
Right Hand.
21
I.eft Hand.
19
Boys reported by their teachers as bright were more sensi-
tive than those reported as dull, and while stronger in the right
hand, were weaker in the left hand than the dull.
Average Sensibility.
Average Strength of Grasp.
Right
Temple.
Left
Temple.
Right Hand.
I.eft Hand.
Bright,
Dull,
2158
2256
2152
2217
21
20
17
18
Those reported as being especially dull in mathematics were
more sensitive on the right temple than on the left temple, with
an average sensibility of 2,015 on the right temple and 2,281
on the left temple. Strength of grasp, right hand 21, left
hand 18.
All averages as to brightness and dullness are based on ages
10-14 inclusive, number of pupils 576.
With the girls (Table II) the decrease of sensibility to pain
as age increases is not so regular as with the boys, though
there is a general decrease. As with the boys the left temple
is more sensitive than the right.
The first-bom girls show less sensibility to pain than second-
PAIN AND STRENGTH MKASUREMKNTS .
397
born ; later born less than second-born on left temple, but more
on right temple (Tables IV, VI, VIII,). The strength of
grasp varies.
Girls with light hair and blue or gray eyes are less sensitive
to pain on left temple, and less strong than girls with dark hair
and dark eyes. On right temple they are more sensitive than
the dark.
Ages.
No, of
Persons.
Average Sensibility.
Average Strength
ofGrasp.
Right
Temple.
Left
Temple.
Right
Hand.
Left
Hand.
Dark,
Ught,
10-19
10-19
402
349
2113
2084
1840
2022
18
17
16
15
Of the 751 girls 3.6 per cent, were left-handed, with an aver-
age of
Right Temple. Left Temple. Right Hand, Left Hand.
1922 1952 21 19
Girls reported as bright were more sensitive and stronger
than those reported as dull.
Average Sensibility.
Average Strength of Grasp.
Right
Temple.
Left
Temple.
Right Hand.
Left Hand.
Bright,
Dull,
1737
2094
1736
1868
16
13
13
12
Those reported as being especially dull in mathematics were
more sensitive on the right temple than on the left, with an
average sensibility of 1,688 on the right and 1,763 on the left.
Strength of grasp, right hand 14, left hand 13.
Averages as to brightness and dullness are based on ages
10-14 inclusive, number of pupils being 571.
As a summary we give the following :
With both boys and girls sensitiveness to pain decreases as
age increases.
The left temple is more sensitive than the right temple.
Girls are more sensitive and weaker at all ages than boys.
In general, sensitiveness to pain decreases in order of birth,
the exception being that later born girls are slightly more sen-
sitive on the right temple than are the second bom. Were the
number of second born girls larger this exception might not
occur. Strength of grasp remains the same with boys, while
it varies with girls.
398 CARMAN :
Boys with light hair and eyes are less sensitive and less
strong than boys with dark hair and eyes. Girls with light
hair and eyes are less sensitive on the left temple, but more
sensitive on the right temple than girls with dark hair and
eyes. They are also less strong.
Bright boys and girls are more sensitive to pain than dull
boys, and in general are stronger.
Boys and girls especially dull in mathematics are more sensi-
tive on the right temple than on the left temple.
SUGGESTIONS TOWARD A LABORATORY COURSE
IN COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
By Linus W. Kwne, Ph. D.
"In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the ex-
ercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the
outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychologi-
cal scale." — C. Lloyd Morgan.
" But why should we bind ourselves by a hard and fast rule. . . ?
Is it not the truth at which we wish to get? For myself, I am becom-
ing more and more skeptical as to the validity of simple explanations
for the manifestation of animal life whether physical or psychical." —
Wesley Mills.
The following experiments in comparative psychology were
devised to fill a small part of the work offered at Clark Univer-
sity in the Psychological Practicum.^
I have been guided by two principles in selecting animals for
experimentation: (i) general distribution of the species; (2)
an animal little influenced by captivity and permitting a variety
of experiments of a psychological value.
The animals thus selected are regarded as typal, e. ^., earth
worms of vermes, slugs of mollusca. A careful study of the
instincts, dominant traits and habits of an animal as expressed
in its free life — in brief its natural history should precede as
far as possible any experimental study. Procedure in the lat-
ter case, i. e., by the experimental method, must of necessity
be largely controlled by the knowledge gained through the
former, i. <?., by the natural method. In setting any task for
an animal to learn and perform, two questions should be asked:
(i) Does it appeal to some strong instinct ? (2) Is it adapted
to the animal's range of customary activities?
The adage, "Make haste slowly," is highly applicable to
the present jBeld of scientific work, not only in working with
the animals, the manual execution, but especially in the matter
of drawing inferences and interpreting the facts.
The work as a whole, on account of its newness, must be
regarded as tentative. And notwithstanding the fact that
the problems and experiments here outlined have been largely
1 Experiments on Arthropoda (daphnia, crayfish, bees, ants, and
wasps), Amphibia (frog, newt), Reptilia (lizard, turtle), and Canidae
(dog) are omitted from this paper for the reason that many of them are
yet untested or are in the process of making.
400 KLINK :
selected from the works of the foremost scientists in their re-
spective fields, and further that I have retested their ' ' work-
ableness" in many cases from the standpoint of psychology,
they still belong to the suggestive stage and must remain such
until they are extensively tested — not merely discussed — by
student and teacher in a number of laboratories.
The literature given here, although by no means exhaustive,
contains in every case matter pertinent to the subject. The
aim is to acquaint the learner with a few of the best works in
the field, leaving the minor ones to his own industry.
The hope that the present outline will awaken a wider
interest and enlist a larger co-operation in testing the value
of the methods here set forth is my only justification for pre-
senting this paper.
The nature of this work has necessarily put me under obliga-
tions to many persons.
For the greater part of the material itself I am indebted to
those from whose works I have drawn and to whom I make
acknowledgments in the references accompanying the experi-
ments. For the original plan of the work, and for seeing that
ample laboratory material was provided me, together with much
assistance in the arrangement of the subject matter of this paper,
I make grateful acknowledgments to Dr. Edmund C. Sanford.
I am thankful to President Hall for the loan of books from
his library, and for the inspiration received from his hearty
approval of the work itself.
To Dr. C. B. Davenport, of Harvard University, I feel greatly
indebted, not only for the several experiments selected from
his published works, and citations to literature, but also for
personal suggestions and his keen interest in the purposes of
the work.
Amoeba.
The chief psychological interest in Amoeba is the variety of
activities that it is able to perform with an apparently undifier-
entiated structure. It feeds, it gets rid of waste material, it
reacts to stimuli, it moves from place to place, and it reproduces
b}^ division.
The student should observe carefully to what stimuli it ap-
pears responsive, and especially any cases of apparent selective
activity in the taking of food, and in the latter case should
consider whether or not the act in question requires a psychical
explanation.
Probably^ the simplest and surest method of securing Amoeba
^Behla, Robert: Die Amoben, inbesondere von Parasitaren und
culturellen Standpunkt. Berlin, 1898.
This excellent little monograph, besides containing a bibliography
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 4OI
is from green grasses taken from streams and ponds. Pnt a
small handful of such green material in a large evaporating
dish, and barely cover it with tap water. Amoeba may be found
at once. I get better results by waiting three or four weeks,
replacing in the meantime the evaporated water.
Such material answers every purpose for observing the life
processes of the Amoeba. By permitting the glass slide to dry
up by evaporation Amoeba's reaction to desiccation may be
observed.
It is convenient^ to rest the four corners of the cover slip
on small bits of glass of uniform thickness cemented together,
or better still on four wax feet which admit, by pressure, of
regulating the space between cover slip and slide — say 1% mm.
apart.
VORTlCEIvI^A.
The qualities of this infusoria that lead to its selection for
study here are : first the easy observation of the same individ-
ual for a considerable period of time, due to its permanent
attachment ; second, the variety and clear cut character of its
activities and the fact that they are performed in a compara-
tively short cycle ; and third, the fundamental and suggestive
character of these activities, viz. : contraction of stalk, move-
ments of cilia, food-taking, reproduction, etc.
Place in a medium size glass jar a bunch of grass blades
gathered from a running stream, or pond ; cover with water.
Vorticella may be found in abundance on the decaying grass
within a week or ten days. They will ' * hold their own ' ' in the
and descriptive account of Amoeba in the interests of medicine, treats
historically of the many attempts to obtain a pure culture of Amoeba.
No one method is as yet satisfactory. Dr. Behla, himself, recommends
the following : 25 grs. of flaxseed stalks, placed in a liter of water 48
hours. Filter, and to the filtrate add a 1% solution of agar and sodium
carbonate until the solution becomes alkaline. Amoeba Spinosa devel-
ops in large quantities. Ogata, according to Behla, put into a large
evaporating dish, partly filled with water, green grass taken from an
open canal. It proved to contain Amoeba and Infusoria. He put a
few drops of this water into a test tube, which was filled with the fol-
lowing nourishing solution kept in a sterilized vessel : a filtered solu-
tion of 50CC of tap water containing 2.5% grape sugar. To separate the
infusoria from the bacteria he dipped into the the test tube capillary
tubes 10-20 cm. long and 0.4-0.6 mm. in diameter filling them with the
culture medium. Sealed the ends in a flame. The entire length of
the tube was examined under a microscope and the region exception-
ally plentiful in Amoeba, and freed from other forms, was marked and
broken off.
^ Those who may desire to study Amoeba's reactions to a single
stimulus, e. g., light, temperature or chemical, should consult Ver-
worn's Psycho-Physiologische Protisten-Studien, Jena, 1889 ; J. Loeb's
Der Heliotropismus der Thiere, pp. 118, Wiirzburg, 1890; and Daven-
port's Experimental Morphology, Vol. I, pp. 155-218.
402 KUNE :
aquarium for several weeks, after which they succumb to other
forms.
Their form ^ and structure ^ are described in manuals of
zoology.
Select one in a quiescent state, and by using magnification
from 375 to 425 diameters, draw the following structures :
calyx (the bell shaped body), the peristomal lip or lid to the
calyx ; the stalk, and ribbon like contractile tissue (draw these
contracted and extended), the contractile vesicle and band like
nucleus.
Activities. I. Vegetative. Do you discover any rhythm
in the contraction of the vesicle? Does the stalk contract
when the calyx and cilia ^ come in contact with any rigid,
resisting, unmanageable object, or is it indifferent to some,
while it avoids others ; — i. e. , does it seem to distinguish be-
tween harmful and harmless objects?
Put Vorticella in a continuous current of distilled water
brought from a reservoir by means of a glass syphon, drawn to
a capillary point, placed at one side of the cover-slip and a
filter-paper drip applied to the other side. Is there any uni-
formity in Vorticella' s reactions to the current?* Put yeast ^
grains into the reservoir — note behavior toward them — try very
fine pulverized chalk, salts of barium, pepsin. Do you find
any uniformity in Vorticella' s reaction toward these substances.
Are the cilia selective in the matter of food getting, * or do
they admit all sorts of material indifferently at one time and
reject all food material whatever, at other times, owing, perhaps,
in the latter case to satisfied hunger?
II. Reproductive. Reproduction in Vorticella may take
place by fission or by gemmation. The former process may
frequently be jseen, the latter less frequently.
The first signs of multiplication by fission may be seen in the
calyx taking on a roundish form, the longitudinal axis shorten-
ing. Follow and note all the changes from this stage on till
complete division takes place. Note preparations made by
the daughter Vorticella previous to its leaving the mother stalk.
Do you observe anything that indicates a difference in the sensi-
tivity on different parts of the calyx ?
^Kent, Saville: Manual of Infusoria, p. 675.
2 Nicholson, H. A. : A Manual of Zoology, p. 100.
^ Hodge and Aikens : Am. Jour, of Psychology, Vol. VI, No. 4.
* Kline, L. W. : Am. Jour, of Psychology, 1899, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 260.
^Commercial yeast may be used — should be dissolved in sterilized
water.
•Weir, James : The Dawn of Reason, N. Y., 1899, p. 8.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOI.OGY. 403
Paramecia.
This hardy, prolific, and swiftly moving infusoria readily
responds to a wide range of primitive stimuli, such as gravity,
light, contact, temperature and chemical substances. Observa-
tions of the responses of such a one celled organism to this
varid group of stimuli must be both interesting and instructive
to the psychologists.
Paramecia occur in abundance in stagnant water contain-
ing decaying vegetable matter. ^ Two or three weeks before they
are needed, put hay or grass in a jar of water, and keep in a
warm room. In such a jar they may be kept for indefinite
periods in immense numbers. To prevent the paramecia on
the slide from moving too rapidly, it is advisable to put them
in a 2.5% solution of gelatine in water. Study first with the
low power, then with the high.
The following structures should be made out : the position
and shape of the buccal cavity, nucleus, contracting vacuoles,
non-contracting vacuoles, cilia, and trichocysts.
Movemerits of Cilia.^ Remove a large number of Paramecia
from the culture medium by means of a pipette on to a glass
slide. Cover the preparation with a cover glass supported by
glass rollers of capillary fineness and of uniform thichiess.
Thrust under the cover slip a couple of pieces of fine capil-
lary glass tubing.* After the Paramecia begin to collect
along these glass tubes as well as the glass rollers, run carmine
water under the cover glass ; select a quiet individual and
observe how the carmine grains pass by it. Indicate by arrows
placed outside the periphery of your drawing the direction of
movement of the carmine. What do you infer concerning the
movement of the cilia ? Do the grains whirl as much about a
moving individual as about a quiet one ? Can you explain?*
Geotaxis. The effect that gravity ^ has in determining the
verticality of the body and thereby determining the direction
* Kent, Saville : A Manual of the Infusoria. Vol. II, pp. 483-488.
PI. 26, Figs. 28-30.
^Jennings, H. S. : Reactions of Ciliate Infusoria. Jour. Phys.,
1897, Vol. XXI, p. 303.
'I/udloff in studying the motions of the cilia in electrotaxis con-
fined the animals in a thick gelatine solution. Jennings considered
their motion in such a medium as abnormal and recommends water
containing carmine grains.
* Taken from Davenport's outline of requirements in zoology for use
in preparing students for Harvard University.
^ Verworn, Max : Ueber die Fiihigkeit der Zelle, activ ihr specifisches
Gewicht zu verandern. Pfliiger's Archiv, Vol. LIU, 1892, pp. 140-155.
See also by the same author : Psycho-Physiologische Protisten-Stu-
dien, pp. 121-122.
404 KLINE :
of locomotion is termed geotaxis.^ Creatures whose axial
orientation and consequent locomotion are perceptibly influenced
by this force are geotactic.^
(a). Fill half full with the culture medium of Paramecia
a glass tube i>^ cm. in diameter and 60 cm. in length. Keep
the tube vertical and in uniform temperature and light — not
direct sunlight. After a few hours the organisms will be found
at and near the surface of the water.
(b). Fill the remaining half of the tube with hydrant water,
and, keeping it vertical as before, note the results. Twelve or
fifteen hours later they may be found 3 to 6 cm. from the sur-
face of the water (see chemotaxis). Turn the tube bottom
side up and observe the time for complete migration to the
upper* end.'*
A rough and ready demonstration of this geotactic response
may be found by filling a test tube nearly full of the culture
medium. To prevent the free end becoming richer in oxygen,
seal with an impermeable plug of wax or a rubber stopper.
Do not expose the tube to direct sunlight. For the theoretical
interpretations of the geotactic responses the student is referred
to the works of Verworn, p. 141 ; Jensen, pp. 462-476 ; Dav-
enport, pp. 122-124. (See literature given below.)
Chemotaxis. (a). Remove a large number oif Paramecia
from their culture medium by means of a pipette on to a glass
slide. Drop into their midst a small bit of decaying vegetable
or animal material. Cover the preparation with a cover glass
supported by capillary glass rollers of uniform thickness. Note
the behavior of Paramecia toward the decaying material.
(b). Introduce under the cover glass, b}' means of a pipette
drawn to capillary fineness, rancid oils, e. f^., olive oil, cod-liver
oil. Use also a drop of water from putrefying meat, beef ex-
^ Jensen, Paul: Ueber den Geotropismus niederer Organismen.
Pfluger's Archiv, 1892, Vol. LIU, pp. 428-480.
2 Davenport. C. B. : Experimental Morphology Vol. I, pp. 112-125.
* Advantage may be taken of the negative geotactic activity of Par-
amecia for securing large numbers in a small quantity of water. It
also serves as a means for washing: out the water in which they were
bred.
*Miss Piatt (The Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIII, No. 385, Jan., 1899,) and
Dr. Jennings (Amer. Jour, of Phys., Vol. II, 1899,) report that para-
mecia in this country are not so markedly geotactic as those used by
European investigators. During the fall and early winter of '98 I
brought large numbers into small volumes of water by taking advan-
tage of the geotactic responses which they then so readily displayed.
In April, '99, I had an occasion to repeat the process. My efforts
failed. The paramecia remained scattered throughout the length of
the tubes for several days. Both spring and fall cultures were of the
same species and reared in similar mediums.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 405
tract, etc. It is best to use a fresh lot of Paramecia for each
new substance.
(c). The following salts, acids, and alkalies were used by
Dr. Jennings.^
Substance. Wk. Sol. Stg. Sol. Substance. Wk. Sol. Stg. Sol.
Copper Sulphate -\- {^) — Sodium chloride — —
Sulphuric acid -j- — Sodium carbonate — —
Hydrochloric acid -j- — Sodium bicarbonate — —
Acetic acid + — Potassium hydroxide — —
Nitric acid -j- — Sodium hydroxide — —
Tannic acid -\- — Potassium bromate — —
Mercuric chloride -f- —
^H- = positive and — = negative chemotaxis.
Solutions of H2 SO4 of the following strengths give positive
chemotactic reactions: tt^tt^^ Wtfif^. 4innr%> ¥TrVir%,
(d). Repeat experiment (b) under geotaxis and note that
after they have gathered at the surface they recede or fall
from 3 to 6 cm. from the surface. Can you explain ?
(e). Repeat (a) using a bit of filter paper or a small piece
of linen fibre. After they have collected in large numbers
about these objects, withdraw by means of a capillary pipette
a drop of water from within the area to which the Paramecia
are confined. Inject this drop beneath the cover glass of a
second preparation in which Paramecia are uniformly dis-
tributed. The behavior of Paramecia to this new fluid should
be very carefully observed. Their behavior under conditions
in experiments (d) and (e) is now believed to be due to the
presence of CO 2 excreted in the respiratory process of the
organisms. Jennings has shown that they are attracted by
weak concentrations of CO2 and repelled by strong.^ This
fact greatly complicates and oftentimes vitiates experiments in
chemotaxis with these animals.
Thigmotaxis. The stimulus offered by mere contact with a
solid body is termed thigmotaxis. Animals that have a ten-
dency to cling to, or to move along solid bodies are thigmotactic.
Bits of sponge, linen, cotton, or cloth fibre, filter paper or bits of
glass may be employed to demonstrate thigmotactic activities
of Paramecia. These substances should be sterilized before
using. The first gathering of Paramecia about such inert,
insoluble bodies is thigmotaxis, but experiments (d) and (e)
1 Jennings, H. S. : Loc. cit., pp. 258-322.
^For a very satisfactory exposition of this subject, together with
tests for detecting the presence of CO2, see the paper by Dr. Jennings
already referred to. The same author has given an entirely new and
far more satisfactory explanation of positive chemotaxis in a more
recent study of Paramecia. See Am. Jour. Phys., Vol. II, May, 1899.
4o6 KI.INE :
under chemotaxis suggest that a continuation of the gathering
in one place is due to the presence of CO 2 excreted. Dr. Jen-
nings ^ concludes that ' ' the reactions which play the chief part
in the normal life of Paramecia are 7iegative geotaxis, positive
ihigmotaxis, and positive cheviotaxis toward carbon dioxide.''
This is very likely true and at first it might appear superfluous —
at least for psychology — to investigate their reactions to any
other kind of stimulation. Temperature, however, stands in
such vital relations with life in general, necessitating through
its frequent and wide variations, ever new adjustments, that it
seems advisable to give a method of testing the reaction of
Paramecia to temperature.
Thermotaxis. Mendelssohn^ has demonstrated that Para-
mecia are negatively thermotactic to temperatures above and
below 24°-28° C, and are positively thermotatic to temperatures
within and including these limits,^ i. e., 24°-28° C is their opti-
mum.^
An apparatus yielding results quite satisfactory for demonstra-
tional purposes may be constructed on the following plan : ( i ) .
A wooden frame — consisting of two uprights 16 inches long and
6 inches apart joined at the top by a cross beam and firmly
joined to a wooden foot about i foot square; (^2) a glass tube
6 inches long and y^ inches in diameter with a ^ inch hole at
its middle point. Close the endsof the tube with cork stoppers
containing a ^ inch hole bored near the periphery. Insert the
stoppers in the tube so that their holes will be as near the bot-
tom of the tube as possible ; (3) afiix, transversely, on the
inside of each upright, ten inches above the foot, a ^ inch lead
pipe one end of which carries a coil of two turns, of diameter
barely sufficient to admit the glass tube.
The glass tube may also carry near its middle portion a
movable pipe of one coil. Differences of temperature may now
ijennings, H. S. : Loc. cit., p. 321.
2 Mendelssohn, M.: Archiv f. d. ges. Physiologie, Vol. LX, pp. 1-27.
^ His apparatus was simple and excellent. It consisted of a brass
plate 20 cm. x 6 cm. and 4 mm. thick, supported in a horizontal plane.
To its under surface was attached, transversely, tubes through which
hot or cold water was run at pleasure from a reservoir elevated above
the plane of the brass plate. In the middle of the plate a space 10
cm. X 2 cm. and 2 mm. was cut out and into which a glass or ebonite
trough was fitted. Small thermometers with bulbs at right angles to
their stems were placed in the plane of the trough and served to
measure the temperature at any point. Desired differences of tem-
perature between any two points along the trough were secured by
means of water of different temperatures running through the trans-
verse tubes.
■* Thermotactic axis-orientation is a reaction to the stimulus created
by the difference of temperature between the anterior and posterior
ends of an organism. See discussions by Davenport and Mendelssohn.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 407
be secured according to Mendelssohn's method (see note p. 406),
or, if connection with hydrant faucets is possible, interpose be
tween the faucets and the lead pipes two metal worms. By
applying heat to one, and packing ice around the other, con-
tinuous streams of hot and cold water may be secured.
The following rough method readily shows the thermotaxis
of Paramecia : Build a trough of wax on a glass slide 6^ x
I ^ inches. Fill the wax trough with * * Paramecia water. ' '
Place the slide on two flat glass dishes juxtaposed. In one
keep hot water, in the other ice. Let the hot water and ice
barely touch the under surface of the glass slide. The move-
ments of Paramecia may be followed with a hand lens.
(a). By means of geotaxis secure a large number of Para-
mecia in a small quantity of water. Pour into the glass tube
' ' Paramecia water ' ' until it barely covers the thermometer
bulbs. Too much water will start up currents which impair
the results. Find what temperatures attract and what repel
Paramecia.
(b). Supposing that Paramecia migrate from a temperature
10° C to a temperature 18° C, and from temperature 32° C to
temperature 26° C, make the further experimentation that is
necessary to find their optimum.
(c). Acflimatization, Mendelssohn^ found that, if Para-
mecia be kept in a temperature from 36°-38*^ C from 4- 6 hours,
and then placed in a rectangular vessel whose end temperatures
are 24°-36° C respectively, they will occupy a position corre-
sponding to 30°-32° C. If, however, they are kept in a temper-
ature 18° C and then placed in the vessel whose end temperatures
are suddenly raised, they reach their optimum at 24° C.^ Re-
peat this experiment. What inferences may be drawn from the
facts of acclimatization ?
Hydra. ( Hydroidae. )
These fresh water polypys belong to the primitive forms of
double walled animals (coelenterata. ) They (coelenterata)
present to us for the first time organs and tissues composed of
cells, and the co-ordination of different parts in the performance
of certain activities, e. g., simultaneous closing in of tentacles
on some object of prey.
Fresh water hydra may be obtained by gathering from fresh
pools Lemna, sticks, and grass and putting them into an aqua-
rium. Hydras, which are attached to these objects, will then
1 Mendelssohn, M. : Loc, cit., pp. 19-20.
* Davenport, C. B. : Loc. cit., 1899, pp. 27-32. See also I^oew, O. :
Ueber den verschiedenen Resistenz grad im Protoplasma. Archiv f.
d. ges. Physiologie, 1885, Vol. XXXV, pp. 509-516.
4o8 KUNE :
usually migrate within a few days to the light side of the
vessel. Hydras can be kept readily throughout the winter in
a large glass jar containing Lemna, chara, water cress, and Eu-
tomostraca for food.^
Touch. Place a Hydra in a watch-glass full of water. Touch
the tentacle with a needle. What movements ?
Selecting Food {Taste), (a). Drop cautiously and at inter-
vals of a few minutes upon the surface of the water over the
tentacles of the Hydra a drop of water, of sugar solution, of
acid. What differences in the movements?
(b). Bring a Daphnia (previously stranded) on the end of
a needle to the tentacles of the Hydra. Note the result. With
another Hydra, use a bit of plant tissue.
Reaction to Light {Phofopathy) .^ Place in a small glass
jar full of water containing Lemna and Entomostraca two or
three large, budding Hydras. Cover the jar with a box,
placing the slit next to the window. Means of aeration should
be supplied the glass jar. Note at short intervals for two
weeks the position and number of Hydras in the jar.'
* ' Place a Hydra in a watch-glass with a little water, and by
means of a needle and a penknife cut it into two or three
pieces. Let the pieces expand and draw them. By means of
a clean pipette place the pieces in a small Stender dish, in
clean water. Draw the pieces again after 24 hours, and after
a longer period if necessary. ' '
Earth Worms. {Lumhricus Agricola.')
Worms changed the course of animal evolution from a radial
to a bilateral form and established permanently the very funda-
mental principle of metamerism. Those that have migrated
from water to land have, by reason of their crawling habits,
greatly accentuated all those differences, begun in the sea, be-
tween ventral and dorsal parts, between anterior and posterior
ends. These structural and physiological differentiations have
an interest for the psychologist in that they express a correla-
tion between the degree of sensitiveness and the relative use of
the parts of an organism.
^ For anatomical descriptions of Hydra see Manuals of Zoology.
2 "The wandering of organisms into a more or less intensely illu-
minated region, the direction of locomotion being determined by a
difference in intensity of illumination of the two poles of the organ-
ism, is photopathy." Davenport: Experimental Morphology. Part
I, p. 180. See also Vitus Graber : Grundlinien zur Erforschung des
Helligkeits und Farbensinnes der Thiere. pp. 318, Leipzig, 1884.
3 Wilson, Edmund B. : The American Naturalist, Vol. XXV, pp.
413-425, 1891. This paper of Prof. Wilson's contains also an account
of Hydras reactions to colored light.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 409
The nature ^ of the soil, as to its compactness, moisture, fer-
tility, that is most favorable to the presence of earth worms ;
the shape and contents of their burrows ; the relation of the
amount of their castings to the changes of the weather — all
must be studied out of doors in their natural habitat.
Sense Organs. Miss Langdon's'* anatomical studies have
demonstrated very thoroughly, ' * that the sense organs are distri-
buted over the entire surface of the body, but are most numer-
ous and largest at each end. " ^ It has also been found that the
anterior and posterior portions of the body react to weaker solu-
tions of strychnine Jand saccharine than do the middle portions.
Reactions to Chemicals. Apply very gently to different
portions of the surface a few drops of strychnine varying in
strength from i: loooo to i: looooo; also solutions of different
strengths, of saccharine and creosote.
Touch. Their sensitiveness to touch or a jar may be seen
by tapping gently a vessel containing them. Blow the breath
gently against the head end, — what effect ?
Sight. Earth worms may be kept for an indefinite time in
earthen jars containing rich soil. (a). Keep the entrance of
their burrows illuminated all night, compare in the morning by
weight the amount of castings with those of the previous
morning, (b). Compare also the amount of food eaten with that
of the previous night, (c). During the day expose (taking care
to avoid jarring the vessel) the top of the vessel suddenly to
the light — note how quickly the worms disappear beneath the
surface when the light flashes on them. (d). Cover a pane of
glass with moist filter paper, place a worm upon it and set the
glass near a window — record the reactions of the worm. (e).
Allow direct sunlight to fall upon the head end of the worm,
the tail end, the middle. Make note of the reactions.
Food. Give at night three pieces each of the following
vegetables — celery, potato, cabbage, apple and onion — all cut
wedge shaped. Arrange the pieces of each vegetable, thus
cut, in the form of a star, with their bases toward a common
center. Note in the morning what pieces have been most
eaten and the relative position of the pieces that have been
^ Darwin, Charles : The Formation of Vegetable Mould through
the Actionof worms, with observations on their habits. D. Appleton
& Co., New York, 1885, pp. 326. This book should be read by every
student of nature, not merely for the subject matter per se, but more
particularly for the method and spirit that is so admirably brought
to bear on a group of commonplace facts.
^I^angdon, Fanny E. : Am. Jour, of Morphology, 1895, Vol. YI, p.
218.
^Lenhossek, Michael V.: Ursprung, Verlauf und Bndigung der
sensibeln Nervenfasern bei Lumbricus. Arch. f. Micros. Anat., 1892,
XXXIX, pp. 106-136.
JOURNAI,— 6
4IO KLINE:
disturbed. This should be repeated often enough to establish
with certainty the presence or absence of a preference for cer-
tain foods.
Taste. Dip a piece of cabbage or celery into a strong solu-
tion of quinine and place it near a fresh piece of the same food,
of same size and shape — notice whether the piece dipped in
quinine is disturbed during the night. ^
Smell} (a). Bring near to the head end of the worm in suc-
cession bits of sponges or filter paper saturated with water,
with sugar solution, with onion juice, with acetic acid, and with
beef extract. Does the worm react? (b). Bury in a hole
about the size of a hen's egg a piece of onion. Pack the
earth firmly, bury a second piece near by in a similar way, but
do not pack the earth. ^ Notice which is first disturbed.
Boring (a). Place three or four worms in a pot of loose
earth and note the time in which they disappear, (b). Press
and pack the earth and repeat the experiment, (c). Try dif-
ferent kinds of soils — note where the worms go down. Do they
swallow the earth while boring? Methods and rate of boring
may be conveniently observed in tall narrow glass jars.*
Methods of Burying, (a). Place without order in a jar over
night fifty dead pine needles. In another jar the same num-
ber of green pine needles. Note the next morning the arrange-
ment of dead and green needles, (b). Make the same exper-
iment during the day time — after covering the top of the jar
with a black cloth, (c). Put dead pine needles in both jars ;
keep one jar in a temperature of about 22 °C over night, and
the other out doors uncovered. Compare the number of needles
drawn in.
Slugs. {^Lhnax Maximus.)
This species of gastropoda may be found ^ during the warmer
seasons in gardens, orchards, dairy houses and the like, and
during the winter seasons in greenhouses. They seek dark,
shady, damp places.
iGraber, Vitus: Loc. cit., pp. 290-295.
'^ After Darwin's, probably no other work on the senses of earth
worms is more helpful and suggestive than that of Nagel's. Biblio-
theca Zoologica, Sept. 18, 1894, pp. 146-150.
3 This experiment was used by Darwin to test the worms sense of
smell. The food placed in the loose earth was usually found first.
Might not this be partly due to the fact that the loose earth offered
easier penetration to the worm ?
*For the powerof worms to regenerate lost parts see T. H. Morgan's
paper in Anat. Anz. Bd. 25. No. 21, s. 407, 1899.
**! keep them alive all winter in a wooden box partly filled with
rotten wood and rich soil taken from their natural habitat. They eat
ve.scetables, fruits and meat.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 4II
Sense Organs : ^ Eyes, auditory vesicles (otocysts) , tactile
and olfactory organs are present.
Senses. They react to odors, ^ sound, touch, light, heat and
gravity.
Sense of Smell} (a). Reactions to odors in the form of
liquids may be secured by putting a band or stream of the
solution on a pane of glass at right angles to the snail's line of
motion. Do you find characteristic reactions toward different
odors. Look for objectionable and unobjectionable odors ; (b)
note in seconds, in each case, the interval elapsing before the
first responses.
Sight, (a). Do they discern objects?* Weir® is inclined
to think that they do. " The snail carries its eyes in telescopic
watch-towers . . . and, as semi-prominent and commanding
view points are assigned to its organs of sight, one would nat-
urally expect to find a comparatively high degree of develop-
ment in them." His experimental test runs thus: At the end
of a ten foot pole suspend, by means of a string, a white or
black ball. The ball is made to describe a pendulum-like
movement to and fro in front of the snail on a level with the
tips of its horns. I suggest that a pane of glass be interposed
between the snail and the swinging ball, thus preventing the
possibility of creating disturbing air currents, (b). Put a
specimen on a pane of glass 8x 10, and place the glass horizon-
tally near a window and let the slug be parallel to the window.
Do not let direct sunlight fall upon it.^ Plot the position of
the slug at intervals of ten seconds.^
Taste} NageP believes that the lips and mouth parts of
the slug are moderately susceptible to taste stimulus. By
means of a pipette, place one at a time, and at right angles to
the snail's line of motion, a band of distilled water, of a weak
solution of sugar, of acetic acid, of quinine, of alcohol, of
cheese- water, of meat juice, etc., — make a record of its behavior
on reaching the different bands of solution.
Locomotion. Place the slug on the glass and study its loco-
motion from the under side of the plate.
^Claus and Sedgwick : Text-book of Zoology. 1884, Vol. II, p. 34.
^Spengel, J. W. : Die Geruchsorgane und das Nervensystem der
Molluskin. Zeit. f. wiss. Z06I., Vol. XXXIV.
3Nagel, Wilibald A.: Bibliotheca Zoologica, heft, 18, pp. 163-168,
1894.
* Lubbock, Sir John : Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals,
p. 140.
5 Weir, James : Zd?^. «V., pp. 18-20.
^Hot water or a solution of ether and alcohol will cleanse the glass
of the slime which should frequently be removed.
'Loeb,J.: DerHeliotropismusderThiere. Wiirzburg, 1890, pp. 93-100.
8 Lubbock, Sir John : Loc. cit., p. 22.
^Nagel, W. A. : Loc. cit.y p. 164.
412 KLINK:
Geotactic Sense. A rough and ready demonstrational method
is to place the slug on a pane of glass, parallel to one edge of
the pane, hold the pane vertical and shield from lateral lights.
Represent graphically the position of the slug at the beginning
of the experiment, and at intervals of ten seconds, for about a
minute.
The geotactic sense of the slug has been so well demon-
strated by Davenport ^ that I can do no better than give his
methods. A dark, wooden box of cubical form about 35 cm.
in diameter, a dense, opaque, black cloth to cover the open
side of the box which must be directed upwards, are required;
a glass plate about 30 cm.^ square carries the slug and is so
placed in the dark box that one edge fits into one of the lower
angles of the box while the opposite edge may be elevated to
any degree ranging from 0° to 90°. Measure the angles off,
upon one side of the box, and bore a hole at every fifth degree,
so that the glass plate may rest on plugs inserted into the
holes. The angular deviation of the axis of the body during
a given time from the position in which it was first placed may
be measured off by means of a protractor.
If the student desire to pursue the question of geotaxis fur-
ther, he may investigate to answer the following questions, which
may readily be determined by experimentation, (a). ''What
relation exists between a variation in the pressure of gravity
and the precision of orientation ?" (b). *' What is the limiting
pressure which will call forth the geotactic response?" *
The former is demonstrated by ascertaining the angular
deviation of the slug from a vertical position upon the plate at
various inclinations from 0° to 90°, and after the lapse of a
constant time (45 seconds). The data gained in answer to the
first problem furnishes an answer to the second.
Preliminary to (a) : Ascertain whether the quickness of
the response of the slug is modified by the strength of the
action of gravity, i. e., does the slug respond as quickly and
effect as complete an orientation at say 15° as at 75°? For
this purpose, place the slug on the glass so that its long axis
is parallel to the lower edge of the plate. Set the glass suc-
cessively at 60°, 45°, 30°, 20° and 15°, and make five tests at
each angle upon one and the same slug. Two time intervals
should be taken : ( i ) the time elapsing before the first
response to gravity occurs, and (2) the interval required for
1 Davenport, C. B. : Jour. Phys., Vol. XXII, pp. 99-110, 1897-98.
2 1 receive satisfactory results from a box 10x8 xy inches deep.
*In addition to these questions, Dr. Davenport asks a third : What
determines the position of the head end ? A solution of this ques-
tion involves experimentation beyond what is contemplated in this
course.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 413
the organism to place its entire axis in a vertical position. To
avoid exposing the slug to the action of light during the pre-
liminary experiment, the completeness of orientation should
be observed after different periods of time, e. g., at the end
of 30, 40, and 50 seconds. That period in which orientation
is just effected should be the time selected for future experi-
ments.
(a). Set the plate at the following angles : 90°, 60^, 45°,
30°, 20°, 10° and 0°. At each angle make six determinations
on each one of five slugs. For each angle find the mean of
the thirty determinations of the angular deviation of the slug
from the vertical position, (b) note the extreme deviations
from the vertical in the case of each slug.^
Fish.
A study of fishes in the interests of comparative psychology
is exceedingly desirable, for the reason that they stand at the
bottom of the great back-boned series of animal life presenting
in a simple and fundamental form all the essential structures
characteristic of that group. To the fish we owe a debt for
having encased the nervous system in a bony vertebral column,
for developing an efficient neuro-motor mechanism operating
about a stiff longitudinal axis, and for having ** staked out"
or laid down the ground plan of the nervous system on which
the forces of evolution have erected the complex structures of
higher forms.
The following are some of the fish suitable for such a study;
pickerel^ (^E so x Americana) , perch (^Perca Americana) ^ goldfish
{Cyprinus Atcraius) , horned pout, common bullhead {Ameiurus
nebulosus) and shiners and spotted tail minnows {Notropus
Juidsonius) and stickle-back {Eucaiia inconstans). Both pick-
erel and perch should be kept in large aquaria supplied with a
continuous flow of water — a forced stream is preferable. Chara,
water cress, or other water grasses should be supplied and,
of course, permitted to grow. Shiners, earth worms, newts,
young frogs serve as food. Gold fish do not require constant
running water. It .should be changed, however, every week
or two. Supply the aquaria with sand and pebbles, and grasses
— like water cress, cabomba, chara.
Food for gold fish may be had of the dealers.
Food, (a) Feed regularly — daily or every other day depend-
^ See also Geotaxis by Davenport, Experimental Morphology, Part
I, p. 119.
■^The scientific names of North American fishes can be found in U.
S. Com. of Fish and Fisheries, report of 1895, pp. 209-590. This work
was prepared by President David Starr Jordan and Dr. B. W. Ever-
414 KLINE :
ing on the species and somewhat on the season. Note the
time required for the different species to recognize your approach
and presence.^ Do some never learn to recognize you ? (b).
Compare the manner in which, e. g., perch^ and pickerel
seize their food (live minnows). Can you account for the dif-
ference? (c). See if you can detect a carnivorous fish stalking
its prey. (d). Cut the rice wafer preparation for gold fish into
pieces about i cm. square. Give the fish, along with the two
or three pieces of wafer, a piece of decided yellow paper cut
like the wafer in size and shape. Note carefully the results.
Repeat the experiment often enough to justify a conclusion.
Next give them paper of a much lighter yellow and observe
their behavior toward it. Is it touch or taste or both that ac-
quaints them with the paper? Finally, give them cut pieces
of white filter paper, which very closely resembles the rice
wafer. At each experiment do not give more than two or three
bits of rice wafer with the one piece of paper. It would be of
great interest to find out if the gold fish would ever learn not
to strike at the white filter paper, (e). Feed' perch on shiners
for three months, then partition off a portion of their aquarium
with a pane of glass. Every other day, at the feeding hour, put
shiners in the new division. Note on each occasion the num-
ber of attempts made by the perch to catch the minnows.
Remove the minnows from the tank at the end of each observa-
tion. Feed the perch earth worms on days not experimenting.
Should the perch finally become indifferent toward the minnows,
remove the glass partition. Note the effect, (f) . Some fish, like
pickerel, appear to have "table manners," others, like stickle-
backs, snatch at times the food from each other's mouths as do
the hens.
Temperature.^ The sensitiveness^ of fish to temperature
varies greatly among different species, (a). If a minnow be
transferred from a temperature of about 20° C to 2°-4°C, and
allowed to remain ^ minute, it will soon appear as dead. If,
1 Mcintosh, W. C: Note on the Memory of Fishes. Journal of
Mental Science, Vol. XLIV, pp. 231-235, 1898.
^Neither pickerel nor perch eat dead fish.
8 This experiment was suggested by the famous experiment of Mobius
on pike. The story runs that pike, having lived for some time in a
tank separated by a glass plate from another in which small fish were
living finally desisted from trying to catch them, and on the glass plate
being removed made no attempt to molest the small fish. See inter-
pretation by Prof. Bateson. Journal of Marine Biological Association,
pp. 243, 1890.
* For an account of some experimentation and observation on the
Sense-Organs and Perceptions of Fishes, see W. Bateson in Journal of
Marine Biological Association, Vol. I, pp. 239-248.
*Goode, G. Brown: U. S. Fish Com. Report, 1877, pp. 51-72.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOIX)GY. 415
after a minute, it be transferred successively through io°C, 15°
C, and back to 20° C, life returns; — transferring directly from 2°
to 2o°C often kills the fish.
(b)^ The following apparatus may be used not only for test-
ing their sensitiveness to temperature, but also for finding their
optimum. (I suggest that the test be made with shiners, using
20 or 30 at a time). A zinc trough about 20 cm. deep, 16 cm.
wide and 2.4 meters long supported by a wooden frame.
[See cut.] Solder to the bottom of the trough 16 cm. from
one end a tin box 12 cm. wide, 15 cm. long and 6 cm. deep.
The box receives water through a hole cut in the zinc
trough. Solder a stand-pipe to the zinc trough about the
hole leading to the tin box. Apply heat to the tin box.
The water in the trough should not exceed 2^ inches in
depth. The end opposite the tin box should rest on iced
sawdust. Ice may be applied to the sides of the trough, and
also put in the water to secure desired differences of tempera-
ture. I^ay lengthwise of the trough a strip of board contain-
ing % inch holes about six inches apart. Thrust thermometers
through the holes and into the water two inches below its
surface.
Sight.^ Observations* made on different species readily
show that there are wide differences in their range of vision,
e.g., perch appear to recognize the human figure about 30
feet away, minnows 20 to 25 feet away and pickerel 10 to 15
feet.
With the room darkened and with a magic lantern mounted
lAii apparatus of this sort gave satisfactory results in searching for
the optimum temperature of tadpoles. See Am. Jour. 0/ Psychology,
1898, Vol X, No. I, pp. 8-10.
^Bateson, W. : Loc. cit., pp. 242-248.
^One may connect with observations on the sight of fishes experi-
ments and observations on their color changes. The horned pout is
said to alter its color when transferred from a white to a dark dish.
Abbott and others cite cases of color changes during emotional excite-
ment. The different hues on my perch are more pronounced after an
exciting chase for a minnow. It appears that changes in the intensity
. of light causes apparent changes in color.
4i6 KLINE:
on a rotating table placed about three feet from the aquarium,
throw a bright light on the aquarium in the region of the fish.
Should the fish finally move away or just out of the zone of
light, rotate the table until the light covers his entire body.
See if, by repeating this process, you can drive them back and
forth between the ends of the aquarium. It would be interest-
ing to see if they react toward colored light as toward white.
Bateson found no appreciable difference in the reaction toward
white and colored light among the species tested by him.^ Give
to a species of day feeders food at night, — note their behavior
by means of a dark lantern.
Hearing. Ichthyologists^ are generally agreed that fish do
not hear sounds transmitted by air waves. ^ The ear apparatus
is usually interpreted as an organ for equilibration. They do
respond to vibratile motions imparted to the water by solid
bodies. Some fish are known to make noises, and even musi-
cal sounds w^hich are heard by other fishes of their kind.
Would acuteness of hearing be of any advantage to the fish ?
Emotions, The works of Romanes, Brehm, Giinther, Dar-
win, Abbott and others cite instances of the activities of fish
that are expressive of fear, pugnacity, social, sexual and
parental feelings, anger, jealousy, play and curiosity. How
many of these emotions do you notice ? *
Chicks.
"I have now described, perhaps in undue detail, a few of my obser-
vations as noted down at the time. To some they may seem trivial,
and scarcely worth the making and the noting. To us, as students
of comparative psychology, their interest lies in the light they throw
on the beginnings of psychical life and activity in the chick or
d uck . " — Morgan .
* Bateson, W. : Loc. cit.y pp. 251-252.
^Ivce, F. S. : A Study of the Sense of Equilibrium in Fishes. Jour,
of Physiology, Vol. XV, pp. 311-348.
^ Kreidl, Alois : Ueber die Schallperception der Fische. Archiv f .
d. ges. Physiology, 1895, Vol. lyXI, pp. 450-464 ; also Bin weiterer
Versuch iiber das angebliche Horen eines Glockenzeichens durch die
Fische. Archiv f . d. ges. Physiologic, 1896, Vol. LXIII, pp. 581-586.
* From my observations on shiners, I am persuaded that they, at
least, possess the capacity for feigning death. Pickerel will not eat
dead fish — at any rate mine do not. Sometimes they are not success-
ful at the first two or three attempts in seizing a shiner. These
unsuccessful attempts greatly excite the small fish, which dart
hither and thither pursued by the pickerel. The chase may finally
be given up or the pickerel may seize one, after which all becomes
quiet. It is at this period that the lucky shiner seeks a dark place
and lies flat on one side as when dead. I have been deceived several
times myself when, on going to remove them from the tank, thinking
they were dead, they would dart with lightning speed to some new
quarter.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOI.OGY. 417
The fact that chicks can be reared under test conditions and
by the care of foster-parents, makes it possible to see more clearly
just what responses are due to inheritance, e. g., pecking,
cuddling, making their toilet ; and what are due to sense-
experience, operating under the principles of association, e. g.,
responses to agreeable and disagreeable foods.
First Day. Senses^, (a). While peeping in the shell, ^
whistle,* clap the hands near the ^%%, hold a tuning-fork near —
is there a response to these sounds ?
(b). After they have recovered from the "catastrophe of
birth," repeat the sounds made in (a) and others that suggest
themselves. Repeat this at ages 12, 24, 36, and 48* hours,
respectively, and note the differences in responses both as to
the increasing perfection of the sense of hearing and in the
expression of the emotions.
(c). Has tapping on the floor near the food with a pencil
any suggestive^ value — through the auditory sense — to the
chicks pecking ?
2. Note behavior toward different odors, e. g,, spearmint,
iodoform, cologne, cheese, asafcetida, etc. Odors may con-
veniently be presented on bits of cotton batting held by
forceps.
3. At about the age of 12 hours test the field of vision by
dropping bright bits of shell or meal before them. Move the
food back and forth, up and down, before them. Do they
peck at food beyond their reach ?^ Is it necessary to touch the
eye to get a winking reflex?
4. Touch their feet with cold, medium, and quite warm
wire — note the response in each case. Note fondness for sun-
shine.
Instinctive Move7nents? (a). Note efforts to stand,* to
walk^ follow moving objects ^° — do they show preferences here ?
Note position of head and neck when sitting. Whenever
possible early movements of other birds should be noted and
1 Suggestions and directions for hatching chicks by means of an in-
cubator may be had by writing to any reputable manufacturer of
incubators.
^Morgan, C. Lloyd: Habit and Instinct, 1896, pp. 31-32.
^Hudson, W. H. : Naturalist in La Plata, 1892, pp. 99.
* Spalding, D. A.: Instinct. Macraillan's Magazine, Feb., 1873,
Vol. XXVII.
^ Darwin, Charles : Expression of the Emotions, 1872, p. 47.
« Preyer, W. : The Mind of the Child, p. 239. Translated by H. W.
Brown, 1888.
^ Preyer, W. : Loc. cit.
^ Morgan, C. Lloyd : Habit and Instinct. Chapter 3.
^ Mills, Wesley : The Nature and Development of Animal Intelli-
gence.
^° Groos, Karl : The Play of Animals. Chapter 3.
4i8 KLINE:
compared with those of chicks, e. g. , standing, walking, and
swimming of the duck. (b). Make a list of all those activi-
ties that may be regarded as instinctive, /. ^. , " congenitally per-
fect," as pecking; cuddling (do they show a preference here or
do they cuddle indifferently under any object)? Do loud,
sharp sounds shock or frighten them ?
Voice. How many distinct sounds can be distinguished at
this age?
Second Day. i. Repeat experiments on the senses, adding
to the list experiments on taste by giving them bits of lemon
and orange ^ peelings, or a bit of blotting paper of pronounced
color saturated with quinine. Note with special care the in-
creased perfection of sight and hearing.
2. Note all activities of food getting, such as pecking,
seizing, bill-movements, swallowing, etc. Offer them water
(water should not be offered earlier than the second day), and
observe just how they come to drink. Offer them an earth
worm, beetle, or the like, and note the effects of competition.
Imitative^ acts are liable to occur at the end of the second and
the beginning of the third day. For discovery ^ and accurate
description they require careful observation.'' What is the
nature of the activities imitated, racial or acquired ?
3. Observe the following: (a) certain activities fading out,
(b) new ones appearing,^ <?. ^^., preening feathers, flapping
wings, wallowing, scratching — will they scratch on a bare sur-
face, or do they require a bit of sand or grain to touch off the
scratching apparatus? these may not occur until third and
fourth days, (c) Are there any which they do from individual
experience ?
Memory and Associations.^ To study the formation of asso-
ciations in the chick the sense of taste may easily be employed.
Offer them some bitter or disagreeable substance of a pro-
nounced color as food. The number of experiences which the
chick has with the disagreeable substance before it avoids or
neglects it altogether is a rough measure of the time required
for a permanent association to be formed between the color of
the food and its disagreeable effects when taken into the mouth^
1 Hunt, H. E. : Am. Jour, of Psychology, 1897, Vol. IX, pp. 125-127.
2 Morgan, C. Lloyd : Loc. cit., pp. 166-185.
^ Romanes : Mental Evolution in Animals, pp. 222-223.
* For imitative movements in the child, see Preyer : The Senses
and the Will. Tr. by H. W. Brown, pp. 282-292.
* James, W. : Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 394-402. See Transitoriness
of Instincts.
^Thorndike, E. L. : Animal Intelligence. Supp. Psy. Rev., 1898,
pp. 65.78.
■^Morgan, C. Lloyd : Introduction to Comparative Psychology,
1894. Chapter 5, Association of Ideas in Animals.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 419
An experiment of this sort may require several successive days
of observation. The permanency of the association should be
tested by offering the objectionable substance several days
apart. ^
Third Day. Instinctive Activities. Note the first appear-
ance of attempts to scratch the head, to wallow, to play, and
under what conditions these things occur.
Emotions. Joy, fear, anger may be expressed at this age.
Solitude and Society. The effect of solitude may be observed
by isolating one chick completely from his kind — not even
letting it hear the voices of other chicks. Feed it on a limited
variety of diet. At the end of four or five^ days, introduce it
to a flock that have enjoyed society and a larger variety of ex-
perience. Observe its initiation into this larger world.
The above outline, covering the first three days of chick life,
and indicating the kind of observations to be made for the
advantage of psychology may be continued with profit twelve
to fourteen days, the duration depending largely upon the
problems set for the chicks to do.
The White Rat.
** No ghost story or tale of horrid murder has been considered quite
complete without its rat peering from some dark corner." — Cram.
To Mr. Willard S. Small I am greatly indebted for both the
form and matter of this section. The outline here presented
by Mr. Small for studying this rodent is based on his own very
painstaking investigations, which have extended over nearly
two years. With appropriate variations — dictated of course
by the instincts, dominant traits, etc., of the rodent to be
studied, the outline may serve for further investigations on
other members of that family.
The white rat presents some modifications of the psychical
character of his wild congeners,* but these are comparatively
slight. The description given by Brehm * of the character of
mus decumanus applies to the domesticated white rat with
almost equal accuracy. The principal difference in psychic
outfit is the inferiority of vision in the white rat. The eye
is unpigmented and seems to be a much less important instru-
ment than with the wild varieties.^
On account of their early maturity, healthiness (under nor-
1 Kline, L. W. : Am. Jour, of Psychology, Vol. X, p. 273.
^Ibid.y pp. 271-272.
^Brehm: Thierleben (Saiijyethiere, Vol. II, p. 342 ff.). A character-
ization of the species Muridae.
* Brehm : Loc. cit., p. 349.
^ Rod well, James: The Rat (I^ondon: Routledge and Sons) is a
mine of anecdotal literature upon the rat,
420 KLINE :
mal conditions^), gentleness and cleanliness white rats are well
adapted for experimental studies.
/. The Psychic Development of the Young Rat. The white
rat, born blind and deaf, passes through two distinct phases
of psychic development:^ the period before, and the period after,
sight and hearing begin to function. The method in this sec-
tion is to follow the development of the animal's psychical ac-
tivities from birth until the age of five or six weeks. The only
factor appearing after this age is the sex instinct. This appears
about the ninth or tenth week.
Sensation.® First day. i. Smell. Test* with several sub-
stances, ^.^., fresh milk, cologne water, hydrochloric acid.
Observe: (a) the character of the reactions — how many kinds?
(b) whether the reactions seem to indicate pleasure or dis-
pleasure in each case; (c) can you distinguish between the
act of sensing and the motor reaction? (d) do you distinguish
the vibratory movements of the nostrils so characteristic of the
rodents ?
2. Taste. Open the mouth and place upon the tongue :
fresh milk, honey or sugar solution, aloes or quinine solution,
or other substances. Observe: (a) the reactions; (b) whether
they seem to indicate discrimination of tastes.^
3. Tactile Sensibility, (a) Touch the skin lightly on various
parts of the body; (b) draw a bristle across the back, flank or
side, and over the nose; (c) pinch very lightly the tail, foot,
and sides or flank; (d) touch any part with a cold wire (32°),
and then with a hot wire (not hot enough to burn); (e) notice
also the rats' extreme sensitiveness to changes of atmospheric
iThe following conditions should be observed : (i) the rats must
be kept in a warm room — temperature ""not lower than 50** F.; (2) the
floors of the cages should be covered one inch deep with clean saw-
dust; this should be changed at least once a week; (3) the cages
should be so arranged as to protect the rats from strong light ; (4) a
simple diet of dog biscuit and milk and occasional green stuff, e. g.,
apples or lettuce, gives good results. Fresh water each day. Offen-
sive odors are minimized by carefully observing (2) and (4).
An excellent observation cage may be made as follows : dimensions,
length, 20 inches; height, 16 inches; width, 16 inches; floor, back,
and top of wood; one end of wire mesh {% inch) for ventilation;
front and other end of glass. This insures observation of all activities,
and is large enough for the introduction of necessary apparatus.
2 Mills, Wesley: Animal Intelligence, p. 167.
^In connection with the observations upon sensation, it will prove
interesting and suggestive to note the conditions of the sense organs.
*Bits of paper held by forceps are convenient for this purpose. The
odorous substance should be held from 2 to 5 mm. from the nostrils.
Other odors and irritating fluids should be used. For similar tests
upon other rodents, cf. Mills, W.: Loc. cit., p. 234, 241. Distinguish
carefully between the effects of odors and irritating fluids.
5 Mills, Wesley: Loc. cit.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 42 1
temperature as indicated by rapid lowering of bodily tempera-
ture and retardation of heart-beat when brought from the nest
into a cooler atmosphere; (f ) observe also their apparent satis-
faction when covered with the hand.
4. ' ' Sense of Support. ' ' ^ Place the young rat near the edge
of the table, and note whether it crawls off or hesitates at the
edge and shows uneasiness.^
5. Sense of Position} Place the rat upon a pane of glass
in horizontal position, with the sagittal axis of body parallel
with two sides of the pane; then tip the pane — each end and
side in turn — and note the angle required to elicit a response,
i. e., an effort to compensate the inclination of the pane.
Second to fifteenth day} Follow the same line of observation,
noting these more general points.^
1. Smell, (a). The tests may be made with the same sub-
stances, or variations may be introduced. In the former case,
note the effect of growing familiarity upon the reactions; (b)
note whether there is any diminution in the time required for
sensing the stimulus; and (c) distinguish between sensing of
stimulus and motor response.
2. Taste} The experiments need not be repeated more
than twice during the first week; after that, every second day.
3. Instinctive Activities? First day. i. When the young
rats are held in the hand, observe their tendency to roll up
into a ball. 2. Place them upon a smooth table and ob-
serve their efforts;® (a) to stand, (b) to crawl, (c) to hold
up and move the head from side to side ; (d) observe further
whether they seek to get together; explain the reason of this
movement and consider whether it has any significance for
1 Mills, Wesley: Animal Intelligence, pp. 118, 150, 176, 225. Mor-
gan, C. Lloyd : Habit and Instinct, p. 107.
2 This experiment may be impracticable the first day on account of
the limited locomotion of the rats.
^Sanford, B. C: Experimental Psychology, p. 36. Lee, F. S.: Jour,
of Physiology, Vols. XV and XVII.
* Weigh the rat and measure length of body and head from time to
time.
^ Mills, W.: Lac. cit. Prof. Mills's work should be familiar. The
differences brought out in his studies, between young animals of dif-
ferent species, are most instructive. Preyer, W.: The Mind of the
Child— the Senses and Will. ( Tr. by H. W. Brown.) p. 257 ff.
6 The experiments on taste and smell maybe varied profitably by
introducing the factors of hunger and satiety. Compare rats taken at
random from the nest with some that have been segregated for two to
four hours, according to age. (N. B. Keep them warm.)
'Morgan, C. Lloyd: Habit and Instincts. Ch. 5. For a discussion
of "Instinct," of. Ch. i. Also Groos, Karl: The Play of Animals.
Marshall, H. R.: Instinct and Reason (MacMillan, 1898). James,
W.: Psychology, Vol. II, Ch. 24.
.^For comparison with other rodents, cf. Mills, W.: Loc. cit.
422 KI.INE :
the origin of the "social instinct." 3. Turn them over upon
their backs; note their efforts to turn over upon their bellies;
note also the variety of movements in these efforts and the lack
of muscular co-ordination.
4. Try to observe the sucking activity from the first. ^ (a)
Do the new-born rats find the mother's teats immediately by
a " congenitally perfect instinct," or is there accident in the
process? (b). Do they vSuck any other part of the mother than
the teats? (c). Does the mother render assistance?
5. Test their clinging power — letting them cling, unsup-
ported, to your finger.^ The attempt should be made constantly
to infer the sensational and affective states correlative with the
instinctive activities.
6. Vocal Expressio7is. Note carefully the number of sounds
you can distinguish clearly, and what affective states they
severally indicate.^
The eyes and ears begin to function about the fifteenth day.
Between the second and the fifteenth days, two facts of a general
nature relating to motor activities should be noted: (a) the
increasing vigor of movements, and (b) definiteness of mus-
cular co-ordination. Note especially, the progressively effective
use of the paws in sucking.
In respect to vocal activities, it should be noted whether
they increase in variety, and whether they are indulged in
more or less frequently.
New features in development may be looked for as follows :
About the seventh day, note that the}^ begin to move about
more freel)^ selecting their paths to some extent and avoiding
obstacles.
Tenth to thirteenth day. i. I,ook for the appearance of
some very characteristic "rat" activities: (a) orientation,
by rising slightly upon the hind legs and sniffing about, when
they are moved into a new place ; (b) climbing up on the
mother's back and up the side of the cage ; (c) scratching the
body with the hind foot ;* (d) washing the face with the fore
paws. 2. Observe about this time also that they may leave
the nest and follow the mother in order to suck.^
1 Mills, W.: Loc. cit., p. 118 ff. Morgan, C. L.: Loc. cit., p. 113.'
Hudson, W. H.: The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 106. Wallace, A. R.:
Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 206. Preyer, W.:
The Senses and Will, p. 257.
2 Robinson, Dr. lyouis: Nineteenth Century, Nov., 1891. (This in-
stinct in the human child.)
8 Contrast with rabbit, Mills, W.: Animal Intelligence, p. 134.
*This is called by Romanes a pure reflex. Cf. Romanes, G. J.,
Darwin and after Darwin, part 2, p. 80.
^ I have seen one leave the nest and ^o directly to the mother, a foot
away, eating her supper. Whether this was by chance or by smell is
an interesting question.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 423
A test for instinctive fear may be made by rubbing a cat
and then presenting the hand to the nostril of the rats.^
At the end of the first period, it will be well to "take
account of stock," summarizing the psychical elements that
have now appeared, noting their time of appearance — congeni-
tal or later — and their order of development.
Second Period.
The following suggestions for this period may serve for a
general outline, to be varied or discontinued at discretion.
SeNvSATion. I . Smell. Tests should be made now espe-
cially with food substances, e. g., milk, cheese, honey, meat,
etc. Tests may be made also with essential oils.^
2. Test. Discrimination of taste, by putting edible and
non-edible substances into the mouths of the rats, e.g., dog
biscuit and sealing wag.
3. Hear 1713^.^ (a). Tests should be made for hearing just
before the external meatus is completely open, by clapping the
hands, clucking, hissing, whistling, etc. Be careful that a
current of air is not thrown upon the rats with explosive
noises, (b)). Generally the sense of hearing becomes acute
about the fifteenth day. (c). Try a number and variety of
sounds, especially musical tones (a gamut of tuning forks is
desirable). Also introduce variations in loudness.
In these experiments observe the small variety in the re-
actions at first. What is the inference ?
(d). The test should be repeated daily for a few days
noting the progress in discrimination of sounds and the emo-
tional concomitants, (e). At the age of about three weeks,
test for aesthetic sense in connection with sound.* An air played
softly upon a violin or even sung softly will serve for test.
4. Vision.^ Make tests as soon as the eyes begin to open,
(a). Bring the rats into a strong light, (b). Strike the hand
across the field of vision an inch or two in front of the eyes.
1 Mills, W. : Loc. cit., p. 176, 177. (I have not been able to confirm
Prof. Mills's experiment with respect to rats. Cf . Morgan, C. Iv. : Loc.
cit., p. 117.)
2 *' Rats are enticed by certain essential oils." Darwin : Descent of
Man, p. 530.
3 Mills, W. : Loc cit.
* Anecdotes of rats and mice bein^ fascinated by music are so fre-
quent and so well authenticated that this experiment is of peculiar
interest. Cf. Weir, Dr. James : The Dawn of Reason, p. 116.
^ It should be remembered that vision is the least efficient of the
white rat's senses. A comparison should be made between the im-
portance of vision and the importance of smell and hearing in the
development of the young rats.
424 KI.INE :
What effect in each case? Can you get a winking reflex
without touching the eyes ?
The experiment upon vision will probably be unprofitable
after four or five days, except experiments for the determina-
tion of the distance at which the rats can see objects. These
may be made at intervals as long as the study continues.
These determinations may be made roughly by moving an un-
familiar object in front of the cage, carefully excluding all
sound.
5. Observations of the common activities of the rats w^ill
yield information in regard to tactual and kinaesthetic sensa-
tions, and the sense of equilibrium.
Instinctive Activities. After the eyes and ears are
open, observe the gradual disappearance of some activities, the
progressive perfection of others, and the appearance of still
others.
A. Vocal. Even casual observations will show the diminu-
tion of vocal activity.
B. Motor. I. Note the slow degeneration of the sucking
instinct. 2. Orientation, climbing and washing are rapidly
perfected. 3. New activities appear, 17th to 21st days. (a).
Gnawing. They nibble at one's fingers, at food, and as early
as the 2ist day I have seen them gnawing a stick, (b).
Digging. (c). Play activities — running, jumping, mock
fighting, etc. They may frequently be seen licking each other.
It is not apparent whether this is in play or whether they are
searching for vermin.
At the end of four or five weeks the student should again
' * take account of stock ' ' and catalogue the psychic outfit of
his subjects. As all our knowledge of the animal mind is
inferential, the same observations will serve as basis for conclu-
sions as to instinct, general intelligence and emotion in the rat.
For example, the constant investigations of the waking rat
will declare his curiosity. "The eager expectancy displayed at
the usual feeding time,^ especially when they hear the rattle of
the food, is evidence of memory. Fear is apparent at every
unusual noise.
1 Rats should be fed in the afternoon.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOI.OGY. 425
II.
Suggestions for Experimental Study of Intelligence.
The preceding study of the young rats will have brought out
the rat character sufficiently to warrant the setting of a good
many tasks. For example : hunger, sociability, and curiosity
may safely be appealed to as motives for the performance of
tasks; climbing, digging, and gnawing are patently instinctive
and persistent activities.^
Two practical suggestions for apparatus are appended. In
each case aptness for learning, imitation, and memory may be
tested. The rats should be at least six or seven weeks old.
1. The apparatus consists merely of an ordinary squirrel*"
revolver. A revolver 10 inches in diameter and one foot long
can be used in the cage described above, and it is better to
perform the experiments in their accustomed place.
(a). Keeping the door of the revolver open, note the time
required for the rats to learn to run the revolver.^
(b). After the rats have learned this lesson, a test of imita-
tion may be made by introducing one or two uninitiated rats
into the cage. The difference in time required to learn the
lesson may be taken as a rough measure of imitation.
(c). Furthermore memory may be tested by removing the
drum for a time and noting the results upon its return.
This experiment may be variously complicated. For example,
after the rats have learned to run the revolver, the door-way
may be closed with a spring door such as is described in con-
nection with the next piece of apparatus.*
2. Two pieces of apparatus. In both cases the motive ap-
pealed to is hunger. The activity in one case is digging; in
the other, gnawing.
(a). Bxp. box I. A box* 7 inches square and 6 inches
high; sides of wire mesh, ^ inch mesh; top, glass; bottom,
wood. At one side of bottom, a hole 3)^ by 2 inches is cut.
Two strips of wood i Y^, inches thick tacked to the bottom raise
the box above the floor of the cage. Sand and sawdust are
banked about the box just above the level of the floor. Food
^This enumeration is merely a suggestion; it is not intended to
cover the field.
^ Other interesting things will be observed: e.g.y if there is any
straw or litter in the cage, they are very likely to carry it into the
revolver and make their nest there.
2 In all these experiments the experimenter must be prepared for
individual variations.
*The apparatus and the method is more fully described by Dr. L. W.
Kline, Am. Jour. Psychology, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 277. The diary of a
few days' experimentation is given.
Journal — 7
426 KLINK :
of some kind^ is placed in the box and the top fastened down.
At the usual feeding time, Exp. box i is placed in the cage and
banked up as described. There is nothing to mark the place
of entrance. This experiment should be repeated daily till the
lesson is completely learned, so that the rats go at once to the
right place and dig into the box.^
(b). Exp. box 2. The same as Exp. box i, except that
the floor is solid and the entrance is on one side. The entrance
is an opening, 2>^ inches square. This opening is provided
with an inward swinging door of sheet zinc, hung from the top.
The door is attached by a spring* (an ordinary rubber band)
to the top of the cage, so that when free it is held open. The
door is held closed by means of narrow strips of stout paper
stuck, with sealing wax, to the door and the lower edge of the
box. Admission to the food within can be attained only by
biting, pulling or scratching off the paper. This experiment,
too, should be repeated daily until the habit of getting the food
by removing the papers is formed.
The two experiments yield the same results in regard to the
determination of instinct, intelligence, and habit.* The two
should be carried on contemporaneously with two pairs of rats.
Some interesting comparisons will in the form of discrimination
be apparent.
A further study of intelligence may be made, after the two
pairs have mastered their lessons, by interchanging the boxes.
After this new task has been performed, the problem may be
complicated still more by alternating the boxes at unequal in-
tervals. If it is desired to test even further the adaptability
of the rat, other complications or variations may be devised.
Careful analysis of these experiments will reveal the parts
played by the different psychic elements : the instinct feeling
of hunger (and curiosity too, perhaps,), the instinctive activities
employed, recognition, memory — these all combining to form
complex asspciations.
The Cat.
" The cat seems to be a much more intelligent animal than is often
supposed . ' ' — Mivart.
' ' Indeed no greater contrast in table manners can be observed any-
where than when we turn from the kennel or the pig sty and watch
the dainty way in which a cat takes its meals." — Robinson.
" In will-power, and ability to maintain an independent existence
the cat is superior to the dog." — Mills.
*I use nothing but dog biscuit. The rats must not be over fed.
^Not more than two rats should be set to this task at once.
"^ A small hook soldered to the lower part of the door serves to attach
the spring to the door.
^ Kline, L. W.: Loc. cit., p. 279.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOI.OGY. 427
A psychological study of the cat, ^ or allied species, will be
more profitable and certainly more pleasant to both student
and cat if the former bears in mind the dominant cat traits :
She is independent of man from a vegetative standpoint ;
self-willed, will not brook restraint ; she is slow to forget an
injury and often resents it ; enjoys kind treatment ; she is for
the most part solitary in her habits.
The senses, instinctive activities, the emotions, the forma-
tion of habits, and the growth of intelligence constitute the
essential material for observation and investigation.
The order in which the senses develop, and likewise the
order and the conditions under which the instinctive movements
and the expression of the emotions occur, should first engage
the attention, and that, too, not later than the second day.^
Sense of Smell, Cheese, meat, warm milk, the hands after
being rubbed over a dog, after handling mice, carbolic acid,
etc., may be presented as objects of smell. Can you distin-
guish between the act of sensing and the motor reactions ?
Sense of Taste. Solutions of sugar, salt, and aloes may be
applied to the tongue by means of a feather or camel's hair
brush. Milk, vinegar, and meat juice may be similarly
applied.
Touch. Reaction to the sense of touch may be solicited by
touching the sole of the forepaw, the mouth, inner surface of
the nostrils and the ear with a broom straw, or knitting needle.
Temperature. Heat an iron rod to an uncomfortable degree
to the human skin (not hot enough to burn) and place it
against the sole of the kitten's foot.
Pain. Pinch difierent parts with forceps or fingers — note
the latent time before the response. Does the latent time
shorten with age ?
Sense of Support.^ (a). Uneasiness manifested by cries,
and gripping the supporting surface vigorously with its claws,
when it crawls to the edge of the same, is interpreted as a re-
sponse to a disturbance of the sense of support.* If convenient
make the same experiment with a turtle, a puppy, an ant, a
slug, a chick. (b). Place the kitten on a board 12 x 14
iBrehin : Thiereleben (Saiigethiere, Vol. I, pp. 461-480.) ; J. Hamp-
den Porter's Wild Beasts, pp. 76, 305, contains many significant obser-
vations on the habits and traits of Felidie.
2 Prof. Wesley Mills is the first scientist to have observed daily the
psychic development of the cat from birth to maturity. Many of the
above suggestions are founded on Prof. Mills's work. See also Bernard
Perez : Mes Deux Chats ; Fragment de Psychologic Compar^e, pp. 39-
78. Paris, 1881.
* See literature under Rat.
♦Prof. Mills says : " This seems to me as fundamental as anything
that is to be found in animal psychology."
428 KI.INE :
inches, the sagittal axis coinciding with the length of the
board. Tip the board slowly by raising one side until the
kitten perceives the new position. Tip the forward end in the
same way, then the rear end — note the angle that the board
makes with the horizon in each of the positions.^
Reactions to Rotation. Place the kitten on a small rotation
table — head toward the periphery. Turn the table at a
moderate rate through one rotation — note the direction of the
first movement after the table stops.
Hissing."^ This mode of expressing a certain group of emo-
tions is natural only to the Felidcs^ Reptilia^ and a few birds.
What stimulus provoked the first hissing sound. How many
kinds of hissing sounds can you detect in the kitten ? Note
the same points with regard to spitting.
Tail and Ear Movements} The movements of these pen-
dant organs are for the most part instinctive, though in the
case of the ear they would seem to be more of the nature of a
reflex. Their quivering motion is a curious phenomenon.
Sight. Byes open about eighth day — note shape, color,
the distance at which objects are recognized, when the kitten
first follows a moving object by turning the head and by rolling
the eyes.
Special directions for observation and experimentation on the
kitten after the tenth day are not only useless but a positive
hindrance. No two observers are likely to surround the young
cat with the same environment and conditions; therefore, in the
matters of habit and intelligence, each place will have its own
special problems. But the appearance of instincts and emo-
tions peculiar to the cat will occur under all favorable conditions,
so that it may be helpful to indicate what to expect or look for
as the psychic life of the cat unfolds. lyook then for the first
appearance of spitting, hissing, making its toilet,* playing
with inanimate objects,^ chasing moving objects, stretching
and yawning, especially after a nap or leaving its nest, enjoy-
ing being stroked, setting claws into upright objects, tree-
climbing, purring, crouching, "lying in wait," bowing the
back in rage, playing '* with real living prey," e. g.^ a mouse,*
playing ''with living mock prey,"' e. g., its mother or another
^*' (b) " is not an experiment to test the sense of support, but rather
that of " position."
^For a probable origin of hissing and tail wagging, see Louis
Robinson, "Wild Traits in Tame Animals." London, 1897, pp. 228-
264.
^Ingersoll, B. : Wild Neighbors. See chap. " The service of Tails."
* Robinson, Louis : Loc, cit., pp. 262-264.
* Robinson, Louis: Loc. cit.^ pp. 228-229.
* Groos, Karl : The Play of Animals, pp. 121 and 130.
' Mills, Wesley : Loc. cit., p. 196.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 429
kitten. How many of these activities can you account for ?
What is their significance in the economy of cat life ? A study
in the formation of associations and their consequent habits,
may most naturally begin (a) by observing the kitten in learn-
ing its name. Make a record of the number of times the name is
uttered until it is recognized by the kitten. While teaching it,
the name should be used judiciously, and always in immediate
connection with a pleasurable reward, e. g., food, stroking,
giving it a play object to which it has become attached.
(b). Select from among its play activities, one that the cat
may be readily induced to repeat (this the observer must
decide), then create conditions that will call forth a second
one that has a pleasure giving or satisfying effect. Note the
number of times necessary to create the new condition that
shall call forth the second act without hesitation. The follow-
ing account of an actual case will illustrate the point. After
the young cat had become accustomed to play with a ball, a
long string was attached to the ball by which it was withrawn
gently from the cat and dropped into a work-basket. The
cat saw the whole performance and immediately took the ball
from the basket and continued the play for a few minutes
when the ball was jerked away and dropped into the basket
with the quickest possible despatch. After two experiences,
i. e., at the third time the ball was jerked away, the cat went
directly to the basket. The experiment may be varied — basket
moved before the ball is jerked into it, a different basket used,
etc.
Under this head would come teaching^ some of the well known
^ A radically different method for studying associative processes from
those given in (a) and (b) has been used by Dr. Thorndike. (Thorn-
dike, E. ly.: Animal Intelligence, p. 6. New York, 1898.) "It was
merely to put animals when hungry in enclosure from which they
could escape by some simple act, such as pulling at a loop of cord,
pressing a lever, or stepping on a platform. . . . The animal was
put in the enclosure, food was left outside in sight, and his actions
observed. Besides recording his general behavior, special notice was
taken of how he succeeded in doing the necessary act, and a record
was kept of the time that he was in the box before performing the
successful pull, or clawing, or bite. This was repeated until the an-
imal had formed a perfect association between the sense impression of
the interior of that box and the impulse leading to the successful
movement." I recommend that the food be put in the box and the
animal on the outside^ free, unhampered, and that the several tasks
set by Dr. Thorndike for the animal to do in order to escape be accord-
ingly transferred to the outside of the boxes. I have found this method
to work admirably well with the white rat, and the cat. See Am.
Jour, of Psychology, 1899, Vol. X, pp. 277-279. The time required to
perform each experiment, and particularly just how it is done, and
whether or not experience facilitates the execution of the task, are
among the essential items to be noted.
430 KI.INE :
tricks, e. g., rolling over, jumping through the hands, "beg-
ging " in upright position, shaking hands, etc.
Full notes are always valuable. While teaching them a task,
the notes should be made as near as possible at the time of the
experiment. It is highly important, too, that every circum-
stance attending the cat's first successful effort in doing a set
task be carefully noted. • If convenient, photographs should be
taken ; and especially of attitudes expressive of emotions that
are usually so difficult to describe.
THE EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY AS EVIDENCED
BY FAITH CURES/
By Hknry H. Goddard, A. M., Fellow in Psychology,
Clark University.
Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie,
Which we ascribe to heaven.
— Shakespeare.
Perhaps no question is forcing itself upon the attention of
society, concerning which there is so little knowledge and so
much prejudice, as the question of the value and rights, of the
new methods of treating disease, included under the compre-
hensive term, — '* Faith Cure."
In some one of its forms it is making its appearance on all
sides. The medical man has it to contend with : he finds a
patient has left him to try a mental practitioner ; or else he is
called to treat a new patient upon whom * * mind cure ' ' has
failed. The legal profession has occasionally to decide whether
the mental healer is guilty of mal-practice, or the friends and
relatives of a deceased person guilty of "culpable neglect"
because they trusted to some form of mental therapeutics and
did not consult the recognized doctors of medicine. The
minister meets it as a more or less persistent theological doc-
trine, which he must either uphold or denounce. Finally, no
person can see a friend enduring a lingering illness, unbenefited
by the arts of the physician, without having this new method
urged upon him, and without having at least the beginnings of
a query in his own mind as to whether there is ' ' anything in
it" or not. And if the friend who looks on, how much more
does the sick one himself, wearing out the weary hours of
suffering, watching the weeks grow into months and the months
into years, with no improvement, wonder if, since everything
else has failed, it may not be worth while to try the prayer
cure or hypnotism or Christian Science.
Whenever one of these people in any one of these different
classes attempts to find a basis for a rational conclusion, or facts
^ In this paper we have attempted to present a brief survey of the
field, that portion of the data which is of most psychological interest,
and some of the conclusions, from an extended study of mental thera-
peutics. We hope to present in a later publication an extended report
of all the work referred to.
432 GODDARD :
to help him to a wise decision, he invariably finds such a con-
fusion that, as a rule, he gives up in despair.
yJ/272flf cure suggests psychology, and the psychologist is ap-
pealed to for the laws of mind which may explain the phenom-
ena and give the rationale of the question. But the psycholo-
gist is silent; or at most can only say: "The relation of mind
to body is unknown to us, and in the nature of things will
probably never be determined. ' '
It is the method of the * * New Psychology, ' ' however, to collect
all the facts possible, in relation to such questions, in the belief
that, in time, these facts which at first are so isolated as to be
without any apparent relation, may eventually be so numerous
and so complete that they will fit into each other, and exhibit
a more or less perfect picture.
It is believed, that even if this study yields no new relations
in psychology, it at least puts together facts that may some-
time be of value to the psychologist, and will at once appeal
to all who are interested in the practical side of ameliorating
human ills.
In the following pages, we propose to give a brief account of
the principal forms under which the practice of treating disease
without drugs, appears ; next to show the relation of these to
each other; and finally select one — the so-called Mental Science —
for a fuller treatment. This will be followed by such explana-
tion as we are able to give by correlating it with more scientific
practices in the same line; concluding with a little speculation
on some of the deeper problems suggested by the facts presented.
We have alluded to ' ' Faith Cure ' ' practices as among the
new methods of treating diseases. As a matter of fact the
principle is as old as human history, and only certain claims
and certain methods of applying it are new. Of these new
forms probably the most pretentious as well as the best known
is Christian Science. The school of ' * Healers ' ' known as
Christian Scientists, own allegience to, and claim as the dis-
coverer of the practice, Mary Baker Glover Patterson Eddy.
The book which contains the doctrines of the sect is believed
to have been written by Mrs. Eddy under divine inspiration.
Mary Morse Baker was born in Bow, N. H., July 21, 182 1.
Her father was of Scotch descent. As a child, Mary was sickly
and hysterical; not able to attend school much and consequently
received very little education. December 12, 1843, she married
George W. Glover, an architect, of Wilmington, N. C. Mr.
Glover died suddenly of cholera in May, 1844. One child — a
boy — resulted from this marriage. After about fourteen years
she married Dr. Patterson, a dentist, of Franklin, N. H. He
was a man of excellent character, and did everything possi-
ble for his wife. In 1862, Mrs. Patterson went to Portland
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 433
to be treated by Dr. Quimby's mental methods of curing
disease. In 1865 she obtained a divorce from Patterson. Her
first publication was copyrighted in 1870, and she published
'"Science and Health" in 1875. In 1877, she married Asa
Eddy, of Lynn, Mass. In 1879, she organized a "mind heal-
ing church," of which she became pastor in 1881. She also
established her "Metaphysical College" in 1881. Her hus-
band, and also her adopted son, Foster Eddy, assisted her in
the college. Mr. Eddy died suddenly in 1882. In 1889, she
closed her college, and since then has devoted herself to the
advancement of Christian Science theories through her writings.
The growth of the organization has been rapid and large. Mrs.
Eddy now resides in Concord, N. H. , and is seldom seen even by
her most devoted follow^ers. "Science and Health" is in its
i6otli edition, and her other writings have passed through many
editions.
These writings, particularly "Science and Health," contain
the authoritative creed of the organization, the foundation of
their theory and practice. The teaching is a sort of absolute
idealism. Mind is divine; mind is all. Sin and sickness are
delusions of "mortal mind." The "treatment" consists in
the assertion that sickness is not a reality but only a ' * belief. ' '
The acceptance of this view by the patient is the cure sought
for.
The following account, received from a Christian Scientist
healer, in answer to our syllabus, will probably give as clear
an idea of the philosophy, theory, and practice of Christian
Science, as it would be possible for us to give in the space at
our disposal.
I suppose the object in sending me these questions to answer is to
learn the character of Christian Science method or principle of heal-
ing; and so the answers take up the subject as viewed from that
standpoint. If you find them unintelligible or unsatisfactory, it is
because of the wide difference between the bases of methods built up
from a material, mental or bodily cause, and a wholly metaphysical
being.
Please relate the facts connected with the cure of any physical ailment, witboui
medicine. Mention in same way any disease prevented in similar manner.
The facts as revealed by a study of Christian Science, show that the
only agency ever effective in curing disease, is some faculty of mind ;
that matter having no potency in and of itself, it follows that the exer-
cise of mental belief, ascribing certain degrees, qualifications and
results, either to the drug or material process, is what restores the
patient. But suppositional faith, basing its reasoning on the evidence
of one or more of the physical senses, is unreliable, since it can only
reason uncertainly from effect to cause ; causation thus being an un-
proven hypothesis, liable to be found only another effect on deeper
investigation.
Christian Science shows such reasoning to be useless, since not un-
derstanding how the phenomena of disease is dissipated, the patient
434 GODDARD :
is liable to recurrence in the same or another form, and is unable to
prevent or to cure himself.
Christian Science starts with a demonstrable fact for its causation,
found in a self-evident, self-existent Principle of Mind, and reaches
an understood and knowable cure through its application in a scientific
process.
IVbat was the nature of your malady ?
It had none. Disorganization is not an entity to be characterized.
How long had you been afflicted with it ?
Ever since the belief that disease was a substantial entity, instead
of a negation.
How did you first discover that you were a victim of disease ? Gve fully your
symptoms.
By a consciousness of limitation, i. e., finiteness.
How did the idea come to you that you could be healed ? If suggested by some
person, what was your estimate of that person ?
The conviction that limitation was an error, as shown by the inabil-
ity and suffering it brought ; and that it was right to be well ; and
sickness was a wrong.
Suggested by a sense of justice.
IVas your cure instantaneous ?
Yes.
If so, how did you kno-w that you were cured ?
By the instant receding of disease ; and the corresponding increas-
ing of health and strength.
Did you know it at the time, or not until later ?
At the time ; since mind first perceiving the truth, its objective mani-
festation begins to appear.
THd you have to test it, before becoming convinced that a cure had actually
taken place ?
No ; it brought its own self-evident proof with it.
If not instantaneous, how rapid was it ? How do you know that it was any more
than a natural recovery ?
It was natural recovery. There is no other genuine recovery, since
health (omipotent and self-existent intelligence), when left to itself,
without any erroneous interference, will do its own work naturally.
IVas there any new feeling in the diseased part at time of recovery, or in any part
of the body ? If so, describe aftd explain what you thought it meant.
No. The disappearance of sensation left the body free to respond to
any use the mind would have for it.
Since the more intense the sensation, the more powerless the organ
to act harmoniously ; it follows that the theory that matter is con-
scious intelligence, is a causative error, expressing itself in disease.
Christian Science proves this true, for, by correcting this mistaken
theory, the afflicted organ is relieved, and becomes free to be adapted to
any action the mind may demand of it.
Have you ever doubted your complete cure, or had a relapse ? If so, give reasons
for your first doubt, or the occasion of your first realipn^ that you were not per-
manently cured ? To what do you attribute the relapse ? To what your cure ?
No. A principle is a complete whole, hence can manifest nothing less.
Any appearance of relapse or failure comes from lack of principle, ist,
to the fact that mind creates all phenomena. 2nd. That the instant a
fact is seen to be true, all previous theories, regardless of age or sup-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 435
posed substantiality, disappear as realities from that mind. 3rd. That
the phenomena of the theoretical conception also vanishes with it,
since effect cannot exist without its cause.
If you have ever tried to get healed by any of these methods, and failed, relate the
circumstances.
Failure followed ever}^ effort to find health, until Christian Science
was understood and demonstrated. Allopathy, homeopathy, hygiene,
rational systems, surgery, sanitarium treatments, mind cure, will-
power, all failed.
To what do you attribute your failure ?
To a mistaken belief that the eternal mind-principle of health was
a material condition ; that it could be lost and re-created by some
material mechanism, and was dependent upon physical conditions for
its existence and manifestation.
Please answer the following questions relating to your own persotiality, with great
care. Age ? Temperament ? Disposition ? Complexiofi ? Married ? Do you now,
or did you as a child, choose or avoid responsibility ? Did you, or do you, prefer
solitude or companions ? Were you precocious, backward or normal, in the matter
of learning to write, walk or talk ? JVbat was your health in childhood ?
This paragraph is unanswerable from Christian Science basis, since
it deals with mentality only, and recognizes physicality as the mani-
festation of mistaken, changing, human belief ; having no fixed charac-
ter of its own, and subject to constant correction.
If you were healed in answer to prayer, kindly describe the circumstances, and
answer the following questions in addition to the above.
If by prayer is meant a petition to set aside fixed law and its penal-
ties to please some favored petitioner, decidedly, no. If it means a
humble, steadfast desire for spiritual, mental, and bodily wholeness,
recognized as a God-given right to all, to be received in proportion to
man's intelligent understanding of the God-nature and its operation ;
yes.
IVbat bad been your religious experience previous to your cure ?
I found nothing in popular religions or philosophies of any practical
value.
IVhat was your idea of the ejficacy of prayer ?
It had none beyond a blind faith in the petitioner, resulting in a
manifestation of self-mesmerism.
How did the faith that you could be cured, first come to you?
Realizing the fact that disease was discord, led me to seek every
means possible to find the harmony which is health.
State any doubts that you had.
Neither doubts nor certainties ; as it was simply another experiment.
IVhat plan had you formulated, or what conditions did you expect to have to
fulfill before you could be healed ?
Obedience to any requirement ; as would be expected in giving a
fair trial to any system.
Did it happen as you had planned, or did you change your views of the matter ?
If the latter, how did you come to change your views ?
The positive proof of the disappearance of disease, left no room for
questioning the presence of health or the success of the means em-
ployed.
IVas the final result in any way contrary to your expectations ? If so, how ?
I had no expectations.
436 GODDARD :
fVbat physical sensationsy if any, accompanied your restoration ?
None whatever.
Had you any previous conception as to how the cure might take place ?
No.
IVhat was your mental and religious state at the time of the cure ?
Having been a student of various philosophies and material sciences,
both mental and religious conditions were the essence of materialism.
Did you seem to have any ^^ revelation,'' or was there any ^* manifestation" as
of " angels " or *^ flames '^ or ^^ voices,'' or any such thing?
Not the slightest.
IVas it comparable to any of the cures wrought by Jesus, or any other case of
which you had heard or read?
It was comparable to the cures wrought by Jesus, in that as we who
are healed in Christian Science to-day, so with the people of those
days; after "suffering many things of many physicians," found dis-
ease not lessened and often increased ; turned as a last resort to the
Master Healer. In like manner, by the same demonstrable principle
which Christian Science finds He worked by, the sick are healed to-day.
JVhat effect has your cure had upon your religious life ?
My cure, study, and demonstrations of Christian Science, prove to
me the existence of a practical, scientific theology, whose principle
demonstrates itself to be true, in its power over sin, sickness, death,
and all discordant conditions in material environment.
It proves the Sermon on the Mount, and the Kingdom of Heaven on
Earth, to be present possible standards for humanity to live by, in pro-
portion as each one accepts the standard and obeys the rules which
Christian Science shows to be the way to gain this harmony of Infinite
love.
If you were healed through the influence or mediation of some person or " healer!'
or " bypnoti^er," kindly describe the appearance and character.
The healing of Christian Science is not through any influence or
mediation of a healer.
The patient goes to a so-called healer, through a mistaken idea that
the healer possesses some ability or understanding which he has not.
Like an elder brother, the so-called healer corrects this mistake, as
well as others, through mental processes, until the patient's mind is
in a condition to be corrected audibly, and shown how the work is
done directly for himself.
Any seeming failure in cures arises from lack of adherence to its
principle, either in patient, healer, or both.
Please mention any books bearing on these subjects that you regard as good.
The only text-book of genuine unadulterated Christian Science is
"Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures," by Rev. Mary
Baker G. Bddy. Published in Boston.
We will add one more.
Dkar Sir : I cannot send you returns. To a student of Christian
Science there is no psychology, for there is but one soul even as there
is but one God. God is soul. Man reflects soul, for man is " made in
the image of God," but soul is not in man; the less cannot contain
the greater. And whereas before I was healed from chronic invalidism
through the "teachings of Christian Science" I used to think much
on your topics, I wish never to think or refer to them again; cannot
and be consistent or obedient to the teaching which heals. They are
mental poison to me.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 437
May I please express a wish for you and all that are making a
"scientific study," all who are seeking for knowledge — a wish that
you and they might be induced to study the Bible in the light of
•' Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures," by Mary Baker G.
Eddy.
Yours in truth,
Christian Science is an offshoot from another school which
we shall term Mental Science — a term quite generally used by
those who practice this form. Mental Science may be said to
have originated about the middle of this century through the
efforts of P. P. Quimby.
It differs from Christian Science in that it acknowledges no
allegiance to any one man, and does not claim to be a special
revelation from God, but seeks the basis for its theory in the
teachings of the old philosophers or modern mystics, and espe-
cially empirically in the results of its practice in the realm of
therapeutics. It has not the explicit religious form of Christian
Science. It is a philosophy, a theory of life. We give a
fuller account of its theory and practice in a later portion of
this paper.
Another form of curing disease without medicine is the so-
called Divine Healing. Under the general idea that God heals
disease in answer to the prayer of faith, we find many varia-
tions in the method, or rather the ceremonies accompanying it,
and some little disagreement as to the strict theology of the
process. But since they all produce results, it may be assumed
that the differences do not go further than the minds of the
healers, and that the real principle lies deeper than individual
theories.
Of course it goes without saying that the whole practice is
based upon the Bible, and the differences are the result of
differences in interpretation. One division anoints with oil
according to the suggestion of the Apostle James. Another
heals by the laying on of hands, according to the practice of
the other Apostles. While a third set discards all types and
formalities and simply prays for the afflicted one. It is gener-
ally agreed by all, that the result is according to the faith of
the sick one, and the fact that any particular prayer is not
answered is evidence that the patient did not have sufficient
faith. There are, however, those who argue that it may be the
will of God that a person should endure sickness, and by such,
a resignation to the will of God is encouraged.
Rev. A. B. Simpson, of New York City, is one of the leaders
in this work. His teaching is peculiar in that he argues that
when once a person has prayed for healing it is dishonoring
God to doubt the cure or to ask for a sign or symptom. The
person must claim he is healed and expect it. This accounts
438 GODDARD :
for the many people who claim to be healed but whose appear-
ance contradicts their words.
Many oppose this view and hold that it is claiming a lie to
assert that one is healed when he is not. The chief opponent,
and the most pretentious healer is the Rev. John Alexander
Dowie, of Chicago.
A brief account of Dr. Dowie, will not be out of place here.
And fortunately we can give it in his own words as published
in his own Leaves of Healing, for Dec. ii, 1896. It gives not
only the facts of his life but his style, method, and manner of
preaching (for this is part of the report of his sermon), and his
general character.
He says :
I will give you a little of my autobiography, and I am not
ashamed of what God has wrought.
I was born in Edinburgh nearly 50 years ago.
Next May 25 I will be 50 years of age.
I earned my own bread from my 14th j^ear, and was brought
up in the academies of Edinburgh.
I went with my father, who is on this platform, to Australia.
I plunged into business, and within a few years was the
resident partner's confidential clerk in a firm doing $2,000,000
in open goods, every invoice of all these imports passing through
my hands.
Soon after that I became the financial manager with a part-
nership interest, small then but larger to come, in another firm ;
and though I say it, I do not boast of it, I had the confidence
before I was 21 years of age of men in the largest lines of
business, and was myself handling large concerns.
At that age I consecrated myself to the ministry, and my
money, hardly earned, and my time. With my father's co-
operation I studied privately and then returned to my native
city, Edinburgh, in the University of which I studied for some
time.
I have the honor, therefore, of being a Scotchman trained in
academical, in business, and in University life, and when I re-
turned to Australia my brethen in the Congregational body
within three short years gave me the honor of placing me at
the head of possibly the most important charge in the entire
denominational body — famous for its big heads, some people
think, and, after all, there is something in those heads, too.
I was the pastor of the Newtown, Sydney, Congregational
Church, which gave me the opportunity of ministering to the
professors and students of Camden College, the only Theolog-
ical Seminary of the Congregational Churches in Australia,
which brought me into close touch with many of the ablest
men in the great University of Sidney, a city of more than
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 439
half a million people. That was my third pastorate, and I
held it when I laid down my denominational connection to
give my life to a world-wide work for God and for humanity.
I had the honor of being at that time the leader — so Sir
Alfred Stephens, the Lieutenant-Governor and Chief Justice
for 29 years called me in a public meeting, — the leader of the
Social Reform Party.
I was offered by Sir Henry Parks the portfolio of Minister
of Education in his government, and I could have been, he
said, Premier within a few years, if I had only given myself
to politics.
I helped to mould public opinion, and helped to create legis-
lation in my own land, and was frequently chosen to do im-
portant public work.
For instance, the Liberals of Sydney once appointed me, in
company with Sir Henry Parks and the Editor of a Sydney
daily paper, to draw up an important document addressed to
the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone. This document was one of
great importance at a time when the foreign policy of the Tory
party under Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, had
strained the loyalty of Australia to the mother country.
On another occasion I was supported by the Protestant min-
isters of all denominations in Sydney in answering a famous
address of Archbishop Roger Bede Vaughan, and when my ad-
dress appeared in pamphlet form, it brought me kind commen-
dation from the late Mark Pattison, Master of Lincoln College,
Oxford, and from Mr. Gladstone himself. The largest hall in
Sydney was filled to overflowing with the leading men of the
land when this lecture was delivered, and it was the first gun
fired in a battle against Roman Catholic supremacy in educational
matters, the final result of which was the taking away of all
grants to denominations from the public treasury and the
establishment of a National Compulsory, and Free Educational
System for all the people.
I am also the General Overseer of the Christian Catholic
Church, which has tens of thousands of sympathizing friends
in and around Chicago, and we have set down at our monthly
Communion with nearly 2,000 communicants at one time in
the auditorium.
I am the editor, proprietor, printer and publisher of * * Leaves
of Healing, ' ' a weekly paper with thousands of subscribers in
all parts of the world, and God is blessing our little White
Dove, of which we have no reason to be ashamed.
My position entitles me to courtesy, and the recognition of
my ministry.
Beside Dr. Simpson and Dr. Dowie there are many local
440 GODDARD :
leaders in this work whose methods differ slightly from those
already mentioned. There is also a class of ' ' travelling healers' *
who go about from place to place, each with his own claims to
power, and with his own methods. Three of these may be men-
tioned, as the types and forerunners of what bids fair to become
a distinct guild — that of the tramp healers. These are Schlatter,
Schrader, and Bradley Newell. The first two, * * Divine Healers, ' '
the last, "Magnetic."
Schrader and Newell are too well known through the daily
press to need description here.
A brief biography of Schlatter will illustrate the type when
sincere.
The career of Francis Schlatter is a most unique bit of biog-
raphy. A native of Alsace, France, a shoemaker by trade, he
came to America in 1 884 ; spent some years in New York ;
went to Denver in 1892. In his youth he attended school un-
til 14; but all his life he was a reader, student, and thinker. In
1893, at the age of 37, he became possessed of the idea that
God — ''Father" as he always familiarly called him, — wanted
him to go forth from Denver on foot. He obeyed, and during
the following two years walked through Colorado, Kansas,
Indian Territory, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, and
back to New Mexico. On this journey he endured untold pri-
vations and hardships, from hunger, thirst, heat, cold, and
unkind treatment. But he * ' had to " do it ; and always obeyed
' ' Father ' ' at whatever cost. ' ' Father ' ' often told him to go
without food for days at a time, and often allowed him water
only on alternate days. He was imprisoned as insane at two
different times. His own account of his wandering is interest-
ing though somewhat monotonous reading.
He was well read on the great moral, religious, and social
problems, and discussed them with a good deal of ability. He
was possessed of the idea that he was Christ, and explicitly
declared it on a few occasions ; though as a general thing he
talked and acted without any apparent idea of such an imper-
sonation. Only his appearance, dress, hair, etc. , were strikingly
suggestive of the mediaeval pictures of Christ.
His discussions were strongly marked by two ideas — reincar-
nation, and socialism.
Whatever conclusion one reaches as to his real nature and
condition, no one can doubt the sincerity of the man. He
honestly thought himself called to do a great work for ' 'Father, ' '
and he devoted himself to it with all his energy, and with that
childlike faith which produced suprising results. One can but
regret that his ideas only led to his untimely death.
Following these, as another species of mental therapeutics,
we may mention hypnotism. The treatment of disease by
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 44 1
hypnotism is avowedly a matter of suggestion. While exten-
sive in its use and application, it is yet confessedly limited.
Practiced by a large number of regular physicians, some of them
of world-wide reputation, the cases number many thousands and
constitute some of the most valuable sort of data.* We shall
revert to this more at length later.
The following account taken from Bernheim (Suggestive
Therapeutics, p. 363,) will illustrate his method :
M., 27. Married, delicate constitution, nervous temperament, suffer-
ing from severe intercapular pain. Pressure in the region causes severe
pain. I propose to hynotize him by closing the eyes. He gives him-
self up to it with a bad grace. He is very impressionable and fears
that I wish to perform an operation on him. I reassure him, and con-
tinue suggestion, holding his eyes closed. His nervous anxiety is with
difficulty dissipated. His hands tremble. However, he goes into
profound sleep; there is relaxation without catalepsy, and no memory
upon waking. I energetically suggest calmness of mind ; I affirm
that the pain has disappeared.
Having let him sleep alone for about six minutes, he has several
nervous spasms and calls out: " I am falling ! " and then awakens as
if coming out of a nightmare. He remembers having dreamed that
he was falling into a ditch. The pain has almost completely disap-
peared; he is surprised; cannot find the sore spots. I hypnotize him,
a second time. He gives himself up easily. His sleep is more quiet ;
there are slight nervous movements in his hands. I suggest the com-
plete disappearance of the pain. Upon waking he remembers having
heard talking but does not know what I said There is not the
slighest pain. He does not understand it; his astonishment has
something comical about it.
Such is Bernheim' s own account, slightly abridged, of one
case. Of course it must be understood, that, as in regular
practice, no two cases are treated just alike.
Besides these four distinct schools of curing disease without
drugs, there are many minor forms in which the same element
is to be seen, though not usually so considered. Among these
may be mentioned Patent Medicines in so far as they cure * ' in-
curable diseases ' ' or produce results out of proportion to the
known therapeutic value of the drugs constituting the com-
pound. Especially is this seen in the great number of patent
"devices" for the cure of disease, such as ''electric" belts,
bandages and garments of all sorts, also the various inhalers.
A striking device, remarkable for the cures it has wrought,
as well as for the absolute freedom from anything curative ex-
cept its name, might be designated as a string one end of which
is fastened to the ankle of the patient, while the other end is
tied to a tin can which is then immersed in a dish of water or
buried in the ground. Again we have no end of ' ' health fads, ' '
each producing its long list of testimonials, in the shape of
cures of more or less serious diseases, but which again reduce
in the last analysis, to the effect of the mind of the patient
JOURNAI,— 8
442 GODDARD :
Upon his own body. ' * Home remedies ' ' also contain many-
instances of the same thing, and they in turn are the survivals
in the present time of the older customs which characterized
the age when nearly all therapeutics was a science of magic.
In the study, of which the present paper presents a portion,
all of these phases have been investigated extensively. Folk-
lore literature has been ransacked for all that it could furnish
in regard to practices, superstitious and otherwise, relating to
therapeutics. The "fads" of modem times have been col-
lected ; the household remedies still in vogue have added their
testimony; patent medicines and devices have been examined
as to their actual medicinal value, and the results they produce.
Their testimonials have been examined and verified.
We have studied with the hypnotist, seen him at work and
learned his art. Hundreds of cases treated by hypnotism have
been studied and tabulated. The divine healer has been ob-
served in many instances and particularly in the persons of
Schrader, whose blessing we received on two occasions, and
Dowie, whose work we visited and whose method we studied
in his ' * Divine healing home ' ' in Chicago.
As a basis for study of Divine Healing, we have over i,6oo
records of individual cures, all of more or less value and
completeness.
The cases to be discussed are nearly all from Dr. Dowie' s
work. About two-thirds of them are females. In age they
range from 6 mos. to 86 yrs. though the main part of them are
between 20 and 50. Of the women, the married are about three
times as numerous as the unmarried.
The duration of the disease from which they were healed,
varies from a few minutes to fifty- two years. The average time
is about twelve years for each sex. Thirty- three per cent, report
their healing instantaneous, fifty per cent, gradual and seven-
teen per cent, say they are not yet perfectly healed. It must be
noted that while thirty-three per cent, report instantaneous
healing, it is clear from their own account that they almost al-
ways mean that pain ceased instantly. And it may be men-
tioned here that of all the returns that give data on that point,
almost every one shows that pain ceased at the time of prayer.
Again, of the whole number seventy-six per cent, were
treated, or prayed with, by Dr. Dowie in person, seven and
one-half per cent, were prayed for by him at a distance. Four
and one-half per cent, were prayed for by Mrs. Dowie. Seven
and one-half per cent, were healed in answer to their own
prayers or efforts and four and one-half per cent, were healed
in answer to prayers of friends.
The number of ailments mentioned in their accounts of
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 443
themselves, varies from i to 9 for the males, and i to 1 1 for
the females.
The time that has elapsed since the cure varies from a few
days to fourteen years. Time required for full recovery may
be as much as two months. If longer than that it seems to be
regarded as a failure and is not mentioned.
As to diseases cured they have been classified roughly as
follows: the figures are per cents.
Diseases.
Ner-
vous.
Circu-
lation.
Respi-
ration.
Digest.
Conta-
gious.
Wounds.
Can-
cer.
Rheu-
matism.
ies.
lale
20
s. 22
10
14.5
20
18
15
16
5
5
14
3-5
5
II.5
II
9.5
Among the remarkable features mentioned may be noted the
following: Legs lengthened from i to 5 inches. "Gained 95
lbs." Hip lY^. inches reduced. 56 abscesses at one time,
cured. Deaf and dumb. Senseless 3 weeks. While the men
report: "40 whiskies a day," cured. "Wreck physically."
Hip disease. Goitre. 3 Bullets. Deaf and dumb. Fever
settled in bones. Appendicitis. Leg shortened 2 inches. Born
blind. Deaf after measles.
These were jotted down as the reports were read, simply as
an indication of the range of the work. In the reports of
women the term ' ' Internal troubles ' ' is often mentioned. From
the context it appears that the expression generally refers to
troubles peculiar to that sex. In other cases such troubles
are directly specified.
The following is a list of the * ' Troubles ' ' as stated by the
patients themselves:
Abscess; accident; ague; appendicitis; ankle sprained; asth-
ma; backache; back weak; bad habits; bilious trouble; blindness;
blind from birth; blood poisoning; Bright 's disease; bronchitis;
bronchial disease; broken arm; burns; burnt hands; blood dis-
ease; brain fever; cancer; cancer in tongue; cancerous tumor;
carbuncle; catarrh; chills; cholera infantum; cholera morbus;
congestion of lungs; consumption; constipation; convulsions;
cough; chlorasis; compound curvature of spine; croup; deaf-
ness; deaf and dumb; diabetes; diarrhoea; diphtheria; dislo-
cated shoulder; dislocated knee; dropsy; dysentery; dyspepsia;
diphtheretic paralysis; devil cast out; earache; eczema; epi-
lepsy; erysipelas; eyes, inflammation of; eyes, weak; eyes,
sight failing; feeble minded child; fever; fever sores; felon;
fistula; gangrene; gambling; goitre; granulated eyelids; gall
stone ; headache ; healed when dying ; heart disease ; heart
broken ; heel lame ; hay fever ; hydatids ; hydrophobia ; hem-
orrhage of lungs; hemorrhage of kidneys; hemorrhoids; her-
444 GODDARD :
nia ; hip broken ; hip disease ; hip joint renewed; hysteria;
imperfect sight; infidelity; impediment of speech; impotent; in-
digestion; inflammation of bowels; inflammation of stomach; in-
flammation of lungs; inflammatory rheumatism; internal tumor;
ivy poison; internal troubles; intestinal trouble; insanity; kid-
ney and bladder; knee, injured; knee, stiff; knee, swelling in;
la grippe; lame; leg too long; leg too short; leg, poisoned;
leucaemia; liver trouble; locomotor ataxia; lung trouble; lung
fever; lumbago; malaria; measles; meningitis; morphine habit ;
mumps; nearsightedness; nervous exhaustion; nervous pros-
tration; nervous trouble; neuralgia; nervous debility; ovarian
tumor; palsy; paralysis; periostitis; piles; pneumonia; poly-
pus; puerperal convulsions; peritonitis; pleurisy; paralysis of
bowels ; palpitation of heart; quinsy ; rheumatism ; running
sore; rib broken; rupture; salt rheum; scalding; scarlet fever;
scrofula; skin eruption; skull fractures; sick headache; spasms;
sea sickness; sleeplessness; small pox; spinal meningitis; sore
throat; spinal disease; spine, curvature of ; sciatica; stone can-
cer; stigmatism; stiff hip joint; stomach trouble; sunstroke;
synovitis; symmetrical keratiasis of the palms and soles; tape-
worm; throat trouble; tobacco; toothache; tonsilitis; tubercu-
losis; telegrapher's paralysis; tuberculosis of bowels; tumor; tu-
mor fibroid; thigh bone diseased; typhoid fever; ulcers; urinary
trouble; ulcers in bowels; varicose ulcer; varicose veins; whis-
key; wounds; wrist sprained; weak lungs; weak eyes; white
diphtheria; wild hairs; whooping cough; yellow fever.
The unfortunate Schlatter has been followed, by his own
written testimony, and that of his personal friends, through
his work as a healer and his wanderings alone until his death
from starvation in the deserts of the Southwest, a victim to a
peculiar form of delusional insanity manifesting itself in re-
ligiomania.
Cures at shrines such as I^ourdes, and by means of sacred
relics have contributed their lessons.
Christian Science has unwillingly yielded its facts and phi-
losophy to our work. By means of many personal interviews
with Christian Science healers, people who had been healed
and those upon whom the method had failed, and by a faithful
perusal of "Science and Health," together with a careful study
of the life of Mrs. Eddy from childhood, a clear view of the
whole system has been obtained. A study of cases similar to
those under divine healing has also been made.
Lastly, Mental Science has received its share of attention
and yielded perhaps the best returns. Mental Science healers
have been uniformly courteous and helpful, ready to furnish
records of their cures and often of their failures, willing to
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 445
discuss their theories and admit their limitations. The lit-
erature of this as well as of the other schools has been read.
The result of this investigation, extending over more than
two years, is an absolute conviction based upon evidence, only
one or two items of which we can give here, that the curative
principle in every one of the forms is found in the influence of
the mind of the patient on his body. In other words, however
different the claims and the method, the explanation of all is
the same. We may mention a few of the items leading to this
conclusion. They all cure disease and they all have failures.
They all cure the same kind of diseases and the same diseases
are incurable for them all. In those classes of disease where
the cures are wrought, there are the same percentages of cures
by all the methods. Stripped from a few characteristic phrases
all the reports from all the different forms are identical. A
testimonial to a patent medicine, for example, reads precisely
like one of Dowie's reports of a divine healing cure. Again
there are many records of people going from one school to
another and in this no one practice seems to show any advan-
tage. Some fail after trying all. Some fail to get cured by
divine healing, but get restored by Christian Science, and vice
versa. Others fail with Christian Science and are successful in
hypnotism, and vice versa.
In view of this unity of principle, we have selected for special
presentation here, the two forms of Mental Science and Hyp-
notism as typical of the whole matter. Mental Science gives
the best expression of the popular philosophy in this line, while
Hypnotism gives the scientist's view of the same thing. On the
popular side, Mental Science is free from the dogmatism of the
Christian Scientist, and the superstition of the divine healer.
The cases are the most fully reported, and the arguments of
the advocates are most intelligible.
As previously stated Mental Science originated with Dr.
Quimby, and we may now give a short sketch of his life and
philosophy, to be followed by a brief account of the later de-
velopments of the movement and lastly by the data of the cures
wrought by it.
Phineas Parkhurst Quimby was born in Lebanon, N. H.,
Feb. i6, 1802. While still a child his parents moved to Belfast,
Maine, where he thereafter always lived, although he had an
office in Portland the latter years of his life.
He had, perhaps, the average education of a boy in a small
town, in those days. It was meagre as to actual book study,
but evidently full of that suggestiveness which led him always
to long for more. He had an inventive mind, being interested
in mechanics, philosophy, and scientific subjects.
When about 36 years of age, a travelling hypnotist, elicited
446 GODDARD :
his intense interest. "At that time, Mr. Quimby was of me-
dium height, small of stature; quick-motioned and nervous,
with piercing black eyes, black hair and whiskers; a well-shaped,
well-balanced head; high, broad forehead, and a rather promi-
nent nose, and a mouth indicating strength and firmness of
will; persistent in what he undertook, and not easily defeated
or discouraged." (New England Mag., Mar., 1888.)
He began at once to experiment, trying to hypnotize any one
who would submit to the experiment. He soon found that he
had some success and finally discovered a subject whom he
could influence in a remarkable degree. With this subject he
gave exhibitions for several years, travelling through Maine
and New Brunswick.
He produced hypnosis, by sitting in front of his subject and
looking him in the eye for a few moments. The performances
were so remarkable that others began to investigate the matter,
and Mr. Quimby was called upon to use the powers of his sub-
ject to diagnose disease. Mr. Quimby soon noticed that the
diagnosis was always identical with what the patient himself,
or some one else in the room, thought was the trouble.
This gave him his first suggestion of the connection between
mesmerism and the cure of disease. From this time on he de-
voted himself to the study of what he considered the greatest
boon to mankind, that had ever been discovered — the cause and
cure of disease by mental states.
He soon found that the hypnotic state was unnecessary to the
success of his work, and accordingly dropped that part of his
practice, either because it was a bothersome and useless adjunct
to his work of healing, or, as seems more likely, because in
those days, mesmerism, especially when used in connection
with the health of any one, was generally regarded as witch-
craft, or some form of spiritism, atd this brought his great
discovery into undeserved disrepute.
Therefore, instead of going through the forms and ceremonies
usually accompanying hypnotization, he simply sat by the side
of his patient, talked with him about his disease, explained his
own theory, convinced him that his disease was an error and
"established the truth in its place, which, if done, was the
cure." He sometimes, in cases of lameness and sprains, ma-
nipulated the limbs of the patient, and often rubbed the head
of the patient with his hands, wetting them with water. He
said it was so hard for the patient to believe that his mere talk
with him produced the cure, that he did his rubbing simply
that the patient would have more confidence in him; but he
always insisted that he possessed no "powder" nor healing
properties different from any one else and that his manipulations
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 447
produced no beneficial effect upon the patient, although it was
often the case that the patient himself thought they did.
Mr. Quimby's practice increased rapidly. In 1859, he made
his headquarters at Portland though his home was still in
Belfast. In Portland he became favorably known and treated
many patients and performed some remarkable cures, as de-
scribed in the papers at that period.
In 1866, Dr. Quimby was overcome by the pressure of work,
which his unselfish devotion to humanity as he regarded it,
forbade him to neglect, and he passed away at his home in
Belfast, Me. *
While he was undoubtedly hampered by some superstitions,
for which the age was more responsible than he, and which his
successors have in part perpetuated and increased, and in part
outgrown; yet to him, undoubtedly, belongs the credit not of
discovering that mind influences matter, nor yet of originating
the philosopheme that all matter is the creation of mind, but
rather of practically applying the principles to the prevention
and cure of disease.
Whatever may be the future of mental healing, it must at
least take its place as a valuable addition to our methods of
coping with human infirmities.
A few quotations from Dr. Quimby's writings will show his
point of view — his philosophy.
He says of his method: "I give no medicines; I simply sit
by the patient's side and explain to him what he thinks is his
disease, and my explanation is the cure. And, if I succeed in
correcting his errors, I change the fluids of the system and
establish the truth, or health. The truth is the cure."
''When I mesmerized my subject he would prescribe some
little simple herb that would do no harm or good of itself.
In some cases this would cure the patient. I also found that
any medicine would cure certain cases, if he ordered it. This
led me to investigate the matter and arrive at the stand I now
take : that the cure is not in the medicine, but in the confidence
of the doctor or medium."
" Now I deny disease as a truth, but admit it as a deception,)
started like all other stories without any foundation, and handed
down from generation to generation till the people believe it,
and it becomes a part of their lives. So they live a lie, and
their senses are in it.
• ' To illustrate this, suppose I tell a person he has the diph-
theria; and he is perfectly ignorant of what I mean. So I
describe the feelings and tell the danger of the disease, and
how fatal it is in many places. This makes the person nervous,
and I finally convince him of the disease. I have now made
one; and he attaches himself to it, and really understands it,
448 GODDARD :
and he is in it body and soul. Now he goes to work to make
it, and in a short time it makes its appearance.
" My way of curing convinces him that he has been deceived ;
and if I succeed, the patient is cured. (1862)
* ' Man in his natural state was no more liable to disease than
the beast, but as soon as he began to reason, he became dis-
eased; his disease was in his reason."
Mental Science varies so much among the individual healers
and leaders that it is impossible to characterize it under one
head. One fairly representative statement is the following from
an editor of one of the numerous journals devoted to this move-
ment. He says that the movement is founded on the discovery
that, " Mind is the only power; that this is God's world, and
that all the people are his beloved children. The horrible,
God-dishonoring dogma of hell and perdition crumbles and
passes into nothingness before the marvellous light of Love.
The angry, vengeful, jealous God who cursed the world for so
many years — blighting hope, chilling love, scaring innocence
and emasculating divine manhood — now veils his distorted fea-
tures, and takes refuge in the dingy precincts of a few unen-
lightened orthodox churches. The God of Love, the All-good
Father, now reigns supreme."
Such is their theology. Their healing practice grows out of
that, and varies in its claims according to the nature of the
healer — whether he looks to the theoretical side, the theological;
or to the practical, the empirical. Some claim everything;
others claim little more than the most enlightened and broad
minded medical men admit.
The following quotations from a recent pamphlet (Christian
Science and the New Metaphysical Movement, published by
the Metaphysical Club, Boston,) emphasizes still further the
differences between Eddyism, and Mental Science.
'^ ' ' Christian Science proclaims the unreality of matter and of
the bod3^ The rational and broader thought, not only admits
the validity of the body, as veritable expression, but claims
that it is as good in its own place and plane, as is the soul or
spirit. While susceptible to mental moulding, it is neither an
error nor an illusion. . . . It is to be ruled, beautified,
and utilized in its own order, and not denied an existence.
Even admitting that the whole cosmos is in the last analysis,
but one Universal Mind and its manifestation even admitting
that all matter is but a lower vibration of spirit, and that the
human body is essentially a mental rather than a physical or-
ganism; still matter has its own relative reality and validity,
and is not to be ignored as illusion."
The broader view " utilizes a practical idealism. It is en-
tirely optimistic .... understanding, both from ex-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 449
perience and observation that a systematic employment of mental
potency in a rational, scientific, and idealistic manner has a
wonderful and unappreciated healing energy. . . . . It
does not antagonize common sense nor sound philosophy.
While thoroughly loyal to principle, and the higher causation,
and to an uncompromising spiritual philosophy, it recognizes
that progress must be evolutionary. It does not ignore the
good in existing systems, disparage reasonable hygiene, or deny
the place of certain departments of surgery, x It is not insen-
sible to the present and provisional uses of simple external
therapeutic agencies "
Mental Science is far more "scientific" than Christian Science
in that it is free from the dogmatism, and seeks for a broad and
general principle upon which to base its results. Being free from
the domination of any one mind claiming infallibility, and with-
out any organization, there is a much greater diversity in the
theories and in the practices of the different healers. There is
also a far greater readiness to accept the facts and to be governed
by them, to consider the views of others, and to accept such as
seem well founded. It must be remembered , however, that while
this is true of the Mental Scientists as a whole, there are those
who hold the extreme view that the ' ' science ' ' is fully estab-
lished, is perfect in its theory and absolutely invariable in its
results, and of universal application. At the other end are
those who emphasize the empirical side. They have seen re-
sults, they know the method is sure under certain circumstances.
They confess it is not in all cases, and whether it can be made
so or not, they are in doubt. They use it for what good they
can get out of it, and hope that time and experience will
make clear the true limits or the limitlessness of the application.
These varying attitudes are extremely valuable to the student,
and are worth presenting. They are well shown in the follow-
ing extracts from personal letters received from prominent per-
sons in this line.
Each letter is given entire and in the words of the writer,
except that changes are made in names and dates, etc. , in order
to prevent recognition and so save the writer from any un-
pleasant notoriety.
Condensed Personal Outi^ine — Mentai. Science.
M., 64. English descent. Sensitive, delicate organization ; very
conscientious ; strongly intuitive ; very imaginative ; fairly intellec-
tual. Subject to " ups and downs ; " dominated considerably by
conscious and unconscious fears and forebodings, which I now know
were largely caused by early theological training. Academic educa-
tion. In business inclined to overexertion. Intense business care and
responsibility developed nervous weakness. Fears and forebodings
prominent enough to cause mental disquietude. Alternations of de-
450 GODDARD :
pression became pronounced. Fears began to take new forms. Every
danger was magnified. Health broke and was obliged to quit business.
All this time was under best medical treatment, and observed hygi-
enic rules. No permanent improvement, but managed to keep about
the most of the time. Insomnia, dyspepsia, pain at base of brain,
with a variet)'^ of kindred ills. Entire lack of nerve. Consulted
famous physicians. No improvement. Acute attacks of tonsilitis,
colds and fevers. Morbid impulses, hard to resist.
Persuaded to try mental healing. I had tried everything else, and
was desperate, had but little faith. First healer made no impression.
After month went to another. No change for two weeks, and then
with sharp transitions for an occasional half hour or so, in a day, an
interval of perfect mental and physical harmony. Great revelation.
Had had nothing like it for years. New hope! But each time I
dropped back, seemed as bad as ever. But slowly the harmonious
seasons lengthened and became a little more frequent. Began to watch
my own mental processes and sequences, and interested myself in the
literature of the subject and the experiences of others. Gained gradual
command. Old and new thought in conflict within, plainly felt and
thoroughly diagnosed. Took some treatments off and on for two
years, but growingly, the greater normality of self-healing dawned
upon me. Increasingly learned to vanquish discordant and depressing
thoughts. The beauty and immense importance of this principle of
this practical idealism seemed to me a discovery — a truth beyond
value. I intuitively became thoroughly idealistic and optimistic.
I realized that the whole world is suffering, exactly as I had done,
though in a less degree. Knowledge of the creative power of thought
stood before me as the one great truth needed to cure the woes of the
world. But the supernaturalism of the church and the materialism
of science made and still make both hostile to such a philosophy.
A feeling of at-one-ment with the Universal Goodness, may be system-
atically cultivated and may be depended upon to displace all oppo-
sites. I became convinced that these things are law, as exact as any
law of physics or chemistry. Other experiences abundantly confirmed
my own.
For six years past I have taken no medicine, and not been confined
to my room for an hour. Temporarily, sometimes some of the old
scars or slight remnants of old chronic conditions appear, but they
give me no apprehension, and under the law are easily vanquished.
I have more solid enjoyment now in one year, than in the thirty years
from the time I was 20 until I was 50. The " Spirit of Truth " is a
natural, lawful, and veritable teacher. The importance to the world
of the harnessing of electrical forces, is infantile and puny, compared
with the intelligent utilization of the power of thinking according
to law.
F., 35.
Dear Sir:
my airy disposition and sanguine temperament finds mental
analysis and descriptive retrospection very irksome.
Two years ago I was first interested on my own account in Mental
Healing In receiving both absent and present silent treat-
ment (after I believed in the possibility of another's thought affecting
me, if they willed it and I set up no barrier) I was conscious of thrills
running up and down the body. The first treatments before I believed,
made no conscious impression on the body, but I was restored to my
normal buoyancy of spirit. The bodily ache did not begin to yield
until five or six months afterward, when I began to try to help myself
by saying and trying to feel that I loved everybody. I had for years
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 45 1
been deeply resentful toward one person and considered my final ner-
vous breakdown three years ago (six months duration) much aggra-
vated by the physician employed. As I gained control over my
resentment through Auto-Suggestion and help from the healer I began
to lose the physical ache Had no school training in psychol-
ogy, nor church training which satisfied anything higher than my
sense of the aesthetic.
Have left the Episcopal Church, as no creeds satisfy me. I worship
God by cultivating the fruits of the Spirit and by daily aspiration
towards "whatsoever things are true, honest, just, pure, lovely, and of
good report." The first intimation of the power of thought
over the body was given me by a German physician whose prescriptions
of iron and mineral water did no permanent good. One day after
observing me closely, he said "guard your thoughts Fraulein." ....
It has taken eight years for that seed to fructify. I could never for-
get that sentence. After I broke down, in my 33rd year, and began to
pull up, I was recommended to read some of the best works on this
subject.
These settled my belief that one can become physically, mentally,
morally, what they sincerely desire and will to. Intense desire and
concentrated thought will draw out of the invisible into the visible
In music (I spent eight hard, weary years in I^eipzig), in ora-
tory, in psycho-physical culture, the highest, noblest, purest, has been
drawn to me through the law of vibration. . . .
As for education, I was in and out of dozens of boarding schools,
from life in British Guiana, Ireland, France, and New England, until
twenty-one years of age ; a foe to book knowledge, and a lover of run-
ning, dancing, swinging — anything that necessitated air.
This has been explained since reading zodiacal books — as I was born
on the cusp between Gemini and Cancer, my earth sign being Sagiita-
rius. Science, art, and spiritual development, are all that life holds
for me. Facts, reason, judgment, do not attract me.
Sincerely yours,
F., 28. Nervous prostration, showing itself through physical ex-
haustion, lack of sleep, tears, and suppressed menstruation. Physi-
cally, had always been strong, but the other symptoms had always been
noticeable from previous life since twelve years of age. Much nervous-
ness on maternal side of family, with insanity showing itself in several
members of second generation before me. Had taught for eight or nine
years previous to illness, with great pleasure though it was largely a
necessity. Temperament, great self-consciousness ; great lack of trust-
ing to the interior self for action; always planning what was to be done,
no spontaneity or demonstration of the affections. Consequently,
great contraction throughout the organism. Conscientious, thorough,
and energetic. No interior consciousness as a fundamental support.
Always went to a liberal Unitarian Church but had no home religious
instruction and only for a short period at church. Religion was ex-
ternal, intellectual. My whole life wholly of the head, very little of
the heart, almost none consciously of the soul. This last I consider
the true cause of my illness.
Made no improvement under a prominent M. D. Grew distinctly
worse at sanitarium, then returned home under care of an M. D.
Grew very much better, but did not overcome symptoms, except tend-
ency to tears.
At desire of an intimate friend went to Mrs. A. for mental treatment
after nine months with the M. D.
Went to Mrs. A. in October. Improved; apparently recovered. In
January following, felt less strong, returned to her, but apparently
452 GODDARD :
received no help. Had no consciousness of incoming life, as had had
at early treatments. Knowing no other resource went to my former
M. D. again, and was then sicker than ever before, and more nearly
on the verge of insanity. I believe if any one vibrates between medi-
cine and mental healing, there is no permanent cure for them and they
are likely to have an aggravated form of their former illness.
Next went to Miss B., Mental Healer, who had brought back to
health a friend who had had a long illness like my own. The contrast
between the result of this treatment and that from Mrs. A. lies in the
fact that I went now from my own volition, feeling that this was my
last chance; also I felt a greater affinity for Miss B. The treatments
were more immediate and more marked in their interior effects. I did
not make great physical gains, but my whole interior nature was
shaken to its core. The phj'^sical effect was to make me sleepy, and
to want to keep quiet and to want to read the Bible, which I had never
cared for. The treatments were daily, half an hour long, with my
hand in hers and in a relaxed position, so that I could rest or sleep
afterwards. She gave no directions except to rest afterwards, and
take more interest in what was going on about me, and break up old
habits. Very soon I began to have a desire to lead a more religious
life; then to see that all life was in mind, surging up into conscious-
ness of my faults.
Since that time I have taken no medicine nor been under a doctor's,
care. Later, felt that Miss B.'s treatments were too stimulating,
though really encouraging in power and value. To rest from such
intensity of mental and spiritual action as it produced, I went South.
Here I had treatment from Christian Science. Was always conscious
of these absent treatments. It was as if a current of electricity was
coming into and suffusing me. It was the same with Miss B.'s treat-
ments except that Miss B.'s were more powerful.
Felt an inward charge to give up the treatments. By this time
neuralgia had left me and I had resumed the habits of normal life.
An imperfect digestion is all that remained of the old illness. For
seven years have been able to care for myself by this thought method.
Was educated in public schools; fitted for Harvard. Taught.
All is God. All is good, in the fact that all is perpetual evolution
under Divine law. We reap the fruits of our own sowing. Doctrine
of reincarnation seems to me probable.
F. 47. American. I inherit a nervous temperament. I can never
remember the time when I was well and free from pain ; still I worked,
teaching for several years, afterwards dressmaking, between long in-
tervals of severe sickness. When 37, was told I had a tumor and its
removal was necessary. Accordingly I was sent to hospital and ova-
riotomy was performed. Tubercles were also found and removed.
My bowels were kept open two years and kept clean by means of in-
serted perforated tubes. Then they were allowed to heal. This was
considered a very wonderful piece of surgery. But my courage was
marvellous, for I was buoyed up by the hope of being perfectly well.
But six years later another operation for fibroid tumor left me with no
hope of recovery. Spinal neuralgia, intestinal indigestion, and worse
than all, a brain incapable of any mental effort, all of which left me
in a deplorable condition. Was refused admission to the hospitals
because case too chronic. Two years ago was admitted to a mental
healing home. While there, was constantly haunted by the fear that
I should be dismissed as incurable. The treatments were mostly silent,
and I seemed to be groping in the dark unable to grasp the truth.
After four mouths treatment I was told that I had sufficient knowledge
of the new philosophy to heal myself, and I came away with the feel-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 453
ing that I was sent because incurable. Still there was a start in the
right direction that was the beginning of a new life.
Then came a year of severe struggle alone. I had been reading a
book on the subject, and tried to follow its directions as best I could.
But my mind was so bewildered that it was incapable of reception. I
received some help. Still doubts, fears, vacillation, impatience and
worry had their effect, and the progress was slow. ^
Nearly a year ago, I received a copy of a Mental Science Journal.
I wrote to the editor. She inspired me with hope. I believed she
could help me and I began to take treatments. She taught me how
to relax every nerve and muscle and to lean lovingly on her and to
expect a realization of my desires. The treatments have been wholly
absent, for I have never seen her, but their effect upon me has been
marvellous.
A fixed time each day was given to the treatments, and the time
strictly adhered to. The first requirement was relaxation, the second
trust. In leaning upon her in this relaxed condition, I learned to lean
upon the hi^L, Within myself. The progress was slow (but there was
a life time of weakness to overcome) but the improvement was notice-
able from the very first treatment.
Two strong evidences of cure are: increased physical endurance
and greater mental power. Yet while I am conscious of greater
strength and clearer perception, I cannot conceive the time in any
person's life when there would be nothing to overcome ; and I find it
just as necessary to hold myself receptive to the teachings of the Great
Soul as at first. And of course I lean more and more upon Its guid-
ance. Denials have little weight with me. My strength is in affirm-
ations. While I think that health is after all, a secondary considera-
tion, I know it must follow from right thinking and right living.
Ivove fulfills the whole law of life. All things can be accomplished
through this mighty force. Even death must yield to its power.
My reading on the subject has been limited, partly from choice,
partly from necessity. Another's opinion cannot be mine. I listen to
the Kingdom of the All Within me for the wisdom that never fails.
This is the most essential thing I have learned in Mental Science,
and this has the greatest influence upon my life.
There are millions and millions of forces awaiting our recognition
and if we hold ourselves receptive to this Truth, there is no limit to
our growth. I should say to all " Read less, think and practice more.*^
Sincerely,
Dear Sir : Three years ago I was quite ill from nervous prostra-
tion, and a tendency to fall when I attempted to walk, and I also suf-
fered from an abnormal action of the heart, and other effects of an
exhausted nervous system. For a number of years I had been unable
to sleep without quieting mixtures of some sort, and stronger ones
were resorted to as the nervous system became weakened, and insom-
nia got the better of me.
As a result of these physical conditions, my mental condition was
deplorable — or that is what I believed at that time. I had no hope,
and was burdened day and night with the idea of continuing to be a
burden to myself and to my friends. Naturally I am not despondent,
but nervous exhaustion being considered hereditary in my family,
and my physicians giving me little encouragement, I saw no way to
regain health.
I thought because I was over 50 years of age, that I was less likely
to recover than a younger person under similar conditions. I did not
worry about business affairs, as I have no business occupation. I am
an American with liberal views regarding religion, always having
454 GODDARD :
believed in the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man; no
church creed being so broad as my own inner perception of God and
of duty, consequently I am connected with no church.
When health failed and faith in medicine was lost, I resorted as a
forlorn hope to mental treatment. I was received as a patient by a
mental healer. I remained there twelve weeks. The method was verbal
suggestion and silent treatment. I can report no special feeling I ex-
perienced during treatment, only I hoped I would receive help.
And I did receive it. After a few weeks I was able to sleep well,
and I took up life again with courage and purpose. I have continued
to improve slowly but surely. The verbal instructions I received have
enabled me to care for myself since leaving the home.
I think there was nothing in my school education that bore especially
on the subject of spiritual science. I was educated in the common
schools of my native town of , . I never studied psychology.
I have read some philosophy, and much fiction.
I think that a study in this line, wisely selected and properly ex-
pounded, would, if introduced into the schools, be of inestimable value.
Very truly yours,
F., 47. Neurasthenia, brought on by exclusive and highly unwise
devotion to study outside of school hours, as a preparation for teach-
ing; from worry; from the absence of all modes of expression except
through teaching; withdrawal from the society of my friends; and
from insufficient motor activity of any sort. .
My trouble lasted about six months before I undertook mental treat-
ment, which lasted three weeks. The only feeling I had was hope or
desire that I might be relieved of the awful sense of burden that my
school work laid upon me. I was not conscious that I was improving
at the time. But I gained an increasing sense of the significance of
certain passages of the Bible. I then went to the seashore, where I
became conscious that I was really much better. The cure has been
permanent. That is, I have not since had nervous trouble, and my
general health is fairly good. An evidence of cure is that I do not
live in fear that the disease may return.-
I am not so convinced that mental healing is capable of curing any
disease that I should have recourse to it in all cases. I have, since
my recovery, had a physician in my family.
As to school, I am convinced that the soul of the child needs more
recognition than it gets in the schoolroom; and that it must be nour-
ished there as it is not now nourished. Nature lessons from the right
point of view — revealing the inter-dependence of forms of life, and
poetry wisely selected and taught by a truly sympathetic teacher,
will do much to lift the child upon a higher spiritual plane.
(University education)
Sincerely,
I was a constant sufferer for fourteen years and treated by a dozen
physicians; ovarian tumor which was increasing in size, and with no
nope except by a severe operation, and really no hope then, since the
complications made it almost suicidal to put myself into the hands of
the surgeon.
I had begun teaching at 16, and at 24 was a total wreck. I was un-
der treatment by Mental Science eight months, then returned home
cured. Undertook the care of the sick, immediately, and for eleven
weeks did not get an unbroken night's rest.
Absent treatments were beneficial, but not as satisfactory as the
"present." I knew the time that I was to receive them.
In some respects I noticed improvement in a few days, but had se-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 455
vere struggles with intense pain and at one time was very low for a
number of hours. Each time I went down came up stronger than
before.
Have been well for eight years. My disposition is very much
changed, and is very noticeable to my near relatives.
Educated in girls' boarding school, have read much history and good
novels.
F. I was a natural student, educated in public schools of Maine, fol-
lowed by two years at Mt. Holyoke Seminary, where in trying to crowd
four years into three, and being in a state of anxious fear, slight deaf-
ness appeared, heat in head and throat and catarrhal condition, later,
of whole mucous membrane. Many physicians, but only temporary
relief. Two mental shocks from sudden death produced almost paral-
ysis. Tried Mind Cure. Slowly I was led to believe that every state
of mind effected the body expanding and contracting it, and to cure,
the mental state had to be corrected. Improvement began at once;
but it was more than a year before I was thoroughly convinced of the
mental cause of disease and my own body well renovated, and still
the deafness was not wholly overcome.
My cure came by being educated or growing into their way of think-
ing. Since then we have never used drugs in our family. There has
been no return of old troubles. Some failures followed the efforts of
these healers.
M., 77. Nervous. Congregationalist. American. Mercantile life.
Disease hereditary. Eczema, began at age of 65. Treated by prom-
inent physicians. Two months without medicine, then Mental Science.
Absent treatment not satisfactory. Treated two months, then treated
self.
Began to improve in two weeks, slowly but without relapses. Cure
complete in three months. Cured two ^ears three months. No return
of eczema. Tumor all gone, also hernia and kidney trouble.
Belief in the science has changed my whole course of life, leading
my mind to more spiritual thought, quieting my nervous temperament,
more free from envy, hate, quick temper, and more free from anxiety.
Think basic principles should be introduced into our schools at once.
I never studied psychology, left school at 15.
Yours truly,
Temperament, nervous, sanguine ; age about 45, American; occupa-
tion, piano-forte teaching ; religion, liberal thought.
Hereditary headaches and weak digestion, then after the birth of
one child, at 38, and subsequent hospital operation for laceration of
the cervix, there was a gradual break down, until scarcely any organ
of the body was in a normal condition.
Think now that most of it was fear and worry. Had at different
times been under the care of 22 different doctors. Amongst them
[names six prominent physicians of New York and Boston] and other
local physicians. There was a morbid terror of cancers, and an ina-
bility to eat any food without fearing sick headache, which was fre-
quently of 48 hours' duration and sometimes occurred three times a
week. Treatment was given by [a mental healer] of Boston, by silent
suggestion, and was immediately helpful. I had no faith in the treat-
ment at the time, and was a disbeliever in the power of faith. For
three years I have enjoyed the best of health and expect to so con-
tinue. The effects of the teachings absorbed have been most beneficial
in changing my whole disposition. I no longer worry, can keep my
temper, and am growing more patient. Therein, I firmly believe, lies
the whole cure, and the "failures" of which I know many, are all
456 GODDARD :
traceable to the wish to be healed without being willing to change the
thoughts. I think I might write of fifty cases personally known to
me, where recovery has been complete and lasting.
Nothing in my school education bore at all on this subject. Never
read a work on psychology until three years ago. Was educated at a
private school, since discontinued, in . Fitted for college at
i6, but was debarred from entering at that time by the old ideas for-
bidding a woman to share education with her brothers. Have
read almost everything appertaining to psychology during the last
few years. Its effect is marvellous. It opens the gateway to health,
happiness, serenity, advancement, both spiritual and temporal ; devel-
opes the intellect, abolishes fear and worry, alters our old ideas of
Divinity, and gives us more than a glimpse into a future state of ex-
istence.
F. 41. American. Unitarian.
Disease of spinal cord (lateral sclerosis). Given up by hospital
authorities, as not likely ever to walk again. The disease accompanied
nervous prostration, brought on by overwork in teaching.
Greatly depressed : mind dwelling on weak state and wholly ruled
by bodily sensations. Learned Mental Science and improvement be-
gan at once. Attitude of mind entirely changed. From dwelling on
weakness, and illness, my mind was turned toward health with full
expectation of regaining it.
Found great help in the mental atmosphere of those about me, every
one believing in my recovery. Left my healer after about four months.
Since then — winter of 1894 — my general health has been excellent,
though I have not yet regained entire independence in walking. Use
a cane. No result from absent treatment, though I tried to co-operate
with the healer. There was a regular appointment as to time of these
absent treatments. Modern languages and psychology studied.
The following personal letter is from a prominent scholar,
who has taught in both English and American Universities and
is a recognized authority in his department.
I can only say that when Miss came to stay with us,
my eyes were in a very bad state. They were inflamed and the lids
granulated. I could hardly manage my daily work, to say nothing of
MSS. and the like. I was wearing spectacles, as I had done for years,
on account of a malformation in the left eye.
Under Miss 's treatment my eyes got well like magic ; I
gave up the glasses, and in a few days was all right ; and for two years,
if I remember rightly, I did not use the glasses again.
Possibly you might say that discarding the glasses operated bene-
ficially. I can think of no other explanation that is not a psychic
one. And I may say, for myself, I am satisfied with the psychic ex-
planation.
I find my eyesight at present is growing weaker, especially the left
eye, and I doubt whether I shall do much more difl&cult decipherment.
Still there is not much amiss, and I think I still retain the evidence
of Miss 's beneficial treatment.
Sincerely,
(The treatment in the above case was given ten or twelve years ago,
this letter was dated Jan. 28, 1898.)
KFFBCTS OF MIND ON BODY. 457
The foregoing letters are sufficient to give the reader a good
idea of the theory and practice of Mental Healing.^
We may take this opportunity to call attention to one fact,
often misunderstood: It is supposed by many who have given
no special attention to the subject, that those upon whom these
methods are successful, are the ignorant or superstitious, or
else those whose diseases are imaginary.
That such is not the case, is evident from these letters, and
will constantly appear in others to be quoted later. Many of
these people are college bred, nearly all show that they are
cultured and refined.
As to their diseases, while we have thought best to omit
names of physicians and institutions, we may say that in nearly
all cases the names were given, and were physicians in good
standing ; and in some cases, the most noted specialists. So
that while we may see later that the troubles were of mental
origin, yet they were far removed from what is ordinarily un-
derstood by "imaginary."
Such cases as the foregoing are sufficiently striking to arouse
interest in mental healing, and when we recall that they are
only fair examples of cases that are being reported on all sides,
we cannot wonder that the uncritical are continually being led
to believe in the absolute infallibility of these methods.
Before jumping to this conclusion, however, it is necessary
to examine critically all the circumstances that may explain
these * * miracles ' ' by referring them to recognized laws. We
have accordingly examined all the data for " internal evidence "
of rational explanation on the basis of known facts; secondly
we have searched medical literature for, first, physical conditions
favoring the appearance or sudden disappearance of disease,
and secondly for cases of ' ' miraculous ' ' cures in general med-
ical practice. We have found much that tends to modify any
hasty judgment that one might have been tempted to make.
The first thing to be mentioned is the hysterical diathesis.
This is a condition far more prevalent and troublesome than
most people realize. It is a mental state without, so far as is
known, any pathological condition behind it. It is a form of
mental alienation characterized, as Krafft-Ebing says, by great
lability and emotional prodigality. It is perhaps best charac-
terized as a condition in which the emotions preponderate over
the intellect and the will. The disease exists in all degrees,
from the slightest deviation from the normal to the com-
pletely insane. There are no pains that may not be of hysterical
^Of the hundreds of similar letters, each one interesting and in-
structive, that we have received, lack of space forbids more than these
few, in this article.
JOURNAI,— 9
458 GODDARD :
origin. Diseases of the joints are among the most common.
Neuralgia is often of hysterical origin. The functional actions
of the viscera are especially liable to derangement in hysteria.
Any organ may be affected, but the stomach seems to be the
favorite one. Not infrequently organic disease of the heart is
simulated, there being palpitation and general irregular action
of this organ.
Nor are the conditions thus manifested, superficial appear-
ances merely. They frequently baffle the most skillful physi-
cians, for a time at least.
It is impossible to tell what proportion of our cases belong
to this class, but it seems very certain, from their own testimony,
that a relatively large percentage belong here. One cannot
read far in the records of cases without seeing it * ' between the
lines ' ' if not in them.
It is hardly necessary to add that mental science is just the
thing for these people. Dr. Bdes thinks it well (Shattuck
Lecture, 1895, p. 48,) "to look the fact squarely in the face
that some persons do receive great benefit from some of these
.forms of treatment who have failed to do so at the hands
/of regular and skilled practitioners. ' '
Without doubt the different schools of mental practice have
been largely recruited from this class of patients.
The question of diagnosis, although of great importance and
having received much attention in our study, need only be
mentioned here. Suffice it to say that we find a large percentage
of cases diagnosed solely by the patient herself or her interested
neighbors. . (Comment is unnecessary.) Many others prove
to have been the victims of ** Quacks." Finally, the best
physicians are fallible. And no one knows this so well as the
physician himself. It is true he does not go around publishing
his ignorance or the weakness of the science of medicine, he
understands the influence of mind too well to do that, and yet
he often finds himself helpless in the presence of symptoms that
he cannot understand.
Mental healers often complain that the regulars will never
acknowledge a cure by mental science, of consumption or any
serious case, but always take refuge in wrong diagnosis. We
ought not be surprised that the physician takes this view of the
case. There are manifestly three possibilities — three explana-
tions of any such event as the cure, e. g. , of cancer, by mental
methods. Either the Mental Science view is correct, or cancer
is not the incurable disease that it is regarded, or the physician
was wrong in his diagnosis. Clearly men will differ as to which
view they will accept. The physician, who knows the whole
history, the physiology and etiology of cancer, who has seen
every kind of remedy tried including divine healing, without
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 459
success; is the first to admit his mistake when he sees the
disease that he thought was cancer, cured. He cannot do any-
thing else, and he would do the same if his own remedies had
cured the disease.
The mental scientist, however, again complains, and with \
apparent justice, that it is illogical and unscientific for the I
doctor of medicine to make an arbitrary classification and de-
clare all diseases incurable which he has been unable to cure.
And when a new claimant for therapeutic honors comes into
the field, he rejects it on the basis of the old determination that
such diseases are incurable. The argument is good, and yet, so
long as the physician puts himself under the same rule, he can-
not be accused of unfairness. In reality his procedure is the
only possible one. Any other would lead to inextricable con-
fusion.
We must act on the basis of what is most probable; and in
this, Mental Science stands on the same ground as any drug.
Whenever any remedy, be it drug or idea, is shown to cure
cancer oftener than the law of chance will allow spontaneous
cure or wrong diagnosis, then and not until then will it be
accepted as a specific for that disease.
We have thus tried to show that the question of diagnosis
must always be considered, and can never be settled. Cures
based on the patient's own diagnosis, or that of a quack doctor, are
of no value. Those based upon the diagnosis of a regular physi-
cian may have all values, from very small to very great. They
cannot be valueless, since we all rely upon the judgment of these
men, and if Mental Science will cure what the doctor of medi-
cine has called a fatal malady, we will have Mental Science
whether the doctor of medicine was right or wrong. Neither
can Mental Science be established on the authority of any sin-
gle physician, however great the presumption may be that his
diagnosis was correct. Only the cumulative evidence of a great
many cases can constitute a demonstration.
Spontaneous cures of all kinds of diseases are recognized by
physicians. Spontaneous cure of consumption is not infre-
quent. The nature of cancer makes such an event possible,
and it has been claimed, though most authorities say they have
never seen such, and they rather doubt the evidence for it.
The sudden appearance and equally sudden disappearance of
non-malignant tumors is a fact of such common occurrence as
to excite no suprise in the minds of physicians.
J. William White, M. D., of Philadelphia, in an article en-
titled * * The Supposed Curative Effects of Surgical Operations
Per Se" (Annals of Surgery, Aug. and Sept., 1891,) has shown
that many diseases have been cured by the * ' reaction of trau-
matism" due to the simple preliminary cutting; the intended
460 GODDARD :
Operation having been given up on account of the conditions
found, rendering such operation impracticable.
Dr. White says of his cases ' ' I have not intended to include
in this article any extended cases in vt^hich the disease is purely
imaginary, though the field that would be opened up in this
direction would be very fruitful." (p. 173.)
(p. 1 74. ) "In seeking for a reasonable explanation of the phe-
nomena observed in the preceding cases, four influences are
noted: i. Anaesthesia. 2. Psychial influence. 3. Relief from ten-
sion. 4. Reflex action or the ' reaction of traumatism.' "
Upon experiment, anaesthesia was found to have either no
effect, or else an injurious one.
On the question of psychical influence, he says " in so far as
any case is of hysterical or imaginational origin, its cure by a
powerful mental impression is easily understood. But only a
small proportion of my cases were of this character, if the
reporters may be believed."
"In so far as clinical experience goes it would appear that all
kinds of tubercular peritonitis have undergone resolution after
abdominal section and consequently that they are all curable."
William Goodell, Philadelphia, March 27, 1891, says:
I have had two cases of fibroid tumors of the womb as large as
the adult head, dwindle down almost to an inappreciable size after an
exploratory incision. In each case the object of the operation was
the removal of the ovaries. But they lay behind a universally ad-
herent tumor and could not be touched.
Joseph T. Johnson, Washington, D. C, March 24, 1891,
says:
I have opened the abdomen in two cases when I did not know what
was the matter, and don't now, but the patients both got completely
well. One appeared to be malignant, and for that reason, upon the ad-
vice of all present, I abandoned the operation and told her husband
I thought she would die. She got well and has since had a baby and
is now in good health. .
H. J. Boldt, New York, March 9, 1891, writes:
A young woman complained of most intense pain in left ovary. She
really was in agony. This continued several weeks. She lost flesh,
was bedridden, temperature loi to 103, could not be touched in the
ovarian or hypogastric region without a scream.
On opening the abdomen, absolutely nothing was found to account
for the symptoms. She was merely washed out and sewed up again.
Recovery in every respect was prompt and perfect.
Another class of cases that is often quoted as among the
most startling, has to do with muscular functions. These are
the inability to walk, from various causes, such as one leg short,
paralysis, sprain, etc., etc. Dr. Dowie prays with these people,
tells them to walk and they obey, much to the surprise of all,
and to the glory of God as they devoutly believe.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY, 46 1
But such phenomena are not unknown to the medical pro-
fession. Dr. Henry Ling Taylor has made a speciality of such
cases, and achieved results as suprising as any reported by
Divine Healing. He explains his method and gives illustrative
cases in an article which he entitles, "Hygiene of Reflex Ac-
,tion." (Journal of Mental and Nervous Diseases, March, 1888.)
The following parallel cases will show the general plan.
Out of a great number of cases of cure by Divine Healing we
must restrict ourselves to three.
M., 18. Diseased thigh bone nineteen months. Amputation or-
dered. Healed instantly. In three minutes was walking rapidly
around the hall.
M., 40. Ivame in one leg; paralysis, resulting from a fall of forty
feet. A familiar sight in streets of Mansfield, Ohio, wheeling himself
in his chair. After one week at D.'s he threw away his crutches. His
limbs are not quite straight yet, but is confident they will become so.
Two joints of spine were caved in; are now coming back into place.
This account was given in the paper in town where he was well
known and was given as an accepted fact.
F., 19. Paralysis of right leg from knee down; no feeling in it; much
withered; one and one-half inches short. Heel cord had been cut by
surgeon and lacked an inch of meeting. Dr. Dowie performed the
ceremony of "laying on of hands" and prayed. When he laid his
hands on my leg, as he moved them down towards my foot, I
could feel the blood trickling into the veins quite distinctly, and
when he had reached the toes of my foot I had perfect sensation.
He had gently pulled my leg during his prayer, and my leg at once
lengthened to an equality with my left leg, in fact it was just a very
little longer, and so it remains. Heel cord was instantly united.
Five days later, walked ten miles without fatigue. Leg has grown to
nearly the size of the other.
Compare these with the following mental cases treated by
Dr. Taylor: {op. cit., p. 138.)
M., 38. Suffered three months from sprained ankle, pain and disa-
bility; could not walk. Diagnosed as "disturbed reflexes." Began
education of reflexes, and was discharged cured in six days; locomo-
tion entirely normal. Eight months afterward, reported still perfectly
well.
F., 50. Turned ankle two years previously, by stepping Oii orange
peel. Pain, swelling, and disability. Had been worse during last six
months. When induced to move ankle, said she had never tried be-
fore and did not know she could. Crutches were thrown away, and
in a week she said she did not know she had an ankle. Entirely cured.
M., 17. Athlete. Left knee had given out while tramping in Ger-
many, six months previously. Limped and thought knee was swelled
Had used a crutch and cane for ten weeks. Was energetic and
ashamed of hobbling. The case was diagnosed as "limb suffering
from disuse." Was made to stand up and bear weight on both feet.
Inside of five minutes was walking around the table without assist-
ance; went out on street and up front steps; at end of fifteen minutes
he walked without a limp. His family were bewildered. Never had
any trouble afterwards, and played on the Harvard foot-ball team
Thanksgiving, 1887.
F., 12. Spinal trouble. Brought to office in a chair. It was per-
fectly evident that the entire family including patient were intently
462 GODDARD :
watching for the development of expected symptoms. Diagnosis was
made of "reflex debility, the effect of too much mother." On the
ninth day she walked two miles, and the next day walked up stairs.
Young lady. Pott's disease; plaster jacket; great pain. In spite of
remonstrances of parents, jacket was removed and exercise given.
Went home in two months in fair health and much relieved. I^ater,
relapsed.
F., 34. Bed and wheel chair for seventeen years. That this patient
was walking within a few days and improved steadily in all respects,
is due largely to her own intelligent and hearty co-operation, once the
condition was explained to her.
These cases are so strikingly similar to a large class of the
Dowie cases, that one cannot doubt that while the mental ele-
ment is the chief feature in them both, yet Dr. Taylor would
have been just as successful with Dowie' s cases as he was with
his own.
Attention is also called to the great liability to error in re-
porting cases. However good the intention, most people will
forget some part of the facts. The way in which people under-
stand or repeat what * ' the doctor said ' ' is sometimes amusing
and often provoking to the doctors.
Positive Testimony to the Infi^uence of Mind in
Disease.
In the preceding section we have attempted to give a fair
statement of all the objections that can be raised to the evidence
upon which the mental control of disease is supposed to rest.
In the present section we shall sum up the arguments on the
other side, and show the valid arguments in favor of this in-
fluence.
We may recall first, the great place that is actually conceded
to mental influence in disease, by the popular mind. That
sickness is often caused and cured by emotional states: as fear,
grief, etc. , is a matter of common experience. In every well
regulated sick room, great care is taken to furnish the patient
with pleasant and agreeable surroundings, because they help
toward convalescence, and to shut out the opposite conditions,
because they hinder.
Dr. Tukes's two volumes on "The Influence of Mind on'
Body, ' ' contains a valuable collection of these occurrences.
Perhaps the same argument will be urged by the unconvinced
against the practice of mental therapeutics, that is used by
telepathists, when one demands experimental proof, namely,
that it is a force that works spontaneously, and cannot be har-
nessed into experimental methods. The very act of trying to
observe it dissipates it, like the introspective study of an
emotion.
As a matter of fact, however, we have abundant experi-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 463
mental proof of the value of mental practice for the cure of
disease.
In spite of the severe criticism that we have made of reports
of cure, there still remains a vast amount of material, showing
a powerful influence of the mind in disease. Many cases are
of diseases that have been diagnosed and treated by the best
physicians of the country or which prominent hospitals have
tried their hand at curing, but without success. People of cul-
ture and education have been treated by this method with satis-
factory results. Diseases of long standing have been amelio-
rated and even cured.
The numerous instances of temporary arrest of the disease,
while not showing power to cure, yet exhibit a wonderful power
of some sort.
Similarly, the cases where disease is cured in one part but
breaks out in another part of the body, clearly prove the great
power of mind, although they also show that the power is not
unlimited. The most striking case of this, is the instance
of the man who was healed of gangrene in the foot but died
later of the same disease located in the eye.
We have traced the mental element through primitive medi-
cine, and Folk medicine of to-day, patent medicine and witch-
craft. We are convinced that it is impossible to account for the
existence of these practices, if they did not cure disease, and
that if they cured disease, it must have been the mental element
that was effective. The same argument applies to these modern
schools of mental therapeutics — Divine Healing and Christian
Science. It is hadly conceivable that the large body of intelli-
gent people who comprise the body known distinctively as
Mental Scientists could continue to exist, if the whole thing
were a delusion. It is not a thing of a day; it is not confined
to a few; it is not local. It is true that many failures are
recorded, but that only adds to the argument. There must be
many and striking successes to counterbalance the failures,
otherwise the failures would have ended the delusion.
The testimony of regular physicians to the efficacy and
remarkable results of mental treatment is strong evidence of its
value. The admission that they use it in some form is a further
corroboration of the view that it is efficient. A few instances
out of the many that have been collected, and the innumerable
quantity that might be collected, are here appended.
One of the most prominent physicians of New York cityj
prescribed salt water for a nervous affection that had defied alll
other treatment. His directions were: "Take 15 drops, and]
be careful not to take an overdose or it might prove fatal ; '
and be sure to take it regularly." The patient rapidly re-
covered.
464 GODDARD :
A certain druggist told the writer that he put up a prescrip-
tion of salt water, for which he charged $1, by the physician's
direction, the physician explaining that unless the patient paid
a high price, he would not think the prescription good for any-
thing. He was cured.
An interesting illustration of the effect of the mind in causing
disease, comes from a very prominent Chicago physician. He
writes that on one occasion, he was very much interested in an
important case that was referred to him, after failure by other
physicians. He was intensely anxious to succeed. He discov-
ered symptoms which had been overlooked by the others, of
duodenal catarrh. He lay down on the couch in the evening,
to read a recent work on the subject. He fell asleep from sheer
exhaustion, his mind " full of the pathology, symptomatology,
etiology and treatment of such conditions. ' ' He awoke in two
hours with an intense duodenal catarrh, that lasted several days
before he could get it under control.
Faii^ures in the Practice of Mental Therapeutics.
In the foregoing pages we have said little about failures
in any of the different methods.
It becomes necessary, however, in our study of the question
and our effort to reconcile the different practices, or find the law
underlying them all, to consider the cases where they fail as
well as those in which they succeed.
The ratio of successes to failure is impossible to determine,
for part of the healers do not admit that they ever fail, and
nearly all refuse to keep anj^ record of failures. On the other
hand, hypnotists restrict themselves at the start, and only use
hypnotism in certain cases ; of these they keep a careful record
both of successes and failures.
That failures are numerous is the common belief, and is un-
doubtedly the fact. Indeed, unless materia medica is growing
correspondingly impotent, they must equal the failures by the
old methods, since there is no change in the death rate as a
whole or the mortality from any particular diseases, in spite of
the remarkable growth of mental practice in the past few years.
It has been exceedingly diflficult to collect records of failure,
for the purposes of study, since not only do the healers conceal
their failures, but people who have tried to get cured by mental
methods and failed, seem to regard it as a disgrace or at least
a weakness, and will not report their experiences. Nevertheless
by continued effort we have succeeded in finding several people
who looked at the matter from a broader standpoint, and were
quite willing to submit their own experiences or those of their
patients (in the case of healers) for what they will show of
value in elucidating the law of mental therapeutics.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 465
Under the head of Divine Healing, occur many failures, and
they are usually accounted for by the assertion that the patient
did not have sufficient faith. Later we shall see in what sense
this is true.
Dr. Dowie reports a few deaths in his ' * Home. ' ' Many of
the patients say " not yet healed," though they are still hoping.
Many of these finally give up in despair.
But the most conclusive indication of the extent of failure,
comes from Dr. Dowie' s own statement. He says, in a certain
issue of his paper : "I pray and lay my hands on 70,000 people
in a year." At that rate he would have prayed with 175,000 in
'2^2 years. But in the 2^ years immediately preceding this
statement, he reports only 700 cures. The conclusion is indis-
putable that only a small portion of those prayed with are
cured.
Failures by the Christian Science method are frequently
brought to public notice by the courts, when parties are cen-
sured, fined or otherwise punished for neglecting to employ a
regular physician, but trusting to Christian Science with results
fatal to their friends. There are also many failures, that do not
result fatally, and so do not get into the papers. The patient
simply is not cured, and endures his disappointment and his
ills with whatever fortitude he can command.
The following statement from a lady of culture, experience,
and calm and unbiased judgment, is valuable and interesting
for many reasons.^ It will be noted that it comes from one
who is neither a ' * healer ' ' nor an opponent to the practice.
She has all the interest which is involved in a mother's desire
for the welfare of her daughter. Yet it is evident that she
has not gone blindly into the matter, or closed her eyes to facts
as they have come in evidence. The whole tone of fairness,
and wise discrimination, is refreshing, and makes the testimony
of extreme and unusual value.
It is as follows :
A partially successful case, was that of my daughter, whose
temperament from childhood was extremely nervous. For
several years she attended a denominational school, was very
religious, and wished to enter into religious work.
At about the age of 22 she was very sick with a contagious
disease. [The writer also mentions prominent physicians who
treated her, at this time and also later.]
The disease left her with blood poisoning, resulting in nervous
^ The original letter was very complete and detailed, written with
the utmost freedom and confidence but not for publication. The fol-
lowing condensation was made by the present writer and submitted to
the lady for permission to publish, which permission was given. This
accounts for its present form and the absence of some details.
466 GODDARD :
prostration. She grew worse and a consultation was held.
Dr. pronounced her not insane, as we feared. She was
sent to [mentioning one of the most valuable medical
institutions in the country], then went to a private institution.
It was nearly a year before she came home, better, but far from
well, still hysterical and hypochondriacal. She had taken no
medicine (unless a simple calmative) for a long time, and dis-
continued that on coming home. Soon after her return, she
heard of mind cure, and wished to try it. She improved some-
what under the treatment and afterwards continued it under
[mentioning one of the most experienced, most success-
ful, and best Mental Science healers in practice.]
I think her treatment combined all the methods men-
tioned. The absent had the least effect. In those cases ap-
pointments were made for certain hours. Her mind was pre-
sumably occupied with peaceful and lofty thoughts, charity and
good- will to all mankind. Bitterness, anger, resentment, even
towards enemies, must not be entertained for a moment, other-
wise the treatment would be ineffectual.
's treatment was continued regularly for about six
months, afterwards given occasionally. The improvement was
slow but generally steady. ' The next summer we thought the
cure complete. The strongest evidence of the cure was the
taking up again of her old duties and interests and submitting to
suggestions and advice. The moral effects of the science were
good, the tendency being to make one rise superior to all the
annoyances and even the trials of life, — in short, it was a religion.
Sometimes, however, this idea was carried too far.
I attribute the apparent success at first to the fact that she
was taken out of the rut into which she had fallen. She had
become a hypochondriac, and her physician had told her that
she could help herself more than any one could help her. It
[seemed that where her malady was imaginary, the ' ' Science ' '
[helped her, but where it was real, there was no effect. Her
naturally vigorous constitution asserted itself for a time, but
while the poison remains in her blood she can never be well.
For past nine years she has continued to a certain extent the
same treatment, but it is without any perceptible effect, or at
best only a negative one — she might be worse without it, and
probably would, for her faith is undiminished, and she abso-
lutely refuses to consult a physician for any ailment.
The literature that I have read upon this subject is quite
beyond my comprehension, although I have tried earnestly to
understand and believe in it. I recognize much that is beau-
tiful and helpful in its teachings and believe they might be used
to advantage in connection with medical science and remedies.
I have known too many absurdities claimed for it and too many
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 467
fatalities resulting from trusting to it blindly, to have entire
faith in it. Instance the case of . (Here is cited a tragic
instance of death under this treatment. )
Neither in my school education or in that of my children,
was anything taught bearing upon this subject nor upon any
form of psychology.
I think it would be most unwise to teach such subjects to
the young, at least until further knowledge brings them into
the class of exact sciences. There is so much delusion, exagger-
ation and fraud connected with these subjects as to make it
almost impossible for even mature minds to reach the simple
truth, and there is too much of real importance and profit to
be learned, to spend time uselessly.
In this statement I do not mean to include all psychology.
Sincerely yours,
There is abundant evidence that this letter might be consid-
ered practically a resume of the entire mass of data so far as
the points covered. The experiences here recorded, and the
conclusions of the writer are strikingly typical.
But just now, we desire to point out a few of the noticeable
points. To begin with, the daughter was "from early child-
hood extremely nervous and was very religious." These are
the most favorable conditions for the successful use of Mental
Science. This is admitted by all.
2. Her Mental Science healer was one who stands at the
very top of the profession. 3. Absent treatment, for which so
much is claimed, had " least effect. " This absent treatment
was by appointment, and at these times the patient put herself
into the proper state of mind as far as possible. 4. It was
thought for a time that the cure was complete, but it proved to
be only temporary. The temporary cure shows that the patient
received the teaching and profited by it. Nothing succeeds
like success; yet, in spite of the success and all the moral
strength that comes from it, there was a relapse, showing that
there was a physical condition which mental methods, under the
most favorable conditions^ could not reach. It was not because
the patient gave up, lost faith, and refused to accept the teach-
ing. For nine years she has held firm to the faith, with no
other result than that she has perhaps been kept from growing
worse. Could any more complete test be desired ?
The mother's statement that ' ' where the malady was imagin-
ary, the treatment was helpful, but where it was real, it had
no effect," is easily in agreement with Wundt's declaration
(Human and Animal Psychology, pp. 333-4) that " It cannot
be denied that a cautious and intelligent use of suggestion
[Mental Science] may be of avail for the temporary, perhaps
468 GODDARD :
even for the permanent, removal of diseases due to the functional
derangement of the nervous system But it is
equally undeniable that suggestion is in the long run just as
ineffective for the cure of diseases arising from some palpable
pathological cause, as would be any other form of- command
to the patient to grow well. ' '
By far the best data we have for forming an idea of the fail-
ures and their relation to the cures, is the following record of
cases treated at a Mental Science Home. This institution is
under broad-minded and philanthropic managers who believe
that some people are cured by this method. The healer in
charge is an intelligent man fully imbued with the principles
of Mental Science, but also full of the true scientific spirit, so
that he has regard to results as well as to his theory. All cases
are welcome at the home, and all receive the best of attention
and treatment. They stay until they are cured or discouraged
or the healer is convinced that they cannot be further benefited.
No pride or prejudice seems to be present to hide the facts.
The following statements are clear and concise; accurate, as
far as the healer is concerned. Doubtless many of them are
the patient's own version of the case, while many are the diag-
noses of prominent doctors of medicine previous to the patients
coming to the ' ' Home. ' '
It will be seen that less than half are pronounced cured or well,
less than half again only improved to a greater or less extent,
while quite a large percentage (about 15%) were not helped.
The same disease is sometimes cured and sometimes not
helped. These results agree remarkably with those of hypno-
tism, and altogether we believe are fairly representative of
what would be found if we could get a careful record of all the
cases treated by all the different mental methods.
Miss C. Spinal trouble, epilepsy, prolapsus of uterus, and
malarial chills. Cured.
Miss R. Nervous prostration, neuralgia, epilepsy, and im-
poverished blood. Not much improved.
Miss B. Nervous dyspepsia, hemorrhoids; painful menstru-
ation, sleeplessness. Improved.
Miss F. Pneumonia. Cured.
Miss S. Scrofula bunches. Cured.
Miss C. Sciatica, neuralgia, severe headaches and nervous
prostration . Improved .
Miss A. Congested brain and spinal trouble. Improved.
Miss t,. Cough resulting from pneumonia, nervous debility
and depression. Improved.
Miss F. General debility, mental depression and eyesight
impaired from inflammation resulting from a surgical operation.
Cured.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 469
Mrs. B. Stones in the bladder. Greatly benefited.
Mrs. M. Rheumatism, uterine trouble, indigestion and
catarrh. Great improvement.
Miss W. Spinal trouble, and a growth in side. Cured.
Miss K. Uterine tumor and in too weakened a condition to
admit of an operation. Four years could not speak aloud and
two year^ could not even whisper. She was in an extremely
nervous and weakened condition. A complete cure.
Miss B. Kidney trouble and nervous prostration. Cured.
Mrs. C. Hysterical, causing spasmodic contraction in the
throat muscles, preventing her swallowing liquid foods with
safety. Cured.
Mrs. T. Mental and physical troubles. Fully restored.
Miss F. Impaired eyesight, had worn glasses sixteen years
and could not depend upon her eyes even with those. She left
off glasses and her eyes were cured.
Miss K. Consumption. Improved for a few weeks then
grew worse.
Miss C. Nervous prostration, dyspepsia, and painful men-
struation. Cured.
Miss C. Eruption on face and chest, from chicken pox five
years previously. Cured.
Miss W. Locomotor ataxia. Not benefited.
Mrs. W. Overwork, back strained by lifting, was unable to
sit or stand without great sufiering. Cured.
Mrs. L. Depression ; little improvement. Constipation ;
relieved.
Mrs. B. Displacement and inflammation of uterus. Fully
regained health.
Miss S. Advanced Bright's disease. Unsuccessful.
Miss H. Neurasthenia with hysterical symptoms; was never
well. Change for better.
Miss T. Severe headaches from sunstroke. Very much im-
proved.
Miss S. Nervousness and headaches. Unsatisfactory.
Mr. A. Mental trouble, unfitting for business five years.
Greatly improved.
Mrs. D. Uterine trouble, hysteria and severe depression.
Is well.
Mrs. D. Catarrh of bowels. Rigid diet five years; had
spasms from changing diet and was unable to leave room. Eats
any reasonable food and walks. Improved.
Miss F. Creeping paralysis. Stronger, but the trembling
not improved.
Mrs. P. Paralysis of right side. Very little improvement.
Mrs. S. Nervous prostration. Marked improvement.
Miss S. An overworked teacher. Rested and strong.
470 GODDARD :
Mrs. P. A humor, said to be incurable, uterine trouble and
life- long nervousness. Cured.
Miss B. Mental trouble and lack of will power. Unsatis-
factory.
Miss R. Paralysis or locomotor ataxia. Gained strength.
Miss S. Ovarian trouble, ulceration of stomach and bowels,
liver in an atrophied condition. Cured.
Miss H. Uterine trouble, dyspepsia and general weakness.
Cured.
Miss B. Dyspepsia and hysteria. Improved.
Mrs. F. Severe case of constipation. Uterine trouble and
mild form of insanity. Cured of the first, much improved in
second, and left us very happy.
Mrs. S. Uterine trouble, constipation, and nervous prostra-
tion. Very much improved.
Mrs. H. As severe a case of depression as we ever had, and
nervous prostration. The cloud was lifted and she is bright
and well. Cured.
Miss D. Nervous prostration. Improved.
Miss B. Uterine trouble and a nervous wreck. Much ben-
efited.
Miss H. Uterine trouble, constipation, depression, painful
menstruations, and nervous prostration, — an invalid from child-
hood. Greatly benefited.
Mrs. P. Cancer. Unsuccessful.
Mrs. R. Heart trouble and dyspepsia. Not much improved.
Miss C. Insanity. Not successful.
Mrs. S. Heart trouble, dyspepsia, and nerves in wretched
condition.
Mrs. Iv. A tired and nervous teacher. Was ready for work
when she left us.
Miss G. Painful menstruation. Greatly relieved.
Mr. H. Polypus tumor in nose, and very nervous. Greatly
helped.
Mrs. C. Chronic hay fever. Permanently much improved.
Miss C. Heart trouble, rheumatism, and deafness. Unsat-
isfactory.
Mrs. G. Hysteria and insomnia. Improved.
B. , 8 yrs. Malaria and a cough, result of whooping cough.
Cured.
Miss C. Over study. Left well and strong.
Mrs. H. Heart trouble ten years. Some improvement.
Mrs. W. Ovarian trouble and addicted to morphine habit.
Unsatisfactory.
Miss H. Spinal trouble, ovarian tumor with adhesions, in-
flammation throughout the abdominal region, enlarged and
displaced uterus, rectal abscess, throat trouble, weak lungs, bi-
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 47 1
valvular affection of the heart, trouble with head and eyes,
glasses for five years, abscesses for six years from belladonna
poisoning, extreme sensitiveness of nerves and much numbness
from same cause. My physicians said I had not a sound organ
in my body. Glasses given up and eyes well. A complete cure.
Mrs. B. Heart trouble and nervous debility. Much im-
proved.
Miss R. Difficulty in walking — doubtless locomotor ataxia.
Unsatisfactory.
Mrs. H. Indigestion, uterine trouble, melancholia. Not
ready for this treatment.
Rev. S. Stiff knee and spinal trouble from fall 13 years
ago. Weak and lack of endurance. Gained in strength, but
lameness not helped.
Miss S. Nervous prostration. Great gain.
Mrs. A. Extreme depression. Not satisfactory.
Miss R. Fibroid uterine tumor, and so depressed that she
took very little interest in anything. No change in the physical
trouble, but the great mental burden was lifted and she gained
strength.
Miss M. Retroversion and inflammation of the uterus, and
in such a serious condition that the physicians said she must un-
dergo a surgical operation. This trouble of 20 years' standing,
and dyspepsia of 3 years. Cured.
Mrs. B. Constipation, palpitation of heart, insomnia and
general debility, greatly improved. Constipation cured.
Miss C. Consumption and general weakness. Gained
strength.
Finally, we have in hypnotic treatment the most perfect
demonstration of mental cures that can be found. Only one
thing could be desired. The physicians who use hypnotism
have been so careful, in their effort not to abuse it and not to
endanger in any way their patients, that they have not tried
it for all possible conditions, so that we do not know what it
could accomplish under all circumstances.
But so far as it has been tried, we have exact data, and pos-
itive testimony to its power. Hypnotic suggestion is as cer-
tainly a cure for neuralgia as any drug that is known. The data
furnished by hypnotic cures, is as free from the objections urged
in the previous chapter, as one could reasonably demand. The
use of hypnotism is confined, in its therapeutic aspect, to phy-
sicians of high standing, who assign to hypnosis a place equal
in importance to drugs and other methods — and no greater.
They test it as they would test a new compound or regimen.
They study the results impartially. They have no theory to
defend, no religious dogma to support, and their judgment is
472 GODDARD :
not overcome by emotions due to the fact that they themselves
have been healed by this method.
In view of these facts we may reasonably turn to hypnotism
for the foundation of our more exact study of the theory of
Mental Science.
Hypnotism as a Therapkutic Agent.
In the therapeutics of hypnotism we come to a subject at
once vast and valuable. Its vastness is indicated by the fact
that in 1888, there were recognized 801 writings by 481 authors,
and 207 periodicals containing articles on hypnotism. And in
the past 10 years the interest and the literature has enormously
increased.
We shall confine ourselves to a few careful practitioners,
whose cases number something over a 1,000. Following are
the facts deduced from these reports.
The range of diseases treated by hypnotism is not so large
as we have found under Mental Science and Divine Healing,
since physicians have not thought it right or advisable to try
hypnotism in all diseases, while the theory of Mental Science
and Divine Healing compels them to make use of their method
in all cases.
Before going into the more detailed accounts of hypnotic
cures, a word should be said about the manner of treatment,
and some illustration of the methods given.
There are many methods of inducing the hypnosis, and there
is some diversity in the kind of suggestion given after the
hypnosis is induced.
The following cases are taken from the practices of four dif-
ferent men, and will indicate the scope of the work and the
results.
Baierlacher reports using hypnotism on 58 patients: 24 males,
34 females, between 16 and 71 years of age. 7 M. and 8 F.
were unhypnotizable.
He reports success in cases of colicky pains following abortion,
catarrh of stomach, occipital neuralgia, irregular and painful
menses (case of each), muscular rheumatism, and minor ailments.
Reduced pulse from 92 to 76, and from 86 to 76. Consumptive
pulse of 1 20 was not changed. Failures were met with in cases of
traumatic neuralgia, traumatic neurosis, neuralgia of both legs,
apoplexy, hemiplegia, persistent insomnia, emphysema of both
lungs, and extreme dizziness.
According to Van Eeden, who reports 718 cases where he
used hypnotism, only 19 of whom were unhypnotizable; nerv-
ous condition and sex have no effect in determining suscepti-
bility to hypnosis; character and age, however, are important
factors.
KFFBCTS OF MIND ON BODY.
473
Dr. Van Rhenterghem states that of 178 patients, he failed to
hypnotize 7. He treated 162, of whom 91 were cured, 46 im-
proved, and 25 unimproved. There were 37 different diseases
represented.
The following is a tabulation of a part of them.
Rheumatic pains,
Various hysterical attacks,
Various neuralgias,
Epilepsy,
Indigestion, etc..
Deafness,
Treated.
Improved.
16
2
24
7
9
2
3 '
3
12
2
II
7
Cured.
13
14
6
ID
I
Not Cured.
Esdaile, who worked under the old belief in mesmerism or a
' ' magnetic " fluid that passed from the hands of the operator
to the patient, reports a few cases treated by him in India. He
seems to have had unusual success in producing anaesthesia
sufficient for the performance of difficult surgical operations.
He was also successful in curing by hypnotic treatment several
serious troubles.
The following is his statement:
(Mesmerism in India, by James Esdaile, M. D., I^ondon,
1846.)
A return showing the number of painless surgical operations
performed at Hoogly, during eight months.
Arm amputated,
Breast, ditto.
Tumor extracted from upper jaw
Schirrus testium extirpated.
Penis amputated,
Contracted knees straightened.
Ditto, arms.
Sinus 6 inches long laid open.
Heel flayed.
End of thumb cut off,
Teeth extracted.
Gum cut away.
Prepuce cut off.
Piles, ditto.
Great toe nails cut out by root,
Seton introduced from ankle to
knee,
Large tumor on knee removed.
Scrotal tumors weighing from
8 lbs. to 80 lbs., removed, 17.
Painless,
14
Operations for cataract,
Large tumor in groin cut off.
Operations for hydrocele,
Ditto, dropsy,
Actual cautery applied to a sore,
Muriatic acid, ditto,
Unhealthy sores pared down.
Abscesses opened,
Operations, 73
A return of medical caset. cured by mesmerism during eight
months.
Nervous headache, cured by one
trance, 3
Ticdoloureux, cured by one
trance, 1
JouRNAi, — 10
Lameness from rheumatism, by
chronic treatment, 2
Lumbago, by general and local
mesmerising for a week, i
474
GODDARD
Nervousness and lameness from
rheumatism 6i2j4 years stand-
ing, I
Spasmodic colic, by one trance, i
Acute inflammation of the eyes,
by repeated trances in twenty-
four hours, I
Chronic inflammation of the
eyes, by chronic treatment, i
Acute inflammation of testes,
by repeated trances in thirty-
six hours, I
Convulsions, by one trance, i
Sciatica, for general and local
mesmerising for a week.
Pain in crural nerve, by general
and local mesmerising for a
week,
Palsy of one arm, by general and
local mesmerising for one
month,
Palsy of half the body, by gen-
eral and local mesmerising
for six weeks,
Feeling of insects crawling over
body, by one trance,
i8
" By chronic treatment is meant, daily mesmerising without
the intention of entrancing the patient, which is not necessary."
(P. 22). Author recounts experience with most famous ma-
gician in Bengal. He shows that the magician's method of
treatment is really hypnotism.
The following report of Dr. Parkyn^ may be somewhat excep-
tional, but it is, nevertheless, very remarkable, and indicative
of what may be expected from mental therapeutics.
He says :
' ' In the past eighteen months we have not seen a case of
nervous prostration which has not been cured in a few weeks,
w^hen suggestion was properly used. Appended is a report of
sixteen consecutive cases successfully treated at the Chicago
School of Psychology within a short time, and without a failure.
Time dis-
Increase in wt.
I^ength of
Name.
Age.
ease existed.
in pounds.
treatment.
Result.
K. D. W.,
46
20 years
12 pounds
I month
cured
I.. M.,
23
8 "
14 **
I "
C.T.,
30
2 "
9 "
3 weeks
F. B. T.,
51
3 *'
12 *'
6 "
W. M.,
47
5 "
6 '*
I month
Miss M. B.,
34
2 "
12 "
I "i
** M. C,
23
3 '*
8 "
I •'
" W. N.,
33
4 "
8 "
I "
" H.,
30
I year
14 "
2 months
Mrs. S..
24
2 years
7 "
I month
" G.,
43
3 "
10 "
2 months
" W.,
43
6 "
18 "
I month
" J. C.N.,
57
2 "
7 '' '
I "
D. R. G.,»
37
4 "
23 "
I *'
C. S..
44
5 "
15 "
2 months
P. T. C,
55
18 "
8 "
I month
2 Gained 12 lbs. first week of treatment.
^ From " Suggestion an Infallible Cure for Nervous Prostration,
by Herbert A. Parkyn, M. D. " Suggestions," Vol. I, No. 3, p. 105.
KFFKCTS OF MIND ON BODY. 475
Bernhkim's Hypnotic Cures. (From Suggestive
Therapeutics. )
A. Organic Diseases of the Nervous System. lo.
1. Cerebral hemorrhage, hemiplegia, hemianseslhesia with
tremor and contracture. Cure.
2. Cerebro-spinal disease: apploplectiform attacks, paralyses,
ulnar neuritis. Cure.
3. Partial left hemiplegia. Cure.
4. Traumatic epilepsy with traumatic rheumatism. Cure.
5. Sensory organic hemianaesthesia. Cure.
6. Diffuse rheumatic myelitis. Improvement.
7. Cerebro-spinal insular sclerosis. Marked improvement
for six months.
8. Nervous troubles (organic cause?) in the brachial plexus.
Temporary suppression of the symptom. No cure.
9. Paresis of traumatic origin of the muscles of the hand.
Cure.
10. Paresis of the extensors of the hand and saturnine
anaesthesia. Cure.
B. Hysterical Diseases. 77.
11. Hystero-epilepsy in a man, sensitivo-sensorial hemian-
aesthesia . Cure.
12. Hysteria, sensitivo-sensorial anaesthesia. Transient
suppression of the symptoms. No cure.
1 3 . Hemiplegia with left sensitivo-sensorial hemianaesthesia.
Cure.
14. Hysterical sensitivo-sensorial hemianaesthesia. Cure.
15. Hysteriform Paroxysms with hysterical somnambulism.
Cure.
16. Anaesthesia. Hysterical spinal pain. Cure.
17. Paralysis with hysterical anaesthesia. Cure.
18. Convulsive hysteria with hemianaesthesia. Cure.
21, 23, 24. '^
20, 22. Convulsive hysteria. Cure.
19. Hysteria. Paroxysms of convulsive weeping. Cure.
25. Hysteria with heminaesthesia. Cure.
26. Hysteria in male: weeping, convulsion, paroxysms.
Cure — at least temporary.
27. Hysterical aphonia. Cure.
C. Neuropathic Affections. 18.
28. Nervous aphonia. Cure.
29. Moral inertia and subjective sensations in the head.
Cure.
476 GODDARD :
30. Nervous aphonia. Cure.
31. Post-epileptic tremor, cephalalgia and insomnia. Cure.
32. Nervous gastric troubles. Anaesthesia. Improvement.
33. Neuropathic pains. Cure.
34. Epigastric pains. Cure.
35. Neuropathic lumbar pains. Insomnia. Cure.
36. Paresis with sense of weight in right leg. Cure.
37. Pains in right leg. Cure.
38. Girdle pain and pain in right groin, with difl&culty in
walking for 20 months. Cure.
39. Insomnia. lyoss of appetite, mental depression, tremor.
Cure.
40. Gloomy ideas. Insomnia, loss of appetite. Cure.
41. Insomnia, through habit. Partial cure.
42. Cephalalgia, intellectual obnubilation. Cure.
43. Vertigo, moral depression connected with cardiac dis-
ease. Cure.
44. Laziness, disobedience, and loss of appetite in child.
Cure.
45. Pseudo-paraplegia with tremor. Cure.
D. Various Neuroses, zjr.
Choreic movements consecutive to chorea. Cure.
Choreic movements consecutive to chorea. Cure.
Choreic movements from moral emotion. Cure.
Post choreic tremor in hand. Cure.
Post choreic trouble in writing. Cure.
Choreic movements in hands. Cure.
Hemi-chorea. Rapid improvement. Gradual cure.
General chorea. Gradual cure.
General chorea. Gradual cure.
Obstinate writers' cramp. Rapid improvement. Gradual
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
cure.
56
57
58
59
60
Attacks of tettany, nocturnal somnambulism. Cure.
Nocturnal somnambulism. Temporary cure.
Nocturnal incontinence of urine. Cure.
Nocturnal incontinence of urine. Cure.
Nocturnal aphonia consecutive to pneumonia. Cure.
E. Dynamic Pareses and Paryallyses. j.
61. Sense of weight with paresis of left arm. Cure.
62. Dynamic Psychic paraplegia. Cure.
63. Pains and paresis of lower limbs. Cure.
F. Gastro- Intestinal Affections. ^.
64. Alcoholic gastritis with insomnia and weak legs. Im-
provement.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 477
65. Chronic gastritis. Dilation of the stomach and vomit-
ing. Improvement.
66. Gastric troubles. Burning sensation over sternum.
Insomnia. Cure.
67. Gastro-intestinal catarrh. Metritis. Neuropathy. Im-
provement.
G. Various Painful Affections. 12.
68. Epigastric pain. Cure.
69. Umbilical and Epigastric pain. Cure.
70. Interscapular pain. Cure.
71. Thoracic pain. Insomnia. (Tubercular diathesis.) Cure.
72. Hypogastric and supra-inguinal pains on left, connected
with old pelvic-peritonitis. Cure.
73. Intercostal pain. Cure.
74. Thoracic pain. Gradual cure.
75. Painful contusion of the deltoid. Cure.
76. Muscular pain in flank. Cure.
77. Painful spot in side. Cure.
78. Pains in the epitrochlea muscles. Cure.
79. Pain in shoulder and upper right limb from effort. Cure.
H. Rheumatic Affections, ig.
80. Rheumatic paralysis of right fore arm. Cure.
81. Rheumatic scapulo-humeral arthritis. Improvement
without cure.
82. Muscular rheumatism, with cramp. Cure.
83. Ilio-lumbar rheumatism, neuralgia. Cure.
84. Arthralgia consecutive to an arthritis. Cure.
85. Pleurodynia and lumbar pain helped by suggestion.
Cure.
86. Apyretic articular rheumatism. Gradual cure.
87. Chronic articular rheumatism. Cure.
88. Muscular, articular and nervous rheumatism. Gradual
cure.
89. Acromio-clavicular and xiphoid rheumatic pains. Cure.
90. Muscular lumbo-crural rheumatism with sacro-sciatic
neuralgia. Rapid improvement. Almost total cure.
91. Apyretic articular rheumatism. Gradual cure.
92. Acromio-clavicular rheumatic pains. Cure.
93. Muscular rheumatism arm and leg. Cure.
94. Gonorrheal rheumatism. Gradual cure.
95. Acromio-clavicular and xiphoid articular rheumatism.
Cure.
96. Rheumatic articular pains. Cure.
97. Dorsal and meta carpal-phalangeal rheumatic pains.
Cure.
478 GODDARD :
98. Rheumatic dorso-lumbar, and sciatic pains. Cure.
/. Neuralgias. 5.
99. Rebellious Sciatica. Cure.
100. Recent sciatica helped by one suggestion. Cure,
loi. Rebellious sciatica. Cure.
102. Rebellious sciatica. Gradual cure.
103. Neuralgia of trigeminus with facial ticdoloureux. Al-
most complete cure.
J. Menstrual Troubles. 2.
104. Menstrual retardation, suggestion of periods for fixed
day. Success.
105. Profuse menstruation every 11 or 15 days. Interval
lengthened by suggestion to 28 or 29 days.
It is necessary to call attention with greatest emphasis to the
utterly wrong idea of hypnotism present in the popular mind.
The average man conceives of hypnotism as a diabolical power
possessed by a few favored individuals, by means of which they
can do anything they please with any other individual who is
unfortunate enough to come within their influence. Thanks to
scientific investigations, we now know that hypnotism in its
complete form is only a condition of sleep, which has been
produced not in the ordinary manner, but at the suggestion of
some person, and with the understanding that the one so put
to sleep is to do whatever he is told to do. The hypnotizer
has no power that the subject does not give him. He cannot
carry out his command to sleep, unless the subject is willing.
Even after the subject is asleep, he need not obey the commands
if he does not wish to do so. Of course, if the subject believes
that the operator has power over him, he will always obey.
Hypnosis, then, is nothing more than artificially suggested
sleep. ''Suggestion " — the term for which we are indebted to
Braid, is the fundamental principle upon which this " occult "
power depends. A great deal of discussion has arisen as to
the nature of hypnosis, much of which has tended to mystify,
and make it more terrible to the uninitiated.
For example, much stress has been laid upon the method of
inducing hypnosis, in efforts to get at the cause as well as the
nature of it. All these discussions neglect the principle of
Suggestion. The method employed has nothing to do with the
cause of hypnotism. It may be the condition in that particular
case, but cause it is never.
The cause of hypnotism is in the fundamental relation of
body and mind; the method of producing it is by suggestion.
The suggestion may be accompanied by any circumstance that
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 479
the Operator may desire. The fixed gaze has no more to do
with causing hypnotism, than a couch has with causing sleep.
Were it not for the suggestion, either understood and believed
beforehand, or explicitly stated by the operator, ** After you
look steadily at this object, for a short time, you will fall asleep,"
the steady gaze would not produce hypnosis any more than
folding the hands would. The hunter fixes his gaze on the
distant game, sometimes for hours, without falling asleep, or
into the first stage of hypnosis. He has never been given that
suggestion. If it were an accepted fact or superstition, that
if he looked too long he would become hypnotized, then we
should have no end of such experiences. In hundreds of trades
it is a workman's business to watch an object or a machine
steadily for long intervals. The biologist looks steadily through
microscope from early morning till late at night. All the con-
ditions are precisely like hypnosis, except the suggestion, which
is wanting. Animals can be hypnotized. But animals gaze
at their prey by the hour without hypnosis.
On the other hand hypnosis is produced under all kinds of
circumstances, sq widely different that the only possible element
common to all, is the suggestion or expectation. Braid showed
that patients would go into hypnotic condition, if only they
thought they were being hypnotized, whereas, if they did not
know that they were being operated upon, the most skillful
hypnotists could not have any effect upon them. Bernheim
states this clearly. (See preface to last edition.)
Again, r^ :h confusion has arisen from confounding hypno-
tism with the effects of suggestion when in the hypnotic state.
Catalepsy, e. g. , is a condition of muscular rigidity that can
often be produced by further suggestion after the subject has
become hypnotized. But the question in regard to catalepsy,
is not *' what is its relation to, or how is it produced by, hyp-
notism?" but only "how does the body become rigid in
response to a command to do so?" This is also the question
that we would be glad to answer in regard to disease; though
at present we are more concerned with the facts as to how far
the bodily conditions are changed in accordance with the com-
mand or suggestion of change.
One has only to think of dreaming — a dream where the stream
of thought is directed by some person — to understand the con-
dition of things in hypnosis. The characteristic thing about
dreaming is that one does not question the reasonableness of
the ideas that come into mind. This is also characteristic of
hypnosis, and upon this depends its value in therapeutics.
Whereas, in the normal condition, any suggestion is met bj'-
other considerations, and may be rejected; in dreams or in
hypnosis, no opposing ideas are met, and the suggested idea
480 GODDARD :
takes possession of the mind. When once the idea has pos-
sessed the mind, there is a tendency for it to work itself out
into a physical expression. This is the power of suggestion,
and the essential element in hypnosis and in all mental thera-
peutics, as we shall show later.
The power of suggestion is best explained by reference to
the nature of mind, and the relation of body and mind.
Given an idea in the mind^ and it of necessity does one of two
things: It arouses another idea, or it * ' generates its actuality, ' '
/. e. , it translates itself into motor terms. In lower life, this
is all that can be done. This we call impulsive action. If we
might assume in the amoeba a consciousness, that stands to
human consciousness somewhat as the amoeba body stands to
human body, then we might say that when an idea of move-
ment arises in the consciousness of the amoeba, its only pos-
sible effect or sequence is the translation of that idea into the
actual motion. Not until we ascend to the top of the scale
do we find that the aroused idea frees itself by arousing another
idea. The very existence of animal life is dependent upon the
*--*^equence of idea by its motor equivalent. A sensation, a stim-
ulus, gives rise to the idea — and this idea in turn discharges
itself in motor form. Thus the needs of the animal are satis-
fied. Now the life of the species depends upon the perfection
of this response, hence natural selection has developed this
relation through all the life of the animal kingdom.
But the replacing of the motor consequent by another idea,
could only happen after consciousness had so far developed as
to hold one idea while another was being formed. A growth,
so to speak, from one dimension to two. The amoeba conscious-
ness being spoken of as a consciousness of one dimension,
while the other is two.
In man the idea is commonly followed by another idea and
that one by another, and so on until such time as the nervous
tension becomes so strong as to discharge into the motor areas,
then the motor response appears. But the sequence of ideas
being a far later development, is correspondingly weak. The
idea of movement is met by an idea of rest, or of movement in
another direction, or what not; the result is, no movement is
made. If, however, no second idea meets the first, then the
motor response occurs and the movement takes place.
Now in all forms of voluntary suggestibility the subject, of
his own accord, tries to make the sequence always ideo-motor,
never ideo-idea. In so far as he succeeds in carrying this out,
1 This form of expression is used here and in other parts of this
article, for brevity, merely, and does not imply an intellectualistic
standpoint.
KFFBCTS OF MIND ON BODY. 48 1
he becomes perfectly suggestible. In sleep opposing ideas are
absent, hence hypnosis is the condition par excellence for sug-
gestion.
Appwcation of thk Foregoing Theory to Mentai.
Therapeutics.
We are now in a position to attempt a comprehensive expla-
nation of all the forms of mental therapeutics.
It is an interesting fact that the adherents of any one form I
of ' * mind cure, ' ' say that all others are mere hypnotism. The \
Divine Healer thinks Christian Science is hypnotism; the
Christian Scientist says Mental Science is hypnotism, and so
through the whole list of rival schools. In the strict use of
the word hypnotism, this is not true, since there is no "sleep
condition" involved in any one of them. In every form with
which we are acquainted, the patient is in full possession of
his "wakened consciousness " — except in the avowed hypnotic
treatment, and even here sleep is often very slight or even al-
together wanting. Bernheim, Wetterstrand and others, often
report "patient did not sleep" or "did not even close
eyes;" and Dr. Parky n declares that he prefers that his
patients should not go into complete hypnosis — he thinks he
gets better results without it.
In a scientific sense, however, it is true that a// mental thera-
peutics is hypnotism, i. e., it is suggestion. Suggestion is the
bond of union between all the different methods, Divine Heal-
ing, Christian Science, Mental Science, etc. And the law of sug-
gestion is the fundamental truth underlying all of them, and
that upon which each has built its own superstructure of igno-
rance, superstitior or fanaticism.
Man is a creatare of suggestion. The differences in men
consist in the differences in the suggestions that they have
received and the ways in which they have reacted to them.
The ideo-motor man — the man who instantly translates every
idea into a motor consequent, is but little above the brute; he
is a vegetative being, and his form of reaction will suffice for
his vegetative needs, if he is not made the victim of a design-
ing reasoner. Exceptions to this, are those acts which were
formerly considered, but now having been uniformly approved
have become reflex or automatic, and mark a higher rather
than a lower stage. On the other hand, the ideo-idea man — the
one who inhibits the motor response, and follows the idea by
another idea in rapid succession until such time as it is wise to
follow with the motor expression — he is highest in the scale.
Between these two we have all degrees. A Christian Scientist
said to the writer, that the largest part of his work and his
hardest work was to counteract the influence of hypnotism.
482 GODDARD :
He was only expressing a general truth in mystical terms, —
suggested by his belief in mysticism. What he really meant
was that his hardest work was to counteract the effects of evil
suggestion, and this is the experience of all who are trying
'to realize higher ideals.
It is because people will act upon suggestion without think-
ing that evil has entered into the world. And here we must
note that the motor side follows the idea, not only voluntarily
and consciously as when I follow the idea of striking, with an
actual blow, but also involuntarily and unconsciously, as when
the thought of nausea produces the muscular movements char-
acteristic of vomiting, or the idea of an accelerated pulse is
followed by an increased heart-beat, or the idea of a diseased
kidney is followed by actual derangement of the functions of
that organ, or the idea of health is followed by the perfect
functioning of all organs. More will be said of this unconscious
reaction, in a later section.
Confining, now, our consideration of suggestion to its rela-
tion to disease, we may note a law and the almost infinite num-
ber of ways in which it is brought into action. First, in the
causation of disease: the idea of disease produces disease, in
direct proportion to its definiteness, and in inverse proportion
to the strength of the ideas opposing it. By the first clause
we mean that a clear and definite idea of a specific derange-
ment of an organ, will produce such derangement quicker
than an indefinite idea that there is somewhere in the body a
diseased organ. E, g., Mr. C. has a clear control of his heart
action; he has a definite idea of his heart, where it is, what it
is, how it works, how to influence its working. Mr. G. has
no such control, he cannot accelerate or retard his heart beat,
he has only a vague idea of his heart. Now Mr. C.'sidea
that he has heart disease, will produce that disease, much
quicker than G.'s idea. \By the second part, we mean, that
an idea must become fully accepted, and actually possess
the mind, with no possible sign of opposition, for it to produce
its full effect. Manifestly, these are both ideal conditions, and
upon that fact depends our safety. Otherwise every idea of
disease would produce actual disease in our bodies. They are
equally ideal, when we come to the application of the law of
suggestion to the cure of disease, and upon that fact is based
the fallacy of most of the schools of mental therapeutics — those
that claim that all diseases can be cured, and in all persons.
Let us turn to the facts with regard to the causation 01
disease. There are not a few people to whom the mere men-
tion of a disease is a suggestion that they are suffering from
it, and with the result that pain and often symptoms of the
disease appear. It is a well known fact that medical students
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 483
frequently suffer from the diseases of which they study. The
vivid descriptions accompanied by pictures of the diseased
parts, are sufficient suggestion to them to produce the motor
response. We have already cited a remarkable case, of the
physician who produced a serious duodenal catarrh (page 464).
The individual differences in this particular, while unexplained,
are yet wide and of great importance. Some people are so consti-
tuted that the sight of a sprained ankle causes severe pain and
lameness in their own ankle which has received no mechanical
injury. The sight of a bleeding wound may cause a red scar,
more or less permanent, and correspondingly located on the
person of one of these sensitive observers. At the other end
of the scale, we have those people who are in no way affected
by the most unusual sights. And between these extremes are
all gradations.
Now, while we cannot explain this peculiar ' ' sensitive-
ness, ' ' this physical sympathy, it nevertheless is a fact and cannot
be ignored. It is manifestly absurd to include all these peo-
ple in one category, or to expect the same results from the
same methods with all people.
If it is true that suggestion can cause disease, as well as account
for many other remarkable phenomena, we have paved the way
for the next step, — the proof that suggestion cures disease, —
for as Dr. Hall says, *' if mind causes disease, it is reasonable
to suppose that it can cure the diseases that it causes."
At least it will be important to trace the role of suggestion
through the different forms of therapeutics. We shall find
that it takes forms varying with the philosophy of those affected
by it. Among primitive people, the mere similarity of a plant,
e. g. , to the part of the body affected, was enough to suggest
that the plant would cure the disease. Witness the doctrine
of "signatures." As man developed in intelligence and in
civilization, he outgrew this form and required a stronger sug-
gestion. But the appeal was ever to the mysterious — to some
force or power that was just beyond his understanding — and
as his knowledge advanced, he continually pushed that upon
which he pinned his faith, farther back into the unknown.
And to-day the same idea is true. So that whether the treat-
ment be with the idea that the gods are appeased by the
swallowing of nasty compounds, or that certain objects in
themselves possess the healing power, or God answers the
prayer, or obedience to some transcendental law of mind brings
health, the principle is the same. The unknown is powerful ;
mystery makes the suggestion all potent. Schrader and Schlat-
ter are mysterious men. They talk little, dress peculiarly,
and claim miraculous powers. Their claim is undoubtedly
much enforced by their appearance, which is strikingly sug-
484 GODDARD :
gestive of the Man of Nazareth — at least as the mediaeval artists
were accustomed to represent him. All these are elements that
help make the suggestion acceptable, so that when they profess
to heal any one, that person is strongly impressed, and easily
rises to a condition of new and greater hope and effort.
In Mental Science the appeal is to " laws of mind ' ' by
which mental states not only control physical conditions, but
have created all that there is of the physical, both good and
bad. As it has created, so it can destroy. Both this and
Divine Healing have an element in common that is a power-
ful factor in the accomplishment of the result. This is the
part of the teaching which abstracts the patient from himself
and fixes his attention on matters external to himself. L^ater
we shall discuss this point more at length.
Finally, in hypnotism, we have the same appeal to mystery,
though it takes various forms according to the intelligence of
the subject. The individual who thinks hypnotism due to an
odyllic force, is taking his mysticism in its most eras form.
While the man who understands suggestion, and voluntarily
accepts the suggestions of the operator and is cured of his
disease, is still appealing to that ultimate mystery of the rela-
tion of body and mind.
We have now seen wherein lies the strength of the suggestion
as it comes from the different sources, and we can see why each
form has its followers. The objections that arise in the mind
of any sick person, are overcome, now by one argument, and
now by another. It must be borne in mind in all these cases,
that a powerful aid to the acceptance of the suggestion is the
longing of the individual for health. It is an observation of
Caesar's, that men easily believe what they wish to believe.
Healers like Bradley Newell appeal to another mysterious
force — namely magnetism. The same thing occurs in the
various patent curatives known as magnetic belts, etc. , which
as we have seen, are entirely free from any real electricity or
magnetism, and owe their power solely to the expectation that
they arouse in the mind of the patient.
Patent medicines appeal to the mysterious power of certain
powerful drugs supposed to be contained in them. The sug-
gestion is made potent by constant and continual reiteration
through advertising. The pictures and testimonials constituting
a suggestion that it is impossible for a certain class of minds
to resist.
The quack doctor has much the same explanation. If he
advertises in newspapers less, he makes it up by his own per-
sonality and his claims of great power, which he parades with
an air of honesty and humility which easily catches the inex-
perienced in such ways.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 485
The so-called Divine Healing makes its suggestions accept-
able by an appeal to the deepest that is in man, — the religious
instinct. With Bible in hand it requires only a little skill to
make it appear that the Almighty is waiting to heal every ill
that man ever endured, if only man will fulfill the conditions.
Various passages of scripture are easily made to appear to de-
clare all this, and so, many a devout person finds in these sug-
gestions the means of rising to a supreme efibrt with an entirely
new hope. The suggestion is freely accepted and has appar-
ently free course to * * generate its actuality. ' '
But, as we have seen, although the suggestion is fully ac-
cepted, yet there are physical conditions that this tendency
toward health cannot overcome in the short lifetime of an
individual.
The law of suggestion in the cure of disease, may be
stated as follows : The idea of health tends to produce health
in proportion to the strength of the idea, or inversely as the
opposition to be met. This opposition to the acceptance of the
idea of health comes from the presence of other ideas or beliefs,
and also from physical conditions which require, often, long
time for their complete correction. The time required weakens
the strength of the fixed idea.
The latter is the most serious difiiculty to be met, and con-
stitutes the weak point in all theories and practices of mental
therapeutics. It appears that the difierent healers have become
so fascinated by the heretofore unknown powers of the mind,
that they have ignored the physical side, as having anything
to do with the matter, other than to be passive and allow itself
to be regenerated as the mind shall determine.
There are two lines of thought in this part of the subject:
First we have the difiiculty which comes from the actual ab-
sence of the necessary organs or tissues, to carry out the sug-
gestion. A man without eyes may by argument, or in a mo-
ment of religious ex^citement, be led mentally to accept the
suggestion that he will see. But not having the necessary or-
gans for that purpose, he is physically incapable of carrying
out the suggestion. Some healers claim that "mind" can
and does create organs as they are needed. Proofs of this are
wanting, but we must admit their argument that, this being
a matter so contrary to all tradition, the mind has an unusual
amount of prejudice to overcome, and examples that can be
demonstrated are in the nature of things hardly to be expected.
We do not know what might be accomplished if the mind were
free to accept the suggestion without opposition. Neverthe-
less it is perfectly clear that there is one element omitted which
negatives all the claims of the healers. Time is this neglected
element. It may be true that every idea has a tendency to
486 GODDARD :
" generate its actuality," even to a lost leg. But it must take
time for that idea to work itself out. One may believe that
if man set himself to grow wings, and willed it persistently
for generations and ages, he would achieve his purpose. But
when we come down to the lifetime of an individual, and
that, too, when it is half gone, life is too short. The time ele-
ment cannot be neglected.
A second point strikes deeper yet. It is the reaction of the
diseased organ, or the effect of the loss of an organ, upon the
mind itself. We cannot deny the fact of such influence. All
the methods of mental cure assume a mind in fairly normal
state, and they acknowledge themselves helpless unless the
mind of the patient is in a condition to react intelligently to
their suggestions. But we know that there are many con-
ditions in which a person cannot so act. We also know that
disease has its own effect upon the mind. We do not know
the laws governing this matter, and we do not know what con-
ditions of body make it impossible for the mind to accept sug-
gestions that would be easily received under other circum-
stances.
It is only reasonable to assume that there may be many such
conditions. Hence, in accepting a form of mental therapeutics,
we may be holding a true theory, but making a sad mistake
by attempting to apply it under conditions that it does not fit.
We come now to the question of suggestibility from another
standpoint. It also bears upon the matter just discussed and
will help to make our conclusions clear. We have admitted
that if patients could fully accept the suggestions of the healer,
there might be more decided results. The thousand and one
prejudices, questionings, etc. , etc. , keep the individual from giv-
ing himself up entirely to the idea that he thinks he accepts. We
have, however, one class of data where the ideal condition
seems reached in a measure. We refer to the hypnotic cures.
Here the reasoning faculty being in abeyance, questionings or
prejudices are much weakened or entirely excluded. In fact,
it is the unanimous conscensus, that the one characteristic of
the hynoptic condition is that of accepting, with little or no
question, whatever is suggested.
The following table compiled from 414 cases of Drs. Van
Rhenterghem and Van Beden, shows clearly that ( i ) the deeper
the hypnosis the larger the percentage of cures. (2.) Even in
the deepest hypnosis, not all cases were cured — even of those
that were tried. (3.) Some classes of diseases are far less ame-
nable than others.
The inferences from this table are extremely important, and
help to answer several practical questions.
The first point referred to — that the deeper the degree of
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY.
487
hypnosis, the greater the therapeutic effect — may be eluci-
dated by the following illustration :
55
<
0
vo
t"^
00
M
1
M
w
M
cs
6
t^
C4
ON
ON
8
CO
,_
t^
CS
'^
"V
r^
ca-H
•Ib;ox
0 a
0
m
CO
M
Tf
M
0
<
^
CO
t^
'
— cT"
■^—
"3f)"
r><
"T"
t^
IB^OX
01
CJ
M
M
M
CO
•
M
rO
»o
VO
\n
PQ
<
M
W
M
0
"*
ON
""o—
■QT"
•^
i_i
CO
.a
•IB^OX
CO
10
U-)
VO
CO
^
d
0
ro
CO
00
0
«;
CO
<N
t>*
CO
vo
M
S
M
w
M
l><
.
CO
«o
vo
r<
^
c<
z
<
(S
CO
w
M
CJ
CO
•-•
vo
TT
^
TT
- 0
is
•Ib;ox
M
M
M
M
vo
6
0
0
w
w
0
rj-
rA
M
CO
vo
cs
M
Tl-
W
<
w
0
vo
vo
->*
t^
"^
l-H
CO
^TT"
TT"
M
On
CO
Oi
sS
•IB^OX
M
M
CO
d
M
0
CO
»o
^
0
U
M
n
M
t^
"*
M
M
^
tnv
M
^
VO
-"d-
CO
'-'
M
a
IB^ox
"sr
M
CN
d
0
M
c»
0
0
CO
03
m
fO
M
<N
M
0
t^
^*
vo
VO
M
0
»o
00
fl
0
ea
t-<
■4-»
.2
13
H
<1
0
i
13
•^
>x
<U
ti
u
'^
{H
cd
fc
0
a
1
1
0
0
■M
a
a
OS
4J
^
0
CO
1
CO
PH
0
^
H
^ a
r-H
0 p
<i> 1.
^
itt ^
" ^
lU •>
0
0 0
•
in
0) <l>
p<
f/5
.52 M
CO
1
a
TS ~
^
CJ
rt
•35
j<!
a
a
c4 cd
0
ScPh
•"•
tn
V- 0
0 »H
rt
\
M 0)
^
0
1 ^
u
0
t«^
«
5 ..
S
^ ?
^5
TS
t>*
T,§
'^
rXi M
t
d.
'd a;
<H
(UitI
"^
(U
0
tn
CO
CO
i2
p
d <y
^
0
1
.2^
>
PQ
^■'5
03
0
§5
^ a
M
s.
ti
^fa
0)
(1)
itl^
0
M y
TJ
0 (U
~
flitt
" ^
Tl
Pl.<U
<
S
Ph
>> «
^
0)
^^
0
y
A ~
CO
whic
rosis
e.
>
2i
03
■a
(1)
SSS
01
1
•'- p 0
^
4} <y «
H <1
Si3a
0
t.^.^
(h
'^
"J
In the column headed "Neuropathic," it will be seen that
of the 32 people upon whom the treatment had no effect, only
488 GODDARD :
4 went into the deeper forms of hypnosis; of the 50 slightly
benefited, 15 went into the deeper states ("B" or " C ") ; of
56 showing decided improvement, 30 went into the deeper
hypnosis; and of the 64 cured, 41 went into deep sleep or
somnambulism. The deeper the hypnosis the less the opposi-
tion to the suggestion of the operator ; and the less the
opposition, the more likely that the suggestion will produce
the desired effect, — health.
This fact that the percentage of cures is greater in deeper
hypnosis than in light, shows the difficulty in ordinary prac-
tice of overcoming the patient's objections or the unconscious
counter-suggestions that constantly rise from the ideational
centers.
A second point clears up a difficulty that we have already
met in considering the claims of Christian Science. We have
seen that while they admit failure to cure all diseases at pres-
ent, they yet claim that the more perfect development of the
individual in the new thought, the more complete acceptance
of the suggestion, will accomplish the cure of all disease. But
in hypnosis, we seem to have a state that is ideal, so far as the
absence of distracting prejudices are concerned. The demand
of the Christian Scientist for a test under conditions of com-
plete acceptation of the teaching, seems here granted and with
a negative outcome that all diseases are not cured. Not
even are all cases of the same disease cured. Even those
most skilled in pathology and in hypnotism cannot tell before-
hand what case can be cured by the treatment. This seems
to be conclusive proof that Suggestive Therapeutics must take
its place by the side of drugs rather than to assume to super-
cede them.
The third inference corroborates this idea. Some classes of
disease are, as a rule, cured by suggestive treatment; others
are, as a rule, not affected.
It must be admitted at this point that hypnotism itself is not
at its perfection yet. The operators are still more or less bound
by tradition, and the belief that certain ailments cannot be
cured. This belief they unconsciously communicate to their
subjects. But in view of all the facts, it is altogether improb-
able that the results can be materially changed. The line of
division between curable and incurable cases may be some-
what changed so as to put a few more on the curable side; but
there is nothing to indicate that the claim of Christian Science
can ever be realized. On the other hand, much in the nature
of mind and of body, as well as what we know of their rela-
tions, points clearly to the other view.
effects of mind on body. 489
Psychological Problems.
The facts of special interest to psychological science, which
stand out from the preceding pages, and which require some
further discussion, are three :
First. Pain ceases in accordance with these methods of treat-
ment.
Second. Changes in tissues of the body are produced in ac-
cordance with the mental condition.
Third. The mental attitude of patients at all stages — before
and after and during the cure — is one best described in terms of
belief, or more explicitly, in terms of attention as modified
and controlled by more or less conscious beliefs. Before the
cure, the patient thinks about, and attends to, his pains and
symptoms ; in his cure, he ceases to attend to these, either
neglecting them entirely, or attending wholly to the sensa-
tions of improvement that he is led to look for. After his
cure, if it is permanent, his attention is directed outward, to
normal human interests and the daily affairs of life.
Two questions arise in connection with these facts, viz.:
What is pain that it thus appears and disappears with the
fluctuation of the attention ? and how does a mental state
affect changes in body tissues? To propose to answer these
questions would be the height of presumption, but we may be
permitted to add a little to the speculation already extant.
Although pain-pleasure has been extensively discussed, and
many theories advanced, we seem to be still far from agreement
on the main question of what pain is or its physiological ba-
sis. Whether there are special, pain nerves, end organs or brain
centres, is a matter of dispute. Wedinski thinks all nerve
fibres can feel pain; Kick says pain is mostly in the spinal cord;
Wernicke declares that all basal centers with gray matter in
them can ache. Edinger makes the internal capsule the pain
center; I^udwig claims that he cut out certain parts of the
spinal cord and destroyed pain in certain regions.
Marshal (Pain Pleasure and Esthetics, N. Y. , 1894, P- 204-5)
saj^s:
' ' Whence we have the working hypothesis :
" ( I ) Pleasure is experienced whenever the physical activity
coincident with the psychic state to which the pleasure is at-
tached involves the use of surplus stored force — the resolution
of surplus potential into active energy; or, in other words,
whenever the energy involved in the reaction to a stimulus is
greater in amount than the energy which the stimulus habitual-
ly calls forth.
" ( 2 ) Pain is experienced whenever the physical action which
determines the content is so related to the supply of nutriment
JOURNAI,— II
490 GODDARD :
to its organ that the energy involved in the reaction to the
stimulus is less in amount than the energy which the stimulus
habitually calls forth.
" In general we may also say that:
' ' Pleasure and pain are primitive qualities of psychic states
which are determined by the relation between activity and
capacity in the organs, the activities of which are concomitants
of the psychoses involved. ' '
Witmer, in what is probably the best paper that has appeared
on the subject, of recent date, summarizes as follows : (See
' * Pain ' ' by Lightner Witmer, in 20th Century Practice of Med-
icine, Vol. XI.)
1 . Pain is a simple unanalyzable mental content.
2. It should therefore be called a sensation.
3. There is no conclusive anatomical evidence for the exist-
ence of a peripheral sense organ or nervous end organ for pain.
4. Nor for pain nerves or peripheral sensory neurons.
5. Much evidence justifies the conclusion that all or some
peripheral nerves may under adequate stimulation, act with
specific pain-producing function; that such nerves may lose
their function without a loss of other functions or may lose
other functions without losing the pain function. Thus pain
may be a sensation of purely central nervous origin. The
arousal of pain by stimuli and its* presentation in consciousness
along with other sensations, may be explained by the simul-
taneous association of pain with other forms of stimulation —
an association that may take place at any level of the nervous
system. (Analogous to colored sound.)
6. There is a specialized pain tract in the spinal cord which
is certainly constituted in part of the gray column, and which
may be composed of a part of the gray column of both sides,
including the commissure and a part of the lateral tract. Into
this pain tract nerves from the sympathetic system and from
the internal organs, together with all specialized nerves from
the periphery, discharge their stimulation when this is rela-
tively intense. The intensity necessary to bring about this
discharge may be that which is sufficient to overcome the
resistance offered by the tract.
7. This tract passes up through the optic thalamus and
posterior limb of the internal capsule, the ' * carrefour sensitif, ' '
into the cerebrum, and reaches some region unknown, but
probably a part of the somsesthetic area. This hypothetical
area may be looked upon as the pain center.
8. There is some warrant or justification for considering
the pain tract in the spinal cord as the specialized nerve organ
of pain, which together with the hypothetical specialized cortical
center constitutes the specific organ of pain.
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 49 1
9. Any part of this central pain organ may be stimulated
in the cortex or below it, either by stimuli discharging into it
through normal physiological processes, by spinal or cortical
association, by irritation due to disease, and perhaps by a
vascular disturbance within the central nervous system.
Grant Allen (Physiological Esthetics, N. Y., 1877,) says:
" Pain is the subjective concomitant of destructive action or
insufficient nutrition in any sentient tissue. Pleasure is the
subjective concomitant of the normal amount of function in
any such tissue." (p. 29.)
But neither of these definitions recognizes the effect of
attention on pain. This is perhaps due to the general idea
that attention only effects the degree to which the pain is felt.
It is of course a common experience that one feels their pain
more when they give attention to it, whereas anything that
can distract attention lessens the painful sensation. But this
is only a part of the truth. The fact is clearly proved by the
experiences of mental therapeutics, that the sensation of pain
is absolutely removed by these methods which focus the
attention on some extraneous object or idea. This accounts
for the many supposed cures, which prove not to be perma-
nent— pain is stopped, and since pain is the chief objective
sign of disease, patient thinks he is entirely cured. If this is
not the case, then we have to account for the actual change of
the tissue from disease to healthy condition, in such a remark-
ably short time that the healers call it instantaneous.
Toward an explanation of these facts, may we not assume
an hypothesis something like the following?
Every cell of the body has its own sensibility, and reacts to
stimuli in a certain definite way if the stimulus is helpful and
the opposite way if the stimulus is harmful. If we think of
a primitive unicellular organism, we can easily imagine that
in time, these two reactions would become distinguished, and
consciously pleasurable and painful respectively, according as
they were beneficial or injurious to the life of the organism.
Then as we ascend to the multicellular organ and differentia-
tion begins, one cell devoted to one kind of work and another
to another kind, the liability to injury is increased, and the
power of resistance is reduced, since the cell having developed
greater efficiency in one direction has given up its power in
another.
But here a new element comes in. The very fact of the
associating together of different cells necessitates a kind of
rough acquaintanceship. Each cell in the association must
be stimulated by the cell adjoining it in a way that is neither
the stimulus of a food particle nor yet an enemy. The recog-
492 GODDARD :
nition of this difference in stimuli is the beginning of
consciousness, or if Cope's view of archsestheticism, or primi-
tive consciousness of the individual cell is correct, then we shall
call this consciousness which recognizes adjacent cells as part
of the same organism, the '' general consciousness" in accord-
ance with Stanley's terminology. The extent and importance
of this general consciousness increases as we ascend the scale
of life. When we reach the rudiments of a nervous system,
this general consciousness takes a controlling interest in the
corporation, and psychic life begins in earnest.
Henceforth we have a well regulated plan. We may liken
the organism to a republic composed of individual states.
The general government is concerned with the welfare and
reputation of the body as a whole; each state — or cell — attends
to its own affairs, does the work that has fallen to its lot, and
settles its own difl&culties as far as possible. When, however,
the difficulty becomes too great, an appeal is made to the
general government.
Now, in this multicellular organism, trouble is constantly
arising; every cell is constantly receiving unpleasant stimuli
and experiencing pain because of its own sensibility. Whether
this cell-consciousness of pain will rise to the general
consciousness, seems to depend upon two factors: first, the
quality and quantity of the pain consciousness of the cell, and
secondly, the amount of attention given to it by the general
consciousness — to revert to our figure, whether the general
government will become interested in a state trouble, depends
upon the magnitude of the trouble and the amount of business
the general government has on hand. Experience shows that
we have all degrees, and every possible circumstance. We
may give our attention to almost any organ of the body and
in a short time we can find pain there. Normally it is high-
ly probable that much that is pain for the individual cell or
group of cells, passes without ever coming to full conscious-
ness.
Finally, attention may be turned away from the cell group
and strongly fixed on some extraneous object or idea, and
then a pain of high intensity and involving a large area may
fail to make itself felt. Instances are seen where a person
suffers a severe injury, even a fatal wound, but under excite-
ment feels no pain and is even ignorant of what has happened.
It seems reasonable that the second of the conditions
enumerated should be the one most in accord with the highest
welfare of the organism, especially if we are considering an
intelligent being. Whenever an injury is of such a nature or
extent as to endanger the life or efficiency of the organism,
the attention of the entire being must be turned towards its
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 493
restoration. When, however, the intelligence has done all
that can be done to remove the trouble, consciousness may
and should be diverted in other directions, since, as Dr. Leach
says : ( " Albr utt ' s System of Medicine ,"p.24i,) " Pain and
suffering, by their influence on nutritional processes, tend
directly to prevent the return of tissues and organs to normal
state;" or, as Dr. Edes puts it, "Attention constantly turned
in on its own painful surroundings impedes healthy mental
action as an ingrowing toe nail impedes healthy locomotion. ' '
(Kdes — Shattuck Lecture 1895. p. 37.) Similarly, any injury
of any less extent than this, need not, and in the best regu-
lated organism must not, come to consciousness. And finally
the absence of pain in the case of serious injury is a calamity
which would in time destroy the species.
In mental therapeutics, the intelligence is appealed to, to
do precisely what we have just seen is the wisest thing. In
different ways the patient is induced to fix his attention on
some idea other than his pain. He does this the easier from
the conviction that he is in the care of those who are seeking
his welfare. The Christian Scientist tells him he has no pain,
and so distracts his attention by convincing him that there is
nothing there to fix his attention on.
In hypnotism, again, the attention of the patient is fixed,
perhaps, on the supposed power of the operator; finally, in
Divine Healing, the patient fixes his attention on the Creator
" who healeth all thy diseases."
The relation of the nervous system to this process is obvious.
This higher consciousness is an immense advantage to the
animal possessing it. But it is only possible where all the
parts are so related that the cell consciousness of one part can
be communicated to another part. In the lowest multicellular
animals this is easily accomplished by simple contact. But as
we go higher this was not sufficient, and those animals that
had no better plan died. Those who could provide a line of
easier conduction would survive. Thus may have arisen the
nervous system which makes possible the interchange of cell-
consciousness throughout the body. The place of transfer or
for collecting all the sensations, is the central nervous system.
And, as all kinds of combinations are possible here, so we have
all possible degrees of consciousness resulting. Perhaps the
simplest is the reflex arc of the spinal cord, which is common-
ly supposed to be unconscious. Then come the reflexes from
the lower levels of the brain, giving rise to a greater or less
degree of consciousness. The most complete combination of
all the incoming sensations constitutes full consciousness.
This has to do with the highest welfare of the individual.
Health and the highest efficiency is obtained when this total
494 GODDAKD :
consciousness is made up of sensations, each of which has its
full value, and no one of which occupies a larger place in
consciousness than it deserves. Under such circumstances,
any cell or group of cells comprising tissues or organs, whose
derangement endangers the whole body, will be at once
attended to, and the higher faculties of the mind brought to
bear, to restore the diseased parts to normal condition; on the
other hand any pain which arises from a purely local trouble
will be neglected and allowed to take care of itself.
Such a theory as this assumes nothing inconsistent with
known facts, and at least gives a possible explanation of the
matter in question.
In concluding this part of the discussion we may quote from
Stanley (Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling, p. 32-4,):
"The earliest living aggregations attain but a very slight degree of
common life, and very slowly do the cells, under the pressure of
serviceability in the struggle for existence, give up their indepen-
dence and become interdependent, each thereby giving up some
functioning to be done for it by others, and in turn functioning for
others. Thus it is but slowly that a stomach is specialized, the cells
in general in the organism long retaining and exercising some digest-
ive function, which is properly termed sub-digestion. In this way a
soup bath gives nourishment. If psychic function specializes
gradually like other functions, we shall have in the same way a sub-
form here, a sub-consciousness which stands for lower centers, and
not for the whole organism as such. The wdder, higher, and more
specialized psychic center does not at once extinguish the lower.
"Now what is a higher organism but an involved series of combina-
tions of combinations? With every new integration a higher plane is
achieved, and the vital process has a wider functioning;but the psychical
activity so far as it does not pass over into the service of the new and
higher whole, remains as sub-function. With every new stage in evolu-
tion the integrating psychic factors only partially lose themselves in
effecting a common psychism for the new whole, a sub-consciousness
and a sub-sub-cousciousness etc,, .are still carried on in survival. In
man, physiologically speaking, it is the brain consciousness which
is general. But we need not suppose this to extinguish all the
lower ganglionic consciousness from which and by which it arose.
If psychic function be correlative with other function, we must
expect in man a vast amount of survival sub-mentality which, while
not the mind of the man, is yet mind in the man. The individual
knows necessarily only the general consciousness, for this only is his
consciousness and constitutes his individuality, yet the doctrine of
evolution would call for a vast deal of undiscoverable simple con-
sciousness which never rises to the level of the whole organism's
consciousness, A cell or a group of cells may be in pain and yet
there be no pain in the individual's consciousness, and so unknown to
this general consciousness.
"We have intimated that primitive consciousness may occur in a
sub-conscious way in the highest organisms. But can this sub-conscious-
ness ever be more than mere survival in its nature? or may it play
essential part as basis of higher manifestations? If the integration
of mentality is like other integration, e. g., — material which is based
on molecular and atomic activity — it will be bound up in the activity
KFFKCTS OF MIND ON BODY. 495
of psychic units, which can be none other than sub-consciousness.
That is, any common or general consciousness when looked at from
below, and analytically is the dynamic organic whole of elements ; it
is a product of activities which are on another plane from itself.
Roughly illustrated, I may say that my finger feels pain before I do.
We conceive that at a certain intensity a sub-consciousness tends to
rouse a general consciousness, and for a time maintain it ; and losing
intensity, the general consciousness disappears, leaving only the sub-
consciousness, which may long outlast the general form.
" Sub-consciousness, whether as survival or basal, is put beyond our
direct observation, but it remains a necessary biological and psycholog-
ical hypothesis."
I have quoted somewhat at length, because of its bearing
on the next section as well as on the preceding.
We may now proceed to discuss our second question: How
can a physical change be effected, in correspondence to a
mental change?
For convenience we may note that physical changes in the
human body in its relation to health are wrought in four dif-
ferent ways.
First we have the voluntary changes. If eyes are painful,
one closes the lids and shuts out the light. If an arm or a
leg is the seat of pain, a change in its position may relieve it.
We rest or we exercise a muscle or organ as we will, according
to its condition or the condition we wish to produce. W^ith
the aid of the surgeon we remove diseased parts. All this is
familiar, and while we really know nothing of how a move-
ment is accomplished by the will to move, yet we are satisfied
to leave that question and hide our ignorance under the sound
of psychological terms.
Secondly, we apply drugs to the system, and by chemical
or mechanical or molecular action produce changes in the con-
dition of the system or some part of it. All this is every-day
therapy.
Thirdly, we have shown in the preceding pages that
outside of the voluntary muscles, and without any drugs,
the physical condition is changed according to some law of
mind, little understood, but roughly expressed in the for-
mula, * ' believe you are well and health results. ' ' As we
have already seen, a large part of this work is sufficiently
explained, by the simple removal of worry or the distraction
of the attention from the disease. We need not go into a dis-
cussion of the question: why too much attention to an organ
is unfavorable to its functioning, and the dissipation of atten-
tion favors recovery. Indeed we cannot discuss it without a
fuller exploiting of attention than is fitting here. It is sufficient
to point out that such is the case — a fact which all will rec-
ognize— and to remark in passing that it seems most likely
to be a relaxation of muscular as well as a mental attitude.
496 GODDARD :
The result of attention to an organ is an unconscious muscular
contraction which necessarily interferes, as a rule, with the
normal functioning. The withdrawal of attention relaxes the
muscles and allows normal action and nutrition.
The fourth class is made up of tho.se cases of mental effect
where the simple removal or relaxation of attention does not
seem to account for the result. These are best seen in hypnotic
cures, where, in accordance with the suggestion of the oper-
ator, a physical change is wrought unconsciously to the patient,
such as the acceleration or retardation of the pulse; the raising
or lowering of temperature, etc.
This class seems to demand the aid of some hypothesis of
the unconscious or sub-conscious control of physical states by
mental activity. Something akin to volition, but which is
unconscious, would seem to be necessary to account for the
facts. It is as though while we cannot get direct control of
the heart, e. g. , and stop its beat or increase its rate, yet we
can convey a message to some power within us, but of which
we are unconscious, and this power accomplishes the desired
result. This is the idea of Mr. Myers's Subliminal Conscious-
ness Theory (P. S. P. R. Vol. VII, pp. 345-6), in which he
argues for an unconscious intelligence, which directs the action
of the involuntary muscles, just as a man directs his voluntary
muscles.
This is not the place to discuss the different views of the
unconscious; the reader can consult Hartmann, Cope, Clifford,
Waldstein, Lewes, Stanley, and others who have written
on it.
That consciousness holds only a small part of man's mental
stock, is recognized by all psychologists; also that evolution
gives good reason for all grades and degrees of consciousness.
Perhaps Myers's statement sums this up as well as any. He
says (if^c. cit.) :
' * We may regard the human organism as an aggregation of
primitive unicellular organisms, which have divided their func-
tions and complicated their union, in response to the demands
of the environment and along such lines of evolution as were
possible to the original germ. It is possible, too, that all these
processes — beginning with the amoeboid movements of the
primitive cells — were accompanied by a capacity for retaining
the impress of previous excitations, a rudimentary memory
which at first constituted all the consciousness which our lowly
ancestors possessed. And further — may we not suggest — as
evolution went on and more complex operations were developed
while the primitive processes of cell change became stereotyped
by long heredity, the memory which represented these earlier
changes sank to a low psychical depth; became subliminal and
EFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 497
could no longer be summoned by a voluntary eflfort into the
super-liminal sequence of conscious states. How do we know
that any psychical acquisition is ever wholly lost ? or even that
a memory is the weaker because it has sunk out of voluntary
control ? It may be possible by appropriate artifices to recall
primeval memories and to set in motion any physiological pro-
cess which could at any moment of our ancestral history have
been purposively, however blindly, performed."
This seems to be the line along which we must look for our
explanation, and yet in the hypothesis of Myers there seems
to be a flavor of mysticism which is not entirely satisfactory
and not easy to comprehend.
May we not describe the whole process as follows ?
It is a quite generally accepted theory now, that all reflexes
were once conscious but have lost the conscious element
through repetition and ease of performance; consciousness
itself being dependent upon a sense of effort, when the thing
is done without effort consciousness must necessarily vanish.
This is on the physical side, and the motor phase. But when
any given act was conscious, there was not only a definite
movement of certain muscles, whose efforts to move gave rise
to consciousness, but there was a definite nervous discharge in
the cells of the nervous system. The volition which caused
the movement had its concomitant physical element some-
where in the brain or spinal cord. This whole mechanism
was set off by a conscious state of will, or an idea. Now,
when the movement became automatic or reflex, what became
of the brain path which had been worn by generations of
conscious effort? Is it not possible that they too remain, not,
indeed, as the well worn trails that they were when this par-
ticular movemement was a conscious movement, but yet they
remain distinctly different from the parts where no such
paths have ever existed ? They are like the old wood roads
of a past generation, often noticed in the forest; no longer
used, much overgrown, but still recognizable as the place of
a former thoroughfare, and still the route that would be picked
out if a new road were to be constructed for the same purpose.
May it not be that the new volition which finds no conscious
outlet for its energy, nevertheless finds an outlet along this
old course, so slowly indeed that it gives us no consciousness
of the fact, but nevertheless it reaches the same muscles and
accomplishes the same result that the old volition used to do ?
Like the traveller who returns to his native city after long
years of wandering, and finds nothing recognizable as he goes
along the streets, cannot even tell the direction of his old
home, and yet all unconsciously to himself he walks in the
498 GODDARD :
right direction, makes the proper turns, and arrives at the
very house he used to call home.
We do not know how to influence the action of the bowels
directly, but the simple organism which was our remote
ancestor, knew all about it, because his whole consciousness
was occupied with that function, and whenever it was neces-
sary to get rid of the waste products, he went about it just as
we take a bath. And the traces of the old act are with us,
since it is only necessary for us to fix our attention on the
desired movement, and somehow, altogether without our
knowledge, the desired result follows — the. volition has found
its way through the old, overgrown path.
Thus, it seems to us, we may picture to ourselves the way
in which an idea generates its actuality without doing
violence to any known facts, and without calling in the aid
of any power more mysterious than primitive consciousness.
Dr.Edessays,in thisconnection(NewEnglandInvalid,p.53,) :
* * It appears necessary that the influence which is to promote
such a psychic change as must take place in cases of hysteria,
and consequently in many of chronic invalidism, that which
is to make the cerebral hemispheres again resume their control
of the muscles, which is not merely to diminish the extreme
sensitiveness to pain and fatigue, but inhibit that active search
for it so commonly seen; that which is to set flowing again
that nervous current which promotes nutrition ; in a word,
that influence which cures, whether in the hands of the
physician who has studied the case and who knows it scien-
tifically, or of the charlatan who makes no pretense to such
knowledge or shrewdly guesses at it from the failures of his
predecessors, must reach that psychical region that is not in
full view of the ordinary consciousness, the so-called sublim-
inal consciousness.
* * It is apparently in some lower stratum of cerebral action
that intellectual convictions are moulded into confidence,
desire and activity, and there also apparently the same
convictions may arise without the intervention of distinct per-
ception or logical reasoning. There are those who hold that
this region may be reached most quickly and certainly through
hypnotism, i. e., the patient is made more receptive and
suggestible thereby. We have seen how it is reached by
methods which have but little to do with the reason, and
much with mystery and marvel. It is certain, however, that
these are not the only channels through which an impression
can be made, and it seems probable that when the physician,
by beginning with the ordinary consciousness and by oft-
repeated direction and encouragement, sometimes amounting
to a re-education, can stimulate the motor powers of the will
KFFECTS OF MIND ON BODY. 499
and set them free from the inhibitory control of fear, habit, and
hypochondriacal delusions, the result is quite as complete and
permanent a one. ' '
Re:sume: and Conclusions.
We have seen in the foregoing pages, that the psychical element
is large in the cause of disease; that it played a prominent part
in primitive and folk medicine; that it is the sole element in the
so-called Divine Healing, after excluding all cases where some
form of simple therapeutics might account for the cure; the same
is true of Christian Science, Mental Science, hypnotism, and
a certain amount of "regular" medical practice; the same
element enters largely into patent medicine, patent devices,
fads, and so through a long and ever increasing list. We have
found all these alike in principle and all depending upon a
fundamental relation of body and mind. This we have found
best studied is hypnotism. From this study we have designated
that " fundamental relation," by the familiar term "sugges-
tion. ' ' And lastly we have attempted to review known facts
with a hope of correlating our data more closely.
The conclusion from all this is that while the mind plays a
large role in the cure of disease — greater than is realized — yet
its greatest field is in the' realm of prevention. Christian
Science, Divine Healing, or Mental Science do not and never
can in the very nature of things, cure all diseases; nevertheless
the practical applications of the general principles of the broad-
est mental science, will tend to prevent disease.
Secondly we find nothing in the nature of mind or body,
nothing essential in Mental Science, that is incompatible with
drug therapeutics as such. We find no good reason why the
two systems should not go on together. Indeed the solution
of the present condition of rivalry seems to be a close alliance, —
each helping the other.
While we find nothing to warrant the overthrow of the
science of medicine, and no power that is able adequately
to take the place of a thorough knowledge of anatomy and
pathology or the skill of the surgeon, we do find sufficient
evidence to convince us that the proper reform in mental atti-
tude would relieve many a sufferer of ills that the ordinary
physician cannot touch; would even delay the approach of
death to many a victim beyond the power of absolute cure,
and the faithful adherence to a truer philosophy of life, will
keep many a man well and give the doctor time to study his
science, and devote himself to the alleviating ills that are un-
preventable.
Of Christian Science philosophy we find no justification in
any of its distinctive features. The special features that
500 GODDARD :
characterize it are in violent opposition to all that, in the light
of history and present knowledge, the highest intelligences as
well as the vox populi, regard as the truest philosophy and the
best theology.
What Christian Science has in common with Mental Science,
constitutes its sole claim to regard. Mental Science in turn,
owes its value to its effort to make practical and bring within
the reach of all, the best idealism of heathen philosophy and
the Christian religion. So far it is worthy of all praise, help,
and encouragement. But in this effort success has already
attended it to such an extent that, lacking in scientific analysis,
it has built up some erroneous theories which must eventually
be sloughed off. Such is the whole theory and practice of
absent treatments, in so far as it involves thought transference.
Whether telepathy be true or not we do not pretend to say ;
but we can say that we have found no evidence of it in any of
the data that we have examined, and we thoroughly believe
that every case where it is assumed, will be found to be either
coincidence or the result of auto-suggestion.
There are also other notions which are too crude to last
long, and which only characterize the infancy of the theory.
But aside from these, Mental Science or the "New Thought,"
as some of its adherents now call it, seems to teach a sound
philosophy and much practical sense in regard to therapeutics.
It certainly can do the world no harm to have a body of peo-
ple devoting themselves to emphasizing the mental side of life
in these days of materialism. Indeed, so far as we are able to
judge, the whole movement, as represented by the best of its
promoters, is healthy and safe. And it is only when it is
carried into absurdities that it becomes dangerous.
The fundamental principle of all mental therapeutics is the
Jaw of suggestion — the law that any idea possessing the mind
tends to materialize itself in the body . Hypnotization is the idea
of sleep, which has thus materialized itself, so that the sub-
ject sleeps. While in this hypnotic sleep the subject easily
accepts further suggestion since his reason no longer opposes
the suggested idea. The idea of health, which is then sug-
gested, tends to be realized. This tendency Yihioh is admitted,
is to be carefully distinguished from the actual effect claimed
by the healers.
In Divine Healing, Christian Science, and other forms of
mental healing, the reasoning which would oppose the sug-
gestion is silenced, not by sleep, but by some powerful
argument, dogma or assertion of the healer. If the patient
accepts the teaching of the healer, without question, then the
ideas which the healer suggests tend to work themselves out.
And, as far as that healer is concerned, the patient is in a state
EFF:eCTS OF MIND ON BODY. 50I
analogous to that of the hypnotic subject, though in all other
respects he may be wide awake.
In both hypnotism and Christian Science it is the fixed idea
in the mind of the patient — placed there by the healer or oper-
ator, or suggested by a book or elaborated by the patient's
own reasoning — that accomplishes the result through its ten-
dency to * ' generate its actuality. ' '
In hypnotism we find no occultism, but rather a practice
making use of perfectly natural laws and having its legitimate
place in therapeutics. It is perfectly harmless, and the only
possible danger from it comes from ignorance of its nature.
Finally, Divine Healing, as commonly understood, has no
foundation for its theory. Not only are all its results readily
accounted for by the laws of mind, but its results are not as
great as those of the avowed mental healer.
The theory of Divine Healing is, if we mistake not, a posi-
tive perversion of religion. Nothing is more strongly shown
by our study, than that the most striking and most successful
cures are wrought by drawing the patient out from himself
and his disease and fixing his attention on things higher and
beyond himself. The thought that is fixed on another's
interests is removed from one's own diseases, and the organs
thus freed from attention have a chance to recover. Do not
dwell on your ills, is the key note of it all. This is the truth
which Mrs. Eddy has so travestied in her doctrine that sin
and disease do not exist.
Now this altruism, which is thus seen to be the gist of all
mental healing, is the very essence of Christianity. Religion
has in it all there is in mental therapeutics, and has it in its
best form. It teaches temperance in the broadest sense, high
ideals and dependence upon the Highest alone. This pre-
serves those who know it, by practice as well as by precept,!
from most of the ills that make up the list of those curable by
mental methods. But further, it teaches a wise submission to
the inevitable, a freedom from care and worry and the spirit
of hopefulness. And these are the exact conditions aimed at
by all mental practices. lyiving up to these ideas will do
everything for us that can be done.
The state of mind has a powerful influence over the body,
both for the cause and the cure of disease. Lofty thoughts,
high ideals, and hopeful disposition, are able to cure many
diseases, to assist recovery in all curable cases, and retard
dissolution in all others.
Whatever the fundamental relation of mind and body may
be, the aim of all conscious effort relative to physical well-
being, should be to become unconscious of the organic life
and its functioning.
502 GODDARD :
The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the members
of the Psychological Faculty of Clark University for numerous sug-
gestions— especially to President Hall for continual co-operation and
help on the study, and to Dr. E. C. Sanford for valuable help through-
out the work, and for advice and criticism in the final revision of the
manuscript; also to the librarian, Louis N. Wilson, for his kindness in
procuring desired books. For the paper itself, the writer is solely
responsible.
To persons outside of the University, an acknowledgment is also
due, but they are too numerous to be mentioned by name. Physicians,
clergymen, "Healers," and patients have been uniformly kind and
courteous, and have freely contributed the data, without which the
study would have been impossible. To them, one and all, I desire to
express my thanks.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN.
By H. S. Jennings.
The nature of the psychic activities of unicellular organisms
has of late become the object of considerable interest, though
little work dealing with the problems in a fundamental way has
been published since the researches of Verworn. The writer
has recently made a perhaps more thorough study of the life
activities of a typical infusorian, Paramecium, than has ever
been made heretofore of any unicellular organism; the results
of this study have been published in a number of papers in physio-
logical j ournals. ^ This work was not done primarily from the psy-
chological standpoint, and the papers referred to give nowhere a
full and connected account of the bearings of these studies upon
the psychological problems presented by the behaviour of the
Paramecia. Yet taken together they enable an almost com-
plete presentation to be given of the psychology of this animal;
w^hile there is reason to believe that Paramecium is in this
matter typical of nearly or quite the whole class to which it
belongs. In the present paper an attempt is made to bring to-
gether succinctly the observations which bear upon the psychic
powers of this organism, in such a way as to present a complete
outline of its psychology.
Paramecium is well known in every biological laboratory,
living by thousands in pond water containing decaying vegeta-
ble matter. It is a somewhat cigar-shaped creature, about
one-fifth of a millimeter in length, plainly visible to the naked
eye as an elongated whitish speck. The entire surface of the
animal is covered with cilia, by means of which it is in almost
constant motion.
Now what are the phenomena in the life of Paramecium
which require explanation from a psychological standpoint?
Examination shows that under normal conditions Paramecia
^ Studies on Reactions to Stimuli in Unicellular Organisms. I.
Reactions to Chemical, Osmotic, and Mechanical Stimuli in the Ciliate
Infusoria. Journal of Physiology, May, 1897, Vol. XXI, pp. 258-322.
II. The Mechanism of the Motor Reactions of Paramecium. Amet-
ican Journal of Physiology, May, 1899, Vol. II, pp. 311-341. III.
Reactions to Localized Stimuli in Spirostomum and Stentor. Amer-
ican Naturalist, May, 1899, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 373-389, IV. Laws of
Cliemotaxis in Paramecium. American Journal of Physiology, May,
1899, Vol. II, pp. 355-379-
504 JENNINGS :
are usually engaged in feeding upon the masses of Bacteria
which form a thick zoogloea on the surface of the water in
which they are found. These Bacteria form almost or quite
their entire food. A first question then might be : How do they
choose their food, selecting Bacteria in preference to something
else ?
If Paramecia are placed on an ordinary slide such as is used
for examining objects with the microscope, together with a small
bit of bacterial zoogloea, and the whole covered wdth a cover-
glass, it will soon be found that almost all the Paramecia, which
were at first scattered throughout the preparation, have gathered
closely about the mass of zoogloea and are feeding upon it. It
will be seen even, that many Paramecia which cannot on account
of the crowd get near enough to the mass to touch it are push-
ing close and shoving their more fortunate brethren, all appar-
ently trying to get as near to the delicacy as possible. Some
may be ten times their own length from the mass, but never-
theless crowd in from behind, apparently with the greatest
eagerness. Here we have a related problem. How do the
Paramecia collect thus from a distance about the mass? And
what is the psychology of their crowding together thus, like a
human crowd about a circus door? In the human crowd
somewhat complex psychological qualities are involved; must
we say the same for the Paramecia ?
If we mount the Paramecia in the manner above described,
but without the mass of bacterial zoogloea, we shall soon notice
another phenomenon reminding us of human beings under like
conditions. The Paramecia do not remain scattered as at first,
but soon begin to collect into assemblages in one or more re-
gions. It appears as if they did not enjoy being alone and had
passed the word along to gather and hold a mass meeting in
some part of the preparation ; at least we soon find them nearly
all in a little area near one end of the slide, with perhaps another
smaller crowd off near the other end, while all the rest of the
space is empty. Sometimes such a crowd becomes very dense;
the Paramecia jam each other after the most approved human
fashion, crowding as if all were trying to get near some popu-
lar orator in the center. If we watch such an assembly for
sometime, we find that the interest is apparently gradually lost;
the Paramecia begin to separate a little, — not leaving the crowd
entirely, but extending the area and wandering about its edges.
The assembly thus becomes more and more scattered, the area
in which the Paramecia swim back and forth being continually
enlarged; but a rather sharp boundary is nevertheless main-
tained on all sides, as if by common consent no Paramecium
was to pass farther out than all the rest.
Here we have what seems a decidedly complex psychological
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 505
problem, — the beginning, or perhaps even a high development,
of social conditions. In the culture jars, also, we find the Para-
mecia gathered into swarms, and any proposed psychology of
the Protozoa must account for these social phenomena.
, Further, we find that Paramecia seem to have decided pref-
erences in taste. They have a special predilection for sour,
gathering with apparent eagerness into a drop of any solution
having a weakly acid reaction, while their pet antipathy is
toward anything alkaline in character. A drop of fluid having
an alkaline reaction is therefore left severely alone and remains
entirely empty when introduced into a slide of Paramecia. They
also seem to show decided preferences as to heat and cold; they
collect in regions having a certain temperature, leaving a colder
or warmer area to gather in such an optimum region, just as
human beings do. The whole question of how animals are
attracted by certain influences and repelled by others is one of
the most fundamental problems to be solved.
Thus the ordinary daily life of a Paramecium seems, on the
face of it, to present many complex psychological problems.
Apparently they feel heat and cold and govern themselves ac-
cordingly, have decided preferences as to the nature of the sub-
stances dissolved in the water, seeking some, fleeing from others;
they live upon one definite sort of food and find ways of dis-
covering a mass of such food even when scattered at a distance
from it, and finally, they are social, being commonly found in
swarms together and finding means of getting together even
when scattered over a wide area.
From observations of this sort, some authors have concluded
that such animals have a complex psychology, lacking few of
the factors to be distinguished in the psychology of the higher
animals. Thus, Binet says, in the preface to his book on The
Psychic Life of Micro-organisms **We could if necessary, take
every single one of the psychical faculties which M. Romanes
reserves for animals more or less advanced in the zoological
scale, and show that \}ii^ greater part of these faculties belong
equally to micro-organisms." Thus, it could be maintained
from the brief summary I have given of the activities of Para-
mecium that these animals have sensations of various sorts,
since they distinguish heat and cold, acids and alkalies; that
they exercise choice in that they gather in the regions of certain
agents, while they turn away from others; that such choice in itself
implies intelligence-, that the choosing and gathering about masses
of food implies a memory of the qualities of this substance as
compared with others; that they show such emotions as fear by
fleeing from injurious substances (Binet expressly states this);
that finally, acute senses, memory, choice, social instinct, in-
telligence, and a whole host of higher mental attributes, are
JOURNAI, — 12
506 JENNINGS :
necessarily implied in the phenomenon of their seeking each
other's society and gathering together even from a considerable
distance into crowds.
Is it possible by a closer analysis of the phenomena to sim-
plify this complex psychology which seems forced upon us by
the observed facts?
First, we should examine a little more closely the structure
of the animal to see what is here available for the production
of these results. Often function depends upon structure to such
an extent that what appears to be a complex activity is found
to be only the automatic result of the simplest movements of a
peculiarly constructed organ or set of organs.
Paramecium is an elongated animal, with one end (the an-
terior) narrower and blunter, while the other (the posterior) is
broader and pointed. On one side of the animal (the oral side) a
broad oblique depression, called the oral groove, runs from the
anterior end to the mouth, in the middle of the body. Near
the opposite side (theaboral side) are two contractile vacuoles
imbedded in the protoplasm. The mouth is a small opening
at the end of the oral groove in the middle of the body; from
it a narrow ciliated tube, the gullet, passes into the internal
protoplasm. In the center of the animal are imbedded the single
large macro-nucleus and the single small micro-nucleus. The
entire body is thus a single cell. Under ordinary conditions all
the cilia of the body strike backward, which of course drives
the animal forward. The stroke of the cilia is apparently
somewhat oblique, for as the animal moves forward, it at the
same time continually revolves on its long axis: in this way
the oral and aboral sides continually interchange positions.
Now the structure and ordinary movements of the animal
explain a certain activity which in higher forms may be asso-
ciated with some degree of psychological complication, namely,
the taking of food. Since the oral groove is ciliated like the
rest of the body, when the cilia strike backward in the ordi-
nary forward motion a current of water is produced running in
the oral groove backward to the mouth. Small particles such
as Bacteria, are thus carried automatically to the mouth. The
mouth and gullet are ciliated and the cilia strike toward the
interior of the animal, hence the particles arriving at the mouth
are carried by the cilia into the interior, where they undergo
digestion. The taking of food is thus purely automatic.
Moreover, as has long been known, Paramecia and similar
animals seem not to exercise a choice as to the nature of the
food which they take. Any small particles such as will pass
readily down the gullet are swallowed with the same avidity as
the Bacteria, it matters not how indigestible they may be.
But, as we have seen above, if a small piece of bacterial
THE PSYCHOIvOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 507
zoogloea on which the animals feed is introduced into a prepa-
ration of Paramecia, the latter soon find it and crowd around
it. It seems possible, therefore, that the choice of food takes
place merely a step sooner than with higher animals, the Para-
mecia choosing the food by gathering around it, — then taking
whatever comes. To test this we introduce a bit of filter paper
into the preparation in place of the bacterial mass. The Para-
mecia collect about it exactly as about the zoogloea. They
gather from all parts of the preparation and crowd upon it with
the same apparent eagerness as previously upon the food mass.
The same results are gained with bits of cloth, cotton, sponge,
or any other loose or fibrous bodies. The Paramecia remain
assembled about such bodies indefinitely, the oral cilia working
away at bringing a current to the mouth, which current carries
no food particles whatever.
Thus it appears that Paramecia exercise no choice as to the
nature of the substances which they use for food, gathering in-
differently about loose fibrous bodies of any sort, and swallow-
ing particles of any kind or none at all, as chance may direct.
We may cut out, therefore, any psychological qualities deduced
alone from the supposed choice of food, putting in their place
merely the fact that Paramecia react in a peculiar way when
they come in contact with bodies of a certain physical texture.
The reaction consists essentially of a quieting of the cilia over
the greater part of the body, while those in the oral groove
continue to strike backward, causing a current toward the
mouth, — the body of the animal remaining nearly or quite at
rest. It is important to recognize, in calling this a reaction,
that it is not shown by a movement, but by a cessation of part
of the usual motion.
Having been so successful in reducing the matter of feeding
to simple factors, we may attack at once the most complex
problem of all — the social phenomena shown in the gathering
together of the scattered animals into a close group, as already
described. Is there any way of dispensing with the sharpened
senses, memory, social instinct, intelligence, and the like, which
seem to be involved in these phenomena ?
The possibility suggested itself that these collections might
be due to the presence of some substance which was attractive
to the Paramecia, and into which all would gather with one
accord, — so that the fact that they approached each other
would be a secondary result. This led to an extended study
of the chemotaxis of Paramecia, the results of which are de-
tailed in the first of the papers above referred to. It was found
that Paramecia are attracted by all acids, and that in the case
of any unknown substance having marked attractive properties,
it can be predicted with a high degree of certainty that this
508 JENNINGS :
substance will be found to have an acid reaction. Carbonic
acid (CO 2) especially was found to exercise a strong attraction
on the infusoria.
Now these animals, like all others, of course excrete carbon
dioxide, which must therefore find its way into the water. The
quantity of CO 2 thus produced by one of the dense assembla-
ges of Paramecia was shown to be distinctly appreciable by
chemical reagents, by means of the following experiment:
Paramecia were mounted in water to which a distinctly reddish
color was given by mixing with it a small quantity of rosol.
This substance has the property of being decolorized by carbon
dioxide. The rosol does not injure the Paramecia, and they
soon gather together in a dense collection, as in ordinary water.
By observing the slide against a white background it is soon
noticed that the solution is losing its color about the group of
Paramecia. The colorless area after a time spreads, and at the
same time the group of Paramecia begins to break up, as pre-
viously described. The Paramecia swim back and forth in the
colorless area (that is, the area containing (CO2), from one
side to the other, but without passing its boundaries. The
colorless area increases in size, and the area in which the Para-
mecia swim back and forth keeps exact pace with it; the two
coincide throughout.
The same phenomena may be produced by introducing a
small bubble of CO 2 into the slide. The Paramecia collect
closely about the CO 2, pressing against the bubble. In this
way a dense mass is soon formed. After a time, as the CO 2
diffuses, the mass loosens; the Paramecia swim back and forth in
the area of diffusing CO 2, not overpassing its boundaries. The
phenomena caused by the presence of a bubble of CO 2 are
identical in every respect with those which are apparently
spontaneous. There is no question but that the assembling of
the Paramecia into crowds is due to the presence in these
crowds of CO 2 excreted by the animals themselves.
Thus it appears that our social phenomena, with all their
implications of higher mental powers, have evaporated into a
simple attraction toward carbon dioxide.
But how do the animals succeed in collecting from a distance ?
At first they are distributed throughout the entire preparation;
when we introduce the bit of bacterial zoogloea or filter paper,
how do the Paramecia discover its presence, so as to collect
about it ? From the general wreck of higher mental qualities,
can we not save at least the acute senses necessary to account for
these phenomena ?
To determine how the Paramecia succeed in finding and col-
lecting about a small solid placed in the middle of a large slide,
it is necessary to study the ordinary method of locomotion of the
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 509
animals. " If a preparation of Paramecia on a slide, contain-
ing in one spot a small bit of filter paper is closely observed,
the Paramecia are seen at first to swim hither and thither in
every direction, apparently without directive tendency of any
sort. . . Soon a vsingle individual strikes in its headlong
course the bit of paper. It stops at once, often starts backward
a slight distance, and whirls about on its short axis two or three
times, then settles against the bit of paper and remains.
Quickly another and another strike in the same way and re-
main. Now the excretion of CO 2 by the animals gathered
together begins to take effect; the region becomes a strong
center of attraction, and in ten to fifteen minutes, and often
less, the paper is surrounded by a dense swarm of Paramecia,
containing a large majority of all those in the preparation."
(I, p. 299.) Thus, the finding of the bit of paper is due
simply to the roving movements of the animals. Moreover,
for gathering in an area containing CO 2 or other acid alone, a
similar dependence upon chance motions appears. There is no
swimming in straight radial lines to the area of CO 2 as a center;
the Paramecia swim at random until they come by accident into
the region of CO 2 ; there they remain. The precise place where
a group of Paramecia is formed in some part of a slide into
which nothing has been intentionally introduced that would act
as a center of attraction is determined by chance factors. One
or two individuals, perhaps, strike by accident a bit of solid
matter suspended in the water, or a slight roughening of the
cover glass; the thigmotactic reaction is set up, so that they
stop, and as a result the region becomes a center for the pro-
duction of carbon dioxide. The remainder of the collection is
then due to CO 2, and takes place in the manner last described.
We must, therefore, along with the rest, dispense with speci-
ally acute senses. The Paramecia do not react until they are in
actual contact with the source of stimulus, and for coming in
contact with the source they depend upon roving movements
in all directions.
Thus we find that all more complex psychological powers
deduced from the "social phenomena," as well as those from
the choice of food, must fall to the ground. For explaining all
the phenomena with which we have thus far dealt, but three
factors are necessary : ( i ) the customary movements of the
unstimulated animal; (2) the cessation of these movements,
except those in the oral groove and gullet, when in contact
with solids of a certain physical character; (3) attraction
toward CO 2.
We have still r.emaining to be accounted for psychologically
the attraction toward certain reagents and conditions, as toward
CO2 and toward the optimum temperature, and the repulsion to-
5IO JENNINGS:
ward other reagents and conditions, such as alkalies, and cold or
great heat. This selective attraction and repulsion is a phenomenon
of great importance, seeming in itself to imply a choice on the
part of the organisms. If they move toward certain sources of
stimuli and away from others, this seems to involve a perception
of the localization of things, and this can hardly be regarded
otherwise than as at least the beginnings of intelligence. More-
over, from its apparent general occurrence, much theoretical
significance has been attached to it. Now how does this attrac-
tion and repulsion take place? Organisms usually move by
means of certain organs of locomotion; attraction and repulsion
cannot therefore be left as abstract ideas, but it must be shown
how the attractive agent sets these organs in operation in such
a manner as to bring the animal nearer; how the repellent
agent succeeds in aj0fecting the locomotor organs so as to carry
the animal away. To apply this to the particular case in hand,
when a drop of some attractive solution is introduced into a
slide of Paramecia, how does it succeed in affecting the cilia of
the animals in such a way that they turn toward and enter the
drop?
Exact observation of the method by which the Paramecia
enter such a- drop shows that this question is based on a false
assumption. The animals do not turn toward the drop. Such a
drop diffuses slowly, so that its margin is evident, and the
Paramecia may be seen in their random course to almost graze
the edge of the drop without their motion being changed in
the slightest degree; they keep on straight past the drop and
swim to another part of the slide. But of course some of the
Paramecia in their random swimming come directly against the
edge of the drop. These do not react, but keep on undisturbed
across it. But when they come to the opposite margin, where
they would, if unchecked, pass out again into the surrounding
medium, they react negatively — ^jerking back and turning again
into the drop. Such an animal then swims across the drop in
the new direction till it again comes to the margin, when it re-
acts negatively, as before. This continues, so that the animal
appears to be caught in the drop as in a trap. Other Paramecia
enter the drop in the same way and are imprisoned like the
first, so that in time the drop swarms with the animals. As a
result of their swift random movements when first brought upon
the slide, almost every individual in the preparation will in a
short time have come by chance against the edge of the drop,
will have entered and remained, so that soon all the Paramecia
in the preparation are in the drop. If, however, the drop is
not introduced until the Paramecia have quieted down, it will
be found to remain empty; this shows the essential part played
by the roving movements in bringing the collection together.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 5II
Thus it appears that the animals are not attracted by the
fluid in the drop; they enter it by chance, without reaction,
then are repelled by the surrounding fluid. This is true for all
apparently attractive reagents or conditions. Paramecia are not
directly atti'aded by atiy substance or agency; the assembling in
the region of certain conditions being due to the repellent power
of the surrounding fluid, after the Paramecia have entered by
chance the area of the conditions in question.
There remains then as a motor reaction only the repulsion
due to certain agents and conditions. Is this repulsion an ulti-
mate fact in the psychology of the animal, or is it possible to
analyze it further ?
The first thing which a Paramecium does on coming in con-
tact with a drop of repellent solution is to reverse all its cilia,
so as to swim straight backward, — at the same time revolving
on its long axis in a direction opposite to that in which it was
previously revolving. Next it turns to one side a certain
amount, then swims forward again, on a path which lies at an '
angle to the path in which it was first swimming. Briefly
stated, it adopts the very rational plan of backing off", turning
to one side, and swimming on past the obstacle. We must
apparently concede the Paramecium at least a modicum of intel-
ligence for the very practical way in which it meets this
emergency.
But suppose the animal touches the margin of the drop
obliquely, or brushes it only on one side as it swims past it
through the water; what course will it then take? From its
sensible behavior under the previous conditions we shall expect
it to sheer off, away from the drop, and keep on its way undis-
turbed or at a slight angle to the original path. But when we
observe such a case, we find that the Paramecium backs oflf,
swimming straight backward, as before, then turns through an
angle, then swims forward, exactly as in the previous case.
And curiously enough, it by no means turns directly away
from the drop, but fully as often turns toward it, so as to strike
it squarely the next time it moves forward. If this occurs,
the whole operation is repeated ; the animal tries, as it
were, for a new opening. Sometimes it is necessary to repeat
the operation several times before the Paramecium succeeds in
getting away from the repellent object.
Under these circumstances the animal evidently gives much
less indication of intelligence, and the fact that it reacts in ex-
actly the same way under such different conditions is especially
fitted to shake confidence in its mental powers. Apparently
the swimming backward has no relation to the position of the
source of stimulus, but occurs merely as a result of the fact
of stimulation, without reference to its localization. Whether
5 1 2 JENNINGS :
this is true as a general statement can be tested by giving the
animal a general shock without localizing the source of stimulus
at all. This is easily done by immersing the Paramecia directly
into solutions of such a nature that they act as stimuli. In
such a case the stimulus acts upon the entire surface of the
animal at once, so that there is no obstacle to be avoided and
no reason for swimming backward.
Immersing Paramecia thus into solutions of different kinds,
it is found that the first thing they do in every case is to re-
verse the cilia and swim backward. Nor is this all. The en-
tire reaction is given, just as when the source of stimulus was
at one end or one side; the animal first swims backward, then
turns, then swims forward. This is true for all classes of
stimuli, — chemical solutions of all sorts, water heated consider-
abl}^ above the optimum temperature, water at the freezing
point, and solutions active only through their osmotic pressure.
The duration of the different parts of the reaction varies much
in different agents, but the essential features of the reaction are
the same everywhere.
It therefore appears that not only the backward swimming,
but also the turning to one side takes place without reference
to the localization of the stimulus, — both occurring equally
when the stimulus is not localized at all. But what determines
the direction in which the Paramecium turns?
Careful observation of Paramecia under conditions which
compel them to move slowly shows that after stimulation they
always turn toward the aboral side, — that is, the side opposite
the oral groove. The direction of turning is thus determined
by the structure of the animal, and has no relation to the posi-
tion of the source of stimulus. The mechanism of the turning
is as follows: after the first reversal of cilia, those in the oral
groove begin to strike backward again, tending to drive the
animal forward, while the remaiqder of the cilia on the an-
terior half of the animal strike transversely toward the oral side.
This results in turning the animal toward the aboral side.
We find, therefore, that the direction of motion throughout
the entire reaction depends upon the structure of the animal
and has no relation to the localization of the stimulus. The
reaction may be expressed completely, omitting all reference
to the position of the stimulus, as follows: after stimulation the
animal swims with the more pointed end in front, turns toward
the aboral side, then swims with the blunter end in front.
It is of course a matter of chance whether this turning toward
the aboral side carries the animal away from the source of
stimulus or toward it. Frequently the latter is true; in this
case the operation is repeated when the animal comes again in
contact with the stimulating agent. As the animal revolves
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 513
continually on its long axis, the aboral side will probably lie in
a new position at the next turning, so that the animal will turn
in a new direction. If this is repeated, the chances are that
in time the obstacle will be avoided.
Thus, not only is it true that Paramecium is not attracted
by any agent or condition, but also we cannot say, speaking
strictly, that it is repelled by any agent or condition. Certain
agents set up a reaction in the animal, the directive features of
which depend entirely upon the structure of the organism, —
just as certain stimuli cause an isolated muscle to react. We
cannot say that the Paramecium is repelled by the stimulus,
any more than we can say that the contraction of the muscle
is due to the muscle's being repelled by the stimulus. It is
true that the source of stimulus is more often at the blunt or ' ' an-
terior " end, in the case of Paramecium, so that swimming
toward the sharp end does, as a matter of fact, usually result in
taking the Paramecium away for a short distance from the
source of stimulus. But this usual position of the source of
stimulus is from a physiological standpoint purely accidental,
and the reaction produced is the same whether it occupies this
position or another. If the animal is stimulated at the posterior
end, it swims backward, therefore toward the source of stimulus;
in this way it may enter a destructive chemical solution and be
immediately killed, though the same chemical acting upon the
anterior end would of course have caused the animal to swim
away. This is seen in a particularly striking manner in the
larger infusorian Spirostomicm ambiguiim^ which is so large that
it is easy to apply a stimulus to any desired part of the body.
It is then found that the animal reacts in exactly the same
manner whether stimulated at the anterior end, the posterior
end, or the side, the direction of motion having absolutely no
relation to the position of the source of stimulus. The same
is true for Paramecium, though its smaller size makes the dem-
onstration more difficult.
A strict parity is therefore to be observed between the reac-
tions of Paramecium and those of an isolated frog's muscle.
Paramecium responds to any stimulus by a definite, well char-
acterized reaction. '' The same may be said of the isolated
muscle of a frog. The intensity of the reaction varies with the
nature and intensity of the stimulus; this also is true for the
muscle. Under certain influences the Paramecium remains
quiet; likewise the muscle. The directive relations of the mo-
tions are determined both in the Paramecium and in the muscle
by the structure of the organism, not by the position of the
source of stimulus. There seems, then, no necessity for assum-
ing more in order to explain the reactions of the Paramecium
than to explain the reactions of the muscle. We need, there-
514 JENNINGS:
fore, to assume nothing more than irritability, or the power of
responding to a stimulus by a definite movement, to explain
the activities of Paramecium" (II). The long catalogue of
psychical qualities required to account for the movements of
Paramecium is thus reduced to simple protoplasmic irritability.
The method by which Paramecia collect in the regions of in-
fluences of a certain character and leave other regions empty,
may be stated in general terms as follows: Certain stimuli cause
in the animals random motions, in which the direction is fre-
quently changed, especially at the moment when the stimulus
begins to act. These random movements result, through the
laws of chance, if continued long enough, in carrying the Para-
mecia out of the region of influence of the agent causing the
stimulus. Coming thus by chance into a region where such
movements are not caused, the Paramecia remain; if this in-
effective area is small, the Paramecia are crowded together
within it and give the impression of being strongly attracted
by it.
" It is evident that we have in this case as near the reaction
postulated by Spencer and Bain for a primitive organism —
namely, random movements in response to any stimulus — as is
likely to be found in any organism. The motions are strictly
random in character so far as the position of the source of
stimulus is concerned. . . . And by the repetition of the
reaction the direction of movement is frequently changed, —
always without reference to the localization of the stimulus.
It appears not to have been foreseen theoretically that such
random movements would of themselves, if continued, carry the
animal out of the sphere of influence of the agent causing them
and keep it from re-entering. To accomplish this result it is
only necessary that the direction of motion should be changed
at the moment when the stimulus begins to act and at intervals
so long as it continues " (II).
An examination of the activities of a number of other uni-
cellular organisms in the light of the observations above de-
tailed shows that they react in essentially the same manner.
For each organism a simple statement can be given for the re-
action to any stimulus. For Spirostomum ambiguum the re-
action is as follows: the animal contracts, swims backward,
turns toward the aboral side, and swims forward. Stentor poly-
morphus contracts, swims backward, turns toward the right
side, and swims forward. A number of flagellates also have
been found to have such a fixed method of reaction. In all
these cases the direction of motion has no relation to the posi-
tion of the source of stimulus, and the conclusions to be drawn
for Paramecium apply equally to these organisms.
In regard to the position in the psychological scale to be as-
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A PROTOZOAN. 515
signed to Paramecium the following may be said: The reac-
tions of Paramecium are, as we have seen, comparable in all
essentials to those of an isolated muscle. In neither case has
the direction of motion any relation to the position of the source
of stimulus. Reaction in such a manner as to show a relation
to the position of the stimulating agent has rightly been re-
garded as a first and lowest step in perception; this lowest step
is quite lacking in Paramecium. Moreover, Paramecium has
no "life history" in the sense of a change in its reactions
such as between the reactions of a young and an adult higher
animal. An individual undergoing division reacts exactly
like the ordinary Paramecium, as do likewise the halves
immediately after division. In the words of Professor Bald-
win, **the fact of life history is just what distinguishes
an organism from what is a ' mechanical arrangement. ' ' '
While we cannot deny that Paramecium is an organism,
this fact shows the machine-like nature of its activities.
An animal that learns nothing, that exercises no choice in any
respect, that is attracted by nothing and repelled by nothing,
that reacts entirely without reference to the position of external
objects, that has but one reaction for the most varied stimuli,
can hardly be said to have made the first step in the evolution
of mind, and we are not compelled to assume consciousness or
intelligence in any form to explain its activities.
A STUDY OF ANGER.
By G. StanIvEy Hai.1..
Psychological literature contains no comprehensive memoir
on this very important and interesting subject. Most text-books
treat it either very briefly or not at all, or enumerate it with fear,
love, etc., as one of the feelings, sentiments or emotions which
are discussed collectively. Where it is especially studied, it is
either in an abstract, speculative way, as in ethical works, or
descriptively as in books on expression or anthropology or with
reference to its place in some scheme or tabulation of the feelings,
as in many of the older works on psychology or phrenology, or
with special reference to some particular and partial theory as
in the I^ange- James discussions, or its expressions are treated
in the way of literary characterizations as in novels, poetry,
epics, etc. , or finally its morbid and perhaps hospital forms are
described in treatises on insanity. Observers of childhood, like
Darwin, Taine, Preyer, Perez, Baldwin, Mrs. Moore, Miss
Shinn, Sully and many others sometimes ignore it as too painful
a trait to be fully described by fond parents or relatives, or briefly
characterize single outbreaks, or special features in a single child.
The outlook and the reactionary stages are sometimes confused,
and there is nowhere any conception of the vast diversities of
its phenomena in different individuals; so that we find not only
great divergence but the most diametrical contradiction in de-
scribing its typical physical expressions. In some, e. g. , Stan-
ley, it is S2ii generis and unique from the start; and for others,
e. g. , Mantegazza, it shades by imperceptible gradations over
into fear and love with few characteristics solely its own. Its
physiological basis may be blood composition, digestive or he-
patic changes in vascular contractions, abnormal secretions,
non-removal of waste or toxic products, over lability of central
nerve cells, reflex muscle tension, etc. At present the general
subject of anger is a tumbling ground for abstract analysis and
a priori speculation, which must be gradually cleared up if
psychology is to advance from the study of the will to the feel-
ing. Just now the chief obstacle to this advance is strangely
enough the I^ange-James theory, the general acceptance of
which, puerile as it is in view of the vastness and complexity
of the field, would do for this general tendency of psychology a
dis-service comparable only with that which Descartes' s catchy
A STUDY OF ANGER. 517
dictum, that animals were mere automata, did for the advance of
comparative psychology in his day.
I have collected the following, far from exhaustive list of
English bearing on this state, additions to which in English or
other languages also rich in such terms, are invited.
Acrimonious: sharp, pungent, biting.
Aggrieved: made heavy, severe, looded.
Affronted: confronted offensively.
Angry: root d!«^= straightened, troubled. Angor, strangling. An-
gere, to choke, stifle. Arxio=throttle. Awe and ugly have the
same root, and ache is related, as are anxious and anguish. Other
etymologies closely relate it to fear.
Animosity: hostile spirit, more vehement and less lasting than enmity.
Antagonistic: to a foe or adversary opponent.
Antipathy: instinctive and involuntary dislike, repugnance, distaste,
disgust.
Aversion: turning from.
Bitter: biting, cutting, sharp, referring to the sense of taste.
Boiling: as a fluid from heat. Temper has a boiling point.
Breakout: restraint or inhibition giving way. Cf. ausgelassen, not
peculiar to anger.
Brood: to incubate, nurse, keep warm.
Chagrin: mortify, keenly vex as at disappointment.
Chafe: as when the epidermis is worn off to the quick.
Choleric: from Latin and Greek, cholera =gall, bile. The liver was
long regarded as the seat of anger and of love.
Contempt: scorn, despise, mepris.
Crabbed: scratch, claw, wayward in gait, not letting go.
Cross=curly, crimped, crooked. Cf. a "crook" in body or mind,
cross-grained.
Cruel: morally crude, and from the same root, pitiless, loving to in-
flict suffering.
Crusty: brittle, short.
Curt: short and sharp.
Dander up: dandruff, scurf, ruffled temper.
Defiant: renouncing faith or allegiance, and challenging.
Demoniacal: possessed by an evil spirit.
Displeased: designating all degrees of being offended.
Enmity: inimical to an enemy.
Evil: exceeding limits, bad, depraved, vicious, not peculiar to anger.
Fierce often used for anger. Ferus (wild savage) cognate with fera
(wild beast). Cf. wild with rage, savage resentment, mad as a
hornet, angry as a bull, cross as a bear.
Fight: fighty.
Flare up: Cf. blaze out, inflame.
Fit: spasm, convulsion, spell, not peculiar to anger.
Fractious: fret, rebellious, warmly restive, easily broken.
Frantic: phrenetic, very excited, not peculiar to anger.
Frenzy: same root as frantic.
Fretty: abrasion, corrosion, chafing.
Fume: to smoke. Cf. thumos, spirit, anger.
Fury: storm of anger, possessed by the furies.
Gall: ref. to liver as seat of anger.
Glum: frown, stare, sullen.
Grim: stern, forbidding, severe, angry.
Gritty: sharp, grains of sand, pluck.
Grouty: turbid as liquor, dreggy, roily, surly.
5i8 hall:
Grudge: crumble, crush, ill will and envy.
Gruff: rough.
Grumpy: Cf. grim and many Teutonic words. Gram=to rage, roar,
akin to sorrow, and related to grin, groan, grumble, make a noise.
Haste: too quick wrath or temper.
Hate: aversion, extreme detestation, repugnance.
Hostile: with enmity, antagonistic.
Hot: warm, heated.
Huffy: puffed, swelled with rage.
Impatient: the opposite of patience and long suffering.
Indignant: at the unworthy or mean.
Inflamed: a thermal analogy, combustible. Cf. flare up.
Insane: unwell, anger is a brief insanity. Cf. mad.
Ire: irascible, iracund.
Irritable: excitable, chiefly applied to temper.
Mad: a mad state, furious.
Malevolent: willing or wishing evil.
Malice: malus, bad, with ill will, malicious.
Malignity: Cf. malign, producing malice.
Morose: fretful.
Mucky: like muck, nasty, of temper.
Nasty: used of bad temper.
Nettled: stung with nettles.
Obstinate: standing against.
Offended: struck against.
Old Adam: aroused.
Passionate: of any passion but prominently of anger.
Peevish: feebly fretful, literally crying as a child.
Pet: Cf. pettish, as a spoiled child or pet.
Petulant: in a little pet.
Piqued: pricked, stung, nettled, angered.
Possessed: as if by a bad spirit.
Provoked: called out, incited to anger.
Put out: as of gear, off his nut, trolley, etc.
Putchy: New England for touchy.
Quarrelsome: prone to contend, also querulous.
Rage: Cf. rabies: a furious degree of anger.
Rancid: spoiled, tainted, rank, applied to butter.
Rancor: Cf. rancid, something that rankles.
Raving mad: as a horse, also roaring mad.
Refractory: breaking away.
Repugnance: contradiction, fighting against.
Resent: to have strong feeling against or take offense.
Retaliate: pay back in like.
Revenge: requite, retribution.
Riled: as mud stirred up in water.
Ructions: (belching) is widely used in New England of angry states.
Ruffled: hair or plumage towsled or stroked the wrong way.
Savage: like beasts or barbaric men.
Scorn: literally mockery, disdain, despise.
Sharp: used of temper.
Snarly: as of a dog.
Snappish: short, crusty, tart, disposed to bite.
Sore: literally aching, morbidly tender or irritable.
Sour: acid, mordant, the sours.
Spite: petty ill wiU.
Spitfire: a hot tempered person.
Splenetic: the spleen was supposed by the ancients to be the seat of
anger.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 5 19
Spunk: tinder, sponge.
Stark mad: stiff, naked, strongly angry.
Stormy: violent, gusty.
Stern: austere, rigid, severe.
Stubborn: stubbed, strongly obstinate.
Sulk: refuse to act or respond.
Sullen: glum and gloomy.
Surly: doggedly rude, rough.
Tantrum: literally =sudden impulse.
Tart: acidulous.
Tear: Cf. Zorn=rend, destroy, rip, burst, tearing mad.
Tempestuous: Cf. stormy.
Temper: disposition, hasty of teqiperament.
Testy: snappish.
Tew: used in New England for the fretting of infants.
Touchy: like proudflesh.
Ugly: literally horrid, unsightly.
Up on his (or her) ear.
Vengeance: Cf. vindictive, retribution, revenge.
Vex: literally to shake, to badger, bother.
Vicious: Cf. vitiated, addicted to vice.
Vile: used of temper.
Violent: infuriate, vehement, impetuous, turbulent.
Volcanic: explosive, eruptive.
Waspish: sting on too little or no provocation.
Wild: untamed, undomesticated.
Wode, wood: Wut=mad, furious, frantic, stirred up. Cf. woden
wutendes Heer.
Wrath =cognate with writhe, twist, turn to and fro, and with many
words in other Teutonic languages with like meaning.
After a learned and valuable discussion, Chamberlain^ sums
up the etymological meanings of words for anger as designating
(i) choking and strangling, Eng. anger and its cognates; (2)
writhing and twisting, wrath; (3) crookedness, curling, cross
and its cognates; (4) bursting and tearing, Ger. zorn; (5)
hasty movements, fury, Gr. %vpo%; (6) seizing and grasping,
ras^e and derivatives; (7) making a noise, yelling^ Ger. Grimm,
Tahitian riri; (8) malicious talk, slander, Ger. bose; (9)
mental excitement, Lat. vates, Gr. /xt/vis; (id) swelling, Gr.
opyrj, Samoan huhti\ (11) based on the heart, Kootenay, san-
ithvine and others; (12) on the liver, gall, bile, spleen, etc.,
and other words in various languages based on the stomach,
nose, forehead, etc. Helpful as it is, this classification, as will
be apparent from my list above, is not adequate. These words
are interesting reflections of the ancient volks' conception of
anger and are, as would be expected, nearly all physical.
Older medical writers, Gebhardus (1705), Slevoytius (1711),
Fickius (17 18), Clavillart (1744), Bender (1748), Regenhertz
1 On Words for Anger in Certain Languages. A Study in Linguistic
Psychology. Am. four, of Psychology, Jan. 1895, Vol. VI, No. 4, pp.
585-592.
520 HAI,I. :
(1757), Estrevenart (1788), Beeker (181 1) and Re^eubogen
(1820), discussed the physiological effects of anger, urged its
occasionally beneficial and even therapeutic effects. A group
of French writers : Hi ver ( 1 8 1 5 ) , Bemont ( 1 8 1 6 ) , Bigot ( 1 8 1 8 ) ,
Sallemund (1823), Boscher (1833), gave more or less elaborate
descriptions of its phenomena and therapeutic treatment; and
Baunus, Gallot, Husson, Ponte, Schneider and others have
described cases of sudden death, loss of consciousness, convul-
sions caused by it, or have discussed its relations to drunkenness,
H. L. Manning^ reports a case of rupture of a cerebral artery
due to anger at an animal in a stable; compares brooding to a
mental canker; thinks it may cause cancer and is liable to fore-
close a mortgage of weakness in some organs at any time,
urges that anger has the same sense as angina and that peo-
ple whose temper is very sensitive are very selfish. Pointe^
shows how violent anger may cause icterus, hernia, syncope,
apoplexy, mania, hysterical attacks, mutism, etc. Many records
of similar cures could be gathered from medical journals.
Forensic medicine, since Platner's important treatise on ex-
candescentia furibunda, in 1800, has dealt with anger.* Misers
are inflamed by loss of gold, the proud by slights, lovers by
petty offences by or against their mistresses. Morbid onsets
of anger are manias of brief duration, and some forms of
mania may be characterized as long-continued anger without
objective cause. The impulse is irresistible and there is loss ot
psychic freedom. Again the provocation may be so strong as to
break down all the inhibition that comes from restraining motives,
and to cause the mind to be beclouded, or the outbreak may be
too sudden for the slower, later acquired, and long circuiting
apparatus of control to be set in operation, so that responsibility
is lessened or indeed removed. Friedreich also thinks the storm
of passion may temporarily obstruct the power of self-direction.
Feuerbach says * ' Murder in a moment of passion is a crime
possible for the noblest natures, ' ' and he goes on to describe
conditions under which the act would not only be justifiable
but noble. Rare as such cases are, he urges that crimes com-
mitted in sudden anger should have individual study.
The murder of her seducer, by Maria Barbellina (a case so
well studied by Hrdlicka), committed in an automatic state
not remembered afterwards, was essentially anger intensified to
a full and typical epileptic attack.
Rush* urges that the term gentleman implies a command of
^Journal of Hygiene, 1895, p. 324.
2 Gazette des Hospitaux, 1898, p. 273.
^ Cf. Friedreich : Gericlitliche Anthropologie, 1859, ^h. Ill, p. 20,^
et seq.
* The Mind, pp. 331, et seq.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 521
this passion above all others, cites Newton's mild words to his
little dog, which set fire to the calculations of years : ' * thou
little knowest the mischief thou hast done," mentions a clergy-
man who demonstrated a proposition of Euclid as a sedative,
commends Thety's mode of allaying the anger of her son
Achilles by exciting the passion of love, advises a milk and
vegetable diet and avoidance of all stimulants, even the mod-
erate use of which predisposes to anger, advises drinking cold
water, and in extreme cases a douche with it, and suggests
that if due to weak morbid action wine or laudanum may help.
Savage races often work themselves up to a transport of rage
for their battles by dances and yells, and rush upon the foe in
blind fury. Sometimes the real fighting begins over the
division of the booty with sickening sights of savage ferocity,
more men being killed thus than in the original capture of the
plunder, and blood feuds may augment the horror of it all.^
The warrior's face is made up in the most fiendish way, his
weapons suggest torture more than death, as do even his orna-
ments, and his .scars are eloquent of the most desperate en-
counters.
Running amok^, common among Malays and in other Oriental
lands, has been variously described. An athletic man, who thus
gives way to either revenge, religious frenzy, acute mental or
bodily suffering, or to the various other causes assigned, often
shaves off all the hair on his body, strips every vestige
of clothing, oils or greases his body from head to foot, and
armed with a dagger or knife runs at the top of his speed,
stabbing every living creature he can get at. He runs straight
ahead, rarely turning corners, never entering houses, and like
an enraged human tiger never stops in his career of destruction ,
often with his head bent low like a battering ram, slippery as
an eel, smeared and dripping with blood, till some one kills or
at least stuns him. Formerly, poles with prongs were kept in
every village to ward off or pin the Amokers who were far
more frequent than now. The attack is not due to intoxication
nor are the Malays subject to ordinary epilepsy, but it occurs
when pain, grief, gloom, and loss of hope nursed by brooding,
bring on what their language calls heart-sickness. When Job
was tempted to curse God and die, or when we are goaded to
desperation and break out from all the control of prudence and
speak or act with abandon, reckless of consequences, wounding
friends and foes, the Malay rushes, slashes right and left,
plunges into the sea, etc. When medically examined they are
^I. Thompson : Through Masai Land, p. 255.
2The Amok of the Malays, by W. Oilman Bllis, M. D. J. of M.
Science, July, 1893.
Journal — 13
522 HALL :
in an excited state which lasts for hours or days, and sometimes
with complete amnesia of the crisis. Its onset is very sudden
and seems uncontrollable and paroxysmal.
In the Viking Age} each champion wanted to become a Ber-
serker (fighter without a shirt). These bravest of men wrought
themselves into such a frenzy at sight of their foe that they bit
their shields and rushed forward, throwing away every weapon
of defence. The berserk fury was utilized, not only for war
but for performing hard feats beyond the power of common
people. " In some cases this fury seems to have overcome the
Berserks apparently without cause, when they trembled and
gnashed their teeth. ' ' When they felt it coming on, they would
wrestle with stones and trees, otherwise they would have slain
their friends in their rage. In their greatest fury they were
believed to take the outward shape of an animal of great
strength and perversity. When great champions went berserk-
ing and were angry, they lost their human nature and went
mad like dogs. They vowed to flee neither fire or iron, and
in days of incessant warfare, died singing their brave deeds,
and as they entered Valhalla could hear the lay of the scalds
recounting their acts of prowess.'^ Sometimes in the acme of
their rage, the mouth was open and frothing, and they howled
like beasts and spared nothing in their course. Afterward they
were weak, and calling their name often cured them.
At quarter races in some parts of the south, near the close
of the last century, cock fights where the birds were armed with
steel spurs with which they cut each other to pieces, wrestlings,
quarrelings and often brutal fights occurred. In the latter,
for which there were rules, "gouging" was always permissible.
Each bully grew a long thumb nail for this purpose, and if he
got his opponent down, would take out his eye unless he cried
"King's curse." Sometimes ears were bitten off, and the yet
more terrible mutilation of ' ' Abelarding ' ' might occur. These
practices, McMaster^ tells us, long prevailed as far north as the
Maryland border.
The Iliad is, as the world knows, the story of the results of
the wrath and bitter verbal quarrel of Achilles with Agamem-
non over the priest's captive daughter, Chryseis.
Orlando Furioso, in his long search for his pagan love, An-
gelica, coming suddenly upon conclusive evidence that she is
false to him, becomes frantic, and seizing his arms, rushes to
the forest with dreadful cries, breaking and cutting trees and
1 Du Chaillu : The Viking Age, Chapter XXVI.
^Simrock: Deutsche Mythologie, p. 465.
^History ot the People of the United States, Vol. II, p. 5. I am in-
debted for this and several other references to the Librarian of Clark
Universit}', Mr. Louis N. Wilson.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 523
rocks, destroying a grotto, and often thus terrorizing the coun-
try for days, passes raving mad through France and Spain,
swims the Straits of Gibraltar and continues his devastations
in Africa. For 300 verses Ariosto describes in vivid terms his
desperate deeds of supernatural strength. Orlando is insanely
mad and is restored only after the paladin and the apostle ar-
rive at the magazine of good sense in the moon to find his soul
securely bottled and labeled, which they return and force him
to inhale, when he is restored.
Modern literature abounds in description of anger, e. g. , the
breaking of the bull's neck by Ursus in the amphitheater to
save the life of Lygia in Quo Vadis; the fights of Prasper
and Galors in the Forest Lovers; Mulvaney's story in Kipling's
Soldier's Three, where the conflict was body to body, too close
to use bayonet, and the men could only push, kick, claw, maul,
and breathe and swear in each other's faces, and knives danced
like sunbeams, and cleft heads went down grinning in sections,
revolvers spit like cats and black curses slid out of innocent
mouths like morning dew from the rose. The brutal killing of
Nancy b}^ Bill Sykes ; the fight with Squeers in Nicholas
Nickleby; the conflicts in Scott; and from ancient mythology
to the modern stage, all shows how all the world loves fighters.
Dante, M. D. Conway and many other description of demons
and hell abound in descriptions of anger. Volumes could be
easily filled with such characterizations.
In Ireland's characterization of the insanity of power, ^ there
are interesting descriptions of extreme and morbid anger.
When angry, Claudius Caesar is said to have grinned and foamed
at the mouth. Agrippa's rage at a rival was so great that after
oile of them was executed, she had the head brought and opened
its mouth. Commodus, by the sight of blood in the arena was
aroused like a tiger on the first taste of it. He fought 735
times in gladiatorial games, took pleasure in bleeding people
with a lancet, and the companions of his anger often fell victims
to his rage. Mohammed Toghlac had a passion for shedding
blood, as if his object was to exterminate the human race.
Executioners were always present to kill or torture on the in-
stant those who offended him. His elephants were taught to
throw his enemies into the air and catch them with their trunks,
and to cut their bodies with knives fastened to their tusks.
One who had provoked him was flayed alive, and then cooked
with rice, and his wife and child forced to eat his flesh. Others
were tied by the leg to wild horses, which ran through forests
till only the leg was left. Ivan the terrible was filled with
tigerish impulses by every suggestion of restraint. His jester
iThe Blot upon the Brain.
524 HALL :
displeased him and he threw hot soup in his face at the table,
and then rose and stabbed him. He forced people to kill their
wives, fathers, mothers and children. Death did not appease
his rage, and sometimes his enemies must sit at the table for
days opposite the corpses of their nearest relatives, whom he
had killed. He interrupted his devotions to massacre those
who had provoked him. In one case some 27,000 inoffensive
people were killed before his rage was placated. He killed his
favorite son and heir in a fit of anger. Another son, who was
killed young, had as a child a passion for seeing slaughter, and
killed animals himself for the pleasure of seeing the blood flow.
t Mantegazza assumes that man has far greater capacity for pain
\ than for pleasure, and can hate more bitterly than he can love.
\Love and hate are not only often mixed and felt towards the
same person, but may be different degrees of the same emotive
force. Anger is an expression of egoism, and vanity and hyper-
self feeling intensify it. Infants hate most and most often
if their feeding is interfered with, boys if play, youth if love,
adults if pride, old age if conservatism, women if their affec-
tions are disturbed. . Duels in their early stages as courts of honor,
and lawsuits and courts of arbitration are attempts to restrain this
passion which makes homo homini lupus. Religions at their
birth are efforts to placate the anger of deities and mitigate the
fires of their wrath, for God is conceived as angry daily with
the wicked, and hell is hot with his vengeance. A long list of
curses, perhaps elaborately formed and ceremoniously launched,
and damnatory oaths and obscenities, insulting names, especially
of animals, imputing deformities of soul or body may be vents.
Anger may emit its own peculiar smell ; the first cry of the
babe is perhaps anger, and anger may be directed toward self.
In great haters the luxury of one moment of rage may be de-
liberatel}^ purchased by years of pain, and a city may be
destroyed for a single man. Its strength is shown by the fact
that while love is everywhere and alwaj^s taught, and hate and
anger everywhere repressed, the latter are yet so much stronger.
It has all degrees from the most bestial fights for extermination
up to irony, satire, criticism, coldness, neglect, teasing and
many other forms. One can be angry without an object, but if
we hate we must hate something. Pardon and its motivation
are lightly touched upon, and placation of gods and men mark
a higher stage, and the long strain of patience is a noble dis-
cipline for this scBva aninii tenipesias}
O. Schwartzer describes a form of morbid transitory rage as
follows: "The patient predisposed to this, otherwise an en-
tirely reasonable person, will be attacked suddenly without the
1 Physiologic des Hasses.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 525
slightest outward provocation, and thrown into a paroxysm of
the wildest rage with a fearful and blindly furious impulse to
do violence and destroy. He flies at those about him, strikes,
kicks, and throttles whomever he can catch, dashes at every ob-
ject near him which he can lay his hands on, breaks and
crushes what is near him, tears his clothes, shouts, howls, and
roars, with eyes that flash and roll, and shows meanwhile all
those symptoms of vaso-motor congestion which we have learned
to know as the concomitants of anger. His face is red and
swollen, his cheeks hot, his eyes protrude and the whites are
bloodshot, the heart beats violently, the pulse marks 1 10-170
strokes a minute. The arteries of the neck are full and pul-
sating, the veins swollen, the saliva flows. The fit lasts only a
few hours and ends suddenly with a sleep of from 8 to 12 hours,
on awakening from which the patient has entirely forgotten
what has happened."
Kraepelin^ describes morbid irascibility iracundia morbosa in
born imbeciles of higher grade whose moral nature is somewhat
developed and who have considerable school knowledge. On
the very slightest occasion, they go off as if loaded into an
utterly uncontrollable frenzy of rage, tremble all over, stammer
out insults and curses, inarticulate cries, bite their lips and
hands, run and butt their heads against the wall, try to choke
themselves, tear their clothing and destroy everything within
reach, till they are breathless, reeking with sweat, hoarse, and
too exhausted to move. Upon the stimulus, the explosion fol-
lows with the certainty of a machine Often such cases
maintain a certain orientation and avoid attacking persons, but
vent their fury upon lifeless objects as in gestures. Such at-
tacks may last an hour or days, sinking back with a long
asymptotic curve of diminishing irritability to the normal. They
often have no or slight memory afterward of what occurred,
lament their infirmity, beg to be bound or shut up, have all
objects with which they could do injury removed. Kvery
even imaginary infraction of their hyperalgeric egotism and self-
ishness may provoke imperative actions perhaps of brutal
passion.
Ziehen'-^ describes the disposition to anger which is often asso-
ciated with abnormal exhaltation of self- feeling as hyperthyaim.
In paralytic dementia primary exhaltation is a very common
intercurrent stadium and is a cardinal symptom of mania. In
the characteristic cyclus, the depressive stage more commonly
precedes. At the beginning and end of an anger fit the periph-
eral arteria are expanded, sometimes almost to the point of
1 Psychiatric, pp. 125 and 673.
2 Psychiatric, pp. 60 et seq., 141 et seq., 174, 242, etc.
526 HALIy :
congestion in' the face; but at the acme of the explosion they
are contracted and palor is most common. Respiration is pro-
longed and deep, the pulse wave low, the lapse of association
is retarded, followed perhaps by an explosive acceleration,
there is a decrease of motor- discharge, a stage of initial inhi-
bition, succeeded by one of augmented intensity and perhaps
restricted range. The play of motives is reduced, reflection
drops out and sensation is applied directly to motives which
are rather incoherent and unco-ordinated, and it is the shunting
out of the association plexus that causes subsequent amnesia.
Furor epilepticus is the most intense manifestation of anger.
As a symptom of paralytic dementia excessive tearfulness is
often associated with it, and may more or less take its place
with increasing lability of mood and kind of action, and per-
haps facial mimesis gestures and general agitation. Morbid
irritability is not infrequent in chorea.
No one has described with such clearness and copiousness of
casuistic material as Magnan^ the slow accumulation of anger
in paranoiacs, whom he agrees with Tardieu in calling the most
dangerous of all the insane, who, on grounds of a purely hal-
lucinatory nature, steal, insult, shout, without having given
any one any intimation of the long evolution of their state of
consciousness. Querulants complain of all, suspect all about
them of changed feeling towards or of designs upon them.
They imagine their friends look askance, are less constant in
their feelings, are gossiping about them, or are fomenting plots
to injure their business, reputation, etc. All is perhaps in-
creased by auditory hallucinations and slowly the patient feels
himself the victim of persecutions and surrounded by enemies
with overt or covert designs upon him. Gradually reactionary
impulses arise and gather force. The injuries must be resented,
the guilty punished, and at length, the persecuted becomes a
persecutor now entirely devoted to vengeance. Insults, de-
nunciations, abusive letters, threatening, and perhaps written
in red ink or in blood, slanders, murderous attacks and every
other means are resorted to to gratify hate. No failure dis-
courages, and then reason justifies all their acts as the inevita-
ble retaliation to long accumulated and extreme provocation.
He feels his case to be unprecedentedly and inexpressibly
pathetic, one that cries to heaven for an avenger. For crimes
thus motivated, when the patient has plainly lived completely
into his morbid romance some authorities in forensic medicine
recognize either partial or incomplete irresponsibility.
For the Herbartians, whose treatment of the feelings always
must be very inadequate, anger burns outward from within,
1 Paranoia, chronica, etc.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 527
establishes a new apperception center, or pointe de rep^re, for a
part of the mental content, shakes old concepts into wakeful-
ness, and like a tide adds to one plexus of ideas what it takes
from another, and has a long and slowly dying out, somatic
after effect. Although perhaps at first "sweeter than honey,"
as Homer calls it, it belongs on the whole to the algesic and
depressive group of emotions.^
Stanley^ characterizes anger as more offensive than defensive,
as aggressive, expansive, as peculiarly developed in the carniv-
ora who are usually solitary because predacious habits require
a wide subsistence area. Its origin marked a most important
and epoch-making era, as important for psychic morphology
as the vertebrate form, giving those animals that acquired it a
great advantage over those which did not, and it is a great
factor in the evolution of personality. Those creatures who
can injure all their enemies, and men who make their acquaint-
ances fear to make them mad, are more likely to survive. The
greater and more formidable the foe the more fear expels anger
and prevents its ebullition. In a certain stage it is wise to bear
in mind that any friend may become a foe. Tlie weakness,
which instead of hitting back turns the other cheek, is at a
certain stage a disadvantage. Weak people cannot hate or be
very angry. It is a unique passion, complete, and a genus by
itself from the start, and so must be known introspectively or
not at all; is pure at first and its hybrid forms evolve later. Its
organs are claws, fangs, horns, spurs, and weapons, and it
tends to culminate in eating the adversary, sometimes even in
anthropophagy. Hate is habitual anger and is retrospective,
while anger is prospective. It represents a wild state before
and below civilization which has domesticated man. Even
lower animals are very sensitive to it in men. While it
smoulders and even when it breaks out the intellect may look
coolly on. It cannot be undirected, but must always have an
object.
For Ribot* anger in the offensive form appears early (two
months Preyer — ten months Darwin), and in its motor forms
is the partial contraction of muscles, which are fully active in
combat, involves fascination for the sight of and suffering, and
in the depressed form passes over into hate and easily becomes
morbid, and even epileptic and maniacal. Irresistible destruct-
ive impulses are disaggregated forms of anger, and show grada-
tion separated from each other by imperceptible stages from
pleasure in torturing and killing to satisfaction in reading of
1 Volkmann : Ivehrbuch der Psychologic, Vol. II, p. 390.
2 Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling. Chapter X, p. 127.
8 Psychology of Emotion. Chapter III. Anger.
528 HALIv :
imaginary murders in novels, etc. All destructive impulses
are at root one, and heredity and education, environment and
circumstances develop them into determinate, habitual, and
chronic directions. It may increase the ptomaines and cause
auto-intoxication, and in the lower animal forms whose bite
when angry is poisonous, and in human beings modifies the
lacteal secretions of nursing mothers. It is best inhibited by
fear, in some sense its opposite, and best seen in some carnivora.
Stein metz^ holds that revenge is a reaction to enhance lowered
self-feeling, and primordially it is not directed against the ag-
gressor, and Ree thinks it a reaction against the feeling of in-
feriorit)^ inflicted by another. At first there was no discrimina-
tion, and wrath might be wreaked upon any one, innocent or
guilty. In a later stage, upon this theorj^ it is less indiscrim-
inate, and some fitness is demanded in the victim, as in cases
of blood feud. Last of all it was found that the wrong doer
himself should bear the punishment. An Indian kicked out
of a store kills a family of pigs; a relative at a funeral cuts
himself "in a fit of revenge against fate" or kills some poor
or defenceless person; the Navajoes, if jealous of their wives,
kill the first person they meet; if one dies from an unknown
cause, a victim is selected b}^ lot, or the friends of the dead man
kill the first person they meet, the bearer of bad news may suf-
fer. All these facts and theories are combated by Westermarck^
who urges many cases where carefully directed revenge is exer-
cised by animals. From the very lowest forms anger is aimed
at the cause of the pain. This weapon against injustice and
injury resents aggression by counter aggression, and is thus a
great aid in self-conservation and self- forbearance. Even com-
mon tribal responsibility is a protection against the tendency of
revenge to single out the guilty person. The forms and details
of punishment are often elaborated.
After teaching this subject many years and with increasing
dissatisfaction, I determined to try the questionnaire method
and accordingly, in October, 1894, ^^^ ^^st of an annual series
of topical syllabi on Child Study, which have been continued
now for four years, was published on anger and sent to nearly
900 teachers, parents and others in this country and elsewhere.
It was as follows :
The phenomena wanted are variously designated by the following
words : wrath, ire, temper, madness, indignation, sulks, sours, putch-
iness, crossness, choler, grudge, fume, fury, passion, to be or fall out
with.
1 Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der Strafe.
=^Mind. N. S. VII, 1898, p. 289.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 529
1. Add any other terms or any euphemisms, or phrases you know
or can get from children indicating their feelings.
2. Describe every vaso-motor symptom, such as flushing, paling,
about forehead, cheeks, nose, neck or elsewhere. Is there horripila-
tion, chill, shudder, tremor, prickly feeling, numbness, choking,
twitching, sweating, if so where and how long. Are there any accom-
panying sensations of color, flushes, taste, smell, npises, (question
for each sense). Can blood pressure be tested?
3. Describe all changes of muscle-tension, scowling, grinding teeth,
opening lips, setting of eye, clenching fists, position of arms and
attitude of body. Is there nausea or a tendency to either contraction
or relaxation of sphincter muscles which control anal or urinal pass-
ages.
4. Describe overt acts, striking (how, down, straight out, with fist or
palm), scratching, biting, kicking. At what part are blows or attacks
aimed.
5. What is the degree of abandon or loss of self control ? Is it com-
plete and is the rage entirely blind, or usually is some restraint shown
in intesity of blows or some consideration in the place attacked ?
6. Describe long delayed anger, the venting of secret grudges long
nursed, and deliberately indulged.
7. Describe intensity curve of quick and slow children.
8. Describe reactions, afterwards physical, mental or moral, whether
lassitude, contrition, and all verbal or acted signs of regret.
9. How do children speak of past outbreaks of anger in themselves,
and of anger in others, and in general ?
10. What treatment have you found good, and what palliatives do
irascible children apply to themselves?
In description be photographically objective, exact, minute and
copious in detail. Tell age, sex, family life, temperament, nationality
of every child. Add to all a description of your experience with an-
ger in yourself, and if possible get a few of your adult friends whether
good or ill tempered, to write theirs, or organize a little circle of
friends, mothers, teachers, neighbors, t© talk over the subject and to
observe in concert. Above all, get children of different age and
temperament to talk confidentially, or better to write their own ideas
in response to such questions as tell some things which make you an-
gry; when do you get angry easiest ? how do you feel and how act, how
check it and how feel afterwards ? write cases of others getting angry
in detail, and state what you think about it generally.
This is a subject of obviously great importance for moral and even
physical education, but there is almost no literature worth reading
upon it. It is so vast that it can be best explored by concerted effort.
The undersigned desires to investigate the subject and invites you to
co-operation by sending him any notes, however incomplete, upon any
aspect of the subject. Or, if preferred, you can start with these hints
and work out your own data and print your conclusions.
IvCt us try the concerted method of work and in some way pool its
results for the mutual benefit of teachers and for the good of the
children we all live for.
In answer to the above questionnaire, a total of 2,184 returns
have been received in season to be included in the following
report. Miss Lillie A. Williams, of the Trenton (N. J.) Nor-
mal School, sent returns from 244 persons, of which 121 were
original observations of children, 92 were reminiscences, 28
information received at second hand. Principal E. H. Russell,
530 HALL :
of the Worcester (Mass.) Normal School, sent 109 returns; 35
of which were reminiscences, mostly by his pupils and teachers,
and 63 were original observations on children. Mrs. Grace B.
Sudborough sent 1,016 answers to the questions with opinions
upon hyperthetical stories involving anger. From an anony-
mous source, 147 carefully written but brief essays upon per-
sonal experiences with anger were received. Miss Carlisle, of
Norwich, Connecticut, sent 95 papers, partly studies by her
normal class and partly answers by school children. From
California, 65 papers were received; from an unknown source,
59 papers; from Miss Clapperton, of St. George's Training
College, Edinburgh, 77; from Miss A. E. Wyckoff, of Brook-
line, 72 personal papers; from the Springfield Training School,
24 papers; from Dr. F. E. Spaulding, Superintendent J. A.
Hancock, Miss Pedrick, Miss Flora J. White, a few papers each;
and from Miss Hughes, then of the Cambridge (England) La-
dies' College, 31 carefully prepared papers by students, with
others from other sources. Besides this, a large list of literary
references have been gradually accumulating during the past
five years; the subject has been made several times a matter of
discussion in my weekly seminary for the comparison, of ex-
periences; and I have several times worked over portions of the
subject in the form of popular and class lectures. I am under
special obligations to Principal M. H. Small, of Passaic, N. J.,
lately my student, for the compilation of a part of this material
and the selection from the mass of material of some of the typi-
cal cases.
It need not be repeated, that, as I have already said, in
compiling such material, too much caution cannot possibly be
exercised. The returns are of all degrees of merit, from ex-
tremely good to worthless, and it requires great and constant
critical acumen to sift the chaff from the wheat; and the value
of the work depends chiefly upon how accurately and thoroughly
this is done. The great advantages of this method are also
obvious in the data upon this topic, for the range of individual
differences is vast and the fecundity of human nature in so
diversifying the expressions of this sentiment is perhaps nowhere
more apparent and gives constant and often deep interest in
reading over the returns. Concerning no subject have I felt more
strongly the necessary limitations of individual experience and
how absolutely necessary as the basis for any valid psychology
of the subject, it is first of all to gather a vast array of facts
and cases. This and the necessity of revising current theories
upon anger will explain why I introduce so many condensed
accounts of concrete cases. This tends to bring psycholog}^
back again into the closest contact with a large group of the
most vital facts of life and to rescue it from the narrowing and
A STUDY OF ANGER. 531
one-ended influences of theories from which that part of it
which treats of the feelings and emotions and which now seems
next in order for investigation, is now so gravely afflicted.
The aspects of anger are very man}' sided and complex, but
we see here the intensity and bitterness of the struggle for
survival in the past by the traces that are left in modern life.
So inadequate and partial are the text-book characterizations
of it that it seems well to begin a closer look at this most intri-
cate salient group of phenomena as particularly seen in self
and others.
A. General.
1. Scotch, F., 20. When in a real passion a torrent seems to rush
through me with terrific force, I tremble violently and feel quite faint.
When the storm is not too deep for speech, I say the bitterest things
that I can think of, though often aware that I shall repent them after-
ward. Yet I always want to be by myself, not to listen to reason, but
to stamp, beat myself and think or say all sorts of wicked things.
Above all I pity myself most intensely and end in a torrent of tears.
A most aggravating fact, however, sometimes is that I cannot utter a
word, no matter how eloquent I feel I ought to be. The storm within
is too furious for speech, although it always ends with rain. The tears
are a sign of exhaustion rather than repentance. The fits last a few
moments, rarely half an hour, and to give them vent clears the air.
By restraining it I feed on it and it lasts and rankles. If my auger is
less violent I avoid speaking to the persons or ignore their existence,
but my icy silence will melt despite my resolution. It kills love and
admiration however.
2. M., 31. My capacity for anger is great and deepens into indigna-
tion, scorn and contempt. I can despise in a way impossible before.
To think and to say inwardly that my antagonistic is a fool vent-
my feeling, sometimes I pity him and yet know I shall revert to feel-
ing him a fine man, I am usually good natured, but can imagine
causes of anger in those I love, but nothing less than their entire an-
nihilation or that of the whole world, including myself, can satisfy.
I believe I should have the courage, fatalism, criminality or whatever
it be, to follow my impulse of the moment. My capacity for anger
has increased with the breadth of my psychic life, but such periods
are far rarer and it takes more to rouse it. Now I sometimes feel a
sort of pleasure in bad treatment which was expected to enrage me.
3. Knglish, F., 19. When angry I feel all of a sudden burning hot,
stifled and compelled to make a noise. I used to strike people, now I
strike things. I used to be promptly carried to my room, now I seek
seclusion of my own accord. I used to shed tears, now I feel burning
and choke till my nose bleeds, then I am better. Sometimes I grow
icy cold and feel as if I was all blanc mange inside. This feeling is
worse than the heat, for I seem to be a stone. People speak to me but
I do not move; question me but I do not answer. They think I am
sulky. I am not, but am simply frozen. I awake the next morning
with a sense of shame ; relief, however, predominates, then I can look
at things in the right light and I go around apologizing and setting
things right.
4. M., 30. When angry I feel as if my features were distorted, as
if it were cowardly not to look the offender straight in the eye as
pride impels, although another impulse inclines me to invert my eyes
in an embarrassed way. I am conscious of my mouth and do not know
532 HAhh :
how to hold it, but this gesture makes me feel ashamed and restrained.
I do not know how to hold my hands or to stand, but feel conscious of
my whole body, want to be left alone, and when I am by myself I relax
from this strain, then I seem to go all to pieces. I collapse, flop down
all in a heap, suffer chiefly from mortified pride, feel that I could do
almost anything rash, but from this state of utter abandon to later
self control I get back in time. When angry I never can talk with-
out crying.
5. Scotch, F., 22. I feel when irritable like a volcano liable to
burst forth at any unconscious touch. I used to feel on fire inwardly.
It is most painful and urges me to break or knock something down.
A casual remark or even a most trivial happening increases it. I do
not scold or rant but gather up all my force into a few cutting, cruel
words. There is always a faint background of knowledge in the very
height of the storm, that words remain forever and that the good
Lord I profess to follow disapproves; but all these are beaten down
and although I know that my words hurt both others and myself, I
must utter them. From about 12 to 16 I would do almost anything
to wreak vengeance, often striking people. I feel quite capable of kill-
ing a person. Even now I sometimes fear [ shall do so, although as a
rule my rage vents itself more and more inside. The humorous side
of my anger often strikes me afterward, and then its sting is removed.
6. A girl of 10 became so angry because detained after school that
she lost all control and gave up to a fit of passion. Her face became
very pale, then flushed to a dark red, purple spots came and went on
her cheeks and forehead, she writhed, twisted, screamed as though in
bodily pain, and at times was almost hent double. At other times she
would sit still a moment, gasp, shudder as if to choke, and then begin
to scream again. She seemed to be sick to her stomach. She never
showed any regret. She was once very angry at me and will always
dislike me.
7. M., 44. When huffy or in a tantrum, a man I know has a vein
in his forehead swell out large ; a woman of 60 lengthens her upper
lip ; a woman of 25 pushes forward both lips ; a college girl I know
stiffens her under jaw, her eyes grow glassy, she raises her head, walks
stiff and erect, talks in a jerky way which she calls sputtering. Hop-
ping mad is a phrase literally correct for some.
8. M., 39. In some, I know, anger makes the face white, the fea-
tures are set, then a chiselled look will appear beautiful in a way.
Others pitch their voice low and speak more slowly and distinctly.
The face of one child I know is completely changed. He looks wicked
and like an animal. I have several times seen this, it haunts me and
I hope I may never see it again. The cause in this case was unjust
and ill judged punishment.
9. F., 21. I saw my little wiry music master, a man of 70, thor-
oughly angry once at my wrong and careless playing He danced all
around the room, stamped, shouted, stammered, and left the house
unceremoniously. Some friends passed him around the corner rush-
ing and muttering. At his next visit, mother asked hira how I was
getting on. He said I was doing spendidly and was his favorite pupil,
and that he liked to have me give him trouble, because it showed that
there was something in me.
10. F., 20. A sensitive, overworked middle aged music teacher, with
keen artistic nature, when angered by laziness or conceit in his pupils,
becomes extremely and frigidly polite, — by this, by his sarcasm and a
slightly strained laugh, his indignation can be detected. Strong as his
temper is, he has it under such control that a spectator would not sus-
pect it.
11. M., 31. A most tempery women, I know, with a tremendous.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 533
will, which if crossed makes her talk rapidly and recklessly Her
eyes flash and I have known her to kick people and strike them in the
face. She seems like a dog run mad. If she really hurts people or
they are quite upset, her rage instantly goes, and she is as tender as a
mother, but afterwards she has a bilious headace. She often justifies
her acts afterwards in cold blood.
12. M., 21. The best case I know is a woman, who overwhelms
people with abuse, sometimes flies at them, becomes hysterical and
then sulks for days. Once she resented her sister's language and
destroyed every present she had ever received from her. She considers
her temper a matter of course and seems to make no effort to check it.
13. F., 17. An ugly little Italian girl of 15, with beautiful hair
like spun silk, of which she was inordinately vain, flew into a rage
terrible to witness when it was towsled, which the girls took delight
in doing. She said little but a terrible demon seemed to seize her and
drive her into a passion. Every vestige of color left her face, her
eyes glittered and her expression was almost inhumanly wicked and
cruel. With one quick look at her tormentor, she would spring at
her with feline alertness, and generally left distinct marks of nails and
teeth. I never saw signs of regret. "It is to be hoped that her face
was covered with blessed shame and that humanity suffused with
cooling streams that fiery spirit."
14. F., 38. When angry my face grows pale, but dark about the
mouth. I feel numb as if my circulation and physical functions had
received a shock. The angrier I am the tighter grows the muscle ten-
sion everywhere. Every attack of anger is followed by constipation
and urinal continence, also lack of appetite, thirst, nausea at the very
sight of food, and also an acute bilious attack. Nausea once lasted six
months because I had to sit at the table with the object of my anger;
no monthly sickness in all that time. It is ten years since, but the
sight of that person still brings on a feeling of anger. Of contritition
I know nothing.
15. I saw a gypsy man and woman fighting, screaming, and using
the most awful threats. They tried to bite, choke, seize each other in
all tender parts of the body, and seemed not human but wild beasts.
16. F., 34. A South African girl, if told to do anything, instantly
and ostentatiously disobeys, and calls a long string of names. She
reminds me of Angelica in the Heavenly Twins ; is honest, affectionate,
generous, fond of mad pranks, is capable but hates work, and sits for
hours doing nothing.
17. Am.; adult; female. "I do not remember getting violently
angry but once. A friend of mine spoke unjust words of a neighbor
of whom I was fond. I stood it for a few moments, then I commenced
to talk. I could not say things sarcastic enough. There was a lump
in my throat. My eyes felt as though they were open to their widest
extent ; my face was cold ; breathing rapid ; muscles contracted, and my
hands were clenched. I scarcely heard anything. In an instant all this
passed. The blood began to be pumped up through the arteries in
the neck in powerful pulse-beats and my heart seemed to fairly jump.
Gradually the muscles relaxed and a feeling of extreme fatigue came
on. I could scarcely walk home I trembled so. When I was in my
own room the tears flowed copiously. For a time I was almost afraid
of myself. That night there seemed to be something pushing me on
which I could not understand. I was very tired when this occurred."
18. F., 38. I teach a boy of fine American parentage who, when
reprimanded, parts his lips slightly and looks me straight in the eye
a little as though he were laughing at me. When I call him he comes,
but sets his teeth, bends forward, clenches his fists, tries hard to speak
-but cannot uttter a word till he cools down and then he stutters,
534 HAI.I. :
which he does at no other time, and at length the tears come. He is
very bright, excels in study, likes and quotes me on all occasions.
He' is much worse at home and his mother fears he may become a
murderer. He never shows regret.
19. F., 19. A girl friend has a peculiar sneering smile, which curls
her lips, and no rebuke or threat can alter her. There is a peculiar
contemptuous expression in her eyebrows. Her silence is dogged for
days, it is as firm as a rampart against friends or foes. It ends in some
burst of defiance and is usually roused by blame. Severity increases
it. This disease the poor patient seems to inherit from her father.
20. M., 30. I know a young man of 24 in the West, who is well,
strong and sane, whom I have seen repeatedly go to the corner of a
ball-room and lie on the floor and pound his head on it and roll from
anger, because another man danced with his best girl. He drives cattle
and sometimes literally cuts a pig open with his great two-handed
hog whip, or rides up to it on his broncho, seizes it by the hind legs
and dashes its brains out on the ground. He is generally voted a good
fellow, says little and never attacks human beings, but only writhes
when angry.
21. F., 24. My former chum was a well-born girl, but without
discipline and could never be crossed. If this occurred, she seemed
at first astonished and then frozen up with rage. She stood once two
hours without moving hands or feet, her head thrown back and a fixed
determined look in her eyes.
22. Pure anger makes me creep from head to foot. I never want
to have it out with any one or be revenged, but feel haunted and dis-
cordant for days. I must be alone, and have my door locked, with no
possibility of intrusion, and often pile all the furniture against the
door and then sit or lie down to have it out. or perhaps cry myself to
sleep.
23. F., 21, When I had once lost control of myself, I wanted to
push away everything that happened to be near, to make myself alone,
where I could muse on my wrongs and grumble to my heart's content.
Whoever happened to come near had to bear the brunt of my growls
and hear everything and everybody described in the blackest of colors.
24. Eng., F., 21. In rage some people undergo an entire change,
and their eyes grow large and set, the face is rigid, they contract the
brows. Some vent it in violent motions, in quiverings of the body,
compression of the lips, or bad words.
25. F., 19. I have seen men ordinarily sensible speak with cruel
sarcasm and grow absolutely infantile, diffusing bitterness all about,
and at the smallest provocation in a game of croquet.
26. A lady of 40 occasionally loses all control. She slaps, dances,
says the most cutting things, for she is a woman of remarkable in-
telligence, but never shows any compunction.
27. My girl when angry is almost insane and acts like one possessed.
She attacks anybody, breaks windows. Her second dentition seemed
greatly to aggravate her temper.
28. F., 39. A girl of 1 1 when provoked throws down whatever she
has and rushes at her enemy. She is hot, her teeth are clenched, and
she usually goes for their hair, and when carried away, she stamps
and cries boisterously.
29. M., 22. When maddest I used to sulk, make faces, stamp
upstairs, my neck and ears would burn, my teeth grind, my fists
clench, and although I felt contrition sometimes, could never show it.
30. M., 29. A girl of 17, humored and sentimentalized can bear
no cross to her inordinate conceit. Her anger makes her eyes set and
glassy, and she does outrageous things and ends always in sulks with
no remorse.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 535
31. Eng., F., 23. Some show temper-by being bearish and boorish,
others swell up and strut, will say or speak to anyone, or give snappy
answers. I think that rage makes red people white, dark people
browner, and pale people pink. The better the complexion, the
greater the change of color.
32. F., 36. I can recall but three violent experiences of anger. I
felt pent up and congealed, then the worst of my nature came out. I
got dizzy and my head felt very full. I seemed to tremble inwardly.
33. F. 25. Anger makes me hot, sticky and sweaty. I talk fast
and loud. In extreme cases only do I completely lose all self control.
It always ends in a shower of tears.
34. M., 18. When very mad I used to shut my eyes. There are
some people I long to maul unmercifully, also cats, of which I have a
most particular hate. The boy I am maddest at has separated me and
my best girl, probably forever, and I am laying for him, if I have to
hang for it.
35. F., 20. The slightest provocation in the way of getting worsted
in games, or being forced to do hated things, made me scarlet and
crimson. I still long to break out but something restrains me. I can-
not bear to have any one speak to me in this state, and if they do am
likely to burst forth in a torrent of tears. My reactions are usually
penitence and fatigue.
36. A colored deaf mute, a boy of 15, slow mentally but well developed
physically, resents everything, but most of all, allusions to his color.
He shakes his fists, his eyes bulge, his upper lip is drawn from his eye
teeth, he grows blacker, draws his fingers significantly across his
throat, and his gestures and threats are terribly in earnest, but it all
goes off in this way and he harms no one.
37. F., 21. There are no special causes or times that put me in a
temper, and yet I sometimes have to walk up and down on tip toe or
march back and forth in the garden or brace myself to sit still, feel
every nerve and muscle stretched to its utmost tension. Sometimes
when I am angry at people, I incline to do all the little nasty things
I can think of to them, and the more angry I am the more lacerating
things occur to me. Sometimes I cannot say these things, but fear
that I may do them.
38. One bonnie merry Irish girl has spells of mood, during which
she hardly speaks, but her moods are so separate that in one she
rarely refers to the others.
39. F., 19. When alone I roll, wriggle and weep, but keep up a kind
of philosophizing all the time as to how the object should be treated
when we met.
40. F., 23. When my hot and furious temper culminates, I tremble,
am cold, and speak out recklessly the first and bitterest things I know.
41. F., 19. A girl I know bursts into a flood of passion and must
make a noise in almost any way, then she passes into the sulky state,
and it takes a day or two for all to vanish.
42. M., 31. I know an impatient person who first fidgets, nostrils
begin to twitch, eyes glare, voice is raised to a crescendo and after the
acme there is a diminuendo, as the rage subsides. I know some whose
chronic state of mind is sour and nothing is right.
43. Am.; adult; female. When I get very angry my face grows
white, and it seems as though a cold hand clutches my heart. I grow
faint and dizzy, and see green and black and red all whirling together.
My breath grows short and my body gets limp. There is a distressing
feeling of nausea. If a person ill treats me further, I rouse up and
feed him sand, whereupon these symptoms disappear.
44. A boy of 14, the terror and leader among the inmates of a State
reform school, when angry looks the person, officer, superintendent,
536 HALL :
or whoever it may be, firmly in the eye, calls him the vilest names, is
outrageously profane and attacks them like a mad man.
45. F., 23. If I could not have my own way when I was a child,
I would scream and jump up and down. There was no control until
I was about 8, when the form of my outbursts became tears and angry
words. I had to do something when in a pet if only to rush about.
46. F., 26. My temper takes the form of taking things amiss and
not being pleased at anything, am silent and gloomy, with a feeling
as if my head was fixed in a vise. This symptom is a warning and the
sensations are so painful that I make a desperate effort to keep pleasant.
47. My mother is a most warm hearted and affectionate woman,
but when angry says very cruel things, which one does not like to
think of. She has not been the same person since my little brother
was born, and imagines injury where there is none, and broods over
and nurses her wrath to keep it warm. My father too is hasty and
like a great child in the way he takes offence, but he does not brood
like mother. I have inherited his type.
48. F., 30. I have no feeling and no mercy, but will have my own
way and prevent others from having theirs if I can.
A few typical individual outbreaks:
1. A big girl in a country school told me to get up and give her my
seat near the fire, and when I refused she sat heavily in my lap. I
could not push her off, and soon without willing to do so, found my
teeth set pretty deep in her back. How often I have wondered if I did
right. The question loomed up into big proportions and haunted me.
I thought over and over again, " she was biggest, I had the seat first,
what else could I have done," etc. I cannot tell how great this ques-
tion grew or how it hung like a pall over my life for years.
2. F., 45. Once I was angry with God. It was too dreadful to re-
call; a sense of helplessness, the futility of reviling or opposing him,
and this added to the horror. I was ill and could not hold my peace,
but had to look up to the sky and blaspheme. My brother had a sim-
ilar experience and told me that he felt as if the foot of a giant was
on his neck. I told a clergyman, who called, to leave the house, that
the Bible was a volume of lies, and God was the worst liar, for he had
deceived me all my life. I have repented since and trust I am par-
doned.
3. M., 40. Once I was said to have pushed down my brother, who
■was badly hurt, although in fact I was at the other end of the garden.
I would not say I had not done it, and so was kept in bed two days.
During this time I read Gulliver with delight, but a strong background
feeling of injustice was always associated with this book. I am still
angry at every thought of this, although usually I am quick over my
tempers.
4. About my last rage was at the age of 13. I was in bed, and my
sister was long in undressing, and then left the lamp in the farthest
corner for me to put out. We quarreled fifteen minutes; then I put it
out, but when I got back to bed, pinched her, when a fight ensued,
which resulted in both of us sleeping very uncomfortably at the op-
posite and cold edges of the bed with a bolster between us.
5. F., 48. In youth I took refuge from the very few crosses of my
very guarded life in pride. The first real anger was at the age of 42
at an act of injustice to my son, which stirred me fathoms below all
previously known soundings in my nature. Each time that I permit-
ted myself in the sanctity of friendship to discuss the matter, a singu-
larly vile taste would arise in my mouth followed by extreme nausea.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 537
That mighty maternal instinct of protection, which runs through
all higher animal creatures, has since then been far more clear to me.
6. F., 41. My older brother teased me until I said I wished he was
dead. As soon as I had said this dreadful thing, I was terrified lest a
judgment from heaven should fall upon me by causing his death that
day. I watched anxiously when he returned from his work and recall
my remorse far more distinctiy than I do the anger.
7. M., 24. I began a boyish fight which lasted nearly an hour with-
out anger. It ended by my enemy falling and pretending to be dead.
I believed he was and felt exultant and perfectly satisfied and happy.
Left him lying at the fence corner and went home. Knew I must suf-
fer at the hands of the law, but was fatalistically resigned.
8. F., 46. When I was ill and the doctor came to tell me of my
brother's death, I struck him with all my might; and all that is usually
grief seemed for the moment turned into anger.
9. F., 24. My last great rage was eight years ago at my brother
who hurt my cat. I rushed at him, screamed, thumped him with both
fists as hard as I could, then I ran out of the room, cried, felt ashamed,
pretended to act as though nothing had happened, and for a long time
felt hot and miserable, for my brother kept alluding to the wounds
he said he had received.
10 F., 45. A slum boy lately struck me in the face with his fists.
My face grew icy cold and all my muscles got tense. I felt my lips white
and wanted to hurt him physically. I could have done it, although he
was a large boy, and should have done it but for my dignity as a
teacher. I wanted to put him on the floor and pound him.
11. M., 37. My present temper is of three sorts — first, actual pas-
sion; second, impatience or ire; third, sulks. Of the first I can recall
but two instances. One was when my little brother would not stop
teasing me to show him something when I was very tired. I broke
out in words and was checked by the look in his face. I could have
cried as I could at this moment in remembering it. When a friend
urges me to do something I abominate, I have several times measured
strength with him.
12. M., 23. Once when I was about 13, in an angry fit, I walked
out of the house vowing I would never return. It was a beautiful
summer day, and I walked far along lovely lanes, till gradually the
stillness and beauty calmed and soothed me, and after some hours I
returned repentant and almost melted. Since then when angry, I do
this if I can, and find it the best cure.
13. F., 43. When about 4 my brother shot an arrow at my candle-
stick, this made me so mad I ran out of the house and hid under a hay
stack, resolving to make him miserable by being lost, and determined
to die from starvation.
14. F., 20. I offered a doll to my little niece and when she reached
for it, I took it away and told her she could not have it. It worked
like a charm, and when she was brought up to the proper pitch, I took
the following notes — face very red and swollen, two deep wrinkles
between the brows, lips firmly pressed together but later open to their
full extent, when she began to scream at the top of her voice. She
stamped, kicked, tried to slap me in the face and clenched her fist.
Later but not at first the tears came and she sobbed as if her little
heart would break. Next time I shall study her laugh which will be
a pleasanter task.
I. Causes.
The following cases selected and abridged from many are
typical and suggest that women have more provocations than
JOURNAI, — 14
538 HALL :
men, but usually practice control better, and how courtesy,
respect, sympathy, consideration, kind and fair treatment of
others and even of animals may remove many of the incite-
ments to it.
1. F., 20. The painful feeling at the time and the self scorn after-
ward make angry experiences hard to recall. The chief causes are
contradiction, especially if I am right ; slights, especially to my par-
ents or friends even more than myself ; to have my veracity questioned;
the sight of my older brother smoking when we are poor ; injustice,
dislike or hate from those who fear to speak right out ; being tired
and out of sorts, etc. In the latter mood the least thing like finding
books out of place ; loss of step when I am walking with some one ;
indignity to a poor girl by the teacher ; stupidity in people who will
not understand — these make me feel as a cat must when stroked the
wrong way. Injustice is the worst and its effects last longest. To be
distracted at my work; unpleasant manners and books; hunger and
cold; to be treated as if I were of no account; flies that will keep
lighting or buzzing around me; to stub the toe or have it stepped on;
to forget things that I want to remember or to be unable to find things;
when my bicycle hits a stone; to have lost a button or have my hair
come down; to have a pin come out or my clothes rip; these things
make me more petulant.
2. F., 26. People more than things or events arouse my temper
and some have far greater power to do so than others. Their mere
presence is so irritating that it requires a great effort of control and
my aversion is often apparent to others. L/ife with such persons
would be intolerable, and would bring out the worst side of my char-
acter. Special causes are narrow mindedness, cruelty to animals,
slander, obstinacy in thought and deed, want of sympathy or some-
times a trifle unnoticeable by others, touches the sore spot, times of
ill health, being forced to do over what I had done as well as I could
before, times of low spirits which with me alternate with high. I
pay too much attention to details without grasping the whole, and
this makes trifles irritate me. I jump at conclusions and hence am
often angry without cause.
3. F., 29. Whatever limits my freedom of action or thought is the
strongest stimulus to wrath. I was royally mad at my sister because
she did not resent an injury. I can deny myself as much as others
can, but cannot endure to have others cross me. I was never madder
than when my brother would make a noise, when our mother was ill.
My causes are girls talking out loud and distracting me in study hours;
to be accused of idleness when I have studied my hardest; blamed
for what I did not do or did, or my health being below par. Some-
times when I am happy, I am more easily angered than when melan-
choly, because in the latter case everything looks gloomy, so that one
point more or less makes no difference.
4. English, F., 22. I have a great variety of tempers, especially of
the irritable, jealous, sulky violent kinds. The violent kind is caused by
injustice to others or extreme flat contradiction, or when my favorite,
deepest feelings and will are thwarted. The irritable type comes from
smaller stimuli like being kept waiting, being hurried, having my
skirt trodden on, density in others, etc. Health also affects it. Jeal-
ousy is caused by those I dearly love preferring others. Sulks are due
to neglect or injustice or impertinent coldness. All these types except
the irritable are more under control than in childhood.
5. F., 20. If accused of doing what I did not, and especially what
I abhor, I am so angry that I tell my accuser that she would do the
A STUDY OF ANGER. 539
same. If I am hurrying in the street and others saunter, so that I
cannot get by, or a person I like makes fun of me, or when given a
seat in church behind a large pillar, I am provoked, and the more
helpless I feel the more ungovernable my temper becomes. Opposition
enrages me, so does a discordant note in music, especially if repeated.
6. F., 23. My lines have fallen in such pleasant places, that I
hardly knov^^ how anger feels; yet injustice does rouse ire which I call
righteous. Sometimes I take up cudgels in behalf of imaginary suf-
ferers and work myself into a state of passionate fury. In such men-
tal inflammations, epithets and phrases suggest and form themselves
with dreadful facility, and I express myself far more easily than at
other times. Sarcasm and criticism are such a relief. If people are
perfectly unjust, I can treat them indifferently, but if there is a spice
of truth in what they say, I am much more angry.
7. M., 34. When despondent the worst thing is to have made up
my mind to do something and failed. Being angry at myself, I am
consequently so to all who speak to me. Frivolity in others, asking
needless questions, attempting to cajole or boot-lick the teachers,
rouse me; so does doing what I do not want to when I vent rage by
doing it in a slovenly and discouraged way. Self gratification at
another's expense, cruelty, being deceived or trapped, or when dig-
nity, self respect or common courtesy are outraged.
S. M., 28. Am often angry with myself caused by my own faults,
my jealousy of friends, so that I can rarely rejoice at another's success.
This is bad and I fight but cannot overcome it. An over tidy relative
always slicking up my things, the necessity for hard cramming for
examination, interruptions, being laughed at is perhaps the worst of
all. Being asked to give or do things when I am just ready to do so
of my own notion, having my school work soiled.
9. M,, 19. My causes are being beaten in an argument, when I know
I am right, being misunderstood, being kept waiting, and worst of all
being told I am stupid and ought to know better, especially if it is
true, being accused of cheating at games, although it takes many
such little aggravations to bring me to the boiling point.
10. F., 48. In my teens very divergent opinions or beliefs made
me angry. I blush, throb, grow stiff, and have a peculiar whirling
sensation in the head. If I differ in argument and cannot convince
my opponent, or if he says what is false or strained to prove his case,
or worst of all jealousy makes me short, sharp, crusty, and pale and
savage in looks.
11. F., 22. The causes of my anger are if people act against reason
or their better knowledge, or lack moral courage, pandering of all
sorts, seeing nobodies patronized, slovenly work, want of system,
method and organization, being expected to do things without the
means or conditions, sudden emotions and meanness.
12. F., 25. My causes of anger are slowness in others, being kept
waiting and expectant, or being slow myself when I want to be quick,
when I am angry at myself. Another cause is if others are dense and
wooden, if my curiosity is aroused and not satisfied. Perhaps it may
all be resolved into my not having my own way.
13. M., 27. I am angry at late risers in my own house, stupidity,
disappointment in some fond hope and feeling pushed and hurried.
Any kind of reproof is most irritating. To sharply deny people what
they want is the best means of arousing their temper.
14. F., 14. My temper is worst when I see a girl put on airs, strut
around, talk big and fine. I scut my feet and want to hit her, if she
is not too big. Jealousy at hearing others praised as I think unduly
as paragons, or having my own nature dissected or discussed, is most
irritating to me.
540 HALi. :
15. F., 22. Aggression toward the weak, stupidity, obstinacy,
lying, deceit, and a sense of impurity. A person I neither love or
hate would have a hard task to put me in a temper.
16. F., 36. One chief cause of anger and even fear in children
would be removed if we did not begin their training with dont's.
Sympathetic and positive indications, if wisely administered, cure me.
17. F., 46. When a playmate said her mother was better than mine,
I tipped over the table in her house, rushed home, and was so confused
that I fell down stairs, was more controlled afterwards.
18. F., 14. If I am made to stop reading a story in the most inter-
esting part to wash dishes or mind the baby, I have to squeeze something
very hard or make faces, and sometimes when very mad, I laugh.
19. F., 14. What makes me mad is if I have a bad headache
or my brothers and sisters get to fighting, or all turn and plague me
when mother is gone. Sometimes I hit and sometimes say a prayer
to myself, and try not to mind it.
20. F. With me it is the worst and the commonest cause to feel
that I have more to do than I can, to hear gossip about neighbors.
21. F., 29. When tired, I am irritable and fret at little things,
and all my life have felt that I was not understood. This causes me
to brood. If I am excited from having enjoyed myself very much,
then I am easiest angered.
22. F., 31. To be crowded or jostled, told to do something by
people who have no right, to see slovenly work, to be ridiculed, spied,
tattled about, be detected in wrong doing, is my chief provocative.
23. F., 19. Harping, nagging, gloating over one's own or others'
wrongs, rouses me and I give my friends the benefit of my thoughts
with a great deal of volubility.
24. F., 29. Term time with regular work is better for temper than
vacation when all sorts of things may turn up, and when there is not
system, yet some are most irritable when working hardest.
25. F., 30. Tittle-tattle, petty talk and gossips, flat contradiction,
interference with my rights or affairs, impertinence, constant interrup-
tions, practical jokes, idiotic laughter or anything unjust.
26. M., 26. The most provoking things to me are real or fancied
slights to those near me or myself, for I have great pride which is
easily wounded.
27. M., 22. If indigestion, which is a form of irritability, is tem-
per, then I often feel it. I am easiest angered in the morning, but
later in the day can face difficulties with far more equanimity.
28. F., 35. My childish tempests of wrath burned hottest when
my grandfather used to trim or cut down trees or even shrubs. I
told him God made them that way, and he had no right to hurt or
change them.
29. F., 20. Teasing I never minded, but rather enjoyed, but to snub
or talk down to me in a top-lofty way arouses all my ire.
30. F., 31. If people I care for say unkind things, it hurts me so
I seem to turn to stone, and it seems as if I can never love them more.
This rankles. I can recognize one distinct type of my threefold tem-
per, which comes from my mother.
31. F., 21. To have to do a great deal of unnecessary work, which
my people invent to occupy my holidays, makes me maddest. I speak
sharply, and I have reasons, for I am not a naughty girl, who needs to
be kept out of mischief.
32. F., 44. When boys use vile language in my presence, I want
to smack them across the mouth. Cruelty to objects incapable of
resistance and injustice to children rile me intensely.
33. F., 39. Familiarity, which I have not evoked, discussion with
those who have not even tried to understand my point of view, to hear
A STUDY OF ANGER. 54I
myself talked about or discussed, even by my parents, is insuffer-
able,
34. I am more indignant at what people say than at what they do.
When nasty things are said, I lose control of my tongue and must say
what comes into my head at the time. I hardly know what I am say-
ing, but it all comes back later.
Sponta7ieous Anger. I think we must admit that sometimes
this really occurs, although it is a very interesting and uncer-
tain question. Prison and other records show that people in
confinement sometimes break out into fits of destructive rage
with no apparent cause. Of course dislikes may deepen to an-
tipathy and aversion, till not only every act whatever but the
very presence of certain individuals may irritate to the point
of explosion, and there may be a long summation of petty vex-
ations, but it would seem that our organism is so made that this
form of erethic inflammation may reach its fulminating stage
without any cause assignable by the subject or observable by
others. Sometimes purely imaginary wrongs to imaginary peo-
ple excite intense moral indignation. If there are spontaneous
cases, they cannot be entirely explained by love of this kind of
erethic state as such, but may be due to the necessities of growth
or over lability of nerve cells or centers. The satisfaction and
real physical pleasure too that sometimes follow anger sug-
gests that it has its place in normal development. Running
amuck is sometimes described as spontaneous, like rabies. The
determination of this question is like the problem whether cry-
ing and some movements of infants and animals are reflex or
due to purely efferent causes, is at present insoluble nor is it
crucial for the Lange-James theory. Platner, as we saw, thought
some forms of mania were best characterized as prolonged anger
without observable cause, and the Berserk rage it was thought
was sometimes unmotivated. Michael Angelo is described as
chipping down a block of marble to the rougher outlines in a
veritable rage, and I lately read of a man and wife in court for
fighting who agreed that they were peaceable and affectionate
but had to have a bitter quarrel every few weeks over nothing
to clear the air. Play and mock fights often contain a little re-
pressed anger and are good to vent it harmlessly.
1. F., 23. When I was 17 I had a long spell of irritability, was
unhappy, and it gave me pleasure and satisfaction to make sarcastic
remarks. My weakness is impulsiveness, which makes me unfit for
a responsible position. I try to lay good foundations of belief and get
more settled feelings for my own determination.
2. M., 41. A girl up to 17 in good health had fits of anger with great
regularity; about once a month she was violent and lost all self con-
trol . No small vengeance was her desire, but no less than a passionate
desire to kill the offender. Hatred shown by looks and gestures was
intense, and the fit might last a week.
3. F., 7, whose mother calls her every endearing name, while
describing her way of sitting, eating, speaking, etc., suddenly passes
542 HALI. :
to a rigid slate, and she once on recovering from this vented her spite
by cutting off all the leaves of a century plant.
4. Girl of 3 was eating lunch, when suddenly, without discernible
cause, she cried out, tipped over her milk, rose, threw herself face
down upon the floor, screamed, kicked, beat the boards.
5. A boy of 14 was sitting in school dreamily gazing out of the window
when suddenly his face clouded, and scowled, and he struck his fist on
his slate and broke it. The loud noise and the teacher and the school
brought him to himself. He could give no explanation except that
he felt mad and must strike something.
6. M., 31. *When a schoolboy I was a great fighter and if I had not
had a battle for some weeks was literally spoiling for a fight. Once I
went to the barn and pounded a poor cow chained in her stall for re-
lief. Teasing and bullying used to relieve it. I sometimes pounded
a rock behind the corn-house with a sledge hammer.
7. M,, 25. Anger often helped me out in my work. In chopping
wood, mowing, and other things requiring great effort, I could scarcely
help gritting my teeth and getting mad with the object. I used often
to find myself helped on by anger at sums, knotty translations, etc.
8. M., 37. (Once assistant physician in a lunatic asylum.) I knew
an epileptic case where the patient, a colored man of perhaps 25, had
fits that seemed to be nothing but spells of blind rage. He would attack
every one, destroy everything and injure himself till he became un-
conscious. He felt the symptom beforehand and was put in a padded
cell.
Personal Antipathies Based on Physical Forms and Features.
While these dislikes sometimes are intense enough to generate
anger, their chief effect is to raise the anger point, so that a
far slighter stimulus is necessary to produce the explosion than
in the case of those who instinctively attract each other. From
very copious collections of questionnaire material for a very
different purpose, it appears that children and young people
are very prone to detect resemblances to animals in faces, and
often see persons whose features suggest the monke\^, dog,
parrot, pig, cat, mule, sheep, rabbit, owl, fox, lion, etc, and
therefore become objects of special aversion. In another se-
ries, prominent or deep set eyes, shortness of stature, cowlicks,
ears that stand out, too prominent chin, brows that meet^
large feet, high cheek bones, pug nose, Adam's apple, long nose,
small chin, prominent, large, dirty or otherwise exceptional teeth,
pimples, red hair, light eyes, thick lips, a stub thumb, bad
breath, bleary eyes, freckles, fatness, leanness, birth marks,
deformities, are features any one of which may evoke immediate
antagonism and put the mind in a critical attitude, so that with
reference to persons possessing these peculiarities irritability
exists side by side with great good temper for those who are
physically attractive. Girls in particular often single out some
one peculiarity with respect to which they are especially sen-
sitized, and in some cases are provoked to active hate in a way
that suggests the converse of the fetishism common among
sexual perverts. It is difficult often even for the subject to
A STUDY OF ANGKR. 543
analyze the cause of these repulsions and they are sometimes
quite unconscious and instinctive.
F., 21. I am a great person to take likes and dislikes; and if the
latter, can see no good points in the person. I often judge wrongly
and sometimes can conquer my aversion, but it often recurs.
F., 22. My little brother is like me in taking unaccountable aver-
sion to things and persons, especially the former, e.g., a new suit. I
have an insupportable aversion to share my room with certain people
with whom I like to go around with well enough, so too I cannot see
sick people without anger, unless I love them passionately.
F., 19. I believe some persons have elements about them that tend
to always keep others bad and others in a temper. The more I like
people, the more it takes to make me angry at them ; and the better
my health, the stronger must be the provocation. Examinations make
me spiteful toward the very rooms where they are held, and here some
of my worst scenes with Apollyon have occurred. Generally I can
stand any amount of banter, but sometimes a little brings a storm on
some luckless head.
Based 071 Peculiar Acts or Automatisms. In this list we have
snuffling, lisping, making faces, swallowing, rolling the eyes,
peculiarities of voice, accent, intonation, inflection, sighing,
shrugging, the kind of smile or laugh, motions of the head and
arms, gait in walking, posture and carriage, hiccough, stam-
ering, and bad manners generally.
Dress and Ornament. Ear rings in men to 130 women out
of 679, are objects of intense and very special abhorrence.
Thitmb rings, bangs, frizzes, short hair in women, hat on one
side, baldness, too much style or jewelry, single eye glass,
flashy ties, heavy watch chains, many rings, necklaces, and a
long list in this class show how dominant unconscious forces
are in mediating dislike, which in some souls needs little inten-
sification to settle into permanent hate. Not a few young wo-
men state that they could never lead happy married lives with the
possessors of these peculiarities, no matter how many good traits
of body and mind atoned for them, and the presence of persons
possessing them is described as a constant source of irritation,
sufficient in itself to spoil the temper. Special aversions of
this kind must, of course, be the results of considerable devel-
opment due to frequent or continued exposure, and it is plain
that in some cases the antipathy is created by association with
other disagreeable qualities. It would be interesting to know,
what our data do not show, whether these traits are conspic-
uously present or absent in those who detest them, for it might
throw light upon the question whether similar or complimentary
characteristics repel or attract.
Habits. Another class of instinctive aversions for which
some minds develop sore, irritable spots, are certain habits like
smoking, eating onions and garlic, untidiness in dress or toilet,
want of punctuality in rising, meals, engagements, etc., too
544 HALL :
rapid or too slow movements, gossip, cowardice, too great bash-
fulness or familiarity, lying, stupidity or density, selfishness,
cruelty to animals, injury to flowers, trees, property, etc., mean-
ness, flattery, affectation, disorderliness, too great primness and
preciseness, excessive poise and reserve or deliberation, imposi-
tion, laziness, pandering, criticism, cheating in games, and
bragging. While individual experience in many cases exposes
individuals more to one of the above chologenetic agencies than
to others, there are undoubted indications of a tendency to
rutty specialization here, so that if education may be defined,
as I suggest it may, in part, as learning to be most angry with
those things that most deserve it and maintaining a true per-
spective down the scale, most of our correspondents are not
thus educated, and we have here another example of the res
aiigusta domi of the mind for which heredity may in part ac-
count, but not wholly. The above miscellaneous qualities
might be classified as aesthetic and moral. The deliverances
of conscience and a good taste are, however, here particularly
interrelated. Righteous indignation at unethical acts shades
by imperceptible gradations into the milder verdict of bad taste,
but even the latter is not without significance as a predisposing
cause of anger.
Limitations of Freedom. lyiberty is a precious possession and
sedulously guarded by instinct. It is the indispensable condition
of the completest and most all sided growth, and cannot be
too carefully cherished. In an atmosphere of repression and
of donVs, temper usually suffers, while one of the best cures
of habitual anger is liberty, and complete occupation is often
a preventive to it.
The Thwarting of Expectation or Purpose. When a story
breaks off at the most interesting point and the mind is left in
suspense, or when children are called away from stories just
before the denouement or games before the crisis, when they
are kept waiting or if curiosity is especially aroused, or they
are fooled and deceived, which is one common form of teasing,
or if adults fail to realize the plans of their youth, the anger
diathesis is called into play. In fact science, which is prevision,
and consists largely in eliminating shock or the unexpected,
has as one of its functions the reduction of this chologenetic
factor. Sudden fright, the blocking of a path or doorway by
an obstacle, the stubbing of the toe or running into a post, are
perhaps physical analogues of the same thing. We might
laugh in some states, if Spencer's theory of a descending in-
congruity is correct, but we are more likely to be indignant.
Contradiction. Akin to the above cause is that of meeting
opposition of our sentiments or ideas. Even when very differ-
ent views are encountered in friends, especially if they are per-
A STUDY OF ANGER. 545
sistently maintained, as well as when the direct lie is given,
the conflict of mind, will or feeling arises, which may evoke
the anger erethism. There are paranoiacs to whom not only
the thought but the very word conflict^ or even discussion ex-
cites painful symptoms, while the interest in a vigorous alter-
cation or debate, although less than in a slugging match, is
very great.
Invasion or Repressio7i of the Self. Bach personality hedges
itself about with certain limits which, however widely they
may vary for friends and enemies, are more or less fixed for each
acquaintance or each mood. While many complain of not be-
ing understood, a frequent excitant of anger is being too well
known. Hence, prominent among the assigned causes are
being spied upon, tattled of, gossiped about, criticised, dis-
sected, analyzed, detected or even reproved. One form of
plaguing is to penetrate with undue familiarity, like nicknames,
the adytum of selfhood, and mocking and ridicule find part of
their effectiveness here. Here, too, belong most forms of im-
pudence from our inferiors and insults from our equals.
Pride and a certain amount of self respect is one of the most
irrepressible qualities of our nature, so that slights, contumelies
and undue subjection or subordination, even slight wounds of
vanity that are inflicted by ostentatious disregard of opinions,
are keenly resented.
Injustice. Not only cruelty to animals or persons taking un-
fair advantage, but injustice to self, like being accused of deeds
or words that are abhorred, abuse of friends, heroes, favorite
authors, and in rare cases imaginary indignities to imaginary
sufferers, are chologenetic.
Individual Causes of a Special Nature. Some describe with
considerable detail not only as special provocatives but as causes
of distinct deterioration of temper, frequent experiences like
finding books, utensils, tools, etc., out of place, persistent at-
tacks of flies and mosquitoes, the perversity of walking with
those who will not keep step or habitually lose it themselves, of
having the toe or dress stepped on, of being jolted in a vehicle,
crowded or turning out the same way in meeting others in the
street, or even being touched by strangers, having the hair
come down or out of order, the approach of a dog or cat, etc. ,
busy work, being given too much to do, taunts, meanness. In-
deed most have sore points or anger zones which may be based
on individual weaknesses, or on peculiarities of form or action,
or on special experiences of provocation.
jealousy. Jealousy in seeing others preferred by teachers,
^See the interesting case described by Dr. E. Cowles. Persistent
and Fixed Ideas. Am. Jour, of Psychology, I, p. 222.
54^ HALi. :
friends, acquaintances, or hearing them praised, may cause not
only intense misery but angry outbursts.
Subjective Variations.
Among these the changes from the general feeling of eupho-
ria and well being connected with good health, which is the
best preventive of anger, down to illness and pain, which are
its surest promoters, are most important. Some forms of disease
and early convalescence are particularly characterized by iras-
cibility, and children who are in abounding health have, other
things being equal, perhaps the best immunity from temper.
Closely connected with this is the state of rest or fatigue. In
the morning after a long vacation, provocation is, as every one
knows, far less easy than in the state of exhaustion. Hunger
and sleepiness, too, incline to anger, and satiety to good temper.
The optimum of temperature helps the disposition, while exces-
sive heat and cold make it fragile. Dentition and menstruation
are very important sources of variation of the anger point,
which from all these considerations seems to be even more fluc-
tuating than has been supposed. General prosperity and a
sense of doing well and getting on in the world, as contrasted
with ill fortune and calamity, makes for exemption from anger,
as does a general good conscience, settled and tranquil religious
opinions, good friends, an optimistic philosophy, sufficient but
not too much work or occupation, and in general absence or
removal of all the chronic causes of frettiness. The states of
irritable weakness and hysteria are characterized by fluctuating
moods, e. g.:
Heredity. On general principles it would seem that a diathe-
sis so marked should be as hereditary as anything in our psycho-
physic organism. While our data are far too few for inference,
it would seem that inheritance has here a wide scope.
F., 39. My father was never even hasty, but my mother was of a
cranky, tempery family. I am for months and for occasionally years,
sweet and placid as my father, and then without provocation I have
spells of great irritability like my mother's people.
Eng., F., II. My aunt who brought me up has given me her quick
temper. It came by contagion and I think not by heredity.
Eng., F., 18. My father is the calmest and most placid of men. My
mother one of the most fiery of women. I am all mother in this
respect.
Eng., F., 20. A young man of 20 I have known from childhood in-
herits great irritability which can brook no restraint, who suffers to the
point of tears from wounded pride, can bear no teasing or reproof,
directly from his maternal grandfather. It seemed to lie dormant for
a generation.
Eng., F., 23. My mother is very irritable. Her father had a whirl-
wind temper and five of us seven children have it, and in two it seems
quite absent.
Scotch, F., 26. One brother, one second cousin, and one maternal
A STUDY OF ANGKR. 547
ancestor are very hot tempered like me, the rest have more or less
escaped.
Absence of Temper. Some seem born untempered, nothing
flusters or rufiies them. They are passive, easy, lazy, inert,
apathetic, and while often imposed upon are generally liked,
rarely teased or abused. Such cases usually lack not only
energy, but the power of enthusiasm and capacity for erethic
states generally. Too good a temper not only precludes from
the luxury of intense forms of manifesting life, but is usually
associated with a certain insensibility, lack of self respect, am-
bition and will power.
F., 39. My provoking good temper has been my life-long reproach.
I fear it is, as I am often told, apathy, for I am easy going in matters
in which I should take more interest. Then, too, my shyness keeps
me from showing what I feel deeply.
F., 21. I am by nature rather unimpassionate and indifferent, have
little temper or impulsiveness and rarely get enthusiastic. I do not
consider this a virtue, but it is not because I am too lazy to show
temper.
F., 28. In good health and happy circumstances, I have yet to see
a sour spirited child. I think it would be possible to rear many chil-
dren in such a way that they would have no experience of anger.
F., 29. I know a girl who never in the world could by any possi-
bility be roused to temper. Her temperament was so inert, she says
she cannot get up anger when she knows she ought to. A world of
such people, I think, would be very monotonous.
F., 27. I often liken myself to a happy, clear, busy, sparkling
brook, rarely interrupted by any one stirring the mud at the bottom.
I can be roused, however, and the time before normal conditions recur
depends upon the depth to which the mud was stirred.
F., 18. I know a girl of very hot temper, who when provoked does
not give way, simply and solely because she is too lazy to take the
trouble. It fatigues her to control herself.
Teasing and the Cry and Anger Points. Hectoring, plaguing,
baiting, worrying and tormenting in all their many forms
are largely, though not wholly, motivated by what might be
called the psychological impulse to see what another will do
under these new conditions of strain or temptation. A German
student told me he never felt acquainted with a new man enough
to know whether he liked or disliked him, until he had seen
him more or less intoxicated. This sentiment is very wide
spread, and is akin to Plato's suggestion that counsellors should
discuss topics at night, when drunk, and decide them in the
morning, when sober; so for many anger removes masks, and
what Nordau calls the conventional lies are thrown off and we
seem to see the lower strata of what a person really is at
bottom alone, or in the dark. Repulsive instincts and habits
manifest themselves better sometimes to the common acquaint-
anceships of years. Temper is tested. in many forms of hazing,
fagging, etc., to see if the victim will retaliate, how much
54^ HALL :
provocation is necessary to bring him to that point and what
form the reaction takes. If peculiarities of body, dress or
manner are salient, these are likely to be sore chologenetic
points of attack. Girls who blush easily or are so ticklish
that even a pointed finger sets them off, have red hair or even
deformities, are particularly tempting to constitutional teasers,
who are usually, though not always, cooler and better tempered
than their victims. These experiences are really very often
educative and develop control in the victim, although some-
times exactly the reverse is true, and tempers may be thus
spoiled. Teasers with a strong propensity for practical jokes,
playing April fools, etc., who are usually older and stronger,
often profess and sometimes really have the purpose of t^ching
control. When anger is once roused, the goal with some is
attained. More commonly, ridicule is then applied which in-
tensifies the rage, and other methods of fanning it to its utmost
often give the keenest enjoyment to the provoker. This peculiar
pleasure in witnessing manifestations of anger is partly due to
a sense of superiority of poise, and no doubt partly to pleasure
in witnessing primitive psychological forms of expression, while
the factor of cruelty and sport with a victim in one's power is prob-
ably the strongest motive of all. The tormentor chuckles, his eyes
sparkle with delight, he claps his hands, dances, jumps up and
down, rubs his hands, slaps his leg, points his finger, taunts,
jeers, yells, calls it fun, and all this tends to egg on the victim
to extremes, the memory of which is well calculated to cause
regret, mortification, and the resolve for better control next
time.^
With the cry point, no less variable than the anger point,
the case is very different. The tormentor often stops short at
this point, and sometimes the mood reverts to pity, sympathy,
and regret. This is especially the case if the cry is one of col-
lapse, surrender or real grief, with no impotent anger in it; but
the aggravation may be pushed still further with accusations
of babyishness in quest of a deeper lying and later reaction,
and particularly a boy that has no fight in him is despised.
II. Physical Manifestations of Anger.
Upon this topic our returns are fullest and have been care-
fully tabulated and compiled with the following general results:
Vaso-motor Disturbances. Eighty-seven per cent, of the best
cases describe flushing, and twenty-seven per cent, describe
pallor as one characteristic of anger. The heart is often immedi-
ately affected and sometimes with very painful cardiac sensations.
iSee Burk: Teasing and Bullying. Pedagogical Seminary ^ Vol.
IV, p. 336.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 549
It pounds and bounds, there is a feeling of compression, and
the literature elsewhere referred to describes several cases of
death from cardiac lesion thus caused. Occasionally some
pulsation is felt sometimes painfully in a particular part of the
body. In one case in the palm of the hand, another specifies
the wrist. In many cases severe headaches with rhythmic
intensifications for each pulsation are caused by the general
disturbance of vascular tonicity. One woman describes the
enlargement and pulsation of the temporal artery as the sign
by which she best recognizes temper in her husband and
describes a peculiar whirling sensation in the head. Stigma-
tization over a large V shaped area in the forehead occurs in
one case, the face may become mottled, certain local pains
sometimes sharp, which attend anger, seem thus best explained
as does the dizziness and faintness often mentioned. The nose
grows red or blue in one case, the eye balls are blood shot, and
erethism of the breasts or sexual parts may occur. In one
case the first sign of anger is nose bleed, and if it is copious
the anger fit is less violent. Menstruation may be arrested,
sometimes suddenly, and other psychic weather signs indicate
a more or less intensive vaso-motor storm.
Secretions. The glands are no doubt far more closely con-
nected with psyche than has hitherto been supposed, and we
shall have no doubt ere long a glandular psychology. Of course
the most common secretion is that of tears, which are specified
in about 35 per cent, of the returns. Tears may be shed when
other symptoms of crying are repressed. Salivation is not only
more copious, although in later stages of a long rage it may be
repressed till the mouth is described as ' * bricky dry, ' ' but per-
haps its quality may be modified from the stomach or otherwise,
since in some cases a bad taste is characteristic of anger. Its
effect upon mammary secretions in nursing women is very
marked, sometimes by way of almost total and sudden sup-
pression, often by some modification of the quality of the milk,
so that the infant is made ill. Urinal secretion is often affected
rarely by way of suppression, but is commonly more copious,
paler and with less deposits. Popularly anger is thought to be
closely associated with the liver, and a bilious temperament is
supposed to be peculiarly irascible. In not less than a score of
cases, attacks called bilious are ascribed as the direct effect of
anger. No less frequent results are constipation and diarrhoea,
which may at least belong in part here. There is no case in
our returns that suggests any modification of the action of
sebaceous glands, but in two cases a rash, once said to be all
over the body, follows every fit of anger in a child; and in the
case of one male sexual secretion attends every violent out-
break. It would be very interesting to know how common this
550 ■ hall:
is, and a collection of facts here might throw valuable light
upon Sadism and Marrochism. Sweating may be copious in
cases where increased muscular action fails to account for it.
Whatever may be true of other emotions, some of which we
know to be closely associated with glandular action, there can
be no doubt of the relation here.
Salivation, Swallowing and Nausea. The act of swallowing
somewhat like that of winking is normally repeated at brief but
varying intervals through the waking hours. Just how much
is due to the summated stimulus of accumulating saliva and
how much to the constantly increasing lability of the nervous
center involved it is impossible to determine. Of these two
factors, however, there is abundant reason to believe that each
is independently variable. Many returns specify swallowing,
often several times in succession, as one concomitant of the
early stage of anger. Occasionally the impulse to swallow is
strong but is inhibited, and gagging, lump in the throat, and
temporary paralysis are described. This beginning of the per-
istaltic action that forces food through the many feet of the
alimentary tract is, of course, far more under control than the
latter stages. The will delivers the bolus of food to the back
of the mouth, whence it is taken in charge and propelled by
the more reflex mechanism. In carnivora the attack and
slaughter of prey is the normal prelude to eating it, and like
salivation this movement may be a residuum of an ancient as-
sociation without assuming any earlier canibalistic stage. The
question is how far the momentum of this paleo-psychic asso-
ciation enters into the psychoses of anger, which has as its tap
root the quite different impulse of defense and resistance. That
it enters, I think there can be no doubt.
Nausea with anti-peristaltic symptoms more commonly occurs
near the end or in the reactionary stage of an anger fit, and
sometimes acts as the chief inhibitory motive to the impulse to
swallow. Its cause here seems to be mainly the fatigue from
over excitement or exertion, any form of which may cause
it. There seems reason for raising the query, whether these
two contradictory functions are so related that if the first
is overdone without sufficient stimulus, incipient nausea arises
in a compensatory way. If one swallows as frequently and as
long as possible without eating and when in the normal state,
incipient nausea arises. Swallowing is the act of appropriating
the material on which life is made, and nausea means the repul-
sion or even the regurgitation of it, so that its symbolic signifi-
cance is great and has been well exploited in both language
and in aesthetics.
Spitting. In common with other secretions, salivation is
often increased in anger, sometimes as would appear with, and
A STUDY OF ANGER. — 55 1
sometimes without, chewing or biting movements. In some of
our cases the saliva is copious and runs from the mouth upon
the clothes in a profuse and offensive way, and in three cases
it is described as frothing at the mouth, and in one as white
froth. In the acme of the stress and strain of fighting, this is
puffed or blown, sometimes it would appear purposively and at
other times unconsciously, upon the clothes or in the face of
the opponent. Just what all this phenomena involves is diffi-
cult to determine, but it would appear that at least in some
cases the drooling in anger is partly due to temporary and par-
tial paralysis of the lips and perhaps of deglutition. lyocal ex-
haustion may be carried so far that it would be no more possible
to spit than to whistle. To associate the salivation of anger
with primitive anticipation of savory food in such cases may
seem a long cry, and yet it is not theoretically impossible. In
creatures that kill their prey, especially if it is large and in-
volves an erethism like anger, this association may have been
established by very long and inveterate experience. Spitting
proper begins consciously with what might be described as a
t-p movement by slightly protruding the tongue, drawing it
in rapidly between the lips and projecting its load of saliva by
a slight explosion of air compressed in the mouth after the
tongue has been withdrawn and before the lips have closed.
Children in the second and third year learn and sometimes
practice this. This movement has apparently little utility for
the child and is essentially a sign of aggrjession. It requires
much delicacy and co-ordination of labio-lingual movements,
and would probably be impossible in a creature less highly en-
dowed with articulatory capacity. It is therefore of special
interest. Another mode of spitting, which appears to be later,
is what might be called the p-t movement, in a sense the re-
verse of the preceding. It consists in thrusting out the saliva
with the tongue with much breath pressure after the manner
common among tobacco chewers. This movement is more dif-
ficult and is often practiced with unpleasant results. From the
age of four or five years on to near puberty, spitting may be a
prominent expression of anger. At first it commonly seems
directed toward the face, then towards the shoes, clothes, hands,
seat, etc. Contests are described among expert spitters, both
as to greater distance and greater accuracy. The victor in a fight
sometimes spits in the eyes, hair, mouth, etc. , of his prostrate
enemy. The folk-lore upon this subject is very voluminous
and pertains to the number of times one spits ceremonially
upon given occasions, the place, direction, etc. It is, of course,
one of the most extreme expressions of contempt and excites
correspondingly intense repugnance. Saliva, of course, is a
very effective medium of contagion, but the extreme abhor-
552 HALi.:
rence of the act when contrasted with the attractiveness of
kissing, which often involves exchange of saliva and may be
contagious, is hard to explain. Of course we have no adequate
evidence of sufficiently venomous ancestors of man to sustain
an argument that this horror is a toned down fear of virus-
bearing sputa. The most that can be said is that there is no
positive disproof of it and that the possibility is open. That
even the bite of normal man or his progenitors is poisonous to
another member of his own species, is unknown. The other
possibility is that this abhorrence has some of its roots in long
accumulated experience of contagion of morbific germs through
saliva without dermal rupture, and that we have here an in-
stinctive prophylaxis against contagion, which has given the
folk-lore its character and form.
Respiration. Modifications of breathing are among the
marked accompaniments of anger. Sometimes deep inhala-
tion, often through the nose with clenched lips, perhaps
several times repeated, as the need of increased oxidization
deepens ; sometimes rapid breathing, which may be through
the mouth, and give the effect of panting and occasionally
almost gasping, is described. Stutterousness, almost suggest-
ing a snort, purring, snoring, choking, gagging, and sobbing
noises that almost suggest hysterical globus — all these cannot
adequately be accounted for by increased muscular activity.
Whether the type of respiration changes from abdominal to
pectoral or conversely, and what the form of the respiratory
curves through a fit of repressed anger are, it would be inter-
esting to investigate. Amphibian life requires periods of deep
and rapid breathing, alternating with longer periods of rest,
and it is not impossible that the preparatory stage of anger
symptoms is analogous in some cases to preparation for a long
dive with violent exercise.
Noises. In twenty-eight young children screaming is more
or less fully described as the most characteristic expression of
anger. Crying is a language all its own, and as it develops in
the first year or two of life the mother or nurse readily distin-
guishes the cry of hunger, fatigue, wetness, pain, etc., but
none is more characteristic than that of anger, which is loud,
sharp and generally sustained. A little older children develop
sometimes very characteristic snarls, growls, grumbles, whoops,
bellows, chatters, bleats, grunts, barks, or noises that some-
times consciously, or more characteristically unconsciously,
suggest the cries of animals. Later, occasionally, specific
words of warning, threat, defiance, or specific oaths become
habitual and characteristic of rising temper. In some children
anger brings on a fit of stuttering or a peculiar tremor or stac-
cato, or speech may be interrupted by a noise suggesting a
A STUDY OF ANGER. 553
sob. In older people the voice is perhaps the most sensitive of
all the registers of anger. It is loud, shrill or harsh, with
variously modified rhythms. Later yet control and repression
may develop a peculiarly slow, calm, low, precise utterance
which is with difficulty, and not without considerable acquaint-
ance, recognized as a danger signal. One woman almost
whispers, with little phonation, but very intense labio-lingual
expression, and unwonted relations of these two elements of
speech are common. Many become exceedingly voluble, irre-
pressible and almost eloquent, while some are glum and mono-
syllabic. Not infrequent is the habit of soliloquy, and many
seek solitude in order to find, perhaps in monologue and perhaps
in other forms of loud vocalization, the readiest vent for passion.
One woman is "conscious of no modification of voice in anger
except a slight tendency to be hoarse afterward, even when
she has not spoken. Perhaps a dozen well-described cases
cannot speak or make a noise, but are vocally paralyzed or
they cannot speak without crying. Theories of the origin of
language like those of Noire postulate a very close connection
between the intense muscular tension and loud phonation. The
characteristic cry of epilepsy shows the same, as does the battle
cries of various savage races. College yells at athletic contests
are toned-down cries of defiance.
The close association between anger and noise is seen in
many ways. Some stamp, walk with heavy or with shuffling
steps, must pound something with a stick or with the fist, or
beat a loud tattoo with the fingers or feet. One young woman
goes by herself and slams a particular door ; a girl pounds the
gutter with a stone ; a boy throws stones against the loose
boards of the barn or against the resonant surface of a large
sugar pan. Several work ofF their anger by playing or even
pounding the piano. The gratification in these cases appears
to be not solely from making, but also from hearing a loud
nbise.
Involuntary Movements. Of these there is a long list, many
of which fall under other captions. Changes of muscle tonus
are seen in the changes of the voice elsewhere noted, and in
the relaxation or, less often, the tonic contraction of the
sphincters, which causes escape or retention of the excreta.
Horripilation is sometimes described, the skin becomes rough,
and shuddery, creepy, crawly sensations occur. In one case
twitching of the skin on the right leg, in one upon the shoulder,
and often tonic or clonic or choreic movements of the face and
fingers are described. The relation of voluntary to the invol-
untary activities, which is always a variable one, suffers in
anger, and the disturbance and the readjustment is best seen
in weak persons with strong temper after it is over, in which
JouRNAiy— 15
554 HALT. :
arterial and cardiac tension, respiratory rhythms, etc., are
modified.
Attitudes and Postures. In anger the body often becomes
more or less stiflf and rigid, is drawn up to its full height,
sometimes with an attitude of pride that suggests strutting,
the legs are placed apart when standing, and all the antag-
onistic muscles are tensed up, so that there is a great expendi-
ture of energy, sometimes with very little activity, along with
which goes a feeling of great strength, a difficulty of making
correct or quick movements which may otherwise be normal,
and which reacts sometimes into the stage of collapse later.
Some habitually assume a characteristic attitude when angry,
usually erect. Two seek to place the back against a wall,
post, or other firm background. Two are impelled to sit and
eighteen to lie down, mostly upon the face, and perhaps to roll,
writhe, squirm or wriggle. One must throw herself into a
chair sideways, in a particular manner, with feet drawn up.
The arms are more commonly held down by the sides with
slight pronation or supination movements, with fists clenched ;
sometimes one or both hands are placed against the breast.
One young man always thrusts one hand into his coat and the
other into his pocket, and probably a large number of more or
less characteristic positions could be collected.
Butting and Pounding the Head, Many infants when angry
and powerless to hurt others, strike their heads against doors,
posts, walls of houses, and sometimes on the floor. In this
gesture the head maj^ be struck so sharply as to cause pain and
crying, but more often it is pounded several times wdth a viol-
ence which would in a normal condition cause weeping but does
not now. In some children bruises and discoloration lasting
for days results. • Occasionally in older children headaches seem
to be thus caused. This expression of anger rarely outlasts
early childhood, but sometimes persists into adult years, as in
one striking case elsewhere in our returns of a young man who
habitually pounded his head on the floor when his best girl
danced with another. Sometimes the head is struck violently
with the fist and quite often, not only in infancy but in boyish
fights, butting is a mode of aggression. Some boys love to
butt and attain great ability. One is described as running a
rod at full tilt and injuring a companion dangerously in the
stomach. Another boy practiced butting hard objects to attain
virtuoship. Blows with the head are often described as side-
ways; the forehead or particularly the corner of the forehead,
being the point of contact. This is interesting when we reflect
on the number of horned species in the human pedigree. Why
should man hook like a cow or butt like a sheep or hammer
with his head, and that, too, when the skull is thin and elastic,
A STUDY OF ANGER. 555
and the brain so delicate an organ ? Surely there is nothing
in the present human environment to adequately explain why
such an experience, which undoubtedly causes more or less of
a shock, can give satisfaction or relief in anger save on the
general theory that it demands augmented motor and sensory
experiences. Early vertebrates, both aquatic and terrestrial
move head first, and there is thus a long ancestral experience
of removing obstacles and breaking way through the water
with the head. That there is some relation between these
manifestations of anger and previous phyletic experience, I
think can at least not be denied. In children incipient anger
often manifests itself by the threatening sideway nod which
very clearly suggests danger and seems to be the residuum of
an older mode of going at things. In anger the head is often
thrown down and the eyes partly closed as if in preparation,
and square nodding in front, especially if repeated and with
accompanying pressure of the lips, is a threat. When the fore
extremities were engaged in locomotion or otherwise, the head
played a more important role in aggression than in bipeds. Often
in children we have the opposite anger gesture, instead of
going at things head first the head is thrown back out of reach
and out of the way of attack. Several boys, however, in our
returns seem to be proud proficients in having skulls unusually
thick with which they hammer the heads of their more tender
opponents, until they cry for mercy; whereas others particu-
larly dread combats lest this part of the organism should be
injured.
An occasional expression of anger is stamping upon the
toes or feet of the opponent or upon other parts of his body,
when he is down. This is sometimes done with the heel and
with great cruelty and deliberation. One boy injured for life
two fingers of his adversary in this way. Stamping perhaps
really begins in the foot movements of infants before they can
walk, who angrily kick out with the sole of the foot against
persons, the wall or any other object. In older children to
stamp the ground or floor is an admonition always to be heeded,
for it is a menace of starting to go at the adversary. In many
savage dances stamping the ground, sometimes with bare feet
and with great force, is an expression of annihilating an imagin-
ary foe. Sheep, some birds, and other animals do the same.
In only one case does the child make a movement described
as pawing to get at an antagonist; but the writer remembers
a case in his boyhood where this was carried to a marked ex-
tent, although probably in imitation of bulls. Stamping sug-
gests having the enemy under foot and thus complete triumph.
A vigorous up and down movement can tread out life very ef-
fectively. Our returns show that soon after learning to walk,
556 HAI.I. :
children vent anger thus first with no reference to an adversary,
but later looking or pointing to him and thus launching a threat,
where often an attack would not be ventured. The first seems
quite automatic and unconscious, possibly the noise itself may
have been one factor. When there is no alternation but with
one foot and repeated, the gesture surely has some unique
significance.
Making Faces. Violent anger often distorts the features,
both by engorgement of blood and changing muscle tension.
Often this is described in the returns as bringing out strange,
perhaps repulsive and even animal traits and resemblances, and
it may extend to nearly every part and feature of the face,
modifying its natural hue, bring out veins and wrinkles,
and occasionally unilateral modifications. Not infrequent-
ly the subject is painfully conscious of looking unusual and
of having strange facial sensations, and this and the instinct-
ive corrective impulse often aggravate the difficulty. Al-
though there is very great individual difference in this respect,
the face sometimes betrays sentiments almost as delicately as
the voice. Many facial movements, too, are unconscious. In
early childhood the very common vent of anger is consciously
making faces. Our returns do not permit reliable statistical
inferences concerning the frequency of the different types of
contortion. Opening the mouth and protruding and often
moving the tongue, especially out and in, turning the end of
it up to show the under side, running it down toward the chin,
flattening it, wagging it sideways — are specified and suggest
contempt and perhaps insult. Drawing back the upper and the
under lip to show the teeth, especially pouting or protruding
the lips, stretching the mouth laterally as far as possible, draw-
ing down its corners, projecting the under lip and more rarely
the upper one, twisting the jaw sideways, projecting the lower
one, drawing in one or both lips, opening and shutting the
mouth, sometimes in a gnashing way, a special kind of nasal
sneer, and other movements hard to describe that suggest very
repulsive smells, tastes, perhaps to the point of nausea, and
movements that suggest the threat of biting, occur. The up-
per part of the face, is on the whole, less involved, and vast as
the individual differences are in facial mobility, they are greatest
of all for the forehead. Some have little power to raise the
eyebrows or produce longitudinal wrinkles above them, and
perhaps still less power to frown with vertical wrinkles, and
fewer yet can produce both at once. There is less unilateral
power of movement in the upper part of the face. The eyes may
be open very wide, emphatic and frequent winking makes them
flash and sometimes they are nearly or quite closed, but more
often rolled up, down or sideways, to show the white. Some
A STUDY OF ANGER. 557
children become almost virtuosos in making faces and this
propensity seems to culminate shortly before the dawn of ado-
lescence. The number of combinations of all the possible
movements here is vast, and one cannot look over the literature
upon the subject without being impressed with the fact that
Darwin, Duchanne and the Delsarteans have as yet barely en-
tered this interesting field. Head positions and movements
are another factor which serves to bring out the effect, and
children often use the fingers to intensify eye and mouth dis-
tortion, while gestures and noises aid to set them in relief.
Interest in facial expression is deep and instinctive. All chil-
dren study the face and especially the eye as an index of feeling
and disposition, and the variously toned fear and pleasure in
them suggest the strange passion of savages for masks as seen
in their dances, many of which even introduce marked animal
features. Pleasant expressions of the face are habitual for happy
moods and for friends, and the principle seems to be that the
degree of departure from one's best expression indicates the
degree of dislike. Many facial expressions are no doubt directly
intended to strike terror, but others are suggestive of various
degrees of repulsion. Reverence and respect have their own
characteristic physiognomy, while contempt even parodies or
else seeks the contrary of it by the law of opposition. Very
deep seated is the instinct of fear at very unusual expressions
of face in those we know.
Biting. Sixty-eight females, forty-eight males. From our
returns it would appear that this anger act culminates a few
years before puberty and has perhaps a slight and brief incre-
ment at its dawn. Very young children, soon after the appear-
ance of the first teeth which are small and sharp, not only try
them on all sorts of things but in anger can make a painful
impression upon fingers, nipples, skin, etc. Some children run
up to an enemy, inflict a quick hard bite, and retreat with no
other aggressive act. Others bite firmly and hold on with
tenacity, and fewer in our returns chew what is bitten in anger.
In their fights, biting often plays an important role with chil-
dren. In a few cases children bite their doll, the foot or tail
of dog or cat, sometimes the place to take hold is chosen with
deliberation, and the grip is so firm that it is with difficulty
that it is released. We have records of idiots that seek to tear
flesh in their rage. In many a brawl in the lower classes,
noses, lips, ears are chewed, and occasionally bitten off and
other damage is inflicted elsewhere with the teeth. I once saw
a man in a cheap show who earned his living by killing rats
with his teeth in a small pen, with no aid from his arms. He
seized and shook them near the back of the neck and was rarely
bitten himself. In the sex aberration of masochism, biting
558 HALi. :
sometimes plays an important and even a dangerous role in the
organism. The biting of anger shades off into gripping and
grinding the teeth, which is so long a manifestation of it even
in adults, connected with the act of retracting the lips to show
them. Sometimes one method of control of anger is to bite
the tongue or lips till they bleed, or to grate the teeth. A Balti-
more murderer, under sentence of death, once told me that if he
had had a little stick of wood, which he always carried in his
vest pocket to bite when he was angry, he would not have in-
flicted the fatal blow for which he was to die. Of course the
jaws in man are degenerating from the size and strength they had
in his prognathic ancestors and in his rodent or carniverous rela-
tives in the ancestral line, but just as his type of dentition is com-
posite, so this function seems made up of factors from both
ruminants and carnivora now almost inextricably mixed. A
large, strong jaw still suggests firmness and a small one weak-
ness of character, and in children as in adults, there are the
greatest individual differences here. Some seem made to per-
form the gymnastic feats of sustaining their whole weight,
lifting or swinging heavy objects by the teeth alone. Both the
first and second teeth often pull unusually hard and we may
have here the basis for a position in what ma}^ be called dental
psychosis. A distinction is repeatedly noticed in our returns
between the square, even biting of young children and the
more dangerous side grip, which is preferred when the eye
teeth appear. Our returns do not suggest whether the biting
of anger shows an increment at this stage of development.
Tv\'o things seem certain. First, that even modern civilized
man has more or less adjustment between dental structure and
function, the latter being proportionately less than the former.
The passion of children for biting sticks, chalk, rubber, pen-
cils, slates, chewing gum, etc., suggests that the biting of anger
may be intensified by the fact that this function is declining
and is both vented and mitigated by such activities. If man
ever approximates an edentate stage with less mandibular
power it will no doubt coincide with modification in this
respect. The other suggestion which I venture is while the
sneer, the spasmus cynnicus of pathology, may no doubt be
gestures which are relics of dental attack, the kiss seems to
have a very significant and opposite function. Its meaning seems
to be that where danger once was greatest, when we reflect
that the maws of their enemies have been the grave of most
species, that now not only a truce but complete trust, and
even pleasure, reign. One feeble-minded child is described as
making the gesture to kiss, but when the lips were presented
set his teeth firmly into and almost through them, and, in the
A STUDY OF ANGKR. 559
Opinion of the reporter, actually sucking with pleasure the
blood that flowed.
In adults the mouth often twitches, the lips are white,
pressed or cold, and in the reaction the teeth often chatter. In
650 well- described cases, grating the teeth is mentioned in 27 per
cent.; showing them in 21, quivering lip in 18, compressed in
1 1 , pouting in 9. Some describe a peculiar * ' mouth-conscious-
ness," others chew the tongue or inner wall of the cheek, swal-
low, choke, cannot speak, etc. Such expressions as '* Would
like to devour," " feel like eating, tearing, rending, crushing,"
occur with dental experience. Whether these are the last
vaso-motor or involuntary automatic residues of what was
once a fully unfolded carnivorous psychoses we can only con-
jecture. M. D. Conway, in his demonology, describes the
devils or ex-gods of most primitive peoples as having for their
chief characteristic capacious maws and dreadful mouths, with
great, sharp and cruel fangs. The marks of many dances
and ceremonies of the North American aborigines ^ are thus
distinguished, and the instinctive fear of big teeth, so charac-
teristic of infants is a psychic indorsement of the same fact.
Scratching. This is mentioned in 142 cases as a character-
istic expression of anger, and is described more or less fully as
habitual in the cases of thirty-eight males and eighteen females.
The age at which it is most common is from two to nine years;
and at fourteen, judging from our meager data, it entirely
stops in males and is greatly reduced in females. While boys
predominate in early childhood, the proportion is apparently
reversed in adolescents and adults, women with their conserva-
tive organism then predominating. Instead of being clenched,
the fingers are hooked rigidly and the movement is from the
elbow and more from the shoulder, and from up downward.
The point of attack is generally the face, more often the eye,
although neck, hands, arms, and even the clothes are often
scratched. In several cases anger at dolls, animals, inanimate
objects and even self are expressed by scratching. One child
lacerates her own face when angr3^ Two scratch the paint
off doors and articles of furniture against which their rage
is excited. Several have inflicted serious laceration upon
younger children and infants, but in most cases the favorite
point of attaok seems to center about the eye itself, into which
it sometimes seems a strong childish instinct to stick a finger.
Our data give no indications that there is here any trace of an
old instinct to attack the throat or any covered parts of the
body. Occasionally in anger the hands are so tightly clenched
^In My Study of Fears. Amer. Jour, of Psychology, Vol. VIII,
note, p. 312.
560 HALL :
that, either with design or incidentally, the nails are forced
into the palms. It would almost seem that some children have
a love of scratching the skin as a motor activity independently
of the sensation of stimulus or relief of itching alopg the
afferent tracts. In the felidse and in other animals, both in
and near the conjectured line of human evolution where claws
are best developed in structure and function, these movements
seem among the first group to be acquired, especially by the
forelegs after and superposed upon their locomotor functions.
These movements are more specialized and accessory than
walking, and among the climbers have a great but very dif-
ferent role. This may be set down as one of the first uses, then,
not merely of the digits, especially of the pentadactyl hand,
and this psychic co-ordination with dental function is close.
The infant's finger nail is much sharper than the adults, is
more curved, and hence has more sustained rigidity, while the
skin of infants is thinner and more tender. Hence the greater
effectiveness of this mode of attack. Very interesting are the
few cases in which scratching is not mentioned, but in which
one of the marked signs of anger which our correspondents
describe in themselves is the purpling of the flesh under the
finger nails. Interesting, too, are four cases where in anger a
shudder which suggests scratching a file, rusty saw, or some
other object, is provocative of incipient horripilation or some
nervous spasm. This function is so co-ordinated with struc-
ture that careful and regular cutting of the nails may reduce
it, as does the enforced wearing of gloves or artificial tips
where the habit is abnormally strong. Some people shudder
whenever they hear a noise that suggests scratching hard
objects or the earth, and the very thought of scratching a
brick or stone causes *' sinking " symptoms of a very marked
nature in F. 18. lyong after this habit has passed away, many
people describe as a symptom of anger the feeling that they
would like to tear the flesh of the offending person. Again,
some children cultivate long nails, less for use than for orna-
mentation, as several Oriental religious sects make it a sin to
cut the nails, even if they penetrate the hand. Nails have
sometimes an important industrial use in occupations requiring
fineness and exactness. A few barefoot boys are described as
scratching the antagonivSt with their feet. Civilization has so
long required trimmed and shortened nails that it is possible
that this has had an effect upon their reduction. The habit of
biting the nails to the quick has very likely a kindred psychic
origin with the impulse to trim them. Very curious is the
survival in some of our cases, particularly females, of habitu-
ally trimming the nails to a point more or less sharp or obtuse.
How many modern industries that involve scratching, like
A STUDY OF ANGER. 56 1
movements such as writing, have any relation with any such
ancient function, it is impossible to tell.
Pinching and Pulling. This culminates relatively late in child-
hood and continues at least to maturity, and probably through
life. The strength of the opposing thumb must become well
developed before it can be effective. Small children pinch the
skin, often without bringing the nails to bear; the ear and nose
are thus attacked and pulled. The arm is often thus made
black and blue; the back of the neck is seized and pinched till
the victim obeys the command to say ' ' Shakespeare ' ' or some
other words, or to do some ordered and unusually humiliating
act. Strangulation is sometimes thus attempted and the sexual
organs may be thus assailed. Along with this action often
goes pulling and shaking, indeed infants often pull hair and
beard before they learn to oppose the thumb, and the difficulty
of disentangling these from the baby's grip suggests arboreal
life, in which the young thus hold to the shagg}^ sides of their
parents as they moved among the tree tops, an act which natu-
ral selection has developed by eliminating those that let go and
fall. While the child rarely shakes an object grasped with its
teeth, objects clenched with the hands are often shaken. Both
ears are grasped and the head violently pulled, twisted and
shaken. One or both arms are thus used as handles by which
to shake the body, so that the pain may be either in the pinch,
in the pull, or in the shake. Where nails are used, the flesh
may be dented, bruised or occasionally cut, and two instances
are cited where poisoning is believed to have been thus con-
veyed by bacteria under the finger nails. The ears are some-
times permanently mutilated or distorted in this way, and far
more serious is the injury, and once the death, reported from
' ' Abelarding. ' ' In some conflicts handfuls of flesh from the
breasts or any other part of the body are clutched and grave in-
ternal injury done. In one case, hair is said to have been pulled
out by the roots and the scalp torn. In two descriptions of a
fight, the tongue was thus attacked. In one case, the mouth was
forced open for this purpose, and Mantegazza tells us that it
has been thus torn out and the lips and the alae of the nose
torn. In some forms of fighting the antagonists seek to pinch
the fingers of their opponents, and particularly to twist and
double them up to the point of dislocation. Sometimes any
part of the body is grasped for a hold as one would grasp the
clothes or through them. The variety of tortures possible in
this way is great, and all must have been developed since the
hand acquired its biped strength and dexterity. Not only folk-
lore, but popular tradition, describes hand power developed to
such an extent that by a single favorable grip an enemy has
been disemboweled.
562 HALL :
Kicking. This we distinguish from stamping as a lateral
movement at right angles to it. It begins later, is far more
common, and lasts through life. In most children the move-
ment is front, but in some the stroke is backwards with the
heel when it is more downward. The front stroke must dis-
criminate very carefully if the foot is unarmed with a shoe
where the blow is applied, for if it were a hard place in the
antagonist's body the agent suffers more than the patient.
Hence, the abdomen or the posteriors are common points of
attack, the latter particularly permits the infliction of greater
force and the blow has less danger. With shoes or boots any
part of the body can be attacked, and the injury and danger
is far greater. Some oriental forms of wrestling might be de-
scribed as almost solely made up of tripping and kicking, where
the arms and hands have nothing to do. I once saw two boys
fight solely by trying to scratch with the feet. Heavy foot
gear makes this expression of anger almost approximate in
prominence that which it holds among some of the ungulata.
One object is here often to overthrow the adversary and is
peculiar perhaps to bipeds, who have assumed the erect position
and for whom balancing upon a few square inches of foot sur-
face with the center of gravity so high above, is quite a feat of
equilibrium, and makes a fall often dangerous and an upright
position always a little precarious. The usual strong forw^ard
kick as, e. g. , in football, and which is susceptible of a good
deal of culture, is a mode of aggression which must have been
originated however distinctly after the erect position had given
the posterior limbs their strength and weight. It, like many
other primitive modes of anger, has an extremely rich symbolic
and metaphorical philology.
Huggi?ig^ Striki7ig ayid Throwing. Young children often
vent anger by hugging, and it is especially common among
girls. The offending person or even animal is thus punished.
As an aggressive method, this movement may become very ef-
fective and makes for strangling, the compression of crushing,
and bones, joints and tendons may suffer thus.
Anger, however, is essentially repulsive and the gesture of
pushing away is more common. From the latter, it would
seem from such data as are at hand, striking evolved. The
first blow in infants is a literally repulsive or standing off gest-
ure. Although animals kick, butt, and strike with paws, etc.,
man might almost be called in a peculiar sense, the striking
animal. His blows, although at first, perhaps, scratching
movements, and at any rate more likely to be from above down-
ward, change later into slaps, and last of all comes the straight
out blow with the fist. This can, as pugilism shows, be made
exceedingly effective with the unarmed hand. The skill and
A STUDY OF ANGER. 563
dexterity in choosing the place and time of a blow, throwing
the whole momentum of the body into it, to say nothing of
foreseeing and warding off the blows of the adversary, make
the development of this very human mode of attack susceptible
of great perfection, and constitute the charm of slugging and
mauling contests according to fixed rules, which eliminate forms
of onslaught phyletically lower.
With the use of weapons began a new era. Even a stone or
stick gives greatly increased efficiency and adds to the danger.
Clubs, axes, spears, and a great variety of savage implements
of warfare enhance many fold the dangers of conflicts and have
prompted the invention of shields and other defensive and pro-
tective implements. It would seem from our knowledge of
apes to be well established that they can use clubs and stones
at least for certain purposes, but it is doubtful if these have
ever been a factor in their combats.
Throwing introduces yet another development from the
striking out blow. A missile is propelled far beyond the reach
of the body, and bows, guns, etc., have made this the most
effective, as it is the last, mode of offensive warfare.
We have space for but a few cases.
1. M. Fits of anger are plain in a child 7 months. She holds her
breath a moment, seems expectant, grows red in the forehead and
cheeks, straightens out stiff and rigid, trembles, chokes, and laughs
merrily.
2. M., 8 months. Throws himself on his back, lies rigid and still,
but yells at the top of his voice.
3. M., 15 months. Strikes himself savagely in the face, pounds
his head but never any one else, spits at us and cries " Go way."
4. M., 2. Was set down hard on a chair for disobeying. He grew
pale, then red, sweat profusely, made mouths as though trying to
talk, but his teeth chattered. I only saw this once and am sure it
has not occurred within the past fifteen months.
5. F., 26. A boy of 3 began to bite when in a temper. He always
bites and kicks, throws anything and flushes.
6. F., 21. A3 year old girl of violent temper, once punished by
being kept home from a ride, broke out in sobs that appeared uncon-
trollable. Suddenly she stopped short and calmly asked if papa was
in. Being told no, and realizing that there was no possible restraint
from that quarter, she resumed her sobs
7. Eng., F., 41. I know a boy of from 3 to 5 who had marked re-
laxation of all the sphincter muscles when angry.
8. F., 41. A delicate boy from 3 to 5, when angry, flushes all over
his face, neck and ears. Anger so completely absorbs him that once
he was undressed during a mad spell and did not know it.
9. F., 4. Prayed one night for the hired men. The next day one
of them, a disagreeable tobacco user, kissed her; that night she prayed
unctiously, "God bless papa, mamma, etc., but dear God, damn
Mr. ."
10. M., 4. In a tempest of sudden anger strikes any one in the face
with all his might. This he used to do when he was a year old, but
in a moment he wanted to kiss.
11. Papa told M. to sit down. It was his evening play hour. He
564 HAI.I. :
drew himself up, looked his father full in the face and said "you
dasshopper" three times, and then obeyed.
12. M., 4. In a passion has a blind rage, has thrown forks and
knives at people, broken dinner plates and glass, etc.
13. F., 5. Is usually bubbling over with fun, but when crossed,
rules the household, which has a terror of her tantrums. She screams,
rolls on the floor, sticks out her tongue, turns up her nose, and takes
it out in making up all manner of horrid faces.
14. Eng., F., 28. Children I have observed stand perfectly still,
open the mouth wide, and begin to scream. Later they dance wildly,
brandish the arms and hit anybody. Others lie on the floor and roll,
pound their heads, roar, sit and rock; others bite and scratch; tears
are a sign that the repentant mood has begun to react.
15. F., 19. Some children I have seen turn white or red, howl,
strike blindly. Boys control their feelings far less. A little boy lay
in the mud and screamed because I would not buy him candy. I had
to pick him up and carry him home yelling.
16. F., 41. A little girl in a pet first seems pleased with herself
and looks to her companions for admiration. She shakes herself, set-
tles into stolid sulks, which sometimes last two days, then cries, re-
lents, and is extra good.
17. Two little boys were set down to write, but there was only one
pencil, which was given to the elder. The younger flushed, flashed,
and said " Do you fink I can write wid my finger like God? "
18. F., 31. A little girl constitutionally obstinate, when in a tem-
per would grow red as a turkey cock about face and neck, which
would seem to swell with anger. Her eyes filled with tears, but she
never cried. She readily asked forgiveness and never bore ill will.
When people are slow, she wriggles, writhes, bites her lips, snatches
your work, and wants to do it herself.
19. A girl of 6, who has ambition as her ruling passion, is most
enraged by her jealousy. If she is excelled in writing, she will try
to sponge out the work of others, and to scratch them, lie down in the
grass and kick and cry, because she cannot jump as high as her mates.
20. M., 28. My temper was so dreadful that I did not mind what
it cost, it must have way. As a child I would scream, kick, rush at
things and throw objects in the fire or out of doors, if my plans were
frustrated. To put me to bed disturbed the whole house, so that my
nurse usually gave way to me. Every point I scored made me worse,
I was often wild and utterly unreasonable.
21. F., 19. A sweet little girl of 6 I know has outbreaks of pas-
sion, that seem to pass beyond control, when she stands and howls
quite unconscious of everything. When it is all over she often can-
not recall the cause of her temper. The only thing that helped her
was diversion or some soothing action, like stroking her hand. When
it is all over she seems to have forgotten both it and the cause.
22. F., 28. When I am inwardly impelled to say unpleasant things
to people, I tremble, am short of breath, my teeth chatter, and often
have a pain in my stomach, which causes sudden diarrhoea.
23. M., 28. When angry for sometime I twitch painfully in the
palm of my left hand and also in the veins of my left wrist. In both
these instances the pain is very much like the shock from a strong
battery. It seems as if the blood was trying to get out of the small
vessels causing them to stretch and snap back with violence.
24. Eng., F., 27. I know a child who has fearful fits of temper,
after which a rash breaks out all over her body. Once she rushed
into a tub of cold water with all her clothes on.
25. F., 19. When angry with the cat I used to squeeze it tight,
A STUDY OF ANGKR. 565
pull its tail, stroke it the wrong way, put my finger in its eye, and
through childhood my anger generally vented itself by hugging
26. F., 22. I literally boil. The angrier I am, the more compressed
and internal it gets and the more silent I become. If I speak, I cry.
My intellect is confused or rather does not move under the pressure
put upon it. If I thoroughly start crying, the fit wears itself out,
but if the cause requires action, I can stop crying. The effort to de-
liberate sets my mind flying.
27. F., 23. When I am angry I feel as if a demon was inside me
tearing me to pieces, and if it must come out before I can be happy.
Commonly it is vented in vicious little speeches, and deeds, aimed not
particularly at the object which caused it, but at every one and every-
thing. I take a sort of pleasing misery in contemplating the pain I
inflict.
28. F., 29. Some children are white with rage, but more are crim-
son. They pinch, bite, scratch, and stiffen themselves. One little
girl is so rigid that she can be picked up by her waistband, and held
perfectly horizontal in the air. The sulky kind that hold temper is
the worst.
29. M., 34. Symptoms of anger as I have seen them suggest the
etymology of the word, which means compression of the neck, strang-
ling, etc. This expresses my experience of it better than the words,
spleen, vexation, ire, wrath, rage, resentment, malice, hate, indigna-
tion or any others.
30. I know people who change color, contort the face and even
body. The hands clench, the muscles stiffen, the eyes flash and flame,
the voice changes its pitch, time and quality. Some strut and other
children dance, fall, butt, etc.
III. Anger at Inanimate and Insentient Objects.
Vents.
Every one is familiar with the disposition to kitk the stone
against which one inadvertently stubbed a toe, to pound or
even kick a door against which we have hit the head between
our groping hands in the dark, and our returns abound in cases
of pens angrily broken because they would not write, brushes
and pencils thrown that did not work well, buttonholes and
clothes torn, mirrors smashed, slates broken, paper crushed,
toys destroyed, knives, shoes, books thrown or injured, etc.
These violent reactions by which often the individual is himself
injured, and in several cases seriously, occur not only in chil-
dren but in adult and cultivated men and women. A man
finding that the blossoms of a favorite and much nurtured pear
tree were blasted for the third time, hacked it and barked it in
a fit of rage, until it had to be cut down. A man of over forty
fell over a roll of barbed wire at night, and the next day threw
the whole into a bonfire and dumped it in a fish pond with
much satisfaction. A farmer laying a stone wall found the
stones so round and smooth, that they slipped down several
times, and in a fit of anger, as he says, and not to split them
into better shapes, he mauled them till he was tired with a
sledge hammer. In one case described at length, a young car-
566 HALi. :
penter injured many times and even spoiled his own expensive
tools, because he was so clumsy and inexpert that they would
not work right; and the destruction of one's own or others'
property by this impulse is frequently recorded. A few cases
are appended.
1. F., 20. When a door will not stay latched, my little brother of
6 bangs it very hard several times, sometimes kicks, strikes, and even
butts it.
2. F., 19. Boy of 4 grew often angry with his blocks, kicked and
threw them, saying every time "Take that and that."
3. M., 19. I once fell on a large stone and hurt myself badly and
vowed I would smash that stone sometime. Some weeks passed be-
fore I got a stone hammer, broke it to pieces, and threw the fragments
in a fire.
4. M., 25. If when cracking nuts or driving a nail, I hurt my
finger, I am so mad I have to smash something instantly with the
hammer. Once my boot, which had been wet over night, was so stiff
in the morning I could not get it on. In rage I pounded it well with
my hammer.
5. M., 9. Pinched his finger in the door. Cried a while, then
stopped and kicked the door, hurt his foot, cried again, kicked it again
less intensely, scolded it and dared it to hurt him again.
6. F., 20. My brother M., 5, became angry with his drum and
broke it into pieces. He fell on his rubber skates aged 7 and broke
them both.
7. F., 18. I have vented anger on nearly all my toys, and could
not keep them long if they were destructible. When angry I often
drum with my fingers, tap my feet or if alone pound and stamp around.
8. F., 16. If I cannot play my exercises right, I pound the keys.
If my sums go wrong, I throw and sometimes break my slate. I have
torn books, clbth that I could not cut right, and smashed wood and
sometimes bang the tools in the manual training room.
9. M., 17. When I could not learn something in my lessons, I
used to sling the book across the room. My toys have suffered a good
deal.
10. A boy of 8 cut himself with a knife, threw it in rage against a
stone, and finally broke it with another.
11. A boy of 4 hits every large object against which he hurts him-
self, and throws all smaller ones.
12. M., 28. As a boy if I spoiled what I was whittling, I would
throw or smash it if I could.
13. M., 18. When I used to bump my head, I wished with all my
soul that I could make the thing I hit suffer for it.
14. F., 19. When angry I used to kick rocking chairs. This made
them rock and this made me more angry, because they seemed alive.
Such things are often done with a kind of lurking, nascent
self pity, sometimes with a trace of self contempt, but more
often with a bottom feeling of the humorous absurdity of it all.
Where pain is caused, such reactions serve as a vent, but on
the whole we seem to have here- a momentary lapse back to a
primitive animistic stage of psychic evolution in which the
distinction between the things that have life and feeling and
those that lack both was not established. At any rate our or-
ganism acts as if the offending brick, stubble or tool was capable
A STUDY OF ANGER. 567
of feeling the effect of our resentment. This very strange
group of phenomena can only be partially explained by urging
that most causes of pain are animate objects, and that it is a
second thought or long circuit reflection that does not have
time to act, that this particular cause is lifeless; while the pre-
ponderance of the direct, vent upon the object, as well as in-
trospection in such cases, shows that it is not a case of stimulus
and undirected reaction.
Ve7tts. Besides the direct action upon the cause of the of-
fence, very many indirect ways of w^orking off anger are com-
mon, and this is often the beginning of control.
1. M., 24. Biting my lips until they ache and bleed is far more
effective as a restraint for me than the puerile method of counting
ten. Music helps me and if I can get at a piano, I can play off my
rage. My aunt knits off her temper, and a cousin always plays Schu-
mann's Schlummerlied, so that when we hear that we know she is
angry, but will soon be pleasant. If a piano is not at hand, she suf-
fers greatly.
2. F., Once I was so angry that I could not sleep until I got up,
wrote the person a most violent letter, venting all my rage, and then
tearing it up in the middle of the night. Then I went back to bed
and slept sweetly. Girls, I think, are more angry, stay so longer, and
do not forgive an injury, as soon as boys. This is particularly true of
girls from 12 to 15.
3. F., 24. I am reputed good tempered, but this is false, for I can
fume and seethe within, when outwardly I am perfectly calm. I have
a habit of giving inner vent to my anger by thinking cutting remarks ;
this relieves me, while the object of my indignation never suspects it.
4. F., 22. When my feelings are injured, I have now learned to
be able to turn aside to something else. I cannot always do it, but
this checks most outbreaks. I can often hold myself to my study.
5. M., 31. A cultivated lady of 25, wife of a well-known univer-
• sity professor, is sometimes so angry that she goes into the back shed
and chops wood furiously, and says that something far worse would
happen if she was denied this vent.
6. F., 23. When angry I used to pick up stones and throw them
at something hard. The throwing relieved me some, but if they broke,
the relief was much greater.
7. F., 9. Vents anger upon her hat and particularly her coat. Has
sometimes broken things on the table in a pet, and in her tantrums is
liable to seize almost anything anywhere.
8. F., 19. My youngest sister gets maddest if she cannot find
things. She always'pounds something. Her motto seems to be " Pound
if not found."
9. F., 27. When I have been very angry I have just stood and
pinched myself and bit my finger until I screamed. I used to want
to tear something.
10. F., 16. When I am very angry or feel it coming on, I want to
run to a particular place and pound the tin gutters for relief.
11. M., 10. Used always if possible to vent his anger upon stones;
F., 7, on doors; M., 11, on bees.
12. F., 18. My anger is generally vented on my clothes. I go up
stairs into my room and sling them around and sometimes dance on
them.
13. American; Adult; Female. When violently angry would grind
568 HALL :
her teeth, walk back and forth between two rooms so as to slam the
door. Sometimes she would take a pillow and shake it until exhausted .
14. I always used to fly to the piano, or get my pet kitten to com-
fort me when I found my temper rising.
15. M., 26. I know a woman with a bad temper who when exas-
perated plays the piano or sings to herself, which latter is considered
by her friends as a danger signal.
16. F., 28. When I was a girl and got angry, I used to shake my hair
all over my face and make wry faces. It was very easy for me to speak
out and tell very disagreeable truths. When trying hard not to talk,
I play scales; and when very angry, octaves. To repress rage makes
it far worse than to blurt it out.
17. I know a child who always relieves her ill temper by kicking a
particular post. Her eyes are half shut and afterwards she shakes.
18. A nervous boy of 8 several times a day gets so angry he throws
himself on the ground and screams as if he were being killed. He is
growing thin and I think his temper will wear him out.
19 F., 27. For three years I had a pupil, nice in many ways, but
addicted sometimes to say things quietly that nearly drove me mad.
I always restrained myself, but once found that I had broken a new
pencil that I had in my hand short off in my efforts to control.
10. M., 27. When slightly angry I can best let off my feelings
harmlessly by swearing. If madder I feel like knocking out part of
my wrath, and make awful vows of vengeance which I do not live
up to.
21. F., 32. I can now generally control my naturally strong tem-
per, I think volumes, but say nothing. It would be a luxury to wreak
myself upon expression, but I refrain from prudential reasons. I
know people would pay me back. I try to feel benevolently towards
all, to make allowances when I feel injustice, to switch off my anger
into a sort of philosophical indifference. Sometimes I get relief
by working it off in an imaginary scene with the offender. My op-
ponent says severe things and I answer still more severely, but always
go off complete victor. This appeases rage, although I inwardly laugh
at and despise myself, while giving this triumphant scene. I have
invented an instrument of slight torture which I apply to myself, but
which I shall not tell. It has helped me much. A plain two minute
talk once by my older brother helped me.
22. F., 44. I get some relief occasionally by prancing about and
ejaculating, especially if my heart thumps and my head aches too
much. Sometimes I write a letter or even an essay on the subject, and
then put it into the waste paper basket, and it has served its purpose
of giving outward expression to inner wrath. If all anger has to be
checked and I have to attend to conventionality, I sometimes have one
of my fainting spells.
A man I know saws and chops wood in the cellar, some
pound stones, children break toys, pinch themselves pound
their own heads, bite their fingers, one child jumps into cold
water, some tear their clothes, one must tear something, any-
thing, one pounds the gutter pipe, another shakes a pillow,
one bites a coin, several play the piano, one kicks a post, one
pulls her hair over her face, some sing, take it out in imagining
extreme retaliations, in inventing instruments of torture, in
imaginary dialogues, fights, or other scenes in which the oppo-
nent is put at a great disadvantage. Profanity is a very common
A STUDY OF ANGKR. 569
vent, and many people have curious forms of expression, some
comic, while in others it is simply round, honest swearing
never heard at any other time. Scathing remarks are shouted,
whispered, or perhaps merely thought. Some mutter, others
walk it off, etc. This varies all the way from slight divergence
from the object to something connected with it by some law of
association or even utterly unrelated to almost inversion, as
where excessive kindness or politeness to the enemy is the only
efifect observed. In some cases certain automatic movements
like tapping, rocking, etc., sewer ofif the tension harmlessly.
Just how far the pent-up energy of anger can be metamor-
phosed from malignant to benignant work is an interesting and
practical problem for pedagogy, as well as for psychology. If
education could transmute and utilize for good this great power,
turning the wrath of man to praise, a great service would be
done. The fact that some vents tend to become stereotyped
and almost like a kind of ritual of ^ rage suggests much plas-
ticity, while the general fact that plenty of exercise and work,
physical or even mental, provided it be not excessive, directly
tends to lessen irascibility is full of suggestion in this respect.
Vents are resultants of two impulses more or less contradic-
tory, one to react directly against the offending object and the
other to struggle to inhibit that reaction. The consequence is
increased psycho-physic tension and diversion to another point
of escape, as a horse paws if it cannot go. Complete control
would not be suppression, but arrest of all forms of expression
for the rising pressure. AUbut thinks that what he calls ten-
sion, somewhat in this sense, is one of the chief psychometric
criterions by which to measure both sanity and brain power.
To check all vents of strong indignation would be, according
to the current theories of the physical basis of emotion, to
annihilate it, for if these are correct rage cannot exist without
at least heightened tonicity and blood pressure, etc. These
latter then, if necessary concomitants, are not vents, and con-
trol would be conceived as restricting it to these more involun-
tary tensions and preventing overt acts.
Change with Age. While infants scream, stiffen, hold the
breath, strike, scratch themselves, chatter, kick, sob, throw,
roll, etc. , age almost always brings repression of these mani-
festations and increased control. The adult, instead of being
impudent, may become sarcastic ; instead of dancing up and
down, may walk with heavy tread to and fro; instead of shout-
ing, may talk to himself and use his tongue instead of fists ;
and while peevishness and irritability are less, remorse,
reason, reflection, toleration of offences become dominant. As
the mind grows there is more space for subjective expenditure
of energy, and to think unutterable things that are not uttered
JOURNAI,— 16
570 HAI.I. :
or to put into words the rising tide of indignation. It takes
longer for an attack to reach its apex and it subsides more
gradually ; the effects are often less in the somatic and
more in the psychic sphere ; while the fact that the home,
school, church and state reprCvSS by their various rules
and methods the grosser manifestations of wrath, tend to
make it rise to forms of expression that are more sanctioned
because more refined. Conscience in some becomes a helpful
deterrent, which is reinforced by religion. Physical causes are
less frequent, while a larger area is exposed to psychic causes,
and while capacity for anger often grows with strength and
years, its frequency is generally greatly diminished. At ado-
lescence it especially becomes more inward, while a new set of
causes becomes operative. In old age temper may become
serene and sweet, but if otherwise, anger grows impotent and
often contemptible in its manifestations as its characteristic
expressions become more limited and stereotyped. Middle life
is the period when, if once thoroughly aroused, it can be most
destructive, not only physically but in the world of worths.
But this is the age of most intense preoccupation, most
exhausting work for body and mind, hence on the whole,
because other interests are so absorbing, of greatest immunity.
A certain choleric vein gives zest and force to all acts, and
increased manifestation of temper is one of the signs of weak
wills and decaying intellectual powers.
1. M., 19. I used to abandon myself to anger, but since the age of 14
I have lived in circumstances which absolutely require self-control.
I have grown to philosophize more before letting go, and can sometimes
stop long enough to reflect whether I am really right or wrong. The
dominant thought is the effect of the acts. As a child I used to feel
that I could not act or squeal loud enough, and often wanted to kill
the offender. Temper, I think, first shows itself in acts and then in
words.
2. F., 31. As a child I must have been a perfect spitfire and would
fight, kick and strike like a little animal, and must have been as soul-
less as Undine. Another little girl as bad as I fought with me, and
we sometimes tore each other's hair for ten minutes. I usually came
off with a great deal of triumph. About 11, chiefly under the influ-
ence of an older girl, I began to unfold a little heart and soul, and to
realize that life was a little more than self-feeling and self-pleasing,
when my childish temper quite disappeared.
3. F., 20. In the morning before I am fully awake, my temper is
most ticklish. I am slow, but when thwarted and fully roused I am
so transported with rage that I can neither move nor speak. If I can
strike or throw something, m)' feelings are relieved as if a thunder-
storm cleared the air. I end with passionate crying. Now, when I
am beginning to feel these inner convulsions, I can control them
better, and my remorse afterwards is deeper than it was in childhood.
4. F., 21. I find it unexpectedly hard to analyze my temper. It is
bad, and I fight it constantly. When I feel myself going, I have
forced myself to read of the crucifixion of Christ. At first I was
unmoved, but soon tears came and I was all right. The old feeling of
A STUDY OF ANGER. 57 1
fighting myself, as real as if with fists, has passed away. As a child I
used to roll, to kick, and once bit my tongue. I now talk into myself.
I still have the feeling that we have a right to stand up sometimes
on our dignity, but still know that we should have more love and trust
toward our fellow beings. I have a real sense of union with unseen
powers and try to feel a oneness with the human race ; and when I
can, this helps me greatly.
5. F. I have diligently cultivated my natural bad temper, so as to
give it the hasty, fiery form instead of the sulky one.
6. F., 21. I think I take offence quicker, but control it easier than
when young. I feel temper to be childish and due to a slow, weak
will.
7. F., 21. My temper has changed little since childhood. Perhaps
it was then quicker and for different reasons, but not getting what I
wanted has always been the chief provocative.
8. F., 22. From 12 to 16 my temper was so bad that my mother
was in despair. Now the worst outbreaks have about ceased.
9. M. My temper is greatly improved since childhood. I am still
quick to wrath, but it does not last. Small things trouble me most.
10. M., 18. Now I can control my fists, but not my tongue. When
I do make a few remarks, I generally have the best of it. Father says
I shall have to be knocked down a few times before I know enough to
shut up.
11. M., 27. My disposition to passion has grown less because of a
more favorable milieu.
12. F., 30. My anger confession is that when a child I slammed
doors, made faces, was impudent ; while now temper makes me irri-
table and, alas, that I must confess it, I scold.
13. F., 26. When small I would throw myself down ; later clench
my fists and stamp. Am far better tempered than I was, for much
that once angered me does so no more. I have gained control over
words and acts and feelings, and now can foresee causes of anger and
thus avoid them.
14. F. My temper as a woman is so changed from that of child-
hood that they seem to belong to two different beings. Once explo-
sive, I am now more morbid, peevish, and irritable. I believe it is
because my life has been so unsuccessful.
15. F. As a child I rarely got into a violent rage with others of my
own age, and think the reason was that I always spoke or struck out
at ones, and thus relieved my feelings before they had time to gather
full force. With my superiors, however, fear kept my anger down
until it would grow to an outburst. I always ran to an empty room,
banged the door, raged and sobbed till I was tired out. Now, instead
of crying, I clench my teeth and drive the nails into the palms ; my
heart beats so fast that I feel choked and my head seems as though it
would split.
16. F., 29. I am less passionate than when younger, because I con-
sider all sides and realize how easily people misjudge; try to be chari-
table, and think those with unpleasant or selfish ways worthier of pity
than of blame. I want to help people struggle against their weak
nerves, for I have my own.
IV. Reaction.
When the spasm or crisis of anger is passed, it leaves
the system exhausted in exact proportion to the violence
of the attack, and inversely as the strength of the victim.
Many are faint, cold, tremble, feel weak, perhaps drop down
572 HAI,!, :
almost in a collapse of fatigue, and with symptoms of prostra-
tion. They have headaches, nausea, bilious attacks, tears,
general mental confusion, restlessness, depression, a sense of
growing old, perspiration. Many of these physical symptoms
are direct reactions from an over-expenditure of energy. There
are often peculiar and individual sensations, like bad odors,
tastes, ringing in the ears, optical symptoms, prickling and
twitching, palpitation.
The psychic reactions most frequent are mortification of
having appeared at great disadvantage, humiliation for having
showed low level and perhaps bestial traits, a sense of shame
for lack of control, poignant regret, self pity, qualms of con-
science for having broken through resolutions or other forms
of restraint, renewed resolves for the future, etc.
In some cases, along with this, and still more rarely predom-
inating over them, is a pleased sense of exaltation arising
largely from the natural exhilaration due to an increased sense
of vitality and probably from a sense that justice has been
done, judgment executed, the truth spoken, the basis for new
and better understanding laid, etc. In this case there is no
question of regret or contrition unless for the physical results.
Here belong some of those cases who profess to have never felt
a sense of guilt, however strong the outbreak. This in some
cases is d^ie to the concurrence of emotional strength with
intellectual weakness, which prevents forever complete reaction
to a normal state. Some souls tend to remain with reference
to the offending cases where the last wave of passion left them,
and although a friendship has been broken forever, justify
themselves. This occurs either where mental elasticity is less,
or the power to cherish grudges greater, than normal.
Yet another type rushes precipitately to the opposite extreme
of self humiliation and abasement. They are abject in apolo-
gies, take over much blame upon themselves, make it a virtue
to claim more than their share of the fault, and pour out their
souls in superlatives of confessional self immolation and pleas
for precipitate forgiveness.
Another better poised type shuns all ostentatious reversion,
and though perhaps feeling that they have been a bit brutish and
treasuring the lessons of regret and even remorse, from dispo-
sition or conviction, never ask pardon but quietly ignore the
outbreaks, are perhaps a little over sweet, but feeling that least
said is soonest mended, glide back without a word to old rela-
tions. This steadier type does not usually go quite to extremes
of manifesting temper, and this mode of atonement is no doubt
on the whole sanest in some cases.
In some the reaction is chiefly moral and religious, and prayer
A STUDY OF ANGER. 573
and other spiritual exercises, together with those of conscience,
play a prominent reactionary role. .
Some are able to react into a sense of the humor and ridicu-
lousness of it all. Instead of being bestial, vile, undignified,
disgraceful or unhealthy, it is simply preposterous and absurd;
and the penalties of ridicule and caricature self inflicted may
become habitual, and very efficient as a means of restraint.
1. Irish, F., 27. I tremble all over sometimes for an hour when a
temper fit is passed.
2. F., 21. When it is over, I am exhausted and cold and tearful.
3. M., 18. When reacting from a bad mad I cry, regular sobs
choking me all over, although tears are less plentiful.
4. M., 31. A violent outbreak leaves me worn out in body and
mind. I am strong and healthy, but after my last could hadly stand,
and I felt as if I had grown older, sadder and changed.
5. F., 22. When the passion is spent, then comes the weeping fit,
and then great prostration.
6. F., 22. After I have broken out badly, I am tired and restless
for days. My mind whirls on its own way and takes in nothing.
7. F., 41. After a mad fit, I am pale and faint, my hands tremble
so that I cannot use them and I have to sit or even lie down from sheer
relaxation.
8. F., 31. Anger makes me feel worn out but peaceful. I am often
frightened that I can get so angry, and often have a nervous headache
later.
9. I am usually thought to be good tempered. The reason is that
it takes the form of a sort of muddled wretchedness, which I can
usually save up till night and fight out alone. I am always left weak
physically, but mentally better.
10. M., 18. I once almost killed a tyrant boy in our school, who
bullied, but did not feel half as bad as after whipping my horse.
When I had done so, I would cry for an hour with my arms around its
neck,
11. F., 33. I know a girl of 13 who whines, scolds and is cross all
day and the next day she is abed with a bilious attack. These alarm
her, and she is trying to control herself.
12. F. When a spell of rage had worn itself out, I always reflected
that I would be out of favor and get no petting. Until 10 I had no
other regret and did not know it was wrong. I remember vividly
when first told it was a fault, and when I tried to stop I was corrected
by being sent to a corner, and sobbed violently. Few things I ever
did were harder than when I made myself pick up a book I had flung
down, and go on with the interrupted lesson. I often try novel read-
ing with success. Am very sympathetic with ill-tempered people.
13. F., 40. I react by feeling that I have been a brute, try to meet
my enemy as if nothing had happened, think it rarely wise to apolo-
gize, on the principle ** least said, soonest mended."
14. F., 17. I am generally very contrite and want to make up by
taking more of my share of the fault, and find that sometimes prayer
helps.
15. F., 21. Although in anger I feel very bitter and full of burn-
ing hate toward all mankind, my reaction is intense remorse, though I
never speak of it.
16. F., 26. My feeling afterward is a misery too great to speak of
or even write. I know it a most dreadful sin, and remorse is deeper
in proportion as the object was dearly loved.
574 HALL :
17. F., 24. When I give way to uncalled for or long cherishe<1 an-
ger, I feel sore and angry at myself, afterwards realizing how horrid I
am and how much sweeter others are. I rarely, however, think much
about anger after it is all over.
18. F., 20. My reaction is shame, seeing the other side, difficulty
in speaking to the person in a natural tone of voice, realizing how
small the cause was and feel that I have been a great silly. It makes
me wretched that I cannot take things more calmly.
19. F., 19. It is far harder to express contrition in words than in
acts, and yet if others do not apologize, my liking for them cools in
spite of myself.
20. F., 28. A storm that has long smouldered in me rages on often
for a long time, especially if my sister, usually its cause, is thoroughly
and at once subdued. I feel humiliated in my own eyes because I
have failed in what I have most desired, namely, control.
21. F., 38. I easily forget causes of anger, but never the feeling,
and my constant dread is lest I shall be stirred up anew.
22. F., 21. When I think it over afterwards and see how foolish it
was, I see that I must forgive as I would be forgiven and resolve to be
more sensible next time, but alas !
23. F., 24. My reaction is never referring or thinking of it, or
perhaps saying I did not mean to hit or being a little more affectionate
than usual, amending by extra docility and sweetness with much
inward disgust with myself. Sometimes I overwhelm the object of
my anger with kindness.
24. F., 20. My contrition is not very deep and I detest reconcili-
ation scenes, but glide back to normal relations without a word. To
say I am reconciled, before I feel quite so, helps.
25. F., 21. At the highest pitch of frenzy, i do not care what I say
or do, only striving to make it the worse, but later my remorse is awful
and aggravated by punishment from parents. -At these periods all my
wrong deeds, especially those known to my own self, would rise up
and I would resolve to confess to my father. I never came to the
point of doing so, because I feared the knowledge of them would
break his heart and usually ended by resolving to wait until he was
on his death bed.
V. Control.
Some children grow on towards maturity with no instruction
that it is well to control anger and feel that not to fight on
every provocation is a sign of cowardice. These cases are
very rare, and experience soon teaches every child the necessity
of some restraint. The simplest method is to command the
voice, to speak slow, low, after a pause, and with steady and,
if possible, kindly tones. Another is to relax in the jaws,
arms and elsewhere the instinctive muscle tension and to undo,
step by step, the attitudes and facial expressions after first
restraining acts. The mirror sometimes makes a sudden reve-
lation of ugliness that is a great aid. Repulsive and extreme
exhibitions of anger in others prompt good resolves by way of
warning, as do examples of great control by emulation. If
one can assume even approximately the muscular expressions
of the opposite state, anger cannot long persist ; for its nature
is very closely bound up with tensions, not all of which, how-
A STUDY OF ANGER. 575
ever, are under control of the will. That effort in this direc-
tion is of very great psychic and pedagogic value there can
be no doubt. This we may call, perhaps, the most direct way
of control.
Next comes the presence of others, especially those who are
respected, loved or not very well known. To have made an
exhibition of temper before a stranger is so mortifying as to
usually reinforce all the instincts of control. Some confess to
having a very ugly or even dangerous temper, but declare that
no person has ever seen its malignity. In other cases, persons
with a reputation of good and even sweet tempers among their
friends give way in the presence of one or two members of their
own household to the vilest and ugliest outbreaks. In some
families irascible children get on far better away from home,
not only because their tempers are less likely to be spoiled by
indulgence, but because of the constant pressure of restraint
by the presence of those who do not know them well.
With the inflammable type, counting three, ten, turning
around, any act or formula securing a little delay allows the
slower acting powers of control to be heard from. Some tem-
peraments can thus almost entirely burn the smoke of their
own anger calentures, and for the flashy, petulant t\-pe of
diathesis this alone may sometimes quite sufiice.
Reflection of a moral or religious sort becomes more eflective
as maturity is approached. The repetition of a Bible text or
some proverb not only secures delay, but brings in antagonistic
motives. Recalling the compunction of conscience, the neces-
sary acts and words of atonement, bringing in a vivid sense of
divine watchfulness, the beaut}^ of love and service even to
enemies, remembering that they may have as much cause for
anger as we. Sometimes ceremonies or prayerful exercises are
effective.
Diversion is a great and most effective panacea. If the mind
can be occupied with something else at once that absorbs it
and prevents brooding, it soon glides imperceptibly into good
nature and comes back to the standpoint from which offences
can be regarded with equanimity.
By some or all of these methods, some bring themselves to a
habitude of displaying and soon to feeling special kindness to
those who injure them, although few learn to turn the other
cheek to the smiter. Indeed, current ethical standards, even
in the best people, hardly justify a literal fulfillment of this
Christian prescript. Literature furnishes a few examples of
ascetic ideals, according to which imperturbability is almost in
a metamorphical and even literal sense, as if thus superogatory
merit were accumulated or treasure laid up in heaven. A
young convert at Orchard Beach once told the writer that he
576 HAI.I. :
never knew such joy as when he was buffeted and insulted in
his work of soul saving, and alwaj^s indulged in ejaculatory
thanks to God when he was cursed, struck, pelted with mud,
snow or otherwise foully treated as a result of the crude meth-
ods of slum work to which his zeal had impelled him. The
ethics of this frame of mind may well be doubted, and the
world admires the Quaker, who at a certain point of provoca-
tion, lays aside his gray and his creed to drub an aggressor.
1. F., i8. I check rage by asking, is it right? — and try to weigh
the facts. Since I was 14 I have realized how wrong anger is and can
generally control it. It is very violent, but people do not know my
struggles to curb it. Above all things, I hate scenes. All our family
are irritable and nervous, and we have to steady ourselves. We all
get on better when away from home. I sometimes try to think of all
the times my enemies have been nice to me.
2. F. If I give way to my temper, I soon feel well and in love
with the world and with every one in it again ; but if restraint suc-
ceeds, I am miserable, overcome, want solitude, and feel that a heavy
weight is hanging over me, or like a smothered volcano liable to burst
forth.
3. F., 30. I have but once or twice in my life let myself go, and
then went off like a whirlwind and stopped when I was ready. I
almost never lose control. To restrain general irritability is far harder.
4. F., 15. A lot of girls last winter turned on me, threw snow and
called me names. I wanted to pay them back, but something told me
not to. I felt as if it were some one talking right to me. The girls
said I was a coward, but still I did not hit them. The Bible, you
know, says forget and forgive.
5. F., 40. If one I love angers me, I am simply benumbed. Bitter
speeches, which I know would rankle, occur, but are never uttered.
Between love and this assertion of my words, self-conflict is short,
sharp, and generally results in perfect silence. I have noticed that I
tap my foot and often open and shut my hands and perhaps my teeth.
6. F., 24. My temper has grown more tolerant of late, for I can
sometimes check it by reflecting that others may know better, may be
right, or have a right to their own opinion, that it is useless to strive
or will be all the same a month or 100 years hence.
7. F., 28. I find it hard to think before I speak or to control my
words, but I try to turn my thoughts to something pleasant. If I
have the chance to do a person with whom I have been angry a good
turn, and if I do it, which is not always the case, then all self feelings
go. If my enemy makes advances by doing me a good turn, the
anger goes, but then I feel remorse.
8. M., 32. To aid children in self-control, they should be taught
command of the voice and hands, attitudes, and awards and punish-
ments should be meted out with great delicacy and tact.
9. F., 22. I find some help by holding my face in my hands and
smothering my screams, but must be alone where I can gesticulate and
act out a little.
10. M., 27. When angry I am in a state of miserable tension all
over. I feel it first about the head, in the the temples and forehead.
I am conscious of unwonted secretions in the stomach. I can lately
help myself a little by forcing my attention to the drawn muscles and
relaxing them. This makes me at least a little calmer.
11. F., 28. Control of anger I think comes largely from imitation.
If children see others check rage, they learn to do so.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 577
12. F., 19. Ouce I chanced to look in the glass when I was angry,
and I did look so perversely ugly, that I now think twice before letting
go. My face gets broad, heavy, babyish, the corners of my mouth go
down and I frown awfully.
13. F., 27. Once my favorite uncle dropped into the nursery and
found me on the floor kicking and screaming. He was shocked and
said I looked more like a beast than a little girl. I was so ashamed
that it cured me entirely.
14. F., 20. The more strangers are about, the less my irritability
troubles me. Their presence is the best control. I am far worse at
home. When vexed I try hard to think of something else or say to
myself how much better it is to control myself or recall possible out-
breaks.
15. M., 50. A murderer, awaiting sentence for crime done in a
flash of anger, whom I know, told me he always carried a stick in his
pocket to chew when in a rage to prevent such an outbreak as that he
was to die for. When the fatal provocation came, the stick was lost,
and could he have readily found a substitute, he is sure he would have
done no harm.
16. I rarely felt guilty for rage and perhaps did not use to recognize
my feelings as anger. There was no such self-condemnation as when
I had lied. I did not apply Bible sayings about my anger to myself.
As I showed anger chiefly to brothers and sisters next me in age, no
adult knew how bad my temper was except the governess, who was
the only one who ever spoke to me of the wickedness of anger.
Abandon. In really rare cases, there is either no power of
control whatever, or else what power there is can be easily
broken down, so that the individual is entirely at the mercy of
his anger. If this is great, he becomes literally insane or in-
furiated, like animals suffering from rabies. This is sometimes
seen in idiots, degenerates, imbeciles and other defectives. All
fear of persons, punishment and other consequences is lost, and
the individual is absolutely helpless and blind in the storm of
rage. In excessive and prolonged provocation, when man is
brought to bay and knows his case to be hopeless, and that he
can only sell his life dearly as possible, a somewhat similar con-
dition supervenes. This is not courage but fury, and the
destructive impulse may be so strong as not to stop at any
manifestation of suffering, danger, or even death to the victim,
but may impel to nameless mutilations of corpses and the im-
pulse to annihilate even self and others in the highest pitch of
frenzy. Boys, who easily and really become blind mad, are
usually defective or morally insane, and all extreme manifesta-
tions are generally restrained before strength or knowledge
enough is acquired to make them dangerous, or they become
amokers. p. 521.
I. M., 40. My boy striked when angry never quite straight, chooses
a safe place like the shoulder and often with pounding down blows.
Girls I have noticed are more likely to strike down. A lady I know
when very angry speaks with the sweetest face and voice. Her man-
ner is more charming than at any other time, but the things she says
sting bitterly.
578 HALL :
2. M., 29. Up to 9 or ID my brother was so passionate as to be al-
most dangerous, and no punishment or disgrace affected him. He
would strike wildly without aiming his blows; has thrown stools, ham-
mer, stones and various things at me. We all used to be terrified and
I used to knock him down and sit on him till he was quiet, unless
some came to the rescue.
3. F., 38. I have a strong and secret dread lest anything should ex-
cite my anger. It is dreadful and I am always in hopes nothing will
occur to rouse it. I fear it like physical pain. It is mental pain which
I believe leaves a scar.
4. M., 30. The mother of a 14 year old boy had always vented
much anger upon him, when one day for the first time in his life, he
broke out with an awful volume of oaths, which paralyzed his parents
and made them feel that he must be very carefully dealt with or he
would be dangerous. It was, however, all game which he had put up
deliberately and over which he chuckled.
5. My boy of 8 is passing through an irritable period connected, I
think, with second dentition. He flies into a fury, throws, strikes,
says he is crazy, and his body feels drawn up. I can see, however,
that he has sense enough left to avoid doing the worst. His father,
who is very nervous, believes in using the whip in extreme cases. This
makes the boy pale, cold in his extremities, and nauseated. His older
half sister is aggressive with him, so that his provocations are strong
and frequent.
VI. Treatment.
Worst of all is humoring and the over-indulgence by
which too fond parents are prone to spoil the temper of only
or sickly children by excessive indulgence. Even good
dispositions degenerate to moroseness under this regimen and
a vigorous application of Dr. Spankster's tonic in such cavSes
may work wondrous and sudden cures.
For strong, healthy children, whose will is not absolutely dis-
eased by balkiness, whipping, if judiciously adininistered, great-
ly reinforces the power of self control. With young children
it must often be a blow on the instant and without a word of
warning or moralizing, and if there is a little instinctive indig-
nation, it is all the better; and if not felt anger should often
be simulated by the parent or teacher. This gives a quick
sense of the natural abhorrence w4th which such conduct is
regarded and teaches the child limitations beyond which its
conduct becomes outrageous to others. Dermal pain, which is
not so bad as sickly sentimentality regards it, thus comes to be
associated with moral pain, both in self and others, where out-
breaks occur.
Another effective method is neglect. By this the child is
simply ignored, set aside from ordinary relations of intercourse,
perhaps isolated as disagreeable, troublesome or sick, and
thus comes to feel by their temporary loss what the ordinary
relations of love, in which they live, really mean and are. It
is let alone, treated with silence and affected indifference or
even coolness or sadness. The social instincts are so strong
A STUDY OF ANGER. 579
that the child soon wishes to kiss or make other signs of desired
atonement, and to be taken back to the hearts of its friends as
before. This method can be well developed and sustained, but
with some has its own peculiar dangers and must not be car-
ried too far.
Some are best helped by being left to the natural conse-
quences of their acts. If they break their toys in a pet, they
go without them. If they injure their clothes, bed, books, pets,
they must be left to feel a sense of loss after the ruffled temper
is calmed. If they litter the nursery or playground, they must
slick it up, or if valuable things are endangered, they are taken
away. If they treat others badly, their friendship is ostenta-
tiously cooled. Thus they are made to anticipate the penalties
of adult life.
In some, especially in small children and in those with a
keen sense of humor, the risibilities may be appealed to, and
the child provoked to laugh by diversion to funny acts, by cari-
caturing its own deeds, words, tones, appearance, and thus
rage may be suddenly neutralized by its opposite.
Plain, straight talk is often effective. Sharp, incisive, graphic
descriptions of their conduct, its effects, how it is regarded, its
consequences when they are adult, often brings a realizing
sense which increases their self-knowledge in most wholesome
directions. No one can read these returns without pleading
for judicious scolding, provided the time, occasion, person, etc.,
be well chosen. All languages are far fuller of words describ-
ing bad than those applied to good conduct, and these drastic
expletives, thus at hand, should be made good use of. Per-
haps it would be injudicious to advocate even a mild use of
profanity as a mode of clenching or rebuking certain manifesta-
tions of temper, but surely if there is anything in the world
that merits damnatory and diabolical terms, it is the extreme
manifestations of rage.
In some cases I believe anger should be worked off by legit-
imate and regulated fighting. There are certain states of
mind, sometimes provoked by certain offences, for which no
ordinary modes of treatment are adequate; and to stand up
squarely in a give and take conflict, whether with fists or wnth
straight out pieces of one's mind to each other, teaches a whole-
some vSense of responsibility and also gives a hearty man-making
type of courage. Every irascible boy at least should know how
to box. Nothing is a better school of control than to face an
equal in a fistic contest, and know that the least loss of temper
involves a wild blow, a loss of guard, and a bloody nose or a
black eye; while victory, other things being equal, is sure to
rest with him who can take a stinging blow in the face or any-
where without losing his head and thus missing an opportunity.
58o HALL :
Prophylactics should not be forgotten in cases that require
special treatment. These are first of all good health, which
always makes for serenity, active and sufficient exercise with
regular work, absence of which is one of the surest modes by
which anger material is accumulated. Primitive man had no
regularity of meals, w^orking hours or occupation, but days
and weeks of idleness alternated with and prepared for by
periods of excessive strain in hunting, migration, warfare, etc.
Into such life rhythms, criminals and degenerates still tend to
lapse, and a balanced regulation of income and expenditure of
energy is the best palliative of every infirmity of disposition;
congenial stated occupation acts especially as an alterative for
those types of anger that tend to spontaneous monthly or other-
wise recurrent explosions. Removal from irritating causes like
relatives with similar types of sulks or irritability, teasing chil-
dren, and a general atmosphere of kindness, affection, and
freedom often work great changes.
1. F., i8. If riled I must be left by myself, for every attempt of
others to soothe my ruffled feelings increases my irritation.
2. F., 19. No fear of punishment ever had the least deterrent or
restraining influence. I always wished as a child, when angry, that
I was grown up and could lay out the unjust person.
3. F., 20. A serious talk to me about my bad temper, when I was
16, helped me very much to both self knowledge and self control.
My grandmother, who was very bad tempered, came to live with us a
few years ago, and she was such an awful lesson of what I should
grow to be at her age, that I improved.
4. F., 27. I think children should have it out with their rages,
and that when the reaction comes, considerable reproof or punishment
has its best effect. To remove causes of anger and find change of
games, or playmates, to give diverting occupations and high ideals
are best.
5. F,, 23. I was allowed to lead in playing with other children.
If they did not do as I said, I always declared that I would not play
and, unfortunately for me, this soon brought them to terms. This
hurt my temper.
6. F., 21. As a child I had few playmates, was much alone, and
so rarely lost my temper. I had most things that I wanted and so
had occupation enough to keep me from wanting much that I could
not have.
7. F., As a mother of three children, whose father's family is full
of nervous disease, I think perfect health the only cure of bad temper.
The world is at best abnormal and civilization especially so. To
make happiness a habit is to bring in the Kingdom of Heaven. If
this can be evolved from a psychological laboratory, all hail to the
laboratory.
8. M., 31. My mother once whipped me and then kneeled down
and prayed for me. The latter made me more angry, only in a silent
way, than the former. A moral lecture of being talked good to, or
talked at, rarely fails with me.
9. Once F., 5, threw a favorite toy against a shelf. I put it up
there for two weeks. She cast stolen glances at it daily. I also ask
her, when in a pet, to say quietly, " He that ruleth his spirit is greater
than he that taketh a city," and "A soft answer turneth away wrath."
A STUDY OF ANGER. 58 1
10. A very sunny-tempered boy about twice a year had fits of
uncontrollable rage, destroying everything within reach. These spells
nearly ceased when he was about 9, but after one of them his nursery
looked as if swept by a small cyclone. We never alluded to it, but let
the litter lie until he took an impulse to clean it up.
11. My little brother, when in a passion, gets red, stamps, sticks
to his will to the end, and, if spoken to, hits out in all directions. He
is usually locked up, but the poor door suffers. When calmer, he is
let out, but no notice is taken of him until a few days later, when he
is spoken to seriously.
12. F., 34. My little 4-year old girl inherits considerable temper,
and when she shows it I tell her she is sick or disagreeable, and to go
away by herself. She soon comes back smiling and I tell her the sun
is shining again.
13. F., 21. Sulkiness was my chief trait, but I suddenly and for-
ever left it off when I was 12, when I went to live with my grand-
mother, who gave me a new treatment of simply ignoring me when I
was sulky. She seemed to forget that I existed at such times and
this made me miserable.
14. M., 28. A boy of 9 I know, when angry, used to have real
spasms. The physician long treated him for extreme nervousness,
but he grew no better. Another physician said it must be whipped
out of him. His parents followed this instruction, and although he
was very stubborn, peevish and fretful, it was whipped out of him
and he never had another spasm.
15. M., 41. When my children were crying angry, I used to say,
you can scream ten minutes longer, and they would have sufficient
relief. Often watching the clock would divert them. Neither I nor
the nurse ever say don't to our children.
16. F., 21. We can cause in M., II, the worst fits of rage by making
him laugh against his will. Punishment brings on a headache ; with
uniform kind and sympathetic treatment, all goes well.
17. My lo-year-old brother once cut me with a knife in rage. We
learned, however, that if we cried out, you have hurt my sore corn,
he would always melt to laughter, and would soon become peni-
tent and ask pardon. His passion rarely left any trace after five
minutes.
18. M., 42. Two children were very ill when they and the doctor
said they must not be allowed to cry. Hence they were indulged till
their tempers were spoiled. Any cross drives them into an ungovern-
able fury. They shriek and rave until exhausted. Their face is so
changed that one would not know them, and they seem ready for any
black deed. Curiously, if at the worst stage of their passion some
funny word can catch their attention, they are calmed and laugh, and
it all goes in a moment.
19. F., 27. At the age of 8 or 10 I fell into a state of feeling injured
when everything said or done seemed aimed at me. This state
recurred at intervals for many years and died out only when a great
friendship and love came into my life. When I say stupid things,
forget or remember too late, or plans have to be changed, I still am
likely to look down, pout, stamp, be silent, etc. The sick are irritable
brooding over their imagined wrongs, and self-conscious. The best
way to cure this state is to break out suddenly with some funny
remark or read a letter or something interesting, and it is amusing to
see the change. Troubles are forgotten and happiness returns thus
quickly, especially if several are together.
20. F., 24. Sometimes I can watch myself all through a tantrum,
contemptuously, and perhaps laugh at my own excitement.
582 HALL :
21. F., 22. When disagreeable and provoking things are said, I
now try to laugh it off, and I find this very often succeeds.
22. F., 26. When other people are angry, it makes me calm ;
while if I am angry and they are calm, it makes me far more angry.
The Long During Forms. Instead of exploding, some chil-
dren sulk for hours and days with little power to work it off
otherwise than by making themselves miserable and diffusing
an unpleasant atmosphere. This corroding state is both cause
and effect of narrowed psychic range and easily grows into
suspiciousness and may pass from the passive over into active
and aggressive manifestations. It is hard to maintain this state
without heightened self consciousness, which is prone to im-
agine slights, inuendoes, neglect, dislike, and may even fancy
hostile schemes and plots. With a little morbid taint, sus-
picions of persecution may arise, especially in weak natures,
and from this the passage to overt acts of vengeance has been
admirably described by Magnan. Most sulkers and brooders,
however, while good haters do not pass readily over to vengeance.
The law of retaliation, an eye for an eye, etc., is deeply seated
in the human soul, and is closely connected with both the sense
and with all the institutions of justice. Ancient and mediaeval
law was based upon the conception of injury for an injur}*, and
elaborate tables of equivalents were developed. While courts
now take the administration of graver matters of justice under
their charge, much is still left to private settlement. In the
scores of minor matters, we see in society this instinct of pay-
ing back in the same coin and which safeguards so much that
is precious in life. Do others who do you, rather than the
golden rule, is more germane for the natural and even for the
twice born man.
Hate may be conceived as prolonged and more mentalized
anger which may or may not express itself in overt acts.
Usually it awaits occasion before it is heard from and it is often
a strong factor in tests of popular suffrage, where those who
believed themselves surrounded by friends find to their chagrin
veins of disfavor where least expected.
Revenge seeks more than justice and would pay back with
interest. It may be long cherished, even in the animal world,
where grudges are harbored until there spite can be vented.
Here we find long cherished and matured plans, the results of
accumulated malice perhaps of months or years often involving
calamities far beyond merit and not infrequently involving others
in the doom of the victim. Among lists of infernal machines,
slow poisoning, well schematized and insidious detraction, slan-
der, libel, alienation of dearest friends, destruction of financial
credit, moral or religious repute, — of all this literature, court
records and individual observation abound. There are those
A STUDY OF ANGER. 583
who can give the entire energy of their lives for long periods
and even spend their treasure and take very grave risks to taste
the sweets of vengeance upon an enemy. They are incapable
of forgetting or forgiving, and their souls are soils in which all
seeds of injury grow to preposterous dimensions. Such natures
are constitutionally secretive, taciturn or cryptobiotic, and hug
or nurse trifles sometimes purely imaginary until they fill the
whole field of their mental vision. Had such souls the same
creativeness in art, literature or good deeds, they would be great
benefactors, but their passion is malevolence and destruction is
far easier.
1. M., 27. A boy of 9 bore a long grudge against a shop keeper
and for weeks sought an opportunity to smash his $60 glass window.
Pea blowers and small stones were often thrown and at last it was
broken. The boy was glad, would not apologize and went to a reform
school, although told that he would be released upon asking pardon.
The worst children are those who harbor grudges and vent spite after
a long interval, during which it seems to accumulate like compound
interest.
2. M., 24. Boy of 12 saved his money and bought salt to put on
the neighbor's lawn, and when asked why, gave a long list of mean
things the neighbor had done to disturb his play. He said, " Now I
am revenged, we are even, and I am happy."
3. M., 25. I know a man not of strong will but conceited, who is
more discriminating and persevering in his revenge than in anything
else. This he makes a holy thing and his chief object in life. He
could wait for years to pay off his debts. He would even study the
character of children, and relatives of his victims, to find the tender
spot. Remorse he had none.
4. F., 21. In exceptional cases, as of insult, I recall and brood over
every detail, holding long imaginary conversations with the person,
giving her good chunks of my mind. In one case I kept doing this
over and over, nursing my hate for two years. Then it suddenly went
away, leaving only a half humorous contempt for the person. Even
if anger fades, I never willingly have the slightest intercourse with
such an one. I have always been thought to have an unforgiving
character, and as a child, often did bodily harm,
5. F., 30. I know a woman who refused to speak to her husband
or her daughter for a week, although living in the same house with
them. She is glum, and thought all the time she was a paragon
of virtue and controlled her temper because she did not speak.
6. F., 26. I believe in standing up for myself and in speaking with
greater warmth and assurance of being right than I really feel some-
times. Years ago a friend spoke hotly to me and I coolly told her she
was unjust. We agreed to part although I wanted to get right, but
brooded over it for years. My subject of love was impaired by a sense
of injury, but I have never been able to overcome it.
7. F., 30. A friend of mine is irritable, her spells lasting for days
every month. She never smiles unless bitterly, contradicts everything.
The world and all the inhabitants appear corrupt. Her lips are firmly
set and her eyes are staring and freezing. This mood is followed by
exaggerated mirth.
8. F., 18. When in temper I cannot be spoken to. I cherish a
dislike, call up all previous misunderstandings, real or imaginary,
584 HAI.L :
aggravate present case and make myself very wretched. I struggle to
get out of these states but am more and more powerless to do so.
9. F., 42. When I was 16 a classmate lied to the teacher, saying
she had helped me in an examination. I could not go to her without
betraying the girl who told me, so I worked six months hard from
sheer revenge, and got a higher grade certificate than hers at examina-
tion. This proved that she could not have helped me. All this time
I could not say the forgiveness clause of the Lord's prayer, but she
never knew I was angry.
10. F., 27. I would sulk if reproved and nurse my wrong, feeling
that I was a martyr until I reached the point when I would weep. I
would pout, refuse to smile, answer snappishly or not at all, and
always strove to do the opposite of what was wanted.
11. M. I felt a certain triumph in sulking but do not then wish
to be alone, as I do in anger. I imagine that the offender implores
my pardon, which I take pleasure in refusing. Sometimes when I
have sulked long enough and the person to whom I am sulking feels
contrite, I sometimes wish I could force myself to the point of saying
" forgive me," but I cannot.
12. M., 25. My father had terrible fits of anger, which occasion-
ally went on for days during which he would be almost completely
silent ; while my mother, who is chiefly irritated by slowness as I am,
is exceedingly voluble and loquacious when angry.
13. M., 25. If offended I often try to sulk in a very dignified way,
but find it hard to keep this up long.
14. M., 31. My irritability, which I inherit from my father and
which differs from strong passion, makes me feel as if I wanted to set
everything and everybody around me flying, and then to be absolutely
alone.
15. F., 32. I feel better if I can speak my mind. I have been so
angry that I have felt I was possessed by an evil spirit, but it all
seemed so senseless afterwards.
16. M., 25. If I dwell on things, anger grows, so I am usually angriest
sometime after the cause, but rarely show it at the time.
17. F., 34. I never had but four outbursts of passion, and these
were when 19, 21, 29, and 33. The cause was always unjustice to self
or friends, and I felt a horrid pain at what caused the anger, and im-
mense relief at giving vent to the storm within. I never felt ashamed
but often sorry.
18. F., 28. Anger must have scope or it accumulates with me.
Blame rouses it most, next comes interference, although I know that
often when this is by friends, it is an expression of interest.
19. Scotch, F., 19. My nasty temper never smoulders, but it is
ablaze and over. I feel I must do something or explode, and must
either say bitter scathing things or take violent exercise.
20. ,M., 38. My boy of 11 when angry, screams, speaks fast or in
a gruff tone, and likes to break things. His reactions are emphatic
and take the form of asking pardon of superiors, and showing excessive
kindness to his inferiors. If his anger has free vent, he shows no de-
sire for revenge later.
21. F., 27. My tempers first simmer, then boil, then explode in
way that make me shake from head to foot. I am so unsettled for a
long time afterwards that I find a walk the best way to work off the
effects.
22. F., 26. If I repress rage entirely, from shame or any other
cause, it lasts much longer. I brood over it, exaggerate the injustice
and find it harder to reason myself into a happy mood of kindness
toward the offender.
23. F«, 37- I most dread those people, who when angry are pre-
A STUDY OF ANGER. 585
ternaturally cool, precise and impressive. This is really the most
terrible kind of passion, for you fear it may break out in anything.
24. Smothered anger that is not allowed to effervesce may become
lasting and warp character, so that it is often hard to choose between
the much and too little control.
25. F., 21. I do not rage but am irritable, and love to appear in-
different and even cut my acquaintances. Injustice makes the most
permanent resentment.
26. My daughter of 12 is saucy, impudent, when she is provoked,
but rarely revengeful.
27. F., 28. Grumbling and fault finding is the worst; sometimes
trials through the day come out in the form of petulance or fretful-
ness when children go to bed.
Different Ways in which hidividuals regard their ow7i Anger
States. The condition of rage is almost always regarded as
very distinct from that of normal consciousness. The natural
untaught child has at first little sense of moral wrong in this
state, but soon connects painful impressions with it in his own
experiences, which make for control. The instinct of seclusion,
strongest with girls, and the bearing a great deal before giving
way, both attest the many fears connected with this state.
Threats often imply peculiar dangers if this second personality
once becomes ascendant. Boys, who boast how strong they
are and the cruel things they might do if mad, as though their
anger was a dangerous and concealed weapon; anger, which
adds more or less consciously to its intensity by feigning impulses
to do unutterable things — all these are often effective in intimi-
dating not only comrades but often parents and teachers. The
simulation of anger often so admirable as a pedagogic method,
the dramatic assumption of many of the symptoms and expres-
sions of rage, are sometimes very effective in preventing fights,
and a due sense among adults in society of the danger to per-
son, property, or reputation of making active enemies and in-
tensifying dislikes, is wholesome and sanitary. To arouse this
demon, which may carry away those about us in a frenzy of
rapt passion, is a danger that should never be forgotten, for
where abandon is complete, the dearest friend, the fondest wife,
child or even parent, may suffer an almost complete reversion,
and hate, as inverted love, may become the most intense and
rancorous of all. A single spasm of anger has sometimes the
power in some souls of expelling affection forever beyond the
power of pardon or even truce, and perhaps this ** old Adam,"
as a potentiality, exists in every soul and may break through
every fetter.
I. F., 30. Righteous wrath makes my moral sense keener, but
this, I find, is very wearing to the nerves. To have a strong feeling
of " served him right," when a mean thing is done, is almost a part
of conscience. During the first stage of venting anger upon an oppo-
nent there is a grim satisfaction, but fortunately for the race this soon
leads to shame.
JouRNAiy — 17
586 HALL :
2. F., 19. After a mad spell I sometimes feel repentant, often
indifferent, and always very glad that my temper helped me to do
what I wanted to do but otherwise never should have done.
3. M., 29. I believe in causes of offence; it is better to have the
matter out, for a good rage freely vented gives an easement like the
" peace which passeth all understanding, which nothing else can give
and which is not of this earth." I know people who will not soeak
to you for a week, when you are quite at a loss for the cause, andpre-
fer hasty tempers to the sulks.
4. M., 30. I plead for more anger in school. There is a point
where patience ceases to be a moral or pedagogical virtue, but is mere
flabbiness.
5. M., 31. In my experience as a teacher it is often an excellent
thing to simulate or pretend anger in dealing with young children.
Some faults are better punished with a little heat of anger than in
cold blood.
6. F., 29. I prefer to deal with fiery than with sulky people, and
am sure that a pretty good temper is desirable if not in excess. It is
sometimes well to speak out that we may know and be known, and
avoid misunderstandings.
7. F., 22. A strong temper well under control is a great force, and
may be used for good. Heaven knows I hope it may prove so in my
case.
8. F., 19. I am so often in the wrong that I seldom have a chance
for righteous indignation, but I look forward to it some day, for I
really like to get into a passion.
9. M., 24. It is certainly a great relief to get in a rage once in a
while, but I think it should be done in solitude.
10. F., 21. The excitement is the pleasant part of my temper,
and I grumble, fume and scold.
11. F., 20. A girl of prickly, contradictory disposition, balanced
by much judgment, if angry never speaks, but acts. Once when 17,
and told to replace some trimmings she had scissored into 100 pieces
from her hat because she did not like them, she was roused to higher
spirits, the deeper the disgrace. Her merriest evenings were when
she had been in trouble during the entire day, and so had thrown off
all restraints and revelled in the freedom from responsibility of being
good. All her moods were afterwards atoned by a storm of tears.
12. Scotch, F,, 24. I can generally check temper at an unkind or
sarcastic remark and occasionally do not show it at all. Only once
within the last ten years do I remember giving entire vent to temper,
when I suddenly flew up inwardly and boxed my brother's ears. He
looked so astonished that, although I was trembling with rage, I
could hardly help laughing. I have found it a not altogether
unpleasant sensation to be in a great rage. It wakes me up and
makes me feel very much alive. I do remember once more giving
way, and I shook my bigger brother till I thought I could hear his
teeth chatter. If unwell or busy, I often feel very bitter and cross.
13. F., 19. The satisfaction and relief that used to make the after
feeling decidedly pleasant is less now than formerly, for now it often
leaves me unsatisfied, which it never did before.
14. Scotch, F., 26. When I am angry, if any one is at hand, I
speak with greater heat than I really feel in order to keep up my
anger. It is a kind of luxury.
15. F., 28. I used to boast and be very proud of my hot temper.
It left me revengeful, sulky and skulking.' Now I regret it.
j6. F., 22. If deeply offended, I feel dried up toward the person
for weeks and months. If I speak to the object of my wrath, my
voice sounds strange and abrupt to myself. I once stood for hours in
A STUDY OF ANGBR. 587
front of a teacher whose rules I had broken, with occasionally a long-
ing impulse to give way, but something, I suppose false pride, pre-
vented. I felt too strange and excited to be unhappy; the latter came
later. Now rage is a sort of intoxication. I am exhilarated with a
sort of unnatural happiness.
17. Many boys are as I was, fond of talking of their herculean
strength if angered, warning others not to make them mad, lest they
be annihilated when their rage is unchained. Such boys, if angry,
often look, threaten or feign to atttempt the most murderous things
for effect, having themselves, however, fairly well in command all the
time.
18. '* Don't get me mad," said M., 10, "for if I am I can lick K. S.
and B. (boys of 16 to 18) and the teacher himself. I hit the old man
just once in the nose and made him bleed. He has not licked me
since."
19. **When I get mad," said M. 11, "I don't know what I am
doing. I might take out my dirk (he only had a small pocket knife)
and cut your throat or cut your heart out and eat it, or rip you any-
where like a stuck pig. I should not know what I did till afterwards."
20. "Ivook out, don't do that, stop, or you will get me mad ! "
boys often say, speaking of this state as if it were a kind of demoni-
acal possession in which they were no longer accountable.
21. When I am misjudged, as I often am (for this is the way I put
to myself the fact that my sister is far more attractive than I and gets
all the attention) I show my temper by pretending to show non-
chalance. " I care for nobody if nobody cares for me " is the spirit,
although I do care very much indeed. Often I never wished to set
matters right, but gloried in being a martyr.
22. M., 28. I act on the impulse and speak straight out what I
think, say how maddening it is, give others a piece of my mind, tell
them how they should act. If they think I make too much fuss and
keep cool themselves, I am all the madder. I always say all that I
mean and feel easier for having spoken out, but always regret it later.
23. F., 24. If my temper is upset, I feel disobliging and disagree-
able. I never had physical signs of it, and have learned to avoid
those I cannot live pleasantly with. When passion rises I have to
weep, and must hide lest the cause of my anger should think my
tears are those of penitence, instead of righteous indignation.
27. Psychological observations, like charity, are best begun at home,
and I have all my life been at home with almost nothing so much as
temper, although I never spoke willingly about it before, save once
to the clergyman who prepared me for confirmation at the age of 16.
My confessions are not complete, but I do not know how to write some
things.
Love and Dread of Seeing Conflict in Anger. Both our re-
turns and common experiences show that many, and especially
women, have great and sometimes morbid dread of any mani-
festations of anger as of all other uncontrolled states. In an-
imals, females are often described as watching with compla-
cency the conflict of their rival males for their possession, and
it seems probable that the intense horror of this state, which
many females report, is associated more or less unconsciously
with the sexual rage which has followed it.
The great interest and pleasure in a fight, which boys, men,
and sometimes even women manifest, is well attested in the
588 HAI.I. :
history of gladiatorial contests, tournaments, the wager of battle,
pugilistic encounters, duels, whether by students or according
to codes, wrestling and many other popular diversions, the
crowd that always gathers to see men, boys or even dogs fight,
cock fights and bull fights, etc., are further attested. The
spectator's first impulse is to see fair play, and to have the
contest prolonged and continued until one or the other of the
contestants is subdued, and sometimes the thumbs go down,
and even death is postulated. The writer himself confesses in
his own experience a quite unparalleled tingling of fibre and
a peculiar mental inebriation, he has himself felt in experiences
of this kind, which as a psychologist and especially as a student
of this subject, he has felt justified in giving himself. The
common experiences of life seem dull, there is a zest of heroic
achievement, of staking all for the chance of victory, of doing
and daring with the greatest energy and risk, and that despite
the brutality and the sense of degradation which comes from
defying the ban of social condemnation placed upon witnessing
such scenes. They give a sense that is to a great degree true,
that life is warfare, that the struggle for survival never inter-
mits, is always intense and bitter upon whatever plane life is
lived, that offensive and defensive resources must never be out
of reach, and that in a sense every one must be either a good
fighter or a coward. Compared with the utterly unregulated
fights of quite barbaric human beings, all these forms of con-
flict are more or less refined by rules or by customs, and one
moral which familiarity with them impresses is that muscular
strength and agility and the power to use fists and other natural
weapons, and even some kind of code by which under certain
circumstances certain wrongs, which the law cannot reach, can
be promptly and summarily dealt with, is a distinct advantage
to the ethical nature of man and a real safeguard of the high-
est civilization.
1. The sight of anger in others causes an awe struck yet interested
wonder in the spectator, and every one flocks to see a quarrel. A boy
of II jigged, danced and leaped up and down on witnessing a quarrel
between two girls, although they attempted no physical violence, but
simply stared at each other and said bitter things in a low distinct
voice. If the quarrel is by older people, spectators on the other hand
retire in almost inverse proportion to their sex, age, and strength.
2. F., 26. My brother, 17, once was roused to a frenzy at his
brother attacking him brutally and looking awfully. He was taken
to his room, and I sat by all night fearing murder, or something else
still more dreadful, to follow. The next day he was silent and sullen,
but gradually became himself again. This experience I cannot even
now think of without shuddering.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 589
Alas for those who consume the power of arrest or control
too frequently or too completely. Many are angels or demons
just in proportion as they are rested or fatigued. The state
called irritability is due to loss of inhibition, and when this is
gone man is the victim of whatever morbid impulses may be
evoked, and some forms of insanity consist essentially in the
loss of this higher power of restraint and the liberation in un-
checked violence of lower instincts. Not only anger but
mania, acute and active melancholy and suicide are often thus
explained. Intensity of impulse, like the power of control,
varies through all degrees. Some have perhaps all the wild
passions, hysterical impulses, and criminal propensities in
great power, but keep them so in leash that their strength and
perhaps their very existence is not suspected by their nearest
friends till some unusual strain removes the power of repression
for a brief interval when they break out with overpowering
mastery. To have and to control them, however, in some
cases seems to give the tension with which the best work of
the world is done. One function of education and civilization
is to restrain and tutor the too quick form of response we call
temper. It is always a waste of energy which passes from the
potential to the kinetic form, so that control is storage of
strength for either endurance or for action. The irritable
diathesis involves the loss of all sense of proportion as well
as perfect dignity, and weakens discipline, and ''temper is
a weapon we hold by the blade." We can see thus how
irritability is often a stage in the recovery from disease. This
lower power of reflex is restored before the higher power of
control.
I^ange's^ theory of emotions, as is well known, makes vaso-
motor changes primary, even to those of the neuro- muscular
system. Sadness and fear are at root vascular constructions
with consequent diminution of voluntary innervation, while
joy and anger are vascular dilation with augmented innerva-
tion. Joy, sadness, anger, etc., are not m3^sterious energies
causing physical states and changes; but we must drop this
psychic hypothesis and say conversely that sadness, e. g. , is
simply a more or less obscure feeling of the vascular phenomena
which accompany it. If these latter could be eliminated, nothing
would remain of anger save a memory of its cause. In every
emotion there is an initial fact, idea, image or sensation, but
the emotion itself is nothing but a sense of those organic changes
which precede and condition it. To prove such a theory, as
Dumas well says, we must suppress all the visceral and periph-
eral changes and see if this involves the loss of the emotion;
^Les Emotions. Paris, 1895.
590 HALL :
but this can never be done, and hence the theory is safe from
experimental proof or disproof. Perhaps, however, some pro-
portion may be established between emotional intensity and
vascular instability. This view is essentially mechanical, basing
feeling on physiological reflexes. The view of James ^ is that
" bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting
fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur is
the emotion." " We are sorry because we cry, angry because
we strike, afraid because we tremble, etc.'' These bodily
changes are not merely vascular but are innumerable and are
all felt. For the finer as distinct from the coarser emotions,
weakened repetition of once useful acts, the Darwinian analo-
gous feeling theory and that of easiest drainage channels, which
are probably not the smaller muscles but by way of the pneno
gastric and sympathetic nerves, are the three explanatory prin-
ciples.
No one adequatel}' informed on the physiological basis of
psychic life will for a moment question this general view of the
primacy of physical changes and no one who accepts the most
cardinal principles of modern epistemology will hesitate to
affirm another psychic element and to deny that the physical
changes are the feelings. Not only ought these two precepts
to be almost platitudes in psychology and have interest only
for those still numerous, as the discussion of the Lange-James
theory has shown, who hold that the soul is more or less enti-
tive, but the same principles apply to every form of intellection
as well, save only that instead of muscle tensions, blood pres-
sures, etc., we must substitute more subtile changes in the
highest nerve centers. This, too, is the only fruitful presup-
position of modern psychology, vague and general as it must
be in the present state of our knowledge. In all thought
brain changes must be postulated as preceding in time and as
all conditioning. A far better and fuller statement of this
principle, so far as the emotions are concerned, has just been
made, independently of and in entire ignorance of the Lange-
James view, by Sutherland,* who makes an admirable digest of
recent biological and psychological researches which seem to
point to the conclusion that henceforth we must conceive that
the emotions are to the intellect somewhat as the sympathetic
nervous system is to the cerebro-spinal.
In general terms, we may say that the brain begins with the
vertebrate series, and that the visceral ganglia that preside
over nutrition, circulation and perhaps vascular tone, and the
1 Psychology. Vol. II, pp. 449-450.
2 The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instincts. 1898. Vol. II,
pp. 210-307. The Nervous Basis of the Emotions.
A STUDY OF ANGER. 59 1
involuntary and non-striated muscles affecting nutrition, tem-
perature, sex, etc., are the twilight region where the keys to
the solution of the psychology of feeling must be sought.
Most of the history of life as recorded in the rocks since the
amphioxus has been devoted to the development of muscles
and to laying the basis of all that they presuppose for the soul;
and the suggestion is irresistible that the roots of our emotional
life must be traced back to those paleologic ages where prever-
tebrate life had its fullest development. The feelings, there-
fore, are indefinitely older than the will, as it is older than the
intellect. Mosso and others have lately laid stress on the idea
that the physical expressions of the most different emotions are
often more or less similar, especially if they are intense. It is
no doubt true that strong feelings are so widely irradiated as to
affect every part and organ of the body; and although pleasure
states are more closely related with expansion and extensor
muscles, and pain with ameboid and cellular contractions and
in the higher forms with the flexor muscles, it seems improbable
that emotions so opposite as anger and love should not be as
strongly contrasted in their expression. Probably our emo-
tional psychology has now only advanced to a stage of devel-
opment more or less corresponding to that stage in general psy-
chology when it was first clearly seen that the brain and not
the heart was the general organ of mentation, and perhaps we
are now at the dawn of a period of ganglionic psychology.
PSrOHOLOGIOAL LITEEATUEE.
Studien Uber Hysterie von Dr. Jos. Brewer and Dr. Sigm. Freud.
This little book, although it appeared in 1895, is not so generally
known by psychologists perhaps as both its interest and importance
warrants. With a different purpose than the great work of Legrand
Du Saulle, the present study limits itself to those cases of hysteria
which are of psychic origin. These are much more numerous than
has commonly been supposed, and can almost invariably be traced
back to some lesion of the psychic sexual region. Psychical hysteria
is defined as " der Erregung, welche abstromt oder abreagirt werden
muss." The excitant is of a compulsory nature and being ideational
in origin is frequently hidden from the individual himself. It may
often be reproduced by the aid of a light hypnosis or by pressing the
patient to the point of confession, and upon such possibility and the
degree of its success rests the therapeutic procedure of the authors.
The key note of the discussion lies in the endeavor to find the causes or
occasions of hysteria in sudden, painful experiences, shocks of some
sort, frequently sexual, apparently present for the first time but
really originating in years past. The clearest dependence is estab-
lished between psychic lesions or shocks and the resulting hysterias
with their various sensory and motor disburbances.
The Inhalts-Verzeichniss enumerates the following topics:
Part I. The Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena, a re-
print from the Neurologischen Centralblatt for 1893.
Part II. A history of cases, carefully detailed and with much of
psychological suggestiveness.
Part III. Restatement of the author's theory and an attempt to
fijid a basis for the facts noted in cerebral dynamics.
Part IV. This section, not the least fruitful, deals with the psycho-
therapeutics of Hysteria.
Three propositions embrace the carrying power of the author's dis-
cussion. First: Hysteria is for the most part psychic and founded
upon reminiscence. As is explicitly stated, the shock as agent does
not immediately provoke the symptoms, but the memory of the psy-
chic shock acts as a sort of strange or foreign body, remaining active
for years after the first impress. Second: The emotional force and
pathological effectiveness of such reminiscences are due to the fact
that normal, adequate reactions, either instinctive or expressional, are
denied them. Hysterias are conditioned upon hyperaesthesic mem-
ories. Third: Such memories and emotionally surcharged rem-
iniscences tend to form separate groups, giving rise to the well known
phenomena of distraction, double consciousness, sensory, motor, and
organic disturbances.
The hysteric consciousness has a field of its own, its reactions mul-
tiform and varied, subject to no apparent laws. Completed in its
course of development, it leads to a sundering of the soul itself.
Herein it may be likened to the self of the hypnotic state, many
of the phenomena of the former are paralleled in the latter. So the
authors would place beside the formula, " Hypnotism is artificial hys-
teria," the other proposition, "The basis and conditions of hysteria
are found in the existence of hypnotic Zustanden." Thus the problem
PSYCHOIvOGICAIv I.ITKRATURE. 593
of pathological associatioiial groups of hyperaesthesic memories, so
influential and effective of bodily conditions, pools itself with the
efficacy of hypnotic suggestion in general. i
The authors assume a tendency to keep constant the intra-cerebral
excitation. The regular normal expression of the emotions, the satis-
faction of the fundamental needs of our being, the activities of our
routine life are all aids in maintaining nervous stability. Shocks of
various sorts from without, sudden fright, extreme sorrow or joy, over
repression from within, too much monotony and uniformity may quick-
ly raise the tension to the point of danger. The vegetative organs
are normally insulated from the activity of the cerebrum, but under
the circumstances stated, or others akin, the over tension of the cere-
bral excitation may break through its accustomed bounds, diffuse
itself over wider areas, shunt itself into new paths. As with electric
currents, weakened places of insulation may be broken through, the
continuity of connection may be destroyed, or a " kurzer schluss "
formed, thus laying a neurological basis for both the positive and
negative phenomena of hysteria. Here belongs, too, what Oppenheim
calls the " anomalous expression of the emotions," the purely motor
part of hysteria.
The unique feature of the book is the method of cure as applied to
psychic hysterias. In many cases, the complete confession of the
circumstances and occasion of the original psychic shocks was suf-
ficient to cause the phenomena of hysteria to vanish. In other cases,
a light degree of hypnotism, or the "concentration " of the patient's
attention by Bernheim's method, serves to aid the patient in recalling
and reliving the occasioning factors. These, plainly and fully detailed
in words, lead to the abrogation of the bodily disturbances likewise.
Communication enlightens, discharges, relieves the tension, even if it
be not held with the priest and followed by absolution.
The psychic process which was the point of departure must be
reproduced in a manner as life-like as possible, brought in statum
nascendi, and then detailed or confessed. Cramps, neuralgia, hallu-
cinations, functional ailments, paralyses, anaesthesias, once in full
intensity, have been caused to vanish. For example, the hysteric
patient Frau Emmy (to which Freud devotes about fifty pages in
detailing history, diagnosis, and cure) is the subject of successive
traumatic experiences, early sexual precocity and knowledge, severe
fright in various ways, attacks on the part of her brother, who is a
morphine iiend, death of her husband, etc., all stored and surcharged
with emotion, knit together into a pseudo-personality. These con-
stituted a latent cause of hysteria, which always tobk the direction of
some factor in this complex group of associational states. Treatment
and cure were peculiarly difficult because "the second condition,"
the hysteric personality, had, as it were, so many roots, was so deeply
imbedded and appeared under such diverse forms and activities. The
treatment consisted, however, as in all cases of psychic hysteria, in
securing repeated confession of all the shocks and morbidities and
discharging the memory of the same day by day as they appeared.
A distinct tendency in this interesting discussion is to rehabilitate
the sexual element as of prime importance in hysteria — a standpoint
which is more or less repudiated. Freud, fresh from the school of
Charcot, as he himself says, was prone to look upon the sex element
in hysteria as a misnomer, but was led to a change of view by a careful
^ DelbcEuf s experiments and theory of cure by release of attention from the " life
■of relation " are suggestive, in this connection.
De rOrigine des effets curatifs de I'hypnotisme. Paris, i8S8. A brief statement of
theory may be found also in Mind O. S., Vol. XIII, p. 148 ff.
I
594 PSYCHOLOGICAI, LITERATURE.
study of the remarkable cases detailed in Part II. The appareutly
correct inference from statistics that hysteria (which Dr. Weir Mitch-
ell calls the domestic demon) increases notably during the adolescent
stage of girls and immediately succeeding marriage in women, as well
as the recent clinical records of Gattel, shows that the female diathesis
is peculiarly susceptible to hysteric phenomena, just as paresis at the
present stage of evolution is somewhat characteristically a male dis-
ease. In fact, the great functional changes and duties of woman,
which mean periodic unstability and tensional activity, might argue
as much.
The book will thus prove suggestive to those hide-bound psycho-
logical thinkers who are over-dogmatic in fixing the limits of the
normal in conscious life, as well as those who view the abnormal as
ipso facto of no direct value to the task which psychology has ever in
hand, the systematic explanation of conscious experiences.
Erwin W. Runkle.
History of Intellectual Development on the Lines of Modern Evolu-
tion, by John BeaTTie Crozier. London ; Longmans, Green &
Co., 1897. Vol. I, pp. 519. Copious index.
This book is the first of a series of volumes in which the author
sets himself the task of expounding the Intellectual Development of
the world. In this volume the subject is brought down to the closing
of the schools of Athens by Justinian. The evolution of Greek,
Hindu, Hebrew and Christian (to 519 A. D.) thought are treated. In
succeeding volumes, Mohammedanism, Mediaeval Catholicism, the
Revival of Learning, the Reformation, Modern Metaphysics and
Modern Science, with the Doctrine of Evolution are to be dealt with ;
and the results of this comprehensive survey of Intellectual Develop-
ment will be brought to bear upon the present problems of religion,
philosophy, politics, political economy and sociology.
Hegel, Comte, Buckle and Spencer have already made attempts to
reduce this history to fixed and determinate laws. But these attempts,
though admirable and splendid in themselves — as efforts of the human
mind to find itself — as scientific histories were foredoomed to failure.
Not until our own times has a sufficient body of 'historical facts been
brought together to justify an attempt to reduce them to fixed and
scientific laws. Hegel was obliged, therefore, to enunciate a single
general law for the whole field of intellectual development, instead
of enunciating a number of more closely-fitting laws for its separate
divisions and sections. Comte in his "three stages " shows how the
social and moral phenomena of the several periods were connected, but
his law was too wide and general to determine their intellectual curve
and line of evolution. Buckle made no appreciable advance upon
Comte. He merely presents the same thesis under different terms ;
and turns what purports to be a scientific enquiry into a magnificent
piece of special pleading in the interests of a particular stage of intel-
lectual development — the scientific or "inductive." As with Hegel
and Comte, so with Spencer. His great law of evolution is too wide
and comprehensive for a satisfactory explanation of the special prob-
lem of intellectual development. The law of endless differentiation
as a cosmic principle is of prime importance, but is barren as an
explanation of the 'limited problem in question. The sky, though
spanning the world, and being the abode of the gods, is useless to
protect man from wind and rain. The important point is not the
knowledge that a new germ of religion or morality, once planted in
the minds of men, will unfold in infinite differentiations ; but rather
the important thing to know is how a specific intellectual advance
PSYCHOI.OGICAI. LITERATURE. 595
takes place, how a specific idea becomes modified into another specific
idea.
To enunciate such a special law or laws under which the intel-
lectual evolution of the world proceeds, is the aim of this present
work. The author finds three types of cause entertained by the
human mind — these three being determined by the notion they
have formed to themselves of the nature of the cause or causes
by which they conceive the world to have been produced. These
he denominates, for convenience, Religious Causes, Metaphysical
Causes, and Scientific Causes. Upon these three causes as constant
factors in the intellectual history of the world, he seeks to recon-
struct the history of Intellectual Development. Instead of regarding
Philosophy, as Hegel has done, as a swelling torrent which whirls
into its own current Religion and Science as mere tributaries and
spoils, he has figured it as only one form of thought among several,
each of which has its own laws and modes of procedure. Taking his
stand upon the human mind in its ensemble, not upon some segment,
he uses each of the corresponding causes in turn as a fixed point by
which to measure the other — like the surveyor, who uses the height
of a tree to measure the extent of a field, and the length of a field, the
height of a tree.
The author confesses, with fine tolerance, that the belief in a stu-
pendous and overarching Supernaturalism everywhere enfolding and
pervading the world, is largely personal conclusion and not necessary
transferable to other minds. It is therefore not pressed upon the
reader, but is left to his deep moods with their finer and truer spiritual
affinities and intentions. W. S. S.
U Idialisme Social par E. Fournie;re, Bibliotheque Gdnerale des
Sciences Sociales. Paris. Felix Alcan, 1898.
The author is a convinced socialist ; at the same time a true scientist.
Formerly humanity, being unable to conceive of an ideal on earth,
looked for its ideal in a life of dreams, after the present life. At the
present time the necessity for so doing no longer exists. Science has
so developed as to afford no means for the realization of happiness in
this world.
The old science — e.g.^ the discussions on the Universalia during the
Middle Ages — stood entirely aloof from practical life. To-day, although
engaged in work independent one of the other, they both strive towards
attaining the same end. It is not necessary to give examples showing
how much the recent scientific discoveries have advanced mankind
towards the ideal of a socialist.
It will be found that two other steps in the same direction have been
taken : co-operation, and the division of labor, which even more than
the development of science are a proof of the socialistic character of
modern life. It is true, however, that much remains to be done in
establishing the relation between the work-giver and the worker,
which, as yet, is a sort of slavery, owing to the fact that the salary does
not represent the full value of the work done, the work-giver retaining
part of the profit. On the other hand capitalism is in a process of
transformation, it is becoming impersonal, that is, corporations take
the place of private capitalists in large enterprises — a new triumph of
Socialism — and those are cases even where the laborer has his share
in the profit, where he has become an associate in the business.
From the standpoint of economics the result of the latter movement
will be that, owing to the progress science has made, production will
be so abundant that the cost of living will be reduced to nothing. All
this is advanced in the strongest and most logical manner.
Not so the second part : the development of the social institutions .
596 PSYCHOIvOGICAI. I^ITERATURE.
First the family. Capitalism has demoralized family life. Women,
having to work in factories, are obliged to leave their homes. But
there is some advantage in this state of affairs ; earning her bread
herself, has given to woman her social independence. She now is, or
will be, a "social all " just as well as man.
The relations of the individual to the State will continue to develop
further. Democracy has taken the place of monarchy, and the modern
man does not admit that the State has any jurisdiction in private af-
fairs, but that it must confine itself .strictly to the administration of
public matters. Mr. Fourni^re thinks that the time will come when
public laws will be useless, because man will comply with what he has
himself established, he being at the same time ruler and subject. This,
as will be readily seen, is more than socialistic idealism ; it is the
anarchistic ideal of society.
Will the socialistic ideal ever become a reality? Mr. Fourniere be-
lieves in it. The first thing, then, is to have mankind understand this
ideal, to have a clear image of it in its mind, so that it may learn to
live up to it. A. Schinz.
Le Suicide. By Emile Durcheim. Felix Alcan, Publisher, 1897.
This recent French work on suicide, though marred by provincial-
ism and prejudice affords some views that are of real value.
The author is a professor of Sociology at a provincial University and
has evidently seen very little literature of recent date on the subject,
for his latest statistics are mostly those of 1870 to 1875 and are largely
quoted from Morselli's "Suicide," published in 1882 in the Interna-
tional Scientific Series.
A more recent work, " Suicide and Insanity," by Dr. S. A. K. Stra-
han, published by Swan, Sonnenschen & Co., in 1894, in the same series
with Gronlund's "Co-operative Commonwealth," the Social Science
Series has statistics for 1880 and in some cases for 1890. Durcheim
shows prejudice in arguing that Catholicism is less favorable to insan-
ity than Protestantism, founding his view on statistics of Catholic coun-
tries, though on his own figures suicides are only half as frequent in
England as in Austria. Later figures give England 74 suicides per
million inhabitants, and Austria 144.
The real fact, which none of these writers seem to have touched, is
that suicide is most prevalent in rationalistic, intemperate countries.
The real advance of the French work on its predecessors is in the
parallelism traced between suicide and alcoholism (distilled liquors).
The Scandinavian temperance movement may diminish suicide in the
near future.
A remedy is also presented, though it is only mentioned as a punish-
ment.
It is taken from the New York Penal Code of 1881, which punishes
attempted suicide with imprisonment not to exceed two years, or fine
or both. Strahan and also Durcheim show that suicide is no real sign
of insanity. H. I/. EvERETT.
La Religion et les Sciences de la Nature^ par F. BE'TTEx. Geneve,
1898. pp. 296.
The author first discusses progress and actual evolution, then the
relations between Christianity and science, and finally characterizes
and points out the dangers of materialism. Religion is not knowl-
edge, but life ; and many of its postulates could be founded on science,
to which, however, some are opposed. The physical is for the sake
of the moral world. For the Christian there are three revelations :
conscience, nature, Scripture. It is suggestive that 25,000 copies of
this work have been sold.
PSYCHOI.OGICAI. LITBRATURK. 597
Religions Philosophie auf Psychologischer und Geschichtlicher Gru7id-
lage, von August Sabatier. Freiburg, 1898. pp. 326.
Sabatier's religious philosophy rests upon psychological and his-
torical grounds, and is here authoritatively translated into German.
First the psychological origin and nature of religion are considered.
Then follow religion and revelation, miracle and inspiration, the
religious development of man. The second part discusses Chris-
tianity, beginning with Hebraism and the origin of the Gospels ; then
discusses the essence of Christianity and its historical forms. The
third part treats of dogma, what it is, its historical life and develop-
ment, the science of dogma and the critical theory of religious
knowledge.
General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, by Charles
Augustus Briggs. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1899. pp.
688.
This is a very greatly enlarged tenth edition of the author's Biblical
Study, 1888, which has been revised yearly for fifteen years in con-
nection with text-book work and is now, on the twenty-fifth anniver-
sary of the author's professorate, dedicated to the students and alumni
of the Union Theological Seminary. The author's aim has been to
take a very comprehensive and systematic, but somewhat superficial
view of the very many special topics involved. Very much of it
deals with what may be called externals, such as titles, names of
authors, dates, etc., and those who look for much information on any
of the special topics will be disappointed. Even such topics as the
general teachings of Ritchl or Rothe, Vatke, Baur, or even just what
the higher criticism holds, are treated so incidentally as to give
almost no real information. We distinctly question the pedagogic
method of such instruction, and think a true introduction should
give far more prominence to the ideas of the different authors, and
that, for instance, Paulsen, in his Introduction to Philosophy, solves
this problem far better.
Die Gleichnisreden Jesu, von D. AdoIvE Jui^icher. Freiburg, 1899.
pp. 643.
The author is one of the younger representatives of the new the-
ology and it is this book upon which his reputation largely rests.
The present volume is devoted to thirty-three parables, likenesses, and
illustrations used by Jesus ; and this affords the author an opportunity
of not only displaying his very wide range of textual knowledge, but
also of illustrating in the most effective way the leading tenets of
liberal or higher criticism, which he represents.
The Evolution of Christianity, by Ramsden Bai^mforTh. I^ondon,
1898. pp. 161.
The true view of the Scriptures and the forces that made it are first
characterized from the inside. The beginnings of Christianity, which
depend upon the question whether Jesus was divine or human, and
the doctrine of the atonement follow. The organization and doctrine
of the church, the mediaeval reawakening and the definition of true
religion are the other topics. The author's standpoint is distinctly
liberal and ethical, and his creed is the Fatherhood of God and the
Brotherhood of Man.
Ethics and Revelation, by Henry S. Nash. The Macmillan Co.,
New York, 1899. pp. 277.
The writer discusses the relations between ethics and religion, the
f
598 PSYCHOLOGICAI. I.ITERATURE.
spiritual significance of the free state, comparative religion and the
principle of individuality, the church's conception of revelation,
prophecy and history, Christ and the creative good. Their aim, con-
formably to the will of the founder of the Bohlen lectureship, is to
show "that the Bible marks out the road along which conscience
must travel if it would treat our life on earth with abiding serious-
ness." The writer is a professor in the Episcopal Theological School
at Cambridge, and the author of Genesis of the Social Conscience.
A Manual of Patrology, by Wai.i,ace N. Stearns. Charles Scrib-
uer's Sons, New York, 1899. pp. 176.
This is a concise account of the chief persons, sects, orders, etc., in
Christian history from the first century to the Reformation, with
select biographical references. An infolded map and chart with sev-
eral tables add greatly to the value of the work, which is almost as
concise as a dictionary.
Essay on the Bases of the Mystic Knowledge, by E. Recejac. Charles
Scribner's Sons, New York, 1899. pp. 287.
The writer first discusses the various attitudes of the mind towards
the absolute, empiricism, criticism, etc., then the mystic conscious-
ness which knows God through the heart is characterized, together
with the symbols expressing such knowledge. Mystic esotericism is
simply the intensified state of consciousness we know as inspiration.
Mystic intuition reveals freedom and God, but is always in part
incommunicable. The mystic city is the characterization of an ideal
state in which the heart and not the head shall dominate.
Die Functionsstorungen des Grosshirnes^ von Ai^bert Adamkiewicz.
Hanover, 1898. pp. 242.
This concise and comprehensive study, after a general account of
physiology, psycholog5^, histology and symptoms, takes up first the
mechanical and then the functional diseases of the cortex, the latter
including all the anomalies of sleep and dream ; and thirdly stimulus
and laming are discussed. The second part is devoted to a summary
of what is known concerning cortical areas and localization ; and the
third treats of the substance of the hemispheres, cells, fibres, etc.
Three interesting colored charts are appended.
Vererbung und Entwicklung, von Max KassowiTz. M. Perles,
Wien, 1899. pp. 391.
Of the fifty chapters that compose this volume, which although
finished in 1897 is now printed with a little change, the most impor-
tant are — the origin of life; the primeval cell and nucleus; assim-
ilative continuity; changes by mechanical influences; correlation
between blood vessels and bones; changes by nervous stimulation;
individual adaptation; the impotence of natural selection; sexual
selection; the inheritance of acquired character; innate nerve
mechanism; amphimixis; Lemarck and Darwin; germinal selection;
social instincts.
Essays in Psychical Research, by Miss X. (A. Goodrich-Freer).
George Redway, London, 1899. pp. 330.
These papers, collected from various periodicals, discuss haunted
houses, crystal gazing, the divining rod, hypnotism, obsession, psychic
healing and Saint Columba. They are written in a lively and inter-
esting style and from a sympathetic standpoint.
PSYCHOI.OGICAI. LITERATURE. 599
Arbeiten aus dein Gesammtgebiet der Psychiatrie und Neuropaih-
ologie, von R. v Krafft-Ebing. J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1897-1899.
pp. 207.
These four volumes in one comprise some score and a half of mis-
cellaneous papers published by the author in various journals between
1878 and 1898. The topics most fully treated are — transitory insanity
on a neurasthenic basis; the imitation of organic nervous diseases in
hysteria; clouded and dreamy states; imperative ideas, sexual psycho
and neuropathy; the latter comprising over 100 pages of new matter.
Lehrbuch der Psychopathologischen Untersuchungs-Methoden, von R.
SOMMER. Berlin u. Wien, 1899. pp. 399.
This valuable work comprises an introduction on methods in scien-
tific psychopathology and four parts: (i) optical, (2) moto-graphic
methods on knee, pupil, hands, etc., (3) acoustic, and (4) on psychic
states and conditions, including memory, number work, association
and time. There are in all 85 curves and figures.
La Dissolution Opposie a V Evolution dans les Sciences Physiques et
Morales^ par Andre IvAIvANDB. F. Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 492.
After one chapter each upon mechanical, physiological, and psycho-
logical dissolution, the author discusses social dissolution and its
consequences in law. The latter is brought about by excessive divi-
sion of labor, assimilation of sexes, the dissolution of family and of
ethnic groups.
V Instability Mentale, par G. L. Duprat. F. Alcan, Paris, 1899. PP-
310.
We have here an essay on the data of psychopathology. All mental
functions are characterized by instability, personality no less than
others, and morbid stability is especially seen in sex function and age.
The practical conclusion is an account of what -the author calls mental
therapeutics and preventative pedagogy. The writer's standpoint is
purely psychological and is largely based upon the distinction between
psychic continuity and discontinuity. Philosophers should not give
over to doctors the business of curing mental diseases, but should
themselves study the pedagogy of firmness and coherence of will and
character.
Primer of Psychology and Mental Disease, C. B. Burr, M. D. F. A.
Davis Co., Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, 1898. pp. 116.
This little manual is designed for use in training schools for attend-
ants and nurses. It is an extremely elementary primer in psychology,
morbid and especially normal.
Psychiatrie und Seelsorge, von A. Romer. Berlin, 1899. pp. 343.
Dr. Romer presents here a guide for the recognition and avoidance
of the nervous evils of our time. The psychoses he treats are grouped
under the three heads of organic, idiopathic, and constitutional. Very
interesting is his discussion of transitory losses of responsibility as
contrasted with permanent loss. The last part of the book is devoted
to a discussion of the assumption and consequences of his doctrine
and of answering four objections to it. That it exhausts the body at
the expense of the mind, that it denies freedom, that it reduces the
worth of personality, and is unbiblical. The conclusion of the work
discusses the personality of the shepard of souls among the insane,
and he pleads for the institution of such a special office as practica-
ble and necessary.
#
6oo PSYCHOIvOGICAI, LITEJRATURK.
Wild Animals I have Known, bj'' Ernest S. Thompson. Charles
Scribner's Sons, New York, 1899. pp. 358.
This is a volume of stories about wolves, crows, rabbits, dogs, foxes,
mustangs, partridges, with copious and other artistic illustrations,
and written in a charming style, which characterizes this clever author
artist.
The Brain Machine, its Power and Weakness, by Ai,be;rt Wilson.
J. and A. Churchill, lyondon, 1899. pp. J51.
This is one of those books in which a man evidently of years and
experience has undertaken to put down his general view of life. He
happens to be a doctor, and holds that prosperity in this world and
perhaps salvation in the next depends upon the health of the brain
cell. Hence, together with a discussion of cranial nerves, automatisms,
speech, etc., marriage, religion, crime, alcohol, suggestion, education,
and many other topics are discussed. The latter part of the book
contains thirty-seven rather rude cuts of various objects illustrating
his subject.
Geschichte des Lebensmagnetismus und des Hypnotismus , von H. R.
Paui, Schroeder. I^eipzig, 1899.
In the five lieferung, ending with page 288, that have so far appeared,
the author has brought his history down into the time of Mesmer.
His work abounds in various illustrations and pictures of prominent
representatives in the fields treated.
Hypnotism and its Application to Practical Medicine, by Otto Georg
Wetterstrand. G. p. Putnam's Sons, New York and lyondon,
1897. pp. 166.
Dr. Petersen has rendered a very valuable service to both psychol-
ogy and medicine by translating the valuable contribution of Dr.
Wetterstrand on this important subject. The very remarkable cures
and ameliorations of stuttering, hysteria, chorea, light psychoses,
insomnia, neuralgia, spasmodic movements, alcoholism, incontinence,
etc., by this author's method of prolonged and artificial hypnotic
sleep, constitute not only a contribution to modern medical methods
but also to psychology.
Twentieth Century Magic, by Nevii. Monroe Hopkins. New York
and London, 1898. pp. 160.
This book deals largely with the construction of the newest magical
apparatus in which mechanical, electrical and other experiences are
involved. The magician's stage and tables are first described, then
five new and rather choice bits of mechanical magic. Chemical and
electrical magic follow. In all there are just 100 illustrations.
Sexualismus und Aetiologie, von G. Herman. Leipzig, 1899. pp.
116.
This is the first part of the first volume of a natural history of love
designed as a contribution to sexual physiology. The author styles
himself professor, and his captions are energetics and polarity,
organs, contrectation and detumescence, living substance, physio-
cratic and psychocratic procreation. These, perhaps, give sufficient
intimation of the mystic character of this work, which is nevertheless
based to a great extent upon a study of recent morbid and normal
physiology.
PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 6oi
Psychologic Comparec de Vhomme et de la femtne, par C. Renooz.
Paris, 1898. pp. 576.
In the first part the author discusses masculine and feminine psy-
chology in general, with sections on egoism, envy, anger, doubt, pes-
simism, modesty, chastity, etc.; in the second part, the relations of
the sexes are treated, morbid and normal; and in the third, the strug-
gle and rivalry between the two resulting in the supremacy of man;
in the last, the effort to equalize the liberty and opportunity and to
lay down laws for each.
The Last Link; Our Present Knowledge of the Descent of Man^ by
Ernst Haeckki.. London, 1898. pp. 156.
The author here attempts to resum^ his more comprehensive, sys-
tematic phylogeny and present a concise picture of our present
knowledge of the descent of man. The evidence from comparative
anatomy, paleontology, etc., is first stated, and then the various
stages from worms up, twenty-six in number, are briefly characterized
and two new illustrative charts are printed. The second part of the
book, beginning with page 80, is devoted to short biographic sketches
of great biologists, and to notes on the theory of cells, factors of evo-
lution and geologic time.
A System of Ethics, by Friedrich Paui^SEN. Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York, 1899. pp. 723.
While less concrete and empirical than Sunderland's, the present
treatise is far more so than we should expect from the author. Five
chapters outline the history of moral philosophy, nine its basal con-
cepts, and nine more the doctrines of virtues and duties. Sub heads
abound in practical themes like drunkenness, clothing, poverty and
wealth, modesty, suicide, temperance, justice, effects of welfare on
character, nihilism, egoism, relations between science and religion,
immortality, freedom, compassion, love of home, country, gratitude,
lying, and flattery.
V Automatisme Psychologique, par PiERRE Janet. F. Alcan, Paris,
1899. pp. 496.
This new and enlarged edition of this important work distinguishes
first between total and partial automatisms. Under the first head,
catalepsy, somnambulism and suggestion are discussed. Under the
second, subsconscious activities, anesthesias, and psychic disag-
gregation.
La Psychologic Naturelle, par W. Nicati. Paris, 1898. pp. 423.
M. Nicati is bitterly opposed to current psychology because of its
implications of supernaturalism and regards it as essentially a phy-
sical science tributary to others and divided into two general parts —
one dealing with individuals and the other with society. Just as the
parts of the individual are related to each other, so individuals are
related to society, and the present work is preliminary to a larger
general and social psychology. The present work treats solely of
colors and is devoted to discussions of their scales, the mechanism of
color in the senses and nervous centers, its gradations ; and the second
part treats of individual psychology, regarding individuality as a com-
mon attribute of forces as affirmed in the distinction bet\yeen soul and
body, and as culminating in determinations of the intensity of psychic
and nervous force shown in electricity, cellular tropisms and move-
ment, general sensibility, etc. The chapter on emotions makes it a
basis of sensation, memory, knowledge, etc. Intelligence is a mechan-
Journai,— 18
i
602 PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
ism, and in rudimentary forms is seennn viscera and vaso-motor ganglia
as well as in the basal ganglia of the brain, which he thinks the cere-
bral seat of instinct; while higher intelligence is manifested in the
brain. Psychic harmonies are classified as intensity, space and time,
and are grouped in symphonies not without analogies to music. In
general, unique and stimulating as is the author's standpoint, original
as are his many illustrations, it must be granted that he has under-
taken a work which in the present conditions of our knowledge must
for a long time, to say the least, remain incomplete and unsatis-
factory.
UAvenir de la Philosophie, par Henri Berr. Paris, 1899. PP- S^^*
Professor Berr attempts here to sketch the synthesis of knowledges
founded upon history. First a brief sketch of philosophy since Des-
cartes is presented as a basis of critical, positive and ethical conclu-
sions. Philosophy is to transform its metaphysical into scientific
problems, and to effect a great synthesis not only of knowledge but of
life and religion, which is to affect man and society in the profoundest
and most beneficent way.
Psychologie als Erfahrungswissenschaft von Hans Cornewus. Leip-
zig, 1897. pp. 445.
The problem here attacked is the epistemological basis of psycholo-
gy, which he would base on purely empirical to the exclusion of all
metaphysical conceptions. The contents of consciousness, memory,
recognition, association, abstraction, speech, definition, and feeling
are the elementary facts. On their bases are discussed unity and ex-
pectation, subject and object, the unity of personality. The third
chapter attempts psychic analysis of the unnoticed contents of con-
sciousness ; and in subsequent chapters sensation, memory and fancy,
the objective world, truth and error, feeling and will, are treated.
Die Seelentheorie, von F. Hanspaui,. Berlin, 1899. pp. 292.
The laws of natural egoism and adaptation, together with the pedi-
gree of the human spirit, might have been the title of this book.
In one chapter the influence of speech upon the brain, in others the
effects of association, the relations of egoism to society, the insuffi-
ciency of Darwinism, the justification of punishment by the State,
are discussed. From these standpoints the author attempts to show
that the soul is as old as the body and begins with the primeval cell,
that it has persisted in a chain of continuous development for mil-
lions of years, and will perhaps develop into unknown forms millions
of years hence; for life, egoism, will and understanding are all one
and the same thing, whether in plant, animal or man.
System der Philosophie, von Josef Mui.i,ER. Mainz, 1898. pp. 372.
The fruit of twenty years of philosophical study is here presented
in condensed form in the belief that it fills a gap. Philosophy now
is less in need of originality than of accuracy. The center of the
author's view is his theory of consciousness. The book falls into
three general divisions: (1) epistemology, logic and metaphysics;
(2) psychology; (3) ethics, with an appendix on the philosophy of
religion.
Der Wille und die Freiheit, in der neuern Philosophie, von Max
Krieg. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1898. pp. 40.
This physiological study is divided into two parts — pre-Kantian
and post-Kantian. Under the first, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and
PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 603
the English philosophers are discussed ; under the latter, Fichte,
Schelling and Schopenhauer,
La Nouvelle Monadologie, par Ch. Renouvier et L. Prat. Paris,
1899. pp. 546.
A careful characterization of the nomad is first given from various
standpoints in all its orders and relations. The composition of
monads follows and there are chapters each on passion, will, society,
and justice. As an orderly digest of Leibniz' work, it is the most
co-ordinated and systematic we have ever had.
Esprits Logiques et Esprits Faux, par Fr. PAur<HAN. F. Alcan,
Paris, 1896. pp. 362.
The most important part of this perhaps too neglected book is the
characterization of logical types. The equilibrators, the reasoners,
the outrancers, the pugnacious type, the contrastors, the associators
by contiguity and by resemblance. The false or illogical minds are
those characterized by predominance of directive ideas or of insuf-
ficiency of them, of abnormal phenomena, the sentimentalists, the
detailers, the frivolous and the puerile.
Psychologie der Verdnderungsauffassung y von L. W11.LIAM Stern.
Breslau, 1898. pp. 264.
The sources of our knowledge of change are due to perception, re-
production and comparison. The fineness of it is measured by an
elaborate technique for each sense. The psychic excitability for
changes and their law is affected by fatigue, rapidity of motion, inten-
sity, direction; and under these captions the entire discussion of the
book falls. It is illustrated by various tables with curves and some
apparatus.
R. Rothe's Speculatives System^ voxi H. J. Hoi,tzmann. Freiburg i.
B. 1899. pp. 269.
It is one of the noteworthy signs of our time that Richard Rothe's
opinions should now attract so much attention in theological circles.
No doubt he deserves a place next to Schleiermacher's as one of the
most original religious thinkers of modern times, and it is therefore
a very opportune piece of work to digest his views in a compendious
form. First his speculative principles are treated, then his general
view of God, the world and man, next his principles of ethics, in-
dividual, piety and love, -then his doctrines of sin and atonement,
virtue, duty, State, church and the final close of all things. From
superficial glances through a few chapters we think this work is well
and conscientiously done.
CriUriologie Gin^rale, par D. Mercier. F. Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp.
371-
The general theory of certitude is here treated in its origin in the
different fields of ontology and logic in its relations to doubt, scepti-
cism and dogmatism, and especially with reference to the philosophic
theories of the criterion of knowledge. The different forms of criti-
cism and the problem of objective reality conclude the book.
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.
London, February and May, 1899.
The long articles in this first number of a new series are on The
Hill Tribes of Central India ; Caves, Shell Mounds and Stones in South
Africa ; Totemism ; and the Presidential Address, January, 1899, by
F. W. Rudler.
6o4 PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
Nouvelles Esquisses de Philosophie Critique y par A. Spir. F. Alcau,
Paris, 1899. pp. 146.
A brief life of the author fills the first twenty-seven pages. The
topics discussed are : The Nature of Common Sense ; The Role of
Idealism : Force, Change, Order, Finality and Evolution in Nature ;
The Foundations of Religion and Morals; and Immortality.
The Emotion of Joy, by Gkorge Van Ness Dearborn. Psychologi-
cal Review, April, 1899. pp. 70.
The chief conclusions here reached are that extra emotions consist
in outward expansive and in contraction of extensor muscles, to which
habitual inhibitions of civilized life supply the apparent deficiency in
the kinaesthesic theory of human emotions. The contraction of ex-
tensor muscles is more pleasant than that of flexors.
Die Abstinenz der Geisteskranken und ihre Behandlung, von Her-
mann Pfister. F. Enke, Stuttgart, 1899. pp. 88.
This is a discussion of the causes, symptoms and cures of the per-
sistent refusal of food, so often found in the insane asylums.
Conduct and the Weather, by Edwin G. Dexter. Psychological
Review, May, 1899. pp. 103.
In this very interesting study, the author sums up results of his
own continued investigations upon the subject, from which he reaches
the following conclusions : that meteorological conditions directly
affect metabolism; they also influence the reserve energy capable of
being utilized for processes other than those of the vital organs; they
influence the emotional state and the two last determine conduct.
The latter, and also death and labor of mind and body, bear very dif-
ferent relations to reserve energy.
Zur Analyse der Unterschiedsempfindlichkeity von Ivii<i«iE J. Martin
und G. E. MuEi.i,ER. J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1899. PP- 233.
This comprehensive and very acute experimental investigation was
conducted by an American lady in Miiller's laboratory in Gottingeu.
After describing the methods of experiment, the second chapter dis-
cusses the enormous differences of the numbers obtained in right
judgments; the third takes up the influence of time; the fourth, mis-
cellaneous circumstances which influence the differential sensibility
investigated; and the fifth treats of adjacent or supplementary com-
parisons.
Einleitung in die Vergleichende Gehirnphysiologie und Vergleichende
/!yjj/rAo/<7^zV, von Jacques LoEB, J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1899. pp.
207.
This interesting comparative study of brain and soul is conducted
with special reference to invertebrates and describes experiments
upon actinia, echinoderms, worms, orthopods and mollusks; discusses
the theory of animal instincts, heredity, the relation between brain
and soul, and suggests future points of attack for the study of the
mechanics of brain and activity.
Elements of Alkaloidal Aeitiologyy by A. M. Brown. Henry Kimp-
ton, London, 1889. pp. 86.
This is an introduction to the study of auto-intoxication in disease
and is a popular summary of a larger work by the author, and gives
the views of Selmi, Liebrich and Gautier.
PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 605
Die Nervenkrankheiten des P/erdes, von Hermann Dexi^KR. Franz
Deuticke, Leipzig und Wien, 1899. pp. 277.
This interesting and very original book discusses the subject under
four heads — diseases of peripheral nerves, of the spinal cord, of the
brain in its different parts, and neuroses.
Studies from the Psychological Laboratory, Directed by James R.
Angei,L. University of Chicago Contributions to Philosophy,
Chicago, 1899. Vol II, No. 2, pp. 615.
This interesting pamphlet contains the following studies : one on
overestimation of vertical as compared with horizontal lines ; a study
in habit ; the relations between certain organic processes and conscious-
ness ; habit and attention ; modifications of the relations of dermal
and optical space ; the intensity of light as affecting visual estimates
in depth ; the most important paper being the third.
The Psychology of Reasoning, par Alfred Binet. Open Court Publish-
ing Co., Chicago, 1899. pp. 191.
This work is based on experimental researches in hypnotism. After
defining perceptions and images, the author describes reasoning in
perception and the mechanism of reasoning, and insists that the two
are at root the same. Reasoning is a kind of supplementary sense,
the single type of all intellectual operations and is an organization of
images.
University of Iowa Studies in Psychology, Edited by G. T. W. Patrick.
1899, Vol. II, pp. 163.
To this interesting volume Professor Patrick himself contributes!
articles on The Analysis of the Taste Perception and Some Peculiari-
ties of the Secondary Personality, while Dr. Seashore determines
various psychological statistics and describes new apparatus.
La Prostitution Clandestine a Paris. Par le Docteur O. Commence,
mddecin en chef du Dispensaire de Salubrity de la Prefecture de
Police. Paris, Libraire C. Reinwald, Schleicher Fr^res, Editeurs,
1897. Vol. XI, pp. 567.
This is a solid and authoritative book, written by one who has had
unusual facilities for the study of its subject, and who has spared no
pains to attain to acurate results. M. Commenge began collecting the
material for his work in 1887 ; and we may truly say that he has done
for "private " prostitution what his predecessor, M. Parent-Duchatelet,
did for " public."
The chapters are entitled : the causes of prostitution in general, and
of private prostitution in particular ; arrests, and their results ; the
Dispensaire de Salubrity, and its special function with regard to un-
registered prostitutes ; classification and statistics of venereal disease ;
the Infirmerie de Saint-Lazare ; the sources of supply of unregistered
prostitutes ; their previous occupations ; their life subsequent to medi-
cal treatment and discharge; registration and control. The writer
makes a strong plea, on statistical basis, for state control and police
registration. E. B. T.
Contributo alio studio deW automatismo psicologico per autosug-
gestione^^XTioW. G. Antonini. Riv. Sperim. di Fren. (Reggie
in E.), Vol. XXIV (1898), pp. 626-654.
This interesting study, meant to throw light upon the mediumistic
and spiritistic phenomena, which of late have almost monopolized
the attention of certain psychologists, deals with the autosuggestive
6o6 PS^^CHOr.OGICAL LITERATURE.
psychic automatisms of T. Teresa, a young woman 28 years of age,
whose first hysterical attack occurred in 1890, brought on probably
by persecutory ideas, and who wrote a number of letters in the name
of other persons, conscious knowledge of which she seemed not to
possess. Dr. Antonini considers the case one of great importance,
since the phenomena are remarkably like those of the slate and other
writers among the so-called "mediums." The autosuggestion in
both cases is much the same and to the persecutory delirium of Teresa
may correspond the "faith" of the mediums, both giving a certain
logic to their productions. AivEX. F, ChambkrI/AIN.
L' Isterismo infantile. Studio critico e contributo clinico del Dott.
AuREiyio LrUi. Ibid.^ pp. 745-771.
In this article Dr. Lui gives an excellent resume of the most recent
discussions of infantile hysteria, besides two observations of his own
and bibliography of over 50 titles. The frequency of hysteria seems
to be greatest between the eighth year and puberty ; girls suffer some-
what more than boys, but in the early years the difference may be very
small, the sexes being as yet not so markedly divergent ; heredity and
errors in the education of the child are important factors ; onanism
has rather a predisposing than a causal value ; bad nutrition and its
train, infectious diseases, imitation, etc., play their significant rdle.
Noteworthy is the enormous psychic hypersesthesia and excessive im-
pressionability and irritability of character in hysterical children, and
their tendencies towards precocious development. One must be careful,
however, to distinguish the simply nervous from the hysterical and
by watching the development of the psychic habits of the child detect
the outburst of real hysteria. While, suggestion in the waking state
is universally commended, much difference of opinion exists as to
hypnotic suggestion as a therapeutic in infantile hysteria, Dr. Lui
holding, with Joffroy, that the latter should only be used in the gravest
cases, if at all. Ai,EX. F. Chamberi^ain.
SulV Influenza delV insonnio sperimentale sul ricambio materiale.
J^icerche del Dott. Giui.10 Tarozzi. Riv. di Patol. Nerv. e Ment.
(Firenze.) Vol. IV (1899), pp. 1-23.
Detailed account, with many tables of experiments concerning the
effects of insomnia upon the organic metabolism of adult dogs. The
general conclusion is that ** there exist special mechanisms, regulative
of the metabolisms, and when the function of these is once interrupted,
'organic failure' rapidly supervenes, followed by death," — in the
cases under consideration death occured at from one to 4 days. It
would appear that under these abnormal conditions the elimination
of N is sensibly increased only at a very advanced period of the ex-
periment— the augment continuing till death; the Hg SO4 and the
P2 O5 present no constant characteristic modifications, while the CI
diminishes constantly in the last days before death.
Ai,Ex. F. Chamberi^ain.
Ricerche sperimentali suW origine di alcuni errori delta memoria
del Dott. Jacopo Finzi. Ibid., pp. loi-iio.
The conclusion arrived at by the author, whose researches are to
appear in Kraepelin's ^rd^/^^w, is that "the errors of memory are,
within certain limits, a normal phenomenon in the process of the fix-
ation of recollection," — the principal source of error being in the ac-
tion of the impressions previously fixed.
Ai,EX. F. Chamberi*ain.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
L'Ann^e Philosophique (ge ann^e, 1898). Publi^e par M. F. Pillon,
avec la collaboration de MM. Renouvier, Hamelin et Dauriac.
F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 316. Price, Fes. 5.
L'Aun^e Psychologique (se annde, 1898). Publiee par Alfred Binet,
avec la collaboration de H. Beaunis & Th. Ribot. Schleicher
Frferes, Paris, 1899. pp. 902. Price, Fes. 15.
BiNET, AivFRED. The Psychology of Reasoning based on experimental
researches in hypnotism. Translated, from the second French
edition, by Adam Gowans White. The Open Court Pub. Co.,
Chicago, 1899. pp. 191.
Church A., and Peterson, F. Nervous and Mental Diseases. With
305 illustrations. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1899. pp. 843.
Price, I5.
DuPRAT, G. Iv. Iv'Instabilit^ mentale. Essai sur les donn^es de la
psycho-pathologie. F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 310. Price,
Fes. 5.
Gerard- Yaret, L. Iv'Ignorance et I'lrr^flexion. Essai de psycho-
logic objective. Felix Alcan, Paris, 1898. pp. 296. Price, Fes. 5.
GrasseriE, Raoui< de i<a. De la psychologic des religions. F^lix
Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 308. Price, Fes. 5.
Hanspaul, F. Die Seelentheorie und die gesetze des natiirlichen
Egoismus und der Anpassung. Carl Duncker, Berlin, 1899. pp.
292. Price, Mk. 5.
Lai^ande, Andre. La dissolution oppos^e a revolution dans les
sciences physiques et morales. Fdlix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp.492.
Price, Fes. 7.50.
Levy Bruhi,, L. Lettres in^dites de J. S. Mill a Auguste Comte.
F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 560. Price, Fes. 10.
Mercier, Mgr. Crit^riologie g^n^rale ou th^orie g^n^rale de la cer-
titude. F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 371. Price, Fes. 6.
Muensterberg, Hugo. Psychology and life, Houghton, Mifflin &
Co., Boston and N. Y., 1899. PP- 286. Price $2.
Paulsen, Friedrich. A system of ethics. Edited and translated
with the author's sanction, from the 4th revised and enlarged
edition by Frank Thilly. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1899.
pp. 723. Price, I3.
Proceedings of the American Medico-Psychological Association at the
54th annual meeting held in St. Louis, May 10-13, 1898. Published
by the Association, 1898. pp. 417.
Rareth, F. De la m^thode dans la psychologic des sentiments.
F61ix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 305. Price, Fes. 5.
6o8 BOOKS r:ECEivKD.
Rec^Gae, E. Essay on the bases of the mystic knowledge. Trans
lated by Sara Carr Upton. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1899.
pp. 287. Price, $2.30.
Sajous, Charles E. de M. Annual and Analytical Cyclopaedia of
practical medicine. Vol. III. Dislocations to Infantile Myxoede-
ma. F. A. Davis Co., Philadelphia, 1899. pp. 600.
Spir, a. Nouvelles esquisses de philosophic critique. Pr^cdd^es
d'une biographic de I'auteur. Felix Alcan, Paris, 1899. pp. 146.
Price, Fes. 3.50.
Thomas, P. Fel,ix. Morale et Education. F^lix Alcan, Paris, 1899.
pp. 171. Price, Fes. 2.50.
T1E1.E, C. P. Elements of the science of religion. Part 2. Ontolog-
ical. Imported by Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1899. pp. 286.
Price, $2.
IISTDEX.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Tfie Migratory Impui^se vs. Love of Home. Linus W. Kline, i.
The Appi.icabii<ity of Weber's Law to Smei^i,. Eleanor Acheson
McCulloch Gamble. 82.
Minor Studies from the Psychoi^ogicai. Laboratory of Cornei.i<
University. E. B. Tichener.
XVII. Cutaneous Perception of Form. D. R. Major. 143.
Hydro-Psychoses. Frederick E. Bolton. 169.
Individual, Memories. F. W. Colegrove. 228.
Methods in Animai, Psychoi^ogy. Linus W. Kline. 256.
Minor Studies from the PsychoIvOGicai, Laboratory of Ci<ark
University. E. C. Sanford.
XII. On Neari^y Simui^taneous Cwcks and Fi^ashes. Guy
Montrose Whipple. 280.
XIII. The Time Required for Recognition. F. W. Colegrove.
286.
XIV. Notes on Mentai, Standards of Length. F. W. Cole-
grove. 292.
Notes on the Castration of Idiot Chii^dren. Everett Flood. 296.
On the Words for " Fear " in Certain Languages. A Study in
Linguistic Psychoi^ogy. Alex. F. Chamberlain. 302.
A Study of Taste Dreams. Will S. Monroe. 326.
Individuai, Psychoi^ogy: A Study in Psychoi^ogicai, Method.
Stella Emily Sharp. 329.
Pain and Strength Measurements of 1,507 Schooi, Chii^dren in
Saginaw, Michigan. Ada Carman. 392.
Suggestions toward a Laboratory Course in Comparative Psy-
CHOi^oGY. Linus W. Kline. 399.
The Effects of Mind on Body as Evidenced by Faith Cures.
Henry H. Goddard. 431.
The PSYCH01.0GY OF A Protozoan. H. S.Jennings. 503.
A Study of Anger. G. Stanley Hall. 516.
PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
I.— Subject Index.
Adolescence, insanities of, 310.
Esthetics, 155 ; and morals, 316.
Animal Intelligence. See Comparative Psychology.
Anthropological, 153-155; Acculturation, 154; Family, origin of, 153;
Family types, 154 ; Imitation in art, 155 ; Journal of the Anthrop-
ological Institute, 603 ; Language, 155; Phallicism, 321; Racial
6lO INDKX.
mixtures, 157; Religion of Egypt, 316; Sepulture and funerals,
314.
Archives of Neurology and Psychopathology, 311.
Association of ideas in the child, 306.
Bibliographies : General, 161 ; Neurology and psychology, 318.
Biological: Atavism, 323; Biomechanics^ 308; Degeneration. 322; De-
termination of sex, 321 ; Foundations of Zoology, 320. See also
Comparative Psychology, and Evolution.
Book notes, 306.
Books received, 167, 328, 607.
Child Study, 159, 160, 306 ; Infantile hysteria, 606.
Comparative Psychology, 149, 152, 158, 162, 600, 604, 605.
Conduct and weather, 604.
Correspondence, 163.
Dreams of Taste, 326.
Emotions : Joy, 604. See also Feelings.
Ethics, 148, 316, 319, 323, 597, 601.
Evolution, 312 ; and dissolution, 599 ; and inheritance, 598 ; Mechanico-
physiological theory of, 323 ; of Christianity, 597 ; of man, 601 ;
of the soul, 602 ; Atavism, 323. See also Heredity.
Experimental psychology : in England, 165 ; Wreschner's experiments
on lifted weights, 165 ; Discriminative sensibility for lifted weights,
604.
Feelings, education of, 319 ; Shame in men and women, 153. See also
Emotion.
Forthcoming books, 166.
Fourth dimension, 323.
Gates's laboratory, 163.
Genetic Psychology. See Child Study, and Comparative Psychology.
Heredity and development, 598; and environment in man, 154; and
evolution, 598 ; and modern nervousness, 311 ; of nervous diseases,
155; Individual heredity, 322.
Hypnotism, 323, 600 ; Autosuggestion, 155, 605 ; Psycho-therapeutics,
155-
Illusions of memory, 161.
Individual psychology : Artists, scholars, and writers, 156 ; Logical
types of mind, 603.
Instincts, moral, 148; sexual, 160 (see also Sex).
Intellectual development, 594, 602.
Medical: Autointoxication in disease, 604; ** Annual and Analytic
Encyclopedia of Practical Medicine," 312.
Memory, false, 161 ; errors of, 606.
Miscellaneous: "Affirmations," 314.
Mental and moral hygiene, 599.
Mental types. See Individual psychology.
Neurological, 151 ; Action current, 151 ; Amceboidism of the cells,
317; "Brain Machine," 600; Central nervous system, 322; Cere-
bral circulation, 151 : Comparative brain physiology, 604. Diseases
of the nervous system, 159, 310, 311, 313, 598, 599; heredity of,
155 ; Aphasia, 313 ; Functional diseases of the cortex, 598 ; Hys-
teria, 592, infantile, 606 ; Nervous diseases of horses. 605; Neu-
rasthenia from sexual causes, 316 ; Neuroses and fixed ideas,
310.
Notes and news, 165, 326.
INDEX. 6ll
Pedagogical: Education of women, 307; Hand and eye training, 161 ;
Herbartian pedagogy, 158 ; Ignorance, 161 ; Orthography, 306 ;
Pain in education, 153; Pedagogy of the feelings, 319; Physical
education, 161 ; Unified education, 157.
Perception, 160; of change, 318, 603.
Philosophical : A new philosophy, 318 ; Classification of Sciences, 161 ;
Criteriology, 603; Critical philosophy, 604; Destiny of man, 315;
Dynamic idealism, 313 ; Karly American philosophers, 324 ; Energy
and reality, 314; MuUer's System of Philosophy, 602; Mysticism,
598 ; New monadology, 603 ; Patrology, 598 ; Philosophy of Secr^-
tan, 313, of Tolstoi, 313; Plato, 310; Principle of sufficient reason,
317; Problems of Philosophy, 314; Riddle of existence, 315;
Rothe's Speculative System, 603; Spiritual consciousness, 315;
Theory of knowledge, 323, 602. See also Psychology, and Religion.
Physiological : Cerebral circulation, 151 ; Experimental insomnia and
metabolism, 606.
Psychiatry and Neuropathy, 599; Fasting of insane, 604; Insanities of
adolescence, 310 ; Legal Psychopathology. 316 ; Mental instability,
599; Methods of investigation in, 599 ; "Primer of Psychology and
Mental Disease," 599.
Psychic automatism, 601, 605.
Psychical research, 598.
Psychological literature, 148, 306, 592.
Psychology as a natural science, 601, 602.
Reading, 324.
Reasoning, 605.
Religion, 160, 308, 312, 316; and Christendom, 324 ; and natural science,
596; philosophy of, 597; Early Christian Theism, 323; End of
Christendom, 316 ; Ethics and revelation, 597 ; Evolution of Chris-
tianity, 597 ; Faith of the future, 317 ; Holy scripture, 597 ; Life of
Jesus, 308 ; Parables of Jesus, 597 ; Patrology, 598 ; Sex worship,
321. See also Anthropological.
Rhythm, 159.
Senses : Color vocabulary of poets, 156, 320 ; Ear and lateral line or-
gans, 152; Skin sensations, 314; Taste dreams, 326.
Sex, 160, 320, 321, 322, 600, 601; Body of man, 315; Masturbation, 158;
Men and women psychologically compared, 153, 601 ; Prostitution,
605; Psychology of sex, 321, 322; Sexual causes of neurasthenia,
159, 316, instinct, 160, 320, perversion, 320, 321.
Sociological: Clandestine prostitution, 605; Polygamy, 320; Social
idealism, 595 ; Social position of women, 307 ; Suicide, 596.
Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Chi-
cago, 605 ; of Iowa, 605.
Subconsciousness, 156, 318.
Text books : Primer of Psychology and Mental Disease, 599 ; Titche-
ner's Primer, 158 ; Ziehen's Leiifaden, 156.
Twentieth Century Magic, 600.
University news, 165.
Welby Prize, 165.
Will, and freedom, 602 ; education of, 155 ; loss of, 324 ; theories of,
319-
6l2
INDEX.
II. — Names of Authors.
(The names of those who have contributed oriHnal matter are
prmted msMAi,!, CAPiTAi^s.)
Adamkievicz, A., 598.
Adams, W. M., 316.
Alexander, Archibald, 319.
Allinson, Alfred, 320.
Amdlineau, K., 314.
Angell, James R., 605.
Antonini, G., 605.
Arrdat, lyucien, 317.
Baldwin, Elizabeth L-, 162.
Balmforth, R., 507.
Bastian, H. C, 313.
Bernard-Leroy, E., 161.
Berr, Henri, 602.
Bcrtrand, Alexis, 157.
Bettex, F., 596.
Bevis, A. W., 161.
Billia, L. M., 153.
Binet, Alfred, 605.
B01.TON, F. B., 169.
Brass, A., 315.
Brewer, Joseph, 592.
Briggs, Charles A., 597.
Brinton, D. G., 154.
Brooks, W. K., 320.
Brown, A. M., 604.
Biicher, M. K., 159.
Burr, C. B., 599.
Canton, William, 159.
Carman, Ada, 392.
Chabaneix, 156.
CHAMBKRI.AIN, Ai^Ex. F., 153, 154,
155, 302, 605, 606.
Cole, lyawrence T., 323.
C01.BGROVE, F. W., 228, 286, 292.
Commenge, O., 605.
Cornelius, Hans, 602.
Costello, W. C, 320.
Crozier, John B., 594.
Dantec, Felix I^e, 322.
Dearborn, G. Van N., 604.
Delbruck, Anton, 316,
Dexler, Hermann, 605.
Dexter, E. G., 604.
Deyber, Rend, 317.
Dodd, Catharine I., 158.
Dodge, Raymond, 324.
Dorman, M. R. P., 161.
Duprat, G. Iv., 599.
Durcheim, Emile, 596.
Ellis, Havelock, 314, 321.
Erdmann, Benno, 324.
Everett, H. ly., 596.
Ewald, Paul, 324.
Fere, Ch., 155, 311.
Finzi, Jacopo, 606.
Fi^ooD, Everett, 296.
Fourni^re, E., 595.
Freud, S., 592.
GAMBI.E, E1.EANOR A. McC, 82.
Gates, Elmer, 163.
Gattel, Felix, 159, 316.
Gilbert, George H., 308.
Goblot, Edmond, 160.
GoDDARD, Henry H., 431.
Goodrich-Freer, A., 598.
Greene, C. W., 151.
Groos, Karl, 162.
Gyel, E., 318.
Haeckel, Ernst, 601.
Hagen, Karl von, 321.
Hai,!,, G. Stani^ey, 158-164, 306-
325, 516, 596-606.
Hanspaul, F., 602.
Herckenrath, C. R. C, 316.
Herman, G., 600.
Hibben, John G., 314.
Hogan, Louise E., 159.
Holtzmann, H. J., 603.
Hopkins, Nevil M. 600.
Howard, Clifford, 321.
Howell, W. H., 151.
HuEY, E. B., 324.
Hutchinson, Woods, 312.
Janet, Pierre, 310, 601.
Jenkins, O. P., 310.
Jennings, H, S., 503.
Jones, Adam L., 324.
Jordan, David S., 312.
Julicher, D. A., 597.
Kassowitz, Max, 598.
Kwne, Linus W., i, 149, 256, 399.
Kohlbrugge, I. H. F., 323.
Krafft-Ebing, R. von, 599.
Krieg, Max, 602.
Lalande, Andrd, 599.
Lampdri^re, Anna, 307.
INDEX.
613
I/awrence, Isabel, 161.
Lee, Frederic S., 152.
Lembke, Paul, 155.
Lemon, J. S., 314.
Lemox, D., 161.
Levy, Paul E., i55-
Lloyd, A. H., 160, 313.
Loeb, Jacques, 604.
Lourie, Ossip, 313.
Lui, Aurelio, 606.
LuKENS, Herman T., 163.
McGee, W. J., 154.
Major, D. R., 143.
Martin, Lillie J., 604.
Mehnert, Ernst, 308.
Mercier, D., 603.
Mills, Wesley, 158.
Monroe, Wili, S., 306, 326.
Mueller, G. E., 604.
MuUer, Josef, 602.
Miiller, Rudolf, 323.
Nageli, Carl von, 323.
Nash, Henry S., 597.
Nicati, W., 601.
Nonuemann, Friedrich, 316.
Oppenheim, Nathan, 159.
Partridge, G. B., 155.
Patrick, G. T. W., 605.
Paulhan, Fr., 603.
Paulsen, Friedrich, 601.
Pfister, Hermann, 604.
Piat, C, 315-
Pick, Leopold, 323.
Pillon, F., 313.
Prat, L., 603.
Pratt, Alice Edwards, 156, 320.
Prizibram, Walter, 160.
Raymond, F., 310.
R^c^jac, E., 598.
Regnault, F^lix, 155.
Reich, E-, 316.
Renooz, C, 601.
Renouvier, Ch., 603.
Ribert, L^once, 318.
Rohleder, H., 158.
Rollin, H.J., 157.
Romer, A., 599.
Roux, Joanny, 160, 322.
RuNKi^E, Erwin W., 592.
Sabatier, August, 597.
Sajous, C. E. de M., 312.
Sanford, E. C, 150, 151, 152, 280.
Schenck, Leopold, 321.
Schiller, Herman, 306.
ScHiNZ, AivBERT, 595.
Schroeder, H. R. P., 600.
Secr^tan, Charles, 313.
Seth, James, 319.
Sharp, StelIvA E., 329.
Sherman, F. D., 157.
Smali., W. S., 148, 156, 307. 308,
594.
Smith, Goldwin, 315.
Solotaroff, H., 153.
Sommer, R., 599.
Spir. A., 604.
Sprague, F. H., 315.
Stearns, W. N., 598.
Stern, L. W., 318, 603.
Sturrock, A., 161.
Sutherland, Alexander, 148.
Talbot, E. S., 322.
Tarnowsky, B., 320.
Tarozzi, Giulio, 606.
Taylor, A. R., 160.
Taylor, John M., 324.
Thomas, F., 319.
Thompson, E. S., 600.
Thorndike, E. L-, i49-
TiTCHENER, E. B., 143, 150, 156,
165, 605.
Tolstoi, Leo, 313.
TripIvETT, Norman, 155.
Urban, Wilbur, 317.
Verworn, Max, 322.
Viazzi, Pio, 153.
Wachtelboru, Karl, 323.
Washington, W. M., 323.
Weinmann, R., 323.
Wetterstrand, O. G., 600.
Whippi^E, G. M., 280.
Wille, Walter, 310.
Wilson, Albert, 600.
Zichy, Theodor, 154.
Ziehen, Th., 156, 306.
c
BF
The American
Journal
1
of psychology
A5
v.lO
For use in
the Uhraff
ONLY
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY