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THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 


OF 


SCIENCE AND ARTS 


CONDUCTED BY 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL. D. 


Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and 
_ For. Mem. Geol. Soc,, London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., 
Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon, Mem. 
Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. 
Bristol, Eng.; Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. 


VOL. XXVII.—JANUARY, 1835. 


NEW HAVEN: 


Published and Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co. and A. H. MALTBY. 
Baltimore, E. J. COALE & Co.—Philadelphia, J. S. LITTELL and CAREY 
& HART.—Wew York, G: & C.& H. CARVILL.—Boston, HILLIARD, 
GRAY & Co. 


PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. 


SMIAN INST)7 
501 U 
As “oy a 

ao 


é mem ES 468! loath. ey vii ji 
@ Sor wah i ik Hats) age ; 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVII. 
—_—>@o— 


NUMBER I. 


Page. 
Art. I. Report on a projected Geological and Topographical 
Survey of the State of Maryland, by Prof. Jurius T. 
Ducatet, M.D. and Joun H. ALEXANDER, Esq. 1 
Il. Experimental Enquiry into some of the Laws of the Ele- 
mentary Voltaic Battery; by Prof. Wriu1am B. Ro- 
GERs, and Henry D. Rocers, F.G.S. - - 39 
III. Some Encomiums upon the excellent Treatise of Chem- 
istry, by Berzelius; also, Objections to his Nomencla- 
ture, and Suggestions respecting a Substitute, deemed 
preferable; by Prof. Ropert Hare, M. D. - 61 
IV. Miscellaneous Communications from an American Naval 
Officer, travelling in Europe ; forwarded from the Medi- 
terranean, May, 1834, - - - - 74 
V. On the apparent anomaly observed in the rotation of li- 
quids of different specific gravities when placed upon 
each other; by Prof. Watrer R. Jounson, - 84 
VI. Theory of the Bellows; by H. Srrarr, - - 88 
VII. Application of the Principle of a Balance; by H. Srrartr, 92 
VIII. Improvement of the Barometer; by Cuas. F. Durant, 97 
IX. Junction of Trap and Sandstone, Wallingford, Conn.; by 
A. B. Cuapin, Esq. - - . - 104. 
X. Observations on the disturbance in the direction of the 
Horizontal Needle—1. During the Aurora Borealis visi- 
ble at Philadelphia, on the 17th of May, 1833; 2. Dur- 
ing that of July 10, 1833; by Prof. A. D. Bacue, 113 
XI. Problems; by D. C. Laruam, Civil Engineer, itl ld a 
XII. Remarks on Professor Mitchell’s method of preparing 
Carbonic Oxide, free from carbonic acid; by Prof. L. 
D. Gatzt, M.D. - - - - - 129 
XIII. Rail Road Curves; by Tuos. Gorron, Civil Engineer, 131 
XIV. Apparatus for freezing Water by the aid of Sulphuric 
Acid; by Prof. R. Harr, M.D. - - . 132 


17/107 


iv 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 


XV. On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids, 
in a notice of the Fifth Article of No. XV of the South- 
ern Review; by Lewis R. Ginses, - - 


XVI. Essay on the Indian Summer, read at a meeting of the 


Om W dO — 


er) 


Maryland Academy of Sciences, by one of its members, 
Baltimore, Dec. 16, 1833, - - - - 


MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


. Abstract of the Proceedings of the New York ns of 


Natural History, - : 2 


. Stony concretions in the ovary of a turtle, - > 
. Vertebral bone of a mastodon, - - - - 
. Fossil Tooth, - - - - - - 


. Some account of the organic remains found in the mar! pits 


of Lucas Benners, Esq. in Craven County, N. C. - 


, 7, 8. Confirmatory notice of the medical virtues of Guaco— 


Notice of a hail storm in Louisiana—Ledererite not a new 
mineral, : - = - ‘= - 


. Meteorology, - : 2 P s s 
. Meteorological Journal, - - - 3 
. A Treatise upon elemental locomotion, by means of steam 


carriages, upon common roads, and Journal of Elemental 
Locomotion, - - - ae z e 


. Notice of ancient pottery, - -— - vk 
. Notice of the culture of the potatoe in France, - 
. Annual Report of the Regents of the University to the Legis- 


lature of New York, - = : E a 


15, 16. Picture gallery of Toronto—Spontaneous combustion, 
17, 18. Wood set on fire by the heat of the sun—Substitute for 


19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 


ot. 4 4 


linen, _. - - - - - 
Notice of the United States Medical and Surgical Journal, 
Strontianite discovered in the United States, —- - 
Munificent donation to Yale College library, —- - 
Telescopes, > - - 5 - - 
On electromotors, - - - - - 
Influence of the moon on the weather, Ye - 
Artificial ultramarine, - - - - - 
Magnesium the metallic radical of magnesia, —- - 


135 


140 


148 
163 
165 
166 


168 


171 
172 
173 


174 
175 
176 


177 
178 


179 
180 
182 
184 
184 
189 
192 
195 
196 


CONTENTS. 


Vv 


Page. 


27, 28, 29. On erystalizable acetic acid—On the separation of an- 
timony from tin—Method of destroying the worms which 
attack fruit trees, - - - - “ 

30. A brilliant and useful varnish for articles of cast iron, - 

31, 32. Recipe for the beverage called imperial pop—Heat by 
phosphorus and iodine, - - - : 


Art. I. 


IX. 


XII. 


NUMBER II, 


Historical Notice of the Life and Writings of M. Des- 
fontaines; by A. P. De Canpo.ur, Prof. of Nat. Hist. 
Acad. Geneva, - - - . : 


. Dissection of the Eye of the Streaked Bass, (Perca No- 


bilis vel Mitchelli,) with Observations on the accommo- 
dation of the Eye to Distances; by W. C. Wattace, 
M. D., Surgeon to N. Y. Institution for the Blind, 


. New mode of constructing the Mercurial Barometer ; by 


J. L. Ripper, A. M., Lecturer on Chemistry, . 


. Apparent Diminution of Weight, in certain circumstan- 


ces; by Prof. W. E. A. Arkin, — - - Pp 


. Transmission of Radiant Heat through different solid and 


liquid bodies.—An abstract of a statement of the results 
obtained by M. Mettont, from the Jour. of the Institute, 


. Caricography; by Prof. C. Dewey, - - 
. Contributions to Chemical Science; by Prof. W. W. 


MaTHER, - - - - - - 


. On the methods of determining and calculating the spe- 


cific heats of certain solids, with some precautions to 
be observed in the experiments ; Be Prof. Watter R. 
JOHNSON, - - - 
On the Condition of Vesuvius in ae 1834; by James 
D. Dana, U.S. Navy, = - - - 


. On the Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. - 
XI. 


On the construction of the Barometer, and other Philo- 
sophical Iustruments in this country; by James GREEN, 
Philosophical Instrument Maker, Baltimore, > 


. On the Existence and Preparation of the Bi-Malate of 


Lime in the Berries of the Sumach; by W. B. Rocers, 
Prof. Chem. and Nat. Phil. William and Mary College, 
Apparatus for analyzing Calcareous Marl and other Car- 
bonates; by Wirx1am B. Rocers, Prof. of Chem. and 
Nat. Phil. in William and Mary College, - - 


197 
199 


200 


201 


216 


223 


224 


228 


236 


241 


292 


294 


299 


vi CONTENTS. 


Page. 
XIV. Self-filling Syphon for Chemical Analysis; by W1Lt1am 
B. Rocrers, Prof. of Chem. and Nat. Phil. in William 


and Mary College, - - - - 302 
XV. Some properties of a Rampant Arch; by Tuomas Gor- 
ton, Civil Engineer, - - - - 303 
XVI. A live Snake suspended by Spiders, - - 307 
XVII. Description of an Instrument for exhibiting a certain op- 
tical deception; by Prof. E.S. Sne1it,~ - - 310 


XVIII. Reply to “Observations on the Treatise of Mineralogy 
of Mr. C. U. Shepard, by Prof. ANpres Det Rio;” by 
Cuartes U. SHEPARD, - - - - 312 
XIX. On the Falls of Niagara and the reasonings of some au- 
thors respecting them; by Hunry D. Roerrs, F.G.S. 
Lond. &c. - - - - - 326 
XX. Meteoric Observations made on and about the 13th of 
November, 1834; by A. D. Bacnz, Prof. Nat. Philos. 


and Chem. Univ. Penn. - - - 335 
XXI. Meteors on the morning of November 13th, 1834; by 
ALExaNDER C. Twinine, Civil Engineer, - 339 
XXII. Lowell—Geological Facts, - - - 340 
XXIII. Notice of the Transactions of the Geological Society of 
Pennsylvania, Part I. - - - - 347 


XXIV. Notice of the discovery of the remains of the Iguanodon 
in the Lower Green Sand Formation of the South East 
of England. Communicated for this Journal, by GIDEON 
ManTe 1, Esq. F.R.S. LL. D., &c. &c., of Brighton, 


England, -— - - 355 
XXYV. Microlite, a New Mineral ae - C. U. SHEPARD, 
Lecturer on Natural History in Yale College, - 361 


XXVI. On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. ¥.) with a Notice 
of the Limestone Cavern in the same place; by CuarLzs 
U. Sueparp, Lect. on Nat. Hist. in Yale College, 363 


MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIO AND FOREIGN. 


1. Observations on the Genus Unio, &e._ - - - 371 
2. Dr. Morton’s Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cre- 
taceous Group of the United States, - - - 317 
3. Large mass of native copper, - - - - 381 
4, 5. Great Mass of Meteoric Iron from Louisiana—Soapstone 
or Steatite of Middlefield, - - - - 382 
6. Prof. Hitchcock’s Geology of Massachusetts,  - 383 


7. The Asclepias Syriaca or Milk Weed a substitute for flax, &c. 384 


CONTENTS. Vil 


Page 

8. On the variation of the Magnetic Needle, : - 385 
9, 10. Notice of the late Eclipse—Notice to the Entomologists 

of America, - - - . - - 386 

11. Travels in the Equatorial Regions of South America, - 387 


12, 13. New York ® B K Society—Elements of Psychology, 388 
14, 15. The New England Magazine—Professor Joslin’s Memoir 


on Irradiation, - - - - - 389 
16. The United States Naval Lyceum, . - - 390 
17. Obituary notice of Thomas Say, ~~ - - 393 


18, 19, 20. Obituary of Hon. Simeon De Witt—Modern Trilo- 
bites of New South Shetland—Recent scientific publica- 


tions in the United States, - . - - 395 
21. Republications of foreign works, - . - 396 
22. Progressive increase of the internal heat of the crust of the 

globe, . - . > - - 397 
23. Water obtained by boring, - - - - 399 
24. On oxalic acid, - - - - 400 
25. On some phenomena of magnetization, - - 401 
26. Necrology—Dr. J. F. Coindet, “ . - 404 
27, 28. Decease of Chevalier Aldini—Gastric liquor, - 405 


29. Abstract of a theory of the elevation and depression of the 
Earth’s crust, by variations of BepBone nae as illustrated 
by the Temple of Serapis, = - 408 
30, 31, 32, 33, 34. Mr. Murchison on the yatagtt of Wales—Mr. 
De La Beche’s Manual—Researches on Theoretical Geolo- 
gy—Opossum in the Stonesfield Slate, near Oxford, sick 


Jand—Mr. Lyell and his Geology, - 412 

35, 36. Allan’s Manual of Mineralogy—Notice of the Work of 
T. Hawkins, F. G.S. 2 : - - 413 
37. Mr. Witham’s transparent sections of fossil wood, - 415 
Zodiacal Light, - - - . - - 416 
The Maidstone Iguanodon, : - : - 420 


On the Chrysomela vitiavora, : - - - 420 


ERRATA AND ALTERATIONS. 


P. 7, |. 23 fr. top, for Wascongo, read Waseongo; 1. 10 fr. bot. for establishments, 
read establishment.—p. 29, 1.6 fr. top, omit 7t.—p. 31, 1.8 fr. bot. after valley, add 
of the; 1.3 fr. bot. for vein, read bed.—p. 107, 1. 3 fr. top, for at, read down.—Two 
letters are omitted on the plate fig. 3, p. 108, on the dykes marked ¢ and 7, at the 
point of their junction; 7 should be read on the dyke 7, and f on the dyke c.—p. 
298, 1. 11 fr. top, for nature which, read which nature ; 1.16 fr. top, for size read sire. 


Vol. xxvi, p. 289, 1. 10 fr. bot., for probability read propriety.—p. 296, 1.1 and 2 
fr. top, for as well as drunk, read when drank.—p. 297, note, 1. 4 fr. bot., for dimi- 
nutions, read elimination ; and a few other slight errors are left to the intelligent 
correction of the rcader. 


THE 


AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. 


Art. I.—Report on a projected Geological and Topograyhical 
Survey of the State of Maryland ; by Juniws T. Ducaret, M. D. 
Prof. of Chemistry, Univ. of Maryland, and Joun H. ALexanvER, 
Esq. Topo. Eng. Communicated for insertion in this Journal. 


To His Excellency, James Tuomas, Governor of Maryland. 


Tue undersigned, commissioned in pursuance of a resolution of 
the General Assembly, passed at its last session, to make the neces- 
sary examinations preliminary to a general survey of the territory of ~ 
Maryland, beg leave respectfully to report :— 

That upon communication to them of their having been selected 
to execute the provisions of the resolution before mentioned—on 
the 25th of May last: they immediately applied themselves to the 
discharge of the required duties. ‘These duties were understood to 
be: 

1. A general reconnoissance of the entire territory of the State, 
with a view to proper arrangements for subsequent topographical ad- 
measurement and geological examination, and, 

2. An inquiry after, and collection of all such authentic informa- 
tion, contained in maps or charts, as covered any part of the said ter- 
rity of Maryland. 

The first mentioned division of their duties—commenced on the 
25th of May and occupied them, with two intervals of a few days each, 
until the 6th of September last. In that time they took occasion to 
pass over every known remarkable spot in our state ;_ particularly, ma- 
king it a point to visit every county and its chief town, and by espe- 
cial inquiries among the inhabitants, to assure themselves that no 
place was overlooked, which, in such preliminary examinations, 


Vor. XXVII.—No. 1. 1 


¢ 


2 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


could or ought to have been attended to. ‘These they were anxious 
should be known, in order that an opportunity might be afforded to 
persons interested (they hope under that title to include every citi- 
zen of Maryland) of ascertaining how far the parts passed over were 
capable of furnishing a correct general idea of the whole. 

This general idea, the results of their examination—they beg leave 
now to present; premising, that by a geological investigation they 
conceive is meant, not only an inquiry into the minerad constitution 
of the different sections of the state, but a developement of all its re- 
sources, in so far as these are dependent upon the occurrence within 
its territory of such substances belonging to the soil, as have already 
been, or are capable of being applied to useful purposes, in agricul- 
ture, manufactures, and the arts; the collection likewise of facts re- 
lative to its hydrology, by which they understand, besides an inquiry 
into the nature and properties of the mineral waters that occur with 
in its limits, an examination of the peculiar circumstances under 
which the natural flow of its streams is determined, with a view, 
principally, to establish the amount of its water power, and, in a word, 
every poiut of information usually embraced under the head of the 
physical geography of a country. 

Taking this view of the subject, they proceed to lay down the 
facts in the order in which they have presented themselves to their 
observation, adding such remarks concerning them, as may serve to 
illustrate their importance or the interest connected with them, wheth- 
er of a general or local character. 

Turning the attention, in the first place, to that portion of the state 
usually designated as the Eastern shore of Maryland, and overlook- 
ing all those subjects, in which it abounds, of a merely speculative 
interest in geology, the observer cannot fail to be struck with the im- 
mense advantages which its agricultural interests would derive from 
a minute investigation of the mineral constitution of its soil, and a 
careful research into the nature and extent of the resources which 
it offers within itself for improvement or amendment. If the obser- 
vation be confined, for the present, to that portion of the Eastern 
shore which lies south of the river Elk, it is found to comprise an 
extensive and irregular deposite of gravel, sand and clay; support- 
ed, perhaps, in its whole extent, by a substratum of clay, enveloping 
innumerable reliquie of many genera of testaceous animals. This 
substratum, the value of which is to a certain extent known, is com- 
monly denominated, and not improperly so, beds of shell marl; its 


Report on the preected Survey of the State of Maryland. 3 


utility for agricultural purposes—according to the species of shells 
which it encloses, the degree of decomposition of these shells, and 
the nature of the cement by which they are held together—being in 
some instances greater than, in most equal to that of the mineral spe- 
cies, described in systematic works as offering two varieties; name- 
ly, indurated or stone marl and earthy marl. 

These beds of shell marl occur at variable depths. They are 
sometimes covered by a thick stratum of gravel or sand, measuring 
from ten to thirty feet and upwards in thickness. At other times 
they reach nearly to the surface of the soil, and their limits, under 
this latter circumstance, are marked by a line distinctly undulating ; 
whilst elsewhere the line of separation from the superincumbent soil 
is horizontal, and in some localities slightly inclined. In some pla- 
ces, the fossils in the marl bed, are its principal constituent; that is 
to say, consisting of numerous genera and species of shells, they are 
bound together by a cement of their own nature, which offers an ad- 
mixture of foreign ingredients, either argillaceous or siliceous, not 
exceeding a ratio of fifteen or twenty per cent. Such beds are char- 
acterized by the great predominance of that species of shells known 
in popular language as clam shells. Other beds consist principally 
of scallop shells. Some contain both scallop and oyster shells; oth-- 
ers oyster shells alone. Some beds are composed principally of 
these shells thickly imbedded in clay; while in others, the shells, 
and more especially the scallop shells,* are firmly agglutinated by an 
argillaceous and ferruginous cement. A portion of these beds of 
shell marl offers an inexhaustible supply of the best material that can 
be used for improving the soil, in an extensive circle around the spots 
on which they are deposited. 

Notwithstanding the great diversity of soils, (according to locali- 
ties,) which is observable on the Eastern shore of Maryland, it would 
be easy to shew, that, excluding the vegetable and animal matter, 
contained in them, they may all be arranged under two classes; 
namely, those containing a predominance of silicious ingredients, and 
such as contain a predominance of argillaceous ingredients; in other 
words, sandy soils, and clayey soils. It is presumed that the great 
characteristic of the soil, in this portion of the territory of Maryland, 
is an absence, or deficiency of calcareous ingredients. 


* This introductory account being mainly popular, the scientific names of the 
shells are, for the present, omitted. 


é 


4 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


Taking this view, then of the constitution of the soil, in connexion 
with the wel] known fact, that to constitute a permanently good soil, 
there should necessarily be present in it a due proportion of silicious, 
argillaceous and calcareous particles ; and, in connexion too with the 
fortunate circumstance of the existence of the immense deposites of 
shell marl, which have just been referred to, the undersigned remain 
persuaded, that the system of geological investigation, to be pursued 
for the Eastern shore of Maryland, in so far as its agricultural inter- 
ests are concerned isa very simple one. It must consist—Ist, in 
ascertaining and then delineating upon a map, the extent and limits of 
each class of soils; and 2dly, in discovering the position and ascer- 
taining the extent and nature of the deposites of shell marl. 

In reference to the latter subject of investigation, it must be borne 
in mind, that, as already stated, the value of this marl as an amend- 
ment to the soil will depend upon the species of shells which it en- 
closes, the facility with which those shells are susceptible of disinte- 
gration, and the nature of the cement by which they are sometimes 
held together, or the nature of the mineral deposites with which they 
are associated. ‘Thus it has been found, that those beds, which con- 
sist principally of clam shells usually associated with numerous varie- 
ties of other smaller bivalve and many univalve shells, and containing 
very little admixture of foreign ingredients, yield a marl which ex- 
hibits its beneficial effects upon the soil in a very short time; be- 
cause the calcareous particles are derived from shells which are very 
prone to disintegrate when exposed to the atmosphere. Marl beds, 
composed entirely or principally of oyster shells, are much less valu- 
able, because of the slow disintegration and decomposition of ‘this 
species of shell. Scallop shells, which are a species nearly allied to 
the oyster, resist such decomposition still more obstinately than do 
oyster shells, and when they occur, as they have been observed to 
do, in extensive beds firmly agglutinated by an argillo-ferruginous 
cement, they are useless in all soils, and may be positively injurious 
tosome. The undersigned have had abundant opportunities of as- 
certaining, that beds of shell marl, thus constituted, occur in various 
localities, on the Eastern shore of Maryland—sometimes as distinct 
uniform deposites, but more generally in alternating strata, which 
might be described as so many varieties of shell marl; the indis- 
criminate use of which has given occasion to some mortifying disap- 
pointments. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 5 


These general remarks, concerning the extent and nature of the 
shell marl deposites on the Eastern shore of Maryland, are predica- 
ted upon the facts contained in the following extracts from notes ta- 
ken upon several spots which were carefully examined by the under- 
signed, or about which the information received was deemed satis- 
factory. 

* At the Frederick ferry, on the Sassafras River, ‘there is a par- 
tial formation of a ferruginous sand stone rock, with impressions of 
shells. ‘This rock is covered by a deposite of sand and gravel, thirty 
feet thick. 

“Three miles below Chestertown, on the Chester River, another 
similar bank occurs, elevated about twenty feet above tide, composed 
of a more indurated ferruginous sand and clay than that at the ferry 
on the Sassafras, and strongly characterized by numerous impressions 
of shells. 

“These spots may perhaps, be indicated as the commencement 
of the fossiliferous deposites of the Eastern shore of Maryland. 

“ At Centreville, we obtained information of the existence of beds 
of shell marl on Corsica creek, which circumstances prevented us 
from visiting: but the specimens obtained from that locality enable 
us to state, that the deposites in that place furnish, what we would — 
term, two varieties of shell marl, one composed principally of clam 
shells imbedded in clay; the other consisting of pectens (scallop 
shells) enveloped by an indurated ferruginous clay. 

* Easton is situated upon a foundation of shell marl. Experi- 
ments made upon three samples of the waters used for the supply of 
the town, indicated a notable proportion of lime, held in solution by 
carbonic acid. 

* Five miles from Easton, on the Choptank River, and thirty miles 
from its mouth, there is an extensive deposite of fossil shells, which 
is very conspicuous for about two miles up the river. This deposite 
which probably underlies nearly the whole of Talbot County, occa- 
sionally makes its appearance immediately beneath the soil, at the 
depth of only a few inches, in other places it is met with only at the 
depth of several feet. 

“In the locality at present under examination, being one of the 
most remarkable, the bank on the river is elevated about twenty feet 
above tide. The shells occur therein in the following order : 

1. Soil consisting of sand, ferruginous sand, and 
gravel, about = - - - site 7 feet. 


6 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


2. Pectens, (scallop shells,) upwards of - - 1 foot. 
3. Clams and pectens, intermixed, - - Sc 
4. Pectens, - - - - - = ieee 
5. Clams, - - - - - ~ 3 as 


6. Oysters, not determined. 

“ Besides these shells which are the most prominent in the strata 
alluded to, there are numerous varieties of other marine shells. 

‘ At the foot of the bank, and perhaps under the deposite of shells, 
(although the latter circumstance has not been satisfactorily ascer- 
tained,) it would seem that there is a formation of iron stone of the 
nature of a bog ore, and exhibiting numerous impressions of pectens 
(scallop,) and other shells. 

* Shell marl deposites also occur in the immediate neighborhood 
of Easton. They are generally found at the head of the branches 
making up from the Third-haven creek. In one locality, the depos- 
ite, which is almost exclusively composed of oyster shells, is covered 
by a bed of gravel, four or five feet indepth. _ 

“‘ Ata short distance from this, there is another deposite which 
consists of broken scallop and oyster shells. This deposite is undu- 
lated in its superior surface, and lies about seven feet beneath the 
soil which is sandy,” &c. &c. ’ 

These notes, it will be perceived, refer principally to spots which 
have been visited by the undersigned. ‘And although, from transient 
observation, they had been at first led to assign the commencement 
of the shell deposites to the Sassafras River, they have since been 
induced to think, that they occur on Bohemia River. At Oxford, 
on the Third-haven, these deposites are known to be extensive. 
There is also good authority for stating, that in Caroline County shell 
marl is found andhas beenused. On the south bank of the Choptank 
River, at Cambridge, in the digging of wells, thick beds of shells 
have been penetrated ; but, from all accounts, these lie commonly very 
deep. It may be proper too, to remark here, that extensive accu- 
mulations of oyster shells, which must not be cofounded with fossil 
shells, are met with on many spots. ‘This is particularly the case 
on Chester River; where the laudable enterprise of an intelligent 
citizen has rendered them subservient toa great good, by burning 
them for lime. Similar accumulations exist on the Western shore of 
the Chesapeake Bay, and'are no doubt the work of the aboriginal in- 
habitants of the country. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 7 


From these considerations it follows, that the prominent features 
in a geological map of the Eastern shore of Maryland, will be an ex- 
hibition of the various kinds of soil, circumscribed by accurate limits 
for each county, and of the extent of the whole shell mar! deposites, 
so far as this can be ascertained ; and a designation of such special de- 
posites, as from their more accessible position and the nature of their 
contents, are adopted to afford the greatest advantage to the great- 
est number. The utility of a representation, in this manner, of the 
actual condition of the soil, and of the means of improvement which 
it possesses within itself, must be apparent to every one: the appti- 
cation of these resources is within the competency of every intelligent 
farmer. 

Another geological feature of interest belonging to the Eastern 
shore of Maryland, and one which should be made of great promi- 
nence, is its extensive deposites of bog ore.—These are found to 
embrace a portion of Caroline county, the eastern part of Dorches- 
ter county, anda great part of Somerset and Worcester counties. 
As this ore of iron is of daily formation, being deposited from stag- 
nant waters containing the oxide of iron, its beds may be said to 
be inexhaustible. It commonly yields from thirty to thirty five per 
cent. of metal, which, although brittle, has nevertheless a great range 
of application. 

The ore is extensively worked at the Nascongo furnace, in Wor- 
cester county. On Barren creek, in Somerset county, it occurs in 
great abundance; and, as it has been found to be advantageously 
used with other ores of iron, it is thence sent to Baltimore and other 
places to be thus employed. ‘The Barren creek springs, which yield 
chalybeate waters are said to have been at one time much frequent- 
ed. They are now quite neglected; but a careful inquiry into all 
the advantages which they may possess, might possibly lead to the 
foundation of some establishments that would diffuse benefits over a 
considerable vicinage. ; 

The great agricultural resources, which the beds of shell marl sup- 
ply to the Eastern shore of Maryland, are, in a considerable degree, 
possessed by the lower counties on the Western shore of the Chesa- 
peake, and on the Potomac River. The fossiliferous deposites avail- 
able in this way, for this section of country, occur principally at In- 
dian point, in Prince George’s county, at Maryland point, in Charles 
county, and on the Saint Mary River, in Saint Mary’s county. There 
is also a deposite of fossil oyster shells at Hog point, on the Patux- 


8 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


ent; and the cliffs, between Drum point and Cove point, in Calvert 
county, present a vertical section of about seventy feet, consisting in 
the descending order of: 1st. Gravel and sand, fifty feet in depth. 
2d. A bed of marine shells, in the upper portion of which the shells 
are firmly bound together by a ferruginous cement, and in the lower 
portion are imbedded in a blue clay: this bed measures upwards of 
ten feet. 3d. A tough blue clay, rising ten feet above the level of 
the bay. 

The localities at Indian point and Maryland point are stated upon 
the authority of intelligent gentlemen, who have asserted the exist- 
ence of shell deposites on those spots; but the deposite on the Saint 
Mary River having been examined by the undersigned with some 
care, they are enabled to specify some circumstances connected with 
it, of great interest, (it is thought,) both in a scientific point of view, 
and in consequence of the practical application which naturally, in 
those circumstances, suggests itself. 

The deposite referred to occurs at the mouth of Saint Inigoe’s 
‘creek, on the western side. It is overlaid by a bed of ferruginous 
sand, soil and gravel, about twelve feet thick. The shells are very 
abundant, and present a great variety of genera and species. ‘They 
occur in a blue clay, and are associated with groups of crystallized 
selenite, which project from the bank through the clay from one to 
two feet above tide; or after high tide, having been washed out of 
the bank, are loosely scattered over the beach. ‘This bed of clay 
contains likewise small pieces of lignite, nodules of tron pyrites, (sul- 
phuret of iron,) and, whenever exposed 1o the influence of atmos- 
pheric agents, becomes covered with an efflorescence of copperas, 
(sulphate of iron.) 

The formation of the selenite (which is the name given to the pu- 
rest variety of a well known mineral employed in agriculture and the 
arts, as plaster of Paris,) merits consideration in a two-fold respect, 
scientifically and practically. 

It is not difficult to account for the formation of this variety of plas- 
ter of Paris, under the circumstances which have just been stated to 
be peculiar to the locality mentioned. Selenite is a compound of 
sulphuric acid and lime. In the language of chemistry, it is a sul- 
phate of lime. Its constituents occur abundantly in the bed of clay 
which has just been described—the sulphuric acid being derived from 
the decomposition of the iron pyrites and copperas, and the lime from 
that of the shells. Their spontaneous union, under a variety of fa- 


a 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 9 


vorable circumstances belonging to this locality, is explicable by the 
first principles of chemical science. Wherever the same conditions 
shall be found to exist, the production of selenite may be confidently 
expected. Accordingly, at Hog point on the Patuxent River, where 
a bed of clay occurs similarly constituted to that on the St. Mary, a 
like formation of the same substance is found to take place. From 
the relative position of the two localities, it is presumed that the bed 
of clay extends across a great portion of the peninsula of St. Mary’s 
county, and may be looked upon as a natural manufactory, upon a 
large scale, of a mineral substance which can be rendered valuable in 
many ways. It may be proper, however, to add the remark, that 
these masses of selenite cannot be expected to occur throughout the 
whole bed of clay. They will be found only at its outbreakings, 
where the concurrent action of the atmosphere and of water will bring 
about the conditions necessary for their production. 

The occurrence of plaster of Paris on the Patuxent, accords with 
an old tradition in Maryland. It is known, too, that the stucco employ- 
ed in the State house at Annapolis, is made with sulphate of lime ob- 
tained from St. Mary’s county. This fact had induced an enterprising 
agriculturalist from a neighboring state to make arrangements for 
proceeding to the discovery of some continuous deposite of the min-. 
eral. The enterprise was afterwards abandoned, in consequence 
of a pretended subsequent discovery, that this supposed plaster of 
Paris had been landed from a wreck of a vessel, coming from Nova 
Scotia with a load of this article» But the fact of the existence of 
selenite on the Patuxent and St. Mary, explains the origin of the tra- 
dition ; and its employment to make the stucco of the State house 
illustrates one of its useful applications. 

The quantity of the material which may be obtained from the sour- 
ces just designated, although not very great, is still sufficient to an- 
swer many valuable purposes. Many cart loads are stated to have 
been collected, loosely scattered upon the shore, after heavy swells 
of the river or the violent washings of its banks by an agitated sea. 
The conjecture is thought a plausible one, that by removing the mass- 
es of crystals as they become formed, they would be replaced by 
fresh crops ; and thus almost an indefinite quantity would be obtain- 
ed. At all events, this portion of the geology of St. Mary’s county 
deserves a minute and careful investigation. 

Besides these deposites of fossils, which have been referred to as 
occurring in the lower counties on the western shore of Maryland, 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 2 


10 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


there are others, as at upper Marlborough in Prince George’s coun- 
ty, where the banks on the western branch of the Patuxent, consist- 
ing of gravel, sand and clay, envelope masses of a siliceous incrusta- 
tion, containing casts of marine shells. ‘These masses of silicified 
shells are observed to rest on a deposite of sand and broken shells, 
made up of oyster shells, scallop shells, &c. A similar deposite oc- 
curs in the neighborhood of Queen Anne, and another which has al- 
ready acquired some celebrity in the annals of science, is that at Fort 
Washington on the Potomac. But as the products of this last depos- 
ite are more especially interesting to natural history than otherwise 
susceptible of any useful application, it is not thought necessary to 
give a particular description of them at present. ‘The undersigned, 
however, feel themselves bound in this place to acknowledge, in the 
warmest terms of gratitude, the polite attentions which they have re- 
ceived from Major Mason, of the United States’ army, the comman- 
ding officer on the station. 

They have, likewise, to return their thanks to Dr. Brereton, sur- 
geon, U.S. army, on the same station, for specimens of various kinds 
of clay obtained from that neighborhood. A partial examination of 
these clays, led to the expectation that they might be advantageously 
used in the manufacture of pottery ware; and the result obtained by 
an intelligent manufacturer in Baltimore, to whom they were sub- 
mitted for further and more practical examination, proves them ac- 
cordingly to be excellent materials, which are extensively used in a 
very important branch of our manufacturing industry. Of the three 
varieties submitted to experiment, one was found to be a very supe- 
rior material for the manufacture of the better sorts of stone ware, as 
well as for the ordinary pottery or earthen ware: the other two were 
of fair quality, and applicable to the making of common pottery. 

The clay deposites, in the whole of that portion of Maryland de- 
signated as belonging to the tertiary order of geological formations, 
offer a subject of investigation of the deepest interest to several branch- 
es of the manufacturing classes of the state. This formation may be 
described as extending, so far as this state is concerned, over the 
whole eastern shore of Maryland, south of a line drawn from east to 
west through Cecil county, commencing at the Delaware line, pass- 
ing a few miles north of Elkton, and terminating a few miles below 
Port Deposit on the Susquehanna. If the same line be continued 
from a point a little above Havre de Grace, on the opposite side of 
the Susquehanna, through Harford and Baltimore counties, with ve- 


~ Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 11 


ry slight deviations along the main’post road to Baltimore, nearly the 
whole of the site of which it embraces; thence along the line of the 
Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road, to where it reaches the Patapsco ; 
from this a little west of the Washington turnpike road, passing behind 
that city and terminating at the confluence of Rock creek and the 
Potomac, it will form the N., N. W., and W. boundaries of the por- 
tion of Maryland, on the western side of the Chesapeake bay, in 
which these clay deposites, varying in extent, in nature, and conse- 
quently in their susceptibility of application to useful purposes, will 
be found to occur. 

The value of these deposites is already fully appreciated by those 
engaged in the manufacture of their contents. The stone ware of 
Baltimore is celebrated and largely exported. The clay of which it 
is made, is sent in great quantities to Philadelphia. ‘The Baltimore 
glazed ware, yellow and black, is a highly prized article of commer- 
cial exchange. Our common pottery is no less extensively used. 
An estimate of fifty thousand dollars rather falls short of than ex- 
ceeds the annual value of products in this branch of domestic indus- 
try ; of which from fifteen to twenty thousand dollars worth is yearly 
exported.* The common bricks, and the pressed bricks of Baltimore 
which are the best made in the U. States, are likewise products of 
the domestic industry of Maryland of great value as articles of export. 
The fire bricks, which, so far as regards the U. States, are made exclu- 
sively at Baltimore, have been pronounced by competent judges, after 
repeated trials, to be fully equal, if not superior to the far famed Stour- 
bridge bricks of the same nature. Puddling clays too, of an excel- 
lent quality, occur in several localities around Baltimore. Our man- 
ufacturing industry calls now for the discovery of those varieties of 
fine soft clay, which are used as substitutes for whiting in the manu- 
facture of paper hangings, and of that purest variety of potter’s clay, 
called pipe clay, which is used for the pots of glass houses, and is 
largely imported from Germany to be sent in great quantities to the 
west. Surely, where nearly all the other known varieties of clay 
are already found to exist, it may reasonably be expected that the 
research after the only ones of value remaining to be discovered will 
be crowned with success. 


* No account is taken in this place of the porcelain clay, which there is reason 
to believe occurs in abundance, in the upper parts both of Cecil and Harford coun- 
ties, because this mineral belongs to another order of geological formations. 


12 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


Another variety of clay, of at least paramount importance to those 
which have been thus far considered, and which Maryland possesses 
in great abundance, is that which has been called alum earth. 

The principal deposite of this very valuable material is on the nor- 
thern shore of the Magothy river, at Cape Sable, in Anne Arundel 
county. A minute and very able account of this locality has been 
furnished by one of its original proprietors, Dr. Gerard Troost, at 
present officially employed as geologist for the state of ‘Tennessee. 
This account is published in Prof. Silliman’s Journal.* The gen- 
eral features in the geological constitution of this spot, are the fol- 
lowing, in a descending order :— . 


1. Sand, from - - - - - 20 to 30 feet. 
2. Ferruginous sandstone, - - - = ib 40) 2eat 
3. Copperas ore, (iron pyrites,) ~ - bito: yi2ane 
4, Alum earth—clay embracing iron pyrites and 

lignite, - - - - - - 7told * 


This stratum is very irregular in its inferior line 
of separation. It rests upon 

5, A stratum of ferruginous sandstone, - = 0 ae 
which, if accidentally penetrated, admits the flow of water from be- 
neath in such abundance, as to put a stop to any further excavation. 

The value of the alum obtained annually from this source is esti- 
mated at seventy five thousand dollars, and that of the quantity ex- 
ported out of the limits of the state at sixty five thousand dollars. 

As stated above, this alum earth is associated with a bed of cop- 
peras ore—the annual product of which has. been ascertained to 
amount to six thousand dollars; of which one half is exported. 
This same ore of copperas, as it is termed, which chemists de- 
scribe as a bisulphuret of iron, occurs in many other situations 
throughout the district of country which is now being reviewed. It 
has been found in Cecil county; it occurs on the shores of the 
Round bay, in Anne Arundel county ; and at Oxen creek in Prince 
George’s county, it was observed under circumstances leading to the 
suspicion that there may exist in that place a formation similar to the 
one at Cape Sable. 

Associated, also, with the clay deposites, are found abundant for- 
mations of two varieties of iron ore, which, as they are but seldom 
used for the extraction of the metal, may be properly mentioned here. 


* Vol. iii. p. 8. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 13 


These two varieties of iron ore, are the ochrey red oxide of iron (red 
ochre) and the ochrey brown oxide of iron, (yellow ochre.) 

The estimate of the value of red and yellow ochres produced at 
Baltimore and exported, exceeds two thousand dollars a year. By 
the production of these articles within our own limits, the importation 
has been entirely excluded ; and the domestic articles are now fur- 
nished at one half of their former prices. 

But a still more valuable constituent of the tertiary formation of 
Maryland is the deposite of those ores of iron which are used for the 
extraction of the metal. Notice has alreade been taken of the bog- 
ore of the Eastern Shore. The same variety is found on the West- 
ern Shore, as in the neighborhood of Queen Anne, in Prince 
George’s county, &c. . 

Those kinds of iron ore, which are the most valuble are described 
in systematic works under two specific heads ; namely, carbonate of 
iron and brown oxide of iron. ‘The varieties, included under these 
two heads, occur throughout a broad belt of country comprising the 
upper limits of the tertiary formation, where it is associated with a 
coarse gravel, ferruginous sand, transported boulders and blocks— 
constituting what in some systems of geology is termed the Erratic 
block groupe, and which with us is found to rest immediately upon 
the primitive or primary rocks. ‘These ores of iron (usually but im- 
properly classed among the argillaceous ovides of iron, that belong 
to another epoch) are found occurring in nodules of an oval or spher- 
ical form, sometimes kidney-shaped, and composed of concentric 
layers. The nodules frequently embrace a nucleus, differing in 
density and color from the exterior layer. The texture of this ex- 
terior layer is compact, but its density diminishes towards the centre, 
and while its color is commonly dark brown, that of the central por- 
tion is light approaching to yellow. The technological terms ap- 
plied to these varieties of iron ore are brown ores and hone ores— 
names which have reference to their physical characters. 

All these ores belong to the mineralogical species, carbonate of 
iron. But when the nodules contain cavities, as they frequently do, 
these are lined with minute crystals of a rich velvety aspect ; which 
are hydrated oxide of iron, a variety of the species brown oxide of 
aron. 

They are ranked among the best ores of iron—working easily and 
yielding an average of metal from forty to fifty per cent. A cele- 
brated deposite of them is in Prince George’s county at Snowden’s 


14 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


imine bank, situated on the east side of the Washington Turnpike, 
near the twenty-first mile stone, and about half a mile from the 
road. The ore was formerly extracted from this bank in large quan- 
tities, as is evident from the excavation—but the mine is now totally 
abandoned and serves as a mere lick, to which the cattle of the 
neighboring country are attracted by a singular efflorescence within — 
of sulphate of magnesia. 

At the head of deep run, which empties into the Patapsco, seven 
miles from Baltimore, ore of a good quality is raised for the use of 
the Patapsco furnace. The furnace at Curtis’s creek is fed with ore 
of the same nature, principally from its own neighborhood ; and in 
the immediate vicinity of Baltimore, where it occurs in abundance, 
advantage is taken of the facilities of the rail road to convey it to the 
water side, whence it is exported to New Jersey, and there exchang- 
ed for bog-ore. 

On the falls of the little Senpenider at Joppa, and near Abingdon, 
in Harford county, there are extensive deposites principally of that 
variety called in the arts brown ore, which is of the best quality. 
Along Bush river in the same county, the best quality of hone ore is 
raised. This latter variety is a mixture of carbonate and oaide 
of iron, and is said to produce the best foundry iron. Hone-ore, 
generally yields a more valuable metal for castings ; while the brown 
ores furnish the best forge-pigs. The furnace of Bush creek is in 
part fed with these ores. Others, with which it is supplied from 
the upper part of Harford county, will be described hereafter, but 
it may be proper to mention here, that associated with what is 
obtained from Bush river, there is a mineral, apparently a ferruginous 

jasper, which by some iron masters has been termed flint ore. ‘This 
is not an ore of iron ; but, on the contrary, is a pernicious article when 
suffered to go into the furnace. 

Such are the principle known localities of iron ore in this section 
of the state of Maryland. ‘There are doubtless others of equal ex- 
tent and value; and it is known that ores of inferior quality, but an- 
swering admirably when mixed with the richer refractory ores, also 
abound. It is not deemed necessary to specify these at present. 

Besides all of these, however, which have just been briefly de- 
scribed as belonging more immediately to the tertiary formation ; 
there is found in its upper limits among the erratic material with 
which it is associated and occurring very often in very large masses, 
another variety described mineralogically as hematitic brown oxide of 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 15 


tron. The forged iron from this ore is commonly found to be hard, 
and very malleable, and has been used to furnish steel. It was former- 
ly worked at the furnace known as Ridgely’s furnace on the falls of 
the great gunpowder. 

The whole amount of iron produced annually in the state of Ma- 
ryland has been estimated at 5800 tons—valued at about $400,000 ; 
and it is thought that one half at least of this quantity is derived from 
the sources which have so far been enumerated. 

From all these considerations, the undersigned are of opinion, that 
further researches into the mineral constitution of the portion of our 
state which they have so far passed in review, cannot fail to bring to 
light new sources of wealth as well as to extend the operation of 
those that are already known; whilst they remain persuaded that 
where so many important interests are subserved, great and lasting 
benefits must accure to the community at large. 

The undersigned will now proceed to state the results of their ob- 
servations on other parts of the state. 

The second great division of Maryland, which may be made for 
the sake of convenience in its geological examination, will embrace 
that portion of territory lying between the line already defined, 
as limiting the upper part of the tertiary formation, and another 
drawn through the state from N. E. to S. W. passing along the sum- 
mit of Parr’s spring ridge, and coinciding nearly with the western 
limits of Baltimore, Anne Arundel, and Montgomery counties. This 
division will thus comprise the upper part of Cecil county, the great- 
est portion of Baltimore and Harford counties, the upper districts of 
Anne Arundel county, and the whole of Montgomery county. Its 
geological characters, are that it consists of stratified rocks, varying 
in mineral composition alternating with each other, and Sometimes 
passing one into another, in such a way as to render it very difficult 
to affix definite names to their different mixtures. When any of 
these rocks are viewed singly, they will rarely be found to present a 
simple mineral substance, constituting a large tract of country. They 
are, on the contrary, admixtures of several minerals and earths; the 
principal of which are, quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, lime, magne- 
sia, tale, &c. and according to the nature of their aggregation, and the 
predominance of one or the other, the rocks themselves are described 
in the systems by different names, is granite, gneiss, mica slate, horn- 
blende rock, limestone, magnesian limestone, serpentine, steatite 
(soapstone,) &c. These rocks are generally metalliferous, and, as a 
groupe, are usually called primitive or primary rocks. 


16 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


If, first, we inquire into the nature of the soz by which these rocks 
are covered, it seems proper to base this inquiry upon the considera- 
tion that the soil (so far as its mineral constitution is concerned) is 
produced by the disintegration of the rock which immediately under- 
lies it: whenever observed to be otherwise, it is presumed that it will 
always be found to have arisen, either from the circumstance of an 
encroachment of the tertiary formation upon the primary, or from 

‘ partial transportations of soil from one spot to another by causes al- 
ways appreciable. This view it is deemed important to take, as the 
only one calculated to lead to any general and positive results of val- 
ue to agriculture. Thus every farmer in Baltimore county is aware 
of the higher estimate which is put upon the red soil of some districts, 
than upon the lighter colored soils of an adjoining one. Now, the 
red soil, as it is termed, is known to be produced by the decomposi- 
tion of that variety of rocks, called hornblende rock; while the ad- 
joining soil is derived from some other of the granitic aggregates. 
On the other hand, those portions of the same county that are de- 
signated as barren, are equally well known to occur principally 
among the magnesian and talcose rocks. Generally speaking, then, 
the mineral constituents of these soils will be found to correspond 
with those of the rocky strata beneath them. Although it is a re- 
markable fact in relation to the dmestone soil, that its constituents do 
not indicate it to have been produced solely by the disintegration of 
the subjacent rock. Still however, the limestone soil, like the other — 
soils that have been mentioned, is peculiar, and it is uniform, as re- 
gards superposition upon limestone rock ; and as it shews no evi- 
dence of having been transported, must be classed among the prima- 
tive or original soils, whatever may have been the circumstances, 
hereafter to be discovered, that have occasioned its production. 

If this view of the original constitution of the soils lying over the 
primary rocks be a correct one, and it is confidently believed to be 
so, it follows, that the first step to be taken by which to serve the ag- 
ricultural interest of this portion of our state, is to discover and to es- 
tablish the nature of each geological formation within it. 

It is also a matter of interest to the farmer to know the limits of 
these formations. It interests him for example, to be made acquaint- 
ed with the nearest spot from which he can derive his material for 
obtaining lime. Yet, even as regards the limestone formation, its lim- 
its have not been satisfactorily determined. From this circumstance, 
much inconvenience and disappointment have already arisen. ‘Thus, 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 17 


the search after limestone is, at this time, anxiously kept up in many 
places, where it is possible, but barely possible, that it may be found; 
and it is also pursued in other localities, where it is not at all likely to 
occur. ‘The aid of science is therefore required to hasten the frui- 
tion of any well founded hopes of this kind, as well as to remove the in- 
jurious tendency of fallacious expectations that ought no longer to be 
cherished. Already, but only within a short time, limestone has been 
found near Bell-air in Harford county. The excavations for the 
Baltimore and Ohio rail-road have exposed it in some parts of Bal- 
timore county, where previously its existence was only suspected ; 
and in some portions of Anne-Arundel and Mountgomery counties, 
on the Patuxent, the inhabitants have lately enjoyed the means, by 
its discovery in their neighborhood, of supplying themselves with a 
subtance long earnestly desired, whose anticipated benefits they are 
now realizing. It is in this way, that by bringing to light new re- 
sources, new incentives to industry are created, the happy effects of 
which become in a short time apparent in the generally ameliorated 
condition of a large tract of surrounding country. 

Before leaving this subject it may be stated, that the amount of 
lime, according to the inspections for the year 1832, which is annu- 
ally brought to the city of Baltimore and applied to various purposes, 
is one hundred and sixty one thousand and one hundred bushels, to 
which, if there be added about an equal amount consumed in the 
country principally for the use of the soil, it may be made out, that 
this formation of limestone actually yields to the commercial and ag- 
ricultural interests of Maryland, a yearly income of one hundred 
thousand dollars. 

The other formations in this district would be found to yield, in 
proportion to their extent, perhaps larger returns. This is the case 
with the granite formations ; whilst on the other hand, the soapstone 
formations, although not so extensively employed, are known to fur- 
nish a material of great value for the construction of hearths for fur- 
naces and fire places, for the making of stoves, &c. 

The next step in the progress of inquiry, which the undersigned 
beg leave to recommend, would be, to indicate the localities of min- 
eral deposites that are already known, or which in the course of 
examination might be discovered, to furnish materials for our manu- 
factures. It would be necessary also to indicate the value of these 
materials in reference not only to their comparaive qualities, but like- 
wise to their precise nature. As an instance of the importance of 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 3 


18 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


the latter consideration it may be stated, that it has been found a 
matter of great moment to have ascertained the presence of a for- 
eign metal in the rich iron ores of Deer creek, in Harford county. 
This ore which contains from eighteen to twenty per cent, of the 
metal Titanium, and is hence called titaniferous iron ore, was found, 
in consequence of this admixture, to be exceedingly refractory. It 
connot in fact, be smelted by itself; but requires to be mixed with 
some poorer ores before it can be made to yield its metal.. Experi- 
ments directed by science have shown, that by mixing it, in the pro- 
portion of two parts to three, of an ore yielding thirty three per. 
cent. of metal, it may be very readily worked. Similar considera- 
tions apply to those varieties of ore which, for the sake of distinction, 
might be called calczferous iron ores ; and which for a long time were 
thought to require the addition of limestone, as a flux; these, like- 
wise, experience has proved, not, however, until after considerable 
expenditure of time and money, to be perfectly manageable without 
it. | , 

To be able to specify those different kinds of ore in the manner 
now indicated, it is evident that it will be frequently necessary to 
subject them to careful chemical analysis. ‘The advantages, which 
those who have to use them will derive from such a specification, it is 
presumed, must be apparent. Nor do these considerations apply 
with less weight to the varieties of ores of iron which are not used for 
production of the metal. Among them, the chromiferous iron ores, 
which furnish a substance employed in a different branch of our 
manufacturing industry, require a separate mention. ‘These, more 
usually called chrome ores, are known to be extensively employed 
for the production of several articles used as pigments and dyes. 
The value of the products annually obtained from this source is not 
less than fifty thousand dollars. ‘The ore itself, too, is exported, and 
is understood to be in demand at the present time for the supply of 
foreign countries. The chief localities in Maryland are Harford 
county, Cooptown ; Baltimore county, at the Bare hills, seven miles 
from the city of Baltimore, and at the Soldier’s Delight, seventeen 
miles distant, and the northern part of Cecil county. 

The serpentine formation, which encompasses the chromiferous 
iron ores, yields also another material for the preparation of a chemical 
product of great value. This is the epsom salt, the base of which is 
derived from a maginesian mineral, no where found in such abundance 
and purity as within the state of Maryland. The quantity produced 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 19 


annually, is eleven hundred thousand pounds; valued at forty five 
thousand dollars; the exports are valued at forty thousand dollars. 
It is believed that the production of this article in Baltimore has en- 
tirely superseded the necessity of its importation for any portion of 
the United States, and has also greatly reduced its former price. 

Still another substance, doubtless about to prove, ere long, a source 
of considerable revenue to the counties where it occurs, has been al- 
ready alluded to as having been found in Cecil and Harford coun- 
ties. It is the mineral commonly called porcelain clay or porcelath 
earth. ‘This material is regarded as proceeding principally from the 
natural decomposition of the coarse grained granite, a very common 
rock in the state of Maryland. 

For the porcelain works at Philadelphia, it is derived, almost ex- 
clusively, from the neighborhood of Wilmington in Delaware ; but an 
analogous formation was observed in Cecil county, eastward of the 
Big Elk, in the vicinity of the stopping place known as Dysart’s. 
The mineral, called by mineralogists Kaolin, is here well character- 
ized, and is believed to occur in quantity; and as the undersigned 
know that demands for it have lately been made in Baltimore, they 
would indicate this locality as one likely to afford a supply. To the 
inhabitants of the county, it is well known as what is not unfrequent- 
ly mistaken for limestone. Specimens of Kaolin have been sent 
from Harford county also ; but the exact locality has not been ascer- 
tained. The undersigned have likewise noted its occurrence on the 
route of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road, between Ellicott’s Mills 
and Mariottsville. 

Resuming now the consideration of the most prominent circum- 
stances in the geology of that section of our state, which compre- 
hends the primitive or primary rocks, and specifying the share of in- 
terest which belongs to each county within it; it will be seen that,— 

Cecil county possesses in her porcelain earth, an article of ex- 
change likely to become soon of considerable value. The magne- 
sian earths, and chrome ores abound towards her north western lim- 
its. The granite formation at Port deposit is well known not to yield 
in value and importance to any in the state. To complete her ad- 
vantages, and to supply proper mnterials for the industry of the ag- 
riculturists of the upper portion of the county, there seems to be want- 
ing only a discovery of limestone, if not within her boundaries, at 
least at a more accessible distance than it is now known to exist. 


20 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


Harford county possesses limestone rocks ; but it is very necessa~ 
ry that their extent and comparative value in the production of lime 
for agriculture, be determined correctly. She has soap stones ; and 
her limits extend to the slate formation on the Susquehanna. Her 
iron ores are of very rich quality. ‘The chrome ores and magnesian 
earths exist in abundance; and pyritous copper, occurring with the 
chromiferous iron ores, has been found near Cooptown. 

Baltimore county presents nearly the same mineralogical constitu- 
tion as Harford county. Her limestone formation furnishes the great- 
est proportion of the lime embraced in the estimate given on a pre- 
ceding page, of the quantity annually inspected and consumed; while 
it is likewise extensively quarried for marble, which is obtained of a 
fine quality for most architectural purposes, and is used also for the 
more ordinary kinds of statuary. ‘The mineral called graphite, which 
is a mixture of carbon and iron, but is better known under the im- 
proper name of black lead, has been observed on the gunpowder. 
Sulphuret of molybdenum, also, which yields an acid that in combi- 
nation with the oxides of some other metals produces salts of lively 
and permanent colors and capable of being applied in the art of dye- 
ing and of painting on porcelain, occurs in this county, but to what 
extent has not yet been determined. ‘The same uncertainty rests on 
_the occurrence of lead and of zinc, which has been by some confi- 
dently asserted. 

Anne-Arundel county supplies the porphyroidal granite, now so 
generally employed for the embellishment of Baltimore city. Sev- 

eral localities of other varieties of this rock, which it would be super- 
fluous to mention at present, have been observed on the line of the 
Rail Road, along the Western branch of the Patapsco, and the. de- 
composition of that variety of the same rock known to mineralogists 
as graphic granite offers, as was already stated, situations where the 
material for the manufacture of porcelain ware may be confidently 
expected to occur. The limestone formation has been also ascer- 
tained to extend through a portion of this county: and much of the 
soap stone used in Baltimore is derived from Elk Ridge. 

Montgomery county might supply the latter article, of better qual- 
ity, from the Patuxent; and finally, this county, possesses, besides 
the more usual concomitants of the primary rocks, a formation of 
/Manganese ore, occurring, so far as known, principally in the neigh- 
borhood of Mechanicsville.—It has been thought, too, that a portion 
of this county, between Sandy spring and Rockville, presents some 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 21 


analogies in mineral constitution with the gold districts of Virginia. 
The undersigned can only say, that in the rapid reconnoissance 
which they were enabled to make of this part of our state, they have 
not seen the least indication of the presence of this highly prized met- 
al.—Three miles westward of Rockville, there is a serpentine forma- 
tion, which in a systematic plan of examination, it would be necessa- 
ry accurately to define. Beyond this the geological character of the 
country changes. Slate rocks make their appearance, and at the 
mouth of Seneca creek, the quarries of beautiful freestone, which the 
facilities of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal permit to be brought to 
such profitable account as a building material, exhibit the mineral 
connection of this portion of Montgomery county with another geo- 
logical division of the state of Maryland. 

This division, the third in the order of this Report, will coincide 
with the limits of Frederick county. In its mineralogical and geo- 
logical relations, it is intimately associated with the preceding divis- 
ion, which has been previously stated to consist of primary rocks. 
At its eastern boundary it commences with the clay slates and chlo- 
rite slates, usually classed among the primary rocks. With these it 
passes insensibly into that series of rocks described in systematic 
works under the head of the grauwacke groupe and from these again 
to the red sandstone, and carboniferous groupes. 

In a scientific point of view it would be a matter of great interest 
to assign the precise line of demarcation between these different 
groupes of rocks: while the practical application of the result would 
also prove of importance. The task however, is not an easy one, 
owing to the fact already mentioned, of the very gradual passage of 
one series into the other; nor for present purposes is it required. 

This division, then, viewed generally, may be described as con- 
sisting of large stratified masses of arenaceous and slaty rocks, in- 
termixed with deposites of limestone and conglomerates of consid- 
erable extent. Many of the rocks embraced within it are metallif- 
erous. 

Among the arenaceous rocks which it comprehends, there is an 
abundant supply of excellent building materials—rendered now avail- 
able in the facility of transportation by the Chesapeake and Ohio ca- 
nal. Itis not necessary to indicate more than a few localities. 

The quarries of white and colored sandstone, at the foot of the 
south western slope of the Sugarloaf mountain, may be said to rival, 
in the beauty of their materials, those already mentioned, as occur- 


22 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


ring near the mouth of the Seneca. ‘The splendid aqueduct over the 
Monocacy is constructed of the freestone, quarried at the foot of the 
Sugarloaf mountain. 

The conglomerate, so well known as the Potomac breccia marble, 
occurs along the river side, commencing a short distance above the 
mouth of the Monocacy and reaching nearly to the point of rocks. 
This formation extends along the valley on the eastern side of the 
Catoctin mountain, to within two miles westward of Frederick town. 
It is there contiguous to the red sandstone and blue limestone, by 
which it is displaced ; but it re-appears in a distance of fifteen miles, 
near Mechanicsburg. 

The slaty rocks of the present division, which occur east of the 
Monocacy within the limits of transition from the primary to the 
groupe of arenaceous rocks, cannot, under existing circumstances, 
be said to offer any consideration of much moment. Quarries of 
roofing slate, however, have been opened in several spots—on Bush 
creek adjoining the line of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road; in 
the neighborhood of Unionville, &c. &c. 

The results of a minute geological examination should, no doubt, 
exhibit every circumstance of any consequence growing out of the 
mineral constitution of the country, but there are particular spots giv- 
ing rise to considerations of such superior interest, that, in a general 
reconnoissance, the attention is forcibly directed towards them. ‘This 
is the case with that portion of Frederick county, which may for dis- 
tinction’s sake be called its metalliferous region, lying east of the 
Monocacy and extending between Bush creek and Pineyrun. The 
metals that occur within it are copper, iron, lead and manganese. 

Veins of copper ore had, from a very early period in the settle- 
ment of our state, been traced through many portions of the country. 
Upon our oldest maps is found indicated the existence of a copper 
mine near the Monocacy, between Piney run and Pipe creek. And 
more recently, the ore has been largely extracted between Liberty- 
Town and Woodsborough. In fact, it has been observed in all direc- 
tions, and may be said to exist throughout this region. It occurs in 
the neighborhood of New Market, associated with an ore of manga- 
nese; on the Linganore in various places; and in the vicinity of 
New London on the New Market and Liberty road. But its prin- 
cipal deposites appear to be between Woodsborough and Liberty 
‘Town. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 23 


The more important veins of the ore, so far discovered in the last 
named locality, are in limestone. They consist principally of that 
variety called the sulphuret of copper, which is known to be the best 
of copper ores; for it requires but two simple operations to reduce 
it to the metallic state; whereas the English and South American 
ores require from eighteen to twenty distinct meltings. The veins 
have been pursued with great industry to a considerable extent, and 
ore to the amount of several hundreds of tons has been extracted 
from them. But, notwithstanding the judgment displayed by the pro- 
prietors of the mine so long as the works were in operation, the un- 
dersigned are of opinion, from a careful examination of the spot and 
of the surrounding country, that operations have thus far been carried 
on in straggling veins only; while the main body of the ore, whose 
existence is hardly to be doubted, has not yet been reached. 

The only application, at present, made of the mineral resources of 
this spot is to produce a sulphate of copper. This salt, the blue vit- 
riol of commerce, is obtained from a material known in the country 
by the name of black earth. It contains from 5 to 20 per cent. of 
copper mixed with iron, manganese, and earthy matter in very varia- 
ble proportions. It has been observed in several spots around Liber- 
ty, appearing on the surface of the soil. The quantity of blue vitriol 
annually manufactured from it in Baltimore, has been ascertained to 
exceed fifty thousand pounds. 

Should subsequent researches however, as there is every reason 
to expect, open for use the larger and more convenient deposites of 
copper ore than those already worked, another cbject of application 
is already at hand from which almost incalculable wealth might be 
reasonably supposed to accrue to the state and to its citizens. This 
is in the manufacture of sheet copper. Made almost exclusively 
now of materials from South America, the Baltimore sheet copper 
has acquired reputation in foreign countries. ‘The undersigned need 
not suggest how much more advantage might be realized through va- 
rious classes of the community from a more economical material with- 
in our own limits. 

As to the other metals that were named as occurring in this region 
of Frederick county, the tron ore observed in the vicinity of New 
London, has been found to be of that variety called specular oxide 
of tron, generally considered as a valuable and profitable ore, and 
yielding iron of excellent quality. ‘The occurrence of lead was dis- 
covered some years back at Unionville, in a vein of galena running 


24 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


through limestone: but, although it is reported, to have been pursu- 
ed for a short distance with very fair promises, it was not continu- 
ed. The shaft having been filled up previous to the arrival of the 
undersigned upon this locality, they are not able to form any opin- 
ion as to the importance of the vein from actual observation; but 
they may venture to state, that it is very desirable it should undergo 
a careful examination. JManganese, as already stated, occurs near 
New Market. 

In addition to these metallic ores, the same region might be made 
to furnish marble of great variety and beauty. Already, at New 
Market, a fine grained dove colored marble, capable of receiving a 
good polish, has been quarried ; a red and white marble occurs near 
Liberty ; and a similar variety was formerly quarried to some extent 
on Sam’s creek. 

Upon the whole then, the undersigned have no hesitation in ex- 
pressing their opinion that in the event of a geological examination of 
Maryland, the district of country which they have just briefly descri- 
bed, would be found not to yield in interest and in pe to any 
other part of the state. 

Fredericktown valley, so beautiful in its position, and so rich in 
agricultural resources, is thus bounded, on its eastern limits, by a coun- 
try full of interest ina mineralogical and geological respect. Its 
western limits will be found to include a full share of the same kind 
of interest. : 

Commencing at the extreme northern end of the Catoctin range 
of mountains, there is observed in the first place, a recurrence of 
those mineral aggregates more commonly described as belonging to 
the primary groupe of rocks. They consist of epzdote, chlorite, 
amygdaloids, serpentine, and granular limestone. ‘The summit of the 
ridge is, in a great portion of its extent, crowned with a sandstone, 
characterized as very compact, exhibiting occasional small cavities 
lined with drusy crystals of quartz, and crossed by siliceous veins, 
which indicate the age of the formation, as among the oldest in the 
transition groupe at least. It is found, not unfrequently, to form the 
gangue in which are imbedded various metallic substances, such as 
native copper, pyritous copper, specular oxide of iron, &c. ‘This 
sandstone is exceedingly well adapted for use as a building material : 
it might also be employed for mill stones; and ere long will doubtless 
render a full amount of service in these ways. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 25 


The geology of the Catoctin range, in a scientific respect, will re- 
quire a very special investigation. ‘The existence of a serpentine 
rock at its base, as observed at the foot of Mount Saint Mary’s, must 
be regarded, to say the least of it, as a very unexpected occurrence. 
This serpentine rock, which from the peculiar nature of the country, 
covered as it is with a heavy growth of forest trees and with loose 
materials detached from the superincumbent rocks, could have been 
discovered only by accident, has been exposed to view by the sink- 
ing of a shaft, the work of some vissionary in search of the precious 
metals. It is traversed by veins of specular oxide of iron associated 
with quartz, and in some places by thin veins of calcareous spar. 
Pieces picked up among the materials raised from the shaft, exhibit- 
ed perfect specimens of verd antique. Should the pieces of granu- 
lar limestone, which were shown as occurring in the same vicinity, 
belong to some continuous formation of this rock, there is very little 
doubt, that at its junction with the serpentine, a quarry of the highly 
prized and very ornamental marble just named might be opened with 
success. But the only mineral production of the Catoctin Moun- 
tains, that has so far been put to any profitable use, is the cron ore, 
which may be said to occur along the whole length of the mountain 
range towards the foot of the eastern slope. By its mineralogical 
character, it is referable to the variety hematitic brown oxide of tron. 
On Hunting-creek, at the Catoctin furnace, where it is extensively 
worked, it is associated with phosphate of tron; yet it yields a metal 
exceedingly well adapted to the casting of hollow ware, to which use 
it is principally applied by the intelligent proprietor of that extensive 
establishment. A similar ore is found, and was formerly abundantly 
raised, in the vicinity of the Point of Rocks. 

Much anxiety has been felt and great interest excited about the 
possible occurrence of coal, either of a bituminous character, or as 
anthracite, in the Fredericktown valley. Search has been made af- 
ter this substance in various places, some of which the undersigned 
have had an opportunity of visiting; but so far as it can at any time 
be deemed prudent to come at positive conclusions from observations 
which were necessarily only superficial, they must report that they 
have not been so fortunate as to perceive the least evidence of the 
certain existence of this very desirable mineral in any plaee within 
the valley of Fredericktown. 

At the Yellow Springs, on the head waters of the Tuscarora, there 
are appearances which would justify a more thorough examination of 

Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 4 


26 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


the spot, than it is known to have already received. But even here, 
the occurrence of coal is a bare possibility, predicated solely upon 
the presence of a deposite of shale containing vegetable matter, and 
overlaid by a conformable deposite of grey sandstone, (psammite of 
Brongniart; gres houiller of the French,) in horizontal strata. 
These. are doubtless usual accompaniments of coal, but it does not 
necessarily follow that where they occur, coal will always be found. 

Anthracite has certainly been discovered on the Menocacy, not 
far from Pipe creek, in a vein running through the red sandstone. 
The vein is represented, however, as not exceeding one or two inch- 
es in thickness. In the sandstones at the mouth of the Seneca, the 
undersigned detected, also very slender veins of the same mineral, 
together with a few vegetable impressions. But these indications 
only prove that the formations in which they are observed, are not 
uncongenial to the existence of that variety of coal. | 

The only part of the third geological division of Maryland that re- 
mains to be mentioned, is the valley of Middletown, in the fork of the 
Catoctin and South mountains. In the beauty of its position and the 
value of its agricultural resources, it rivals the valley of Frederick- 
town. In its geological constitution, is is found to consist of the slaty 
and arenaceous rocks. The undersigned regret that they have as 
yet had no opportunity of examining its mineral resources. Pyrt- 
tous copper is said to occur near Middletown; but under what cir- 
cumstances, and to what extent, there has been no means of ascer- 
- taining. . 

The fourth geological division of Maryland falls now to be consid- 
ered. It will be made to embrace the whole of Washington county, 
and a part of Allegany county, as far as Cumberland. In its geolo- 
gical structure, it consists chiefly of the slaty and arenaceous rocks of 
the transition series, and of the limestone so well characterized by 
the occurrence of caverns, and hence called cavernous limestone. 

There are however found occasionally, other rocks containing the 
impressions of shells, which afford evidence of a more recent origin. 
The whole system of formation in a word, gradually, but more evi- 
dently than in the preceding division, approximates to the carbonife- 
rous groupe. ‘The soil which covers these formations, is remarked 
to be not so deep as in the neighboring vallies, but is very productive ; 
and the basin of which Hagerstown is the centre, between the South 
and North mountains, together with the smaller vallies beyond, as 
far as Hancock, are decidedly among the most fertile portions of the 
state. But to return to its mineralogical constitution. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 27 


On the western slope of the South mountain, the epidote rocks and 
amygdaloids, are again met with; but in descending into Pleasant 
valley, which lies between the mountain and a more limited range of 
hills, known as the Elk ridge, there is observed a formation of lime- 
stone, from which statuary marble of superior quality, has been ob- 
tained. The principal quarries of this marble, are in the vicinity of 
Boonsborough. At the debouche of this valley, there is an extensive 
deposite of tron ore, which in its chemical composition is analogous 
to that described as occurring on the eastern slope of the Catoctin, 
but it is free from phosphate of iron. It is technologically termed 
pipe ore, and sometimes limestone ore, from the circumstance of its 
usually occurring in that rock. The metal obtained from it is of ex- 
cellent quality, and well adapted to the making of bar iron. The 
Antietam Furnace is in part supplied with this ore from a place two 
miles above Harper’s Ferry on the Potomac and Maryland side of 
the river, and from a similar deposite on the Virginia shore, about 
six miles above the ferry. The same ore again occurs in the nor- 
thern portions of the West slope of the South mountain. 

The other notable localities of iron ore within the limits of this divi- 
sion, are on the eastern slope of Sideling hill, beyond the Conoloway. 
It is there associated with manganese. 

Williamsport, situated near ‘the confluence of the Siituniihionifan 
and the Potomac, has been frequently indicated as the centre of a 
district, in which anthracite coal might confidently be expected to 
occur. The undersigned are not aware of the grounds upon which - 
this assertion has been made. As was stated in regard to certain 
parts of Frederick county, there is nothing which absolutely forbids 
it, but neither is there any thing which in their knowledge indicates 
it. The known region of anthracite, supposing it necessarily to ex- 
tend from Pennsylvania through Maryland, would not be found to 
correspond with this portion of our state ; it would rather strike far- 
ther west, between Hancock and Sideling hill. The undersigned 
have not been wanting in endeavors to impress this view upon the 
minds of those of their fellow citizens, who seemed to take especial 
interest in the subject ; and a confirmation of their opinion, they think, 
may be found in the recently reported discoveries of coal on Sleepy 
creek, in Virginia. 

It has been said that the line of the Pennsylvania anthracite depos- 
ites would, if continued, strike in this division near Hancock. No 
such continuation has been observed ; but yet the geological interest 


28 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


of this part is fully kept up, amid the more evident indications of an 
advance upon the carboniferous groupe. ‘The slaty, arenaceous and 
limestone rocks of this region, contain also numerous impressions of 
testaceous and crustaceous animals. But between these indications 
merely, and the coal formations properly speaking, there intervenes 
a mountainous district, which from its peculiar circumstances, and 
the shortness of the time allowed for the examination, the under- 
signed have not yet been able to examine. ‘The only subject of in- 
terest which fell under their notice, is the occurrence of mineral 
springs. "There can be little doubt, considering the healthfulness of 
the country in which they are situated, with the grandeur of the moun- 
tain scenery around them, that very soon they will induce near them, 
with advantages that cannot be excelled, the establishment of places 
of public resort, during the heats of summer, similar to those already 
successfully founded in neighboring states. Most of the springs being 
strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, are of the kind 
known as sulphur waters. They have been met with in several pla- 
ces, but the only one which has as yet been brought into extensive use 
is that at the foot of the Warrior mountain on the Flintstone. ‘This spot 
has moreover other attractions. It is a richly cultivated basin-shap- 
ed valley of moderate extent, through which flows the ‘small stream, 
called the Flintstone. A portion of its waters run along the base of 
the Warrior mountain; but much the larger part passes through the 
mountain and issues from its opposite side. ‘There is no doubt from 
- this, of the existence of a large cavern under the mountain, which is 
composed of that variety of limestone already designated as cavern- 
ous. 

Warm springs occur on the south side of the mountain; but in 
consequence of their present neglected state, their natural tempera- 
ture could not be ascertained. y 

The fifth and last geological division, which it is deemed expedi- 
ent to make, comprehends the remaining portion of Allegany county 
westward of Willis’ creek. Some general remarks concerning this 
very interesting part of the state, comprising its deposites of bitumin- 
ous coal, and the zron ores frequently associated with them, will con- 
clude what the undersigned have to report on the geology of Mary- 
land. 

The carboniferous groupe of rocks, forming the most prominent 
geological feature of Allegany county, consists principally of beds of 
sandstone, slate, shale, and coal, irregularly interstratified ; besides 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 29 


which, it embraces formations of red sandstone, whinstone and carbo- 
niferous limestone ; and, what is of more importance, considerable 
deposites of tron ore. 

In reference to the agricultural resources of the coal districts, which 
may be described as hilly, it is found that the soil upon them being 
a mixture of decomposed slate and limestone with sand, it is in gen- 
eral very fertile, and yields abundant crops of grain, principally oats, 
of a very superior quality. Within a few years, the cultivation of 
the tobacco plant has been commenced, and in the newly cleared 
lands, is produced the bright leaf staple, which always commands a 
high price. 

The more mountainous districts, above the level of the coal for- 
mation, present broad vallies bearing every evidence of having for- 
merly been the beds of extensive lakes now dried up or drained ; the 
waters of which have left behind them, deep deposites of clayey loam. 
These beautiful tracts of country, have received the name of glades. 
From their elevated position and their constant moist condition, they 
form very productive meadows and the most luxuriant pastures. 
The mineral resources of the coal districts, it would be folly to at- 
tempt to estimate. That district alone of which Frostburg may be as- 
sumed to be the centre, is represented as “ bounded by the Savage 
mountain on the west, extending from the west branch of Will’s creek 
to the Savage river, and by the same mountain, continued south west 
to the head branch of the Potomac: and on the east by the little Al- 
legany, Piney mountain, Dan’s mountain and the same mountain con- 
tinued into Virginia to the upper branches of the Potomac. The 
space between the two ranges of mountains, is from five to seven 
miles, and sixty miles long; making a surface of near four hundred 
square miles, over a great part of which coal is known to abound.” 

The thickness of these beds of coal, varies from three feet to fif- 
teen feet. The following account of three coal deposites, two at Wes- 
ternport, and one on the Potomac a little above the mouth of Sav- 
age, will exhibit the more striking appearances of these coal strata = 
preference having been given to these localities over those near 
Frostburg, because it is believed they have not been elsewhere de- 
scribed. 

The first deposite at Westernport, known by the name of Mur- 
phy’s bed, is situated on the eastern side of George’s creek and 
northwestern slope of Dan’s mountain ; its elevation above the Po- 
tomac is one hundred feet; the thickness of the bed is three feet, 


30 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


and it is overlaid by sandstone. ‘The second deposite, also at West- 
ernport, called Paris’s bed, is on the western side of the creek and 
eastern slope of Savage mountain, its elevation above the river is one 
hundred and thirty feet; the thickness of the bed five feet, and this 
is covered by shale and slate. 

The third and most extensive deposite is that at Benne mine. 
There are in this place five distinct beds: the lowest corresponding, 
it is thought, with Murphy’s bed; it is covered by sandstone: the 
second, which is thirty feet higher, is covered by shale; it probably 
corresponds with Paris’s: the depth and elevation of the fourth bed 
could not be ascertained: and the fifth bed which is at an elevation 
of nine hundred feet above the river, is fifteen feet thick. ‘This im- 
portant deposite is on the Virginia side of the Potomac, and forms 
the north slope of what is termed the New creek ridge. ‘The pre- 
cipitous nature of the mountain slope, allows the discharge of the 
coal, by means of a slide, from each successive stratum into the very 
bed of the river below. 

A very satisfactory account of the coal mines in the immediate vi- 
cinity of Frostburgh, is furnished in the collection of reports and let- 
ters of the engineers of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company, 
from which the extract above, referring to the extent of this deposite, 
was also taken. . 

“Tn the hills and valley, three distinct beds of rich bituminous 
coal are frequently opened. The first or lowest is near the base of 
the hills, and is from two and a half to three and a half feet thick. 
This was first discovered, and opened about twenty years ago by 
Mr. Rizor, and the coal was held in high estimation for many 
years, until the richer beds were discovered. ‘The second bed 
is from eighty to one hundred feet higher in the hills; and is from 
four to six feet thick. The third and most valuable mass is found 
nearer the summit of the hills and the upper parts of the deep val- 
lies. This bed is from eight to ten feet thick and like those be- 
low, is between strata of rock. ‘The bed on which the coal rests, 
and the roof which covers it, are of slate with a great mixture of 
. coal: but the coal diminishes and the slate prevails for three or four 
feet in thickness. This often gives the mine an appearance of un- 
common depth until it is thoroughly opened. But in those mines 
which are worked to any great extent, the bed of pure coal is about 
eight feet thick, subdivided horizontally by three or four very thin 
veins of slate, seldom more than half an inch thick. Next above 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 31 


the slate roof is sandstone in thick layers and often of a quality suita- 
ble for the various purposes of freestone in building. A preference 
is given to those mines that lie deep, which are in a moist sit- 
uation, and have a considerable height of hill over them: the coal 
from such mines, being more pure and solid, is quarried in much 
larger blocks, and is much less liable to crumble and waste in hand- 
ling, than that from mines situated so near the top of the hills as to 
be too dry and to have but little depth of earth over them.”—pp. 93, 
94. 

The analysis of a specimen of the coal from the large bed, known 
as Frost’s mine, about half a mile southwest from Frostburg, gave 
the following results :— 


Carbon, ‘ i . ‘ ‘ : ; 70. 
Bitumen, . ‘ , ‘ . ‘ ; 1120.5 
Earthy matter, - . é ; ? : 6. 


Water, . ‘ , : P , , el Qos 


a 


100. 


It is thus shewn to be of that variety distinguished mineralogically 
as slaty coal; which is ranked among the best, as it burns easily, with 
a bright and durable flame, swells and agglutinates, or cakes as it is 
termed, and leaves little residue. 

From this view of the extent and condition of the coal deposites 
in this district it will be seen, that should the projected schemes of 
communication between the Chesapeake bay and the western waters, 
by means of canals and rail roads, be effected no further even than 
Cumberland—and there is but little doubt that the communication 
will soon extend thus far, there will be furnished a convenient out- 
Jet for an amount of coal which can be estimated only by hundreds 
of millions of bushels. 

But this is not the sole district in which the coal deposites occur. 
Another, probably of equal extent, lies beyond the Great Back-bone 
ridge, along the valley Yohogany, and extending as far as the most 
southern limits of Maryland; which by way of distinction, may 
be called the Yohogany coal district. It has been remarked of this 
western coal region, that the beds within it are generally thicker 
than those of the Frostburg district. That bed, for example, which 
seems to correspond with the fifteen feet vein in Brant’s mine, is 
found near the heads of the Potomac to exceed twenty feet in thick- 
ness. ‘Time, no doubt may be expected to elapse, before these 


32. Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


mineral riches will be brought into operation. Far removed from 
any convenient outlet, the mineral for fuel cannot come into compe- 
tition with the coal from the more accessible districts; and the em- 
ployment of it for the purpose of coking, applied to the smelting of 
iron, will not be required so long as our native forests supply in such 
abundance the means of obtaining the charcoal, by use of which, 
metal of a better quality is obtained. It is nevertheless advisable to 
determine, at once, the extent and nature of this second coal forma- 
tion, the greatest portion of which lies within our own limits; and 
the more so, on account of several of its accessories, whose impor- 
tance has not been perhaps hitherto fully appreciated. 

One of these is the zron ore, with which it abounds. The occur- 
rence of iron ore, associated with coal, has been considered the most 
prolific source of commercial prosperity possessed by Great Britain. 
Her political economists have long been accustomed to ascribe the 
extent of her manufactures to the abundance and cheapness of both 
these substances ; by which are furnished, not only fuel for working 
the steam engines which put into operation their machinery, but the 
material, also, for the construction of this machinery. The time 
will come when a similar ascription shall apply to the United States, 
and when the western county of Maryland shall be looked upon as 
the Wales of North America. 

On the Yohogany, the iron ore exists of the best quality and in 
the greatest abundance. It is of the variety described by mineralo- 
gists under the specific head of argillaceous oxide of iron. ‘The fol- 
lowing extracts taken from notes made on the spot, will give an idea 
of the circumstances under which it is found to eccur. 

‘1st. Iron ore bank, on the western shore of the Yohogany.— 
Argillaceous iron ore lying under sandstone ; above which, at an 
elevation of about thirty feet, there is a bed of coal three feet thick, 
overlaid by a stratum of slate ten feet thick ; and above this again, a 
deposite of clay, with nodules of iron ore. ‘The coal in the upper 
part of this bed is much mixed with shale, and this. with iron py- 
rites. 

“2d. Nodular argillaceous iron ore, at the mouth of Bear creek; 
eccurring in a bed the depth of which has not been ascertained, and 
lying under a mixed deposite of debris of clay slate and sandstone ; 
the whole covered by a heavy superstratum of ferruginous sand, and 
a deep vegetable soil. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 38 


3d. Extensive deposite of clay, on the slope of Winding ridge, 
east shore of Yohogany. This deposite contains nodules of argilla- 
ceous iron ore. It rests upon the sandstone, and is covered by 
a continuous stratum of calcareous marl.—The ore, promiscuously 
extracted from the bed, has been found to smelt itself.” 

Associated with the deposites, there has been observed in the stratum 
of ferruginous clay, overlying the coal, (as remarked in note Ist; 
above,) nodules of a mineral substance, consisting of lime, clay and 

oxide of iron, answering very nearly the description of what by 
English writers is termed Parker’s cement, but better known in this 
country under the name of Roman cement. This article will proba- 
bly hereafter prove susceptible of most useful application. 

Manganese, some of which is of very good quality, has been found 
on Bear creek. It occurs also on Keyser’s ridge, five miles south of 
the national road. 

The Yohogany furnace, on Bear creek, is situated in the midst of 
these resources. With an immense amount of water power at com- 
mand, and under an active and intelligent management, it requires 
nothing but greater facilities for sending its valuable products to mark- 
et. 
Finally, another object which has excited some degree of interest . 
in this portion of Allegany county, is the existence of a cave towards 
the head waters of the Yohogany, reported to be of great extent and 
to have furnished a considerable quantity of crude saltpetre. A sim- 
ilar cave was observed near Hancock, Washington county, which is 
also said to have yielded this salt. ‘There is a similar one at the 
foot of the South mountain. An exploration of these caves might 
bring to light something of interest; although it is presumed to be a 
subject of but secondary importance. 

In the commencement of this report, the undersigned have allud- 
ed to the circumstance of embracing in their examination an inquiry 
into the hydrology of the state. They have not lost sight of the 
importance of this object ; but have to regret that the short time al- 
lowed them for investigating so many subjects of interest has not 

permitted them, so far, to collect a sufficient number of facts to ar- 
rive at any but a very partial result. 

The undersigned will now close the remarks, which for the pres- 
ent they have to make on the geology of Maryland. They hope it 
will be perceived that their main object in ascertaining upon scien- 
tific principles the true mineral constitution of the State, has been to 


Vout. XXVI.—No. 1. 5 


34 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


make this information applicable to useful purposes and subservi- 
ent to the various interests of their fellow citizens. Opportunities _ 
have also been afforded of observing many objects of purely scien- 
tific interest; but a distinct account in the body of the report did 
not seem to be required. They have, however, carefully collected 
such articles as might serve to illustrate the facts that have been 
mentioned ; or to which it might.be desirable to refer, as specimens 
of the geological constitution and mineral resources of the different 
sections of the State. The disposal of these is left to your excel- 
lency. 

They beg leave further, in conclusion of this part of their report, to 
acknowledge to your excellency, the great advantage which they 
have themselves derived from the assistance of their fellow citizen, 
Philip Thomas Tyson, of Baltimore, whose extensive practical in- 
formation and whose familiar acquaintance with the sciences connect-_ 
ed with the present examination, have rendered his services extreme- 
ly valuable. They entertain a hope that corresponding advan- 
tages have resulted to the public interest ; as without the assistance 
so zealously and devotedly given by this gentleman, it would not have 
been in their power to have extended their researches over so wide 
a field of investigation, nor with the same satisfactory results, which 
they flatter themselves they have in a measure obtained. 

Submitting what has been already said in relation to the first divis- 
ion of their duties, the undersigned will only add, with reference to 
the second, a few words explanatory of the mode of execution, and 
of the map which they have the honor herewith to present. 

A catalogue, which they have been careful to arrange and pre- 
pare, and which will be found to accompany this report, exhibits the 
sources from which this information was drawn. Where materials 
were so scarce, it is hardly to be expected that there should be 
much clashing or contradiction, yet the full allowance of difference 
and incertitude which must always attend independent observations, 
made arbitrarily and without reference to an unit of any sort, was 
found to attach to this work also. In having reconciled as far as they 
were able these discrepancies, and in stating the elements of exam- 
ination and proof, they conceive there is no room for expressing an 
opinion as to the authority of any, it is left for every reader to make 
up his own judgment. Only they must be permitted to add, that 
their labor would have been longer and more wearisome without the 
assistance furnished by the work and public spirit of a citizen, whose 


* 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 35 


name appears in the catalogue as having furnished them with a map 
of the entire territory of Maryland. 

The basis of the map itself has been founded on observations of 
the latitude and longitude of Baltimore and Washington ; made in 
each case under circumstances which are pledges of accuracy. The 
portion of territory, eastward of the meridian, passing between these 
places, has been laid down from Mr. Lucas’ chart; a work published not 
very long since, upon data and calculations, which are near approxi- 
mations to those used in the present instance. Westward of this 
meridian, the course of the Potomac was found in map No. 63 of 
the table ; an actual survey of the board of Internal Improvement. 
This line, in default of astronomical observations, has been used for 
defining the western boundary of the state. Still farther west, the 
map of Virginia has furnished the geography of the country adjacent 
to the south branch of the Potomac. 

It has been thought important that in a territory—whose situation 
is like that of Maryland—embracing the great marine outlet of an 
immense district, as much as possible of this adjoining district should 
be given in one view; and that the positions and relations of nat- 
ural boundaries should be regarded ; however much or widely sep- 
arated by civil or municipal distinctions. Hence, besides the ex- 
treme verge of the Delaware Peninsula, is included also a part of the 
Susquehanna; and while the facilities for foreign communication and 
commercial enterprize are exhibited on the one hand, a glance on the 
other takes in the riches and resources, the growth and prospects of 
the inland country of the west. The object was to shew how com- 
pletely it is in the power of Maryland to secure whatever benefits 
may be connected with so rich a carrying trade, as that which may 
be made—which must be made to exist between the positions. This 

‘has been, as far as possible, gained by a few additional square feet of 
canvas ; while the hazard of making the map inconveniently large, was 
more than compensated, it was thought, in the advantage of having 
obtained this object. 

The extent of the map having been determined upon, it remained 
to ascertain the most proper projection and the most convenient scale. 
Admitting the defects attributed to flat maps, in which the meridians 
as well as the lines of latitude are strictly parallel with one another, 
in so comparatively small a portion of territory these defects have 
been hardly operative ; while the facility in securing accuracy in re- 
ducing the original maps, compensated, it was thought, for whatever 


36 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


defect there might exist of this kind. ‘The difference, too, between 
the area afforded by this projection and that derived from the calcu- 
lations of the Rhumbs is so minute as to prevent any distortion from 
taking place or the formation of any false ideas as to the relative posi- 
tions of different places. 

The proportion of the map to the actual extent of country aie 
ded in its limits is as 1-200,000; that is to say that every measure- 
ment on the map is intended to be the 1-200,000th part of a similar 
actual measurement. 

These proportions and projections had been adopted before any 
thing definite was known of the progress of the coast survey of the 
United States, which is now proceeding under the direction of M. 
Hassler ; several considerations however would now dictate the adop- 
tion of a projection uniform with whatever may be decided on for 
the larger survey. With regard to the proportion it is a matter of 
smaller importance ; since the detailed surveys hereafter to be en- 
tered upon, will exhibit results the 1-2000th of actual dimensions in 
length, and it will be practicable to reduce with the greatest accura- 
cy, whatever part may be desired, to any given scale. The defect, 
too, in the present map, of minuteness of scale, will be remedied in 
the Atlas, which it is proposed to arrange, of the counties, upon a 
proportion of 1-50,000th, or four times the present dimensions. 

With regard to the profiles, which are given on the face of the 
map, and whose horizontal and vertical proportions could not be made 
the same, while the scale of miles is the same as on the map, the 
vertical measurements are the 1-4000th part of the real elevations. 
A solitary exception will be found in the case of the Chesapeake and 
Ohio Canal, which for convenience was reduced to one half in the 
horizontal proportions. It has been endeavored to apply the resuits 
of these profiles to the horizontal face of the map; and the dotted’ 
lines which are already familiar to every reader of nautical charts, as 
denoting elevations of reefs or depths of soundings, have been trans- 
ferred to indicate similar circumstances on land. ‘The lines, for the 
sake of avoiding confusion, represent planes which are supposed to 
lie each one hundred feet above the other; a nearer approximate ele- 
vation of any point, is obtained by noticing its distance from the level 
line nearest it. ‘The elevation always bears to one hundred feet the 
same proportion that the distance observed does to the entire distance 
between the two dotted lines enclosing the place whose elevation is 
sought. 


Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 37 


In arranging the columns of the statistical tables which occupy a 
place upon the map, more regard, it will be seen, was paid to the de- 
signation of information considered to be useful, than what was in 
possession. ‘The object, however, was to shew the results contem- 
plated to be arrived at in the survey. 

The undersigned beg leave, then, in conclusion, to present this 
map, as a document containing all the information that can be col- 
lected from authentic sources and indicating, to a certain extent, the 
sort of knowledge desirable to be embodied in a map for popular 
use. Whether all that is desirable has been indicated or not, is not 
now a matter of much moment, since it may be expected that the 
progress of the survey, which will bring to light a great variety of in- 
formation, will also suggest the most appropriate mode of exhibiting it. 

The topographical examination for which opportunities have been 
afforded, has necessarily been, as yet, very general; but enough has 
been done to exhibit and establish the principles of future operations, 
and to reduce to a small compass the time which must be devoted to 
the continuance of the examination, and which must elapse before the 
detailed surveys specified in the resolution can be entered upon. 

Arrangements are already in progress for facilitating the immedi- 
ate execution of these surveys, which are proposed to be connected . 
and executed in strict accordance with the geodesical operations of 
the coast survey. In endeavoring to make this connection, the un- 
dersigned have consulted their own feelings of propriety—and while 
the interest of both works would seem to be subserved by it, that of 
Maryland in particular will have been attended to, in assuring great- 
er accuracy in the results and materially diminishing the attendant 
expenses. 

The undersigned defer any specification of the mode in which the 
detailed surveys will be conducted—of the means to be employed 
and the minute circumstances attending them, until all the contem- 
plated arrangements shall have been completed, at which time they 
will beg leave to present another detailed report. 

But they cannot permit themselves to terminate this without the 
expression of their especial thanks to the gentlemen of the United 
States’ Topographical Corps, and the Engineers of the several works 
of Internal Improvement, whose liberality bas been experienced in 
facilitating the collection of desirable information. ‘To their fellow 
citizens throughout the state, they will always feel grateful for the 
kindness and hospitality with which they have every where been re- 
ceived. 


38 Report on the projected Survey of the State of Maryland. 


They await, now, only the approval of your Excellency as to what 
has been already commenced, to set themselves assiduously at work 
to effect its completion: and in the mean time beg leave to offer the 


assurance of their entire respect. 
Annapolis, Dec. 27th, 1833. 


REMARKS. 


The above report, being intended to excite the people and gov- 
ernment of Maryland, to authorize a thorough survey of the State, it 
may not be superfluous to add, that in our view, the subject is well 
worthy of their attention. The facts stated in this introductory ac- 
count are highly important to the agricultural, manufacturing and com- 
mercial interests of the State; they evince, that it has great physical 
resources, which need only to be brought to light, in order to pro- 
duce very important results to public and individual wealth; the re- 
lation of the facts to science, is also very interesting, and the gen- 
tlemen charged with the execution of this important trust, have prov- 
ed themselves to be entirely equal to the undertaking. Although 
their account is designed for popular use, they have happily united 
scientific accuracy with perspicuity. We trust, that the enlightened 
state of Maryland, having made so happy a beginning, will also make 
the necessary provision to carry this noble undertaking to a complete 
and happy conclusion. 

The example set by Massachusetts, as exhibited in the able report 
on the Geology, &c. of that State, by Prof. Hitchcock ;—the move- 
ment in the Legislature of Pennsylvania, as evinced by a report on 
the project of a survey of that very important State; the progress 
made, almost to completion, of a geological survey of Tennessee, by 
Dr. Troost; and the increasing interest of the same kind, which, as 
we are informed, is exhibited in Virginia, will, we trust, furnish ad- 
ditional motives to the government of Maryland, to proceed to the 
completion of this good work, on a scale fully commensurate to the 
magnitude of the object, and in accordance with the dignity and hon- 
or of the State.—Ed. 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 39 


~ Art. I].—Evxperimental Enquiry into some of the Laws of the Ele- 
mentary Voltaic Battery ; by Witu1am B. Rocers, Prof. Nat. 
Philosophy and Chemistry in William and Mary College, and 
Henry D. Rogers, F. G.S. of Lond. &c. 


WE send for publication in your valuable Journal, a series of ex- 
periments made upon,the voltaic battery for the purpose of investi- 
gating the circumstances which principally modify its action. 'They 
all have a direct reference to the most efficient construction and 
mode of employing this powerful engine of research, while some of 
them, moreover, lead immediately to conclusions respecting its laws, 
very different from those of Ritchie and other celebrated experi- 
menters on the subject. In the hope therefore that the observations 
which we are about to record, will be found sufficiently new and im- 
portant to provoke a more thorough investigation of this portion of 
the field of electrical science, we beg leave to present our experi- 
ments in the order in which they were made, with some brief re- 
marks upon the conclusions to which they lead. 

For the sake of greater accuracy, all our experiments were made 
upon the battery in its most elementary form, consisting of a single 
pair of zinc and copper plates in the shape of long slips an inch wide, 
and from four to twelve inches long. ‘The slips were graduated by 
transverse lines into inches and parts. ‘To the upper end of each 
slip a copper wire, always of the same length, was carefully soldered, 
the other extremity of the wire being amalgamated and dipped into 
the cup of the galvanometer. ‘The slips were placed parallel to each 
other, and generally an inch and a quarter apart. ‘To secure them 
in this position, and at the same time to be enabled to immerse them 
to the various depths required, they were supported in two parallel 
slits in the cover of the vessel containing the acid solution, and ad- 
justed by sliding up or down to the degree of immersion desired. 

The galvanometer, which was one of extreme delicacy, was con- 
structed on a large scale, and with some modifications of the original 
invention, which we believe to add to its accuracy as an instrument 
of research. Being moreover simple in its parts, it can readily be 
constructed by any experimenter, and we therefore subjoin a brief 
description and drawing. 

Fig. 1, represents the instrument adjusted for use. A and B are 
circles of well seasoned wood, 12 inches in diameter, connected by 


40 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


two pillars 36 inches high. A strong tube of 3 inch diameter, is 
secured at its upper extremity in the center of the circle A, passes 
through the brace D, and terminates an inch and a half above the 
lower circle B. ‘The coil, consisting of 100 feet of fine copper wire 
wrapped with silk, rests partly above, partly in a groove beneath the 
circle B, passing through two holes immediately at the base of the 
pillars. ‘The tube extends just through the coil, and assists to sup- 
port it. 


Fig. 1. 


ie oem 
The needle is suspended by a torsion filament of glass, represented 
more fully in Fig. 2. The upper extremity of the tube receives a 
glass stopper, formed of a portion of thick capillary tube, filed into a 
shoulder, and made to fit easily into it. The upper end of the glass 
filament is made fast in the capillary bore, while the lower end is ce- 
mented into a short piece of fine straw. ‘The needle (a fine knitting 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 41 


needle) is passed through another piece of straw, of rather greater 
diameter, to allow the former to fit into it. By this construction, the 
needle can readily be detached from the filament when the instru- 
ment is not in use. ‘The same straw which carries the needle is also 
perforated by an index at right angles to it, consisting of a fine rigid 
straw about five inches long, and having on its shorter end a little 
counterpoise. ‘This index moves over a short graduated arch in the 
circle B at a very small distance above it. It is intended, when us- 
ing the instrument, to bring this index to zero, by means of the tor- 
sion key above. ‘There being no obstruction to the view of the index 
in this arrangement, the adjustment can be more accurately and 
speedily made. A pin projects from the center of the circle B, and 
enters a little way the straw, to steady the motion of the needle. A 
rim of pasteboard two inches high rises above the circle B, and the 
whole, both needle and coil, are covered by two semicircular plates 
of glass. ‘The torsion key moving over the upper circle, which is 
minutely graduated, denotes the amount of deflection when the index 
below is brought to zero. 

I. On the relative influences severally possessed by the zinc and 
copper in the elementary battery. | 

Our first experiments on this point were made with a pair of short . 
plates graduated to the 4th of an inch. The quantities of surface 
immersed are expressed at the top of each column of observations. 
The numbers in the columns indicate the angular deflexion of the 
needle observed at intervals of one minute; the first observation be- 
ing made a minute after the plunge. After completing the first col- 
umn of observations, the slips were removed for a new adjustment ; 
and so on for the succeeding columns. No particular attention was 
as yet paid to the length of interval during which the plates were out 
of the action of the solution. The solution in nearly all our experi- 
ments contained one part of sulphuric acid in about 100 of water. 


1. Copper 24 in. zinc dipped to 


4 in. 4 in. 2 in. 1 in. 
1; 37° OT RE ac OY ty BGO 
2. 33 - 30 - 27 - 23 
3. 314 - 29 ST) a 3 | Fresh solution 24.* 
4. 31 - 29 ay ee - 21 
Poeomoas |. 264 - Qi 


* In this and some of the following experiments, the plates were transferred after 
the completion of the series to a vessel containing fresh liquid of the proper strength. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 6 


42 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


1} in. rin. rms 2 2 ie. 
1. 21$9 - 40° - 2739 ~ 279 - 27°) 
BOD 89) BToues QA Hoe 24-930 
3.20 - 33 - 24 - 23 - 21 $Fresh sol. 214 
4. 20 - 33 - 24 - 23 -. 21 
5. - - - -. 21 


In the experiment where the zinc was dipped to 12 in. it will be 
remarked that the numbers are greatly higher than in the preceding. 
This arose from our having allowed the plates to remain out of the 
solution for about an hour. When compared with the first column, 
when the plates were fresh, and therefore nearly in the same condi- 
tion, although the zinc was then only 4 inch, we find the deflection 
to be no greater. 

The above results show that no increase of effect is produced by 
an increase of the zinc surface exposed to the acid, the copper sur- 
face remaining constant. Indeed, the whole tenor of the experi- 
mentsshews that in proportion as the zinc surface increases, the effect 
diminishes. 

2. With the view of bringing these two extremes together, the two 
following experiments were performed ; the zinc being well dried be- 
fore each immersion. 

Copper as before 2! in., zinc dipped to 


Hoge TNs Zi. 2 Sane 
rear es: - 1329 
eoecos - 18 
3. 23 - 15 


3. In order to vary the experiments the slips were not removed 
from the liquid, but were slid through the slits which hold them, to 
each succeeding depth required. 


Copper constant at 4 inches. 

tin. Zz lin. Zz. 1din. z. 2in.z. 2b in. z. Bin. z. 34 in. z 4 in. Zz. 
1.1739 - 88° - 86° - 86° - 86°- 86° - 84° - 81° 
2.147 - 85 - 84 - 83$- 85 - 84 - 82 - 80 
3.114 - 84 - 84 - 83 - 82 - 84 -. 81 - 80 

In this experiment although less strikingly than in that previously 

described, a tendency to diminished action is observable as the zinc 
surface increases. 


This was done with the view of ascertaining whether the declining action wasin ay 
degree owing to the gradual weakening of the solution. 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 43 


The slips being new, as fresh surface was successively plunged, 
an increased action generally took place, which however soon decli- 
ned; and each column of observations shews a general tendency to 
declension. 

4. To make the comparison at shorter intervals of time, and thus 
avoid any declension which might arise from a long period of expo- 
sure,—the following were made. 


Zinc 4 in. cop. dipped to, Copper 4 in. zine dipped to, 
in G29 = 1 in. 50° 
2 in. 68 2 in. 55 
3 in. 70 3 in. 58 
4 in. 82 4 in. 60 
Diff. 52 and 82=30 Diff. 50 and 60=10 
The same repeated gave the following. 
Z. 4 in. cop. Cop. 4 in. zine. 
1, m. 259 1 in. 45° 
2 in. 47 2 in. 51 
3 in. 52 3 in. 53 
4 in. 57 4 in. 54 
57 —25=32 _ §4-45=9 


Thus it would appear that when the copper. surface is increased 
from 1 to 4 inches, the zinc remaining constant at 4 inches, the in- 
crease of activity in the battery is between three and four times as 
great as when the zinc surface is increased in the same proportion. 

Subsequent experiments will shew that the above mode of compa- 
ring the effects of the two metals is less correct than that adopted 
afterwards, since the successive immersions of fresh portions of the 
plate produces an effect greater than the normal power of the sur- 
face immersed when long in action. We should here observe that 
throughout our experiments, whenever any portion of the plates was 
drawn out of the solution the moistened part was carefully wiped 
dry ;—otherwise a slight action in the surface newly exposed would 
have made all the smaller deflections somewhat too great, and would 
thus have modified the series by an error which would have tended 
against the law. 

5. Inall the foregoing experiments one of the surfaces is made to 
increase until it equals the other, but never to eaceed it. It was 
thought however of importance, to examine the case where the va- 


44 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


riable plate increased to twice the surface of the other. With this 
view two new plates, similar to the former were prepared. ‘Two 
inches of one and variable proportions of the other were plunged and 
between each set of immersions an interval of five minutes was al- 
lowed. 


Copper, 2. 
be se Aa SUR Ae aU Pa 
TaG22 - 69° - Ta = 712° 
2. (62 ~ 69 - 72 - 72 
3. 62 - 69 - 70 - 70 
4. 62 - 69 - 70 - 69 
Zinc, 2. 

Cop.1..-  Cop.2..- Cop. 3. - Cop. 4. 
Beh? - 65° - vi hed - 127° 
2. 50 - 64 - 72 - 120 
oO. 47 - 63 - 72 - 90 
4. 44 - 62 - 12 - 89 


From an inspection of the first four columns, namely, when the 
copper is constant and the zinc variable, it appears although contra- 
ry to the former observations, (2.) that the deflexion slowly augments 
as the zinc surface is increased. ‘This was not observed to occur in 
any previous or subsequent experiments made under similar cireum- 
stances, it being found that with an increase of zinc surface, the de- 
flexion diminished or else remained nearly stationary. We are in- 
clined to attribute the discrepancy in this single instance to some pe- 
culiarity in the surface of zinc plate, having obtained it from a differ- 
ent mass. 


II. Experiments shewing the distinction between the first moment- 
ary, and subsequent more permanent deflections. 

6. It will be remarked that in the experiments hitherto recorded, 
no observation of the needle was made until the plates had been ex- 
posed one minute to the solution. ‘The momentary effects, measur- 
ed on the instant of immersion, would of course have been much great- 
er. We were anxious to observe the relation of the momentary and 
permanent deflections, as also the influence upon both of these, pro- 
duced by various intervals between immersion, and various periods 
of exposure to the solution. In most of the experiments hitherto’ 
performed by others on the elementary battery, attention has not 
been directed to separating the momentary from the permanent ef- 
fects, nor indeed to estimate the momentary effects themselves with 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 45 


any thing like precision. The proper permanent effects have not, as 
far as we are informed, been the subject of any observation at all, 
inasmuch as it has been usual to get the deflection as early as possi- 
ble without regard to the interval between the plunge and the instant 
of observation. 

It is this omission to distinguish these two effects, that has led the 
able and ingenious contriver of the torsion galvanometer, in his ex- 
periments with it, upon the elementary battery, to erroneous conclu- 
sions regarding the law which expresses the connexion between the 
degree of deflection and the quantity of surface immersed.—It is 
made apparent from the following experiments that the momentary 
and permanent deflections obey different laws, and that in many 
cases when the momentary deflections augment in successive im- 
mersions of the plates, the degree of deflection measured one or two 
minutes after immersion is unchanged. Nothing could be more 
striking during these observations than the prodigious velocity with 
which the deflecting energy declined, making it impossible often even 
with the most adroit movement of the torsion key, to follow it; nor 
on the other hand can any thing surpass the remarkable steadiness of 
the deflection when one: or two minutes have elapsed. All the at- 
tempts, therefore, at determining the momentary deflections are attend- - 
ed with more or less of uncertainty from this great rapidity with 
which the electrical action, or at least so much of it as is measured 
by deflection, decreases for the first few instants. Hence, in the 
experiments which follow, nothing more than an approximation to 
the two first actionsis aimed at. It is this uncertainty as we believe, 
which renders of no value, all determinations which are not based on 
the subsequent or permanent deflections, as a measure. 

7. In the first set of experiments the momentary effects have been 
measured as nearly as practicable, by taking an observation immedi- 
ately upon immersion ; leaving the plates one minute in the liquid ; 
then removing them for some time, and immersing them a second 
time, and at the instant of immersion, taking another obsevation. 

At the end of each plunge, that is, after one minute of action—the 
effect was also observed. The following results indicate that the 
Jirst effect augments as the interval between the plunges is increased. 
—They also go to prove that the permanent deflection very slowly 
declines. 

The plates having first been immersed for some time in the solu- 
tion, were removed for 5 minutes, and then plunged twice in succes- 
sion at an interval of 5 minutes. 


46 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


The Ist plunge gave +220° 2 In both these cases the deflection 
ie 2c Ae “« =—230 settled in 1 minute at 57°. 


Removed from the solution for 4 minutes, they were dipped twice 
in succession at an interval of 4 minutes. 


Ist plunge gave ++-200° : 
aa pane Hie t Permanent deflection, 57° 


3 minute intervals. 
Ist. plunge gave — 200° 
aide. x se 6+180 
4 2 minute intervals. 
Ist. plunge gave — 180° 
Ona. «  6+170 
1 minute intervals. 
Ist. plunge gave — 170° 
Ina “ —160 Permanent deflection, 54° 


; Permanent deflection, 55° 


‘ Permanent deflection, 54° 


3rd. & 4150 
10 minute intervals. 


Ist. plunge gave 270°? 
Qnd, “ “ 1270 


20 minute intervals. 


| ° 
ost igt so nea * Permanent deflection, 55° 


30 minute intervals. 
Ist. plunge gave +-320° : is 
Qnd. «  * 330 ; Permanent deflection, 55 
45 minute intervals. 


° 
pa PUES Baye see k Permanent deflection, 55° 


120 minute intervals. 
Ist. plunge gave -+-340° 
Onde re) 


‘ Permanent deflection, 55° 


‘ Permanent deflection, 55° 


8. As the accurate observation of momentary effects in the preced- 
ing experiments depended upon the dexterity with which the key of 
the galvanometer was adjusted to the deflection, and as it is impossi- 
ble to obtain with the desirable accuracy the first effects of immer- 
sion by turning the torsion key at, or immediately after the moment 
of immersion, in consequence of the instantaneous and very great 
decline of the force, another and more perfect mode of observation 
was devised and a new series of experiments performed. We now 
set the torsion key previous to immersion, at such an angle as was 
thought from preceding observations to approach the expected ef- 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 47 


fect, the needle being retained at zero by a light trigger placed 
against the index. The immersion being then made as instantane- 
ously as posible, the observer stationed at the needle marked wheth- 
er the index receded from its lateral support, this of course indicating 
that the deflecting force was more than a balance for the torsion. 
In this case the number of degrees of torsion read off the upper circle 
was recorded+(Plus). If no movement of the needle occurred, the 
number was recorded—(Minus). Experiments were thus succes- 
sively made, always setting the torsion key previous to immersion at 
some number either less or greater than the former number accord- 
ing as this had been found plus or minus. In this way after repeat- 
ed observations, a close approximation to the momentary effect was 
procured. 

Having observed that the momentary effect was influenced to some 
extent both by the period of exposure to the liquid and by the inter- 
val of repose between the immersions, two distinct sets of experi- 
ments were made, in order as far as possible to separate these two 
influences. In the first set, the intervals of repose in the air were 
varied, as follows,—1 min. for Ist result, 2 min. for 2nd, 4 min. 
for 3d. The period of exposure to the solution was constant, name- 
ly, minute after each dip. 

In the second set, the periods of exposure to the solution were 1 
min., 2 min., 4 min., 8 min., and the interval of repose out of the 
solution was constant. In each observation besides the momentary 
action, the permanent deflection was noticed. 


Ist set.— Period of exposure to solution 1 min. in all the observa- 


tions.—Interval of repose 1 min. 
Ist. obs. momentary def. — 360° Perm. def. 104° 


2nd. - — 340 - _ 104 
ordy he « ~+300 as oe 104 
4th. 6é “ec “cc +320 ‘ce ce 103 
5th. « Bs off oe B40 ally off won blll 
320+340 
Result, a =330 of mom. def. and between 103 and 104 
perm. def. 


Interval of repose, 2 minutes. 
Ist. obs. momentary def. +340° Perm. def. 104° 


2nd. «“ « 4360 allie: 104 

3rd. «“ “ 4380 « 103 

Ath. (73 cc iT4 — 400 ‘cc cc 103 
380-+400 


Result, 3 = 390 of mom. def. and as before of perm. def. 


48 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


~ Interval of repose, 4 minutes. 
Ist. obs. momentary def. — 450° Perm. def. "103° 


Qnd. « uly? 40Me “ 102 
8rd.“ ay ff, 200 OMRON SMO 02 
4th. “ « «© ~=400 Ce ae 


Result, 400 mom. def. and 102 perm. def. 
2nd. set.—Interval of repose, 1 min. between immersions in all the 
observations. Period of exposure in solution, 1 min. 


Ist. , momentary def. +330° Perm. def. 100° 
Qnd. 6 —340 we - 100 


Result, 336 mom. def. and 100 perm. def. 
Period of exposure in solution, 2 min. 


1st. obs. momentary def. — 300° Perm. ue 99° 
2nd. * x “ =—260 i 98 
Srd. 66 66 66 +240 6c 13 96 


Result, 250 mom. def. and 97 perm. def. 
Period in solution, 4 min. 


Ist. bs: ay def. +200° Perm. def. 95° 
2nd. «= —230 94 
Srd. 66 66 — 920 6¢ 66 93 


a 210 mom. def. and 94 perm. def. 
Period in solution, 8 min. 


Ist. obs. momentary def. —180° Perm. def. 91° 
ond. ce ce 74 +160 6c ce 90 
ord. ce 66 6c — 170 ce (14 90 


Result, 170 mom. def. and 90 perm. def. 


III. Relative influence of the zinc and copper. 

9. The effect of repose out of the solution to exalt the activity of 
voltaic plates, although a fact generally observed, does not appear 
hitherto to have been made the subject of systematic examination. 
From the foregoing experiments, it is evident that the electrical en- 
ergy of the plates as measured by the momentary deflection, contin- 
ued to augment as the interval of repose out of the solution was in- 
creased, until this interval was extended to 2 hours, with which the 
experiments (7), were terminated. A single observation, made the 
following day, with the same plates and liquid, as were used in the 
experiments (7), gave a deflection very little greater than in the ex- 
periments with an interval of 2 hours. It would therefore, appear, 
that plates which have been subjected to the action of the solution 
for some time, do not recover their power of producing momentary 
deflection, until they have been out of the liquid two or three hours. 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 49 


But while there is this marked dependence of the momentary effects 
upon the interval of repose, it is particularly worthy of observation, 
that what we have denominated the permanent deflections, observes 
an almost steady uniformity or decline, in an agreeable and very 
gradual manner. ‘The stability and regularity of the permanent de- 
flections, are strikingly apparent, in the two last sets of observations, 
for while in the first of these, (8) the momentary deflections are in- 
creasing and in the last rapidly diminishing, the permanent effects are 
seen throughout, both very steadily and slowly to decline. 

Satisfied therefore, with the accuracy of the mode of measuring 
the action of the battery previously adopted, that is, by permanent 
effects, we determined to repeat our experiments upon the relative 
action of the two metals, with larger plates so as to admit of varying 
to a greater extent the relative proportion of the two surfaces. We 
likewise in nearly all the subsequent experiments, observed the mo- 
mentary deflections. In these and most of the succeeding experi- 
- ments, the plates were allowed 5 minutes, repose out of the solution, 
for we had uniformly observed that a very short interval accelerated 
the decline of the permanent effects. 

10. New series of experiments upon the relative influence of the 
two metals. Slips 1 inch wide, 12 inches long, and 14 inches dis- . 


tant. Solution, sulphuric acid 1 to 945; quantity 14 gallon. 
Zinc 1 inch, copper dipped to 
1 inch. 2 inch. 3 inch. 4 inch. 5 inch. 
Ist. effect, 00° +90° +180° +180° — 360° 
a” 62 70 74 76 80 
2! 59 67 72 70 72 
3 56 71 67 68 70 
a 54 59 64 68 
6 inch. 7 inch. 8 inch. Qinch. 10 inch. 
Ist. effect, —360° +3609 —380° +380° — 400° 
= 81 81 81 82 85 
2! 74 74 74 74 75 
3 .f 72 72 70 72 73 
Copper 1 inch, zine dipped to 
1 inch. 2 inch. 3 inch. 4 inch. 5 inch. 
Ist. effect, +90° +180° — 220° — 220° — 180° 
lV’ 48 40 35 30 34 
2’ 42 36 30 26 23 
3! 36 36 27 24 22 
Vou. XXVII.—WNo. 1. 7 


50 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


6 inch., 7 inch. 8 inch. 

Ist. effect, = 140° — 140° +90° 
1’ 23 22 21 
2! 21 20 19 
ane fae 1!) 19 18 


9 inch. 
=90° 
19 
19 
18 


10 inch. 
- —g90° 


11. Another set was now made, by immersing one of the plates 
5 inches, and varying the surface immersed of the other from 1 inch 
to 10 inches. Five minutes were allowed between the immersions 


as before. . 
Zinc 5 inches, copper dipped to 
1 inch. 2 inch. 3 inch. 4 inch. 5 inch. 
Ist. effect, —220° +1209 -+1200° + 300° -++400° 
V 34 63 66 70 74 
Qf ol 51 60 63 66 
oO 29 ASN 55 « 59 61 
6 inch. 7 inch 8 inch. 9 inch. 10 inch. 
Ist. effect, +450° — 500° — 500° — 490° 00° 
i bs 74 aed 78 79 82 
a 70 72 74 74 76 
3! 64. - 68 69 69 74 
Copper 5 inches, zinc dipped to 
1 inch. 2 inch. 3 inch. ~< 4.inch. 5 inch 
Ist. effect, 360° +360°  -+360° — 400° 360° 
1’ 48 47 44 43 40 
pret 45 44 38 38 3 | 
3 42 38 ey | 36 34 
6 inch. 7 inch. 8 inch 9 inch 10 inch 
Ist. effect, 360° , 3602 — 380° — 380° an? 
ff 38 38 3S 38 38 
2! 36 31) 35 eel 30 
3 34 Deo ts) 30 34 34 


12. In the following experiments the plates were not removed from 
the solution between the immersions. One of the plates being plung- 
ed to 5 inches; the other was immersed by a sliding movement to 
1 inch, 3 inches, &c. upto 11 inches. After finishing with one met- 
al, the plates were removed for 5 minutes, and then adjusted for 
another set. | 
Zine 5 inches, copper dipped to 
9 inch. 


1 inch. 3 inch. 5 inch. 7 inch. 11 inch.* 
1! 28° 50° 61° 76° 80° 909 
Q! 27 47 59 70 73 90 


3/ 25 AB.) Ea byt 70 87 


* The last inch was perfectly fresh metal, which probably accounts for the great 
increase of action. ‘ 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 51 


Copper 5 inches, zine dipped to 
1 inch. 3 inch. 5 inch. Tinch. 9inch. 11 inch. 


1’ 43° 37° 33° 31° 30° 29° 
2’ 40 35 32 31 30 29 
3 38 35 32 3l 30 29 


13. In the preceding experiments, the solution used, was always 
composed of sulphuric acid and water. A solution containing one 
part nitric acid, (specific gravity, 1.333) to 66 water, was now prepar- 
ed and employed in a similar set of observations, of which the follow- 
ing are the details. 

Experiments with nitric acid solutions, 1 to 66. 14 galls.; slips, 
10 inches long, 1 inch broad and 2} apart. Intervals between the 
immersions, 3 minutes. 

Ist. set.—Zinc immersed 2 inches, copper dipped to 


2 inch. 4 inch. 6inch. — 8 inch. 10 inch. 
Ist. effect, —300° +250° — 300° — 250° 


a 98 130 132 140 160° 
2! 88 125 119 ets ee 154 
3! 82 120 118 124 148 
4’ 78 113 116 124 144 
5’ 74 111 115 124 144 
6’ 74 111 115 124 138 
ag 74 


2nd. set.—Copper immersed 2 inches, zinc dipped to 
2 inch. 4 inch. 6 inch. 8 inch. 10 inch. 


Ist. effect, —250° —180° =150° +4150° — 180° 
i 90 87 63 75 85 
2’ 85 v4 44 54 65 

we 76 60 41 46 54 
4’ 66 57 40 42 46 
5’ 64 5G. 40 38 38 
6/ 62 55 40 38 38 


14. We now made a number of observations by sliding the plates 
alternately, and through great distances at each time. Columns Z 
and C, represent the inches of zinc and copper immersed. The 
deflection was noted 1 minute after each change. 


Ze C. def. No. Z. C. def. 
10 10 BoaowN 8. 10 1 28° 
5 10 170 9, 1 1 30 
1 10 170 10. 10 1 25 
10 10 240 he 1 1 oi 
5 10 170 12. 1 10 168 
10 1 28 13. 10 10 250 
1 1 30 14. 10 1 25 


Noone wpe sy 


52 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


The above results exhibit, very beautifully, the great relative effi- 
ciency of the copper in galvanic arrangements. Comparing Nos. 2 
and 5 with Nos. 3 and 12, it appears, consistently with nearly all our 
former results, that the increase of zinc produces no increase of ac- 
tion, although compared with Nos. 1, 4, and 13, some increase is 
shewn. Comparing Nos. 3 and 12 with Nos. 6, 8, 10, and 14, we 
perceive a vast disparity in the amount of galvanic action; 170° to 
30°. This mode of experiment, furnishes an easy and impressive 
class room illustration. : 

15. In all the preceding experiments, the increase of action be- 
came very slow, when the copper surface was a large multiple of 
the zinc, so that in fact, after a certain point, no additional effect was 
produced by the addition of more copper surface. Attributing this 
to the great distance of the lower portions of the copper slip from the 
small immersed surface of Zinc, we inferred, that by placing the cop- 
per in two portions on opposite sides of the zinc, still preserving the 
same distance from it, a much greater action would take place. 
This inference moreover, was favored by the consideration, that in 
Dr. Wollaston’s construction of the battery, the plates are thus arrang - 
ed. We determined, however, to put the matter to the test of ex- 
periment. 

Plates similar to those formerly used, were arranged with a view 
to this new series of observations—the two exterior plates, whether 
of copper or zinc, being connected by an arched wire carefully sol- 
dered to both, to the middle and highest point of which another wire 
was soldered, reaching to one of the cups of the galvanometer. By 
this means, two outside plates acted electrically as one. ‘The let- 
ters Z and C, will sufficiently indicate the arrangement of the plates. 


CR ite Ge CLUS Be Ge! Zee Ly. ee 
Ding, 2 Wie i. Aneto We 4c I. Qn. able 4.in. 2 in. 
1’ 82° - 106° - 73° - - 76° 
2! 82 oo dor, 106 = 72 - 72 
3 82 - 106 - 2, = 72 


These rather unexpected results, lead directly to the inference, 
that Wollaston’s plan of enclosing the zinc on both sides with copper, 
is really less advantageous than allowing the copper to extend toa 
double length on one side of the zinc plate. ‘The fact of the copper 
being presented to both zinc surfaces, being, in contradiction of all 
our theoretical notions, of no advantage whatever. 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 53 


16. An examination of Ritchie’s Law of Surface. 

Reasoning from some of the foregoing experiments where a dim- 
inution of action accompanied an increase of the zinc surface, and 
where also, the increase of power from augmentation of the copper 
surface, still fell far short of being proportional to the quantity of that 
metal immersed, we were naturally induced to doubt, whether the 
law announced by Dr. Ritchie, that the deflexion increases exactly 
in the ratio in which the surfaces of the two metals are increased, 
could be true.* 

The slips were of the same kind as before. Both were immersed 
to equal depths. Intervals of five minutes were allowed between 
the immersions, to permit the plates to regain their greatest energy. 


Both 1 inch. 2 inch. 4 inch. 

Ist. effect, +200° +300° — 400° 
> amt 's: 60 85 170 
2 61 82 115 
3! 61 82 : ae yi 


Repeated after an interval of 5 minutes; beginning with 4 inches, 
and diminishing to 1 inch. 


* In Vol. I. p.33 of the Journal of the Royal Institution, Dr. Ritchie describes his © 
experiment and views in regard to this point in the following words. ‘ Take two 
rectangular slips of copper and zinc, an inch broad and eight or ten inches long, and 
divide them into square inches by narrow bands of wax or cement. Solder copper 
wires to their extremities, and fix them into a small frame so that they may always 
be placed at the same distance from each other. Immerse them in a small vessel 
of water, containing a small quantity of sulphuric acid, to the first horizontal divis- 
ion; turn round the torsion key till the untwisting force of the glass thread, balan- 
ces the deflecting power of the electric current, and note the number of degrees of 
torsion. Immerse them to the second division, turn round the torsion key as before, 
and the degrees of torsion necessary to balance the deflecting force of the current, 
from two square inches, will be found double of those for one square inch. Repeat 
the experiment wlth three, four, &c., square inches, and the degrees of torsion will 
be found proportional to the surface of the plates immersed. 

** Having thus shewn experimentally the accuracy of the instrument”—&e. 

From the last sentence it would appear that the truth of this law was already ad- 
mitted, and that the experiments quoted above were made not so much to establish 
it as to test the accuracy of the galvanometer by it. Now no one who reflects upon 
the beautiful principle of torsion used in this instrument can doubt the correctness 
of its indications when employed with the requisite precautions; we do not think 
however that in the case above cited, it could be regarded as futnishing proof of the 
truth of the law in question, for, as we have proved in our experiments upon first 
effects, the adequate precautions were overlooked. 

The investigations which follow, go we think to establish, that no such law pre- 
vails. 


54 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


4 inch. 2 inch. 1 inch. 
Ist. effect, — 400° ) +220° +150° 
1/ 115 84 60 
2 114 of ae 60 
3! 114 82 60 
2nd.set.—Il inch. | 2 inch. 4 inch. 
Ist. effect. +150° — N10) 0199 =400° 
1’ 61 , 81 Pree 
a 60 80 112 
3/ 60 80 111 
4 inch. 2 inch. 1 inch. 
Ist. effect, —420° ‘— 310° — 180° 
1 112 81 GO 


17. With the view of obtaining a wider range of comparison, two 
new slips were prepared, 10 inches long, 1 inch wide, and 13 dis- 
tant. ‘These were immersed, ee to 10, 8, 6, &c. inches in 
the solution of 1to 94. After the first minute of action, the deflec- 
tion was permanent, or nearly so. ‘These observations, at intervals of 
‘a minute, were taken while the slips were exposed to the solution. 
The slips, being then removed, were allowed to repose without wiping 
for 5 minutes. ‘The adjustment for immersion being made, at the 
end of the 5th minute, the slips v were again immersed. ‘The follow- 
ing are the results. 

In new plates we have always observed a very violent action on 
the first immersion, we therefore commenced by a preparatory im- 
mersion, to their full depth 10 oes, to bring them to their stable 
condition. 


Ist. effect, — 720° 
SEI Ibe babccal dies Leite Salts \ ae RE 
Haan in NaN i aa tS Pne aa NAY 
Dh idie - - - - - 240 
on - - - = a - 135 
Ae Rca, (Biman ai Why aR! fn ee lip 2 ie oa 
4’ - - - - - - 132 
5! - - - - - Warr ee 


_ After an interval of five minutes from the last observation above 
recorded, the series was begun, always noting as near as pr ir 
the instantaneous effects.— 

10inch. Sinch. 6 inch. ol inch. 2inch. 1 inch. 
Ist. effect, —600° -+400° -+400° +400° =360° —300° 

i 132 124 112 LOO: 82 68 

1 132 124 112 100 80 65 

3 132 124 112 100 79 62 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 55 


The observations were now repeated in the reverse order, after 
the same interval. The order was reversed, because the action of 
the liquid in the earlier immersions is tending continually to depress 
the permanent deflection in the succeeding ones, independently of the 
lessened surface and must cause the final deflections to be a little 
too low. 

By inverting the order the error is counterbalanced, the larger de- 
flections now suffering the reduction, as we see on comparing the 
final deflection 118, with the first permanent one 132. 

It will be seen that in nearly all our other experiments, we began 
by immersing the slips to the greatest depth to which they were to 
go, for the sake of making the error lean in favor of the law which 
our investigations were opposing. 


linch. 2inch. 4inch. 6inch. Sinch. 10inch. 
Ist. effect, 00° +300° +300° +400° —500° —500° 


a! 62 72 95 106 113 123 
2’ 60 71 94 103 113 118 
3! 60 71 93 103 112 118 


The results here obtained, so far from agreeing with the law in 
question, which for a ten-fold surface should have produced a ten- 
fold deflection, are throughout at variance with it, in as much as ten 
times the surface displayed, gives us only twice the deflection, or 
118° to 60°. 

18. So striking a departure from the supposed law, induced us to 
investigate it by new modifications of the experiments. An old pair 
of slips, the same which we had used before in our experiments with 
the nitric acid solution, was therefore next employed, and using the 
sulphuric acid solution of 1 to 94, we obtained the following. Inter- 
vals 5 minutes. 


8 inch. 6 inch. 4 inch. 2 inch. 
Ist. effect, — 500° — 300° +200° 00° 
1’ eOG.0'* 64 49 25 
2 84 61 49 23, 
3 84 56 44 22 


‘The solution was now strengthened so as to be 1 to 60, when we 
obtained the following deflections. 


8 inch. 6 inch. 4 inch. 2 inch. 

Ist. effect, +300° +250° +250° — 250° 
tg 85. 72 60 40 
= 80 67 a 33 


3! 80 66 53 30 


56 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


In both these sets of results there is evidently a nearer approach 
to Dr. Ritchie’s law, than in any of the former, on the same subject. 
In the last set, the deviation is more marked than in the first. ‘The 
partial accordance with the law in the first set, is most probably at- 
tributable to some accidental peculiarity in the condition of the plates, 
perhaps induced by the previous exposure to the nitric acid. ‘The 
same results have never been obtained with new slips, or with hae 
of those which had been immersed in sulphuric acid. 

19. A fresh pair of plates, gave results which so far from agreeing 
with our first set above, are in perfect accordance with jour former 
ones.—New slips.—Sulp. ac. sol. 1 to 66.—Intervals 3 minutes. 


Ist. set.-—8 inch. 4 inch. 2 inch. 1 ineh. 
Ist. effect, + 500° +400° + 300° +150° 
Vv 160 103 77 56 
Oy 128 103 76 55 
i 126° 103 75 54 
4/ 126 102 75 54 


The plates were now slid down to 8 inches, without removing 
them from the solution, and afterwards slid up to the succeeding sta- 


ges. ‘The deflections were, 
8 inch. 4 inch. 2 inch. 1 inch. 
ra 120° 96° 67° 48° 
2! 118 95 66 AT 
3 117 94 65 46 


20. After an interval of 16 hours, the same series was repeated. 
First, however, the plates were dipped to 4 inches, in order to com- 
pare the deflection with that from 8 inches immersion, the first time 
they were used.—(See 19, Ist. set.) ‘The deflections were, 

4 inch. 


Ist. effect, 


5 


00° 
92 
92 


. 88 


84 


84 


After 4 minutes exposure to the air, the regular series was begun. 


Intervals between the dips 4 minutes. 


8 inch. 4 inch. 2 inch. 

Ist. effect, — 500° 00° +300° 
i 104 83 57 
Ba 97 80 56 
3! 96 80 54 
4’ 94 80 54 
5! 94 80 54 


1 inch. 8 inch. 
00° 000° 
42 ‘104 
40 100 
39 95 
39 93 
39 93 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 57 


it is only necessary to compare the final numbers in the columns 
of any of the foregoing sets of observations, with the numbers above 
the columns, expressing the number of inches immersed to discover 
the entire absence of the proportionality assumed in the law. Had 
the deflections been announced, to conform to the square roots of the 
surfaces, a much closer approximation would in many cases be wit- 
nessed, but this cannot be laid down without doing equal violence to 
experiment. ll that we venture at present to establish, is the im- 
pertant practical fact, that the power of the battery increases much 
more slowly than the quantity of metallic surface, and that, as far at 
least, as deflection and the other properties of which this is a meas- 
ure, are concerned, there will be a very useless expenditure of metal 
by increasing beyond a certain point the dimensions of the plates. 

IV. On the influence of temperature to exalt the energy of the 
‘battery. 

21. It has been mentioned by Dr. Ritchie, and has been known, 
we believe, to electricians for some time, that heating the solution’ 
tends to augment the activity of the battery. Seeing ourselves in 
possession of an instrument which enabled us to measure numeri- 
cally, exceedingly minute augmentations of force, it became an en- 
quiry of some interest to ascertain the amount of influence exerted . 
by temperature. 

A glass vessel with wide mouth was nearly filled with some of the 
solution of the ordinary strength. The usual cover with slits to re- 
ceive the plates, was then adapted to the top, and the whole support- 
ed on a stand, and a spirit lamp applied beneath. The slips were 4 
inches long, 3 of an inch distant, and plunged 2 inches in the liquid. 
Before heating the solution, the temperature was 66°. Temp. rising 
from 110° to 150°. 


Deflection was 1’ - 32° Deflection was 1’ - 53° 
66 (9 aah eg Yq) 66 bY sa => 
6¢ Rat at ASU 6 oP PS Sao 
‘c at (peg iT 4f oS) 166 
sb 5/ «= 30 3 Bir tie yb 

| “ = 62 

Temp. descending from 140° to 130°. 

Def. - - - - 1” ee 
“ a = 2 = Osea ee 
“ a 3 a g 3! 5.85 
= - - - - 4’ - 55 
rT; a " ‘ si Gh ne OO 
7 ‘ + as 6' - 54 


Vou. XXVII.—WNo. 1. 8 


58 Laws of the Elementary Voltme Battery. 


In the first experiment with the heated solution, the average tem- 
perature was 130°, and the average deflection corresponding was 
56°. In the next experiment, the mean temp. was 135°, and def. 
56°. 

22. After removing the plates, and allowing the solution to cool 
down to 70°, which took place in about three hours, the plates were 
again plunged, and the lamp reapplied. The following are the re- 
sults of the deflections for each minute, until the solution reached the 
boiling point. 


Minutes. Def. Minutes. Def. 
1 - - — 46° 10 - 94° 
2 ~ - AO 11 - 98 
3 - = 52 12 - 105 
4 - = 58 13 - 110 
5 - - 64 14 = 116 
6 - - 72 15 - 120 
7 - - 78 16 - 126 
ee c 83 17 pails 5 , 
9 - - 88 Boiling, 18 - 145 


From this series it appears, that in the circumstances of our exper- 
iment the effect of boiling solution is about 31 as great as that of the 
same solution at 70°. From the time which the plates are immers- 
ed, in these experiments, the decline of permanent action must be 
considerable, and therefore the full effect of the elevated tempera- 
ture is not perceived. It is probable, that had the solution remained 
at 70° for the same period of 18 minutes, it would have fallen at 
least 3 or 4 degrees from 46, in which case the energy of the batte- 
ry at the boiling point would be three and a half times its power at 
70>: 

23. As it was desirable to obtain several observations at each 
stage of temperature, a small spirit lamp was now applied to main- 
tain the temperature constant at each point where the observations 
were made. ‘The solution in this case was 1 sulphuric acid to 60 
water. In making the first column of observations, the lamp was 
withdrawn and reapplied, to ascertain if the deflections were con- 
stant at the same temperatures. ‘This they seem to be, and the fact 
would appear to have an important bearing, as pointing to some law 
which may possibly be found to connect the increase of the deflec- 
tion with some co-efficient of the temperature. 


Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


It being important, for obvious reasons, to expedite the cooling of 


the solution, artificial means were employed. 


Our object in the present experiments being merely to establish 
the remarkable gain of power, with the view to recommend its more 
frequent use in experiment, rather than its precise rate of effect, no 
great regularity was observed in the intervals between the successive 


stages of temperature. 


The slips, as before, were # of an inch apart, and were plunged 


two inches into the solution. 
Temp. 
210° - 


~ 


SAO Ne 
' 


The plates were now removed, and 
190°; this and the succeeding intervals of cooling occupied each 


about four minutes. 


Temp. 190° 180° 170° 160° 
Def. 
1’ - 152 - 145 - 134 - 131 
2’ 146 - 139 - 132 - 129 
3’ 146 - 138 - 132 - 126 
140° 120° 100° 80° 56° 
Bp 0Gr eRe elO6 l-). 9OIor; 61 
Bile 2) AWD im, bo 1Ody Lm BB» be 5:69 54 
SIP TE AES "5 ER >| 5 46 
4 46 
24. Similar experiments were now made with nitric acid, 1 to 50. 
Temp. 210° 200° 170° 140° 
1’ - 385 - 355 - 320 - 293 
2’ - 385 ig BAB A= 820,05 =!) ABO 
3’ - 385 - 346 - 320 - 290 
4’ - 385 - 346 - 320 - 285 
5’ - 385 - 346 - 320 - 285 
6’ - 385 
120° 100° 80° 70° 60° 
1’ - 261 - 247 - 230 - 210 - 194 
2’ - 253 - 242 - 226 - 209 - 192 
3’ - 252 - 239 - 225 - 209 - 190 
4’ - 252 - 234 - 224 - 209 - 190 
5 234 - 224 - 209 - 190 


206 
208 
210 
205 
203 
200 


Def. 1st eff. +500°. 


166° 
160 
163 
165 
158 
153 
150 


the solution cooled down to 


60 Laws of the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 


25. In order to expose the plates a less time to the solution for 
reasons before assigned, the following were made, in which the de- 
flections were noted at the end of each minute. 

Thirty minutes were consumed in heating the solution to boiling, 
which took place at 210°: The ebullition was gentle, to avoid agi- 
tation of the liquid, which would have brought into play a portion of 
the surface above the parts immersed. It will be observed in com- 
paring these results with the former in which a more rapid change of 
temperature was effected, namely, in 18 minutes, that the increased 
effect arising from temperature is somewhat less than before. 


Temp. Def. Temp. Def. 
1 deter 0S Cah eam (0 Sd 16’. -, 142°)". Age 
2 - 80 - 73 17 - 145 = ee 
3 = 84 - 76 18 - 150 - 113 
4 - 90 - 78 19 - 154 - 114 
ge COE" y= 80 BO ST = iS 
6 - 100 - 84 > 21 - 160 - 116 
We SAQA Ss BT D9) Y00 166% OS alae 
8 - 108 - 90 93. =5. 70 ih LBS 
Bo NAS om, 92 94. = 176,. = 20 
10 -116 - 96 95 - 182 .- 2s 
11 - 120 - 98 26° =«, £86 - 128 
12 - 124 - 100 27 - 194 - 131 
13 - 1380 - 103 28.) =) 200 - 135 — 
14 - 134 - 105 29 - 206 - 141 
15 - 137 - 107 30 - 210 - 147 


As we are now prosecuting these investigations upon the powers 
of the battery in its various modifications of form, &c., we shall re- 
serve for a future paper the more practical applications of the facts 
we have been developirg. It is apparent from what we have already 
shown, that the efficiency of the present galvanic arrangement is ca- 
pable of being greatly increased, and the experiments we are now 
making with the compound battery may enable us to show, we hope, 
to what extent. 

If the experiments detailed, throughout the foregoing paper be cor- 
rect, and we have not been able, on acareful revision, to discover any 
thing in the mode of making them which ought to invalidate their re- 
sults, we have arrived at some conclusions which have an important 
bearing on the theoretical question of the source of the electricity in 
the battery. Why, if the chemical theory of the battery be true, 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 61 


should the first instant of immersion be attended by a deflecting en- 
ergy so much greater than at any period after ; when it is obvious to 
the eye that, at this moment, the chemical action has scarcely as yet 
commenced. For the first few seconds indeed, little or no hydrogen 
can be seen escaping from the zinc plate, although by the time the 
power has declined to a more stationary condition, the discharge of 
gas, and consequently the accompanying chemical action upon the 
zinc, have increased to many times their former quantity. Again, by 
the chemical hypothesis, the oxidation of the zinc is held to be the 
cause which here first disturbs the electric equilibrium; but why 
then is it, that the activity of the battery does not augment with the 
quantity of zinc, in place of obeying, as we have shown, very oppo- 
site laws, decreasing with the zinc, and augmenting with the copper. 
So intimate has the connection always seemed between this theory, 
and the law of the power being as the surfaces acted on, that those 
who receive the theory, generally take for granted the law, as am a 
priori fact. Our experiments go far, we think, to show that neither 
the Jaw nor the theory are true in nature. 

The other theory, that of Volta, is obviously sicseerpene to ex- 
plain many of the results we have obtained ; for instance, that above - 
alluded to, which proves an increase of zinc plate to be injurious, 
while the same increase of copper is so highly beneficial. 

We therefore dismiss this subject of the theory of the battery, in 
the hope that some gifted individual, Faraday perhaps, in following 
up his present brilliant discoveries in electricity, may penetrate the 
obscurity which now conceals the internal movements of this mighty 

© and wonderful instrument. 


Arr. III.—Some Encomiums upon the excellent Treatise of Chem- 
istry, by Berzelius ; also objections to his Nomenclature, and sug- 
gestions respecting a Substitute, deemed preferable, in a letter to 
Professor Silliman ; by Ropert Hare, M.D., Prof. of Chemis- 
try in the University of Pennsylvania. 


Philadelphia, June, 1834. 
Dear Sir,—I have already apprized you, that last year I had the 
honor to receive from the celebrated Berzelius, six volumes of his 
admirable treatise of Chemistry ; to which, during the last summer, 


62 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


I gave much time, in order to avail myself of the vast fund of use- 
ful practical knowledge which it contains. I am of opinion that to 
adepts in the science, this treatise is the most interesting and instruc- 
tive compilation of chemical knowledge which has ever issued from 
the press. It comprises much matter for which Chemistry is indebt- 
ed entirely to the genius, skill, and industry, of the author, while 
scarcely any subject in it, is so treated, as not to create a renova- 
ted interest in the reader, however previously familiar with the sci- 
ence. 

Sweden may with reason be proud of her Scheele, her Bergman, 
and her Berzelius. The last, but not the least, of these great chem- 
ists, aided by an Herculean intellect, and commencing at the point 
at which his predecessors terminated their glorious career, may be 
considered as possessing attainments which have never been excel- 
led. Yet the sun is not without spots, nor is Berzelius without er- 
rors; unless indeed, those which J have ascribed to him, are phan- 
toms of my own intellectual vision. 

I concur with those chemists who consider the relation ascertained 
by Berzelius, between the quantities of oxygen in oxybases, and in 
oxacids, as a necessary consequence of the laws of combination, on 
which the Daltonian theory has been founded. I conceive also that 
the interesting facts which demonstrate the existence of the relation 
alluded to, would be more easily understood and remembered, if re- 
ferred to the theory of atoms, than when made the basis of his doc- 
trine of capacities for saturation, and of the numbers by which those 
capacities are expressed. 

Moreover, I do not approve of his nomenclature. This is a sub- 
ject highly interesting to me at this time. The last edition of my text, é 
book is exhausted, and in publishing a new edition I shall be obliged 
either to adopt the nomenclature of Berzelius, or to adhere to that 
now generally used, with such improvements as may seem to me con- 
sistent with its principles. 

I will proceed to state my objections to the Berzelian nomencla- 
ture, and to suggest the language which I would prefer. I should be 
glad if the promulgation of my opinions should call forth remarks, 
which may enable me to correct, in due season, any errors into which 
I may have fallen. I regret the necessity of making a final election, 
before submitting my objections to Berzelius himself, whose disap- 
probation it would grieve me much to incur. 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 63 


- My apology will be found in the adage—* Amicus Plato, sed ma- 
gis amica veritas.” Besides, if my opinions are incorrect, they will 
only react upon their author. The productions of Berzelius stand 
deservedly too high in public favor to be reached by ill founded crit- 
icism. 

The most striking feature in the nomenclature of Berzelius, is the 
formation of two classes of bodies; one class called “ halogene,” or 
salt producing, because they are conceived to produce salts direct- 
ly ; the other called ‘ amphigene,” or both producing, being produc- 
tive both of acids and bases, and of course indirectly of salts. To 
render this division eligible, it appears to me that the terms acid, 
base, and salt, should, in the first place, be strictly defined. Unfor- 
tunately there are no terms in use, more broad, vague, and unsettled 
in their meaning. Agreeably to the common acceptation, chloride 
of sodium is pre-eminently entitled to be called a salt; since in com- 
mon parlance, when no distinguishing term is annexed, salt is the 
name of that chloride. This is quite reasonable, as it is well known 
that it was from this compound, that the genus received its name. 
Other substances, having in their obvious qualities some analogy with 
chloride of sodium, were, at an early period, readily admitted to be 
species of the same genus; as, for instance, Glauber’s salt, Epsom . 
salt, sal ammoniac. Yet founding their pretensions upon similitude 
in obvious qualities, few of the substances called salts, in the broader 
sense of the name, could have been admitted into the class. Inso- 
luble chlorides have evidently, on the score of properties, as little 
claim to be considered as salts, as insoluble oxides. Luna cornea, 
plumbum corneum, butter of antimony, and the fuming liquor of Li- 
bavius, are the appellations given respectively to chlorides of silver, 
lead, antimony, and tin, which are quite as deficient of the saline 
character as the corresponding compounds of the same metal with 
oxygen. Fluoride of calcium (fluor spar) is as unlike a salt as lime, 
the oxide of the same metal. No saline quality can be perceived in 
the soluble “ haloid salts,” so called by Berzelius, while free from 
water; and when a compound of this kind is moistened, even by 
contact with the tongue, it may be considered as a salt formed of an 
hydracid and an oxybase, produced by a union of the hydrogen of 
the water with the halogene element, and of the oxygen with the ra- 
dical. Itis admitted by Berzelius, vol. ili, p. 330, that it cannot be 
demonstrated that the elements of the water, and those of an haloid 
salt, dissolved in that liquid, do not exist in the state of an hydracid 
and an oxybase, forming a salt by their obvious union. 


64 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


On the other hand, if, instead of qualities, we resort to composi- 
tion as the criterion of a salt; if, asin some of the most respectable 
chemical treatises, we assume that the word salt is to be employed 
only to designate compounds consisting of a base united with an acid, 
we exclude from the class chloride of sodium, and all other “ haloid 
salts,” and thus overset the basis of the distinction between ‘hae 
and “amphigene” elements. 

Moreover, while thus excluding from the class of salts, substances 
which the mass of mankind will still consider as belonging to it, we 
assemble under one name combinations opposite in their properties, 
and destitute of the qualities usually deemed indispensable to the 
class. ‘Thus under the definition that every compound of an acid 
and a base, is a salt, we must attach this name to marble, gypsum, 
felspar, glass, and porcelain, in common with Epsom salt, Glauber’s 
salt, vitriolated tartar, pearlash, &c. But admitting that these objec- 
tions are not sufficient to demonstrate the absurdity of defining a salt, 
as a compound of an acid and a base, of what use could such a defi- 
nition be, when, as I have premised, it is quite uncertain what is an 
acid, or what isa base. ‘To the word acid, different meanings have 
been attached at different periods. The original characteristic sour- 
ness, is no longer deemed essential! Nor is the effect upon vegeta- 
ble colors treated as an indispensable characteristic. And as res- 
pects obvious properties, can there be a greater discordancy, than 
that which exists between sulphuric acid, and rock crystal; between 
vinegar, and tannin ; or between the volatile, odoriferous, liquid, pois- 
on, which we call prussic acid, and the inodorous, inert, concrete, 
material for candles called margaric acid? — 

While an acid is defined to be a compound capable of forming a 
salt with a base, a base is defined to be a compound, that will form 
a salt with an acid. Yet a salt is to be recognised as such, by being 
a compound of the acid and base, of which, as I have stated, it is 
made an essential mean of recognition. 

An attempt to reconcile the definitions of acidity given by Berze- 
lius, with the sense in which he uses the word acid, will in my appre- 
hension, increase the perplexity. 

It is alleged in his Treatise, p. 1, Vol. Il, “that the name of acid 
is given to silica, and other feeble acids, because they are suscepti- 
ble of combining with the oxides of the electropositive metals, that is 
to say, with salifiable bases, and thus to produce salts, which is pre- 
cisely the principal character of acids.” Again, Vol. 1, p. 308, speak- 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 65 


ing of the halogene elements, he declares that “ their combinations 
with hydrogen, are not only acids, but belong to a series the most 
puissant that we can employ in Chemistry ; and in this respect they 
rank as equals with the strongest of the acids, into which oxygen en- 
ters as a constituent principle.” And again, Vol. II, p. 162, when 
treating of hydracids formed with the halogene class, he alleges, 
“ The former are very powerful acids, truly acids, and perfectly like 
the oxacids ; but they do not combine with salifiable bases; on the 
contrary, they decompose them, and produce haloid salts.” 

In this paragraph, the acids in question are represented as pre- 
eminently endowed with the attributes of acidity, while at the same 
time they are alleged to be destitute of his “ principal character of 
acids,” the property of combining with salifiable bases. 

In page 41, (same volume) treating of the acid consisting of two 
volumes of oxygen and one of nitrogen, considered by chemists gen- 
erally as a distinct acid, Berzelius uses the following language. “ If 
I have not coincided in their view, it is because, judging by what we 
know at present, the acid in question cannot combine with any base, 
either directly or indirectly, that consequently it does not give salts, 
and that salifiable bases decompose it always into nitrous acid,* and 
nitric oxide gas. It is not then a distinct acid, and_as such, ought: 
not to be admitted in the nomenclature.” Viewing these passages 
with all that deference which I feel for the productions of the author, 
I am unable to understand upon what principle the exclusion of ni- 
trous acid from the class of acids, can be rendered consistent with the 
retention, in that class, of the compounds formed by hydrogen with 
“ halogene” elements. 

Having thus endeavored to show that the words acid, salt, and 
base, have not been so defined as to justify their employment as a 
basis of the Berzelian nomenclature, I will, with great deference, pro- 
ceed to state my objections to the superstructure, erected upon this 
questionable foundation. Consistently with the French nomencla- 
ture, the combinations formed by electronegative principles, with oth- 
er elements, have been distinguished as acids, or characterized by a 
termination in “ide,” or in “ure,” which last monosyllable, when 
there has been no intention of altering the meaning, has, by the Brit- 
ish chemists, been translated into wret. ‘The termination in ide, 


* Hyponitrous acid of other chemists. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 9 


66 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


which is common to both languages, is, by Thenard, and other emi- 
nent French authors, restricted to the binary compounds of oxygen, 
which are not acid. Analogous compounds formed with the ‘ halo- 
gene” elements, chlorine, bromine, fluorine, iodine, cyanogen, &c., 
have by the same writer been designated by the termination in ure. 
Thus we have in his work, chlorures, bromures, fluorures, iodures, 
eyanures. Some of the most eminent chemists in Great Britain, 
have distinguished the elements called halogene, by Berzelius, to- 
gether with oxygen, as supporters of combustion; and have designa- 
ted the binary compounds made with them, when not acid, by the 
same termination as the analogous compounds of oxygen. Accord- 
ingly in their writings, instead of the names above mentioned, we have 
chlorides, bromides, fluorides, iodides. In Henry’s Chemistry, cya- 
nure is represented by cyanide; in 'Thomson’s, by cyanodide, and in 
Brande’s and Turner’s, by cyanuret. ; 

The term uret, equivalent as above mentioned to the French ure, 
is restricted by the English chemists to the compounds formed by 
non-metallic combustibles, either with each other, or with metals. 
Hence we have in English, sulphurets, phosphurets, carburets, boru- 
rets, for sulphures, phosphures, carbures, borures, in French. 

Berzelius classes as electronegative, all those substances which go 
to the positive pole when isolated, or when in union with oxygen, 
while all substances are by him treated as electropositive which go to 
the negative pole, either when isolated, or when in union with oxy- 
gen.* (See Vol. Ist, page 201.) 

According to his nomenclature, when both the ingredients in a bina- 
ry compound belong to the class of bodies by him designated as elec- 
tronegative, the termination in ide, is to be applied to the more elec- 
tronegative ingredient ; but where one of the ingredients belongs to 
his list of electropositive bodies, the termination in ure, (uret, in 


* The term isolated is employed to convey an idea, of the state in which the ele- 
ments of water are, when after having been separated by the voltaic wires, they 
are severally on their way to their appropriate poles, that is, the oxygen proceeding 
to the positive pole, and the hydrogen to the negative pole. Each element is, in that 
cease, isolated, and obedient to the attractive influence of one of the poles. Whena 
salt containing an oxacid and an oxybase, is decomposed, the acid will go to the pos- 
itive, and the base to the negative pole. The radical of the acid, in consequence of 
its not counteracting the propensity of the oxygen for the positive pole, is deemed 
electronegative ; while the radical of the base overcoming that propensity, is deem- 
ed electropositive. 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 67 


English) is to be applied to the electronegative ingredient. As, 
agreeably to the prevailing nomenclature, which in this respect the 
great Swedish chemist has not deemed it expedient to change, the 
electropositive compounds of oxygen with radicals, forming elcctro- 
positive bases, have each a termination in ide, it seems that consisten- 
cy requires us, conformably with the English practice, to designate in 
like manner analogous electropositive compounds of the electronega- 
tive elements called by him “halogene.” But especially it would be 
inconsistent not to put the same mark upon the compounds of sub- 
stances which from their analogy with oxygen are placed in the same 
“amphigene” class. If there were insuperable reasons for retaining 
the term oxide, as a generic name for the electropositive compounds 
of oxygen, it seems to me inexpedient not to employ the words sul- 
phide, selenide, and telluride, to designate the electropositive com- 
pounds of sulphur, selenium, and tellurium. And since the three last 
mentioned elements when united with hydrogen, form electronega- 
tive compounds which act as acids, why not treat them as such, under 
appellations corresponding with those heretofore used for that pur- 
pose? 

I conceive the following definitions to be justified by the practice 
of modern chemists in general, as established in the case of oxacids | 
and oxibases. When two compounds capable of combining with 
each other to form a tertium quid, have an ingredient common to both, 
and one of the compounds prefers the positive, the other the negatwe 
pole of the voltaic series, we must deem the former an acid, the latter 
a base. And again, all compounds having a sour taste, or which red- 
den litmus, should be deemed acids in obedience to usage. 

I should think it preferable, if in adopting these definitions, the ter- 
mination in ide was considered as applicable to all compounds of 
electronegative principles with other substances, whether producing 
electronegative or electropositive combinations, and that the terms 
acid, and base, should be considered as severally indicating the sub- 
ordinate electronegative, and electropositive compounds. In that 
case oxybase, chloribase, fluobase, bromibase, iodobase, cyanobase, 
sulphobase, telluribase, selenibase, would stand in opposition to oxa- 
cid, chloracid, fluacid, bromacid, iodacid, cyanacid, sulphacid, selen- 
acid, telluracid ; yet for convenience, the generic termination ide 
might be used without any misunderstanding ; and so far, the prevail- 
ing practice might remain unchanged. Resort to either appellation 
would not, agreeably to custom, be necessary in speaking of salts or 


68 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


other compounds analogous to them; since it is deemed sufficient to 
mention the radical as if it existed in the compound in its metallic 
state. Ordinarily we say, sulphate of lead, not sulphate of the oxide 
of lead. This last mentioned expression is resorted to, only where 
great precision is desirable. In such cases, it might be better to say 
sulphate of the oxybase of Jead. So long however as the electroneg- 
ative combinations of oxygen are designated as oxacids, and the elec- 
tropositive as oxides, it seems to be incorrect, not to use analogical _ 
terms in the case of analogous compounds, formed by other pre-emi- 
nently electronegative principles; and assuming the definition above 
stated, to be justified by modern practice, it follows, that in order to 
entitle the electronegative and electropositive ingredients of the double 
salts of Berzelius, to be classed, the latter as bases, and the former 
as acids, it is not necessary to appeal to the highly interesting and 
important experiments of Bonsdorf, confirmed in some instances by 
the testimony of Berzelius himself, proving that the attributes of acid- 
ity (as heretofore defined) exist in the one case, and those of alka- 
linity in the other. My definition is founded upon the conviction 
that these characteristics have not latterly been deemed necessary to 
acids, and that in bases, they never were required ; having, as re- 
spects them, only served as a means of subdivision, between alkaline 
oxides and other bases. . 

Chemistry owes to Berzelius much valuable information respecting 
the compounds formed by the substances which he calls ‘‘ halogene ;” 
especially respecting the combination formed by fluorine, with boron, 
and silicon, and the “double salts,” as he considers them, formed by 
the union of two “ halogene salts,” &c. While in the highest degree 
interested in the facts which he has ascertained, it will be inferred 
from the premises, that I do not perceive that any adequate line of 
distinction can be drawn in this respect between the simple salts form- 
ed by oxacids and oxybases; and the double salts formed by his 
*‘halogene” elements.—Agreeably to the definition which I have ven- 
tured to propose, in a combination of this kind, the electronegative salt 
would play the part of an acid, while the electropositive salt would 
perform that of a base. 

In common with other eminent chemists, he has distinguished acids 
in which oxygen is the electronegative principle, as oracids, and 
those in which hydrogen is a prominent ingredient as hydracids. If 
we look for the word radical, in the table of contents of his invalua-: 
ble Treatise, we are referred to p. 218, vol. 1st., where we find the 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 69 


following definition, ‘ the combustible body contained in an acid, or 
in a salifiable base, is called the radical of the acid, or of the base.” 
In the second vol. p. 163, he defines hydracids to be “ those acids, 
which contain an electronegative body, combined with hydrogen ;” 
and in the next page it is stated, that ‘hydracids are divided into 
those which have a simple radical, and those which have a compound 
radical. ‘The second only comprises those formed with cyanogen 
and sulphocyanogen.” Again, in the next paragraph, ‘no radical is 
known that gives more than one acid with bydrogen, although sul- 
phur and iodine, are capable of combining with it in many propor- 
tions. If at any future day more numerous degrees of acidification 
with hydrogen, should be discovered, their denomination might be 
founded on the same principles as those of oxacids.” Consistently 
with these quotations, all the electronegative elements forming acids 
with hydrogen, are radicals, and of course by his own definition, 
combustibles; while hydrogen is made to rank with oxygen as an 
acidifying principle, and consequently is neither a radical nor a com- 
bustible. .Yet page 189, vol. 2d, in explaining the reaction of fluo- 
boric acid with water, in which case, fluorine unites both with hydro- 
gen and boron, it is mentioned as one instance among others in which 
fluorine combines with two combustibles. 

I am of opinion that the employment of the word bydracid, as co- 
ordinate with oxacid, must tend to convey that erroneous idea, with 
which, in opposition to his own definition, the author seems to have 
been imbued, that hydrogen in the one class, plays the same part as 
oxygen in the other. But in reality, the former is eminently a com- 
bustible, and of course the radical, by his own definition. 

Dr. Thomson, in his system, does not recognise any class of acids, 
under the appellation of hydracids; but with greater propriety, as L 
conceive, places them under names indicating their electronegative 
principles. ‘Thus he arranges them as oxygen acids, chlorine acids, 
bromine acids, iodine acids, fluorine acids, cyanogen acids, sulphur 
acids, selenium acids, and tellurium acids.* Those appellations 
might, I think, be advantageously abbreviated into oxacids, chlora- 
cids, fluacids, bromacids, iodacids, cyanacids, sulphacids, selenacids, 
telluracids. 

As respects the acids individually, I conceive that it would be pre- 
ferable, if the syllable indicating the more electronegative element 


* I had formed my opinions on this subject, before I was aware that Dr. Thomson 
had resorted to this classification. 


70 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


had precedency in all, as it has in some cases. The word hydroflu- 
oric does not harmonize with fluoboric, fluosilicic, fluochromic, fluo- 
molybdic, &c. Fluorine being, in each compound, the. electronega- 
tive principle, the syllables indicating its presence, should in each 
name occupy the same station. These remarks will apply, in the 
case of acids formed with hydrogen, by all principles which are more 
electronegative. Hence we should use the terms chlorohydric, fluo- 
hydric, bromohydric, iodohydric, cyanhydric, instead of hydrochloric, 
hydrofluoric, hydrobromic, hydriodic, bydrocyanic. 

These opinions, conceived last summer, were published by me in 
the Journal of Pharmacy for October last. Since then, I find that in 
the late edition of his Traité, Thenard has eially employed the ap- 
pellations above recommended. 

As by the British chemists the objectionable words have not been 
definitively adopted ; the appellations muriatic and prussic, being still 
much employed, it may not be inconvenient to them, to introduce 
those which are recommended by consistency. In accordance with 
the premises, the acids formed with hydrogen by sulphur, selenium, 
and tellurium, would be called severally sulphydric, selenhydric, and 
- telluhydric acid. Compounds formed by the union of the acids thus 
designated, with the bases severally generated by the same electro- 
negative principles, would be called sulphydrates, selenhydrates, and 
telluhydrates, which are the names given to these compounds in the 
Berzelian nomenclature. Influenced by the analogy, a student would 
expect the electronegative ingredient of a sulphydrate to be sulphy- 
dric acid, not a sulphide. The terminating syllable of this word, by 
its associations, can only convey the conception of an clbonepeeaie 
compound. 

By adhering to the plan of designating each acid by its most elec- 
tronegative ingredient, the compounds of hydrogen and silicon, or of 
hydrogen and boron with fluorine, would appear in a much more con- 
sistent dress. Inthe compound named hydrofluoboric acid, and that 
named hydrofluosilicic acid by Berzelius, fluorine is represented as 
acting as a radical with hydrogen, while with boron and silicon it acts 
as the electronegative principle. It has been shown that hydrogen, 
no less than boron and silicon, must be considered as a combustible, 
and of course a radical. ‘This being admitted, if the compounds in 
question are really entitled to be considered as distinct acids, their 
names should respectively be fluohydroboric, or fluohydrosilicic acid. 
But as I have elsewhere observed an incapacity to combine with ba- 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 71 


ses, or to react with them without decomposition, is made by Berze- 
lius an adequate reason for expunging the compound formed by one 
atom of nitrogen with four atoms of oxygen from the list of the acids 
of nitrogen. I donot, therefore, understand how the compounds re- 
ferred to, while equally incapable of combination, can be considered 
by him as acids. At first it struck me that the liquids consisting of 
fluohydric acid, either with fluoboric acid, or with fluosilicic acid, 
might be considered as merely united by their common attraction to 
water, since they separate when this liquid is abstracted by evapora- 
tion. Upon reflection, however, I retract that opinion, since it ap- 
pears to me that if the compounds in question are to be considered 
as acids, they may be viewed satisfactorily as fluacids with a double 
radical; but I deem it more consistent to suppose that a fluobase 
of hydrogen in the one case unites with fluoboric acid, in the other, 
with fluosilicic acid; so that fluohydroboric acid, might be called 
fluoborate of the fluobase of hydrogen, or more briefly, fluoborate of 
hydrogen ; and in like manner, fluohydrosilicic acid would be call- 
ed fluosilicate of the fluobase of hydrogen, or briefly fluoscilicate of 
hydrogen. 

There are instances in which compounds, usually called bases act 
as acids. Of course it is consistent that compounds, usually called - 
acids, should in some instances act as bases. In this respect, a stri- 
king analogy may be observed between the union of the oxide of hy- 
drogen (water) with the-oxacids and oxybases; and that of fluoride 
of hydrogen with fluacids and fluobases. According to Berzelius, 
water, in the first case, acts as a base, in the second as anacid. So 
I conceive the fluoride of hydrogen acts as a base in the cases above 
noticed, while it acts as an acid in the compound of hydrogen, fluor- 
ine, and potassium, called by Berzelius “ fluorure potassique acide.” 
This compound I would call a fluohydrate of the fluobase of potassi- 
um, or more briefly uohydrate of potassium, as we say sulphate of 
copper, instead of the sulphate of the oxide (or oxybase) of copper. 
It appears from the inquiries of the author of the nomenclature under 
consideration, that each of the three acids above mentioned as form- 
ed by fluorine, with the three different radicals, hydrogen, boron, and 
silicon, is capable, with electropositive metallic fluorides, of forming 
the compounds treated of by him as double salts. ‘These compounds, 
to which I have already alluded, might be called fluohydrates, fluo- 
borates, or fluosilicates of the metallic ingredient. As for instance, 
the compound into which potassium enters, named by him “ fluorure 


72 System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 


Borico potassique,” I would designate as a fluoborate of the fluoride 
(or fluobase) of potassium, or for the sake of brevity, fluoborate of 
potassium. ‘ Fluorure silico potassique,” would by the same rule, 
be called fluoscilicate of potassium. 

The illustration thus given in the instance of potassium, renders: it 
unnecessary to furnish other examples, as it would only require that 
the name of any other metal should be substituted for that of potassi-. 
um, in order to modify these appellations, so as to suit every case. 

Pursuant to my fundamental definition, ferroprussiate of potash, 
cyanure ferroso potassique in the Berzelian nomenclature, should be 
considered as a compound of cyanoferric acid, and a cyanide or cy- 
anobase of potassium, and would of consequence be a cyanoferrate 
of potassium. Or if the iron be in two different degrees united with 
cyanogen, as the names cyanure ferroso potassique, and cyanure fer- 
rico potassique indicate, we should have both a cyanoferrite and a 
cyanoferrate of potassium; and of course cyanoferrous and cyano- 
ferric acid for their respective electronegative ingredients. ‘* Cyan- 
ure ferrique acide” would be exchanged for cyanoferrate of hydro- 
gen, being a case analogous to that of the “ fuorure potassique acide” 

above considered and provided for. 

If I am justified in my impression above stated, water, and the 
compound formed by fluorine with hydrogen (‘“ hydrofluric acid” or 
fluohydric acid as I prefer to call it) should be severally designated 
as acids when they act as-acids; as bases, -when they act as bases. 
In other cases the one might be designated as an oxide, the other as 
a fluoride, of hydrogen. Inthe case of a compound so well known 
as water, I would adhere to the common name, resorting to the sei- 
entific names only as definitions. ‘Thus water would be defined as 
an oxide of hydrogen, which in some combinations, acts as an ox- 
ybase of hydrogen, in others as hydric acid, or the oxacid of hy- 
drogen.* ; 

After designating as metalloids all non-metallic bodies, Berzelius 
alleges (page 203, vol. Ist,) that they are divided into oxygen, and 
bodies which are combustible, or susceptible of combining with oxy- 
gen; in which process, the greater part display the ordinary phe- 


* The use which I have made of the terminations in ide, in fluoride of hydrogen, 
or oxide of hydrogen, to signify a compound of hydrogen with fluorine, or oxygen 
generally, without conveying the idea of its being either a base or an acid, illus- 
trates the advantage which would result from the use of that termination in that 
broad sense. 


System of Chemistry, by Prof. Berzelius. 73 


nomena of combustion, or, in other words, of fire. Agreeably to this 
classification, susceptibility of union with oxygen and combustibility 
are confounded ; to which I object, because oxidizement frequently 
ensues without combustion, and combustion occurs often without ox- 
idizement. 

Speaking of chlorine, (Treatise, p. 276, vol. I.) it is alleged that 
it supports the combustion of a great number of bodies, of which a 
majority ignite in it at ordinary temperatures. If oxidizement be 
identical with combustion, how can this word be employed with pro- 
priety in the case thus quoted, where oxygen is not present? If com- 
bustion in the case of chlorine is applied only to those instances in 
which reaction with other bodies is attended by the phenomena of 
fire, why is not the term equally restricted in its application in the 
case of oxygen? 

Oxygen differs so far from the substances usually called combusti- 
bles, that they will produce fire with oxygen, and with but few, if any 
other substances; while oxygen will produce fire with many substan- 
ces. But this characteristic of producing fire with many substances, 
applies to chlorine, and as chlorine does not produce fire with oxy- 
gen, it is devoid of the only characteristic which should entitle it to 
be treated as a combustible, if combustibility and susceptibility of un- 
ion with oxygen be identical. 

Hence, if it be deemed proper in the case of oxygen to place the 
bodies with which it enters into combustion in one class, designated 
as combustibles, while oxygen is distinguished as the common “ com- 
burant” of them all, there is equal reson for placing chlorine in a like 
predicament. ‘The impropriety of designating the substances com- 
prised in his halogene and amphigene classes, with the exception of 
oxygen as combustibles, upon the basis of their susceptibility of ox- 
idizement, must be evident from the fact, that fluorine is not oxid- 
izeable, while it is so perfectly analogous to the others, especially 
chlorine, in its properties, that it would be disadvantageous to class it 
apart. 

Berzelius objects to the use of the word “ comburant,” (equiva- 
lent to the English word supporter) upon the ground that the same 
substance may alternately be a supporter and a combustible. I should, 
however, go farther, and likewise object to the use of both words, as 
tending to convey the erroneous impression, that in combustion, one 
of the ponderable agents concerned, performs a part more active than 
the other; whereas, in all such cases, the reaction must evidently be 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 10 


74 Medals. 


reciprocal and equal. I have repeatedly shown to my pupils, that a 
jet of oxygen burns in an atmosphere of liydrogen, as well as a jet of 
hydrogen similarly situated in oxygen. 

I would recommend that all the bodies comprised in the halogene 
and amphigene classes of Berzelius, should be placed under one head, 
to be called the basacigen class; indicating their common and dis- 
tinguishing quality agreeably to the premises, of producing both acids 
and bases. ‘The electronegative compounds of these substances to 
be called acids, their electropositive compounds, bases, as already 
suggested.* 


Arr. IV.— Miscellaneous Communications from an American Na- 
val officer, travelling in Europe; forwarded from the Mediterra- 
nean, May, 1834. 


1. Mepa.s. 


Information for American Colleges.—As numismatics forms a use- 
ful branch of study, and as in our country, collections of original coins 
are seldom to be procured, and when so, at great expense, I have 
thought our colleges might be interested by an account of an estab- 
lishment, which I met with in London, a few months ago. The en- 
closed advertisement,{ will inform you pretty well of its character. 


* After the preceding letter was ready for the press, the following remark of Ber- 
zelius attracted my attention, as sanctioning indirectly the definition which I have 
proposed, page 66. 

Treatise, Vol. 3, page 323, he alleges—“ It follows from this that the property of 
playing the part of an acid, is attached neither to the substance, nor to the manner 
in which the combination takes place. J¢ only indicates a state contrary to the 
property of being a base. 

+ The writer has himself a cabinet of coins, and has made numismatics a little the 
subject of study. 

¢ J. Doubleday, 32, little Russel st., Museum st. (near the British Museum,) Lond., 
has on sale, casts in sulphur of nearly all the ancient seals, that have been engraved or 
described in the Vetusta Monumenta, Archaeologia, and other antiquarian and to- 
pographical works. Great seals of England from Edward the confessor: baronial, 
conventual, and corporate seals, from the conquest, taken from seals appended to 
deeds and charters in the various record depositories in the kingdom, or from original 
matrixes. Beautiful impressions of that extraordinary seal of Southwick Priory, 
Hants, described in the Archaeologia, vol. xxiii. A very extensive collection of the 
most beautiful and rare Greek and Roman coins, in sulphur and white metal. Casts 
‘of the rarest English and foreign medals, made to imitate the finest bronze, including 
the Paris mint series of Buonaparte complete. Impressions from ancient and 
modern gems, Etruscan patere, and other antiquities. Great seals from 1s. to 2s. 6d. 
Baronial, &c. 4d. each. Greek and Roman coins, 4d.; medals, 4d. to 1s. each. 


* 


Medals. 75 


i became acquainted with Mr. Doubleday, who is an American by 
birth, and a very ingenious and intelligent man; we visited, together, 
the cabinet of coins and gems in the British museum, and I found that 
he is permitted to copy any thing he may desire in that great collection, 
valued, I was informed at about a million of pounds sterling. He 
also visits, now and then, the collection in the Bibliothéque Royale at 
Paris, where also he is allowed the privilege of copying. He colors 
his sulphur, and the copies are often so well done, that it is impossi- 
ble, by the sight alone, to distinguish them from the originals. The 
splendid Bonaparte medals by Denon, are here copied, so as to have 
all the boldness and extreme delicacy for which these rivals of the 
antique are distinguished. ‘The London University has supplied itself 
entirely from Mr. Doubleday’s collection of copies; the professors told 
him that they would answer all the pnrposes of study as well as the 
originals, while a vast saving of expense would be effected. He al- 
so has large orders from country gentlemen and Lyceums, in all parts 
of England. He also copies silver coins in white metal, but although 
the copies are as accurate as those in sulphur, the metal has the color 
rather of tin than of silver, and I did not like them so well; still they 
are very fair imitations of the originals. It is his custom, when copy- 
ing silver and gold coins in sulphur, to distinguish them by different - 
colors, making the gold a deep red, &c.—he also labels them. To 
my question, what variety he could readily furnish and at what (the 
lowest) price—he replied that he had casts for 6000 Greek coins, 
1050 Roman large Bronze, 1000 medium do.; Roman gold 500, 
do. silver 1000—all these for 4d.* each ;—Roman medallions 300 
6d. each, copies in metal from Is. to 2s. 6d. each.—The charge for 
the Madrassis is 5s. thence down to the uncia from 1s. to 4d.; the high 
price of the Madrassis, arising from the difficulty of making a cast 
endure for more than one copy. He has also, copies of a suit of medals 
of the English Sovereigns, from the Conqueror to George II. 34 in all, 
struck by Dassiers, in the reign of the latter king ; from Richard the 
III. down, they are said to offer correct likenesses; the charge for 
these is 6d. each. 

From what I have seen of Mr. Doubleday’s establishment, I have 
no hesitation in recommending it to the attention of our colleges; 
to the amateur collector, it also offers the means of providing ata 
trifling expense, fac-similes of medals not to be had, or if so, at ex- 


* The penny in London is worth exactly two cents in our currency. 


76 Medals. 


travagant cost. It is the only one of the kind, with which I am ac- © 
quainted ; Mon. Mionnet of the cabinet of Paris, formerly took cop- 
ies in sulphur, (his prices were the same as Mr. Doubleday’s,) but 

when I sent last spring to him for some, I was informed that he had 
discontinued the business some years since. I saw also for sale in 
Mr. Doubleday’s collection, a copy of the celebrated Rosetta stone, 
now in the British Museum, done in sulphur or plaster, | do not re- 
collect which: he appeared to have succeeded as well in this as in 
the medals. 

Should any of our institutions, however, prefer the originals to cop- 
ies, they can easily supply themselves at the house of Matthew Young, 
Esq., 41 Tavistock street, Covent Garden, London. He has con- 
stantly on hand, a large collection; when I visited him, it amounted 
to 100,000, including coins of all countries, but was particularly rich in 
those of England. I was informed that Mr. Young is so jealous as 
to the character of his cabinet, that if he happens to purchase a coun- 
terfeit, he immediately melts it down or destroys it in some other way. 
His prices are—Roman silver from 18d. to some guineas; do. 
large brass, 2s. 6d. the lowest; Greek coins from 10s. to 30s. and 
so on to several pounds. He has a large collection of American 
coins and medals, together with several, struck in Great Britain and 
France, relative to our country. Among them are full setts of the 
Annapolis medals, (cost high,) Lord Baltimore’s, do., said to be rare; 
they are in silver and cost one guinea each. Medals of Washington 
from 2s. 6d. to 10s. 6d.—also of Franklin for the same price. 

I will add a list of some American coins, &c. which I purchased 
from him, and which you can publish or not according to the interest 
you think they may have at home. 

1. White metal, 12 inch in diameter, obverse, three concentric 
circles—in the first belt the legend, Continental currency, 1776; in 
the second, a sun, legend, fugio; in the centre, a sun dial, legend, 
mind your business, reverse 13 circles joined, on each the name of 
a state; within this a circular band with rays, inscribed American 
Congress; in the centre, legend, we are one. 

2. Copper, obverse, sun with 13 stars among its rays—legend, 
Nova Consiellatio;—reverse, legend, Libertas et Justitia, 1785; 
within this, a\laurel wreath encircling the letters U. S. Another 
nearly similar, dated 1783. 

3. Obverse, an elephant; reverse, legend, God preserve Caroh- 
na and the Lords sroprietors, 1694. 

| 


Medals. 77 


4. Obverse, horse’s head, beneath this, a plough, and 1786, le- 
gend, Vova Caesarea; reverse, U.S. coat of arms, legend, E. plu- 
ribus unum. Another like this, date, 1787. 

5. Obv. head crowned with laurel, legend, Nova Eborac; reverse, 
a female figure seated; in dex. a flower, in sin. a spear with cap of 
liberty, legend, virt. et lib. 

6. Obv. sun shining on a dial, legend, fugio, 1787, beneath all, 
mind your business ; reverse, a chain of 13 plain circular links; with- 
in this, a circular band inscribed United States ; centre, legend, We 
are one. 

_ 7. Obv. head of Washington; legend Washington President, 
1791: rev. an eagle with arrows and laurel, and in mouth, legend 
unum e pluribus above, one cent. 

8. Obv. a radiated triangle made by 15 stars, each having the in- 
itial of a state, legend E pluribus unum: rev. a hand holding a scroll 
on which is inscribed our cause is gust; legend round unanimity is 
the strength of society. ‘This is very neatly executed. 

9. Obv. an Indian with bow and arrow; legend, Commonwealth: 
rev. eagle, with arrows and laurel, on breast inscribed cent ; legend, 
Massachusetts, 1787. 

10. Obv. a head, beneath it the legend no stamps; above, The 
Restorer of Commerce, 1766; rev. a ship under sail—in front of it 
the legend America; around, Thanks to the friends of Liberty and 
Trade. 

The above after No. 1., are of copper and about an inch in di- 
ameter. 

11. Copper, cast, 13 in. in diameter. Obv. head of Washington ; 
legend, George Washington, born Virginia, Feb. 11, 1732: rev. 
legend, General of the American Armies, 1775. Resigned 1783. 
President of the United States, 1789. J. Manly, &c.,1790. This 
is very rude, but to a collector it has the valuable quality of being 
rare. 

12. Brass 1} in. in diameter. Obv. Head of Geo. king, legend 
Georgius, D. G. Mag. Brit. Fra. et Hib. rex.; rev. a rose sur- 
mounted by a crown, above Rosa Americana, 1823; below, utile 
dulci. 

Nos. 1. and 11. cost 2s. 6d., the rest 6d. each. 

Mr. Doubleday is in very friendly terms with Mr. Young, and is 
allowed to copy any thing he may desire in his collection ; they have 
also in the British Museum a collection of American coins and med- 


78 Bead Manufactory at Venice. 


als, together with medals struck in England, during their late war 
with us, of all of which copies can be taken. 


2. Breap Manuractory aT VENICE. 


Venice! How much like the impressions of a fair vision are my 
recollections of that city and of the week I spent in it. Dreamy is 
the term for it, for its crowded yet noiseless thoroughfares, the con- 
stant gliding of gondolas, its rich palaces, its dungeons, aud even its 
history, are in character more like the fancy of a dreamer than a so- 
ber reality. It was a fiesta when I arrived there, and the three large 
banners were waving in the piazza of St. Mark’s; while close by it 
a temporary bridge of boats, some hundreds of yards in length, was - 
filled with crowds in gay dresses hurrying to or from the church 
whose saint claimed the day. I recollect also particularly, one eve- 
ning, I was seated under the high arcade that lines three sides of the 
piazza of St. Mark’s; the gay shops and coffee houses were brill- 
iantly illuminated, the piazza was filled with company ; in the centre 
a band of forty musicians were performing ; I had an ice-cream be- 
fore me and the last number of Gallignani in my hand and I thought 
the situation as luxurious an one as I had ever occupied. Among 
the objects that help to make up the splendor of this piazza, proba- 
bly the most magnificent in the world, the bead shops, first attract the 
stranger’s attention ; I was so much interested by them that I deter- 
mined to visit the Island of Murano where the beads are made, and, 
as the process was new to me, a notice of it may also be gratifying to 
some of your readers. Suppose Dr. T., then and myself reclining 
upon the soft cushions of a gondola, the blinds of its pretty little cham- 
ber drawn so as to admit just the requisite degree of light and air, 
and gliding along the canals with a kind of rocking motion, sufficient 
only to let us know that we were moving. We stopped a few min- 
utes to examine the church of St. John, on one way, and soon after 
found ourselves at the skirts of the city and before and on each side of 
us a wide expanse of water, dotted in all directions with villages and 
groves rising apparently from the waves. Among them and distant 
about a mile and a half, we distinguished the village of Murano, cov- 
ering an island of that name, or rather islands, for like all others here, 
it is cut up in all directions by canals. ‘The bead manufactories oc- 
cupy a range of houses immediately on the left as we entered; that 
for mirrors is within an enclosure on the right: but as we were not 
there on one of the days in which it is in operation we did not visit 


Bead Manufactory at Venice. 79 


it; indeed the establishment has fallen very much into decay. The 
bead manufactories however presented a busy scene. In the first to 
which they conducted us we found a large reverberatory furnace in 
the centre, with a basin of liquid vitreous matter. A workman put in 
the end of an iron rod and whirling it slowly around, until a sufficient 
quantity of matter had attached itself, he withdrew the rod and form- 
ed the mass into a rude hollow cone about six inches in diameter, 
the apex being attached to his rod. Another workman had been 
doing the same thing at an adjacent opening, and the bases of the 
two cones being now brought together and united, a quantity of air 
was thus inclosed. As soon as the junction was perfected, they car- 
ried the mass to one side of the chamber and here strips of wood 
were laid cross-wise along a passage and each one holding his rod in 
hand they began to walk rapidly in opposite directions. As they did 
so, the glass drew out and in less than a minute we had a tube of uni- 
form bore and about one hundred and fifty feet in length. This one 
was of about the thickness of a quill; for the smallest beads they in- 
crease the pace to a pretty rapid trot. When a sufficient number of 
these tubes are formed, they are broken into lengths of about twenty 
seven inches, and are then carried to an adjoining building called the 
assorting house. Here they are assorted, the workman being able 
from the feeling only, to arrange them in different boxes according 
to their thicknesses and colors. From this house they are now car- 
ried to another where the laborers are mostly women and boys. Each 
one is seated in front of a kind of little anvil, having in the right 
hand a thin plate of steel, nearly triangular in shape and with a blunt 
edge: in the left he takes as many of the tubes as will form a single 
layer between the thumb and fore finger, and advancing their ends 
against a measure on the anvil, by a dexterous use of the steel, breaks 
off from each tube a piece of sufficient length for abead. The bits 
fall into a box and are about twice as long as the thickness of the bead, 
(if a common one) is intended to be. 

The next operation I thought the most interesting one. The boxes 
are carried into.a large chamber with a furnace in the center of it. 
A substance which I took to be ashes is moistened and made into 
a paste, and the bits of tubes are worked about in it until the holes 
are completely filled ; they are then put into a sheet iron cylinder 
about eighteen inches in length and a foot in width, with an iron han- 
dle to it, and about twice as much sand being added, the cylinder is 
thrust into the furnace and subjected to a rotatory motion. Ina 


80 Spectacle Gilasses.—Papyrus. 


short time, the glass becomes soft and yielding : the paste in the holes 
keeps tlie bits from being compressed, and from an elongated they 
assume a spherical shape: when this is done, the paste is worked 
out by the sand, and the latter penetrating into the holes, the hard, 
sharp edges are rounded and smoothed, and the heads are soon 
brought to the shape in which we see them in the market. When 
cooled, the sand is sifted from them, and after being rubbed ina cloth 
for the pnrpose of brightening them, they are fit for use. 

The quantity manufactured is very great. ‘They are worked up 
into ladies’ bags, sashes, watch guards, shawls, and even caps, &c. 
and as these are tastefully displayed, a bead shop along the piazza 
of St. Mark’s is a very pretty object. 


3. SPECTACLE GLASSES. 


Going along an obscure street one day, my attention was attracted 
by some curious fixtures in a shop, and on going in, I found they 
were preparing spectacle glasses. One set of the apparatus may be 
taken as a specimen of all. It consisted of a hemisphere of stiff 
putty, with another concave one of lead to fit on to it: the latter hav- 
ing its surface sprinkled with emery or some such article. The 
glasses having been first cut of the proper shape, and having had 
their sharp edges taken off, were pressed into the surface of the put- 
ty, and the leaden hemisphere was made by the hand to move ra- 
pidly over, both vertically and horizontally. In a short time, they 
were worked down so as to form a part of the smooth surface of the 
hemisphere: and the other side having undergone the same opera- 
tion, the process was completed. ‘Their convexity was thus, of 
course, uniform, a primary object in glasses of this kind. For con- 
cave glasses, the hemispheres were simply reversed. 


4. Papyrus. 


-Inclosed you will find a small sheet of papyrus, manufactured from 
plants growing in the neighborhood of Syracuse, in Sicily. One of 
my first excursions, among the numerous interesting objects that lie 
about this city, was to the Bapeae region; and on the whole, I was 
highly gratified. 

The harbor of Syracuse is large, and its upper end is lined with 
low marshy lands. Among these, winds a small river, or what we 
should call a very small creek ; and on the banks of this, about two 
miles from its mouth, the papyrus commences. We had been for- 


The Papyrus. 81 


cing our boat along the stream with considerable labor, sometimes 
entangled among the weeds, and sometimes having to lie down to 
enable it to pass among the overhanging canes, when we suddenly 
came to a clearer space, and saw, at the head of it, a clump of the 
plants of which we were in search. ‘They are in every respect very 
pleasing objects. ‘The roots are from three to four inches in thick- 
ness, tortuous and knotty, sometimes running into each other, and 
forming a thick matted mass which often extends several feet into 
the stream: they are tolerably woody and hard, and from their low- 
er part send out a number of fibres, which keep them more firmly 
attached to the soil: except in size, there isa considerable resem- 
blanee between them and the root of our calamus,* or water-lily. 
At the extremity of each root rises a stem which, when full grown, 
is about ten or twelve feet in height; it is triangular, (the corners 
rounded,) and without any joint, the rind or bark being perfectly 
smooth throughout the whole length; the periphery, at the lower 
part, is about eight inches ; from this it tapers gradually to the upper 
end, where it is not more than from a half to three quarters of an 
inch in thickness.. At the top, it carries a thick tuft of pedicles, 
somewhat resembling coarse grass thrown out like the top of a para- 
sol, each pedicle being from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, trian- - 
gular, and at about eight inches from the stem divided into three small- 
er pedicles, also triangular. At the point of division, is a small red 
flower, guarded by small sheathes or leaves, also of a reddish color. ' 
At the foot of the stem, and fitting close to it, are a number of what 
may be called reddish leaves ; they appear, however, to be the re- 
mains of the sheath that protected the plant when yet tender: the 
same thing occurs, also, at the top or point from which the pedicles 
spring. The color both of the stalk and pedicles is a dark green : 
they grow in clumps of from ten to thirty feet in diameter: the stalk 
is slightly curved by the weight of its tuft, and the smooth surface 
and graceful tossing figure of the former, with the spread and full- 
ness of the latter, produce together a very good effect. In the sketch 
enclosed, the stalks are arranged so as to show the tufts, and not in 
thick clumps, according to the reality. 

I have said that the exterior consists of a rind or bark without any 
joint: it incloses a pith, watery and spongy at the bottom, but becom- 


“ That is the Pennsylvania name: I believe that in New England you have an- 
other for this plant. 


Vout. XXVII.—No. 1. il 


§2 The Papyrus.—Fountain of Cyana. 


ing firmer-as we ascend. From this pith the enclosed specimen has 
been formed. The only book within my reach, that treats on this 
subject, states, on the authority of Pliny, that the ancients, in making 
paper, used the coats or pellicles which form the covering for the 
pith. If this authority were not of so high a character, I should have 
said that it is impossible to make paper, or any thing of that nature, 
from any part of the bark or rind. The stalk appears to consist only 
of two substances, the pith noticed above and a covering, very much 
resembling that of a stalk of Indian corn. I attempted several times 
to divide this coat into parts, and to flatten and make something like 
paper from it, but never could succeed. It would split up immedi- 
ately into narrow shreds, and, from the want of cohesion in the parts, 
I was forced to relinquish the attempt. Seignor Vincenzo Politi, a 
Syracusan gentleman of considerable antiquarian research, manufac- 
tures and sells, to the curious, paper from the plant, but it is always 
made from the pith. The inclosed is some of his making, and, from 
a close examination which I have subsequently made of a vast num- 
ber of specimens of ancient papyrus, in the museums from Naples to 
London, Ihave no hesitation in saying that they were formed of ex- 
actly the same material, and in the same way. 

Mr. Politi, in cutting the plant, rejects the upper part as too nar- 
row, and the lower as too spongy; he divides the remainder into 
pieces of from eight to twelve inches in length, and stripping off the 
bark, slices the pulp longitudinally, by means of a sharp knife, into 
slices about a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. These are placed 
under a roller, and, when they are pressed very thin, a sheet is form- 
ed by joining the strips, making the sides of the adjoining pieces over- 
lap a little. If he wishes to make the paper strong, one sheet is laid 
crosswise over another and cemented with the same paste employed 
in uniting the strips. If you will try, on the piece inclosed,* you will 
find that you can write on it with a blunt pen without difficulty ; and: 
even in our day, it would form no despicable paper. 


5. Fountain or Cyana. 


In our excursion, after giving the first clump of papyrus an atten- 
tive examination, we continued up the stream, passing other clumps, 


* The small sheet of prepared papyrus transmitted to us, bears, on one side, color- 
ed figures of the plant, and on the other, neat well defined writing —Ed. 


Notice of a part of Majorca. 83 


at short intervals ; and, at the distance of about a mile from the first, 
we came to a spot where the plants stretched considerably to the right 
and left, forming a larger plantation than any we had yet seen. In 
the midst of this we found the celebrated fountain of Cyana. You 
recollect she was a Sicilian nymph, and, endeavoring to assist Pro- 
serpine against the violence of Pluto, was changed by the enraged 
god into a fountain. Itis a very pretty spot. The fountain is about 
forty feet in diameter, and about fifteen in depth ; the water is per- 
fectly clear, and fish of a large size were darting about in the deeper 
parts: the bottom was carpeted quite across with grass of a delicate 
green color, while all around, the graceful forms of the papyrus bent 
over it, a screen and an ornament to the abode of the martyr-nymph. 


6. Notice or a PART oF Masorca. 


Orange Groves, Olives, Mountains, People, Costume, &c¢.— 
Along the western side of this island is an unbroken range of moun- 
tains, so high that at my visit, they were tipped in many places with 
snow. Just at the place where they are highest, a crater-shaped 
hollow seems to have been scooped out, and at the bottom of this is 
the little town of Soller, (pronounced Solyé by the natives ;) it is - 
three miles from the coast, but a good road follows the windings of 
a roaring stream, and conducts the traveller to a small harbor so shut 
in as to resemble a pretty little lake. In this harbor I landed. The 
captain and crew had told me a great deal about the beauty of the 
orange groves of Soller, but I was not prepared for the scene in 
which we found ourselves as soon as we left the harbor. The valley 
or glen we were traversing, rapidly widened, the orange gardens 
commenced, and soon nothing was to be seen all around but continu- 
ous orchards of orange trees, rising often to a height of twenty or 
twenty five feet, and loaded as thickly with ripe fruit as I have ever 
seen apple trees at home. ‘The ground was covered with them, 
and they lined the sides of the stream, sticking by dozens against the 
rocks that interrupted its course. ‘The lad whose donkey was car- 
rying my baggage, asked me, if I would have some, and on my re- 
plying in the affirmative, ran into the next open gate, and soon came 
out with as many as he could carry. I selected half a dozen; he 
asked me if I would not have more, and when I answered no, he open- 
ed his arms and let the rest of them tumble down into the road. 
They told me in the village, that the groves cover an extent of about 


84 Rotation of Liquids. 


one mile wide by three in length—nothing but orange groves, and 
the fruit some of the best I have ever tasted. 

Above them on the mountain sides, is a broad belt of olives ; then 
a belt of pines, and then come the naked summits of the mountains, 
I suppose more than three thousand feet in height. I had to cross 
among them on the way to Palma, the capital of the island, and 
thought the scenery nearly equal to any thing in the Tyrolese. They 
completely shut out the stormy blasts that blow from the gulf of Ly- 
ons, and make the temperature of the island delightful : its soil is 
good, and J think, with proper care, Majorca might be made the 
Madeira of the Mediterranean. It was Sunday when I was at Soller, 
and the village was filled with the peasantry of the surrounding 
mountains. ‘Their costume retains much of the Moorish character : 
trowsers short and full, vest without collar, jacket the same, with 
short slashed sleaves ; over this a cloth coat reaching to the knees, 
with very wide sleeves; head shaven on the crown, with hair bebind 
long and curled ; a skull cap, and over this a low crowned hat, with 
a brim fifteen inches wide, turned up at the edge, and ornamented 
with tassels,—with all this, a man of Soller looks like a giant a short 
way off, and the plaza in front of the church was full of them when 
we arrived. ‘They are a very hospitable and simple people, and for 
the stream that goes roaring through their village, they have no other 
name than ‘“ Torrento,” Torrent: many of them, peaaniien do not 
know that there is another in the world. 


Arr. V.—On the apparent anomaly observed in the rotation of li-. 
quids of different specific gravities when placed upon each other ; 
by Water R. Jounson, Prof. of Mech. and Nat. Philosophy, 
in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 


A notice read at the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, Sept. 30, 
1833, has appeared in some of the French Journals, particularly the 
Revue Encyclopedique for that month, of certain experiments by 
Mon. E. J. Thayer, in which it seems to be imagined that some new 
principle either of hydraulics or chemistry, or both, is about to be 
unfolded. My attention having been called to that notice by my 
friend J. P. Espy, Esq. we arranged a little apparatus with which | 


Rotation of Liquids. 85 


we repeated a few of the experiments,* sufficient to exemplify the 
phenomena, and to demonstrate their cause. 

The first of M. Thayer’s experiments was to suspend a jar or 
phial containing two liquids of different specific gravities, and cause 
it to oscillate like a pendulum, in which case, even if the oscillations 
be small, the heavier liquid will be found to undergo a considerable 
variation in the position of its surface, so much indeed, as to render 
the surface of separation of the two liquids greatly inclined to the 
horizontal position, and sometimes even so much as to divide the li- 
quid superficies, and to form it.in part of the heavier, and in part of 
the lighter of the two liquids. If the oscillations become so great as 
to be ultimately changed into a complete rotation, the heavier liquid 
will, when the vessel is in the upper part of its course, be found at 
the surface, and the lighter at the bottom, (then the highest part,) of 
the vessel. 

Dr. Franklin made use of the first part of this experiment to illus- 
trate his idea of the effect of oil upon the surface of the ocean. 

It is represented by 
figures a, b, and c, the 
first supposed to be at 
rest, and the second 
and third in different 
parts of their oscilla- 
tion. Oand W repre- 
sent respectively por- 
tions of oil and water. 
but any other two li- 
quids of unequal speci- 
fic gravities which will 
remain separate, will 
answer the purpose 
equally well. The arcs 
described by the water 
being larger than those | 
described by the oil at / 
the same time that its 
specific gravity is great- 


* These experiments were repeated at the monthly meeting of the Franklin In- 
stitute, in May, 1834. 


86 Rotation of Liquids. 


er, it is obvious that its momentum must also be greater, and conse- 
quently that when an oscillation is completed, as all the bodies, viz. 
the glass vessel, the oil, and the water, are necessarily compelled to 
commence their descending motion at the same instant that, among 
them which has acquired the greatest momentum, must tend to con- 
tinue its previous course, while the others are tending in the reverse 
direction. Hence the water rises up on the sides of the vessel, 
whose motion it encounters, just as it would do if encountering any 
other obstacle. The lighter liquid, by taking the place of the heavier 
in that part of the vessel (at z,) which is opposite to the elevated 
point (y), allows the line zy to be much more inclined to the horizon 
than would be consistent with the condition of equilibrium if a single 
fluid were used. When a complete revolution is made by the jar, 
the positions of the two liquids in the higher part of the course must 
obviously depend on the relation of the force of gravity to the centri- 
fugal force occasioned by the revolution of the apparatus; if the 
former predominate, the liquids will change places in the vessel, 
otherwise not. Here is no departure from known laws. 

The second modification of the experiment mentioned, is that in 
which a jar or other vessel containing two (or more) liquids is caused 
to revolve horizontally on its axis. it this case the well known laws 
of equilibrium and motion require that the upper surface should be a 
concave paraboloid dependant on the form of the vessel and the quan- 
tity of liquid. ‘The experimenter, and probably many others have 
supposed that the surface of separation must also necessarily take 
the same concave form, and have formed their theories accordingly. 
He was therefore not a little surprised to find the latter varying with 
the nature of the liquids and the rapidity of rotation. Thus he found 
that employing a cylindrical jar, and placing oil at the bottom and 
alcohol above it, the rotation gave a concave surface of separation ac- 
cording to theory; while oil upon water revolving under’similar cir- 
cumstances gave a surface of separation. convex upward, which rose 
even to the upper surface forming the center of the latter, of water, 
and the periphery of oil. Placing equal quantities of spirits of tur- 
pentine in the one case upon oil, and in the other upon alcohol, 
(both these liquids having the same density,) the surface of separa- 
tion was, with the same velocity of revolution, concave in the former 
case, and convex in the latter. 

It is stated in the notice above referred to, that “ the chemical af- 
Jinity of the liquids is to be regarded as the cause of these apparent 


Rotation of Liquids. 87 


discrepancies, and that the experimenter is preparing with nice in- 
struments to determine the forms affected by liquids under various 
circumstances, and thence to derive a mechanical measure of chemical 
affinity.” We have therefore deemed it expedient to state, that the 
anomaly of the case is entirely due to the different degrees of adhe- 
siveness of the liquids which, while the velocity of the apparatus is 
increasing, causes the most adhesive, to take, almost immediately, 
the velocity of the jar, while the less adhesive substance is not so 
soon brought into a rapid rotary motion ; consequently, if the most 
adhesive liquid is placed at bottom, it will, by taking the velocity of 
the jar, possess the concave surface, and more so than the upper li- 
quid, while if the least adhesive substance be below, it will be longer 
in attaining the velocity ; and, consequently, the centrifugal force of 
the upper liquid being greatest, it will force itself downwards as well 
as upwards around the sides of the vessel, forming, so to speak, a 
* solid of revolution” like a double concave lens. If, however, the 
rotation be continued long enough to have the liquids both acquire 
the velocity of the apparatus, the anomaly will disappear so that the 
lower and less adhesive liquid will present a concave surface as well 
as the other. In bringing the jar suddenly to rest, the concavity of 
separation will continue after that of the upper surface has disap- 
peared. ‘The annexed figure represents a jar 
placed on a suitable base, and resting on a spin- 
dle furnished with a pulley for multiplying the 
speed. ‘The axis being vertical, if we fill the 
jar to ms with water, and then place upon this 
a quantity of oil rising to u s, these two lines will 
represent respectively the surface of separa- 
tion and the upper surface of the liquids when 
at rest. As the apparatus begins to revolve, 
the oil partaking almost immediately of the ve- 
locity of the jar, while the water obeying its 
inertia, and possessing less adhesiveness, allows 
the jar to move witha considerable relative ve- 
locity, and hence having less centrifugal force 
than the oil, the latter will not only rise above 
the line ws, but likewise sink below ms, as in- 
dicated in the shaded part of the figure. Such, 
however, will be the appearance no longer 
than till the apparatus has come to a uniform 


88 Theory of the Bellows. 


velocity, and the water has had time to attain that velocity ; then the 
surface of separation will be of the form o pq. 

“The explanation of the case of the turpentine, oil, and alcohol, is 
obvious. Spirits of turpentine have more adhesiveness than alcohol, 
and will consequently become soonest possessed of the velocity. of 
the apparatus, while it has less adhesiveness than oil, and the latter 
will rise up round the jar even more rapidly than the upper surface 
of the former. 

By adjusting balls of wax or aber solids, exactly to the specific 


gravity of each liquid, it is easy to observe the actual, as well as the 
relative velocity of each, and particularly to determine which con- 


tinues longest in motion after the jar has been brought to rest. M. 
Thayer has varied his experiments by using a rectangular instead of 
a cylindrical vessel ; but all such variations can only serve to com- 
plicate the effect, without adding any thing to our knowledge of the 
cause. In all this there is nothing new either in chemistry or hy- 
drostatics. 

The most direct use which seems likely to be made of this expe- 
riment, is to detect differences of adhesiveness between different li- 
quids and solids, for which it may furnish a very delicate test, 
wherever the liquids in question allow of being placed one upon the 
other. It may thus possibly connect itself with the important ques- 
tion of the advantage of different unguents in obviating friction. 


Arr. VI.—Theory of the Bellows ; by H. Srrarr. 


TO THE EDITOR. 


Dear Sir,—I here send you a communication on the true theory 
and practice of constructing, moving and using bellows; or, of ex- 
haustion and compression or condensation of air on the principle of ° 
a balance, which I have lately discovered, and which promises, in 
my estimation, to be a valuable and powerful acquisition to practical 
blowing, desiring you to give it an immediate publication, as I am 
now engaged in giving ita thorough experimental demonstration. I 
will now proceed to illustrate the principles of my theory of exhaus- 
tion and compression of air, by representation and description, first, 
of compression, then exhaustion, and conclude with some general re- 
marks on its advantages, &c. 


Theory of the Bellows. 89 


Compression Bellows. 


A represents a strong and firm box, 
four feet square, two of whose sides, 
a,b, are a foot deep each ; and its 
other two sides c, d, two feet deep at 
their center, and from thence taper- 
ing down, even with the sides a, b. 
L, M represent the bottom of this 
box, which is fastened air tight to the z 
tapering sides c, d, and the others a,b. This box, when construct- 
ed, will resemble an inverted roof with a small portion of the sides of 
the building attached thereto, and its bottom the ridge. In the two 
sides of the bottom L, M, are to be inserted two valves n, r, one in 
each, four inches by eight, which are to open upwards into this box, 
from ten to twenty degrees. ‘These valves n, r, must be hung as 
near to the sides a, 6, as they conveniently can. 0, 0, represent the 
sides of the valves n, r, hung to the bottom. A strong cover is now to 
be made that will exactly cover over the top of this box, or even more; 
and we must provide a strong strip of leather or some other very 
strong and flexible substance impervious to the air, four feet wide and 
nearly seventeen long, with its ends tightly sewed together, which is 
to be fastened air tight, first around the tops of the sides a, 6, c, d of 
the box A, and then around the sides of the cover. This will form 
the cistern into which the air is to be compressed or condensed, 
and from which it can be let out in any direction required, or with 
any velocity. Immediately under this cistern and directly under the 
valves n, 7 in its bottom, a strong board, one foot wide and four long, 
is to be exactly balanced across its ridge and hung by means of sta- 
ples, hinges, or otherwise, so as to move easily upwards and down- 
wards, and without wavering. On one end of this board, a handle 
to move it is to be attached, which can be of any length required. 
Holes are to be cut for valves, through each end of this board, of 
nearly the same size of those in the box A, and so as to be directly 
under'them. Valves are to be hung over these holes so as to open 
and move just the same as those in the bottom of the box A. This 
being done, the sides of this board and the box A, are to be connect- 
ed by some impervious and strong substance, such as leather, fitted on 
air tight, and so as to allow the balancing motion of the board. The 
box A or air cistern being now, in some way or other, made fast, so as 
to allow the free balancing of this board, all is ready for operation. 
The handle attached to the balancing board, being now moved or 

Vout. XXVII.—No. 1. 12 


90 Theory of the Bellows. 


raised and depressed powerfully, it will open and shut the valves, al- 
ternately, on each side of the ridge of the bottom of the box A, and con- 
sequently alternate partial vacuums will be formed, into which the ad- 
jacent. air will rush, and from which it will be forced into the air cis- 
tern, where it can be compressed to any degree. When the handle 
which is attached to one extremity of this valved and balancing board 
is raised, the valve between it and the ridge closes tight and forces all 
the air inside between the valves into the air cistern, through the 
valve over, which likewise opens upwards; while on the opposite 
side of the ridge, the valve in the air cistern closes tight to hold what 
air is in; and the valve below it opens to let air between the valves, 
which will be forced into the cistern, when the handle is brought 
down. The cistern of this compression bellows, especially if very 
large, instead of being filled full by the sole motion of this balancing 
board, may be nearly immediately filled, by having a staple clench- 
ed through the middle of its cover, and a rope attached to that, and 
then run over a fixed pulley, so that as fast as the cover is raised by 
pulling the rope, the cistern will fill, as all the valves will open up 
merely by the pressure of the atmosphere; and when itis thus filled, 
the balancing board can be moved so as to give the air drawn in, 
any pressure. Instead of having the bottom of the cistern roofed or 
ridged for the purpose of balancing the board across, it can be flat, 
and then the board must be bent at the balancing point, each way 
downward, or being hung immediately by its middle to the bottom of 
the cistern, its extremities must be gradually and sufficiently inclined 
to allow the balancing motion required, in order to force the gathered 
air into the cistern above. ‘The width and even length of this bal- 
ancing board can be varied to answer the dimensions and construc- 
tion of any cistern. The dimensions, shape and construction of 
bellows made on this principle of a balance are susceptible of a great 
variety of different modifications; those that I have given were for 
the purpose of easier illustration, not the best operation, as this can 
be determined only by extensive experiments. With regard to the 
operation of bellows on this principle, it is evident from reason and 
the extent of my experiments, that it will be easy, steady, and regu- 
lar, and susceptible of powerful exertion. Where a constant and 
very powerful blast is required, as in great furnaces and for casting 
and hammering, it will probably answer better than in common shops. 
On this principle there will be no loss of motion, and whether the 
handle is moved upwards or downwards, it will force the same quan- 


, Theory of the Bellows. OL 


tity of air into the cistern. To require less leather in the construc- 
tion of the cistern, and still have the blast longer and equally pow- 
erful ; its cover may be made so small that it will sink as far below 
the fixed top of the cistern, as when full it would be raised above : 
this to a certain degree would compensate for a larger sized cistern. 
To increase the pressure, the bottom of the cistern and its cover can 
be connected by strong spiral wires, while the blast through the pipe 
can be governed by a regulating screw, which can be made to close 
the whole aperture air tight, or any part. Having now described the 
compression bellows, I will proceed to Air Pump. 
describe the exhaustion or air pump bel- 
lows. A represents a cistern four feet 
square, made air tight, of firm timber, 
which is to have the air in the inside of 
it exhausted or drawn out. n, r repre- 
sent two strong light valves which are. 
to open out on the under side of the cistern, near to the sides a, 6. 
These valves must open but a little way. wu, u represent a strong 
board four feet long, two wide, and so bent in its middle, where it is 
movably and strongly hung to the bottom of the cistern A, directly 
under the valves n, r, so that by alternately raising and depressing - 
its handle A, it will close flat on the bottom. ‘Two valves ec, d, are 
to be hung in this board, immediately under those in the cistern, 
which are to open as far outwards, and then the sides of this board 
are to be fastened air-tight all around, by leather to the bottom of 
the cistern, so as to allow the balancing motion, by moving the han- 
dle h, upwards and downwards, and will exhaust as much by an up- 
ward as by a downward motion. ‘The operation of the valves in a 
compression bellows, is the reverse of those in the exhaustion ; the 
shape and dimensions are as variable. This balancing principle is 
applicable to water as well as air in compressing and exhausting it. 
The exhaustion bellows can be applied, with very little inconvenience, 
to exhaust cisterns or reservoirs of any shape or size. 


P. S. Since writing the above, I have tried the “ principle” there 
explained experimentally. The air cistern was conical, five feet at 
top, four and a half at bottom, in diameter, and two high. The cov- 
er was four feet in diameter, and made by means of leather to play 
up and down in the inside of the air cistern. ‘The balancing board 
or its two wings, which are hung angling together, and movably hung 


92 Application of the Principle of a Balance. 


to the flat bottom of the air cistern, was two feet wide, and four feet 
four inches long. The handle was four feet. The operation is very 
easy, and the blast very powerful and regular. The principle of 
motion is universally applicable to practice. Jt meets with the en- 


tire approbation of all that have seen it operate. 
Alps, Nassau, Rensselaer Co. N.Y. February 17th, 1834. 


Art. VII.— Application of the Principle of a Balance; byH. Starr. 


Tue principle of a balance, is a powerful one when ingeniously 
and judiciously applied to mechanics and the arts. Its applicability 
is universal. There are few if any machines, now in operation, 
that are not dependent upon this principle or to which it cannot be 
beneficially applied. Look at the numerous machines employed in the 
various manufactories of America and Europe: how diversified, how 
multiplied and how complex their operations; what a consumption 
of power is required to work or move them; what expense is incurred 
and how great is their performance; nevertheless, how few are the 
parts, and simple the motions, absolutely necessary to answer, if not 
overrun this performance. Indeed, what cannot man do, on the prin- 
ciple of a balance, and what can he do without it. With it, with 
liberty to exert his power, he might displace the world, and without 
it, how limited would be his influence in mechanics and the arts, and 
how small his accessions of power and profit derived from that source. 
I conclude my premises (as effects balance causes and causes, ef- 
fects) by suggesting, that some of the greatest discoveries yet to be 
developed to the world, may, in all probability, be founded on the 
powerful and universal principle of a balance, which pervades not on- 


ly mechanics and arts, but every part of the universe. 
Fig. 1. 
AY 


1. Application to Milking. 


Fig. 1, represents a machine for milking. 
AB, represent a light block, five inches © 
long, three wide, and an inch and a half thick. 
CD, represent a ruler-like piece of wood 
or metal, five inches long, one third of an inch 
thick and two thirds wide, perforated with 


: 


Application of the Principle of a Balance. 93 


holes at every sixth of an inch from end to end. This piece C D 
is to be firmly inserted and fastened at right angles in the mid- 
dle of the block AB. E F, ef, represent two similar, strong, 
light thin, boards, a little curved from their centre, each five inches 
long, three wide, and half or two thirds of an inch thick. H A, rep- 
resent the handles, which can be formed in connexion with the boards 
or attached separate. ‘The boards are to have each, one mortise 
cut through its middle of a sufficient size, for the easy and regular 
motion of the ruler-like piece CD. Holes are to be made at right 
angles through the centre of each of these mortises, correspond- 
ing with those in the piece C D, so that by means of small pins or 
screws, these boards EF, e f, can be movably hung nearer or far- 
‘ther from the block A B, as required. 0000, represent the spa- 
ces between the block A B, and boards E F, e f, which the teats are 
to occupy to be milked. The sides of the block A B, and the inner 
sides of the boards E F, e f, are to be lined with leather or some 
other soft substance, stuffed with cotton, &c. so as to be elastic and 
press easy against the teats and not injure them. ‘This lining should 
be harder and project farther, the nearer it comes to the upper sides 
of these boards and blocks; so that when the pressure is given, it 
will commence at the upper parts of the teats and gradually increase 
downwards, till all the milk is forced out. Instead of this stuffed 
lining, springs, spiral wires, or some other elastic substance may be 
used ; perhaps springs are best. To work this machine, it is to be 
supported by the hands by means of the handles H A, in such a po- 
sition, that the teats will hang down between the block and the boards 
at 0 00 O, two teats each side of the piece CD. Both handles are 
to be moved inwards and then outwards either fast or slow, so that 
the operation of milking can be performed or regulated at pleasure. 
When the handles are moved inwards, the two nearest teats to the milk- 
er will be milked ; when moved outwards, the two farthest and thus 
as the motions can be so quick, there will almost flow four streams, 
tll the operation is performed. Instead of communicating the press- 
ure on the outside, it may be applied on the inside by altering the 
construction a little. ‘This machine is applicable to other purposes 
allied to the operation of milking. The construction, dimensions, 
weight and quality of the materials are variable, but the principle of 
operation is the same.* 


* Having stated to the author some doubts as to this new process of milking, we 
have received his assurance that he has proved it practicable, and that he desires its 
publication.— Ed. 


94 Application of the Principle of a Balance. 


2. Application to Pumping. 


' Fig. 2 represents a balance suction or force- Fig: 2 
ing pump, for water or air, wherein there is no - 
loss of motion. W represents a body of air , 
or water. AB,aJb, represent two similar a 
hollow cylinders, whose lower ends are insert- 
ed perpendicularly, equidistant and parallel in 
the body W of air or water. P. represents a 
pivot, which firmly connects the top of the 
cylinders, and across which the balancing 
lever LJ is to be movably hung and poised. “( 
H represents the handle of the lever LJ. ! “ 
C c represent two similar piston-rods whose 
upper ends are movably hung to the lever at d d, and to whose low- 
er ends are attached either pistons or valves, as it is designed for a 
suction or forcing pump. D represents the pipes of both cylinders, 
united to convey off the air or water. It can be conveyed off sepa- 
rately. This is operated by an upward and downward motion of 
the handle H. Any equal number of pumps either suction or fore- 
ign, of equal dimensions, can by being connected on this principle 
of a balance, be worked or moved by one handle. This application 
is susceptible of numerous modifications. 


Tr 


> TAT ALANNAANT ANA acoA 


fs’ ANA 


3. Application of Churning. 


Fig. 2 will serve to illustrate its application to churning. A. B,a 
b, represent two churns; C c, their dashers or piston-rods; L J, the 
balancing lever; H its handle; P its pivot, which connects them the 
same as the cylinder A B,a6. It is worked by an upward and 
downward motion of the handle H. ‘This construction may be mod- 
ified into a forcing or piston churn, by having a communication at the 
bottom between them, to force the cream alternately from one into 
the other. Instead of two churns, one churn resembling those com- 
monly wrought by a crank, with a piston through the middle and an 
aperture through that, would answer the purpose. I am of the opin- 
ion, that in churning, the cream would gather sooner and form but- 
ter, by being powerfully forced alternately, through small apertures 
than by any other means, unless it be by adding some substance or com- 
position, that will immediately fetch it. Instead of the cream’s being 
forced from one churn into the other and backwards, constantly, a 
small wheel, full of holes, (the lids of the churns being made tight 
and fast,) might be attached to the lower end of each piston-rod or 


Application of the Principle of a Balance. 95 


dasher, and made to operate up and down, and answer the same 
purpose or a better than the former method. 


4. Application to Washing. 

Fig. 3 represents a washing- Fig. 3. 
ing machine. C represents 
the cistern, which can be lined 
with rollers on the two sides A 
D, to hold the water and the 
clothes, to be washed; three 
feet high and three wide; A 
BD E its frame ; P the pivot; = 
L J, the balance lever; H its 
handle; Ff, the rods on which 
the washers, beaters or rollers are hung; 0 0, represent a beater, &c. 
attached to its rod F or f. This machine is operated by the upward 
and downward motion of the handle H, and can be variously modified. 


5. Application to Fulling. 

Fig. 3 will serve to illustrate its application to a fulling mill or ma- 
chine. ‘There are two constructions to this application; a vertical 
and horizontal. Fig. 3 enlarged, * Fig. 4. 
will represent the vertical one. 
The horizontal one is nearly the 
same as the vertical, only that the 
lever and rods have a horizontal 
motion, and the cistern must be 
modified a little to answer it. In 
both constructions, the operating 
power is to be applied to the han- 
dle H. ) 


6. Application to an Aérostatic or 
Hydrostatic Press. 


Fig. 4 represents an aérostatic 
or air, or a hydrostatic or water Dj 
press 4 BC D, its frame; W the 
air or water cistern, which in shape 
resembles the segment of a hollow 
sphere or hemisphere ; T'a strong 
hollow cylinder inserted in, or at- 


C 
tached to the bottom of the cistern; Vn the follower, a strong bar, 
fitted to move up and down in the sides D B of the frame. To this 


96 Application of the Principle of a Balance. 


follower is attached the piston P p, which is exactly fitted to move 
up and down in the cylinder J'so as to prevent the escape of air or 
water. The pressure of this press is given between the follower Vn 
and the side of the frame C. E F, ef, represent two hollow pipes, 
whose lower ends are tightly inserted into the cistern W. Vv, two 
valves that exactly cover the lower ends of these pipes, and open suf- 
ficiently into the cistern. the pivot of the operating lever, which 
connects the top of the pipes. L/ the operating lever. 7 its han- 
dle. J, two rods that move up and down in the pipes, whose up-. 
per ends are movably hung to the lever L /, and to whose lower 
ends are attached wheels or pistons with valves in their centre, open- 
ing downwards, exactly fitted to move up and down, and not allow 
the escape of air or water. To give the pressure either by air or 
water, itis admitted into the top of the pipes, passes through the 
valves in the wheels and the valves Vv, until the cistern is full; the 
handle H is then to be worked, and the water or air will force down the 
piston P p, and consequently the follower Vn, and press whatever 
is between itand C. To take off the pressure, the air or water can © 
be let out of the cistern. Pistons might be used in the pipes. This 
press is susceptible of numerous modifications and applications. » 
7, Application to Printing. 

Fig. 5 represents a printing ma- 
chine. 4 represents an oblong table 
or frame, set full of types and balan- 
ced on its axle Ee, which supports 
it at aa, movably in two upright stan- 
dards. H represents the operating 
handle. Ma heavy or solid, oblong, 
triangular block, as wide and long as 
the table; over which it is to be firm- 
ly hung, so that one of its angles will SSS 
run parallel and laterally with its axle Ee. The two sides of the 
block M, immediately over the types, or against which they will press, 
when the handle H is operated, must be lined with some elastic sub- 
stance, in order to give a good impression. ‘The types are to be ink- 
ed by inking rollers, and the paper applied by hand or machinery. 
Instead of the table’s being movably hung and the block fixed, it may 
be reversed; the table fixed and block movably hung. Instead of 
the block being triangular and table flat, the block may be flat and 
the table triangular. Every motion of the handle H, either upwards 
or downwards will give an impression. 

East Nassau, Rensselaer Co., N. Y., April 28, 1834. 


Fig. 5. M 


Improvement of the Barometer. 97 


Art. VIII.—Improvement of the Barometer; by Cuas. F. Durant. 


TO PROF, SILLIMAN. 


Dear Sir—In the frequent use of the portable barometer, I have 
often experienced much inconvenience from air entering the tube, at 
times when, perhaps, great precision was necessary, not only for as- 
certaining the altitude, but likewise for weighing the atmosphere, 
which is sometimes intimately connected with other experiments, then 
under a course of investigation. 

Although one of the most simple in form, the barometer is proba- 
bly one of the most difficult instruments to construct. The frequent 
breaking of the tubes, while undergoing the great heat which is ne- 
cessary to exhaust the air, requires more patient care for this tedious 
process, than most men are able or willing to devote; and yet with- 
out this process, and that, well and effectually performed, the air must 
be diffused through the mercurial column, or escape to the top, where 
it destroys the vacuum, in which case the instrument is not suitable 
for the purposes intended, and does not deserve the name of barom- 
eter. The manufacturer who would allow such an instrument to 
pass from his hands to the world, is guilty of a great misdemeanor, 
and deserves the censure of all good men; for such imperfections, 
have prevented the barometer from attaining the rank which it de- 
serves in the estimation of the world. It is an insult to the memory 
of Torricelli, who will yet be ranked among the greatest benefactors 
to mankind. 

It is to be regretted, that so many imperfect or deranged instru- 
ments, are in use. It destroys all confidence in the barometer, and 
I know some persons, who deride its well known properties of pre- 
dicting winds, and even treat the idea as chimerical. But such men 
could not have possessed a perfect instrument, or have devoted a 
proper attention to the observations, as thousands can testify to its 
efficient warnings; when, by suitable and timely preparations for the 
predicted hurricane, property and lives have been saved from the 
devastating elements, which would otherwise have involved the whole 
in ruin. 

Although in the construction and repairing of my barometer, I 
was generally fortunate in clearing the tube entirely of air, yet in use, 
I think I never kept it one year in that perfect condition. This re- 
peated derangement and consequent expenditure of time, patience and 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 13 


98 Improvement of the Barometer. 


money, led me first to enquire the cause, which I soon learned, 
and then undertook to invent something which should effectually pre- 
vent the evil. I soon succeeded, even beyond my most sanguine 
expectations, so as even to render the instrument perfectly secure 
against all accidents, except breaking, to which all instruments are 
subject. With this security, I have not encumbered the barometer 
with any thing on the outside, but the whole is confined to the cis- 
tern, thereby retaining the instrument in the most portable form. 
The annexed engraving, represents a 
vertical half section of the barometer.— 
a, 6, c, and d, is the cistern two inches 
long and one inch in diameter. e and f 
is a glass tube, open at both ends, and let 
into the cistern above and below zero, 
which in the barometer, is always chang- 
ing its position. The original zero is 
marked on this tube at g, with decimal 
parts of the inch, extending above and 
below, to be deducted from or added to 
the height of the mercurial column, in 
the large tube. A is zero, which when 
made, on a level with the ocean, stood 2 
of an inch from the top of the cistern, 
which immerses the top of the globe 3 of 
an inch in mercury. The & of an inch 
between original zero and the top of the 
cistern, leaves sufficient space for the col- 
umn in high altitudes to fall; a’ circum- 
stance which has never been properly at- 
tended to, in constructing barometers ; 
although probably no other barometer 
will admit of so much space, without en- 
dangering the instrument. 2 is the end 
of the tube, with the column drawn to a 
small point, which answers precisely the 
same purpose as the contraction in Mr. Gay Lussac’s ‘ improved 
marine portable barometer.” But in this case, the contraction at the 
bottom of the tube, possesses other advantages than merely to pre- 
vent the sudden rise and fall of the mercury ; for by placing the con- 
traction at the bottom, we can draw the end of the tube to a small 


Improvement of the Barometer. 99 


point, which renders the column less liable to admit air, either from 
a concussion or inverting its position. 

This improvement, alone, I deemed of sufficient importance to jus- 
tify the construction of a new barometer, and was actually prosecu- 
ting it, when an idea of the globe suggested itself to me. 

In all the portable barometers that I have seen, the end of the 
tube is cut or broken off in a careless manner, which as often leaves 
it concave as convex, and it must be apparent to every one who will 
examine the subject, that bubbles of air striking the concave end of a 
straight tube, are more likely to enter the column than to roll off. 

k& is the globe, & of an inch in diameter, fixed firmly on the tube 
at 1, and has a very small aperture at m, the only place where the 
mercury inside can communicate with that in the cistern. The globe 
is of cast-steel, with which mercury is known to come in perfect con- 
tact ; consequently, the atmospheric pressure cannot force the air 
through this aperture nor through the bottom of the tube. By examin- 
ing this arrangement, you will perceive the impracticability of even 
forcing the atmosphere through the globe, much less the possibility of 
its being driven there by inverting and re-inverting the instrument, 
or by any jar or concussion which it may receive while in use or be- 
ing transported. 

Even admit air to be placed in the globe, it is apparent that it 
would find its way out by the aperture, one hundred times oftener 
than it could possibly enter the tube. 

n is the leather bag through which the atmosphere communicates 
its influence to the whole interior of the cistern and column. —Leath- 
er is the most in use, although there are other methods to admit the 
atmospheric pressure, in forms of the instrument, which are perhaps 
not so portable; although for general use, a short tube, with a stop- 
cock or plug inserted in the top of the cistern, is probably the best. 

o represents a screw-joint of the cistern, where it is separated 
while attaching the globe to the tube; for the tube being connected 
with the cistern at p, would render it impracticable to fasten the 
globe without this separation. I mention these minutie, because 
those who undertake to make a barometer on this plan, may other- 
wise be subject to the same perplexities which I experienced in the 
construction of mine. 

I did not succeed in obtaining a globe, until the third person made 
the attempt, and produced it from a solid piece of steel. If made in 
two parts, it would necessarily be joined with solder, on which the 
mercury would act too powerfully. 


100 Improvement of the Barometer. 


The screw-joint at o may appear simple and useless, but the want 
of it occasioned a delay of many days, and caused the breaking of 
several tubes, while trying to fasten the globe. The person em- 
ployed on this part, twice threatened to abandon the work as im- 
practicable, when fortunately the idea occurred to me of disconnect- 
ing the cistern in that part to afford ample space to work at p. 

q is the mercurial column, 2 of an inch in diameter, except the 

part inside of the cistern, which is diminished, in order to leave the 
more vacant space for the column to fall in high altitudes, and like- 
wise to lessen the large orifice in the globe through which the tube 
enters. ; 
Other proportions than those here given, may serve equally well 
to construct a barometer on this principle, but these are the dimen- 
sions of the one which I have now completed, and for distinction, 
will call. the Globe Portable Barometer. It has been inspected by 
several scientific gentlemen, who with my request, exposed it to all 
the causes which usually derange barometers, such as jaring, shaking, 
concussions, inverting and reinverting its positions, without causing 
the least perceptible derangement. | invite all who are so inclined, to 
call and see it; and to those who desire to make one, I will cheerful- 
ly give any information in my power, to aid them in its construc- 
tion. 

Since the invention of the barometer by Torricelli, many learned 
men have devoted their attention to the improvement of this valua- 
ble instrument, and among the most useful, is probably M. Gay Lus- 
sac’s “ Improved Marine Portable Barometer,” wherein, at a certain 
point, the column of mercury is contracted to prevent the sudden 
rise and fall of the mercury by the undulating motion of the ship, 
while the remainder of the column retains sufficient diameter to 
avoid a very sensible effect fram the temperature of the atmosphere. 
But this, as well as other forms of the barometer, whether secured 
by the screw and cushion pressing on the bottom, or by the stop- 
eock as employed by Mr. J. F’. Daniels, is liable, by sudden turn- 
ing or concussion, to admit air into the tube; for although the 
cushion and stop-cock renders the instrument portable, it never 
can be employed asa barometer, until the entire column is open 
from the hermetical seal to the cistern or atmosphere below. It 
is in this situation, (the only one of practical use,) that the instru- 
ment is deranged. First, by suddenly inverting and re-inverting 
the position, so that, (while passing from the bottom to the top of 


Improvement of the Barometer. 101 


the cistern,) the air strikes the end of the mercurial column, and 
must rise in the tube, because it is lighter. Secondly, by a con- 
cussion which it receives, every few minutes while in use, either 
from the motion of the ship, the carriage, the shrubbery on a moun- 
tain, or the unavoidable contact with the car and cords in a balloon; for 
by observing the mercury in a glass cistern, you will perceive that a 
concussion causes a motion like the sea waves, which mounting on 
one side, frequently leaves the end of the tube exposed to the atmos- 
phere, which here strikes the base of the column and rises in the 
tube by its comparative weight. Thirdly, it is asserted that the ba- 
rometer, in a course of years, will have accumulated air above the 
column, even if during all that time, it should have been suspended 
in a room, without any jar or concussion to communicate the least 
motion ; and the two most probable causes assigned are, first, that the 
air enters through the pores of the tube, and secondly, that mercury 
never comes into perfect contact with glass; the latter is the most 
probable cause, from which it is inferred, that the air in the cistern, 
is by the atmospheric pressure forced down, in extremely minute par- 
ticles between the mercury and tube, where it acquires the addition- 
al impetus of its own comparative specific gravity, and rises between 
the mercury and internal surface of the tube to the top of the col- 
umn. As a preventive to the latter derangement, it has been sug- 
gested, and I believe practiced by some, to fit closely on the bottom 
of the tube, a ring of platina or any other substance with which mer- 
cury comes in perfect contact, although without sufficient action to 
cause, for years, any perceptible diminution. 

From the important purposes to which the barometer is adapted, 
it may well be supposed to have enlisted the attention of the most 
scientific men in all countries, and indeed for some of its uses it is 
invaluable, and probably no instrument will ever be invented, with 
any proportion of its combined properties. For although by a 
number of instruments, we can weigh the atmospheric pressure, yet 
even if the instruments would give the precise weight, the time oc- 
cupied to obtain the result, would render useless the object for which 
the trial was made, as the wind or calm would have actually arrived 
which was predicted by the state of the atmosphere when the baro- 
metrical observation was made. 

A gentleman commanding one of the New York and Havre Pack- 
ets, for whose scientific knowledge I entertain a high regard, told 
me, “that when the ship was moving with much velocity, even the 


102 Improvement of the Barometer. 


barometer could not indicate the current of air,” for said he, “the 
ship will have moved beyond the influence of the wind, which was in- 
dicated when the barometrical observation was taken.”” ‘The remark 
is worthy of consideration, and the want of a due attention to it, is 
probably one of the causes which has aided to retard the more gen- 
eral use of this instrument among mariners. But by far the greatest 
cause which has prevented the universal use of the barometer, is the 
difficulty of procuring a good one, and the still greater difficulty of 
retaining it in perfect condition. It is not always easy to procure a 
workman competent to construct one, and when such a man is found, 
he is not able to devote that attention which is necessary to its adjust- 
ment and to the boiling of the mercury in the tube, lest he should not 
meet the views of his customers, who are in the habit of purchasing 
at too low a price. | 

We may measure mountains by observed angles, but those who 
have tried the various methods, give a decided preference to the ba- 
rometer, which, in some cases, is the only instrument by which we can 
ascertain their altitude. For, the cyanometer never can be used with 
accuracy, while sight differs with different men, or while coloring the 
matters for the blue tints, differ so much in consequence of the soil or 
matter which produce them, and are so subject to change by exposure 
to the various climates. In the account of his travels and philosophic 
researches, Baron Humboldt has, in many instances, given us the de- 
grees exhibited by the cyanometer, but for any satisfaction to the 
world or benefit to science, he may as well have spared himself that 
trouble. For allowing all men to see alike—who, on being told that 
the cyanometer exhibited 10 or 60, has any conception of the height ? 
—We have nothing to which we can refer for accurate comparison, 
either impressions on the brain or unalterable blue colors portrayed 
in cyanometrical form. 

Being at Paris in July 1828, I applied to some of the most re- 
putable philosophical instrument makers for a cyanometer, but not 
one of them had any knowledge of it, or even knew there was such an 
instrument. I then called on Messrs. Gay Lussac, Cuvier and Biot, 
for information respecting it. ‘The last named gentleman was ab- 
sent from the capitol, which deprived me of the pleasure and infor- 
mation I should have derived from a conversation with him. Mr. 
Gay Lussac told me, “ that he considered the instrument of very 
little utility, and that it was found only in the works of Mr. Saussure, 
a young gentleman of extensive scientific acquirements, who with an 


Improvement of the Barometer. 103 


inventive genius, combined an untiring zeal for knowledge. He travy- 
elled extensively, and it was during his passage over the Alps, where 
from the blue color of the heavens, an idea occurred to him of con- 
structing an instrument, with degrees and altitudes marked to each of 
the blue shades, which should correspond to those inthe heavens.” 
And, continued this sage philosopher, * Saussure is dead, and those 
only who have been at great heights, and retain a recollection of the 
color, are capable of making a cyanometer.” 

With the information I derived from him and my subsequent ex- 
perience of these colors, I constructed such an instrument; and after 
repeated trials, comparing it with the barometer, at various altitudes, 
I found it could not be relied on for accuracy. 

Many men who have devoted their attention to the subject, I be- 
lieve, are convinced that both the cold and darkness increase as we re- 
cede from the earth; and I have no hesitation in saying, that beyond 
the earth’s atmosphere, it is as much darker than night as any thing 
we can conceive; and although this darkness may increase in reg- 
ular progression from the earth, still from causes before related, I do 
not believe that any instrument can be found, as a substitute for the 
barometer, in measuring high altitudes. 

At my fifth ascent with a balloon, from New York, in May, 1833, 
I was compelled, in consequence of a high wind which prevailed, to 
unmoor without any philosophical instruments, except the cyanome- 
ter, which I had fortunately placed in my pocket book. From caus- 
es which were stated in the public journals, the balloon was ancon- 
trollable for some minutes, (a part of which time, it was ascending 
with nearly the rapidity of an arrow,) although immediately on leav- 
ing the earth, I opened the valve, which is near the top, and through 
which the gas would soon have escaped, but for the rapid upward 
motion, which caused so much resistance or pressure from the atmos- 
phere, as to retard the escape of the gas, until thirty or forty min- 
utes, when the aerostat was poised in air, and I had reached a great- 
er altitude than I have before or since attained. Here for the last 
time, I tried the cyanometer, which for any utility, I might as well 

have left below with the barometer. The heavens were many 
shades darker than the blue tints to which I had affixed an approxi- 
mate degree and altitude on my cyanometer, and so uncertain is 
sight, that when I had selected a corresponding shade on the cyan- 
ometer, in one instant the heavens would appear too light and the 
next moment too dark. I resolved then to abandon all further ex- 


104 Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 


periments, with an instrument which promised to be of so little use 5. 
and if it was not to confirm Mr. Gay Lussac’s remarks, and prove 
the superiority of the barometer, I should not have considered the ex- 
periments with the cyanometer worth communicating to the world. 

I am aware, that among scientific men, there is an unbelief of 
the fact, that intensity of darkness increases as we recede from the 
earth, but I do not consider it my duty here, to enter on a proof of 
the assertion, or attempt to explain the cause which produced it. I 
should infringe on your pages, with a work which I do not feel com- 
petent to perform, and will leave that for more able pens than mine. 
The world may expect to have soon, a rich intellectual treat on that 
subject, from a gentleman in Baltimore, whose scientific acquire- 
ments, added to his profound reasoning and lucid mind, I am satis- 
fied (from personal acquaintance,) render him in all respects, com- 
petent to perform the task. 

~My object in this communication, is to explain the principles of 
my improvement in the barometer, to point out its advantages over 
all others, and induce the world, through your widely circulating 
Journal, to use the globe in all cases where the instrument is requi- 
red to be portable.—If science can be improved, and mankind re- 
ceive a benefit from this effort, it will afford me much pleasure to 
have contributed a mite to so noble a cause. 

Jersey City, 28th July, 1834, 


Art. 1X.—Junction of Trap and Sandstone; Walling ford, Conn. 
By A. B. Cuapin, Esq. 


Tue geology of the township of Wallingford, affords little of in- 
terest to a superficial observer, the whole surface presenting low wa- 
ving ridges of sandstone, with occasional ridges and peaks of trap, 
(greenstone), and the whole mostly covered with a soil resulting 
from the disintegration of the sandstone, which is in many Pete a 
puddingstone. ny 

The dip of the strata, faiths some partial exceptions, is eastward at 
an angle of from ten to fifteen degrees; and the general course of 
the trap ridges from north tosouth. The following section, cutting 
Wallingford through the center from east to west, will give the rela- 
tive situation of the different rocks. 


Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 105 


Fig. 1. 


It appears from this sketch that there are seven dykes of trap cut- 
ting through the sandstone in this town, and such seems to be the 
case to a traveller passing through the town from Durham to Chesh- 
ire ; but of these seven only two are principal ranges, the remaining 
five being subordinate. The dyke at No. 1. fig. 1., is one of the 
principal ranges, being of itself a continuation of Mont Carmel range 
in Hamden. It enters Wallingford at the south west corner, pre- 
senting precipitous ledges on the south eastern side, runs northerly 
near the western boundary of the town, nearly, or quite its whole 
length, and is probably connected with the high ridges between Mer- 
iden and Southington, about four miles further north. The dykes 
cutting through at Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are probably ramifications of the 
one just described; but although 2, and 3, are upon the surface, - 
about thirty rods distant from each other, I am inclined to the opin- 
ion that they have a subterranean communication. 

The small dyke cutting through at No. 8, is seldom seen above 
the surface, nor does it seem to be directly connected with any of the 
other dykes. It makes its appearance at the summit and foot of a 
bluff about a mile south of the town, and also on the surface three or 
four times north east from the center, from a quarter to a half a mile. 
At the northern point it seems to turn east, and pass under the strata 
of sandstone, and a contiauation of this same, or some other dyke 
appears on the surface about three fourths of a mile ouward in the 
same direction, near Mr. Hill’s Manufactory. Of this, and the dyke 
last described at No. 4, I shall have occasion again to speak. 

The dyke at No. 9, enters Wallingford on the south side, from 
Northford, and running nearly parallel to the eastern boundary, reach- 
es more than two thirds the whole length of the town, and is possibly 
connected with the range farther east. 

The range at No. 11, extends the whole length of the town, pre- 
senting a high mural front on the Wallingford side through its whole 

Vor. XXVII.—No. 1. 14 


106 Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 


course, excepting only two passes through the ridge, which seem to 
have been designed expressly for roads, for which purpose they are 
used. 

This brief description will give the paaabe an idea of the general 
geological aspect of Wallingford. At No. 5, the turnpike leading 
from Hartford to New Haven passes, and at No. 6, is the bed of 
Quinipiac River. The first rise and plain east, is what properly now 
constitutes the river meadows. From the second rise eastward, are 
extensive sandy plains, the materials of which seem to have been 
originally primitive. At No. 7, is the town, commanding a view of 
the plains, meadows and highlands to the westward, at No. 12, runs 
Muddy River, and at No. 10, lies Paug Pond. 

The dyke of trap which emerges from beneath the sandstone near 
Mr. Hill’s Manufactory, with its course across the stream, is repne 


sented by fig. 2. 


Fig. 2. 
Surface view. 


a,road. 6, aqueduct. c,stream. d d, strata cropping out in high banks. 


Its first appearance is on the east side of the way; about eight 
feet in width, extending down to the bank of the pond, where it sud- 
denly turns south, running down stream about three feet, when it 
again turns east, and cuts across the valley and bed of the stream into 
the opposite bank. At the corner of the dam, where it makes its 
turn, the dyke is not more than three feet in width, and where it en- 
ters the opposite bank, it is scarcely one foot ; although in the inter- 
mediate space it is five or six feet wide. ‘There is a mass branch- 
ing out from the main dyke extending down the bed of the stream, 


Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 107 


but whether it is a dyke or an overlying mass, is not very easy to de- 
termine. Another mass similarly situated reaches from the main 
dyke at the west bank of the stream, and may be either a dyke, or 
superincumbent mass. ‘The sides of the dyke are irregular, not pre- 
senting the uniformity of width and fracture, which we should expect 
in a seam, arising, either from desiccation or refrigeration; but rather 
the appearances we should suppose would result from a violent disrup- 
tion of the strata. There are several small veins, ramifying from the 
principal dyke, when a fracture or breach in the sandstone offered 
a place for its introduction, presenting such appearances as would 
result from filling a shattered wall of huge brick with melted lava, 
affording, it would seem indubitable evidence of its igneous origin. 
The junction of the two rocks affords no less striking proof of the 
existence of an intense heat. The sandstone, at the junction of the 
two rocks, appears to have been fused, and although where the veins 
are extremely narrow, the sandstone is unchanged at the distance of 
an inch from the dyke, yet when the dyke stretches to a considera- 
ble width, the two rocks are so thorouglily incorporated, as to render 
it impossible to decide where one rock ends, and where the other 
begins; and although in the distance of two feet, one is a hard fine 
grained trap, and the other a coarse sandstone, the transition is so 
gradual as to defy the most accurate observations of the most expe- 
rienced observer to point out any precise line of demarcation be- 
tween them. 

Fragments of sandstone disengaged from the strata to which it for- 
merly belonged, are imbedded in the trap, and seem to have been 
most thoroughly baked ; are harder than sandstone in places opera- 
ted upon by the rains, frost, and atmosphere ; have lost, in many in- 
stances, much, and in some instances, most of the redness of color, 
and present the same fused edges, and gradual passage into trap, as 
do the edges of the strata before described. 

Another mass or fragment of sandstone torn from its original bed, 
and resting on trap, may be seen in ridge No. 9, fig. 1. on the road 
leading from Wallingford to Northford, about two miles south east 
from the center of the former place. The ridge of trap rises at an 
angle of about 70°, to the height of from fifty to sixty feet above the 
sandstone which appears at its base, and near the top of this ridge 
of trap, and surrounded by it on all sides except the front, lies a huge 
fragment of sandstone near twelve feet square. 


108 Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 


Other instances of the junction of sandstone and trap, with similar 
effects attending them, may be seen in the south-east part of Wal- 
lingford, near the Northford line, in the form of veins, dykes, over- 
lying masses and beds injected between the strata. 

The most interesting of all the places in Wallingford, on account 
of its geological structure, is to be seen on and near the road leading 
from this place to Cheshire, in that portion of country occupied by 
dyke No. 4, fig. 1. The trap here makes its appearance in two 
places near the bank of the Quinipiac river, between the turnpike 
and river, in steep though not high mural fronts, facing the water, 
branching out and crossing the turnpike in five distinct veins or dykes, 
as may be seen in figure 3. 


1,1. Road from New Haven to Hartford. 2. Tothe mills. 3,3. Road to Chesh- 
ire. .4. Road to Wallingford. 5. Quinnipiac. : 


This place may be readily found by any person travelling on the 
turnpike running from New Haven to Hartford, it being about two 
thirds of a mile north of Cook’s hotel, formerly the Bishop place, 
and on the first hill north of the same. Its first appearance on the 


Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 109 


turnpike, from the south, will be at (4), in the form of a small peak 
rising considerably above the adjacent country, with a dyke* at the 
south-east corner of its base, cutting across the road, and seen in the 
west bank of the same at (/), or in the side of the hill descending 
from the turnpike to the road on the bank of the river, where it ap- 
parently terminates the dyke. At (m) and (0) in the same bank of 
the turnpike, may he seen two other dykes, which, though covered 
with diluvium, except in the bank, judging from their direction and 
the form of the land, are evidently connected with the peak (A), 
and probably with the dyke (ab). From (6) two other dykes (c) 
and (2), branch off and pass up the side of the mountain, near the 
road leading to Cheshire. At (c) the trap is rudely columnar, and 
the columns considerably inclined eastward, or down the hill towards 
the road. The dyke (if) is probably connected with the dyke (c7) 
at the upper end, but this connection is inferred for the same cause 
and on the same ground as the connection of the dykes (mo). At 
(7) the dyke presents a mass of trap lying over and upon the sand- 
stone, the upper surface of which is extremely irregular. Figure 4 
presents a profile view of a section of this place. 


Fig. 4. 


At (d fig. 3,) in the north bank of the road, or rather in the bed 
of the ditch at the side of the same, may be seen a dyke cut- 
ting through the sandstone, evidently connected with the dyke 
(if), and probably with the peak (%). At (e) is another dyke cut- 
ting through in the same manner, connected at (p) fig. 3, with the 
ridge (c, a, 6,) fig. 5, and most likely with the peak (k). 


* We have seen most of the dykes described in this paper, and can bear testimo- 
ny tothe correctness of Mr. Chapin’s account.—£d. 


110 Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 


After leaving the dyke (e), Fi as 
fig. 3, passing up the hill, we — - 
cross dykes at (n, k,j, g, e WA 
and c), all of which are evi- 
dently but ramifications of a 
ridge, or large dyke running | 
north of the road and nearly 
parallel to it. | 

The distance from the ri- 
ver, fig. 3, to (c) fig. 5, is 
about seventy rods, and the 
distance between the dykes 
(6 and c) fig. 3, is about for- 
ty rods. The width of the 
different dykes is various 5 
(d) fig. 3, is about four feet ;| 
{e) about eight feet ; (n) fig. 
5, from one to two feet in 
different parts of its course ; 
(k) about three feet; (/) : 
about six feet; (fand e), in 
the north bank of the road; EZ y i 
from thirty to forty feet. : Ee b 

The two dykes (a and k) 1. Road to Cheshire. 2. Deepdell. 3. Brook. 
are connected on both sides 
of the road, completely surrounding the sandstone, and I think it more 
than probable that they unite at some distance below the surface, be- 
neath the sandstone, thereby separating the same from its original ; 
connection with the strata, and giving it the form of a large fragment of 
sandstone resting on and surrounded by 
trap, as in the two places already describ- 
ed. The dyke (77) is probably connected 
with the dyke (0,n, k), the evidence how- 
ever is only presumptive, but all the other 
connections marked on fig. 5, are appar- 
ent. At (c,d, e, f and g), are fragments 
of sandstone surrounded by trap. 

Of these fragments, (e) fig. 6, is a por- 
tion of sandstone stratum, about ten 


Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 111 


inches in thickness, and about three feet in width, standing nearly 
vertical in a bed of trap: (f) is a mass about three feet square, 
similarly situated : (c and d) are fragments of sandstone about three 
feet wide and two feet thick, surrounded on all sides by trap, 
except the front, where they may be seen in the bank of 
the road. A small stream of water crosses the road between (e 
and d), and descends the hill in the direction (/, m) into a deep dell 
or valley which commences a few rods west of that place, and ex- 
tends down by the side of the Cheshire road, and within a few rods 
of it, until it approaches near the turnpike, when it suddenly turns 
south, and passing the peak (4), spreads out into a plain in the river 
meadow. The bed of this brook from (/) to the bottom of the val- 
ley, may be seen from figure 7, and a profile section of the same, 


figure 8. 
Fig. 7. 


Surface View. 


BRING! 


ii 


i 


Fig. 8. 
Profile View. 


om 


EI 


Ah 


y 


| 
ih 


7 


1 hi } 


Se > SPST % 


Rise 32 feet. Distance 74 feet. 


The same appearances are presented in all these dykes at their 
junction, as in the one at Mr. Hill’s manufactory, and the change 


112 Junction of Trap and Sandstone. 


wrought upon the sandstone, seems to have been in exact proportion 
to the mass of trap with which it is in contact. 

From (p) fig. 3, to (r) there is a steep precipice fronting east- 
ward, evidently the termination of a large dyke which lies beneath 
the surface. East of this, the dip of the sandstone is considerably 
greater than in the other parts of the town, being in some places in- 
clined at an angle of from 25° to 30°. South of the dyke, supposed 
to run north of, and parallel with the Cheshire road, the inclination . 
of the sandstone is less to the east, but it appears to have an addi- 
tional dip to the south. ‘This dip, though inconsiderable, is suffi- 
cient to show that the disturbing cause did not uniformly act in par- 
allel lines, and it is not impossible but the sandstone may have been 
fractured, both in the lines (pr) fig. 3, and (0 p), fig. 5, by the force 
which elevated it; on which supposition, a small diagonal fracture 
in the direction (p &) fig. 8, would cause the sandstone south of 
(b p) fig. 5, to dip gently to the south. It should be mentioned that 
there is no visible connection between the sandstone lying on the 
Cheshire road, and that south of the dell through which the brook I 
have described flows, until we pass west of the point (c), fig. 5: but 
that the sandstone at (m) fig. 5. retains the ordinary dip to the east, 
as if it had been undisturbed by the commotion that rent its nearest 
neighbor north. 

The supposition of such a force, fracturing the sandstone in two 
directions, accounts satisfactorily for the existence of those numerous 
rents and fissures in the sandstone, now occupied by trap, in the 
form of veins and dykes. 

.It is not my intention to go into an inquiry concerning the origin 
of the trappean family of rocks; and I will only remark, that the 
appearances presented by the sections I have attempted to describe, 
in my opinion, and m the opinion of others who have visited those 
places, whether men of science or not, carry as convincing evidence 
of the former action of fire, as does the fine coal and ashes left in the 
bed of a pit of charcoal. ‘To the sections already described, I will 
add one more, about a mile south-west from the Cheshire road, 
where the sandstone, at its junction with the trap, has been fused, and 
both sandstone and trap are vesicular. ‘To a knowledge of this last 
section, and for some suggestions concerning the others, I am indebt- 
ed to the kindness, scientific knowledge, and extensive acquaintance 
with the geological structure of this region, of my friend F’. Cook, 


M. D. of this place. 
Wallingford, July 21, 1834. 


Effect of an Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. 113 


Art. X.—Observations on the disturbance in the direction of the 
Horizontal Needle.—1. During the Aurora Borealis, visible at 
Philadelphia, on the 17th of May, 1833; 2. During that of Ju- 
ly 10, 1833; by A. D. Bacue, Professor of Natural Philosophy 
and Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. 


1. Aurora or May 17, 1833. 


_ Communicated to the committee of publications of the Franklin Institute. 


Gentlemen—Circumstances having prevented me from witnessing 
more than a very small part of the unusually brilliant aurora which 
was visible on the evening of the 17th of May last, I am indebted for 
the following description of it to my friend J. P. Espy, Esq., who 
has kindly furnished it to me from his journal. 

“On the 17th of May, 1833, the temperature of the air being 68°, 
‘and the dew point 669, a brilliant aurora appeared in the north, about 
twenty or thirty degrees above the horizon, and extending about thir- 
ty or forty degrees on each side of the north point. 

“J first saw it a few minutes after nine o’clock, when it was bright- 
er than it appeared afterwards. Streamers, not in motion, were dis- 
tinctly visible, rising from a dense light below, which seemed to rest - 
on dark clouds underneath, reaching the horizon. All the rest of the 
sky was clear, and had been so all the afternoon. In a few minutes 
the streamers disappeared, clouds, which suddenly formed, seeming 
to take their places, the northern lights still appearing nearly the 
same, only interrupted in part by a greater number of clouds. I con- 
tinued to observe the aurora with intervals of but few minutes, and 
at nearly ten o’clock I discovered that a very brilliant arch had been 
formed, passing through the zenith, and terminated by the horizon, 
about twenty degrees south of east, and the same number north of 
west. 

“This arch was much denser, brighter, and narrower, near the 
horizon than in the zenith. It passed gradually towards the south, 
and disappeared, at twenty minutes past ten, about eleven degrees 
south of Lyra. ‘The clouds, at the time of the disappearance, were 
rapidly forming north of the arch, all the south being yet clear; in 
fifteen minutes afterwards the whole sky was overcast, and the 
light in the north was hardly visible through the clouds. The air had 
been coming from the north in the morning, and had changed round 
by the west, and at the time of the occurrence of the arch it is be- 


Vou. XXVIT.—No. 1. 15 


114 Effect of an Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. 


lieved was nearly south west; below, the direction of the clouds w was 
not observed. 

“The dew point had risen, since the preceding day, twelve de- 
grees Fah. It is highly probable that an upper current (not the up- 
permost) of air, was moving in the direction in which the arch moved, 
as the air had been moving in that direction a few hours before, and 
I have frequently observed, when the wind changes, the lower strata 
next the earth change first. From the 10th until the afternoon of 
the 15th of May, the wind had constantly been by night and day, al- 
most exactly south, with a high dew point, carrying an immense quan- 
tity of vapor to the north; on the evening of the 15th, and until the 
night of the 16th, the wind was NE. with rain, and on the morning 
of the 17th the wind was north.” ; 

On returning home at eleven o’clock, on the evening just referred 
to, and observing the different magnetic needles which 1 have arrang- 
ed for observations on the diurnal variation, a considerable disturb- 
ance was indicated. The journal of the hourly observations,. kept 
during my absence in the evening, confirmed my opinion that what I 
had witnessed was but a part of he disturbance which had actually 
taken place, and which seems to have affected the horizontal needle 
especially. 

The needles to which I have referred are three in Taunt two 
long horizontal needles, of which one is within doors, and the other* is 
under cover in the yard attached to my residence, and a long dipping 
needle with a knife edge suspension, contained in a small observato- 
ry, constructed for the purpose, and also in the yard of my dwelling 
house. The observations of the horizontal needle, within doors, 
were made very regularly, and also of the dipping needle out of doors, 
but the observer not being aware of the appearance of the aurora, 
did not take the corresponding hourly observations of the horizontal 
needle out of doors, throughout the whole of the evening. 

In order to convey a better idea of the variation on the evening in 
question, I precede the observations by those made on the following 
day and night, on which the changes of variation and dip were nearly 
the regular mean diurnal changes at this time of the year. The va- 
riation is referred to the mean variation for the day, or to a point near- 
ly corresponding to this, the sign + being prefixed to the positions 
west of this line of mean variation, and the sign — to those east of 


* A complete description of this needle is given in a paper read before the Ameri- 
ican Philosophical Society, in November last, and which will appear in the first part 
of the fifth volume of their transactions. 


Effect of an Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. 115 


the same line. The height of the thermometers contained in the 
boxes with the needles is given. 


Horizontal Needles. Dipping needle 
a eevle f eeele. |. 5 | @ | 
oe a ea i ae ee 
£ | secs! s2203| 3 | 22 
8 | 2 3\2e Ze a: = g8 Weather. 
ja |e ie | 8 |e 
& |Minutes. \Fab.Minutes.;Fah.! , , | Fah.° 
a.m. 84| — 7.5 0.0 |72°\71 40)71.4 |Cloudy 
9’ | —16.5/70°| 0.0 |73 | 36/72.5 Do. 
104) — 7.5172 | —1.5 |73 | 36'72.5 Do. 
11.| — 4.5174 | —3.0 |74 |« nh Do. 
12 |+ 0.5|74 0.0 |74 |“ 36!75.3 Do. 
p.m. 1 | +13.5|77 0.0 |74 | 33:78.1 |Sun out occasionly, 
94| +12.5\92 | +3.0 |75 | 30!82.1. 
8 | +15.0/83 | +3.0 |'75 52.6 Sun out. Clear. 
43) +13.5'82 | +3.0 |76 A 42/83.8 |Clear. 
54] + 6.0|/82 | —1.5 |76 |“ 42/82.6 Do. 
6 }/+ 1.5/81 | —3.0 e * 48/81.5 | Do. 
7 |— 4.5/79 | —3.0.|75 | 51179.3 | Do 
8 | 0.0 |75 |** 45/75.9 |Light fleeces. (Cirrus.)| _ 
94) —10.5)76 0.0 174 | * 48!74.8 
104; —10.5|74 0.0 |74 | 48/74. 8 
11 | — 3.5/74 6 42174.0 Clear. 


From the table just given it appears that on the 18th of May, the 
westerly variation, as shown by the horizontal needle out of doors, had 
two distinct points of minimum, the former at 9 A. M., and the latter 
between 94 and 103 P. M., and two points of maximum, the first at 
3 P.M., and the second at some period, not ascertained, after 11 
P.M. The same variation shown by the needle within doors, had 
its minima at 11 A. M., and from 6 to 7 P. M., its maxima between 
24 and 44 P.M., and at some hour of the night which was not as- 
certained. The temperatures of the two needles being very differ- 
ent, the effect of changes of temperature should be ascertained, to 
render the results strictly comparable ; a remark which suggests the 
object, in part, of the observations upon these two needles, so differ- 
ently situated. 

In the dip we find a minimum at 24 P. M., as the only point very 
decidedly marked: there is an apparent maximum at 7, which the 


* As this needle was intended for differential results, the dip here recorded is not 
to be supposed the true dip for this place. 


116 Effect of an Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. 


subsequent observations seem to indicate to have been the result of 
causes foreign to those producing the regular diurnal changes of dip. 
The observed changes for this day, just given, are not entirely 
regular, and should be considered, of course, in the light of particu-. 
lar results affording merely a term of comparison, which is sufficient- 
ly accurate for the purpose in view. 
T now give a table of some of the observations for May 17th, with 
a column of remarks, the portion of which relating to the aurora is 
drawn from the description by Mr. Espy, already given. | 


Horizontal Weedles. Dipping mapas 
EF} 68 jeg) Ss las) & 8S 
r= RAS ITS) 20 a ue 8 3 Remarks. 
Seduumneelee lets +a ls 
Ala a Sieve ea (SS call als veel = (8 
3 © TGs |p Sees Ghai 
t¢ |Minutes. 'Fah.|Minutes. |Fah.| . — ; |Fah.° eee 
A.M. 84! — 1.5/60°} —9.0/70°|71 33)/59.6 |Cloudy. 
11 | —1.0'704| Sun out. 
p.m. 1 +7.0'71 
3 +7.0'72 | 1274.8 |Cloudy. 
4 |+15.0/67 | +7.0'72 | (9/75.9 |Sun out. 
5 |+ 1.5)77 +5.5:72 | 18'75.9 |Clear. 
73  §36/73.4 
84 —3.0/72 |‘ 30/71.9 
( Aurora bright; stream- 
9 —1.5|'72 | « 34/71.4 4 Oe eee 
Af | pears 10, 20m. 
Ai | —13.5)72 | 30)70.3 |Sky overcast. 
an il. 5\68 i008 ice stratus. 


By comparing the fourth column of this table with the correspond- 
ing column of the first table, we find throughout the day a general 
accordance in the relative positions of the needle; a minimum of wes- 
terly variation at about 8 A. M., a maximum between | P.M. and 
4 P.M.; a second minimum about 8 P. M., a tendency towards a 
second maximum, which was interrupted by the aurora. There 
does not appear to have been any marked change from 8$ P. M. to 
9; so that the first part of the phenomenon does not seem to have 
affected the variation. Observations are wanting to show when the 
effect began to be felt, and when it was at the greatest, and the near 
coincidence of the observation at half past ten, with the time of the 
disappearance of the arch, must, of course, be regarded as acciden- 


Effect of an Aurora Borealis on the Magnetic Needle. 117 


tal. In the interval of an hour and a half, between 9 and 104 P.M., 
the needle had moved to the eastward 12’, or one-fifth of a degree ; 
and the observations during the early part of the phenomena tend to 
show, if they do not prove, that this motion took place in the latter 
part of the interval, the mean hourly rate of motion, as shown by the 
observations at 8$ and 9 P. M., being only three minutes. I regret 
that the observations were not more regular; but as no particular in- 
terest attached to the evening, the observer, as I have already stated, 
not being aware of the presence of the aurora, I considered myself 
fortunate in the frequency of those observations which were made ; 
this being a part of the evening in which, usually, there is nothing to 
require regular observations, being the interval between the evening 
minimum and the night maximum. 

The observations on the horizontal needle out of doors do not con- 
tradict any of the remarks just made, and they show further that at 
11 P..M., forty minutes after the disappearance of the arch, the ef- 
fect on the needle was still strongly marked; the westerly variation 
at 11 P.M., having been ten minutes less than on the same hour of 
the next succeeding evening. ‘The-very rapid formation and dis- 
appearance of clouds during the evening, and the low stratus which 
formed about 11 o’clock, would all, in ordinary cases, have produced - 
slightly marked changes in the variation, but nothing of the character 
of those noted in the table. The temperature having remained sta- 
tionary, within doors, during the evening, no part of the changes in 
the position of the horizontal needle noted in the third column, were 
‘due to variations of temperature. The results, in the absence of cor- 
rection for these changes, are therefore the more valuable. 

The dip, recorded in the sixth column of the table last given, has 
its minimum at 4 P.M.; a rise then begins, which is so very irregu- 
Jar as not to permit any inference from it; diminishing between 74 
and 84 P.M., it increases between 84 and 9, decreases between 9 
and 103, and subsequently increases to 11 o’clock. These changes 
do not seem to attach to the different phases of the aurora, and are 
‘not more considerable than ordinary meteorological phenomena 
would produce, such, for example, as are recorded in the first table. 

My aim having been merely to establish that a decided disturbance 
of the horizontal needle took place during the aurora of the 17th, I 
have not thought it necessary to apply the corrections for the tem- 
perature of the needles, which the successful establishment of the 
changes in diurnal variation will require. 


118 Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 


2, Aurora or Jury 10, 1833. 


(WITH A COPPERPLATE.) 


In the number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute for July last, 
I gave an account of a disturbance in the direction of the horizontal 
needle, during the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis, on the 17th 
of May. On the occasion of the brilliant aurora of the 10th of July, 
I had a remarkably favorable opportunity of observing a similar dis- 
turbance, and as the subject is one which is considered to require 
further observations for its elucidation, I send you an account of those 
made on the evening referred to. 

The needles with which the observations were made, are the same 
which were referred to in my note of observations made in May. 
Their places had remained unchanged from that time ; the horizontal 
needle out of doors, under a small wooden enclosure; the horizontal 
needle within doors on a table-placed against a partition wall in my 
study ; the dipping needle out of doors in a small observatory con- 
structed entirely of wood, copper, and brass. ‘The needles out of 
doors have only the local attraction unavoidably incident to a city lo- 
cation ; that within doors has, of course, an irregular and more con- 
siderable attraction to affect it. ‘The latter needle is exposed to very 
slight variations of temperature. ‘These particulars are probably suf- 
ficient for the present purpose. 

I first saw the aurora on the evening of the tenth of July, at three- 
quarters past nine o’clock ; it appeared then as a low nebulous light, 
resting upon dark clouds, and interspersed by them, but was not 
sufficiently brilliant to make me entirely certain that it was an au- 
rora: the test afforded by the magnetic needle shows that the phe- 
nomenon began before this time, and the attention of my observer had 
been so far drawn towards the sudden diminution of variation at nine 
o’clock, that an inaccuracy in the observation was suspected, and the 
needle recurred to, at five minutes past nine, to verify the result be- 
fore obtained. At ten o’clock, the light in the north was more dis- 
tinct, extending upwards, nearly 30° from the horizon. At this time 
I began a systematic set of observations, which were continued until 
one o’clock on the morning of the 11th. By going a short distance 
from my dwelling to the east, I have a tolerably good view of the north 
eastern portion of the horizon; by going a greater distance to the 


Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 119 


west, a complete view of the north western portion, and from the top 
of my dwelling a tolerable field of view to the north. 

At ten minutes past ten the light of the aurora was as brilliant as at 
the observation at ten o’clock, the brightest portion extending from 
20° to 30° east of the north point, and the diffused light extend- 
ing at least 60° from the north towards the west. The upper limit 
of the light was a waving line declining rapidly in the eastern por- 
tion, and more slowly in the western part. The substratum of black 
clouds (cumulo stratus) from behind which the aurora appeared to 
emerge, and which atten o’clock extended about eight degrees above 
the horizon, had risen, and a number of small and very black clouds 
(cumulus) appeared, intercepting portions of the light. At fifty min- 
utes past ten, the waving line, forming the top of the nebulous light, 
had become more regular, its elevation not being, in any part, more 
than 12° above the horizon, its extent being about 100°. The floating 
hill-clouds (cumulus) had elongated, diminishing in number, but in- 
creasing in size. [supposed the phenomenon to be passing off, when 
just before twelve o’clock commenced the most brilliant display which 
I remember to have seen. At twelve, the nebulous light had risen 
in an irregular line nearly 40° above the horizon; and to the west- 
ward of north, apparently emerging from behind the luminous cloud, - 
were diverging beams of light, more brilliant than the body of the au- 
rora, varying constantly in the degree of brightness, and in extent. 
The appearance at within a few minutes of the time mentioned, I 
have attempted to represent in the annexed figure, (Fig. 2, plate I.) 
When I speak of the beams being diverging, I mean, of course, that 
they appeared to diverge ; the point of divergence was below the hori- 
zon, but its position I could not, at any time, determine to my satis- 
faction. The phenomenon resembled, in form, the beams sometimes 
seen in the eastern part of the sky when the sun is setting, and which 
appear to proceed from a point below the eastern horizon, except that 
these beams were of a beautiful light, apparently streaming from be- 
hind a cloud of light. There was at this time no dark cloud visible 
to the north. 

Of the beams which I have endeavored to describe, those nearest 
the north faded first, and new ones sprang up further to the west of 
north, much exceeding in apparent breadth those seen near the north. 
Small black cumulus and cumulo stratus were scattered through the 
cloud of light. At eight minutes past twelve, four beams were visi- 
ble, the broadest being furthest to the west; the last beam died away 


120 Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 


at twenty five minutes past twelve, vanishing, after appearing to move 
westward, about 60° west of north, ‘The general light to the north 
was still bright, and at half past twelve the most luminous point was 
about 15° west of north. At one o’clock, the aurora had almost 
ceased, there being still a feeble and diffuse light to the north. A 
dark cloud (cumulo stratus) occupied a portion of the horizon, hav- 
ing above it two smaller clouds of the same description ; in the inter- 
vals between these clouds, and to the eastward of the one in the hor- 
izon, the feeble light was seen. 

In the following table of observations on the magnetic needle, the 
results which belong to the horizontal needle are referred to the same 
point, as a zero, to which those in May were referred; this point is 
not the mean of the days immediately, preceding and succeeding the 
tenth of July, but a reference to it renders the results of the pres- 
ent series immediately comparable with that for May. In the obser- 
vation of the dipping needle, I have been perplexed by a defect, of 
which this is not the place to give an account, but which it is neces- 
sary for me to allude to, as explaining why the observations of that 
needle, made prior to half past ten P. M., are not given: those which 
are set down, I have referred to the first observation recorded, as a 
‘gero; as differential results, I believe them to, be worthy of confi- 
dence, although not in the same degree with the corresponding ones 
for the horizontal needle. The differences marked + correspond 
to an increase of dip, and those marked — to a decrease. In the 
column of remarks the different phases of the aurora are briefly re- 
ferred to. | | 


Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 121 


3 . Horizontal needle. Dip. needle. 
2 sz | S| sgsi_2! 6 S 
é 334/82 3a (ee Z zs Remarks. 
2 | #28(gal s82\(38| = | 32 
o o/s So om S i = 
EI =P OF ho ns al Al BO 
Hrs. |Min.| Mins. |Fah.| Mins. |Fah.) Mins. | Fah 
mare) EF Seka rote ae 
a.m. 8} 30)— 1.8/62° 
9 eS ONEAO Wind N. W. 
oi . |— 5.0174 |-+. 1.0'%5 
12 78 |+ 2.0/75 
p.M. 1] 15/+ 1.5/81 |+ 3.0/76 
3) J+ 4.5184 |4+ 4.5176 
4 + 3.0/83 
5} |+ 1.580 |+ 4.5/76 
6| |+ 3.0/78 |+ 6.0/75 
9} |—24.5/70 |+ 3.0|72 
et — 2.5)/72 
10) |—27.0/671|— 9.5)71 Clear. 
“ 20| — 28.567 |— 9.5)71 66.3|Aurora bright. 
ie bright, antenie a- 
«| 30/—29.0167 |— 9.5171 14+6.5/66.31) poe cage em 12° to 
15° in height, at the} . 
i highest point. 
s! 40] —28.5 662 — 9.5\71 !+5.0/66.0)Dark cumulo stratus to N- 
Avreraeied 
66 pe i jee a 4 ind vari a 
50) —24.5/662 da +2.0)65.5 jie nin’ Variable 
Aurora 5° to 6° high, 
11} |—18.066 |— 8.071 |40.5|65.2 j Mt ep ten 
ose 1 have changed 
since last observation. 
«| 10|—12.5|651|— 6.0/71 |—2.5|65.0)} free arog hours 
| 30|— 9.5/653|— 4.5)71 |+0.5/64,8/Aurora faint as at 93 hrs. 
12 —25.5\65 |— 6.0)/70 ;+2.0/64.4/See fig. 2, Plate 1. 
Jul 11| 
Am 12 8]—21.0/643/— 6.0\/70 | —5.5|64.2/Beams move to W. of N. 
“| 20/—10.0|64:|— 4.5] |—0.5/63.8 ; 
4 Last beam dies away at 
- [ 12n. 25m. 60° W. o 
30|— 9.5)643|— 2.5] |+2.0/63.8/. N.: the N, still bright; 
| | brightest spot 15° W o 
N. 
[Aurora nearly gone; the 
‘(teh light still appears to the 
hi | - soca — 1.5 —5.5|63.2|+ north where the clouds 
| | Lare drawn up. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 16 


122 Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 


In examining the column of this table which contains the observa- 
tions on the horizontal needle out of doors, there appears a remark- 
able decline of westerly variation, a movement of the north pole of 
the needle to the east, at some time between the hours of six and nine, 
P.M. This variation goes on diminishing until between thirty and 
forty minutes past ten, after which, with the diminished brilliancy of 
the aurora, the north pole of the needle begins to move westward. 
This motion was so regular, and its correspondence with the decrease 
of the brightness in the northern light so complete, that I supposed 
the phenomenon about to cease, and left my station on top of the house 
to examine the record of observations already made. On observing 
at twelve o’clock, I found to my surprise, that the north pole of the 
needle had again moved eastward, as shown in the table, and on 
passing rapidly into the street, the beautiful beams of which I have 
spoken were seen: this sight I might have missed, having supposed 
the aurora to be disappearing, but for the warning given by the nee- 
dle. It is not improbable, from the general course of the phenome- 
non, as already described, that the beams which I saw first to the 
west of north, were not the first which had appeared, and that others 
which preceded them may have been to the east of that point. The 
variation did not reach as low a point during the brilliant part of the 
phenomenon as during the former part, the observation at half past 
ten giving a variation less by 34 minutes than that for twelve o’clock 5 
it is possible, however, that the second minimum occurred between 
half past eleven and twelve o’clock. At one o’clock the disturb- 
ance of the variation had not ceased, although it had become com- 
paratively trifling, and the northern light had not entirely disappear- 
ed. This I have reason to believe was the last part of the phenom- 
enon. 

In order to present the results just stated in a form which addresses 
itself more readily to the eye, I have traced (fig. 1, plate I,) a bro- 
ken line, in which the intervals between the vertical lines represent 
the intervals between the times of observation, and those between 
the horizontal lines the differences of variation. In other words, 
the abscisse of the line correspond to the times of observation, and 
the ordinates to the amount of variation. From this figure it is at 
once observable that the westerly variation increased irregularly from 
84, A.M. until 3 P. M., when it attained a maximum; that the de- 
crease from this maximum was also irregular, and very rapid between 
six and nine, P. M.: this includes a portion of the time of the ovcur- 


Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 123 


rence of the aurora, and the striking irregularities, which follow, in 
the broken line, represent those of the phases of the aurora; the 
second minimum, at, or before, twelve o’clock, corresponding to the 
time of the occurrence of the diverging beams. 

Recurring to the table, to trace the changes of variation in the 
needle within doors, we find it after nine P. M. sluggishly following 
the changes of the needle out of doors, the north pole moving three 
minutes of a degree to the westward between six and nine, P. M., 
while the same pole of the needle without doors moved over 27.5 
minutes: suddenly obeying the force which had already moved the 
needle without doors, the variation diminishes 5.5’ of a degree in five 
minutes; between nine and ten, P. M. the diminution amounting 
to 12.5’, while that of the needle without, was but 2.5’. At this 
point the needle within is stationary until after a decided impression 
has been made upon the other needle, of which the variation began 
again to increase. This increase is observable from forty minutes 
past ten until half past eleven, between which observation and that at 
twelve, the variation of the needle within doors has disminished 1.5’, 
and that without doors 16’. It should be observed that while this 
needle regained at twelve o’clock the place which it had at half past 
eleven, the one out of doors passed the corresponding point to the. 
eastward, and was further to the east than at fifty minutes past ten. 
The correspondence in the motion of the two needles, in any of the 
intervals between two consecutive observations, although a general 
one as to direction, is by no means the same in relative amount. 

It cannot fail to strike any one who attentively examines the fore- 
going table, or the line traced to represent the results, that the great 
changes in variation, the motions of the north pole of the needle to 
the east or to the west, take place rapidly at the beginning of changes 
in the phenomenon, and that the needle moves but slightly during 
the continuance of the same class, and degree of brilliancy, of appear- 
ances. The beautiful connexion which seems thus to be shadowed 
out between the effects of electricity in motion, as recently developed 
by the researches of Faraday, and these observed effects, is too ob- 
vious not to strike the mind even of one more intent upon recording 
facts than of hazarding speculations. 

The results of observations upon the dip recorded in the sixth col- 
umn of the foregoing table, are not altogether regular. Between 
ten, P. M. of the 10th, and one, A. M., of the 11th, there is a de- 
crease to a minimum, which is sufficiently regular, a subsequent in- 


vag 


124 Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 


crease followed by a very sudden decrease, and a second increase, 
which is followed by as sudden a diminution. With such irregulari- 
ties before one, it would be ill judged to attempt any conclusion from 
the apparently regular portions of the changes in dip: further obser- 
vations may throw light upon the causes of the discrepancies, and I 
have recorded them here, principally with that view. For future ob- 
servations I hope to have another instrument in which the defects of 
the present one will be remedied ; the results then obtained may 
give a confidence which I do not now feel in those furnished by the 
present instrument. 

The meteorological changes which took place about the time of the 
occurrence of this aurora, are worthy of record. On the morning of 
the 9th of July there was an irregular rain, with the wind at west, 
terminated by a shower at noon, and succeeded by a clear afternoon, 
with the wind at west and north west. On the morning of the 10th, 
the wind was still from north west, but in the evening had hauled 
round to the east and south east. 

I subjoin an extract from the meteorological diary kept by James 
PR. Espy, Esq., which shows a sudden diminution in the amount of 
vapor in the air, between the 9th and 10th of July. The remarks in 
relation to the winds agree with those already given. 


Day of the month. Temperature at noon. Dew point. 
6th. 82° Fah. 53° Fah. 
Mths — sunny ehO 
8th. 86 71 
9th. 79 65 

10th. 78 ol 
11th. 83 55 


“On the 9th the wind was from the N.W., and on the morning of 
the 10th from the N. N. W., and at noon the upper current from the 
W. and the lower from the S. E.; on the 11th the upper current was 
all day from the W., and the lower from the S. S. W.” 

To return to the observations on the magnetic needle. To deter- 
mine from them the absolute effect attending the aurora, it would be 
necessary to make two corrections; the first for the effect of a change 
of temperature upon the needles, the second for the regular diurnal 
variation. ‘The first of these is not for any considerable range of tem- 
perature amounting, during the few hours between 9, P.M. of the 
10th, and 1, A. M. of the 11th, to 6£° Fah. for the needle out of 
doors, and to 2° Fah. for the needle within. An ideaof the general 


125 | 


Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 
10th of July, are compared with the mean of those made on the same 


tained in the annexed table, in which the observations made on the 
hours, two days previous, and two days subsequent to the 10th. 


effect of the diurnal variation, may be formed by the comparisons con- 


Horizontal Needle out of doors. 


Mean changes of va-|Changesof va- 
riation and tempera-| riation and 
ture on 8th, 9th,) temperature 
1lth, and 12th of] on the 10th 
July. of July. 
No. of 

Hours. | obs. | Mins. |Fah.| Mins. |Fah. 


Time of obser- 
vation. 


Difference of 
variation. 


No. of 
Mins. obs. Mins. 


4 |—3.0 
—~ 2.0) 2 Be 
+ 3.0) 1 |4+2.5 

4 140.5 
— 2.4) 4 # 
+ 2.0 
te - 2 |42.0 
—15.0!| 3 0. 
= V75.:8 |4-1.0 
z ft 4 as 
~19.01 1 


a.m.8i| 4 |—10.0|69% — 8.0|62°|/+ 2.0 
9413 !— 8.0173 
11| 2 |- 3.075 |— 5.0\74 

p.m.l | 2 |— 1.5/82 |+ 1.5181 
2|4 |+ 3.5185 | 
314 |+ 7.0\861|4+ 4.5/84 
4} 3 |+ 1.085 |+ 3.0\83 
6|2 |— 1.5180 |+ 3.0\78 
7|3 |= 1.56/82 
9! 2 |— 9.5/75:|—24.5|70 
10 | 4 |— 9.5/75 |—27.0.673 
11/2 5 8.5174 |—18.0|66 
12/2 |— 6.5/713|—25.5165 


Horizontal Needle within doors. 


.. |Changes of va- 
Mean changes of varia- 8 


tion and temperature 
on the Sth, 9th, 11th, 
and 12th of July. 


Difference of 
variation. 


= |S 
oe 
Sard i= 
rt «1 


1) 


stro iiat 


++ 
S 6 


a 
Qn 


duced to show the number of observa- 


from which the mean is obtained, and to give the differences 


~I 
a 
+ 
io) 
° 
intro 
between the changes of the 10th and the mean changes. The com- 


72 |+ 2.5 


+3.5 2/74 


In this table the columns are arranged as in the foregoing one, ad 


ditional columns being 


tions 


126 Disturbance of the Needle during an Aurora. 


parison with the variation on the 10th, is assisted in the case of the 
needle out of doors by the curve of mean variation being traced in a 
dotted line upon fig. 1, plate I. In following the curves we see the 
increase from the morning minimum, at, or before, 85 A. M., to the 
day maximum at 3, P. M., and the subsequent descent towards the 
evening minimum, with an irregularity in the progress of the varia- 
tion, observable at 7, P. M. on the 10th of July. The lines now 
cease to have even the most general resemblance. ‘The descent to- 
wards an evening minimum at 9, P. M., which appears upon the line 
of mean variation, concurring with the descent attending the aurora, 
might be supposed to have produced the suddenness of the effect no- 
ted, were it not that a similarly rapid fall occurs between half past 
eleven and twelve o’clock, contrary to the direction of the line of 
mean variation. It is possible that the coincidence in the direction 
given by the diurnal variation with that of the change attending the 
aurora, between eight and nine, and their opposition between half past 
eleven and twelve, is the cause of the first minimum being lower than 
the second, supposing this to have been at 12 o’clock, since the differ- 
ence between the second minimum and the mean is greater than that 
between the first and the mean, by four minutes. At 1, A. M. of the 
11th, the needle appears to have regained about the mean position, 
the variation being rather more than the proportional mean for that 
hour, supposing the increase from twelve to one, to be the same as 
that from eleven to twelve. Midnight is about the hour of the night 
maximum, which, however, not unfrequently occurs, after as well as 
before, that time. 

The conclusions deduced from the observations on the needle 
within doors, coincide, generally, with those obtained from the one 
without. 

Having made material improvements in the needles referred to in 
this paper, and completed two small observatories in the yard attach- 
ed to my dwelling, expressly for magnetic observations, I purpose to 
follow out this subject, and in connexion with it to study the effect 
of meteorological changes, and, as necessary to the solution of these 
questions, to preserve an account of the diurnal variation, in such a 
way that the requisite corrections for the temperature of the needles 
may be applied. ‘Thus I hope to be able to make a contribution to- 
wards determining a question to which the attention of men of science 
has been particularly called by the recent discussions in the British 


Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Philadelphia, December 24th, 1833. 


Problems. 127 


Art. XI.—Problems ; by D. C. Lapuan, Civil Engineer. 


Prosiem I. 


To find the area of a cross section of a canal, when the surface is 


inclined. 
Given BC, Ai, Dm, (Fig. 1,) and the ratio of the side slopes, (Cm 


to Dm,) to find the area. 


A Fig. 1. 


Area of EBCD=BC+CmxDm. Area of AED=ED x 4Ak, 
Area of ABCD=AED+EBCD. 


Prostem II. 


To find the cubic content of a portion of canal excavation, when 
the surface inclines both in the direction and across the line of the 
canal. 

Let ABCD, abed, (Fig. 2,) be a portion of canal, of a given length; 
the perpendicular depth also being given at A, a, d, D, and the ratio 
of the side slopes, to find the cubic content. 


Fig. 2. 


Rote.—Find, by Prob. I, the area of the cross sections ABCD, 
abcd ; also the area of the middle cross section efgh, (which is dedu- 
ced from the given depths thus, A+-a—-2= depth at e, D+-d+2= 
depth at h.) 


hy, ue 


128 Problems. 
Put the area ABCD=E. 


abced=F. 
fgh=G. 
length=L. 
solidity =S. 


Then S=3L.(E+F+4G).* Or, 

To the area of the two ends, add four times the area of the mid- 
dle cross section: multiply by one sixth of the length. 

It is evident that the above solution holds true, whether the incli- 
nation of the surface at each end be in the same ratio or not. 

The solutions of this problem given in Major Long’s Rail Road 
Manual, and also by Mr. Charles Potts, in a pamphlet on canal cut- 
ting, are correct only when the surface inclines in the same ratio at 
each end of the given distance. | 

In the construction of wing walls for culverts, Fig. 3. 
bridges, &c., the form represented in Fig. 3 
has been adopted by some engineers, as com- 
bining the greatest advantages. The large por- 
tion of the curve presents its convex surface 
to the pressure of the embankment, and the 
smaller curve allows the water and floating 
bodies to pass more readily without ee 
the walls. i 

The distance AB, BC andl dhehsnalley radius Be, 
AD are usually given. The problem is to find 
the corresponding radius EF. 

Find the angle BCA. The angle DAF=BCA, (Euc. Book I, 
Prop. 29;) and the angle DFA=DAF, (Euc. Book I, Prop. 5.)+ 
Therefore, (by Kuc. B. I, Prop. 32,) 180—DFA+DAF=ADF; 
and (Euc. Book I, Prop. 29) DEG=ADF. Then, as log. sin. of 
GED ; DG: : radius: ED. ED-FD=EF. Or, algebraically, 

Put FD=AD=a. 


DG=AB=6. 
BC—AD=GC=c. 
EC=EF=z. 


* Day’s Mensuration, Part III, p. 37. 

t It may be well to add, for the sake of practical men, who have no time for mathe- 
matical investigations, and as a truth which is essential to their clear understanding 
of the problem, that the point F, which is the intersection of the lines AC, DE, is 
also, in fact, the point of contact of the two circles.— Com. 


Remarks on the Preparation of Carbonic Ovide. 129 


2 2 72 
Then, na POO Or, 
From the sum of the squares of AB and GC, deduct the square of 
AD or BG: divide the remainder by twice BC. 
Cincinnati, Ohio, Feb. 6, 1834. 


Arr. X1I.—Remarks on Professor Mitchell’s method of preparing 
Carbonic Oxide, free from carbonic acid; by L. D. Gate, M. D. 
Acting Professor of Chemistry in the University of the City of New 
York, and Prof. Chem. in the New York College of Pharmacy. 


Havine received No. 2 of Vol. XXV of this Journal, containing 
Prof. Mitchell’s paper on a new process for preparing carbonic oxide, 
about the time I was to lecture on that subject before my class in the 
College of Pharmacy, I adopted Prof. M.’s plan and followed his 
directions as nearly as possible, but much to my discomfiture found 
the gas obtained was perfectly incombustible: but I shonld here state, 
that it was used immediately after preparation. As gases will some- 
times burn from a large orifice, when they will not from a smaller one, 


I varied the size of the aperture, but all to no purpose. I then col- ~ 


lected more gas, with “heat duly moderated,” and preserved only 
the first and last portions, but did not succeed in causing it to burn 
from an orifice. I then threw up, by means of a syringe, some caus- 
tic potash into the receiver containing the gas; a rapid absorption 
took place, amounting to nearly half the original quantity, and the 
remainder was sufficiently pure carbonic oxide. I also ascertained, 
that if the gas, when procured, be allowed to stand over cold water, 
and especially in broad and shallow receivers, for two or three hours, 
so much of the carbonic acid is absorbed that the remaining gas will 
burn with its ordinary appearance. The same remark will apply to 
carbonic oxide, prepared by any of the ordinary methods described 
in the books. Indeed, I am constantly in the habit of preparing the 
gas in the morning, when it is to be used in the afternoon, and thus 
avoid the occasion of using any alkali. 

Although from the above experiments I was quite satisfied that 
carbonic acid is always produced in the above mentioned experiments, 
yet, that I might be able to speak with perfect confidence, I was in- 


* I am indebted to my brother, J. A. L. for the algebraic solution. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 17 


130 Remarks on the Preparation of Carbonic Oxide. 


duced to make a complete analysis of the gas obtained after Dr. 
Mitchell’s plan. Taking a given weight of the oxalate of ammonia, 
and the proportion directed of sulphuric acid, I collected the whole 
gas evolved from the materials over mercury, that none should be 
absorbed during the operation. One hundred equal parts having 
been set aside for examination, pure liquid potassa was thrown up 
by means of a syringe, and the vessel agitated until no more absorp- 
tion took place, when fifty parts of the gas had disappeared. The 
residual gas, on being detonated with oxygen, was found to be nearly 
pure carbonic oxide. In order to ascertain whether the gas differed 
in its qualities, at different stages of the process, I collected portions 
of it at regular intervals, throughout the operation, and subjected them 
to careful examination. ‘The result of these experiments was pretty 
uniform, not varying in any case two per cent. from fifty measures of 
each gas; and hence I infer, that the oxalate of ammonia, treated as 
above, for obtaining carbonic oxide, yields the same products as the 
binoxalate of potassa or oxalic acid, treated according to the methods 


described in the books. 


Professor Mitchell states, that “on examining the residuary matter 
left in the retort, it is found to be strong sulphuric acid.” I must 
confess, J am at a loss to know in what way he made an examination, 
to arrive at such a conclusion, unless it be that he used more than 
‘one or two drachms of sulphuric acid,” for in each case in which I 
examined the residue, where an ounce of the oxalate and two drachms 
of acid were used, I found crystals in the retort, after the materials 
had cooled, answering in every respect to the acid sulphate of ammo- 
nia. If the quantity of sulphuric acid be increased to four or five 
drachms, and the heat be stopped a little before the gas ceases to 
come over, the acid will then hold the sulphate in solution and ex- 
hibit to the eye an appearance of sulphuric acid; but a single and 
very simple experiment—namely, the evaporation of a few drops of 
the. liquid on a platinum or glass capsule, until a part of the acid is 
expelled, will indicate the presence of some salt, and that, on exami- 
nation, will be found as above mentioned. ‘That ammonia should 
escape from the retort, in a free state, while it is in contact witha 
large excess of free sulphuric acid, and then combine with the car- 
bonic acid resulting from the decomposition of the oxalic acid, ap- 
pears to me unphilosophical, and is disproved by experiment, for we 
recover the whole, or very nearly all the ammonia in combination 
with sulphuric acid. 


Rail Road Curves. 13] 


Art. XIII.—Rail Road Curves; by Tuos. Gorton, Civil Engineer. 


To join-two straight lines, which, if produced, would intersect each 
other, by a curve, so that those lines shall be tangents to it. 

Find the difference in the bearing of the two lines, which suppose 
to be 24°; then, by inspecting the ground, find what curve will suit 
best, and let it, for example, be one of 6°. There will then be five 
deflections and four stations of curve. These deflections will be 3°, 
6°, 6°, 6° and 3°, the sum of which is 24°. Then commence the 
curve at some point in one of the straight lines, and run it round, by 
making the above deflections at their respective stations, when, if the 
last deflection coincide with the other straight line, the work will be 
done: but, which is probable, suppose that it falls to one side of it. 
Then, at the station where the last deflection was made, turn the in- 
strument 24°, viz. to the bearing of the first straight line, and look- 
ing back or forward, as the case may be, see where it cuts the line 
you wish to run into, which point, if the work has been carefully done, 
is the place where the curve will join the said line. Measure the 
distance from the instrument to this point, then go back to where the 
curve was begun and set off the same distance back or forward as 
before, in the straight line, from which run the curve round, and the 
lines will be joined. 

The correctness of this rule will readily be seen. It is simply 
moving the curve back or forward, keeping the line a tangent to it, 
until the other end of the curve falls in the other straight line. The 
rule is also easy in practice, as in every case two lines may be joined 
in this manner by only two trials, if the curve be carefully run. 


To make a slight change in the direction of a line. 

In running a line for the superstructure of a rail road, it will be 
found occasionally to vary a little from the grading line. A correc- 
tion may be made in the following manner, at the curves, by length- 
ening or shortening them a few feet. Suppose, on coming to the end 
of a curve, that the line comes out in the centre of the grading, but 
that, in continuing the straight line to the next curve, it is found to 
vary 0.44 feet in 100 feet, or one fourth of a degree, and conse- 
quently, if the line be long, it will fall at the other end much to one 
side of the graded road. Now let the curve just run be one of 4°, 
then the chord of 4° being 100 feet, (the length of a station,) the 


132 Apparatus for freezing Water by the aid of Sulphuric Acid. 


a 
chord of 4° (the variation) will be —~ =6.25 feet, (this being near 


eae for practical purposes,—or a arc may be used in place of 
its dior.) From the end of the curve measure back or forward 
6.25 ah in the line of its tangent, and from that point set off to the 


& 


“ 6.25 
right or left the variation for —5—, which is 0.014 feet, and the point 


thus found will be the end of the curve, from which the tangent be- 
ing produced will nearly coincide with the grading line. ‘The va- 
riation is found by the following proportion. 
100 feet : 0.44 (the variation in 100 feet) :: 


5 
; 0.014. 


2 

The annexed diagram will serve as an illus- 
tration. 

Here by producing the curve from A to © 
the direction of the line is changed from AB 
to CD. The 6.25 was measured on the line 
AB, as before stated, for the difference be- 
tween the line AB and the arc AC, or its 
chord, is so inconsiderable that either may be 
used, in this case, with equal accuracy in 
practice. 


Art. XIV.—Apparatus for freezing Water by the aid of Sulphuric 
- Acid; by R. Hare, M.D. Prof. of Chem. in the Univ. of Penn. 


Tue congelation of water by its own vaporization, accelerated by 
exposure to the absorbing power of sulphuric acid, or other agents, 
in vacuo, has always been a difficult experiment. A distinguished 
professor complained to me lately of want of success in his efforts to 
repeat it. In November, 1832, after having three times succeeded 
in freezing water by the process in question, yet having failed before 
my class, I was led to give more than usual attention to the process 
in order to obviate the causes of disappointment. It appeared tome 
that the failure arose from imperfection in the vacuum. An excel- 
lent pump, with perfectly air tight cocks, is indispensable; and not 
only must the pump be well made, it must likewise be in good order. 
Neither should the packing of the pistons, the valves, nor the cocks, 


Apparatus for freezing Water by the aid of Sulphuric Acid. 133 


allow of the slightest leakage. Ifa pump has been used previously 
for freezing, by the vaporization of ether, it will not be competent for 
the experiment in question, unless it be taken apart and cleaned, 


an > i 
iW 
Ni i It : 


i | | iy 


“ey 
iad 


| 
! 


rT 


MAT TM 
i 
Hy 
\ 
| 


l 


H | er 
t rm | 
ran 


Ww ni) ii; bg 
a 
yy g 


_ Cocks of the ordinary construction, are rarely if ever perfectly air 
tight, and their imperfection always increases with wear. Under 
these impressions, having, cleansed my air pump, and put it into the 


134 Apparatus for freezing Water by the aid of Sulphuric Acid. 


best order possible; for the purpose of obviating leakage through 
the cocks associated with the instrument, I closed the hole in the cen- 
tre of the air pump plate by a screw, and for a receiver made use of 
a bell glass with a perforated neck furnished with a brass cap and a 
female screw, by means of which one of my valve cocks was attach- 
ed. A communication between the bell, and the chambers of my 
pump, was established through the valve cock and a flexible lead 
pipe, in a mode analogous to that already described in the account 
of the valve cock. In this way I succeeded in preserving the vacu- 
um, longer than when the cocks of the air pump were employed in 
the process; and accomplished the congelation of water by means 
of the vacuum, and sulphuric acid. 

Latterly, I have used an apparatus which is represented by the ad- 
joining figure, in which a brass cover is made to close a large glass 
jar so as to be quite tight. In operating, the bottom of the jar was 
covered with sulphuric acid, and another jar with feet, also supplied 
with acid enough to make a stratum half an inch deep on the bottom, 
was introduced as represented. ‘The bottom of the vessel last men- 
tioned, was, by means of the feet, kept at such a height above the 
surface of the acid in the outer jar, as not to touch it. Upon the sur- 
face of the glass vessel, a small piece of very thin sheet brass was 
placed, made concave in the middle, so as to hold a small quantity 
of water. . 

The brass cover was furnished with three valve cocks, one com- 
municating with the air pump, another with a barometer guage, and 
the third with a funnel supplied with water. Under these circum- 
stances, having made a vacuum on a Saturday, I was enabled to 
freeze water situated on the brass, and to keep up the congelation till 
the Thursday following. As the water in the state of ice evaporates 
probably as fast as when liquid, during the night the whole quantity 
frozen would have entirely disappeared, but for the assistance of a 
watchman whom I engaged to supply water at intervals: At amax- 
imum [ suppose the mass of ice was at times about two inches square, 
and from a quarter to a half an inch thick. ‘The gradual introduc- 
tion of the water, by aid of the funnel and valve cock, also of the 
pipe represented in the figure, by which it was conducted to the cay- 
ity in the sheet brass, enabled me to accumulate a much larger mass 
than I could have produced otherwise. ‘The brass band which em- 
braces the inner jar near the brim, with the three straps proceeding 


On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids. 135 


from it, serves to keep this jar in a proper position; that is in fact 
concentric with the outer jar. 

In this last mentioned experiment, I employed an air pump upon 
a new construction, which I have lately contrived, and of which I 
shall soon publish a description. 


Art. XV.—On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids, 
in a notice of the Fifth Article of No. XV of the Southern Re- 
view ;* by Lewis R. Gispes, Columbia, S.C. 


Tue works selected as the subjects of the review are, “ Remarks 
on Canal Navigation, &c. by W. Fairbairn, Lond. 1831,” and “A 
new Theory of the Resistance of Fluids, &c. by T. Tredgold, article 
41st of Phil. Mag. April, 1828.” The first portion of the review 
is occupied by remarks on the great utility, and, indeed, necessity, of 
uniting sound theoretical knowledge with practical information. Fair- 
bairn’s work, the reviewer observes, shows the want of this combina- 
tion, while Tredgold’s works, particularly his ‘Treatise on rail roads 
and carriages,” evince the superiority derived from it. The reviewer 
next proceeds to state the experiments detailed in Fairbairn’s work. 
The results of these are, that when boats, single or twin, were drawn 
on a canal with different velocities, from five to thirteen miles an hour, 


* Pror. Srnu1mAn—Dear Sir—Ever since the publication of the article, ‘‘ Re- 
marks on Canal Navigation and the Resistance of Fluids,” in the eighth volume of 
the Southern Review, (fifth article of No. 15,) 1 have been expecting, with no little 
interest, to see or hear of some notice of it, but as yet none has come to my knowl- 
edge. At this [ am somewhat surprised, as from the principles the able writer of itt 
has demonstrated, it is peculiarly valuable to the science of hydrodynamics, so much 
cultivated during the last half century by the French and Italians. Perhaps, from 
the comparatively small extent of circulation enjoyed by that work, the article has 
been seen by few to whom it would prove interesting, and has therefore met with 
no attention, especially as theory has lent but little aid to the practical engineer in 
this branch of science. I am induced, therefore, to give the following short notice 
of the contents of the article referred to, in the hope that it may meet the eyes of 
others, who with abilities far beyond mine, will duly appreciate the subject, and do 
it full justice. I have annexed a few of the simplest results of the important theo- 
rem furnished by the article, which will illustrate the difference between it and the 
theorem usually given in books on the subject. If you think the whole worth in- 
serting in your Journal, by so doing you will oblige your obedient servant, 

Lewis R. GisBEs. 


t Rev. James Wallace, Prof. Math. Astron. in South Carolina College. 


136 On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids. 


the wave or surge that rose in front of the boats, at velocities from 
five to ten miles an hour, diminished rapidly or ceased altogether at 
the higher velocities, from ten to thirteen miles. This result Mr. 
Fairbairn considers as “ very anomalous and contrary to all previous 
theory,” because it does not accord with the theorem that the resist- 
ances increase as the squares of the velocities, but the reviewer points 
it out as affording an instance of the necessity of uniting theory with 
practice, and assigns a sufficient reason for it afterwards. He then 
proceeds to lay down the general laws and principles on which inqui- 
ries concerning the resistance of fluids depend. His first theorem is 
the well known one, “If a non-compressible fluid act upon a plane 
opposed perpendicularly to the direction of its motion, the force with 
which it impels the plane, or acts upon it, will be as the square of the 
velocity of the fluid.” Under this, he remarks the corrections ne- 
cessary to be observed in experimenting on this subject. The next 
theorem is the one to which, particularly, I wish to call attention, as 
it is an extremely important correction of a theorem which has been 
adopted in all scientific works, from Newton’s to the present day. 
The old theorem is well known. It is this: “If the inclination of 
the plane to the direction of the motion of the fluid vary, the resist- 
ance perpendicularly to the plane will vary as the square. of the sine 
of angle of inclination.” ‘The demonstration is as follows. Since 
the particles of the fluid strike the plane obliquely, their force per- 
pendicularly to the plane will vary as the sine of angle of inclination, 
by resolution of forces. The breadth of the column of fluid, and 
consequently the number of particles striking the plane, also varies 
as the sine of same angle; the breadth being estimated perpendicu- 
larly to the direction of the fluid. The resistance in a direction per- 
pendicular to the plane, which depends on the number of particles 
multiplied by their force in that direction, will therefore vary as the 
square of the sine of angle of inclination. The theorem of Mr. 
Wallace is this: If the inclination of the plane vary, the resistance 
perpendicularly to the plane will vary as the sine of the angle of 
anclination. His demonstration may be thus expressed. Since the 
particles strike the plane obliquely, their force perpendicularly to the 
plane, as in the former theorem, will vary as the sine of angle of in- 
clination. But the number of particles striking the plane, he argues, 
does not depend on the breadth of the column, but on the surface of 
the plane, because the particles that act on the plane are those in « 
contact with it, and therefore their number is as its superficial area. 


On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids. 137 


As the surface of the plane, by supposition, does not vary, the num- 
ber of particles acting on it, therefore, does not vary, and the resist- 
ance, consequently, is as the sine of the angle of inclination—the 
number of the particles being the same at all inclinations, and the 
force of each, varying as the sine of angle of inclination. Mr. Wal- 
lace, to whom this correction is entirely due, then cites authors to 
show that his theory agrees more nearly with experiments than the 
old one. All authors agree that the resistance obtained by experi- 
ment is greater than that deduced from the old theory, and as much 
greater as the angle of inclination is less, in both of which points 
does the new theory coincide with experiments. Indeed, Prof. Robi- 
son, in speaking of the French experiments, (in the Art. Resistance, 
in Encye. Brit.) makes this remarkable observation: ‘ The theo- 
retical law, (the squares of the sines,) agrees tolerably with observa- 
tion in large angles of incidence ; that is, in incidences not differing 
very far from the perpendicular; but in more acute prows, the re- 
sistances are more nearly proportional to the sizes of the angles of 
incidence than to their squares,’—thus actually recognizing this law, 
without even hinting at the reason of it. The reviewer next observes, 
that the force perpendicular to the plane may be resolved into two 
others, one in the direction of the motion, which will vary as the ~ 
square of sine of inclination, (by the old theory it is as the cube of 
the sine,) and one perpendicular to the direction of the motion, which 
will vary as the product of the sine and cosine of same angle. This 
latter force in boats moving on the surface of the water, acts in a di- 
rection contrary to gravity, and being unopposed, tends to raise them 
out of the fluid, and diminish the surface immersed. This upward 
force, “‘ which” says the reviewer ‘appears to be entirely overlooked 
by writers on this subject,” accounts for the diminution of the surge in 
Fairbairn’s experiments, and shows the incorrectness of an observation 
of Dr. Lardner, (in Vol. XVII of the Cabinet Cyclopedia,) on the ad- 
vantages of rail roads over canals, which is quoted by the reviewer. 
To illustrate the theorem of Mr. Wallace, I will investigate a few of 
its simplest results in the resistance of fluids to bodies moving in them. 
To find the resistance to a solid of revolution, moving in the di- 
rection of its axis of revolution. Let x and y be the coordinates of 
the curve, whose revolution generates the surface of the solid, their 
origin being at the extremity of the axis. By the theorem, the num- 
ber of particles that act on a surface is as its area, while only their 
force varies with the inclination. ‘The number of particles, there- 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 18 


138 On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids. 


fore, that act on the increment of the surface of the solid, is as the 


area of the increment, that is, as 2ny (da? + dy?)2, and their force 
_in the direction of the motion, as already said, is as the square of the 
sine of the cri of the increment to the direction of the mo- 


tion, that is, a8 Feri. Therefore, the resistance to the incre- 


ae epg 
2py dy? 
af aie 2 


' The resistance to the circle generated by the 


ment is as ———; and the resistance to the whole surface as 


ef Fie — 
revolution of the ordinate y, is as the area of that circle, that is, as 
py?. Therefore, F, the resistance to the circle whose radius is y, 


d: 
is to f, the resistance to the solid, ae mii ete 
Die Ly? 


2 2 ; 
If the solid be a sphere, then dx? 2 a :, Lherefore,.E) tacu 


2 ‘ ydy? ye r3—(r?—y?)? a 
9 Fae Q : 37 and when y=r is 
riya 


Pee a 2 i vi 
9°3°: cals :3° That is, the resistance to a sphere is equal to two 
thirds of the resistance to one of its great circles. By the old theory, 


the resistance is only one half of the resistance to the great circle. 
2 


If the solid be a cone, dv? =a?dy?. Therefore, F fd 


Ja? dy? t dy?" 2" ig arma sii. 
on the base is to that on the convex surface, as slant height to radius 
of base. ‘The old theory gives the ratio, square of slant pach to 
square of radius. 

If the solid be geleebe by the reves of a parabola about its 


iM des i 
Jf ia oh ae 
Ja*+4a2y? —a? 
; 4 


——; and so on for other solids. 


dy? 2 2 
——— J Ls :i/a?+1315 that is, resistance 


° 
e 


4y?d 
axis, then dys = y ’ ae Hit fs : 


To find the resistance to a curve, moving in the direction of its 
axis. The increment of the curve is Vdx?-+dy?, and the square 


On the general principles of the Resistance of Fluids. 139 


dy? 
f 
of sine of inclination is du? +dy? —-; therefore, the resistance to the 
dy? : ' pe ss 
curve is as /—=————- The resistance to the ordinate y is as its 
Vdc dc* +dy? 


length, therefore F, the sin to the ordinate, is to f, the resist- 


ance to the curve, as y :,/——== If the curve be a semicircle, 


sen Th dy? 


then F +f: ty 3 fdyV r? —y? sty 3 pis i tle ia 4, and when 


2 
y=r, as r ie and putting radius unity, as 1 : .7854. From this 
it is also evident, that if a cylinder move in a direction perpendicularly 
to its axis, the resistance to a section through the axis is to the resist- 
ance to the convex surface as 1; .7854. The old theory gives it as 
332. | 

To find the best angle for the sails of a mill, a rudder, &c. at the 
beginning of their motion. The number of particles being the same 
at all inclinations, the best angle will be that at which the force of the 
particles in a direction perpendicular to their motion is a maximum. 
This force, as already said, is as the product of sine and cosine of . 
angle of inclination. Let 2=sine of the angle, then Vx?—2* will 
be a maximum, 2edxr—4x*dr=0, and r=~V 4=sine of 45°, which 
is the maximum angle. The old theory gives 54° 44’. 

The following are two somewhat remarkable results of the new 
theory. The resistance to a square is the same, whether it be moved 
in a direction perpendicular to one of its sides, or in the direction of 
its diagonal. In the latter case, the force of the particles in the direc- 
tion of the motion is as square of sine of inclination, which is 45°. 
The square of sine 45° is 4, radius being unity. Their force, in the 
latter case, is then half the force in the former. But in the latter 
case two sides are presented to the action of the fluid, and the num- 
ber of particles is doubled ; consequently, the resistance is the same 
in both cases. ‘The resistance to a cube is the same, whether it be 
moved in the direction perpendicular to one of its sides, or in the di- 
rection of its diagonal. In the latter case, the square of sine of in- 
clination is 4, radius being unity. The force of the particles is there- 
fore only one third of their force in the former case. But, three sides 
being presented to the fluid, their number is trebled ; consequently, 
the resistance is the same in both cases. 


140° Essay on the Indian Summer. 


Art. XVI.—Essay on the Indian Summer, read at a meeting of the 
Maryland Academy of Sciences, by one of ats HL oy Baltimore 
Dec. 16, 1833. 


Tur following pages, contain a few observations, on that peculiar 
and periodical appearance of the atmosphere, usually termed Indian 
summer; in this essay, the writer has made a feeble attempt to ex- 
plain some of the more prominent causes concerned in its produc- 
tion—and to offer views, explanatory of the attending phenomena— 
such as the smoky and reddish scat of the sky, he increased tem- 
perature, &c. &c. 

Attention was directed to this ese. in consequence of the 
verbal notice taken by one of the members of this Academy, of a 
paragraph contained in a late number of the American Journal of Sci- 
ence, and which requested of some one of the correspondents of that 
valuable work, an explanation of the causes of this oceurrence. ‘The 
subject at once presented itself to the mind, as one of much interest; 
and indeed excited astonishment that hitherto no written, or satisfac- 
tory explanation had been made of a phenomenon, which, from its 
regular appearance, obvious character, and marked duration—has 
become familiar to almost every inhabitant of this country. The to- 
tal silence of books, and consequent want of reference, is a sufficient 
apology for many imperfections—the writer was left to draw con- 
clusions, wholly from his own reflections, on the more prominent and 
attending facts, and of which there is no other record than memory. 

The term Indian summer, has been applied to that obscure and 
hazy condition of the atmosphere, which usually occurs towards the 
last of November, attended with a peculiar redness of the sky—an 
absence of rain—and we might add an obviously increased tempera- 
ture; which latter fact is in some degree significant of its name :— 
probably the appellation of Indian, is derived from the circumstance 
of this period of the year, being selected by the aborigines of the 
country, as their hunting season, to which it is highly conducive, not 
only on account of the plenty and perfection of the game, but also in 
consequence of the haziness or obscurity of the air, which favors a 
near, and unsuspected approach, to the object of pursuit :—The 
New England tradition is, that the term Indian summer, is derived 
from the prevalence of the south west wind at that time—and which 
the Indians supposed to be sent as a peculiar favor from their good 
deity Coutantowit, supposed to reside in. that quarter.: 


Essay on the Indian Summer. 141 


Having stated that the Indian summer appears usually in the month 
of November, we do not however, wish to be understood, that a ha- 
ziness or obscurity of the air occurs in that month only, and that its 
duration is confined, and peculiar to, a few days in the latter part of 
the autumnal season—on the contrary, common observation (as well 
as minute reference to meterological tables) proves, that it is by no 
means uncommon in the month of October, and is frequently mistak- 
en then for the true Indian summer, by persons unacquainted with 
the proper period of its accession. This is a fact which we wish 
borne in mind,—as it enables us to account for one of the general 
laws, on which the phenomenon is dependant, but which would not 
apply, were we erroneously to confine the prevalence of a hazy at- 
mosphere, to a few days at the commencement of winter.—It is true 
that at this period, there is usually a longer and more closely con- 
nected exhibition of character, and to which (as before observed) 
the term Indian summer is correctly applied—but were we to see no 
analogy in the general aspect of the fall season, we should be forced 
to search wholly among local causes, for the explanation of a fact, in 
which a regular and extended variation of temperature, (dependent 
on the sun’s annual declination) is obviously concerned as a leading 
or predisposing cause. 

‘The regular yearly changes of temperature greatly affect the trans- 
parency of the atmosphere, and give it, at certain seasons, a peculiar 
appearance ; for instance, during the spring, when the temperature of 
the air is evidently on the increase, its capacity for moisture increases 
faster than the additions which are made to its humidity by evapora- 
tion or moderately moist winds ; whereas, during the autumn, the 
temperature is as rapidly on the decline, and the capacity of the air 
to contain moisture being on the decrease, a slight addition to its hu- 
midity produces hazy or foggy weather. ‘This autumnal obscurity of 
the atmosphere would prevail more generally here (as it does in Eng- 
land and the northern shores of Europe) were it not for the frequen- 
ey of our north westerly winds, which from their dryness are always 
attended with a cloudless sky. Having ascertained that the annual 
variation of temperature is one of the great predisposing causes of 
the phenomenon before us, we shall proceed to trace out other aux- 
iliary causes. A second prominent cause, which we therefore 
notice, is the prevalence of peculiar winds ; for the translations of 
large portions of the atmosphere from one parallel to another must 


142 Essay on the Indian Summer. 


always be regarded as one of the most powerful causes by which the 
transparency of the air is affected; and as before observed, a north 
westerly wind (from obvious causes) brings with it a smaller supply 
of moisture than belongs to the mean hygrometric condition of the air 
in this region, and is hence always attended with a transparent at- 
mosphere, so the very reverse is occasioned by easterly and south- 
erly winds which obscure and thicken the air. The humid effects 
of particular winds are however greatly modified by local circum- 
stances—a celebrated naturalist remarks, ‘ that the sky of Xalappa 
in New Spain, which is beautiful and serene in summer, assumes a 
gloomy appearance from the month of December to the month of 
February ; whenever the north winds blow at Vera Cruz, the inhab- 
itants of Xalappa are enveloped in a dense fog, and the thermometer 
then descends to 45 or 50 degrees ;” (on our coast the haze is pro- 
duced by a warm current from the south, hence the thermometer ri- 
ses with us instead of falling.) Soat Lima, in Peru, the cloudy state 
of the air begins about the middle of July, and continues to the end 
of November, the wind blowing chiefly from the south and south east. 
The third cause which we shall notice as concerned in the production 
of the Indian summer is the elevation and depression of atmospheri- 
cal strata; this effect is sometimes produced by electrical agencies, 
by elevation and conformation of country, but more generally and ex- 
tensively than either by changes of temperature at the earth’s sur- 
face, for it is a well known fact, that the air, being a diaphanous 
body, can receive no direct heat from the solar rays, but becomes 
warmed only by the contact of its lower stratum with the earth’s sur- 
face, which portion when rarified ascends and gives place to a cooler 
descending one: this remains below, until its thermal condition is 
_ again altered, when it reascends, thus establishing a constant cireu- 

lation and perfect admixture of the different strata of air. That elec- 
trical agencies are concerned in the elevation and depression of at- 
mospherical strata, there can be no doubt, but we are aware that the 
immediate and more extensive operation of this cause, is in tropical 
latitudes. ‘Thus Humboldt, in his personal narrative, remarks, ‘ that 
the rainy season takes place within the tropical regions, when the 
causes which concur to produce a mixture of the atmospherical strata 
operate with the fullest effect ; for instance, when the sun approaches 
the zenith of any particular parallel, the trade winds become less 
regular, the temperature increases, and the causes which contribute 
to the humidity of the atmosphere act with fullest vigor. ‘The su-. 


Essay on the Indian Summer. 143 


perincumbent columns of air are soon saturated with vapor, the pro- 
duction of which is accompanied by a great accumulation of elec- 
tricity in the higher regions of the air; at length an intermixture of 
the strata begins to take place, produced chiefly, it would appear, by 
electrical explosions; the precipitation of the condensed vapor 
commences, and proceeds (especially during the day) with scarce- 
ly any intermission. ‘The rain now descends in vast sheets; the 
rivers, raised above their ordinary level, can no longer be confined 
within their banks ; and the supply they receive from the clouds ex- 
ceeding the discharge by their channels, they spread far and wide 
over the adjacent fields, and exhibit on every hand a dreary expanse 
of muddy and discolored waters. This state of things undergoes 
little alteration until the sun returns to the signs of the other hemis- 
phere ; at that period the aerial currents from the homonymous pole 
are renewed, and the air which flows from it being very far from the 
point of saturation, the rains cease, and the sky resumes its former 
clearness and serenity.” 

From this detail of facts, it appears to us highly probable that elec- 
trical causes are negatively concerned in the production of the Indian 
summer ; for instance, as during the warmer months, they act vigor- 
ously by producing an intermixture of the different currents or strata 
of air; so, on the contrary, at the approach of winter, they act with 
diminished energy, and hence suffer portions of air, differing greatly 
in their temperature ‘and humidity, to remain for a length of time 
without flowing into each other. We might mention evaporation as 
one of the causes concerned in the production of haze or clouds, but 
as it is dependant on, and influenced by, existing temperatures, we 
shall, in summing up our arguments, shew how far the mean hygro- 
metric condition of the air is affected by the annual change of tempe- 
rature, as also by particular winds, and by the local conformation and 
geographical position of the adjacent country. Having now noticed 
the more prominent causes concerned in the production of the phe- 
nomena of the Indian summer, we proceed to explain, as far as pos- 
sible, their mode and extent of operation. 

The first important conclusion that we draw from the above de- 
tails is, that the formation of haze or clouds, viewing the subject in 
its most general outline, must depend essentially on a reduction of 
atmospherical temperature, which brings the water contained in the 
air to a visible sub-vaporous state, constituting haze, or to an actual 
liquid condition, (minutely divided,) forming clouds. We believe 


144 Essay on the Indian Summer. 


further, that this visible alteration, or increased density, is confined 
chiefly or wholly to the lower stratum of air, and is immediately re- 
ferrible to partial and slow currents of moist winds from a southerly 
or south-easterly direction, (as meteorological records confirm,) and 
that these moist winds usually follow cool dry westerly or northerly 
ones, which having prevailed extensively both in the higher and low- 
er regions of the atmosphere, have lowered its temperature and re- 
duced its absolute quantity of moisture. Now, if we suppose this 
moist and warm current of air (extending perhaps in height some 
hundreds or even thousands of feet above the earth’s surface) to come 
into contact with a cool dry northerly one, the obvious result would 
be a reduction of temperature, attended with a hazy or cloudy for- 
mation; while the superior stratum of air being altogether westerly 
or northerly, would remain dry and cloudless, which is in fact the 
precise condition of things during the Indian summer. 

It might be asked whether those partial currents do not occur in 
the spring and summer season, and if so, why not give rise to the 
same phenomena? ‘The reply would be, that the general tendency 
to foggy or cloudy weather is obviously less at those seasons than in 
the fall, from the existence of a cause which we mentioned in the 
early part of this paper, viz. that the mean temperature of the air be- 
ing on the increase during the spring and summer seasons, (from the 
more. direct action of the solar rays on the earth’s surface,) its capa- 
city to receive moisture and contain it invisibly is also augmented. 
Hence, an easterly wind will not produce rain, nor indeed sensibly af- 
fect the transparency of the air until it has continued for such a length 
of time as to bring a great excess of moisture; when the solar heat 
becoming also obstructed, a further reduction of temperature, and 
consequent precipitation occurs. And again two other very impor- 
tant agents concur to prevent these phenomena from appearing in 
warm weather, we allude to the excessive heat at the earth’s surface, 
acting on the lower stratum of air, and the vigorous movement of 
electrical agencies on the higher regions, both of which causes con- 
cur to produce a constant and steady admixture of the atmospherical 
strata; the former, by rarifying the lower stratum and causing it to 
ascend; the latter by exploding and destroying large portions 
above, and reducing the temperatures of others, which as rapidly de- 
scend, and it is this activity of circulation among the currents of air 
during warm weather, that prevents the formation and continuance of 
a hazy or foggy atmosphere. 


Essay on the Indian Summer. 145 


In confirmation, we may remark, that during the cold summer of 
1816, when of course both these causes were acting with a diminish- 
ed force, there was a very constant haziness of the air, so much so, 
that the sun could be viewed with the naked eye until 9 or 10 o’clock 
in the morning. A celebrated traveller in the south, relates a fact 
which will convey some idea of the actual condition in which we 
suppose the lower stratum of air to exist during the prevalence of 
hazy weather ; he remarks “ that over the ocean the sky exhibits a 
paler blue than over the land; when from the summit of the Andes 
the eye is directed towards the great South Sea, a haziness uniform- 
ly spread to about 10,000 feet in height is observed to cover as with 
a thin veil the surface of the ocean—this appearance takes place ina 
season when the atmosphere viewed from the coast, or at sea, ap- 
pears pure, and transparent; the existence of the opaque vapor is 
announced only to mariners by the little intensity of the azure color 
of the sky.” Here it is evident that a slight additional density in 
this lower stratum would intercept a large portion of solar light and 
give a turbid or hazy appearance to the general atmosphere. 

By a very careful reference to Capt. Brantz’ meteorological tables, 
we find, that in a very few instances, he notes hazy weather coex- 
isting with a northerly wind—this fact, however, does not militate — 
against the view we have offered, viz. that hazy weather is the result 
of a southerly or easterly current, supervening to a cool northerly one 
—for it is evident the same result would be produced if the differing 
portions of air only come in contact—with this qualification, that the 
superior dryness and force of a northerly wind, would give a much 
shorter duration to the existence of haze—the continuance of which 
would be incompatible with a dry westerly or northerly wind. 

We shall now proceed in a very general manner, to enquire, why 
the Indian summer makes its appearance more particularly at the 
close of autumn. This part of our subject, by no means void of diffi- 
culty—appears capable of solution in the following manner. It is 
well known that a constant and general wind prevails within the trop- 
ies, moving round the earth from east to west, called the trade wind ; 
observation also confirms that without the tropics, both north and 
south, the prevailing winds are westerly: the object of which ap- 
pears to be a restoration of the equilibrium, which is disturbed by 
the trade winds—this westerly or north westerly current, (for it would 
be oblique in our parallel,) being often counteracted during the sum- 
mer by opposite winds, [brought into existence by local causes—and 

Vor. XXVII.—No. 1. 19 


146 Essay on the Indian Summer. 


the direct action of the solar heat on our continent during the sum- 
mer, and early part of the fall,] comes to act again with renewed 
force, during the first cold weather of autumn, and continues at inter- 
vals until it has, as it were, more than fulfilled its intention, and is 
hence usually succeeded again in November and the early part of 
December, by what may be termed a southern reaction—at which 
period the phenomenon of the Indian summer occurs, being at the 
precise time when the general predisposition of the air to form haze 
or fogs, is at its maximum. 

It appears to us also, that the existence and duration of the Indian 
summer in this country, has an important connection with the exten- 
sive forests and uncultivated lands, peculiar to America, and it is 
worthy of remark, that according to the recollection of our older in- 
habitants, its former duration was often three or four weeks, whereas 
its present continuance is short and uncertain; seldom exceeding ten 
or fifteen days. It appears further, that this decline has been some- 
what regular, keeping pace with, and evidently influenced by, the 
gradual uncovering of the country. Humboldt states, that plains 
abounding with trees, are usually characterized by a fay gey atmos- 
phere. This is particularly the case with Brazil and Guiana, and the 
great central basin of South America, which receives the waters of 
the Amazon. In the middle of a continent overspread with forests 
and watered by eauatonel rains, the humidity is Berna tite same-as 
on the ocean. 

The temperature of the atmosphere, diminishes at an average of 
one degree for every three hundred feet, hence the humidity is great- 
est in the lower regions. ‘The hygrometric condition of the air also 
varies (of course) with different elevations of country, the more ele- 
vated, possessing the drier atmosphere. Again in tropical latitudes 
the clouds form at a greater height above the earth’s surface, because 
the point of condensation or congelation, is confined to those cold el- 
vated regions, whereas in the temperate zones, (and especially in the 
fall season, when the mean temperature of the air is but a few de- 
grees above the point of deposition,) fogs and clouds form near the 
earth’s surface—all these facts, if closely examined, corroborate the . 
views we have been trying to establish—but which we confess are too 
imperfectly and theoretically founded. 

One of the most remarkable phenomena of the Indian summer is 
the peculiar redness of the sky, which in our opinion is explained on 
the principle that the white beam of light being unfolded in its pass- 
age through the foggy stratum near the earth’s surface, its more del- 


Essay on the Indian Summer. 147 


icate rays are either reflected back, or absorbed, while the stronger 
rays of red and orange, all penetrate to the earth’s surface, and by 
their excess tinge surrounding objects with their own color, and es- 
pecially the lower atmosphere, which reflects and refracts them in 
every possible direction: much on the principle that to the eye of a 
person who has descended to a great depth in a diving bell, every 
thing appears reddish, because nothing but red rays can penetrate 
the dense medium which is interposed between him and the sun. 
Again this redness of the air together with the mechanical irritation 
produced by the denseness of the aerial vapor, excites a painful af- 
fection of the eyes—this sensation connected with the smoky appear- 
ance of the sky, induces great numbers of the inhabitants of this coun- 
try to believe that the Indian summer consists of a smoky state of the 
air produced by burning the vegetable decidua which are collected 
together in the fall season for this purpose, or as some will have it 
the firing of the neighboring mountains. This appearance of ac- 
tual smoke is however an optical illusion, produced by the fog- 
gy appearance of the air, and which seems to find confirmation by 
the great irritation of the visual organs, effected by the excess of “4 
rays, &c. 

The increased temperature which accompanies the existence ¥ j 
this hazy weather is referrible to several causes, viz. 

Ist. The prevailing wind, which being from a southerly direction 
is usually warm. 

2d. The heat radiated from the earth’s surface is immediately re- 
turned (ona well known principle) being reflected back by the haze 
of the atmosphere, while lastly the temperature is further increased 
by the condensation of both air and moisture during the formation of 
the foggy stratum. 

We have now hastily explained, or rather touched upon the lead- 
ing phenomena of the Indian summer, but acknowledge to have writ- 
ten on this subject, rather with a view to elicit further enquiry from 
others than to establish any theory of our own; every phenomenon 
connected with the earth’s atmosphere is highly deserving of our 
most earnest investigation, for daily observation confirms, that not 
only the health, but also the moral qualities of our species, are great- 
ly under the control of its influences. We hope therefore to see this 
subject taken up by some one whose time and opportunity are 
less restricted than our own, and whose superior knowledge of the 
laws which direct and govern our atmosphere, shall enable him to 
place it on more sure and elevated ground. 


148 Miscellanies. 


MISCELLANIES. 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


1. Abstract of the Proceedings of the N. York Lyceum of Nat. ist. 
(Continued from vol. x1x, p. 355 of this Journal.) 


It may be proper here to state, that although, owing to circumstan- 
.ces which have threatened the existence of the society, the Lyceum 
has not published its annals since 1828, nor any abstract of its pro- 
ceedings since 1830, its members have by no means relaxed from 
their former exertions for the promotion of Natural History. The 
Library and collections of the various departments, have been great= 
ly augmented, as will be seen by the following abstracts. ‘The col- 
lection of minerals, from private donations and especially that of the 
valuable cabinet of the late Dr. Mitchill, and from the replacement 
of inferior by more perfect specimens, has been very greatly aug- 
mented and improved. Ample matter has been collected for the fu- 
ture numbers of the Annals, one of which, it is hoped, will soon ap- 
pear. We may indeed affirm, that the Lyceum was never im a more 
flourishing condition than at the present time. ‘The rooms, situated 
at the corner of White and Centre streets, are open daily from 12 
o’clock until sun-set, where the librarian and keeper will be present 
to welcome all visitors who are interested in the promotion of natu- 
ral history. 


Abstract for 1831. 


January.—Dr. Dekay read a paper, entitled ‘‘ Examination of the 
facts and arguments by which it is attempted to be proved that Lava 
has not been subjected to great elevations of temperature.” In this 
memoir, the author, avoiding any decided hypothesis, confines him- 
self to the examination of the heat of volcanic lava, and endeavors 
to show that the arguments by which the doctrine of low temperature 
had been defended, were opposed by numerous facts; at the same 
time, he explains, on different principles, the few facts by which the 
idea of low temperature appears to be supported. 

Dr. Dekay read a paper on the propriety of preparing a Natural 
History Catalogue of the region within thirty miles of the city of 
New York. ‘The subject was referred to a committee, upon whose 
recommendation the following gentlemen were appointed to arrange 
the catalogue. - 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 149 


President Delafield, on Minerals; Prof. Torrey, Phenogamous 
plants; Mr. Halsey, Cryptogamous plants and Arachnides; Dr. 
Dekay, Zoophytes, Fishes, Mammalia and Annelides ; Maj. Leconte, 
Insects; Mr. I. Cozzens, Crustacea; Mr. Cooper, Mollusca, Rep- 
tiles and Birds. 

February.—Prof. McVickar presented, among other minerals, 
specimens of Anthracite from the Great St. Bernard, found at a 
height of one thousand feet above the Convent, (Hospice.) 

At the anniversary meeting, on the 28th inst., the following offi- 
cers were elected for 1831. 

President, Joseph Delafield; 1st V. President, Abraham Halsey ; 
2d V. President, Dr. J. E. Dekay ; Corresponding Secretary, Dr. 
J. Van Rensselaer ; Recording Sec’y, Dr. J. J. Graves; Treasu- 
rer, Wm. Cooper ; Librarian, Dr. J. E. Dekay. 

March.—Mr. Cooper read a notice of several birds seen by him 
in the neighborhood of the city of New York during the past winter, 
which he stated were not usually noticed at that season. The same 
gentleman read a communication from Maj. Leconte, stating that he 
had recently discovered two new species of Unio, and had heard of 
four others, one of which is spinous. In plants, he had discovered 
a new species of Thymus, and a new genus allied to Gerardia. 

May.—Mr. Cooper, from the committee on the Catalogue, read a 
Report on the Birds in the vicinity of the city of New York, accom- 
panied by a catalogue of the species, with preliminary remarks on 
their migration and geographical distribution. 

Mr. Cooper stated, that the large collection of bones recently dis- 
interred at Big Bone Lick, Kentucky, were then in the city, and 
belonged 1o Messrs. Barber and Graves—that it contained fourteen 
or fifteen tusks, ten or eleven lower jaws, and a skull, nearly perfect, 
(of the Mastodon,) with a large quantity of bones, stated to belong 
to nearly twenty different species, forming a variety and extent un- 
rivalled, as follows: bones and teeth of fossil elephant, mastodon, 
horse, ox, deer, and Megalonyx; of the latter genus, parts of the 
right lower jaw with four teeth, a separate tooth, clavicle, tibia? and 
perhaps other portions now for the first time discovered, as belonging 
to that animal. (The report, relating to these bones, and presented 
to the Lyceum, was subsequently published in this Journal.) 

September.—The President announced the death of their late 
member, Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, whereupon a resolution, express- 
ive of the feelings of the Lyceum, and of the loss which science in 


150 Miscellanies. 


general had sustained, was unanimously passed by the Society. A 
resolution was also passed, that Dr. Samuel Akerly be requested to 
draw up a biographical memoir of the late Dr. Mitchill. 
November.—Dr. Gale exhibited for inspection specimens of seve- 
ral different alloys of sodium and potassium, a number of which were 
liquid at the ordinary temperature, (60° Fah.) ; one, containing 12 
parts of potassium and 1 of sodium, was so light as to float on naph- 
tha, and congealed at the freezing point of water. Dr. G. stated, 
that this alloy was a remarkable instance of expansion, from the union 
of two different bodies, and that from the liquidity of the alloy we 
should infer, according to the laws of caloric, that much heat would 
have been absorbed, and consequently a considerable diminution of 
temperature would follow; on the contrary, an elevation of temper- 
ature was the consequence of the union. 
During the present year many valuable donations have been re- 
ceived, and the following gentlemen elected as members. 
Resident.—S. T’. Carey, Dr. Thomas D. Devan, Benjamin Pike. 
Corresponding.— Wm. R. Clapp, Philadelphia; Prof. Dobereiner, 
Jena; Prof. Breithaupt, Freiburg; Mr. McGulliwray, eis 
Don Claudius Gay, Valparaiso. 


Abstract for 1832. 


January.—Dr. Perrine, U.S. Consul at Campeachy, read a paper 
on an article used in the manufacture of cordage, and brought to our 
market under the name of Sisal Hemp. It is stated, by the author, 
to be a species of Agave, (gave Americana,) growing wild in great 
abundance in Yucatan. 

Prof. Torrey read a paper from the Rev. L. De Schweinitz, enti- 
tled “‘ Remarks on European plants; which have been more or pai 
naturalized in the United States.” 

Mr. Cooper communicated a paper on the: anatomy of the Wild 
Swan (Cygnus Bewickii) of Long Island, and exhibited parts of the 
skeleton of this animal. 

Dr. Feuchtwanger read a paper on Lucullite or black marble. 

Dr. Akerly exhibited for inspection numerous relics from a temple 
in the ancient city of Palenque, in Central America. 

February.—At the anniversary meeting, on the evening of the | 
27th inst., the following gentlemen were elected officers of the soci- 
ety for 1832. | 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 151 


President, Joseph Delafield; 1st V. President, Abraham Halsey ; 
2d V. President, J. E. Dekay; Corresponding Secretary, Dr. J. 
Van Rensselaer ; Recording Secretary, Dr. L. D. Gale; Treasu- 
rer, Wm. Cooper; Librarian, James E. Dekay. 

March.—Prof. Torrey read an interesting communication from 
Dr. Johnson, of Chiapas, on the history of the Mexican Albinos, and 
was requested to forward the communication to Prof. Silliman for 
publication. 

April.—Dr. Gale read a paper, entitled ‘ Observations on the 
bases of the alkaline earths, earths proper, new method of separating 
some of these bases, and on the new metals, Thorium, Pluranium, 
Ruthenium and Vanadium. 

Dr. Dekay read a paper on the volcanic islands which appeared 
in the Mediterranean, in 1831. 

May.—Dr. Harlan, of Philadelphia sneatien a variety of casts 
of the fossil Megalonyx, chiefly from White Cave, Kentucky, most 
of them unique and highly interesting specimens. Mr. Cooper made 
some verbal remarks on these fossils, and demonstrated the osteology 
of the parts hitherto known. 

June.—Mr. J. Finch gave an account of some Geological observa- 
tions made by himself on the region in the vicinity of Lake Erie and 
the River St. Lawrence, in which he pronounced the basin of those 
regions to be principally tertiary; he also gave an account of the 
columnar limestone found in the vicinity of Kingston, U. C., and on 
the Island of Montreal. 

Mr. D. J. Browne, of Boston, announced a locality of Fulgorite at 
Gurnet’s point near Duxbury, Mass., being the first locality noticed 
in the United States. 

October.—Dr. Geo. W. Boyd read a paper entitled, ‘‘ Observa- 
tions on the Mineralogy and Geology of the gold region of the south- 
ern United States,” and also presented an extensive suite of charac- 

teristic specimens. Dr. B. considers this region decidedly primi- 
tive, and also that the auriferous deposites have no connexion with 
the veins at present worked. 

Mr. Dewey reported on the Geological Text Book of Prof. Eaton, 
‘in which he stated, that although the work contains many valuable 
fats, yet for a text book he considers the arrangement a bad one. 

November.—Mr. Sampson read a paper on a cetaceous animal 
(Delphinus Globiceps) lately stranded on Fairfield beach, state of 
Connecticut, of which Mr. Jno. I. Glover gave a sketch and descrip- 
tion at a former meeting. 


152 Miscellanies. 


The President read a communication from Jno. E. Holbrook, M.D. 
Prof. of Anatomy and Physiology in the Medical College of Charles- 
ton, (S.C.) stating that he proposes publishing a work on the Her- 
petology of S. Carolina and Georgia. 

December.—Dr. Feuchtwanger read a paper, entitled “* Observa- 

tions on Nickel, and its application in the preparation of the new 
metal Argentine or New Silver,” in which he described most of the 
ores of Nickel, and the various modes of reducing them. 

_ Dr. Dekay presented a suite of specimens illustrative of the geology 
of the island of Mytilene, the Dardanelles, the Bosphorus, the neigh- 
borhood of Smyrna, and the Asiatic shores of the Black Sea, accom- 
panied with observations. 

Numerous donations in nearly all the branches of Natural History 
have been received from members and correspondents. 

_ The following gentlemen have been elected as members during the 
present year :-— 

Resident.—Dr. Wm. Baxter, Dr. R. P. Tanner, Dr. J. C. Jay, 
Wm. F. Denning, Dr. J. M. Leon, Fred’k. Prime. 

Correspondent.—Alonzo Clarke, Williamstown,’ Mass.; Dr. H. 
Perrine, Campeachy ; Counsellor Dr. Keugg, Berlin; Capt. F. A. 
Fokkes, Hamburg ; Geo. Gibbs, jr. Turks Island; Prof. Naccart, 
Chioggia, Venet. Terr’y ; Col. Ed. Clarke, Saugerties, N.Y. 


Abstract for 1833. 


January.—Dr. Dekay read a paper on the Gavial of New-Jersey, 
of which he exhibited to the Society a considerable portion of a lower 
jaw discovered there by Lieut. W. W. Mather, of West Point, from 
whom he also read_a letter communicating some geological observa- 
tions on this region. 

Mr. Cooper read a report on the specimens of Megalonyx referred 
to by him at a previous meeting: They consisted of several pha- 
langes of the fore foot, and there is reason to presume that they 
formed part of the original specimen made known by Mr. Jefferson. 

February.—At the anniversary meeting, held on the 25th instant, 
the following gentlemen were elected officers for 1833. 

President, Jos. Delafield; 1st V. President, 4bm. Halsey; 2d 
V. President, Jno. Torrey ; Corresponding Secretary, Dr. Jeremiah 
Van Rensselaer ; Recording Secretary, Dr. Jas. E. Dekay; 'Trea- 
surer, Wm. Cooper ; Librarian, Dr. J. C. Jay. | 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 153 


~ April.—Mr. Cooper read a communication from Prof. Troost, of 
the Nashville University, entitled, ‘‘ Description of a new genus, Acon- 
tia, and of two new species of Heterodon, accompanied with draw- 
ings. 
Under the genus Acontia, the author describes two species, viz. 
Acontia leucostoma, or Cotton Mouth, with poisonous fangs. 
sd atrofuscus, Highland Mokeson, Copper Head, Pilot, &c. 
Under the genus Heterodon the author enumerates 3 species, viz. 
Heterodon niger, of Beauvais. 


as annulatus of Troost, inhabits swamps. 
¢ tigrinus of ‘Troost. All of which are found in Ten- 
nessee. 


Dr. Gale read a report on Dysodile or mineral paper, presented 
at a former meeting by Capt. Perry, and referred to Dr. Gale for ex- 
amination and report. 

May.—Dr. Samuel L. Metcalf read a paper entitled, ‘“ A New 
Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism, in which he maintains, 1. the iden- 
tity of caloric and electricity ; that atmospheric electricity or lightning, 
results from the accumulation of caloric in aqueous vapor, and from 
its rapid passage out of vapor into bodies which contain less of it : 
2. that galvanic electricity is produced by the oxidation of metallic 
plates in acids or alkalies; that its properties vary according to the 
size and number of the metallic plates, and the rapidity of their oxid- 
ation: 3. that common electricity is derived from the atmosphere, 
and from other bodies by pressure, and by friction ; in short, that the 
latent caloric of all bodies is convertible into heat or electricity, ac- 
cording to the mode of its disengagement from other matter. 

He further maintained, that caloric is the cause of all the powers 
and motions of other matter ; that it is the combining force in cohe- 
sive and chemical affinities; that it is the cause of capillary attraction, 
and of gravitation ; that it is the cause of light, by expanding com- 
mon matter into a state of extreme diffusion, until it becomes phos- 
phorescent and imponderable. He also maintains that the aurora 
borealis is produced by the caloric which is given out by the upper 
current of the atmosphere, as it passes from the tropical to the polar 
latitudes, by which it is greatly condensed ; and further, that caloric 
is the source of all life and motion throughout creation. ' 

In Part Il. he endeavored to show, that magnetic polarity was 
caused by the passage of radiant caloric from the tropical to the polar 
latitudes, because the force of magnetic power coincides with the cold- 

Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 20 


154 Miscellanies. 


est points in the polar regions. He maintained from numerous anal- 
ogies, that if the whole earth were of uniform surface and elevation, 
the true north and south poles would be the centers of the greatest 
cold, and of magnetic action, and that there would be no variation of 
the needle; but that from the varied distribution of land and water, 
mountains and plains, they followed a corresponding variation of ter- 
ritorial temperature in the same latitudes, which was also accompani- 
ed by a corresponding variation of the needle. He maintained that 
the unusual accumulation of ice in the polar seas caused a shifting of 
the magnetic poles; that they are further north during summer than 
winter ; that their movements are sometimes eastward, and at other 
times westward, but not uniformly so. He further showed, that all 
the variations of the needle, annual, monthly, and diurnal, uniformly 
obeyed the variations of terrestrial temperature. He has identified 
all the phenomena of magnetism with the fundamental doctrines of 
climate ; and the whole work may be considered as an attempt to re- 
solve all the motions and changes which take place throughout na- 
ture, into the agency of a simple and universal element. He consid- 
ers the relations of caloric to ponderable matter, as the basis of the 
whole structure of physics. 

This treatise has been since published under the above title. 

July.—Mr. Partridge exhibited specimens of pink-colored silk, 
dyed by the flowers of the Monarda didyma, or sweet balm. 

August.—Dr. Swift, U.S. N., exhibited some new and singular 
reliques recently disinterred from the ancient city of Palenque i in 
Central America. 

September.—Dr. Akerly read a communication, entitled “ Extracts 
from a correspondence of Don Francisco Corroy of Tobasco in rela- 
tion to the antiquities of Palenque.” 

Many valuable donations have been received by the Society dur- 
ing the present year, of which are mentioned a large box of inter- 
esting Swedish minerals, received from H. Wheaton, Esq., Charge 
d’Affairs from the U. S. to the Court of Denmark; and also a box 
of minerals, marine and fresh water shells, and Corallines, from 
H. Perrine, Esq., U. S. Consul. at Campeachy. 

The following gentlemen have been elected as members during 
the present year :— 

Resident.—Jos. Foulke, junr., Dr. Edward Ludlow, Dr. William 
Edgar, Dr. S. L. Metcalf, Dr. Minturn Post, J. M. Bradhurst, 
Hen. C. Brush, Rufus Prime, William Partridge, R. H. Brown, 
Dr. W. C. Wallace. 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 155 


Corresponding. —M. V. De Meleon, Paris; Dr. Thos. Dillard, 
U.S. N.; Dr. Jno, Finch, London; Don Francisco de Corroy, 
Tobasco; Dr. 4. ddee, U.S. N. 


Abstract for 1834. 


Jan. 6.—The President, Joseph Delafield, in the chair. Visiters— 
Mr. T. Craven and Lieut. H. Pinckney, as a committee from the 
U. S. Naval Lyceum, return thanks for the donation of our Annals, 
which were voted to them at the meeting of Dec. 16, 1833, and 
offer a reciprocation of civilities on the part of the Naval Lyceum, 
and an invitation to the members of this society to visit their rooms 
at all times. The Treasurer announced the receipt of No. 17 of 
L. and E. Phil. Mag. for November; also No. 36 of Mag. Nat. Hist. 
(Loudon’s) for November, 1833. 

Jan. 13.—The President in the chair. Dr. J. Augustine Smith 
presented “Report of Commissioners in relation to supplying the 
city of New York with water.” The President mentioned an in- 
quiry made by Commodore Dekay, relative to the water of the Dead 
Sea, a quantity of which was presented to the Lyceum some time 
since ; the water was referred to Mr. Chilton for examination, and 
the latter gentleman was called upon for a report thereon. 

Jan. 20.—The President in the chair. Dr. Torrey presents, in 
the name of the author, Icones Lithographice, &c.; by I. A. Guil- 
lemin. ‘The same gentleman also presents, Bryce’s Tables of Min- 
erals, Rocks, &c.; also, Bibliotheca Americana; also, Essai sur le 
genre “ Hieracium,” par Auguste Mounier; also, a specimen of 
palm in slate from the East Indies, a specimen of fossil wood from 
near Edinburgh, and a specimen of sandstone, containing vegetable 
remains in a state nearly unaltered, from Scotland. Dr. Torrey 
made some remarks upon fossil wood, and stated that it was at pres- 
ent supposed that all dicotyledonous fossil wood was of only one er 
two kinds, and principally pine. The same gentleman exhibited 
some specimens of petrified wood, in a rough massive state, and also 
polished, yet not exhibiting any appearance of organic structure ; 
the same article, when cut or ground very thin and attached toa 
piece of glass, exhibits a decided organization. 

Jan. 27.—Dr. Torrey in the chair. Dr. Torrey presented a fine 
trilobite, found at Utica, (in the carboniferous limestone of Eaton,) 
which appears to be a species not described by Green in his Mono- 
graph on American trilobites ; referred to Dr. Feuchtwanger. Mrs. 


156 Miscellanies. 


Samuel L. Mitchill presented eighteen boxes of minerals, being the 
chief part of the valuable collection of the late Dr. Mitchill, the 
former President of this society. ‘This donation contained a large 
number of choice and elegant minerals, which the cabinet of the 
society did not previously possess, and was particularly rich in spe- 
cimens of the metals. ‘The Secretary was directed to announce 
their reception, and communicate the thanks of the society to Mrs. 
Mitchill. It having been mentioned by the President at the last 
meeting, that it was the intention of the Government to send the 
newly raised corps of U. S. Dragoons, during the ensuing summer, 
to the Rocky Mountains and different other parts of the western 
country, Dr. Torrey suggested, that it would be very desirable that 
the society should exert its influence to obtain the appointment of an 
experienced naturalist to attend the expedition; and upon motion it 
was resolved, that the President and Corresponding Secretary do 
make application, in the name of the society, to the Secretary of 
War, for the purpose of obtaining such appointment to be made, in 
which case the society will cheerfully undertake to find a person in 
all respects qualified for this duty. 

Feb. 3.—The President in the chair. The Corresponding Sec- 
retary presented, from the Russian Consul, in the name of the Im- 
perial Academy of Sciences, the following works, viz.—“ Memoires 
de Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,” Vol. II, 
in four parts; “Catalogue raisonnée des objets de Zoologie recuilles 
dans un voyage au Caucase,” &c. par EK. Ménétries; ‘“ Transactions 
of Imperial Academy at St. Petersburg,” Dec. 1832. Mrs. J. G. 
Bogert presented ‘‘ Memoirs of Baron Cuvier, by Mrs. Lee.” A 
MS. communication, received through Mr. Audubon, from the Rev. 
John Backman, of Charleston, S. C., was read, ‘On the powers of 
Sight and Scent possessed by the Turkey Buzzard, (Cathartes aura,} 
and the Black Vulture, (Cathartes atrata,)” detailing a series of ex- 
periments tending to prove that these birds are attracted to their prey 
only by the sight, and cannot discover their food, however strongly 
tainted, if hidden from view; also, that they very readily feed on 
fresh as well as putrid meat. On motion, this paper was forwarded 
to Prof. Silliman for publication. 

Feb. 10.—The President in the chair. ‘The President reported, 
that the resolution of the society on the subject of the expedition to 
the Rocky Mountains, had been communicated, as directed, to the 
Secretary of War. 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 157 


Feb. 17.—The President in the chair. Dr. Boyd reported, that 
he had prepared a collection of the duplicate minerals from the so- 
ciety’s museum, and on motion it was resolved, that the same be pre- 
serted to the Naval Lyceum. Capt. Perry presented, from the Na- 
val Lyceum, specimens of the Chilian Bark, used for cleansing, as 
a substitute for soap. Referred to Dr. Torrey. 

Feb. 24.—Anniversary Meeting.—The President in the chair. 
The following gentlemen were elected as officers of the society for 
the present year. 

President, Joseph Delafield ; 1st V. President, Dr. John Torrey ; 
2d Vice President, Wm. Cooper ; Corresponding Secretary, Dr. J. 
Van Rensselaer ; Recording Secretary, Samuel T’. Carey; Treas- 
urer, Wm. Cooper; Librarian, Dr. Geo. W. Boyd. 

March 3.—The President in the chair. The usual annual reports 
were presented by the Treasurer, Curators and Librarian. The Cu- 
rators report, that the extensive collections of the society are now 
kept in proper order and arrangement, and that the rooms are open 
daily for the reception of visiters. They also state, that many and 
valuable additions have been made to every department of the so- 
ciety’s museum during the past year, and that the keeper appointed 
by the society to have charge of the library and museum, has been 
actively engaged in the arrangement and preservation of the numer- 
ous articles in the museum of the society. The library is announced 
to be in a state of proper arrangement, and to have been increased 
by the addition of many valuable works during the past year. Dr. 
Boyd presented a report upon the minerals lately received from Mrs. 
S. L. Mitchill, and states that the majority of them will be acquisi- 
tions to the cabinet, either as new, or of a superior quality to those 
already belonging to the society. The President announced the re- 
ceipt of Part 1, Vol. I, of the “ ‘Transactions of the Zoological So- 
ciety of London ;” also “* Proceedings of the Committee of Science 
and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London,” in two 
vols., accompanied by a letter from the Secretary of the Society, in- 
viting an interchange of correspondence. On motion, the Annals of 
the society were directed to be sent to the Zoological Society of 
London. Dr. Torrey presented, “Tabular Arrangement of Miner- 
als,” by Dr. Thomson of Glasgow. The President presented a spe- 
cimen of Blende in primitive limestone, from Yonkers, N.Y. Mr. 
A. R. Thomson mentioned the discovery of a large mass of native 
copper, in the vicinity of Somerville Copper Works, New Jersey 


158 MMiscellanies. 


Dr. Torrey laid before the society the first volume of N. A. Grami- 
nex and Cyperacee, by Asa Gray, M.D., illustrated by dried spe- 
cimens of the plants. On motion, a copy of this work for the libra- 
ry was ordered to be purchased. Mr. Edward Hayris was elected a 
resident member. 

March 10.—The President in the chair. ‘The Treasurer laid on 
the table the December and January Nos. of the Philosophical Maga- 
zine. ‘The President read a letter from the Secretary of War, in 
answer to that conveying the resolution of the society relative to the 
appointment of a scientific person to accompany the proposed expe- 
dition to the far West, in which it is stated that no provision has been 
made for a naturalist to the expedition, but that any such person can 
join the expedition at his own expense. The President also read a 
letter from Mr. Geo. Catlin, corresponding member of the society, 
accompanying a beautiful specimen of Baculite, from the banks of 
the Missouri, and offering to procure a further supply for the cabinet 
of the Lyceum. The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from — 
the U.S. Naval Lyceum, conveying thanks for the donation of min- 
erals lately made to that institution. Dr. S. L. Metcalf read a paper 
on “Molecular Attractions,” in which he considers caloric as the 
cause of that and all other attractions. A. R. ‘Thomson presented 
a specimen of native copper from Somerville, N.J.; referred to Dr. 
Gale for examination and report. 

March 17.—The President in the chair. ‘The Treasurer laid on 
the table Phil. Mag. for February, and Mag. Nat. Hist. for January, 
1834. Dr. Gale reported on the specimen referred to him at the 
last meeting, that it is native copper and red oxide of copper. Mr. 
Cramer exhibited to the society a drawing of a gigantic emerald, 
discovered in the Ural Mountains, and which is at present in the col- 
lection of the Emperor of Russia. On motion, the President was 
requested to acknowledge to Mr. Geo. Catlin the receipt of his letter 
and the accompanying specimen of Baculite, and at the same time to 
request him in the name of the society to furnish specimens of all 
such fossils as he may be enabled to collect from the locality men- 
tioned in his letter, or its neighborhood, with any information he can 
furnish respecting them. An undetermined mineral from the socie- 
ty’s collection was referred to Dr. Feuchtwanger for examination 
and report. Mr. Cooper presented three different species of Asteria 
from Turks Island; also, a number of preserved fishes, of species 
not previously in the museum of the society. 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 159 


March 24.—The President in the chair. Dr. Feuchtwanger re- 
ported on the mineral referred to him at the last meeting, and pre- 
sented an analysis of the same. ‘The mineral was pronounced to be 
a variety of Miemite. The keeper laid on the table a list of min- 
erals wanting to the society’s collections. Dr. Swift presented, from 
the U. S. Naval Lyceum, “The Constitution and By-Laws” of that 
society. Dr. Torrey laid on the table a specimen of native crystal- 
lized sulphur, belonging to the cabinet, which he had prepared and 
polished so as to exhibit its power of double refraction. Dr. Swift 
presented seeds of the Sesamum orientale, or Bhenne plant, grown 
at Charleston, S.C. Dr. Torrey exhibited a specimen of Jolite, 
from Haddam, Conn., which had been cut and polished as a gem. 

March 31.—The President in the chair. Dr. Ludlow took his 
seat as member of the society. The Treasurer laid on the table 
‘No. 31, Edin. New Phil. Jour. Oct. 1833 to Jan. 1834. Dr. Tor- 
rey and Dr. Gale reported on the mineral referred from the society’s 
collection, which they find to be a pure phosphate of lime. On mo- 
tion, a committee of journals was appointed for the present year, con- 
sisting of Dr. Torrey, Wm. Cooper, and Samuel 'T. Carey. 

April 14.—The President in the chair. ‘The Treasurer present- 
ed, from Capt. F. A. Fokkes, our corresponding member, now in — 
South America, an interesting collection of shells and fossils from 
different countries; referred to Mr. Cooper, and thanks voted for 
the same. Dr. Jay exhibited a very beautiful and perfect specimen 
of Trigonia pectinata; a recent species, from New South Wales. 
Dr. G. W. Boyd presented some minerals, including Datholite, from 
Patterson, N.J.; Lignite, from South Amboy, N.J.; and sundry 
varieties of Quartz, from Brazil. The President presented speci- 
mens of Sil. Carb. Zinc, from Westphalia. Mr. Charles Cramer, 
of St. Petersburg, was elected a corresponding member. 

April 21.—The President in the chair. A translation, by Dr. 
Feuchtwanger, of a letter from Prof. Breithaupt of Jena, was com- 
municated, in which he describes some American minerals, one of 
which he considers a new species. Dr. Torrey presented, from the 
author, a copy of Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology and Nat- 
ural History of Massachusetts; thanks voted. Dr. Gale exhibited 
an experiment ae the vibration of metallic bodies at different 
temperatures. 

April 28.—The President in the chair. The Treasurer laid on 
the table L. and E. Phil. Jour. No. 21, for March. The Corres- 


160 Miscellanies. 


ponding Secretary read a communication from the Secretary of the 
Physical Class of the Asiatic Society, at Calcutta, accompanying a 
donation of ‘“ Asiatic Researches, Transactions of the Physical Class, 
Part 2;” also, ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” edited 
by James Prinsep, F. R.S.; also, “ Gleanings in Science,” Vol. III, 
title page, preface and index. ‘Thanks were voted for the same, 
which the Corresponding Secretary was requested to communicate, 
together with a set of the Annals. An invitation was received from 
the President and Secretary of the American Lyceum, inviting the 
attendance, by delegation, of the Lyceum of Natural History at their 
annual meeting, 2d proximo. On motion, a committee was appoint- 
ed to attend the meeting of the American Lyceum, as requested ; 
committee composed of Drs. Torrey, Van Rensselaer and Gale. 
Dr. G. W. Boyd presented a series of geological specimens from 
the Cherokee country of Georgia. P 
May 12.—The President, Joseph Delafield, in the chair. Visiter, 
Mr. Whelpley, of Cleaveland, Ohio. The Librarian announced the 
reception of the American Journal of Science and Arts, No. 53, and 
Loudon’s Journal, No. 38. Dr. Gale, from the committee appomted 
to attend the meetings of the American Lyceum, reported upon the 
transactions of that society at their late session, and which related 
specially to the subject of education. Dr. Swift announced that Dr. 
Adee, our corresponding member, who is about to visit South Amer- 
ica, had expressed his readiness to collect objects of natural history 
for the society, and had requested directions to guide him in the pur- 
suit of them. Dr. Dekay was appointed a committee to prepare in- 
structions for Dr. Adee. The President laid before the society a 
list of a collection of books, plates, &c., chiefly relating to natural 
history, being from the library of Dr. Dekay; also, a box of shells, 
fish, nests and eggs of birds, &c., forwarded from South America, 
by Mr. Reynolds, which are deposited with the Lyceum by Dr. De- 
kay. Mr. Whelpley, of Cleaveland, Ohio, laid before the society 
part of the skeleton of a fish, the species of which he was desirous 
to identify; referred to Mr. Cooper. Dr. James E. Dekay pre- 
sented an extensive collection of Fuci, finely preserved; an exten- 
sive collection of plants, from the vicinity of Constantinople ; a suite 
of colored-casts to illustrate “‘Green’s Monograph on American Tri- 
lobites ;” a jar of fishes from the Bosphorus; various articles, as 
follows—five minerals, four trilobites, fossil crab, fossil shells from 
Athens, specimen of Pterocera, box of plaster for casts; also, a 


Proceedings of the New York Lyceum. 161 


specimen of a recent crustaceous animal, said to be allied to the 
trilobite, brought by Dr. Eights from the South Pacific Ocean. The 
plants were referred to S. T. Carey for examination. Dr. Jay pre- 
sented minerals and fossils, as follows—cubic pyrites, forest marble, 
quartz crystals, two specimens of fossil fishes from Mount Hebron, 
fossil Ostrea from Florida, four specimens of polished madreporites. 
Mr. Glover presented a specimen of reddish clay, raised in the Chinese 
Sea upon the flukes of an anchor. Dr. David Hosack presented a 
bust of Sir James Edward Smith. Mr. H.R. Schoolcraft presented, 
through Dr. Dekay, a box of fossils from Lake Huron and the sur- 
rounding country. Mr. Cooper exhibited, from Baron Lederer, a 
number of a work recently published, on the animals of Brazil, en- 
titled “Collectanea ad Faunam Brasilie, von Karl Von Schreibers, 
Vienna, 1833,” which work he was desired to exchange for others 
on natural history. Dr. John Backman, of Charleston, S. C., was 
elected a corresponding member. James McGillivray, Esq. of Ed- 
inburgh, was elected a corresponding member. 

May 19.—Dr. Swift in the chair.—Visitor, Mr. Whelpley of 
Cleaveland, Ohio. Dr. 8S. L. Metcalf delivered some remarks on the 
phenomena of the galvanic pile, and declared his opinion, that the 
results perceived on varying the number of plates, proved beyond 
doubt the identity of caloric and latent electricity. As the size of 
the plates were diminished and the number increased, the imponder- 
able fluid evolved presented Jess and less the properties of caloric, 
and more and more those of electricity. By immersing the plates 
in the acid solution, the oxygen of the acid and the metal, give out 
their caloric in the process of oxidation. Dr. Boyd presented a spe- 
cimen of Orthoceratite from Newburg, N. Y. 

May 26.—The President in the chair.—Mr. Cooper reported on 
the shells presented by Capt. Fokkes.—The Treasurer announced 
the reception of No. 22 L. and E. Phil. Mag. for April.‘ Contri- 
butions to Geology,” by Isaac Lea, was presented by the author, 
thanks voted. ‘ Memoires de la Socicté de Physique et d’Histoire 
naturelle de Geneve,” Vol. v, was presented by that Society, thanks 
voted for the same, and a copy of the Annals to be forwarded in re- 
turn. Mr. Cooper presented ‘ Ornitologia Toscana” Vols. 2 and 3, 
also two specimens of the “‘ Chironectes levigatus,” of Cuvier. Mr. 
Cramer presented * Constitution of the St. Petersburg Mineralogical 
Society.” Prof. Hitchcock presented through the Treasurer speci- 
mens of some fossils described in his “ Report of the Geology of 

Vor. XXVII.—No. 1. 21 


162 JMiscellanies. 


Massachusetts,” also a specimen of the Bucholzite? Various shells, 
molluscous animals and fishes presented by Dr. Dekay, were exhib- 
ited by the Librarian—referred to Mr. Cooper. 

June 2.—The President in the chair.—Visitor, Mr. Francis Al- 
ger of Boston.—Mr. Cooper reported on the articles presented by 
Dr. Dekay. Dr. Feuchtwanger exhibited beautiful specimens of 
ruby silver from Xacatecas, Mexico, the same gentleman presented 
two perfect specimens of the Murex radix, and one specimen of the 
Murex regis from the Pacific Ocean, also “An Essay on green och- 
reous iron, in Latin and German, by Gustavus Schueler.” Dr. Boyd 
presents a specimen of the Harpa nobilis. Mr. Archibald Robertson 
presents a specimen of gold rock from Cabarrus Cy., N. Carolina, 
thanks voted. Mr. T. Whelpley of Ohio, presents the skull of an 
undetermined fish, which was referred to Mr. Cooper. Mr. Cooper 
presents a prepared specimen of “ Hemitripterus americanus of Cu- 
vier,” (Scorpena flava of Mitchill) from the New York waters. Dr. 
Swift presents Smith’s Treatise on “an Improvement in the Mari- 
ner’s and Surveyor’s Compass needle.” Mr. Thomson presents some 
fresh water shells from Pompton, N. J. Dr. Tobin was elected a 
resident member. Dr. Jno. Watson was elected a resident member. 
Mr. Francis Alger of Boston, was elected a corresponding member. 

June 9.—Mr. Cooper in the chair. Dr. Watson attended and 
took his seat. Ed. Phil. Jour., Oct. to April was received. Dr. 
Feuchtwanger announced the discovery of a new mineral in Hunga- 
ry, named ozokerite, of the consistence of wax, burns readily, leav- 
ing when extinguished an agreeable odor. ‘The same gentleman al- 
so mentioned the discovery in the south of France of an argentifer- 
ous galena, yielding about ;22, of platina. Dr. Swift announced 
that the Naval Lyceum had received from Madagascar a living spe- 
cimen of Lemur mongos of Cuvier. Mr. D. Jay Browne of Boston, 
presented through the Treasurer, a copy of his work, entitled “ Let- 
ters from the Canary Islands,”—thanks voted. ‘‘ A practical treat- 
ise on dyeing woollen, cotton and silk, by Wm. Partridge,” was pre- 
sented by the author. Mr. Cooper presented a specimen of calea~ 
reous spar (doubly refracting) from Turks Island, also several marine 
animals, principally crustacea, from the mediterranean, also three 
specimens of Serpula and one specimen of Pterocera truncata from 
the Mauritius, also a mass of mica slate with an imbedded mineral, 
from the vicinity of New York, the latter referred to Dr. Feucht- 
wanger. The Librarian announced the reception of a book case for 


Miscellanies. 163 


the Society, presented by Mr. Charles Cramer of St. Petersburg,— 
thanks of the Society voted for the same. 

June 16.—The President in the chair. Dr. Feuchtwanger re- 
ported in part on the specimen referred to him at the last meeting, 
that it appears to be a phosphate of lime, but requests opportunity 
for further examination. Mr. Cramer presents writings of the Min- 
eralogical Society of St. Petersburg in Russian, Vol. 1. Dr. Feucht- 
wanger presents a large and fine specimen of elastic bitumen from 
England. Dr. Jay presents a fine specimen of Bulimus ovatus, also 
of Bulimus goniostoma, also of Auricula leporis, from Rio Janeiro, S. 
A. Capt. F. A. Fokkes presents a large echinite from Montmartre 
near Paris, also an ancient hatchet (greenstone) from France, and 
another (hornstone) from Germany, also a beautiful wax model rep- 
resenting the anatomy of the internal ear, made by Heinemann of 
Brunswick, accompanied by the advertisement of the author. 

June 30.—Mr. Wm. Cooper in the chair. The Treasurer lays 
on the table Nos. 22 and 23 of Lon. and Ed. Phil. Jour. for April 
and May, 1834. Dr. Swift presents a book entitled “ History of the 
Herculean Straits, by Lieut. Col. Thomas James, Ist Vol., London, 
1771. Dr. G. W. Boyd, presents a suite of magnesian minerals 
from Hoboken, New Jersey, twenty eight in number, including fine © 
and characteristic samples of all the varieties occurring at that cele- 
brated locality. A pamphlet entitled “Geology of New London 
and Windham counties, Conn.” by Lieut. W. W. Mather, U. S. A., 
was presented by the author through Dr. Torrey. 


2. Stony concretions in the Ovary of a Turtle.—(Extract of a let- 
ter from JoserpH E. Muss, A. M., to the editor, dated Cam- 
bridge, E. S. Maryland, April 3, 1833.)—I offer for solution in 
your inestimable Journal, a philosophical problem of much intricacy, 
the formation of three minerals, true oolites, (so T name them, not 
from imaginary similitude, but real character,) in the body of a living 
and healthy animal. 

At supper a few nights ago, on a dish considered in our section of 
the country to be a great (although a very usual) luxury, the terra- 
pin, ‘ Testudo fluviatilis,’ was boiled and served up, on the table, as 
usual, with the shell unbroken. Having broken the shell of one of 
the heaviest and fattest, though not the largest, I dissected the four 
quarters and placed them over a lamp for dressing, and proceeded to 
open the ovary, when, to my utter astonishment, I found three of the 
eggs had turned to stone, which I now send you. 


164 Miscellanies. 


The ovary was of the usual size and appearance, and contained a 
large quantity of eggs, perfectly natural, both in appearance and qual- 
ity, except the three above named. 

As I am informed that in the eastern States you have not this del- 
icacy, (the terrapin,) it may be well to state that the ovary, during 
the winter, and at this season, is generally large and full of eggs, in- 
closed, when full grown, within a very tender and soft shell or mem- 
brane, hardly admitting of the correct application of this term ; when 
not matured, this membrane is absent ; and the same ovary contains 
always both kinds: in the former stage the eggs are long, in the lat- 
ter round, and the yolk floating in a viscid albumen ; they are gene- 
rally so closely compressed in the ovary as to appear like one mass ; 
and when it is opened, having been previously boiled in that state, 
they exhibit flattened and deeply excavated sides, the impress of 
each other, such as you will perceive in two of the specimens sent 5 
one of which my curiosity led me partially to break with a chisel and 
mallet ; the knife could not accomplish it: Ihave sent of this the 
scaly fragments. ‘The third you will perceive is larger than the rest, 
and not indented ; from which the inference must be drawn that its 
growth and petrifaction happened first, and when the others were in 
their soft and natural state: they all bear evident marks of recent 
and continuing, although partial and irregular, accretion, since thet 
original formation. 

The exterior thin layer of these stones obviously represents the © 
outer thin membrane of the natural egg ; yet it has a yellowish tint; 
whereas that membrane is naturally white : the next larger, which is 
much thicker, was clearly the albumen, and is nearly white; the 
large solid ball or nucleus, on which these two are formed, has con- 
centric layers of a dull color, marking the limits of the yelk : the two 
first are chiefly calcareous petrifactions, and almost wholly soluble 
in dilute muriatic acid ; these are readily cut with a knife ; the ball 
or nucleus is extremely hard, consisting of layers cemented by car- 
bonate of lime, so intimately or firmly uniting them, that a keen 
chisel is necessary for their division; a knife cannot penetrate it. 

What caused this petrifaction? why so partial in its operation? 
three full grown eggs being alone changed into stone in the midst of 
numerous others, in the same ovary, wholly clear of its influence : 
why should not all the eggs in the ovary be obedient to the same laws _ 
which governed these thisel ? 

What adventitious causes could have operated, without disturbing 
the animal economy, which was, with the single exception named, 


Miscellanies. 165 


healthy, and bearing full internal evidences of organic and functional 
perfection ? 

To me the case appears mysteriously anomalous ; the calculus of 
animal production ; the stalactites, and other petrifactions, have ob- 
vious causes to be found in the filtration and deposition, from sur- 
charged fluids; or, chemical precipitates, under uniform and well 
defined laws : but the case before us is referable, I apprehend, to no 
definite or known law.* 

Remark.—The above communication has been delayed, because 
the petrified eggs which, although, as it now appears, they arrived 
safely and in season, found a hiding place where they were long 
overlooked, and were supposed to be lost. 

Their appearance corresponds perfectly with the above descrip- 
tion ; their shape is not unlike that of the Echinus ananchytes, for 
which, in a hasty view, they might be mistaken ; their color is yel- 
lowish white, structure perfectly lamellar; when heated they emit 
an animal odor ; dissolve rapidly, with brisk effervescence, in muri- 
atic acid, but leave a considerable residuum, probably of phosphates 
and animal matter. Since their re-discovery there has not been time 
for an exact analysis.—Ep. 


3. Vertebral Bone of a Mastodon.—In digging a canal for a man- 
ufactory in the town of Berlin, parish of Britain, Connecticut, about 
twelve miles S.W. of Hartford, the workmen found a vertebral bone 
of a mastodon in a state of high preservation. 

The spinous process is 17 inches long; the extremes of the trans- 
verse processes are 10 to 12 inches apart ; the bones which contain- 
ed the spinal cord is 5! inches in diameter, and nearly 3 inches 
thick ; it is cup-shaped, or concavo-convex, with the convex portion 
forward. ‘The cavity for the spinal cord is 33 inches in height by 22 
in breadth. 

The bone is of a dark chocolate color: it is not mineralized in the 
least ; no portion of it is injured or missing, except a small part of 
the terminating processes ; the spinal canal is smooth and polished, 
as are the cavities for the articulation of the ribs: they appear to re- 
tain their cartilage, which is very smooth to the touch, and from 


* Pearls are believed to have their origin in blighted ova, since the enquiries rel- 
ative to this subject by Sir E. Home, (see his Comp. Anat. Vol. v. p. 502 and Phil. 
Trans. 1826, part 111. p. 339.) May not the exp!anation of their formation equally 
apply to the present bodies ?—(C. U. S.) 


166 Miscellanies. 


the double cavity on each side of the vertebra, it is obvious that the 
heads of the ribs were bifurcated. aba 

The bone bears the impress of the muscles and tendons that were 
inserted into it; there is even a degree of lustre where these soft 
parts played, and had the bone been preserved in an anatomical mu- 
seum, it could scarcely have been more perfect. It was discovered 
in a tufaceous lacustrine formation, containing bleached individuals of 
the genera Planorbis, Lymnza, Cyclas, &c. similar to those occupy- 
ing the waters of the vicinity; and from the high preservation of the 
bone, the hope was entertained that the other parts might be near at 
hand, and that possibly a skeleton might be obtained. ‘This is we 
believe only the third instance of a mastodon bone found east of the 
Hudson river. . 

1. One presented to Yale College Museum by Hon. John Cotton 
Smith, late Gov. of Connecticut, found we believe in Sharon, Conn. 

2. Molar teeth found at Cheshire, in digging the canal from New 
Haven to Northampton. 

3. The other is the present case. 

The vertebra of Berlin was generously presented by Mr. EH. H. 
Burritt, and several other gentlemen were active in procuring and 
forwarding this specimen, and in promoting an investigation of the 
ground. We are particularly indebted to Dr. John R. Lee. 


4. Fossil Tooth——From Mr. John Hazeltine, of Jamestown, 
Chatauque County, State of New York, we have received by the 
kindness of Mr. John T. Norton, of Albany, an interesting specimen 
of a portion of a fossil jaw, containing two molar teeth in a high state 
of preservation. ‘The circumstances attending their position and dis- 
covery are thus described in a letter before us, dated Aug. 4, 1834. 

“They were found by Mr. Hazeltine in digging for the foundation 
of a manufactory on the outlet of Chatauque Lake, about ten feet 
below the surface of an unbroken soil. ‘The man who twenty two 
years ago cut the first trees where the village of Jamestown now 
stands, is still living; and the whole of that region was then an unbro- 
ken forest. ‘The soil where these teeth were found is mostly gravel ; 
they were imbedded, in the words of Mr. H., in ‘a kind of black 
muck.’ Some other bones were visible, but too much decayed to 
be rescued. As near asI could judge, the teeth were found a little 
below the present level of the creek. Chatauque Lake is situated 
seven miles from Lake Erie, about sixty miles above Buffalo ; it is 


Miscellanies. 167 


between six and seven hundred feet above the level of Lake Erie ; 
its outlet, on which Jamestown stands, and where these teeth were 
found, is about twenty miles from Lake Erie; its waters unite with 
Caunewauga Creek seven miles from the lake, and forty miles from 
the lake unite with the Alleghany river at Warren, Pennsylvania.” 

The two molar teeth together measure 21 inches in length, by 1 
inch in breadth ; their depth from the top of the ridges to the bottom 
of the prong, is from 13} to 11 inch. The jaw, and the parts of the 
teeth included in it, are of a dark brown; the exposed parts of the 
teeth are mainly white, but on the ridges where they are worn down 
by mastication, they are brown in the proper bony portion of the 
tooth, and white in the enamel. The processes of the teeth were 
evidently once very high and sharp, like those of the mastodon, and 
they are still very prominent, although much worn down by grind- 
ing ; the surfaces exposed have a high polish, both in the brown 
bone and in the white enamel. The teeth, although moveable in 
their sockets, are perfect in their connexion with the jaw, and the en- 
tire structure is apparent. 

The question being put to Prof. Knight, of the Medical Institution 
of Yale College, whether it is possible that they might belong to the 
young mastodon, although that idea was immediately abandoned as ~ 
untenable, the reasons assigned by Dr. Knight being instructive, we 
take the liberty to annex them. 

*‘T have examined the fossil teeth which you gave me, and I am 
satisfied that they cannot be the infant teeth of the mastodon: for the 
following reasons :-— 

“Ist. They are evidently the teeth of an adult, and probably an 
old animal: I judge this to be so, not so much from the wear- 
ing away of the crown, as from the entire and unperforated state of 
the end of the root. In infant teeth, there is usually, perhaps always, 
a deficiency at the extremity of the root, or at least a foramen of 
some size for the entrance of the nutrient vessels. 

©2d. They are too small. I know of no instance in which there 
is so great a difference in the size of the infant and adult teeth of an 
animal, as there is between them and the known size of the adult 
teeth of the mastodon. 

«3d. A more conclusive reason is, that these are evidently gram- 
inivorous teeth: while those of the mastodon are, in the arrangement 
of the enamel, carnivorous. You will see that, in addition to the ex- 
ternal covering of enamel, there are plates of enamel,running from 


168 Miscellanies. 


the crown of the teeth perpendicularly downwards through their cen- 
tral parts, while those of the mastodon have only the exterior covering. 

‘Wither of these reasons would probably be thought sufficient ; 
together they are conclusive. I am not certain to what animal they 
belonged ; but from some resemblance to the teeth of the bullock, it 
is probable they were of the same genus, perhaps the Buffalo.” 


Note.—It is obvious, as our correspondent observes, that “ from 
the position in which these teeth were found, they must be of high 
antiquity ; and it is possible they may supply a link in the chain of 
facts respecting the animal remains of this continent.” There can 
be no reasonable doubt that these fossil teeth are of the age of the 
mastodon, and other animals, whose remains are found at the Big- 
bone-Lick in Kentucky. 


5. Some account of the Organic Remains found in the Marl Pits 
of Lucas Benners, Esq. in Craven County, NV. C.; by H. B. Croom, 
Esq.—It has long been known to the public, that large deposits of 
sea shells exist in different parts of the alluvial country of the South- 
ern States. ‘They have been observed on or near the Tar River, a 
few miles above Tarborough; on Neuse River in the Counties of 
Wayne, Lenoir, and Craven; on Cape Fear River in the County of 
Bladen; onthe Savannah River a few miles below Augusta on the 
Oakmulgee River, at Hartford; and finally, I have observed them 
on the Appalachicola River, in Florida, on the summit of a ridge 
not less than one hundred and fifty feet above the bed of the river. 
Of these deposits I have seen, and superficially examined two on the 
Neuse River, the one at Hartford, and that on the Appalachicola. 
They appear to be coeval. Oysters, pectens, and arcas, of the same 
species, predominating in each, mingled with the teeth of sharks, and 
a variety of other univalve and bivalve shells. ‘The catastrophe by 
which these remains were buried, appears to have been sudden. 
This is evidenced by the fact that many, both of the largest, and of 
the smallest and most delicate bivalve shells are found with their two - 
valves closed and arranged as in a living state, as although they had 
been suddenly covered up while living. 

Of all these deposits however, not one has been extensively ex- 
plored except that on the estate of Mr. Benners, occupying the 
north bank of Neuse River, sixteen miles below Newbern. Several 
years ago Mr. B. commenced digging the marl which accompanies 
these deposits, (and which has resulted from them by the mingling 


Miscellanies. 169 


of the decomposed shells with the contiguous earth) and spreading it 
on his fields, which have been much benefited by the application. 
In the course of his operations, several pits have been dug, some of 
them to the depth of twenty five feet below the surface of the earth, 
and ten feet below the present surface of the river. In the course of 
these excavations, a great variety of interesting organic remains have 
been found, consisting of sea-shells, bones and teeth of fishes, and the 
bones of land animals of prodigious size. Mr. B. informs me that 
the following is the order in which these remains have been found :— 
ist. Shark’s teeth, and the fragments of bones of marine fishes, ming- 
led with sea-shells. 2d. Teeth, horns, hoofs, ribs, vertebrae, &c. of 
quadrupeds that inhabited the land, mingled with sea-shells of great 
varieties. ‘These remains of land animals are found at the depth of 
from twenty to twenty five feet below the surface of the earth. Among 
them are recognized with certainty, the teeth of the great mastodon, 
[ Mastodon giganteum of Cuvier,] the hoof, horns, and vertebre of an 
elk of great size and the teeth of an animal supposed to be the hyena.* 

I will now subjoin a more minute account of some of these remark- 

able remains :— 
I. Shells. 

1. Pholas costata. Length 1% inches. Breadth 3% inches. 

2. Clam shells, [Venus] one of these in my possession measures 5 
inches in length and 7 inches in breadth. One which Mr. B. gave 
to Mr. Nuttall is a third larger than this. 

3. The grooved Conch, [Strombus.] Length 52 inches. A spe- 
cies supposed to be extinct. 

4. Murex. Abundant and of different sizes. 

5. Cardium, [Cockle.] Not common. 

6. Solen, [Razor shell.] Length ? inch; breadth 4 inches. 

7. Arca. IDB oe He SBS er eng me 

8. Pecten, [Scallop. ] i a PANEae ine 

9. Ostrea, [Oyster.] An extinct species ? 

10. Patella fornicata. Length 14 ada breadth % inch. 


11. Pectunculus. aR ee ERY A 
12. Conus, [Key poet Re we SHS PE 
13. Buecinum. ah ee ie 
14. Mya, [valves neue 33 mis 4. besa 


* It will require very rigorous observations, to establish this fact, as we have hith- 
erto no evidence that the hyena ever existed on this continent.—Ed. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 22 


170 Miscellanies. 


15. Donax? breadth ? inch. 
16. Nerita. 
17. Madrepora porites. aa 


II. Bones and teeth of Fishes. 


1. Tooth of a Shark. Length 53 inches; breadth at base within 
the socket 62 inches. Many others of smaller size. 

2. Vertebre of fishes about one inch in length, and nearly the 
same in diameter. 


Ill. Bones and teeth of land aninals. 


1. Fragments of the Horns of a fossil Elk ? 

2. Hoof of a fossil Elk? 9 inches in length.* 

3. Teeth of the Elk? breadth 3 inches, depth 44 inches. 

4. A vertebra 8 inches in diameter. [Presented to Th. Nuttall, 
Esq. 

5. A vertebra 33 inches in diameter, 43 inches in length. [In my 
possession. | 

6. A vertebra 1 inch in diameter, 2 inches in length. 

7. Grinders, 2 inches broad, 3 inches in depth. 

8. Fangs, 3 inches in depth; tapering toa point. 

9. Grinder of the Mastodon giganteum of Cuvier. Breadth 7 
inches; depth 92 inches. Presented by Mr. B. to the cabinet of 
the University of North Carolina. A tooth was found at the depth 
of 25 feet below the surface of the earth, mingled with sea-shells. 

The dimensions of this animal as given by Harlan, in his Fauna 
Americana, are as follows:—Height at the withers from 10 to 11 
feet; length from the end of the snout, to the posterior part of the 
pelvis, from 15 to 162 feet. Itis remarkable that not more than 10 
miles distant from these pits, to wit, in the Clubfoot Canal, was found 
about 4 feet under the surface, the skeleton of another species, the 
Mastodon angustidens of Cuvier.—See Harlan’s Fauna p. 214. 
One of the grinders of this skeleton in my possession measures 64 
inches in width. The cutting surfaces consists of elevated and con- 
ical points, (4 pairs of points and an odd one,) differing considerably 
from those of M. giganteum, and scarcely seeming to have been inten- 


* The animal to which the hoof and teeth above-mentioned belonged, must have 
been much larger than a horse. The space between the extremities of the horns of 
the fossil Elk of Ireland is said to have been eleven feet. The bones of the Ameri- 
can fossil Elk, have hitherto been discovered only in the morass near the falls of the 
Ohio, called Big-bone Lick, in company with the bones of the Mastodon, &c.—Har- 
lan’s Fauna, p. 247. : 


Miscellanies. 171 


ded for grinding grass and leaves. The dimensions of this species 
are said to be one third less than the other. 

That was certainly a strange world in which such animals as these 
browsed and prowled! and, it might seem, scarcely compatible with 
the coexistence of man in his rude state, armed only with the bow 
and the club. 

Newbern, Sept. 12, 1833. 


6. Confirmatory Notice of the medical virtues of Guaco; ina let- 
ter to the Editor from Prof. W. R. Jounson, dated July 1, 1834.— 
On the subject of Guaco, about which some doubts have been ex- 
pressed, | have recently seen in Poulson’s American Daily Adverti- 
ser, an article from one who has been on the spot where it is used, 
strongly attesting in favor of its medical virtues, and have just con- 
versed with a highly intelligent gentleman,* himself a native and resi- 
dent of Venezuela, who assures me of its high estimation and exten- 
sive use in the medical. practice of that part of South America. Its 
tonic and sudorific properties, not less than its efficacy in destroying 
animal poisons, were particularly mentioned. 


7. Notice of a hail storm in Louisiana; in a letter from Mr. W. 
M. Carpenter, dated Jackson, Louisiana, June 19, 1834.—I take 
the liberty of addressing you at this time, to give you some account 
of a hail storm which happened here on the 28th of March last. 
About midnight the cloud rose in the west, and the storm commenced 
at 1 o’clock, accompanied with incessant lightning. ‘The hail fell 
with considerable obliquity and great force, with but little wind. The 
stones were of different sizes, from that of a pigeon egg to four inches, 
but generally from three to four inches in diameter; in the centre was 
a nucleus of transparent ice, of half an inch in diameter; on the out- 
side was a stratum of ice resembling snow pressed hard; this again 
was covered by three other layers of the same kind as those men- 
tioned, alternating in the same manner; the smaller, of course, con- 
sisted of fewer layers. The storm lasted about ten minutes, doing 
great damage to houses and timber, and great numbers of cattle were 
killed by it. 


8. Ledererite not a new mineral.—The Editor of the Lond. and 
Edin. Phil. Mag. &c. for May, 1834, mentions having received a 


* Don Fernando Bolivar, nephew of the late Liberator. 


172 Miscellanies. 


small specimen of the supposed new mineral Ledererite; but, on 
examination, it proves, by its form and angles, to be the Hydrolite 
of De Drée, or Gmelinite of Sir D. Brewster. The analysis of 
Vauquelin gives silica 50, alumina 20, which agree nearly with the 
proportions of the Nova Scotia mineral. Vauquelin, it is true, found 
21 of water, instead of 8.58; but as, perhaps, water may turn out 
to be tsomorphous with both lime and phosphoric acid, the two analy- 
ses may, when expressed symbolically, appear to agree with each 
other and with the theory ; or there may be some error in one of the 
analyses. 


9. Meteorology.—A letter to the Editor, dated Feb. 24, 1834, at 
St. Brieux, Cotes du Nord, from M. Morty, Ingenieur Ordinaire 
des Pontes et Chaussees, membre de plusieurs societiés scientifiques, 
&c., invites the meteorologists of this country to a communication 
and interchange of observations on this interesting subject. M. Morin 
states, that meteorology has engaged his attention for twenty years 5 
that in 1814 his observations were confined to a single place; that 
he gradually extended them, until, in 1821, they comprised many 
departments of France; that, in 1825, he resolved to extend them 
over the whole world, by giving the history of the seasons from Oc- 
tober 1, 1823. For some months before the date of his letter, he 
had entertained the intention to carry back his record to the year 
1658, beyond which period there are no connected meteorological 
observations. He has published five memoirs upon the subject of 
the correspondence which he has established with most of those who 
cultivate meteorology ; a sixth memoir was in the press, and they 
will be forwarded to the Editor, as soon as a proper channel is indi- 
cated. M. Morin solicits of us, either direct information, or that we 
will invite, through this Journal, the communication of observations, 
and a correspondence with himself. He has received various docu- 
ments from the United States, but they are incomplete ; he is in want, 
particularly, of continued and precise barometrical observations from 
this country, from 1824 to 1833, inclusive. We earnestly invite the 
attention of meteorologists to the above communication, and we offer 
our pages and our personal agency in promoting this important object, 
whose interest is not local or temporary. 

We have received from M. Morin a memoir containing Instruc- 
tions sur la manieére de faire des observations météorologiques, pub- 
lished at Paris, in 1834. 


Miscellanies. 173 


10. Meteorological Journal.—Abstract of Meteorological observa- 
tions, taken at Savannah, Geo. by W. H. Williams, from June Ist. 
1833, to June Ist. 1834; lat. 32° 8’ north—lon. 4° 8’ west of Wash- 
ington city. 


Thermom- Atmosphere. 
eter. “a “ 
: : | a|=| Prevailing winds os 
a sLeiote) . | Les Be > | Prevailing 
monrus. | §& E = z s B = Sle stated in days. | Jia for the 
= E Elei3| 2 iy >|"e |____—. month. 
of Krels|z 5 = = & |N.w|N.E.|s. E.|S.W. 
fe til A NT i ll la a 
June, 1833.|82 90/72] 8]10} 18 | 9} 1/2) 4| 4] 5/17] s.wiew 
July, “ [82  |87i77/31| 8} 18 | 5] 2) 5) 83] 5/13/10) s.es.e 
August, ** |81 90!72| 1/22} 12; 7 )12) 0) 6| 14) 5}) 6| NEBeE 
Sept. “ |78  jssieg|10\25] 18 | 6 | 2) 4) 5} 11) a1] 3] sien. 
Oct. s 168 85|42/17/30) 21 | 712) 1] 9110) 4) 8| n, Baek. 
Nov. ‘ j59 88]40)12)17) 22 | 4) 2/2) 4] 9} 5]12) NN. w.ew. 
Dec.  ‘** |53 64|44), 2120) 9113 !4 5) 9; 16, O| 6) nN. Bee. 
Jan. 1834/52  '72)32/20| 7} 6 | 10 10} 5] 6 | 15] 0] 10| nw. eee. 
Feb. <« (63  |solaei25\ 112] 8 | 5/3) 5| 5] 5] 13] s.w.e w. 
March, ** 163 76/481 81 3113} 8 | 5) 5} 9)12]| 6] 4 N. E. 
April, « |69 — |so|50|23 6 is| 7/3/41 6! 3{ 8/18] s.w.aw. 
May, « |74  |86 “ay 16| 12 | 7 | 6| 6] 0 | 13] 8 | 10: |i wala 
l177 |91 |54|43| 66 |117 | 70 
Mean temperature of the thermometer for the year, 68°66’ 
«average a “ summer months, 81 66 
a6 as es 66 autumn «6 **- » 68 33 
73 ce c ce winter 74 56 
cc cc i739 iT4 spring 6é 68 66 


There have been one hundred and one rains during the year. 
The greatest quantity of rain fell in January, 1834. More rain fell 
in January, than in the autumn months. June, 1833, was the warm- 
est month—1° warmer than the month of June, 1832, and 2° colder 
than the preceding year. Average of the thermometer 82°. Jan- 
uary, 1834, was the coldest month. Average of the thermometer, 
52°—2° colder than the preceding year, and 4° colder than Jan- 
vary, 1833. June 8 and August 1, 1833, the warmest days; 
thermometer 90°—5° colder than the warmest day during 1832. 
January 7, 1834, the coldest day; thermometer 32°—12° warm- 
er than the coldest day of 1833. The first frost was on the evening 
of the 22d of Oct.—two days earlier than the last season. On the 
night of the 30th of Oct. ice was seen in the suburbs of the city. 
Less rain fell in the month of Nov. 1833, than in any month during 
the year. The splendid phenomenon that appeared about the mid- 
dle of Nov. 1833, we were not privileged to witness. The last frost 
in the spring of 1834, was on the niglit of April 28. Uninterrupted 


174 Miscellanies. 


health has been enjoyed during the year; at no one period could it 
be said of Savannah, it was unhealthy. It may also be stated, that 
for the last four years, no city at the south, and perhaps few, if any, 
in any part of the whole U. States, has been blessed with more health. 
No prevailing sickness has appeared for this period of time. 

Chatham Academy, Savannah, Geo. June 28, 1834. 


11. A Treatise upon Elemental Locomotion, by means of steam 
carriages, upon common roads, London, 1832; and Journal of Ele- 
mental Locomotion; by ALexanpEeR Gorpon, Esq. Civil Engineer. 
No one can peruse these works without being pleased with the forci- 
ble manner in which the author has set forth the advantages of apply- 
ing steam power to the purposes of conveyance upon common roads. 
He seems fully aware of the obstacles which prejudice or individual 
interest would oppose, and with no inconsiderable talent and philan- 
thropic feeling he grapples with them, until they are entirely de- 
molished. 

The changes which he proposes to effect, by the substitution of 
steam for animal power, are very extensive, and if realized, they 
may produce the most beneficial results to society. ‘The work con- 
tains an account of the progress of improvement in the use of steam, 
and the construction of steam engines and carriages; the importance 
of a rapid and cheap inland communication, in its bearing upon the 
commercial, moral and agricultural interests, and to many branches 
of national industry ; the means of accomplishing this, with a great 
economy of time and an increase of power, at a much less expense. 

He proves that the plan proposed will dispense with the use of two 
millions of horses, and while it prevents cruelty to the brute creation 
and the degradation which inflicts it, he ealculates there will bea 
saving of grain sufficient for the support of eight millions of people. 
His conclusions are mostly the result of calculation or actual experi- 
ment. Several journeys, for trial, were made, and the practicability 
of the scheme has been fully proved by “the running of a carriage, 
four times a day, (Sundays excepted,) between Gloucester and 
Cheltenham, for four months, and over nearly four thousand miles 
of ground, without a single accident, during which period it carried 
upwards of three thousand passengers, at one half the expense of 
four-horse coaches.” The subject was fully investigated by a select 
committee of the House of Commons, and their very favorable re- 
port, together with all the testimony adduced before them, is con- 
¢ained in this work. 


Miscellanies. 175 


Some of the arguments of Mr. G. to show the fitness of the scheme 
to relieve the suffering population of Great Britain, and as a remedy 
for future evils, are cordials to a British public ; and in estimating the 
favorable reception which the plan has met, much must be attributed 
to this. 

In no other country will the roads admit of elemental locomotion, 
and no other has such a population to relieve, and to no other are 
many of the arguments applicable; we think, therefore, the plan will 
be, at least for a time, limited in its adoption to Great Britain. 


12. Notice of ancient pottery; ina letter from Dr. Joun H. Karn 
to the Editor, dated Trafalgar, Knox County, Tenn., Sept. 26, 1833. 
Mr. Rich, who will hand you this, will likewise deliver to you a spe- 
cimen of the ancient crockery, found among the mounds on my farm. 
A careful examination of them solves a difficulty which has puzzled 
the antiquarians not a little. Associated with the mounds are found 
large heaps of shells, of different kinds, but small, and principally 
such as are found in the neighboring river. A number of these were 
composed of a small univalve, resembling the conch. The conch is 
sacred to one of the Hindoo deities, and it was supposed that these 
shells had been offered to Vishnu, and consequently, that the mounds - 
had been erected by the Hindoos. On inspecting the specimen of 
pottery which I send, you will perceive that it is coated with small 
fragments of shells, which must have given the vessel a beautifully 
white and shining appearance; and I can suppose they formed arti- 
cles of furniture, which would not be disdained in the present age of 
refinement and luxury. I suppose that the banks of shells, instead 
of being collected as offerings to a heathen deity, were intended to be 
used in glazing and ornamenting their pottery. I have seen, in West 
Tennessee, near Columbia, the remains of an ancient furnace, which 
had been used for baking earthen ware. But I think it probable, 
that the specimens I send you were never subjected to a very strong 
heat, which would have decomposed the shells with which they are 
coated. It is probable, that the shells were coarsely pulverized, and 
dusted over the vessel in its soft state, which was then dried in the 
sun. ‘This earthen ware abounds in the neighborhood of the ancient 
mounds, of which your Journal has contained so many notices, and 
is one of the few monuments left us of a race of people long since 
extinct. 


176 Miscellanies. 


13. Notice of the culture of the potatoe in France; in a note to 
the Editor, dated June 27, 1834, from Mr. Wm. Foster, of Bos- 
ton—then in New Haven.—In 1796, living in a part of France 
where potatoes were but little known, and less used, as food for 
man, and having obtained some Irish seed, I gave them to a country 
gentleman, at whose castle I was then residing, to plant. He asked 
me what soil was the most suitable. I informed him, that on that 
subject there were various opinions, but that I had known very good 
crops, and of good quality, raised on moist ground. He told me 
that he had one place that was moist enough, being nothing but bog 
and water, and another dry enough, being nothing but sand or 
gravel, and that he was willing to make the sacrifice of these two 
places for the experiment, since the seed cost him nothing; at the 
same time saying, that he was not partial to Englishmen or potatoes, 
and reciting the following lines. 

Si vous allez en Angleterre, 

Tl faut louer jusqu’aux pommes de terre ; 

Mais, gardez vous de dire que Paris soit plus grande que Londres, 
Ou, ils seroient gens a vous tondre. 

By the side of the morass there was a gravel hill, without a sign 
of vegetable earth in it. ‘The morass was then frozen so as to bear 
our weight. I proposed to him, (or he to me, I do not remember 
which,) to imitate the process which one of the children had adopted 
for his spring garden, in the house; which was, sowing seeds in tow, 
floated on water, and to use the dry gravel in the place of the tow, 
as a mere receptacle, to hold the potatoes for vegetation. ‘The plan 
was adopted; many wheelbarrow loads of. gravel were placed at 
proper distances on the bog, and the potatoes planted therein, under 
my direct. ‘The result was a very early crop of excellent pota- 
toes, fari ous and large; and the same process was continued for 
years aft >casionally adding a little gravel, when a part of the first 
deposit hi mk into the morass. The potatoes planted on the dry 
gravel prc ed a few plants and bulbs, of a very bad quality. Their 
producing __* thing must have been owing to the dampness of the 
climate, a he copious dews which proceeded from the vicinity of 
the moras | 

Is itno >bable, sir, that in New England, where good arable 
land is no sufficient quantities for our wants, there are many such 
morasses, _v of no value, which might be made to produce pota- 


Miscellanies. 177 


toes, and perhaps other useful vegetable food? The experiment 
seems to be worth trying. 

I will further remark, that this aquatic potatoe patch had no hoe- 
ing or other labor bestowed on it; a matter of some importance in 
our country, where labor is so dear. Again, the labor of transport- 
ing the heaps of gravel may, or must be done in the winter, when 
the time of the farmer is less valuable. 


14. Annual Report of the Regents of the University to the Legis- 
lature of New York.—In Vol. XXV, No. 2, we gave, rather at large, 
an exposition of the relation of the Regents to the various literary 
institutions of the State, the supervision they exercised over them, 
and the several subjects upon which, constantly, scientific observa- 
tions were required to be made. ‘The results of these latter were 
severally noticed, and it is only necessary to record the progress and 
results of the last year. 

The reports from the several colleges include 750 students and 
101 graduates; from the medical schools, 8375 members and 55 
graduates ; sixty seven academies, (making the required reports, in 
whole or in part, and receiving the usual appropriation of $10,000,) 
reported 5,506 students, of whom 3,390 pursued classical studies, or. 
the higher branches of English education, for four months or more of 
the year; and showing an increase over the whole number of last year 
of 650. - 

In the studies pursued, in addition to those of last year, we observe 
anatomy and mineralogy; and from the academy where mineralogy is 
taught comes a report of the mineral localities in its vicinity. Were 
mineralogy taught at all the academies, there would be observers at 
all; and then more numerous and extended reports. We think it 
would be a valuable accession to the means of instruction, if each 
academy were furnished with a sufficient cabinet of characteristic 
specimens. 

The meteorological returns are more ample and complete than 
usual. The annual mean temperature, from the average of the re- 
turns from thirty five academies, 44.1°. Highest degree during the 
year, (99°,) was observed at Dutchess County and Montgomery 
academies, and the lowest, (—32°,) at Governeur. Greatest an- 
nual range, (422°,) at Governeur and Lowville; greatest monthly 
range, (96°,) at Governeur. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 23 


ae 


178 Miscellanies. 


The annual average of rain and snow at thirty one places is 37.03 
inches; greatest quantity, at Union and Erasmus Hall, 51.83 inches. 
An average of all the observations made for eight years at forty three 
places gives 36.61 inches of rain and snow, and the average temper- 
ature at forty six places is 47.29°. 

There is the usual appendix of observations uipon vegetation, and 
of meteoric phenomena, with valuable “ Instructions for observers of 
the Aurora Borealis,” circulated by the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science. 

It is gratifying to witness the continued success of this experiment, 
which is unique in this country, and to learn of the cooperation of 
the War Department, which, through its officers at the various mili- 
tary posts, will secure such an uniformity in making observations as 
must prove ‘extensively useful to our country and to the general 
eause of science.” 


15. Picture Gallery of Toronto.—The name of York, the capital 
of Upper Canada, has been changed to Toronto. ‘There have been, 
for several years past, striking proofs of the advance of society in 
Canada, among which the publications of the Literary and Philoso- 
phical Society of Quebec and the notices of the Natural Histon So- 
ciety of Montreal are conspicuous. 

We now see, with equal pleasure and surprise, a catalogue of the 
first exhibition of the Society of Artists and Amateurs of Toronto, 
for 1834. This catalogue contains a list of nearly two hundred pic- 
tures and prints, very creditable indeed to the spirit which is so ac- 
tive in Canada, and to which we cordially wish success, in every 
effort to advance the interests and honor of that fine country, to 
whose welfare we can never be indifferent. 


16. Spontaneous Combustion—The Lancaster (Penn.) Journal. 
publishes the particulars of a very singular instance of spontaneous 
combustion, which recently took place in that city. Mr. Adam 
Reigart had been presented, about two years before the occurrence, 
with a small piece of wood, evidently cedar, which had been de- 
tached from a large piece, found in excavating the deep cut of the 
rail-road, at the Gap, in that county, about thirty nine feet below the 
surface. ‘This piece, weighing not more than two ounces, was bro- 
ken in two, and laid upon a white pine shelf in Mr. Reigart’s count- 
ing room. About three or four days before the discovery of the fire, 


Miscellanies. 179 


Mr. Whitaker, a gentleman who resides with Mr. Reigart, on wiping 
the dust from the shelf with a wet cloth, took up the pieces of wood, 
and after having dusted the shelf, laid them as before. Three days 
after this it was discovered that one of the pieces had ignited, and 
combustion was progressing so rapidly that the shelf would have been 
in a few minutes on fire. On examination, a portion of one of the 
pieces was found reduced to ashes of a dark grey color, and from 
some of the outer fibres being sound, and ashes lodged in the inte- 
rior, under them, it would appear that combustion had commenced, 
not upon the outer part of the wood, nor upon the sides which lay 
in contact with the shelf, but in the interior of the stick—the sur- 
rounding fibres being disintegrated by the action of the fire within, 
and ready to fall to pieces. 


17. Wood set on fire by the heat of the Sun.—The Hartford 
(Conn.) Review states, that on Tuesday, the 5th of August, three 
men being at work at hay in a meadow about one mile east of 
Winchester, (Conn.) about 2 o’clock, P. M., they discovered, a few 
rods from them ona piece of barren upland, which had been cleared 
some seven years since, a small smoke arising; the sun shining ex- 
cessively hot at the time, they were induced to go and examine it. 
They found the fire was just kindled, and had not commenced 
blazing, nor consumed any of the fuel in which it commenced, which 
was the remains of an old, decayed hemlock log. It immediately 
burst into a blaze and burned vividly ; and when the writer of this 
saw it, more than twenty hours after, it had consumed most of the 
old log and mulch for more than four feet square, and was then burn- 
ing. From the. locality of the place. and all the other circumstances, 
the fire cannot be accounted for at all, but from the direct influence 
of the rays of the sun, which shined brighter and hotter at that time 
than any time previous, this season. ‘The men who saw it, are res- 
pectible men, of the strictest integrity. 


18. Substitute for linen.—The following communication is from a 
a gentleman of very high respectability in Salem, Mass., and at his 
request it is inserted.— Ed. 

There has recently been discovered, in Salem, Mass., and patent- - 
ed, a new and beautiful material, resembling silk and linen, which 
holds out to the manufacturers of this country the high promise of an 
original, beautiful and invaluable fabric, far surpassing in strength and 


180 Miscellanies. 


beauty of texture that of linen, which it is doubtless destined wholly 

‘to supersede, as the culture of it requires much less labor and ex- 
pense than flax, and does not, like that and similar materials, require 
to be renewed annually, (being a perennial,) and the preparation of 
it for manufacturing being far more simple than either ; and its great 
natural affinity for coloring matters, and: its requiring no bleaching, 
being objects of the highest importance, give it a very decided pre- 
ference over that manufacture. A few specimens of the manufac- 
ture of this material into small fancy articles have been produced, 
some of which being colored of varied tints present such a beautiful 
silk-like appearance as to have been actually, in some instances, mis- 
taken for it; over which, however, it possesses this decided advan- 
tage, that it not only sustains the action of water uninjured and un- 
defaced, (which it is well known silk will not do,) but the repeated 
action of water rather appears to strengthen and beautify it. It is 
ascertained to be the opinion at Lowell, where they have offered to 
make the experiment, that it can be spun upon machinery. 

And while it offers to other branches of manufacture very impor- 
tant substitutes for those substances hitherto used, it offers a material 
very superior, in many points, for paper. It is believed, from some 
specimens already produced, that paper of every description may be 
manufactured from it, possessing a pearly whiteness, durability, beau- 
ty of texture, and smoothness of surface, unrivalled by any other 
ever before manufactured in any country. And it is susceptible of 
the most brilliant colors, in grain or otherwise. This is believed to 
be the first material of tle kind ever before discovered in this coun- 
try, that. holds out the prospect of a staple commodity, silk, linen 
and cotton being exotics, and the discoveries of course exotic; but 
this material is indigenous, is a native of this country, discovered by 
a native citizen, one of her own daughters, which circumstances, to- 
gether with its intrinsic worth, seem peculiarly to enhance its value 
to us. It is open to any one who may wish to make experiments. 


19. Notice of the United States Medical and Surgical Journal.— 
In the publisher of this work we recognize the former editor of the 
Medical Recorder, published some years since in Philadelphia, and 
one of the best medical periodicals that have been published in this 
country. We observe, also, that he has in this, the first number of 
the present work, proposed a premium for the best essay on a par- 
ticular subject. ‘This plan was first adopted, with respect to a med- 


Miscellanies. 181 


ical periodical, we believe, by the present editor, when he published 
the Recorder, and he elicited, by that means, some of the best med- 
ical essays that have been published in this country. 

The editor premises that he is not pledged to support the doctrines 
of any medical school, or of any individual or class of physicians, 
but that he will, with the best assistance that he can procure, dis- 
seminate useful information, on all branches of the medical profession. 

Medical periodicals are useful to the profession, not only to give 
information of all real improvements and new facts, that are con- 
stantly unfolding, but also to expose error, and to inform the mem- 
bers of the profession of the false pretensions of many writers, who 
make new books as apothecaries make new mixtures, by pouring in 
a little from one bottle and some from another. | 

From the figure of a lancet on the cover of the periodical, we may 
probably infer, as well as from the express declaration of the editor, 
that the knife, and probably the cautery, will be used, when neces- 
sary. ‘These measures, although harsh, are necessary in some cases. 
A physician at a distance from a large town, and of course from book: 
stores, and who is disposed to keep up, his knowledge of the progress 
of the medical profession, may be induced, by the lofty pretensions 
and high sounding titles of various productions, especially when duly _ 
puffed by some periodical, to purchase books, either of no intrinsic 
value at all, or in which the valuable matter of a large volume may 
be contained in a few pages of a periodical. 

A periodical which will judiciously analyze works of this descrip- 
tion, separate the chaff from the wheat, and expose the unjust pre- 
tensions of certain book-makers, may do great service in this way 
to the profession. 

The first paper of No. 1, on Medical Ethics, although not new, 
is valuable, and it is proper that the attention of the profession should 
be frequently called to it, to prevent any violation of its precepts. 
The other papers in this number are respectable, and on the whole 
judicious. We wish the publisher* success in his undertaking. 


* Mr. Webster, under whose name the work appears, although he is not of the 
medical profession, yet he has had extensive experience in the publication of med- 
ical books. The tact which he possessed of availing himself of the best medical as- 
sistance, as the editor of the Medical Recorder, is a guaranty that he will take care 
that the best talents shall be elicited in the present work. 


182 | Miscellames. 


20. Strontianite discovered in the United States.—I embrace an 
early opportunity of stating, through the medium of the Journal of — 
Science, the discovery of the Carbonate of Strontia in this country. 
So far as my knowledge extends, this mineral has not, until the pres- 
ent time, been observed in the limits of the United States, and it is 
even considered rare in Europe. This fact makes it peculiarly in- 
teresting to our mineralogists. Perhaps I ought to make a reserve 
in pronouncing it pure Carbonate of Strontia, as the mineral may 
contain other elements besides Carbonic Acid and Strontia. The 
following are some of its most interesting characters. 

Color, nearly pure white; sometimes tinged yellowish on the sur- 
face. Lustre, vitreous; fibrous varieties, pearly. ‘Translucent... 
opake. Brittle, and easily reduced to a powder. Hardness =3°5, 
of the scale of Mohs. Specific gravity, undetermined. Streak, 
white. Cleavage, apparently parallel to the plane of a rhombic 
prism. The crystallization is too imperfect to admit of measurement. 

Before the blowpipe it is infusible, but with a strong heat an im- 
perfectly friable, white mass is formed, which has an acrid alkaline 
taste. Color of the flame, red or reddish purple. 

In muriatic acid it dissolves, with an active effervescence, accom- 
panied with the disengagement of carbonic acid. Solution incom- 
plete in cold muriatic acid. ‘The muriatic solution, on the addition 
of alcohol, burns with a fine carmine red flame. From this solution 

sulphuric acid throws down a white precipitate. 

The varieties of this substance are mostly compound. ‘The most 
perfect consist of stellated groups, or rather of imperfect individuals 
diverging from several centres, forming masses of different sizes. 
On one partially decomposed specimen, I observed a few small but 
regular six sided prisms. In all other cases, the crystallization is too 
confused to permit the determination of the precise forms, or their 
dimensions. Some pieces, which evidently contain Carbonate of 
Strontia, resemble, externally, its congener, the Sulphate; that is, 
they are tinged bluish, and present a structure both laminated and 
fibrous. 

I conjecture that some of the specimens are the Baro-strontianite 
of Traill. Others seem to be Strontia, combined with Carbonate 
of Lime. | . 

The locality of this mineral, or family of minerals, is Scoharie, 
N.Y., in the vicinity of Ball’s Cave, which has already furnished 
so many fine things for our cabinets. 


Miscellanies. 183 


I hope, ere long, to furnish a more particular account of the varie~ 
ties mentioned in this communication. EBENEZER Emmons. 
Williams College, Aug. 15, 1834. 


Note, by C. U. Shepard.—A second communication from Dr. 
Emmons, relating to the foregoing, has been received, from which it 
appears, that he has ascertained the specific gravity of the mineral 
tobe 3:5, He adds, that “the point with me is to prove that it con- 
tains carbonate of strontia, or consists of itin the main: I do suppose 
that it contains some sulphate of baryta or sulphate of strontia.” 

Dr. Emmons was kind enough to enclose a few fragments of the 
mineral in the letter, which, in hardness and structure, agreed with 
the description he has given. As the fragments appeared remarka- 
bly pure, I thought it worth while to settle the question of their con- 
taining either of the sulphates of baryta, strontia, or lime. 

Accordingly, I heated 8 grs. of the mineral, in the state of an im- 
palpable powder, to a dull redness, in a platina crucible ; and on re- 
storing the crucible to the balances, found that it had lost 0.2 grs. or 
2.5 per cent. The 7.8 grs. were introduced, with extreme caution, 
into a small glass flask, and dilute hydrochloric acid affused at inter- 
vals, until the effervescence had nearly subsided. Heat was then 
applied, for a few minutes; when nearly the whole of the powder had 
disappeared. The quantity remaining undissolved appeared too mi-. 
nute to allow of being withdrawn from the flask and estimated by the 
scales. I attempted to form an opinion of its quantity, therefore, by 
withdrawing the supernatant solution. This was done with care, and 
the washings of the flask added to the fluid. ‘The solution was evapo- 
rated, in the platina crucible, to dryness, and maintained for five min- 
utes atared heat. The chloride of strontium thus obtained weighed 
8.7 grs., which is equivalent to 4.35 of strontium. But the strontium 
in 7.8 carbonate of strontia = 4.637. The difference of 0.28 (be- 
tween 4.35 and 4.637) is to be attributed to the undissolved matter 
in the flask, and to loss. ‘The appearance of the undissolved portion 
being that of minute grains, it occurred to me that it might still be 
carbonate of strontia; and that the reason of its not having been dis- 
solved was a want of pulverization. Accordingly, I treated it with 
an additional portion of hydrochloric acid and heat, when it soon 
yielded a perfect solution. 

I therefore fully coincide with Dr. E. in the opinion that this min- 
eral is the Strontianite. 


Yale College, August 26, 1834. 


184 Miscellanies. 


21. Munificent donation to Yale College Library.—The follow- 
ing important (British) National Works, printed by order of the 
Commissioners for the Preservation of the Public Records, have 
lately been received from the Record Commission, through the 
friendly agency of O. Rich, Esq. of London, as a donation to the 
Library of Yale College. 

The Statutes of the Realm, in 9 vols. royal folio. 

(The first volume contains the Charter of Liberties, from Hen. I. to Edw. I. ; 
and the Statutes from Hen. III. to Edw. III.; the remaining volumes, from 
that time to the end of the reign of Queen Anne. This is the most perfect: 
collection of the Statutes, for the given period, in existence.) 

An Alphabetical Index to the above, royal folio. 

A Chronological Index to the same, royal folio. 

Taxatio Ecclesiastica Anglize et Walliz, A. D. 1291, royal folio. 

Valor Ecclesiasticus. ‘Temp. Hen. VIII. Vol. I. to VI. 

Placitorum in Domo Capitulari Westmonasteriensi Asservatorum Ab- 
breviatio. ‘Temp. Ric. I. Johan. Hen. If. Edw. I. & II. folio. 

(Abstracts of Pleadings before the King in Parliament and Council, &c.) 

Calendarium Rotulorum, Chartarum, et Inquisitionum ad Quod 

Damnun, folio. 

(Charter Rolls in the Tower from King John to Edward IV.) 

DOMESDAY BOOK, with ke and Supplements, 2 vols. roy- 
al folio. 


i Indices et Additamenta to Domesday Book, 2 vols. demy folio. 


Testa de Nevill. Temp. Hen. III. Edw. I. folio. 
(Book of Fees held of the King, Churches in his Gift, &c.) 
Calendarium Rotulorum Patentium in Turri Londinensi, folio. 
(Calendar of Patent Rolls in the Tower.) 
Rotulorum Originalium in Curia Scaccarii Abbreviatio. Temp. Hen. 
lil. Edw. 1. U. & Il. 2 vols. folio. 
. (Original Rolls in the Court of Exchequer of Estreats, &c.) 
Placita de Quo Warranto. ‘Temp. Edw. I. IL. Ql. In Curia 
-Scaccarii Asservata, folio. 
(These Documents are frequently referred to in Courts of Law.) 
Rotuli Hundredorum. Temp. Hen. III. & Edw. I. Vol. I. folio. 
Vol. IL. 
Rymer’s Feedera, Conventiones, &c. Vol. I. 2 parts, folio. 
Vol. II. 2 parts, ditto. 
Vol. III. 2 parts, ditto. 


(Many important additions have been made to the celebrated Collection by 
Rymer in this work, which is not yet completed.) 


Miscellanies. 185 


Ducatus Lancastrie, Pars Prima. (Calendar of Inquisitions, post 
mortem.) Pars Secunda et Tertia. (Calendar of Pleadings, 
&§c.) 2 vols. folio. 

Calendarium [nquisitionum Post Mortem, sive /Mscetarum. Hen. 
ll. Edw. I. If. Ill. Rich. If. Hen. IV. 3 vols. folio. 

Volu IV. Hen. VeVI1. 
Edw. IV. and Ric. III. with an Appendix. 
Inquisitiones Nonarum in Curia Scaccarii. Temp. Edw. III. folio. 
Catalogue of the MSS. in the Cottonian Library, folio. 
Harleian MSS. 4 vols. folio. 
Lansdowne MSS. folio. 

Calendars of Chancery Proceedings in the Beige of Elizabeth. 
Vols. I. If. and LI. folio. 

iy deans Writs and Writs of Military Summons. Vol. I. folio. 

Vol. Il. 3 parts. 

Inquisitionum Retornatarum Scotie Abbreviatio. 3 vols. folio. 

Registrum Magni Sigilli Regum Scotorum, folio. 

(Royal Charters of the Kings of Scotland.) 
Acts of Parliament of Scotland, folio, Vol. II. to XI. 
(The first volume is not yet published.) 

Rotuli Scotiae. 2 vols. folio. 

In reference to the above, the Corporation of the College, at their 

_ last meeting, passed the following resolves : , 
Resolved, That the grateful acknowledgments of this Board be | 

presented by the President to the Record Commission in Eng- 

land, and, through them, to the British Government, for the munifi- 
cent gift to the College of seventy-four folio volumes of the publica- 
tions of the Record Commission ; and for the liberality of feeling 
hereby manifested towards the interests of sound learning and 
thorough investigation in the literary institutions of our country. 
Resolved, That the thanks of this Board be presented by the 

President to Mr. O. Rich, of London, for the generous regard which 

he has shewn for the interests of this College, by his influence and 

aid, in procuring and transinitting the valuable publications of the 

Record Commission of the British Government. 


22. Telescopes.—In the number of this Journal for January, 1833, 
we noticed the successful efforts of Mr. Amasa Holcomb, of South- 
wick, Mass., in the manufacture of ‘l'elescopes. We have now the 
pleasure to add, that Mr. Holcomb has since that period prosecuted 

Vor. XXVIT.—No. 1. 24 


HEB). Miscellanies. 


his enterprize with great diligence and ingenuity, and has brought his 
instruments to a degree of perfection, which enables them to sustam 
a very honorable comparison with the large telescopes imported from 
abroad. 

In conjunction with Professor Olmsted, we have recently had an 
opportunity of examining one of his large Reflectors. It is construct- 
ed after the manner of Herschel’s great'Telescope, with a single mir- 
ror, the image being thrown so near to one side of the open end of 
the tube, that the eye can be applied to it without intercepting any 
considerable portion of the light. By this arrangement, the light that 
is lost by a second reflexion, as in the Gregorian Telescope, is sa- 
ved, and so much is added to the brightness of theimage. ‘The tube 
is of sheet iron; the focal length is 7 feet, and the aperture 63 inch- 
es. The mounting is remarkably simple, consisting merely of two 
upright staves or supports, which meet in an angle at the open end of 
the tube, while the farther end may rest on a chair, or even on the 
ground. Its adjustments in altitude and azimuth, are effected by 
means of two thumb screws, attached to the staves near the top. 

Although the two nights on which my colleague and myself exam- 
ined the heavenly bodies with this instrument, were not the most suit- 
able for observation, yet we were both very favorably impressed with 
the character of the instrument. We viewed the moon, then in quad- 
rature, with different powers from 40 to 350. ‘The mountain ridges 
and peaks, the deep craters, the elongated shadows, and the various. 
other objccts exhibited to the best telescopes, were seen to great ad- 
vantage. ‘The double star Z in Aquarius was distinctly divided; and, 
when in the center of the field, the two separate stars were well de- 
fined. We believe it, however, in the power of the artist to make 
farther improvements in the quality of his eye glasses, so as to em- 
brace a larger field of view, with less of chromatic aberration, and 
also in the delicacy of his horizontal and vertical movements. 

On the whole, we are of opinion that Mr. Holcomb has, under all 
the circumstances of the case, achieved wonders in this difficult de- 
partment of the arts; and we cordially recommend his work to such 
of our public Institutions as may desire to purchase powerful teles- 
copes. | 

Yale College, August 15, 1834. 


The Committee on Science and the Arts, appointed by the Frank- 
lin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the promotion of the 


Miscellantes. 187 


Mechanic Arts, to whom was referred for examination a Reflecting 
Telescope, made by Mr. Amasa Holcomb, of Southwick, Hampden 
County, Massachusetts: Rerort— 

That the following description of the instrument is given by Mr. 
Holcomb. “The telescope is of the reflecting kind, and has a focal 
length of six feet. ‘The diameter of the speculum is three inches 
nine-tenths ; the rays of light are reflected but once; the image 
formed in the focus of the speculum is viewed by a common astro- 
nomical eye piece, or by a single lens. It has also an eye piece for 
viewing land objects, which shows them erect. ‘The telescope is of 
the same construction as those of Sir William Herschel; the ob- 
server having his back towards the object, and looking directly to- 
wards the speculum. It has the advantage over those of the Grego- 
rian and Newtonian forms, by showing the object brighter with the 
same aperture, there being no light lost by a second reflection. The 
diameter of the speculum is small in proportion to the length of the 
instrument. It will bear a diameter of eight inches with much ad- 
vantage, for viewing very small stars, in consequence of the great in- 
crease of light. 'The magnifying powers used are forty, ninety and 
two hundred and fifty.” : 

Through the politeness of Prof. Alexander Dallas Bache, the. 
committee were permitted to compare the performance of Mr. Hol- 
comb’s reflector with that of a five feet achromatic of four inches ap- 
erture, by Dollond, the property of the University of Pennsylvania. 
The instrument was also compared with a three and a half feet ach- 
romatic by Dollond, and with a Gregorian of four inches aperture, 
the mirrors of which had been lately repolished in London. The 
short stay of Mr. Holcomb in Philadelphia, prevented the compari- 
son of it with reflectors in the possession of other members of the 
committee. 

On the evening of the 14th of April, the committee met by ad- 
journment in the open lot south of the Pennsylvania Hospital, the 
use of which was politely permitted to the committee by the mana- 
gers of that institution. The following were the results of the com- 
parison :—The moon, nearly full, was too bright to be viewed with 
the lower powers of the instruments ; with the power of 350 in the 
five feet achromatic, the moon appeared bright and well defined ;— ~ 
with the same eye piece, giving a power of 400, in the reflector by 
Mr. Holcomb, the moon was sufficiently bright, and equally well de- 
fined. ‘The same (with the exception that the moon was more bril- 


188 Miscellanies. 


liant, and the field of view much gr eater) was remarked with the use 
of Mr. Holcomb’s highest magnifier, sims a power of two hundred 
and fifty. 

As an illustration of their comparative performances, it was re- 
marked that the waved appearance of the outer declivities of the 
craters of some of the apparently extinct lunar volcanoes, indicating 
the successive depositions of the lava, was more manifest with a pow- 
er of 400 in the reflector. 

The immersions of 3 and 4 Geminorum, of the sixth and seventh 
magnitude, were observed at the same instant of time in each. 

The same occurred the evening before with a star of the eighth or 
ninth magnitude. The immersions, however of two very small stars, 
apparently of the tenth or eleventh magnitude, were observed with 
difficulty in the refractor, but could not be observed at all in the re- 
flector. 

The companion of Polaris was best seen when the moon was up, 
in the refractor, but in the absence of the moon was readily seen in 
both. ; 
Castor was easily divided with the lower powers of either, but in 
the case of this as well as other binary, or double stars, the dark 
space between the stars was less disturbed by scattering rays in the 
reflector than in the refractor. 

¢ Bootis was seen double in each, but more distinctly in the re- 
flector. y, Draconis, y Leonis, and 4th and 5th ¢ Lyre were seen 
distinctly double in both instruments ; ~ Draconis from the equality 
of the disks and softness of light presented the finest appearance. 

y Virginis, with a power of 350 in either telescope gave, no certain 
indication of being double: some of the members of the committee 
were of opinion, that it was slightly elongated. It was stated by the 
artist that his reflector would divide stars distant 3” from each other. 

Estimating the distance of the stars observed by the late observa- 
tions of South, Struve, and Herschel, Junr., the committee were 
of opinion that his instrument is adequate to the distinct division of 
double stars distant from each other 2.5’. 

The motion of this instrument plainly mounted was steady, and 
with the finder, even without rack work, objects were easily made. to 
range with the centre or line of collimation of the instrument. 

The position of the observers with the Herschelian telescope was 
natural and easy in contemplating objects having 70° or 80° of al- 


Miscellanies. 189 


titude, though quite constrained and inconvenient in using the achro- 
_ matic. ' 

The reflector gave a distinct view of land objects even when with- 
in one fourth of a mile: some light was lost by the position of the 
head, an inconvenience partially obviated by making the end nearest 
the object three inches greater in aperture. 

The Gregorian, which was probably not a very fine instrument of 
its kind, bore no comparison in distinctness, or in quantity of light 
with the Herschelian telescope. 

From these trials the committee are of opinion, that Mr. Holcomb 
has been entirely successful in the difficult art of polishing specula 
with the true curve, which gives to the object viewed all the distinct- 
ness of figure that is given them by the best refractors by Dollond. 

In one respect, the largeness of the field of view, the reflectors by 
Mr. Holcomb have a decided advantage over achromatics and re- 
flectors of different construction: the apparent diameter of the 
field of view in the Herschelian, being nearly double that of either, 
with equal freedom from aberration. 

The quantity of light furnished by the refractor was greater with 
the same aperture ; an important advantage in searching for, and ob- 
serving, very minute objects. This deficiency of light, in the Her- 
schelian, for viewing faint objects near the moon, or satellites near 
their primaries, the committee are of opinion may be removed by en- 
larging the aperture of the Herschelian reflector to five or five and a 
half inches. 

The simplicity of the method of preparing and mounting Mr. 
Holcomb’s telescope is worthy of notice, since on this plan the artist 
is enabled to furnish for an expense of one hundred dollars, with 
plain mounting, or of one hundred and fifty to two hundred dollars, 
with more expensive mounting, telescopes whose performance equals 
that of Gregorian and achromatics, hitherto imported into the country 
at an expense of five hundred dollars. 

(A true copy by order of the committee,) 


Witiram Hamivton, Actuary. 
Philadelphia, May 8th, 1834, 


Extracted and Translated by J. Griscom. 


23. On Electromotors.—The Abbé S. Dau Neero, Professor of 
Physics at Padua, having ascertained by multiplied experiments 
that the smallest plates of zinc produced the greatest relative effect, 


190 Miscellanies. 


endeavored to ascertain the cause of such result. He observed, to 
his surprise, that in five different cases, with various plates, the ef- 
fects in all those which had the relation of 3 to 4, were equal. Al- 
most despairing of being able to discover the cause of this, he hap- 
pily remarked, that if from a square of 4 inches one square inch be 
taken off, a surface remains, which has precisely the same perime- 
ter as the entire square; He remarked also, that a rectangle of 3 
inches base by 1 in height has a perimeter equal to a square of 4 
inches, and also that a rectangle of 6 inches by 2 has the same per- 
imeter as a square of 4 inches in the side. 

From this he drew the conclusion that zinc plates act in the ratio 
of their perimeters, and hence that the smallest plates have the great- 
est relative effect, because they have the greatest relative perimeters.. 

A plate of zinc of 4 sq. inches produced an effect represented by 
the number 9-26. For this plate was substituted another of the 
same zinc, having 16.inches base and 3 lines in width; and by this 
simple modification a force was obtained of 17-18. 

A rectangular plate of zinc of 45 square inches gave 37°50. From 
this plate there was then cut out one half the surface, leaving a hol- 
low square equal to the other half. This last gave a force of 35°10. 

From out of a plate containing 94 sq. inches, a hollow square was 
cut 3 lines wide, 154 long, and 6 high, having a total surface of 102 
sq. inches; this gave 32:25. ‘The rest of the plate, equivalent to 
831 sq. inches, (8 times the surface,) gave only 43°50. A plate of 
94 inches gave 46°20. From the interior of this, 55 inches (that is, 
8 inches more than half) were removed, and the remaining hollow 
square gave 41-75. 

These results fully demonstrate the great influence of contour in 
experiments of this nature. 

Various experiments were made with zinc wire, with a view of in- 
creasing the effect, both by wrapping the wire round wooden frames, 
or placing it in a zig zag form, in copper cases, on Dr. Wollaston’s 
plan. ‘The results were very interesting, particularly in relation to 
the electro-negative metal. 

An electro-motor constructed in this manner is extremely conven- 
ient and economical, since with a simple wire of zinc all the experi- 
ments of Ampere relative to electro-dynamic properties may be per- 
formed. 'To determine more fully the relation between perimeter 
and surface, hollow squares or frames of zinc were formed and cov- 
ered (first) entirely with an isolating substance, viz. black pitch, melt- 


Miscellames. 191 


ed with resin. When this was placed in a copper case, and plunged 
in acidulated water, no magnetic effect was produced. The exte- 
rior perimeter was then uncovered, and a magnetic force of 5.16 
was acquired. ‘The interior and exterior perimeters were then ex- 
posed, and the force became 10.83. When the whole surface was 
uncovered the force was 16.16. 

With a larger frame the exterior perimeter gave 8, the two peri- 
meters 13.60, the whole frame 21.40. 

Having demonstrated this remarkable relation between the con- 
tour and the surface of the zinc portion of the battery, the author 
was urged by an earnest desire to ascertain whether the same kind of 
relation took place in the copper portion. 

A plate of zinc of 141 square inches of surface was placed withia 
a double plate of copper, so that the latter covered the two surfaces 
of the zinc without touching them. ‘This element, put into a glass 
vessel of acidulated water, gave a force of 28.20; 102 sq. in. of the 
zinc were then removed, leaving a frame of 31 sq. in.; the force 
was 26.50. The copper was then cut in like manner, so as to leave 
the zinc frame only covered with copper ; the force was 25.00. 

A similar element, with a zinc plate of 9 sq. in., covered with a 
double plate of copper, gave 21.30. The zinc reduced to a frame of 
3 lines in breadth, covered with a frame of copper of equal dimen- 
sions, produced a force of 29.30. 

Another simple element of 4 sq. in. of zinc, with an equal plate of 
copper, gave 18.25. The plate of copper was cut into a frame so 
as to cover the two surfaces of the zinc, and the force rose to 21.87. 

Thus assured by direct experiments that the law of perimeters held 
good in both the metals, the author constructed electromotors which 
not only developed magnetic but calorific effects superior to those of 
larger surface, but more circumscribed in the contour. But he also 
ascertained that the magnetic action does not follow the same pro- 
gression as the calorific. ‘The former increases or diminishes in pro- 
portion to the metallic perimeters, and the latter varies with the sur- 
‘face of the metals agreeably to some unknown law. 

With respect to the electric action elicited by an electromotor of 
zine and copper, it is manifest only when the circuit is interrupted. 
But if the circuit be completed by the spiral of the temporary mag- » 
net, this action becomes manifest, because the magnetic action then 
developes its greatest force, but the electric action is not manifest. 
When the circuit is broken, the magnetic action is disguised, and the 


192 Miscellanies. 


electric action manifests itself by a lively spark, the force and sound 
of which are greater in proportion to the magnetic intensity at the 
closing of the circuit. . 

With an element formed of a small plate or wire of zinc, inserted 
in a canal of copper of any form, containing acidulated water, tempo- 
rary magnets and strong electro-magnetic sparks may be procured, 
from which it may not be difficult to derive some advantage. 

In fact, with an element composed of simple wires of zinc and 
copper, twisted into spirals, all the experiments may be made rela- 
tive to attractions and repulsions, electro-dynamic currents, and tem- 
porary magnets.—Abstracted from the Bib. Univ., Aout. 1833. 


24. Influence of the Moon on the weather ;—substance of a paper 
read at the Natural History Society of Geneva, in October, 1833, by 
F. Marcet.—On the question whether the moon has any influence 
over the weather or not, there are two opposite opinions; the great 
mass of the people, including sailors, boatmen, and most practical 
farmers, entertain no doubt whatever of the influence of the moon; 
whether the change of weather at the lunar phases will be from fair 
to foul, or from foul to fair, none of them pretend to decide before- 
hand, but most of them think, that at the new and full moon, there 
is generally a change of some kind. On the other hand, philoso- 
phers, astronomers, and the learned in general, attribute this opinion 
altogether to popular prejudice. Finding no reason, in the nature of 
atmospheric tides, for believing that changes should take place on 
one day of the lunation rather than another, they consider the popu- 
lar opinion to be unsupported by any extended series of correct ob- 
servation. 

In the Annuaire for 1833, Arago, the learned editor, has present- 
ed the result of the observations of Schubler, in Germany, during 
28 years, or 348 synodic revolutions of the moon. During this pe- 
riod of 348 new moons, &c. the number of rainy days were as fol- 
lows :-— 

It rained, on the day of the new moon, 148 times. 


Do. do. first quarter, 156 “ 
Do. do. full moon, 162 “ 
Do. do. last quarter, 130 “« 


The observations of Schubler. were made, during 8 years, at Munich; 
4 years at Stuttgard, and 16 years at Augsburg. 


‘Miscellanies. . 193 


As a good meteorological register has been long kept at Geneva, 
the author thought it would be interesting to ascertain from the tables, 
(which have been carefully published in the Bibliotheque of that city,) 
whether, during a period of 34 years, viz. from 1800 to 1833, any 
inferences could be drawn for or against the popular opinion on the 
subject of lunar influence. He finds, during these 34 years, the 
number of rainy days and the quantity of water fallen to be ag fol- 
lows :-— 


Rainy days. Water fallen. 

At the New moon, - - 123 432 lines. 
First quarter, - : 122 429.6 “ 
Full moon, - - 132 415.7 * 
Last quarter, - - 128 368.6 “ 


“Throughout the whole period, 3,657 968 inches, 9.3 lines. 


Thus it appears, that during 34 years, or 12,419 days, compre- 
hending 420 synodic revolutions of the moon, there have been 3,657 
rainy days. This gives, for every 100 days, 29.45 rainy days, and 
we find, that 

For every 100 days of new moon, 29.29 have been rainy. 


Do. do. first quarter, 29.05 do. do. 
Do. do. full moon, 31.43 do. do. 
Do. do. last quarter, 30.48 do. do. 


Hence, it is evident, that during these 34 years at Geneva, the days 
of new moon and the days of the first quarter have been just about 
as liable to be rainy days as any other common day of the month, 
while the days of full moon and those of the last quarter have been 
rather more liable. 

But although the days of full moon have been rather more fre- 
quently wet days than those of new moon, it does not follow that 
more water has fallen at full moon than at the change. The result 
of observation in that respect is as follows :— 

For every 100 days of new moon, there fell 102.9 lines. 


Do. do. first quarter, do,» 1023004 
Do. do. full moon, do. 90.0 « 
Do. do. last quarter, do. 87.9 .* 


The average quantity for every 100 days is 93.6 lines, whence it ap- 
pears, that at the new moon, the first quarter, and the full moon, more 
water has fallen than on common days; at the last quarter, less. The 
quantity fallen on the total of the lunar phases, surpasses that on other 
days in the proportion of 98 to 93.6. 

Vou. XXVII.—No. 1. 25 


194 i Mhscellanies. 


Another question is, whether a change of weather is more liable to 
happen on the four principal days of the Junar phases than on com- 
mon days. But it must first be decided what is meant by the term 
change of weather. This term should, the author thinks, be limited 
to a change from clear weather to rain, or from rain to clear weather, 
and not be understood to include, as some meteorologists make it, 
all changes, such as that from calm to windy, or from clear to cloudy, 
&c. As the author accepts it, the weather must have been steady 
during two days at least; that is, that the weather has been clear, or 
that it has rained more or less during two consecutive days. For 
example, a week has passed without rain; it rains on the eighth day, 
and on the ninth the weather is again fine. In this case, according 
to the author’s definition, there is no change of weather. So, also, 
if it has rained during five successive days, the sixth and the seventh 
must be clear, in order to constitute a change of weather. ‘This may 
be arbitrary, but at least it is not vague, and if practised it will pre- 
vent, in the balancing of calculations, any leaning to a favorite hy- 
pothesis. 'To avoid another error, into which some have fallen, the 
author marks no change as occurring on lunar phases but those which 
take place on the very day, and never those which may iin on 
the evening before or on the next day. 

With these precautions he finds that during the 34 years or 12,419 
days, there have been 1458 changes of weather. Of this number, 
105 have taken place at the epoch ee the two principal lunar phases, 
viz. 54 at the new moon, and 51 at the full moon. Now the whole 
number of principal phases during the 34 yearsis 840, therefore, 

As 12419 : 840::1458 ; 98.6 the number of changes which 
would have taken place at new and full moon, had these lunar phases 
had no more than the share of common days, but instead of which, 
the number was 105. 

Of the 54 changes at new moon, 32 were from rain to fine weath- 
er, and 22 from fine weather to rain. Of the 51 at full moon 31 
were from rain to clear, and 20 from clear to rain. Thus at the new 
and full moon the une to fine weather are to those to rain as 63 
to 42. | 

Having thus proved that the epoch of new and full moon are not 
absolutely without some effect on the weather, the author examined 
whether this effect was confined to those very days, or extended to 
the day following. On the days following the new and full moon, 
there were 129 changes, instead of 98.6 which would have been the 
number, had these shared the proportion only of common days. 


Miscellanies. 195 


With respect to the days of the first and last quarter, the changes 
on these were 96, which bring them nearly to the condition of com- 
mon days. 

It is thus shewn from the ebites that the chance of a change at 
new and full moon, compared with the chance on ordinary days is 
as 125 to 117, and that the chance on the day following these two 
phases, compared with the common days is as 154 to 117. 

Upon the whole therefore, this examination lends some support to 
the vulgar opinion of the influence of new and full moon, but none 
whatever to any especial influence of the first and third quarters. 

With respect to barometical pressure, it is ascertained that out of — 
the 1458 changes of weather there were in 1073 cases a corres- 
ponding rise or fall of the barometer, according as the change was 
from rain to fair, or the contrary. This is nearly as 3 to4. Of the 
385 false indications of the barometer 182 were on a change from 
rain to clear, and 203 on a change from clear to rain. Finally, of 
the 385 anomalies of the barometer, 17 were at full moon, and 10 
only at new moon.— Bib. Univ. Fev. 1834. 


25 Artificial ultra-marine.—M. Guimet in a letter to Gay Lussac 
dated Lyons, May 31, 1831, informs him that he had been for two 
years directing his attention to the improvement of the fabrication of 
this article, with a view especially of rendering it cheaper,—that ex- 
perience had proved, that it might supersede with advantage and 
economy, not only the blue of cobalt in painting, but also the azure 
or colored glass (smalt ?) used in such enormous quantities in blueing 
paper, linen, calico, muslin, &c. and with which Germany supplies al- 
most all Europe. As to painting he never had any doubt of the re- 
sult; but with respect to paper painting, &c. he had despaired on 
account of the low price of cobalt, the best quality of which sells 
for 2 7.5, francs or 3 francs per pound, while the best quality of the 
ultra-marine, that which is refined for the use of painters is 60 francs, 
and that of the second quality is 20 francs per pound. 

A trial however, of the ultra-marine having been made in paper 
staining, and found to answer extremely well, M. Guimet distributed 
200 pounds of his article among the paper makers in the vicinity of 
Lyons at 20 francs a pound, it was proved that one pound of the ul- 
tra-marine, on account of its intensity and extreme division, went as 
far in coloring as ten pounds of the finest and most beautiful cobalt. 
In consequence of this remarkable success, the demand for the arti- 


196 Miscellan Les. 


cle became so great, as it was found to give to letter paper a finer 
and more uniform shade than cobalt, he had resolved to give great 
extension to his manufactory, and had purchased nine miles from 
Lyons a situation, where he was forming an establishment large 
enough to supply the article in quantity sufficient for the consump- 
tion of the Eonatey> and to reduce the price of it to 16 francs per 
pound. 

Cobalt he thinks will eventually be confined to the vitrification and 
and coloring of porcelain. Ultra-marine is unchanged by caustic 
alkalies, and therefore very favorable to the dyer, and is used in pa- 
per staining, artificial flower work, and oil painting. Crape is per- 
fectly dyed with it, and acquires a blue of extraordinary brilliancy 
and solidity. — Annales de Chimie. 


26. Magnesium, the metallic radical of Magnesia.—The improved 
method of obtaining this metal, as practised by M. Bussy and im- 
proved by Just. Liebig, is to procure first chloride of magnesium by 
evaporating to dryness equal parts of hydrochlorate of magnesia and 
sal ammoniac, and projecting the mixtures in small portions intoa red 
hot platina crucible, and continue the heat until all the sal ammoniac 
is evaporated and the chloride remains in quiet fusion. 

A mass is thus obtained of chloride of Magnesium, white, ss 
rent, and having much resemblance to pure mica. 

Introduce from ten to twenty balls of potassium of the size of a pea, 
into the bottom of a perpendicular glass tube from three to four lines 
in diameter. Put the chloride of magnesium, in large pieces, upon the 
potsassium, heat it over coals till it begins to melt, then by inclining 
the tube, cause the potassium, which is now fluid, to flow through the 
chloride. he latter becomes reduced with the ee of 
light. 'The mass, when cold, is to be treated with water, and there 
collects, at the bottom of the vessel, a quantity of small metallic glob- 
ules, as white as silver, very brillant and very hard. ‘These may be 
forged and filed,—they are not changed by water, hot or cold. 

This metal dissolves in dilute acetic acid with the disengagement 
of hydrogen, without leaving the least residuum. The solution con- 
tains, besides magnesia, no foreign metallic oxide. With nitric acid, 
at common temperatures, much nitrous gas is disengaged, and with 
sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid gas. : 

When heated in air or in oxygen, this metal burns with brilliancy 
at atemperature at which bottle glass softens. ‘The interior of the 


/Miscellanies. ‘197 


vessel is coated with magnesia, and a black spot appears where the 
metal was, which, the author takes to be silicium, because it is not 
removed by boiling acids. 

The metal does not unite with sulphur ie fusion, but inflames in 
chlorine. 

Its solution in sulphuric acid, gives by evaporation crystals of pure 
sulphate of magnesia. It is thus proved that magnesia contains a met- 
al possessed of properties well worthy of attention.— Annales de Chi- 
mie. 


27. On crystalizable acetic acid ; by C. Despretz.—The method 
by which crystalizable acetic acid is made has been kept secret. 
After various trials, I obtained it in very fine crystals by heating a 
mixture in proper atomical proportions of acetate of lead, melted 
and dried, and boiled sulphuric acid, (203.4 parts of the former, and 
61.4 parts of the latter.) All the manufacturing chemists that I have 
consulted, inform me that they procure their acid from a factory 
which has not made the process known. 

Anhydrous acetates ought necessarily to produce the same result 
as acetate of lead.—Ann. de Chimie, Fev. 1830. 


28. On the separation of antimony from tin; by Gay Lussac.— 
The alloy of the two metals being dissolved in hydrochloric (muri- 
atic) acid, in excess, a plate of tin is dipt into the solution, and it 
becomes immediately covered with antimony in black powder. The 
precipitation is not complete in the cold, at least, a long time will be 
_ required for it; but by heating it in a vapor bath it will soon be com- 
pleted, provided an excess of acid be kept up in the liquid. The 
antimony may be afterwards perfectly washed and dried on a water 
bath.— Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 


29. Method of destroying the worms which attack fruit trees, by M. 
De Thosse.—Unforeseen circumstances often lead to useful discove- 
ries. One fact or discovery leads to another, and may form eventu- 
ally a succession which constitutes the chain of our knowledge. 

Agriculture is one of those pursuits in which theory should be 
combined with practice, and those who follow it ought to be duly . 
sensible of the many things which, in its various branches, it is still 
desirable should be found out. 


Falah 


< 
a Wed 


198 Miscellanies. 


Among these desiderata are the means of removing from our fields, 


gardens, and orchards, that multitude of destructive insects which 
blast our hopes and the fruits of our labors. 


I do not find in the various processes which have been published 
for banishing these hostile armies, the use of a substance which I 
have found to be a strong poison to all sorts of insects. I have em- 
ployed it in certain cases,—its use may perhaps be much extended. 
The reasonableness of its price and the rapidity of its execution in 
the several cases in which I have used it, seem to claim for it the at- 
tention of Agriculturists. 

This substance is the spirit of turpentine. I was led to try it by 
observing that certain plants which have naturally a strong odor, are 
not infected with insects. ‘Such plants however cannot always be 
immediately obtained, nor is it common for them to emit so strong 
and penetrating an odor as spirits of turpentine. 

Wishing some years ago to raise four young puppies, I perceived 
them, when a few days old to be very languishing, and discovered 
that they were full of insects or lice, which were preying upon them. 
It was vain that they were combed,—new generations succeeded, or 
were renewed from the mother, and the little animals were on the 
point of perishing. I then took it into my head to sponge both the 
mother and the pups with warm water impregnated with spirits of 
turpentine, and soon found to my agreeable surprise that every turn 
of the comb brought out numerous dead insects. The little animals 
soon acquired vigor, and were saved by a single repetition of the 
process during the course of the summer. 

I tried the spirit on various insects. Lice when touched with it 
on the point of a pin, made a few rotary bounds and fell down dead. 
Bed bugs, anointed with the same fluid, after a few steps, turned on 
their backs and died. A green, gilded insect, as large as a bean, 
which attacks pear trees, was touched and died immediately, although 
another insect of the same kind, lived a long time in warm quick lime. 

Butterflies, flies, caterpillars, May-bugs, die more or less prompt- 
ly when attacked with it. t 

Having learnt these facts, I soon found occasion to try its effects 
on some of my trees, which were attacked by a multitude of worms. 
These I destroyed entirely by putting into a bowl a few handfuls of 
earth on which I poured a small quantity of the spirit—ihen adding 
water, and stirring the whole together until it had a proper consistence 
to be rubbed or brushed over the ends of the branches. ‘The in- 


Miscellanies. 199 


sects perish with their germs,—the odor remains several days about _ 
the tree and repels fresh invaders. A mixture of earth is necessary, 
because spirits of turpentine swims upon pure water and will not 
mix with it, and if used in too great quantities might burn the leaves. 

The drought which occurred a few years ago in the canton in 
which I live, produced a mange in cattle and horses, very extensive 
and injurious, and those which escaped this infection were filled with 
lice, from which they were promptly relieved by sponging earth 
with water impregnated with the spirits. This infection caused 
horses, fatigued with labor to rub themselves so much against their 
mangers and the walls of the stables as to deprive them of much of 
the rest so necessary to their comfort. 

I cannot therefore doubt, from the trials that have been made, ‘ia 
much benefit might result from the use of turpentine in clearing 
fields and trees from insects of different kinds, and that a mixture of 
ashes with which a portion of this liquid has been incorporated, 
would remove by its odor the ticks and other insects which infest 
turnips. Its odor is more penetrating in the open air than that of 
sulphur and some other materials used for this purpose. 

It would perhaps be useful in destroying ants or driving them 
away from espaliers and other places. These insects are very fond 
of the slime or honey left by grubs, &c. on trees and plants attacked 
by them. 

The essence now recommended is of so moderate a price and is 
used in so small a quantity as to be accessible to every body ; and it 
is moreover an article that ought to be found in all farm and country 
-houses, from its being so good a remedy for the wounds and acci- 
dents to which horses are liable, and for the feet and horns of cat- 
tle.—Jour. des Conn. Usuelles. 


30. A brilliant and useful varnish for articles of cast tron.—Sus- 
pend the article by a bent wire and give it, with a brush, a thin coat 
of linseed oil, then hang it eight or ten inches above a wood fire so 
that the smoke and flame may frequently play around it. After be- 
ing thus exposed over a good fire during a full hour, bring it down 
very near the burning coals, without touching them ; after it has thus 
remained about fifteen minutes, dip it into cold spirits of turpentine. 

If this single operation does not give it sufficient brilliancy, it may 


be heated again over. the coals and dipt a second time in the spirits. 
—Idem. 


a 


ie” 
. 


¥, 


200 Miscellanies. 


31. Recipe for the beverage called imperial pop.—Put into an 


earthen pot two pounds of sugar, two lemons cut into slices, and two 


ounces of cream of tartar. Add nine quarts of boiling water, mix 


_. the materials well, cover the vessel with a stout cloth and let it cool: 


_ When cold, spread two table spoons full of good yeast from beer 
on a thin slice of bread ind put into the vessel, which must be cov- 
ered as before, and left till the next day. It may then be filtered 
through a fine cloth, and bottled and corked tight in strong bottles. 
In the course of three or four days the fermentation will be nearly 


ie complete, and the liquor may be drunk.—Jour. Con. Us. 


; be lg A 
fas A a ra” : 
bag Te: Hos 


Nil MET Sees 


32. Heat by phosphorus and iodine.—Prof. Cesar Gazzaniga has 
proved that the combustion produced by the contact of these two 
substances is not prevented by a very great reduction of tempera- 
ture of the materials before contact. This is manifest by placing 
the phosphorus and iodine on a thin glass and putting this in a freez- 
ing mixture, and as soon as they have acquired the temperature, in- 
corporating them by mixture, when inflammation always take place, 
although the temperature may be 24° R. below zero. With two . 
grains of phosphorus and three of iodine, the flame continued nearly 
fifteen minutes.—Bub. Univ. 


Treatise on Mineralogy, by Charles U. Shepard, Lecturer on 
Natural History in Yale College.—The second and concluding part 
of this work, embracing general descriptions of the species arranged 
alphabetically, together with tabular views of a natural history, and 
of a chemical arrangement of the species, is now in press, and will 


shortly be published by Hezekiah Howe & Co. 


Transactions of the Albany Institute, No. 1. Vol. II. has just been received and 
contains the following articles:—1. Abstract of Meteorological observations made at 
Albany, and calculations tending to establish its mean temperature, by Dr. T. R. 
Beck.—2. Observations on the Solar Eclipse of July, 1832, and the longitude of Al- 
bany, by Stephen Alexander, A. M.—3. Annual address before the Institute, by A. 
Dean, A. M.—4. Description of a new crustaceous animal found on the shores of the 
New South Shetland Islands, by Dr. T. Eights.—5. On the Functions of the Moon, 
from observations on the Solar Eclipse of June 16, 1806, by Simeon DeWitt.—6. As- 
tronomical Observations made at Berlin, Worcester Co., Md. Feb. 1831, by S. Alex- 
ander, A. M. 


it ht 
i 


be 
val | 
Ni HATELEL ee 


SUTTTEE ITERATE ETTTET Ae 
i Bo 


a 
SUM 
LATENT 


HUCUSEUDBANESERUEUAE 


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Feta 8 

Weare aa 
pata 


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THE 


: AMERICAN 


nee by ALP. Ft aches cs Professor of Natural eal 
in the Academy of Geneva. 


Translated from the Bib. Univ., by J. Griscom. 


BroGRraPuicat notices, designed to remind us of the services which 
the inventions and labors of learned men have bestowed upon sci- 
ence, become materials of literary history, and in this relation they 
already present much historical interest ; but they assume a far more 
dignified character when they exhibit to us also the union of the most 
engaging virtues of private life.—of goodness and modesty the most 
perfect,—with distinguished talents. ‘They then furnish examples 
of practical morality, and possess, above all fictitious narratives, de- 
signed to improve mankind, the immense-advantage of truth. Such 
is the predicament in which I stand in speaking of M. Desron- 
TAINES one of the most excellent of men, and at the same time one 
of the most distinguished savans of the present epoch. I fear not to 
advance this opinion; I have owed him many obligations; I have 
devoted to him the most sincere and profound attachments. I shall 
however endeavor to avoid all exaggeration ; I shall not forget that 
I have assumed the character of an historian, but shall strive to ex- 
hibit him in all the features of simple truth. If the most severe im- 
partiality, and the strictest verity are found to constitute an eulogy, 
it will surely not be required of me that I should disguise them. 

Rene’ Louiche Desfontaines was born in Britanny, at the village 
of Tremblay, (department of Ille-et-Vilaine) a place already named 
in the records of science, as the country of the anatomist Bertin. 
‘The exact period of his birth gpd of course the precise age to which 
he attained, has not been determined with certainty, as the registers 


of the commune of Tremblay were destroyed during the storms of 
Vor. XXVII.—No. 2. 26 


Seale, Zinch to 20 fet. 


Drawn by W"Duesbury. 


SECTION through MICA SLATE al LOWELL, shewing the intrusions of TRAP and GRANITE. 


202 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 


the revolution, he judged it to be at the close of the year 1751 or 
beginning of 1752. His father, whose fortune was very moderate, 
was desirous of giving him the advantages of as good an education as 
could be procured at a distance from the large towns, and according- 
ly placed him at a boarding school in his native village. Here he 
was taught a little Latin, but the master, with a view to form his 
morals, adopted a very rough and rigid treatment, which, although 
it may succeed with certain dispositions, almost always revolts those 
whose native energy gives them some superiority. Reprimand and 
correction applied for the slightest infractions of duty, and the fre- 
quent and repeated assertion that he was good for nothing at all, dis- 
gusted the young Desfontaines, and almost persuaded him that he 
had no capacity. In this state of discouragement he was one day 
threatened with severe punishment for having taken a few apples 
from an orchard; a fault from which few children perhaps are exempt. 
Wishing to avoid this punishment, he escaped through a window 
and fled for refuge to his father’s house. Great was the embarrass- 
ment of the family! what shall we do said they with this naughty 
fellow, who resisits every chastisement and is good for nothing. His 
father, prejudiced by the evil reports of the master, and believing 
that his son was not likely to succeed in his studies, resolved to send 
him to sea as a cabin-boy. It is not known what were the circum- 
stances which diverted him from this project, the execution of which 
might have deprived Science of one of her honored sons. I am in- 
duced to believe that maternal influence had a principal share in 
changing his destination. A further trial in the way of a literary ed- 
ucation was decided on, and the little robber of orchards was sent to 
the College of Rennes. 

The young scholar was still under his first impressions: dishking 
study in consequence of the rough manner in which he had been in- 
itiated, and persuaded that he never should succeed in the career of 
intellect, he entered upon his duties with great indifference. Noth- 
ing equalled his astonishment when, on the occasion of one of his 
first compositions, he heard his name called among the three or four 
highest boys of his class. ‘This worked a complete revolution in his 
mind. He began to think that his first master might have been mis- 
taken, and he was not perhaps sorry at the prospect of proving him 
to be so. If there are children whose self confidence requires to be 
repressed, there are others, and among them not always the most 
mediocre whose courage must be sustained, and to whom a first evi- 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 203 


dence of success is a sure pledge of the future. The young Desfon- 
taines from that time pursued a course of stubborn assiduity ; his ef- 
forts were successful, and at the end of the year he obtained several 
prizes. In announcing his success to his father, he begged him to 
communicate the fact to his old master and to remind him of his pre- 
diction that he could never do any thing. He persisted in this sort 
of vengeance, on every occasion of fresh success, and certainly it was 
a species of malice that was very often repeated. It was only until 
after his election to the Academy of Sciences, that he thought his 
revenge sufficient, and that he ceased his malign communications. 
Those who were acquainted with the mildness and habitual modes- 
ty of Desfontaines will find it difficult to recognize these qualities in 
this trait of his youth; but he had been deeply wounded, and even 
in a heart as good and affectionate as his, there may be found, from 
time to time, a feeling of vivacity and something of a Bretonnic 
Spirit. 

At the termination of his studies at Rennes, Desfontaines came to 
Paris to study medicine ; but in the pursuit of his medical studies he 
felt himself drawn by the impulse of a decided taste towards Bota- 
ny, and it was unquestionably this impulse, which, by diverting him 
from the practice, retarded his admission to the Doctorate. 'This 
did not take place until 1782, at which time he was about thirty. 
years of age. During his medical studies he had occasion to con- 
nect himself with Lemonnier, first physician to the king and profes- 
sot of Botany in the garden of plants. Lemonnier, without attain- 
ing the highest ranks of science, contributed much to its progress in 
France, by the influence which his situation gave him over the most 
eminent statesmen, and the honorable use which he made of it in the 
encouragement of young naturalists. Commerson, Michaux, La- 
billardiere, Desfontaines, were indebted to his protection for a por- 
tion of their success.* Alas! it was almost at the same moment 


* J. J. Houton de Labillardiere, member of the Academy of Sciences, born at 
Alengon in 1775, died at Paris the 8th of January, 1834, fifty three days after his 
most intimate friend Desfontaines. He had made a journey in Syria under the 
protection of Lemonnier and was afterwards in the expedition of D’Entrecasteaux 
in search of La Peyrouse. He published five Decades of the plants of Syria, the 
narrative of his voyage round the world, two volumes of the plants of New Hol- _ 
land, one on those of New Caledonia, and some memoirs. I could not advert 
to him without rendering homage to his memory and to the services he has ren- 
dered to science. 


204 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 


that the two latter of these protegées of Lemonnier finished their ca- 
reer, and the history of learning alone remains to testify to this be- 
neficence. , 

Desfontaines was the favorite pupil, and soon become the intimate 
friend of Lemonnier ; their dispositions simple and amiable, both de- 
voted to the love of Science and truth, created between them a pow- 
erful tie, notwithstanding the difference of their ages: it was through 
this connexion that Desfontaines enjoyed such intimate relations with 
Malesherbes, Duhamel, Denainvilliers, Fougeroux, &c. all of whom 
brought to the study of the natural sciences, the mildness and mod- 
esty of their manners ; he received also encouragement and assist- 
ance from Ant. Laur. de Jussieu, who, several years, older than 
himself had just succeeded his uncle Bernard in the professorship of 
the King’s Garden. 

Thus situated in the midst of the most distinguished Botanists of 
the age, Desfontames was able to conciliate their esteem and affec- 
tion. In 1783 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sci- 
ence. ‘This title which he has since rendered so illustrious, was at 
that time bestowed upon him for labors which his own modesty, 
judged. unworthy of it ;—his memoirs on Tithonia and Ailanthus, 
and that on the iritability of the sexual organs, which have since 
been published, are the best of those which he presented on that oc- 
casion. His election however was far from being a favor; he was 
evidently the most skillful botanist of the day, but he had devoted all 
his time to the study of plants, and very little to the publication of 
his works. r 

Faithful to this method, scarcely had he entered the Academy, 
when instead of making it a pretext for repose, he sought out the 
means of rendering himself more useful to science. He obtained 
the funds necessary for a botanical voyage, and encouraged by his 
countryman De Kercy, then consul at Algiers, he determined on 
explormg the coast of Barbary, from the frontiers of Tripoli to 
those of Morocco, namely, the countries of Algiers and 'Tunis ;— 
these regions, notwithstanding their proximity, were in fact, but little 
known. Dr. Shaw was the only naturalist who had visited them and 
botany constituted but a subordinate portion of his researches. This 
project was agreed to by the Academy, and Desioniaines set out from 
Marseilles for Tunis on the 6th of August, 1783. He remained two 
years in the Regency of Tunis and Algiers, visited chem in all their 
extent from the sea shore to the summits of Atlas and even that zone 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 205 


so privileged by climate and vegetation which lies on the’ south of 
Atlas and extends to the desert of Sahara; his researches in these 
two regencies were facilitated by the protection of the French Con- 
sul and by the kind disposition, with which our traveller was suc- 
cessful in inspiring the Deys. He had permission to accompany them 
in their annual excursions for the collection of taxes, and was thus 
enabled to visit in safety provinces which strangers cannot penetrate 
without great danger: he herborized every day, accompanied by an 
escort, or at least by a Grand 'Turk, who armed with a musket, defen- 
ded him from the attacks of the Moors. Although he found the 
utility of this protection, it was often at his own expense, and I have 
more than once been gratified in hearing him relate with an unaffec- 
ted sentiment of horror, the fear which he constantly felt, that the 
least impoliteness in a Moor might be punished by a shot from this 
vigilant guard, as a simple proof of his devotedness to his service. 
But if the brutality of these subaltern agents inspired him with real 
horror, he often testified the admiration which he had felt at the sa- 
gacity and impartiality, with which the ignorant and barbarous prin- 
ces of these regencies rendered justice to their subjects by processes, 
which, it is true, are somewhat rude, awarding damages to him who 
was justly entitled to them and the bastinado to him who had been 
extortionate under the guise of Justice. 

During the two years of his stay in Barbary, Desfontaines relaxed 
nothing in his efforts to travel over and to study the country in all 
directions. As strong and vigorous as a hunter, of temperate habits, 
active in the pursuit of objects which possessed any interest, he did 
in'a manner, exhaust the botany of that country so that during the 
half century, nearly, since he left it, scarcely a single species has 
been known to have escaped his penetrating eye. He also devoted 
much attention to its zoology. ‘The beautiful collections of insects, 
deposited by him in the museum, furnished Fabricius and Latreille 
with various new objects,—and he described himself in a special me- 
moir published in 1787, several new species of birds observed on 
the Barbary Coast. His acquaintance with the writings of antiqui- 
ty, qualified him to collect very judiciously, many documents on the 
ancient geography and antique monuments of the country. His 
memoir on the Lotus of Lybia, which nourished the Lotophagi,— 
that upon the sweet acorn oak, which grows on Mount Atlas, and — 
which has givemrise to the idea, that our ancestors fed on acorns, and 
that upon the economical uses of the date tree,—are proofs of his 


206 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 


classical’ knowledge, and the sound criticism with which he em- 
ployed it. ! 

During his sojourn in Barbary, he met with two botanists who 
were also exploring the country, and with whom he formed a friend- 
ly connexion which continued till death. These were Martin Vahl, 
afterwards professor at Copenhagen, and who acquired celebrity by 
the exactness of his botanical details, and M. Poiret, who published 
his travels in Barbary, and then devoted his time to the completion 
of the botanical part of the Encyclopédie Méthodique. Friendships 
of this nature, formed at a distance from ones natal soil, and under 
circumstances connected with the remembrance of danger and fa- 
tigue, leave we know full well, more profound impressions than those 
which spring up in the easy life of refinement and civilization,—of- 
ten has this reflection been forced upon me in hearing these old men 
relate with the utmost animation and vivacity, the reminiscences of 
this active period of their lives. 

On his return to Paris in 1785, Desfontaines found Lemonnier 
still animated with the same sentiments of kindness towards him. 
He was for a short time drawn into the project of joiming the noble 
but unfortunate expedition of La Peyrouse round the world. A be- 
neficent. illness preserved him from this danger. His protector was 
then desirous of settling him in life, and of yielding to him his place 
of professor of Botany in the Jardin du Roi. This establishment 
was then under the direction of the illustrious Buffon, whose superi- 
or talents, as is well known, were combmed with an imperious and 
resolute temper, and who moreover had had several court quarrels 
with the first physician. In him was the right of nominating to the 
professorships, on which account Lemonnier was afraid to resign, lest 
some other than his friend should be put into the char. He en- 
deavored to sift the opinion of Buffon, in case of his resignation, but 
the most intimate friendship could get no other answer than “ let Le- 
monnier resign and then I will exercise the right invested in me.” 
After hesitating a long time, L’Heritier, thinking that he perceived 
the intention of Buffon, induced Lemonnier to send an uncondition- 
al resignation. ‘This was accepted by Buffon, who diverted himself 
by suffering his decision to remain in suspense during two whole 
days ;—he then, in avery gracious manner, nominated Desfontaines, 
as if he wished it to be understood that it was done on his own ac- 
count, and not on that of his patron. 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 207 


He was thus, in 1786, placed in a situation the most conformable 
to his wishes and his taste. Fresh marks of the esteem of the learn- 
ed and of the government poured in upon him. He was called 
among the first to the formation of the Institute, and was frequently 
elected by his colleagues, either to the presidency of the Academy 
of Sciences or to the direction of the administration of the Museum 
of Natural History, when that administration was confined to the 
body of Professors. He was named, at its origin, a member of the 
legion of honor, and at the organization of the faculty of the sciences 
he was included as professor of botany. ‘These distinctions, the 
more flattering as they were never sought for by him, could scarce- 
ly fail to render his situation more agreeable ; but his chief pleas- 
ure, was in finding himself established as a professor in the modest 
dwelling, whence his labors have diffused so much light and infor- 
mation. 

The cares and duties which resulted from his new situation, di- 
verted him to some extent from the preparation of his travels in 
Barbary. The King, Louis XVI, who had taken an interest in this 
expedition, from the statements given him, by his first physician, tes- 
tified the wish to be more fully acquainted with it; and Lemonnier 
requested his friend to trust him with his papers, that he might read 
them to the King. Unfortunately these papers had been dispersed, - 
and as no regular copy of them has been preserved, every thing re- 
lating to the journey, except the collections themselves, was almost 
wholly lost. A few fragments only remained with Desfontaines, of” 
which by chance he had taken copies, in addition to a very incom- 
plete account of the first part of the journey published by the astron- 
omer, La Lande, in the Journal des Savans, August, 1784. ‘This in- 
cident discouraged Desfontaines from any publication of the history 
of his journey. It was only at the close of his life and when the ex- 
pedition to Algiers attracted renewed attention to that country that 
he gave up his manuscripts, at the earnest request of M. Walkenaer. 
Seven of these fragments were printed in 1830 in the Nouvelles 
Annales des Voyages (Vol. xv and xvii) but their author had no 
part in the publication of them, and often regretted to see them in 
print in the negligent style in which they were hastily written, and 
often disfigured by typographical errors. As they are, however, 
they furnish an interesting view of the manner in which he had ex- 


amined the country, and occasion much regret at the loss of the 
rest. 


208 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaanes. 


This loss having rendered all labor unavailing, with respect to a 
digested history of his journey, Desfontaines determined to devote 
himself entirely to botany. He revised with scrupulous zeal the no- 
menclature of the plants of the garden, and arranged the materials 
of his botanical course. In following the path of his predecessors, 
he improved it, especially in relation to the generalities of vegetable 
physiology, in which he pursued the method of Duhamel. His man- 
ner of lecturing was simple, clear, unostentatious, without efforts, 
and was relished to the very last by the pupils, who pressed in crowds 
to his room. Extracts from his course have been inserted in the 
Decade Philosophique and republished in the Annales d’Usteéri. 
While they exhibit his views of the science, they testify to the clear- 
ness and elegance of his style. 

It was at that epoch of his life when occupied with the plants of 
Barbary, he presented to the Academy and published, either in its 
memoirs, in the Journal of Fourcroy, or in the Acts of the Society 
of Natural History, various descriptive memoirs. But the revolu- 
tion had reached the sanguinary period of its history, and if, m cer- 
tain respects, by disgusting men of science, it turned them more ear- 
nestly to study, it deprived them also of the freedom of spirit, and 
often of the means of publishing their labors. Desfontaines spent 
this gloomy period within the recesses of the garden which he had 
the charge of, and in writing a description of his African Herbarium. 
A stranger to all party spirit, but alive to the feelings of friendship, and 
to merit in misfortune, he left his retreat only when he could do 
good. In a few instances, he displayed great courage and was suc- 
cessful in rescuing L’Héritier from impending destruction. 

As soon as tranquility was restored and the Institute was again 
opened, Desfontaines reappeared upon the scene with a work of high 
order. His sojourn in Barbary, by affording an opportunity of see- 
ing many date trees, had called his attention to the structure and 
vegetation of the palms. | He had written a few notes on this subject 
to Danbenton, who made use of them in his memoir on the organi- 
zation of wood, and presented in 1790, some ideas to the Academy 
on that subject. Later reflexions, and the comparison of a great 
many trunks of trees, extended his ideas, and showed him the inti- - 
mate connexion which subsists between the structure of stems and 
that of the seminal organs, which had been exclusively made the ba- 
sis of natural classification. He presented to the Institute in 1796, 
a Memoir on the organization of the Monocotyledons, which was re- 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 209 


ceived with acclamation by all Botanists and which placed its author 
in the first rank of Savans. This memoir shews the immense differ- 
ence which exists in the structure and mode of growth of the two 
great classes of phanerogamous plants, one of which has conical stems 
provided with bark, increasing by the addition of fresh layers to the 
exterior of the ligneous body,—and the others a cylindrical stem, 
without real bark and increasing by the developement of fibres, the 
youngest of which are in the center and the oldest on the outside. This 
memoir confirmed the distinction of plants by these most important 
characteristics, opened a new career to anatomists and classifiers, 
and has not ceased, during forty years, to constitute the basis of the 
principal labors of Botanists, the key of the natural method and of 
vegetable organography. ‘The scientific Journals were eager to re- 
publish this beautiful production, and the Academies to include the 
author in the rank of their members. He however, astonished as it 
were at his own triumph, seemed to fear that he might have occa- 
sioned too great a revolution in science; he stopped in this brilliant 
career and left to others the care of developing all the consequences 
of his discovery ; this is a remarkable instance in the history of sci- 
ence, proving that to the possession of talents so superior as to lead 
to the discovery of great and important truths there must be superin- 
duced a certain boldness of character in order to deduce from it, its - 
legitimate results. 

After his return from Barbary, Desfontaines did not cease to study 
to describe, and to draw the plants which he had collected. He de- 
cided on publishing this great work, and in 1798 appeared the 
first numbers of his Atlantic flora. This work was an epoch in de- 
scriptive botany and still remains among the most classic and valued 
books. The very few deficiences which even a rigorous critic can 
discover in it, (and I have known none more so than was the author 
himself with respect to his own work) attach to the period in which 
he travelled and to the circumstances which ensued. Thus he re- 
gretted having been so sparing in his details with respect to: the geo- 
graphical distribution of the plants of Barbary ,—but these views were 
entertained by nobody in 1784 and the loss of his manuscripts had de- 
_ prived him,of numerous documents. He regretted also that he had 
neglected to observe some farther details relative to the fruits and 
seeds of plants; but six years prior to Gertner no one thought of the 
importance which those characters have since acquired. If contrasted 
with those slight defects which a rigorous impartiality induces me to 


Vout. XXVII.—No. 2. 27 


210 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 


state, (a feeling which the author would command me to exercise 
were he now by my side as he always is in my heart) we reflect on 
the precision which distinguishes the descriptions and the nomencla- 
ture of the Atlantic flora, on the sagacity with which the ancient 
synonymy is there cleared up, and on the number of new objects 
which he brings to light, we shall not be surprised at the high estima- 
tion im which botanists have held this work. It has become the ba- 
sis for the study of the plants throughout the whole valley of the Med- 
iterranean, and its comparison with the south of Europe has elicited 
many a new idea on the general distribution of plants. 

May I be permitted to interrupt my narrative’ for a moment to 
state, that it was at the time when Desfontaines was putting a finishing 
hand to this work that I had the happiness of being admitted to an 
intimate acquaintance with him. He allowed me to work, with him, 
furnished me with all the means of research, which I had till then 
been deprived of, and instructed me by his advice and example in 
the art of observing plants and of elicitmg truth from ‘the contradic- 
tory assertions of botanists. From that time he manifested towards 
me the sentiments of a tender and enlightened father. It is a period 
which is engraved on my heart in characters of profound gratitude, 
and if I may thus style myself in speaking of my master, the perfect 
kindness with which he received young botanists, is not one of the 
least honorable traits of his character. Most of those who have fig- 
ured in the science since the commencement of the present century 
may make the same acknowledgment. ‘T'wo of them, afterwards his 
colleagues, have testified their gratitude in discourses pronounced over 
his tomb;—but let me turn from this moving perspective and resume 
the series of his labors. 

As soon as he had completed Bis Atlantic flora, he entered again 
with the ardor of a neophyte upon the care of the garden of plants for 
which he felt an attachment almost lke that of a man for his native 
country. He attended vigorously to the administration of it, and was 
busily occupied in determining with precision the nomenclature of 
the plants. From this time and until extreme old age, he labored 
in the botanical school, brmging his books and his herbarium to facil- 
itate the denomination of the species, and to oppose errors, perpet- 
ually springing up, from seeds improperly labelled, or from the trans- 
position of plants which are consantly taking place in large gardens. 
Neither the ardor of the sun nor the vigor of the season arrested 
his zeal in this ungrateful labor, from which no other honor could 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 211 


esult than that of a conscientious discharge of duty, and this, it is well 
snown, is a labor not always the most highly appreciated by the world. 
By these efforts he gradually prepared the three editions of the cat- 
alogues of the garden, which he published in 1804, 1815, and 1829. 
The establishment of the Annals of the Museum afforded him an op- 
portunity of making known a certain number of new or obscurely 
known plants which had flourished in the garden; it was from 1802 
to 1807 especially that he pursued this object by which science was 
enriched with various interesting particulars. In 1807 and 1808 he 
was engaged in an analogous labor by inserting first in the Annals, 
and then collecting into a volume, the beautiful plates that Aubriel 
had made of oriental plants when he accompanied 'Tournefort, and 
by adding descriptions derived mostly from the herbal of this illus- 
trious botanist. ‘This publication was a real homage to the memory 
of Tournefort, for whom Desfontaines had a high admiration, and 
this work, received with gratitude by botanists, has, in reality served 
to establish in the records of the science, a multitude of objects dis- 
covered by Tournefort, and which the moderns had forgotten or mis- 
understood. 

The labor of Desfontaines on the plants of India, suggested to him 
for a moment, the idea of publishing for the benefit of students, a work 
containing an abridged description of all the plants there cultivated. . 
He did me the honor to assign to me a small part of this duty, and 
during two or three years, we described, for this purpose, a great 
number of plants on a uniform plan; but the immensity of the la- 
bor, and the continual renewal of species in the garden, rendered 
this enterprise at length repulsive. He confined his attention to the 
resumption of some former engagements on trees, commenced during 
his connection with Lemonnier and Malesherbes. Animated with a 
desire of connecting botany with agriculture, he prepared and pub- 
lished in 1809, his history of trees and shrubs, which may be cul- 
tivated in open ground on the soil of France. 

This work was not destined to extend the limits of science, but to 
render it practical and popular. It contains a clear, elegant and ex- 
act statement of what is known of the history of trees,—a link be- 
tween the theory of systematic botany, the practice of horticulture 
and the art of the forester. ‘The author was aided in some parts of 
this work, as he had also been in the cares of the garden and plants 
of the museum, by M. de Leuze, an enlightened and literary bota- 
nist of good taste, to whom he had been several years attached, and 
who had ever manifested towards him the most devoted affection. 


212 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 


These valuable works being completed, Desfontaines began to feel 
a void. He’had never acquired any relish for worldly pleasures. 
At the period of the revolution, he lived in a very retired manner, 
devoted only to the few intimate friends around him. He spent 
every evening at the house of his colleague Thoum, or in the com- 
pany of a few select and intelligent acquaintances. 

The learned professor of the museum, had, like a true patriarch, 
adhered to the manners and to the habitation of his father, who was 
the gardener of the establishment. It was in the modest kitchen, 
and around the hearth, where his frugal meals were cooked, that 
were assembled every evening, the academicians 'Thouin and Des- 
fontaines, whose science and intelligence served as guides to the 
company, along with Van Spaendonk, who loved to relate anecdotes 
of the old Courts, and the geologist Faujas Saint-Fonde, whose con- 
versation, volcanic, like the subject of his studies, animated the whole 
company, and the gardener of the museum, John Thouin, who by 
his wit and raillery, tempered the gravity of the Deans, and last- 
ly one of the five Directors of France, La Reveillere-Lépeaux, who 
slipped away from the gilded canopies of the Luxemburg, to talk 
upon science, and make diversion of the cares of government. 

The picture of these meetings, (which I occasionally although rare-* 
ly attended,) can never be effaced from my remembrance, replete 
as they were with the most agreeable excitements. ‘The meetings 
were by degrees broken up by the death of several of its members. 
Several of the most intimate friends of Desfontames were removed 
from him either by absence or by death. A sister whom he tender- 
ly loved, frequently came from her villagein Brittany to bestow upon 
him her cares and affection, but could not remain long away from 
her domestic engagements. ‘Thus situated, he perceived the estrange- 
ments which threatened him, and having met with a young female, 
without fortune, it is true, but of an open and agreeable disposition, 
he chose her for the companion of his life and married her at the age 
of 63. This connexion commenced under happy auspices and his 
letters often spoke of the happiness which he enjoyed; he became 
the father of a daughter who was afterwards the source of his great- 
est comfort. His wife, m consequence of a second and most unfa- 
vorable accouchement was attacked by that cruel malady which, while 
it respects life and its physical faculties, takes away all that apper- 
tains to the heart and understanding. Desfontaines, obliged, even 
from a regard to his wife, to separate himself from her, was plunged 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. 213 


into a state of solitude so much the more painful as it was contrasted 
with six years of previous enjoyment; but he was a father and the 
infantine caresses of his little Mary, afforded him the sweetest of his 
consolations. 

But he endeavored also to divert himself with the most determin- 
ed labor: he had commenced some time before, an arrangement of 
the herbals of the museum. He resumed this labor with renewed 
zeal. A task so long and difficult was facilitated by an astonishing 
memory, with respect both to forms and beings and even to names ; 
he rarely lost the recollection of a plant, or even of a print of it, 
which he had once seen, but it must also be acknowledged that this 
prodigious memory was sometimes a snare, in preventing him from 
noting his observations, and from pursuing more method in his re- 
searches. He has often warned me of this danger, and I now trans- 
mit it in his name to young botanists, who may, like him, be endow- 
ed with this happy faculty. Whenever, in revising these collec- 
tions, he met with a new genus, he published a drawing and descrip- 
tion of itn the memoirs of the museum, and thus from 1815 to 1822 
he enriched science with seventeen remarkable genera,* which form- 
ed the subject of as many memoirs which have all been sanctioned 
by the suffrages of botanists. He published also, about the same 
time, various new observations on plants before known, such as the . 
genera Leucas, Amaivua, Copaifera, &c. He redoubled his zeal 
also in preparing such reports, as the Academy were pleased to 
charge him with, from the great confidence which they had in his in- 
telligence and impartiality. 

This extraordinary activity, so laudable even in young men, Des- 
fontaines preserved at the age of between seventy and eighty, an age 
when the most laborious men seek only for repose. But his facul- 
ties began at length to yield ;—his sight formerly so penetrating, 
gradually became dim, and when near 80, he was threatened with 
total blindness. He even endeavored, in this situation, to continue 
his observations, and I shall insert in a note, an extract from a letter 
he wrote me on the 11th of Oct. 1831, in which he mentions an ob- 
servation on the fecundation of plants, which, although not very new 
is nevertheless interesting. His friend endeavored to cheer him with 


* Pogostemon, Chardinia, Ricinocarpos, Gymnarhena, Ancylanthos, Heteroden- 
dron, Mezonewron, Heterostemon, Ledocarpon, Micanthea, Diplophractum, Stylo- 
basiwm, Chamelanciwm, Polyphragmon, Asteranthos, Gyrostemon, Condylocarpon. 


214 The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaies. 


the hope that an operation for cataract might one day restore him to 
sight ;—he sometimes yielded to this hope; but again, remembering 
that the same illusion had been held up to his colleague Lamarck, 
he smiled at his own credulity. He still preserved however his mild 
and benevolent cheerfulness of temper and clearness of intellect,— 
he loved to converse on botany and to point out observations which 
he thought ought to be made; he was led into the conservatories, 
and was gratified in distinguishing the plants by feelmg. He dicta- 
‘ted useful notes relative to the Colonization of Algiers, a subject on 
which he was often consulted by the government. 

In the mean time a violent catarrh, to which he was periodically 
subject, began to manifest itself with a force which his constitution 
seemed inadequate to resist. In anticipating the event one subject 
alone rendered him unhappy. He was leaving his daughter, still 
young, without protection in life. Happily, his nephew, to whom 
he had acted the part of a father, and who then held a station among 
the most distinguished civil engineers of the government, had been 
cherishing, for a long time, the desire of bemg united to his cousin. 
Informed of this desire, Desfontaines had the satisfaction, on his ~ 
death bed, to jom the two individuals whom he loved the most,—he 
gave a protector to his daughter, who still preserved the name which 
had received so much honor from the father. He also learned that 
the government had taken care to provide after his demise for the 
support of his wife. Thus encouraged with respect to those the most 
dear to him, he awaited death, in the midst, indeed of great bodily 
suffering, but with a serenity, a calmness, and brightness of mind 
which cannot be surpassed. His goodness had assumed a more 
touching character, and at his bed side, one of those who was then 
bestowing upon him his final and most attentive cares, (A. de Jus- 
sieu) wrote me I have learned to love him still more. He recalled 
to memory all the classic lines that were applicable to his situation ; 
he recollected the slightest wrongs that he thought he had commit- 
ted, in order to express his regrets ; he testified his friendship for his 
friends who were present, and sent tender messages to those who 
were absent. He yielded his last. breath the 16th of November, 
1833, aged about 81 years. 

His death spread a general grief dhroucheane the Museum of Nat- 
ural History, all of whose inhabitants had been long devoted to him 
by sentiments of attachment and veneration. Just and feeling tes- 
timonials were borne to him at the grave, by his colleagues. His 


The Life and Writings of M. Desfontaines. Q15 


place has been, agreeably to his wishes, bestowed upon a young bot- 
anist of the highest hope (Adolphe Brongniart) who had been selec- 
ted by him to perform his duties during his blindness. He left his 
classical herbarium of Barbary to the Museum, and his general her- 
barium has passed into the hands of a Botanist, (M. Webb) who will 
doubtless turn it to a useful account. 

I am aware that in thus retracing the life and labors of my excel- 
lent master, I have taught nothing to the botanists who have studied 
them; that I have added nothing to the eloquent written accounts 
by which Mirbel and De Jussieu have rendered homage to his char- 
acter; but, I have discharged a debt of my own heart, a duty of grat- 
itude, a last tribute of friendship. 


Extract from a letter of M. Desfontaines, dated 11th of October, 1831. 


The following is the result of an experiment that I made this year 
in my little garden, and which may be added to those of Linneus 
and others on fecundation. 

I raised, in the course of June, a stalk of cucurbita pepo, which 
put out branches in different directions. All the male flowers were 
successively and carefully removed before they were unfolded, about 
forty female flowers opened with their stigmates and ovaries well 
conformed. I procured two male flowers of cucurbita pepo from a 
very distant plat of my garden, and shook the pollen of one of them 
over the stigmates of one of the female flowers, and placed the bun- 
dle of stamens of the other male flower, in a second female flower. 
Both of these flowers produced firuit. ‘That of the first is very large 
and is now near its maturity ; that of the second, (in which the bun- 
dle of stamens was placed) attained the size of a common melon and 
then rotted ; but it was well formed. ‘All the other female flowers 
of my gourd entirely perished. I have several witnesses of these 
facts‘and among others M. Mirbel. I am nevertheless far from be- 
lieving that there are no plants which can produce seeds without the 
concurrence of stamens. This may do fora blind man. Vale, et 
iterum vale, amice. (Signed, ) DEsSFONTAINES. 


216 Dissection of the Eye of the Streaked Bass. 


Art. I.—Dissection of the Eye of the Streaked Bass, Perca No- 
bilis vel Mitchelli, with Observations on the accommodation of 
the Eye to Distances; by W. C. Watuacr, M.D., Surgeon to 
the New York Institution for the Blind. 


Tue eye is of an irregular form. It is directed outwards and a 
little forwards and upwards. It is attached to a cartilage that sur- 
rounds the anterior part of the orbit by a conjunctiva that forms a 
fold before it is reflected. ‘The sclerotica is strengthened at each 
canthus by a firm piece of cartilage ; behind, it is perforated for the 
passage of the optic nerve ; before, the cornea which is oval is con- 
nected in the usual way. 

Beneath the sclerotica is a layer of fat, nearly half the diameter of 
the eye in thickness at its posterior part, but it becomes thinner as it 
approaches the cornea where it disappears. Is this fat for retain- 
ing the retina at a proper temperature for receiving impressions ? 

Imbedded in the fat and covered by a membrane of a tarnished 
silver color which also surrounds the choroid is the red colored spon- 
gy substance of the shape of a horse shoe that is peculiar to many 
fishes, supposed by Hunter to be a muscle that alters the distance 
of the retina from the crystalline lens, by Cuvier to be an erectile 
tissue possessing the same influence and by others to be a gland. 
This is easily separated into two parts as if it were cut through lon- 
gitudinally ; the one part remaining attached to the opthalmic vessels 
the other to the choroid coat. When quicksilver is injected by the 
opthalmic artery it does not find its way to the choroid coat nor even 
tothe choroid portion but it well exhibits the vessels of the portion 
connected with the artery. : 

The choroid extends from the part just described to the circum- 
ference of the iris, where it appears to supply the vitreous humor and 
where it sends vessels to the superior and inferior axes of the crys- 
talline lens. 

The tunica ruyschiana is firm and appears to have a membrane 
over that which secretes the pigmentum nigrum, as it does not read- 
ily soil the fingers. 

The iris before, consists of layers of a silver color. At its cir- 
cumference there are a number of radiated streaks. Behind, it is 
covered with pigmentum nigrum. At its inferior portion there is a 
loop for the passage of a muscle soon to be described. 


Dissection of the Eye of the Streaked Bass. 217 


The retina consists of two layers, a fibrous* and a pulpy. A 
vascular or a serous cannot be demonstrated. There isa division at 
its lower part from the entrance of the optic nerve to its termination 
at the iris. The optic nerve is folded up like the ruffle of a shirt, 
and if it be pulled after the sheath is divided, the retina may be drawn 
through the foramina in the coats. 

There appears no aqueous humor. What is contained in the an- 
terior chamber, communicates with and has the same cellular struc- 
ture as the vitreous humor. ‘The membranes of the vitreous humor 
pass off in rays from the edge of the choroid and from the capsule of 
the crystalline. There is no appearance of Petit’s canal. 

The crystalline lens is spherical, completely surrounded by the 
vitreous humor ; as usual it increases in density towards the centre. 
When immersed in a solution of corrosive sublimate, it gradually be- 
comes white but it is not acted upon like albumen. When the lens of 
a sheep is allowed toremain in a solution of corrosive sublimate, scarce- 
ly any change is perceptible and consequently it is not albuminous. 
According to Berzelius the composition of the crystalline lens resem- 
bles that of the red globules of the blood. In fishes, the blood pass- 
es through the ramifications of the posterior portion of the choroid 
gland; the red globules appear to be taken up by the other portion, 
to pass in a tortuous direction over the choroid and to be deprived 
of their coloring matter before passing to the lens. In animals that 
live in air, the choroid alone seems capable of preparing what the 
lens requires. | 

At the inferior axis of the crystalline lens and attached to its cap- 
sule, is a small triangular body having its inner surface covered with 
pigmentum nigrum. It adheres to a cord placed at the divided por- 
tion of the retina. It passes through the loop in the iris and is in- 
serted into the vitreous humor behind the crystalline. Its mechan- 
ism may be seen by inspecting the plate, fig. 3. When the portion 
a part of which passes through the loop, is brought into action, the 
vitreous humor is drawn forwards and the lens is pushed before it. 
When the other portion acts, the lens is drawn backwards. 


* A fibrous coat may be exhibited in the retina of a bullock by immersing an 
eye for a few days in alcohol, pouring a solution of corrosive sublimate on the 
retina and separating the fibres by a camels hair pencil. Four coats may thus be 
demonstrated, a vascular, a fibrous, a pulpy and a serous. 


Vout. XXVII.—No. 2. 28 


218 Dissection of the Eye of the Streaked Bass. 


Cuvier states that, “‘in a great number of fishes, there is a falci- 
form ligament which passes through a slit in the retma, and pene- 
trates the vitreous humor.” “It contams blood vessels and nerves 
and is attached to the capsule of the crystalline at its inferior surface, 
sometimes by a simple elevation or by a fold a little more opaque ; 
at other times by means of a grain or tubercle, transparent and hard- 
er than the vitreous humor in which it is placed.” Cuvier has as- 
cribed no function to what is described. Jurm has named it the 
ganglion of the crystalline. I considered it the expansion of a nerve 
before closely examining its fibrous structure and its connexions. 


by EEE 
Ze 
= 


MW 
Wj 


DESCRIPTION OF THE CUTS. 

Fig. 1, 2. Preparations of the eye of the streaked bass. é 

Fig. 1, a. Triangular muscle passing through the loop above.—d. Crystalline 
lens—c. Vitreous humor.—d. Fat. 


On the accommodation of the Eye to distances. 219 


Fig. 2, a. Choroid gland.—s. Muscle attached to the crystalline lens.—c. Fat. 

Fig. 3, Plan.—a. Fat.—b, Vitreous humor.—c. Crystalline lens.—d. Muscle— 
e. Choroid gland.—/f. Optic nerve. 

Fig. 4. Section of the eye of a sheep.—a. Superior choroid muscle.—d. Ciliary 
processes.—c. Inferior choroid muscle. * 

Fig. 5, Crystalline and vitreous humor of a sheep, shewing the unequal diame- 
ter of Petit’s canal and the impressions of the superior choroid muscle. 


On the accommodation of the Eye to distances. 


_ Notwithstanding all the attention that has been paid to the eye, 
there is much discrepancy of opinion about the method by which it is 
accommodated to distances. We still read in the works of highly 
respectable authors about the change being effected by the alteration 
of the size of the pupil, by the muscularity of the crystalline lens, by 
a greater or less degree of convexity of the cornea, or by the muscu- 
larity of the ciliary ligament, without either of these theories being 
sufficiently proved. 

It is evident that the change in the size of the pupil, can have no 
more effect in the adjustment of the eye, than the increasing or di- 
minishing of the aperture at the end ofa telescope, can have in bring- , 
ing it toa focus. When it is dilated by belladonna, the power of ac- 
commodation, in my own case, to a certain extent, continues. 

The crystalline lens bears no analogy to muscular structure. If 
it did, there is no attachment to its capsule, from which the fibres 
could act. Inacertain species of hawk, it is a plano convex, so ex- 
quisitely cut, if I may use the expression, that if changed by muscular 
action, its delicate edge would be acted upon, and its figure would 
not likely return. | 

The hypothesis of Mr. Travers, that the radiated fibrous processes 
connected with the iris, bear upon the circumference of the crystal- 
line lens and elongate its axis, admits of no proof but is liable to many 
objections. 

The theory of Dr. Hosack, accounting for the phenomena by the 
degree of convexity of the cornea, will not apply in every case. In 
the eye of the sturgeon a thick cartilage encases the globe, as far as 
the circumference of the cornea. It is so firm that no change of form 
can be produced by the external muscles, nor have I been able to 
perceive that any alteration of the lamine of the cornea, can be made 
by their action. A structure similar to that of the sturgeon exists in 
many fishes. In animals that live in air, no change of form in the 
cornea is, to unassisted vision, perceptible. In attempting proofs with 
the microscope the difficulties in adjusting it have probably been sour- 
ces of error. 


. 220 On the accommodation of the Eye to distances. 


It was the opinion of Porterfield, that by the contraction of the cil- 
iary ligament, the crystalline was drawn forwards, that the distance 
of the cryrtalline from the retina was farther increased by the com- 
pression of the vitreous humor behind the ligament, and that the 
aqueous humor pressed against the cornea made it more convex. 
Porterfield uses the.term ciliary ligament synonymously with ciliary 
processes. ‘The reason that his opinion did not receive more atten- 
tion, may have been that the ciliary processes alone did not seem ad- 
equate to the purpose. 

The opinion that the ciliary ligament or annulus albus, is the mus- 
cle by which the eye adapts itself to the perception of distant objects, 
has been recently advanced by Dr. Knox. The annulus albus has 
not the least appearance of muscularity. The muscular fibres at the 
roots of the ciliary processes seem to be meant, which are msufficient 
to account for the phenomena. ; 

In fishes the iris does not seem capable of much motion, yet their 
vision contrary to the usually received opinion seems to me to be 
very acute. . | have sometimes over a small lake watched the motions 
of trout. They appeared to sport with each other and to enjoy life 
as much as animals that live in air, and there was no error in their 
judging of the position of a fly, nor in their aim at obtaming it. The 
speed with which they elude the grasp of the hand that darts towards 
them is very great, and can be accounted for only by the quickness 
of their vision. ‘Those who attempt to catch fishes with their hands, 
find it no easy task to secure them. ‘ 

From the apparent structure of the triangular body already descri- 
bed, from its origin, its attachment to the crystalline lens, its passing 
through the loop in the iris and its insertion into the vitreous humor, 
it appears to be the means of adjusting the eyes of fishes to different 
distances. As the crystalline lens in these animals appears a perfect 
sphere, a slight rolling motion will produce no change in the direction 
of the rays. A very small force is thus advantageously applied, it is 
increased by the passing of the muscle over the pully, and by its fa- 
vorable insertion into the vitreous humor the power of moving the 
crystallme is still farther inceased. : 

It should be observed that in some fishes as ‘fe, poigee, the mus- 
cle does not pass through a loop in the iris, but is only attached to 
it. In the herring, the mackerel and the shad, the falciform process 
described by Cuvier, is evidently constructed for the motion ie the 
crystalline. . 


On the accommodation of the Eye to distances. Q21 


This simple mechanism, will not succeed in adjusting a lens that 
is not a sphere, without altering the direction of the rays of light. 
Another and a more complicated structure exists in the amphibia 
that I have examined, and in animals that live exclusively in air. 
The ciliary processes arranged in a radiated manner around the lens 
are very vascular. When wounded, they effuse so much blood that 
they are cautiously avoided by the operator. Each process is like a 
folded leaf having its sides of a triangular form.* In the eye of an 
animal recently killed they adhere firmly to that portion of the hyaloid 
membrane that forms the anterior wall of the canal of Petit, and can 
only be seperated from it by rupture. The ruptured portion forms 
the halo signatus. At their base upon the inner surface of the choroid 
coat there is a range of muscular fibres. In the sheep the fibres of 
the upper portion run transversely to the ciliary processes. Those of 
the lower portion run parallel to them. The transverse fibres leave 
a distinct impression upon the hyaloid membrane when they are sep- 
arated from it. Petit’s canal is broader here than it is below. 

When Petit’s canal is inflated without removing the support of the 
vitreous humor the crystalline advances. When the inflation is dis- 
continued it resumes its place. Petit’s canal thus appears to be formed 
for limiting its motion and maintaining its position as it becomes nearer 
to or more distant from the retina. The ciliary processes are receiv- . 
ed into depressions with elevations of the hyaloid membrane between 
them to allow of its expansion as it advances and occupies a more ex- 
tended space. In fishes whose crystalline is a sphere, surrounded 
by the vitreous humor and moved by a simple muscle, such an appa- 
ratus is not wanted and it does not seem to exist. 

When the muscular fibres at the roots of the ciliary processes con- 
tract, the ciliary veins will be compressed, and the processes will be- 
come erect and expanded; their sides will recede from each other, 
the anterior wall of Petit’s canal will be lifted forwards and the crys- 
talline will advance. When the muscular action ceases, the processes 
will become less turgid, their sides will approach each other, the an- 
terior wall of the canal of Petit will be pushed back and the crystal- 
line will resume its situation. 

Different directions may be given to the rays of light proceeding 
from objects by a change of the position of the crystalline produced 


* See the elegant plates of Mr. Bauer, Phil. Trans. Lond. 1822 


QD On the accommodation of the Eye to distances. 


by the contraction of the fibres at the roots of one portion of the cili- 
ary processes while the other fibres are relaxed. 

The design of creative Wisdom in varying the structure of the eye 
to the purposes to which it is to be applied is very conspicuous in the 
sheep. ‘The muscle on the choroid coat is larger above than that 
which is below; its fibres take a different direction that it may more 
effectually compress the ciliary veins, and Petit’s canal is broader al- 
lowing the crystalline more extended motion ; in this manner enabling 
it more effectually to select its food and soon to watch against danger 
without lifting its head from the ground: or according to the degree 
of light, enabling it to remove the picture from the lucid tapetum to a 
part that is darker. ‘The retina termmates where the muscle begins 
lest its action should interfere with the impressions received upon it. 
It is slit asunder in fishes apparently for no other purpose than avoid- 
ing the motions of the cord to which the triangular muscle is attached. 

When we look from one object to another we are conscious of an 
effort and that some time is requisite for distinct vision ; apparently 
allowing the vascular processes to be filled or emptied by compressing 
or not compressing the veins that return from them. 'The winding 
direction of the carotid before it gives off the ophthalmic artery, the 
smallness of the ciliary vessels and their bendings and anastamoses 
before reaching the processes prevent the blood from passing per sal- 
tum but conduct it in a steady uninterrupted course. In the cat an 
animal that has to watch her prey often fora very considerarble time, 
the artery that supplies the eye after making a curve, gives off a num- 
ber of very small branches which make several convolutions before 
some of them again unite and penetrate the sclerotica. By this 
structure the eye may continue for a long time without losing its ob- 
ject. Momentary relaxation of the ciliary processes may be permit- 
ted without having again to bring the organ to the same focus. 

That the theory advanced by Kepler and supported by Porterfield, 
that the eye is accommodated to different distances by the position of 
the crystalline nearer to, or more remote from the retina is the true 
one, and that the change is effected in the manner described is evi- 
dent from the structure of the apparatus. 


New mode of constructing the Mercurial Barometer. 223 


Arr. [1].—New mode of constructing the Mercurial Barometer ; 
by J. L. Rippext, A. M., Lecturer on Chemistry. 


Tue design of this contrivance, is to render the indications of the 
barometer more obvious and delicate. 


A C, is a vertical glass tube near thirty two or thirty three inches in length, as 
in the common barometer. 

CD. An iron joint held together by screws. 

GI. A horizontal glass tube five feet long, or of any required length. 

AO. Torricellian vacuum. The mercury is continuous from O to P. 

MK. A plumb line pendent in a glass tube, for adjusting the instrument so 
that CA shall be exactly vertical. 

H. A spirit level, for detecting any variation of GI, from a horizontal direction. 


The iron tubes serve in part as caps, into which the ends of the 
glass tubes are cemented ; and at the places where the glass termi- 
nates, the iron must be so drilled that the corresponding calibres will 
be exactly equal and continuous. If the glass and iron are fitted ac- 
curately in the first place by grinding, a little resinous cement appli- 
ed by heat, (such as shellac,) will render the junctions perfectly 
secure. ‘That part of the iron tube which embraces the glass, may 
be attached with common cap cement. The iron faces that are 
pressed together by screws, should be accurately ground ; and if the 
position of the instrument require it, pieces of thin leather may in- 
tervene. If the calibre of the ascending tube be one fourth of an 
inch, and that of the horizontal tube one fifteenth ; the rise or fall of 
the mercury four fifths of an inch, will cause the horizontal column 
to move nearly a foot. 


224 Apparent Diminution of Weight in certain circumstances. 


The same apparatus modified a little, becomes a very delicate air 
thermometer. It is only necessary that atmospheric pressure should 
be excluded, and that the tube GI should terminate at I in a bulb 
contaiing air. If the bulb be partly filled with the vapor of mer- 
cury, at the time it is sealed, the elasticity of the air within, will be 
of a low tension, when the instrument becomes cool. In this case 
the tube AC may be materially shortened, and the iron joint dispen- 
sed with. The vapor of water, alcohol or ether may be substituted 
for air, taking the precaution to leave an excess of liquid in the hor- 
izontal tube or bulb. An instrument of extreme delicacy, may thus 
be constructed, but whether air or vapor is used, it is rather more 
difficult to adapt a scale to it, than a common thermometer. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, April 8, 1834. 


Arr. 1V.— Apparent Dimunition of Weight in certain circumstan- 
ces ;* by W. E. A. Arxin. 


Sir David Brewster, in one of his letters on Natural Magic, ad- 
dressed to Sir Walter Scott, relates the following “as one of the most 
remarkable and inexplicable experiments, relative to the strength of 
the human frame.” ‘The experiment was performed in the presence 
of Sir D. B. by Major H. who had seen it performed at Venice, un- 
der the direction of an officer of the American Navy. “‘'The heav- 
iest person in the party lies down upon two chairs, his legs being sup- 
ported by the one and his back by the other. Four persons, one 
at each leg and one at each shoulder, then try to raise him, and they 
find his dead weight to be very great, from the difficulty they expe- 
rience in supporting him. When he is replaced on the chairs, each 
of the four persons takes hold of him as before, and the person to be 
lifted, gives two signals by clapping his hands. At the first signal, 
he himself and the four lifters begin to draw a long and full breath, 
and when the inhalation is completed or the lungs filled, the second 
signal is given for raisig the person from the chairs. To his own 


* Mt. St. Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, March 12, 1834. 
To Prof, Silliman.—Dear Si7—I send you the following as possibly possess- 
ing sufficient interest to find a place in the Journal of Science; if so, it is at your 
Service. Respectfully and sincerely, 
your humble and obedient servant, W.E.A. Algin. 


Apparent Diminution of Weight in certain circumstances. 225 


surprise and that of his bearers, he rises with the greatest facility, 
as if he were no heavier than a feather. On several occasions I 
have observed when one of the bearers performs his part ill, by ma- 
king the inhalation out of time, the part of the body which he tries 
to raise is left, as it were, behind. As you have repeatedly seen the 
experiment and performed the part both of the load and the bearer, 
you can testify how remarkable the effects appear to all parties, and 
how complete is the conviction, either that the load has been light- 
ened, or the bearer strengthened by the prescribed process. Major 
H. declared the experiment would not succeed if the person were 
placed on a board and the strength of the individuals applied to the 
board. He conceived it necessary that the bearers should commu- 
nicate directly with the body to be raised. I have not had an op- 
portunity of making any experiments relative to these curious facts, 
but whether the general effect is an illusion, or the result of known 
or of new principles, the subject merits a careful investigation.” 

Upon reading the above, my curiosity was sufficiently excited to 
induce a repitition of the experiments with a view merely to satisfy 
myself whether the whole affair was, as is above suggested, an illusion 
or an inexplicable fact. For this purpose and with the aid of some 
friends, the trials were varied and continued at different times, until 
all were satisfied ‘‘ that the load had been lightened or the bearers — 
strengthened by the prescribed process.”’ As the results we obtain- 
ed may throw some light on the subject, I subjoin them for the cu- 
rious. The “load” was represented by a young gentleman weigh- 
ing about 120 lbs., who was placed on a table with the bearers, two 
on each side, so that they could respectively apply one hand to each 
shoulder and leg. The terms “ more difficulty” and “ more ease” 
refer to the exertion requisite to lift the load under ordinary circum- 
stances. ; 

Ist. Lifted simultaneously, by signal, without preparation to as- 
certain what resistance was to be overcome. 

2nd. Repeated the first. 

3rd. Used the method prescribed by Sir D. B., but not acting in 
unison, felt no relief. 

4th. Repeated third, more successfully and evidently lifted with 
more ease. 

5th. Repeated fourth, with same result. 

6th. Repeated the first. 

Vol. XXVII.—No. 2. 29 


226 Apparent Diminution of Wee m certain circumstances. 


7th and 8th. Lifted with the lungs kept inflated, and experienced 
more difficulty. 

9th and 10th. Repeated fo th with same result. 

11th and 12ih. The bearers only used the prescribed method, the 
load took no part other than to give signals, result same as fourth trial. 

13th and 14th. Having changed the load repeated first. 

15 and 16th. Repeated fourth, same result. 

17th and 18th. Repeated eleventh and twelfth, same result. 

19th and 20th. Similar to fourth, except that the prescribed process 
was intentionally neglected by one of the bearers, unknown to the 
others, no difference in consequence was observed by the others, and 
but very little by himself. Except therefore, so far as the one bear- 
er was concerned, the results were similar to that of the fourth trial. 

21st and 22nd. Repeated fourth with same result. On these tri- 
als the load was placed on a board and the strength of the bearers 
applied to the board. 

23rd. Repeated first, load still on the board. 

24th and 25th. Same as twenty first and twenty second, same re- 
sult. 

26th, 27th and 28th. Load still on the board, repeated seventh 
and eighth with same results. 

29th and 30th. Having changed the load, repeated the first. For 
this and the remaining trials, the load was kept on the board. 

31st and 32nd. Repeated seventh and Te same result. 

33rd. Repeated first. 

34th and 35th. Repeated fourth, same result. | 

These trials were made at three different times with the assistance 
of three different parties. At each time it was found necessary af- 
ter half a dozen trials, to intermit for a few moments, as the wrists 
of the bearers became quite tired. 'The following conclusions were 
deduced. 

Ist. When the lungs are fully inflated and the act of life and 
that of expiration is carried on simultaneously, the load is apparently 
lightened. 

nd. No other situation of the muscles of the chest will give the 
same result. 

3rd. The result is dependent of the co-operation of the person 
lifted and is equally perceived with an inactive weight and by conse- 
quence with an manimate weight. 


ny 


Apparent Diminution of Weight in certain circumstances. 227 


4th. The fact may be explained by the more favorable action of 
the muscles of the humerus during the transition from a forced inha- 
lation to complete expiration in consequence of their connexion with 
the muscles of respiration. It is not the load that is lightened, but 
the strength of the bearers that is more favorably applied, and the 
apparent difference in weight during a successful experiment is no 
greater than can be explained by this method. 

After being satisfied by actual trial, that the fact was a true fact, 
the obvious inquiry appeared to be, whether the load was lightened 
or the bearers strengthened. The former supposition seems to be 
physically impossible, unless we can introduce some ‘‘ new princi- 
ple,” or contrive some short way to dispose of the laws of gravity, 
and as I did not think it advisable to attempt either, 1 was driven to 
the necessity of accounting for the increased strength of the bearer. 
And this increased strength, I conceive may be accounted for by re- 
ferrmg to the relative situation of certain muscles at the time the ex- 
ertion ismade, ‘The deltoideus, the supra spinatus and infra spina- 
tus, are tense and ready to act, the ribs are elevated to the utmost 
by the forced inhalation, the scapula is fixed by the action of the 
muscles of the humerus antagonised by the serratus major anticus 
and others. The lifting of the load and depression of the ribs, then 
begin, the serratus muscle is directly affected by this depression, its . 
action is thereby rendered more energetic, and thus the muscles of 
the humerus attached to the scapula are seemingly strengthened. 
It may be anatomically demonstrated, I think, that the action of the 
above muscles in the given position would produce the supposed re- 
sult, at least in degree. There may be a difference of opinion as to 
the sufficiency of the cause to produce the effect. To this I could 
only say, that owing to the peculiar insertion of these muscles of the 
humerus, only a very trifling additional direct or indirect action on 
their part would be necessary, as we have only to account for a tri- 
fling difference in weight. During the most successful experiments 
in which I performed the part of a bearer, the sensation of lightening 
was no more than would have been experienced by the removal of 
five or six pounds from my hand. If all four bearers experienced the 
same it would make a difference of between twenty and thirty pounds 
in the apparent weight of the load. This difference is triflng when 
divided among four persons, but it is fully sufficient to account for 
most if not all the prodigious facts generally narrated in connexion 
with this experiment. When I hear of individuals weighing between 


228 Transmission of Radiant Heat 


two and three hundred pounds, having been lifted on the fingers of 
’ four persons with no more exertion on their part than would be re- 
quired to lift a feather, I cannot avoid reverting to what Sir David 
Brewster considers a possible explanation, illusion. One great source 
of error, as I conceive, in the experiment, is that gentlemen do not 
take the pains to compare at the time of trial the necessary exertion 
when the prescribed process is used, with the necessary exertion 
without preparation or under ordinary circumstances. 


Remark.—Some years ago, I was interested in the subject discuss- 
ed above, and at the time when such experiments were mentioned 
in the public prints, I was concerned in making them repeatedly on 
others, and was the subject of them myself. I can only say, that 
when the experiment was made according to the prescribed forms, 
there was a very obvious apparent diminution of resistance in raising 
or in being raised.— Ed. 


Arr. V.—Transmission of Radiant Heat through different solid 
and liquid bodies.—An abstract of a statement of the results ob- 
tained by M. Metuont, from the Journal of the Institute. 


Translated from the Bib. Uniy., by J. Griscom. 


Norurne can be more suitable than the instrument employed by 
M. Melloni, for the purpose of rendering totally msensible the mflu- 
ence of the heat which emanates from the screen itself, without al- 
tering the value of that which is immediately transmitted through it. 
It is sufficient to say that, under convenient circumstances it renders 
sensible the heat of a single person at the distance of 25 to 30 feet: 
This instrument is composed of a thermo-electric pile, formed of 
small bars of antimony and bismuth, disposed in a bundle, and of a 
condensing or multiplying galvanometer whose extremities commu- 
nicate, by means of two long copper wires, with those of the pile. 
The rays from the heating source, fall on one of the ends of the 
bundle which constitutes the pile—this heat excites an electric cur- 
rent which pervading the apparatus disturbs the equilibrium of the 
magnetic needle of the galvanometer, the deviation of which shews 
the intensity of the radiant heat. The instrument may be so adjust- 
ed, that at a convenient distance from the heatmg source, the rays 
falling directly on the pile, produce a deviation of 30°. When they 


through different solid and liquid bodies. 229 


are to be entirely cut off, a plate of polished brass is interposed. 
When the transmitting power or capacity of any substance is to be 
tried, that substance is placed on the opening of the screen, the 
plate of copper is removed, and in five or six seconds the needle by 
its oscillations and final deviation, shows the ultimate effect. It is 
remarkable that the needle acquires a stable position in a minute and 
a half, whatever the thickness of the transparent medium through 
which the heat passes, from one hundreth of a line to five or six 
inches. ‘The constancy of this interval of time, under such varied 
thicknesses, proves unquestionably that the heat which falls on the 
pile is exclusively that which passes immediately through the inter- 
posed substance. 

Thus it is proved incontestably, that rays of heat are immediately 
transmitted through solid and liquid bodies, possessed of a certain 
degree of transparency. But is the amount of heat thus transmitted 
in proportion to the transparency? This is the question which the 
experiments of the author appear to have solved. 

The following tables give the indications of the galvanometer for 
different substances, reduced to the same thickness. ‘They were ob- 
tained under circumstances the most favorable to the identity of the 
laws of transmission for heat and light,—for the radiating source be- 
ing a lamp with a double current of air, there was at the same time 
a very abundant transmission of both of these agents. ‘The number 
of rays transmitted, was calculated by dividing the galvanometric 
force, by the total force when the rays fall directly on the pile. The 
numbers are expressed in hundredths of the quantity of incident 
heat. 


TABLE I. 

Liquids. (Common thicknes 9.21”".) “atvanometer, transuitted. 
Open screen, - - - - - 30.00 100 
Carburet of sulphur, (colorless,) —- - 21.96 63 
Chloride of sulphur, (deep red brown,) - 21.83 63 
Protochloride of phosphorus, (colorless,) - 21.80 62 
Hydrocarburet of chlorine, (colorless,) - - 13.27 37 
Oil of nuts, (yellow,) - - . - 11.10 31 
Essence of turpentine, (colorless,) - - - 10.83 31 

«rosemary, (colorless,) oe OS 30 
Oil of colza, (yellow,) - - - - 10.38 30 
Oil of olive, (greenish yellow,) - - 10.35 30 
Balsom of copaiva, (pretty deep yellow brown,) 9.39 26 


Essence of lavender, (colorless,) . - 9.28 26 


230 Transmission of Radiant Heat 


Ui 1 mm \ Deviation of the Rays 
Liquids. (Common thickness 9.21.) Devistion oor tramemitted. 


Oil of pink, (slightly yellow,) - - - 9.26 

Naptha, rectified, (colorless,) - - - ' 9.10 26 
Sulphuric ether, (colorless,) - - - 7.59 21 
Sulphuric acid, pure, (colorless,) - - 6.15 17 
Ditto of Nordhausen, (deep brown,) - - 6.09 Ag 
Hydrate of Ammonia, (colorless,) - - 5.47 15 
Nitric acid, pure, (colorless,) - - - 5.36 15 
Absolute alcohol, (colorless,)  - - - 5.30 15 
Hydrate of potassa, (colorless,) - - - 4.63 13 
Acetic acid, rectified, (colorless.)  - - - 4.25 12 
Pyrolignous acid, (light brown,) - - 4.28 12 
Solution of alum, Gane - - - 4,16 12 
Salt water, - - - - - 4.15 12 
White of Eggs, Galeweh white, ) - - 4.00 11 
Distilled water, - - - - - - 3.80 11 

TABLE 11.—Solids. Common thickness 2.62”. 

Open screen, - - - - - - 30.00 100 
Rock salt, (diaphanous and colorless,) - - 28.46 92 
Iceland spar, (idem,) - - - - 21.80 62 
Another kind, (idem,) - - - - 21.30 61 
Rock crystal, (idem,) - - - - 21.64 62 
Glass, (idem,) —- - - - 21.60 62 
Rock crystal smoked, riesaeercioin deep brown,) 20.25 57 
Brazilian topaz, (diaphanous, colorless,) - 19.18 54 
Carbonate of lead, (idem,) - - - 18.35 52 
White agate, (translucent,) - - - - 12.48 35 
Sulphate of barytes, (diaphanous, veined,) - 11.72 33 
Aqua marine, (idem, bluish,) - - - 10.16 29 
Yellow agate, - - - - - 10.10 29° 
Borate of soda, (translucent,) - - - 9.87 28 
Tourmaline, (greenish,) - Site - 9.54 27 
Adularia, (irregular veined,) - - - 8.30 24 
Sulphate of lime, (colorless,) - - - 7.15 20 
Fluate of lime, (veimed,) — - - - - 5.40 15 
Citric acid, (colorless,) —- - - - Dalle 15 
Sardonyx, (translucent,) = aed = - 4.98 14 
Carbonate of ammonia, (streaked,) - - 4,50 13 
Tartrate of potash and soda, ee) - 4.40 12 
Alum, glacial, (idem,) - 4.36 12 


Sulphate of copper, (transparent, Gap Tine,)) 0.00 00 


through different solid and liquid bodies. 231 


An inspection of these tables, shews at once, that the aptitude of 
a body to transmit radiant heat, has scarcely any connection with its 
aptitude to transmit light. The difference between these two prop- 
erties is enormous, since in the case in which the bodies possess the 
same degree of transparency, the quantities of heat transmitted, vary 
from one to eight, and frequently the quantity transmitted by certain 
substances of a deep tint is four or five times as great as that by other 
substances perfectly diaphanous. 

This faculty of giving passage to calorific rays, diminishes by an 
increase of the quantity of matter to be traversed, but not to so much 
as might be supposed. Thus pieces of Iceland spar and rock erys- 
tal, smoked, from 86 to 1000 millemetres thick, transmitted from 52 
to 54 out of 100. The crystal was of so dark a tint that, laid on 
printed paper, it was impossible to perceive the least trace of the 
letters through it, even when exposed to the strongest light. Now 
a plate of alum 2.8”” thick, allows only 12 rays in a hundred to pass 
through, by reducing it to one mellimetre Melloni could obtain only 
an increase of 4 to 5 hundredths, the material notwithstanding being 
as pure as the finest glass. Here then is a very transparent plate 
which transmits 3 or 4 times less radiant heat than another plate al- 
most opake and nearly a hundred times thicker. 

The author finally ascertained that rays of heat are sensibly trans- 
mitted through the perfectly opake glass employed in the fabrication 
of the mirrors which are used in polarizing light. 

Not the least doubt therefore can remain of the almost entire in- 
dependence of the two transparences—calorific and luminous, and it 
becomes now indispensable to distinguish by a special denomination, 
the bodies which transmit much radiant heat. Melloni proposes to 
call them transcaloric or diathermanes, in imitation of the terms trans-_ 
parent or diaphanous, indicating the analogous property relative to 
light. ‘ 

It may now be asked whether the faculty of transmiting rays of 
heat has any relation to other properties of matter, in these trials on 
liquids and the vitrification of crystalline bodies properly so called. 
An inspection of the first table assures us that a liquid is diather- 
mous in proportion to its refrangibility. Hence the curburet and the 
chloride of sulphur, transmit more caloric than oils,—oils more than 
acids,—acids more than aqueous solutions, and the latter more than 
pure water, which is the least refringent of the whole series, and also 
the least diathermanous. Melloni also proved by experiment that 


232 Transmission of Radiant Heat 


the same law holds good with respect to flint glass, crown glass, and 
different kinds of glass. It is therefore extremely probable, that it 
extends to all substances, solid and liquid, deprived of regular erystal- 
ization, With respect to crystals the single comparison of the two 
bodies which form the extreme limits of the second table is sufficient 
to show that they are not at all subject to this kind of proportionality 
between the faculty of refracting light and transmiting heat, for rock 
salt possesses nearly the same refraction as alum, and transmits 
eight times more radiant heat. These two bodies are found often 
under the same crystalline form, and have nearly the same hardness 
and specific gravity. ‘The great difference in their action on rays of 
heat seems not to depend either on chemical composition, smee, by 
dissolving them separately in water, they increase the transmitting 
power.of that fluid in the same manner. Analogous considerations 
apply to almost every substance of the same kind. In regularly 
crystallized bodies, there is then no apparent relation between ca- 
lorific transmission and the other known properties of matter. 

We have observed that the author had used an Argand lamp in 
obtaining the results of the preceding tables. Now by employing 
as radiating sources, incandescent platina, copper maintained at a 
constant temperature by the flame of alcohol, and vessels full of 
mercury or of water at the boiling heat, he found that the order of 
calorific transmission was the same for all of them; but the numer- 
ical value of each transmission underwent great diminutions. ‘Thus, 
rock crystal, Iceland spar, carbonate of lead, colorless topaz, which 
gave by the lamp from 62 to 52 were reduced to 26.24 and 20 by 
the platina. It was the same with other substances: tartrate of po- 
tassa and soda, citric acid and alum, gave no sensible transmission. 

The quantity transmitted was still more reduced when the source 
was metal heated to 400° or 500° C. It was reduced to zero when 
the rays proceeded from boiling water. 

These experiments prove that the law which Delaroche found 
with respect to glass, extends to the other diaphanous substances 
mentioned in the preceding tables. But there is one extremely 
remarkable exception to this general rule. Rock salt allows the 
same proportion of radiant heat to pass, whatever the temperature 
of the heating source. ‘Thus, whether the rays proceed from the 
most brilliant flame, from a red hot ball, from boiling water, or from 
water heated only to 40° or 50° C., rock salt will always transmit 
72, of the incident heat. A comparison with the analogous effects 
of light will more clearly shew the importance of this result. 


through different solid and liquid bodies. 233 


If we look at a luminous body through a very clear plate of glass, 
we perceive but a very slight or insensible diminution of the clear- 
ness of the body, whatever may be in other respects the force or in- 
tensity of the light which emanates from it. The rays of solar light, 
or those which issue from a glow worm, pass with the same facility 
through a plate of glass or through any transparent medium what- 
ever. It is not thus with respect to radiant heat: for we have just 
seen that in regard to glass, Iceland spar, rock crystal, and m general, 
all diaphanous bodies, the rays are transmitted in quantities which 
diminish with the temperature of the source, so that they are all in- 
tercepted when they proceed from a body heated to about 100° C. 
There was then every reason to believe that this phenomenon de- 
pended on the nature of the agent which constitutes heat, and that 
consequently no body could exist which was truly diathermanous, 
that is to say, a substance which acts upon rays of heat proceeding from 
different sources, as every diaphanous medium acts upon luminous 
rays whatever may be their origin. Rock salt has completely chang- 
ed the received opinions on this head and established an unexpected 
connection between those two great natural agents heat and light. 

The constant action of rock salt upon all sorts of radiant heat 
may be usefully applied in a great many cases. Suppose we wish 
to ascertain whether the rays of obscure heat are susceptible of re- 
fraction,—place a receiver full of boiling water at a certain distance 
from the thermo-electric pile and out of the direction of its axis ; 
the rays emanating from the receiver cannot then enter the tube and 
the galvanometer remains motionless; but by placing a prism of 
rock salt properly before the tube, we perceive the needle instantly 
to leave its position of equilibrium,—proving that obscure heat is re- 
fracted like light. If we wish to propagate to great distances the 
action of a hot body of small dimensions,—fasten it at the focus of 
a lens of rock salt, which refracts the radiant heat and sends out the 
rays parallel to the axis, forming a true pharos of heat. The ope- 
ration may be reversed when we wish to render sensible the rays 
which proceed from a very feeble source,—the lens will then re- 
ceive the rays and cause them to converge to the thermoscopic body. 
Melloni has in this manner obtained by his instrument and by simple 
air thermometers, very marked signs of heat from very distant ves- 
sels containing warm water. In short, rock salt may be made to act 
upon rays of heat either obscure or accompanied by light, in the 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 30 


234 .. Transmission of Radiant Heat 


same manner as luminous rays are acted upon by miscroscopes, tele- 
scopes and optical imstruments in general. 

In speaking of the independence which exists between the trans- 
parency of bodies with respect to light and heat, we cited examples 
which shew the little influence which the thickness of the plate pos- 
sesses on the quantity of heat transmitted; but that applies only in 
the case then under consideration, namely when operating with the 
flame of alamp. Melloni has made similar experiments with other 
sources, whence it results that the influence of thickness on the phe- 
nomena of transmission is greater as the temperature of the source 
is low. It becomes very great in low temperatures. ‘This proposi- 
tion is intimately connected with the law of Delaroche, for the dif- 
ferences between the quantities of heat transmitted through the same 
plate of glass exposed in succession to various sources, diminishes 
in proportion as the plate becomes less thick, and is completely effa- 
ced at a certain limit of thickness ; so that in presenting a plate in 
a certain state of exiguity to two sources of very different tempera- 
tures, it transmits the same quantity of heat from each. ‘The author 
proved this by an extremely thin plate of mica exposed to mcandes- 
cent platina and to a mass of iron heated to 360° C. 

Melloni has also studied the effect which the color of bodies has 
on the transmission of radiant heat, as well as the condition of the 
surface, and the resistance of the successive layers which compose it. 
He has ascertained, Ist, that all the colormg materials which enter 
into the composition of colored glass, green excepted, act upon rays 
of heat, as dark substances do upon light when introduced mtoa dia- 
phanous medium; 2d, that the more polished the diathermanous 
surface, the more it facilitates the transmission of rays of heat; 3d, 
that the loss experienced by rays in traversing one of the thin lay- 
ers mto which we may conceive the medium to be divided, is so 
much the less, the more distant the layer is from the surface on 
which the rays fall. 

In what we have thus far considered, terrestrial heat alone has 
been the subject of experiment ; in applying his methods to solar 
heat Melloni arrived at this result, that each ray of the solar spec- 
trum acts like the terrestrial rays derived from different sources, so 
that the most refrangible rays may be compared to the heat from a 
very hot focus, and the least refrangible to that from one of low 
temperature. 


through different solid and liquid bodies. 235 


In fact, if rays of heat, issuing from a prism, be made to pass 
through a plate of water, between two plates of glass, it will be found 
that in traversing the fluid, the least refrangible rays suffer the great- 
est loss. The rays of heat mixed with the blue or violet light pass 
through in great abundance,—those which lie in the obscure part 
just beyond the red are almost totally stopped. ‘The first act like 
the heat of a lamp, and the last like that of mercury or water in 
ebullition. It was formerly imagined that the temperature of differ- 
ent parts of the solar spectrum was proportional to the intensity of 
the light, and hence that the yellow contained the most heat. It 
was afterwards maintained that the maximum of heat lay in the red 
or just beyond it. The first opinion, based on the experiments of 
Bérard was much in vogue in France,—the latter, on those of Her- 
shell was generally adopted in England and in Italy. Seebeck’s re- 
searches in 1828 prove that all this may be true, for the maximum 
of heat depends on the composition of the prism. It was wrong 
therefore to draw such general inferences from such particular facts. 
But the error was in some measure justified by the false idea that 
had been formed of the invariable action of colorless diaphanous 
substances on all sorts of calorific rays; so the facts announced by 
Seebeck, remained isolated in science until the researches of Mel- 
loni. Now they may be explained with the greatest facility. Let 
us recollect, Ist, that in the common spectrum formed by a glass 
prism, the maximum of heat lies in the red ; 2d, that the solar rays, 
in traversing a mass of water suffer loss inversely proportionate to 
their refrangibility. 

This premised—the author reasons thus: The solar heat which 
falis upon the anterior face of a prism of water, comprehends rays 
of all degrees of refrangibilty. Now, the ray which possesses the 
sanie refractive index as the red light, suffers, in traversing the prism, 
a loss proportionally greater than the ray endowed with the refran- 
gibility of orange light, and the latter less in traversing it than the 
heat of thé yellow. These ratios increasing in the loss of the less 
refrangible rays, evidently tend to cause the maximum to move from 
the red to the violet ; it may then stop at the yellow. By supposing 
the action of sulphuric acid to be analogous to, and less active than, 
that of water, we shall understand why, in the case of a prism of 
acid, the maximum is stationed at the orange. 

In fact, the glass itself of which common prisms are composed, 
must operate in the same manner and produce upon each ray a loss 


236 Caricogrraphy. 


inversely proportional to its degree of refrangibility. Therefore, if 
we employ in the construction of a prism a substance less active than 
common glass, the loss will be weakened in greater proportion for 
the less refrangible rays; the latter will gain then upon the more re- 
frangible rays and the maximum will advance in a direction opposite _ 
to the preceding, that is, from the violet to the red. This is pre- 

cisely what Herschel, Davy, and Seebeck ascertained in operating 

with prisms of flint glass. 

Let us compare these effects with the numbers which represent 
calorific transmissions: we shall find that the maximum of heat, im 
leaving the yellow where it is found to be in the water prism, always 
advances in the same direction, just as the prism is constructed of 
substances more and more diathermous. It lies a little beyond the 
spectrum when flint is substituted for crown glass. Admitting then 
the exactitude of this theory, the line of the greatest heat must be 
disengaged entirely from color and be found in the dark space much 
beyond the red, when rock salt is used, a substance which is as 
much more diathermous than flint, as flint is than crown glass. 

This important verification was made by the author on spectra 
formed by five prisms of rock salt from different localities. It was 
completely successful. In every case the maximum was found in 
the dark space at a distance from the last luminous band equal to. 
that which exists on the opposite side between the greenish blue and 
the limits of the red. 

Melloni has proved also that crystallized bodies act upon rays of 
heat in the same manner in all directions. He has assured himself 
of this by making the calorific radiation pass through prisms and 
plates of the same thickness cut out of the same crystals in differ- 
ent directions relative to the axes of crystallization —Bzb. Univ. 
Oct. 1833. | 


Arr. VI.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey. 
Appendix, continued from Vol. xxvi. p. 378. 


No. 187. Carex savatilis, L. 
Willd. Sp. Pl. 4. page 272, and Pursh, No. 23. 
Schk. Tab. I and Tt. fig. 40. Wahl. No. 140. 
Spicis distinctis, staminifera solitaria, fructiferis distigmaticis sub- 
ternis oblongis obtusis sessilibus, inferiore pedunculata cum bractea 


Caricography. 237 


auriculata ; fructibus ellipticis convexo-planis obtusis brevi-rostratis, 
squamam oblongam obtusam subequantibus. 

Culm six to ten inches high, triquetrous, scabrous above, with 
leaves sheathing towards the base, and nearly as long as the culm 
and flat; staminate spike single, oblong, cylindric, with ovate and 
obtuse scales ; stigmas two; pistillate spikes two to four, sometimes 
staminate above, sub-approximate, oblong, obtuse, sometimes loose- 
flowered, the lowest with a leafy bract having so large auricles as to 
be clasping the stem ; fruit elliptic, convex on the upper and flat 
on the under side, obtuse, with a short beak, and light colored ; pis- 
tillate scale oblong, obtuse, black, and long as the fruit; plant is of 
light green color. 

Found by Dr. Richardson near Fort Franklin on McKenzie’s 
river, and at Bear Lake, and on the sea coast of arctic America. 
As Pursh’s description of this species is taken from Willd., I have 
quoted him as authority, although it may be doubtful whether he 
ever saw the species in our country. 


s No. 138. C. compacta, R. Br. 
R. Brown’s appendix to Ross’s Voyage. 
Torrey and Schw. No. 54. 
Tab. U, fig. 63. 

Spicis distinctis ; staminifera solitaria, raro binis, erecta oblonga ; 
pistilliferis distigmaticis subbinis, pedunculatis erectis oblongis sub- 
densifloris ; fructibus ovatis convexis brevi-rostratis ore bilobis, squa- 
‘ma ovata nigra acutiuscula longioribus. 

Culm six inches high, erect, triquetrous, smooth, leafy ; leaves 
flat, long as culm, and sheathing the base ; bracts long, leafy, with 
short sheaths ; staminate spike one, rarely two, erect, cylindric, with 
oblong and obtusish black scales; stigmas two; pistillate spikes 
about two, erect, cylindric, half an inch long, pedunculate ; fruit 
ovate, acutish, short-beaked, orifice two-lobed, brownish at the apex ; 
pistillate scale ovate acutish, black, and shorter than the fruit. 
Found on the Rocky Mountains. Resembles C. saxatilis, but differs 
in fruit, and scale, and general appearance. 


No. 139. C. stenophylla, Wahl. 
Schk. Tab. G. fig. 32. 
Wahl. No. 21. 
Spiculis in caput subglobosum aggregatis, distigmaticis, superne 
staminiferis ; fructibus subrotundis ventricosis convexo-planiusculis 


238 Caricography. 


nervosis in margine serrulatis ore bidendatis, squame ovate acute 
subeequalibus. 

Culm three to six inches high, smooth leafy; leaves sheathing 
towards the base, narrow, longer than the culm; spikelets androgy- 
nous, staminate above, several, aggregated ito a roundish head ; 
stigmas two; fruit ovate, roundish-ventricose, flattish, nerved, sca- 
brous on the margin, and with a two-toothed mouth, about equal to 
the ovate, acute, and tawny scale. 

Inhabits the Tyrol: it was found also by Dr. Richardson near 
Carlton House and on the Rocky Mountains. It closely resembles 
the figure of the European plant. 


No. 140. C. Schkuhra, Willd. 
Schk. Tab. Qqq, fig. 158. 
Willd. Sp. Pl. Tom. IV. p. 264. 

Spicis distinctis, staminifera solitaria, pistilliferis subbinis trastig- 
maticis, sessilibus approximatis subrotundis parvifloris ; fructibus ob- 
ovatis brevirostratis subtriquetris-globosis ore bilobis, sqyame ovate 
acute vix zquantibus. 

Culm six to eight inches high, triquetrous, scabrous, stiff; leaves 
sheathing, longer than the culm, but lower ones abbreviated, chan- 
neled, nearly flat, and scabrous on the edge; one stammate spike 
oblong and cylindric, with oblong and acutish scales brown, and white 
on the edge; stigmas three ; pistillate spikes one to three, sessile, 
nearly ovate-globose, few flowered, with an ovate and cuspidate 
bract and sometimes leafy under the lowest spike; fruit obovate, 
globose, slightly triquetrous, short-rostrate, orifice two-lobed, scale 
ovate, acutish, brown, white on the edge, a little shorter than the 
fruit ; color a bright green. 

This species was found originally at the Caspian Sea. It was 
found also by Dr. Richardson at Lake Winipeg. According to 
Willd., the spkes have three or six fruit, sometimes two or three. 
Its resemblance to C. supina, described in Vol. X XVI of this Jour- 
nal, is remarked by Willd., and Schk. Both the plants are unlike 
others in our country, and so near these descriptions, that there can 
be no doubt of their identity. 


No. 141. C. Carltonia, Dewey. 
Tab. U. fig. 64. 
Spicis ternis ovatis sessilibus approximatis trist¢gmaticis, superi- 
ore androgyna inferne staminifera ; fructibus ovatis acutiusculis plano- 


Caricography. 239 


convexis levibus ore integris, squamam ovatam acutiusculam equan- 
tibus. 

Culm a foot or more high, triquetrous, striate, scabrous, stiff, erect ; 
leaves sheathing towards the base and shorter than the culm ; spikes 
three, sessile, ovate, near, upper one staminate below, and the others 
pistillate ; stigmas three ; fruit ovate, acutish, smooth, slightly nerv- 
ed, flat below and convex above, tapering ; scale ovate, acute, equal 
to the fruit. 

Northern regions near Carlton House. This is a beautiful and dis- 
tinct species, and belongs in the same subdivision as C. virescens, &c. 


_ No. 142. C. Parryana, Dewey. 
Tab. U. fig. 65. 

Spicis distinctis, staminifera solitaria erecta cylindracea, pistilliferis 
binis vel ternis tristigmaticis oblongis cylindraceis densifloris erectis ; 
inferiore pedunculata bracteata; fructibus obovatis convexo-planis 
obtusis levibus vix rostratis ore integris, squama ovata acuta vel sub- 
mucronata paulo longioribus. 

Culm eighteen inches high, erect, stiff, triquetrous, rough, striate, 
with leaves sheathing and shorter than the culm; staminate spike 
single, erect, cylindric, or rather tapering towards either end, with 
oblong scales, obtuse and white on the edge; pistillate spikes two 
or three, erect, cylindric, close fruited, highest sessile, lower pedun- 
culate and with a leafy and nearly sheathless bract; stigmas three ; 
fruit obovate, obtuse, convex above, flat beneath,  subtriquetrous, 
nerved, orifice entire, and scarcely rostrate ; pistillate scale ovate, 
acutish or sub-mucronate, dark brown, white on the edge, and a lit- 
tle shorter than the fruit; plant a light green. The fruit is compact 
and small. 

This is a beautiful species, found by Dr. Richardson at Hudson’s 
Bay. It seems to be wholly distinct from any heretofore described. 


No. 143. C. arctica, Dewey. 
Tab. V. fig. 66. 

Spicis subternis tristigmaticis ovato-cylindraceis sessilibus, infima 
pedunculata bracteata, suprema inferne staminifera ; fructibus ovatis 
plano-convexis obtusis brevissimé-rostratis ore integris, squama ovata 
obtusa paulo longioribus. 

Culm eight inches high, erect, stiff, triquetrous, slightly scabrous; 
leaves at the base short and flat ; spikes three to four, ovate-oblong, 
round, sessile except the lowest which has also a leafy bract; the 


240 Caricography. 


highest is staminate below, with an obovate and brownish scale ; stig- 
mas three ; fruit ovate, convex above, flat beneath, smooth, obtuse, 
very short-rostrate, dark brown; pistillate scales ovate, obtuse, dark 
brown, white on the edge, a little shorter than the fruit. 

Belongs in the subdivision with C. virescens, &c. and isa distinct 
and beautiful species, found by Dr. Richardson near Carlton House 
in the Northern regions. 

Note.—The following species was described in Vol. XI. p. 161. 
The following more full description is taken from specimens from the 
arctic regions. 

C. aristata, R. Br. 
Schw. and Torrey, No. 104. 
Tab. V. fig. 67. 

Spicis distinctis, staminiferis binis vel pluribus erectis sessilibus, 
fructiferis tristigmaticis subternis cylindraceis distantibus subdensi- 
floris, inferiore pedunculata, ceteris subsessilibus ; fructibus ovato- 
lanceolatis longo-rostratis alto-bifidis nervosis glabris, squama ovata 
aristata longioribus. 

Culm one or two feet high, erect, triquetrous, scabrous above, 
leafy, with long leafy sheathing bracts ; leaves flat, long, linear-lan- 
ceolate, striate, rough on the edge, and villose under side and on the 
sheaths ; staminate spikes two to four, erect, cylindric, sessile, some- 
times with a few scattered fruit, and with lanceolate and curved 
scales rough at the point; stigmas three; pistillate spikes two to 
four, oblong, cylindric, rather distant, upper subsessile, and lower 
pedunculate, bracted, rather densely flowered ; fruit ovate, long-ros- 
trate, glabrous, nerved, smooth, little ventricose, deeply bifid; scale 
ovate, awned, and the whole shorter than the fruit. agit 

Found near Cumberland House by Dr. Richardson, and seems to 
be between C. bullata and C. ampullacea. It is a large and hand- 
some species. 

No. 144. C. ursina, Dewey. 
Tab. V. fig. 68. 

Spica unica, inferne staminifera, globosa, densiflora, tristigmatica ; 
fructibus ovatis compressis lentiformibus levibus ; squama ovata subor- 
biculata paulo longioribus. 

Culm two to three inches high, striate, triquetrous ; leaves narrow, 
involute, filiform, sheathing at the base ; spike single, round, globose, 
small, densely flowered, pistillate above, three or four staminate 
flowers at the base ; stigmas three ; fruit ovate, flattish, roundish, ob- 


TAB. U. Vol.xxvil. — 


C. compacta, R.Br. 


C. Parryana, | 
Dewey , | J 


Vol. 27. Sill. Jour: 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 241 


tusish, smooth, pistillate scale ovate, rather obtuse, a little smaller 
than the fruit. 

Found by Dr. Richardson on the sea coast of Arctic America. 
This is the species called by Dr. Richardson, C. filifolia of Nuttall ; 
but this is a very different species except in size and leaves, and has 
three or four staminate flowers at the base of the spikelet. 

Figures of the following species accompany this paper. 

C. compacta, R. Br. Tab. U. fig. 63. 
— Carltonia, D. ), 98! oi Gal 
— Parryana, D. Hanne, 4° cris 
—aretica, D. Ry Miia ae 
——aristata, R.Br “#06 
—ursina, D. Cer 1h $8) OER VA 


Art. VII.—Contributions to Chemical Science; by W. W. Maru- 
eR, Instructor of Mineralogy and Geology and assistant Prof. of 
Chemistry at the U. 5. Military Academy, West Point. 


I. Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


A short notice was published in this Journal, Vol. xx; p. 408, of 
some chloride of aluminium made by Wohler’s process, in 1831, 
and of some metallic aluminium, obtained by decomposing the chlo- 
ride by means of potassium. ‘The chloride of aluminium, was of a 
sulphur yellow, crystallized, soft, volatile, slightly fuming in the air, 
attracted moisture from the air and gradually deliquesced into a thick, 
oily, lemon yellow liquid, of a greater density than water. The sol- 
id chloride of aluminium, when put into water, emitted a sound like 
that of a hot iron plunged in water, and dissolved completely, form- 
ing a perfectly limpid and colorless solution. I find no account of 
this chloride having been analyzed. ‘Thomson in his Inorganic Chem- 
istry calls it chloride of aluminium. 

In the reports of the British Association for the advancement of 
science, page 492, the chloride of aluminiumis said to be composed 
of 2 al. + 3cl., but without reference to any authority. 

Thomson nit some others consider alumina as a protoxide of alu- 
minium, and that the chloride derived from its decomposition would, 
by the application of a general principle, be a proto-chloride. 

Probably Berzelius and Mitscherlich form their opinion of its be- 


-ing a sesquichloride from an application of the same principle, the 
Vol. XXVII.—No. 2. 31 


TAB.V. Vol. XXVIL- 


TAB. U. Vol-XXvit. 


C. compacta, R.Br. 


Fig. 65 


. Li * 
A C.aretica, IC. artstata, 


C. Carltonia 
Dewev. We, SP 


Dewey. 


Vol. 27. Sill. Jour: 


242 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


oxide of aluminium being considered by them and others as a sesqui- 
oxide, from its isomorphism with the oxide of chromium, and the 
peroxides of iron and manganese. With a view of ascertaiming 
whether the chloride of aluminium be a chloride or sesquichloride, 
the following analysis was undertaken. It was thought also, that by 
means of an-.accurate analysis of this compound, the atomic weights 
of aluminium and alumina might be determined. ‘The compounds 
of alumina heretofore analyzed have been such that no certain de- 
ductions could be made of the atomic weight, of either the metal or 
oxide of aluminium. Thonison from an analysis of many minerals 
and compounds in which he deduces atomic weights varying from 
2.0580 to 2.3168, oxygen being unity, finds the mean to be 2.24205, 
and as this is near 2.25 he assumes that number as the atomic weight 
of alumina, in accordance with what he considers a general principle, 
viz. that the atomic weights of all bodies are multiples by whole 
numbers of the atomic weight of hydrogen.* 

Berzelius gives the atomic weight of aluminium 1.71166, pole 
being unity.t . The numbers of Thomson and Berzelius for alumi- 
nium being so different and in no simple ratio to each other, neither 
is to be depended on as accurate, unless confirmed by accurate anal- 
ysis. | 

Lest there should be some unperceived cause of error leading to 
erroneous deductions, all the steps of the analysis are given below, 
so thatif there be error, it may be detected. 

The balance used weighs easily ;4, grain, and is s sensible to qo5 
grain. 

Analysis of the Chloride of Aluminium. 


A. Some of the chloride of aluminium in fine crystals, when 
first taken from the tube in which it was made, was put into a small 
dry glass tube and hermetically sealed. The chloride had been kept 
thus for three years, and had undergone no change in its appearance. 
The tube when wiped dry and clean, weighed with its contents 5.027 
grammes. ‘The tube was then slightly cut with a file, the dust from 
filing being made to fall into the scale of the balance, then broken in 
two where it had been scratched by the file, and thrown into some 
pure distilled water. An intense action with a hissing sound like that 
of hot iron under water, continued until the chloride was entirely de- 


* Thomson’s Elements of Chem.i. p. 306. } 
+ Gaudin, Ann. de Ch. et de Physique, T. lit. p. 182. 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 243 


composed. There was no visible particle of residue, and the solu- 
tion was perfectly transparent and colorless. ‘The tube was removed 
and repeatedly washed with pure water, and the washings added to 
the solution of the chloride. 

The tube when dry and wiped as before, together with the filings 
of glass weighed 4.381 grammes. The chloride of aluminium in 
the tube weighed 5.027 — 4.381=0.646 grammes. 

B. Nitrate of silver was added to the solution (A) in slight excess, 
the precipitated chloride of silver being repeatedly stirred well around 
with a glass rod to prevent any of the solution from being mechani- 
cally enclosed by it, and from thus remaining unacted on. When 
the supernatant liquid became perfectly limpid, it was carefully drawn 
off with a glass syringe. The precipitate was repeatedly washed 
with pure water, and the clear liquid drawn off in the same manner. 
The chloride of silver was thrown upen a double filter of equal 
weights, care being taken to wash every visible particle of the chlo- 
ride from the precipitating glass into the filter. The washing was 
then continued until there was no trace of cloudiness in the washings 
on adding a drop of muriatic acid, (a small excess of nitrate of sil- 
ver having been employed in precipitating the chloride.) The edges 
of the filter were kept continually wet with a dropping bottle, and 
to prevent any evaporation on the filter and consequent deposition of 
matter in solution, the funnel in which the filter was contained was 
kept covered with a glass plate, except when the dropping bottle was 
in requisition to wash down the edges of the filter. After the wash- 
ing was finished, the funnel containing the filter, was placed in a stand 
on the sandbath, and covered loosely with paper to prevent the ac- 
cess of dust and to allow the evaporation to go on with little obstruc- 

tion. The filter when nearly dry was removed from the funnel, pla- 
ced ona capsule on the sandbath, and still covered with paper. In 
this the evaporation was more uniform than in the funnel. In a few 
days the drying was as complete as the temperature of the sandbath 
could make it.* ‘The filters were separated and placed in the oppo- 
posite scales of the balance. The filters being of equal weight, the 
difference in weight between the loaded and unloaded filter, would 
give the weight of chloride of silver. This difference of weight 
was 2.056 grammes. 

2.002 grammes of this chloride were fused on a piece of thin green 
glass weighing 2.996 or both weighed 4.998 grammes. After fu- 


* The temperature ranged from 100° to 220° F. 


244 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


sion the chloride and glass weighed 4.997 grammes. The 2.002 
grammes of chloride of silver lost by fusion 0.001 grammes and the 
whole chloride of silver would have weighed after fusion 2.0549731. 

C. To ascertain the relative proportion of chlorine and silver in the 
chloride of silver, independent of any atomic weights, the fused chlo- 
ride of silver, weighing 2.001 grammes, was reduced to the metallic 
state, by placing the piece of glass on which it was fused, and to 
which it was still adhering, in a capsule, with a piece of zinc lying 
on the chloride, and then pouring on enough water, slightly acidula- 
ted with sulphuric acid, to cover it. In 24 hours the reduction was 
complete, and the mass of reduced silver had detached itself from 
the glass. The silver was well washed, but on account of its po- 
rosity it was impossible to separate all the traces of sulphate and 
muriate of zinc, and consequently it could not be weighed, when dry, 
with any certainty of the accuracy desired. To remedy this evil, 
the mass of silver was fused, with a little borax, on a piece of com- 
pact charcoal, and to prevent the loss that is apt to be experienced 
from the spirting which takes place when pure silver is solidifying, 
the globule, as soon as it began to congeal, was taken in the forceps, 
and thrown into cold water. A few minute particles of silver were 
observed in the borax, on the charcoal. ‘To obtain these, the borax 
was fused into a globule, and thrown, when hot, into an agate mortar, 
containing cold water. ‘This was then ground down, and the borax 
was mostly separated from the silver. ‘The silver and remaining 
borax were again fused, and the particles of silver coalesced into one 
globule ; but some care and skill are necessary in the. operator, to 
enable him to succeed in this completely. The small globule of 
silver obtained, of perhaps =; grain weight, was. placed on the lar- 
ger globule, and both fused again, to free their surfaces from slight ’ 
traces of adhering borax. 

When the globule began to congeal, it was thrown into water as 
before, to prevent loss. Ido not think that in the reduction and 
fusions there could have been a loss of ;~,; grainin weight. The 
globule of silver obtamed weighed 1.5075 orammes. ~The chloride 
from which it was obtained weighed 2.001 grammes, consequently 
the whole chloride of silver obtained, had it been reduced, would 
have given 1.548161 grammes of silver, for 2.001 cl. s. : 1.5075 s. 
-:2.05497381 cl. s. 3 w, and r=1.548161. The chlorine then, esti- 
mated by difference in the 2.0549731 grammes of chloride of silver is 
0.506811 grammes, for 2.054973] cl.s. — 1548161 s.=0.506811 cl. 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 245 


D. To the solution filtered from the. chloride of silver, (vide B,) 
and containing an excess of nitrate of silver, pure muriatic acid was 
added in excess, to precipitate all the silver as a chloride,. the same 
precautions being taken to avoid loss by mechanical enclosure as are 
detailed in B. The washings were continued until there was not 
the slightest trace of cloudiness visible in testing with nitrate of sil- 
ver, and the solution. and washings, containing nitrate and muriate of 
alumina, were evaporated to dryness. ‘The evaporation was con- 
ducted slowly, the liquid not being allowed to boil at any time, and 
during the latter part of the process, the temperature was carefully 
regulated, to prevent any loss from the swelling up and breaking of 
the bubbles, which are then apt to form. The evaporation was con- 
ducted, ina capsule of one gill capacity on the sand bath, adding 
the solution and washings as there was room for them. 

The dry mass resulting from the evaporation was removed by an 
ivory spatula, and placed in a small platinum crucible. A little of 
the nitrate and muriate of alumina adhered to the capsule, and to 
obtain the last traces, a little water was added to dissolve it, and this 
was evaporated ina smaller space. This was detached, as much as 
could be by the spatula, and the same operation repeated. There 
was still a vistble trace of the nitrate and muriate of alumina, but so 
small as to be inappreciable by our most delicate balances. 

The muriate in solution, in the two last operations, was not put 
into the crucible until evaporated to dryness, because it might create 
a-loss by bubbling up during the evaporation; and secondly, there 
being a little nitric acid present, as well as muriatic acid, there would 
be some muriate of platinum formed, which, during the subsequent 
ignition, would leave platinum mixed with the alumina, and thus in- 
crease its weight. The dry mass in the crucible was then heated 
over a lamp to about 500° F. Soon after the heat was applied, a 
slight transparent coating, like the chloride of aluminium in color, 
appeared on the under side of the cover of the crucible, but it soon 
disappeared as the heat was increased. It is possible that the mu- 
riate of alumina, in presence of nitric acid, may be decomposed into 
chloride of aluminium and a higher oxide than that in the muriate.* 
The crucible was finally ignited. 


* To ascertain if what is above suggested be true, some of the hydrated chloride 
of aluminium, dissolved in water, was evaporated to dryness, and then heated to 
from 400° to 800° F., but no chloride of aluminium was evolved. Muriatie acid 
was abundantly given off and condensed in the cool part of the tube receiver, 


246 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


The crucible and alumina, when cool, (the cover having been 
retained in its place to prevent the access of damp air,) weighed 
16.4755 grammes. 

The crucible weighed 16.1780 grammes. 

The alumina, is equal to the difference of these weights, =0.2975 
grammes. ’ 

On removing the alumina from the pains it was observed to be 
very slightly staimed gray. where it had been in contact with the 
platinum. This was caused by the formation of a little muriate of 
platinum, which was decomposed during the subsequent ignition. 
This source of error might have been avoided, by decomposing the 
nitric acid by means of a greater excess of muriaticacid. The error 
was probably so slight that it would have made no sensible difference 
in the result, and its tendency is to counteract the slight source of 
error before noticed, (a visible trace of the nitrate and muriate of 
alumina not being added to that in the crucible.) 

As a check upon the weight obtained above for alumina, it was 
weighed, ten minutes afterwards, separate from the crucible, but in 
the mean time it had been exposed to the air of the room. The 
room had had a fire made in it but a short time, so that the air was 
rather damp. ‘The alumina then weighed 0.306 grammes, and 
twenty minutes after it weighed 0.312 grammes. 

The chlorine in 0.646 grammes of the chloride of aluminium has 
been found to be 0.5068118. The aluminium is then equal, by dif- 
ference, to 0.646 cl. al. —0.5068118 cl. =0.1391882 grammes. 

From what precedes, the chloride of aluminium obtained by 
Wohler’s process is composed of 

Chlorine, - - - . 0.5068118 or 78.4538 
Aluminium, - - - 0.1891882 “ 21.5462 


0.6460000 100.0000 
Admitting the weights obtained in the preceding analysis as accu- 
‘rate, the following numbers are chemical equivalents. 


Second, some hydrate of alumina was dissolved in muriatic acid, and when 
the solution was evaporating, nitric acid was added. The solution was evapora- 
ted to dryness, put in a tube hermetically closed at one end, then drawn down toa 
narrow neck, communicating with the wider part of the tube, to serve asa re- 
ceiver, and the tube beyond drawn down toa long narrow nec The heat was 
raised very gradually, as in the experiment of eatin the muriate in the platinum 
crucible, but muriatic acid and some fumes of nitrous acid only were evolved. 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 247 


0.6460000 Chloride of aluminium. 
2.0549731 Chloride of silver. 
1.548161 Silver. 

0.506811 Chlorine. 

0.297500 Alumina. 

0.139188 Aluminium. 

Before we can determine whether the chloride analyzed be a chlo- 
ride or sesqui-chloride of aluminium, it will be necessary to adopt 
some atomic numbers, and compare the combining proportions ob- 
tained in the analysis with the number adopted. 

The numbers in common use are those of Thomson and Berzelius. 

Atomic weights according to 


Thomson. Berzelius. 
yo Ae oe 
Oxygen. Oxygen. Oxygen. Oxygen. 
1 8 1 8 

Silver, *13-75 110 *13.51607 108.1285 
b Chlorine, *4.50 36 *4.42650 35.4120 
Aluminium, 71.25 10 $1.71166 13.6932 

Alumina, $2.25, 18 **6§ 42332 **51.471 


The atomic weight of chlorine in Berzelius’ number of the above 
table (b) is double the number that he assigns it, for he thinks the 
combination of silver and chlorine a bichloride. 

Let us now calculate the atomic weight of chlorine, using the 
combining proportions of silver and chlorine deduced from the pre- 
ceding analysis, and Thomson’s and Berzelius’ number for silver. 

Silver. Chiorine. 8. Cl. Cl. 
1.548161 || : 0.506811]]::13.759 :  @ and =4.50125 
ce} 1.548161|| : 0.506811 ]]::13.516071 : a and a’ =4-42467 

The numbers deduced for the atomic weight of chlorine differ 
from those of both Thomson and Berzelius only in the third place 
of decimals. Let us now calculate the atomic weight of silver upon 
the same data, only using Thomson’s and Berzelius’ numbers for 
chlorine. 

Chlorine. Silver. Cl. 8. s. 
ei ceee | °1.548161][::4.51 a and «=13.74617 
0.506811|| : 1.548161] ::4.42659 : a and a’ =13.52165 


* Thomson’s Inorganic Chemistry, Lond. 1831, Vol. I. p. 633. 

+ Idem, Vol. 1. p. 454, and Thomson’s First Principles, Vol. I. p. 318. 

+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Tome LII. p. 132. 

§ Thomson’s Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. I. p. 454, and Thomson’s First Princi- 
ciples, Vol I. p. 318. : 

ll Vide table a. 1 Vide table b. 

** Berzelius’ Traité de Chimie, Tome v. p. 9, table synoptique. 


248 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


The atomic numbers deduced from the above proportions, differ 
from those of Thomson and Berzelius only in the 4th place of figures. 

As the numbers deduced for chlorine and silver approach so near 
to the atomic weights deduced by both Thomson and Berzelius, we 
see that these chemists have obtained the same ratio for the com- 
bining proportions of chlorine and silver. 

The tables e and f shew the result of the calculations ec and d, 
and they also shew the comparison of the calculated atomic weights 
of chlorme and silver with the atomic weights of those bodies as 
given by Thomson and Berzelius. 


Thomsows number. Calculated number. 
a a oN a 
f Ose — ie Ox.=8. Ox. =|. Ox.=8. 
Silvery siat aro: 13.74617+ 109.96936 
Chlorine, 4.50* 36. 4.50125¢ §36.01000 
_Berzelius’ number. Calculated number. 
aay “~~ TaN. Cee ———_— Fan) 
Ox —a Ox=8: Oey Ox. 8. 


f Silver, 13. 51607* 108.1285 13.52165+  108.17320 
Chlorine, 4.42650* 35.4120 , 4.424675 35.39736 
The ratios of the numbers for chlorine and silver in the above ta- 


bles (e and f, and a) are 


’ Ist, For Thomson’s numbers, - - 3.05555 
2d, “ Berzelius’ a - - 3.05344 
3d, “ Calculated numbers in e, - 3.05385 
areas fe ee abi - 3.05696 


5th, “ Numbers deduced from analysis, 3.05476 

These ratios differ only in the 3d place*of decimals, and even 
there the difference is small. : 

Let us how calculate the atomic weight of aluminium, using 

in the 1st proportion, Thomson’s atomic weight for chlorine , 
in the 2d, the atomic weight of chlorine deduced by calculating 
from the combining proportions observed,{ and T'homson’s number 
for silver ; 

in the 3d, Berzelius’ atomic weight for chlorine ; 

in the 4th, the atomic weight of chlorine deduced by calculating 
from the combining proportions observed,t and Berzelius’ number 


for silver. . 
Al. Cl. Ct. Cl vA : 
1, 7+4.50000* : 4.50000: : 0.646f: 0. 50681 18t WI 23585 
°2, wv’ +4.50125$ : 4.50125: 70. 646]: 0.50681 18Tx’ = 1.23620 
3, y+-4.42650* : 4.42650: :0.646¢ : 0.5068118} y= 1.21567 
A. y+ 4.424678 : 4.42467 : :0.646¢ : 0.50681 18Ty’+ 1.21516 


* Vide table b. + Vide table d. + Vide table a. § Vide table c. 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 249 


The values of x, 2’, y, y’, are the atomic weights of aluminium 
as deduced above. They approach to Thomson’s number for alu- 
minium but not to that of Berzelius. 

If the chloride of aluminium analyzed be a sesquichloride, the 
atomic weight of aluminium calculated as above would be 

" w= 1.85377 y= 1.82350 
a’ =1.85430 y’ = 1.82274 

Thus it seems that the atomic number calculated for aluminium, 
upon. the supposition that the chloride contains 1 al.+1cl., is smaller 
than Thomson’s, and 1 al.+14 cl. is larger than that of Berzelius. 

If the atomic weight of alumina be determined, we shall from that 
be enabled to determine whether the chloride of aluminium be a 
chloride orsesquichloride. Berzelius says that alumina is composed of 


Aluminium, - 53.3 
Oxygen, - - 46.7 
*100.0 


Let us see how this corresponds with the analysis of chloride of 
aluminium. 


Alumina. Aluminium. Alumina. Aluminium. 
100: So-3 5, O.2975t + Sf and 2=0.158567 
1< Alumina. Oxygen. Oxygen. 


100 : 46.7 :: 0.2975+ :  y and y=0.138982 

But the aluminium obtained was 0.139188t, and the oxygen in 
the alumina was 0.1583118$. These numbers deduced from exper- 
iment, correspond very closely with those deduced from Berzelius’ 
composition of alumina, but they are inverse to each other. 

I infer from this, that the numbers as laid down in Berzelius’ 
Traité de Chimie for oxygen and aluminium in the composition of 
alumina, were accidentally transposed in the original manuscripts of 
his experiments.{ I have no doubt that the composition of alumina 
should have been written, 


* Traité de Chimie, Tome II. p. 373. + Vide table a. 

§ 0.1583118 oxygen =0.2975 alumina -— 0.139188 aluminium. 

+ The same kind of error occurs in Hatty’s Traité de Mineralogie, 2d Edition, 
Tome II. p. 214. The angles of the rhomboid of nitrate of soda are there laid 
down P on PlorP! i06° 16! : 

p “ p! “ p! 973° 44! 

In measuring some fine crystals of this salt in 1880, by the reflective goniometer 

I found the angles to be P on P’ or P!! 106° 44! 
pete pl eS ph 72 16! 

The minutes in Hai are inverse to those observed. | do not know that this er- 

ror has been observed or corrected. 


Vor. XXVILL—No. 2. 32. 


250 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


Aluminium, -. - - AGST 
Oxygen, ~ - - 53.3 
100.0 


. If the atomic weight of aluminium be calculated, supposing Ber- 

zelius’ numbers in the compositionof Alumina, to have been acciden- 

tally transposed as suggested above, we find it to be 0.876172; for 
4 ; Oxygen. Aluminium. Oxygen. Aluminium. 


100 : x >: 53.8 $ 46.7 whence rx=0.876172 


This number is a little more than one half that of Berzelius. 2 #= 
1.752344, and Berzelius’ number calculated from a sesquioxide com- 
posed of 46.7 ox. and 53.3 al. is 1.71166. The correspondence 

‘of the oxygen in the water of the hydrates of alumina with that in 
the base, and a similar principle in reference to some other compounds 
appear to have weighed with that distinguished chemist in confirm- 
ing him in the composition of alumina, and the atomic weight of al- 
uminium as given by him, but the compositions by transposing his 
numbers in alumina still correspond with definite proportions. 

The composition of alumina from my experiments is, 


Aluminium, - - 46.7859 
Oxygen, - - - 53.2141 
100.0000 
Alumina. Oxygen. Alumina. Oxygen. 
- 100 wf) @) yo fk. ORS* 3.) 15831 18% ieee 
-~ Alumina. Aluminium. Ajumina. Aluminium. 
100: y 2 .2975* : .139188* y=46.7859 


The atomic weight of aluminium deduced from my experiments 
independently is 0.87920118 for 
ij Oxygen. Aluminium. Oxygen. Aluminium 
J ; 1.00 : w 3: 53.2141 ; 46.7859 whence r=.87920118 
To ascertain whether alumina be an oxide or a sesquioxide, we 
will deduce the atomic numbers for alumina, Ist, upon the supposi- 
tion that the chloride analyzed was a neutral chloride, (vide k.) and 
2d, that it was a sesquichloride, (vide n.) ‘The correspondence of 
the atomic numbers, will also demonstrate whether the chloride be 
neutral in composition or a sesquichloride. 


* Vide table a. 


Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 251 


Atomic weights - 
Alumina. Aluminium. Alumina. of Aluminium. 


1, 0.2975* : 0.139188* :: w: 1.25000+ w=2. 67144 
2, 0.2975 : 0.139188 2: y? 1.71166+ y=3.65849 
3, 0.2975 : 0.139188 2: a’: 1.23585 «’=2.64149 
J 4, 0.2975 + 0.139188 2:27: 1.23620} = 2.64224 
5, 0.2975 : 0.139188 72: y/: 1.21567f y/=2.59836 
6, 0.2975 +: 0.139188 2: y”: 1.21516t y”=2.60446 
7, 0.2975 + 0.139188 :: 2: O0.87617§ z=1.87272 
8, 0.2975 +: 0.139188 :: 2: 0.97920] 2/=1.8792014 


These values give respectively the following composition for alu- 
mina. 
x i ll Zz 
Oxygen, 1.42174 1.40564 1.40604 0.99655 
Aluminium, 1.25000 1.23585 1.23620 0.87617 


Alumina, 2.67174 2.64149 2.64224 1.87272 
y! y”’ 2! 


y , 
Oxygen, 1.94683 1.38269 «1.38930 1.00000022 
Aluminium, 1.71166 1.21567 1.21516  .87920118 


—— 


Alumina, 3.65849 2.59836 2.60446 1.87920140 


The oxygen in a a’ «” y/ and y” makes a distant approximation 
to a sesquioxide ; y approaches a deutoxide ; but that of z dedu- 
duced from Berzelius’ reversed numbers, bade v and k,) and of 2’ 
deduced the results of my experiments, approaches very near to 
the ratio of that in a protoxide. 

The atomic weight of aluminium, upon the supposition that the 
chloride is a sesquichloride, would be 

m} in No. 7 of kK=1.31425- 

and“. “ 8 “ kK=1.31889 

We can now calculate the atomié weight of alumina, considering 

the chloride a sesquichloride. 


Atomic weights 
Alumina. Aluminium. Alumina. of Aluminium. 


2, 0.2975* : 0.139188* =: y :1.71166++ y=3.65849 
3, 0.2975 +: 0.138188 :: a : 1.85377tt «3.96222 
4, 0.2975 : 0.139188 :: 0” :1.85430t¢ 2”=3.96336 
n¢ 5, 0.2975 : 0.139188 :: y’ :1.82350{t y/=3.89754 
6, 0.2975 + 0.139138 ::y" 1 1.822741 y’—=3.90669 
7, 0.2975 : 0.139188 :: z :1.31425§¢° z=2.80908 
8, 0.2975 : 0.139188 2: 2/ : 1.318801$¢2/=2.81880 


* Vide table a. + Vide table b. t Vide table g. § Vide table i! 
ll Vide tablej’. | ++ Vide table b. +# Vide table h. 8§ Vide table m. 


252 Chloride of Aluminium and its Analysis. 


These results give the following values for the compaaer of 
alumina. 


a Go z 2! 
Oxygen, 2.10843 2.10906 1.49496 1.5000004 
Aluminium, 1.85379 1.85430 1.31425 1.3188017 


— 


Alumina, 3.96222 3.96336 2.80921 2.8188021 
i 


y ‘ y! y”’ 
Oxygen, 1.94683 2.07404 2.08395 
| Aluminium, 1.71166 1.82350 1.82274 


{ Alumina, 3.65849 3.89754 3.90669 


The values of a’, 2”, y, y’, y”, make a distant approximation to 
the ratio of a deutoxide. More confidence is placed in the values 
of z and z’, than in the others, for reasons already explamed. 2 is 
calculated from the results of my own experiments, and the atomic 
number for aluminium, deduced from the inverted numbers of alu- 
mina, as given by Berzelius, (Vide tables i, i’ and k.) The value 
of 2’ is calculated from the results of the preceding analysis and 
the atomic number deduced from those results independently. (vide 
tables a, j, J’, and k. ) 

The values of z and 2’ in tables k and 1, calculated upon the sup- 
position that the chloride analyzed was a neutral chloride, approach, 
very near to the ratio of a protoxide while in tables n and o calculated 
upon the supposition that the chloride was a sesquichloride, the val- 
ues indicate a sesquioxide. ‘It follows then that if alumina be con- 
sidered a protoxide, the chloride analyzed, was a protochloride, if 
asesquioxide, the chloride is a sesquichloride. 

The atomic weight of aluminium, is then, according to these 
experiments 0.87920118, or 1.31880177 according as we consider 
alumina a proto, or sesquioxide. 

_From the circumstance that alumina is isomorphous with the oxide 
of chromium and the peroxides of iron and manganese it may be 
supposed a sesquicxide, and its composition would be 

Oxygen,,. 1.5000004 = 13 atoms=53.2141 
Aluminium, 1.3188017=1 atom =46.7859 


Alumina, ©  2.8188021 100.0000 


Hydrated Chloride of Aluminium. 253 


Hydrogen being taken as the unit, and oxygen called 8, the com- 
position would be 
Oxygen, 12.0000= 14 atoms. 
Aluminium, 10.5504=1 atom. 


Alumina, 22.5504 


Il. Hydrated Chloride of Aluminium. 


(A) A phial containing chloride of aluminium was closely cork- 
ed ; but this did not entirely exclude the access of moisture, and du- 
ring three years that it had been thus enclosed, enough water had 
been absorbed to cause a portion to deliquesce into a thick, oily 
liquid of a deep lemon yellow color. 

The liquid covered a portion of the solid yellow chloride, which 
is probably the hydrated chloride mentioned by Berzelius in his 
Traité de Chimie. The hydrated liquid chloride does not hiss in 
water like the anhydrous chloride, but sinks to the bottom without 
easily mixing. When mixed with water and agitated to make them 
unite, the color disappears and the solution becomes perfectly color- 
less and transparent. 

A drop of the liquid chloride when heated in a small bulb with a 
capillary neck, gave off no water separately, but only in combination 
with muriatic acid, and alumina remained in the bulb. 

Analysis.—A quantity of the liquid hydrated chloride of alumi- 
nium weighing 129 grains, was mingled with water enough to make 
the solution rather dilute. Ammonia was added to the solution and 
a gelatinous precipitate of alumina was thrown down. After 'stand- 
ing some hours, the supernatant liquid, which was perfectly limpid, 
was drawn off, and pure water added to wash the precipitate. The 
clear liquid was again drawn off, and the precipitate repeatedly wash- 
ed in the same way, being well stirred with a glass rod, each time 
that water was added. The precipitate was thrown upon a double 
filter of equal weights, the same precautions being used as in the 
preceding analysis, and washed until there was no longer a trace of 
cloudiness by adding nitrate of silver to the filtered water. The pre-- 
cipitated hydrate of alumina was dried on the sandbath, very gradu- 
ally, for several days, that the drying might be uniform through the 
mass and the filter was loosely covered by paper to prevent the ac- 
cess of dust. 


254° Crystallized Tin from solution. 


The hydrate of alumina weighed 25.25 grains. 23.125 grains of 
this hydrate weighed after ignition 16.13 grains, whence the alumima 
contained in the 25.25 grains of hydrate was 17.6559 grains. 

(B) The solution from which the alumina had been precipitated, 
was evaporated, and the washings were added as there was room for 
them in the evaporating dish. When reduced to the bulk of 2 or 3 
gills, nitrate of silver was added in excess, to precipitate the muriatic 
acid. The chloride of silver was treated as in the analysis of chlo- 
ride of aluminium, and when dry weighed 138.125 grains. A 
quantity of this chloride weighing 135.5 grains was fused, and then 
weighed 131 grams, when the 138.125 of dry Bey oa 537 
of fused chloride, =32.932 grains of chlorine.* 

(C) The alumina obtained was 17.6559 grams. If the combin- 
ing proportions determined in the analys is of chloride of aluminium 
be adopted, 17.6559 of aluminia, and 8.261 of aluminium are chem- 
ical equivalents. The hydrated chloride analyzed weighed 129 
grains, and the water must be=87.807 grains=129—(8. 261 al. 
+382.932 cl.) 

The liquid hydrated chloride of aluminium is then composed of 


Chlorine, (B) 32.932 25.52=1 atom. 

Aluminium, (C) 8.26] 6.40=1 atom. 

Water, (C) 87.807 68.08=10 atoms, 
; 129.000 100.00 


The balance used in this analysis was not a delicate one, like that 

used in the analysis of chloride of alummium, but it would weigh 
; grain. 

ne ratio of the ia of silver and alumina obtained in hea is 
not exactly the same as that in the analysis of the chloride of alu- 
minium. ) 

In the former it is Cl. S. : Ak. ::100: 13.22. 

In the latter it is Cl. 5S. : Ak. 12100; 14.47. 


Ill. Crystalized Tin from solution. 


During the month of March last, having occasion to form a solu- 
tion of muriate of tin, some pure muriatic acid was poured upon an 
- excess of spongy grain tin. ‘The solution was formed on the sand 


* * 2.054974cl.s.t : 0.506795cL.4 : : 133.537cl.s.: and x =32,932. 
+ Vide table a in the analysis of chloride of aluminium. 


Georgia Gold. 255 


bath, and it was so concentrated as to be oily in its consistency. 
The solution being more concentrated than was desired, it was di- 
luted and allowed to stand on the sandbath, exposed to the air. In 
a short time the undissolved tin was observed to be coated with crys- 
tals of metallic tin. Some of the crystals were small and granular, 
having many facets; some were long acicular prisms ; and others 
were in foliated plates and plumose, like the precipitated lead of the 
arbor Saturni. One of the acicular crystals, of the diameter of a 
horse hair, was mounted on the reflective goniometer. It had four 
brilliant planes, giving distinct reflected images, and each face in- 
clined to the adjacent ones at angles of 90°. The experiment of 
crystallizing the tin was repeated many times with the same result, 
using not only the spongy, but also the columnar grain tin. In the 
latter, the acid developed a crystalline structure, and probably it is 
owing to this crystalline structure, that tin emits a peculiar crackling 
noise when bent. 

If the solution containing the crystals of tin be set aside, in a cool 


- place, for 24 hours, they redissolve. The concentrated solution, 


when set aside until cool, and then diluted with water, will also ve- 
getate, but the crystals form more slowly than when the hot solution 
is diluted. The crystallization can be shown before a class in the 
lecture room, and it is more beautiful than that of the arbor Diane. 

The explanation of the crystallization of the tin seems to be, that 
one portion of the protoxide of tin in solution gives its oxygen to 
the other, forming a permuriate, while the metallic tin derived from 
the decomposed protoxide separates, and its molecules having free- 
dom of motion in the liquid, arrange themselves according to the 
laws of crystallization. : 


IV. Georgia Gold. 


The Gold analyzed was clipped from a gold piece, used as a coin 
in the gold mining districts of the Southern states. ‘This piece was 
stamped, “ Georgia Gold”—“ Ten Dollars’—Templeton, As- 
sayer.” These pieces are made of the native gold, refined in the 
fire. 

The pieces weigh 249 grains, which is equal to the weight of fine 
gold in an American eagle, coined prior to 1834. The specific grav- 
ity is 19.46, at 51° F. The gold is not fine, but an alloy of gold 
and silver, about 23 earats fine. Ammonia indicates a mere trace 


256 Silver of Lane’s Mine. 


of copper in the nitro-muriatic solution. ‘The analysis was made by 
solution in nitro-muriatic acid, separating, washing, and reducing the 
chloride of silver, then evaporating the gold solution very slowly to 
dryness, and finally igniting the muriate and fusing the reduced cig 
The balance i is accurate to ;4, grain. 


3 958 yrammes gave Gold, 3.783 95.579 
Theo er ed Biliary «> OATS 4.421 


—_—_—_—__— 


3.958 100.000 
V. Silver of Lane’s Mine. 


The silver analyzed below was obtained, by cupellation, from the 
galena of Lane’s mine, in Munroe, Connecticut. ‘The metal has all 
the characters of fine silver, except that it is rather harder. 

(a.) 1.01 grammes of the metal, when treated with nitric acid, 
dissolved, except some brown flocculi, which were gold. The gold 
was collected, washed and fused into a globule, with a little borax, . 
on charcoal, by the blowpipe. The globule weighed 0.004 grammes. 

(6) The silver was precipitated by copper, washed, and fused 
into a globule with borax, on charcoal, by means of the blowpipe. 
The silver weighed 0.991 grammes. ‘The copper was precipitated 
by iron, fused, and dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid. 'The silver held 
in solution by the nitrate of copper in the first precipitation, was thus 
changed into a chloride. This chloride of silver, during its fusion, 
fumed like antimony, and by reduction gave a globule of silver 
weighing 0.010 grammes. 

(c.) The solution of silver in nitric acid, when tested for copper 
by ammonia, indicated a mere trace. 

The silver then of Lane’s mine contains 


oar 0.991 

Silver, - - (6.) ARE 1.001 99.109 
Goa a Go. 004 ee 
Antimony ? and loss,(c.) 0.005 0.005 0.492 


—_—. 


1.010 + 100.000 
The galena* of Lane’s mine is remarkably rich in silver, and the 
silver contains enough gold to make the separation an object of some 
consequence. It is to be regretted that there is too little of the ga- 


* Prof. Silliman had before observed this, vide this Journal, Vol. I, pp. 312, 316, 
405, and Vol. IV, pp, 52, 187. 


Iodide of Potassium and Platinum. 257 


lena to warrant an exploration. Should the mine ever be wrought, 
it will yield a rich treat to the mineralogist. I found there crystal- 
lized and massive* yellow oxide of tungsten, crystallized and mass- 
ive tungstate of lime, crystallized and massive wolfram,* native bis- 
muth,* massive oxide of bismuth, acicular sulphuret of bismuth, and 
native* and auriferous tellurium. ‘These are all in very small quan- 
tities. Magnetic and common pyrites are abundant, and galena and 
pyritous copper more rare. ‘The gangue of these minerals, and of 
many others not mentioned, is a white fetid quartz, which does not 
seem to form avein, but a bed of considerable extent, overlying 
gneiss. Gneiss is the prevailing rock of the country around, and it 
is often traversed by quartz and granite veins. ‘The granite of the 
veins is the variety called graphic granite, and precisely similar to 
that of Goshen, Chesterfield, Willimantic, &c. and like those veins 
contains Cleavelandite, beryl, tourmalines blue and black, smoky 
quartz, &c. A bed of limestone overlies the gneiss within a few 
miles, and is traversed by veins of fluor spar, containing lepidolite, 
topaz, and some other fine minerals. The country in this vicinity 
offers all the mineralogical and geological associations of tin ores in 
Europe, but no tin ore has as yet been found. 

I have some grains of gold, presented to me by the proprietor of 
the mine, which he said were picked out of the cavities in which 
pyrites had decomposed. 


VI. Iodide of Potassium and Platinum, or Iodo Platinate of Po- 


tasstum. 


This compound has been prepared by M. Lassaigne, by the direct 
union of the biiodide of platinum with iodide of potassium. 

It may be more conveniently prepared by adding muriate of plati- 
num to hydriodate of potassa in solution, leaving a slight excess of 
the latter, evaporating nearly to dryness, and then washing with al- 
cohol as long as any color is communicated. 

The double iodide of platinum and potassium, remains in black 
crystalline grains. It is soluble in water, and gives a fine deep red 
solution, as M. Lassaigne says, but the color is not permanent accord- 
ing to my experiments, for in a few minutes a black powder begins to 


* Prof. Silliman had before observed this, vide this Journal, Vol. I. pp. 312, 316, 
405, and Vol. IV, pp. 52, 187. 
+ Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Tome li, p. 125. 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 33 


258 Chloriodide of Platinum. 


precipitate, and the solution is finally left colorless. This change is 
owing to the precipitation of the biiodide of platinum, while the hy- 
driodate of potassa remains in solution. 

M. Lassaigne may have observed this fact, as the principle is m- 
volved in the formation of the ‘biiodide of platinum by his process, 
but he does not mention it. 

Some of the iodoplatinate of potassium weighing 2.26 grams, was 
put into a small dry quill-glass tube, hermetically sealed at one end, 
and drawn down toa small beak at the other. ‘The tube was heated 
to redness, and iodine vapors escaped in abundance. ‘The loss of 
weight was 1.110 grains. 

Adopting Thomson’s and Berzelius’ numbers for iodine, platinum, 
and potassium, upon the supposition that the compound is analogous: 
in composition to the ammonia muriate of platinum, the loss would 
have been for Thomson’s numbers, 1.08 grains, and for Berzelius’ 
numbers, 1.109 grains. From the near approximation of the loss 
- observed to the hypothetical composition, by the numbers of both _ 
Thomson and Berzelius, and particularly the latter, there is no doubt 
but it is composed of biiodide of platinum, 1 atom—iodide of potas- 
sium, 1 atom, or by . 


Thomson’s numbers. ’ By Berzelius’ numbers. 
Buodide of platnum, 67.71 - - - - - 
Todide of potassium, 32.29 - - - - - 32.14 
100.00 100.00 


VII. Chloriodide of Platinum. 


This compound and the preceding, were observed by me in the 
winter of 1830. The iodoplatinate of potassium, had been observed 
by several persons ; but not examined. Several years since Profs. 
Silliman, Torrey, Berzelius and others had observed the red color 
on adding hydriodate of potassa to muriate of platinum. 

The chloriodide of platinum, is easily formed by adding an excess 
of hydriodic acid to muriate of platmum, evaporating to dryness, and 
heating the dry mass to about 300° F. The excess of hydriodic acid 
with some chloride of iodine, pass over into the receiver, while the 
chloriodide of platinum remains. It is a black powder, stains the 
fingers, is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alchohol, soluble in 
potassa giving a red solution from which it is precipitated unchanged 
by sulphuric acid. Ata temperature between 400° and 600° F 
it is decomposed, brownish yellow vapor of chloride of iodine, and 


Chloriodide of Platinum. 259 


violet vapor of iodine are evolved, leaving the platinum in a spongy 

form like that obtained by heating the ammonia-muriate of platinum. 
Some of the chloriodide of platinum was decomposed by heat. 

The loss of chlorine and iodine in the successive experiments was, 


I. - - - - - 67.20 per cent. 
2. - - - - - TO rari 
3. - - - - - tf 
4. - - - - - 68.50". 


The variation in the amount of loss by vaporization, is due to the 
vapor carrying off some of the finely divided platinum, when the vap- 
orization was rapid. On dissolving the iodine and chloride of iodine, 
which were condensed in the cool part of the tube in which the ex- 
periment No. 2 was performed, by solution of potassa, a residue of 
platinum was observed. 


Synthesis of Chloriodide of Platinum. 


Ten grammes of spongy platinum, recently prepared from the 
chloride manufactured by Rebiquet and Boyeau of Paris, were treated 
with dilute nitromuriatic acid, that the iridium, palladium, &c. might 
remain undissolved. A black powder remained, and the solution be- 
ing allowed to stand some days, that which had been held in suspen- 
sion was deposited. It proved to be iridium. It was separated by 
careful decantation and washing, the washings after being allowed 
to stand on the powder a day each, were drawn off by a glass syringe 
and added to the solution of muriate of platinum. The iridium 
weighed 0.095 grammes. ‘The solution of muriate of platinum was 
evaporated, so that when cold it was of the consistence of honey. 
Lest there should be some free nitric acid, which could not be sepa- 
rated by heat, without decomposing the muriate of platinum, some 
muriatic acid was added, to decompose any nitric acid that might be 
contained in the solution. ‘The solution was then evaporated until 
it solidified in cooling. The solid muriate, or hydrated bi-chloride 
of platinum, was crystallized in long acicular crystals, radiating from 
the center to the circumference of the capsule, and weighed 24.64 
grammes. 

This muriate or hydrated bi-chloride of platinum was then dissol- 
ved in water, and hydriodic acid in excess added. The solution was 
evaporated to dryness. Hydrochloric acid passed over until the mass 
was dry, and then yellowish fumes of chloride of iodine in small 
quantity, until the heat was raised to near 300° I’, when the fumes 
ceased to be evolved. 


260 Chloriodide of Platinum. 


The chloriodide of platinum weighed 30.28 grammes. As the 
iridium separated from the platinum by solution, weighed 0.095 
grammes, the platinum in the 30.28 grammes of chloriodide was 10. 
000 — 0.095 = 9.905 grammes. The chloriodide of platinum is 


then composed of ae 
Chlorine and Iodine, - - - 20.875 67.289 
Platnum, - - - - - - - 9.905 32.711 


30.280 100.000 
Analysis of Chloriodide of Platinum. 


(a) One gramme of chloriodide of platinum was mixed with dry 
carbonate of potassain a glass tube, and covered to some depth with 
the same. It was then decomposed by heat, chloride and iodide of 
potassium being formed. 

_(b) The-contents of the tube (a) were dissolved in water, except 
the spongy platmum, which was separated by decantation, washing, 
and filtration upon a double filter of equal weights as in the preceding 
analyses. ‘The dry platinum weighed 0.315 grammes. 

(c) The decanted and filtered liquid (b) was treated with nitric 
acid, to drive off the carbonic acid from the carbonate of potassa.— 
A yellow tint was given to the liquid by chloride of iodine, which 
was formed by the nitric acid liberating its elements from their pre- 
vious combinations. ‘The odor of iodine was perceived as long as 
carbonic acid was evolved. ‘There was thus a loss of iodine and 
perhaps also of chlorine. 

(d) Nitrate of silver was added to the liquid (c) to throw down 
the chlorine and iodine, as chloride and iodide of silver. An abun- 
dant yellow precipitate fell, and this was separated from the color- 
less solution by decantation, washing and filtermg. ‘The precipitate 
was washed on the double filter as long as the washings gave any 
cloudimess to muriatic acid, (nitrate of silver having been used in 
excess as a precipitant.) 

(e) The moist precipitate on the filter (d) was disdupedla in ammo- 
nia, to dissolve the chloride of silver, and afterwards ammonia was 
made to pass through the precipitate as long as it left any reais by 
evaporation. 

The ammoniacal solution of chloride of silver was evaporated to 
dryness, and the chloride fused and reduced. 

The silver from the chloride weighed 0.20 grammes. 


a 


Chloriodide of Platinum. A 


The iodide was also reduced and gave 0.50 grammes. These 
weights of silver are equivalent to 0.065 chlorine and 0.563 iodine 
if Thomson’s numbers be adopted. 

(f) One gramme of the chloriodide of platinum was heed to see 
if it had absorbed any hygrometric moisture. ‘The heat was raised to 
300° F. Water condensed in the cool part of the tube, and the 
loss of weight was 0.03 grammes = 3 per cent. 


. Recapitulation. 
Platinum, (b) - - - - - 0.315 31.50 
Chlorine, (e) - - - - - 0.065 6.50 
Iodine, (c) - - - - - 0.563 56.30 
Water, (f) - - - - = 0.080 3.00 
Loss, = ee ae i OORT 2.70 


1.000 100.00 

There was an evident loss of iodine and probably of chlorine, 
vide (c). To remove this source of error, another analysis was 
made, the same method being used as before, except that in (c), ni- 
trate of silver was added to the solution of carbonate, muriate and 
hydriodate of potassa; and carbonate, chloride and iodide of silver 
were precipitated. Nitric acid was then added to decompose the 
carbonate of silver, while the chloride and iodide remained. ‘Two 
grammes of chloriodide of platinum previously heated to 300° F. to 
drive off all hygrometric moisture, were operated on. During the 
decomposition by heat, a little iodine vapor was perceived to escape 
above the carbonate of potassa, but the quantity must have been 
very minute. 

The results of this analysis are 


Platnum, - - - - - -. .6500 32.50 
Iodine, - - - - - - = 1.1922 59.61 
Chlorine, - - - - - - 0.1406 7.03 
Bes, = = oe = = = = OOLT2 0.86* 


2.0000 100.00 


* Ifthe loss, 0.86, be divided in proportion to the numbers indicating the propor- 
tions of chlorine, iodine and platinum, and added to those numbers respectively, 
the result of the analysis would be, 


Platinum, . - - - - - . - - 32.78 
FOUNIGUIREIN Ny nea) em ln a Fle - 60.13 
Chlorine, - - - - - - - - - 7.09 


100.00 


_ pelle 


262 Crystallized perchloride of Platinum. | 


If we assume the relative proportions of chlorine and iodine in 
_ the above analysis as correct, the synthetical composition of iodo- 
chloride of platinum is 


Platinum, - - - - - 32.711 
Iodine, - - - - - - 60.191 
Chlorine, - - - - - - 7.098 

100.000 


Adopting Thomson’s numbers for platinum, jodine, and chlorine, 
the atoms of these bodies in the above compound are nearly in the - 
ratioof 7: 10: 4. From this we may conclude that it is composed of 

Biiodide of platinum, - - =  § atoms. 
Bichloride of platinum,  - - - 2 atoms. 


VIII. Crystallized perchloride of Platinum. 


Dr. Thomson after describing the perchloride of platinum, says, 
“It would not be easy to analyze this chloride; but it enters into 
combination with the chlorides of potassium, sodium, and ammoni- 
um, forming double chlorides which constitute regular salts. By 
the analysis of these chlorme salts it has been ascertained that the 
perchloride of platmum is a compound of 


1 atom platinum, - - - - 12 
2 atoms chlorine, - - - - - 9 
, “ol ®” 


_ The synthesis of the chloriodide of platinum in the preceding ar- 
ticle, affords the means of calculating the composition of the crystal- 
lized hydrated perchloride of platinum. It was there shown that 
9.095 grammes of platinum, gave 24.64 grammes of crystallized’ hy- 
drated perchloride of platinum. 

Adopting Thomson’s numbers for chlorine, platinum and water, 
the 9.095 of platmmum would have 6.7874 of chlorme combined 


with it as a bichloride. 
Pl. 2 Cl. Pl. - 2Cl. 
9.095 + 6.7874 = 15.8824. The water of crystallization 
PL+2Cl.+Aq. Pl-+2ClL: 
in the hydrated bichloride of platinum = 24.64 — He 8824 = 


8.7576. The compound then contains 


* Thomson’s “Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies,” London edition, 1831. vol. i. 
p- 664. 


- 


Amalgam of Platinum.—lIodide of Mercury. 263 


Platinum, - - - 9.0950 36.912 
Chlorine, - - - 6.7874 27.546 
Water, - - - - 8.7576 35.542 


24.6400 100.000 


The atomic proportion of the water can now be determined. 
Pl.+2Cl.+Aq. PI.+2Cl. Pl.+2Cl. Aq.  Pl.+2Cl. 
24.64 ;: 15.8824 :: 21 +2 : 21 whencexr =11.57 


Thomson’s atomic number for water is 1.125. The number of 
atoms of water there in the hydrated bichloride of platinum is 
10. 2°; = ‘ys. The compound when crystallized, was not ob- 
served to be moist, but the atoms come out so near to 10, that it 
may be considered as composed of 


Platinum, 1 atom, - - - - 12 37.21 
Chlorine, 2 atoms - - - - 9 27.90 
Water, 10 atoms, - - - - 11.25 34.89 


32.25 100.00 
IX. Amalgam of Platinum. 


Muschin Pushkin describes an easy method of forming this amal- 
gam. It may be more conveniently and quickly formed by heating 
the chloriodide of platinum with mercury ina tube. The iodine and 
chlorine combine with mercury and sublime, while the platinum 
in its nascent state combines with mercury, and remains in the bot- 
tom of the tube. The heat should be high enough to make the 
mercury boil. ‘The amalgam after having been pressed in soft leath- 
er, to remove the excess of mercury, is a soft solid, having the same 
kind of feel, and emitting the same sound when pressed between the 
fingers, as the amalgams of gold and silver. It is several times heav- 
ier than the platinum of which it was formed. 


X. Todide of Mercury. 


The iodide of mercury may he dissolved in hydriodic acid, which 
I have found a good solvent. Hydriodate of potassa is mentioned 
in some chemical authors, as a good solvent for iodide of mercury. 

Iodide of mercury when fused, is of a dark color, volatilizes of a 
beautiful yellow, when the fused portion is congealing it is of a fine 
red, and when cold yellow. Solution of potassa changes the yellow 
to red, but does not decompose it. It seems from what precedes, 
that the color of the iodide of mercury, is dependent on the state 
of aggregation. 


264 Disulphuret of Bismuth. 
XI. Solubslity af bitungstate of Ammonia. 


(a) Fifty grains of crystallized bitungstate of ammonia were 
boiled with 200 of water. A part only was dissolved, and more wa- 
ter was added at intervals until the solution was complete, and the 
boiling was continued until nascent precipitation. ‘The flask was 
then found to contain 800 grains of water. 

(b) 100 grains of the same, required for its hie solution 1600 
grains of water, at 212° F. 

(c) 50 grains of crystallized bitungstate of ammonia were repeat- 
edly agitated with 900 grains of water, at a mean temperature of 
60° F. 17 grains only of the salt were dissolved. 

Hence the bitungstate of ammonia requires 16 parts of water at 
212° F., and 53 parts of water at 60° F-., for solution. 

The bitungstate of ammonia was made by digesting moist recently 
prepared tungstic acid, with caustic ammonia, evaporating tbe solu- 
tion to dryness, at a regulated temperature, then dissolving in hot 
water and crystallizmg. ‘Thomson, in his Elements of Chemistry, 
Vol. II, p. 66, in speaking of the action of reagents on bitungstate 
of ammonia, mentions that metallic tin and a drop of muniatic acid 
cause white flocks at first to separate, which gradually become blue, 
and a deep blue color covers the tin. I find tin to act more distinct- 
ly asareagent without the acid, on the bitungstate of ammonia. 
The tin becomes almost instantly of a splendid blue, like that of a 
fine sword blade, and a blue precipitate soon begins to form, finally 
concealing the tin. The precipitate, by long standing, becomes white 
on the surface. 

Muriate of cobalt is a good test of bitungstate of ammonia. It 
gives a voluminous precipitate of a lilac color, and a lilac colored 
solution, which, when dry, becomes blue, and when heated to drive 
off the muriate of ammonia, it changes to a green. 


XII. Disulphuret of Bismuth. 


A notice of this compound was published in this Journal, Vol. 
XXIV, page 189, with its synthesis. Afterwards the experiment 
was repeated: 720 grains of pulverized bismuth were well mixed 
with 240 grains of flowers of sulphur, and put in a covered crucible 
weighing 1706 grains. ‘The crucible had been recently ignited to 
drive off hygrometric moisture. It was at first moderately heated, 
and after half an hour the heat was raised, first to a dull red, and 


Disulphuret of Bismuth. 265 


then a cherry red for half an hour. The disulphuret weighed 719 
grains. Bismuth is volatile at a bright red heat, which would ac- 
count for the loss. To ascertain whether this mass was a definite 
compound, the following analysis was made. 


Analysis. 


(a) 176 grains of the disulphuret of bismuth were treated with 
nitric acid, a little diluted. Nitrous acid fumes were evolved in 
abundance for a little time, and after a few hours the action had en- 
tirely ceased. More acid was added, to be sure that all the bismuth 
was oxidized and dissolved, but no further action was observed. 

(b) The solution (a) was carefully decanted from the lumps and 
sediment of sulphur and sulphate of bismuth, and these latter re- 
peatedly washed with water acidulated with nitric acid, to prevent 
any precipitation of subnitrate. 

The sulphur and sulphate of bismuth, when dry, weighed 23.3 
grains. 

The sulphur and sulphate by ignition lost 8.8 grains of sulphur. 

The remainder, which was sulphate of bismuth, contained 


Sulphuric acid, 4.833 = 1.933 sul. 2 Acording to Thomson’s 
Oxide of bismuth, 9.667 =8.700 bis. atomic numbers. 


14.500 

(c) The solution and washings of (b) were precipitated by solu- 
tion of carbonate of ammonia. The precipitate fell in abundance 
after the excess of nitric acid was neutralized. The carbonate was 
washed and dried, on its double filter, for several days, and the heat 
for the last 48 hours was such as to begin to char the paper of the 
filters. The dried carbonate of bismuth weighed 183.5 grains. 

(c’) To ascertain the proportion of oxide of bismuth in the car- 
bonate, 33.7 grains of the carbonate were gradually heated in a tube 
toredness. Carbonic acid, water, and nitrous acid fumes were evol- 
ved. ‘The nitrous acid was small in quantity, and evolved at a red 
heat, so that there must have been some subnitrate precipitated with 
the carbonate. The loss of weight was 3.85 grains =11.424 per 
cent. In another experiment, 6.8 grains lost 0.78 grains =11.470 
per cent. The mean of these two losses is 11.447 per cent. Had 
the whole 183.5 grains of carbonate been heated, the loss would 
have been 21.005; hence the 183.5 grains of carbonate of bismuth 
contained 162.495 grains of oxide of bismuth = 146.245 of bismuth. 

Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 34 


266 Disulphuret of Bismuth. 


(d) The filtered solution and washings from which carbonate of 
bismuth had been precipitated, vide (c), was treated with muriate 
of baryta to precipitate the sulphuric acid, which had been formed 
by the oxidation of a part of the sulphur by the nitric acid, during 
the solution of the disulphuret of bismuth. The precipitated sul- 
phate of baryta was washed, dried, and ignited. It weighed 40 
grains =5.423 grains of sulphur. 


Recapitulation. 

Sulphur, free, - - - (b)  8.800' 
Do. ‘in sulphate of bismuth, (b) © 1.933 > 16.156. 
Do. ~ do. baryta, (d) 5.428 

Bismuth in sulphate, - - (b) 8.700 
Bod wis aide ianict Yo Shee) as.2ds ¢ Man 

Loss, - - + - - - - 4.899 


176.000 

The disulphuret of bismuth operated on, weighed 176 grains, and 
so great a loss as 4.899, equal to about 3 per cent., indicates a solu- 
bility of the carbonate of bismuth, either in the water used in wash- 
ing it, vide (d), or in the carbonate of ammonia used as a precipi- 
tant.* Some sulphur was also probably carried off in the fumes of 
nitrous acid, as sulphurous acid, causing a small loss. 

If we calculate the atomic proportions from the numbers of sulphur 
and bismuth obtained, there would be 24 atoms of bismuth, combined 
with 1 sulphur, for 9w bis. : 154.945 bis. :: 2 sul. : 16.156 sulphur, 
whence r=24. ‘This comes so near to 2 atoms of bismuth to 1 sul- 
phur, that there can be little doubt that the compound formed by 
melting 3 bismuth and 1 sulphur, and keeping the mass at a red 
heat, is a true combination of 


Bismuth, 2 atoms, - - - - - 18 
Sulphur, 1. do. - — - - - = 2 
20 


* Since the above was written, I find that Stromeyer has noticed the solubility 
of this carbonate of bismuth in alkaline carbonates. Vide Annales de Chimie et 
de Physique, Tom. li, p. 272. 


Methods of determining and calculating, & c. 267 


Arr. VIII.—On the methods of determining and calculating the 
specific heats of certain solids,. with some precautions to be ob- 
served in the experiments; by Waurer R. Jounson, Professor 
of Mechanics and Natural Philosophy in the Franklin Institute 
of the State of Pennsylvania. 


From the Journal of the Franklin Institute. 


Tue practice which formerly prevailed, of presenting to the pub- 
lic, statements respecting the results of philosophical experiments 
without a detail of the exact methods adopted for their attainment, 
and the precautions employed to avoid error, has in many instances 
involved the necessity of repetition—long and laborious, of what 
ought, once for all, to have been definitively settled. The verifica- 
tion of a philosophical truth, by a method unlike any previously 
employed, is a matter entirely different from the processes just re- 
ferred to; and however well we may be satisfied of a truth, estab- 
lished in one manner, there will always be found both pleasure and 
profit in attainmg the same general conclusions, by methods and 
considerations independent of each other. There is not perhaps 
a better illustration of this remark than the variety of methods which 
may be employed for determining the specific heat of solids. The 
earliest was that of mixture, and consists in immersing the solid ata 
known temperature, in water (or some other liquid,) at a tempera- 
ture either above or below its own. ‘The temperature lost by the 
hotter body, and that gained by the cooler, will, with proper correc- 
tions, give, when compared, the specific heat of the body under trial. 

The next method, that of Lavoisier, employs, instead of the rise 
or fall of temperature in water, the latent heat of water passing 
from a state of ice and the weight of this solid, which any other 
given solid will melt while cooling from any known temperature 
down to the melting point, is the measure of its specific heat, which, 
being referred to the quantity of ice which a mass of water, equal 
to that of the solid, would have melted in cooling the same number 
of degrees, gives us the numerical expression of the specific heat of 
the solid. 

The third method employs the cooling power of air, and the times 
which will be required to depress the temperatures of the different 
solids through a fixed range of the thermometer are taken as the 
indices of the specific heat. This is the method employed by Pro- 


268 Methods of determining and calculating 


fessor Meyer on the woods and by Prof. Leslie and Mr. Dalton on 
other bodies. 

The fourth method employs the heat which becomes latent when 
water is rapidly converted into vapor at its boiling point, by the di- 
rect and sole agency of the solid, heated to a known temperature 
above that pomt. This method may be successfully employed to 
determine the latent heat of melting metals as well as their specific 
heat from 212° to their melting points, and also their change of ca- 
pacity, if any, after they have passed into the liquid state. The 
weight of boiling water which they will under different circumstances 
convert into vapor, compared with the effect of the same amount of 
water, conceived to be heated to the same temperature as the solid, 
gives again the numerical expression of the specific heat. 

It is evident, that if this fourth method be adequate to give the 
specific heat when the temperature is known, it is also competent to 
give the temperature when the specific heat is known; but in order 
to remove all doubt as to its applicability to the latter purpose, it is 
well to ascertain by different and independent methods the exact m- 
dex of the specific heat, whether uniform or variable, of the solids 
which may be employed for this purpose. Among the substances 
adapted to this end, are pure malleable iron and pure platina. ‘They 
are both highly indestructible, when heated without the access of 
foreign ingredients, such as oxygen, sulphur, carbon, silica, &c., and 
though the specific heat of the former is represented by some writers 
as increasing pretty rapidly, with the temperature, yet this increase 
is not by any means in so great a ratio, as that of its dilatations, 
which other authors have proposed. to employ as standards for meas- 
uring very high temperatures. As to platina, its specific heat is 
low, and its increments of rate, both in dilatation and specific heat, 
are represented as very moderate. I may here remark that the ex- 
periments of Dulong and Petit on this subject appear to have been 
erroneously stated in one part of their prize memoir, which has 
doubtless led to the supposition that they discovered no merement 
of capacity in platina by the elevation of temperature. . In their ta- 
ble of the specific heats of the different metals at 100° and at 300° 
Centigrade, as originally published in the Annales de Chimie, Vol. 
VII, we find .0355 placed under both of those temperatures against 
platina. 'The same numbers are transferred into every English edi- 
tion of works in which I have seen that table, with the single excep- 
tion of Tumer’s Chemistry, in which the number is .0335 both for 


the specific heats of certain solids. 269 


100° and 300°. Yet ina subsequent table of the memoir, Petit 
and Dulong have given the indications of thermometers formed of 
the different metals, on the basis of their specific heats, compared with 
those of an air thermometer at 300°, and they have put down that 
of platina 317.9, which it obviously could not be, if its specific heat 
were invariable, but supposing that heat to increase from .0335 at 
100° Cent. to .0355 at 300°, the indication ascribed to it would be 
correct. Ina recent edition of Turner’s Chemistry, by Dr. Bache 
of this city, this error has been corrected. 

But, to return to the subject of iron, we find, in the various works 
of philosophers, a remarkable discrepancy between their statements 
of the specific heats of this metal. The following are among the 
results obtaied by the different individuals whose names are an- 
nexed. 


om iron of sp. gr. 7.876, the specific heat was found, .1260 by Wilcke. 


* soft bar iron, sp. gr. 7.724, - - . -1190 “ Gadolin, 
* sheet iron, - . - - - .1090 “ Lavoisier. 
“ iron, of what quality not specified, - - .1250 “ Kirwan. 
G0. do. do. - - . .1269 “ Crawford. 
eras. do. dors - - .1450 “ Irvine. 
«do. do. do. - - - .1300 “ Dalton. 
* cast iron, abounding in plumbago, = - -  .1240 “ Gadolin. 
** white cast iron, - - - - 1320)“ do. 
iron, (kind not specified,) between 32° and 212° F. .1098 “ Petit and Dalong. 
Kydes do. do. dow wi32 , “6 9692 -1150 “ do. do. 
(° .do; do. do. Oe ee eae 2 -1218 “ do. do. 
do. do. do. do. 32 “ 662 1255 “. do. do. 


The mean of these thirteen numbers is 0.12377. The wide dis- 
erepancies are probably owing to the circumstances under which the 
authors respectively operated, and to physical differences in the 
metal. Nor is the disagreement confined to these results ; for while 
Crawford and Irvine contend that the specific heats of bodies re- 
main constant, at all temperatures, Dalton, Dulong and Petit main- 
tain that they increase with the increase of temperature. But it 
seems difficult to reconcile this supposition with another result of 
Petit and Dulong, viz. that the specific heat of all bodies is inverse- 
ly as their atomic weight, unless we could suppose what is manifestly 
absurd, that the atomic weight varies with the temperature, or that 
in different bodies the rate of increase in specific heat varies always 
inversely as the atomic weight. Thus, if H were supposed the spe- 
cific heat of any body and ‘A its atomic weight, and if dH were the 
increment of specific heat for a given rise of temperature, then not 


270 Methods of determining and calculating 


only must AH=the constant C, but also A(H+dH) must=C’, 
and of course AdH=C”,—in order that another body having the 
atomic weight a, and a specific heat h, should give ah=C, a(h+dh) 
=C’, and adh=C”. Let us observe how far their table of. the in- 
crease of specific heat between 212° and 572° Fahr. will bear out 
this supposition. The atomic weights are those given by Petit and 
Dulong themselves, with the exception of those of mercury and an- 
timony, which are derived from Dr. ‘Thomson. 


} { Petit and Dulong’s Valaesiak =H 

Metals. Atomic weights. oie ene specific aoe from these data. 
Mercury, - - 12.5 - - .0020 - - .025000 
Antimony, - - 95.9 - - .0064 - - .023100 
Platinum, - - 11.26 = - .0020 - - .022520 
Silver, -  - -'-, (6.715 = - .0054 - - .036450 
Copper, - - 3.957 - - .0064 - - .025280 
Iron, =" =" - 3.892 - - .0120 - - .040704 
Zine; = my i= (4 Oe = - .0088 - - .035464 


To attribute the character of “constants” to such numbers as are 
found in the fourth column of this table, would be little satisfactory 
to any who were not prone to uphold a theory at all hazards. Even 
the apparent correspondencies between mercury and copper, anti- 
mony and platina, silver and zinc, are probably mere accidental co- 
incidences. Iron, on which the authors to whom | have referred, 
appear to have bestowed most attention, gives a result far removed 
from all the rest and nearly double to some of them. 

The foregoing considerations, together with the use to be made 
of the specific heat of iron and platina in generating vapor for pyro- 
metrical measurements have induced me to attempt a re-examination 
of certain parts of this subject, and for this purpose I have taken the 
method originally adopted by Wilcke and Black, viz. that of im- 
mersing the hot metal in cold water, in connection’ with the fourth 
method above described, that of using the latent heat of vapor to as- 
certain the specific heat when the temperature of the solid is known. 

In experiments of this nature several precautions are to be ob- 
served, and a considerable number of sources of error anticipated, 
against which, if we cannot directly guard, we must pbb for 
them the necessary corrections. 

1. We must attend to the character and condition of the metal, 
its freedom from alloys or impurities, its specific gravity, its freedom 


the specific heats of certain solids. Q71 


from foreign matter on the surface, particularly from vaporizable 
matters, which may, by being converted into vapor in passing from 
the source of heat to the cold water, essentially diminish the tem- 
perature, or, if in any considerable quantity, may aid in elevating 
that of the water, and thus give a result too high. I have been 
sometimes embarrassed by this source of error. In a series of eight 
experiments, made by heating in a bath of oil on a given mass of 
wrought iron, at a mean temperature of 236° Fahr., the tempera- 
ture of the room being, 76° and that of the water at commencement 
74.86° in a glass vessel of known specific heat, containing at every 
trial the same weight of water, and measuring the temperatures every 
time by the same thermometers, I obtained as the mean result 
.12332,—the lowest being .12131, when the iron was immersed at 
192°, and the highest .12920, when the metal was at only 190°. 

To ascertain how far this source of error would be obviated by 
adopting a bath of mercury, I made eight experiments in the same 
glass vessel, on the same piece of iron, and with all other circum- 
stances corresponding to the former set, except that the temperature 
of the metal at immersion was at a mean of 3232°, and of course 
the specific heat, according to Dulong and Petit, ought to have come 
out higher than in the other series, instead of which it was at a mean 
of .12217, the lowest being .12119 at 338°, and the highest .12499 
at 350°, the higher temperature giving the higher result. 

2..The second precaution relates to the condition of the water 
used in the experiment.—The specific heat of saline solutions and 
earthy mixtures being different from that of water, care should be 
taken that only pure water be employed. ‘That which has been re- 
cently distilled should be preferred as it is less likely to be charged 
with air than that which has been long exposed in open vessels. If 
any considerable quantity of air contained in the liquid be suddenly 
expanded it may rise to the top and escape carrying with it the por- 
tion of heat which has given it so much enlargement of bulk. ‘This 
would cause an error in deficiency. 

3. The temperature and hygrometric state of the air in which 
the experiment is conducted, require attention. It is obvious that if 
we commence the experiment at a temperature below the dew point 
of the air, the vessel will be accumulating moisture before and du- 
ring the experiment, and if it remain but for a short time at the'in- 
itial temperature before the hot body is immersed, the consequence 
will be, that the latent heat of the vapor being employed in elevating 


272 Methods of determining and calculating 


the temperature of the water, the latter receiving from 1000 to 1200 
degrees of heat, for every unit of water condensed, will cause an er- 
ror in excess. If however the vessel have remained in its cold state 
for some time, and then received a considerable elevation of tempe- 
rature from the hot body, the whole exterior of the vessel will act 
as the wet bulb of a thermometer, and tend to keep the temperature 
of itself and its contents down to the evaporating point. 'This would 
cause a serious error in defect. Both these errors are obviously to 
be avoided by not allowing the temperature of the vessel to sink be- 
low the dew poimt. In regard to 'the relative temperatures of the 
vessel and the surrounding air, we must observe that as the latter 
part of the process, when the solid and the water are approaching an 
equilibrium, goes on very slowly, it will be necessary to commence 
our experiment with the. water nearly as much below the actual tem- 
perature of the apartment as the increase of temperature is expected 
to be, in order to terminate as little as may be above the surrounding 
air. ‘These two conditions of beginning above the dew point and 
never ending much above the temperature of the air can be compli- 
ed with only when the air is tolerably dry. Such should therefore 
be the state of weather selected for experiments of this nature. 

4. The construction, magnitude, and specific heat of the ther- 
mometer, used to measure the temperature of the water, is an object 
of some consequence in the determination of this delicate question. 
To carry entire accuracy into the subject it will be necessary to 
know the separate weights of the materials which compose it, and 
their several specific heats, and further to allow for an amount of wa- 
ter precisely equivalent to that part of the thermometer which is 
immersed during the experiment. In obtaining a thermometer for 
this purpose I caused the tube to be carefully measured and weighed 
before the bulb was blown, to ascertam its weight per inch in length, 
then knowing the length used to form the bulb it was easy to ascer- 
tain the number of grains of glass immersed in any given experiment. 
By again weighing after the thermometer was filled, the weight of 
mercury it contained was exactly known, and by weighing the scale 
separately and knowing its specific heat, the equivalent in water was 
found answering to any portion of the whole mstrument, which may 
be entered along the scale near the thermometric degrees. The ne- 
cessity of allowing for a scale may however be obviated by using a 
naked-bulb thermometer provided the range be sufficient without in- 
cluding the naked part of the stem. But to attain this end and at 


the specific heats of certain solids. 273 


the same time possess the requisite subdivision of degrees the bulb 
must be large, or the stem very long. Could we employ acylindric- 
al metallic containing vessel, fitted up with an apparatus to measure 
its own longitudinal expansions with perfect accuracy, it would per- 
haps be the best kind of thermometer for such experiments. The 
specific heat of mercury, at least.within the range where a thermom- 
eter for our present purpose would be used, is, according to the four 
independent determinations of Lavoisier, Kirwan, Crawford and Du- 
long, .0327. The specific heat of glass given by six different phi- 
losophers is at a mean .18511, that of Irvine being .2000, and that 
of Kirwan .1740 at the extremes. By three trials on flint glass in a 
method hereafter to be referred to, I obtained a mean of .17854, 
which is Jess than the above mean result by .00657 and more than 
that of Dulong and Petit by .00154. 

If the scale be of brass we have its specific heat by the mean re- 
sult of Wilke, Crawford and Dalton’s determinations .11276, but as 
the conducting power of that metal is high as well as its rate of ex- 
pansion it ought if possible to be avoided as a part of the immersed 
thermometer. 

The thermometer which measures the heat of the solid before 
immersion, should be faithfully compared with that which is used in 
the water. Thermometers of extensive range are often found inac- 
curate from containing minute portions of air. It would for this rea-- 
son be desirable to compare their indications with the fusing points 
of tin and lead, as well as the boiling points of water and mercury. 
To be sure of at least two points in the temperature of the hot body 
it will be well to place it in an iron vessel containing mercury, im- 
mersed in boiling water, for that point, and in a bath of melted tin 
immersed in boiling mercury to get the utmost range of temperature 
measurable by that liquid. By forming a suitable covering for the 
bath of mercury, and providing for the exit and condensation of its 
fumes we may operate with perfect convenience in the method just 
described. 

6. Lhave already mentioned the necessity of confining the range 
of temperature taken by the water during these experiments. If we 
terminate the experiment but one or two degrees above the actual 
temperature of the room the loss by radiation and conduction on one 
side will in general be so nearly counteracted by the gain on the oth- 
er, as to influence very little, the actual result. But if we employ 


too small a vessel the high temperature of our solid may give too 
Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 35 


274 Methods of determining and calculating 


great an elevation, and then we shall have not only the radiation and _ 
conduction of the vessel but the tension of vapor at the surface of 
the water, and the latter will be greater or less according to its great- 
er or less distance from the dew-point. The actual absolute loss 
may be found by a separate experiment on exposing the vessel and 
water for some hours to the same temperature as that at which the 
trial took place and in an atmosphere having the same hygrometric 
tension.. The weight lost during the longer exposure compared with 
its length of time ought to be proportionate to the loss and time in 
the other case. The number of grains of vapor would then be 
multiplied by its latent heat at the generating temperature, to obtain 
the absolute effect in cooling the mass from which it rose. _ This er- 
ror like that occasioned by the escape of air and that by the evapo- 
ration of dew from the surface of the vessel will be in defect. 

7. The nature of the vessel containing the water, its surface, spe- 
cific heat and the space it leaves open to the air. It should be of 
such dimensions as to be completely filled when the thermometer 
and the body under trial are immersed inthe water. If of metal, its 
perfect homogeneity is to be attained, and if of glass the specific heat 
should be separately ascertained. . 

8. To guard the hot body from loss of heat in passing from the 
source of heat to the cold water I make use of a thick sheet-iron 
cylindrical shield which is kept constantly immersed in the melted 
metal with the piece under trial and conveys it to the very mouth of 
the water vessel into which it is lowered by a fine wire or thread ena- 
bling the operator to move it from one part of the vessel to the other. 

9. The vessel and.its contents must be weighed with the greatest 
attainable accuracy at every trial. No reliance should be placed on 
the apparent levels of the fluid. Graduated measures are entirely 
out of the question in trials of this kind. ‘To adjust the weight with 
readiness I employ a dropping tube with a fine point and instead of 
a piston use a species of micrometer screw, to force out the liquid or 
draw itin at pleasure. Drops weighing one third of a grain may be 
easily obtained by this instrument. ‘The method of substitution is 
adopted in weighing to avoid all inaccuracy in the beam of the bal- 
ance. ! . 

10. A result is not to be taken as established until it can be re- 
produced, at least, within the limits of the errors of observation. I 
feel assured that much of the erroneous matter which has been pub- 
lished on this subject has arisen from a want of due care and patience 


the specific heats of certain solids. 275 


in repetition. Before closing these observations it may be proper to 
add, that when in any given experiment the thermometer which 
measures the temperature of the water is withdrawn to insert: the 
hot body and afterwards returned to the liquor, it will, under certain 
circumstances of the air, be found to have changed its indication, 
the moisture remaining upon its surface causing it to take the “ evap- 
orating point” as its stationary position. In this case it must be no- 
ted on again immersing the bulb, and the change it has undergone 
recorded and subsequently multiplied by the equivalent of the im- 
mersed part of the thermometer to obtain the requisite correction. 

The table exhibiting the data, calculations and results of experi- 
ments to determine specific heats in the manner above described, 
will contain the following particulars. 1st. The number of the ex- 
periment ; 2d. The kind of heating liquid employed ; 3d. The dew 
point of the apartment; 4th. Its evaporating point; 5th. The 
weight of solid under trial; 6th. The temperature at which it is im- 
mersed ; 7th. Temperature of the water ; 8th. Temperature of the 
thermometer when immersed ; 9th. Temperature of the air; 10th. 
Resulting temperature of the water; 11th. Gain of temperature by 
the water containing vessel and thermometer; 12th. Loss of tem- 
perature in the solid; 13th. Time occupied by the experiment ; 
14th. Weight of water in grains; 15th. Equivalent of the contain- 
ing vessel in grains of water ; 16th. Equivalent of the part of: ther- 
mometer immersed ; 17th. Sum of the equivalents in water, con- 
taining vessel and thermometer; 18th. Product of the preceding 
column by the gain of temperature ; 19th. Product of the weight 
of solid by its loss of temperature ; 20th. Correction obtained by 
multiplying the equivalent of the thermometer by its variation from 
the initial temperature of the water. (‘This correction will be either 
positive or negative, according as the evaporating point is below or 
above the initial temperature.) lst. Specific heat obtained by di- 
viding the 17th column, corrected, by the 18th. Other corrections 
may be inserted when necessary according to the observations already 
made. ‘To present the several cases to which we have referred in 
the preceding remarks, the following formulas may be adopted. 

1. When the specific heat of the containing vessel is to be ascer- 
tained by first filling it with water of a known temperature and letting 
it stand until we are sure that a stationary point has been attained, 
then emptying it and instantly refilling with water of a different tem- 


276 Methods of determining and calculating 


perature ; if the expansion of the vessel could be made to measure 
its own increase or diminution of temperature we should have the 
simplest of all possible cases ; for calling 

w= the weight of water in grains, | 

T= the degrees of change in temperature which it undergoes, 

g= the weight in grains of the contaming vessel, 

t= the change of its temperature by the experiment, and 

a= the specific heat of the material of which the vessel is com- 
posed, that of water being unity, we shall have TW=gtx or a= 


TW 
et (1). This supposes the experiment to be made with such re- 


gard to the thermometric and hyerometric state of the air as to re- 
quire no correction on that account. 

2. If we introduce a mercurial thermometer, with a brass scale, 
to measure the change of temperature, putting 

b= the weight of brass immersed, 

m= the weight of mercury, 

= the weight of the glass bulb and that part of the stem which 
sinks into the water, we have, for the equivalent of the thermometer 
in grains of water, the following expression, .11276 6+ .0327m-+- 
.18511c, and as by suspending the thermometer or otherwise fixing 
it in a certain position for many experiments, we can always use the 
same part of its length, we may substitute for this complex term the 
simple expression e for the thermometrical equivalent in grains of 
T(W+e) 
| (ibis tis 
by this method of trial and calculation that the three experiments 
before mentioned, gave .17854 for the specific heat of glass, though 
in the expression for the thermometer I have chosen to use the mean 
of six other determinations until I can repeat and vary the experi- 
ment, so as to be satisfied which is nearest to the truth. 

3. The specific heat of the contaming vessel being known, we 
proceed to that of any other solid, wrought iron for example, putting 
its weight in grams =2, and its specific heat =z. 'T will now rep- 
resent the change of temperature not only of the water and ther- 
mometer but also of the containing vessel, and tthe change of the 
solid, 7, g, x and e bemg the same as above, then will ztz=T(w+ 
T(w+gon+e) 

at 


water; then the formula (1) will become «= (2). Itwas 


gx+e) and z= (3), or the formula may be simplified 


the specific heats of certain solids. QT7 


/ 
at 
(4). To this, as before stated, we must apply a correction if the 
thermometer be not at the same temperature when immersed, as the 
water was when the solid was plunged into it. Calling the differ- 
ence d we have the correction tde, as before stated, according as 
the thermometer was below or above the water, and hence the form- 


Tw'td 
ula becomes we (5). 


by representing the three terms w+gu+e by W’ whence z= ? 


4. If the specific heat of the solid under trial and of the contain- 
ing vessel be the same, (as when a vessel of untinned sheet iron is 
employed to hold the water,) we may then if the specific heat be 
supposed not to vary within the limits of our experiment, employ the 
following expressions in which z is the specific heat of both, the 
solid and the water vessel; T, w, and e remaining as in (3), we ob- 


tain the equation ztz=T(w+e+gz)=T(w+e)+Tgz, and by 


T 
transposition iz—Tgz=T(w-+e), whence z=-7— > (6). 


5. But if, instead of making the container of the same material 
as the body under trial, we choose to form it of any other kind, even 
of one whose precise specific heat is not yet known, we may, by 
using vessels of different thicknesses and the same liquid content, 
ascertain by successive experiments under otherwise similar circum- 
stances, the specific heat of the material which composes the vessel. 
Thus two jars capable of containing the same weight of water may 
be formed of glass from the same melting pot, but one possessing 
two or three times the thickness of the other. We may then heat 
the same mass of iron twice (or any number of times) to the same 
temperature, and immerse it in water at the different trials in each 
of the two vessels at the same temperature. Then putting 

w= the weight of water contained in each glass, 

g= the weight of the thicker glass, 

g’= that of the thinner, 

x= the unknown specific heat of glass, 

T= the change of temperature of water and glass when g is used, 

t= the change of temperature of iron when g is used, 

'T’= the change of temperature of water when g” is used, 

t/= the change of temperature of iron when g’ is used, 

z, as before, = the weight of iron, 


278 Methods of calculating and determining 


z= its specific heat, 

e= the equivalent of the thermometer. 

Then, as the temperature of the water, the air, and the iron, are 
supposed to be the same in both cases, we shall have by the two 
expressions, 


TW'tde T(wte+ gr) =de 


[uo ees 
at at 
PP aw Uy Joan\+ 
ae __Twia eles eye de. 


from which we derive 
e T(w+e) se LE Oh ct ae Rr 
4 Tt costed +Tt’gxtdet’=T’ aie +T’te’atide, and by 
transposition, 
5. Ttgx—T’tg’a=(Tt—T?’) .(w+e)t(tzt’).de, and by 
division, 
Tt—Te Ate ia 
bh haa ae Bt Te ce) es which, if there be no cor- 


rection for eanOniERe: variation, will be reduced to the simpler form, 


(Tt— Tt). (we) 


Hie(ah ie Tig— Tie’ » (7). And as the value of x is now 


found, we may substitute it in either the first or second equation, to 
enable us to find the value of z. The first would give, (omitting 
the correction tde.) Se 
! (T’t—T?’).(wt+e 
T(w+e)+Te (ape ee 
= ee St . Had we taken the 
a 
second equation in which to substitute the value of x, the value of z 
: , (4TH) .(w+e) 

T (w+e)+T’g ( Tie = "Tie 


ta 


would have been = From 


either of these we may obtain 
TT(g—g') (we), 
9: 2= (Tig) (8.) 

The necessity of applying the correction -:de, arises from the lia- 
bility of the warm current of liquid ascending from the hot metal 
to elevate the temperature of the thermometer above that which 
ought to be exhibited by the liquid when the maximum effect of the 
solid has been attained. By taking the thermometer out of the 


the specific heats of certain solids. 279 


water at the instant the metal is immersed, and keeping it out till 
near the conclusion of the experiment, we not only have a better 
opportunity to agitate the liquid, but also avoid the deception just 
referred to. 

If the experiment be commenced precisely at the evaporating 
point, the bulb of the thermometer covered with a film of water will 
be retained at that point and no correction required. 

The formula for the fourth method of determining specific heat, 
which may serve as a verification of the one just presented, is found- 
ed on the fact that the weight of vapor generated by a given weight 
of metal is proportionate to the weight, temperature, and specific 
heat of the metal employed. The experiments in this case all ter- 
minate at the boing point, but may commence at any known supe- 
rior temperature. The result obtained will therefore be the mean 
specific heat between the temperature of boiling water, and that at 
which the metal enters the liquid. Calling 

2 =the weight of metal employed, 

¢ =its temperature above boiling point at immersion, and 

z=its mean specific heat, from boiling point to the temperature 
at which it is immersed ; also, 

v= the weight of vapor produced by the action of 7, and 

¢=the latent heat of vapor from water boiling in the open air at 
the time and place of the experiment. 

Then, by the above statement, we have (supposing no heat lost 
by any other means than vaporization) the effect =vl, and the cause 
=it. The latter is on the supposition that the experiment ceases, 
and the loss of weight in water is ascertained, the moment the metal 


vl 
has come down to the boiling point. Hence itz=vl, and z==— (9.) 
Also, as above stated, the temperature ¢ can be found when z is 
ol 
known ; thus, t= (10.) 


Collecting the foregoing formulas into a single view, we have the 
following table. 


280 Methods of determining and calculating specific heats, &c. 


No. of the 
formula. 


(1.) 


(2.) 
(3.) 
(4.) 


(5.) 


(6.) 


trial. 


(7.) 
(8) 
(9.) 

(10.) 


_ the same trials as the preceding. 


Purpose of the experiment 
and calculation. 


tainer, measuring temperature by 
its own expansion. 


To find the spec. heat of a tye 
To find the same hen a mer- 
curial thermometer i is used. 
To find sp. heat of a solid, and 


correcting for the water vessel. 


c= 


2 


To express the same, reducing 
water, thermometer, and contain- 
er to W’. 


Do. corrected when the ther- 
mometer differs from initial tem- 
perature. 


Do. when the container is of the : 


same material as the solid under 


To find sp. heat of the contamer, 
by trials in two vessels of unequal 
weights, 


To find sp. heat of the solid from 
2= 


To obtain the sp. heat of a solid 
from its vaporizing power. 


solid by vaporization when the 


To find the temperature of the 
specific heat is known. fa 


Expression in terms 
above explained. 


Tw 


t==—'e 


gt 
a. 


Tete, 


—™ 


— de 


_T(w+e) 
t—Tg ° 


_(T#-T?). Te’).(w+e) 
Tg — oa get 


TT(g-g" ).(w-+-e). 
ey g- Tito! tg’ 


gid 


Numerous experiments on all branches of the subject have al- 
ready been made, and others are in progress, the whole of which 
will in due time be laid before the public. 


Condition of Vesuvius. 281 


Arr. IX.—On the condition of Vesuvius in July, 1834; by 
James D. Dana, of the U. S. Navy. 


TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


U.S. Frigate United States, Smyrna, July 12th, 1834. 


Sitr—Surposine it possible, that a statement of the present con- 
dition of Vesuvius,—which I had the pleasure of visiting when at 
Naples, a few weeks since,—may be of some interest to you, I take 
the liberty of addressing to you, an account of my observations.— 
The volcano for many years has almost incessantly shown some 
signs of activity ; but since the summer of 1832, it has been, on the 
whole, and still is, in what is considered a tranquil state. This 
was very much the case, when we first arrived, May 29th,—and 
hence, in my first view of Vesuvius, Iwas disappointed. I saw 
a mountain rising before me, to the moderate height of three thou- 
sand six hundred feet, from a broad base and with an acclivity by 
no means steep, and having nothing, at a distant view of eight 
miles, peculiarly bold or rugged in its outline. Some variety was 
afforded by its double summit, Somma, standing near by to the north, 
and nearly equalling Vesuvius in height. The crater was enveloped 
in a light cloud, such as is usual about elevated peaks, whose cold ~ 
soil condenses the vapor of the atmosphere. In this instance how- 
ever, I suppose the cloud to have been the vapor condensed, as it 
issued from the crater. Yet there was nothing in the appearance, to 
convince one, that such was the case. Vesuvius resembled a vol- 
cano,no more than other summits bounding the horizon to the south 
of it, except in its brownish black sides, which alone told its real na- 
ture. ‘Thus it was, till favored by the darkness of the evening, when 
it began to exhibit some evidences of its real nature. The vapory 
cloud which shrouded the summit, was then bright with the light re- 
flected from the crater; and there were ejections, yet not very fre- 
quent, of melted lava and heated cinders, to a considerable height 
in the air. The succeeding day, owing to the eclipsing light of the 
sun, it again assumed a non-volcanic aspect. But at night, the 
eruptions were seen to occur every five or eight minutes. It was 
in the following night, that, with a party of the officers of the ship, 
I ascended the mount. 

At Resina near the foot of the mountain, we were provided, by 
Salvatore Madonna, the principal cicerone for this excursion, with 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 36 


282 Condition of Vesuvius. 


the necessary equipments, guides, horses or jackasses, and torches ; 

and, being dressed in suits of clothes for the occasion, about two hours 
after sunset, we commenced the ascent. We had selected the night 
for the excursion, because at that time, the lava can exhibit more 
clearly its own light, and also to view the rising sun, a splendid sight, 
as we had been informed, heightened as it is by the beautiful surround- — 
ing scenery. With but the light of our torches, I could not, of course, 
examine the nature of the soil, over which we were passing. When 
ascending in the morning, I observed that our road ran along a strip 
of land, elevated above the general level of the side hill, and hence 
inaccessible to the lava, coming in this direction, as it would natu- 
rally take its course, in the valley to one side of it. ‘This elevated 
land, named Monte Cantaront may be considered as connecting 
Somma with the cone of Vesuvius. It is intersected by three val- 
lies, the most northerly of which,- Vallono della Vetruva, received 
the current of lava of 1785. For a considerable distance, there 
were cultivated fields and vineyards, on either side of our road. 
Part of the way it was cut through a bank of pebbles and sand. A 
ride of five miles brought us to the hermitage, at the top of Mount 
Cantaroni, an usual place of recruit for travellers, indeed a half way 
house: not wishing to ascend immediately, we rested here for three 
hours. At two o’clock A. M. we again mounted our horses, and in 
half an hour reached the foot of:the cone. After leaving the her- 
mitage, vegetation grew more and more scanty, as we proceeded,— 
here we find but a barren waste of lava, which continues up the cone, 
there, however, composed also of loose cinders and volcanic ashes. 
—This lava is the current of 1822.—It was a tedious walk up the 
cone, both because of the steepness of the acclivity and of the yield- 
ing nature of the material over which we travelled. In three quar- 
ters of an hour, we were relieved by arriving on a plain, the princi- 
pal summit, near the center of which was situated a small cone, the 
present aperture for the smoke and ejected stones and lava. This 
plain is the old crater, which but four years since was reached by a 
descent of two thousand feet*—the bottom of “an immense and. 
frightful gulf.’”’—In 1829, a person, when he had reached the sum- 
mit, stood upon a narrow ridge, and could but look down to this seat 


* Two Years and a Half in the Navy.—As the volcano now appears, it may 
be as near the truth, to diminish the above statement by one fourth 


Condition of Vesuvius. 283 


of volcanic fires. In 1830, the descent to the interior was barely 
practicable ; but it continued nearly the same as in ’29, till the sum- 
mer of 1832, when it assumed very nearly the form and appearance 
that itnow has. There was, at that time, a falling in of the walls of 
the crater, and also judging from appearances, I should say that the 
lava, as it boiled up, had cooled, and thus closed all the view to the 
burning furnace. I have heard it said, that the change in its appear- 
ance is so great that it can hardly be recognised as the same moun- 
tain. At the eruption of 1832, a stream of lava descended the 
mountain towards Portici. In the description of every eruption, that 
I have read, there is noticed some change in the form of the crater. 
In 1822 the walls of it were so much broken off, as to lessen the 
height of the mountain one hundred feet ; and thus it appears, that, 
by an examination of its present state, there can be obtained scarce- 
ly any idea of the volcano, as it was thirty or forty years since. 
The present circumference of this plain, is nearly four miles, more 
than twice that of the mouth of the crater in 1830. Part of the 
old walls exist on the north east side, and there only. 

As I walked over the plain—rather a rough one—I noticed in the 
numerous fissures in the lava, on this the western side, that the rocks 
were heated to redness within two or three feet of the surface ; and 
from many places the sulphurous vapors issued freely. These fis- 
sures were too shallow to allow any far insight into the interior of the 
mountain. The volcano, at the time, was in considerable action. 
The smoke, mostly sulphurous acid, issued in a dense cloud from the 
small crater, and was carried by a strong wind from the north east, 
across the path we were about to take. After one or two fruitless at- 
tempts, the danger of suffocation driving us back, we gained the 
windward side of the cone. It was south of east of this small cone, 
(I so call it to distinguish it from the old and larger one,) about 
twenty rods from it, that the grandest sight was presented us. Du- 
ring the preceding few moments, we had moved along with rather 
a hastened step, on account of the heat of the lava under our feet-— 
for ared heat was frequently seen, within ten or twelve inches of the 
surface, and the rocks were yellow with an incrustation of sulphur. 
We were soon on the borders of what was, apparently, a fountain of 
melted lava, which making its way from under the solid lava, at the 
slow rate of a mile an hour, ran down the back side of the mountain 
towards Pompeii, not proceeding far enough however, to injure an 
uninjured country. It resembled much a stream of fused iron, Its 


284 Condition of Vesuvius. 


width was from four to five feet. From the form of the surface of 
the surrounding lava, I concluded that, not long since, its place of exit 
was higher up, and that by the solidification of its surface, the change 
had been produced in the situation of its source, a process which now 
appears to be going on—we approached it within four feet. I can- 
not say that I felt disposed to try the experiment which Dolomieu 
states to be safe, that is, to walk over it, the heat of the surface, as 
he says, not being sufficient to burn. It is.certain, that the reflected 
heat was sufficient to induce me to preserve the distance abovemen- 
tioned. With one of our rough canes, we took some of the red hot 
viscid fluid from the stream and into it pressed some coins. I have 
one specimen, impressed on one side with the name of our cicerone 
Salvatore Madonna, and on the other, the time and the year when 
thus enstamped. The lava cools rapidly, hardening intoa black sco- 
riaceous vesicular mass, without the usual crystals of leucite, horn- 
blende, or pyroxene. May not this absence of crystals, be owing to _ 
the fact that they were taken from the surface, where these minerals 
not under pressure, are decomposed by the heat? The same is the 
nature of the solidified lava which covers this part of the old crater. 
This stream is the only present outlet for the lava of the volcano. 
The crater is not in sufficient action to force it over its sides. 

There yet remained to be seen the interior of this crater. Our 
guides spoke to us of the danger, and perhaps more from disliking 
the trouble of ascending than from fear, at first refused to accompany 
us. It was not usual to climb it on this the eastern side; but there 
was no other alternative; for the opposite side, where was the beat- 
en track, was rendered impassable by the thick volumes of suffocat- 
ing smoke. They at last consented, as we had determined on going. 
Its elevation is two hundred and fifty feet, the whole of which has 
been formed within the past five years ; in 1830 there was but a 
small mound. Its elevation is owing to the cinders and small pieces 
of lava, with perhaps occasionally a current, which are thrown out 
and fall down its sides. Its sides incline at an angle of 40°, as great 
an inclination, considering the manner in which they are formed, as 
they could have. When making the ascent, I perceived very sensi- 
bly, a tremulous motion, and when on the summit I observed that 
this trembling took place. at each of its slight eruptions. ‘There 
were no subterranean sounds. ‘The eruptions were of heated cind- 
ers, melted lava and sulphur, which were darted to the height of 
twenty or thirty feetin the air, every four or five minutes. The 


Condition of Vesuvius. 285 


greater portion of them fell back into the crater. I noticed that 
some small pieces of lava, which had fallen one side were cooled 
by the time they had reached the cone. 

After all, we were prevented from viewing the internal operations 
by the thick smoke, continually issuing from the part of the crater 
directly beneath us, and obscuring the whole of the interior. Occa- 
sionally, it was partially cleared away by the wind, and we perceived 
some unheated rocks within twenty feet of the top on the side op- 
posite us. The diameter of the nearly circular opening was not 
more than one hundred feet. The ridge forming the circumference 
was besprinkled with sulphur, which had been thrown out in a fused 
state. The specimens were very delicate and beautiful ; unfortu- 
nately too much so to be handled. We were on the point of de- 
scending, when an eruption took place somewhat greater than we 
had before seen, and a shower of lava fell on all sides of us, causing 
us to hurry, and soon we were again upon the heated, though solid 
lava of the plain or old crater. On our return we went around to 
the north, thus making the circuit of the cone. In this direction, 
there were numerous fissures, freely emitting smoke and showing a 
red heat to the surface. The walls of the old crater which here re- 
main, are a perpendicular bank of rock exhibiting the edges of al- 
ternating layers of compact lava and loose scoria with disintegrated _ 
lava. ‘The compact contains numerous small imperfect crystals of 
leucite and hornblende. 

The time before us, would not permit me tomake many examina- 
tions with regard to the volcanic minerals here to be obtained. The 
following I purchased of our cicerone, who collects and keeps for 
sale Vesuvian specimens. He pointed out to me a large box, that 
he had just closed for Professor Buckland of England. Some of 
the specimens, have passed through the fires, without the least 
change. Their well known names will distinguish them among the 
following :—Granite, mica, one specimen and aggregation of black 
seales, another of a brownish yellow color, crystallized calcareous 
spar or limestone, idocrase ina micaceous gangue, spinelle with the 
green mica, sommite, iceland spar in tabular crystals, dolomite, calca- 
reous mesotype, in uregular spheroidal masses, cemented together 
by carbonate of lime, stilbite in the cavities of the lava, leucite in crys- 
tals with twenty four trapezohedral faces, from } to 2 of an inch in 
diameter, muriate of copper incrusting a specimen of lava, specular 
iron, in flat lenticular crystals covering lava, a compound of chloride 


. 


286 Condition of Vesuvius. 


of sodium and muriate of ammonia similarly situated, and a specimen 
of recent calcareous conglomerate, containing petrifactions among 
which there is a species of the genus pecten, also of cardium and 
what appears to be a donax, and in addition some small turreted uni- 
valves. I have other minerals, but I cannot state with certainty 
their names. ‘The labels of many that I purchased were evidently 
wrong. We descended the cone at arapid rate along a steep decliv- 
ity of loose cinders and volcanic sand. 

Not till the fifth of June, was there any change of consequence 
in the state of the volcano. On this day, (Friday) a slight earth- 
quake was perceived near Pompeii. ‘There was a considerable swell 
on the sea during the day, which, as there had been calm weather for 
several days, I had imputed, without a knowledge of the earthquake, 
to a distant gale. Possibly the earthquake was the cause. At night 
the bursts of incandescent matter from the crater were far more bril- 
liant and extensive than on former nights. At many ofthese expira- 
tions, (if Imay use the term; it seems to convey better than any 
other, an idea of these slight eruptions, which are not unlike the 
spouting of some huge leviathan in a fiery liquid,) small streams of 
lava run down the northern side of the small cone. On Saturday, 
smoke was continually rolling from the crater to the north. In 
the evening, I observed that a new source of light had arisen to: 
the north of the small cone, and towards the southeast, a line of 
light extended partly down the mountain towards Pompeii, arising 
probably from the same stream of liquid lava that I saw when there, 
now enlarged. ‘The crater itself was far less active than usual. 
During Sunday Vesuvius was in quite a dull state. At night, but 
little light was to be seen, and the fiery expirations were not frequent. 
As we were leaving the harbor on Monday, June 8th, a blacker and 
more abundant smoke issued from the crater, and at night the stream 
to the south east shone with increased brilliancy. ‘The next morning 
Vesuvius was far below the horizon. It would have been a source 
of no little gratification, could I have witnessed Vesuvius exhibiting 
her immense fireworks on her grandest scale. However the slight 
exhibitions of the past few days were, as seemed to me full of gran- 
deur, and they made a faint impression of the power, which now is 
nearly dormant. ‘They passed off entirely unnoticed by the mass 
of the inhabitants of the country. It is astonishing with what an 
absence of fear they rebuild their destroyed cities, whence just be- 
fore they ran for their lives, driven by these tremenduous torrents of 


Condition of Vesuvius. 287 
fre. Thus Torre del Greco, although mostly buried by the fiery 


torrent of 1794 has again risen from its ruins, and now contains 
15,000 inhabitants. The foot of the mountain is crowded with 
towns, and it would be difficult now for acurrent to reach the sea, 
its usual course, without destroying some buildings. 
While contemplating Vesuvius, it is natural to dwell upon the vol- 
cano, its nature, depth and extent, and to enquire whether it is not 
connected with Stromboli and Etna and whether this grand bed of 
fire does not extend throughout Italy, which every where bears evi- 
dence of former volcanos and of present subterranean fires. However 
this may be, it appears that it may be said with considerable confidence, 
that at least fifteen or twenty miles on each side will not more than in- 
clude this burning furnace. Twelve miles from Vesuvius, beyond 
Naples, are the vapor baths of San Germano. An old stone building 
covers a spot of earth, whence issues this heated vapor. There is but 
a slight smell of sulphur, but the heat throws one immediately into a 
profuse perspiration. The walls inside are covered with an incrust- 
ation of alum from half to two inches thick. Here then is sufficient 
evidence of subterranean fires. A short distance from these baths, 
is the Grotto del Cane, a small partly artificial cave, but twelve or 
fifteen feet deep and six high, in the side of a hill of Tufa. It is noted 
for the carbonic acid it contains. ‘The smoke of a taper settling upon 
it, ran out of the entrance like a liquid, thus showing that there is an in- _ 
cessant fountain of the gas. I stepped in, and besides the increased 
pressure perceived also an increase of heat. This heat, and the 
continual reproduction of gas seem sufficient to prove its igneous or- 
igin. ‘This cave and the bath, are situated on the borders of a small 
lake, (Lago d’Agnano) which, from its circular form, great depth, 
(500 feet,) and the volcanic nature of the surrounding country, is 
supposed to be an ancient crater. A mile from the lake, is the fa- 
mous Solfatara, a volcano, not long since in action, abounding in sul- 
phur, alum, and other volcanic productions. Near by, is a rivulet of 
boiling water. Not far distant is the crater of another extinct volca- 
no, (Astroni,) four miles in circumference, and just north of the bay 
of Baia is another hot spring. Nine miles west of Naples is the 
island of Procida, with a volcanic soil ; fifteen miles is Ischia, whose 
extinct volcano, currents of lava, once the destruction of its town, 
and hot springs are sufficient to prove its volcanic origin. South of 
these the plain of Sorrento bears evidence of a former volcano.— 
Thus Vesuvius is nearly surrounded with volcanoes, now apparently 


288 Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. 


extinct, but whose fires, as is proved by the hot springs and vapor 
baths, yet burn. 

A mountain which has ejected such immense quantities of lava as 
has Vesuvius, must necessarily have a great extent of volcanic fires. 


If, as says Braccini, and from experiment the descent to the inter- » 


nal plain in 1631 was by a rapid declivity of three miles, and con- 
sequently its situation was far below the level of the sea, what limits 
ought to be assigned to the fires, which as they were then latent, 
must have been far below the plain he reached? It will not there- 
fore require much credulity to believe a radius of six or eight miles 
necessarily to include the fires of Vesuvius, even supposing that there 
are no others in the neighborhood. But others do exist, and judg- 
ing of their probable limits by the size of the old crater,is there not 
reason to believe that they also extend six or eight miles, and thus 
meet those of Vesuvius, or rather that there is but one great source, 
or furnace of which Vesuvius is the present spiracle! We pass- 
ed Stromboli Tuesday evening, June 16th, a more extensive moun- 
tain than Vesuvius; its red fiery expirations had more breadth and 
height, but they were less frequent than those of that voleano, hap- 
pening not oftener than once im fifteen or twenty minutes. 

Etna was in sight the next day, but she gave us not the least evi- 
dence of her volcanic character, except in her external appearance. 


Art. X.—On the Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. 
To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. 


Sir—In the April number of your valuable Journal, I observe, on 
page 183, a translation of a French “Memoir upon Fruit Trees,” in 
which some enquiries are suggested into the cause of fruits raised from 
the seed being different in quality from those from which they were 
derived, and proposing certain experiments to ascertain it, particu- 
larly transplanting and change of soil. ‘These, I humbly conceive, 
will not be alone found to furnish the remedy, and it must therefore 
be sought elsewhere. 

I must honestly premise, that I am not much of a horticulturist 
myself, nor have I made many satisfactory experiments, owing to my 
not being situated favorably for the purpose; but I have often re- 
marked the inferiority of melons, peaches, pears and cherries, the 
seeds of which had been selected from the finest specimens, and re- 


Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. ~ = 289 


flecting upon the probable cause of it, have come to the conclusion 
that it is chiefly, if not solely, owing to our not imitating, or rather 
following, the process of nature, in her works of reproduction, where 
every thing is perfect. IfI do not mistake in this, and experiment 
should justify my opinion, better fruit than we have heretofore had 
will be the consequence ; if, on the contrary, my theory turns out to 
be erroneous, it will only be one other which has failed when reduced 
to practice. 

‘I believe that no one views the oak, the hickory, the chestnut, and 
other trees of our magnificent forests, as the degenerate offspring of 
their parents, and yet the mode nature which adopts in their pro- 
duction is of the simplest kind; the acorn, or the nut, is left to ri- 
pen in its envelope, and on its stem, till the fit time arrives for that en- 
velope to burst, and drop its dry nut on the ground, where it lies 
until the frosts open the earth to receive it, when it germinates in 
due season and sends forth a plant likely to rival its size. This is no 

‘doubt the reason why fruits from trees accidentally discovered grow- 
ing wild, have generally proved finer than cultivated ones, as the 
author of the memoir justly remarks, while the latter are found 
“degenerate,” and “acid and unpalatable.” In the former case, 
whether a peach, a pear, or a cherry, it remains unplucked by the 
hand of man, ripens, falls, rots, and finally dries up, liberating the 
seed in a fit condition to enter the earth when the frost prepares a 
place for it to drop into, which probably is not so deep as the hole 
we make to plant one in. That it should not produce a fruit in all 
respects like its parent would be more surprising than the contrary. 

But how different is the course pursued by us in endeavoring to 
produce a fruit similar to the one we have been enjoying, which, 
although its flavor may be exquisite, was probably, when gathered, 
not as perfect as it would have been had it been left until it was about 
to drop: in many cases, peaches, pears and cherries are plucked 
before they are ripe, and most of those brought to market are very 
unripe, especially pears, which are commonly pulled green, and ri- 
pened afterwards in a closet. We select the stone of.a fine peach, 
or the seed of a fine melon, after stripping them of their delicious 
pulpy covering, which was destined to supply nourishment, until the 
seed is ready for the ground; it encounters suddenly the keen ac- 
tion of the air, (the effects of which at such a moment no man can 
better estimate than yourself,) and is given perhaps to a careless ser- 
vant to put away to dry, and in due time it is planted, produces a 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 2. 37 


290 Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. 


tree or vine, and likewise fruit, but alas! how different from that — 
whose fine flavor and luscious taste induced us to preserve its seed ! 
Our gardeners pursue a more rational plan with their cucumbers, 
squashes, peas and beans, &c. The cucumber is left on its vine to 
turn yellow, rot and perish, before its seed is considered fit for use ; 
the pea pod is permitted to hang until it turns yellow, dries, and is 
about to drop its seed, before it is gathered. Nobody complains of 
these vegetables not proving equal to their predecessors. ‘The hus- 
bandman likewise lets his wheat, rye and oats remain on their stalks 
until the time arrives when to leave them longer would be to lose 
such small grain by the opening of the husk ; but it is still preserved 
in its husk till dry enough to be threshed out; yet notwithstanding 
this close approach to nature’s process, it is a common remark that 
wheat degenerates, and requires to be planted im another soil to re- 
cover something of its original character ; this is no doubt owing to 
the necessity of separating the grain from its stalk before the final 
operations of nature bring it to perfection. In the case of Indian 
corn, however, it is different; the grain is left upon the stalk some- 
times until the snow falls, and is never gathered until it is perfectly 
hard and dry. I never heard of its degenerating. 

If my theory then is correct and supported by facts and experi- 
ment, the course to be pursued to obtain fine fruit of every kind 
would be this, and I will give only two examples as they will serve 
for all. If I had a tree of fine peaches, I would select half a dozen 
or more of the finest individuals on it, and those free from all blem- 
ish; mark them in some way not injurious, and suffer them to re- 
main till they fall off themselves; I would then place them on the 
ground in an inclosure which would protect them from cattle, and 
let them rot and perish till the stone was fairly liberated ; I would 
either let them still remain, or remove one half to a spot shel should 
shelter them from rain and sun, (although I am not sure it would be 
the best.) Should any of these be attacked by worms, they would 
be rejected ; all the rest should be planted, and each division noted. 
I am not sure that it would not be well to let them receive the win- 
ter snow to keep them in a proper temperature, and as soon as the 
ground is broken by the frosts in the spring, plant them lightly, mark- 
ing each by a stick and number. Whether the natural planting of 
fruit stones and nuts is in the fall or sprmg Iam unable to say. The 
experiment of both might be tried. 


Propagation of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. 291 


If I had a vine producing high flavored melons, I should adopt a 
similar plan. I would select fine specimens and leave them to per- 
ish, preserving the seeds in several ways, to ascertain the best, and 
some I might allow to remain all winter in their native situation, not 
knowing how far the dead covering might afford protection against 
snow, cold, rain andsun. Ishould like to see such experiments tried, 
and the results given in this Journal for general information. 

There may be advantages in transplanting, as soils have frequently 
an influence on flowers and probably may have also on fruits, but ac- 
cording to my theory it would not be likely to change the zdentity 
of the fruit, although it might lessen or improve its quality. This 
is, however, matter for experiment. 

While on this subject, allow me a few words on the cultivation of 
the grape, which is widely different from the course pursued by na- 
ture, who trains up her vines to the top of trees, and there forms an 
umbrella-shaped canopy of leaves, curiously arranged to turn off the 
rains and screen from the scorching sun of our climate the rich clus- 
ters which hang under its shade. The foreign grape introduced into 
America is certainly a more palatable one than our wild fruit, but 
when the varieties in our woods are better known, and the kind se- 
lected are trained on insulated trees, beyond the influence of the 
damp and gloomy forest, who can tell the change that may not take . 
place in it for the better. . Every body must remark, that the finest 
and most numerous branches of our cultivated grapes hang from the 
leaf-covered roof of the trellis in our garden alleys. In the northern 
climates of Europe, where the power of the sun is weak, the plan 
there adopted, and which we appear to have borrowed, may answer ; 
but all travellers speak of the festoons of vines loaded with fruit, 
hanging from tree to tree over the plains of Tuscany and Naples. 

Should these observations be deemed worthy of a place in your 
Journal, and lead to any satisfactory experiments, which should give 
us finer fruit than we now obtain by the ordinary mode of planting, 
my object will be answered. Pomona. 


292 On the construction of the Barometer, &c. 


Art. XJ.—On the construction of the Barometer, and other Phi- 
losophical Instruments in this country ; by Jamus CEaEN, Philo- 
sophical Instrument Maker in Baltimore. 

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, 

Dear Sir—Ear.y after the publication of No. 1. Vol. xxvii of 
your very valuable Journal, my attention was directed to an article 
on the construction of the Barometer ; and although interested in all 
improvements of the means of making philosophical observations, I felt 
particuarly so in the present instance, from having received an order 
on account of the public service to construct a Barometer, that would 
furnish accurate indications of atmospheric pressure on any plan 
which my experience in this branch of manufacture might approve. 

In perusing the article | was particularly attracted by the coinci- 
dence which existed in the construction of some parts of Mr. Du- 
rant’s instrument and a modification of Gay Lussac’s Barometer by 
M. Bunten, a favorable report of which was read before the French 
Institute, by Messrs. Savart and Arago, and which subsequently receiv- 
eda favorable notice from Baron Humboldt, who after having used the 
instrument during a travel through Germany of several months, tes- 
tified to its efficiency in preventing the admission of air into the mer- 
curial column. The Globe Portable Barometer of Mr. Durant 
seems to present all the advantages derivable from that arrangement 
with some additional securities. However, I must freely confess 
that the gratification which a Philosophical Instrument Maker might 
be presumed to derive from such a circumstance was in some meas- 
ure diminished by discovering the writer to be under the impression 
that there existed an indifference to all efforts at the perfection of so 
important an instrument as the Barometer, on the part of the manu- 
facturer, who I hope may be often found both “ able and willing ” to 
resort to all the precautionary means necessary to insure as perfect 
an instrument as practicable, when such an instrument is wanted.— 
In so far as the accuracy of the instrument may depend upon the 
boiling of the mercury in his tube, it is a very common thing with 
him to take the “patient care” required in this operation. Indeed, 
it has been my uniform practice to observe this precaution in all in- 
stances, where such accuracy was desirable, and also to use mercury 
that had been redistilled. 

I have been induced to state these facts, because from the tone of 
the article alluded to, an individual who might desire a perfect mstru- 


On the construction of the Barometer, &c. 293 


ment would be brought naturally to the inference, that in as much as 
good Barometers are constantly being made somewhere, if he cannot 
obtain one here, he can do so abroad. 

I do not suppose however that either yourself or the writer would 
‘wish to increase the already unfavorable prepossession which to some 
extent exists, to the prejudice of the instrument makers of this coun- 
try. They labor it is true under disadvantages in the manufacture 
of some parts of a philosophical apparatus, which are not experienced 
elsewhere. But the Barometer does not belong to this class. In 
its construction nothing is wanting but a proper knowledge of the 
principles it involves, and that facility of manipulation which expe- 
rience usually yields. 

On visiting London and Paris in the years 1830 and ’31 for the pur- 
pose of availing myself of the great advantages which those cities afford 
for improvement in mechanical skill, as well as the collation of phi- 
losophical facts, and while there, being engaged in some experimental 
observations on the construction of the Pyrometer, I had frequent 
intercourse with one of the most deservedly distinguished instrument 
makers of the former city, who 1 found entertained a more favorable 
opinion of the extent of the demand for good instruments in the Uni- 
ted States than my experience authorized; that opinion doubtless 
arises from the frequent orders he received to furnish such for this _ 
country. It may be proper to remark that many of these were of a 
character that could have been readily furnished here, had there ex- 
isted that confidence which many of our own workmen are entitled 
to receive. 

Conceding however the imperfections of the ordinarily manufac- 
tured Barometer, I cannot join with the writer in attributing to this 
circumstance mainly the existing neglect of so useful an instrument, 
when used as a weather glass; but would rather refer it to the 
lengthened series of observations it is necessary to make in every 
particular place, before such satisfactory general rules can be dedu- 
ced as will enable us to infer from specific movements in the baromet- 
ric column definite changes of weather, few persons being found wil- 
ling to make periodically precise observations. 

In conclusion I may be allowed to remark, that in view of the ad- 
vancement of meteorological science, the want of uniformity both in 
the principle and construction of the various instruments used 
throughout this extensive country, in order to furnish correct meteo- 
rological tables, is certainly to be regretted, and any plan that could 


294 Bi-Malate of Lime in the Berries of the Sumach. 


be suggested, which might obviate this difficulty, by establishing such 

uniformity would doubtless materially enhance the value of these 

records in promoting the advancement of Natural Science. 
Baltimore, Oct.-10th, 1834. 


Art. XII—On the Existence of the Bi-malate of Lime in the 
Berries of the Sumach; and the mode of procuring i from them 
in the Crystalline form; by Wrmi1am B. Rogers, Prof. of 
Chemistry, and Natural Philosophy in William and Mary College. 


Tue berries of the Rhus glabrum and Rhus Copallinum, the two 
species of Sumach common in Virginia, have long been remarked for 
their acidity and are still used in some places as a substitute for lem- 
ons in different forms of beverage as well as for various other purpo- 
ses in domestic economy and medicine. In some experiments made 
more than two years ago upon the acid liquor obtained by macerating 
the berries in warm water, I found it to contain a large quantity of 
an acid salt of lime which I have since determined to be the b2-ma- 
late. At the same time too a microscopic examination of the ber- 
riesof the R. glabrum enabled me to discover the pure crystals of this 
salt on the outside of the berries mingled with the down. 'To ob- 
serve the form of the crystal distinctly the berries should be slightly 
moistened and then allowed to dry. The crystals may then be 
readily seen by the naked eye, and when viewed through the micro- 
scope they appear as beautiful hexagonal prisms of the most perfect 
symmetry. 

The existence of this salt in the berries of the Rhus is a fact 
which appears hitherto to have escaped attention. ‘The only ex- 
periments relating to the acid of these plants which I have met with, 
are those of Mr. I. Cozzens of New York, published in the Ist vol- 
ume of the Annals of the Lyceum of that city; and that chemist 
seems to have regarded the infusion of the berries of the Rhus gla- 
brum as containing malic acid uncombined with any base but “‘merely 
contaminated with asmall portion of gallic acid which probably pro- 
ceeds from the pulp of the berries.” In his paper on the subject he 
does mention having tested the acid liquor for lime, which he would 
have discovered at once either by evaporating a few drops in a plati- 
num capsule and then igniting, or by adding to the liquor a little oxa- 
‘late of ammonia. 


Bi-Malate of Lime in the Berries of the Sumach. 295 


So abundant is the bi-malate of lime in the infusion of the berries 
both of the R. glabrum and copallinum that when reduced by evap- 
oration the whole liquid has the appearance of a thick light varnish 
and is almost insoluble in alcohol, two characteristic properties of the 
bi-malate. The process of Mr. Cozzens for preparing a pure malic 
acid from these berries is therefore liable to the objection that by 
using alcohol as the solvent, the operator will lose all the malic acid 
which exists in the bi-malate, and this I am inclined to think is nearly 
all the malic acid of the infusion. From the very small portion of 
acid matter which alcohol imbibes by standing for some time over 
the inspissated infusion, it is obvious that little uncombined malic acid 
can be present. In fact, nearly all the acid in the Rhus exists as a 
bi-malate in combination with lime. In procuring malic acid from 
the juice of the Sorbus in which it exists in an uncombined state, 
the alcohol acts as a solvent of the acid, and is therefore employed 
with advantage to separate it from mucilage and the other substances 
with which it is mingled. But it is entirely inadmissible when the 
acid is to be procured from the bi-malate of lime. 

The Bi-malate of Lime is readily procured from the berries in 
considerable quantity and perfectly pure by the following process : 

A quantity of hot rain water or distilled water is poured over the 
berries in a clean wooden or earthen vessel. After allowing the 
berries to macerate for a day or two, the liquid is poured off and 
evaporated carefully in an earthern or porcelain dish until it becomes 
intensely acid. It is now filtered through animal charcoal or bone 
black, repeatedly washed with muriatic acid. The liquid passes 
through almost colorless having only a slight amber tint. If the 
evaporation has been carried sufficiently far, a large deposit of crys- 
tals will form ina few hours. The liquid being poured off and fur- 
ther reduced by evaporation an additional crop of crystals may be 
obtained and in this way nearly all the bi-malate may be separated. 
The salt thus procured will often be slightly tinged with coloring 
matter, in which case it should be re-dissolved in hot water and crys- 
tallized anew. It is then perfectly pure. 

When the crystallization of the bi-malate has been rapid the mass 
presents the pure and shining white of the sulphate of quinine.— 
When more slowly conducted, hexagonal prisms of the most beauti- 
ful proportions are obtained. The largest of these have generally 
two of their parallel faces much broader than the rest, so that when 
placed upon any smooth surface they have the appearance of rect- 


296 Bi-Malate of Lime in the Berries of the Sumach. 


angles, slightly beveled at the edges. In the salt suddenly crystal- 
lized the crystals are much more slender, and are perfectly regular 
hexagonal prisms with beveled extremities. ‘They are frequently in 
pairs crossing at right angles, and in groups formed of several of 
these pairs. ‘The variety of proportions among the different crystals 
and the exact symmetry which each presents are matters of very 
pleasing observation through the microscope. ‘The great facility 
with y. ‘ich this salt crystallizes from the infusion of the berries, led 
me at first to doubt whether the acid contained in it was really the 
malic, for it would appear from the remarks of Berzelius and 'Thom- 
son on the bi-malate that hitherto it had not been procured in the 
crystalline form from the juices or infusions of plants. The former 
chemist in the fourth volume of the Traité de Chimie, speaking of 
this salt under the title of Sur-malate Calcique observes, ‘Il ressem- 
ble a la gomme par son aspect,” and again, “Ce qui vient d’étre dit 
ne se rapporte qu’au sel tiré des plantes; d’apres Braconnot celui 
qu’on prépare a l’aide de l’acide, cristallise en prismes hexagones.” 
Dr. Thomson does not speak of it as crystalline and states that 
“‘when the supermalate of lime is evaporated to dryness it assumes 
exactly the appearance of gum arabic.” 

A very careful examination of the crystalline salt shows it to be a 
true bi-malate and I am therefore disposed to think that the uncrys- 
tallizable character of the bi-malate procured from the Sorbus, Sem- 

_pervivum, &c. arises from the admixture of mucilage and other im- 
purities. : 

The salt procured as above is intensely but agreeably acid. It 
dissolves abundantly in water but in very small proportion in alcohol. — 
At a low heat it fuses and parts with its water of crystallization, as- 
suming at the same time a gummy aspect. A little below redness 
the acid is decomposed, the mass swells very much, and if the heat 
be increased, every thing is driven off but the lime which remains in a 
bulky form, perfectly pure and white. <A single crystal placed on 
a slip of platinum foil and held over a spirit lamp presents a very cu- 
rious appearance, first melting and in a moment after shooting up in 
a white column of pure lime. This phenomenon is quite character- 
istic of the salt. 

In investigating the nature of this salt of which as already stated | 
Lat first entertained some doubts, I made the following experiments. 

1. A portion of the salt was heated to bright redness in a plati- 
num capsule so as to drive off all the water and acid. ‘The white 


Bi-Malate of Lime in the Berries of the Sumach. 297 


spongy mass remaining was strongly alkaline. It was dissolved in 
dilute muriatic acid. The solution was divided into two portions, of 
which one was tested for potash, the other for lime. None of the 
former base could be detected, but an abundant precipitate of oxalate 
of lime indicated the presence of the latter. 

2. A portion of the salt was dissolved in distilled water in a test 
tube. Upon adding a few drops of liquids oxalic or citric acids, a 
white precipitate was formed. Liquid tartaric acid being added toa 
similar solution produced, after some time, brilliant octahedral crystals 
of tartrate of lime, which adhered to the sides of the tube. It ap- 
peared therefore that the base of the salt was lime. 

3. To a solution of the salt in distilled water, a few drops of the 
solution of acitate of lead were added. A beautifully white floccu- 
lent precipitate was abundantly produced. ‘This precipitate was in- 
soluble in ammonia, and therefore could not be a citrate of lead.— 
Indeed neither citric, tartaric, or oxalic acid could be suspected in 
the salt, inasmuch as neither of these acids are known to form acid 
salts with lime. 

4. The'precipitate procured by the acetate of lead was well wash- 
ed with distilled water, and then heated in the same to the boiling 
point. It almost entirely disappeared. But upon allowing the liquid 
to cool, the salt of lead separated and formed upon the surface and - 
around the edges of the liquid, groups of the most brilliant satin like 
crystals. The crystals in these groups were extremely slender, di- 
verging from the common center of the group with the most perfect 
regularity. Solubility in hot,and insolubility in cold water are char- 
acteristic of the malate of lead. But the novel and very peculiar 
crystallization just described made me hesitate at first in pronouncing 
this precipitate a malate. Berzelius describes it as collecting “Sous 
la forme d’écailles blanches ayant |’éclat de l’argent.”’ Afterwards 
however meeting with Wohler’s process for obtaining malic acid, I 
found that the pure malate of lead crystallizes as I have described. 
It is not necessary for the production of this peculiar form of erys- 
tallization, that the precipitate should be washed and re-dissolved, 
for I have since found that the usual flocculent precipitate if heated 
in the supernatant liquid, and then left for some time undisturbed, 
is transformed into an assemblage of radiating groups such as have 
been described. 

5. Ten grains of the salt obtained from the berries were exposed 
to a white heat, in a platinum capsule, until the water and acid were 

Vol. XXVIT.—No. 2. 38 


298 Bi-Malate of Lime in the Berries of the Sumach. 


entirely expelled. The lime remaining weighed 1.25 grains. ‘This 
result accords very closely with the composition of bi-malate, as de- 
termined by Braconnot.* According to that chemist, as quoted by 
Thomson, the constituents of the bi-malate are 


2 atoms malic acid, = - - - - - 17.00 
Lyi eR Maes = - - - - - 3.5 
6 “ water, - - - - - - - (6.75 

27.25 


This would give in 10 grains of the salt 1.28, differmg by three hun- 
dredths of a grain from my determination. 

6. With the view of repeating some of the experiments of Las- 
saigne upon the acids produced by the destructive distillation of ma- 
lic acid, 1 introduced several grains of the bi-malate into a glass tube, 
about one third of an inch in diameter and ten inches long. One end 
of the tube being hermetically closed and the salt all collected in that 
extremity, the tube was bent at two points, in a zigzag form. ‘The 
closed end was then held in the flame of a spirit lamp, to expel and 
decompose the acid. In the angle of the tube remote from the 
flame, an acid liquid mingled with empyreumatic tar collected, and 
near the flame, adjacent to the salt, needle formed crystals of an 
amber color collected on the surface of the tube. ‘The liquid being 


removed from the tube was evaporated gently, and then suffered to 


cool. Numerous scaly crystals formed, resembling the flat figures 
which snow sometimes assumes. ‘These crystals were intensely acid, 
and soluble in alcohol and in water. Heated im a test tube, they 
were partially decomposed, and needle shaped crystals sublimed, 
resembling those deposited near the closed end of the tube in the 
first operation. ‘Thrown upon burning charcoal, they exhaled a 
white smoke, of a suffocating odor. A solution of this pyro-malic 
acid in water, added to a solution of lead, produced a precipitate, at 
first flocculent, but afterwards becoming gelatinous. ‘The sublimate 
was much less soluble than the acid just described. ‘These substan- 
ces agreed in properties with the pyromalic acids described by Las- 
saigne, and thus another proof was furnished of the true nature of the 
acid existing in the salt of the sumach. As but a small quantity of 
the sublimate was procured, I was prevented from examining its prop- 
erties extensively. Little is yet known concerning it and I am at 
present preparing to give it a more complete examination. 


* Vide Thomson’s Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. II. 


Apparatus for Analyzing Calcareous Marl, &c. 299 


The attention of the French and German chemists having lately 
been much directed to the constitution of the vegetable acids, various 
improved methods of obtaining the malic acid in a pure form have 
been devised and published. In all these however the acid is ex- 
tracted either from the Sorbus or Sempervivum. As in the former of 
these plants it exists almost entirely uncombined, while in the latter 
it is united with lime as a malate, a separate process is necessary for 
each. In procuring the acid from the Sempervivum the malate is 
converted into a bi-malate by the addition of so much sulphuric acid 
as will remove one half of the lime, and then other operations up- 
on the crystallized bi-malate are necessary to separate the malic acid. 
From the comparative ease with which the bi-malate may be obtained 
from the berries of the Rhus, and the purity of the salt when pro- 
cured in this way, there is no doubt that this fruit may be very ad- 
vantageously employed in preparing malic acid for chemical purpo- 
ses. I have as yet made no experiments to ascertain the amount of 
bi-malate which a given weight of the ripe berries of each of our 
species of Rhus will furnish, but I have no doubt that it would be 
found very considerable. Of the medicinal properties of the salt I 
believe little or nothing is known. Should it have any value in this 
respect, or should its pleasant acidity bring it into general favor as an 
ingredient in our summer beverage, the great abundance of the plants 


in which it exists would no doubt make it an object of extensive 


manufacture. 


Art. XIII.— Apparatus for Analyzing Calcareous Marl and other 
Carbonates ; by Witt1am B. Rogers, Professor of Chemistry 
and Natural Philosophy in William and Mary College. 


In consequence of the extensive use now made of the marls.of 
of our tertiary strata in the agriculture of the state, I am frequently 
called upon to analyze these substances with the view chiefly of de- 
termining the proportion of carbonate of lime. In doing this by the 
method generally employed, viz. disengaging the carbonic acid by 
chemical action and then estimating the carbonate by the weight which 
is lost, I have found the instrument of Rose so cumbrous and difficult 
of management that I have abandoned it altogether, and am now in the 
habit of using the little apparatus about to be described, which gives 
with comparative facility far more accurate results. 


4 


300 Apparatus for Analyzing Calcareous Marl, &c. 


From the construction of Rose’s instrument its weight must always 
be so great as to render an exact estimation of the carbonic acid im- 
possible by means of any but the most accurate and expensive bal- 
ances. Besides which I have found the contrivance for bringing the 
acid and carbonate together very difficult to regulate and liable to 
accidents which often make it necessary to repeat the analysis. 

From the subjoined figure and description it will be evident that 
the apparatus here recommended is free from these objections. The 
accuracy of its results and the facility with which it may be used in 
the analysis of marl and the carbonates generally, will I think entitle 
it to the notice of the practical chemist. 

The balance I employ with this apparatus is of the kind sometimes 
used by goldsmiths, having a light beam, and turning readily when 
unloaded with 51, of a grain. This is accompanied bya set of 
weights extending to tenths and hundredths of the grain. One of 
tie scales is removed to admit of suspending the apparatus by a 
double thread over the hook of the beam. The other is made of 
something light, as a piece of card, or which is better, a thin sheet 
of mica. In this way all unnecessary weight upon the beam is 
avoided and its sensibility preserved. 


© 


ne SSS : 


A is alight bulb of glass, blown very thin from a piece of tube, 
and about one inch in diameter. A cork is fitted to its mouth, and 
through this the tapered ends of the bent glass tubes B and C are 
passed air tight, the extremity of the latter extending some distance 
into the vessel. ‘The tube B through which the gas escapes is filled 
with fragments of muriate of lime or with dry carded cotton. If 


Apparatus for Analyzing Calcareous Marl, &c. 301 


the former be used the end of the tube must be partially closed with 
a perforated cork. The tube C which contains the muriatic acid is 
furnished with a light piston of cork or cotton, in the center of which 
is fixed a rod or handle made of asmall stiff straw. This instrument 
when charged with the usual quantity of marl and acid does not 
weigh more than 120 grains. The whole load of the beam is there- 
fore about 240 grains, and it is still sensible to 4; of a grain. 

The mode of proceeding with the analysis is as follows. Five 
or ten grains of the finely pounded mar! or other carbonate are intro- 
duced into the vessel A, and then two or three drops of water added, 
to assist the diffusion of the acid. The small end of the tube C, 
now removed from the cork is dipped into muriatic acid in a 
wine glass and the piston moved backwards and forwards until the 
necessary quantity of acid has been drawn in. The tube is then 
replaced in the cork and in this state the instrument is counterpoised 
by weights in the opposite scale. The piston being then gradually 
forced in, the acid is injected drop by drop upon the marl or other 
carbonate, and the gas escapes by the tube B, depositing the mois- 
ture in its passage on the muriate of lime or cotton. Allowing the 
apparatus to rest in a dry place until the gas has entirely escaped, 
and the decomposition is complete, the equilibrium is restored by 
placing weights upon the top of the cork, or by removing weights 
from the scale. In this way the weight of the disengaged gas is ac- 
curately determined and the proportion of carbonate thence compu- 
ted. 

The following analysis of aspecimen of marl from James city, Va. 
may serve asa useful illustration of the method, to such of your 
readers as are interested in the application of calcareous manures. 
Ten grains of the finely powdered marl were introduced with a little 
water into the vessel A, the instrument was then charged and equi- 
poised. ‘The acid being injected, the whole was allowed to rest.— 
. The weight lost was 2.91 grains. Increasing this in the ratio of 100 
to 44 gives 6.61 grains of carbonate of lime in the ten grains of 
marls, or almost precisely 66 per cent. 

The bulb of this apparatus is very readily formed of a common 
test tube about 2 of an inch in diameter, the lower end of which 
admits of being blown out into a thin sphere of the proper size.— 
The neck is then filed off short and acork adapted. Any ordinary 
worker in glass willconstruct the instrument, and skill in manipulating 
with it may be soon and easily acquired. 


302 | Self-filling Syphon for Chemical analysis. 


Ant. XIV.—Self-jilling Syphon for Chemical Analysis; by 
Wiiuiam B. Rocers, Prof. of Chemistry, and Natural Phi- 
losophy in William and Mary College. 


In Chemical analysis and other operations of the Laboratory, 
where a large amount of liquid is to be removed from a vessel without 
disturbing the precipitate which has collected on the bottom and 
sides, a small syphon of glass may be very conveniently employed. 
To commence the action however, as every one knows, the syphon 
must be previously filled, and the introduction of it in this state is 
apt to agitate the liquid and thus disturb the precipitate. Moreover 
where accuracy is an object, the Instrument must be filled either with 
a portion of the liquid to be removed or with distilled water, and 
sometimes it would be inconvenient to do either. Having recently 
had much occasion for the syphon in analysis, the following contri- 
vance was adopted for obviating these little difficulties. Perhaps 
others may find it useful and in that hope I send you a description 
of it. 

To the long leg A of the syphon is 
cemented or fastened by a cork a circu- 
lar plate of thin, hard wood about one 
inch in diameter furnished with a little 
projection at C. This plateis perforated 
and embraces the end of the syphon.— 
Another similar plate placed below is 
connected with the former by some flex- 
ible material such as oiled silk, or thin 
bladder, so that when the lower disk is 
drawn down a hollow cylinder is. formed. 
The oiled silk or other material may be 
secured around the edges of the two 
disks by any good cement, but of course 
the jomings should be air tight. A 
wooden valve P opening downwards and 
about half an inch in diameter is attached 
to the lower disk and closes an aperture 


Some Properties of a Rampant Arch. 303 


in it of rather smaller size. This valve is acted upon by a cord C 
D Q, fastened to the projection at C, passing through a hole in D and 
fastened to the end of the limb Q which is at right angles to the 
valve. By drawing down the lower disk to a certain distance it is 
evident the action of the cord will open the valve and the length of 
the cord may be so adjusted as to cause this to happen in various po- 
sitions of the disk and to occur always before the liquid arrives at the 
lower end of the syphon. 

In the rude sketch I send you, the exhausting apparatus is much 
larger than necessary. It would answer for a syphon four times as 
large as that in the figure. 


Arr. XV.—Some properties of a Rampant Arch; by Tuomas 


Gorton, Civil Engineer. 
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


Sir—Having had occasion of late to make the necessary calcula- 
tions for describing what is sometimes called a rampant arch, it being 
formed by the intersection of a parapet wall with an oblique descen- 
ding culvert, I reduced these calculations to a problem which will 
admit of a general application to arches of this description: and 
thinking it might be of some service to Architects and Engineers, it 
is herewith submitted for publication in your Journal. 

Suppose a plane to cut a semi-circular vault in such a manner as 
to make an acute angle with a plane passing through the axis and 
crown of the vault, and also with the springing plane of the same. 
It is required to find the length and positions of the transverse and 
sémi-conjugate diameters of the semi-ellipse thus formed by the in- 
tersection of the vault and cutting plane. 

Let the acute angle formed by the axis of the vault and the inter- 
secting line of the axal and cutting planes be put = A; and the 
acute angle formed by the axis and the intersecting line of the 
springing and cutting planes be put =B; also put the radius of the 
vault=r. 


304 Some Properties of a Rampant Arch. 


Then by Trig. rad. : log. 2r: cot. B : log. a. (See Fig. 1 ) 
And put VW 2r?+a?=6. 

ee by Trig. rad. : log. r::cot. A: log. c. (See Fig. 2.) 
And put V7r?+-c? =d. 

Then by sim. tri. d 3 ci:a ie; and put Vb?—e!=f. 

Again by Trig. rad. : log. c:: tang. B : log. g. 

Then put Vg? +c =h, and Vr?+g2=7; also let i—r=). 


Acal plane of vault. 
Fig. 2. 


Springing plane of vault. 
Fig. 1 


Some Properties of a Rampant Arch. 305 


Again by sim. tri. ri ditg ?k. 

and W(e+2k)?+f2=m. 

And by sim. tri. i: Bi77 3 0. 

Then m — 2/=the transverse diameter required. 

The figure may then be constructed as follows. 

Draw any line L/L’ on which lay off the line f from C to D, 
through C and D draw lines at right angles to CD. Then lay off 
the line e from C to E, and the line k from E to I’, and the same 
line k from D to G.  Bisect CD in H, and through H draw a line 
HI parallel toCF and DG. Join ED and FG which will intersect 
and bisect each other on the line HI at J. Lay off the line d from 
J to K; and parallel with the line ED lay off the line A from K to 
L, then join JL which isz. Also lay off the line r from J to M, or 
the line 7 from L to M. Again on the line FG lay off the line 7 
from F to N, and again from G to O. Then NO is the transverse 
diameter, and JM the semi-conjugate, both in length and position. 

The length of the transverse diameter may also be found by 
another method, it being=/b? +2d* —2r*, from the well known 
property of the ellipse, that the sum of the squares of every pair of 
conjugate diameters is equal to the same constant quantity, namely, 
the sum of the squares of the two axes. 

In the case here alluded to r was five feet. 

The arch ELD was traced on a platform by means of a chord 
fixed at the two foci of the ellipse, and the ring-stone being all laid 
out, patterns were made for the face of each. These patterns to- 
gether with a model were then given to the stone-cutters who were 
enabled to cut all the stone by them so as to fit in their proper 
places. 

The beds of a few of the ring-stone near D Fig. 3, were increased 
somewhat in width so as to form a shoulder at the back corner, and in 
thismanner be better supported by the adjoining stone in the parapet. 
The ring stones did not diminish in depth on the face as they ap- 
proached the crown, but were all of the same depth ; this form giv- 
ing a much better bed for that part of the parapet directly over the 
crown of the arch. 

Such an arch, where the obliquity and descent are considerable, 
is much weaker than a right arch, and therefore could not be adopted 
with safety where the span was large. The stone at Y Fig. 1, pre- 
sents asharp angle, on which account this is found to be the weakest 


Voi. XXVII.—No. 2. 39 


306 Some Properties of a Rampant Arch. 


part of thearch. Its strength might perhaps be increased by cutting 
off this sharp corner as represented by the dotted line, and thus in- 
creasing this half of the span. 

Pennsylvania Hospital, Oct. 6, 1834. 


Cutting plane of vault. 


A live Snake suspended by Spiders. 307 


Art. XVI.—A live Snake suspended by Spiders. 
Batavia, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1834. 
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, 


Sir—In the “Spirit of the Times” of this village, of the date of 
Aug. 26, 1834, I published over the signature of “A Witness”’ an 
account of a snake found suspended by spiders’ web, by the tail, in 
the wine cellar of a gentleman in this village. 

A gentleman who also saw and examined the phenomenon, prom- 
ised to send youa drawing and account of it. Whether he has done 
so or not I do not know. And as the story has_been treated as a 
fable by some of the papers, I send you enclosed, the account above 
mentioned, and a correct drawing, (though rough and done in haste) 
made by James Milnor Jr. Esq.; a clerk in the Holland Company 
Land Office. 

The gentleman in whose wine cellar the snake was found, is the 
Hon. David E. Evans, agent of the Holland Land Company, who 
requests me to forward to you the drawing and account, which he 
pronounces to be accurate. 

Mr. Evans, Mr. Milnor, Mr. Mix, Doct. VanTuyl, and a great 
number of other gentlemen, examined this subject critically on seve- 
ral different days, while the snake was yet alive, and all concur in 
the accuracy of the account. 

[hope you will procure a correct engraved cut of the drawing, and 
publish it with the account in your Journal. And if you do, you are 
at liberty to use all the names mentioned in this letter, or to publish 
it at lengthif you think proper. 

Most respectfully, your ob’t servant, 
S. Cummines.* 


The following is the account alluded to in the above letter. 


On the evening of the 13th inst. a gentleman in this village, found 
in his Wine cellar, a live Striped Snake, nine inches long, suspend- 
ed between two shelves, by the tail, by spiders’ web. The snake 
hung so that his head could not reach the shelf below him, by about 
an inch; and several large spiders were then upon him, sucking his 


* We understand that Mr. Cummings is first Judge of the Court of Common 
Pleas in his county, and also Post Master of Batavia. 


308 A live Snake suspended by Spiders. 


juices. The shelves were about two feet apart; and the lower one 
was just below the bottom of a cellar window, through which the 
snake probably passed into it. From the shelf above it, there was 
a web in the shape of an inverted cone, eight or ten inches in diame- 
ter at the top, and concentrated to a focus, about 6 or 8 inches from 
the under side of this shelf. From this focus, there was a strong 
cord made of the multiplied threads of the spiders’ web, apparently 
as large as common sewing silk ; and by this cord, the snake was sus- 
pended. 

Upon a critical examination through a magnifying glass, the fol- 
lowing curious facts appeared. 'The mouth of the snake was fast 
tied up, by a great number of threads, wound around it, so tight that 
he could not run out his tongue. His tail was tied in a knot, so as 
to leave a small loop, or ring, through which the cord was fastened; 
and the end of the tail, above this loop, to the length of something 
over half an inch, was lashed fast to the cord, to keep it from slipping. 
As the snake hung, the length of the cord, from his tail, to the focus 
to which it was fastened, was about six inches; anda little above the 
tail, there was observed a round ball, about the size of a Pea. Upon 
inspection, this appeared to be a green fly, around which the cord 
had been wound as the windlass, with which the snake had been 
hauled up; and a great number of threads were fastened to the 
cord above, and to the rolling side of this ball to keep it from un- 
winding, and letting the snake down. ‘The cord, therefore, must 
have been extended from the focus of the web, to the shelf below, 
where the snake was lying when first captured ; and being made fast 
to the loop im his tail, the Fly was carried and fastened about mid- 
way, to the side of the cord. And then, by rolling this fly over and 
over, it wound the cord around it, both from above and below, until 
the snake was raised to the proper height, and then was fastened, as 
before mentioned. 

In this situation the suffermg snake hung, alive, and furnished a 
continued feast for several large spiders, until Saturday forenoon, the 
16th whensome persons, by playing with him broke the web above the 
focus, so as to let part of his body rest upon the shelf below. In 
this situation he lingered; the spiders taking no notice of him, until 
Thursday last, eight days after he was discovered; when some large 
Ants were found devouring his dead body. 

A Wiryzss. 


A live Snake suspended by Spiders. 309 


As this extraordinary case has been doubted, we think it fair to 
annex the account of another witness, which will be seen to be sim- 
ilar to that of Judge Cumings, but not identical —Ed. 


New York, August 26, 1824. 
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


Dear Sir—Enclosed I take the liberty of sending you a rude 
sketch of a curiosity, which came under my observation a short time 
since. A gentleman residing in the village of Batavia, N. Y., on 
going into his wine cellar, discovered a striped snake, about ten inch- 
es in length, suspended by, and from the web of a spider, in a man- 
ner precisely similar to the enclosed sketch. From a survey of the 
premises, it would appear that the 
snake had taken up his abode upon 
one of the shelves in the cellar, when 
the spiders (for there are three which 
appear to be engaged as partners in 
the business,) first formed the design 
of making him their captive. For 
this purpose they formed a large web 
upon the under side of a shelf direct- 
ly above the snake, from which they 
descended and made fast a large num- 
ber of fibres to different parts of his 
body, bracing them in every direction, 
so as to prevent his escape and render 
their operations more secure, they 
next proceeded to muzzle him by 
winding a web many times around his 


Upper shelf. 


head, so as entirely to deprive him of 
the use of his mouth. Having thus Loss ai 

secured him, they next set to work to suspend him from their web. 
You will observe a knot in the tail of the snake. How this was 
formed I am unable to say, but certain it is, that the spiders took 
advantage of it and by winding the knot with a web, prevented the 
possibility of his loosing it. They then apparently proceeded to at- 
tach a large number of fibres, running from various parts of the web 
above, to the loop formed by the knot which they glued and fastened 
together by winding them with another fibre, thus forming a strong 


310 Instrument for exhibiting a certain Optical deception. 


cord. This done, the most difficult part was yet to be performed, 
and this was to swing him clear from the shelf. 'To do this, they 
procured a large blue fly, (2,) which they made fast to the web or 
cord, and by continuing to roll the fly over in the web or cord, and 
making it fast at each turn, they were enabled to swing the snake 
about three inches clear from the lower shelf. ‘The snake was alive 
and active when discovered, and five days after when I was there 
last, he was still living suspended in the manner above described. 
During the day no spiders were visible in or about the web, but at 
night there were three, much smaller than the common fly, seen 
feeding upon the body of the snake. 
Very respectfully your obedient Servant, 
: : D. Lyman Bercunr. 


The enquiry has been made, whether the snake might not have 
fallen by accident into a web previously made, and thus have become 
inextricably entangled.—Ed. 


Arr. -XVII.— Description of an Instrument for exhibiting a cer- 
tain Optical deception; by Prof. E. 8. Snew. 


In the London Philosophical Transactions of 1825, Dr. Roget 
describes and explains a curious optical deception, which presents 
itself, when a person looks through a series of narrow vertical aper- 
tures at a carriage wheel, as it rolls along on the ground. ‘The 
wheel appears to have simply a progressive, without a rotary motion, 
as though it were sliding, and the spokes seem to be more or less 
curved. ‘The two spokes, however, which are in a vertical line, and . 
therefore comcident in direction with the apertures through which 
the observer looks, remain in appearance, straight, while all the oth- 
ers, both on the right and left, have considerable curvature, present- 
ing their concavity upward, or towards the highest spoke. 

The illusion is the same, if the wheel revolve on a fixed axis, while 
the vertical bars have a progressive motion between it and the ob- 
server. ‘The direction in which the spokes appear to be bent may, 
however, be reversed in this form of the experiment. If the bars 
move in the same direction as the lower part of the revolving wheel, 
the concavity of the spokes will be upward ; if in. the same direction 
as the top of the wheel, the concavity will be downward. The rea- 


Instrument for exhibiting a certain Optical deception. 311 


son why the concavity is invariably upward, when the bars are sta- 
tionary, and the wheel has both a rotary and a progressive motion, 
is that these two motions have a fixed relation to each other, the 
whole wheel in its progression moving in the same direction as the 
top of the wheel in its rotation. 

While I was seeking to devise some simple apparatus by which 
this phenomenon might be exhibited as an optical experiment, I first 
met with Prof. Stamphe’s amusing invention, called the Phantas- 
cope, or Kaleidorama. This at once suggested an easy method of 
representing the appearance just described. Having covered with 
white paper a circular disk of pasteboard, nine inches in diameter, 
I cut 30 or 40 radial apertures from points near the circumference 
as far towards the centre as the strength of the material would allow. 
These apertures are an eighth of an inch wide; and on one side of 
the disk a heavy ink line is drawn from the inner extremity of each 
aperture to a small black circle at the centre. The disk, thus pre- 
pared, has the appearance of being marked with dark radiating lines 
from the centre to the circumference. It is then fixed on an axis, 
and used precisely like the kaleidorama. If the observer stand about 
three feet from a mirror, and hold the disk a foot from his face, so 
as to look through the highest apertures at the image in the mirror, 
on revolving the disk, he will perceive the radii remaining fixed in 
their position, and very much curved. Reversing the direction of 
revolution occasions no change ; the concavity in either case is down- 
ward, both on the right and left, while the vertical lines are straight. 
But on raising the disk, till the eye sees the image through the low- 
er apertures, the whole is reversed ; and a change of any number of 
degrees in the position of the eye produces an equal change in the 
figure, the outer extremities of the radii being in every case bent 
away from that part of the circumference which is nearest the eye. 
As the observer retires from the disk, the curvature rapidly increas- 
es, till at length in certain positions he sees but three or four of the 
lines, and those extending through 180° of the disk, with both ex- 
tremities at the centre, and bearing a striking resemblance to a sys- 
tem of magnetic curves. 

The general explanation given by Dr. Roget will apply to all the 
varieties of the phenomenon, which this little instrument exhibits, 
although only the simplest cases were contemplated by him in his 


communication. 
Amherst College, Nov., 1834. 


312 Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


Arr. XVIII.—Reply to “ Observations on the Treatise of Miner- 
alogy of Mr. C. U. Shepard, by Anpres Dex Rio, Professor 
of Mineralogy in the School of Mines of Mexico; Pres. of the 
Geological Soc. of Penn. &c. (Read before the Geol. Soc. of 

_ Penn., June, 1834,” and published in the ‘Transactions of that so- 
ciety August, 1834.) By Cuarves U. Sueparp. 


Prof, Dex Rro, in presenting to the Geological Society of Penn- 
sylvania a translation of the classes and orders of BreirHavupt’s 
Characteristic, takes occasion to. remark upon its superiority over 
that contained in my Treatise on Mineralogy, and which, unlike the 
Characteristics of Mous and Brerruaurt, is applied to an artificial 
system. As his observations are of a general nature, and as he has 
omitted giving the reader a fair opportunity of judging of the mat- 
ter through the aid of an example from each, by performing the task 
myself, I may be able to place the subject in a stronger light; al- 
though I believe the experiment will prove that the advantage in 
facility, on which the question turns, will lie quite on the other side. 
And without attempting unduly to favor myself by the selection, I 
will take a species which offers as nearly as possible, similar difficul- 
ties in both systems. Let the substance for determination be, either 
crystallized in the form of a right square prism, cleavable parallel 
to its sides; or massive with large individuals; or finally massive in 
small, closely connected individuals. Sp.Gr.=4:2...4°4. Hard- 
ness=8'0... 9:0 of Beerruaurt’s scale, or=6°5 of Mons. Lus- 
tre metallic- Repeal (common according to Brerruaurt). Col- 
or reddish brown. Streak pale brown. 


Characteristic of BREITHAUPT. My Characteristic. 
_ To determine the Class. To determine the Class. 
I. Crass. Salts. . I. Crass. Crystallized Miner- 
Common lustre. als. 


H. 0:25...4:50. But the| Minerals crystallized. ( e. in 
hardness of the mineral sought be-| regular forms.) 


ing 8-0... 9-0, it is excluded. | If the mimeral sought is a crys- 
tal, it falls within this class. 

II. Cuass. Stones. Il. Cuass. Semi-crystallized 

Common lustre. _ |Minerals. (i.e. massive miner- 

H. 0:25... 12:0. als in large, easily cleavable indi- 


GideSis. ak ieSile viduals. ) 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 313 


Characteristic of BREITHAUPT. My Characteristic. 
Without saline, alkaline, and sweet| If the mineral sought is massive 
tasted, or aqueous cooling, solu-jand easily cleavable, it is to be 
bility on the tongue.* sought in this class. 


When H.0-25 .. . 4-0, which Ill. Cuass. Unerystallized 


j } he 3 g ; 
is not the case with t Minerals. (i. e. massive miner- 


mineral sought. als, not yielding cleavage forms.) 


When H. 4:0... 5°75, which If the mineral sought is massive 


is not the case with the and uncleavable, it falls within 
mineral sought. ‘this class. 


When H. 5°75 ...8°75 and 
G. from 2:0... 4:0, ex- 
cept such as have G. 3°5 
and more, but the mineral 
sought has G. above 3:5; 
it is therefore excluded 
from Class IT. 

Til. Cuass. Minerals. 

All those with metallic lustre and 
G. from 3°2 ... 22:0 belong 
here without exception. 

Those with common lustre, having 

H. from 0°50... 9°0 and G. 

from 2°2...8°5 belong here 

under the following conditions - 

If H. 0°50... 2°50, which 
is not the case with the 

- mineral sought. 

If H. 2:50 .. . 6:0, which is} 
not the case with the min- 
eral sought. 

If H. 6-0 ...7:0, which is 
not the case with the min- 
eral sought. 

ero... 90; and G. 
3°9 ... 8:5, which proves 
the mineral sought to fall 
within the present class. 


* Prof. Del Rio’s translation is, ‘soluble on the tongue without salty, alkaline 
and sweet taste.” The German is, ‘ ohne salzig, alkalisch wnd susslich schmecken- 
de auch ohne wissrig killende aufloslichkeit auf der Zunge.’ 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 40 


ate 
By 


314 


Characteristic of BrerrHaupr. 
To determine the order. 


Orper I. or Cuass Il. Ores. 

Metallic lustre: the mineral is 
excluded. 

Common lustre: H. 1-0... 9°0 
G. 2:1... 8-1, which brings it 
here unless excluded by what 
follows. 


~#HL10...25. Excluded. 
H. 2°50... 4-25. Excluded. 
_#H.4:50...6°0. Excluded. 
H.6-0°...8°0. Excluded. 


H.8-0 ... 9:0: G. 4:1 and 
more, which proves our 
mineral to fall within this 
order. 


To determine the genus.* 
Genus Ist. or orprer I. Crass 
Ul. Gadolinite. 

Deuterostatic. It is excluded. 
Genus 2nd. Tephroite. 
Protostatic. Tetragonal, brachyax. 

Cleavage lateral. 
H. 7-0, but the hardness of the 
mineral sought is 8:0... 9-0. 
Genus 3rd. Hard-Ore. 


Protostatic. ‘Tetragonal, holoé- 
dric, brachyax. Cleavage lat- 


eral, distinct to perfect. 
Bs aeoOy.h2ie9:0. 
G. 4:20°... 7:1. It belongs here. 


To determine the species. 


Species Ist. or Genus Harp- 


Ore. Rutile Hard-Ore. 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


My Characteristic. 
To determine the order. 


Ifa crystal, the order is the 7th, 
of Class L., the Right square 

rism. 

If a cleavable variety, the order 
is the 5th of Class U., the Raght 
square prism. 

If an uncleavable variety, it falls 
in Class III., between Species 
221 and 285, which is the order 
of Rutile for this class, there be- 
ing 64 species whose hardness is 
within unity above or below it, in 
the scale of hardness. 


To determine the species. 
If crystallized, compare in Sp- 


Gr. the species Nos. 8, 9, and 10. 


* As Prof. Dez Rio has carried the translation no farther than through the or- 
ders, I avail myself, in pursuing the analysis, of the original work. 


Mr. Shepard's reply to Prof. Del Rio. 315 


Characteristic of BrreTHavrr. My Characteristic. 


Adamantine lustre. Color red,|(order 7, class 1.) No. 10=4:2 
sometimes passing to brown,|...4°4, while both the others dif- 
rarely to yellow. Streak palejfer from this by an amount greater 
brown to nearly isabella-yellow.|than 0-5. It is therefore Rutile. 
Primary form, Brachiax, tetra-| Ifa cleavable variety, the hard- 
gonal Pyramedaedron, P=,';\ness alone decides it to be species 
4 O=135° 22’ 42”; 64° 56/\No. 8. (ord. 6. class II.) or Ru- 
AQ!» 2Pl=— 1920 24/6"; BZ ltele. 

59/28”. (64° 56/ also 64° 55’|_ If uncleavable, its Sp. Gr. re- 
Br.) Cleavage, parallel with|quires it to be compared with Nos. 
the primary prism, perfect ; toj225, 236, 237, 248, 252, 257; 
its diagonals distinct ; with the|259, 261, 264, 265, 266, and 268, 
faces of the primary pyramids(Class HI.) in Sp. Gr. while its 
in traces. Fracture, uneven tolustre, color and streak decide it to 
conchoidal. H. 8:0 ... 9:0jbe 264, or Rutile. 

G. 4:°249 Mons. 4°250 to 
4-291 Br. which determines 
the mineral sought, whether 
crystallized, massive in large in- 
dividuals, or massive in small 
individuals to belong to the spe- 
cies Rutile Hard-Ore of Br. 
or Rutile (trivial name,) o 
English mineralogists. 


It is obvious from the foregoing trial of these Characteristics, that, 
while both are sufficiently certain in effecting the purpose intended, 
the advantage in brevity ison my side. A single glance at the 
two columns shows, that the amount of reading and observation 
required in the two cases is quite different, even leaving it out of 
the account that my column has embraced the determination of the 
three varieties, crystallized, cleavable and uncleavable, while what I 
have given from Brerrnavpr would be necessary for the diagnosis 
of either one of them. Other trials would exhibit the subject in a 
similar light. { 

It is objected, moreover, to my Characteristic that the name of 
the mineral being determined, the student has still to learn another 
classification in order to that disposition of the species adapted to a 
comprehensive survey of the whole contents of the mineral king- 


316: Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


dom, whereas that of Mous and Brerruavurr accomplishes both 
objects at the same time. My Treatise has said of its Charac- 
teristic, that bemg applied to an analytical system, -“ it is intended 
solely to effect the recognition of minerals and that the student has 
no interest in the classes and orders or in the succession observed 
among the species, except so far as they relate to the naming of 
minerals. ‘To arrange acabinet of specimens according to a system 
invented solely to conduct to their names, would be like preserving 
the staging about an edifice after its construction was completed.” 
(Preface to Treatise p. viii.) This leads Prof. Dzu Rio to make 
the remark, that ‘this is a solid objection indeed, since by the 
tnethod of Mous and Brerruaurt, it is not necessary to destroy 
the bridge after having crossed the river.’ In reply to the figure, it 
might be enough to say, that the student having crossed the bridge 
in his onward route to knowledge has no occasion to recross it to his 
previous state of ignorance; and therefore, while there is nothing in 
my system to compel him to blow up the bridge if he could, it must 
be a matter of perfect indifference to him whether it remains or not. 

But to examine the disadvantages the pupil actually incurs by 
being obliged to acquire a knowledge of the natural system by itself 
and succedaneously, it is quite certain that he can have as little 
interest as comprehension respecting the nice affinities of mineral 
species before he has become acquainted with the majority of them. 
And although in employing the Characteristics of Mous or Brerr- 
Haupt, he is continually conversant with the classes, orders and ge- 
nera of the natural system, yet as it is for the smgle purpose of learn- 
ing names, the fact that these express the natural alliances of the 
species is unheeded. It can only happen after he has made the 
acquaintance of a large number of minerals, that he is prepared for 
this new view of their relations; and it makes very little. difference 
whether his attention is directed to it after having learnt the names 
by an artificial or synthetical system, provided the analytical one 
does not involve him unnecessarily in the labor of names for its di- 
visions, which surely cannot be charged to mine, since it does not 
contain a single new word. How many hours does Prof. Dex Rro 
think it would demand of a pupil of common capacity who had de- 
termined the names of half the mineral species, completely to put 
himself in possession of the natural system of Mous or Brerr- 
HaupT? At any rate, the advantage in facility of determination, of 
the analytical over the synthetical system, as evinced by the forego- 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 317 


ing experiment, will abundantly compensate the ultimate loss of 
time experienced in acquiring the natural orders. 

To Prof. Dex Rro’s objection to my frequent. division of the 
species, so that members of one and the same species appear in all 
the classes, I adduce some remarks contained in the Treatise, which if 
they had met his eye might have saved him the wholly inapplicable 
suggestion he has made in relation to the subject. 

“Tt may require an explanation, why a mineralogical method, 
should, unlike the systems in zoology and botany, make provision 
for any but perfect or crystallized minerals. In, the vegetable king- 
dom, it is well known, that no object is considered as classifiable, 
unless possessed of the parts of fructification,; or in other words, of 
the highest degree of perfection in its characters, under which it is 
capable of appearing. And although the majority of plants, ordi- 
narily under our observation, is imperfect in these respects, no seri- 
ous inconvenience arises from the fact, since they are all possessed 
of an active principle, whose operation will at length advance them 
to maturity ; in addition to which, we have no difficulty in finding 
other individuals of the same species, already in possession of the 
requisite perfection to enable us to accomplish their determination. 
But it is otherwise in the mineral kingdom. Semi-crystallized and 
uncrystallized minerals constitute by far the largest part of those re- 
quiring determination, and they are wholly destitute of any tenden- — 
cy towards a higher degree of perfection. As we find them, so 
they remain, (unless, indeed, they become, as sometimes is the case, 
more imperfect still, from external agencies ;) and unlike the deter- 
mination of imperfect plants, by the aid of those which are more 
perfect, it is seldom possible to determine them from their associa- 
tion with crystallized individuals of the same species. From this 
we see, that a method which should omit to provide for such mine- 
rals as are not fully perfect in their properties, would be extremely 
imperfect in general practice. 

« As a consequence of this necessity of providing means for the 
determination of imperfect minerals has arisen the frequent divis- 
ion of the species. Thus portions of the species Fluor are found 
in all of the classes, according as the individuals are crystallized, 
cleavable, or massive. It is to be remarked, however, that this di- 
vision within the species (unknown in the other departments of 
natural history,) never takes place in the crystallized individuals 
of the mineral kingdom; among which only should we expect to 


318 Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


jind the rule’ of preserving the species unbroken observed, since 
they alone correspond to the classifiable objects of zoology and 
botany.” p. 140. 

But should the foregoing not appear an adequate justification of 
my logic, I have only to add, that I expect those who call it in 
question to state definitely what are the objections to any system of 
tabular arrangements, which confining its distinctive marks to the 
most important natural properties of minerals, conducts by the short- 
est route to their names. ; 

But Prof. Deu Rio proposes to try my Characteristic by putting 
himself in the place of the young student, and commences his re- 
marks by saying—* I suppose him at first well informed in the ter- 
minology, and I know not how he ‘should be, not bemg provided 
with select specimens.” Now-I have no where said, nor ever ima- 
-gined, that a person could understand Terminology without the aid 
of specimens adapted to that purpose. On page 4 of the Treatise, 
under the head of method to be followed in acquiring a knowledge 
of minerals, it is said, ‘The course to be adopted by persons aim- 
ing at a thorough acquaintance with the inorganic kmgdom, consists, 
in the first place, in studying the properties of these bodies, and in 
acquiring a knowledge of the terms by which they are designated. 
This will require as a prelimiary, a familiarity with a few defini- 
tions in geometry; and afterwards, access to a collection of mine- 
rals arranged on purpose to illustrate the properties in question.” 
Continuing his remarks he says, “ suppose the student obtains a fine 
granular Galena, he tries its hardness and its specific gravity, and 
he finds it by referring to the third class, to be Galena: he géts 
also a cube, and finds by a second investigation, that it belongs to 
the first class ; and when he gets also a large concretioned Galena, 
which has three cleavages perpendicular to each other, he finds it to 
belong to the second class, p. 202, which the author has not quoted. 
Now, can he convince himself, although they are toto celo different 
in their habit, that they are one and the same galena?”’ I say 
most certainly. If he has paid the slightest attention to the chapter 
on Classification, where a species is defined to be ‘an assemblage of 
identical individuals, and where it is taught that minerals not differ- 
ing in their natural properties are identical, he will not hesitate to 
pronounce identical the above mentioned minerals, which he finds to 
agree precisely in hardness and specific gravity, and in whose sys- 
tems of crystallization he discovers nothing contradictory. I con- 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 319 


fess | am at a loss to know what is the signification of toto celo 
different, when applied under such circumstances. Does this very 
commonly occurring diversity of mechanical structure in the mem- 
bers of almost every species constitute them such ? 

He proceeds to inquire, whether the same end would not be het. 
ter obtained, and triplicate trouble spared the student by adding to 
the third table, that Galena is also found in cubes, and has a triple 
perpendicular cleavage. I think not; for the reason, that of mine- 
rals crystallized, or massive in cleavable individuals, a specimen may 
be determined by the two first classes with the slightest trouble in 
comparison with what they could be, if they were to be sought for 
blended up with the entire mass of the species, where the order of 
succession is first hardness and then specific gravity: not to men- 
tion that it would materially increase the labor of determining a 
massive, uncleavable specimen, if the class appropriated to these 
was burdened by all the characteristic details of crystallized minerals. 

‘“‘ But granting’ continues Prof. Deni Rio “the partition’ into 
three classes, as it is, Fluor is found most frequently in cubes, and 
yet the student shall not be able to find it in the first order of the 
first class, where it should be ; it is to be found in the third order, 
the octrahedron.” Where, I scarcely need add to the most care- 
less reader of the Treatise, it could alone be, and where the most 
inattentive student would not fail of referring it: for the order de- 
pends upon the primary, which is not always the actually occuring 
form. And can it be imagined that the student would be misled in 
settling the primary form of Fluor, when a cubic crystal of this 
species cannot be turned in the hand without the discovery of its 
octahedral cleavages, not to mention that few crystals can be hand- 
led without jarring from their angles the pyramidal fragments which 
conceal the faces of the primary octahedron. 

The suggestion of adding the trapezohedron as a primary form, 
and of arranging under it the Leucite, Analcime and Garnet, does 
not appear to offer any advantages: besides the objection which 
the procedure incurs, that neither these nor any other minerals as- 
suming this form, ever present trapezohedral cleavages, while all 
which do, either give cubic, octahedral, or dodecahedral ones ; and 
the form in question flows from the cube, the regular octahedron 
and rhombic dodecahedron by a very simple modification, in coin- 
cidence with the law of symmetry. 


320 Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


Nor can any confusion be. experienced in the determination of 
the Leucite, from the fact that it has a dodecahedral cleavage, while 
I place it under the cube; for it is not likely that the pupil will dis- 
cover either the cubical or the dodecahedral cleavages, (both of 
which, however do exist) but will, if he follows the directions of 
the Treatise,* try the order of the cube first, where he will find it. 

I do not agree with Professor Dex R1o, who asserts that the Gar- 
net is commonly trapezohedral; though the trapezohedron in com- 
bination with a dodecahedron is common, yet the perfect trapezohe- 
dron isno more frequent than the perfect dodecahedron. 

- But Professor Dex Rio attacks the validity of crystallography 
altogether. ‘For a student, the primary forms are no easy task, 
which even by the professors, are often differently expressed and 
frequently they are even doubtful; what Mr. SHeparp gives as a 
square prism is arranged by others as a square octahedron ; and what 
he assigns as an cblique prism is announced by some as an oblique 
octahedron, and otherwise by others, which is not, and cannot be 
the same to the student. I will go further in saying that the sul- 
phuret of manganese from Transylvania and Cornwall is an hexa- 
hedron for Mous, and that of Mexico is a rhombohedron for me. 
Nay, Professor Mrrscurerticu infers now from his observations, 
that every simple or composed body is able to take two different 
forms of crystals, which is the finishing blow even to the scientific 
classification of minerals by crystallization!’ And then, as if out 
of all patience with what he regards a complicated subject, he goes 
on to say, ‘‘ Therefore I propose to make as many orders as there 
are crystals found in nature, and so the quadrangular and hexagonal 
prisms, pointed and beveled, should constitute orders, like the reg- 
ular hexagonal prism ; the student per se, will never find in his life- 
time, however long, that the quartz belongs to the order of the ob- 
tuse rhomboid.” 

It is undoubtedly true that different views have been taken of the 
connexion of the regular forms assumed by crystals, and accordingly 
some have admitted more primary forms than others. But if each 
writer defines and rendérs intelligible his own method, so as to enable 
the student to follow him, it is enough; whether the number be fif- 
teen as with Brooxe, (whom I have followed,) or but a single one, 


+ “Tf the crystal is a trapezohedron, we know it can come only from the cube, 
the regular octahedron, or the rhombic dodecahedron.” p. 77. 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 321 


as with Brerruaurt, who derives them all from the octahedron,* and 
the reason I have followed the former in preference to the latter, or 
others who have admitted different intermediate numbers, is because, 
such a view of the subject is the most simple, and the least encum- 
bered by geometrical constructions and mathematical calculations. 
Repeated observation moreover has convinced me, that the refer- 
ence of crystals to their primary forms, according to the system of 
Brooks, is any thing but a difficult problem. . 

And respecting the case of the sulphuret of manganese, the forms 
are indeed incompatible on every view except that of Brerrnaupr, 
with whom also they would be irreconcilable as existing in one and 
the same mineral species. For myself, though I have never seen 
the Mexican mineral, I should have very little doubt that it con- 
stitutes a distinct species; a supposition which is favored somewhat 
by the fact, that while neither Kiaprorn nor Vavaquetin could find 
above 17 per cent of sulphur in the European mineral, Det Rio de- 
tected 36°77 in that from Mexico. 

The statement concerning Mirscuerticn’s observations, I sup- 
pose alludes to his law of Isomorphism, as I know of no other dis- 
covery of this philosopher at all affecting the subject. But as it 
happens, this law instead of affirming that the same species ever as- 
sumes two forms, (incompatible ores) declares that although one in- . 
gredient in the composition is replaced by an equivalent portion of 
some similar ingredient, the form remains the same. For example 
crystals of Pyroxene, from different localities, present the same an- 
gles, when besides the silica essential to them all, they contain either 
49-04 of protoxide of manganese, and 3°12 of lime ; or 22°19 of lime 
17°38 of protoxide of iron, and 4:99 of magnesia ; or 23°57 of lime, 
16°49 of magnesia, and 4-44 of protoxide of iron ; or 20°87 of lime, 
and 26-08 of protoxide of iron; or finally, 24°76 of lime, and 18°55 
of magnesia. 

Or if the angle is not the same among isomorphous compounds, 
(though the name of the law signifies that it is,) as in the instances 
of the carbonates of lime, magnesia, protoxide of manganese and of 
iron, where the primary form is the same in figure, but differing by a 
degree or two in the dimensions, (homoiomorphous bodies,) in these, 
the discrepancy in the angle is invariably attended with a difference 


* The axis being inthe regular octahedron 720, and in other cases greater or 
less. 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 41 


322 Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


inother physical properties, constituting each a distinct species. So 
that in neither case, can the slightest confusion arise in making the 
primary forms of Brooke, or indeed those of any crystallographer 
whose writings | am acquainted with, the grounds of an aaijiesal 
system. 

But while the discoveries of Mirscueriicy are thus shown to 
offer no obstacle to a crystallographical system, I must leave it for 
Professor Dex Rio to reconcile them with the chemical distribution 
which he has thought fit to adopt in his own recent Treatise on Min- 
eralogy,* or indeed with any other- chemical arrangement yet devi- 
sed, or, (1 may add) conceivable. 

Of the proposition to have every secondary form the ground of 
an order, I have only to remark, that it is as extravagant, as 1s un- 
natural the concluding member of the sentence containing it, and 
which relates to the impossibility of the student’s ever discovermg 
that Quartz belongs to. the order of the rhomboid, of the truth of 
which my early experience in referring the rhombic crystals of the 
species in question, from the albite granite of Chesterfield, Mass. to 
this order, may perhaps afford asuitable comment. But with respect 
to the correct reference of uncleavable, regularly six-sided prisms, 
terminated by pyramids, to which I suppose allusion is mainly had 
in the remark, any person whovhas studied the operation of the 
law of symmetry in producing new forms from the primaries, would 
be able to know that these must have for their system of crystalliza- 
tion, either the rhomboid, or the regular hexagonal prism. 

Of the correct reference of Harmotome to the order of the right 
rectangular prism, I have by no means felt certain; but of the fact 
that the pupil would with the utmost difficulty be led to place 
it under either of the other orders I cannot doubt; and indeed the 
evidence in favor of its being correctly placed where it is, in pref- 
erence to referring it to the octahedron with a rectangular base as 
suggested by Professor Det Rro, (if I understand him correctly), 
is strengthened from the fact that the cleavages are more obvious, 
parallel with the lateral, than with the pyramidal, faces. The erra- 
tum of angles imagined to exist in the Treatise, only existed 1 in the 
manner of reading, as the angle of 177° 5’ is not set down to 
Harmotome, but to Comptonite ! 

But to:continue with the observations of Professor Dee Rios 
“after all,” he says, “‘the most difficult part for the student is the 


* Elementos de orictognosia © del conocimiento de los fosiles. Filadelfia. 1832. 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 323 


second class: he must ascertain by the cleavage, if a rhombic prism 
is right or oblique, since if he mistakes it he will never find the name 
of the specimen.” Instead.of never finding the name, I beg leave 
to substitute, that he would not find it always in the most direct man- 
ner ; for if the mineral sought should happen to belong to the latter, 
he would first be led to examine unsuccessfully, the ten species of 
which the cleavage order of the right rhombic prism consists ; (the 
order of the right rhombic prism preceding that of the oblique,) 
and if on the other hand it should happen to possess a right rhom- 
bic prism as its form of cleavage, it would be, so far as the brevity 
of the analysis is concerned, immaterial, whether he had correctly 
settled the direction of the axis, or not. The remark quoted in 
this connexion from page 70 of the Treatise, ‘that if we arrive at 
the knowledge of the lateral faces of a prism, we possess independ- 
ently of the cleavage, means for determining the base, whether it be 
horizontal or oblique” is undoubtedly true, as must be sufficiently ob- 
vious from what has gone before relative to the symmetrical changes 
of right and oblique prisms, but has no relation to the subject here, 
inasmuch as it is intended to apply to simple minerals or regular 
crystals. And the same inapplicability applies to the light which 
Professor Dex Rro supposed he had obtained from pages 77 and 78, 
since they treat exclusively of perfect crystals, as the Treatise plainly 

shows. . 

He is astonished at my remark that the discovery of a single 
cleavage would assist in enabling the pupil to distinguish the primary 
planes in the complex forms belonging to the doubly oblique prism ; 
and adds by way of placing me in the predicament of self nullifi- 
cation, “that cleavage in one direction gives nothing but parallel 
planes,” (quoted from another part of the Treatise) which is un- 
doubtedly true in the general process of obtaining cleavage crystals, 
but not at all in the present case, where we have beside the parallel 
planes, natural faces either perpendicular or oblique to them, from 
all which it is clear, that a regular solid must result. 

He says that he “cannot grant him (the student) to know the mi- 
nutes of broken or imperfect crystals. How ean he distinguish Va- 
lencianite from Mexico (my chovelia) from the Pertkline, perhaps 
better Proskline or the Albite? the crystals of Valencianite are dis- 
tinct, but so imbedded that my pupil Bustamenre thought that P 
and T was inclined 124° 30/ instead of 122° 30’: he was only mis- 
taken in two degrees; I assure Mr. Sueparp that his student will 


324 ' Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. 


make greater blunders than mine, although acquainted with geome- 
try.’ As tothe Valencianite and Perikline, I believe the evidence 
preponderates in favor of their being one and the same species ; in 
any case, they are both distinct from Albite ; and respecting the mis- 
takes which young students would make with the analytical system, 
Lhave only to say, that without calling in question the adroitness of 
Busramenre, I should hope that persons would abstain from the 
determination of crystals belonging to the doubly oblique prism, un- 
til they had better acquainted themselves with the use of the go- 
miometer, than to require the limits of error should in no case be nar- 
rower than two degrees ! 

I did not suppose it necessary to add another character, for the 
distinction of Sillimanite from Jeffersonite (i. e. Pyroxene), when 
the lateral angles of the one are 92:5 and those of the other 99° ; 
and the hardness of the former = 7:5... 8:0 while that of the lat- 
ter = 5:0...6°0. It is quite impossible to confound Kyanite, by 
my characteristic, with the foregoimg minerals or with any other spe- 
cies of the Treatise as Prof. Den Rio appears to imagine, excepting 
the Fibrolite of Count Bournon which I now relinquish as a spe- 
cies, and shall describe in my volume on Physiography as a variety 
of Kyanite. Asa rule to be observed in the construction of a 
Characteristic, it is conceded, that the shorter the character is, the 
greater the facility and certainty it will afford in the distinction. 

In regard to synonymes, I adopted'the rule to give, in addition to 
the trivial name, the systematic and the chemical names, and besides, 
those appellations which had been bestowed upon what were gener- 
ally regarded as forming separate species. Accordingly, under Spath- 
ic Iron and Dolomite are found a number of names, inasmuch as 
these species have been erroneously divided by different writers ; 
and it appeared to me necessary. to indicate to the pupil, that none 
of these pseudo-species had been forgotton in the Characteristic. 

Of Willemite no chemical analysis was within my reach at the 
time (1832) to inform me that this substance was a silicated carbonate 
of zinc. Of Poonahlite, I do not, in the present state of our knowl- 
edge respecting it, fully agree that it should be referred to Meso- 
type; and still less can I adinit that Dysluite is Pleonaste or Spinel. 
For Peritimous Lead Baryte and Pegamite, 1 know no synonymes, 
believing them to stand for independent species. 

In the foregoing reply, | have endeavored not to pass over a single 
remark of Prof. Det Rio, whose misapprehension of the nature of 


Mr. Shepard’s reply to Prof. Del Rio. * 323 


my ‘Treatise, 1 am compelled to set down partly to a want of fa- 
miliarity with our language, and partly to a too hasty glance at the 
subject of his observations. And in defending myself, I must dis- 
claim any want of respect for the opinions of a veteran in the cause 
of science, as I willingly accord Prof. Dex Rio to be ; and would 
hope that I may not be accused of an overweening fondness for my 
own performance, of whose faults Iam abundantly sensible, and 
which I yet hope to be able to correct myself, at least, in part. 
Still, as I employ it with some convenience, and have seen it used by 
pupils with all the success I anticipated, | may perhaps be excused’ 
for yet retaining some partiality towards the invention, and for the 
present obtrusion of myself on the notice of those, who unfortu- 
nately for me, may have formed their opinion of my labors from 
the observations of Prof. Det Rio. 

I should not be inclined to quote the concluding’ remarks of the 
observations, except from a willingness to do complete justice to 
their author, as they form a very unexpected succedaneum to his 
critique, and as they may appear on the whole tod commendatory 
for me to aid in promulgating. “It is not the fault of the author, 
whose treatise is in general very correctly written ; it is the difficul- 
ty of the subject, which as I said in the beginning,* it is very laud- 
able to have endeavored to enlighten,—and I must confess, that I 
by no means dislike the third catalogue, arranged according to the 
gradual increment of hardness, but with (as Dex Rro would advise) 
the’ addition of cleavage, and crystals. I partake with the author 
the desire to simplify the study of mineralogy, but I prefer the 
means proposed by Mons and Brerruavrt, especially the last, 
published in 1832, and which translated es me from the Gatiae 
I submit to the judgment of the society.” 

In conclusion, I cannot but express my satisfaction in finding a 
chemical mineralogist so far deserting his principles, as to be abroad 
in search of a Characteristic founded on physical properties. If the 
example set is followed by the members of the respectable society 
over which Dre Rio presides, it will soon appear that we have in 
mineralogy a pure and welldefined study, which hitherto, it must be 
confessed, has consisted of the blended elements of several inde- 
pendent sciences. 


““* The mere attempt to solve a difficult problem is, in itself worthy of praise, 
although the method be complicated, because it can be subsequently simplified.” 


326 On the Falls of Nragara. 


Arr. XIX.—On the Falls of Niagara and_the reasonings of 
some authors respecting them; by Henry D. Roesrs, F. G. S. 
of Lond. &c. 


Tue magnitude of this noted cataract, the circumstance of its 
being the outlet for the waters of an immense surface and the evi- 
dences of its retrograde movement towards lake Erie have made it 
a subject of much interest and speculation among Geologists. The- 
ories have been framed to explain its origin, and data collected to 
compute the term of its existence, which, if not always sound have 
been to say the least, curious. . 

Believing that the writers who have conferred upon Niagara 
its celebrity as a geological wonder, have overlooked some par- 
ticulars in the surface of the surrounding region, essential to be 
known in speculating upon its origin and age, I venture to state 
some views which may, | conceive, tend to inspire salutary doubts in 
the minds of those who are disposed to theorise upon this difficult 
subject. 

The scenery of this mightiest of water falls has been so faithfully 
and vividly portrayed by both Capt. Hall and Mr. R. Bakewell, Jr., 
that I shall content myself with referring those who have not beheld 
it, to the accounts given by those gentlemen.* 

The speculations however which these and other geologists have 
entered into concerning the mode in which the deep perpendicular 
valley below the falls was formed, and their calculations of the time 
employed by the cataract in excavating this ravine of seven miles 
in length, demand, I think, fresh examination. 

Iam especially desirous of calling the attention of geologists to 
the true nature of this remarkable valley below the falls, as it has 
recently been much discussed by foreign writers, some of whom are 
in danger of misconceiving its theoretical bearings from their imperfect 
knowledge of the physical structure of the region in which it occurs. 

Mr. Fairholme in particular, has indulged in some speculations 
about the age of the Falls of Ni iagara, which more precise concep- 
tions of the geology of our lake region would, I cannot but believe, 
induce him to revise, and perhaps to retract. 


* The most correct general description of Niagara, its structure and scenery 
will be found, I believe, to be that given by Mr. ener ell in the xii number of 
Loudon’s Magazine of natural history. ° 


On the Falls of Niagara. 327 


All who have investigated Niagara as a geological problem, seem to 
have assumed it as a conclusion nearly self evident, that the Falls 
have necessarily been once at Queenstown ridge, and that they 
have reached their present place, seven miles off, by virtue solely, 
of their own power of wearing away the rock. This opinion (it is 
but an opinion) is the result merely of a general contemplation of 
the scene, and not a deduction from any researches of so rigorous 
and exact a character as seem requisite to determine such a ques- 
tion. In the present meagre condition of our information respect- 
ing the structure of the neighboring region, such a doctrine cannot, 
I conceive, be much more than a mere surmise, and I hold it to be 
altogether premature, to erect upon such grounds any calculation in 
year’s of the probable duration of the cataract. 

The following in the words of Mr. Bakewell, presents the pre- 
vailing doctrine regarding the age of the Falls. “ On viewing this 
highly interesting scene, the mind is irresistibly carried back to the 
time when a mighty flood poured over the once united precipice 
above Queenstown. ‘This fact cannot be doubted by any one who 
sees its present appearance and who duly reflects on what a falling 
body of water, so immense, so rapid, and so resistless in its course 
as the river of Niagara is capable of accomplishing in a series of 
ages. Taking it for granted that the falls have been once at the 
ridge, it is a curious question to inquire when were they there? An 
approximate solution to this enquiry will be given if Mr. Forsyth’s 
statement be allowed, of the falls having receded nearly fifty yards 
in the last forty years and if it be granted that this has been the con- 
stant ratio of their recession. The distance from the termination of 
the gorge to the fall is seven miles equal to 12,520 yards which 
gives 9856 years for the eee in which they have been retrograding 
to where they now are.” 

Mr. Fairholme, proceeding upon nearly the same data* endeavors 
to prove that its retrocession was once much more rapid than at the 
present day, by supposing that the slope of the land gave the falls ori- 
ginally a less elevation, that the excavation was narrower, and the 
rocky materials more destructible. In answer to the views of Mr. 
Bakewell, for whose fidelity of description, so far as it goes, I have a 
high respect, I would suggest that we are hardly entitled to assume 
the statement of Mr. Forsyth as a sufficient basis for a calculation 
so important in its theoretical applications. 


* See London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine for July, 1834. 


328 On the Falls of Niagara. 


I hold it to be impossible, with the means of measurement hereto- 
fore employed, to ascertain with any approach to precision, the amount 
of retrograde movement. Does the recession of forty or fifty yards 
asserted by Mr. Forsyth, apply to both falls, to the whole breadth of 
the British fall, or only to that portion of the latter which adjoins 
table rock? To estimate it where the loss of matter is greatest, in 
the hollow of the great horse shoe, can be done only by means of 
accurate triangulation, which has not yet been attempted.* To ap- 
ply the above rate of recession amounting to four feet per annum, 
to both falls, and to Goat island likewise, as Mr. Fairholme does, is, 
I conceive, an extension of the same error. He imagined that the 
whole irregular line across both falls and Goat island recedes at this 
rate, though it is manifest that the American fall is no part of the re- 
ceding cataract. It enters the gorge, laterally, having been left by 
the other fall at least a quarter of a mile in the rear. The true 
width of the valley at the falls is therefore no greater than its ave- 
rage width below ; as neither the American cataract nor Goat island 
contribute to its breadth. In reply to Mr. Fairholme’s argument, I 
would remark, that although in his appendix, he has, on better informa- 
tion, forsaken the leading feature of his theory, the hypothesis that the 
ground from the falls to Queenstown is a recularly descending plane 
by which the section of the trough below the falls would become a 
triangle, he is still far from giving the ravine its proper profile. The 
true form of the valley is this. From the falls to the abrupt slope 
at Queenstown the land gently declines, but the bed of the river 
seems to decline equally, fallmg im its course of seven miles one 
hundred and four feet, and making the perpendicular banks maintain 
throughout their whole length an average elevation of two hundred 
feet. pies risa } 

If Mr. Fairholme will reconstruct the section in the appendix to 
his article, taking care to make it a faithful profile of the surface from 
the falls down to Queenstown, giving it the proportions of a base of 
seven miles to a height of about three hundred feet he will at once 


* Tobserve that Mr. Conybeare entertains the same doubts of the above rate of 
movement of the whole falls. In the Philosophical Magazine for 1831, new se- 
ries, Vol. 9, page 267, he. says ‘I must confess my doubts whether the falls actually 
do recede as far as their general line is concerned atthe rate of fifty yards in 
forty years. I suspect that some partial degradation-of the strata has here been 
mistaken for the general retrogradation.” He farther states as his opinion, that 
Goat island has occupied, from the period of the earliest account, exactly the same 
relative position with regard to the falls that it holds at the present moment. 


On the Falls of Niagara. 329 


discover that the gorge through which the Niagara river flows, ap- 
proaches much nearer to the form of a parallelogram than to the ir- 
regular triangular figure which he supposes. His desire to reduce 
the solid dimensions of this valley, has led him to represent it with 
an outline very different from that which belongs to it, and his cor- 
rection is almost as wide of nature as his first imaginary section. 

But suppose for a moment that the cataract has been at Queens- 
town heights and of a minor elevation, it by no means follows that 
the erosion of its bed would on that account be effected more rap- 
idly. 

The action of the torrent is not expended in wearing away the 
whole surface of the wall of rock, but in undermining it, by the 
enormous momentum of the ever falling mass of waters which are 
continually wearing and removing the loose materials at its base. 
It is reasonable to infer that a certain height of fall is necessary to 
this result. 

Having thus shown the inadequacy of the data upon which the 
computations of the age of this cataract have been made to rest, I 
shall proceed to develope some features of the neighboring district 
which render it very doubtful, whether the Falls of Niagara ever 
have been at Queenstown. 

It is a very generally received opinion and may so far as present 

evidence extends, be taken for granted, that the country adjacent to 
Niagara and the lakes was originally covered with a vast lake, or 
rather inland sea, which some change in the configuration of the re- 
gion contracted to the still very extensive masses of fresh water now 
remaining. The passage of such a body of water over the surface 
would deeply indent all the exposed portions of the land. Rushing 
in its descent from lake Erie to lake Ontario, from a higher to alow- 
er plain, and across a slope like that at Queenstown, it would inevit- 
ably leave a deep and long ravine. But further, the whole of this 
region has been grooved and scarified by the same far sweeping cur- 
rents which denuded the entire surface of North America, and 
strewed its plains and mountains with boulders, gravel, and soil from 
the north. Such a diluvial valley, of greater or less length and 
depth was, | cannot help believing, probably the commencement of 
the present remarkable trough below the Falls.* 


* Mr. Fairholme in ascribing to the Niagara the duration which he has, obvi- 
ously regards it as wholly post-diluvial; he is therefore constrained to grant the 
pre-existence of the denuding actions for which I contend. 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 2. 42 


330 On the Falls of Niagara. 


‘In the present very imperfect state of information respecting the 
superficial deposits around the shores of our western lakes, it is out 
of our power to do more than conjecture the geological era of the 
supposed retreat of the waters which appear to have covered, at one 
time, the vast plains surrounding them. Whether such an event were 
caused by the general rush of waters from the north, or whether 
it is to be viewed as having occurred sabe sey we have no 
means of judging.* 

There is this important fact however, that none of i superior 
secondary or tertiary formations of our Atlantic coast have been dis- 
covered in the region of these lakes, shewing clearly, that all that 
portion of the continent emerged from beneath the ocean at a very 
remote period. The drainage of the region has very probably been 
repeatedly modified since that day, and during some one, or perhaps 
several of these changes in its bycirograpiy, Niagara acquired its 
present remarkable shape. de 

If any credit be due to the consideration here advanced, it must 
be obviously improper for geologists to ‘aim at computing the time 
which the Niagara river has consumed in excavating its way to the 
spot where it now pours off its waters, since to ascertain what portzon 
of the ravine below the falls may have resulted from other causes 
than the cuttmg power of the stream, is clearly beyond our ability. 

It is an observation of Professor Sedgwick, that the existing vallies 
of any country are generally the result of the jomt agency of many 
causes and the remarkable valley of the Niagara river, notwithstand- 
ing the simplicity of its present features, may exemplify this princi- 
ple. . 
The sides of the Niagara river below the falls present a narrow 
belt of table land extending back a short distance from the verge of 
the precipice to the foot of a pretty high ane steep bank composed 
apparently of diluvium. 


t 


There are in the class of those who assign to it a greater age, some who would 
be inclined to consider it as also partly ante-diluvian. To these my argument is 
similar; to wit, that it is not credible that any powerful diluvial current should 
traverse the wreee of this region with the deep valley of the Niagara riyer pre- 
viously existing, without materially augmenting the length and magnitude of the 
ravine, ! 

* Goat island is based upon a fine grained homemenu clay in horizontal strat- 
ification, and of a texture so exquisitely comminuted as to indicate the almost total 
absence of any currents in the waters from which it was deposited. Asone can 
hardly attribute such a deposition to the impetuous current of the present river it 
seems very naturally to point to atime when a tranquil lake covered the place of 
the present rapid Niagara. 


On the Falls of Niagara. 331 


These diluvial banks deserve the minutest attention of geologists, 
inasmuch as they may enable them to detect more clearly than’ from 
other data, the former positions of the cataract. It is to be presumed 
that if they have been washed by the falls throughout their whole 
distance to Queenstown heights, traces of the fact would be discov- 
erable along their base. I searched in vain a portion of that line for 
shells, and other river deposits such as are seen on Goat island above 
the falls. They may, however exist, and it is important that they 
should be sought for. These banks are described by Mr. Bakewell 
as curved and water-worn, with large boulders imbedded in them, 
shewing, he conceives, that the river once flowed nearly on a level 
with their summits. But all these appearances are just as indicative 
of diluvial action, to which on any hypothesis, the boulders certainly 
belong. 

Supposing the existing drainage of this region to have begun im- 
mediately after the catastrophe which reduced lake Erie and its sister 
lake to their present dimensions, or supposing it to have followed that 
far mightier event which overspread the whole continent with the 
debris of its rocks ; in either case we are bound to make the Trenton 
falls and the several falls on the Gennessee river contemporaneous. 
Now an important question arises here: are there any facts in relation 
to the rate of recession of these falls analogous to those of Niagara ? 
None are I believe at present known, though those streams admit of - 
a much more exact determination as to changes of position in their 
falls, than is practicable in the vast and irregular horse shoe fall of the 
greater cataract of Niagara. 

Bearing upon this discussion there is a still more important ques- 
tion, namely, what features did the surface of the region present 
after the transient denuding causes above spoken of had ceased, or 
in other words when the existing streams, first found their way to the 
ocean? The surface of the land was evidently what it now is, denu- 
ded and every where scooped into a multitude of vallies, the recepta- 
cles ofcourse, of the newly formed rivers. This being the case, is it 
not extremely probable that the depressions into which the Niagara 
and other rapid streams first fell, were originally vallies of denudation. 
The existing falls upon these streams have no doubt contributed in a 
considerable degree to deepen and prolong the gorges through which 
they flow, but that they began these excavations is what I cannot 
consider established. One has only to explore the vicinity of Tren- 
ton falls, of the upper falls of the Gennessee river at Portage, and of 


332 On the Fails of Niagara. 


Niagara itself, to perceive that all these interesting scenes are sur- 
rounded by the evidences of extensive denudation. 

The numerous beautiful cascades which distinguish the first-named 
scene, descend over a series of steps occupying a trough somewhat 
similar to the. one below Niagara, but much deeper and shorter.— 
The total descent here is 300 feet, and the length of the ravine about 
half a mile instead of seven. There is a striking analogy between 
the structure of these falls upon the west Canada Creek, and that of 
those upcn the Geness<e river, and there is this resemblance between 
them both and those of Niagara, that they all consist of ‘perfectly 
horizontal strata. The Portage falls of the Genessee resemble the 
falls of Niagara moreover in the great length of the ravine, that of 
the Genessee being several miles. long, and having also a depth in 
many places of ee or five hundred an 

Mr. Fairholme seems to consider our numerous falls and rapids. as 
the result of what he states to be a characteristic feature of this con- 
tinent, the arrangement of the surface in several vast secondary 
planes, principally composed as he conceives, of calcareous rocks in 
horizontal stratification. This is a misapprehension, for it is well 
known to all who have examined the physical features of the United 
States that in the greater number of our streams, particularly those 
entering the Atlantic, ‘the rapids are created by the passage of the 
waters through mountain barriers and in nearly all cases over rocks 
highly inclined. This is so, where the Potomac finds a pass through 
the blue ridge, where the Delaware traverses the same mountain 
in Pennsylvania, to form the lovely scenery of the water-gap, and’ 
indeed in twenty other cases which might be cited. An arrange- 
ment of our plains in successive plateaus is by no means frequent, 
and neither Trenton falls nor those of the Genessee have resulted 
from‘any such structure of the surface. 

My. Fairholme has the following passage, “If this point be ad- 
mitted, (the recession of the falls,) it is equally obvious that a con- 
tinuation of the action must occasion a continuance of the effect and 
that a time must consequently arrive, when the whole barrier between 
the lakes must be intersected. This period is of course very re- 
mote ; but is not the less certain and unavoidable, if the causes now 
in force continue to exist. The consequences will be most extensive 
and disastrous, more so indeed than any natural event within the 
range of history. ‘The whole of the upper lakes of North America 
which more resemble seas than inland collections of fresh water, will 


On the Falls of Niagara. 333 


then be lowered by nearly three hundred feet and the low countries 
between lake Ontario and the Atlantic can scarcely escape — be- 
ing swept at once into the ocean.”* 

To prove that this is too alarming a picture, it is only necessary to 
add to the fact that no barrier, properly speaking, intervenes between 
the present cataract and lake Erie, the bottom of which shelves 
very gently from the shore, and is nowhere deep, averaging only one 
hundred and twenty feet. The action of discharge must therefore 
at all times, even long after the cataract shall have entered the lake, 
be extremely gradual as Mr. De la Beche has amply shown.t+ 

Besides, even supposing it possible for lake Erie to empty itself 
thus’ suddenly, no similar discharge could take place from the other 
lakes, inasmuch as lake Huron and Michigan are cut off from Erie 
by a river eighty nine miles in length and by a difference of elevation 
of fifty two and a half feet. | 

As to the future rate of recession of the Falls I believe it to be 
equally difficult to speculate. It is very possible that long before 
this vast wall of water, advances ‘to the brink of lake Erie, it will 
have totally altered its shape and aspect. As the falls retreat, they 
also rise, obeying the general ascent of the land towards-lake Erie: 
This circumstance combined with the horizontal position of the 
rocky beds which they intersect, gradually reduces the thickness: 
of the underlying section of shale, and augments that of the over- 
lying limestone. 

The diagram here annexed will elucidate the arrangement of the 
several strata along the river, and assist in displaying the future po- 
sitions which the falls must occupy as they enter the uppermost beds. 


O Lake Ontario. E Lake Erie. Q Queenstown. G termina- 
tion of the ravine. a the falls seven miles from G. 6 the probable 


* The distance being twenty one miles from the present cataract to Jake Erie 
and the rate of action being about four feet per annum the time necessary for this 
great natural operation will be 27,720 years. As the fall will however be higher 
than it now is when it reaches the top of the rapids, the action cannot be caleula- 
ted at so much as it now is, and the United States on the coast may therefore safely 
reckon on a lease of from 30,000 to 40,000 years.—Fairholme. 

+ Third edition of Manual, page 160. 


334 On the Falls of Niagara. 


future place of the falls when they will be in the strata c and d, and 
not as at present in d ande. c siliceous limestone. d geodiferous 
limestone. e friable shale. ie 

The vertical scale is of course greatly exaggerated beyond the 
actual proportions, it being in all such diagrams, impossible to repre- 
sent the distances and the heights m their true ratios. 

A still further retrogression will bring the cataract altogether out 
of the inferior shale the thickness of which at present is ninety feet, 
and will cause the escarpment of the falls to consist only of the over- 
lying limestone beds, and ultimately of a still superior stratum, a 
tough silicious limestone which occupies the surface from lake Erie 
down almost to the falls. It seems a plausible conjecture, that en- 
tering as it thus certainly must, a new series of beds possessing very 
different relations of hardness, friability and thickness from those 
which compose the present escarpment, both the rate and the mode 
of retrogression will be materially modified. Should the upper stra- 
tum instead of being as it now is, the hardest, become, as it possi- 
bly may before the twenty one miles are ae over, the softest, 
there can be little doubt that the present single and majestic fall will 
divide itself into several cataracts at successive elevations... Niagara 
will then be almost a counterpart of ‘Trenton falls, but with far more 
magnificent dimensions. | 

In conclusion it may be well to notice another false i impression of 
Mr. Fairholme. He speaks of the fossil remains of the Elephant 


and Mastodon of North America being deposited when the waters 
of Niagara were first set in motion, that is according to him, when 


‘this section of the continent had just emerged from the ocean; and 
he attributes their position and their shattered state to the rush of 
waters simultaneous by his account with that emergence. ‘To make in 
this manner those races of animals equally ancient with our bitumin- 
ous coal-fields, may consist with Mr. Fairholme’s peculiar views of 
celerity of deposition in strata, but no geologist who examines the 
features of this continent can acquiesce in such a theory. ‘The di- 
luvial or more properly alluvial deposits in which such organic re- 
mains invariably occur in North America, cover alike all our forma- 
tions, even the newest tertiary, and are of course separated from the 
coal formation as to time by a vast series of intervening periods. 

It is therefore quite erroneous to consider as contemporaneous, © 
two events so distant as the appearance of the coal and the forma- 
tion of the diluvium. 


° 


Meteoric Observations of Nov. 13th, 1834. 335 


About the shattered state of these remains it may be observed 
that in the majority of cases, the skeletons of the mastodon have 
been found remarkably little broken or displaced, sometimes standing 
erect, with all the bones in their natural relations, in the morasses 
where the animals perished. Now these morasses overlie the true 
diluvium. In a report on the geology of North America lately made 
by the author to ‘the British Association at its request, an attempt 
has been made to prove that those races perished on this continent, 
not by the general deluge but by catastrophes and accidents of a 
still more recent date. 

* * * * # * 

Remark by the Editor —Among the causes that may produce the 
drainage of the upper lakes it is obvious that even a moderate 
heaving by an earthquake might at once crack the strata that now 
form the barrier of lake Erie, and over which the Niagara flows, 
and thus produce a fissure, (not without many examples in other 
countries) which might, in a few days, or possibly hours, precipitate 
a large portion of the upper lakes upon the nether country, thus 
producing a debacle of vast sweep and resistless energy, and leaving 
the present bed of Erie a tertiary valley. 

Mr. Fairholme by a strange geological anachronism, places the 
coal formation above the chalk for the sake of bringing it nearer to 
the deluge ; it is difficult to meet a writer, however respectable and . 
intelligent who takes such liberties with facts—liberties that are 
equally unwarrantable and useless, for no sudden, short, and violent 
flood could possibly produce the regular coal beds with their vast 
and various stratifications and alternations. 


Art. XX.—Meteoric observations made on and about the 13th of 
November, 1834; by A. D. Bacuz, Professor of Natural Phi- 


losophy and Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. 
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. 


Str—On Saturday the 5th inst. my notice was drawn to a para- 
graph which I supposed to be from the pen of our mutual friend 
Professor Olmsted, calling attention to the Zodiacal light then visible 
for some hours before sunrise, and suggesting a query in regard to its 
connexion with “Falling stars” and to a change in its appearance 
on or about the 13th of November. This induced me at once to 
commence a series of observations, which were continued until the 


336 Meteoric Observations of Nov. 18th, 1834. 


19th inst. and on the morning of the 13th, the number of observa- 
tions and their duration was increased. 

Having witnessed the remarkable meteoric phenomenon of the 
13th of November, 1833, and having been engaged during the sum- 
mer, in conjunction with my friend Mr. Espy, in observing meteors, 
I felt competent, as far'as experience could render me so, to the task 
which [ had undertaken. The conclusions to which my observa- 
tions have led, and in which I feel entire confidence, are, that at the 
city of Philadelphia there occurred on the 13th of November, 1834, 
no remarkable display of meteors of the kind witnessed in 1838, 
and that there was probably no similar occurrence on those mornings 
which were clear, just before and after the 13th inst. 

. The observations upon which I base these conclusions are as follows. 

Sunday morning, Nov. 9,3 A. M. at Holmesburg 10 miles N. 
E. from Philadelphia, observed the Zodiacal light which extended 
as described (in the paragraph to which I have before referred) from 
the horizon, im an illy defined, nebulous light. The night was 
cloudless, and the moon had set. Wind S W. 

Monday morning, Nov. 10, at Philadelphia. I observed’ at about 
3 A. M. and again at 4 A. M., but there was a haze which obscured 
the zodiacal light. After the sun rose the sky clouded over. One 
very brilliant meteor to the west at the time of the second observation. 

Tuesday, Nov. 11, was cloudy, and there was rain with the wind 
at S W. 

Wednesday, Nov. 12, about 34 A. M.,a low stratus occupied the 
place of the zodiacal light. At 4$ A. M. the sky was clear and the 
light brilliant, its general appearance as on easier No meteors in 
SE part.of the sky in 15 minutes. 

Thursday, Nov. 13, 12h 10’ A. M., air Ayo Fahr. Dew point 
374° sky clear. Nometeors. Wind N W slight. 

1h 5’ A. M. at the close of the observation. Air 40°, sky more 
hazy to W. 

2h 40’ a 2h 55’ A.M. Air 384, dew point 35, “sky very clear, 
no haze. ‘Three meteors in ten minutes looking to S E out of the 
way of the moon. Moon sets at 3h 49’. : 

3h.50’ to 4h 10/A. M. Air34°. The whole lower air is near 
to the dew point, and therefore hazy. .'The zodiacal light is obscur- 
ed. Seven meteors in fifteen minutes. Moon has set. 

5h 15’ a 5h 30’ A. M. Air 34° dew point 31° Twilight has 
begun. Five faint meteors in half a minute, and then very rare.— 
‘Three after those five in about fifteen minutes. 


Meteoric Observations of Nov. 13th, 1834. 337 


The appearance of these five meteors in such rapid succession 
impressed me with the idea that an unusual meteoric display might 
be about to commence or had commenced ; the paths of three of 
these when produced seemed to meet nearly, two of them I could 
not bring to the same point with the other three. After waiting 
some time for other meteors to confirm or refute the impression made 
as to direction, by those just referred to, a meteor passed considera- 
bly to the S of the zenith, its track, when produced, passing very 
much below the apparent radiant of the first three, and subsequently 
one to the north of the first three, its track passing also below the 
same point. 

In reviewing the observations of this morning, the only remarka- 
ble occurrence of meteors is that noted between 5/, 15’ A. M. and 
5h 30’. But this was neither in degree, nor inkind like a portion 
of the meteoric phenomenon noticed in November, 1833. ‘The low- 
est estimate which could be made with any probability of accuracy, 
of the number of meteors falling in half a minute in one third of 
the heavens, on the 13th of Nov. 1833, so far exceeds the number 
observed on this occasion, as to admit of no question in regard to 
degree ; and again, including the five which fell in rapid succession, 
there were but eight meteors seen in fifteen minutes, a number en- 
tirely insignificant when compared with the numbers which fell in — 
that time a year since; and further there was not even a sensible 
uniformity in their rate of fall, since after those five were seen, but 
three occurred in fourteen and a half minutes. ‘These meteors were 
not similar to those of Nov. 1833 in kind, for the paths of two of 
the five did not meet at what appeared to be the approximate radi- 
ant-of the other three, and the tracks of two passed very much be- 
low this approximate radiant point. — 

These meteors were similar both in degree and kind to ordinary 
meteors. In the observations made by Mr. Espy and myself, we 
noticed frequently that meieors succeeded each other so rapidly that 
one observer could not distinctly trace their courses; sometimes ap- 
pearing to come from the same point, at others in paths very vari- 
ously directed. Toa circumstance of this kind the five quickly suc- 
ceeding meteors, two of which had not a common radiant point with 
the others are to be referred. In-regard to the average frequency of 
eight meteors in’fifteen minutes, as shown before half past 5 A. M. 
our observations made in the summer, and during the early part of 
the evening, when meteors are comparatively rare, have given six 


Vou. XXVII.—No. 2. 43 


Pt 


he 


ry H 


“ge 


338 Meteoric Observations of Nov. 18th, 1934. 


meteors In nine minutes and a half, five in ten minutes, four in ten 
minutes, &c. And this in about one fifth part of the sky to which 
we purposely limited our view, whereas on the 13th of Nov. my 
view was extended over at least one third of the hemisphere. 

They were also similar in kind in their paths being in directions 
which when produced appeared to meet in very different parts of 
the heavens. 

I continue the detail of observations, ‘which are nidaaeeay from 
the generally unfavorable state of the weather, of inferior interest. 

At 10 P. M. on the 13th. Air 46°, dew point 353°. Wind W. 
Light fleeces over the moon. 

Nov. 14th. From about 38h 40’ to 4h A. M.a haze. abso 
small stars to about 20° from the horizon, those of 3rd and 4th 
magnitude were ‘however distinctly visible. Moon up. Two me- 
teors in twenty minutes. At 4 o’clock the haze thickened and 
mottled clouds (dark cumulus) came over from the west. Wind W 
faint. At about 8 A. M. began to rain. At 10% P.M. paths 
wind W and N W. Air 50°, dew point 45°. 

Nov. 15th. 3 A. M. A white and very thick haze obscured the 
sky. 11 P. M. Snowing, air 24° dew point 153°. j 

Nov. 16th. 34 A. M. Snowing. 

Nov. 17th. 5 A. M. Cloudy. | At - A.M. an air 31°, 
dew point 234, wind N E. 

Nov. 18th. 15 A.M. Raining. 

Nov. 19th. 14 A. M. Sky clear, moon up, no meteors visible 
to S E. in ten minutes. Horizon clouded. . Clouds coming up from 
N W.: 3 A.M. Sky covered with dark cumulus. 

The foregoing observations are extracted from my journal, and 
the comments upon them are introduced for the sake of showing as 
far as is necessary the train of reasoning which has led to the conclu- 
sion stated in the beginning of this note. 

It will be interesting to have information on this subject from dif- 
ferent quarters of our country as having a direct bearing upon the ex- 


planation of the meteoric phenomenon of last year. 
Philadelphia, November 21, 1834. 


Meteors of November 13th, 1834. 339 


a 


Arr. XX1.—Meteors on the morning of November 13th, 1834; 
© by Avexanper C. Twinine, Civil Engineer. 


TO THE EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 


Str,—For a few days previous to Nov. 13th, of the present 
year, | was on the watch for extraordinary phenomena in the atmos- 
phere and sky ; without, however observing more than this one, that 
on the morning of Noy. 9th, the zodiacal light was more brilliant 
in the east, than I remember ever to have seenit before. This was 
perhaps owing to the great clearness of the atmosphere. I noticed 
it at twenty minutes before 5 o’clock, A. M., and it extended at 
that time, as high as the nebula in Cancer. 

On the morning of the 13th-1 made observations in the open air, 
for a part of the time between one and two o’clock. Although I 
saw in the moonlight, one meteor of considerable brightness, I was 
satisfied very soon that nothing uncommon was visible at that hour, 
and ceased observing. Again, soon after four o’clock, the moon 
having set, I took a station out of doors. At that time there was 
evidently an unusual number of meteors. They appeared, for the 
most part, lower in altitude than 30°; they might be seen in either 
quarter of the hemisphere ; their color was reddish, and their appa- 


rent magnitude very uniformly about that of the planet Mars. Their © 


flights were generally not more than 8° or 10° in length; but one 
which passed nearly in my zenith, shot through as much as 20°.— 
They were generally attended with trains of several minutes in 
breadth. Of these I observed but one that continued as long as 
three seconds. Inthe course of twenty five minutes, as nearly as I 
could judge, I counted thirty of these meteors; and I estimated, 
from this time’and number, and the portion of the hemisphere which 
my sight took in, that they were appearing at the rate of four in a 
minute. 

Besides the meteors: thus described, there were two or three 
which evidently formed a part of the assemblage. ‘These were 
different from the first in their courses, crossing their paths at irregu- 
lar angles, and differing also from them in magnitude and color, be- 
ing very minute white points, precisely like the multitude of common 
shooting stars, without trains. But the meteors first described, which 
seemed to constitute the peculiarity of the scene, were not only 
alike in magnitude, brilliancy, and as a general thing, in the intervals 


La 


340 Lowell.— Geological Facts. 


between their appearance, but their flights were evidently directed, 
like those of the’ meteors of 1833, from a fixed point; and not a 
single mcteor that J saw, except the two or three stragglers men- 
tioned above, deviated from this resimen. ‘There could be no 
question also,. that this fixed point was in the constellation Leo, and 
was either in the same spot with the “radiant” of last year, or in 
the vicinity of it: but as no meteors described their paths very near 
to the constellation Leo, I was not able to fix the pomt within seve- 
ral degrees. 

Ihave not formed a decided opinion whether this whole splay 
is to be considered a slight recurrence of the meteoric phenomenon 
of November 13th, 1833, or not. It certainly possessed, on a 
greatly diminished scale, the same general character. There was, 
to say the least, upon this latter morning, sucha regularity and wnety 
in the assemblage of phenomena as, when coupled with the magni- 
tude of the meteors, to give thei ipresrisn of an uncommon and re- 
markable. display. 

The zodiacal light was all the time visible, about as high as the 
neck of “the Lion,” pay far less bright than on the morning of the 


ninth. 
West Point, December 2ud, 1854. 


Art. XXII.—Lowe... 


Geological Facts. 


Lowell is a flourishing manufacturing town, situated upon the Mer- 
rimack river, in Massachusetts, twenty four miles north from Bos- 
ton. Although it has grown up with twelve or thirteen years, it 
contains as many thousand inhabitants, and is constantly creasing. 

During a residence there of a few weeks, in the months of August 
and September, 1834, the following observations were made on the 
geology of Lowell and its vicinity. 

This region is based upon primary se ee which granite, 
gneiss, mica slate and other, varieties of slaty strata, are the most 
conspicuous. . 

Within ten or fifteen miles of Lowell, we find all thei rocks, im 
place, besides innumerable boulders, among which. all the. py 
rocks are observed. 


Lowell.—Geological Facts. 341 


‘At Groton, sixteen or seventeen miles west from Lowell, are ex- 
tensive beds of soapstone, (steatite,) and one large quarry is opened 
and wrought. Among various uses, it is applied to the fabrication 
of pumps for water. 'They are neat in their appearance and are 
stated to be very effectual in drawing water from wells or cisterns, 
and conveying it into chambers or other apartments in which the 
pumps are placed ; the pistons are made of wood. The soap stone 
quarry at Groton presents some interesting geological appearances. 
It forms vast beds in mica slate, and presents decisive indications 
of having been forced in among the strata by violence. 

While the beds of soapstone are unstratified, they have apparently 
thrown the strata of mica slate into positions highly inclined, and 
even occasionally vertical ; these strata have been evidently, much 
disturbed, bent and lacerated, and if we concede this* power to 
trap, porphyry and granite, it would be difficult to assign a sat- 
isfactory reason why soapstone should form an exception. We are 
aware that along with serpentine it is admitted by Mr. Brongniart 
among the igneous rocks, and we can discern no other solution of 
the appearances at Groton than that of internal igneous action, 
throwing up the steatite among the strata of mica slate, and thus el- 
evating them, and at the same time impressing upon them indubita- 
ble marks of violence. A few iniles west of Lowell, there are beds. 
of white crystalline limestone; they lie among strata of gneiss, and 
although the limestone is quarried with considerable difficulty, it is 
profitably burned for lime. In this quarry are fine fibrous asbestus 
or tremolite and various other minerals usually found in primary 
limestone. Granite is wrought in immense quantities in all the re- 
gion around Lowell, and especially north of this town. 'The greater 
part of it is in boulders, which are split for the purposes of architec- 
ture. There are however some quarries of granite, and more of 
gneiss and mica slate, where these rocks are found in place. In 
Lowell itself, and its immediate environs mica slate is the prevailing 
rock. It is accompanied however, by many other varieties of slaty 
rocks, passing from common slate through siliceous or flinty slate, 
hornblende slate, &c. In someof these dark slates, are delicate veins 
and knobs, and spots of white calcareous spar. Most of the stratified 
rocks are highly inclined, some of them almost or quite perpendicular 
and numerous sections having been made for canals, roads, buildings, 
&c., and the Merrimack itself flowing through a vast natural canal 
discloses the strata standing nearly on edge, and rounded and worn 
by the waters. 


342 Lowell — Geological Facts. 


Atone place half a mile from the river, where the strata have been 
denuded of the soil and diluvium, there are cut in the rock numerous 
furrows, such as are usually called diluvial scratches; their direction 
appears to be mainly N E and S W;; this rocky ledge is near to the 
place where the rail road enters the town. 

But the most remarkable geological feature in Lowell remains to 
be mentioned. The great rail road from Boston, just before its ter- 
mination, passes through the solid rocks in a cut, which is a quar- 
ter of a mile long, and in some parts it appears to be forty feet 
deep. ‘The rocks are mainly mica slate, the strata of which are in- 
clined at very high angles’of elevation, and in many places they are 
nearly or quite perpendicular. Here are exhibited, on a great scale, 
the most decisive proofs of the intrusion of rocks by force from be- 
low. ‘The mtruding rocks are chiefly trap, varying in quality be- 
tween greenstone and basalt, and sometimes inclining a little towards 
the character of hornblende slate. It is evidently unstratified, but 
still, from its having been forced in between layers of a stratified 
rock, it has to a certain degree, copied the appearance, and in some 
places has a little false show of stratification which, at a small distance 
from the principal rock, vanishes and it becomes massive and-amor- 
phous. f 

The strata of mica slate, enormous as they are, appear to have 
been heaved from their beds and raised from their horizontal po- 
sition, by the same effort which injected among them the ignited 
and melted trap. ‘The latter has not here, as in many other situa- 
tions in various parts of the world, broken across the strata, and im- 
truded itself between their jutting ends, thus dissevering the parts, 
so as to form dykes or walls of trap bounded by the parted rock— 
the trap has on the contrary, been here shot in between the strata 
and has taken the direction of their beds, at the same time that the 
vast heaving power which melted and threw up the trap, also raised 
the enormous ledges of mica slate into their present elevated posi- 
tion. 

The trap has therefore, in this case, been wedged in between the 
strata, and has produced the following effects. . as 

1. It has, m many instances, completely severed the strata of mica 
slate, passing through between them often with undiminished thick- 


ness, and appearing at their upper edges. 
These intruding walls are of various thickness from a few inches 


to a foot, to several feet or several yards ; the thickest mass is eighty 


Lowell.—Geological Facts. 343 


feet in its cross diameter, and there were several from ten to fifteen, 
twenty and twenty five feet. 

2. Some of the intruding masses do not go through to the upper 
surface ; they are literally wedge shaped, having separated the lay- 
ers of mica slate below, and then in.their ascent dying away be- 
tween them, and terminating in a point or an edge, the mica slate 
closing in, resuming its continuity, and continuing upward unbroken. 

3. The reverse of this arrangement is observed in a few cases, 
the broad part of the wedge-shaped mass being upwards, sometimes. 
at the surface, and dying away downward. In thiscase, the melted 
trap probably overflowed from a concealed vent or was driven later- 
ally in, and thus filled fissures in the mica slate, which were formed 
by the heaving from below, and were left gaping upward and ready 
to receive the molten flood. 

4. The contortions of the mica slate, produced by the fiery inva- 
der are very numerous and striking ; they are such as we might sup- 
pose would arise from a mighty force exerted from below, elevating, 
severmg, bending and tearing the stratified rocks among whose 
peaceful beds, the melted trap was rudely injected. 

This confusion, every where remarkable, is particularly conspicu- 
ous in the deepest part of the cut, where, on both sides, the mica 
slate is in vast disorder, and the intrusive trap is interlocked among 
the lacerated strata, holding them fast as with an expiring grasp. 

5. The injected trap is seen on both sides of the cut, towering to 
the topmost cliffs, on the right and left, and continuing unbroken 
across the bottom of the cavity. The strata of mica slate also ac- 
company the trap on both sides. . 

6. There are, at the junctions of the two rocks, indisputable 
marks of igneous action; in many places the mica slate is much in- 
durated by the heat, and there is an undefinable blending of the two 
rocks, portions of both being united by mixture as well as by partial 
and hasty fusion or thoroughly assimilated by a full melting. 

7. There are numerous dissevered masses of mica slate, often of 
considerable magnitude, which have evidently been torn off by the 
violence and heat of the injected trap, and borne along in the melted 
mass; there®are also detached portions of trap mixed with the mica 
slate, and whose connexion with the main currents cannot be, in ev- 
ery instance, traced in the actual section of the ledges, but which 
without doubt, exists threaded and contorted in devious fissures, in 
the interior of the broken rocks. 


344 Lowell.— Geological Facts. 


On the whole, this section presents very interesting and instructive 
appearances, and such as can be understood only by attributing them 
to the action of fire. 

Had the whole arrangement been the peaceful effect of water, there 
is no reason why all the masses should not have been equally strati- 
fied, nor why any of the strata should have been elevated, contorted, 
broken and altered. These views derive esate from similar 
appearances which are observable in the vicinity, and some of which 
have been described by Professor Hitchcock in his excellent geology 
of Massachusetts. We have already mentioned the appearances of the 
soapstone quarry in Groton. We may add that on the road be- 
tween Billerica and Lexington,* and near to the latter town, we ob- 
served several very perfect trap dykes, intruding among the primary 
strata and crossing the road from side to side. 

On the coast also at Marblehead and Nahant ave numerous in- 
jected veins and dykes which, im connexion with the facts now men- 
tioned, and with others detailed by Professor Hitchcock, go to es- 
tablish the opmion that a vast subterranean igneous agency has been 
exerted in this region im an early geological era. 

Tf we return to the rail-road cut at Lowell, we find cil very i in- 

terestmg and remarkable appearances. 
_ In that part of the section which is most remote from Lowell, af- 
ter the cliffs have declined and descended below the soil and the di- 
luvium, they again rise into view, but not to so great an elevation as 
in that portion of the cut which has been already described. _ 

In this place, the section has disclosed granite masses intruding 
among the strata of mica slate, exactly as the trap does in the other 
portions ofthe cut. The granite is perfectly well defined entirely dis- 
tinct from the mica slate, and stands in vertical walls among its vertical 
strata; the granite is, m no case, more than a few feet in thickness ; the 
minerals of which it is composed (the quartz, felspar and mica) are 
much larger, and more conspicuous than those of the architectural 
granite which is every where observed loose or in fixed rocks, all over 
this region. Gneiss is found in one place interposed between the mica 
slate and the granite or alternating with the former. From all the cir- 
cumstances, it appears unphilosophical to assign a different origin to 
the trap and to the granite in the cases that have been stated. ‘The 
same causes that produced and injected the one, probably produced and 


* The same that was s0 memorable in the American. Revolution: 


Lowell.— Geological Facts. 345 


injected the other; itis however beyond our power to assign a rea- 
son why the igneous action below, should produce trap abundantly 
in one place, and granite in another, and at a very short distance.— 
On the Red Mountain in New Hampshire near Lake Winnepiseogee 
we have seen a powerful dyke of trap traversing granite, which of 
course proves that whether contemporaneous or not, the materials of 
the two rocks must have been concocted in, and ejected from, the 
same igneous focus. ‘The instances at Lowell go far to demonstrate 
that the causes which have generated granite and trap are the same, 
operating under unknown circumstances of difference, and indeed we 
shall probably not go too far if we regard all igneous rocks as mere 
modes in the operation and result of one and the same cause, due 
allowance being made for variety of circumstances anu of materials 
upon which the fire has operated. 

It is worthy of observation, that at the rail road section near Low- 
ell, there are numerous veins of quartz, some of them of great thick- 
ness which are found both among the trap and the mica slate, but 
principally among the strata of the latter, pursuing the course of the 
structure of the rock excepting where the veins or portions of them 
have been detached by the trap, and are found intermingled with, or 
cut off and surrounded by it. The quartz veins were doubtless, 
originally component parts of the mica slate rock, to whose consti- 
tution they indeed essentially belong. 

On various parts of the ledges through which the rail road section 
passes, but especially, at the entrance near the village of Lowell, 
there are considerable diluvial deposits—gravel, sand and bowlders 
mingled in confusion; among the bowlders are many transported 
rocks unlike the ledges below, but lying in juxta-position with their 
ruins, which have been detached in the progress of time by meteoric 
causes and perhaps by convulsions. 

Indeed, in every part of Lowell, the observer is struck with the 
great abundance of bowlders and detached and travelled masses both 
lying on the surface and buried in the gravel, clay and sand. In 
digging into hills and-into the earth, in other situations, they find 
such great numbers of bowlders that they appear as if they had 
been congregated by design and the laborers arrange them—for con- 
venience, in immense groups. a 

It gives us pleasure to state that a very correct and graphic delinea- 
tion of the rail road cut, was kindly furnished to us by Mr. Duesbury 
of Lowell, in which the great features, which we have attempted to 

Vol. XXVII.—No. 2. A4 


346 Lowell.— Geological Facts. 


describe are distinctly and strikingly exhibited, as may be seen in the 
engraving. ; 
| Miscellaneous Remarks. 

Were this the proper occasion, many considerations connected 
with Lowell, not less interesting than its geology, might be stated. 
The statistics of its vast. manufactures, are too well known to needa 
place in this work, and it is necessary for a stranger only to inspect 
the establishments, in cotton and woollen and other branches, to 
perceive that it would not be easy to find their rivals in the world 
—for perfection and beauty of machinery, neatness, method and 
quiet in the interior of the houses, ingenious ‘and efficieht securities 
against fire, means of personal safety and escape, civility, mtelligence 
and rey alin: cood morals among the laboring manufacturers, and a 
high order of mind and principle both among the gentlemen, who 
superintend, and those who (chiefly in Roston) sustain these flour- 
ishing establishments, by their freely bestowed millions. 

The proprietors and managers of the manufactories, the profes- 
sional men in Lowell, and a large number of intelligent and liberal 
minded mechanics, and other citizens have united their efforts to 
create and sustain a high intellectual, moral, and religious standard, 
among the many thousands whose labors give Lowell its fine pro- 
ductions in the useful and ornamental arts, and its well deserved ce- 
lebrity. é “aj 

Numerous churches of various denominations, with pastors acting 
cordially together in doing good, evince, that greater interests than 
those of manufactures, are not neglected; a vigilant and efficient 
magistracy watch over the quiet and security of the citizens, which is 
sometimes invaded by the worthless and abandoned, who always seek 
anestling place in manufacturing towns. 

Public lectures are given on various topics of useful knowledge, 
not only by resident citizens but by persons invited from other 
places, and sometimes from other states. 

A large Hall is now in the course of being ene by the-associa- 
ted mechanics of Lowell, and their friends, who intend, there, to fur- 
nish ample accommodations for public lectures, for a public library, 
for collections in natural history, for apparatus, and for every thing 
else which may contribute to the public good. ‘This spirit is widely 
diffused in the manufacturing districts of New England, but more con- 
spicuously in Massachusetts, than in ‘any other state, and the gene- 


Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 347 


ral experience hitherto, affords great. encouragement. to hope, that 
manufactures may be sustained in this country, consistently with pure 
morals and enlightened intelligence. Success must, however, under 
God—depend entirely, upon wise and continued effort sustained 
with sleepless vigilance and with untiring energy. 


Arr. XXIII.—Notice of the ‘Transactions of the Geological So- 
ciety of Pennsylvuania—August, 1834, Part I. 


Tuts publication contains much valuable information and we trust 
it is only an earnest of more to come. 


1. EF ‘ossil Marine Plants. 


The notice of fossil marine plants of the family Fucoides, presents 
an acceptable addition to our geological knowledge. The existence 
of marine plants in the region on the Juniata, was first announced, 
several years ago, by Dr. Harlan. = | 

Mr. R.C. cee, F. G. S. now confirms the existence of very 
extensive deposits of fossil fuci, in the grauwacke group of central 
Pennsylvania. Several species have been observed in the brown 
sandstone of 'Tussey mountain, near Alexandria in Huntington Coun- - 
ty, and farther south, in Bedford County. 

In the white sandstone of the Swan mountains in Centre Coun- 
ty, the fossil fuci prevail seventeen hundred or eighteen hundred 
feet. above the level of the sea.. At Muncey Ridge. in Lycoming 
County, fine specimens were obtained in white sandstone ; at this 
place and at Lewiston they occur four hundred and fifty feet above 
tide-water ; also on the eastern slope of the Alleghany Ridge, fossil 
fuci are associated with Product, at points more than one hundred 
miles apart. 

In the narrows of the Juniata, that river flows between cliffs of 
sandstone seven hundred feet high, and in the lower strata in the 
Shade mountain, the strata containing the marine plants are brought 
into view by the cuttings for the road and for the canal. ‘They are 
found in shale, in sandstone, &c. In one place, the fucus beds are 
laid bare to the height of nearly fifty feet, and here seven courses of 


* Jour. of the Acad. of Phil. Vol. vi. p. 289. 


>. 


_ 
ws 
ye 


~ 


348 Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvama. 


the plants are comprised within a thickness of four feet. In anoth- 
er places below Lewiston, eight or ten beds were counted within 
six feet. 

At the western end of Shade mountain, in a quarry, one hundred 
courses of marine plants are distinguishable - within a thickness of 
twenty feet; they are crowded with obscure plants and occasionally 
crossed by the larger fucoides. In a third place, there are twenty 
layers of fucoides within the thickness of three feet, and it is suppo- 
sed that the entire thickness, is not less than two hundred feet. 

At the west end of Shade mountain, the fucus beds extend with- 
out interruption, to a height of from three hundred to three hundred 
and fifty feet; those containing the obscure alge, reach two hun- 
dred and fifty feet, and at three hundred there are numerous surface 
slabs exhibiting the Fucoides alleghaniensis in situ. 

[t is justly inferred by Mr. Taylor, that there existed various 
epochs i in which numerous surfaces of the shallows of the ancient 
ocean, were covered by marine vegetation. ‘The fucus beds are 
composed of argillaceous, slaty and siliceous rocks, laminated and 
parted by shale. 

Some of the fuci had long flexible. and flattened stalks with few 
branches: the. breadth of the stalks, was-sometimes over half an 
IneHe | | f | 

On the western side of Shade mountain, there are hundreds of 
beds, some of them not'an inch in thickness, but making an aggre- 
gate of two hundred feet, and the quarries within a mile of Lewis- 
ton, furnish an inexhaustible supply of excellent paving stones, in- 
which the vegetable forms, especially in the weathered specimens, 
are very prominent. ‘This is perhaps the most remarkable locality 
of fossil marine plants that has any where been observed. 


2. Gold Region of the U. States. 


A report is made upon this subject by James Dickson, F. G. S. 
London, by whom the fully ascertained gold region of the United 
States, is considered as extending from the Rappahannock in Vir- 
ginia to the eos in Alabama—while, at the same time, it is sta- 
ted, that gold has been found as far south as the Gulf of Mexico, and 
that it is probable it will untimately be found to extend to Vermont, 
Canada, and perhaps the Arctic regions. 

Amidst many failures and discouragements, fresh attempts and 
discoveries are making, along the vast region bordering on the Blue 


Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 349 


Ridge from Virginia to Alabama. Mr. Taylor regards the gold re- 
gion of the United States as richer, than the similar regions of Bra- 
zil, Mexico and Russia, while the security to persons and property, 
the abundance of food, the mildness of the climate and the practica- 
ble surface of the country, present important adventitious advanta- 
ges, not enjoyed in South America, nor all of them in Russia. 

In Georgia, the richest mineral belt isin the talcose slate and 
eranite formations, alternating with hornblende slate, gneiss and 
chlorite slate ; parallel mineral belts are’ found also near Augusta, 
but they cease with the termination of the primitive region. 

The most productive researches for gold have been made in the 
branch mines or stream mines, in the beds of rivers, rivulets and 
ravines. 

In such cases, little capital is needed and few machines except 
rockers, and the return is almost immediate and daily ; from five to ten 
penny weights per day, for a single hand are not uncommon, and one 
hundred and twenty have been obtained. In the loose deposits, the 
gold is found in a bed of gravel from nine inches to three feet in 
thickness, and from three to six feet from the surface of the ground ; 
it rests on slate, generally talcose, and is evidently the result of the 
destruction of a vein or veins crossing a watered ravine or taking the 
same direction with it. . 

Mr. Taylor considers the process of washing, as superior to that 
used in any country; the Burke rocker of North Carolina will 
wash a Cwt. (seven hundred to one thousand bushels of gravel) a 
day, and the machine costs, when complete, but twenty five dollars. 
“In working the trenches or pits of a branch mine, numerous veins, 
partially decomposeed, are to be seen in the soft bed of the talcose 
slate, where the superincumbent strata have been removed.” “The 
gravel strata are composed, entirely, of the broken fragments of the 
quartz veins, which are to be met with outcropping on the banks of 
the ravine. The ore itself, sometimes undecomposed, is.met with 
in the bed, and all the characters of the mineral, found in the vein, 
are also to be met with in the branch gravel. ‘The gold also is sim- 
ilar—for gold in some mines is entirely distinct in character, from 
that of others. There was not a mine in Georgia, the gold of which 
could not be distinguished from any other of the same district ; so 
distinctly marked were the characters of each.” | 

Branch mines have led to the discovery of many valuabliy vein 
mines, for when they worked until the gold seemed to fail, they 


350 Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsyloania. 


would come back and open into the sides or banks of the ravine, 
guided by the gold, and at last, discover valuable bodies of gold ore. 
Many instances of this kind are notorious in North Carolma and Vir- 
ginia.” ‘The branch gold mines of the U. States, are supposed to 
have yielded 6,000,000 of dollars, most of which is worked up in 
jewellery, and not in comage. 

Three deposit mines in Georgia have yielded 500,000 dollars, 
and Mr. Taylor confidently anticipates that the gold deposits of the: 
United States will yield far larger returns than those of Brazil, Co- 
lombia, and the Urals united. 

The explorations for gold have not, as yet, been carried to a great 
depth, the greatest not exceeding one hundred and fifty feet, and few 
of the shafts are over one hundred feet, and most do not exceed twen- 
ty or thirty. ‘These excavations are too shallow:to afford satisfactory 
information respecting the gold, and the digging is often abandoned. 
upon the slightest unfavorable appearance such as the narrowing of 
the vein, its dislocation, or its becoming shattered, for there is much 
appearance of disorganization in the veins and rocks. Pyritical ‘ores 
constitute the mass of the ores in Columbia, the Brazils, and the 
United States; above the depth of one hundred feet, they have been, 
in this country, partially decomposed ; the yellow ores have been 
converted into brown, red and purple hydrates of iron, and a portion 
of the gold they contain having thus become uncovered, is accessible 
to amalgamation, while a large portion more is, or can be developed 
by the assay by fire. 

Most of the goldis extracted by amalgamation, after stamping un- 
der water, and the residuum still contains gold. 

Messrs. Andres Del Rio and John Millington, as a committee oe 
the Geological Society of Pennsylvania, have investigated the Rap- 
pahannock gold mines in Virginia, situated on the river, about ten 
miles from Fredericksburgh; the tract is about two hundred and 
thirty yards wide by an average length of ites pes of nine hundred 
yards. : 

The mietalliferous veins consist of hard state rock between 
walls of decornposed talcose slate. A portion of loose red soil by. 
washing two handfuls of it gave a considerable quantity of minute 
granular gold, and similar results were obtained by washings in other 
places. A principal auriferous quartz vein is from two feet six inch- 
es to three feet six inches wide: it stands vertically between walls 
of talcose slate; there is also, on either side, a vertical bed of auri- 


Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 351 


ferous red earth from two to three and a half feet wide, and bounded 
also by talcose slate. ‘The auriferous quartz vein has been exposed 
to view for six hundred and twenty seven feet with a width of thirty 
inches, and it would appear that this is only the beginning. By a 
rough process of washing, amalgamation and evaporation of the mer- 
cury, three and a half grains of gold were obtained from four pounds 
of the ore taken indiscriminately from all parts of the vein, and in 
another experiment five grains of gold were produced from four 
pounds of pure milk-white quartz, which had no appearance or in- 
dication of containing any metal at all. 

Messrs. Del Rio and Millington think that each pound of the ore 
may be made to yield one grain of gold or five pennyweights to the 
one hundred pounds of ore; this would much more than pay the 
expense, which cannot exceed one dollar on one hundred pounds of 
the crude’ material. It appears that by heating the quartz red hot 
-and throwing it into cold water, eight grains of gold were obtained 
from five pounds of ore. In the opinion of Mr. Dickson, the Rap- 
pahannock mines perfectly resemble all the others in Virginia. On 
the whole the gold region of the United States is very extensive, rich 
and promising, and there is every adventitious advantage of fuel, food, 
climate, cultivation and security. 

We have seen a decisive experiment of this kind made upon white 
quartz from Virginia which yielded a considerable quantity: of gold 
by simple pounding and washing without amalgamation.—Ed. 


3. New Trilobite, &c. 


Dr. Jacob Green whose excellent monograph on the trilobites of 
this country, illustrated by beautiful plaster models is well known, 
has described in the Geological Transactions of Philadelphia, a new 
trilobite found by Dr. C. T. Jackson in Nova Scotia, in magnetic 
iron ore which is beautifully impressed by various organic bodies, 
among which the present trilobite, called by Dr. Green Asaphus 
erypturus is conspicuous. or the description and drawing we must 
refer to the ‘Transactions. . 

Dr. Green has also given an account of the chemical examination 
of a sulphated ferruginous earth from Kent county, Delaware, witha 
view to ascertain its commercial value. 


4. Fossil Zoology and Comparative Anatomy. 


Dr. Harlan has communicated a good paper on the structure of , 
the teeth in the Edentata, fossil and recent; and this is followed by a 


“352 Transactions of the Geologicol Society of Pennsylvania. 


-eritical notice of the various organic remains hitherto discovered in 
North America. 

Of this very important paper it is difficult to give an analysis, as 
it is drawn up in a very condensed form, and will be read with much 
advantage by all those who are desirous of accurate information on 
‘this very interesting but imperfectly explored department of Ameri- 
can Geology. In comparative anatomy and fossil zoology we have 
great need of zeal, science, and discriminating tact.. On these sub- 
jects Dr. Harlan is justly regarded as a high authority, especially 
in facts relating to this country. 

The great Mastodon.—He justly remarks that “in most instances 
‘there is sufficient evidence that these animals died and left their bones 
to become fossilized in the precise situations-in which they are now 
found ; not only are the teeth and bones of this animal unworn by 
the action of running waters, but the skeleton is not unfrequently 
discovered in a standing position, just as the animal had sunk in the 
‘marsh or mud, clay and sand, and therefore that they have been de- 
stroyed subsequently to the action of those causes which formed the 
beds of gravel or detritus in and upon which they are. frequently 
found.” Dr. Harlan quotes from Baron Cuvier the remarkable fact 
furnished by the late Professor B.S. Barton, of the discovery in the 
remains of a Mastodon found in Withe county, Virginia, five and a 
half feet below the soil, of a kind of sack supposed to be the stomach 
of the animal, containing the identical substances which he had de- 
voured, namely, semi-masticated small branches, grasses, leaves, &c. 
among which it was thought a species of brier, still common in Vir- 
ginia, was recognizable. Cuvier remarks that he had rarely seen 
any remains of shells or zoophytes or the bones of the great masto- 
aes and therefore he infers that the sea had not long sojourned oyer 
the 

eid thinks that there is no evidence of the: existence of 
the ed mastodon, prior to the last general cataclysm, and that they 
may have disappeared, together with the fossil elk, or moose of Ire- 
land, since the creation of man. 

Mr. William Cooper of New York, who is also a high authority 
on subjects of Natural History, after a very full examination of many 
bones of the mastodon is of the opinion, that there is but one species 
among the great quantity of their bones found in the United States 
which have come under his observation. 


Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 353 


> Dr. Harlan remarks that the fossil bones of the elephant, although 
found with those of the mastodon, rhinoceros, megalonyx, ox, deer, 
&c., would appear to have belonged to a geological period more an- 
cient than that of the last named animals, which, according to Cu- 
vier, are dispersed every where, and often have marine animals at- 
tached to them, thus proving that they have been, for a considera- 
ble time, covered by the ocean. 

Although there is an immense mass of the fossil bones of the ele- 
phant,scattered through the world, there is only one perfect skeleton, 
namely, that in the museum of Petersburgh. It was found encased 
in an ice cliff on the shores of the Northern Ocean. 

Bones of that very extraordinary animal, the megatherium, were 
found, some years ago, in Skidaway Island, Georgia, and described by 
the late Dr. Mitchill and Mr. Wm. Cooper; a complete skeleton was 
obtained in 1789, on the borders of the River Suaan in South Amer- 
ica, and is now in the museum at Madrid. ‘This animal has consid- 
erable resemblance to the sloth—it is of a gigantic size, the bones of 
the feet being more than a yard long by twelve inches wide. The 
bones of the megatherium are still to be obtained at the above named 
place in great quantity, by some labor and expense, and also at two 
other places in Georgia—the White Bluff on the Sea coast and some 
distance up the Savannah River. 

The megalonyx is, in the opinion of Cuvier, allied to the megathe- 
rium, and as yet there are only three places known where the bones 
are found—Green Briar County, Va. and Big Bone lick and White 
Cave, Ky. The bones sent to Philadelphia by the late President 
Jefferson, were from Green Briar County ; they were found buried 
two or three feet deep in the saltpetre earth of a cavern, and are 
still in excellent preservation, completely fossilized and very dense 
and heavy. 

The fossil Saurians promise to make a considerable figure in the 
geology of this country. Bones of a fossil crocodile and a vertebra 
ofa plesiosaurus, have been found in the marl pits of New Jersey— 
and fragments supposed to be those of an Ichthyosaurus, near the 
Yellow Stone and Missouri Rivers. Teeth and probably a fe- 
mur of the Mososaurus have been found in a marl pit near Wood- 
bury, N.J., anda tooth and part of the jaw of the Geosaurus at 
Monmouth, N. J. A new genus, the Saurocephalus from Missouri, _ 
was described by Dr. Harlan about ten years since, (Jour. Acad. 

Vou. XXVIL—No. 2. 45 ue 


354 Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. 


Phil. Vol. UI, p. 331, pl. xii.—1824); a distinct species of this 
genus discovered by Mr. Lea ina marl pit n New Jersey, was 
named by Dr. Hays, Saurocephalus Leanus, and he had also call- 
ed it Saurodon. 

Dr. Harlan has named a new Saurian Basilosaurus; it was found 
on the banks of the Washita or Ouachita river, Louisiana. (Amer. 
Philos. 'Trans., Vol. 1V. New series, p. 297, pl. XX.—1834. 

One of the vertebre weighs forty four pounds, and is fourteen in- 
ches long by seven broad. Allowing the animal sixty six vertebra, 
like the Plesiosaurus, Dr. Harlan estimates the weight of the skel- 
eton as being over two tons, and that the individual must have been 
from eighty to one hundred feet in length. Its geological position 
was in the Atlantic tertiary. 'To the localities of fossil fish quoted 
from Professor Hitchcock, and cited by Dr. Harlan, we can add one 
at Southbury, Ct. twenty four miles north west of New Haven. We 
saw but a single specimen ; it was from a bituminous shale in a basin 
of six or eight miles in diameter, of red sandstone, sustaining ridges 
of trap, and surrounded by primitive rocks. 

5. Professor Del Rio’s Critique on the Mineralogy of Mr. 
C. U. Shepard.—Upon this subject we shall make no remarks, as 
Mr. Shepard has spoken for himself in the present number, in a dis- 
tinct article. 

Professor Rio’s: Observations on the conversion of sulphuret of 
silver into native silver may be read with advantage and instruction. 

6. Notice of the gigantic mastodon, the elephant, and the megal- 
onyx jeffersonii in Tennessee, by Professor G. ‘Troost. 

Numerous bones of the Mastodon were found about eleven miles 
south east of Nashville imbedded in a rich black mould, resting on 
a stiff ferruginous loam which the bones partly penetrated; the 
bones are in general pretty sound, and very heavy, being impregna- 
ted by hydrated oxide of iron. There were vertebra of at least 
two individuals. 

Another skeleton was lene near the same plape a few years ago 
about six feet under ground. 

Dr. Troost has a tooth found near r Dandridge i in East Tennessee, 
and still another with a part of the jaw bone attached: this was iin 
the vicinity of Natchez. 

Molar teeth of the extinct elephant have been found in Tennessee. 

Bones, supposed to be those of the megalonyx, have been found 
in a salt-petre cave in ‘Tennessee. 


The Izuanodon in the sands of the chalk. 355 


Mr. Thomas G. Clemson, (whose skilful analyses have several 
times appeared in this Journal,) has analyzed a copper ore from 
Flemmington, N. J. and finds it to consist of copper .540, iron 
.134, insoluble matter .082, sulphur .244=1000. 

In concluding our citations from this important volume, we take 
the liberty to remark, that a spirit of courtesy and forbearance tow- 
ards those who may differ from us, or who perchance may have 
committed errors to which all are liable, and from which few are ex~ 
empt, forms, in our view, a bright ornament of scientific and literary 
labor. We regret to see any indications of an opposite spirit, in a 
city not less distinguished for courtesy, than for science, and whose 
very name rebukes every thing unamiable. The present volume, ex~ 
cellent as it is, contains an article which proves that the most acute 
may err, and that it is better frankly to retract an error once commit- 
ted, than to attempt its perpetuation in the face of decisive eviden ce. 

We:confess also, that we have great reverence for the ancient 
maxim, nil de mortuis nisi bonum. 


Arr. XXIV.—Notice of the discovery of the remains of the Ig- 
uanodonin the Lower Green Sand Formation of the South-east 
of England. Communicated for this Journal, by Gioron Man- 
TELL, Esq. F. R.S. LL. D., &c. &c. of Brighton, England. 


Matstone one of the most beautiful and important towns in the 
county of Kent, is situated on the banks of the river Medway, about 
thirty five miles S. E. of London. The immediate subsoil of the 
district is a rich diluvial loam, in which bones and teeth of the horse, 
deer, and elephant have been discovered. 'This loam overlies and 
conceals extensive beds of limestone and sandstone; but in many 
places the loam has been removed, and quarries opened for extract- 
ing the stone which is principally employed in architecture and for 
road-making; the calcareous varieties being converted into lime.— 
This arenaceous limestone is well known in England by the provin- 
cial term of “ Kentish Rag.” In a quarry of this kind, situated at 
a short distance to the south-west of the town, some laborers em- 
ployed in extracting the stone, observed numerous fragments of 
bones in the ruins of a large mass which they had just blasted tom 


306 The Izwanodon in tie sands of the chalk. 


pieces, and upon this fact being made known to the proprietor of the 
quarry, Mr. Binsted, that gentleman directed all the portions to be 
collected together and carefully preserved, and finally succeeded in 
replacing the greater part of the block. He then proceeded to 
chisel away the surrounding stone, until he had exposed those bones 
which were superficially situated. The story of the discovery of 
the bones of an antediluvian giant quickly spread abroad, and an im- 
perfect notice of the circumstance found its way into the London 
papers ; curiosity was thus awakened, and many of the gentry of 
the neighborhood fiocked to Mr. Binsted’s house to see this so cal- 
led “homo diluvii testis; but among his numerous visiters, Mr. 
Binsted could find no one capable of giving him any satisfactory ex- 
planation.of the nature of these remains, or probable conjecture as 
to the kind of animal to which they belonged. He therefore ad- 
dressed a letter to Mr. Mantell of Brighton, (late of Castle Place, 
Lewes,) and: informed that gentleman of such particulars as an in- 
telligent person, unacquainted with comparative anatomy, could com- 
municate. When the specimen was still further cleared, Mr. Man- 
tell visited Maidstone, and proceeded to a scientific investigation of 
these interesting remains. 

They consist of’ the greater ciunsbak of the bones of the posterior 
portion of the skeleton of a reptile of enormous magnitude, distrib- 
uted without. any order or regularity in the stone, scarcely any two 
of them being in juxta-position: they are much broken and splinter- 
ed, but are not water-worn. ‘The stone in which they are imbedded 
is an arenaceous limestone, that abounds in the usual marine shells of 
the lower green sand strata, namely, Trigonie, Turritelle, Ger- 
vile, Ammonites, teeth of fishes, &c. The following bones 
were sufficiently developed at the time of Mr. Mantell’s visit to ad- 
mit of being determined; and there were many others that were 
only partially exposed, but which may hereafter be brought to light. 

Two femurs or thigh-bones: one so entire as to show both ex- 
tremities, and also indications of a process or lesser trochanter, situ- 
ated on the ¢ibzal aspect of the shaft of the bone. Length thirty 
three inches. : } 

A tibia, about thirty inches long. 

Fragment of a fibula, lying near the tibia. 

Several metatarsal or phalangeal bones. 


The Iguanodon in the sands of the chalk. 357 


Two unguical or claw-bones, somewhat of a flattened form, and 
bepmabling: those of a land tortoise. The largest is. four inches i in 
length, and two and a half inches wide at the base. 

Fragments of large flat bones, which may probably belong to the 
pelvis. 

Vertebre both caudal and lumbar; these are of the usual fossil 
saurian type, having both faces slightly depressed. The largest 
vertebre are very greatly flattened by compression. 

Numerous portions of ribs; one possesses a double termination 
like that of the fifth rib of the crocodile. 

A portion of one tooth, and the impression of another, Reenenly 
of the Igwanodon. 

One binky, twenty eight inches long, similar to that figured on the 
clavicle of the Iguanodon, in the Geology of the south-east of 
England, Plate IV. figs. 1,2; a portion of another bone of the same 
kind is also partially exposed. 

With the exception of the unguical bones, all those above enume- 
rated resemble those of the Iguanodon, which have been dug up in 
Tilgate Forest; and the circumstance of the teeth being imbedded 
with the bones, serves to confirm the inferences that have been dedu- 
ced from the previous discoveries of detached portions of the skele- 
ton. It is not a little remarkable that no traces of the jaws of the 
Iguanodon have been observed ; sooner or later, however, as M. 
Cuvier remarked in a letter to Mr. Mantell, “il est impossible qu’on 
ne trouve pas un jour, une partie du squellette reunie a des portions 
de machoires portant des dents.” 

Mr. Mantell estimates the probable length of the individual whose 
remains are above described, at about seventy five feet. 


POSTSCRIPT. 


To rue epiror.— Dear Sir—-As none of the specimens are figured 
to which I alluded in my late communications, I enclose a few sketch- 
es in outline. The caudal vertebra, briefly described in Geol. Suss. 
p- 333, are probably of the Hyleosaurus, you will at once be struck 
with the enormous height and size of the spinous processes, and 


398 The Iguanodon in the sands of the chalk. 


length of the. chevron bones; Fig. 1, represents these six caudal 
vertebre in connexion, and having three chevron bones, from the end 
of which, as they lie in the drawing, to the top of the spinous pro- 
cesses, is twenty seven inches. The original must have had a very 
upright and thin tail, enormously high in a vertical direction, and as 
the vertebi, when in place, could have but little intervertebral sub- 
stance, the spinous processes must have almost touched each other, 
and the tail have admitted of motion only laterally. I know of no 
reptile with such enormous spinous processes. 


Fig. 1. 


The Izuanodon in the sands of the chalk. 359 


Fig. 2, represents one of the four enormous caudal vetebre of the 
Iguanodon, one fourth the size of the original, of which I have an 
interesting specimen consisting of four caudal vertebre with one 
chevron bone ; the largest vertebra is twenty four inches in circum- 
ference: these vertebre belonged about the middle of the tail of the 
Iguanodon: if the vertebre in this part were eight inches in diame- 
ter, what would they have been when invested with their muscles 
and integuments, and we may well exclaim—what a monster! 


Fig. 2. 


Fig. 3. This represents the thigh bone of the Iguanodon, which 
is very peculiar ; the two processes or trochanters are most remark- 
able: do we know any thing like them? The cleft between the 


360 The Iguanodon in the sands of the chalk. 


anterior part of the condyles is very narrow, as if for the passage of 
a very strong tendon. The original was, thirty three inches long ; 
a, is the trochanter major—, the trochanter minor. 


Fig. 3. 


LZ 


Le edddddddiilid 


YY: f 
yy | 
NBG \ | 
Nf , ( 
Ae XE . 
\Z eZ 
Ly a 


The pointed figures represent the claw-bone of the Maidstone 
Iguanodon, which is here exhibited laterally and anteriorly ; it is the 
smaller of the two specimens. You will perceive how much it dif- 
fers from the unguical bone represented in Geol. S. E. of England. 
This one is more like the nail-bone of the foot of a tortoise. Ifthe 
Maidstone animal were furnished with such bones to all its claws, itmay 
belong to a different species to that of Tilgate For- 


est: or the Iguanodon may have had flat claw-bones CS 
to the hind feet, and curved ones to the fore feet. oat 


Microlite, a New Mineral Species. 361 


Art. XXV.—Microlite, a New Mineral Species; by Cuartes 
U. Sueparp, Lecturer on Natural History in Yale College. 


Primary form. Regular octahedron. 

Secondary forms. 1. The primary with its edges truncated.— 
2. The primary with its edges truncated, and its angles replaced by 
four planes resting on the primary planes. 

Cleavage. Imperfect, parallel with the primary faces. In other 
directions, there is conchoidal fracture passing to uneven. Surface 
of the primary faces generally dull; those of the trapezohedron, 
also; dodecahedral planes too minute for observation. 

Lustre resinous. Color straw-yellow to reddish brown. Trans- 
parent to translucent. Streak white, except when the color of the 
mineral is brown ; it then resembles the color. 

Brittle. Hardness=5:5. Sp. gr.=4-75...5°00. 


Observations. 


1. Alone, before the blow-pipe, it remains unaltered. It is slowly 
dissolved in glass of borax, to which it communicates a yellow color, 
which grows paler on cooling, but remains transparent unless subjec- 
ted to flaming, when it instantly becomes nebulous, and presents on- 
cooling, aspale yellow enamel. It is not readily acted upon by car- 
bonate of soda, at least in the mass. 

2. This mineral, named in allusion to the diminutive size of its 
crystals, from pxgos small, attracted my attention many years since ; 
and a specimen of Albite from Chesterfield, (Mass.) has been pre- 
served in my cabinet on account of its presenting a portion of the 
pyramid of this substance, which, however, I had suspected, prin- 
cipally on account of its color, to be Zircon. Having lately been 
called to examine it anew, I perceived that the inclination of the 
faces indicated a regular octahedron, instead of an octahedron with 
asquare base, as its system of crystallization. 'The crystal was ac- 
cordingly freed from its gangue, when I instantly recognized it to 
have the figure of modification 2, in the above description. The 
size of the crystal was about ;', of an inch in diameter, and it 
weighed 0°4 of a grain. I immediately examined other specimens 
of the Chesterfield rock in my possession, and had no difficulty in 
discovering a number of crystals, all of which were smaller, dis- 
seminated through the Albite, and rarely imbedded in the Tourma- 

Vol. XXVII.—No. 2. 46 


362 Microlite, a New Mineral Species. 


line. From among them, I selected an exceedingly minute, transpa- 
rent, yellow crystal, whose faces were sufficiently brilliant to afford 
me its angles with the reflecting goniometer. It uniformly gave the 
inclination of faces united by edges=109° 30’. 

3. The specific gravity was determined by means of two of the larg- 
est crystals I could obtain, one of which was that first observed, and 
the other, smaller, by 0-1 of a grain. The water was at 60° F., and 
the balances so delicate as to oscillate on the addition of 0:01 of a 
gram. The largest crystal gave the Sp. Gr.=5-00; the. smallest 
=4:75. 

4. Its place in the natural system, if the specific gravity can be 
relied on, is within the genus 'Tungstic-Baryte, whose limits of hard- 
ness are 4:0...5°5, and those of specific gravity are 4°5...6°1; and its 
specific designation will therefore be, Octahedral Tungstic-Baryte. 

5. The only substance with which the Microlite can be brought 
into comparison, of which we have any mineralogical account is the 
Phosphate of Yttria, of Brrzze.ius,* the Xenotime of Beupant,t 
which according to the observations of Harpinenr, belongs to the 
pyramidal system of Mous, and moreover possesses hardness=4°6... 
5:0, and Sp. gr.=4:557. It is therefore sufficiently excluded from 
coalescence with this species. : 

6. I have additional pleasure in bringing forward the present min- 
eral, from the persuasion that every mineralogist has but to examine 
his specimens from Chesterfield, to find it already in his cabinet. 1 
would apprise such as search for it, however, that the naked eye is 
not always sufficient for its discovery ; the microscope will generally 
have to be employed; and the most likely part of the specimen to 
meet with it, will be the line of junction between the vein of smoky 
Quartz, (which contains the Tourmaline,) and the Albite. 

7. My next visit to the locality will, I trust, supply me with 
specimens sufficient to attempt a more detailed chemical examination 
of it than is contamed im the present notice, and which is barely ad- 
equate to furnish the conjecture, that its principal ingredient is ovide 
of cerium. 


*x Kongl. Vetenskaps Acad. Handlingar for 1824, p.334, and Poggendorf’s An- 
nalen der Physik, 1825. I. p. 203. 
+ Traité elementaire de Mineralogie, II. p. 552. 


On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) 363, 


Arr. XXVI.—On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) with a 
Notice of the Limestone Cavern in the same place ; by Cuares 
U. Sueparp, Lecturer on Natural History in Yale College. 

Tue announcement of Strontianite in the last number of this 
Journal, (p. 182.) has probably excited the wish for farther inforrha- 
tion relating to its mode of occurrence. During the absence of 
Prof. Smiuman last autumn, I was entrusted with the care of pub- 
lishing Dr. Emmons’ letter, and took advantage of his suggestion to 
the Editor to make application to Mr. Bonny of Schoharie, for the 
circumstances respecting the locality of the Strontianite, and for il- 
lustrative specimens ; in consequence of which, I have received two 
communications, each accompanied by a case of minerals, from 
whence the following particulars concerning the mineral in question, 
are derived. The account of Ball’s Cave is abstracted from a news- 
paper communication, also forwarded by Mr. Bonny.* 

From Mr. Bonny’s first letter, dated Schoharie Court Tease 
Sept. 7, 1834, I make the following extract: ‘Your favor, dated 
August 30th, was duly received, and agreeably to your request, I 
have put up a box containing all the varieties yet discovered, to- 
gether with a draft by Mr. Jounn Gesuarn, jr. showing as nearly as 
possible, the locality and situation of the rocks in its vicinity.” 

The place described, is situated a quarter of a mile east of the 
Court House. The following remarks are capable of giving an idea 
of the subject, approximatively correct, without the diagram. 

Ist. stratum, twenty five to thirty feet in thickness, consists of 
shelly limerock, and contains the Asaphus, Orthoceratites, Spirifer, — 
Terebratula, &c. 

Qnd. stratum, one to two see in thickness, consists of clay-slate, 
and contains the Lily, and Stag’s horn, Encrinite. 

3rd. stratum, five feet in dhicleneaa, ita pe of stratified limerock, 
containing Asaphus. 


4th. stratum, ten feet in thickness, consists of a similar rock, but 
destitute of Asaphus. 


* Iregret that the letters of Mr. Bonny do not enable me to give the names of 
the first discoverers of these interesting localities, in such a manner, as to do those 
persons complete justice. I therefore leave it for Mr. Bonny, or some other indi- 
vidual on the spot, to acknowledge in a future communication (and which, I trust 
will supply all other deficiences of this,) their meritorious services. 


364 On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) 


5th. stratum, ten feet in thickness, consists of a dull argillaceous 
limestone, which resembles, (judging from the specimens sent,) the 
water-limerock. It is without fossils, but contains the Strontianite, 
and its associated mmerals. : 

6th. stratum, five to ten feet in thickness, consists of a compact 
limestone, and contains F'avocites. 

The base of the ledge is strewed over with debris, and the whole 
formation is bottomed on a siliceous limestone destitute of organic re- 
mains. 

Without attempting to pronounce upon the geological age of the 
rocks above enumerated, whose period however, is not encumbered 
with much doubt, from the fossils mentioned, I shall confine myself 
to a description of the varieties of the Strontianite, which, on account 
of the widely different appearances. they, assume, are with some dif- 
‘ficulty recognized. 

The most obvious variety is that in acicular crystals, and massive 
in long, straight, divergent individuals. It occurs, occupying irregu- 
lar cavities, from half an inch, to several inches across; the crystals 
and fibrous masses being implanted upon a dark blue Calcareous Spar 
which is granular in large individuals, or crystallized in obscure sca- 
lene ee whose apexes are replaced by three, six, nine or 
twelve faces. The envelope of Calcareous Spar is sometimes of 
considerable thickness, and is itself often included within a layer of 
Heavy Spar, massive in large lamellar individuals, some of which 
penetrate the Calcareous Spar. But the Strontianite constantly 
reposes upon the latter mineral. ‘The crystals are often three quar- 
ters of an inch in length, and from the diameter of a pin to that of 
‘ahair. The aggregated, columnar individuals frequently exhibit at 
the extremity where they diverge most, crystalline faces. Some of 
these fibrous aggregations are two inches in length, and bear a stri- 
king resemblance to certain varieties of Arragonite. Minute erys- 
tals of Iron Pyrites, crystallized in the form of the pentagonal do- 
decahedron, are scattered here and there through the Strontianite and 
Calcareous Spar. The color of the Strontianite is white, or slightly 
tinged with grey or blue; and it is semi-transparent or translucent. 

A second variety quite different in general appearance from the 
first, and one which I should imagine, does not occur at the same 
place with that above described, is massive, indistinctly lamellar, and 
approaching to impalpable. Color, milk white, rarely with a deli- 
cate and almost imperceptible shade of green. ‘This variety occurs 


On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) 365 


in veins, from a quarter of an inch, to two inches wide, and is em- 
braced directly by clayey limestone. Rarely, it is traversed by 
large lamelle of Heavy Spar, which are easily distinguishable by 
their crystalline texture. Very small quantities of Calcareous Spar 
attend this variety occasionally, but it is not of a blue color. The 
circumstances of its deposition appear to have been different from 
thoseof the first variety. ‘The two varieties described were forward- 
ed in the first box. 

A third and more interesting variety came in the second box, of 
which Mr. Bonny remarks, that it was discovered since the date of his 
first letter. From the specimens before me, it appears to form a vein 
of considerable size, the mass of which resembles the last variety in 
structure and color, as well as in being traversed occasionally by 
lamelle of Heavy Spar. But upon one side of the masses, tabular 
erystals of Strontianite single and compound, an inch in length, and 
one third of an inch wide, are thickly implanted on a surface of 
transparent crystals of Calcareous Spar. ‘The Calcareous Spar is 
in large crystals of the form of the metatastique. ‘The Strontianite 
is partially coated by a white powder, as if it were suffering decompo- 
sition,* and the crystals of Calcareous Spar are covered completely 
by little fissures and cavities, where the Strontianite once penetrated 
them. It is observable however, that the large crystals af Strontian- 
ite still remaining are connected among themselves, as also to the 
mass of massive Strontianite below. Small transparent crystals of 
Quartz are also disseminated through the Calcareous Spar, but no 
Iron Pyrites is present. Figure 1, represents the form of these 
crystals. o on o= 160°. lt will te observed that the edge be- 
tween these faces corresponds to P, or the terminal plane of the 
primary prism ; while the horizontal edge between c ¢ corresponds to 


M of the same figure. 


* s, Che oula suggestion shat offers iiself to my. wind in explanation.of thisdneny only suggestion that offers itself to my mind in explanation of this incip- 
ient decomposition is, that sulphuric acid may have been produced from the oxyd- 
ation of the sulphur in the Iron Pyrites, and have formed a slight coating of sul- 
phate of strontita upon the crystals of the Strontianite. 


366 On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) 


The compound crystals, (and they are nearly all such) are 
represented by fig. 2. ‘The face of composition is apparently par- 
allel with the vertical edges between c and ¢, fig. 1. ‘The individuals 
project beyond the face of composition only on one side; but the 
composition is very often repeated in parallel lamine. 

Still another variety of Strontianite comes, apparently from the 
same place. It occurs in cavities or geodes, surrounded by blueish 
Calcareous Spar, but without the Heavy Spar ; and offers the largest 
and the best pronounced crystals I have yet seen. ‘The form of the 
most perfect is represented by fig. 3, though planes ¢ ¢ are rarely 
very distinct. ‘They are an inch in length, (in the direction of the 
edge between a a,) and nearly half an inch in thickness: celor, ‘blu- 
ish or reddish grey; translucent. Surface, P is streaked parallel 
with its edge of combination with o. The inclination of a to a=120° 
and that of ato P=120°. I have not seen cavities containing 
above four or five of these crystals at once. 

The most singular crystallization, and one most likely to be over- 
looked from the smallness of the crystals, and their want of lustre, 
is that in octahedra with rectangular bases, the longer edges of the 
base being to the shorter as five to one. The smaller pyramidal fa- 
ces, I take to be the lateral planes of the primary form, and the broad- 
er ones to be the secondary faces, arising from the truncation of the 
oblique angles of the primary crystal. ‘These crystals vary in length 
from + to } of an inch, are dull, greyish white, and with rough faces, 
often covered by crystals of Iron Pyrites. They are so thickly 
disseminated through the clayey limerock as to form two thirds of 
its mass, and render it very difficult of fracture. The form of its 
crystal can scarcely be detected, except at the surface of those 
masses which have been weathered, when their rough and dull faces 
appear, resembling the crystals of Fontainbleau Limestone. - 

The last and the most interesting variety, if we consider the am- 
biguity its determimation presents, and the immense quantity in 
which it exists, is the milk-white, massive variety. Mr. Bonny en- 
closed a large sample in his second case, accompanying it with the 
label “Marble. In great quantities. From the gravity I think it 
is Sulphate of Barytes.” 4 was certainly natural from its color to 
call it Marble, and from its weight to suspect it to be Heavy Spar.— 
And I confess I should have been slow to pronounce it Strontianite, 
except that the cleavage indications of Heavy Spar and of Celestine 
were both wanting, and that it closely resembled a massive variety, 


On the Strontianite of Schoharie, (N. Y.) 367 


accompanying the compound crystals above described. It somewhat 
resembles the purest white variety of Petalite, although the parti- 
cles of composition are occasionally arranged in a manner to give a 
broad reflection, and its lustre is more resinous than vitreous. Sp. 
gr.=3'5. 

I could not detect with the microscope the smallest particle of Cal- 
careous Spar, or Heavy Spar, orindeed any other substance, interming- 
led with the mass. But to make sure of the absence of the latter 
mineral, a small fragment was pulverized and introduced into a glass 
flask, upon which dilute muriatic acid was affused. It was immedi- 
ately dissolved with effervescence, without leaving the slightest res- 
idue.* 

The letter of Mr. Bonny, informs me that he has been acquaint- 
ed with this locality about three years, and that it is distant two 
miles from the Court House. I consider it an important discovery, 
inasmuch as it promises to afford to the experimental chemist an 
abundant supply of this hitherto rare earth; for although the Celes- 
tine is not difficult to obtain, yet the déahle of procuring from it the 
strontita in a soluble form is so great, as very much to abridge it use 
in chemistry. And besides, I think it may furnish a very beauti- 
ful alabaster ; at least, one quite suitable to combine with the hand- 
some, and quite unique variety of Heavy Spar of Jefferson county, - 
ANG ¥.). 4 

A fibrous Heavy Spar in delicate, creed fibres about half or three 
quarters of an inch long, forming veins, has been known from Schoharie 
for many years. Mr. Bonny informs me that it was not discovered 
in place until about three years ago. 'The deposit exists in a blu- 
ish slate beneath the limestone. . It is said to be very abundant. 
The spot is seven miles north of the Court House. 

The same place likewise affords veins of Arragonite, very liable to 
be confounded with the Heavy Spar. The fibres have about the 
same diameter, but double the length. They exhibit more lustre, 
however, and possess,a Sp. gr.=2°92. 

Among the samples of Strontianite, I noticed also, a bluish Heavy 
Spar in fibres like those above described, and bearing a strong resem- 
blance to the fibrous Celestine of Jena.+ 


* The solution was evaporated to dryness, alcohol added, and the solution in- 
flamed: it afforded the characteristic red flame of strontita. 

t As these fibres instantly separated on being immersed in water, I could not 
take its specific gravity with convenience, and in order to insure its correct deter- 


368 Ball’s Cave. 


Very handsome crystals of Iron Pyrites were contained in Mr. 
Bonny’s box, which he informs me have been known for many 
years as occurring ata place one mile from the Court House, in 
bluish clay and limestone. ‘They are in single crystals of the form 
of the pentagonal dodecahedron, and in compound crystals forming 
globular masses coated by small crystals. 

The same neighborhood also affords narrow seams of purple Flu- 
or, embraced between layers of Calcareous Spar. 


Notice or Batu’s Cave, Scuonarin, (N. Y.) 


The first intimation of the existence of the cave was derived from 
Mr. Batt, upon whose land it occurs. He had observed a conical 
depression in the soil to the depth of twelve feet, which terminated in 
an irregular, perpendicular fissure in the lime rock, ten feet in length 
and six in breadth. In September, 1831, Mr. Joun Gesuarp, a 
gentleman to whom the taste for Mineralogy and Geology in his 
neighborhood appears to be principally due, in company with Mr. 
Husearp and Mr. Brancu made arrangements for ascertaining the 
extent of the cavern. ‘The two latter gentleman were lowered by 
topes down a perpendicular descent to the distance of seventy five 
feet ; where the opening assumed an oblique direction to the south, 
although it still continued somewhat precipitous. Having disenga- 
ged themselves from the ropes, and prepared the necessary lights, 
they descended about fifty five feet, through a passage varying in 
width from four to ten feet. Here the descent became perpendicu- 
lar for fifteen feet, after which they proceeded, as before, about thirty 
feet, when ‘they reached the bottom. ‘The cavern here is only 
about ten feet in width, but of great height, on one side of which is 
a small stream of pure and limpid water, running in a southerly di- 
rection. Passing under an arch so low as scarcely to enable them 
to stand upright, they followed the stream about twenty feet, when 
they penetrated by an opening just large enough to admit a man of 
ordinary size, into an apartment twenty feet in diameter, and above 
one hundred, in height. Its sides were covered by crystalline 
masses of Calcareous Spar and the roof by stalactites, dripping 
with water. The effect of the torches upon this apartment is de- 


mination, Prof. Srutmman was kind enough to subject a fragment to the action of 
the compound blow-pipe; the result of which was, that it gave the color of baryta, 
unattended by the slightest tinge of red. 


Balli’s Cave. 369 


scribed as being very brilliant. The skeletcn of a fox (as it is 
supposed) was subsequently found in this place; it must have 
fallen through the opening above and found its way here, where it 
probably perished from hunger. Leaving this apartment, they pur- 
sued the course of the stream for about twenty eight feet, through 
an opening from eight to ten feet in width, when their progress was 
checked by a considerable body of water, into which the brook emp- 
tied. These adventurers were now compelled to return to the sur- 
face. 

In October, the investigation was renewed by Mr. Grsuarp, De 
Foster and Mr. Bonny, who had prepared: a boat to navigate the 
water which had checked the progress of the first expedition. Fix- 
ing a light upon the prow, they commenced their voyage by, passing 
through an arched passage in the rock so low as not to admit of their 
standing erect in the boat. Having proceeded about fifty feet ina 
southerly direction, they altered their course to the left around an 
angle in the rocky passage, and fuund themselves in water about 
thirty feet in depth, and so limpid that the smallest object might be 
seen at the bottom. The course of the water was varied by the pro- 
jections of the passage, which gradually expanded to twenty feet in 
width, being of a height sometimes not discoverable, and at others 
only sufficient to enable them to pursue their way. They thus pro- 
ceeded about three hundred feet, when they arrived at a rugged 
shelving ascent, on the right shore of the lake, and beneath which its 
waters disappeared. Leaving the boat, they landed upon this slo- 
ping ascent, and advancing twenty feet, they entered an aperture in 
the rock resembling a door, when they found themselves within an 
amphitheatre, perfectly regular and circular in form. Its diameter 
is one hundred feet, and its height is supposed to be still greater. 
The floor descends on all sides gradually to its centre, while the roof 
is apparently horizontal. Its walls are described as rich in stalacti- 
tic decorations. Great numbers of bats, disturbed by the intrusion 
of the adventurers, were seen flying about the cavern. 

Subsequent visits led to the discovery of five additional apart- 
ments, communicating with the amphitheatre, all of which however 
are small, and none remarkable, excepting one in which the circula- 
tion of currents of air or of water, or probably of both, produces sounds 
like the AXolian harp. 

Returning to the lake, where the adventurers landed, it was noti- 
ced that upon the north side of the perpendicular a5 iss to the 

Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 47 


370 Ball’s Cave. 


amphitheatre, there existed a low and narrow aperture, through 
which a small stream issued. ‘The opening above the surface of the 
water was only fourteen inches high ; but its dimensions were seen to 
be greater within. A boat was constructed to suit this opening, through 
which it was pushed containing a single person in a recumbent pos- 
ture. After a few feet, the passage enlarged enough to allow the 
navigator to assume an upright position; and he proceeded to the 
distance of a quarter of a mile, the width of the passage varying 
from, five to twenty feet. Here the water was thirty feet in depth, 
and losing sight of the light he had left at the commencement of his 
voyage, in consequence of a turn in the passage, he advanced'in a 
new direction for about sixty feet, when he encountered a semicir- 
cular dam of calcareous tufa, over which the water broke with a slight 
ripple. Drawing his boat over the obstruction, he proceeded as be- 
fore, when he soon meta similar barrier. In this manner he passed 
fourteen of these dams, which varied in height from two to twelve 
inches above the surface of the water. The obstructions being passed, 
he soon reached the extremity of the water, where quitting the boat, 
he entered a low and narrow passage, which soon became connected 
with a spacious room, at least fifty feet square.. ‘The rock is repre- 
sented as here passing into a kind of sreywacke, in consequence of 
which few incrustations were visible in ‘this apartment. ‘The floor 
was covered by large masses of rocks, which had been apparently 
precipitated from the roof; and the sound ofa distant waterfall, was 
heard from this place. 

The foregoing sketch describes the extent of this interesting cav- 
ern so far as it is yet known. The apartments, have been subjected 
to examination agreeably to the method of Dr. Bucxianp, but with- 
out leading to any discoveries, similar to those of the Kirkdale cay- 
ern. In addition to the columnar and stalactitic varieties of Calca- 
reous Spar,, Arragonite is said to have been found in some parts of 
‘the cave. . 


Miscellanies. 371 


MISCELLANIES. 
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 


_ 1. Observations on the Genus Unio, together with descriptions 
of new genera and species in the Families, Naiades, Conche, 
Colimacea, Lymneana, Melaniana and Peristomiana, with colored 
plates; by Isaac Lea.—The present splendid memoir is intended 
to conclude the series, which, in 1827 began to appear in the 
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Its contents 
sufficiently evince, that Mr. Lea, to whom American ‘naturalists 
appear very judiciously to have consigned this extraordinary genus 
in conchology, did by no means exhaust his subject, when in the 
last previous contribution, he carried the list of indigenous species 
to seventy four.* We are now to follow him in the annunciation 
of the following new species, to which we shall simply append their 
habitat. 4 
Unio capillaris. Ohio. 
sub-globosus. Bayou Teche. La. 
capseformis. Cumberland River. 
Ravenelianus. French Broad River, N.C. 
Haysianus.. Cumberland River. 
. Hildrethianus. Near Marietta, O. 
» Schoolcraftensis. Fox River. Green Bay. 
geometricus. Bayou Teche. La. 
Taitianus. Alabama River. 
globosa. Ohio River. 
Cooperianus. do. 
Conradicus. 
Sowerbianus. ‘Tennessee. 
dromas. Harpeth River, Tennessee. 
Troostensis. Cumberland River.. 
perdix. Harpeth River. 
pictus. do. 
Shepardianus. Altamaha River, near Darien. 
fulvus. South Carolina. 
modioliformis. Santee Canal, S. C. 
Kirtlandicus. Mahoning, O. 


*For anotice of the memoir referred to, see Vol. xxiv. p- 169. et seq. of this 
work. 


372 Miscellanies. 


Unio Nashvillianus. Cumberland River. 
Blandingianus. St. Johns, Florida. 
camelus.’ Ohio River. 
Grifithianus. South Carolina. 
confertus. Santee Canal. 


* 
‘ 


They amount to twenty six, in all;—thus carrying the number 
of American Uniones to the round number of One Hundred and 
presenting us with a singular coincidence in American botany, with 
the genus Carex, where the described species is also about one hun- 
dred; and where the difficulty of distinction is quite analogous. 

Mr. Lea has also described the following foreign species of Unio: 


VIZ. ; 
Unio Nicklinianus. China. 
Murchinsonianus. do. 


parallelopipedon. River Parana, South America, 


lacteolus. Rio de la Ete 
emarginatus. 

dwaricatus. Egypt. 

Corrianus. India. 

Grayanus. China. 
Burroughianus. River Parana. 
Paranensis. do. 


We likewise enumerate the species of other genera belonging to 


the Naiades, brought forward in the present paper. 
Symphynota globosa. Ohio River. 
Woodiana. China. 
magnifica. do. 
discotdea. do. 
Benedictensts. Lake Champlain. 
Anodonta Ferussaciana. Ohio River. 
incerta do. 
Stewartiana.. Bayon Teche. La. 
plana. Near Louisville. 
lato-marginata. River Parana. 
Blainvilliana. Chili. 
tenebriosa. River Parana, 
Mortoniana, do. 


Burroughiana. Island Luconia, near Marietta. 


Margaritana Raveneliana. French Broad and Swananoe Rivers, 


N. C. 


Miscellanies. 373 


A very important part of Mr. Lea’s memoir is formed by his re- 
marks upon the specimens in the Parisian cabinets, which afforded 
Lamarcx the characters for the species of the Naiades in his His- 
toire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertébres. It is universally al- 
lowed that no parts of the writings of the great naturalist whose 
labors are here criticised, are so unintelligible as those relating to the 
present family. Swarnson has said, that “ although Lamarcx has 
described so many (species,) the short descriptions he has given 
and the want of figures to illustrate them, render it impossible to 
determine accurately, one half the species which he has enumera- 
ted.” Nor does it appear surprising that this should be the case 
when it is recollected, that his materials were wholly inadequate for 
the task, and moreover that he labored under a distressing ij oni 
mja while engaged in this part of his labors. 

The observations of Mr. Lra, therefore, made, as they appear to 
be with much candor, and with a proper regard for the reputation of 
of the deceased conchologist, will be thankfully received by every - 
cultivator of this department of Zoology. We shall present them 
in the utmost brevity. 

Unio sinuata. Kuen first called it crassissima. 

U. elongata. The true Mya margaritifera of Linnzus. It 
inhabits the north of Europe. 

U. crassidens. 1s the cuneatus of Barnes. var. a is the tra- 
pezoides of Lea. crassidens will have precedence of cuneatus. 

U. Perwiana. The plicatus of Say. . 

U. purpurata. Lamarck supposed the specimen to have come 
from Africa, but it probably came from New Orleans. The ater of 
Lea coincides with the Peruviana. 

U. ligamentina. The crassus of Say. 


U. obliqua. The undatus of Barnes. 

U. retusa. The ,torsus of RaFInesQuE. 

U. rarisuleata. The complanatus of SouanvER. 

U. coarctata. do. 

U. purpurascens. do. 

U. radiata. The true radiatus. 

U. brevialis. The resemblance to the U. littoralis is so great 


that Mr. Lea: thinks the shell came from Europe, and not from the 
Isle of France. 

U. rhombula. A young individual of the complanatus of 
SoLanDER, and from the United States. 


374 Misceilanies. 


U. carinifera. The complanatus also. 

U.e Georgina: \y.-., do: 

U. clava, The scalenia of Raviesque, and the modioliformis 
of Say. 

U. recta. The praelongus of Barnes: recta, therefore, has 
precedence. 

U. naviformis. The cylindricus of Say, whose name has 
precedence. 

U. glabrata. The complanatus. 

U. nasuta. - A young specimen of the gzbbosus of Barnes. 
It is not the same with the nasutus of Say. As Lamarcr described 
the shell before Barnas, he has a claim for the species ; but having 
employed a name already applied in the genus, he loses it. The 
name.of Barnes must therefore stand. 

U. ovata. The ovatus of Say. var. 6 is supposed to be the 
occidens of Lima. 

U. rotundata. The suborbiculata of Lamarck. The glod- 
ulus. of Say, and the sub-globosus of Lua. 

U. littoralis. The semirugata of Lamarcx from Bagdad, and 
. the incurvus of Lea, from Gibraltar, belong to this species. 
nana. Supposed to be littoralis also. 
delodonta. Suspected to be the lacteolus of Lea. 
sulcidens.. A compressed complanatus from Connecticut River. 
. rostrata. An elongated variety of the pictorum. 

. Batava. This is distinet from pictorum. 

. nodulosa. A young individual of the ovata of Donovan. 
It is a European shell, and Lamarck’s habitat, Lake Champlain, is 
an error. 

U. varicosa. A young specimen of the Alasmadonta mar- 
gimata of Say. 

U. granosa. A true species. 

U. Virginiana. A poor specimen of the radiatus. 

U. luteola, The siliquoides of Barnes. Lamarcx is in error 
respecting the locality. His name has precedence. 

U. angusta. A distinct species. 

U. manca. A pictorum. 

U. cariosa. 'The two specimens described are, the one a bad 
specimen of the cartosus of Say, and the other a bad one of the 
Alasmadonta marginata of Say. One of the habitats, Lake Erie, 
is an error. 


aqqaca 


Miscellanies. 875 


U. spuria and australis do not exist in any cabinets examined 
by Mr. Lea. 

U. anodontina. The marginalis which is found only in India. 

U. suborbiculata. The rotundata. 

Hyria avicularis. This is the Mya syrmatophora of Guexin 
and Dinuentus: avicularis, should therefore, be given up. 

H. corrugata. <A distinct species. 

Anodonta cygnea. The Mytilus cygneus of Linnaeus. 

A. anatina. Resemble the cygnea. . 

A. sulcata. A variety of cygnea. 

A. fragilis. A distinct species. 


A. rubens. Desuayes places it under Iridina. . 
A. crispata. A distinct species. 
A. uniopsis. do. 


A. Pennsylvanica. The undulata of Say and rugosus of Swarn- 
SON. 

A. intermedia. A variety of anqtina. 

A. trapezialis. The giganteus of Spix. 

A. exotica. A distinct species. 


A. glauca. do. 
A. sinuosa. do. 
A. Patagonica. do. * . 
Tridina exotica. do. 


I. Clappertoni. Is a young nilotica. 

The geographical distribution of the Naiades in the United States 
has received the attention of Mr. Lea; and he offers some very in- 
teresting remarks upon this subject. He finds the Alleghanies to 
be a dividing line of the species so perfectly that “it is matter of 
doubt if there be more than two or three species of all the genera 
of this family existing in the eastern waters which have their analo- 
gues in the Western States.”” Respecting the extremities of this 
range, the shells of the River Mohawk and its tributaries, appear to 
be the same with those of the Delaware, Potomac, &c., with the 
exception of the Symphynota compressa Lea and which is also 
found in the Ohio. “'The tributaries of the lakes Erie, Michigan, 
&c., with few exceptions, produce the western species, and conse- 
quently the lakes do also.” Lake Champlain which empties into 
the St. Lawrence contains the Symphynota alata, the Unio occidens 
and the Unio.rectus with other western species. In the southern 
extremity of the Alleghany ridge, where the sources of the rivers 


376 Miscellanies. 


are situated in the high lands of the range, the character of the shells 
of these rivers is completely the same with those of the western wa- 
ters. In respect to the land shells, this law of distribution does not 
hold ; the species of the eastern side being every where equally com- 
mon on the western. ‘‘Ifit be demanded,” says Mr. Lea, “ why 
the lme of demarcation should not be as perfect for terrestrial as flu- 
viatile shells, we might say in answer, that the barrier of a mountain 
could in time be overcome even by the slowly travelling snail. 
Surely in the lapse of time, the progeny of those which accidentally 
began to climb the steeps, might descend into the valleys of the op- 
posite side.” . 

» The memoir contains descriptions also of the following new spe- 
cies (and one new genus) of other families, which we enumerate, 
with their localities: viz. ita 


ConcHua. 


Cyrena rotundata. > 
' Jayensis. Batavia 7 
Woodiana. Canton. 
Aphrodite columba. 
Couimacra. 


Helix muscarum. Society Islands. 
purpuragula. Java? 
ovum-regult. do. 
monodonta. do. 
cyclostomopsts. 
mamulla. 
diaphana. 
Himalana. Himalaya Mountains. 
Vesica. — 
cincta. Java? ° 
Woodiana. Near Canton. 
globula. do. 
Helicina lens. Feejee Islands. 

' pulcherrima. Java. 

virgined. do. 

Achatina Vanuxemensis. Mexico. 
Succinea retusa. ° Ohio. 
Auricula fuscagula. Brazil. 
Cyclostoma striata. Peru. 


Miscellanies. 377 


LyMNEANA. 


Physa elliptica. 

Lymnea acuta. Near Philadelphia. 
exilis. Ohio. 
imperialis. South America. 


Mewaniana. 


Melania aculeus. Java? . 
Melanopsis princeps. Cape of Good Hope. 


maculata. Peru. 
PERISTOMIANA. 


Paludina bi-monilifera. Alabama River. 
Burroughiana. Island of Luconia. 
Georgiana. Hopeton, Georgia. 

Ampullaria Hopetonensis. Hopeton, Georgia. 


CANALIFERA. 


Jo spinosa. Holston River, Virginia. 


Every species described, is accurately figured ; and the drawings are 
rendered as perfect as possible by coloring,—that Mr. Lea cannot 
be accused of not placing the reader in a fair condition to form an 
opinion of the value of his distinctions, as well as of the truth of his 
descriptions. No one, can peruse the work without the conviction 
that it is one of great labor, of nice discrimination and good taste ; 
nor without wishing that other lakes and rivers may send their Nai- 
adian occupants to the author’s cabinet, where their names and 
family claims are likely to be so well determined. 


2. Dr. Morron’s Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the 
Cretaceous Group of the United States, (Ulustrated by 19 plates.) 
8vo. pp. 88. Philadelphia, 1834.—This volume presents an amen- 
ded and more elaborate view of the valuable labors of the above 
named active and acute geologist. The substance of the work was 
communicated to the public, through the medium of the Journal,— 
(Vols. XVII, XVIII, XX, XXIII, and XXIV.) Ofthe pres- 
ent undertaking, the author says, that in consequence of fresh facilities, 
several genera of organic remains are now for the first time noticed 
as occurring on this continent, and it will be observed that many new 
species of 'Testacea have been added to this edition; that he has 

Vol. XX VI.—No. 2, 48 


378 Miscellanies. 


corrected some imaccuracies in the former papers, and that good 
artists have been employed to furnish the accompanying illustrations, 
consisting of one hundred and sixty figures. We give some new 
facts respecting the distribution of the Calcareous strata of the older 
Cretaceous group in Alabama, derived from observations of Mr. 
Conrav. The counties of Pickens, Bibb, Greene, Perry, Dallas, 
Marengo, Wilcox, Lownes, Montgomery, and parts of Clarke, 
Monroe, and Conecuth are composed chiefly of this formation. In 
Clarke county the newer Cretaceous rock predominates. The ol- 
der Cretaceous rock constitutes the long and perpendicular bluff at 
Demopolis, where it has been ascertained by boring, to be five hun- 
dred feet in thickness. The more elevated bluff at ae is composed 
of the same rock, which is well marked by the presence of Pecten 
quinguecostatus, and Exogyra costata. Following the Black War- 
rior river, the Cretaceous rocks terminate a short distance north of 
Erie; and at Tuscaloosa, the bed of the river is formed by red 
| SS atlsiene: and bituminous coal. ‘The Tombeckbe and most of its 
tributaries traverse the Cretaceous formation, although it is believed 
that their sources are situated within the Carboniferous limestone 
supposed to occupy the north-eastern section of Mississippi. ‘The 
counties of the Chickasaws and Choctaws, and indeed by far the 
greater part of the whole state of Mississippi, is to be referred also to 
the Cretaceous group. All the prairies of Alabama and Mississippi 
have -a substratum of the older Cretaceous rock; while the newer 
Cretaceous strata prevail only in the southern portion of Alabama, 
and are never covered with a prairie soil. 

The Nummulite limestone is found near Saggsville, wees it con- 
stitutes the hills. It is porous, or contains spheroidal cavities 
formed from the decomposition of organic remains. These hills oc- 
cur at tervals all the way from Claiborne to the vicinity of Jack- 
son.on the Tombeckbe. On Bassett’s creek one of these hills at- 
fains an elevation of three hundred feet. Myvriads of the Nummu- 
lites Mantelli are scattered over. the surface of this decomposing 
rock. 

We now proceed to indicate briefly, the new species of fossils 
mentioned in this work as well as such as have been more fully de- 
termined since the author’s previous publications. 

The tibia of a bird belonging to ‘the genus ip ai In friable 
ereen marl near Arneytown, N. J. 

Fossil beaks of Sepia. 

Nautilus Alabamensis, near Claiborne, Ala. 


Miscellanies. 379. 


Ammonites Conradi, a beautiful species, externally resembling an 
Argonauta. Prairie Bluff, Ala. 
Ammonites syrtalis, Greene county, Ala. 
Ammonites vespertinus, Arkansaw. 
Baculites columna, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 
carinatus, do. do. 
labyrinthicus, do. do. 
Hamites arculus, Greene county Ala. 
torquatus, do. do. 
trabeatus, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 
Bulla, a large ventricose species, Ala. 
Trochus leprosus, Prairie Bluff, Ala. — 


Delphinula lapidosa, do. ' 
Turritella vertebroides, New Jersey and Alabama. 
encrinoides, 


Scalaria Sillimani, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 
annulata, Gloucester, N. J. 
Rostellaria pennata, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 
Natica petrosa, do. 
abyssina do. 
Cirrus crotaloides, Erie, Ala. 
Conus gyratus, South Carolina. 
Ostrea cretacea, Evie, Ala. and South Carolina. 
Pecten craticula, New Jersey. 

Poulsoni, near Claiborne, Ala. 
Plagiostoma dumosum, St. Stephens, Ala. 
Placuna scabra, 

Plicatula urticosa, New Jersey and Ala. 

Inoceramus Barabini, Greene co. Ala. 
alveatus, 

Avicula laripes, Delaware, 

Pinna, (resembling P. tetragona,) 

Pectunculus hamula, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 

australis, New Jersey. 

Arca rostellata, Ala. 

Cucullea antrosa, 

Trigonia thoracica, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 

Crassatella vadosa, Ala. and New Jersey. 

Pholadomya occidentalis, Chesapeake and Delaware Canal 

Clavagella armata, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 

Terebratula floridana, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 


380 Miscellanies. 


Hamulus onyx, (generic character as follows; tubular, regular, in- 
voluted ; volutions distinct ; aperture circular.) Lynch’s Creek 
South Carolina. 

Astacus, Delaware. 

Cassidulus equoreus, Prairie Bluff, Ala. 

Scutella Rogersi, Monroe county, Ala. 

Ananchytes cinctus, New Jersey. 

jimbriatus, 

Flustra sagena, New Jersey. 

Eschara digitata, 

Alveolites cepularis, 

Vermetus rotula, New York. 

Dr. Morton relinquishes his Scaphites Cuvieri, on the ground of its 
identity with the S. heppocrepis of Dr. DEK ay, previously described. 

In concluding the Synopsis, Dr. Morrow remarks upon the simi- 
larity between the testaceous mollusca of the eastern and western 
shores of the Atlantic ocean; and gives, with the assistance of Mr. 
Conrap, a list of the recent shells known to both continents. They 
are as follows: Purpurea lapillus, Buccinum undatum, Natica can- 
rena, Fusus islandicus, Cyprena islandica, Saxicava rugosa, Luci- 
na divaricata, Pholas crispata, P. costata, Solen ensis, Mya arena- 
ria, Mytilus edulis, Modiola papuana, Mactra deaurata, Spirorbis 
nautiloides, Thracia convexa, Solecurtus fragilis, Glycimeris sili- 
qua, Cardium grenlandicum, C. islundicum, Strigilla carnarta, 
Tellina punicea, Pecten islandicus, Balanus ovularis.. 

To this catalogue he subjoins the fossil shells common to the strata 
of Europe and America. Thus in the Upper Marine or older Pli- 
ocene, we have the Lucina divaricata Lam. Cerithiwm melanoides, 
Sow. Ostrea virginiana Gmel. Bulla acuminata Sow. Venus rus- 
tica? Sow. Pectunculus subovatus Say. Panopea Fawasi: in the 
Eocene or London Clay, the Corbis lamellosa Lam. Cardita pla- 
nicosta Blain. Bulimus terebellatus Lam. Solarium canaliculatum 
Lam. Fistularia elongata Desh, and in the Cretaceous Group, the 


Pecten quinquecostatus. 


In view of the resemblance in existing species between. the two 
coasts, Dr. Morrow asks, isit not probable that this accordance was 
formerly as great as at present? Although the identical species are 
not numerous, yet the similarity in the general type is most evident, 
both in the Testacea and in family of Saurians. He therefore very 
justly infers, and the conclusion is a fine exemplification of the inte- 
resting nature of geological deductions, ‘‘that when the chalk fossils 


Miscellanies. 381 


were living inhabitants of the seas of Europe, the organic relics of 
this synopsis were alive in the oceans of America,—in other words, 
that they were contemporaneous beings. Whatever cause laid bare 
the eastern portion of the series; appears to have acted simultaneously 
on the western mass: nota rushof currents, but either a subsidence 
of the sea, or elevation of the land, which has left the fossils in. their 
original beds unbroken, and, as to their external form, unaltered.” 

Dr. Morron’s present beautiful work is illustrated by numerous 
fine lithographic drawings, and embodies information of great value 
in elucidating an important portion of the vast upper secondary of 
the United States, which, with the tertiary, scarcely less extensive, 
and the diluvial, is to furnish hereafter a rich reward to the geological 
explorer of this portion of the United States, which was until re- 
cently, a terra incognita. 


3. Large Mass of Native Copper.—The cabinet of Yale Col- 
lege has been recently enriched by a magnificent piece of Native 
copper, presented by Mr. J. Monrmin Carin of New York. 
In a letter to the editor, dated October 9, 1834, Mr. C. mentions 
that this piece of copper was found at or near the river On-ta-naw- 
gaw of lake Superior; and, as we are informed, above the rapids 
marked on the map of the river. ‘Those who brought it away, were 
allured by the vain hope of finding in it gold or silver. Its weight 
was one hundred and thirty seven pounds, but is now somewhat less, 


as a few ounces have been detached. It has, all the characters of — 


native copper; the perfect color and lustre of that metal; the occa- 
sional incrustation with green carbonate of copper; numerous rudi- 
ments of crystals.of copper with triangular faces; occasional cavities, 
swellings and knobs, and great malleability. Its form is rudely plano- 
convex, with an irregularly elliptic base, arched below, and standing 
upon two projections, thus allowing it a rocking motion ; it is fif- 
teen inches long and fifteen broad—in the narrowest place twelve 
inches ; it is nine inches high, and it bears strong marks of having 
been entangled in a vein stone, or a rock. Mr. Catlin has been 
credibly informed, that ‘‘ there lies in.the bed of the On-ta-naw- 
gaw a mass equally pure, weighing a ton! 

Whether this is the celebrated copper rock described by Mr. 
Schoolcraft, Vol. iii. p. 205 of this Journal, we have no means to 
determine, but the numerous and important facts mentioned by. 
Mr. Schoolcraft, render it certain, that native copper is frequently 
found in that region, and lead to a strong presumption of the exist- 
ence of valuable mines of copper. 


a . 


382 Miscellanies. 


4 Great mass of Meteoric Iron from Loutsiana.—The history 
of this iron was given in Vol. viii, at p. 218 of this Journal. The 
first notice of it was published in Dr. Bruce’s Journal in 1810, and 
it was there stated that it contained no nickel ; a subsequent exam- 
ination by Professor Silliman detected that metal, and a more exact 
analysis by Mr. Charles U. Shepard ascertained the existence of 
9.67 per cent. of nickel in this very remarkable mass. See this 
Journal, Vol. xvi, p. 217. It was, for many years, deposited m trust, 
in the Museum of the Lyceum of New York, by the late Col. 
Gibbs who had, early, purchased the specimen. That gentleman’s 
lamented death was mentioned in this Journal Vol. xxv, p. 214. Re- 
cently, his respected lady, Mrs. Laura Giggs, with the approbation 
of those concerned, has generously presented this magnificent mass 
to the Cabinet of mineralogy of Yale College, thus causing it to be 
associated with the splendid collection, the Gisss Caziyer, which 
was amassed by the labor and munificence of him whose name it 
bears, and to whose memory we trust, it will long continue to do hon- 
or. In this collection, unrivalled in the United States, and surpas- 
sed, in few other countries, the Meteoric iron of Louisiana, is without 
doubt, the most important specimen. 

A more particular notice of it may be given on another occasion. 
Its, length is three feet, four and a half inches, its greatest breadth, 
two feet four inches, and its greatest height, sixteen inches. Its 
weight is sixteen hundred and thirty five* pounds, being more than 
that of the mass found by Professor Pallas in Siberia, which i is now in 
the Imperial Museum at St. Petesrburgh. 

The Gisps MeTEoRICc 1ron, is, therefore, the largest piece in any 
collection in the world, although there are masses many times larger 
lying in the wild regions of Mexico aud Peru, and perhaps elsewhere. 


5. Soapstone or Steatite, of Middlefield —This. very useful ma- 
terial, is found in many places in our primary regions. Middle- 
field, in Massachusetts, eighteen miles from Northampton, has long 
been known as affording it in abundance. A new quarry has been 
recently opened there, by Mr. William H. Butler, from whom, we 
have received slabs and fragments. The quality is excellent, the 
substance is principally compact talc, and it is, (as far as we can 


*The weight was reported in Dr. Bruce’s Journal, to be over three thousand 
pounds, which exaggerated statement, has been often repeated, and was proba- 
bly derived from the adventurers who brought it from the Red River. 


Miscellanies. 383 


: 
judge from the specimens sent us,) remarkably free from foreign 
minerals. It gives a surface of uniform level and finish, and is cut 
with great ease. When. varnished, fine colors are brought out, not 
unlike those of the Yerd antique marble of Milford, near New Ha- 
ven, but less vivid. It is, however, sufficiently handsome to be used 
for the facings of fire places. 

We should be glad to receive information of all remarkable mas- 
ses of soapstone in this country, that we may contribute to make 
them still further known. The utility of soapstone is. immense, 
and is only beginning to be realized among us. It is an admirable 
building material—cut with almost as much ease as timber, and read- 
ily shaped to any form for utility or ornament; itis as handsome as 
granite and marble, and houses constructed of it would not be injured 
by fire, as it resists that powerful agent, even in furnaces,* for which 
it forms an excellent lining. 

Anthracite furnaces, w ee lined with it, instead of fire hills do 
not accumulate the slag and scorie, and the walls remain perfectly 
clean ; this arises from the infusibility of the soapstone, which pre- 
vents the slag from adhering to it; the slag consists of the earthy 
and metallic impurities of the coal, which melt in the intense heat of 
the anthracite furnaces, and then adhesion takes place in conse- 
quence of the softening of the fire bricks at their surfaces, where 
they are in contact with the slag. Soapstone, on account of its 
infusibility, is also an excellent ingredient in pottery and porcelain ; 
and magnesia, which is its characteristic ingredient, may be extracted 
from it by very easy chemical processes. 


6. Prof. Hitchcock’s Geology of Massachusetts.—Extract of a 
letter to the Editor, dated Brighton, England, June 18, 1834, from 
Gideon Mantell, Esq.—The volume and atlas on the Geology of 
Massachusetts reflect great credit on the author and on the enlight- 
ened government which patronised the undertaking. 

Mr. Robert Bakewell, near London, under date of July 16, 1834, 
writes—that Prof. Hitchcock’s Geology of Massachusetts does high 
credit to the writer and to the government which promoted the un- 
dertaking. 

Mr. De La Beche in his new work, entitled Researches on The- 
oretical Geology, has spoken highly of Prof. Hitchcock’s Geology 
of Massachusetts, and has mentioned with particular approbation, his © 
account of the bowlder stones and other transported masses. 


* It is said however not to stand in the furnace for smelting iron. 


384 Miscellanies. 


cr The Asclepias Syriaca or Milk Weed a substitute for flax, &c. 
‘Salem, Mass., Dec. 10, 1834. 

To Prorrssor Siutiman.—Sir—Some information on the arti- 
cle inserted in a late No. of the American Joumnal, stiled a “ substi- 
tute for linen,” being inquired for, it is with pleasure given.—The 
plant there referred to, is the Asclepias Syriaca, or common silk or 
milk weed—and the material itself, is the exterior and interior barks; 
the exterior, however, is considered of the most importance. - Hf the 
structure of this plant be examined, the body of it, when in full growth, 
will be fonnd to envelope three sets of fibres, two of which are con- 
tained in, and in fact constitute the barks ; the third set adhering to 
and covering the stem, being of no value, is not patented. This 
invaluable plant grows spontaneously, abounds throughout this 
country, and being a perennial, would not require, as flax, hemp, 
cotton, &c., &c., to be renewed annually, but with a top dressing, 
it is said, it would yield abundantly for many years. In all my re- 
searches among trees and plants in pursuit of a vegetable silk, none 
have been observed to compare with this, for beauty, strength, and 
abundance of fibre and milk—to which it probably owes its superior- 
ity of strength and beauty, over every other known fibre. ‘This new 
and beautiful material, so very valuable for the many purposes to 
which it can be applied, we cannot but hope will receive attention ; 
for we are not prepared to believe that it is destined to linger, from 
century to. century, as was the case with some of the most favored fab- 
rics of the present time, in consequence of the darkness of the age in 
which they were produced. When a whole nation and that the 
most enlightened then on earth, could not be induced to believe in, or 
profit by the discovery of one of them, its consequent slow progres- 
sion through many subsequent ages to the present unrivalled state 
of perfection to which it has attained, need not occasion surprise. 
Neither would it be deemed extravagant in us, perhaps, considering 
the present advanced state of knowledge, should we venture to 
predict that the fibres of the asclepias will rank among the most fa- 
vored fabrics of the present day, if they do not wholly supercede 
some of them. Very respectfully yours, 

| Marearet GrRRIsH. 


It is worthy of remark that the milk of the plant above named, 
contains a quantity of caoutchouc or elastic gum, which, at our sug- 
gestion, was extracted, some years since, by Dr. Grosvenor of the 
Medical Institution of Yale College, who made this plant the subject 
of His imaugural dissertation.—Ed. 


Miscellanies. 385 
8. On the variationof the Magnetic Needle, by Prof. Bacur.— 


The observations were made at West Chester, twenty one miles to the 
west of Philadelphia, during ten days in the latter part of August and 
beginning of September 1832; they were continued generally during 
the whole night as well-as the day, the needle being observed every 
hour except when circumstances connected with the phenomena 
showed such attention to be unnecessary. The series of results, 
though limited, is valuable on this, account. The actual westerly 
variation, of the place of observation was 3° 25’. The occurrence 
of two maxima and two minima of westerly variation, is shown dis- 
tinetly, by the results of each day’s observations, confirming for this 
place of observation the results of Canton obtained at London, 
when the variation was 19° W., the subsequent deductions of Gil- 
pin, and the still later ones of Colonel Beaufoy obtained when the 
variation was between 24° and 25° W._ In regard to the hours of 
occurrence of. these maxima and minima, there is not the same 
agreement. Mr. Christie gives from Canton’s results the times of 
maximum westerly variation, at half past one P. M. and near mid- 
night, and the times of minimum, at nine A. M. and nine P. M., and 
from Col. Beaufoy’s observations the first maximum and minimum 
at times rather earlier, than those deduced from Canton’s observa- 
tions, and the second maximum about eleven P. M. During the 
time embraced in the series by Prof. Bache, the first maximum of 
westerly variation, occurred between two and half past four P. M. 
and the second between eight and a quarter, P. M. and twelve and 
two thirds, A. M., varying with meteorological circumstances. The 
two minima of westerly variation occurred, the first, between eight 
and nine A. M., and the second between six and seven and a quar- 
ter, P. M. The night maximum was frequently greater than the 
day maximum. ‘The observations are represented: by broken lines 
which enables the eye readily to trace the results. The mean times 
of maximum variation west, are three P. M., and twelve midnight, 
and of minimum, nine A. M. and six P. M. The mean midnight 
maximum is four minutes and a quarter higher than the day maxi- 
mum, and the morning minimum, one minute and a quarter less 
than the evening miniinum. 

The author concludes that ordinary meteorological phenomena, 
such as the formation and dispersion of clouds, the ‘occurrence of 
showers and gusts, of fogs, &c., have a powerful modifying effect 
on the diurnal variation: in one remarkable ease of a shower fol- 


Voi. XXVII.—No. 2. 49 


386 Mscsltanste. 


lowed by a thunder-gust, the observations show singular and rapid 
changes of the variation. These results agree, the author remarks, 
with a single deduction made by Mr. Christie from observations 
of his own, but which had not been followed up, and was contradic- 
ted by the results. obtained at Port Bowen, by the late Lieut. Fos- 
ter ; a contradiction which he endeavors to explain. 


9. Notice of the late Eclipse.. 
Baltimore, 3d December, 1834. 


To Prorressor Situiman.—Sir.—Being desirous of recording 
my observations of the late Solar Eclipse, and as a subscriber to 
your valuable Journal, I beg leave to communicate the following. 

The place of observation in Baltimore, is about one mile from 
the monument square or center of the city. ‘The latitude of ae 
former by close observations, is 39° 17/12” N.. 

The time was observed minutely on a chronometer by Parkmson 
and Frodsham, whose rate has been for some time back, at 0.5”. 
‘slow. ; 

The local Mean time was ascertained by sets of altitudes of the 
Sun, accurately taken on the forenoons immediately preceding and 
succeeding the eclipse. 

The contacts were observed by two persons, with a Dollond 
Achromatic Telescope of eighty five power, assisted by a smaller 
one of about, thirty, the two observations ees so peek as not to 
admit of any distinction. 

Beginning 12h. 51’ 58”,-Mean time at Baltimore. 


End 3h. 31 29° 80”. 
Temperature by Fahrenheit’s Scale. 
“Exposed to the Sun. Exposed to the north. 
at 12 noon 66° | 50° 
‘1 ?P. M. 66° é; 51° 
BNE? ‘suit 49° 
BN SUNG Z? 50° 


Very respectfully, your most ob’t serv’t. 
Lewis Branr. 


10.. To the Entomologists of America. — Having at length sufii- 
ciently arranged the large entomological collections made durmg my 
researches in Tropical America, by which the duplicates are separated 
from the series placed in my own cabinets ; 1 am now prepared to 


Miscellanies. 387 


offer the former, on the principle of mutual exchange to entomolo- 
gists in general. For this purpose, I shall be happy to enter into 
correspondence with those gentlemen of the United States, (more 
particularly of Georgia, Louisiana and the Southern provinces,) to 
whom such a plan would be acceptable. All the North American 
species, of all the orders will be acceptable, provided they are in 
good preservation ; and where fine and bred specimens can be pro- 
cured, six or seven of the same species will not be too many. It 
will be more satisfactory to me if any boxes of insects, intended for 
this purpose are sent in the first instance to some friend or corres- 
pondent of the sender in London, who is to give them up to me 
upon receiving in return, a collection of an equal number of good 
specimens ; thus all fear of procrastination, mistakes, &c. will be 
prevented. ‘The minute Coleoptera, are not so much desired as 
the larger species, and a preference will be given to the Lepidoptera, 
Hymenoptera, and Neuroptera. Fine bred specimens of the Spxin- 
eipz, or Hawk Moth, will be very acceptable. If some British 
Insects are desired in return, they can be also sent. It will not be 
worth while, to send a smaller collection, than from two to three 
hundred specimens ; but as many of one sort, will be no objection, 
it might be as well to send between eight hundred and a thousand 
in one or more boxes at the same time. ‘The boxes of each par- 
ty to be returned, should be well waxed, or corked, the speci- 
mens firmly stuck, and the larger ones secured by additional card 
braces. A letter by post, containing the name of the vessel, cap- 
tain, &c., and the party in London, to whom the collection is con- 
signed, should also be sent, addressed to me, at St. Albans, Hert- 
fordshire, Eng., orto the care of Longman, Rees & Co., London. 
i Wm. Swanson. 
St. Albans, Ist August, 1834. 


11. Travels in the Equatorial Regions of South America, by 
Aprian R. Terry, M. D. Hartford, 12mo pp. 290, 1834.— 
Cooke & Co.—Thirty years ago, books of travels in foreign coun- 
tries by citizens of the United States, were rare—but within a few 
years they have become much more frequent, and we are particular- 
ly indebted to gentlemen in the United. States Navy, and in the 
Missionary service, for several valuable and interesting works, not 
to mention several books of this class, whose origin has been acci- 
dental. Dr. Terry’s little volume, is fairly entitled to rank in this 


388 Miscellanies. 


respectable company. It isa spirited and manly performance, writ- 
ten ina pleasing and attractive style, and abounding with graphic 
sketches and descriptions. Dr. Terry’s voyage began at New York 
on the 24th of September, 1831—on the 16th of October, he: arri- 
ved at Port Royal and Kingston, Jamaica; early in November, he 
reached Chagre on the Isthmus, and about the middle of the month 
arrived at Panama on the Pacific. On the 5th of December, he 
sailed for Payta, the most northern town of Peru, where ‘he arrived 
on the 29th. On tlie 3lst he set sail in another vessel for Guaya- 
quil, which he reached on the 2d of January, 1832. 

He made an interesting excursion to Quito, and the mountain 
region in the vicinity of Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pinchinca, and 
Tunguivgua ; this occupied rather more’ than two months from July 
3, 1832. On the 9th of November, he sailed for the United States 
by the way of Cape Horn, and arrived at New London, February 
20, 1833. There is a great amount of important information in this 
work, but we have been obliged by want of space, to omit all the 
extracts which we had marked for insertion in the prea notice.— 
Dr. Terry says, that his “‘ book pretends not to science’’—still, we- 
find numerous facts, which do honor to his scientific knowledge, and 
which, men of science, will receive with pleasure and pans 


12. New York ® B K Society. —The members have oldie 
an able and judicious circular, proposing investigations under three 
divisions. 

I. A Physical are physical and medical science. 

II. A Literary Class,—for the moral sciences and literature. 

III. A Civil Class,—for law and political science. 

Meetings are to be held at the Philosophical Hall of Union Col- 
lege, three times in the ensuing year. 

After the adjournment of the general meeting, the SEMEN of 
the different classes will meet separately. 

It is reported that the Society will publish such of its papers as 
may appear to possess sufficient interest and importance. . 

13. Elements of Psychology.—This work has been translated 
from the French of Professor Victor Cousin, by Rev..C. 8. Henry 
of Hartford, Conn. ‘It consists of that part of the lectures of the 
author which contain his critical examination of Locke’ s aa on 
the Human understanding. 

There will be also an mtroduction, notes and additions. 


Miscellanies. 389 


14. The New England Magazine.—The eighth volume will 
commence on the first of January, 1835.—This magazine has now 
been published for three years and a half, with a reputation and pat~ 
ronage which have increased, till they are sufficient to insure its per- 
manent success. With the November number it passed into the 
hands of new proprietors, who have also become proprietors of the 
United States Magazine, and propose to conduct the united work 
on the following plan: 

I. Under the title of Original Papers, it will contain articles on 
the most prominent subjects of domestic politics ; Sketches of travel 
and adventures at home and abroad; Views of foreign and domestic 
literature ; Personal reminiscences of distinguished men and remark- 
able events ; Poetical sketches, essays, tales, and miscellaneous: ar- 
ticles. 

II. A monthly Commentary on the most important topics of the 
time. , 

III. Notices of: New Publications. 

IV. Historical Record—devoted to the politics and statistics of 
the States and the Union. 

V. Memoirs of distinguished Americans, lately deceased. 

VI. Literary Intelligence. 

Conditions.—The numbers will average eighty pages each, de- 
livered punctually on the first of every month, at $5 per annum, 
payable on the delivery of the fourth number. 


15. Professor Joslin’s Memoir on Irradiation— Contents.— 
Obvious and well known phenomena of irradiation —Existing state 
of knowledge and desiderata in relation to the theory—The au- 
thor’s first observations in relation to the elongated radiations of stars 
and distant flames.—Observations on the general figure of a flame. 
General plan of experiments for determining with more precision the 
laws of this dilatation.—A ppearance of luminous objects surrounded 
by opake ones.—Appearance of opake objects projected on luminous 
ones.—Three directions of maximum irradiation in ordinary vision. 
Proof that irradiation increases with distance—that it depends on 
nothing exterior to our bodies—that it depends partly, but not chiefly 
on the combined action of both eyes—that it does not depend upon 
any of the protecting parts of the eye—and lastly, that it does not 
depend upon any peculiar affection of the retina.—Relation between 
irradiation and the structure of the crystalline lens.—Effects of di- 


390 Miscellanies. 


latation of the pupil alluded to.—Additional conclusions, to which 
the author has arrived, by experiments not yet published; especially 
by experiments with the pupil of his eye preternaturally dilated for 
that purpose. 

Applications.—Ist. ‘Brieht objects never appear ‘of their true 
shape, circumstances which affect this and other illusions. 2nd. Stars 
apparently situated on the moon—one definite position most favora- 
ble for red light ; three others favorable under other circumstances. 
3rd. Appearance of the new moon. 4th. Reasons why a telescope 
changes the relative apparent magnitudes of the fixed stars compar- 
ed with the planets, and of the latter compared with each other.— 
5th. The scintillation of the fixed stars affected by mbtbibe on 
which their apparent magnitudes pint ee 


16. “ The United States Naval Toit Institution has 
been recently established at the Navy Yard near New York, and 
its officers request the favor of an introduction, to the readers of the 
American Journal of Arts and Sciences. 

The objects of the members of this Association, are contained in 
the following extract from an article prefixed to the Constitution of 
the Society. ‘We, the officers of the Navy and Marine Corps, in 
order to promote the diffusion of useful knowledge, to foster a spirit 
of harmony, and community of interest in the service; and to ce- 
ment the links which unite us as professional brethren, have formed 
ourselves into a Society, &c.” 

It is hardly possible that an institution created for such purposes, 
ean interfere with the interests or views of any other similar associa- 
tion ; but may, and in all human praliahillieg will in time, contribute 
largely to the cause of “useful knowledge.” | As ‘mere collectors of 
specimens in Natural History, and Curiosities, illustrative of the 
manners and customs of distant nations, which the members in the 
discharge of their official duties to their country, may be called upon 
to visit, they possess some advantages, that they are not only willing 
but anxious to improve. In this way much has already been done, 
and the evidence may be found in almost every: public collection of 
the kind in the country. But much more by far, of what has been 
thus procured from abroad, has become almost ‘a total loss to the 
cause of science, for the want of some place of general deposit.— 
Such a depot now exists, and its utility has already been rendered 
apparent, by the contributions received from the officers of the U. 


Miscellanies. 391 


S. Ship Falmouth, ‘recently returned from a cruise in the Pacific ; 
and the U. S. Ship Peacock from the China and India seas. In- 
deed, the return of every National vessel, since the institution has 
been in operation, has contributed, more or less, to its collections: — 
‘These things in most instances, have been obtained abroad, without 
the knowledge of the existence of the Naval Lyceum, and but for 
it, would by this time, have been scattered over the country, and in 
most cases, lost to the researches of the curious. If under such 
circumstances, the Museum and other departments receive important 
additions, much more may be expected, when the members of the 
Society shall go forth for collecting; stimulated to action, by an in- 
terest in the success of an institution, which they can feel to be of 
their own creation. 

November 27th, 1833, was held the first “meeting of the sub- 
seribers, for forming a Society, with the object of establishing a per- 
manent Library, Reading Room, and Museum of Natural History, 
Curiosities, &c.’’ And as soon as the Association was known to 
have assumed ‘‘a local habitation and a name,” contributions flow- 
ed in, upon it, with a liberality and profusion, that astonished 
even its most sanguine friends. All were encouraged,.and an 
increase of confidence marked the proceedings of the Associa- 
tion. Within the period of twelve months, the Society has re- 
ceived upwards of two hundred donations, including over thirteen’ 
hundred volumes of books; while the departments of Conchol- 
ogy, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany, Zoology, Numismatology, and 
the Museum furnish interesting collections. The Reading Room 
too, owing in a great degree to the liberality of the editors of news- 
papers and periodicals, has become a source of interest, and advan- 
tage, to those members who could find leisure to improve the oppor- 
tunity thus presented. Advantage was taken of a munificent dona- 
tion from the Marine Insurance Offices of the city of New York, to 
the amount of nearly five hundred dollars, to procure such rare and 
valuable works, principally upon subjects of Natural History, as were 
of the first importance to such an association, and had not then been 
supplied to the Library. 

Ladies; often appear on the list of donors to the Naval Lyceum, 
and have received the warmest thanks of the members. The states- 
men, the authors, the editors, the benevolent, the good and the great 
of the country are there too. The Society cherish with feelings of 
pride, a donation in books from the venerable Ex-President of the 


392 Miscellanies. 


United States, James Madison. From Henry Beaufoy, of South Lam- 
beth, Eng. they have received the very appropriate and valuable do- 
nation of “‘ Nautical and Hydraulic Experiments, with numerous Sci- 
entific Miscellanies ; by Col. Mark Beaufoy.” And recently from Col, 

I. Townsend, one oti its corresponding members in Paris, a. splendid 
edition of the ‘“Voyage of the Corvette La Favorite round the 
World in 1830, ’31, and 82.” An expensive publication, made by 
order of the Marine Department of France, a copy of which, it is 
understood, has been officially presented by the Government. of 
France to the Navy Department of the United States. 

The funds of the Society, derived from initiation fees, and the an- 
nual subscription of seventy five Resident, and forty four Absent 
members, have thus far, been sufficient to defray the necessary ex- 
penses. Measures have been taken to procure in proper time, an 
“act. of incorporation.” And hopes are entertamed that at some 
day, the sciences, and different departments of Natural seinen may 
be illustrated by a course of Lectures. 

The Society would be happy to receive any pguiaieaieeeet on 
subjects of science ; or useful information from any source competent 
to render it, particularly for such directions, as would aid them in 
making collections. while abroad. The gleanings, when received, 
will be divided among those who.with a proper ars of ils 
know how to value them. 

The facilities in the possession of the Society, for onigau tina 
with our National ships on foreign stations, are, believed to be as great 
as circumstances will admit of; arrangements have been made for 
the express purpose, and are freely offered for the public convenience. 
Letters, post paid, by mail, directed to, the care of the “United 
States Naval Lyceum, New York ;” and letters or packages of a rea- 
sonable size, left at its rooms, will, in all cases, be transmitted free of 
further expense, by the earliest opportunity. 

Asa mere experiment, the friends of the Lyceum. have cele 
cause for congratulation at the result. ; 

The following members have been elected, since ‘the organization 
of the Society. 

Corresponding. —Col. Joseph Totten, U; «B: vn Wn. Wood, 
N. Y.; Isaac Lea, Philadelphia ; Wm..Cooper, Sinnich D. Heap, 
Goad at Tunis; John P. Payson, Consul at Messina; Capt. Sir Wm. 
Edward Parry, rn. x.; Capt. Sir John Franklin, x. n.; Capt. Ross, 


Miscellanies. 393 


r.N.; Capt. Back, x. x.; Prof. Benedict, University of Vermont ; 
Dr. John Torrey ; Major Joseph Delafield; Dr. John C. Jay; Maj. 
John Le Conte ; Prince Charles Bonaparte ; Dr. Burrows ; Cavalier 
Laudalier ; Prince Buleia; David Offley, Consul at Smyrna; Mr. 
Joinindy, Douglas Fitch, Major D. Russy, U. 8S. A.; Gen. Grati- 
ot, U.S. A.; Horatio Sprague, Consul at Gibraltar ; Samuel Blod- 
get, Gibraltar ; Robert Walsh, Senr. Philadelphia; Col. J. Town- 
send, Francis Carnes, Paris; Capt. F. A. Fokkis, Hamburg; O. 
Rich, London; Henry Beaufoy, Eng ; Mathew Carey, Philadel- 
phia ; C. U. Shepard, Yale College; Wm. Flewellmg, Dr. Amos 
A. Evans. 

Honorary.—Andrew Jackson, President of the United States; 
Martin Van Buren, Vice President of the United States; Lewis 
M’Lane; R. B. Taney ; Lewis Cass, Secretary of War; Levi 
Woodbury, Secretary of the Treasury; Wm. T. Barry, P. M: 
General ; B. F. Butler, Attorney General ; Commodore John Rodg- 
ers, Com. I. Chauncey, and Com. Charles Morris, Navy Commis- 
sioners ; J. Fennimore Cooper; Washington Irving ; Edward Liv- 
ingston, Minister to France ; David Porter, Charge D’ Affaires at 
Constantinople ; James Madison, Ex-President of the United States ; 
John Q. Adams, Ex-President of the-United States ; General La- 
fayette ; John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United States ; Prof. 
B. Silliman, Yale College ; N. Bowditch, Salem, Mass. ; Joseph 
Bonaparte ; James Kent, Ex-Chancellor of the State of New York ; 
General Samuel Smith; George W. Lafayette; Mahlon Dicker- 
son, Secretary of the Navy. ‘ 

Having seen the library, collection, and arrangements of the Naval 
Lyceum, we have been much gratified, both with what is already 
accomplished in so short a time, and with the plan and design of 
the Institution, which is worthy of all praise. Among its support- 
ers, are gentlemen distinguished not less for their intelligent zeal and 
liberal views, than for professional discipline and gallantry.  Visit- 
ing, in the course of their voyages, many distant countries, they will 
bring home their scientific, antiquarian and _ historical treasures, and 
their collection may, perhaps, one day emulate the splendid Mari- 
ners’ Museum at Salem. We trust that they will receive the warm 
patronage of the government and the country.—Ed. 


17. Obituary.—Died at New Harmony, Indiana, on the 10th of 
October last, THomas Say, in the 47th year of his age. 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 50 


394 Miscellanies. 


We regret that we have not the materials for the extended notice 
of Mr. Say, which is so justly due to his memory, and sincerely 
hope that some one of his scientific friends will favor the public with 
a detailed biography of this emiment naturalist. We can only state 
afew of the most prominent facts, and add a list of his scientific pa- 
pers, so far as they have come under our observation. 

Mr. Say early abandoned the mercantile pursuits in which he tia 
reluctantly engaged, and ever after, devoted himself to the study of 
nature.- His contributions to science are very numerous, and evince 
the most sagacious discrimination and the most laborious industry. 
It is no exaggeration to assert, that he has done more to make known 
the zoology of this country, than any other man. Most of his pa- 
pers were published in the Journal of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, a society of which Mr. Say was one of 
the brightest ornaments. 

Mr. Say, was attached, as zoologist, to the two explormg ‘expe- 
ditions made under the command of Major Long, and returned. with 
many important additions to the stock of scientific knowledge. 

In 1825, he left Philadelphia, the place of his birth, and fixed his 
residence at New-Harmony. ‘Here he pursued his favorite studies 
with unabated ardor, and commenced the publication of a periodical 
work, devoted to American Conchology, several numbers of which 
had appeared at the time of his death. 

« ‘Though cut off in the midst of his labors, at a time when many 
years of usefulness might reasonably be anticipated ; yet he has left 
behind him enduring memorials of his talents, and will ever be re- 
membered as one who did honor to his country and enlarged the 
boundaries of human knowledge. 

On the Mammalia.—Jour. of Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Phil. (8vo.) Vol. ii, 330— 
343; with G. Ord. iv, 345—349, 352—355. ; 

Reptilia.—Am. Jour. of eee (8vo. New Haven,) Vol. i, 256—265.—Jour. 
Phil. Acad. i, p.405—407; iv, 203—219, 237—241.—Contributions of the Maclu- 
rian Lyceum, (8vo. Phil.) i, 37—388. 

Mollusca.—Jour. Phil. Read 1, 13—18, 123—126, 276—284; ii. 149—179, 221— 
248, 257—276, 302—325, 370381 ; iv, 124—155; 368—370; v, 119—131, 207— 
221 Hay oY Jour. Sci., 1, 388—45. Disseminator of Useful ees (New Harmo- 
ny,) ii, 244, fel American Conchology, (8vo. New Harmony,) Nos. 

Crustacea—Jour. Phil. Acad., i, 49—52, 57—63, 65—80, 97—101, 155—169, 235 
—253, 313—326, 374401, 493458, 480485. - ” 

Arachnides.—Jour. Phil. Acad., ii, 59—82. 

Insecta.—Jour. Phil. Acad., i, 1923, 45—48, 63, 64; ii, 11—14, 102—114, 353— 
360; iii, 9—54, 73104, 139216, 238—282, 298331, 403462; iv. 88399, 307— 


USN Cig AOR 
VS : ; 


Miscellanies. 395 


345; v, 32—47, 160-204, 23784, 293—304; vi, 149—178, 183—188, 235-244, 
299—314.—Western Quarterly Reporter, (8 vo. Ciucinnati,) ii, 71, &e.; 160—165. 
Annals of Lyc: of Nat. Hist. of New York, (8 vo.) i. 549968. Lapenttit. of Macl. 

Lyc., ii, 38, 39; 67—83.—Trans. of Amer. Phil. Soc. (Phil. 4to.) i, N. &, 401— 
426; ii. L—109.— American Ratmelaey Roy. 8vo. 3 vols. and Glossary, Phil. 
1824—1828. 

Radiata.—Jour. Phil. Acad., iv, 289—296 ; v, 141—154, 225299 Am. Jour. 
Sci. i, 381—387; ii, 34—3s. 

On various topics of Zovlogy, in Nicholson’s British Encyclopedia, (Am. ed. 
Phil. 8vo. 6 vols., 1816, 1817.)—Encyclopedia Americana, (13 vols. 8yo. 1830— 
1833.—James’s Account of Long’s Exped. to the Rocky Mts. (2 vols. 8vo Phil. 
1823.)—Keating’s Narrative of Long’s Ex Phang to St. Peter’s River, (2 vols. 
8vo. Phil. 1824.)+ 


18. Desien ‘y.—The Hon. Anes DeWirz, late Surveyor g cen- 
eral of the State of New York, died at Ithaca, Dec. 3, 1834, in the 
seventy ninth year of his age. He was an eminent patron and cul- 
tivator of useful knowledge, and himself possessed high scientific at- 
tainments, especially in astronomy, engineering and general phys- 
ics. This Journal and its editor were honored by communications 
from him and while we deeply lament his loss not only as a friend of 
Science but as “a pure patriot, a zealous indefatigable public offi- 
cer, an estimable citizen and an honest .man,” we feel that he is 
among the revered dead, having gone down to the grave “ full of 
years and of honors.” We trust that Albany will pay a just tribute 
to his memory by a full biographical notice. 


19. Modern Trilobites of New South Shetland.—These crusta- 
cea, so interesting to geology, whose families were supposed to be 
entirely extinct, still have, it seems, living representatives in the cold 
region of New South Shetland. Dr. Eights has figured and deseri- 
bed them with scientific skill in the Transactions of the Albany In- 
stitute, Vol. II, No. 1. This paper of Dr. Eighty with his interest- 
ing description of the island, as well as the other contents of the No. 
referred to, we intended to notice more particularly, but the work 
having been mislaid, we have not been able, after much search, to 
find a copy of it and of course we could not fulfil our design. 


20. Recent Scientific Publications in the U. States.—Botanical 
Teacher for North America: in which are described the indigenous 
and common exotic Plants, growing north of the gulf of Mexico. 
By Laura Johnson: under the supervision of Prof. A. Eaton. The 
generic characters are from the descriptions of Prof. Lindley ; the 


396 Miscellanies. 


specific are given by signs and abbreviations. These are preceded 
by a condensed view of the Artificial method, and followed by the _ 
Natural one. Albany, Oliver Steele. 12mo. pp. 268, 1834. 

- Observations on the genus Unio, together with descriptions of new 
genera and species in the families Naiades, Conche, Collimacea, 
Lymneana, Melaniana, and Peristomiana: consisting of four me- 
moirs read before the American Philos. Soc. from 1827 to 1884, 
and originally published in their Transactions: with nineteen color- 
ed plates, by Isaac Lea, M. A. P. S., Vihiledelpiee Printed for 
the author. 4to. pp. 232, 1834. 

Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the 
United States; illustrated by nineteen plates, to which is added an 
Appendix, containing a tabular view of the Tertiary fossils hitherto 
~ discovered in North America. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. 
Philadelphia, Key & Biddle. Roy. 8vo. pp. 104, 1834. 

_ Mécanique Céleste. By the Marquis de La Place. ‘Translated, 
with a Commentary, by Nathaniel Bowditch, LL. D. Vol. 3, 4to. 
pp- xxx and 910, and 107 of tables. With a Portrait of La Place. 
Boston, Hilliard, Gray, Little and Wilkins, 1834. | 

Transactions of the Geological Society of Pennsylvania. Vol. I, 
Part I, August, 1834. Philadelphia, Published by the Society. 
8vo. pp. 180, with six lithographic plates. 

The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, 
for the year 1835. Boston, Charles Bowen. 12mo. pp. xii and 
336, 1834. 

Ancient Mineralogy, or, an Inquiry seal peat Mineral Sihsihte 
ces mentioned by the Ancients: with occasional remarks on the uses 
to which they were applied. By N.F. Moore, LL.D. New 
York, G. & C. Carvill & Co., 1834, 12mo. pp. 192. 


21 Republications of Foreign Works.—The Connection of the 
Physical Sciences. By Mrs. Somerville. iar! 12mo. pp. 
356, Key & Biddle, 1834. 

Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, condi 
ered with reference to Natural Theology.. By Wm. Prout, M. D. 
F.R.S., (being 8th of the Bridgewater Treatises.) . Philadelphia, 
Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1834, 12mo. pp. 307. 


Miscellanies. 397 


Extracted and translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 


22. Progressive inerease of the Internal. Heat of the crust of 
the globe.—For. the purpose of ascertaining whether a constant 
stream of water could be obtained by means of an Artesian well, 
sunk on the south side of the Jura mountains, at the distance of 
about a league from Geneva, and at an elevation of two hundred 
ninety nine feet above the level of the lake, M. Giroud at his 
country residence at Pregny, bored to the depth of five hundred 
forty seven feet without success. Despairing of success, he offered 
great facilities to any persons who might wish to poerite the en- 
terprize, for the purpose of scientific enquiry. 

On this occasion, M M. Aug. De La Rive and F. Marcet made 
a successful application to the friends of science, and also to the gov- 
ernment, and funds were obtained sufficient to enable them to con- 
tinue the operations during eight months, and to extend the boring 
to the depth of six hundred eighty two feet. The hole bored, was. 
about four and a half inches in diameter. Water began to appear 
in it at the depth of twenty feet, and it is worthy of remark, that 
the height at which the water stood in the opening, as measured 
from the surface, was lower when the greatest depth was attained 
than it was at half the’ depth. At two hundred seventy five feet of 
depth, the water stood at fourteen feet from the surface ;—at five 
hundred feet it sunk to twenty two feet—at five hundred fifty, to 
thirty five feet. It then rose. At five hundred ninety five feet, it 
stood at twenty four feet six inches, but at six hundred seventy five 
feet, it again sunk to thirty five feet eight inches. The result of 
this praise worthy effort must operate as a salutary preventive from 
any farther expensive attempts to obtain running fountains from the 
theory of an internal communication with the springs on the sum- 
mits of the Jura. 

Having attained the extraordinary depth above mentioned, the 
experimenter devised the means of ascertaining the temperature of 
this opening at different depths. As the common thermometer 
‘would not answer the purpose, they contrived a self registering ther- 
mometer, constructed on a large scale, and whose accuracy was sub- 
ject to the most satisfactory tests. 

The following table exhibits the wedi of the hole at the — 
depths specified. ) 


398 Miscellanies. 


Depth below the surface.—Feet. Corresponding temperature. 
30 - - - - 8°.4 Reau. 
60 - - - - 8 .5 
100 ck : Belvo: 
150. - - - - 92 
200 : : Seagal sean islh Nis 

250... = y s - 10 .0 
300 - ~ - - 10 5 
300 - - - - 10 9 
400 : : » pu bh 30 
Lea ie 1-73 
500 : i Se a eee 
550; - - ‘- 12 .63 - 
600 - vy eee - 13 .05 
GAO ae ents : Ht NES SES 

. 680 gs - - - 138 .80 


It thus appears that the increase of temperature below the depth 
of one hundred feet from the surface, as far down as six hundred 
eighty feet, is precisely 0°.875 of Reaumur, (=1°.968 or 2° Fah- 
renheit, very nearly,) for. every one hundred feet. It will be ob- 
served that the increase, instead of moving per saltum, as in some 
‘other cases, moves with remarkable uniformity. This, the experi- 
menters think, may be owing to the care which was taken in this 
case, to remove and avoid every source of error. 

This experiment appears to be ‘the first ashen to ascertain, mae 
any accuracy, the temperature of the earth at considerable depths, 
among the mountains of Switzerland. 

The geological structure of the beds which were bored through 
on this occasion, was as follows: next to the upper layer of vege- 
table earth, sand and gravel, was a gravelly and bluish clay, mingled 
with soft sandstone, (molasse.) Below one hundred twenty feet 
commenced a succession of beds of marl and soft sandstone, of va- 
rious thicknesses which continued without interruption to the termi- 
nation of the boring, six hundred eighty two feet. At two hundred 
twenty feet, there was a bed of coarse sandstone, (molasse grossiere) 
two feet thick, with rolled pebbles ; a remarkable fact, considering 
the depth. A strong fetid sulphurous odour was also observed in the 
layer. of yellow marl mixed with sandstone, at the depth of two 
hundred eighty feet, that is near the level of the lake, and’ a grain 
of salt was found in the sandstone at this depth. ‘The sulphurous 


Miscellanies. 399 


odor again appeared at six hundred feet, without the presence of 
any sulphurous compound that would account for its origin.— Bib. 
Univ. Mai. 1834. 


Remark.—Upon the data stated above; at a little over two miles 
below the surface, water would boil; at about ten miles, the earth 
would be red hot, and probably at the depth of two hundred or 
three hundred miles, it would be in igneous fusion. There is, 
however, no certainty, that the heat increases in the same ratio to 
unknown depths, and the phenomena of volcanoes, prove, that not 
only the ignition but free fusion approximate to, and actually reach 
the surface, even in very high mountains.— Ed. 


23. Water obtained by Boring. (J. G.)—Artesian Wells have 
been very successfully constructed in some parts of France. A letter 
from M. Jauburt de Passa to Viscount Hericart de Thury, de- 
scribes a bored well, remarkable for the abundance of water which 
it supplies. It was made by M. Durand, two leagues south east of 
Perpignan. . 

The sound after penetrating to the depth of eighty feet, through 
alternate beds of marl and clay entered a bed of sandy marl, three 
feet thick, where issued a jet of water, very clear, but from the 
peculiarity of its taste, unfit for drinking. Its temperature was 14°.5 
Reaumur, (=65° Fahrenheit,) and it rose from three to four feet 
above the surface. 

A second boring, undertaken at the distance of six feet from the 
first, gave, at the same depth, a jet of water, but the first jet dimin- 
ished, and the quantity of water from both, was less than that which 
first issued from the former. The boring of the latter was then con- 
tinued to the depth of one hundred forty five feet, when the sound 
began to sink of itself, and when precipitately withdrawn, the water 
rushed up, to the height of five feet, and astonished all by its abun- 
dance and force. No obstacle could restrain it. No direct attempt 
was made to determine the maximum height to which it might rise, 
but fifty feet was decreed to be fully within the limits of its ascend- 
ing force. 

At the time the letter was written, several weeks after the first issue 
of the water, it continued to flow with the same violence, and with 
rather increased quantity. From the dimensions and velocity of 
the current, it appeared to supply four hundred thirty gallons: per 


400 Miscellanies. 


minute, or two thousand eight hundred and eighty cubic metres per 
day. A leaden weight of eight pounds, supported by a strmg being 
placed in the tube was rapidly thrown out, by the water. 

The water, which at first, had a peculiar taste, but not disagree- 
able, is now very limpid and insipid, and its temperature 66° of Fah- 
renheit. ‘The total expense of the well, was two hundred and six- 
ty three francs.—Bull. D’ Encouragement, Sept. 1833. 


24. On oxalic acid; by Gay Lussac. (J. G.)—It is well known to 
chemists, that oxalic’ acid when heated is in part volatilized, and that 
the remainder is decomposed, giving rise to a mixture of carbonic acid 
and an inflammable gas. Desirous-of understanding more particu- 
larly the nature of the inflammable gas, I put some very pure crys- 
tals of this acid into a glass retort and heated it gradually. At 
‘98° C. it was wholly melted, at 110° an elastic fluid was disengaged 
along with watery vapor, which increased as the temperature of the 
acid rose by the loss of its water of crystallization. From 120° to 
130° C. the disengagement of gas was extremely rapid, and contin- 
ued so until the entire destruction of the oxalic acid. 

This easy decomposition of oxalic acid by a very moderate heat, 
is the more remarkable, as it was the less to be expected, and among 
vegetable acids, the oxalic was considered as one of the most stable. 
Its decomposition, when heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, 
into equal volumes of carbonic acid and oxide of carbon, was not 
contrary to that opinion, and was easily explained on the powerful 
affinity of sulphuric acid for water, by virtue of which it destroys 
and carbonizes a great number of organic substances. 

An examination of the gases which I thus obtained, proved that 
they were, very nearly, a mixture of 6 parts of carbonic acid, and 5 
of oxide of carbon. This proportion did not vary much during the 
operation, although, towards the last, the carbonic acid somewhat 
_ prevailed. ) 

- The decomposition of oxalic acid by a moderate heat rendered 
the agency of sulphuric acid doubtful: I ascertained, that decompo- 
sition commenced at about the same temperature, with or without 
the sulphuric acid, viz. 110° to 115°C. - But an essential differ- 
ence is, that with sulphuric acid, we obtain a mixture of equal vol- 
umes of carbonic acid and oxide of carbon, as Doberéiner observed, 
while by heat alone they are as 6 to 5. The difference suggests the 
thought that during the decomposition, effected without sulphuric 


Miscellanies. 401 


acid, another substance may be formed to explain the loss in oxide 
of carbon. An experiment to ascertain this, shewed me that the 
water, abandoned by the oxalic acid, was acid, and that it contained 
formic acid. This appeared at first in small quantity, because it is 
disguised in much water, but it distills more and more concentrated, 
and towards the end of the operation, when the oxalic acid is dry, it 
has a very penetrating and sharp taste. Agreeably to the proportion 
found of 6 vols. carbonic acid to 5 vols. of oxide of carbon, sup- 
posing that the volume wanting of the latter gas has concurred with 
the water to the production of formic acid, we find that for 12 pro- 
portions of oxalic acid there will be formed one of formic acid. 
This theoretic result appears to me to be in accordance with the ex- 
periment; but I have not directly assured myself of its truth. It 
is incontestable that the hydrogen is supplied by the water to the 
formic, acid and not by the oxalic acid, for the carbonic acid and ox- 
ide of carbon must be produced in equal volumes. It is besides a 
necessary consequence of the well known nature of oxalic acid as 
ascertained by the experiments of Dulong and Dobereiner. I ought 
to remark, that if the decomposition is not urged too hastily, all the 
oxalic acid is destroyed, no sensible portion being volatilized. 

These observations appear to me to render it absolutely necessary, 
that we should no longer separate oxalic acid from the two other 
combinations of oxygen and carbon. It may be ranked among the 
acids whose radicals have two equivalents, and its proper name would 
then be the hypo-carbonic acid, analogous to the hypo-sulphuric, hy- 
po-sulphurous acids, &c., but it will be better perhaps to defer this 
change in the thenciontaheshte to some future time. —Alnn de Chim. et 


de Phys. Fev. 1831. 


25. On some phenomena of Magnetization.—(Extract of a let- 
ter from M. De Narrac to Prof. De La Rive.)—I placed in a 
line, end to end, two bars of soft iron ab, ed, each about two and a 
half feet long, one inch wide and one half inch thich. At the out- 
ward extremity of each bar I placed two small magnetic needles 7, k, 
turning on a pivot. 

Along side and near the bars I placed two compound magnets 
e, f, and g, h, each, including the armature, nineteen inches long 
and capable when united a at their poles, of sustaining from thirty to 
forty pounds. : 

Vor. XXVII.—No. 2: 51. 


402 Miscellanies. 


The. magnetic fluid instantly pervaded the iron bars, producing 
such an adhesion at, 6 and c that in drawing one bar, the other follow- 
ed. Two small keys also would remain suspended at a, and d, al- 
although the magnetism of the bars was stronger at the points of the 
bars corresponding with the points e and h, of the magnets. 

-'The needles 2 and & proved that in this position the extremity a 
had the same magnetism, (north) as the corresponding end e of the 
magnet e, f, and d the same ash. In moving one of the needles 
along the two bars, united, I found the neutral point to be: nearly at 
their junction bc. 


But in withdrawing the two magnets in a parallel direction to the 


two bars, and on removing them entirely the needles 2 and & were 
rapidly ge when the magnets reach the distance of about a 


Miscellanies. 403 


foot, and the two little keys fell off. Nevertheless the two bars were 
still magnetic, for not only did they preserve their adherence at 6 and 
e but I could again suspend the little keys at a and d the poles alone 
being changed. © 

In repeating this experiment a moment after, only changing the 
position of the magnets, that is, putting the pole S towards a and the 
pole N towards d, the same phenomena were repeated, but in a con- 
trary order. 

I had before discovered that two keys of middling size, subjected to 
the influence of a strong magnet, and which, after that remain sus- 
pended to each other, will preserve their adherence an indefinite 
length of time, when removed from the magnet, provided it be done 
with caution. It is evident then, that they remain impregnated 
while in contact, for at the moment of their separation, the force 
disappears. 

I afterwards tried the arrangements fig. 2, placing against the mid- 
dle of the soft iron bar another similar one cd, but only about six 
inches long, that the needle A might not be too immediately con- 
trolled by the magnet ef. The three needles in this position, shew- 
ed that the extremities a, b and c, had the same magnetism as the 
nearest pole of the magnet. In withdrawing it the needles g and i 
did not vary, but 4 at length, was reversed although less rapidly than 
in the former experiment. , 

But the reaction or reversion of the poles was manifested in the 
most evident manner by disposing the parts as represented in fig. 3, 
that is taking a single long bar, two short bars and two compound 
magnets. In withdrawing the magnets simultaneously, not only are 
the needles / and m reversed immediately, but the reaction must be 
so rapid as to keep up a continued magnetism in the bars, for the two 
little keys suspended at a and 6 still hold on, not having, I had al- 
most said, time to fall off, although the needles clearly indicate that 
the poles of the bar a 6 were reversed. In using but one magnet, 
(tk for instance) the two needles / and m had their north end to- 
wards d and f, and when the magnet was removed, the needle m 
was reversed, the other remaining stationary. 3 

Must not this reaction be analogous to the secondary piles of 
Ritter, which assume, when contact with the Voltaic pile is broken, 
poles opposite to the latter, or to the little needles which have their » 
magnetism reversed, when a Leyden bottle is discharged through a 
wire situated near them ? 


404 Miscellanies. _ 


Is it not the same cause that acts upon the needle of the galva- 
nometer, when the magnet which has been placed in the helix at- 
tached to the two ends of the multiplying wire i is removed, in the 
experiments of Faraday? Or the shock which a prepared faciouaeles 
when the circuit is broken as well as when it was first established,— 
or, lastly, the magnetic spark, at the end of the spirals, not amg at 
the forming, but at the closing of the connexion ? : 

Allow me also to repeat a remark of Dr. Keil, that if we ye a 
small magnetic bar, and holding it vertically, suspend a key from its 
lower end, nearly as large as it can support, and while in this state, 
if we apply to the upper end of the magnet ever so gently, a piece 
of soft iron, the key immediately falls; and yet keeping the Soft iron — 
still j in contact: with the magnet, the latter may represent the key 
which it had. just allowed to fall and it then takes it up again and 
retains it even when the soft iron is removed, but lets it fall again on 
asecond contact. I-have observed that the same effect does not en- 
sue when the magnet is held horizontally, which induces me to sus- 
pect the influence of terrestrial eer —Bib. Univ. Jan. 1834. 


26. Necrology.—Dr. J. F. Coindet. —This distinguished Phy- 
sician lately died at the age of flfty nine, after a long and severe 
disease. His talents were manifest in the early part of his medi- 
cal career. While at Edinburgh, where he prosecuted his studies, 
he. was nominated president of the royal Society of Medicine. | Es- 
tablished at Geneva in 1799, he soon become one of the most ac- 
tive practioners of the city, and continued so until his death, having 
filled with great zeal and success, the various posts of physician to 
the Hospital, prisons, &c. His numerous occupations did not divert 
him from study. He prepared for a considerable period, the medi- 
cal articles for the Bibliotheque Universelle, in which he published 
a number of original memoirs. Among them was one on Hydren- 
cephalus or Cephalite interne hydrencéphalique. ‘This memoir was 
written in consequence of a premium offered by the Royal Metieg 
Society of Bordeaux, in 1815, for the best essay that should “e 
pose the signs, causes, and treatment of internal hydrocephalis, sup 
ported by observation, experiment, and post mortem examination.” 
Its importance was sufficiently established by the fact of its being 
crowned by the Society, and the author elected a corresponding mem- 
ber. In 1820, Dr, C. published his Memoir on the discovery of a 
new remedy for Goittre. ‘This essay contributed much to his repu- 


Miscellanies. 405 


tation. He ascertained that the efficacy of burnt sponge depended 
upon the Iodine which it contained, and that similar benefit wonld 
be obtained by using the iodine separately, as in morphine, qui- 
nine, &c. Two subsequent memoirs, on the subject, established this 
as the best remedy in goitre, scrophula, and some lymphatic diseases 
of the system. ‘This brilliant discovery, which the experience of 
twelve years has sanctioned, was deemed by the Academy of Scien- 
ces of Paris to be worthy of their grand prize of three thousand 
francs,’ which was decreed to the author in 1832. In 1823, he 
published in the:same journal, a Note on the properties and use of 
sulphate of quinine in intermitting fevers. Dr. Coindet was the 
founder, and long the president of the Medical Society of the Can- 
ton of Geneva. He was twice a representative of the Canton in 
the General Council. In the midst of his usefulness, he was obli- 
ged to leave Geneva, for the milder climate of Nice, where he was 
taken off by severe disease. 


27. Le Chevalier Joun Auprnt, formerly professor of Natural 
Philosophy at the University of Bologna, died at Milan, on the 17th 
January, 1834, at the age of seventy one. He is known by vari- 
ous useful scientific labors. A relative of the celebrated Galvani, 
he pursued the train which the new discoveries opened and publish- 
ed in London in 1803, the experiment which he had made upon the 
dead bodies of criminals. In 1823 he published an Essay on the 
best means of constructing light houses and lighting them by oil 
or gas. He was latterly much occupied with the means of preserv- 
ing fire men and others from the effects of heat and flame, and in 
1830, the prize founded by De Montyon, was decreed him by the 
Academy of Sciences at Patis. A particular account of his methods 
of preservation will be found in vol. xx, of this Journal. The last 
labor of this ingenious philosopher, was an apparatus for measuring 
the smallest fraction of a second, in experiments on the descent of 
heavy bodies, and in other cases. 


28. Gastric Liquor. 


The subsequent letter relates to a portion of gastric liquor, which, 
at my suggestion, Dr. Beaumont withdrew from the stomach of the — 
man whose case was mentioned in this Journal, Vol. xxii, pa. 193, 
and forwarded to Prof. Berzelius, with the hope that it would prove 


406 Miscellanies. 


sufficient to enable him to effect a satisfactory analysis of this mys- 
terious fluid. I trust, that this eminent philosopher will consider the 
publication of this part of his letter to be proper, since it reveals, 
so forcibly, the intrinsic difficulties of the subject, and indicates, 
decidedly, that it will be impossible to give a satisfactory result, 
without daily access to the extraordinary source from which alone, 
as we suppose, the gastric fluid; can be derived in tolerable purity, 
and that the research must be prolonged and diversified, before sat- 
isfactory conclusions can be obtained. It seems now very difficult 
for any one except Dr. Beaumont to make this necessary examina- 
tion.—B. 8. ayn Dec. 11, 1834. 
Extract from a letter from Prof. Berzilius to Prof. Silliman, dated Stockholm, 
July 19, 1834. Translated by O. P. H. . \ 

My Dear Sir—tI had the honor of receiving, some time since; 
the present which you had the goodness to make me, of three 
bottles ‘(vials,) filled with gastric juice, drawn from ‘a man—into 
whose stomach there was an aperture through the abdominal in- 
teguments. Iam very grateful for the confidence you have had 
in me, in wishing to engage me in making an analysis of it, and I 
regret deeply that for the a npetsonsy! I am not oo to answer 
your expectations. 

First, the gastric juice sent in April, did not arrive at Stockholm, 
till towards the close of the month of August. It had not become 
at all putrescent—but how was it possible to be assured that the ani-. 
mal matters dissolved in it, after a separation of almost five months 
from the living body, and after an exposure to the elevated temper- 
atue of the months of July and August, were still identical with 
those of fresh gastric juice. 

But this circumstance apart, I outa not make this analysis with 
any hope of success. 

I assure you that I commenced, but the difficulties immediately 
arrested me. On testing the gastric juice with litmus paper, I 
found it strongly acid. ‘The acids are for the most part volatile. 

To obtain them, recourse must-be had to distillation—but the op- 
eration of boiling would change the, animal substances in the resi- 
duum. The quantity of gastric juice being only 266.76 grammes, 
I felt that I ought to sacrifice none of it, and therefore in removing 
the volatile acids, [ evaporated the whole in ‘a vacuum at the ee 
ature of the room. 

[ had a residum of 3.385 srammes, filled with crystals of chloride 
of sodium. 


Miscellanies. 407 


Now it was necessary to make a plan of the analysis—but how 
could I make a plan, the nature of the substances. to be. separated 
being unknown. 

A single mistake in the plan would destroy the whole, as I had 
no more of the matter to recommence. 

On recalling to myself how many times I have been obliged to re- 
commence the analyses of blood, bile, and urine, &c. because I found 
it necessary, time and again, to alter the plan, it was evident that 
I could uot now attain the object with the gastric juice, of which, I 
possessed only 31 grammes of dry residuum. I have therefore put 
alcohol, sp. gr. 0.833, upon it and enclosed it in a vial'well stopped, 
where it waits whatever may happen. 

A great number of experiments, chemical and physiological, oueht 
to precede the analysis. These experiments would demand. almost 
daily to renew the supply of gastric juice—e. g. *Tis said that 
the gastric juice dissolves the aliments swallowed; but what is 
this solution? Does it not consist in this, that certain parts are dis- 
solved entirely, and that others insoluble, but in a very divided state, 
are diluted in the form of a thick bouillie ?, What are the substances 
dissolved, and what the part insoluble, but diluted? The fibrine of 
muscle is very soluble, even out of the stomach, in very dilute acids. 

I inquire next, is it by the free acid of the gastric juice, that this 
solution is made in the stomach ? 

Would gastric juice, rendered perfectly neutral, lose the pase 
of dissolving muscular fibre ? vo 

If not, it must contain another substance which is the true min- 
struum. This substance ought to be isolated and studied apart, be- 
fore we could have any means of determining its quantity. 

This we could not do without being able often to renew the ex- 
periment with fresh gastric juice. It would be necessary even to 
examine with the fresh gastric juice, the most of the aliments which 
the man used, each by itself, and by proceeding thus, we should 
obtain probably some sure and numerous data, that would give a 
glimpse of what should be sought in the analysis, for that which is 
unsought, is rarely found. You see then, my dear sir, how much 
previous knowledge I need, for entering upon this analysis with 
hope of success. 

I request you to make the proper explanations and apology to 
Dr. Beaumont. 


408 Miscellanies. 


29. Abstract of a theory of the elevation and depression of the 
earth’s crust, by variations of temperature, as illustrated by the Tem- 
ple of Serapis.—From the Proceediugs of the Geological Society 
of London, Vol. I., letter from Charles Babbage, Esq. March 12.— 
O.P. HH. . 

The author describes the present state of the Temple, and gives 
the measurement of three marble columns, which from the height of 
eleven feet, to that of nineteen feet, (8) are perforated on all sides 
by the Modiola Lithophaga of Lamarck, the shells of that animal 
remaining in the holes formed by them in the columns. A deserip- 
tion is then given of the present state of twenty seven portions of 
columns, and other fragments of marble, and also of the several m- 
crustations formed on the walls and columns of the temple. 

The conclusions at which the author arrives, are: 

1. That the temple was originally built at, or nearly at the level 
of the sea, for the convenience of sea-baths, as well as for the use of 
the hot spring, which still exists on the land side of the temple. 

2. That at some subsequent period the ground on which the tem- 
ple stood subsided slowly and gradually; the salt water entermg 
through a channel which connected the temple with the sea, or by 
infiltration through the sand, mixed itself with the water of the ‘hot 
spring containing Carbonate of Lime, and formed a lake of brackish 
water in the area of the temple, which, as the land subsided became 
deeper, and formed a dark incrustation. 

The proofs are, that sea-water alone does not moana a similar in- 
erustation ; and that the water of the hot spring. alone produces an 
incrustation of a different kind; also that Serpule are found adher- 
ing to this dark incrustation ; and that there are lines of in ad 
at various heights, from 2°9 to 4°6 feet. 

8. The area of the temple was now filled up to the height of 
about seven feet with ashes, tufa, or sand, which stopped up the 
channel by which sea-water had been admitted. The waters of the 
hot spring thus confined, converted the area of the temple into a lake 
from which an incrustation of Carbonate of Lime was deposited on 
the columns and walls. 

‘The proofs are, that the lower boundary of this incrustation is 
inregular, whilst the upper is a line of water-level, and that there are 
mary such lines at different heights; that salt water has not been 
found to produce a similar incrustation ; that the water of the Piscina 
Mirabile which is distant from the sea, but in this immediate neigh- 


Miscellanies. 409 


borhood, produces according to an examination by Mr. Faraday, a 
deposit almost precisely similar; that no remains of Serpule, or 
other marine animals, are found adhering to it. 

4. The temple continuing to subside, its area was again partially 
filled with solid materials; at this ‘period it appears to have been 
subjected to a violent incursion of the sea. The hot water lake 
was filled up, and a new bottom produced, entirely covering the for- 

mer bottom, and concealing also the incrustation of carbonate of 
Time. The proofs are, that the remaining walls of the temple are 
highest on the inland side, and decrease in height towards the sea 
side, where they are lowest, that the lower boundary of the space 
perforated by the Lithophagi is, on different columns at different 
distances beneath the uppermost or water level line, &c. that sev- 
eral fragments of columns are perforated at the ends. 

5. The land continuing to subside, the accumulations at the bot- 
tom of the temple were submerged, and Modiole attaching them- 
selves to the columns and fragments of marble, pierced hem. 4 in all 
directions. The subsidence continued until the pavement of the 
temple was at least nineteen feet below the level of the sea. 

The proofs are derived from the condition of the columns and 
fragments. 

6. The ground on which the temple stood, appears now to have been 
stationary for some time, but it then began to rise. A fresh deposi- 
tion of tufa or sand, was lodged for the third time, within its area, 
leaving the upper part of three large columns visible above it. 
Whether this took place, before or subsequently to the rise of the 
temple to its present level, does not appear, but the pavement of the 
area is at present evel with the waters of the Mediterranean. 

The author then states several facts, which prove that considera- 
ble alterations in the relative level of the land and sea have taken 
place in the immediate vicmity. An ancient sea beach extends 
near Monte Nuovo, two feet above the present beach of the Medi- 
terranean ; the broken colunms of the Temples of the Nymphs and 
of Neptune, remain at present standing in the sea—a line of per- 
forations of Modiole and other indications of a water-level four feet 
above the present sea, is observable on the sixth pier of the bridge 
of Caligula; and again on the twelfth pier, at the height of ten feet, 
and a line of perforations by Modiolz, is visible in a cliff opposite 
the island of Nisida, thirty two feet aboye the present level of the 
Mediterranean. 


Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 52 


410 Miscellanies. 


The author considers the preceding inferences as a legitimate in- 
duction from the observed and recorded facts ; and proceeds to sug- 
gest an explanation of the gradual sinking and subsequent elevation 
of the ground on which the temple stands... From some experi- 
ments of Col. Totten, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, Vol. xxii, p. 136, 
he has calculated a table of the expansion in feet, and decimal parts 
of granite, marble, and sandstone, of various thicknesses from one 
to five hundred miles, and produced by variations of temperature of 
1°, 20°, 50°, 100°, 500°, of Fahrenheit—and he finds from this 
table, that if the strata below the temple expand equally with sand- 
stone, and a thickness of five miles were to receive an accession of 
heat equal only to 500°, the temple would. be raised twenty five 
feet—a greater alteration of level than is required to account for the 
phenomena in question. An additional temperature of 50° would 
‘produce the same effect upon a thickness of ten miles, and an addi- 
tion of 500° would produce it ona bed only a single mile in 'thick- 
ness. : fh 

Mr. Babbage then adverts to the various sources of volcanic heat 
in the immediate neighborhood; he conceives that the change 
of level may be accounted for by supposing the temple to have been 
built upon the surface of matter at a high temperature, which subse- 
quently contracted by slowly cooling down, that when this contraction 
had reached a certain point, a fresh accession of heat from some 
neighboring volcano, by raising the temperature of the beds again 
produced a renewed expansion, and which restored the temple to its 
present, level. The periods at which these events happened are 
then compared with various historical records. 

The second part of this letter contains some views respecting the 
possible action of existing causes, in elevating continents and moun- 
taim-ranges—which occurred to the: author in reflecting on the pre- 
ceding explanation. He assumes, as the basis of this reasoning, 
the following established facts. 

1. That as we descend below the surface of the earth at any 
point, the temperature increases. 

2. That solid rocks expand by being heated; but that clay and 
some other substances contract under the same circumstances. | 

3. That different rocks and strata conduct heat differently. 

4. That the earth radiates heat differently, or at different points 
of its surface, according as.it is covered with forests, with mountains, 
with deserts, or with water. rete 


Miscellanies. 411 


5. The existing atmospheric agents and other causes, are con- 
stantly changing the condition of the surface of the globe. 

Mr. Bubheve then proceeds to remark, that ehailever asea or 
lake is filled up, by the continual wearing down of the adjacent 
lands, new beds of matter, conducting heat much less quickly than 
water carries it, are formed ; and that the radiation also, from the 
surface of the new land, will be different from that from the water. 
Hence any source of heat, whether partial or central, which previ- 
ously existed below the sea, must heat the strata underneath its bot- 
tom, because they are now protected by a bad conductor. The 
consequence must be that they will raise, by their expansion, the 
newly formed beds above their former level; and thus the bottom 
of an oceah may become a continent. The whole expansion how- 
ever, resulting from the altered circumstances, may not take place 
until ong after the filling up of the sea; in which case its conver- 
sion into dry land will result partly from the filling up by detritus, 
and partly from the rise of the bottom. As the heat now pene- 
trates the newly formed strata, a different action may take place ; 
the beds of clay or sand may become consolidated, and may contract 
instead of expanding. In this case, either large depressions will 
occur within the limits of the new continent, or, after another inter- 
val, the new land may again subside and forma shallow sea. This 
sea may be again filled up, by a repetition of the same process as be- 
fore, and thus alternations of marine and fresh water deposits may 
occur, having interposed between them the productions of dry lands. 

Mr. Babbage’s theory may be thus briefly stated— 

In consequence of the changes actually going on at the earth’s 
surface, the surfaces of equal temperature within its crust, must be 
continually changing their form, and exposing thick beds near the 
exterior, to alterations of temperature—the expansion and contrac- 
tion of these strata will probably form rents, raise mountain-chains, 
and elevate even continents. 

The author admits that this is‘ an hypothesis ; but he throws it 
out, that it may be submitted to an examination, which may refute 
it if fallacious—or if it be correct, establish its truth—because he 
thinks that it is deduced directly from received principles, and that 
it promises an explanation of the vast cycles presented by the phe- 
nomena of geology. 


412 Miscellanies. 


30. Mr. Murchison on the Geology of Wales.—This eminent 
geologist has occupied himself during the last three years in survey- 
ing geologically this principality, and we may expect a work’ from 
him on its transition rocks—Mr. Murchison’s letter to the editor, da- 
ted April 18, 1834. 


31. Mr. De La Beche’s Manual.—A third edition of this valua- 
ble work has been published, much enlarged and improved by the 
author. 


32. Researches on Theoretical Geology, by Mr. T. De La 
Beche.—This work, containing an interesting series of reasonable de- 
ductions from Geological facts and phenomena and a condensed and 
luminons summary of them will be read with advantage, by those who 
have made some progress in the science. We learn from Mr. De La 
Beche, that he does not intend at present to publish a new see 
of his section of the strata above the grauwacke. 


33. Opossum in the Stonesfield Slate, near Oxford, Paina 
The Stonesfield Slate belongs to the lowermost beds of the oolite ; 
of the Didelphian, (Opossum) being of that period, there cannot be 
a shadow of a doubt. Mr. Mantell in a letter to the Editor, June 
18, 1834, Brighton, England. P 

It will be remembered that the remains of the opossum, found i m 
the place above named, present the only known instance of a vivip- 
arous vertebrated fossil animal, found lower than the chalk. 

This does not however, invalidate any principle of geology ; it 
goes only to prove that viviparous animals appeared earlier than had 
been supposed. 


34. Mr. Lyell and his Géology.—We learn by a letter from Mr. 
Mantell, that Mr. Lyell has gone to Sweden and Norway to exam- 
ine into the proofs afforded of the gradual elevation of those countries 
which. is supposed to be still gomg on. ; 

A new and cheap edition of Mr. Lyell’s Geology has recently » 
been published in London. It consists of 4 Vols. 12mo. illustrated 
with 147 wood cuts, and 13 plates and maps, price 24s. Sterling. 
It is added in Loudon’s Mag. for October, 1834, that since the pub- 
lication of the former editions of them, the author has travelled over 
a large part of the continent of Europe, for the purpose of verifying 
facts and collecting new materials. In the present edition, he has 


Miscellanies. 413 


embodied all his own observations, together with a vast quantity of 
new facts, brought to light since the first appearance of .the work, 
which has been most materially improved by these corrections and 
additions. Several new illustrations have been added and the glos- 
sary at the end of the fourth volume, will considerably assist those 
readers who are unacquainted with the elements of geology. 


85. Manual of Mineralogy, by Rob. Allan, F. R.S. E., F. G. 
S. L., &c., comprehending the most recent discoveries in the min- 
eral kingdom, was published in Edinburgh, in Sept. last, with 174 
figures, price 10s. 6d. 


36. Notice of the Work of T. Hawxrys, F. G. S.—Memoirs 
of Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, extinct monsters of the ancient 
earth ; with twenty eight plates, copied from specimens in the au- 
thor’s collection of fossil organic remains. 1 vol. large folio, Lon- 
don, 1834. 2/. 10s.—Ed. 

A favorab'e notice of this very extraordinary work, with some 
judicious criticisms, is contained in Loudon’s Magazine of Natural 
History, for September, 1834,—London. _ It is supposed to be from 
the pen of Mr. Bakewell, and we had marked it for insertion in our 
present number, along with another from the pen of Mr. Mantell ; 
but for want of room, we can insert only a part of the latter, which 
first appeared at Brighton, England. 

** There was a period when reptiles of the most wonderful forms, 
and appalling magnitude were the principal inhabitants of the earth, 
ere man and the animals which are his cotemporaries were created. 
In very early records there are obscure notices of the discovery of 
these ancient animals, and in more modern times the allusions are 
more frequent, but not more satisfactory. Even as late as 1726 
Scheucher, an eminent physician described, as he supposeda fossil 
man found in the quarries of Oeningen ; he called him homo diluvii 
testis ; but Cuvier determined that the bones were those of an enor- 
mous Salamander or Saurian. Still it is probable that similar mis- 
takes might be committed in most places in the civilized world, so 
few persons @re there, even among medical men, who are intimately 
acquainted with comparative anatomy. ‘The splendid work of Mr. 
Hawkins is confined to fossils which are peculiarly British, namely, 
the Ichthyosauri or fish lizards, and the Plesiosauri or animals that 
are much like lizards. ‘These remains were first noticed in the blue 


At4 Mascellanies. 


shale of the Lias, an argillaceous limestone at Lyme Regis in Dor- 
setshire, and they have been since found in Somersetshire, and other 
parts of England, and also in the United States.’’* 

“ The Ichthyosaurus had:a large and long head, with jaws armed 
with teeth like the crocodile ; enormous éyes ; a short neck ; a large 
and long body, furnished with four paddles composed: of ‘numerous 
bones; anda short tail. The Plestosaurus is yet more remarkable ; 
the head is very small, and armed with numerous pointed teeth ; 
the neck of an enormous length, and composed of between thirty 
and forty vertebre, being nearly double the number of that of any 
other animal ; the Swan, which has the greatest number of cervical . 
vertebrae, having but twenty three ; the body, like that of the Ich- 
thyosaurus, has on paddles ; the on is short. Such is a brief de- 
scription of the wonderful reptiles whose remains’are so beautifully 
figured, and accurately described by Mr. Hawkins from specimens 
in his own possession, and collected by himself. ‘This collection, 
which surpasses any in the world, has been made at an expense of 
several thousand pounds, and with great labor, and ought to be es 
ced in the British Museum.” 

We have thought it proper that a British Philosopher should be 
permitted to speak on a work and research peculiarly British. 

_ We have to add, that having been put in possession of this splen- 
did work by. the kindness of Mr. Mantell, we are so much gratified 
by the ample store of facts, and by the delineations and descrip-— 
tions of forms which it contains, that we are little disposed to criticise 
the high wrought and unusual diction of the narrative and descrip- 
tive parts. Mr. Hawkins may well adopt the good old. English 
proverb,—let him laugh that wins, and we are certainly much incli- 
ned if not to laugh, certainly to rejoice with him im his brilliant suc- 
cess. All the bones and skeletons delineated in Mr. Hawkins’ work 
are in his museum. .They cover a space of two hundred feet by 
twenty, and their weight is not less than twenty tons.+ One of his 
Saurians was obtained in six hundred pieces, which were arranged in 
order, and laid firm in a mass of plaster of Paris, weighing three 
tons. 

ee Me 


* See the citations in this Number, from Dr. Harlan’s account of our fossil 
bones. 


+t We quote these numbers from recollection, not being able, at this moment, 
' to find the passage in the works of Mr. Hawkins. 


Miscellanies. 415 


“The plates of this work are twenty nine in number, and with but 
one or two exceptions are admirably executed; they are alike beau- 
tiful in their general effect, and accurate in anatomical details.” 


37. Mr. Witham’s trasparent sections of fossil wood.—Ed.— 
We-mentioned these sections at pa. 108, Vol. xxv, of this Journal, 
and the very beautiful work of Mr. Witham, which describes them 
as well as the fossil trees from which they are derived. 

We have received from the author, copies of a second edition of 
his work, much enlarged and improved with additional colored draw- 
ings. It is an elegant tribute to the arts as well as to science, and 
especially to a branch of very difficult investigation. 

We have received also*from Mr. Witham, a new series of sec- 
tions of fossil wood, in thin slices, adhering to plates of glass ground 
down so thin that the structure of the wood is perfectly obvious. 
This is a great step towards a knowledge of the early‘ vegetation 
of our planet, and it appears certain that no one ever saw the iriter- 
nal structure of an opake fossil until it was revealed by the sagacity 
of Mr. Witham, aided by the practical skill of Mr. Magillivray and 
Mr. Nicoll, who appears to have pursued the same path which was 
first cleared, with much labor and expense, by Mr. Witham, (See 
Jameson’s Journal, No. 32, page 310.) Mr. Witham’s sections 
are extremely beautiful ; -in the collection which we have recently 
received, the Anabathera.and the Lepidodendron, are new, some of 
them are sliced in three different ways—transversely—longitudina- 
rily and obliquely, so as to shew the varieties of structure. 

The position.of the fossil trees which have been examined by 
Mr. Witham is not less extraordinary than their structure. 

We understand that it is admitted by all who have examined the 
geological facts, that the position of the Craigleith trees is either in 
the bottom of the coal fields, or in the mountain limestone group, 
and that the other are in the grindstone post—a variety of coal 
sandstone. 

It appears that similar trees occur from the earliest periods of ve- 
getation up to the highest part of the coal field, at least as the ar- 
rangement exists in this part of Britain. It is obvious, that forests 
composed of large trees, with firm woody fibre, existed antecedent- 
ly to and contemporaneously with the deposition of the coal. In 
many countries, mountains have been piled over the coal strata and 
over the fossil trees, and in various parts of the world, the great se- 


416 issedltanaes. 


ries of sandstone with their beds of salt and gypsum—the immense 
oolite formation—the chalk and the tertiary, with immeasurable 
masses of diluvium and alluvium have all succeded, in ages subse- 
quent to the coal. 

We beg leave again to recommend the researches of Mr. Witham, 
to the kind and seasonable aid of American Geologists. He is very 
desirous of receiving portions of fossil stems from our coal fields, 
and from the anthracite, and the transition limestone group ; that a ° 
fair comparison may be made between the fossil plants and trees of 
this continent and those of Europe. 

We have already distributed a few copies of Mr. Witham’s work 
among geologists, whose position and pursuits may probably enable 
_ them to promote this very interesting research ; and to persons who 
can act effectually upon this subject, we might have it in our power 
still to communicate a copy or two more. ‘ 

It is indispensable that the exact geological and geog graphical sit- 
uation of the fossil wood should be made known, or the pieces will 
not answer the purpose of a comparative investigation, which, as 
things are now situated, must be made in Edinburgh, as no such ex- 

‘periments are, so far as we are informed, made any where else.—Ed. 

January 1, 1835. 


Zodiacal Light——We have received from Professor Olmsted 
the following notice of this phenomena, with the promise of a more 
extended article on the subject, for a future number of this Jour- 
nal.— Eid. 

My attention was first attracted to the appearance of the Zodi- 
acal Light in the morning sky, on the 11th of October. At that 
time it presented a pyramidal form, resting its broad base on the 
horizon, and terminating in a famt indefinite extremity near the 
Nebula of Cancer. aoe 

On the 5th of November, | inserted in one of our daily papers, a 
brief notice of this light, with the hope of directing the attention of 
astronomers towards it. In the same article were suggested the 
queries, ‘ whether this light has any connexion with falling stars, 
and whether it would sustain any remarkable change on or about the 
13th of November?’ The ‘ change” contemplated was, that it 
would about that time pass by the sun, apparently, and become vis- 


Miscellanies. 417 


ible in the evening sky after twilight. It continued to be observed 
in the morning, (but not in the evening) until after the 13th of No- 
vember. As soon after that time as the absence of the moon per- 
mitted observation, namely, on the 19th, the extreme parts of the 
same luminous pyramid were recognized in the west immediately af- 
ter twilight; but, owing to the low angle made by the ecliptic with 
the western horizon at this time, the light was carried so near the 
horizon in the southwest, as to have its inte citicngl much impaired. 
It could, however, be traced a little above the two bright stars in the 
head of Capricornus. J'rom that time to the present, (Dec. 27th,) 
it has been seen on every favorable evening, advancing in the order 
of the signs faster than the sun. On the evening of the 21st De- 
cember, in a peculiarly favorable state of the atmosphere, it was 
faintly discernable, from six to seven o’clock, reaching nearly to the 
equinoctial Colure, and of course almost ninety degrees from the sun, 
measured on the Ecliptic. 

This light has also continued to be visible in the morning sky, al- 
though evidently withdrawing itself to the other side of the sun. 
The presence of the moon at this time prevents observations in the 
morning ; but we hardly expect to see it any more in the east fora 
few days to come, although possibly after transiently disappearing, 
it may re-appear in the morning sky. 

On the morning of the 13th of November, there was a slight 
repetition of the Meteoric Shower, which presented so remarkable 
a spectacle on the corresponding morning of 1833. Supposing it 
probable that such appearances might be seen, I had concerted 
measures with several of my friends to watch for them. ‘The fol- 
lowing extract from the account of our observations, published the 
next day in the New Haven Daily Herald, will comprise the prin- 
cipal particulars worthy of notice. 

“The presence of the moon in an advanced stage, until nearly 4 
o’clock in the morning, permitted only the larger and more splendid 
meteors to be seen: it is fairly to be presumed that many of the 
smaller and fainter varieties, such indeed as constituted last year much 
the greater part, were invisible from this cause merely. 

The writer was assisted in his observations by Mr. Tutor Loomis, 
and by one of his pupils, Mr. A. B. Haile, of the Senior Class.— 
On carefully comparing notes, the following appear to be the princi- 


pal points worthy of notice. 
Vol. XX VII.—No. 2. 53 


418 Misceilanies. 


1. The number of meteors, though small, compared with last 
year, was evidently much above the common average. They began 
to be frequent as early as four minutes past one o'clock, mean time, 
when a fire ball of unusual size and splendor blazed forth in the 
east as a signal. From this period they were seen to fall at a pretty 
uniform rate, until the light of day was far advanced. From a quar- 
ter past two, until a quarter past five o’clock, we counted, in the 
eastern view, embracing one third of the visible heavens, one hun- 
dred and fifty five. Some meanwhile fell in the south west, and a 
few in the north west, but the number seen in the eastern hemisphere 
greatly exceeded that in the western. Were we to estimate the 
whole number which fell during the night, at one thousand, we 

should probably not exceed the truth. Afier, intervals of several 
minutes, three or four meteors would frequently make their appear- 
ance in rapid succession. In the eastern view, those south of the 
ecliptic, and those north, were nearly equal in number, being’ for a 
considerable period as twenty seven to twenty. 

2. The directions of the meteors were more remarkable than 
their number, and afforded more unequivocal evidence of the identity 
of the phenomenon with that of last year. ‘They appeared, as be- 
fore, to radiate from a common center, and that center was again in 
the Constellation Leo. In whatever part of the heavens they fell, 
their lines of direction continued would pass through that pomt.— 
The attention of Mr. Loomis was particularly directed towards de- 
termining the position of the apparent radiant, having taken the bear- 
ings of a sufficient number of the lines of direction, and afterwards 
traced them on the globe. They meet near the Lion’s eye, Decli- 
nation 30° 15’, Right Ascension 144° 30’. The radiant point is 
therefore a little northward and westward of the place it occupied 
last year, which was near Gamma Leonis, Decl. 20°, R. A..150°. 
This point was not observed to vary in position for at least three 
hours, thus corresponding to the conclusions which were made out 
respecting. the radiant last year, a circumstance from which it was 
inferred that the source of the meteors was beyond the influence of 
the earth’s rotation, and consequently beyond the atmosphere. 

The meteors generally edi in the ares of great circles extending 
from the radiant point, but four were observed to ascend from it.— 
One, ata quarter before four o’clock shot from near Procyon towards 
the radiant ; and three were observed, at different times, moving with 
extreme slowness, horizontally from west to east, south of Orion, 


and Canis Major. 


Miscellanies. A19 


3. The Zodiacal Light, which we have observed to precede the 
morning twilight on every favorable morning since the 11th of Oc- 
tober, began to be visible as early as four o’clock, and was seen to 
extend from the horizon upward, terminating near the place from 
which the meteors emanated.” 

It will appear from the foregoing statements that the phenome- 
non, if identical with that of November 13th, 1833, had nothing of 
the magnificence of that. ‘Those, however, who have watched our 
sky for a long period, both before and after the 13th, concur in the 
testimony, that the exhibition of meteors on that morning, in regard 
to number, brightness and direction, was altogether peculiar, and 
more remarkable than any similar occurrence before or since. We 
have not heard, however, that any remarkable fall of meteors was 
observed on that night any where south of this place although the 
appearances, as observed by Mr. Twining, were extraordinary at 
West Point, (which is in nearly the same latitude,) and at places 
north of us, as at Andover in Massachusetts. By the following let- 
ter, received since that time, from Mr. A. K. Wright, a member of 
the Theological Seminary at Andover, we learn, not only that the 
phenomenon in question was seen at Andover, but that a remarkable 
shower of meteors was witnessed in Ohio on the 13th of November, 
1831; which carries us back one year farther than any previous 
accounts. ‘The statement of Mr. Wright is as follows : 

“Ina letter dated January 25th, 1834, which I received from my 
father, who is a physician in the state of Ohio, after some remarks 
respecting the meteoric exhibition in 1833, as observed in this coun- 
try, and that in 1832, as observed in Arabia, I find a statement for 
substance as follows: ‘In 1831, on. the 13th of November, between 
three and four o’clock, A. M., I noticed an unusual shower of Me- 
teors, while on my way to a neighbor’s where I had been called on 
professional business.’ Knowing the care with which my father’s 
professional journal is kept, I am satisfied there is no room for mis- 
take in respect to date. 

“It may be interesting to you to know that the meteoric exhi- 
bition was noticed here, this year, as well as in other parts of the 
country.” 

P. S.—Jan. 1. The Zodiacal Light is still faintly visible in the 
east. In the west, it reaches nearly to the meridian, but is feebler 
than at this time last year. Indeed, all its exhibitions have been’ 


less striking than they were in 1833-4. D. O. 
Yale College, January, 1835. 


420 Miscellanies. 


The Maidstone Lewanodon.—By a letter from Mr. Mantell, dated 
October 4, 1834, we learn that the fine specimen containing the fossil 
bones mentioned in his communication, p. 855 has been generously 
presented to him, by some of his friends, who purchased it in its mu- 
tilated state for 25£. 1t has been chiselled out, and the pieces 
joined ; many new bones have been developed, and it now forms one 
of the finest specimens in Europe. A particular report of it may 
be expected, but in the mean time it Is ascertained, that the hind feet 
of the Iguanodon “were very large, flat, and enormously strong, as 
might indeed, a priori, be supposed. ‘The large metatarsal bones 
which Cuvier says, so much resemble those of the Hippopotamus 
belong to the hind feet only ; the metatarsal are long and slender, as 
in the recent Iguana.” Mr. Mantell has been able to replace the 
fragments of the femur, previously broken into one hundred pieces, 
and to repair and make it quite perfect: this femur is three feet, 
eight inches long, although shortened somewhat by compression. 

A model has been made of the lower extremity of the femur of 
this Colossus of the reptile world. 


On the Chrysomela vitivora. 


Pror. Sttuiman.— Dear Sir—By a letter from Dr. T. W. Harris, of Cambridge, 
Mass., I learn that the insect which Mr. David Thomas described and figured as 
new in the 26th vol. of your Amer. Journal of Science, and to which he gave the 
name of Chrysomela vitivora, is identical with the Haltica chalybea of Niiger. 
Under this latter name it stands in Dr. H.’s Catalogue of the Insects of Massachu- 
setts, appended to Prof. Hitchcock’s recent report. 

Respectfully yours, E. C. Herrick. 

New Haven, Dec. 23, 1834. 


P.S. Since the notice on page 384 was printed, we have received the Village 
Herald from Prince Anne, Somerset County, Md., under date of Dec. 9th, sta- 
ting that similar observations have been made there by R. H. Winder, ona plant 
supposed to be that named by Mrs. Gerrish. We have no room to give an abstract 
of the article. 

December 23, 1834. 


INDEX TO VOLUME XXVII. 


A. 


Acetic acid, crystallized, process for, 


197. 
Aikin, W.E. A., on apparent diminu-||p 


tion of weight in certain circumstan- 
ces, 224. 

Alexander, J. H., report on projected ge- 
ological and topographical 
Maryland, 1. 

Aluminium, chloride of, 241. 

, hydrated chloride of, 253. 

Amalgam of platinum, 263 

Ammonia, bitungstate of, 264. 

Analysis of the berries of the Sumach, 


Analysis of chloride of aluminium, 242 
chloriodide of platinum, 260. 
disulphuret of Bismuth, 265. 
Georgia gold, 255. 
silver of Lane’s mine, 256. 

Antimony, process for. separating from 

tin, 197. 
Apparatus for analyzing Calcareous 
marl, &c , 299. 

Arch, rampart, some properties of, 303. 

Artesian wells, 399. 

Asclepias Syriaca, 384. 

Aurora borealis, effect on magnetic nee- 

dle, 113. 


B. 


Babbage, Chas., Esq., theory of the ele- 
vation and depression of the earth’s 
crust by variations of temperature, as 
illustrated by the temple of Serapis, 


408. 

Bache, Prof. A. D., on effect of Aurora 
borealis upon the magnetic needle, 113. 
385. 


——_—_,, meteorol. observations on 
and about 13th Nov. 1834, 335. 

Balance, application of its principle to 
various operations, 92. 

Ball’s cave, notice of, 368. 

Barometer, improvement and new modes 
of construction of, 97, 223, 292. 

Beads, manufactory of, at Venice, 78. 

Beecher, D. L., on snake suspended alive 
by spiders, 309, 

Bellows, theory of, 88. 


Berzelius’ letter on analysis of gastri¢ 
liquor, 405. 

Treatise on Chem., remarks 
on, by Prof. Hare, 61 
i-malate of lime in the berries of the 
Sumach, 294. 
Bismuth, disulphuret of, 264. 
Bitungstate of ammonia, 264. 


urvey Ol /Brant, L. on the eclipse of Noy. 30, 1834, 


386. 
C. : 


Carbonic oxide, 129. 

Caricography, Prof. Dewey on, 236. 

Chapin, A. B., on junction of trap and 
sandstone, 104. 

Chloriodide of platinum, analysis and 
synthesis, 258. 

Chrysomela vitivora of Vol. 26, not a 
new insect, 420. 

Combustion, spontaneous, 178. 

Copper, native, large mass in Y. C. Cab- 
inet, 381. : 

Croom, H. B., on organic remains of 
mar] pits in Craven Co., N. Carolina, 
168. 

Crust of the earth, elevation and depres- 
sion of, by variations of temperature, 
408. , 

Crust of the globe, progressive increase 
of heat in, 397. 

Cummings, Judge S. on a snake suspend- 
ed alive by spiders, 307. 

Cyana, fountain of, 82. 


D. 


Dana, Jas. D., on the condition of Vesu- 
vius, July, 1834, 281. 

De La Beche’s manual, 3d ed., 412. 

researches on theoretical 


geology, 412 

Desfontaines, M., notice of life and wri- 
tings, 201. 

Dewey, Prof. C., on caricography, 236. 

Disulphuret of bismuth, 264. 

Donation to Y. C. Library, 184. 

Ducatel, Prof. J. T., report on projected 
geol. and topog, survey of Maryland, 
(8 

Durant, C. F., on improvement in the - 
barometer, 97. 


422 


E. 


Eclipse of Nov. 30, 1834, 386. 
Editor, on geology around Lowell, Mass., 
340 


Electromotors, Dal Negro’s experiments 
in, 189. 

Elementary Voltaic battery, experimen- 
tal enquiry into some of the laws of, 
39. 


Emmons, Prof, on Strontianite, locality 
of, 182. 

Entomology, exchanges in, 386. 

Eye, accommodation of, to distances, 
219. 

Eye of the streaked bass, dissection of, 

~ 216. 


in 


Fluids, resistance of, 135. 

Fossil marine plants, 347. 

teeth, 166. 

vertebral bone ot mastodon, 165. 

——- wood, Witham’s sections of, 415. 

zoology and comparative anato- 
my, 351. 

Foster, Mr. Wm., on culture of the po- 
tatoe in France, 176. 

Fruit trees, propagation of, 288. 


G. 


Gale, Dr. L. D., on carbonie oxide, 129 

Gastric liquor, Prof. Berzelius’ letter on 
analysis of, 405. 

Geological and topographical survey of 
Maryland, report on, 1. 

Geology around Lowell, Mass., 340. 

-, theoretical researches on, by 
Mr. De La Beche, 412. 

Gerrish, Mis. M., on Asclepias Syriaca, 
or milk weed, as a substitute for flax, 
384, 

‘Gibbes, L. R., on the general principles 
of the resistance of fluids, 135. 

Gold of Georgia, analysis of, 255. 

Gold region of the U. States, 348. 

Gorton, “Thomas, Engineer, on rail road 
curves, 131. 


feet ed the proper- 
ties of a rampant arch, 303. 

Green, Jas., on barometer and phil. in- 
struments, 292. 

Green sand formation of S. E. of Eng., 
discovery of iguanodon in, 355. 

Guaco, its medical virtues, 171. 


H. 


Hail storm, notice of, 171. 


INDEX. 


Hare, Prof., apparatus for freezing wa- 
ter by the aid of sulphuric acid, 132. 

, remarks on Berzelius’ trea- 
tise on Chem., 61. 

Hawkins, Mr. 1D (F.G.S. ), notice of his 
large work on Ichthyosauri and Plesi- 
osauii, 413. 

Heat, radiant, transmission of, through 
solid and liquid bodies, 228. 

Heat, specific, experiments to determine 
that of certain solids, 267. 

Hitcheock’s Geology of Mass., foreign 
notices of, 383. 

Holcomb, Amasa, comparative experi- 
ments with his telescopes, 185. 


ite 


Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, Hawkins’ 
work on, 413. 


fgnanodon of Maidstone, discovered in 
“the lower green sand of the Chalk, 8S. 
E. England, 355, 420. . 

Imperial pop, recipe for, 200. 

Indian Summer, 140. 

internal heat of the crust of the earth, 
397. 

fodide of mercury, 263. 

potassium and platinum, 257. 


a: 


Johnson, W. R. Prof., experiments for 
determining and calculating the spe- 
cific heat of certain solids, 267. 

, on rotation of liquids, 84. 

Joslin’s Prof. memoir on irradiation, no- 
tice of, 389. 

Junction of sandstone and trap, 104. 


K. 


Kain, Dr. J. H., on ancient pottery of the 
West, 175. 


L. 


Lane’s Mine, analysis of silver of, 256. 

Lapham, D. C., Problems, 127. 

Lea's Mr. L., “observations on the genus 
Unio, &e.” notice of work by, 371. 

Ledererite, not a new mineral, 171. 

Lime, bi- malate of in berries of the Su- 
mach, 294. 

Linen, substitute for, 179. 

Liquids, rotation of, 84, 

Locomotion, notice of Gordon’s treatise 
on Elemental, 174. 

Lowell, geology around, and other facts, 


INDEX. 


M. 


Magnesium, process for, 196. 

Magnetic needle, effects of Aurora Bo- 
realis on, 113. 

—————_—_—,, variation of, 385. 

Magnetization, phenomena of, 401. 

Majorca, notice of a part of, 83. 

Mantell, G. Esq., on the discovery of Igu- 
anodon inthe green sand of the chalk 
at Maidstone, 8. E. England, 355. 

Marl calcareous, apparatus for analy- 
zing, 299. 

Maryland, report on geological and to- 
pographical survey of, 1. 

Mastodon, vertebral bone of, 165. 

Mather, Prof. W. W. contributions to 
Chemical science, 241. 

Medals, 74. 

Mercury, iodide of, 263. 

Meteoric iron from Louisiana, mass of. 
in Y. C. Cabinet, 382. 

———— observations, 13th Nov. 1834, 
335, 339. 

Meteorology, exchange of observations 
in, 172 

—_——— journal at Savannah, Geo. 
June, 1833 and 1834, 173. 

Mica slate intersected by trap, 342. 

Microlite, a new mineral species, 361. 

Milking, application of priaciple of bal- 
ance to, 92. 

Milk weed a substitute for flax, 384. 

Mineralogy, manual of, by Robert Allan 
B.S. E.; 413. 

Moon, its influence on the weather, 192. 

Morton’s Dr. S. G. synopsis of organic 
remains of the cretaceous group of the 
United States, 377. 

Murchison, Mr. on the geology of 
Wales, 412. 

Muse, J. E. on stony concretiors in the 
ovary of a turtle, 163. 


N. 


Natural History, abstract of the proceed- 
ings of the New York Lyceum of 1831 
to 1834, 148. 

Naval Lyceum of United States, 393. 

New England Magazine, notice of, 389. 

New York Lyceum of Natural History, 
abstract of proceedings of, for 1831 to 
1834, 148. 

Niagara, falls of, 326. 

Nomenclature of Berzelius, objections to 
and substitute for, 61. 


O. 


Obituary of Dr. J. F. Coindet, 404. 
——— Hon. Simeon De Witt, 395. 
Mr. Thomas Say, 393. 


423 


Obituary of Prof. Aldini, 405. 
Observations on the genus Unio, &c. new 
work by Mr. I. Lea, notice of, 371. 

Olmsted, Prof. on Zodiacal light, 416. 

Opossum of Stonesfield slate, 412. 

Optical deception, instrument for exhib- 
iting, 310. 

Organic remains of Marlpits, Craven co. 
N.C., 168. 

—_——_—_—__—— cretaceous group, U. 
States, 377. 

—_—_—_—_——,, 347, 166, 165, 415. 

Oxalic acid, 400. 


Pp. 


Papyrus, 80. 
Perca nobilis, dissection of eye of, 216. 
Perchloride of platinum, crystallized, 
262. 
Phi Beta Kappa soc. of New York, 388. 
Philosophical instruments, construction 
of in this country, 292. 
Picture gallery of Toronto, 178. 
Plants, fossil marine, 347. | 
Platinum, amalgam of, 263. 
, lodide of, 257. 
, perehloride of, 262. 
Pomona, on propagation of fruit trees, 
and vines, 288. 
Potassium, chloriodide of, 258. 
,jodide of, 257. 
Potatoe, culture of in France, 176. 
Pottery, ancicnt American, 175. 
Problems, 127. 


R. 


Radiant heat, transmission of through 
different solid and liquid bodies, 228. 

Rail road curves, 131. 

Report of the Regents of Univ. N. Y., 
177. 


on a projected geological and to- 
pographical survey of Maryland, 1. 

Resistance of fluids, 135. 

Riddell, J. L. new construction of ba- 
rometer, 223. 

Rogers, H. D. experimental inquiry into 
the laws of the elementary Voltaic 
battery, 39. 

—_—_——_, Falls of Niagara, 326. 

, Prof. W. B. apparatus for ana- 

lyzing calcareous marl, &c.. 299. 

—_—_—_—_——,, experimental] inquiry 
into the laws of the elementary Volta- 
ic battery, 39. 


—__—_—_—_—_—, on bi-malate of lime 
in berries of Sumach, 294. 

——__———, Self-filling Syphon, 
302. 

Rotation of fluids, 84. 


424 


8. 


Sandstone and trap, junction of, 104. © 

Say, Mr. Thomas, obituary and notice 
of his works, 393. 

Scientific publications in United States, 
recent, 395. 

Serapis; temple of, causes of its depres- 
sion aud elevation, 408. 

Shepard, C. U., on Ball’s cave, 368. 

—_—__—___—— Microlite, anew min- 
eral species, 361, 

—— Strontianite of Scho- 
harie, N. Y., 363. 

—_——_—_—_—— reply to Prof. Del Rio, 


312. 

Silver of Lane’s mine, analysis of, 256. 

Snake suspended by spiders, 307. 

Snell, Prof. E. S., an instrument for ex- 
hibiting an optical deception, 310. 
Specific heat of certain solids, method of 

determining, 267. 

Spectacle glasses, manufactory of, 80. 

Spiders, living snake suspended by, 307. 

Spontaneous combustion, 178. 

Steatite, large beds in mica slate, 341. 

, of Middlefield. Mass., 382, 

Stonesfield slate, opossum of, 412. 

Strait, H., on the application of the 
principle of the balance, 92. 

——, on theory of the bellows, 88. 

Strontianite, discovered in the United 
States, 182, 383. 

Substitute for linen, 179. 

Sumach, bi-malate of lime in the berries 
of, 294. 

Survey, Geol. and topo. of Maryland, re- 
port on, 1. 

Swainson, Wm., exchanges in Entomol- 
ogy, 387. 

Synopsis of the organic remains of cre- 
taceous group, U.S., by Dr. Morton, 
notice of, 377. 

Syphon, self filling, 302. 


aly: 


Telescopes, Holcomb’s, comparative ex- 
periments with, 185. 

Temperature, variations of as producing 
elevations and depressions of the crust 
of the earth, 408. 

Theory of the bellows, 88. 

Tin, crystallized from solution, 254. 


Tin, process for separating from antimo- 


ny, 197. 
Toronto, picture gallery of, 178. 
Transactions Geol. Soc., Penn., 347. 


INDEX. 


Trap and sandstone, junction of, 104. 
—— intersecting, &c. mica slate, 342. 
Travels in equatorial regions of S. Am., 
by A. R. Terry, M. D., 387. 
Trilobite, a new species, 351. 
, modern, of New South Shet- 
land, 395. 
Turpentine, spirits of, for destroying 
worms and insects, 197. 
Turtle, stony concretions in ovary of, 


Twining, A. C,. meteor. observations, 
Nov. 13, 1834, 339. 


U. 


Ultra marine, artificial, 195. 
U. States Med. and Surg. journal, notice 
of, 180. 


———— Naval Lyceum, 393. 


Vv. 


Varnish for east iron, 199. 

Venice, bead manufactory at, 78. 

Vertebral bone of a mastodon, 165. 

Vesuvius in July, 1834, 281. 

Vines, propagation of, 288. 

Voltaic battery, experimental enquiry 
into laws of, 39. 


W. 


Wallace, W. C., M. D., dissection of the 
eye of the streaked bass, or Perca no- 
bilis, 216. 

Water, apparatus for freezing it, aided 
by sulphuric acid, 132. 

Weather, influence of moon on, 192. 

Weight, apparent diminution of, in cer- 
tain circumstances, 224. 

Williams, W. H., meteorological jour- 
nal, 173. 

Witham, Mr. H., sections of fossil wood, 
415. 

Wood set on fire by direct rays of the 
sun, 179. 

Worms on fruit trees, means of destroy- 
ing, 197. 


Ne 


Yale College Cabinet, presents to, 381, 
382. 

——_—_—_—— Library, munificent dona- 
tion to, 184. 

nh Se 

Zodiacal light, Prof. Olmsted on, 415. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO FRIENDS, CORRESPONDENTS AND 
STRANGERS. 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopted, 
because it is not always practicable to write letters, even in cases 
where they might be reasonably expected ; aud still more difficult is 
it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books and 
pamphlets which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- 
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often 
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or 
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, 
would usually find both acceptance and insertion. 

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to 
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading 
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our 
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, 
with which they presume us to be acquainted. 

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from me, that I may 
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- 
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It 
is still my endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an 
answer; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made 
in these pages, which may sometimes be, as now, in part, retrospec- 
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DOMESTIC. 


United States Military and Naval Magazine, July and Aug. 1834. 
Exch. 

Knickerbocker, New York, Sept. 1834. Exch. 

Western Monthly Magazine, Cincinnati, for Sept. and Oct. 1834. 
Exch. 

Med. Mag. Boston, Sept. and Oct. 1. Exch. 

Journal of the Geological Society of Philadelphia. 8vo from p. 
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African Repository, Vol. X, No. 7. Sept. 1834, Washington. 

Rev. Mr. Vanarsdalen’s Discourse on international peace. June, 
1834, Hartford. pp. 40. 

Cat. of Princeton College, 1834. From Prof. Henry. 

Rev. Dr. W. B. Sprague’s Oration on La Fayette. July, 1834, 
Albany. pp. 34. 

l 


Or 
Transactions of the Albany Institute, Vol. I], No.1. 1834. pp. 


Cat. of Union College. From Prof. Joslin. 

Journal of the Franklin Institute, Aug. and Sept. 1834, Philadel- 
phia. Exch. ; 

New Alphabet. From St. Louis. 

Flora Columbiana. From J. A. Brereton, U. S. Army. 

A paper on Irradiation, by B. E. Joslin, M.D. 1833. From 
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Prof. A. D. Bache on the diurnal variation of the horizontal nee- 
dle. Read tothe Phil. Soc., Nov. 16, 1832. From the author. 

Eulogy on La Fayette, delivered at Faneuil Hall, by Hon. Edw. 
Everett. From the author. 

Palfrey’s Sermons on duties of private life. Svo. pp. 368. Bos- 
ton, 1834. From Abbot Lawrence, Esq. 

Proceedings of the Overseers of Harvard University. Aug. 25, 
1834. From the President. 

Lecture on the teaching of arithmetic, delivered Aug. 1830, Bos- 
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burn. as 
Dr. J. R. Coxe on Dr. Harvey’s claims to the discovery of the 
circulation of the blood—vindication of Hippocrates against charges 
of ignorance. Philadelphia, 1834. 8vo. pp. 258. To Yale College 
Library. From the author. 

Travels in the Equatorial Regions of South America, in 1832, by 
Adrian R. Terry, M.D. From the author. 

Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the 
United States, with 19 plates, by Dr. Samuel George Morton. From 
the author. 

Thoughts on the impolicy of multiplying Schools of Medicine, by 
Charles Caldwell, M.D. From the author. 

On the mode of collecting and preserving objects of Natural His- 
tory, with a view to the formation of a cabinet, &c., by Dr. Rob. 
Peter. From Dr. Caldwell. 

Sermons from the fowls of the air and the lilies of the field, by 
Samuel Nott, Jr. Boston, 1804. From Dr. Hale of Boston. 

Life and Writings of the Rev. George Herbert, with the Syna- 
gogue in imitation of Herbert, Lowell, Mass., 1834. From the pub- 
lisher, George Woodward. 

Documeats No. 2 accompanying the President’s Message, at the 
opening of the Second Session of the 23d Congress, Dec. 1834, be- 
ing the Report of the Sec. of War. 358 pages. ‘T'wo copies, one 
from Hon. E. Jackson and one from Hon. Jos. Trumbull. 

Ancient Mineralogy, or an Inquiry respecting Mineral Substances, 
mentioned by the Ancients, with occasional remarks on the uses to 
which they were applied, by Prof. N. E. Moore of Columbia Col- 
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thor. 


3 


Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Prison dis- 
cipline Society. Boston, 1834. 

Discourse on the History, Character and Prospects of the West, 
delivered to the Union Literary Society of Miami Univ. Oxford, 
Ohio, Sept. 1834, by Dr. Daniel Drake. From the author. 

A Manual of Chemistry, by Lewis C. Beck, M.D. Second edi- 
tion revised and enlarged. E. W. & C. Skinner, Albany, 1834. 
From the author. 

A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada, 
by Thomas Nuttall, A. M., F. L. S., &c.—Water Birds. Boston, 
1834. Willard, Gray &Co.° From the publishers. 

The Republic of Letters a weekly republication of Standard Lit- 
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President Colton’s Inaugural Address, and the first Catalogue of 
Bristol College. 1834. From the author. 

American Advocate of Peace, Vol. 1, Nos. 2 and 3, conducted by 
Rev. C. S. Henry. 

Religious Magazine, conducted by G. D. & J. Abbot, Boston, 
Vol. II, No. 2. 

Tract No. 1, of the Connecticut Peace Society—War unchris- 
tian, &c. 1834. 

Western Monthly Magazine, No. XXIV. Dec. 1834. 

History of the Fight at Concord, by Rev. Ezra Ripley, D. D., 
and others, 2 ed. 1832. From Dr. Ripley. 

Oration July 4, 1834, by A. N. Skinner. 1834. From the author. 

The Boston Pearl and Literary Gazette, Vol. IV, No. 14. 1834. 

Oration commemorative of Gen. La Fayette, by Jas. A. Hill- 
house, Esq. From the author. 

Rev. Mr. Upham’s Account of the Salem witchcraft, in 1692. 
From the author. 

Chinese Repository, 1833 and 1834. 

System of Education for the Girard College for Orphans, by a 
native Philadelphian. 

Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine and Surgery, Part III. 

North American Archives of Medical and Surgical Science, by 
Dr. E. Geddings, Prof. of Anatomy, &c. Univ. Maryland. 

Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, by Dr. R. E. 
Griffith and others, Vol. VI. No. 3. 

Med. Mag. by J. B. Flint, E. Bartlett, and A. A. Gould, No. VII. 
Vol. Ill. Nov. 1, 1834. 

United States Medical and Surgical Journal, No. II. Sept. Oct. 
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Report of Experiments on the Navigation of the Chesapeake and 
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* New England Magazine, No. 43, Jan. 1, 1835. 


FOREIGN. 


Prof. Whewell On the Empirical Laws of the Tides in the Port 
of London, with some reflexions on the Theory. 1834. From the- 
London Phil. Trans. From the author. 

Prof. Whewell’s Essay towards a first approximation to a map of 
cotidal lines. 1834. From the London Philos. Trans. From the 
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Col. Mark Beaufoy’s Nautical and Hydraulic Experiments, with 
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Col. C. W. Pasley C. B on Measures, Weights and Money, 8vo. 
136 pages. London, 1834. From the author. 

Memoirs on Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, with 28 plates, copied 
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p. 595. Boston, 1833. From the Society. - 

Travels in the U. S., N. America and Canada, by J. Finch, Esq. 
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Phil. Mag., London, July 1834. Exch. 

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Annales des Mines, &c. Paris, Mars, Avril, 1834. Exch. 

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5 


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From the Society. 

The Journal of a Naturalist, 3d Ed., London, 1834 pp. 432. 
From G. Mantell, Esq., Brighton, Eng. to B. S. Jr. 

Bulletin de la Société d’Encouragement, &c. Paris, Fevrier, 
Mars, Avril, Juillet, Aout, Septembre, 1834. Exch. 

Catalogue of the Museum of Gideon Mantell, Esq., as newly ar- 
ranged at Brighton, Eng. 1834. From the author. 

Journal des Travaux de la Société Francais de Statistique Uni- 
verselle, Paris. Vol. 1V, No. 40, April, 1834. From the Society. 

De La Beche’s Geological Manual, 3d Ed., 122 wood cuts. Lon- 
don, 1833. From the author, London. 

Researches on Theoretical Geology, by H. T. De La Beche, 
F. R.S., &c. &c. London, 1834. From the author, London. 

Report of the Proceedings of the Canada Education Society, &c. 
7th year. Montreal, 1834. 


Mr. O. RICH, Bookseller, London, Agent to the Library of Con- 
gress and to the principal Literary Institutions in the United States, 
has recently published a Catalogue of Books for sale by him, com- 
prising an extensive collection of Old and New Books in English, 
Spanish, Italian, French, and other Languages, which are offered for 
sale at very low prices, and are well worthy the attention of those 
who wish to replenish their Libraries on advantageous terms. Copies 
of the Catalogue may be had on application to Hezekiah Howe & 
Co., Booksellers, New Haven. 


We can, with pleasure recommend Mr. Rich, asa very intelligent, 
attentive, and punctual agent and correspondent, both for individuals 
and institutions ; this is, at least, our own experience, and we have 
no reason to suppose our case to be peculiar. 

The splendid present from the British government, and that of Col. 
Beaufoy, to several of our Colleges, societies, and to individuals, (the 
latter, when regarded as a private benefaction to science, being in no 
degree inferior in munificence, to the former,) passed through the 
hands of Mr. Rich. 


P. S. Jan. 6, 1835.—Of the late very cold weather, we copy 
the following notice from the Daily Herald, of this city, of Jan. 5, 
1835, and having no other room, we insert it in this unusual place. 

Cold Weather.—Yesterday and to day, the 4th and 5th of Janu- 
ary, 1835, will be memorable days in meteorological history. The 
degree of cold in this city is unprecedented—greater than ever be- 
fore noted by scientific observers. ‘The air has been quite calm, with 
a bright sun, which, however, has no effect upon the frost. ‘There 
is a heavy body of snow upon the ground, for which the farmers, 
(and all who eat bread) may be thankful, as a protection to the 
germed grain. ? 

In preference to any observations of our own, of the state of the 
thermometer, we give those of our correspondents, including several 
different portions of the city, from the harbor to the northern extrem- 
ity, mcluding the high ground of Hillhouse Avenue. Professor 
Silliman’s thermometer, at 8 o’clock this morning, was 23° below 0. 
A gentleman who has been in the habit of making notations of the 
weather for forty four years, informs us that he never knew the mer- 
cury before more than 16° below cypher. The famed cold win- 
ter of ’79-80, according to the notes of President Stiles, in the 
month of January, was only at —19°. 


Messrs. Eprtors—As this is probably the coldest weather that has been known 
here for a great number of years, I send you the state of my thermometer at diffe- 
rent times since Saturday evening. The thermometer is supposed to be correct, 
but as it has been exposed to the north west wind in a high and exposed situation 
in the north west part of the town, its range is probably two or three degrees lower 
than that of thermometers in the more protected parts of the town. 

Saturday, Il o’clock P.M. 5° below zero., 
« 4¢ 


Sunday, sunrise, 13 
« 10o’clock, A.M. 7 ~ i 
Ht 12 Mit) 4 
- Z Pevivinie 2 of 
4 Pye nha ue 
So 5 ie NE aval eB 
i 7 Pv ale i 
* 8 P.M. 15 = 
a Sito ty ae wien alg, 2 

Monday, sunrise, 23 © = 
Pe 10 A.M. 12 . 


I have kept a thermometer six years, and have never known it so low as this 
morning by 13 degrees. Nordol recollect a day when it was so low as zero for 
the whole day, as was the case yesterday, (and probably will be to-day,) though the 
sun shone remarkably clear and bright the whole day. - 


Observations in Water St., fronting the harbor. 
Sunday, Jan. 4—at sunrise, 10 below 0 
10 A.M. 4 do. 
12 tol, 2 above. 
5 P.M. 7 below. 
9 do. 16 do. 
i do. (20h da, 
Monday, Jan. 5—at sunrise, 22 do. 
9A.M. 15 do. 


We understand that, at Hartford, the thermometer was at — 27°, 
and that Mr. C. U. Shepard, saw the mercury at his house, near 
New Haven, stand at — 26.5°. 


The American Journal of Science and Arts. 


Tue annexed prospectus is presented tothe friends of science, 
and their aid is respectfully solicited, in promoting its interests, so far 
as they are connected with this Journal. 

Since the 12th volume, its patronage, has been more than suffi- 
cient to pay the expenses, but to insure to it, both stability and in- 
creasing usefulness, requires renewed efforts on the part of its editor ; 
which will, however, be of little avail, without the cooperation of its 
friends. 

Even England had no Journal of Science till about the beginning 
of the present century ; it is, therefore, encouraging that the first at- 
tempts in this country, made only a few years later, have been, thus 
far, sustained by the American public. 

Stull, every periodical work must, occasionally, recruit its number 
of subscribers, or it will fall into jeopardy. The American Journal 
is not yet in immediate danger, but, its subscription is far too limited 
to enable it to do all the good of which such a work is capable; and 
after a considerable decline, since 1829, it would be happy of it could 
be again increased as it was in that year. The simple expedient then 
adopted, was, for each subscriber to obtain one more, and in this 
manner the subscription was soon doubled. 

In this country, such a work, involving peculiar difficulties, can 
neither be got up, nor sustained, without great effort and persever- 
ance. Avoiding all local, personal, political and sectarian interests and 
excitements, it thus entirely foregoes the support afforded by popu- 
lar feeling, and therefore relies, us it has a full right to do, solely, 
upon the intelligent, the interested, the patriotic, and the philan- 
thropic. 

For the support of such a work, 2t 2s worse than useless, to resort 
to indiscriminate solicitations. ‘The transient subscriptions, obtained 
in that manner, will produce only a delusive expectation of support, 
and a certain increase of expense. 

Such persons, therefore, and such only, should be addressed, as, 
from their considerate and correct estimation of the value of useful 
knowledge, or from thew interests and taste, will probably become per- 
manent patrons. 


PROSPECTUS. 


In 1810, 11 and 12, the late Dr. Bruce, of New York, published 
his Journal of Mineralogy and Geology in one volume of four num- 
bers. 

The American Journal, was, however, the first, that in this coun- 
try, embraced in its plan, the entire circle of the Physical Sciences, 


8 


and their applications to the arts. It was begun in July, 1818, and 
has completed its twenty seventh volume. 

While it bas prompted original American efforts, it has been sus- 
tained by them, and being devoted to important national interests, in 
a great measure common also to all mankind, it is, In that character, 
known and accredited, both at home and abroad. It bas elicited 
many valuable researches and discoveries, and its miscellaneous de- 
partment, in particular, has presented a great variety of topies, of gen- 
eral interest. The Foreign Journals, (many of them sent in ex- 
change,) often quote from its pages, which are in turn, enriched by- 
theirs; and it has thus, become identified with the science and arts of 
the present day. Re 

Terms.—F or four quarterly Nos., of not less than 200 pages each, 
fully ilustrated by plates, making, together, two annual volumes, of 
at least 800 pages; six dollars—in advance. 

The quarterly literary journals, escape the heavy expense incurred 
by this, for plates and for difficult technical composition ; and as they 
enjoy, from obvious causes, a far more extended circulation, they 
can be much better afforded at $5 per ann. than this ai‘g6. With 
us present patronage, this Journal could not be sustained at fie dol- 
lars, as the actual receipts would not pay for the paper and the me- 
chanical labor. 

Postage is to be paid on all orders and remittances. Postmasters 
are, occasionally, patrons of the Journal, when of course their com- 
munications are franked. 

A number is sent gratis, as a sample, when requested. Names 
may be lodged with any of the agents, or sent to the Editor or pub- 
lishers, and the work may be obtained through all booksellers, or 
from the editor. 

Al compensation of one third will be allowed to ali persons obtain- 
ing subscribers, who pay the first year’s subscription in advance ; 
and agents and booksellers can, if they choose, retain upon their own 
books, the names which they may procure; due notice being given 
to the Editor. 

Complete sets are furnished to individuals, and to the trade, at a 
suitable discount. _ . 

The Editor will draw on his agents semi-annually, (that is, on the 
publication of No. 2, of each voiume,) in all cases where payment is 
not otherwise provided for; the drafts will be usually payable April 1, 
and Oct. 1. An-annual payment in advance is, in all cases, expected 
from the individual subscribers, and the bills are accordingly forward- 
ed with the Journal. . 

For single subscribers, the mail is, decidedly, the best mode of con- 
veyance: the postage is about that of a twice weekly newspaper, that 
is, from $1.10 to $1.32 per annum. (ea - 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO FRIENDS, CORRESPONDENTS AND STRANGERS. | 


Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopted, 


because it is not always practicable to write letters, even in cases” fe: 


where they might be reasonably expected ; and still more di 
is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books 
pamphlets which are-kindly presented. 


In many cases, such notices, critical or commendatory, would be 


appropriate ; -but it is often equally impossible to command the time 
requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious 
remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and 
insertion. 

In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to 
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading 
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our 
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, .in lines of duty, 
with which they presume us to be acquainted. 

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from me, that I may 
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- 
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It 
is still my endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an 
answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are, made 
in wnt pages, which may someymes be, as now, in part, retrospec- 
tive.—Ed. 


DOMESTIC. 


American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge, for 
1834; from J. E. Worcester. 

Travels in the North of Germany, by Henry E. Dwight; from 
the author. 1829. 

Faraday’s Chemical Manipulations—edition of Prof. J. K. Mitch- 
ell; from the editor. 

Hayden’s Geological Essays; from the author. 1820. 

Eaton’s Geological Essay on the District adjoining the Erie Canal ; 
several copies, from Hon. S. Van Rensselaer. 1824. 

Thoughts on the Policy of establishing a School of Medicine in 
Louisville; Is. C. Cross, M.D. 1834. 

Prof. A. D. Bache on the Navigation of the Chesapeake and Dela- 
ware Canal by Steam. 15824. 

American Coast Pilot, &c., by Edmund C. Blunt; from the author. 

Chart of Long Island Sound, by Edmund C. Blunt. 1830. From 
E. & G. W. Blunt. 

Oration before the Medical Society of Tennessee, by John H. 
Kain, A.M. 1831. 


Inaugural Address delivered at the opening of Morrison College, 


Lexington, Ky., Nov. 4, 1833, by Rev. President Peers. 


Outlines of Geology, by J. i Comstock, M.D. 12mo. 1834, 


Hartford. From the author. 
Report of the Committee on the Post Office to the Senate, June 
9, 1834; from Hon. Nathan Smith. 
1 


ty ; 


2 


Report ‘of the Committee on Indian Affairs to sh gas of Rep- | 
resentatives, May 20, ee with a map; from Henry L. Ellsworth, 


Esq 
_ Contribution to acl by Isaac Lea. Philadelphia, 1833. 
om the author. 

Seca of a Residence in Scotland, and of a Tour through Eng- 
land, France, &c. by the late 1. McLellan, Jr. sb 1834. From 
his parents. 

Argument of Tiaras S. Grimké—the State ex relatione McCredy 
v. Hunt, April, 1834; from the author. 

Essays on the Materia Medica, 1831, by G. W. CarpeniGee from 
the author. Also, the improved edition of 1634. . 

Mr. Isaac Lea’s Description of six new species of Unio. Nov. 
1827. From the author; from the Am. Phil. Trans. 
~ Prof. Eaton’s Geological Text Book. 1830. From the author. 

Hadad, a dramatic poem, by James A. Hillhouse ; from the author, 
1825. 

The Poetical Works of Rogers, Campbell, J. Montasiiees Lamb, 
and Kirke White, with vignette portraits. Philadelphia, 1832 ; from 


-the publisher, J. Grigg. 


Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of New London and Wind- 
ham Counties, in Connecticut, by, W. W. Mather ; with a colored 
map. 1834. ‘Two copies—one to Prof. Silliman, and another to 


the American Geological Society ; from the author. 


Essay on the Interest of Money, by Prof. Th. R. Deer, of the 
College of William and Mary. 1834. From the author. 

The Farmer’s Register for 1634. Prince George County, Va. 

Descriptions of the Inferior Maxillary Bones of Mastodons in the 
Cabinet of the American Philosophical Society, with remarks on the 
genus Tetracaulan, &c., by Isaac Hays, M.D. 1833. From the 
author. ; 

- Document on Steam Boat Explosions; from Hon: Edward Eve- 
ews: L. Storrs, and M. Dickerson—from each a copy 

Document on Weights and Measures; from Hon. M. Dickerson 

and G. Tomlinson—each a copy. 

Baccalaureate Address of President Alva Woods, D. a August 
12, 1833; from the author. - 

Report on the Geology, &c. of Massachusetts, with an atlas of 
maps and plates, published by order of the government, by Professor 
Edward Hitchcock ; from the author, one copy—from the governor, 
on behalf of the Sie six copies, for distribution in foreign countries. ~ 


Dyspepsy Forestalled and Resisted, by Prof. E. ee from 


- the author. 


Address before the Euphradian Society of the Collees i Charles- 
ton, by the Rev. President J. Adams. 1833. 

Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the Peninsula of Nova 
Scotia, with a colored map, by Charles T. Jackson and Pranic Al- 
ger. 1832. From the authors. 


3 


Observations on the Genus Unio, with descriptions of new genera 
and species in the families of Naiades, &c., with colored plates, by 
Isaac Lea; from the author. 

The value of the practical investigation of nature, by Prof. John 
K. Mitchell, M.D. 1834. From the author. 

Ninth Annual Report of the American Tract Society ; from the 
Society. New York, 1834. 

The Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine, &c., edited by Isaac Hays, 
M.D.; from the publishers. 

Annual Report of the Directors of the American Education So- 
ciety, May, 1834; from the Society. 

American Advocate of Peace, conducted by C.S. Henry. June, 
1834. 

Essay on the intellectual, moral and religious instruction of the 
youth of New York by common schools, &c.; read before the Troy 
Lyceum. 1834. 

Address on the power and value of the Sunday School system, 
&c., by Thomas S. Grimké. 1834. From the author. 

Proof that credit, as money, in a truly free country, is to a great 
extent preferable to coin, by Professor Robert Hare, M. D. &c. &e. 
1834. From the author. 7 

American Asylum at Hartford for the Deaf and Dumb, Eighteenth 
Report. 1834. c 

U.S. Military and Naval Magazine for March, April, May and 
June, 1334; from the publisher. 

Address of the Erodelpbian Society of the Miami University, Sept. 
24, 1833, by James Hall. 

Seventeenth Annual Report of the American Society for coloni- 
zing the free people of color of the United States. 1834. From 
Hon. G. Tomlinson. * 

Annual Report of the Trustees of the New England Institution for 
the Education of the Blind. 1834. From the Principal, Dr. S. G. 
Howe. 

Rev. Orrin Fowler on the evils of using Tobacco. 1833. From 
the author. 

Observations on the Modes of learning Languages, by Mariano 
Cubi y Soler. 1828. From the author. 

First and Second Annual Reports of the Fellenberg Academy ; 
from Dr. Jacob Porter. 

Professor Cross’s Address before certain societies in the Nashville 
University ; from the author. 

Observations on the Education of the Deaf and Dumb; from F. 
A. P. Barnard. 

Topographical Description and Historical Sketch of Plainfield, 
Mass. ; by Dr. Jacob Porter; from the author. 

Address to the Fourth Annual Convention of the free people of 
color of the United States. 1834. . 

Report on Weights and Measures, by the Managers of the Frank- 
lin Institute. 1834. From Dr. Hays, Corresponding Secretary. 


4 


An Address delivered before the Charleston Temperance Society, a 


February, 1834, by ‘Thomas S. Grimké; from the author. 

Official rary Register for 1834; from Surgeon L. Foot. 

The New York Atlas Magazine, Vol. I, No. 2; from the pub- 
lishers. 

Dr. M. Smith’s Improvement in the Mariner’s and Surveyor’s 
Compass Needle. 1834. From the author. 

Elements of Geology, for the use of schools, by W. W. ‘Mather. 
1833. From the author. | 

Letters from the Canary Islands, by D. J. Browne. 1884, From 
the author. v 

Many pamphlets and various works, to the American eee ie 
' Society, from Dr. Jacob Porter. 

Annual Report of the Regents of the University of New York. 
1830. 

Same Report for 1833. 

Same Report for 1834; from Hon. Simeon De Witt. . 

Report of the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, &c. 
ee From Hon. G. Tomlinson. 

- Report of the Committee of Finance, February, 1834 ; Hon N. 
Smith. 

Executive Proceedings of the Senate of the United a Mey 
1834, on Bank Directors ; the same. 

Report on the United States Bank, May, 1834. 

Report on Steam Boats, May, 1832 ; Hon. Edward Everett. 

Report on the Public Lands, May, 1834 ; Hon. N. Smith. 

Speech of Mr. Webster on the Bank, March, 1834, and on the 
President's Protest, May, 1834; N.S. 

Speech of the Hon. John Quiney Adams on the removal of the 
public deposits, suppressed by the previous question. 1834. N.S. 

Remarks of the Hon. John C. Calhoun on the removal of the de- 
posits, Jan. 13, 1834; J.C. C. 

Report on the Pennsylvania Coal Trade, 1834; from W. Boyd. 

The Introductory Discourse and Lectures before the Convention 
assembled to form the American’ Institute of Instruction. Boston, 
1831. From the Censors. 

Introduction to the Grammar of Elocution, by Dr. J. ean 
Boston, 1834. 12mo. From the author. 

The Advocate of Science and Annals of Natural. History, (month- 
ly,) by W. P. Gibbons. 1834, From the editor. 

Manual for Visiters to the Falls of Niagara, by J. W. Ingraham. 
1834. From the author. 

Report on a Rail Road from Bolton Mountain to Hartford, by- 
Chauncey Barnard, Jr.; from the author. 1834. 


FOREIGN. 


Memoirs on the Island of Java, by Sir T. S. Raffles and others. . 
1817. From Jedidiah Huntington, Jr. 


5 


Lithographed Signatures of the Members of the British Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, who met at Cambridge, 
June, 1832, with a report of the proceedings and a list of the mem- 
bers. Cambridge, Eng. 1833. Two copies—one from Dr. Buck- 
land, the other from Mr. Mantell. + 

Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables, in the coal and oolite for- 
mations of Great Britain, 4to, with numerous and very beautiful col- 
ored plates, by Henry T. M. Witham, F. G. S. &c.; from the au- 
thor—a number of copies of the two editions, intended for distribu- 
tion in the coal regions of the United States, for the purpose of ob- 
taining specimens of the fossil stems of our coal formations. 

Geological Map of England, colored, with a memoir, by G. B. 
Greenough, F. R. S. and L. S.; to the American Geological Socie- 
ty, from Wm. Maclure, Esq. 

Tabellen tiber die vergleichende Geognosie, by Von Christian Ke- 
ferstein, Kénigb. Preuss. Hofrath. Halle, 1825. From Von Ver- 
faffer, for the American Geological Society. 

Prof. Berzelius’ Traité de Chimie, Vol. VIIL; from the author. 
- The first seven volumes acknowledged before. 

Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. London, 1833. Vol. 
XLIX, Part 2. From the Society. 

New Theory of Physical Astronomy, by Alexander Watt. Ja- 
maica, 1825. From the author. . 

Oration before the Medico-Botanical Society of London, by John 
Frost, F. A.S. 1827. From the author. ; 

Report of the First and Second Meetings of the British Associa- 
tion for the Promotion of Science, at York in 1831, and at Oxford 
in 1832, &c. 8vo. London, 1833. From an unknown hand. 

M. A: J. M. Brochant, De Crystallization. Strasburg, 1829. 
From the author. 

Thoughts on Materialism, and on Religious Festivals and Sab- 
baths, by H. B. Fearon. London, 1833. From the author. 

Report on the Progress, Actual State, and Ulterior Prospects of 
Geological Science, by Rev. W. D. Conybeare, F.R.S. &c. 1832. 
From the author. 

On the Excavation of Vallies, as illustrated by the Volcanic Rocks 
of Central France, by Charles Lyell, Esq. F. R. S. &c. and R. I. 
Murchison, Esq. F.R.S. 1829. From Mr. Murchison, through 
Mr. Featherstonhaugh. 

Three lectures on the transmission of the precious metals, and on 
the theory of wealth, delivered in Oxford University, June, 1827, by 
Prof. N. W. Senior; from the author, through J. Miller. 1828. 

Introductory Lecture on Political Economy, by N. W. Senior. 
Oxford, 1826. From the author, 1827. 

On the Relations of the Tertiary and Secondary Rocks on the 
Southern Flanks of the Tyrolese Alps, by R. I. Murchison, F. R. S. 
&c. 1829. From the author. 

A notice of the Geology of the Environs of Tunbridge Wells, by 
Gideon Mantell, Esq. F. R.S. &c. 1832. From the author. 


-“ 
. 
7 


Thy =< 


6 


. On the Bituminous Schist and Fossil Fish of Seefeld in the Ty- 
rol, by R. I. Murchison, Esq. F. R.S. &c. &c.; from the author. 


Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Bristol Institu- 
tion, &c. &c. +1829. “ * 

Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Geological 
Society of London, February, 1833, by R. I. Murchison, Esq. 
F. R. S. &c. on retiring from the President’s chair ; from the author. 

Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity, Parts 1, 2, 3 
and 4. 1832-3. 

’ The London Atheneum or Journal of Literature, &c.; various 
Nos. in 1832 and 1833, from Mr. O. Rich, London. ee 

. The Chinese Repository, Canton, China. Nos. in 1832, 1833, 
and 1834; from the editor. 

General Catalogue of old and new Books in English, Spanish, 
Italian, French, &c. with the prices; from O. Rich. Also the cata- 
logue of the Botanical Library of Ortega. London, 1833~4. 

Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Annual Reports of the Council of the 
Natural History Society of Montreal, for 1831, 1832, 1333, and 
1834; from the Society. : 

Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, with a cata- 
logue of members, and letters of acknowledgment for the American 
Journal from 1829 to 1833, inclusive; from the Society. 

Travels in the Tarentaise and various parts of the Grecian and 
Pennine Alps, and in Switzerland and Auvergne, in 1820, 21, 22. 
Engravings and cuts, by R. Bakewell, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. 1823. 
From the author. aS 

Barbadoes, and other Poems, by M. J. Chapman, Esq. London, 


1833. From the author. 


Traité theorique et pratique de l’art de batir, par Jean Rondelet 
from the author.—Prospectus of the sixth edition. Paris, 1830. 

Lettre ala Nation Anglaise, sur Union des peuples et de la Civili- 
zation Compareé, &c. &c. par Marc-Antoine Jullien, de Paris, Che- . 
valier de la Legion d’Honneur, &c.; from the author. 

Instruction sur la maniére de faire des observations meteorolo- 
giques. Paris, 1834. spi 

Extrait des Mémoires de la Société d’Histoire Naturelle de Stras- 


bourg—Notice sur le Bradford-Clay de Bouxiviller et de Bavillers ;_ 


from G. Mantell, Esq. 1833. 


- 


With a few exceptions, we have omitted to mention Journals, 
whether foreign or domestic, received in exchange; and among nu- 


merous foreign Journals of Science and Literature, which arrive 


more or less regularly, we have named only those which have re- 
cently begun to come, or of which the exchange has been revived, 
after a discontinuance.—Ed. 


“ 


OO a ee 


7 


The American Journal of Science and Arts. 


Tue annexed prospectus is presented to the friends of science, 
and their aid is respectfully solicited, in promoting its interests, so far 
as they are connected with this Journal. 

Since the 12th volume, its patronage, has been more than suffi- 
cient to pay the expenses, but to insure to it both stability and in- 
creasing usefulness, requires renewed efforts on the part of its editor; 
which will, however, be of little avail, without the cooperation of its 
friends. 

Even England had no Journal of Science till about the beginning 
of the present century ; it is, therefore, encouraggng that the first at- 
tempts in this country, made only a few years later, have been, thus 
far, sustained by the American public. - 

Sull, every periodical work must, occasionally, recruit its number 
of subscribers, or it will fall into jeopardy. ‘The American Journal 
is not yet in immediate danger, but, zs subscription is far too limi- 
ted to enable it to do all the good of which it is capable ; and after a 
considerable decline, since 1829, it would be happy if it could be 
again increased as it was in that year. The simple expedient then 
adopted, was, for each subscriber to obtain one more, and in this 
manner the subscription was soon doubled. _ 

In this country, such a work, involving ‘peculiar difficulties, can 

neither be got up, nor sustained, without great effort and persever- 
ance. Avoiding all local, personal, party and sectarian interests and 
excitements, it thus entirely foregoes the support afforded by pop- 
ular feeling, and therefore relies, as it has a full right to do, solely 
upon the intelligent, the patriotic, and the philanthropic. 
_ For the support of such a work, it is worse than useless, to resort 
to indiscriminate solicitations. ‘The transient subscriptions, obtained 
in that manner, will produce only a delusive expectation of support, 
and a certain increase of expense. ; 

Such persons, therefore, and such only, should be addressed, as, 
from their considerate and correct estimation of the value of useful 
knowledge, or from their interests and taste, will probably become per- 
manent patrons. 5 


PROSPECTUS. 


In 1810, 11 and 12, the late Dr. Bruce, of New York, published 
his Journal of Mineralogy and Geology in one volume of four num- 
bers. 

The American Journal, was, however, the first, that in this coun- 
try, embraced in its plan, the entire circle of the Physical Sciences, 
and their applications to the arts. It was begun in July, 1818, and 
has completed its twenty sixth volume. 


8 


® . >. 


While it has prompted original American efforts, it has been sus- 


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OF 


AMERICAN ‘JOURNAL 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


CONDUCTED BY 


BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D 


Prof. Chem., Min., &¢. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and 
For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mem, Roy. Min, Soc., 
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} 
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_—OCTOBER, 1834. 


VOL. XXVII.—No. 1.- 
FOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1834. 


“ NEW HAVEN: 


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THE 


AMERICAN JOURNAL. 


OF 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


CONDUCTED BY 


* BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL. D. 


Prof. Chem., Min,, &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and 
For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., 
Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon, Mem, 

Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. 
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be ee tele : 


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VOL. ‘XXVII.—No. 2. —JANUARY, 1835. 


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