The American journal of science and arts

DAL.

: AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY |

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE}; CORRES-
PONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COM-
MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL
SOCIRTY OF DRESDEN, AND OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN AMERICA.

VOL. IT.....1821.

NEW-HAVEN:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY S. CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR.

‘Sold by the Publisher and Howe & Spalding, New-Haven; Huntington &
Hopkins, Hartford; Cummings & Hilliard, Boston; Ezekiel Goodale,
Hallowel, Maine; A. T. Goodrich & Co. New-York; Littell and Henry,
Philadelphia; Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio; Thomas]. Ray, Augus-
ta, Geo. ; Henry Whipple, Salem, Mass.; Edward J. Coale, Baltimore ;
Timothy D. Porter. Columbia, S.C.; John Mill, Charleston, 8. €.; Mil-

Jer & Hutchins, Providence, R.I.; Thomas R. Wililams, Newport, R.1.;
William T. Williams, Savannah, Geo.; Luke Loomis, Pittsburgh, Pa. ;
Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Me.; Professor D. Olmsted, Chapel Hill Col-

. lege, No-C,

yd

ore)

CONTENTS. OF VOL. III.
—<=——
GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.

Page.
Mr. John Dickson on the Mineralogy and Beolog gy ab parts
of South and North Carolina -
Ebenezer Granger, Esq. on vegetable impression in ake
of Zanesville Coal formation © - - - -

Dr. G. Troost on the amber of Maryland - - - - 8
L. Bringier, Esq. on the region of the Mississippi, &c. | - 15
Notice of Mr. H. H. Hayden’s Geological Essays = 25) 4a
Prof. F. Hall on ores of Iron and Manganese - 56
Notice of Mr. Schoolcraft’s work on the Missiuei lead-

mines, &c. - - = 29509
Mr. M. Hale’s Geblonea Mice af Bio, - 72
Dr. J. A. Allen on the West River Mountain, with localities

of Minerals - 73
Mr. Henry R. Schooleralt on the ae Copper of jake Su-

perior, &c. - - 207 ®

Letters of Mr. Alexander Biaienta, ae Editor’s tna 216
Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c. by vari-

ous persons - ; 227
Professor Buckland on Gedlacbal investigations, ote. - 249
Mr. J. W. Wilson on the bursting of lakes through mountains 252
Dr. John I. Bigsby on Gealoey:, &c. of the N. mt: Portion

of Lake Huron - - - 254

BOTANY.

W. Prince, Esq. on a hybrid production between the Span-
ish Chesnut and Maryland Soper with remarks by

Prof. S. L. Mitchill = 77
Dr. Jacob Porter’s Floral and Mideallaneous Galendae of
Plainfield, Mass. &c. = - - - = OTS
ENTOMOLOGY.
J. C. Vanden Heuvel, Esq. on American Honey Bees - 79
FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.
Professor J. Green on Bones of the Rattle Snake - 85
Professor Rafinesque ont a Fossil Medusa - - - 285

(71107

1Ve CONTENTS.

. Page.
MEDICAL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. .

Dr. B. L. Oliver on priority of medical use of the Prussic

Acid - - - - = e = - =o 182
Cases illustrating the medical effects of the Prussic Acid 187
Dr. F. Magendie on Absorption - 288

Professor E. D. Smith on Calculous Ady Gone (posthumous) 300

MECHANICS AND ARTS, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS,

Upon the fusion of various bodies by Hare’s Blowpipe—from
the Annals of Chemistry, dc. with remarks by the Editor 87

new mode of forming water - -— aed
Professor Green on instantaneous crystalization oh SA RE EQS
Mr. S. Morey on Mineral Waters, &c. - - =. 94
Professor D. Olmsted on a peculiar effect of lightning - 100
Rey. R. Emerson on the divining rod - - - 102
Professor Hare on new Galvanic apparatus and theory - 105
Professor E. D. Smith on the warm serine: of Buncomb
county, N. C. (posthumous) - - 117
Remarks on Enfield’s Philosophy, third eiition - - 125
Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building - - - 158
J. Hall, Esq. on the desea of wood, and on medical elec-
tricity - - ‘ - - 166
Thomas Jarman, me: on Gis Lists - - - - 170
Editor’s notice of an argentiferous Galena, &c. - - 173
Editor on the formation of ice in certain circumstances = ——-179

Professor A. M. Fisher on Printing Presses and their Theory, 326
—————— on the new Press of Mr. John I. Wells ib.
Dr. John Locke on the manufacture of Copperas in Vermont 326
Remarks on some points of modern Chemical theory, with a

notice of Professor Gorham’s Elements of Chemistry = 330
Miscellaneous chemical notices - - - B41
Liability of barns to be struck by lietinide: - - 346
Jacob Perkins, Esq. on the compressibility of water . - 347
Notice of Mr. Perkins’ invention of engraving on steel’ 353
Tests for Arsenic - aa - - - - 354

AGRICULTURE.
Dr. Eli Ives on spring pasture - - SR ice gil cele <2)

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES,

I. Domestic.

i. Archeologia Americana, notice of - - - 357
2. American Geological Society - — - - - - 360
3. Remarks on the study of Geology - - - 363
_ 4, Sulphat of Strontian - - Bo oe - «ib.

eke © wey
we ee eS

CONTENTS. Vv.

Page.
5. Map of mountains. 6. Epidote - - - - 364
7. Western Minerva. 8. Annalsof Nature. 9. Fossil Fish 365
10. Cold at Plattsburgh - - - - - - 366
11, Crystalsof Snow. 12. FluorSparof Genesee. 13. Do. |
of Hlinois — - - - = - - - - 367
II. Forercn Lirerature anp SCIENCE.

1. Slide of Mount Pilatus = - - - - 368
2. Oxigenized water - - 369

3. Lithographic paper. 4. Ivory do. 5. Manufactory of

Glass - -- - - 2 Ws
6. Portable gas lamps. Potash in sea water - - ib.
7. Salt. 9. Iron Boat - - - - - - 371
10. Glasgow, how supplied with water - - - ib.
11. Vegetation. 12. Electrometers — - By es - 372
13. Surgical operation extraordinary - - - . ib.
14. Royal Society of London - - - - - 373
15. Prisons. 16. Pompeia. 17. Antidote to corrosive sub-
limate - scm - - - - - 374
18. Schools. 19. Manufacture of thimbles - - ib.

20. Auscultation - - - - - - - 375
21. Languages. 22. Evaporation of spirits - - ib.
23. A large flower - - - - - - - 376
24, Chinese Dictionary. 25. Van Diemen’s land - 377

26. Egypt. 27. Temple of Jupiter Ammon. 28. Finland 378
29. Pultowa. 30. Linneus. 31. Switzerland. 32. The poor 379

33. Medicine - - - - - - - 380
34. Athens. 35. Greek language. 36. Chios. 37. Potatoe ib.
38. Distillation of sea water. 39. Hydraulic Ram - 381
40. Sea signals. 41. Petrifaction. 42. Combustion 383
43. Magnetism - wf - - - - ib.
44, Translations from the Arabic. 45. New Alkali - 384
46, Greenland - Sh ee - - - SiG tis
47. Mildew. 48. Electricity. 49. GasLights | - - 385
50. Iodine. 51. Mercurial atmosphere. 52. Magnetism

and Electricity - - - - - - - 386
53. Vegetable Remains, &c. — - ss - - 389
54. Ancient Sarcophagus - - - - - - 390
55. Siliceous Sinter - - - - - - 391
56. Swainson’s Zoological Miscellany. 57..Revue Ency-

clopedique - - - - - - : - 392
58. Atomic weights of bodies.” 59. Palermo - - 396

APPENDIX.
Coca of Peru - = = = - : & - 397

ERRATA.

Page 97—note, for bones, read remains. yes a
189—line 25, for I. S. read J. L. ,
184—line 17 from top, for Medicarninum, read Medicaminum.
do.—line 27 from top, for Langrist, read Langrish.

=—__—

ALTERATIONS.

Page 105—Title, dele new before theory.
108—line 27 from top, after troughs read made.
112—line 26from top, after Van Marum, read with electricai machines.
114—line 7 from top, for about, read between a quarter and.
143—line 5 from bottom, dele when the object is of finite magnitude.
144—line 9 from top, for axis, read azes.
do.—line 12, from top, for pencils, read axes.

PREFACE.

—»>

Tue third volume of this work being now completed, all
concerned in its success will naturally wish some account of
its situation and prospects. The experiment of an original
American Journal of Science, is novel, and it is but reason-
able to allow sufficient time to the community to become
informed as to the nature of the enterprize before we can
expect them to feel interested in its prosperity. The ques-
tion whether it is to be supported by adequate pecuniary re-
muneration, is not one which can be hastily decided. It
must require several years from the commencement of the
work, and the Editor (if God continues his life and health,)
will endeavour to prove himself neither impatient nor queru-
lous, during the time that his countrymen hold the question
undecided, whether there shall be an American Journal of
Sczence and Arts. Another person may conduct it better,
and to such an one, the task would be, without hesitation,
resigned. But it is due to our numerous and highly respec-
table band of contributors to say, that no successor, however
meritorious, can hope to be better supported. That the
Journal is appreciated abroad, in a manner gratifying to its
friends, is sufficiently evinced by the numerous extracts
from it in-the periodical scientific works of Europe, by the
readiness to exchange, evinced by the Editors of foreign
Journals, and by letters on the subject, addressed to the edit-
or of the American Journal, from scientific and literary men
abroad. Among them are the names of the late Dr. John
Murray of Edinburgh, of Dr. Thomas Thomson, now Re-
gius-Professor of Chemistry, &c. in the University of Glas-
gow, of Mr. Tilloch of London, editor of the Philosophical
Magazine, of Mr. Julien, editor of the Revue Encyclope-
dique, and of Mr. Brongniart, both of Paris; of Professor
Germar and Sweigger of the University of Halle in Germany,
and of Professor Berzelius of Stockholm. From one of
these private communications, we shall presume so far on
the indulgence of the author, and of the public, as to cite a
single paragraph.*

Dr. Thomson, speaking of the first five numbers of the

* One vther passage is selected from Mr. Brongniart’s letter. [See p.
218 of this Vel.]

Vill. PREFACE.

American Journal, (which were all that he had then seen)
says; ‘I hail it as the commencement of American scien-
_ tific periodical works, and have no doubt from the valuable
matter which you have already presented us with, that
America will rival the most scientific countries in the old
world.” The citing of this passage would be inconsis-
tent with decorum, were not the commendation of this illus-
_trious author, and teacher, and editor, chiefly the property
of our contributors, and but ina small degree our own.
The celebrated Professor Ferrara of the University of Pa-
lermo in the Island of Sicily, speaking on the subject of
American Science, said recently to a friend of the editor,
that he “ did not doubt that the Sciences and Arts would be-
fore long, pass to America in their highest perfection, and
that we should ere long, succeed to Asia and Europe, in the
literary empire of the world.”

But, on the other hand, we are now bound in justice to the.
interests of American Science, not to withhold from its patrons,
the fact that the two first volumes of this Journal have been,
thus far, in a pecuniary view, losing concerns. The pro-
ptietors of the first Volume have not yet received back the
money which they have expended—nor is the editor yet re-
paid, simply for the paper, printing and engraving of the sec-
ond volume, and that upon the supposition that all the mon-
ey is collected from the contractors for quantities.

But it is some relief to add, that the patronage, during the
past year, has been gradually, but on the whole, regularly
increasing, and as it now stands, will probably, just about
cover the expense of the materials and mechanical labour of
the third volume. Nothing has ever been paid for contri-
butions to the pages of the work; to the honour of our sci-
entific friends, they have contributed their gratuitous labours
with cheerfulness and perseverence, and the scientific pub-
lic, both at home and abroad, have already decided favour-
‘ably on their productions. — ;

- With this simple statement of facts, we now dismiss the
subject, after expressing our determination, notwithstanding
all discouragements, to proceed, cheerfully, and with good
courage, in our labour, contented also to relinquish it when-
ever others will more faithfully and successfully perform it,
or our country shall have clearly decided that it does not
approve, or will not support our undertaking.

May, 1820.

TDC SoA

i sapra.ge uxkpoop ss

Nee

THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCH, &e:

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, oe

Ant. I.—WNotices of the Mineralogy and Geology of paris
of South and North. Carolina, in a letter to the Editor
from Mr. Soun Dickson, Instructor of youth at Colum-
bia, S. Cs by

se ue » Crarinsron, Dec. 21st, 1819.
Deur Sir, my 3

{ TAKE the opportunity given me by a stay of a few days
in this place, to send you a few loose remarks on the geol-
ogy and miberalogy of Carolina, more particularly of South
Carolina. That they are not more extended and system-
“ you will attribute to my close employment asa teach- |
Although my vacations are very short, it is my custom
Be ride once a year into the regions where minerals are
found. I hope this will furnish a few facts for your Jour-
nal.

The Civoiines are naturally divided into ee parts.
From the sea-shore, we pass through the sandy region into
the middle, (which I shall distinguish by the name of the
Clay region,) and thence into the oe a Portion,
called the Mountains.

1. The Sandy Region. | In this no rocks are Hand, eX-
cept near its upper edge, under ground, and in the beds of
the Congaree and Wateree. Near the sea it is flat and
marshy. As you recede from the coast, the sand rises
gradually into hills, some of which, higher up, are immense

Vou. Hi,..,.No. 1. 1

"2. Notices of the Mineralogy and Geology

piles of white sand, based on rock, and thinly covered with
stinted pine or scrub oak. Through all this region swamps
of various extent are found. A kind of geodes of sand
stone,* filled with ochres of various colours, is frequently
met with near its upper edge. A crust of sand stone, with
a large proportion of iron in it, only a few inches thick, is
spread over the surface in some parts of the range called
‘The high hills of Santee.” Of these hills, the site of
Columbia affords a good example. ‘This town stands on
an elevated plain, the mass of the hill being a very hard
srown clay, deposited upon vast quantities (closely com-
pacted) of the substance enveloped in the paper marked A,
and on huge blocks of granite, now completely decompos-
ed, or rather disintegrated. The course of the hill is from
N.E. toS. W. The N. W. side is very steep, and quite
a heavy clay: the S. E. side slopes off gently in deep sand.
In digging wells, rough and hard brown sand stone and
pudding stone, with a large proportion of iron, are taken
out at great depths. The species of clay, marked A, is
used by Col. Blanding in puddling the reservoir from which
he will supply the town with water. It is visible in deep
gullies, and from a spot of this sort he has it dug out.

2. The Clay country is so called because clay predomi-
nates. Here, when land is worn out and left uncultivated,
if the slope be considerable, all soil capable of supporting
vegetation is washed off, and stiff red clay is left bare.
The cultivation of grasses might therefore be useful. Gran-
ite is the most common rock, although a large tract of coun-
try in this region is formed of argillaceous schistus, (appar-
ently a deposit on the primitive rocks,) in all stages of co-
hesion, from clay to building stone. The specimens mark-
ed B and Cf are from this tract; and have been used as

' * These are abundant near Colambia. I happen not to have any just
now, but will endeavour to send specimens by another opportunity. Some
of them are globular, and contain emery. « :

t Thisclay is pleasingly variegated with red spats interspersed in a ground
of white ; it contains spangies of mica—is a little harsh at, first, between
the fingers, but by rubbing becomes somewhat saponaceous to the feel, and
adheres strongly to the tongue.—ditor.

£B, is considerably decomposed, but bears the appearance of being a
very fine grained mica slate, or possibly even an anenaceous quartz: it is

of paris of South and North Carolina. 3

whetstones. Fragments of this schistus are often used as
red chalk,” and probably by the Indians as paint. They
used the various ochres which abound through the clay
country for the latter purpose, and the present inhabitants
- employ them in dying. D* is a specimen from Lincoln
County, North Carolina. In that county and York district,
South Carolina, are extensive iron works, richly supplied
on the spot with productive ore. C, was obtained from a
quarry in Anson County, North Carolina, and there is a
quarry of the same kind on the estate of Gen. Davie, at
Handsford, on Catawba river, in Chester district, South
Carolina. Arrowheads of quartz, flint, and schistus, are
found every where through the clay resian On Broad riv-
er, within its limits, and in the district of ————, South
Carolina, limestone has been found, which is thought to be
of the best quality for making lime: I have seen no speci-
mens of it.

Thousands of acres in North and South Carolina, consist
of small irregular fragments of opaque white or rose colour-
ed quartz, and the poverty of the land is in proportion to
the quantity of this quartz mixed with the clay. Poor
ridges of this kind produce nothing but a dwarfish deformed
oak, called black jack.

The Gold country lies in Cabarras County, North Caro-
lina, where the gold is found in small pieces, from the size
of half a pea to mere dust, in the beds of little rills empty-
ing into the waters of Rocky River.

Fine specimens of pyrites (iron) are found in Newberry
district, South Carolina. Isinglass in wide plates, and pitch
stone, are frequently met with,

3. The Mountains are granite, and, of course, among
them are found the minerals usually accompanying the
primitive rocks. Rock crystal, antimony, and carburet of
iron, I have seen from oe and Greenville, in this

dotted with innumerable exceedingly minute red points of some decom-
posed substance ; possibly garnet.

C, has much the appearance of a true whetstone slate ina state of par-
tial decomposition Editor.

*D, isa fine specimen of the compact oxid of titanium, and isa true
pebble, of an inch anda quarter in diameter.—Edijar.

4 Notices of the Mineralogy cml Geology, Sc.

state. Silver, it is thought, has — discovered in the for-
mer district, near Andersonville. | |

Of this, i shall endeavour to obtain specimens in the
summer, when I expect to visit the upper country.

At the Warm Springs, (Buncombe County, North Caro-
lina,) limestone begins to be found, as we go west. After
passing them, we are in the limestone country. A litne-
stone cave is situated very near them. Patent yellow* is
found native within a few miles, unless the chemists and
painters, who have examined the substance there found, be
deceived. Sulphate of barytes is abundant in the neigh-
bourhood. |

General remarks. The localities given in Cleaveland
from McClure, I find almost always correct, and I presume
1 should find them me so, had I time for strict examina-
tion.

“Mineral springs abot: Among the most shitting is
a very strong sulphureous spring, a few miles from Cam-
bridge, South Carolina, near Saluda. This was examined
by the late Dr. Smith. It promises fair to be the most
useful in the state. 3

The rough draught below} is intended for a perpendicular
section ina W. N. W. direction from the mountains to the
sea, passing through the tract of limestone, and that of ar-
gillaceous schistus.

I remain with great respect,
Your sratefial pupil, and sincere feat

JOHN DICKSON.

Pesan by the Editor. In esdeumenine he specimens
iransmitted by Mr. Dickson, was a very perfect crystal of
corundum ; it isa regular prism of six sides—the diagonal
diameter measures one inch, and the greatest length of the
crystal i is nearly three- fourths of an inch ; its colour is blue ;
it seratches carnelian, garnet, and beryl; it presents the
cleavage and strie of the East Indian corundum, and in
fact, looks i in all respects so a the ppp aimless from those

* Such was, at first, the impression of the late Professor E. D. Smith, of
the College of South Carolina, but it was rather weakened by examination
of the faets and of the evidence. —LEditor:

t This sketch being hastily made with the pen, it was not thought neces-
sary to have it engraved — Filter.

Granger on Zanesville Slate. 5

countries, that it would easily be mistaken for them. It is
not named or alluded to in Mr. Dickson’s paper, and it re-
mains for him to inform the American public whether it is
a native specimen, and if so, from what locality.

Arr. Uf.—WNotice of vegetable tmpressions on the Rocks
connected with the Coal formation of Zanesville, Ohio,
in w letter to the Editor, from Keenezer Graneer,
Esq. dated August 18, 1820.

[For the drawings see the plate at the end of this Number. ]}

Sir,

C. B. Gopparp, Esq. will deliver you a small box cou-
taining drawings, and specimens.of vegetable impressions,
collected by Mr. Wm. A. Adams and myself from the rocks
of this vicinity. —

_ Ill health, will prevent me from giving a very particular
description of the situation in which they are found.

This whole region, you are aware, is composed of secon-
dary rocks. The hills run about two hundred feet above
the bed of the Muskingum river, which has evidently cut its
channel from their summits; as have all the other rivers and
streams in this country—the tops of the hills from Lake
Erie to the Ohio, probably being the remains of a once
tolerably level plain. The drawings and specimens are
marked and numbered agreeably to the order of the strata
in which they were found beginning with the lowest. A. No. 1.
(drawing,) and No. 2. (drawing, and specimen) from the bed
of the river. This stratum is two or three feet in thickness,
and contains many shells, it also contains many holes, and
resembles in some measure in appearance a large body of
cast Iron—resting on this is a stratum of bituminous shale,
two or three feet in thickness, full of indistinct impressions,
over which is found a species of iron stone, from which are
taken the specimens marked B.

From this were taken drawing No.. 1, of a fan-shaped
eaf twenty inches in length, by twelve in width at top—
parts of the leaf may be seen on specimen No. 2 and 3—
No. 4, 5 and 6, are from the same. The last we suppose
tobe a fern. We have a very fine and perfect specimen of

f

6 Granger on Zanesville Slate.

this with the stall and leaves—stalk two feet, leaves —
eight inches.

' No. 7 and 8, impressions are from the same but the stone
contains more sand.

No. 9, specimen of sand stone from the same bed—simi-
lar impressions are found in bituminous and argillaceous
slate, in the same bed in great abundance.

The next stratum is sand stone varying in thickness from
five to fifty feet in different places. ‘The solid parts of the
rock contain throughout, pieces of carbonized wood—be-
tween the layers, the wood is more frequently bituminized,
and changed to stone-coal. Trunks and branches of trees
petrified are often found, the bark generally changed to stone-
coal. In part the w ood séemé in these cases to have per-
ished, leaving a mould which has been filled up with sand.

“C. No. 1, 3, 3, 4 and 5—the drawings are from specimens
in this stratum.’

No. 1 must be the same as A. No.1. They all resemble
drawings by the Rev. H. Steinhauer of Fossil Spe found
in the coal strata of England.

No 4 isa branch about four inches in diameter a little flat-
tened. Above this sand stratum for many feet, lies soft ar-
gillaceous slate without impressions. »

D. No. 1 and 2—specimens rest upon this “id form the
floor of a coal stratum.

No 1, was found in length ten feet, and in breadth four
feet—impression on the under side. It is doubtless the
same as No. 3 in the sand stone. E. Coal.—The stratum
from one to five feet thick. In this vicinity but one stratum
is found above the river, another much thicker is found by
poring from 15 to 20 feet below the bed of the river.

F. No. 1 and 2—(drawing,) three specimens from the
roof of a coal bed in one place. In another, small leaves
and apparently flowers in the greatest abundance are found.

G. 1, was found a few feet above the coal, a eae of sand
stone intervening. ‘

Above this, oe sometimes resting on “lie coal, is a stra-
tum from two to four feet of shell lime. stone—from hence
to the tops of the hills is either clay, slate, or sand stone.

I can only add that these impressions afford a considera-
ble variety, and are found in great abundance.

I am satisfied they are mostly ofa tropical growth. It
would be gratifying to us, to be informed of the species of

Granger on Zanesville Slate. 7

plants to which they or any of them belong, or to which
they bear the strongest analogy.

I cannot forbear suggesting, that a botanical description
of the vegetable remains found in ‘different latitudes and
jongitudes, and which it is said always occompany the coal
strata, may lead to very important results. "They may at all
events, afford some evidence, whether the poles of the earth
have at some remote period been changed.

I had nearly forgotten to mention, that the pebbles in our
river are many of them primitive rock. H. No. 1, is a spe-
cimen of quartz pebble of considerable size. No rocks of
these descriptions are to be found in this region.

Very respectfully
vour obedient servant,

EBENEZER GRANGER,

Remarks by the Editor.—Mr. Leconte, of the Engineer
department at Washington, on viewing the specimens de-
scribed above, pronounced the impressions on most of them
to be those of ferns; the broad leaved impression he con-
‘sidered afucus. It may be added, that the specimens are
singularly beautiful; and the delineations of several of them
given in the present ‘ Number, cannot fail of being interesting
to Geologists,

We would again call the attention of Geologists. to the
views of Mr. Bronentarrt, of Paris, expressed in his note
which was printed in the first Number of this work. He is
pursuing, on an extensive scale, the plan of comparing the ve-
getable impressions from different countries, and is particu-
larly anxious to obtain those from the American coa! forma~
tions. We should. be greatly obliged to any persons who will
transmit specimens, especially from the anthracite beds near
the Susquehannah; from the bituminous coal beds of Rich-
yond, Pittsburgh, and Ohio, and generally from all American
localities. Several specimens of a kind are desireable, that
at least, one good one may be forwarded to Mr. Brongni-
art, and others reserved for an American Cabinet. We
bee leave to refer to some extracts of a letter from Mr.
Brongniart—see the present number. His views are wor-
thy of general encouragement, since they have for their
abject. the promotion ef the science ef Geology.

3 - Dr. Troost on Amber, &e.

Arr. 1l.—Description of a variety of Amber, and of a
- Fossil Substance supposed to be the nest of an Insect dis-
covered at Cape Sable, Magothy Rwer, Ana-Arundel
County, Maryland; by Docror G. Troost, of Balti-

more. |

Tu Amber found at Cape Sable is either perfectly
Opaque, of the colour exhibiting every shade of a mixture
of yellow, grey and brown, sometimes so arranged in near-
ty concentric zones as to display the most beautiful colours, _
admired in the Egyptian Jasper, (quartz agathe onyx of
Haity,) or disposed in alternate bands, dots, spots, clouds,
each as in the other agates and jaspers. It resembles also,
often the mastich or gum sandarac, occurring in that case al-
ways as this gum resin does in tears, and is then wax or hon-
ey yellow: sometimes with a tinge of brown, and sometimes
reddish yellow or hyacinth red. The transparent variety
eccurs seldom. It is again translucent, resembling near-
ly, in this case, in its external appearance, the resin or colo-
phony. The lustre of some is very considerable, and of
others, particularly of some of the opaque varieties, is dull.
It breaks easily, exhibiting a perfectly conchoidal fracture,
and is of the same hardness with the amber of the Baltic.

Its specific gravity varies from 1,07 to 1,180. This dif-
ference is no doubt owing to small particles of pyrites, with
which the cavities are sometimes lined. Sv

Some specimens have only a slight degree of electricity,
whilst others possess this property in a high degree. yi

Itis susceptible of a good polish. Sieve ane,

2d Variety. Earthy Amber. This usually occurs in
fragments or friable porous masses, of the size of a walnut,
having a dull earthy aspect intermixed with pyrites. Its so-
“lidity does not exceed that of clods of loam or of a stiff
soil, with which, externally, it has some resemblance, and
like this, crumbles by friction between the fingers. Its
colour is gray or yellowish gray like ashes—by exposure to
‘heat it melts, gives out the smell of common amber, and
has then all the properties of the common melted amber.

The first variety of amber occurs in grains, and in de-
tached pieces, from the size of a mustard seed to that of
pieces front 4 to'5 inches in diameter. Its external surface

Dr. Troost on Améer, &e. 9

is rough and of a dirty grey colour, covered, here and there,
with pyrites. This surface is an opaque crust, which has
in some pieces the thickness cf one-eighth of an inch.
Of whatever colour and lustre the amber may be, this er ust is
always of a dirty grey, and dull. Tt is found in an alluvial
formation at, Cape Sable, on the north side of yey
river, western shore, Maryland.

The surface of Cape Sable and of its environs is consid-
erably undulated—some of the hills rising as much as from
80 to 85 feet above the surface of the Cliesapeake bay.

The uppermost stratum is sand, the lower part of which
is SO strongly agglutinated by iron oxide as to form a coarse
ferruginous sand stone, usually employed by the inhabi-
tants to wall up their cellars. This stone is sometimes so
rich in iron’as to constitute the compact brown oxide of
iron (dichter braun eisenstein of Werner). This stratum
varies from 15 to 60 and 70 feet, below which lies a stra-
tum of lignite of three and an half to four feet in thickness.
This bed contains nearly all varieties of lignite, such as Jet,
brittle lignite, bituminous wood and brown lignite, penetra-
ted throughout by pyrites. ‘Ihe junction of this stratum
with the above is a mixture of lignite and sand, no separa-
tion being perceptible. It is in this stratum that the amber
is found intermixed with the wood; and sometimes also on
the very top of this bed—in one instance, a piece was found
one foot and an half above the bed in the sand. Tis spe-
clmen possesses all the properties of the amber of the Bal-
tic, and is of a light yellow colour.* These circumstances
would induce the belief, that the amber was formed before
it was deposited in the earth. Some of the wooed contains
also small grains of amber. ‘This lignite seems to be formed
of three varieties of wood, or rather the wood has under-
gone three different changes, some pieces of which are en-
tirely charred, often changed into bituminous wood; and
others again having undergone very little change from the
brown lignite. All these varieties, particularly the brown
lignite and the charred wood, are penetrated by pyrites, and
are sometimes entirely changed into it. ‘Phis stratum offers
nearly an horizontal surface, at least no dip more than 5° to

es me Notefirst. at the end of it he Memoir.

Vou. in AREY) te os

10. Dr. Troost on Amber, &e..

the horizon is to be observed, and this seems owing, at the
spot examined, to a small imdulation. t

Below this, is a stratum of sand intermixed with py rites,
in which are often found large nests of this mineral, 15 to
20 feet in square surface, and from one foot to one foot and
an half in thickness. ‘The quantity of pyrites this bed pro-
duces is astonishing ; having cleared off its superincumbent
strata of sand and lignite, (a surface of perhaps 1700 square
feet,) it gave me, excluding the pyrites, which were broken
up into soiall pieces, upwards of twenty- -five tons. This
stratum is here and there entirely wanting, its place bemg
then oceupied by shaly clay.

There follows a bed of earthy lignite. from 5 to 12. feet
in thickness, embracing a great abinidatiue of pyritous wood,
intermixed with large fragments, thirty and more feet long,
of bituminous wood. This bed is intersected by streaks
and nests of a grey clay and a fine grained earthy lignite,
bearing much resemblance to the amber of Cologne. ‘There
occur in this, pebbles of greasy quartz, and in one instance,
a small crystal of Disthene was found, two substances which
occur in abundance in the primitive rocks, fifteen or twenty
miles distance from here, principally near Baltimore. —

In this stratum of lignite, was found a substance which T
at first sight mistook for a fruit, endeavouring to find its
analogy among the palm fruits. The error soon, however,
became manifest from the observation, that what had been
taken for the stem of the fruit, was not implanted im it, but
traversed its centre, and sometimes perforated its sides—
two circumstances bearing no analogy to the stem of fruits.
The substance was therefore subjected to a more attentive
investigation, the result of which led to the belief, that it
was an animal product of a very curious nature, and that it
could be nothing else buta kind of comb or nidus made by
some insects around the twigs and extremities of the suceu-
lent branches of a tree.

“The size of those nests ‘is from.one to three riches in
length, their diameters varying in proportion—for instance,
if the nest have three inches in length, its. diameter will
have commonly one inch 5 ; if one inch in length, its diame-
ter will have half an inch. Their shape. is regular, their

+ See Note second, at the end of the Memoir

Dr. Troost on Amber, ¥e. li

surface rough, resembling often in roughness and colour,
the unripe fruit of the orange tree known to the druggists
by the name of bitter oranges; sometimes its surface re-
sembles the bark of some oak limbs. | This surface is over-
spread-with small openings or round holes of two sizes, one
size large enough to admit of a large pin, the other, one-
fourth of the size. These holes are arranged somewhat in
this manner : : : , and are the openings of interior cells of
an irregular oval shape. There are four of these openings
in every cell, one in the centre cf the comb being in con-
tact with the branches around which the matter or substance
is deposited, and three on the outside, being the openings
above mentioned, of which the centre one is the largest.
ft would appear that these four openings were formed by
the female insect on depositing her eggs. ‘The young in-
sects, on being hatched, appear to have fed on the sub-
stance, and to have eaten through the investing coat, by
which operation one of the openings has become larger,
leaving a hollow bag. 'The substance of which these nests
are made is of a resinous nature, possessing the same chem-
ical properties as amber. The cavities and surface are
often decked with minute crystals of pyrites. The colour
of the internal part varies, probably, according to the change
it has undergone from its long stay under ground, or from
other unknown agencies—some of them appearing to have
undergone a partial fusion, in which case, the internal colour
is black, and partly charred. Some others seem to be in a
state approaching to their primitive appearance, the colour
varying then in every shade of yellow, from whitish yellow
to orange.

This bed contains also, a fruit bearing some resemblance
to a bean, but so much disfigured, that | cannot ascertain to
what species it belongs.

The stratum of lignite containing these’ fossil remains
rests on an argillaceous sandstone, froth two to five feet in
thickness, embracing small masses of pyrites. 'The surface
of this stratum is very hilly, and is neither intermixed with
lignite at its line of junction, nor is the least fragment of lig-
nite perceptible through the whole bed: hence, it may be
conjectured that the lignite has been deposited after the ar-
eillaceous sandstone was formed, and is, therefore, a sepa-
rate formation.

12 | ‘Dr. raid on Amber, &c.

This is followed by a stratum of whitish grey clay, four

feet in thickness, exempt from pyrites. Tuis clay rests on
a bed of white sand, in which the water is so abundant as
to render it difficult to penetrate lower.

Note First t, p- 9.—The difference existing between this amber
and that of the Baltic, is, perhaps, ascribable more to the local
circumstances than to the difference in the trees which produced it.
The amber found, one and an half feot above the stratum of lig-
nite is, in every respect, equal to the Prussian amber, is exempt
from pyrites, had no crust except some ferruginous sand cemented
around it: im other lumps which are found in the bed of lignite, in
contact with and sometimes wholly penetrated by pyrites, the amber

has usually a thick opaque crust; and the more it is in coutact with _

this mineral, the more the colour deviates from that of the Baltic.
According to Hotsman, who has examined these mines, the amber
seems not to be in contact with the pyrites, but the mines are work-
ed in a bed of coarse sand below. As for the rest, the geognostic
situation of Cape Sable seems to have much resemblance with the
Baltic mines. It would be very interesting to determine what sort
of trees produce this amber—at least there seems to be no doubt
that amber owes its origin to the vegetable kingdom: this‘has been
the opinion of the oldest nations, whose histories have been trans-
mitted to us by the fables of the ancients, as we learn from the
beautiful fiction of the hazardous enterprize of Phaéton, where his
sisters, bewailing the loss of their brother. find their feet fastened to
the oie their arms stretching out in flexible twigs, upon which
Zepliyr moves the silvery leaves of the poplar, and their falling
tears becoming yellow pearls, give birth to the precious amber,
which is gathered by the Graces for the toilet of Venus. —

Judging from the position in which we find the amber here, we .

have to conclude that it was already formed before it was deposited
inthe earth, and only by some, at present, unknown agent, has ac-
quired the nature of amber. Jt must have been a vegetable resin,
perhaps of the nature of copal, before it was buried with its parent
trees; it cannot be, as professor Stermstadt supposes,a mineral ore,
thickened by the boamiren of oxigen; nor, as is the opinion of
Mr. Parkiuson, an inspissated mineral oil; nor again, as Patrin
maintains, honey modified by time and mineral acids, which has
converted it into bitumen: in all these cases, it would have been in
a liquid state in the earth ; it would have been produced by the ve-
getable substances after they \ were buried: and we should find it in
the form. of stalactites, below the substances from which it was
generated—this is not the case at Cape Sable; we find it in the
stratum of lignite on its top, and one foot and a half above it-—And

Dr. Troost on Amber, &c. 13

in the former case I would ask, whence the insects which are some-
times found in the Baltic amber? Certainly, these insects did not
dweil in a living state one hundred and more feet under the surface of
the ground, a depth at which the amber mines are usually worked,
it is more reasonable to suppose, that they existed in the resin be-
fore it was deposited in the earth—besides, the form in which the
pieces occur, bears more resembiance to that of the copal, than to
w substance which was liquid, and tm this state filled up some in-
terstices found below it. There is a still more striking circum-
stance which induces me to believe, that amber is nothing but an
altered resin, which is, that the nests of insects found in the stra-
ium of earthy lignite have, when burnt, the smell of amber; are
like this substance, only sparingly soluble in alcohol, and have, as
iar as Lbave been able to ascertain, all its other properties. Now,
these nests were not in a liquid state before they were deposited in
the ground, but were formed of a resinous substance, i in the same
way as those of the coccus lacca,* aud have acquired the nature of
amber during theirstay in the earth, from the same agent as other res-
inous substances. hese fossil remains can, perhaps, throw a
clear light on the formation of amber—at least, by their assistance
we shall be able to determine to what species of trees it owes its
origin. Amongst the varieties of wood of which the stratum of
lignite at Cape Sable is formed, of which I believe there have been
different kinds, there is only one which appears to have produced
the amber; at least, I have found it only in one of these varieties:
and this wood, in its mineralized state, is of a very compact and
close grain, which. according to the smallness of its concentric
layers, must have been of a slow growth; (nevertheless, these lay-
ers may have been altered by the pressure the wood has undergone,
having now all a flat appearance. ) But I have not been able to
ascertain the species to which it belongs.

In elucidation of the foregoing, 1 would propose the following
questions :

ist. What kind of insects are found in the Baltic amber et

J

* Coccus lacca of Kerr, inhabits India, on the figs of the Pagodas, the
pipiba and some varieties of the croton ; it transforms into a particular spe-
ciesiaf red resin, the juices produced by these trees.

t According to Jussieu, they are not natives of the continent of Europe.
‘The amber of Cape Sable does not contain any insects. IT have seen large
collections of amber, but found only one variety of insects in the true. The
greatest part of specimens in the Cabinets, labelled amber, with insects, is not
amber bat copal—f myself have assisted, in Holland, one of my friends in se-
leeting from copal, found at different Drag ggists, a large collection with in-
sects, which was cut and polished. This collection, ‘after the death of the
owner, was sold as otie of true amber with insects, which the most practis-
ed eye was not able to distinguish,

14 Dr. Troost on Amber, ¥c.

2d.. Does this insect make its nidus of resinous matter, as the
coccus laccar : ‘
_3d. What species of trees do these insects inhabit P

’ Note Second, p..i0.—Nature seems to have adopted this. bed of
lignite as its laboratory for the formation of sulphur, of which the
pyrites are composed—at least, it is true, that above this bed not
the Jeast vestive of this mineral ts to be found, whereas, it appears
as soon as the lignite is discovered. In the superior part, the py-
rites is found in the wood partly charred; lower down is found, here
and there, the sand which exists in the interstices of the wood,
agglutinated by pyrites, and at other times, uniform pieces, or
twigs of trees entirely changed into this mineral, the cavities lined
with small erystals. Beneath this bed, in the stratum of sand, of
which we have made mention in this memoir, are large masses of
pyrites, found principally in the inferior part of the stratum, at a
spot where the water has been prevented from infiltering itself to
a lower depth, by the bed of earthy lignite through which (as in the
ease of common clay) water does not penetrate but with great diffi-
eulty, if atall. In the stratum of earthy lignite, the greatest part of
these branches have been changed into pyrites, and have preserved
the primitive structure of wood; in the stratum of sandstone which
serves as a support to the lignite, we find small masses of sand ce-
mented together by pyrites. This stratum is generally ten or twelve
feet below the surface of Magothy river, and of course, that which
filtered through the superior strata, descends no lower than ina
proportion to its greater density compared with common water,
which density it has acquired, in its passage, by the solution of for-
eign matter. Below this bed, of which the mean thickness is three
feet, no pyrites are formed. -
What shall we conclude from all this? Here I would hazard
vay opinion. Let us at first suppose that the constituent parts of
the sulphur are lodged in the vegetable matter—that only an active
agent is wanting to disengage them from the matter with which
they are combined. and to recombine them to produce sulphur—
let us suppose, at the same time, this agent to be water, or water
eharged with iron, then the water, by filtering through the superior
stratum, which, as has been said, is sand agglutinated by oxide of
iron, is charged with the iron, and meeting in the stratum of lignite
‘the constituent parts of the sulpbur, has put the same into action.
The sulphur being. now made,* has entered into combination. with

the iron, prodacing for result, the pyritous matter, partly filling, in |

the first place, the cavities occasioned by a decomposition in the
wood, by which operation the pyrites Has acquired the form and
the very texture of the wood. The liquid thus generated, filtering
x f
* Does Dr. Troost consider sulphur asa compound: Ed.

/

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &e. 15

lower and. lower through this stratum, becoming more and more
charged, and being for the most part stopped by the bed of earthy
lignite, has there given birth to the large masses above mentioned.
The stratum of earthy lignite being but a bad filter, the pyrites be-
come very scarce beneath, and soon (at two to two and an half
feet below it) disappears altogether.

Art. I1V.—Notices of the Geology, Mineralogy, Topogra-
phy, Productions, and Aboriginal inhabitants of the re-
gions around the Mississippi and its confluent waters—in
a letter from L. Brincirr, Esq. of Louisiana, to Rew
Elias Cornelius—-communicated for this Journal.

f ntroductory Remarks.

Through the medium lpi T aunsl ae pp. 214and317,
the public have been already favoured with the observations
of the Rev. Mr. Cornelius, on some portions of the southern
and south western States. At the request of the Editor,
facts and statements, derived from other sources, were ob-
tained by Mr. Cornelius; and relating principally to parts
of the country on the Mississippi, which that gentleman had
not the opportunity of seeing. ‘This was the origin of Mr.
Bringier’s memoir, which peculiar circumstances idee pre-
vented our publishing till now.

‘Although somewhat immethodical, it abounds so much
with interesting statements, that we have thought it better to
publish it, with some alterations and omissions, (agreeably
to the author’s permission communicated with the paper,)
rather than to attempt a new digest of the subjects: for Mr.
Briagicr appears to have contemplated little more than. the
communication of materials, to be wrought into a different
form.—-Epiror.

County of Aecadia, 20th March, 1818,
MR. ELIAS PORNELTUS.
Str, wes

{ rnecrer sincerely, that yours of the 28th ultimo, on ac-
count of my bemg absent when it arrived, has reached me
only this day: this delay has nearly absorbed {if not alto-

{6 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippt, gc.

gether) the latitade you had prescribed for an answer, aod

which would have required several | ies, in order to give

you any satisfaction.

- Notwithstanding, I will endeavour to send you, for the
aie such information as the narrow bounds J have left
will admit. Iwill hereafter take more time for a detailed
description, which I will forward to you, or to Professor
Silliman. |

» Iam extremely mortified, that the specimens* remaining
in my possession, and w hich will accompany this, are of so
little account. I should have been happy to be able to
give youa better testimony of my good will, towards all
attempts useful to society.

Before I proceed, I must claim your indulgence for at-
(empting to write ina language with which I am so little fa-
miliar.

The state of Louisiana,t covering mostly a country
of alluvion, just making its appearance above water, af-
fords but little variety of Mineral productions; whilst it
presents a vast field for those who wish to trace many
grand operations of nature.

I will pass over the numerous phenomena which the sedi-
ment of the Mississippiis preparing, for future ages, in the
Gulph of Mexico. The effect resulting from the infinite
quantity and variety of matter carried daily by the torrents
into the bosom of the sea, and precipitated therein, accord-
ing to their respective gravities; the depth of the water;
its currents and counter-currents, and all the various marine
productions, constitute a subject sufficiently interesting, but
which can be examined in many other places.

Banks of the Mississippi

I will, however, stop a moment, on the margin of the
Mississippi, to consider how, as the stream is ascended, the
banks of this river gradually rise, and again descend to-
wards the swamps; so that the Mississippi, i in all its allu-

* The specimens alluded to by the author, are in our possession, and in
general we agree with him as totheir nature. Editor.

t In this Essay, P uniformly use the names on Mellish’s map of the United
States.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississoppi, Fe. 17

vial region, may be considered as a river running on the
top of a hill of 24 feet in its highest position—whose base
of three miles, in its average diameter, reposes on the
swamps, which are about nine feet above the marshes of
the sea shore, which swamps descend gradually towards
the marshes until they are confounded together. Jt must
be remarked, that I am alluding to a distance up the Mis-
sissippi equal to 215 miles from its mouth, (Baton Rouge,)
where, as we ascend, the first high land begins on the right
hand; on the left, the first high lands are at the mouth of
the St. Francis, or 7 miles below, although the grand val-
ley is intersected several times below the St. Francis, by
the high lands of Sicily Island, between the Wachitta and
the Mississippi, which are not visible from the banks of this
river.

Drift Wood.

Before I speak of that immense valley, which covers an
area of upwards of thirty-five thousand miles,* of which
one-third belongs to the territory of Missouri, I must re-
mark that, by what has been exposed of the Mississippi
river, it is evident that whatever once escaped from its
banks, never returns to them again; hence, we could form
an idea of the enormous beds of timber, leaves, and other
substances, which are assembled below the surface of the
_ valley mentioned above, provided we could know how long
the Mississippi has been floating them into the lower coun-
try. This inference we might found upon the quantity that
we see going, without inierruption, into the Achafalaya,
where several hundred miles are converted into solid rafts

#

* The bed of the Mississippi oceupied formeriv, the actual bed of St.
Francis, and the hills at the moath of this river, then were at the mouth of
the Ohio. The old bed of the Mississippi is at Cape la Cruz, six miles be-
tow Cape Girardeau; and now, since the Ohio and Mississippi have united ;
in time of high water, the Mississippi, following the high lands of Black
river, and those of Arkansas, covers all that bottom, and, after crossing
White river, overflows a great part of Wachitta, then all the low lands be-
iween itself and Apnelousas, and Atacapas and all its swamps, and that of
Achafalaya. It thus covers an area of thirty-five thousand miles, offering a
great surfaee to the action of the atmosphere, which evaporates nearly as
much water, as what empties itself out of the mouth of the river. This
causes the mouth of this river to be so narrow in proportion to the extent
of its dimensious.

Vor.: 1ff.....No. 1. a

18 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c.

of wood. ‘These rafts of wood, in the course of every two
or three years, disappear under the sand and leaves. » This
operation alternately removes the bed of the Achafalaya
sometimes four or five miles to the east, or two or three to
the west, but more commonly towards the east. On this
side, it has gained more than 10 miles already, since it-has
‘become an outlet of the Mississippi; indeed, in its length, it
will soon fall into this river, and bring its ne lower down;
for it is evident that the Achafalaya was formerly the outlet
of Red river, whose actual confluence with the Mississippi
is two and three quarters of a mile from the mouth of the
Achafalaya. When this was joined to the Red river, it
formed a separate stream, running parallel to the Mississippi,
without any communication. This communication has howev-
er taken place in consequence of the encroachment of the
Mississippi, whose bed constantly gains on one bank or the
other, substitutmg, on the opposite side, glarle and sand,
(what is called sand beach,) and thus forming bars, some of
which are one mile broad, and from three to five miles long.
T will now return to the drift wood accumulated in the
Achafalaya. Lest any one should hear with incredulity of
the enormous quantity of wood spread over the country
which that river every year inundates, I will give an abstract —
of my observations, made in 1812. Having landed at the
mouth of this river, when it was at its fullest, | was surprised
at the quantity of wood leaping perpetually into the shoot.
{ then counted the large trees entering the river, in a g'ven
ume, which I found te produce more than eight thousand
cubic feet per minute. The estimation, I am satistied, was
rather below than above the fact; but if we even reduce
this estimate to less than one half, we shall be astonished te
find what a surface of country such an accumulation of timber
will cover in twenty-four hours, particularly, when we con-
sider how much space large trees will occupy with their
limbs and roots. ‘The Alene: will observe, that I have
omitted to estimate the leaves, bark, reeds, &c. whose uni-
ted quantity is, probably, equal to that of the wood 3 nel-
ther have I included the sediment of the muddy water, as
discharged from the mouth of the Mississippi river, which
proved, “according to several elaborate experiments whieh E
formerly made, to be equal to thirty-six cubic miles annually.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c. 19

I will give a few more examples of this kind, before Lb
change the subject; for L consider it to be of great impor-
tance. I will leave, for the observation of the Mississippi
navigators, the beds of drift wood collected on the heads of
the Islands, which they pass in coming down the Ohio, and
more particularly the Mississippi. I will, therefore, advert to
the large raft of the Red river, which is sixty miles in length,
and, in many places, fifteen in breadth. On this, in some
places, cedars are heaped by themselves, and in others,
pines. At the foot of a hill, where nothing else grows, the
flood sweeps them into a pile, where they are matted to-
gether, with their leaves, and with the pods or capsules of
their seeds, forming the most compact kind of rafts. If these
leaves ever enter into fermentation, or any other decompo-
sition, this must certainly produce bituminous substances
in great quantity; whilst the other kinds of wood mixed
likewise, by the same cause, with a very large proportion of
minute vegetables, may produce other bituminous bodies in
-gmaller quantity; but I conceive that mineral coal would be
formed in greatest abundance, as the rafts of mixed wood
are inexhaustible.

In this raft of the Red river, numerous small streams are
seen to disappear under the raft, and show themselves again,
after having passed several miles under the surface, and un-~
der the sand banks, which are, probably, part of the raft
buried under the sand.*

_* This account being communicated in MS. to N. A. Ware, Esq. an in-
telligent and scientific gentleman, from Alabama, he gave me the following
opinion of the statement of facts— Editor.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Sir,

Mr. Bringier’s estimate of the drift, and his account of the extent of the
raft in the Achafalaya, ismuch too large. Darby, in his Emigrant’s Guide,
gives the best accouut of it: to which I refer you, pp. 15,52, 53, and 54.

Darby’s account, as far as regards the state of Louisiana, is very minufe,
and very correct, in the aforesaid work; and is the best accouut extant.t

+ The passages referred to by Mr. Ware, are as follows: ‘ This river (the
Achafalaya) exhibits the singular spectacle of being choked with timber,
brought by the floods from the Mississippi. Some extraordinary facts have
been published respecting this mass of timber, sucn as being suificiently
compact to admit of horses and men passing, as on a bridge; of having
large trees growing upon it, and finally, of having been passed unperceived.
The falsity of this the author can aver from his own personal observa-

20 = Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c.

The following circumstance will show what influence
rafts have on the alluvial soils of such rivers as this.

Earthquakes and Eruptions. -

ets) }

On the sixth day of January, 1812, during the earth-
quakes* which destroyed New-Madrid, and which were
felt two hundred miles around, I happened to be passing in
its neighbourhood, where the principal shock took place.
The violence of the earthquake having disturbed the earthy
strata impending over the subterraneous cavities, existing
probably in an extensive bed of wood, highly carbonized,
occasioned the whole superior mass to settle. This, press-

T have seen the oil stone for hones and tools, mentioned by Mr. B. as
foand on the Quichita—it is no doubt better than those brought from Tur-
key. Ihave always heard the same account of the Quichita, that he gives
inrerard to ifs minerals. [never heard of the cinnabar or quicksilver ore,
ef which he speaks; but there is no doubt at all, of the salt rock abounding
on the Arkansas ; and of the salt sterilizing the soil, and mixing its erystals
through large plains. The large piece of pure iron, weight near three thou-
sand, which he speaks of, was displayed in New-Orleans, and is now, as you
know, in New-York; it was found as he describes. Ihave often heard of
the abundance of marble, which he mentions as being on the White river;
and Lhave heard that the same river ran over a bed of green marble for filty
miles. ] have no doubt of the granite or primitive mountains, on the Ar-

kansas, and neighborhood.
®

tion, having surveyed the right bank of the river, on all the parts where the
vafts are lodged. Men may pass in many places, but in none without diffi-
culty and danger. The timber rises and falls with the water; is continu-
ally shifting; lies in all directions, having large interstices open, and fre-
quently moves in a body, from the weight of the incumbent mass. It is
about twenty miles from the upper to the lower extremity of the raft, ten
miles only of this isactually closed with timber,” pp. 52.

There are other rafts mentioned by Mr. Darby, but none so large. Mr.
Darby’s book was published in 1818; and Mr. Bringier’s visit to the
Achafalaya was in 1812. Whether the rafts had-actually diminished since
this period, or in what way we are to reconcile the accounts, we cannot at
present discern; even Mr. Darby’s account is however sufficiently won-
derful._— Editor. iS ite

* Several autbors have asserted that earthquakes proceed from volcanic
causes, but although this may be often true, the earthquake alluded to bere,
must have had another cause. Time, perbaps, will give us some better
ideas as to the origin of these extraordinary phenomena. It is probable,
that they are produced, in different instances, by different causes, and that
electricity is one of them; the shocks of the earthquake of Louisiana, in
1812, produced emotions and sensations much resembling those of a strong
galvanic battery. It will, perhaps, be pertinent to observe, that this earth-
quake took place after a long succession of very heavy rains, such as had
never been seen before in that country..

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &e. 21

ing with all its weight upon the water that had filled the low-
er cavities, occasioned a displacement of this fluid, which
forced its passage through, blowing up the earth with loud
explosions. It rushed out in all quarters, bringing with it
an enormous quantity of carbonized wood, reduced mostly
into dust, which was ejected to the height of from ten to
fifteen feet, and fell in a black shower, mixed with the sand
which its rapid motion had forced along; at the same time,
the roaring and whistling produced by the impetuosity of the
air escaping from its confinement, seemed to increase the
horrible disorder of the trees which ev ery where encount-
ered each other, being blown up, cracking and splitting, and
falling by thousands at atime. In the mean time, the sur-
ie was sinking, and a black liquid was rising up to the bel-
ly of my horse, who stood motionless, struck with a panic
of terror.

These oceurrences occupied nearly two minutes; the
irees, shaken in their foundation, kept falling here and there,
and the whole surface of the country remained covered with
holes, which, to compare small things with great, resembled
so many craters of volcanoes, surrounded with a ring of \
carbonized wood and sand, which rose to the height of about
seven feet.

I had occasion, a few months after, to sound the depth of
several of these holes, and found them not to exceed twenty
feet; but I must remark the quicksand had washed into
them. The country here was formerly perfectly level, and
covered with numerous small prairies of various sizes, dis-
persed through the woods. Now it is covered with slaches
(ponds) and sand hills or mounticules, which are found prin-
cipally where the earth was formerly the lowest; probably
because, in such places, the water broke through with more
facility.

A circumstance worth noticing, was a tendency to car-
bonization, that I perceived in all the vegetable substances
soaking in the ponds produced by these eruptions. It was
about seven months after the event had taken place, that I
had occasion to make these remarks, on the spot before
mentioned. The same earthquake produced a lake between
St. Francis and Little Prairie, distant twenty-seven miles
from the Mississippi river. This lake much resembles the
Big lake on Red river, inasmuch as the trees are standing
upright in all of them, and sunk about thirty feet when the

22 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c.

water ishigh. They are all evidently modern lakes, whose
beds were, not long since, part of the forest. .

Fossil Remains of the Mastodon.

On the same voyage, I saw, in New-Madrid, a Mam-
moth grinder, which had just been found by one Francais
Lesieur. Along with it were several other teeth belonging
to the same jaw—it was found about three miles below the
village, on the banks of the Mississippi, but it was very
damp and very soft.* This kind of fossil is frequently met
with on the porphyry ridges bordering, in many places, a
portion of the grand valley whichis included in the state of
Missouri. |

Between White river and Strawberry river are three par-
allel porphyry ranges, running circularly from the west to
the north east; the three mountains are twenty-eight miles
across, and seem to have been above water, when the whole
eountry around was covered by the ocean. The south-
west side presents a large undulating valley of basalts,
amongst which are some calcareous stones that may be de-
nominated marbles. :

‘At the foot of the before mentioned mountain, was an
elephant or mammoth’s tooth (or grinder) of an enormous
‘size; it was fully twice as large as the largest I had seen be-
fore at Big-Bonelick. A great quantity of these fossils are
there gathered in a small compass, and this collection was
doubtless occasioned by the appetite which these animals
had for the salt. Attracted by the water that oozes in these
“marshy places, they were evidently mired when they ven-
tured too far in, and of course, the struggles of the last one
would sink the bones of his predecessor still deeper. Thus
these collections are easily accounted for, although at first,
it seems very strange to see these bones accumulated, like
those of some of the extinct Indian tribes in the west. ‘The
srinder which I discovered, was perfectly preserved in its
shape, and converted into a siliceous petrification, repre-
senting milk white jasper, variegated with beautiful colours.
It was incrusted by a solid block of porphyry, which the de-
structive hand of time had worn away to such a degree,

* Its weight is mentioned in the text as being, if we could read it correct-
ty, eleven to seven ounces—but this could hardly be the correct meaning.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, §e.. 23

that it projected like a tooth in its own alveolage. By
breaking a piece from one corner, the enamel and the lay-
ers of the tooth soon became visible, so that there could be
no doubt as to what it was.

I examined the block of aanahaty attentively, and think
I could discern some osseous forms; the bones appeared to
be in their full size, and, like the grinder, converted into
jasper; but it was of a more dull colour, and not so hard,
and resembled indurated clay. The other component parts
were clay, feldspar, and quartz, and some other things not
ascertained.

Marbles.

I will next describe the marbles found in those hills al-
ready mentioned, which are situated in a portion of the
territory of Missouri, known by the name of Laurence
county.

The kind that is most abundant is a brick coloured mar-
ble, with brown stripes, (resembling the Italian Roso di
Monte Catini.) ‘The nextisa plain flesh coloured marble,
(Rosso di Caldona.) A white and black marble, 1 is the fet
that occurs at the foot of the ridges; it is a most beautiful va-
riety, (Nero, y Bianco Antico. y I have found many other
varieties in the branches of the creeks, but have not discov-
ered the quarries. The kinds first mentioned, are found in
great plenty. The first covers more than 50 miles of sur-
face. ‘The land is extremely fertile in the places where the
Marble lies, buried in two or three feet of loam. This is
particularly true on the bottoms of a great number of
streams which abound in this country, and are produced by
large springs flowing every where. ‘The growth is black-
walnut, hickory, mulberry, sassafras very large, white oak,
cherry, &c. Where the rocks are above the vegetable
earth, nothing is seen for miles, except now and then a few
wild gooseberry bushes. ‘These quarries generally exhibit
level surfaces of a tolerable height.

Other Mineral Preduetions.

Mark of several varieties cover a great portion of this ex-
tensive country. In the south, swine stone, impregnated
with bitumen, is very plenty: and in the nerth, another ya-

24 Bringer on the Region of the Mississippi, &c.

riety (which is a non-descript) covers extensive vallies, upon
which the pieces are scattered in piles, that are from three to
four feet in diameter, and two in height. The colour pre-
sents different shades of gray: the texture is earthy, although
in seme places exhibiting a chatoyant knob of various col-
ours, having some resemblance to the cat’s eye. ‘These
colours are produced by the reflection of small prismatic
crystals, filling up the places which had been left empty by
some other enbstanece: that must have expanded them-
selves, and occasioned the protuberances on the stone, and
the alteration of its composition, which is in these places
siliceous, resembling transparent white flint. This peculiar
appearance, however, confounds itself with the great mass
within an inch from the central point, which is very hard,
giving fire with steel. It is composed of calcareous, sili-
ceous, and a little portion of argillaceous earth, besides me-
tallic substances, for some are striped with black veins like
marbles, with which it might well compare.

While I speak of non- -descript objects, or at least of what
I have seen described no where, I will mention a stone re-
sembling granite, although it is no granite, which is found
ten anlee south of Baisses ford, St. Francis river, on the
road from Laurence court house to St. Michal. The beau-
ty of this stone exceeds any thing that I had seen before.
The quarry is inexhaustible, and Aodke of any SIZe, from
one to a thousand feet, may be got, precisely alike in every
part. This is composed of pure transparent prismatic crys-
tals, of the size of grains of wheat, cemented with very
black crystals of the same size and shape, without the ap
pearance of any other mixture or colour.

Not far from that place, has been found sulphuret of anti-
‘mony, and is said to be in great quantity ; but I receive this
fact on the report of others. :

Lead Mines.

_A few miles north of St. Michal, is the mine Lamotte, a
celebrated place where an immense quantity of lead ore
was formerly dug. ‘This ore is the common galena, having,
as usual, the colour of lead ;. it erystalizes in small cubes.
Its: fracture i is foliated, and it soils the paper when rubbed
on, leaving a metals lustre. It affords from seventy to

Bringier on the Region of the ee Se. 25

eighty-six per cent. of lead; and this lead is said to have
afforded one per cent. of silver. But the other lead mines,
now working near Herculaneum and St. Genevieve, produce
only one-fourth per cent. which is not separated, as it would
not defray the expences.

The galena or lead ore is found disseminated in blocks of
different sizes, at a depth of about nine feet, covered with a
stratum of seven feet, composed of rubbish, very much de-
composed, and strongly impregnated with oxid of iron,
under which, large blocks and small pieces of what Walle-
rius calls Corneus Trapezius, are found intermixed in about
equal proportion with white selenitic spar, (sulphat of Ba-
rytes, Ed.) in pieces of about the same size, buried in the
rubbish before mentioned with the ore, which generally
adheres to some of the spar. ,

The workmen dig only at random. Some are fortunate,
and will dig, on an extraordinary occasion, two thousand
pounds a days when another will not dig fifty pounds. At
mine Chobohdllay,* the workmen who lease, each of them,
so many square yards per week or per day, all work on
their own account, and sell their ore at two dollars per hun-
dred, to the founderers, who are proprietors of the mineral
land. ‘The ore issimply piled on a few logs of wood, which
reduces all the metal it can, and the cinders (since a few
years only) are put afterwards into an air furnace, where
_ they are reduced into slags, after yielding another little por-
tion of the lead remaining in the scorias. The ore of this
mine yields generally eighty per cent. of lead.

To the north of mine Chobohdllay, the whole face of the
country exhibits indications of metals. In 1812 I had ga-
thered numerous specimens while merely crossing the coun-
try. Unfortunately they all went under a raft, with my boat,
below Cape Girardeau, as I was descending the Mississip-
pi. I would advise adventurers to explore the mountains
between the waters of St. Francis, high up near its sources,
and near and even above the head waters of Big and Little
Black river, Between these waters and White river are
very extensive salt petre caves, where great quantities of ni-
trate of potash could be extracted. Lead mines are very

* A Choctaw namie for St.Francis river, upon the head of which this
mine is-situated : it means Ci taken from oca chohohéllay, smokey wa-
fer.

Vous TH.....No.-b. 4

26 Bringwer on. the Region of the Mississippi, &e.

abundant 5 ieaoe exhibit much variety, and the apne
relate that are a variety of other minerals.

Tron Ores.

Iron ores of several varieties are found in great quantity,
between the currents and White river. The Wachitta, eigh-
teen miles below the hot spring, affords, in a place called
the cove, five points of hills, where the very richest 1 iron ore
is gathered in enormous heaps; it yields the best of Iron.

Some cellular brownish red ore, which occurs in very large
bodies, and mineralized by about thirty per cent. of oxigen,
is likewise found in this cove, and in many other places,
particularly on the north side of the mouth of Little Mis-
souri, (a fork of Wachitta.)

About one hundred and fifty miles up this Little ‘Miscowe
river, there are inexhaustible quarries of sulphate of lime,
of several varieties; it is likewise found in the cove, within
two hundred yards of the magnetic iron ore. Above the
ore, and not one hundred yards off, is an extensive bed of
common talc, (mica? Ed.) the leaves are of an extraordinary
size, not less than five inches by seven.

Cove of Wachitta. .

The Cove of Wachitta is formed by a circular mountain,
shaped like a horse shoe. This mountain consists of spar-
ry iron stone and heavy spar; it encloses an area of nine
miles of surface of very fertile soil, traversed with two
very fine streams fed by numerous springs. In this valley
there are trees of an enormous size, and of a very great va-
riety. This cove faces on the Wachitta river, and offers a
charming perspective. It is surrounded with pitch pines of
the extraordinary height of one hundred and sixty feet.

Clays, Hones, &c.

This valley atiords all kinds of earths of the very best
quality for every kind of furnaces and crucibles, for glass
manufactories and iron founderies. There is petumze or
kaolin of a very superior quality, for por celain. Materials
for glass are equally good and plenty. A quarry of ra-
zor hones (Lapis Coticularis of Waillerius) has been opened
for several years past within a few miles from this place ; :

Bringier on the Region of the Mississtppi, &c. | 27

and the hones have been found so good in the States, to
which four hundred pounds were taken last year, that the
same man who discovered the quarry is now loading a flat
boat with them. He sold the first at one and two dollars
per pound. Those taken out of the lower strata are of a
coarser grain, and are found by the carpenters who use
them much superior to those imported from Turkey.
Some are red, some of a flesh colour, others transparent
with a ereyish blue cast. They have a sparry texture ;
they seem to be an aggregate of siliceous argillaceous and
magnesian earths, with a little oxid of iron.

Salt, Sand Hills, &c.

_On the opposite side, I mean six miles below the cove,
{the hone quarry is above the cove) there is a salt work;
it makes a great quantity of salt, which is sold at one
dollar per bushel. They could make any quantity, the wa-
ter is so far saturated that it yields one fifteenth of salt; but
there are salt springs on the Arkansas that yield one sixth
of salt; and higher still there are streams of a sufficient size
for a boat to navigate in, coming out of a lake called lake
Jefferson, which is a saturated alien of salt. This water
is of a bright red, taking its colour from cinnabar or quick-
silver mines, which are very plenty on the Canadian.
Large blocks of rock salt of the same colour are found in the
crevices of the mountains eastward of these lakes. ‘There
are three in arange; their beds are a solid mass of muriate
of soda, and beyond them are immense plains where the
eye beholds nothing but naked hills of light flat sand, mix-
ed with the fragments of snails, and perhaps marine shells
pulverised like wheat bran. These hills move about ac-
cording as the wind directs them, sometimes eight or ten
miles or more at a time. ‘They are impassable; one would
sink in them as in ashes.

The north side of the Arkansas exhibits a prairie coun-
try aang all the characters of a mineral region.*

*Tt is inhabited by innumerable herds of Buffaloes, wild horses, wild goats,
(Berindos) prairie wolves and common ones. There are also, it is said, pral-
rie dogs, called by some republican dogs, on account ot their living in large
families, and having, according to popular impression, watciies placed round
their encampment. They burrow under ground, and when they come out
of their holes, which they always evacnate in a body when the sentrics

28 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, Se.

Other facts respecting the Cove of Wachitta.

Since I was at the Cove of Wachitta, ] understand that
an Indian has found a piece of native copper of the size and
shape of an ear of Indian corn. He melted and doubtless
used the copper, for some of the Cherokees on the Arkan-
‘gas are tolerable silver-smiths. Pyrites is found here in
abundance, so is native copperas, or vitriol; this forms a
component part of some veins running through a large |
bed of a milk white and apparently talcose earth, which the
blow pipe, even when aided by borax, does not affect. -

Burr Jill Stones.

On the hills surrounding the Cove there are among the
Spathose iron stone, and the fibrous and compact heavy
spar, some of the siliceous stones with which the French Burr
mill stones are made. They are pronounced by a good
judge to be of a superior quality; this person caused to be
cut, from a solid block, a pair of stones twenty-two inches
in diameter.

Alum Slate.

Twenty four miles from the Cove between that and the
Arkansas, one hundred yards to the left of the road, after
erossing the third fork of the Saline river, and immediately
on its banks, there is an acclivity leading to a perpencicular
wall of about one hundred feet in height; this is composed of
a black slate, (aluminous shistus) rather inclining in its posi-
tion. The observer, on removing a few of the loose slates
under his feet, will discover the upper surface of many thou- .
sand tons of Alum. It is the kind called Feather Alum
(plumose alum.—Ed.) it is in large light cakes, matted in with
some pieces of slates and composed of long needle shaped
erystals of a bright whitish hue, between that of silver and silk

(
perceive any thing, they bark or make a kiad of clapping noise, on which
account they have been referred to the canine tribe, although they appear
to resemble them in no respect: but, what I know of them ts only by hear-
say. Ihave however seen their stamping ground, and their boles, which
appeared to be very deep. For this reason travellers can never catch them,
and rarely even get sight of them, except a few beaver trappers who venture
thus far with their traps, which they set at the entrance ofthe holes. By
what I understood from the information which I have received, they ap-
peared to resemble the weasel more than any other animal, although they
are larger and have along snout.* ~

* See Pike’s Journal.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c. 28

Hot Springs.

The hot springs of Wachitta have proved to be the most
efficacious thermal waters in the United States. Their repu-
tation, particularly in one disease, bas undoubtedly reached
the most remote ‘corner of our country it is much to be
regretted that visitors find no accommodations When
I was at these springs, there were two hundred and eighty
persons. A number had come more than one thousand
miles from home; but they all appeared to suffer for want
of accommodation, provisions, &c. for, in fact, they had
none of the comforts which they ought to have had. Stull,
notwithstanding, every year about the same number of per-
sons come hither, and they generally return weil. The heat
of the water is 192° of Fahrenheit ; there are about thirty
springs ; ; two are about forty feet above the level of the oth-
er springs ; the water in those is ny, 186°. They issue out
of a bed of fibrous heavy spar* which some travellers have
taken for a volcanic production, but I could see no trace of
any such agency. Some sulphur which is seen in the pores
of the spar, in some places mixed with a metallic substance
which I took to be iron, has been deposited by the water,
but it is not volcanic sulphur. Indeed, the country is well
known for more than five hundred miles around, and no .
signs of burning voleanoeshave beenseen. ‘There seems to
be little or no foreign matter dissolved in this water, for it
has no peculiarity of taste whatever, and is generally made
use of for tea, and indeed for all culinary uses; besides be-
ing drunk when it is cold enough. Still there are good
springs of water flowing down the hill, after issuing from
the earth not two hundred yards from the hot springs. All
the springs together will, with ten feet head, yield a supply
of water equal to eight inches square, and perhaps more.
They are seated between two hills, running parallel, joining
together in the shape of the letter U, and forming a valley.
whieh is very level. The stream of the springs flows to-
wards the eastern wall, where it extends for one quarter of
a mile, in all that extent receiving the springs, besides the
very high ones mentioned before s there are a few, four or
five feet above the branch; the others are quite low.

*'Probably fibrous salphate of barytes—possibly fibrous sulphate of Lime.
—Fid.

30 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, Yc.

Soil, Productions, &c.

CONE first sight, the country about the hot springs ‘appears
poor, being composed principally of pine lands; but expe-

rience has” proved, that the pine flats, which are very ex-’

tensive, produce the best of wheat, and cotton of a superior
quality. ‘The soil produces, moreover, the majority of the
other productions cultivated in that climate; a great quanti-
ty and variety of grapes, of an exquisite ‘quality, and as
large as musket balls, are found in the woods.

The extensive surrounding country is populating rapidly,

in spite of the repeated orders which have been given to the —

settlers to move out of that region. Emigrants daily pass
over the Arkansas, and they count already, upward of 3000
individuals spread, since three years, about the springs Four-
che Cadeau, Little Missouri prairie aux nes, Mount prai-
rie, (a thick settlement,) and Pacane point, wane Red riv-
er, above the rafts.

Indian Nations—their Manners, §e.

A small party of Cherokee Indians, amounting to about
forty, likewise went over the Arkansas last year, to form a
settlement on the Red river; they are increasing every day
by the accession of dissatisfied persons livmg on “the Arkan-
sas; they will probably, all pass over there before long 5, and
_ claim both the country they will have im possession, and
that which has been given to them by treaty, in enonaiige
for some of their lands in Tennessee.

Nearly all the country, lying between thé Canadian river
to the west, the Red river to the south, the Wachitta to the
east, and Arkansas to the north, is. claimed by a small rem-
nant of a once formidable nation of Indians, called the Ar-
kansas or Quawpaws, (from Ogaghspagh floating with the
current or down stream.) They pretend to have come down
the Ohio about five generations ago, and at the confluence
of that river, as some wanted to go up the Mississippi, and
others to descend the river, they “divided into two parties :
these came down stream as far as the mouth of Arkansas,
which they ascended about thirty miles to the first prairies;
the others ascended the Mississippi and the Missouri. They
are the Mawpaws settled below the river Kansas. They
understand each other perfectly well, ‘The Osages are said

sick

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, Fe. 31

to have sprung from these, and their language differs very —
little from that of the other two. All three tribes abound
with tall, well-proportioned, and large men. Both in their
physical and moral faculties, they are much superior to all
the other tribes of Indians inhabiting North America.
Amongst the Osages, there are some unsubordinated strag-
glers, who now and then commit depredations abroad, but in
their villages, as in those of the other two tribes, a stranger
is in more security than he would be in any civilized city.
Their hospitality exceeds all bounds; they act as if nothing
was their own, and the best way to please them, is to refuse
nothing from them. When a trader stops his boat on the
Arkansas, at the landing place, forty-six miles from their vil-
lage, they immediately send people to transport his goods
to the village; they unload the boat themselves; station a
suard to take care of the empty boat, sometimes for four
months; and they pack the goods themselves, disputing the
privilege of lodging the people of the boat, whom they di+
vide among them. The merchant is reserved for the princi-
pal chief, who gives him a warrior to guard his person and his
eoods, besides many other attentions, which, with delicate al-
though unpolished courtesy, he pays to his guest, who receives
every day, a large wooden bow! full of provisions, from every
one of the principal cabins of the village. ‘The bowls con-
tain smoked pumpkins, cut in slices and plated together;
sweet corn which they boil when green, and dry in the sun;
buffaloe’s dry meat, and bear’s meat, or fresh venison and
turkeys. All the other Indian tribes, except these Osages,
aat beaver; the latter have a tradition, by which they pre-
tend to have sprung from a female beaver and a snake.
They, like most of the other tribes, believe in the metem-
sychosis; they revere a Supreme Being, whom they call
Kaykay, (great Chief,) to whom they always present the
best piece in the dish, which they bury in the fire before
they eat. ‘They have a great veneration for old people, for
the use of whom the first choice of their provision is put
aside. When the whole village united, surrounds a herd of
buffaloes, by making a double fence, with their own bodies,
so as to encircle sometimes forty or fifty of these animals,
two or three men on horseback pursue the animals within
the circle with their bows and arrows, (for they never kill a
buffalee with a gun,) and when all are killed they first select

32 Bringier on ihe Region of the Mississippi, &e-

the fattest for the old people, and ge + Santini is eg
among all the others.

They have prophets, whom they all Aires they pro-
phesy many absurdities, which they pretend are communi-
cated to them by messengers of the Great Spirit, with whom
they can converse when they are in a profound sleep, occa-

stoned by a certain somniferous beverage, which they know

how to prepare. They are very adroit in playing a number
of tricks which, to the Indians, appear to be of a very seri-
ous nature, and some of them would ‘surprise our own show
masters. ‘The most extraordinary isa secret they pretend
to have, of a composition which preserves them altogether
from the action of fire. After anointmg their hands with
this composition, which leaves no mark on the hand, they
take hold of large stones red hot,* which, even at arm’s
length, would burn any other. person. Phe acid of a kind
of prickly ash ROG GO), enters intothe composition; that
is all I could find out. ‘They likewise expose threads on a
round siliceous stone, in the fire; they do not burn—but
this was known before: all silex has that property. © The
rounder the stones are, the better they preserve the threads,
and if they are perfectly round they preserve them entirely.
T have seen also, several in the possession of some of the
French hunters on the Arkansas, which have manifested
ie property.

_ The Osage prophets are likewise their physicians,

The Osage village on the Verdigris river, contains about

two hundred and fifty lodges or cabins, of about forty feet

by eighteen or twenty, placed with little regularity: some
ate built with bar ks, and others with upright poles; they are
all nicely covered with plated flags. The village stands in
-a handsome and fertile prairie, a hee weeds grow twelve or
fourteen feet high. .
Near this village there are three beautiful mounis, which
may be cighty or one hundred feet high; the surface of one
is perfectly level, and is more than 150 yards in diameter.
‘The rest of the country, for a great distance round, is almost
level.» The mounts afford ihre fine springs, which yield
good pure water, although the country is a calcareous one.

* Mr. Bringier does not inform us, whether he received this from hear-
say 3 he relates it with the air of be lief, but possibly he meant it only as an
example of legerdemain, where one thing appears to be done; and qnite a
different one 7s done. —Euitor.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, §c. 33
oa Salt Springs.

Fifteen miles from the village, is the saline which yields
ihe water that gives one-sixth of salt. One Herhart had
put up about thirty kettles on that spring.

Historical Anecdote. 3

But last year the Cherokees persuaded a number of other
iribes to join them, and destroy the Osages, in order to take
their rich possessions, (for these prairies afford the most fer-
tile lands in the United States;) but they were deceived in
their expectations. Six hundred and fifty of them, after
committing the most atrocious act towards a flag of truce,
sent to them by the Osages, were defeated by three hundred
and fifty Osages, whom they had even surprised in the night ;
butreturned home shamefully beaten,after butchering ninety-
six women and children whom they traced into a cave, where
ihey had hid-themselves. As the Herhart mentioned be-
fore, had committed a murder in the Indiana territory, the
Cherokees threatened to deliver him to the governor, if he
did not draw the Osages into their ambuscade. ‘To effect
this object, he did his best; but the Osages mistrusting the
propositions of the Cherokees, which Herhart was charged
to interpret, refused to come and treat for peace without
arms, as they were requested to do. One warrior said he
would go, and followed Herhart; as he arrived, the Cherokees
fell on him, and while they were disputing who should have
the honour of killing a defenceless wretch, having already

several spears through his body, ‘ Finish your deed,” (said
he:) ‘my death, justifying the opinion we had of your ‘ ca-_
nardiere’,* will manifest the wisdom of our old men.”

The Osages.

The Osages on the Verdegris, may amount to about four-
teen hundred altogether : and they had, in this last engage-
ment, all the men they could or can muster. It is said that
the White Hare village, on the Osage river, the Missouri
two villages, and the band de la Chenierre, amount. to a

* Decoy—ambush.

+ Herhart, since that time. hav abandoned his salt warke

Von. UL.....No. 1. 45

34 Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c.
population of two thousand souls, including two small new
villages on the head of the Verdegris. They all cultivate
{ndian corn and pumpkins, in one field common to all and
not fenced in; none but the women work in these fields,
which are about half an acre for each woman. All their
tools consist in one hoe, and a large tomahawk.

The Osage women are generally very homely, which
must be attributed to their hard labour.

A man may have as many wives as he can obtain; these
mayleave their husband when they please, and the man, on
his part, can repudiate his wife, but if she belongs to a fami-
ly of consideration, he is liable to have an explanation with
the men belonging to it. The Osages have no other law
but the law of nature; the law of the strongest. If they
commit a murder, they must submit to the law of retaliation,
or redeem themselves with one hundred fathoms of wam-
pum beads,* presented to the nearest friends of the mur-
dered, who are the only ones who pursue them. The Osa-
ges are very faithful. There is no instance of any trader
having lost, in consequence of the credit given to them.
When necessity or bad fortune obliges them to postpone
their payment to another succeeding hunt, they are always
found to be punctual. They are sober, and never take
spirituous liquors. Their wealth consists in horses which
they possess in great numbers.

Cherokees.

But what a dreadful contrast is presented by the Chero-
kees, who possess all the vices which the Osages have not,
and not one of their good qualities. I have witnessed so
many infamous acts of these half civilized savages, thai
Trevolted at the idea of tracing them. Did they not rob
three out of four boats with force and arms last year? Did
they not, about the same time, in several instances, murder
their own friends while drinking with them, and when show-
ing no spite a’minute before? Did they not dismount a
number of travellers, and send them on foot when they did
not murder them? Can their neighbours keep any horses
or cattle? Have they ever paid a cent entrusted to them,

* Beads made in Canada of clam shells.»

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, Ge, 35

except what the United States paid out of their annuity?
Was there ever one seen sober, where spirituous liquors
could be got? Is there any hospitality amongst the Chero-
kees? No! I will dispense with answering the first ques-
tions; but I will warn the travellers, who should happen to
cross their settlement on the Arkansas, to be on their guard
wherever they incamp; otherwise they are sure to be left
on foot next morning, unless their horses should be of very
little consequence. In that case, an officious fellow will of-
fer himself to go and hunt the horses, sometimes for as much
as they are worth,* and he will always be sure to find them
where the thieves had left them under the care of another
Cherokee, often fifteen and twenty miles out of the way.
They are haughty and deceitful to the last degree, and, in
one word, completely perverted. It is true that these Cher-
okees on the Arkansas, are those who have been driven
away, and have fled from the old nation on the Tennessee
river, (with whom I am not acquainted.) However, it is
notorious that all the Indian tribes in a state of civilization,
within the limits of the United States, are extremely cor-
rupted, whilst those under the Spanish iron rod, are mild,
and possess no other vices, en eps those inseparable from
ignorance.

Indian Languages.

Some may object that they can be of a different temper;
but I will mention a circumstance, which evinces that there
is no great difference between these very Cherokees, and
the Othomite Indians in the province of Michioican,(in Mex-
ico,) who, notwithstanding their great distance apart, speak
nearly the same language, (at least I found much resem-
blance with some words, and a perfect one with others,
which I noted in a journal, whilst I was viewing the
province of Michioican, which is mostly inhabited by the
Othomite Indians, who are seldom found to speak Spanish.)
As water is very scarce in those parts, I often had to en-
quire where I could find some at hand for my horses; and
very often I was presented with salt, instead of water. By
making further inquiry, I found out that ama was water, and

* They never Beree to zo out until they think you have given up ail
hopes of finding them.

36 =Bringuer on the Region of the Mississippi, &e.

aman was salt. ‘These two words I was particular in setting
down with their true pronunciation; and I found them, after
I learned the Cherokee language, to correspond precisely
to the same thing amongst them. The other words, which
I was rather careless about, have some similar sounds; but
every one knows how difficult it is to seize the oe
tion of a dialect we do not understand.

Cherokee, Naytaw, |Sellaw, earch Catouch,
Othomite, |Noatsaw, Deghton, Chonoyay, Cahatoeh,
English, !Sun, Corn, Night, Mountain,

These are the common names which I find in my jour-
nal, and if corn differs thus much, it is not improbable that
they did not know that grain, before they left the source
from which they both took their origin. Cahato, in Cher-
okee, means bread, and cato means the earth, catouch-
means mountain; and in Othomite, cahatogh means moun-
tain, where we find resemblance in the sound, and with the
word cato, the earth, and cahato, a loaf of bread; but I
~ doubt whether they knew how to make bread before they
knew corn.

Dieression on the province of Michiwacan.

Whilst I am adverting to the province of Michiwacan, (al-
though it is far out of my present sphere,) I will add some-
thing on that topic.

In the province of Michiwacan, or from Tobuca to Sala-
manca, and more particularly about Acambaro, to the west
of lake Gasquaro, there is a number of thick veins of vit-
reous lava, running in all directions. _ In some places they
occur in large bodies, all shivered confusedly. This kind
resembles perfectly, the glass of the English porter bottles;
it is very compact; the Spaniards call it pedernal. If have
seen it no where else, except some few small pieces used
for arrow points, found in the numerous Indian mounds
which cover the greatest part of these western countries. —

Indian Mounds.

They have a great resemblance to the old Mexican villa-
ges, built with raw bricks of fourteen inches square, and
covered with limbs, and turf on top, which, when moulder-

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, fe. 37

ed down leaves a mound, such as a traveller is never out of
sight of, from Red river to St. Louis, Missouri Territory.
In this distance of about five hundred miles, in a breadth
of, in some places, eighty, and in others, two hundred miles,
and seldom more than three-quarters of an acre from each
other, these mounds constantly occur; and, generally, they
are symmetrically arranged. In all this extent, there are
hardly two-thirds of the surface vacant. What an immense
population must have inhabited these innumerable huts!
‘hey all contain the ruins of human works; and many of
them the bones of the inhabitants, and some cf their pro-
ductions. ;

On the banks of White river, where the earth had caved
in, 1 found part of an earthen coffin, in which the neck
bones and the scull were yet remaining; and on top of the
_neck bone, as I dug to see what bone could be inserted thus
in part of an earthen box, I found a parcel of pieces of
bones cut round, and remaining on the neck in the exact po-
sition in which they had been used as a necklace. They
were pierced, but the string had entirely disappeared; they
were the one-eighth of an inch thick, and three-fifths in di-
ameter; and the bones of which they were made, were
much better preserved than those of the skeleton. This, I
was confident, did not belong to the modern tribes of In-
dians which inhabit some parts of that country. I found
among the clay, which rolled down from the same mound,
several pieces of lead ore, (common galena,) which had
been carried there. It is not uncommon to find this ore
amongst human bones, throughout the whole country ; prob-
ably they used trinkets made of lead, and this was a pro-
vision for them to dress in the other world.

Ancient Fortifications.

There are several curious fortifications in these western
countries ; but they are described by Clark, and Lewis,
Capt. Pike, and others—except one within two miles from
the banks of the Arkansas, and two miles and a half to the
north of a base line, commencing at the mouth of St. Fran-
cis river, latitude 35°, and running due west till it strikes
ihe Arkansas, at a distance, across, of eighty-two miles and
a-chalf, three hundred and twenty miles from its mouth, or

38 Bringier on the Region of the Mississeppr, &c.

twenty-four miles below the crystal rock. This fortification
is tolerably regular, covering an area of about twenty-five
acres; the trenches remain about eight feet high, and the
ditches which are nearly filled up, seem to have been very
deep, and about twenty-five feet wide. ‘There are two
gateways, in the inside of which there is a large well, which
probably was a covered way ; and in the centre there are
two mounds about eighty feet in height, whose bases are
about three hundred feet in diameter, with a truncated sum-
mit offering a surface of about ninety feet across. Both
are artificial, and perhaps were formed from the dirt out of
the ditches. ‘The country around is perfectly level.

The Cherokees.

From this digression we return to the Cherokees, who
are divided into seven clans or tribes; there were twelve
tribes, but five of them having been too much reduced,
_joined the others, and there now remain but seven, viz.

The Neewahaya—means the Wolves; they are the most populous.
The Neekeelawhay—the Floating hair; next do.
The Neekawtaylaway—the Blind in the field; third. ,

The Neewawtay—the Pyed or Painted: fourth.
~The Neecaway—the Deer in the field; fifth.

The Neeshawnee—(I do not know the meaning of this;) sixth.

The Neekoola—feeds upon Acorns ; seventh. »

No Cherokee can take a wife in his own tribe; it would
be considered as an incest. Each tribe forms a family,
and the individuals call one‘another brother and sister, ma-
king no difference between their relations of the same blood:
and those who have not the least affinity with them. They
are therefore obliged to marry with other tribes, and the
children belong to the tribe of the mother, who protects
them as brothers and sisters. The father has no control
over his own children; but the mother, and her own tribe,
have power of life and death; and no member or members
of any other tribe, not even the father, has a right to inter-
fere. bgt aie
If a member of one tribe assassinates a member of another
clan, it is the duty of his nearest blood relation, (‘ consan-
guine,”) belonging to the tribe of the deceased, (for a Cher-

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, §e. 39

okee who has two or three wives of different tribes, may
have children by all three wives, and these children are not,
by their laws, related to each other,) to waylay the murder-
er, and kill him; unless this last can escape, and return with
seven scalps, which he must present to the tribe whom he
has deprived of a member. This must be performed be-
fore the expiration of a certain period or epoch, which, I be-
lieve, is during their assembly of the green corn dance, °
which takes place every year before they ever dare to taste
of a grain of new corn. These assemblies last sometimes
several weeks, and they often come one hundred and fifty
and two hundred miles to attend them.

- On these occasions, they discuss all their matters of con-
sequence, and their prophets display their eloquence. In
1812 I happened to assist at one of these assemblies; and
1 wilt copy the following speech from my journal, for the
sake of giving an idea of their eloquence.

Cherokee Prophecy.

Speech of the Cherokee Skaquaw, (the Swan,) on the 3d
day of June, 1812, at Crowtown, on St. Francis rier.

“Ye red men, who have prepared to fill yourselves with
the words which will mark what will come to pass. (Atea,) (a
word which they repeat at the end of every sentence, as we
should say, men.) If thou hast been continent nine nights
and days, and viewed the sun these two last days with a
hungry stomach, open your ears, and feed with the sacred
words which the ever great Spirit (Skayaaguste) has sent in
my mouth, for me to transmit over to his red children.
(Atea.) It was about one moon before the earth first shook,
or about seven moons ago, one night, when every thing
was silent, and the sky as clear as spring water, that I was
standing leaning on a stump, contemplating the blazing star,
(comet,) those everlasting lights which sparkle from one
horizon to the other, when suddenly four lightnings departing
from the four opposite points, came and alighted together at
my feet, and there I perceived the blazing star; I first rais-
ed it on achip, but perceiving it did not burn the chip, I
tried with my finger, and found it was a tame fire. The
moment if was in my hand. I’ saw two children come to-

AO ~Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, fe.

wards me, one from sun set and the other from sun rise.
They were as bright as the sun of noon, and exhaled a
perfume which laid my senses asleep for a few seconds;
when I awoke I was in the hands of one of the children ;
my spirit had passed into the blaze of the star, and I per-
ceived my body leaning on the stump where I had left it.
(Atea.) ~Skaguaw, said the child which held my spirit,
‘we are the messengers of the Ever Great Spirit; we have
come to bring the word of truth, for the red children of our
beloved father, who lives beyond the blue world above, as
nothing from there can have any communication with the
impure matter here below, we have parted your spirit from
its mortal body, which we have purified in this celestial fire,
its present body. Now you are ready to hear the word of
the Great Spirit, open your ears Skaquaw. The Ever-
Great spirit, with your mouth, speaks to his beloved red
children, that he has determined to put an end to mankind,*
their mortal enemy, and save his children alone; the fire.
of war is burning already in all four corners of the earth.
Watch for a sign, and the earth will soon shake, like a horse
who shakes the dust from his back; but be sure to move
away from St. Francis before the next sign manifests itself: |
go towards the sun set, and travel until you are stopped by
a big river which runs towards sun rise; there stop, plant
corn, and hunt in peace, until the last sign prepares you to
hope for days of happiness, (it says days without clouds)—
a spark brighter than the moon, will give light to the earth,
drive away the winter, and drain the swamps; corn will
srow in all seasons; and there will be but two families on
the globe, (it repeats earth,) one to the sun rise, and his be-
~ loved red children to the sun set.’ (Atea.) As soon as he
had thus spoken, the other child blowed out the blaze; my
spirit resumed its mortal body, and I perceived them no
more. (Atea.)” re
~The singularity of the ideas of this prophet, induced me
to set down his prophecies, which I did nearly in his own
metaphors. ) fae
I must observe, that the Cherokees, like most of the In-

‘dians, speak aphoristically. The result of these prophe-
cies was the total evacuation of St. Francis river. Two or

* Tt says, “mankind, the mortal enemy of mankind.”

Bringier on the Region of the Mississuppi, &c. 41

three months after, all the Cherokees abandoned their
farms, (and some were very good ones ») their cattle, and oth-
er property and removed, some to White river, and the
greatest part to the Arkansas. Those that fixed on the White
river have since removed. to the Arkansas, where they
occupy the river on both sides, from point Renou, (four
lmdred miles up the river,) to the Big Mulberry, where the
Osage line crosses: departing from the fine prairie on the
Missouri river, the land nhey occuppy is far the best on the
Arkansas.

Anthracite.

On the north bank, a little above the pine bayou, (five
hundred miles from the mouth,) there is a large body of
blind coal immediately on the bank of the Arkansas. It is
equal in quality to the Kilkenny coal; it is by far the best I
have seen in the United States.

About one hundred and twenty miles above this place,
there are some United States troops, who stopped there a
few months since, and probably they will take a station at
the mouth of the frog bayou, which affords a fine place for
a garrison, between the Osages and Cherokees.

‘The Cherokees on the Arkansas, are about twelve
hundred and fifty. They have cleared about six thou-
sand acres of land with the fire which they have set in
the thick canes; but they do notcultivate more than two
thousand five hundred acres, and that very badly. They
raise no other staple except a few sweet potatoes and pump-
kins, although they might cultivate a great quantity of cot-
ton, which grows exceedingly well on the Arkansas, and
whose quality is much superior to all that is raised in Lou-
isiana. ‘lhe Indians spin some cotton, but this hardly

amounts to five or six yards per annum, for each of those
_ who spin, and these are but few individuals. Indeed, the
whole amount is not two hundred yards. The women are
very licentious, and the men extremely lazy. ‘The men
dress with what we call a morning gown, or a long hunting
shirt, a pair of leggings, a calico er a white shirt, and a shawl
tied around their heads in the manner of a turban. The
women dress with gowns like white women. They are
sac eld but less so than the Osage squaws; but they do

WoL. YL....No. L 6

42 Bringieron the Region of the Mississipi, &c.

not look so well as the Quawpaws, who have a custom pe-
culiar to them alone, to distinguish the women from the girls,
by the different manner in which they put up their hair.
These Quawpaws have four small villages, two hundred
and sixty miles below the Cherokees, on the south bank of
the Arkansas, extending along the bank as low as the post.
Although they have been better, than one hundred years
with the French hunters, they are precisely in their primi-.
tive savage state; and what is strange, most of the French
hunters who have lived with them, are nearly savages like
them. These Indians are very mild; and, in every re-
spect, the best savages in the world, though very miserable,
and in all other respects they resemble the Osages.

Anecdote.

A trait of magnanimity worth figuring in the annals of the
aboriginal American heroes, is evinced in the following act
of Kaykay Watonica, one of the ancient chiefs of the Quaw-
paw Indians. ‘The fact occurred about the time when the
French first came on the Arkansas river, which French gave
a common name to all the tribes on that river.

This chief leading a party of one hundred and twenty
Quawpaws,* in pursuit of the Chekessas, overtook them at
the mouth of St. Francis river. This party consisted of
two hundred and sixty men, who were making all speed to
cross the river in order to avoid, an engagement. Kaykay
Watonica taxed the Chekessas with cowardice; they replied
that they could not make. defence, as their powder had got
wet. Well, said Kaykay Watonica, send yours here; we
have some Aina: is dry, it is not enough to share with you,
but we will mix the whole together, and then we will share.
This was done aceon ME ya all the horns were emptied on

* When Mr. Encl and after ie Mr. Delatharpe, first came on the pi
rege river in 1617, they found it inhabited by the Quawpaws, the "Naso-
nites, the Sacks, the Cherokees, and the Kansas, who were the first tribes
they met with. - They called the river des Kansas, which meant the river of
‘the Kansas, and all the other tribes were named after the river. As these
Indians made very fine bows with the bow wood mentioned before, which
grows -on this river, their bows were in great demand amongst the other |
tribes, who generally ¢ gave a good horse for one of them. Soa Kansas
bow was something of importance, which makes .Arckansas in French. The
river took the full name, and all the Indians of course: hence the Quaw-
paws and Arkansas are synonimous.

Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, &c. 43

a blanket, and equally divided; and then addressing the
Chekessas, now, says he, when this tree falls it will give
the signal of the engagement: therefore be ready. He
then ordered a small tree to be cut by one of his warriors.
The issue of the action was, the total destruction of the
Chekessas, and only five killed on his side. ‘They spared
one of the Chekessas, whom Kaykay Watonica sent home
free, to give the news to the Chekessas, who soon after made
peace,” giving up altogether, their pretensions on the west

of the Mississippi.
| The Cherokees.

I now return to the Cherokees, and their green corn
dance. I said that a murderer must return within a certain
period, otherwise the life of his nearest friend must pay for
that of the murderer; for that reason it is very common to
see a brother kill his full brother who has become an assas-
sin, not with a spirit of justice, but for self-preservation.
This is savage philosophy : they say one must die in any
event; and if the murderer is a coward, it is soon over with
him, but a famed warrior can kill as many as he pleases
with impunity.

Indian Cruelty.

One Catecantiskey (the dirt-seller or merchant of earth)
was boasting one day, in my presence, that he had killed
nine or ten Cherokees, and had redeemed himself with

* The lastengagement which took place between the Quawpaws and the
‘hekessas, offers another singularity. The Chekessas, seeing that they
could gain nothing against the Quawpaws, sent a calumef, (this is a parli-
mentary with tobacco and pipe,) to make peace with the enemy; during
this time a party of discontented Indians, about thirty in number, started
to make a last coup de main, but unfortunately they fell in with Kaykay
Watonica, with one hundred men and more. As they took to their heels,
Kaykay Watonica hailed them to stop, and not to show themselves such
cowards; the Chekessas replied, he was too strong for them; you are right
said Kaykay Watonica; butcome and I will give youa fair chance: here
pick out two of my worst men, and oppose them with two of your best, in
single combat ; if your’s are victorious, you may bunt on this side of the
Mississippi; but if mine are victorious, you must come no more and disturb
my game. The challenge wasaccepted. The contest was warm, but Kay-
kay Watonica was still more fortunate than the Romans, for be lost none of
the modern Horatii, and was presented with both of the now Curiatii’s
‘scalps.

44. Bringier on the Region of the Mississippi, ce.

American scalps, which many times he delivered without
counting; for he had never penetrated into any houses,
without finding children more than he needed for the pres-
Sno ‘visg ci peat ny
This was during the Indian war it is true, but who would
not revolt at hearing a monster in human shape, boast of
having slaughtered seventy or eighty harmless women and _
children, to redeem himself from punishment for the mur-’
der of his companions. I could not restrain myself from
telling him, that his boasting of such atrocious deeds had
torn off the mask which hid the blackness of his soul..
(They make use of wooden masks in their dances.)

Yellow Wood, resembling Fustie.

I have omitted to mention, that on the Arkansas and on |
Red river, we have a great quantity of a yellow wood an-
swering perfectly well the same purpose as the fustic.. Itis_
called bows d’are by the French hunters, (bow-wood,) but it
js absolutely a non-descript. It is like the fustic of the mo-
rus genus, with some modifications.* The wood is as tough
as whale bone. The Indians made, and still make, all their
bows of the wood of that tree. wee

We have likewise the tree which gives the vegetable
caoutchouc or elastic gum. ‘This tree is the same that
they have in Peru, which they call Higera del oule; the
bark of this tree being pounded and washed, gives one-third
of its weight of oule, or caoutchouc. The tree does not
grow of the largest size; it has a tolerably smooth bark; .
when this is cut, milk exudes, which coagulates and forms
elastic gum. It has the strong smell of the common, ca-
outchouc; the leaves of the tree resemble those of the
pin oak; it bears a black olive, a little smaller than the com-
mon olive; it is sweet and good to eat, the birds and the
bears being fond of it. The French hunters on the Arkan-
sas, call it arbre a gomme; it is easily known by chewing a
piece of the bark—the gum remains in the mouth; or
if a piece of the decayed bark is washed until the rotten
ligneous substance is gone, the remainder is pure. Some
Americans, to whom I have made it known, on the Arkan-

* 1 cannot find the description J had taken of the tree.

Bringier on the nara the Mississippi, Sc. = 48

sas, told me it was very common on the Ohio, and all over
Kentucky, but none could tell me the name. The bark of
the tree is rather whiter, and the leaves very deep green, re-
sembling the live-oak and the pin-oak, as I have Bou re-
maukedsuSome areessvill yield from one hundred and fifty
to two bundred pounds of caoutchouc. I have observed,
that this wood, when dry, is very electric; like the caoutch-
oue if rubbed on a body which is electric, particularly in
a cold day, the body rubbed will adhere to the wall; a quill.
for example, will be attracted six inches from the wall, and
stick fast to it, until all the fluid is dissipated. But the elec-
tric excitement of this substance differs ftom the common;
it has not only the property which the idio-electric bodies
possess, but it communicates the same properties to the an-
electric bodies. ‘The gum elastic drawn several times on a
quill, produces the same phenomena: these experiments
made in a cold winter’s day, afford some amusement.

SUPPLEMENT.

Although this communication might be much farther ex-
tended, I will close it with a few miscellaneous facts and ob-
servations.

On the head of the river Trinity, longitude from London,
95° 10”, and latitude 32° 7’’,* are, or were, several blocks
of native iron, from one thousand to seven or eight thou-
sand pounds weight—one of which was taken to New-
York, weighing twenty-five hundred ;} itis now in that city.}
Ti is very malleable, and equally good as the Swedish red
short iron. How did these masses come into that prairie?
(for they are in a prairie,) is a question worth resolving : for
what process in nature can reduce iron ore toa state of
ductility, except the hammer.

ft is observable, that there is a kind of are which
covers them all over, and prevents their oxidation. I must
rest on the suspicion, that they proceed from meteoric bod-
ies; and this 1s countenanced by the manner in which they
are scattered about over an extent of about seven or ten

See Melish’s Map of the United States.

+ Over three thousand—LEditor.

t It was afterwards bought by Col. Gibbs, and deposited in the Museum
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New-York.— Editar,

46 Bringier on the Region of the Mississyppi, &e.

miles, without any sign of iron ore or other minerals in that
region. ‘The varnish can proceed only from a sudden cool-
ing, after changing the atmosphere. Whether dampness in
ours, or whatever cause might have occasioned the explosion,
that event will explain the scattering of the pieces.

A few miles to the east of these blocks of native iron, a
belt of trees is seen extending itself towards the SS. E.
The hunters know this by the name of the cross timber ;
they mean that it crosses the prairie; for there is no other
-wood in sight. ‘This wood grows in a low ridge of lime
stone, which extends to the north-west shore of the lake
Sabine, bordering on the river Natchez; but here it is only
one mile in breadth: whereas, ten miles above, the timber
spreads from fifteen to twenty miles in breadth. | It gives.
rise to the waters of the Trinity, whose west fork runs en-
tirely through it. These hills afford a great number of en-
chanting seats, whose description would occupy a great deal
of time, without affording me any hopes of success; for
they are beyond description. The trees, which are natu-
rally low, but spread very wide, become smaller and small-
er towards the north-east, till they grow quite scrubby. ‘The
country is siliceous, anda soil of gravel and loam produces
a great variety of distinct qualities of grapes, in patches of
twenty miles surface; one acre of surface will here afford
more grapes than three acres will in the best cultivated
vineyards. ‘These grapes are certainly suitable for wine,
if one may judge by their fragrance and flavour, and their
good appearance. Some are white and transparent, so that
we can count the seeds through them; some are blue and
very sweet, but hard, in a thick skin of a yellow or straw
colour; and are very large, nearly or quite as much so as an
English cherry. The former are a little smaller. The black
are not sweet, but very fragrant, and the pulp is as thin as if
they were cultivated grapes, something like those of Sovig-
non. ‘In fact, the view of these extraordinary grape patch-
es would astonish even the person who should have perus-
ed this description before. ‘To the north-east are immense
‘prairies which the eye cannot measure.

{

Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays. 47

Arr. V.—WNotice of “Geological Essays, or an inquiry into
some of the Geological Phenomena, to be found in various
parts of America and elsewhere—by Horace H. Hay-
pEN, Esq. member of the American Geological enna

&ec. ae

Tue ‘ater of this volume has long been known, to the
cultivators of mineralogy and geology, in the United States,
-as an active, acute and successful observer in this depart-
ment of Natural History. Although we believe he has
never before appeared, in form, as the author of a distinct
work, he has aided others, by the communication of valua-
ble facts, and we observe his name frequently cited, as
an authority, in Professor Cleaveland’s valuable Elementa-
ry work, on Mineralogy and Geology. Those who have
been accustomed to contemplate Mr. Hayden with respect,
as a devotee to science, in the midst of the distractions of
business ;—while they will not find their respect diminished,
will be gratified at observing the persevering and discrimi-
nating industry—the patience of research, both in the great
volume of nature, and in the volumes of men, and the
signal zeal, with which he has prosecuted an investigation,

that must have.cost a great amount of labour.

We arte free to say, “that we have perused his work, with
much pleasure and advantage, and that we consider it as a
valuable acquisition to the science, to which it appertains.

At the same time we cannot help expressing a little re-
gret, that the respectable author had not pruned off from
hic style some redundancies and inaccuracies, of expres-
sion. ‘These are however in a considerable degree, veiled
by a glow and energy of thought and language that evince
a mind at once ardent and vigorous. |

As verbal criticism is not our object, we leave these minor
things, to the author’s own correcting hand, and proceed to
the far more grateful task, of stating the object and PEOPE of
Mr. Hayden’s Essay.

This work may be regarded as a history, toa very con-
siderable extent, of the most Hapanvant alluvial formations
of our globe.

In the systematic arrangement of Mr. Werner, it is well »
known that the three leading formations, the primitive, the

48 Notice of Hayden's Geological Essays.

transition, and the secondary, occupy a rank far more ex-
tensive and distinguished, than the volcanic and the alluvial.
The latter has been, for years, growing in importance in
the view of geologists, and has, in consequence of much
contemplation and research, assumed, in Mr. Hayden’s
eyes, a rank not inferior—to say no more—to that which
he allows to the other formations. — moran -(pro-
vided that no very commanding importance were attach-
ed to the peculiar theory which the author so zealously es-
pouses and defends,) might, we imagine, be very properly,
entitled, materials towards a history of the alluvial forma~
tions of our globe. In this view, the collection is rich and
various, and we are disposed to think with an intelligent
scientific friend, must ** become a text book, for ae Sa
in the subjects of which it treats.’

Indeed we are not aware that there can be found, in any
single author, so complete a view of alluvial districts, as Mr.
Hayden has presented, and it is probable that the elaborate
defence of his peculiar theory, has thus, incidentally secu-
red to his work, a perpetuity which even that meaty; how-
ever beautiful, might not have enjoyed.

We do not however mean to prejudge this theory, but per-

haps it would have been as well to have made 1t a deduc-.
tion from the facts, rather than to have prefixed it to them ;
the latter method is the most grateful to the majority of
minds, while the former is perhaps safer, and more apt to
lead us to truth.
The quotation from Patrin, which Mr. Hayden has intro-
duced upon his title page, gives, it is true, a very just view
of the uses and consequently vindicability of hypotheses,
and certainly the course pursued by our duthorti is —
justifiable.

In his preface he states that “ the principal and only mo-~
tive by which he has been actuated, is the wish to interest
and invite the attention of ceclosists, naturalists, and scien-
tific men of every denomination, to the great and important
physical changes, that appear to have taken place upon and
near the surface of the earth, in various parts of the world,
and more particularly in our own country ; and als6 to the
numerous and interesting facts, that seem to have, not only
a direct relation to, but an intimate connexion with those
changes; and this with the view of enabling us to form,

Notice of Hayden’s Geological Hesays. 49

something like correct ideas of the causes and operations,
by which they were produced; and possibly too of the
times at which they took place.

Among the most prominent of these changes (and which
may be considered, as being one of the most interesting fea-
tures in the seolocy of this country) is the alluvial nepion,
skirting the Atlantic ocean.

It is this which constitutes the principal subject of the
present work, and in the examination of which, he has en-
deavoured to adduce facts sufficiently numerous and strong,
to prove that the whole region, with the attendant phenom-
-ena, is the result of the operation of currents, that flowed
from the north-east to the south-west; or from the north to
the south over the whole continent of America.”

The existence of the vast alluvial district of the southern
American states, has ever appeared to us,as it does to Mr. Hay-
den, as a very interesting geological fact, and by no means,

.to be accounted for by the commonly received opinions re-

specting alluvion. In Mr. Hayden’s view, there is no cir-
cumstance that affords so strong an evidence of the cause
of its formation, as that of its having been deposited by a
general current, which, at some unknown period, flowed
impetuously across the whole continent of America; and
that from north east to south west.”

Those who may regard this opinion with the smallest de-
gree of favour, will be struck with the numerous proofs
which the author has adduced in its support.

The almost universal existence of rolled pebbles, and
boulders of rock, not only on the margin of the oceans,
seas, lakes, and rivers; but their existence, often in enor-
mous quantities, in situations quite removed from large wa-
ters; inland,—in high banks, imbedded in strata, or scatter-
ed, occasionally, in profusion, on the face of almost every
region, and sometimes on the tops and declivities of moun-
tains, as well as in the vallies between them; their entire
difference, in many cases, from the rocks in the country
where they lie—rounded masses and pebbles of primitive
rocks being deposited in secondary and alluvial regions, and
vice versa; these and a multitude of similar facts have
ever struck us as being among the most interesting of ge-
ological occurrences, and as being very inadequately ac-
counted for by, existing theories. “Pebbles may, in given

Vou. II.....No. 1. 7

50 Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays.

instances, be formed, (possibly,) by decomposition of the

angular portions of a stone, by various chemical agencies,
aiding those of a mechanical nature, but an immense num-
ber, and in our view, the immensely greater number of peb-
bles, present unquestionable evidence of having been brought
to their rounded form by attrition.

The attrition of the common waters a the earth, and
even that exerted during the comparatively short period of
the prevalence of the deluge of Noah, would do very little
towards producing so mighty a result, and we must assign
this operation to the more recent periods of the prevalence
of the great chaotic deluge, whose existence is distinctly
recorded in the first chapte: of Genesis, and equally ad-
mitted by all geologists. However strongly inclined, we
have neither time nor room to pursue this fruitful topic any .
further, but must leave it to return to Mr. Hayden’s book.

In support of the opinion, that our alluvial formations
have been produced by currents, the author mentions “the
wave-like or undulating appearance of almost every section
of alluvial formation, whether perpendicular to the surface,
or inclined, shewing the operation of a current from the
north-east.”

‘This appearance we have often observed in the alluvial
plain of New-Haven, and _ in other alluvial regions of Con-
necticut—exhibiting frequently, a delicacy of flexion, in the
layers of gravel and sand, which makes them appear as if
they had, but a moment before, received their impulse and
position from undulating water, and as if they had copied
the very eddies, and gyrations. of the wave.

To support the position, that the currents flowed from ie
north-east to the south-west, Mr. Hayden mentions the riv-
ers in the vicinity of Baltimore, which generally run in a
direction from north to'south. ‘‘ In almost every instance,”
he remarks, ‘‘ where the rolled pebbles abound, they are
in much the greatest quantities on the west or south-west
side of the river or creek.” He states also, that there are
great accumulations cf sand and gravel in such places as
correspond with the southern mouths or outlets of valleys
and streams, or with their southern sides, and but small por
tions or none of these things are found in the opposite di-
rections.

Notice e ‘Hayden’s Geological Essays. 51

Mr. Hayden mentions similar facts as existing in a very
striking manner, and degree, on the Connecticut river, and’
on several of its branches; the accumulations of pebbles
being on those banks, md in those places, which corres-
pond with the idea of a current from the north and east, and
with a consequent deposit of alluvial spoils, in a position,
which is south or west in relation to the current.

Other instances are described, by the author, which, in
connexion with those already mentioned, go far towards
making out his case; but, in order to its full establishment,
would it not be necessary, to enter into a very exten-
sive induction of particulars, regarding, especially, the great
alluvial formations of this country, and to derive those facts
from as many portions as possible, of the flat country of
the southern states ?

The general cause of these currents Mr. Hayden con-
cludes to be the deluge of Noah. While no one will ob-
ject to the propriety of ascribing very many, probably most
of our alluvial features, to that catastrophe, we conceive
that neither Mr. Hayden, nor any other man, is bound to
prove the immediate physical cause of that vindictive in-
fiction.

Neither the fusion of the polar ice, as imagined by St.
Pierre, nor the subsidence of continents, as conjectured by
Dr. Clarke, are necessary to account for an event of this
nature, when it is attributed, in the history which records it,
to the immediate power of the Creator, who (although in
this instance, rains are named, and subterraneous waters al-
luded to, as the immediate agents) never hesitates for means,
to accomplish an end.

If however, in our turn, we might be indulged in stating
an hypothesis, we would beg leave to suggest the following
as a cause which may have aided in deluging the earth, and
which, were there occasion, might do it again.

The existence of enormous caverns in the bowels of the
earth, (so often imagined by authors,) appears to be no very
extravagant assumption. Itistrue it cannot be proved, but ina
sphere of eight thousand miles in diameter, it would appear in
no way extraordinary, that many cavities might exist, which
collectively, or even singly, might well contain much more
than all our oceans, seas, and other superficial waters, none of
which are probably more than a few miles in depth. Vf

52 Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays.

these cavities communicate in any manner with the oceans,
and are (as if they exist at all, they probably are,) filled
with water, there exist, we conceive, agents very competent
to expel the water of these cavities, and ths to deluge, at
any time, the dry land. These agents are the aerial fluids
—the gases—whose competency to any and every degree of
energy, which a given mechanical movement may require,
is abundantly exhibited, in the rending force of gun powder,
and of the other still more potent explosive compositions,
and in the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes, whose
mechanical effects, we conceive, depend principally upon
the sudden and abundant evolution of aerial bodies. These
bodies, suddenly evolved, and subjected to pressure and re-
sistance, are competent not merely to propel cannon balls
and bombs, to burst rocks and to explode mines—they can
rend mountaims—they can rock them from their bases—
they can shake continents, and ¢ cause the globe itself to vi-
brate and tremble.

If then, there were occasion to alent a column of wa-
ter even six miles in height, so that it should transcend the
highest mountains ; aerial fluids would be equal to the effort.
Should they be disengaged, abundantly, in the vast sub-
terraneous and subaqueous cavities, they would of course
occupy the roof or vaults of the cavity, and would there-
fore expel the water, which we suppose they may contain,
and this water rising and spreading itself over the dry land,
-might,. by its abundance, more or less complete, submerge
the continents more or less completely. In short, it would
be merely a case of compressed air acting to raise a column
of water, as ina fire-engine. If :t be objected, that the
pressure would split the incumbent earth, we answer that it
would do so did not its counteracting pressure, arising from
a cae gravity at least two or three times greater than of
water,* resist, with even superfluous energy. (

It is not necessary to shew, that any such agencies have
been actually exerted, and have certainly produced. these ef-
fects. . It is suction to evince that they are possible, and
that if exerted, they are competent to the supposed effect.

* Possibly even much greater, according to the deductions of Maskelyne
and Hutton on the specific gravity of the earth.

Notice of Hayden's Geological Essays. a3

If it be required what aerial fluid could be furnished in
the earth in sufficient abundance, it may be answered, that
hydrogen gas, proceeding from the decomposition of water,
by the action of metallic and inflammable bodies, aided by
subterranean heat, would be abundantly equal to the effect,
and even the evolution of oxigen and hydrogen from the de-
composition of water, by the natural galvanic arrangements
in the bowels of the earth, is probably a sufficient source
for the gas. We have not mentioned carbonic acid gas,
which might be evolved by many agencies, because itis ab-
sorbable by water, especially when aided by pressure. Ai-
though it is true, that water once saturated by it might then
be elevated by its pressure. If by any cause, the gas that
has forced the water from its internal cavities, should be ab-
sorbed, or make its escape, the waters would again retire
into the caverns, and the lands that had been inundated,
would be left dry.

It is very possible, that anterior to the deluge of Noah,
and to the peopling of the globe by rational beings,* and
during the gradual draining of the earth from the grand
chaotic deluge, several floods more or less partial or exten-
sive, may have taken place,—thus accounting for partial
formations, as the parasitical trap rocks, &c.

To return from this digression. It is not within the scope
of this desultory notice, to follow Mr. Hayden through all
the varied and deeply interesting proofs, by which, in our
opinion, he completely establishes the fact, that our great
alluvial formations have proceeded from the sudden and
violent prevalence of a deluge, attended by sweeping cur-
rents, which buried great quantities of animal and vegetable |
bodies. eels ;

Among these things are trees,} sometimes of large size,
found, frequently, at the depth of forty or fifty feet: some-
times their fruit is found with them. Bones and skeletons
of whales, porpoises, and sharks of enormous size—bones
and teeth of the Asiatic elephant, and of the Mastodon or

* We consider the accurate chronology of the Genesis as commencing
only with the creation of man, and the first formation aud chaotic state of
the globe, as not included in any of the periods called days.

t The trees are in many instances below low waters mark, and in a bed of
bluish clay or mud resembling sea bottom. ;

54 Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays.

or Mammoth—horns of deer, and other animal as well ‘as
vegetable remains, are found in many parts of our alluvial
districts, both near and remote from the sea; and evincing,
completely, that they could never have been deposited and
covered by any of the ordinary processes of alluvion.

These facts, it is well known, are common to the alluvial
regions of other continents; and Mr. Hayden has adduced
many examples in relation to this part of the subject.

The author has suggested some ingenious thoughts as to
the processes of petrification. We feel and acknowledge,
that there is a difficulty in accounting for the preservation of
animal and vegetable substances, by petrifaction or other
similar changes : ; but as we see the process, actually going
on, atthe present day, and some very perishable substances _
preserved either by petrifaction or incrustation;—as at
Knaresborough in Yorkshire; at the baths of St. Philip i iy
Italy, and in wnany other places, we perceive that the thing is
actually possible, and whatever may be the difficulties of the
subject, they appear to us less than those that attend the
bold assumption that perned bodies have been invested by
earthy substances in the gaseous state, or that even our plan-
et may have been formed by gaseous emanations mee the
sun.

Mr. Hayden believes that, from the opposite ple re-
gions, there were currents which combined to produce the
deluge, and he conceives, that their ravages are distinctly
recorded in the naked and rocky state of the land in the
higher latitudes, of both hemispheres, the loose earth having
been, as he imagines, swept away and transported to other
regions.

Mr. Hayden objects to the received ideas, as to the fora
tion of soils and loose earth, by the decomposition of rocks,
which he believes to be much less extensive and rapid, than
has been generally imagined. This is probably true in a
degree, but still we cannot but think that he has underrated
these agencies. The decompositions, arising from the un-
intermitted activity of galvanic electricity, evolved by the
juxta position of strata and fluids of different kinds, is prob-
ably a potent cause, and is not, we believe, adverted to! by

Mr. Hayden.*

* This cause would, however, it is true, operate principally tn thé date
ior of the earth. -

Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays. 55

We think, that he has not conceded enough to the rava-
ges, committed by time, upon a part at least, of the stony
monuments of the globe, whether erected by the Creator or
by man. Stonehenge which he cites, (and which is not
granite, but sand stone,) is very deeply furrowed by time:
the angles are rounded, and the stones are evidently reduced
in size. The same thing is true of many of the ancient
cathedrals, castles, palaces, and other buildings in England
and Scotland. . Where they have not been kept in repair by
assiduous attention, they are all in ridges, hollows, and prom-
inences, decisive marks of the tooth of time, and many
prominent parts of considerable size, are almost or quite de-
stroyed.

Most of the public buildings in England, both ancient
and modern, are constructed of a calcareous sand stone, or,
of lime stone of the secondary or transition class.

In Cornwall, one of the granite regions of England, ex-
tensive ledges of granite, as we have seen, are crumbling
down ina state of decomposition, and the granite of Limo-
ges, in France, from which their excellent porcelain clay is
derived, is decomposed in some instances almost to a clay.

The degradation of hills and mountains is, we suspect,
much more considerable than he admits it to be. We could
take him to a place* where enormous broken columns of
greenstone trap, even twenty-five feet in diameter, are ly-
ing upon a declivity in just that confusion in which they
evidently fell, from some colonade of naked pillars, forming
a greenstone ridge, and yet the nearest ridge, which is ma-
terially higher, is a mile distant. The particular ridge from
which they originally fell, must have been, at hand,t and al-
though its ruins are still there, the ridge itself has been de-
graded by time.

Mr. Hayden has assembled a very instructive and enter-
taining collection of facts respecting the Deltas of rivers,
and generally concerning their alluvion, whether relating to
their banks or their embouchures. We conceive that he
has proved, that even these examples of alluvion are less
attributable to the agency of the rivers themselves, than is

* The western declivity of Talcot mountain, ten miles from Hartford, om
ihe Albany turnpike. |

+ Unless, indeed, Mr. Hayden would suppose, that currents had moved.
these enormous masses from seme other place

ge Notice of Hayden’s Geological Essays.

generally supposed, and of course much. more to other
eauses: among the most conspicuous of which, in his view,
are the operations of man himself in creating artificial
ground, and the action of winds, in transporting sand and
loose earth. But, it is impossible to convey any adequate
idea of the value of this part of Mr, Hayden’s work, with-
out entermg more into detail than is consistent with the na-
ture and limits of this article. ie .

In concluding our remarks, we will observe, that Mr.
Hayden’s book will prove an interesting and useful volume
io the general reader, as well as to the Geologist.

It is not so much. involved in technics as to assume a re+
pulsive aspect to the view of the general scholar, or of the
reader of common intelligence. It will prove an agreeable,
and we think, an attractive volume, at the family fire side,
and we therefore hope that the meritorious author may be
adequately remunerated for his labour and expense, by an
extensive sale of the work, and be enabled, in a future edi-
tion, to add those useful illustrations from maps which he
had designed. cee Leese

He will allow us to suggest, that some sort of table of
contents or index (or better both) would greatly increase.
the ease of reference, and consequently, the utility of the
volume, in the divisions of whch, there is at present little
to guide the eye, or to aid the recollection, in retracing our
steps, for the purpose of adverting to particular parts.

Among the original productions of this country, the pres-
ent volume has a right to hold a very respectable rank.
We wust be allowed however to observe, that its principal
value consists, in its presenting so extensive a view of the
numerous and very astonishing facts, connected with the
important, but perhaps undervalued subject of alluvion..

We are not averse to the author’s particular theory, but,.

still, we could wish to see the present volume grow into a
regular systematic work upon alluvion, excluding extraneous
matter, and including a digested arrangement of all the im-
"portant facts connected with that subject, with as much theo-
ry as those facts will warrant, and the theory would then
flow naturally as an induction, according to the strict Ba-
conian mode of philosophising. |

The author would, in that case, obtain also the important
additional advantage, that while the volume would not be

Ores of Iron, Manganese, §c. in Vermont. 5%

less attractive to general readers, of intelligence, it would
be in a form adapted to the uses of the geological student,
and could hardly fail of coming into general use as a text
book on the doctrine of alluvion.

‘Nas: VI.—WNotice of Ores of Iron and Manganese, and of
Yellow Ochre, in Vermont; by Professor FReprrice
Haun, in a letter to the Halton: dated,

Middlebury College, Dec. 1, 1820.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

I visited a few months since, the iron ore bed, and the
iron works, in Bennington, Vermont. The ore bed is sit-
uated on the south side of an arm of the green mountain.
It is covered by a stratum of sand, about two feet thick, con-
taining innumerable round, quartzose stones of various si-
zes, called by the inhabitants of the town, hard heads. The
ore Is obtained with great facility from the bed. It is most-
ly brown hematite. I collected a few specimens of the
common argillaceous oxide of iron. It does not make
good bar iron. It is manufactured into kettles, stoves, car-
riage-boxes, &c. The ore is not rich. Mr. Traner, the
owner and superintendant of the works, informed me, that
ityields, on an average, about 33 1-3 per cent. He added,
that not far from two hundred and twelve tons of cast iron
-are made annually, at his works.

The iron ore rests on a bed of unknown thickness, of the
oxide of manganese, which appears to belong chiefly to the
variety called earthy oxide of manganese. Its colour is brown,
often very deep brown, inclining to black. Its texture is
earthy ; its lustre dull. To borax it imparts a violet co-
lour, verging tored. The surfaces of some specimens,
which I procured from this bed, are slightly mammillary.
It gives oxigen in tena when heated with sulphuric
acid.

The iron ore is sometimes fae with manganese, which
renders it totally useless. ‘‘ For,” said Mr. T. “if we melt
it with the iron, the gas causes such an explosion, that it
scatters the metal i in small. pieces over the whole furnace.’

Vou. ITI.....No. 1. Ss

58 Ores of fron, Manganese, he. in Ve ermont.

The iron ore bed is very extensive, and will aay not:
be exhausted for several ages. ?

I proposed to Mr. T. a number of questions, in writing.
The following is one of them. 1 give you the answer in
his own language. Have you found ochre?“ Yes, in vast
plenty.” After showing me the substance, as it was dug

‘from the earth, he proceeded to describe how he prepared
it for the market. ‘‘ We first break it in small pieces, then
put it into a large cistern, filled with water, and keep stirring
it, until all is dissolved : . then after allowing the sand to sub-
side for some omen let it off into a second cistern ; in
this it stands till the paint settles to the bottom, and the top
is clear water; by a two inch hole, just where the water
and paint meet, let off the water; then, by a large door in
the bottom, let ‘off the paint into a ‘large square cistern. Af-
ter lying in this a day or two, we carry it off into small flat
boats to dry. In order to make the paint separate com-
pletely from the water, there must be a shovel full or two
of good lime, thrown into the cistern, in the first washing.
It is now yellow ochre. In order to make it brown, or ou
we expose it to the fire in an oven or kettle.”

I lately examined the iron works and iron ore of Pitts-
ford, twenty-four miles south from this place. The ‘ore ts
dug ‘within a few feet of the spot, where it is manufactured.
Itis chiefly an ochrey brown oxide of iron, and quite friable.
Its fracture and texture are earthy. It soils the fingers
strongly. When taken from the earth, its colour resembles
that of yellow ochre. Exposed to’ the action even of a
small degree of heat, it loses its yellow hue, and assumes a
reddish brown colour. Mixed with borax, it fuses before
the blowpipe, and yields a globule of transparent glass of a
beautiful green colour. It occurs both in beds, and in veins
in iiniestone. The ore is less productive than the Benning-
ton ore. It yields, as 1 was told by the proprietor, Mr,
Nathan Gibbs, about 20 per cent. “or four tons of the ore
make one ton of iron.” He informed me, that the quantity
manufactured, yearly : his works, was about twenty tons of
bar iron, and eighty tons of cast iron, consisting of stoves,
potash kettles, &c. &c. Imay give you, ina Fane eg
some account of the iron ore, manufactured at other places
in this state.’ a

Notice of Mr. Sehealeralss View, &c. 59

Ane. VII.—Wotice of “A view of the Lead Mines of Missou-
ri including some observations on the Mineralogy, Geology,
Geography, Antiquities, Soil, Climate, Population, and
Productions of Missouri and Arkansaw, and other sec-
tions of the Western country, accompanied by three engra-
vngs; by Henry R. Scnooicrart, corresponding mem-

ber of the Lyceum of Natural History of New-York.”

As this work has been more than a year before the Amer-
ican public and is already well known, it may seem super-
fluous to make any remarks upon it at so late a period. It
was our purpose to have given it an early notice but circum-
stances which could not be controlled, prevented. Still, as
it is devoted to subjects, which form a prominent object in
this Journal, and is, as far as we are informed, the only elab-
orate and detailed account of a mining district in the United
States, we are not disposed to remain silent, especially as the
discharge of the duty is not likely to be painful, either to our-
selves or to the author. Reviews in form, although within

the plan of this Journal, do not constitute one of its mostlead-
ing objects, and we do not hold ourselves responsible for
analyses or even for notices of new American books, unless
they appear “particularly interesting or important, or hold a
very intimate connexion with the creat design of our work.

We have already intimated that we regard Mr. School-
eraft’s work in this light. We take it for granted, that the
statements of facts made by this author, are both faithful
and accurate ; the mformation which we have incidentally
derived from other sources, certainly countenances this im-
pression, but the whole amount of it is small, compared with
the details contained in the present volume.

Mr. Schooleraft’s opportunities for observation were ex-
tensive, particularly m relation to the mines of lead in the
Missouri region. Among those mineshe spentayear. ‘1
have made, (says he) a personal examination of every mine
of consequence, with a view to ascertain its general charac-
ter and value and its peculiarities. I have travelled on fooi
over the whole mine country, exploring its minerals, its geo-
logical structure, its geographical position, soil, climate, pro-
ductions, towns, streams, settlements, and whatever else ap-
peared to me to be necessary to describe, explain and illus-
irate the subject before me.’

66 Notice of Mr. Schoolcraft’s View of

‘Mr. Schoolcraft appears to have made good use of the
advantages which he enjoyed, and his countrymen are in-
debted to him for a great amount of valuable information.
He appears also to have studied the observations of prece-
ding writers, and, with their works before him, it was in his
pease to correct errors and to supply deficiencies.

He has prefixed an historical sketch which we presume
will be acceptable to every reader. The French as is well
known were the original discoverers and settlers of the Mis-
souri, and Illinois regions, which were embraced in their vast
scheme of forming a chain of posts and setilements from the
mouth of the St. Lawrence, to that of the Mississippi.—
They did not occupy the country of the Missouri and Hli-
nois, till more than a century after the settlement of Que-
bee, and about a century before the present period. At
that time, (1720) the lead mines were discovered by Philip
Francis Renault, and M. La Motte, and by them they were
wrought, although they and the adventurers under them
were de pnonned in their expectations of finding gold and
silver.

At the end of about half a century, the country passed
into the hands of the Spaniards, and under their dominion, |
probably about forty years since, the principal mine was
discovered by a man of the name of Burton, and from him
it has derived the name of Mine a Burton.*

It appears that the processes of mining under the Sais,
iards were very eee as they obtained only fifty per
cent. of lead from the ore, threw away the lead ashes, and
did not attempt any manufactures of shot or any other ar-
ticles. ‘They employed only the open log furnace.

In 1797, Moses Austin, Esq. a native of Connecticut,
who had been occupied with lead mines, in Weythe Coun-
ty in Virginia, obtained from the Spanish government, a
grant of a league square in the mining district in considera-

tion of his Pee a MONEE oa Hee He sunk

ise It scems he was anti and found the lead ore lying upon the elas
ofthe ground. This remarkable man was living last year, near St. Gene-
vieve, at the ereat age of one hundred and nine.. He had bees employed
under the first adv enturer, Renault, and has passed an eventful life, having
served both in Europe and America, as a soldier under distinguished com-
manders, and on various memorable occasions, as at Fontenoy and Bergen
op zoom, under Marshall Saxe, and at Braddock’s defeat, near Piltsburgh.

the Lead Mines of Missouri, &c. 6L

ihe first regular shaft—the mining having, till that time, been
prosecuted solely by open digging, in the manner of quar-
ries. Mr. Austin also introduced the manufacture of shot,
and that of sheet lead soon followed. About the same time
several other American families collected at the mines, and
infused new spirit and enterprize into the mining operations,
so that they were carried on with considerable vigour at the
time when (in 1803) the country was transferred to the U-
nited States. Mr. Schoolcraft, from whom these facts are
taken, remarks, that since 1804 the number of mines has
been astonishingly multiplied—population has flowed rapid-
ly in—the processes on the ore have been much improved—
better furnaces have been constructed; and ‘‘ every season is
adding to the number of the mines.” ‘‘ Every day is de-
veloping to us, the vast resources of this country, particular-
ly in lead,” and the author expresses his opinion that “ the
mines of Missouri are paralleled by no other mineral district
in the world.”
From the specimens which we possess of this ore, and
from the documents produced by the author respecting the
produce of the mines, we believe his opinion is covrrect,
especially if we consider the fact that “the earth has not
-yet been penetrated over eighty feet;’ ‘“ we know not
what may be found in the lower strata.” “ There is rea-
son to believe that the main bodies of ore have not been hit
upon, that they lie deeper, and that we have thus far been
only engaged upon the spurs and detached masses.”
Mr. Schoolcraft informs us, that although the mining bu-
siness is much improved, there is still a great deficiency
both of capital and of skill—there is in the whole district but
one regular hearth furnace for smelting, and that not the
best ;—among forty mines, there are only four or five regu-
lar shafts—there is among all the mines, no engine of any
description, for raising water, and some of the richest mines
with the best prospects in view, have been in consequence
abandoned. Yet, under all these disadvantages, the annual
produce of the mines is estimated at three millions of pounds
of lead.

The author suggests the expediency of establishing a
school of mines and minerals in the midst of the mines
themselves ; this would, without doubt, be a very proper
Measure, but in the mean time, skilful practical miners, and

62, Notice of Mr. Schooleraft’s View of

captains of mines, such as are found in every mining district
in Europe, would supply the immediate demands of the
country. : y, SL
The mining district, formerly called the lead mines of
Louisiana, is situated between the 57th and the 38th de-
gree of north latitude, and between the 89th and 92nd degree
of west longitude, covers three thousand one hundred and
fifty square miles—it is from seventy to one hundred miles
long by forty or forty-five wide, extending in width from the
Mississippi south-west to the Fourche a Courtois, and in
length from the head waters of St. Francis northerly to the
Merrimack. oy |
Lead ore is found in almost every part of this district.
Mr. Schoolcraft says, “the general aspect of the country is
sterile, though not mountainous: the lands he rolling, like
a body of water in gentle agitation. In some places the
hills rise into abrupt cliffs, where the great rock formations
of the country may be seen; in others, they run into level
plains ; a kind of highland prairze.” Le
“ The soil is a reddish coloured clay, stiff and hard, and
full of fragments of flinty stone, quartz and gravel: this ex-
tends to the depth of from ten to twenty feet, and is bot-
tomed on limestone rock. Itis so compact in some places,
-as almost to resist the pick-axe; in others it seems to par-
take of marl, is less gravelly, and readily penetrated. ‘The
country is particularly characterized by quartz, which is
strewed in detached pieces over the surface of the ground,
and is also found imbedded in the soil at all depths. ‘This
is here called blossom of lead. Iron ores and pyrites are
also scattered over the surface of the ground, and occasion~
ally lead ore. Such is the general character of the minera!
hills, which are invariably covered by a stinted growth of
oaks.” : pes aad 2
Walnut is also found on the hills, and there is a ridge of
yellow pine, not more than six or eight miles wide, rup-
ning nearly south-east and north-west, but it is nearly or
quite destitute of lead—the mines lie generally east of it,
In summer the flinty aspect of the country is veiled by a
luxuriant growth of grass, which gives ita very pleasing and
picturesque appearance.
The vallies have a rich alluvial soil, well fitted for culti-
vation; but our limits will not allow us to mention the vege-

the Lead Mines of Missouri, &c. 63

table productions of the country. . This region is well uri-
gated, and very healthy, being possessed of a fine climate.
Mr. Schoolcraft remarks, that during a residence of ten
months he never heard of a death ; the country is free from
the fevers ‘which infest some of the neighbouring regions.
It seems, however, that the animals are visited by what is
ealled the mine sickness. ‘* Cows and horses are frequent-
ly seen to die without any apparent cause. Cats and dogs
are taken with violent fits, which never fail, in a short time,
io kill them.” It is said that the inhabitants impute these af-
fections to the sulphur exhaled in smelting the lead, as the
eattle are often secn licking about the old furnaces. But
sulphur is not poisonous either to men or anizals. The
author imputes it to the sulphat of baryies, with which the
district abounds, which he states is a ‘‘poison to animals.”

The carbonat of barytes is eminently poisonous, but we
have never heard that the sulphat is so. May not the lick-
ing around the furnaces expose the cattle to receive lead in
some of its forms, minutely divided—or if it be not active
in the metallic state, both the oxids and the carbonat, which
must of course exist around the furnaces, would be highly
active and poisonous. Is it not possible also that some of
the natural waters of the country may, in consequence of
saline or acid impregnations, dissolve some of the iead, and
thus obtain saturnine qualities? We must allow, however,
that we are not acquainted with the existence of any natural
water thus impregnated.

Among the mineral productions of this region, certainly
not the least remarkable mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft, is
the Iron mountain, where the ore is piled in such enormous
masses as to constitute the entire southern extremity of a
lofty ridge, which is elevated five or six hundred feet above
the plain: the ore is the micaccous oxid, and is said to
yield good malleable iron.

There is another body of iron ore five miles west of the
iron mountain, scarcely inferior to that mentioned above.
and it appears that several other beds exist in the same vi-
einity.

Zinc is abundant, but as the ore is the stints is not
very valuable. [tis not mentioned that the calamine, which

is the useful ove of ame, has been found.
@

64 Notice of Mr. Schooleraft’s View of

As to the Geological nature of the country, in which the
lead mines are situated, we must confess, that we are not
‘quite so well satisfied, as we have found reason to be with
almost all the other important facts and gemons, which Mr,
Schoolcraft has communicated.

He informs us that “ Bellevue abounds in granite Ft that
the only vein of granite rock in the mine country (as far as
he had opportunity to observe) passes across the south-
western end of Madison county—runs into Bellevue—is
four or five miles wide, and twenty or thirty miles in a di-
rection from §. E. to N. W.

We are again informed that the country affords granate,
gneiss and mica slate, and that the whole country is boitom-
ed on primitive lime stone, that secondary lime stone is met
with, and that- when it occurs, it lies over transition and
primitive rocks, ‘The granite is spoken of in another place,
(p. 170) as being a geological phenomenon, as containing
imbedded in it or lying upon its surface, gneiss, green stone,
porphyry, i iron ores, &c.3 it is spoken of as a red granite,
containing very little mica, and as being used for mill stones.
It is mentioned as the “ only mass of granite known to exist
between the primitive ranges of the Alleghany and Rocky
mountains,” and as being Paaanded on all sides, and to an
almost immeasurable ied with secondary tiie stone. ~

Again, (p. 193) the granite is cited as the “ old red
granite in mountain masses, with some veins of green stone,
green stone porphyry, and gneiss ;” it is said to terminate in
very rough and broken high lands. At page 213, itis men-
tioned, still again, as giving origin to the river StF rancis,
whose “springs gush out among these stupendous piles of
red granite.” Besides the ores of iron, lead and zine,
r quartz, feldspar, shorl, mica, and graphite are among the
minerals furnished by that region, and “ green stone, gneiss,
and green stone porphyry, are among the larger masses of
rock.” The green stone, it seems, is found i in large iso-
lated fragments, lying promiscuously among the fragments
of granite which have tumbled down from the lofty cliffs
above, and is rendered porphyritic by crystals of green and
flesh-coloured feldspar.”

We have no right to doubt that the rock described is
granite, as the principal. features delineated, correspond with
that supposition. As it is described as being solitary, the

the Lead Mines of Missouri, §¢. 65

only granite between the Alleghanies and the Rocky moun-
tains, we are lead to ask—is it a portion of the nucleus of
our globe, covered on every side, for many hundred miles,
with secondary rocks, and here heaving its head through the
superincumbent strata, and standing alone ?

But, what are we to conclude of the lime stone? Al-
though Mr. Schooleraft states that the granite is every
where surrounded by secondary lime stone, he remarks in
several places that the country is based on primitwe lime
stone : as at page 92, “the whole mineral country is bot-
tomed on primitive lime stone’—at the same time he
adds, that “ secondary lime stone is met with, but that it is
far less common than in Ohio, Indiana,” &c. At page 108,
speaking of the lime stone, which, he says, is the rock inva-
riably met with in digging, and generally at the depth of
fifteen or twenty feet, he remarks, that there are many va-
rieties of it, the texture varying from very hard and com-
pact, to soft and friable—the latter crumbling between the
fingers, and being called rotten lime stone: lime stone, he
says, is invariably the basis on which the mineral soil at
Mine a Burton, and the numerous mines in its vicinity re-
poses. He speaks of it as “ passing into transition and sec-
ondary lime stone, in various places on the banks of the
Mississippi, between Cape Girardeau and St. Louis, and as
becoming a variety of marble near Herculaneum.” He does
not inform us whether this primitive lime stone is crystal-
line in its structure, or translucent, if not crystalline. He
generally speaks of it as compact, and if he uses the word
compact, in the sense to which Mr. Werner’s descriptive
language limits it, we must remark that compact lime stone
is rarely if ever primitive—the structure of this latter bemg
almost always crystalline, and if ever compact it will gene-
rally be translucent also, at least on the edges, but if com-
pact and a secondary lime stone, it will in most instances be
perfectly opake. ‘The compact translucent lime stone is gen-
erally of the transition, and not of the primitive class.

The term marble, sometimes introduced by Mr. School-
craft, is not distinctive-—perhaps it was not intended to be
so; for the marbles, it is well known, are derived from all
the divisions of, lime stone, primitive, transition and seccn-
dary. Nor is the absence of “ shells, (p. 108) animalcula,
or other traces of animal life” conclusive ; their presence

Vou. TE...No. Fb. 9

66 Notice of Mr. Schooleraft’s View of

would of course decide the lime stone not to be primitive,
and therefore to be transition or secondary ; but both these
latter kinds of lime stone are often found without shells,
vegetable impressions, or any other trace of organized be-
ings.

The minerals mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft as accompa-
nying the lead ore, in and above the supposed primitive
lime stone, are not such as are decisive of a primitive coun-
try—for crystalized quartz, sulphate of barytes, calcareous
spar, blende, hornstone, flint and pyrites, &c. are found
along with lead ore m the Peak of Derbyshire, a transition
country ; and they are found also in secondary countries.
Primitive lime stone also, we believe, (at least this is the
fact in the magnificent formations of it in Connecticut, Mas-
sachusetts, and other northern States) usually occurs, form-
ing beds in the primitive rocks, especially in gneiss, mica
slate, and clay slate; and we are not aware that it often
forms the basis of a country ; whereas transition and secon-
dary lime stone form immense masses, and pervade exten-
sive regions, without necessarily forming beds in other
rocks. °

It would then have been more satisfactory to have had
the mineralogical character of this lime stone described
with more precision, and especially to have had the order.
of succession, (if any exist) with respect to ae rocks
delineated.

- We should have liked especially to have it the “gene
e this lime stone with that remarkable granite region, point-
edout. As that granite ridge is said to be surrounded by sec-
ondary lime stone, does this secondary lime stone repose on
this other, called primitive, and does this latter repose on
the granite, where it dips obliquely under, as it probably
does, in order to find its way beneath the other rocks, and to
vindicate its claim to a fundamental position? But, per-
haps we are asking more than is reasonable, for, it may be
that there are no such sections in the strata as would expose

all these facts to view, and enable the observer to decide.

These hints we have dropped, not, we trust, from a cap-
tious disposition, (which we ab} hor) but ocae we have
found a real difficulty in conceiving clearly of the geological
nature of this lime stone, which, it seems, 1s the basis of the
lead mine country, and therefore it is very important that

the Lead Mines of Missouri, &c. 67

tts characters should be indubitably fixed. We have not
been so fortunate as to see Mr. Schooleraft’s specimens :
possibly a view of them would have rendered the prece-
cing remarks, in part at least, unnecessary.

The difficulty of conceiving that this lime stone is really
primitive, is increased by the very remarkable position of
most of the lead ore hitherto obtained in the Missouri mines,
and which, it appears, is still obtained in the same situa-
tions, although some of the mines have been wrought for a
century.

We allude to the vast deposit of allavion with which this
lime’ stone is covered, and in which, te the depth of many
feet, the lead ore lies, often in loose pieces of several pounds
weight. (

Leaving the Geological features of the lead mine district,
we proceed to cite some interesting and important facts
from Mr. Schooleraft’s work :— The soil, he remarks, is a
reddish coloured clay, stiff and hard, and full of fragments
of flinty stone, quartz and gravel; this extends to the depth
of from ten to twenty feet, and is bottomed on lime stone
rock. It is so compact in some places, as almost to resist
the pick-axe ;, in others it seems to partake of marl, is less

gravelly, and readily penetrated. ‘The country is particu-
larly characterized by quartz, which is strewed in detached
pieces over the surface of the ground, and is also found im-
bedded in the soil at all depths. ‘This is here called 6los-
som of lead. ron ores and pyvites are also scattered over
the surface of the ground, and occasionally lead ore.” The
mineral productions of the country, in addition to lead, are,
zinc, iron, ochre, red chalk, salt-petre, sulphur, alum and
salt.” ,

The number of lead mines is forty-five ; and there are
eertain points in which they resemble each other. ‘ ‘The
ore is found in detached pieces, and solid masses, in veins
and beds, in red clay, and accompanied by sulphuret of ba-
rytes, calcareous spar, blende, iron pyrites, and quartz.”

The ore (the author remarks) is the lead glanee, galena,
or sulphuret of lead. Itis very rich and beautiful, and
specimens in our possession fully confirm Mr. Schoolcraft’s
account; they have a very broad, and perfectly foliated
fracture, and a high degree of metallic lustre ; they break in
cubical fragments, and the miputest portions still retain this
form.

6S Votice of Mr. Schooleraft’s View of

We have already observed that large fragments are form-
ed loose in the earth; they sometimes weigh four or five
pounds ; we have such specimens from these mimes; they are
of a cubical form, and are surrounded, except writers they
have been broken, by an earthy incrustation.

It is observed, that the marly earth thrown out from the
pits, enriches the ground, so that ina few years itis covered
with a very rank srowth of trees, vines, &c, and this is a
regular characteristic of old diggings. Innumerable por-
tions of radiated quartz, and sharp fragments of flinty stones
are mixed with the clay, and form the first stratum of about
fourteen inches. .The next is of a red clay, and is four or
five feet thick, and less mixed with similar siliceous sub-
stances. ‘Then comes a layer of gravel and rounded sili-
ceous pebbles, about one foot thick, containing small portions
oflead ore. The thickness of the bed of ore is generally a
foot ; and the lumps of ore appear to have been rounded
by attrition, like common gravel. This is the character of
what is called the gravel ore, and no spars are found accom-
panying it. The greatest proportion of lead ore is, howev-
er, found imbedded in, and accompanied by the sulphate of
barytes, resting in a thick stratum of marly clay, bottomed
on limestone rock.” ‘They invar lably arrive at the rock at
the depth of from fifteen to twenty, or sometimes thirty
feet—a new process by boring and blasting is now necessa-
ry, and most diggers abandon their pits rather than prose-

cute them at this expense. If, however, (as there can be
little doubt,) the limestone is the real matrix of the lead ore,
the time will come when the present diggings will be con-
sidered as ney, superficial beginnings, and the work wiil
be resumed where hitherto it has been abandoned. It
seems that the almost invariable practice of the miners now
is, to persevere till they strike the rock, and then to go and
dig elsewhere ; they cannot, if disposed, prosecute the busi-
ness by levels or galleries, for they are not permitted to car-
ry on their mining, except immediately under the surface
that is covered by their respective leases, or by twelve feet
square which, if unoccupied, an adventurer may cover by
occupancy. Among the substances accompanying the lead,
blende and the sulphate of barytes, are said to be very
abundant; the latter in specimens which we have, is par-

the Lead Mines of Missourt, §c. 69

ticularly brilliant and white ;* the quartz is often prettily
cetystalized, and is so invariable a concbmitant of the ore,
that the miners, as we have before remarked, give it the
meaning appellation of mineral blossom.

A curious fact is mentioned by Mr. Schooicraft, respect-
ing the Elliott’s mines. ‘‘ During the remarkable earth-
quakes of 1812, a fine spring of water at the mouth of the
mines suddenly became warm, and foul, and ina few days
dried up entirely, and no water has run there since.” “ Il-
luiminations in the atmosphere are frequently observed in
this vicinity on the approach of night.” +

It seems there is a considerable quantity of a greyish
white sublimate collected at the log hearth furnaces, and re-
jected by the workmen upon the supposition that it is sul-
phur and arsenic; but Mr. Schoolcraft, by unquestionable
experiments, ascertained that it was lead, (as would appear)
in the form of a carbonated oxid. A considerable loss is
in this manner sustained, and in a more advanced state of
the metallurgic operations of these mines, the author’s val-
uable suggestions will not be neglected. There is one mine
(M’Kain’s,) where the ore is of the steel grained variety
—it is said to yield less lead, and is inferred to contain
more silver than the common ores: we are aware that this
is the common impression, but our own experiments on
different varieties of lead ore, would induce us to think
that it cannot be relied upon. We have examined fine steel
grained ore which contained very little silver; in one speci-
men only one five thousandth part, and in another, and that
a foliated specimen, we found three and a half per cent. of
silver.

The methods of digging for the ore are sufficiently sim-
ple. ‘A pick-axe and shovel are the only tools used for
removing the earth, and the drill, hammer and priming rod
are added when it is necessary to blast.” The process is
earried on as in digging a common well.

*Ttis mentioned by the author (p. 70) as a chemical test or reagent: it
may, by decomposing it by ignition with charcoal, or with an alkaline
carbonat, be made to afford its earth for the preparation of barvtic tests,
bot we are not aware that it is eself ever used as a test.

{ They are attributed by the author to phosphorus. Is it supposed to be
inthe form of phosphuretted bidrogen ? may not these be electrical phe-
nomena *

70 Notice of Mr. Schoolcrafi’s View of

We must refer our readers to the book itself for a clear
account of the furnaces and furnace operations, employed
for smelting the lead: it will be the more intelligible, as it
is accompanied by two good plates containing views and
sections of the furnaces. A circumstance which appears
very extraordinary is, that the furnaces are most commonly
built of limestone, which is of course calcined, and brought
to the condition of quick lime by a few blasts, and then it
crumbles and the furnaces must be rebuilt.

The ore yields at first fifty per cent. and then the ashes
give fifteen per cent. more—sixty-five* in the whole.+

Custom, says the author, has established a number of
Jaws among the miners, with regard to digging, which have
a tendency to prevent disputes. Whenever a discovery is
made, the person claiming it is entitled to claim the ground
for twenty-five feet, in every direction from his pit, giving
him fifty feet square. Other diggers are each entitled to
twelve feet square, which is just enough to sink a pit, and
afford room for throwing out the earth. Each one meas-
ures and stakes off his ground; and though he should not
begin his work for several days afterwards, no person will
intrude upon it. On this spot he digs down, but is not al-_
lowed to run drifts horizontally, so as to break into or un-
dermine the pits of others. If appearances are unpromis-
ing, or he strikes the rock and chooses to abandon his pit.
he can go on any unoccupied ground, and, observing the
same precautions, begin anew. In such a case, the aban-
doned pit may be occupied by any other person; and
sometimes large bodies of ore are found by the second oc-
cupant, by a little work, which would have richly rewarded
ihe labours of the first had he persevered.

Mr. Schooleraft, from various particulars, infers, that the
average annual produce of the Missouri lead mines, as men-
tioned before, is three million pounds per annum, and the
lead was worth in 1819, at the mines, four cents per pound.t

* According to Dr. Meade, the Missouri ore affords only a trace of
silver. (See Bruce’s Mini. Journal, Vol. £ p. 10.

t Mr. Schooleraft thinks it may yield seventy per cent.--it gave him by
analysis eighty-two per cent.

+ “ The price paid to the miners for raising the cre, and delivering it ready
dressed to the smelters, is two dollars per ewt. pavable in pig lead.”

the Lead Mines of Missouri, &c. V1

for the last three years, up to 1819 inclusive, the produce
of the mines was estimated at three million seven hundred
twenty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-six pounds per
annum of pig lead, which the author supposes to be not
more than one half what the mines are capable of yielding.

The number of miners is between eleven and twelve
hundred, and the number of hands employed in labour at
diferent mines, is from twenty to two hundred and forty,
including in both cases persons of all descriptions.

Many miscellaneous topics connected with the general
subject of his work, are introduced by Mr. Schoolcraft,
such as the sections relating to the manufactures, and uses
of lead, &c. but it is not our object to advert to those topics.

Among the miscellaneous mineral productions of the
western regions, there are some that are interesting, and it
will be seen from the author’s table of minerals (p. 177)
that the list is various. There are several caverns which
produce nitrate of potash by the usual treatment, and Ash-
ley’s Cove, about eighty miles from Potosi, is said to be
one of stupendous size, and to “ afford native nitrate of pot-
ash in beautiful white crystals.”’

Beds of chalk are mentioned as occurring on the west
bank of the Mississippi, about thirty-five miles above the
mouth of the Ohio. It is described as being of an excel-
jent quality, and as containing flint in strata,* and some-
times in nodules.

‘The novaculite is mentioned as occurring on Wachitta,
as described by Mr. Bringier in the present Number.

Steatite exists in abundance at the Falls of St. Anthony,
on the Mississippi, and is used by the Indians for pipes.

The fluate of lime near Shawneetown, was described in
the first volume of this journal,

Among other minerals, Mr. Schoolcraft mentions chalced-
ony in several varieties, earthy oxid of lead, native copper,
alum, manganese, opalized and agatized wood, opal, jasper,
coal, gypsum, native epsom salts, pumice stone, agate, onyx,
burr mill stone, native iron, &c. for the localities and de-
scriptions of which we must refer to the book itself.

Those facts of Mr. Schooleraft’s volume which relate to
statistical and political topics do not come within the plan
of these remarks.

* May not this be hornstone in veins ?

72 Notice of the Geology of Troy.

During our cursory notice of this work, we have cited 2
number of the most prominent facts which it contains, both
because they are in themselves important, and because we
were willing to call the attention of our readers both to
them, and to the volume in which they are contained.
Both are, in our view, entitled to great respect, and we con-
fess ourselves very much indebted to Mr. Schoolcraft for a
great mass of valuable information, which, in a connected
form, is, we believe, no where else to be found. His state-
ments {as regards the most valuable part) are drawn from
his own researches and observations, and have, evidently
been the result of much effort, and of no small share of fatigue
and personal privation. We trust that so valuable a work
will not stop with a single edition, and perhaps we might.
venture to suggest to the author, that in a second, he might
advantageously condense into one view, some facts which
are several times repeated in different parts of the volume ;
such as those respecting the granite and its connected rocks
—the lead ore and its associated minerals, &c.

We consider the present work as an acquisition to our
means of information respecting our mineral resources, and
believe, that it must be a regular volume of reference for all
those who are interested in the investigation of these
subjects.

Arr. VII.—Geological Notice of Troy.—Extract of o
letter to the Edvtor.

Tue city of Troy is situated on the east bank of the
Hudson river, on an elevated plain, from eighteen to twen-
ty-four feet above the bed of the river. It is about one
mile and a half in length, and about sixty rods wide. When
digging for wells, &c. we pass through a series of almost
uninterrupted gravel, of the coarsest and most sterile kind,
mixed with a vast number of pieces of quartz of various
colours, and all worn smooth, and rounded so as to be fit
for paving streets, &c.: among these are many of the same
size and figure as before mentioned ef horn stone, lydian
stone, sinople jasper, chlorite, (connected with quartz,) sili-
ceous slate, rubble stones, &c. Sometimes we meet with
a stratum of coarse blue clay or sand, but we uniformly

Dr. Allen on West River Mountain. 73

find, at from eighteen to twenty-four feet deep, logs of
wood and other vegetable substances, in a tolerable state of
preservation. At the lower end of this plain, and where
the river was probably once bounded, a quarry of siliceous
slate-appears, which is worked for use in building, &c. ; and all
interspersed through this, we find bituminous shale and blind
coal or anthracite, as you will observe by the specimens, with
frequent pieces of iron pyrites, lenticular spar, crystalized
quartz, &c. in connexion. Over this, the alluvial deposits
appear, in regular order, consisting of gravel, sand, clay,
and loam. No rocks, except slate, are found in the ‘neigh-
borhood for several miles around, although all the incrusta-
tions or natural cements, as in pudding stone, appear to be
carbonate of lime. The water is generally sweet and good.

Should you wish any other information as respects locali-
ties in this neighbourhood, I will furnish them with pleas-
ure.

Yours respectfully,

MOSES HALE.

Troy, October 6, 1818.

Arr. IX.—On the Question, whether there are any traces
of a Volcano in the West River Mountain—in a letter to
the Editor from Dr. Jonatuan A. ALLEN.

inaiteboroush Vermont, July 31, 1820.

West-River Moonie having havi announced, in the
annals of the American Academy, as volcanic, ‘and m
Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal, as ‘‘ presenting no traces of
an eruption,” I was induced to examine the evidence.

Ihave not only several times visited the mountain, but I
have availed myself of the accounts of those who resided
in this vicinity, at or near the time when the eruption
was said to have happened. ‘There is now living in this
town, an old man of acknowledged veracity, who, at the
time of the reported explosion, resided at Fort Dummer,
about two miles distant from the spot. He says, that he

Mor. f0.....Ne. ¥- 10

74 Dr. Allen on West River Mowntain.

frequently heard “ noises like thunder on the mountain” —
that “ the hole made by the eruption, was about thirty feet
deep”—and that “ he repeatedly visited the place, but nev-
er saw any flame.”

‘The mountain is situated on the east side of Goomeciene
river, opposite to Brattleborough, East-Village.. Its great-
est length is north and south, and does not exceed four
miles. Its height, above the water in the river, as ascer-
tained by my friend Erastus Root, M. D. is nine hundred
and ferty feet. Passing from the river to the mountain, the
rocks change from argillite to mica slate. which constitutes
most, if not all the mountain.

Towards the top, the mountain separates into an east-
ern and western section. At a distance of about thirty
rods, ascending from where vegetation flourishes, on the
south extremity of the eastern cliff, you come to the shaft
which has been sunk into the rock about one hundred feet.
Here the volcanic eruption is supposed to have occurred.
This place is extremely craggy. A spectator, here instinct-
ively falls on his hands and knees, and cautiously peeps into
the shaft,—for about thirty feet he sees a wide expanse, like
an irregular excavation.in the rocks; it then diminishes like
a funnel, and at a distance of forty or fifty feet below, the
water, ae a stone is thrown in, is seen undulating, and
appears to aid in reverberating a hollow sound. Above,
masses of rocks impend over your head, and seem ready to
crush the observer. From this place, I have known people
retreat with precipitation, lest that should be their fate.

The shaft has been sunk at different times, by individuals
in search of the precious metals. The vein which has
been followed into the rock, is about a foot in diameter,
and contains hematite iron ore. From this shaft, at some
former period, it is said, capillary filaments of silver | were
obtained, but this is probably a mistake.*

* Mr. Gibbs, recently a tutor in Yale College, shewed me some of this
ore, which, many years ago, was sent from the garrison at Fort Dummer,
to his father, who then owned the mine. Afterw ards, this gentleman said,
he carried some of it to Professor Silliman, who pronounced it to be silver.
Some of the ore which Mr. Gibbs gave me, is inclosed—is it not a soldier’s
epanlet ? Did not the locality of native silver, mentioned in Cleaveland’s,
Mineralogy, oviginate from this?

Answer.—tt did—we- know nothing, however, of the soldier’s epauleé—
we can say only that the origitial specimen, like that sent by Dr, Allen, was

Dr. Allen on West River Mountain. G5

The rock, through which the workmen have passed in
making the shaft, is mica slate, passing into granular quartz.
In some instances, however, the quartz is found crystalized,
but it is neither frequent nor elegant.

Leaving the shaft, and ascending to the top of this cliff,
on the west side, you observe a descent of one hundred
feet perpendicular, and from the bottom of this the rocks
are scattered in huge broken masses, in such a manner, that
an inclined plane over the whole would form an angle of
about 45°, for the distance ef ten or twelve rods where it
intersects the western section of the mountain.

No appearances of lava could, by repeated examination,
be discovered. How then, it may be asked, are we to ac-
count for the repeated reports heard at Fort Dummer ?
Could they be imaginary ?

-We have no right to conclude they were, for the facts
were related by persons whose testimony would not have
been doubted on other occasions, and why should they be
called in question in this? It is asserted in Bruce’s Jour-
nal, that the reports were caused ‘ by the wind’s rushing
through the clift of the mountain near the shaft.” If so,
why are not the same noises heard at the present time?

Then to what cause shall we attribute these novses lke
thunder on the mountain? The most probable conclusion
is, that they were produced by the falling of the immense
masses of rocks from the western side of the eastern cliff.
By this conclusion every difficulty is removed. Go to the
spot, and there you will find evidences in favour of this
opinion, stronger than language can describe,—but search
for. voleanoes, and you will find nothing deserving your no-
tice.

In determining the geological character of the West-river
mountain, | am happy to acknowledge the assistance of the

Rev. Edward Hitchcock, A. M. of Deerfield, Ms.

selver in filaments—that it exhaled arsenic, by the blow-pipe, and would not
dissolve in nitric acid till the arsenic had ‘been expelled ; it then dissolved
readily and was precipitated white by muriate of soda. Manufactured
‘silver, we believe, does not exhale arsenic, but native silver often contains
arsenic—such is that at Mr, Lane’s mine in Huntington.— Ed.

76 Dr. Allen on West River Mountain.

Localities of Miuieale: in the vicinite y of Bratleborough,
communicated by Dr. dillen.

Tremolite—beautiful specimens crystalized in quartz, are
found at Wardsboro, Vt.; also at Brattlebo-
rough, but not good.

Schorl———elegant crystals, in quartz, Dummerston; and,
also, Baattleborough, less perfect.

Indicolite—-in large crystals contained in feld spar and
quartz, Hinsdale, N. H.

Granular Quartz—appearing like loaf sugar, Vernon, Vt.

Actynolite—Windham and New-Fane. At New-Fane I
found it in large masses separate from any
other substance.

Micaceous Oxide of Iron—Jamaica: in veins in ‘eee lime
stone, near ‘Turkey mountain.

Crystalized in chlorite, beautiful specimens;
Marlborough, Vt. | poe

Scaly Talc—beautiful specimens, discovered by Professor
Hall, Windham, and by myself, New-Fane.

Serpentine—-An immense mass, Grafton, discovered by
Professor Hall. 3

Magnetic Tron Ore—in large quantities, containing about
sixty per cent. iron, Sumerset, Vt. This ore is
frequently carried to the forge near Bennington,
to be wrought. Pyrites is also found here in

: abundance, and what the people call bog ore.

At Sumerset, an iron forge might be established, with
much profit, but those in this vicinity who have the. dispo-
sition, have not the necessary capital.

Garnets

}

Mixed production of the Spanish Chesnut, fe. 77

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

———

ART. X.— Experiments on a valuable variety of fruit, pro-
duced between the Spanish Chesnut, and the Maryland
-Cinquapin—in a letter from Wrirram Prince, Esq. to
the Hon. Samuen L. Mrreni.

(Read before the Lyceum of Natural History, at New-York, Oct. 15, and
communicated for insertion in this Journal.)

Fiusuine, Oct. 14, 1820.
Dear Sir, 3

Knowine the interest you take in the various phe-
nomena of nature, I wish to call your attention to one of
its most curious operations, the production of new va-
rieties in the vegetable kingdom. I herewith send you
a specimen of a new and valuable Chesnut, accidental-
ly produced in the following manner :—about the year
1788, the large Spanish chesnut was first imported into
this country. I planted some of the nuts, and obtained
bearing trees——-beneath one of which, I had planted the
fagus pumila or chinquapin of the southern states, which
produce fruit when not more than two feet in height. The
farina of the blossoms of the large Spanish chesnut, fell on
the stiles of the flowers of the little chinquapin, whose fruit,
when ripe, J planted, and in the spring when they came up,
{ observed several of the plants had leaves resembling the
Spanish chesnuts—those plants far outgrew the others, and
have produced a new fruit, Paving of the chinquapin in
its abundant prolificacy, and of the Spanish chesnut in the
improved size of its fruit, which is larger than the com-
mon American Chesnut. The quality of the fruit you will
be able to judge of by those I send you.

This is a satisfactory evidence of the improvement that
may be made by mixing the different kinds of European
and American fruits; and I have no doubt great improve-
ment might be made in the American grape, if the seeds
were sown from vines whose blossoms had been previously
impregnated by the farina of the best foreign sorts. Vines

78 Mixed production of the Spanish Chesnut, &c.

might be thus produced, that would stand the cold of our
climate, and combine the prolificacy of the indigenous with
the flavour of the finest exotic kinds. |
: I am, with respect,
Your obedient servant,

WILLIAM PRINCE.

(ANSWER.) |
New-Yors, Oct. 16, 1820.
My Dear Sir, Bers

I beg you to accept my thanks for your valuable com-
munication of yesterday. ‘The articles susceptible of pre-
paration in a herbarium, have been placed there for the
inspection of my friends and visitors at home, and of my
class at the college. The capsules and fruits have already
been exhibited to such agriculturists and cultivators as have
called upon me. They, who have tasted them, admire the
new product, as an excellent variety for the table.

It is a curious and memorable fact, that the farina fecun-
dans of the European chesnut, does, in the manner you
describe, impregnate the American chinquapin. ee

I believe, with you, the principle is capable of extensive
application. Hybrid plants, possessing qualities worthy of
being known and perpetuated, have often appeared. lam
inclined to think, they are more frequent than is generally
supposed. I hope vines may be found susceptible of im-
provement by such an intermarriage ; and that all interested
may experience the benefit, in the better quality of grapes,
and of the precious liquid they afford. :

The world stands very much in need of faithful. observ-
ers, to ascertain facts. Another class of persons is quite
as necessary, I mean those who write and register their re-
marks, for public instruction. Unless the things we know,
are thus put upon record, to travel far and wide among our
contemporaries, and forward a long line to our successors,
they will perish with our failing memories—die with us, or
at farthest, be imperfectly remembered a generation or two
by tradition. wae *

I rejoice that you have set so good an example; and re-
commend it to diligent imitation.

Health and respect,

SAMUEL L. MITCHILI.

Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Guiana, &c. 79

Arr. XI.—4 memoir* on the honey-bees of America, ad-

dressed to the Hon. Samuel L. Mitchill, President
of the Lyceum of Natural History—by J. C. Vanpen
Heuvet, Esq.

~ (Communieated for insertion in this Journal.)

§ IR,

Constperine the institution over which you preside as
the proper depository of such articles of interest or value in
any of the branches of natural history, as may be brought
from foreign countries by private means, I take the liberty
of addressing you for the purpose of contributing to their
cabinet, a collection of bees obtained by me, during a re-
cent residence in Guiana ; indulging a belief that the region
whence it proceeds will rather increase than diminish the
interest which it may excite. While most of the provinces
of South-America have been examined by scientific obser-
vers both of the old and new hemisphere, the portion lying
between the rivers Oronoke and Amazon has attracted but
little of their attention. To this neglect various causes of a
moral and political nature have contributed; but impedi-
ments, arising from the physical aspect of the country, have
been alone sufficient to occasion it. Its immense forests,
almost impervious by their exuberant luxuriance of vegeta-
tion, excited by a tropical sun and humid atmosphere, are
rendered inaccessible during a great part of the year by the
torrents of rain that periodically fall, and descending from
the higher grounds, form vast reservoirs on the intermediate
Savannas ; while a still farther difficulty is presented in the
dreadful aspect of hordes of savages roaming there in prim-
itive rudeness, and in many cases with existing traits of the
wildest ferocity.

In the course of my residence in the province of Deine-
rara, | became acquainted with a German naturalist, Dy.
George Schmidt, who has lived for a number of years in va-
rious parts of Guiana, and is now an inhabitant on the banks

* Dated at New-York, Sept. 21st, 1820, and read before the Lyceum, 25th
Sept. 1820.

80 Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Guiana, Ye.

of the river Essequibo. His assiduous and persevering ex-
ertions have brought to light sufficient data to convey an
idea of the extensive and most interesting treasures of Nat-
ural History, which are contained in that unexplored re-
gion. The department to which he has chiefly devoted
himself, i is that of Entomology, and the abundance and di-
versity of the various tribes of i insects, as disclosed by him,
among which is a vast number heretofore unknown, cannot
be viewed but with mingled delight and astonishment.—
Among the varieties collected by him, 1 was particulary
struck with the number and beautiful diversity of the order
of bees; and presuming that of a country so little known,
any information would be gratifying to Naturalists of the
United States, I obtained from him a preparation of the spe-
_ cies in his possession, and which I have now the pleasure to
present to your highly respectable institution. The num-
ber of bees contained in the collection is twenty, but half of
the whole number (as Dr. Schmidt informed me) which he
had indicated. I regret that no nomenclature attends them,

as in consequence of his discoveries not being completed,

he had not yet bestowed “his attention to that subject. It
may be gratifying, Sir, however to you and others, to learn
the names given to these various species by the Aborigines
of the country, not only as furnishing means for a systematic
discrimination, but also as corroborating the statement of
Dr. Schmidt, of the honey-producing property of all these
- varieties. This information I have derived from an indi-
vidual who was for many years a constant resident among
the savage tribes, and qualified both by education and an in-
quisitive turn, to notice and preserve by written memorials,
whatever important facts came to his knowledge. He took
up his abode chiefly among the celebrated nation of Arro-
wauks, who, ‘distinguished above all the tribes for their
mildness and benevolence ‘of disposition, are also pre-emi-
nent among them as minute observers of all the productions
of nature. Being the original proprietors of the whole coast
of Guiana, though subsequently dispossessed of a portion of
it by the ferocious Charibs; all the rivers and creeks, the
intervening territories and. prominent positions ; all the yari-
eties of animaland vegetable life bear to this day their own
appellations. Like other savages, they are little used to ab-
straction and generalization, but led by their habits, accus-"

Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Guiana, &c. 81

tomed to an attentive observance of external objects, they
evince in the discovery of specific differences,: an inquisi-
tiveness of remark, and nicety of discrimination, which can-
not be surpassed by naturalists whose minds have been dis-
ciplined by systematic studies. Not a tree nor a shrub, no
creature of the air, of the flood or of the forest, however di-
minutive, or kowever rare, throughout the endless distine-
tion of nature, exists without an Arrowauk denomination.
According to the authority referred to, their name for Bee is
Ambani ; and every variety is designated by prefixing to
this word another, indicative of some analogy which its
shape or colour, the acuteness of the sting, or the scent of
the honey bears to:some other object. JMaba is their name
for honey, to which, in like manner, to distinguish its seve-
ral kinds, they prefix the term appertaining to that species
of Bee from which it is obtained. Thus they say Kurewd-
ka-Ambant. Kurewaka is the name of a small Parrot,
whose colour that of the Bee bearing this name resembles ;
and Kurewaka-Maba, is the honey of that Bee. Hydo-
Ambani is a Bee whose honey smells like the milky juice
exuding from a tree, called Hyao: and Yawahu-Ambani is
one whose sting causes fever, Yawahu being their name for
Devil, whom they, like most other rude nations, believe to
be the cause of all diseases, as well as other calamities with .
which they are afflicted. ‘The number of Bees noticed by
my informant is twenty-nine, all of whom he asserts are
honey Bees; the quality of the honey, he moreover adds,
is remarkable for its clearness, thickness and sweetness ;
the wax of a yellowish brown, imparting a fragrant smell.
The following are the Arrawauk names, as furnished by him
for these species : )

ecclire Ga ; Carrion-Bee, (from the smel!
of the honey)

2. Siwiriri, Small...

3. Maburia, Very small.

4. Honno-Honuri, Large. wih
_5. Honno-Honno, Very large.

6. Tuturilu, | - , Large black...
4%. Aikki, Fire, (stings like.)

8. Wakara, White Golding.

9. Wirukuturi, — Yellow-Bird,

iO. Kuyara, Large Deer.

Fou. Wi.e.No. 4d. 1}

82. Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Guiana, &ec.

11. Puteréra, Very painful.

12, Kuriwiri, Blood-letting.

13. Kana, Wild Cow.

14. Haw, The Sloth.

15. Hituri, Black Ape.

16. Kuriwaka, A species of Parrot.

17. Saramma, Largest sort of Parrot.

18. Warumuri, — Long black Ant.

_ 19. Pariéddi, Large White.

20. Léndi Gubi, Calabash..

21. Baraddi, Bill. Bird.

22. Waraddi, Very rare.

23. Kuribiru, Snake Fish.

24. Warakabba, White back.

25. Yawahu, Devil.

26. Sibéru, Frog.

27. Suli-Sali, Sinall black Parrot.

28. Alaso, Small land Turtle.

29, HyAo; ; A Tree that exudes a milky
juice.

In presenting this collection to the Lyceum, I have, Sir,
another pleasure, independent of that of enlarging its cabi-
net. It is derived from the opportunity I have of affording
by ocular evidence, incontestable refutation of a theory
which has been maintained by European writers, of the ori-
gin of the Bees of the western hemisphere. In consequence
of their supposed fewness in North-America, an opinion’
was advanced by the Abbe Raynal that they were brought
there by the first settlers, and is recently put forth in a work.
of credit and general reference, (Rees’ Cyclopedia: Art.
Bees,) in these words:
honey Bee, is an HMuropean insect. It is supposed by Mr. |
Hunter to be an inhabitant of Asia‘and Africa; its appear-_
ance in America may be accounted for in the presumption —
that it was originally introduced there from Europe, and in
the course of time has been completely habituated to. the
climate.” Thus, by an inversion of the rules of just rea-
soning, an hypothesis is formed before acquiring a know-_
ledge of facts, and these, when disclosed, though entirely at
variance with it, must, to support it, be explained away by —
arbitrary assumptions. Of the native origin of the Bee of
North-America, no doubt can be entertained by any one,

“‘'The Apis-mellifica, or common | -

Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Guiana, §c. 83

possessed of the least experience inthe country. Even the
fewness of its numbers may fairly be questioned ; at least if
applied in any other than a comparative sense. In all parts
of this portion of the continent, to the remotest settlements,
honey Bees are found in a wild and unappropriated state in
every wood. Of these there are several varieties which
have never been domesticated, and therefore could never
have been brought from foreign regions. If neither the
climate, nor the fruits of the soil are entirely uncongenial
with the habits of these species, no reason exists for the
presumption that those which are domesticated, are not also
mdigenous. ‘To facts of which we have daily evidence, it
is superfluous to produce written authorities ; but allow me
Sir, to observe, that Carver, in his Travels in North-West-
America, describes the Bee, in connection with the Beaver,
&c. “ as one of those productions almost peculiar to Ameri-
ca,” an opinion very extraordinary, when contrasted with
the hypothesis of Raynal, and which could have arisen only
from his observation of such numbers of this insect, as sur-
passed in his belief the swarms of the old world. Their
mode of depositing their honey is indeed peculiar, and oc-
casioned solely by local causes. Instead of concealing it in
the hollow of a tree, or suspending their hives from the
branches, they place it in a hole made in the ground, their
object being to preserve it from the attacks of tigers. With
reference to the southern portion of North-America, I take
the liberty also, of presenting an anecdote I accidentally met
with, illustrative of the existence of Bees in that quarter.
In Roberts’ History of Florida, it is mentioned that in the
Expedition of Ferdinand De Soto, for the conquest of that
territory in 1539, his army, after a fatiguing march of some
days, besides receiving provisions from the Indians, were
agreeably surprized with the discovery of wild honey in the
woods, which, considering the date of the expedition, must
have proceeded from Bees indigenous to the country.
Their paucity in North-America, admitting it to exist,
might have been accounted for by Raynal, without hazard-
ing the idea of their transmigration from the other continent,
_ by reflecting that the nature of the climate was less favoura-
ble to them, than that of more southern regions; as in Eu-
rope, though they are cultivated to some extent in the north-
ern parts, they are more the objects of the attention of man,

$4 Vanden Heuvel on the Honey Bees of Gmana, &c.

and thrive more under his fostering care, beneath those
warm and indulgent skies, where nature affords nutriment
for them in gay profusion, and lengthened summers pro-
longing their labours render their products of greater impor-

tance. In like manner on the Western NGoisiiwont: itis In.

southern climes that they are found in greatest abundance,
and that the results of their iudustry are most valuable.

The ardent sun of the tropics, which generates in all veg-
etable bodies an increased portion of saccharine matter.
which decks the woods and groves with an endless display
of blossoms and flowers, of aromatic and nectareous fra-
grance, and distils from the trees of the forest in luscious
streams those balmy juices with which it surcharges them,
furnishes a region where Bees may luxuriate in “a wilder-
ness of sweets.” Accordingly in all parts of South Ameri-

ca, and in the West Indies, their different products form —
not only material articles of diet and domestic. utility, but

also very considerable items of foreign exportation.

Along the banks of the Amazon, says Southey, (Ist Vol.
History of Brazil) honey is one of the sree articles of
sustenance of the natives.

In Chili, according to Molini, it is an artielé of commerce _

between several of the provinces.

In Paraguay, wax is one of the two staples of trade ay
the river La Plate, across the country, (Ulloa.)

In Peru, Bees are so numerous, that when one of the
Spanish Generals, on the conquest of it, entered a certain
province, scarce a tree could be cleft but eos, flowed from
the aperture. (Southey.)

The province of Yucatan, in New-Spain, says Hum-
boldt, is so well stored with this insect, that wae is its prin-
cipal export; and in the island of Cuba, adds the same au-
thority, it is so abundant, that in 1803, 45,000 oe or
one million pounds weight of that article was exported.

“In regard to the remaining part of South America, the
collection I lay before the institution, affords a nt
testimony to the point.

Such being the abundance and variety of this insect in the
southern portion of the continent, far superior to all similar
productions of the old world, the idea of its transportation to
those parts from Europe, is manifestly absurd; and’ even if
the North American Bee should be admitted not to be indi-

_ Deposit of Banks of the Rattle Snake. - 85

genous to its own siicnciees an admission, contrary to fact,
and unsupported by the shadow of authority, we should of
course attribute its appearance there to emigration from the
contiguous and well supplied regions of the south, rather
than to transportation by human agency, from the far less.
extensive swarms of another continent. —

On the whole, Sir, from these facts, it appears to me, and |
1 trust will also appear to your better judgment, that the pre-
sumptuous hypothesis of Raynal and his successors, is to be
considered merely as the genuine offspring of the spirit
once so fashionable among a certain class of Furopean wri-
ters, and even now not extinguished, of decrying and dispar-
aging all the productions, Pes aia vegetable, moral and
intellectual, of the Western Hemisphere.

Lf have fie honor to be, Sir, with best wishes for ihe con-
tinued prosperity of your Institution,

Your very respectful,
and obedient humble servant,

J. A. VANDEN HEUVEL.

Arr. XIL.—Some curious facts respecting the Bones of the
Rattle Snake ; communicated for this Journal by Profes-
sor Jacop Green, in a letter to the Editor, dated
Princeton, oe 4) 1920.

- Asovr the year 1748, some labourers in working a quar-
ry in this neighbourhood for the stone with which our Col-
lege is built, discovered a small cavern, which contained
the entire skeletons of an immense number of the rattle
snake, Sa ) ‘The bones were in such quantities as to
require two or three carts for their removal. ‘There can, I
think; be but little doubt, that this cavern had once a small
opening which was afterwards closed by the accidental fall
of a stone, or some other impediment. This cavehas prob-
ably been the winter abode of the rattle snake for years,
where many have died through age, and others in conse-
quence of the circumstance just mentioned. Mr. Hum-
boldt, in the third volume of his Personal Narrative, hints
at an occurrence somewhat similar to the above. ‘1 had
visited the caverns of the Hartz, those of Franconia, and the
beautiful gretto of Treshemienshiz, in the Carpathian

86 =» Deposit of Bones of the Ratile Snake. —

) mountains, which are vast cemeteries of bones of tygers,
hyenas and bears, as large as our horses.” Bakewell, in
his Geology, has an account of the entire skeleton of an Ble
phant of immense size, discovered in Derbyshire, in a cay-
ernous rock composed of marme animals. We supposes
the cavern to have been open, and afterwards closed by the
deposition of calcareous earth, forming stalactites ; instances
of which are common in Der byshibes “ Into this cavern I
conceive, (says he) the animal had retired to die, at a peri-
od long after the existence of the marine animals which are
imbedded i in the surrounding rock.”

The discovery of the organic remains of the rattle stake
in our neighbourhood, may serve as an additional caution
to geologists, not to form theories from isolated facts; and
that if the bones of animals similar to those which now in-
habit cur earth are discovered, with reliques peculiar to
what we now suppose to be ancient strata, a careful exaim-
mation of all the circumstances will sometimes illustrate the
anomaly.

The stones of es our College is built are argillite and
hornblende, taken from various quarries in the neighbour-
hood. In which of these the above remains were discover-
ed | am unable to Siac, but most probably they were in the
argillite. ;

Within the memory of some of the old inhabitants af our
town, rattle snakes were common in this vicinity ; but as
in other places, they have retired as the population has in-
creased to more uncultivated regions. ‘There is a popular |
story among them, that this reptile always retired to his
winter quarters before the leaves of the white ash (Fravinus
discolor) began to fall—the leaf of this tree being peculiarly
obnoxious to him. J am aware that stories of this kind are
not entitled to much credit, and therefore do not intend to
add the leaves of the white ash to the list of antidotes to the
bite of the rattle snake, but merely state i circumstance
to excite further observation. |

Comparison of the Blowpipes of Hare and Brook. 87

CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND THE ARTS.

pe Pi
Arr. XIII.—Upon the fusion of various refractory bodies
by Hare’s Blowpipe.

(Translated from the Annales de Chimie et de Physique of Panis; for July,
1820—Editors Gay Lussac and See)

Tux blowpipe of Hare was described in the Annals of
Chemistry, (Vol. 45, p. 113.) It is supplied by two
streams, one of hydrogen and the other of oxigen, which do
not mix till the moment of their combustion, and conse-
quently are attended by no kind of danger. This blowpipe
is in this respect far preferable to that of Newman, or rath-
er of Brook, who appears to have been the first inventor,
and it is not inferior to it, or only in avery slight* degree, in in-
tensity of heat. We can besides supply it with hydroge
gas and oxigen gas, compressed each in its own reservoir ;
but, if we were to judge of it by the effects produced by this.
instrument, and by that of Brook, there is but little advan-
tage in having recourse to this means.

The simplest mode of constructing Hare’s blowpipe in a
laboratory, would be, by taking two cylindrical bell glasses,
furnished with stop cocks, the horizontal sections of which
(the glasses) should be such, that the one should present a
surface double to that of the other: they are to be fixed in
the pneumatic cistern, the largest to contain oxigen and the
smallest hydrogen. From each of the bell glasses should
proceed a tube, which should terminate in a somewhat mas-
sive cone of platina, perforated with two small ducts, very
near to each other, and corresponding to the two tubes.
The cistern being supposed to be filled with water, and the
bell glasses immersed in it, the gas will escape from them
by opening the stop cocks, always i in the proportion to form
water, which is the best adapted to produce the maximum
of heat.

* Whether it is inferior even in the slightest degree, may be seeu from the
dee comparison of results, foode by Profes ssor Hare, in our last Number.
Editor. i

88 Comparison of the Blowpipes ‘of Hare and Brook.

- Lavoisier, as is well known, by directing oxigen gas upon
burning charcoal, succeeded in melting and volatilizmg some
substances, which, till that time, had been considered as in-
fusible and fixed. (Mém. de l’Acad. 1782 et 1783). He
melted alumine, and many of its mixtures; but he did not
succeed in melting silex, barytes, lime and magnesia. |

Mr. Hare, by means of his blowpipe, pertectly melted
alumine, silex and barytes, but with great difficulty, lime
and magnesia. He brought silver and gold toa state of
ebullition, and succeeded, almost instantly, in volatilizing
completely, globules of platina of more than a line in diame-
ter. (An. de Chim. XLV. 134. et LX. 82.)

Some years afterwards, Mr. Silliman, Professor of Chem-
istry and Mineralogy, who had. co-operated in the early ex-
periments of Mr. Hare, performed new ones, which were
published in 1813, in the first volume of the Memoirs of the
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences; we proceed
to give the principal results. |

Alumine was perfectly melted into a milk white enamel.

Silex, into a colourless glass.

Barytes and strontian into a greyish white enamel.

Glucine and Zircon were perfectly melted into a white
enamel. Saeeug

Lime, prepared by the calcination of Carrara marble, was
melted into a perfectly white and brilliant enamel.

The splendor of the light was such that the eye, when na-
_ked, and even when protected by deeply coloured glasses,
could not sustain it. The lime was seen to become round-
ed at the angles, and gradually to sink down; and in a few
seconds, there remained only a small globular mass. —

Magnesia was affected almost exactly as lime; the light
reflected was equally vivid; the surface was melted into
small vitreous globules. BO ie

Platina was not only melted, but volatilized with strong
ebullition. ke dat Pa

A great number of minerals, such as rock crystal, chal-
cedony, beryl, Peruvian emerald, . peridot, (chrysoberyi)
amphigene, (leucite) disthene, (sappar) corundum, zircon,
spinel-ruby, &c. melted with the greatest facility. aa
~ In subsequent experiments, which Mr. Silliman has com-
municated to us, platina, gold, silver, and many other met-
als -were not only rapidly vaporized, but entered, at the
same time, into beautiful and vivid combustion,

Comparison of the Blowpipe of Hare and Brook. 89

Although the experiments of Mr. Silliman date in 1812,
we have thought that they ought to be known upon our con-
tinent. They demonstrate, on the one hand, that Mr. Clark
has been anticipated in America, with respect to the fusion
of bodies in the flame of hydrogen and oxigen ;—and on the
other, that the blow-pipe of Hare gives results almost per-
fectly identical with those of Brook.

Rémonke by the Editor.

Having, in company with Professor: Griscom, used the
blowpipe of Brook, and repeated with it many of the
experiments cited above, we are constrained to agree
with Messrs. Gay Lussac and Arago, (an authority which
both on this point, and on that of priority, will proba-
bly be admitted as of the first import,) and to say
that we can perceive very little, if any superiority which
Brook’s instrument has over the prior and original inven-
tion of Mr. Hare. ‘The exact apportionment of the gases
is, at first view, a consideration of importance—but in prac-
tice, (and we speak from a long course of experience with
Mr. Hare’s instrument,) it is really found of very small mo-'
ment. A little habit in using the instrument, soon enables
the operator to decide by the eye, from the size and intensi-
ty of the flame—especially when directed upon any object,
whether the proportions are right, and nothing is easier than
to alter them, by simply turning the key of one stop cock,
or of the other, as may appear necessary. Wecan say with
the utmost confidence, that there is no difficulty on that
head, and the results with the two instruments sufficiently
establish this fact.

Theory would probably Jead us to opens much from the
effect of pressure—but here again we were, when using
Brook’s instrument, greatly disappoimted. We raised the
pressure, by forcing in the mixed gases till the flat sides of
the thick and strong copper parallelopiped, which is em-
ployed as a recipient, were swollen out tll they were all
distinctly convex, and yet the intensity of the flame did not
appear to surpass that produced by Mr. Hare’s instrument,
used with the aid of a pressure of a few inches of water.

Ought we, however, even from theory, to expect any
advantage from pressure, bevond that which may cause the

Vou Ti. No. 1. 12

90 Comparison of the Blowpipe of Hare and Brook.

gases to flow decidedly to the focus, and with such rapidity
as to keep up a constant supply. As there is nothing to
confine the stream of gas—no reacting force, particularly
on the sides of the stream, except simply the pressure of
the atmosphere, will not the effect of great pressure be, to
dissipate laterally, a portion of the gases, so that they will.
not arrive at the focus, either burning out of it, or possibly,
even to some extent, escaping combustion. |

In Brook’s instrument also, were a high pressure deemed
of advantage, it is evidently very transient, as, the moment
the gases begin to flow, it is dimmished, probably, in a ge-
ometrical ratio, aud it is very soon reduced to a pressure
not superior to that exerted in Mr. Hare’s. From the small
capacity of the reservoir, the entire duration of one charge
of gas is also very short, and it is burnt outim a minute or:
two. It is true, it is possible i in some measure to compen-
sate for this defect, by employing an assistant to inject gas
constantly while the flame is burning, but this, besides the
inconvenience of the thing, would probably eccasion hilo
tions in the flame.

The reservoir for Brook’s blowpipe may, indeed, be made
‘stronger and larger to any extent—but whe (considering the
evident liability to explosion which, after all the ingenious
contrivances to prevent it, does occasionally happen) would
wish to be in the vicinity of even a cubic foot of these gases
which, when kindled, would, of course, exert, in their ex-
plosion, a force proportioned to the resistance of the walls
of the reservoir, and might therefore pene fragments, with
even fatal velocity, * t-

'* That this inference is not unfounded, will perhaps appear from the fol-
jowing fact. We had been accustomed (borrowing the experiment from —
the late Dr. Woodhouse, of Philadelphia) to mix fulminating mercury and
oxy muriate (chlorate) of potash by agitating them on an open paper by a
feather; they were then gently poured into {he bowl of acommon tobacco
pipe; and exploded by pouring sulphuric acid from a long g pole ; the expto-
sion was always very violent, but no barm happened from the fine frag-
ments, into which the pipe bow! was alwa ays broken.

On one occasion, we substituted for the pipe bowl, a common Gaeiie can-
dle extingnisher, placing it with the vertes,of Back dice nwards, in an iron
candlestick, which was intended to actas a support. _We were aware, thai
by the explosion, the tin recipient would be torn, but we imagined that the-

fraginents would hardly be projected, or, if they were, it was concluded.
that, on account of their thinness, they would not be propelled to any.
distance, nor with sufficient momentum, todo any harm. But when the’
explosion occurred, the iron candlestick was split, although no part of if

Comparison of the Blowpipe of Hare and Brook. 91

Especially, would this danger be serious, were such vol-
umes of the gases employed as to keep up a train of experi-
ments for hours, without recruiting the gases. This is the
case in the large pneumatic cistern in the Laboratory of
Yale College. ~The recipients for gas, in this, amount col-
lectively to the capacity of fifty gallons; they are all con-
nected at pleasure; the gas in them, when they are full,
has a pressure of fifteen inches of water, and the consump-
tion of half a cubic foot of gas reduces. the pressure only
one inch, and so in proportion.

_ This instrument, or one on similar principles, has been in
use, in our hands, for-the purposes of the compound blow-
pipe, seventeen or eighteen years; and no explosion ever
occurred, or can occur, because the well of the cistern is
between the two hostile gases.

The scale of the instrument has enabled us to baie,
even to luxury, in the numerous and splendid experiments
of fusions and combustions, which were performed on most
substances that possess any particular interest, in the suc-
cessive public courses of chemistry before the various clas-
ses, as well as in private researches, for years before the

‘Cambridge experiments were ever heard of.

Application of Hare’s oe. to the synthetical formation
of Water.

The synthetical formation of water, from the combustion
of the oxigen and hydrogen gases, is of course an interest-
ing experiment, to all who attend on a course of chemica!
demonstrations.

The apparatus of Lavoisier, or rather.an enlarged and
improved one which we had made under our direction, in
London, exhibits the fact extremely well; but the appara-
ius is expensive,—rather complicated, ae not without some
pevet difficulties in a the use. )

was missing; and the fragments of the tin extinguisher were shot out
among the audience, to the distance of twenty feet ail around ; several
persons were scratched, and one young man had the right temporal artery
divided, so as to produce a copious hemorrhage ; perhaps this little i inci-
dent will justify the remarks in the text.

92 Comparison of the Blowpipe of Hare and Brook.

We have, this season, availed ourselves of Mr. Hare’s
blowpipe, and have applied it with good success, to exhibit

the formation of water. For this purpose, the two tubes

which end in the frustrum of platina, are screwed out and

inserted through a cork: they are then again screwed into

the platina, and are lastly connected with the tubes which —

lead to the reservoirs of gas, exactly as when we are to use
the compound blowpipe.
An apothecary’s bottle, which should be from fifteen to

eighteen inches high, and of the capacity of about three or.

four gallons, is then filled with oxigen gas. This is easily _

done, without the air pump, by using a tube bent twice at

right angles, and long enough to. reach with one leg to the
bottom of the bottle: ; the other leg i is screwed to the stop

cock of a large bell glass; this last is filled with oxigen gas, _

and by being pressed into the well of the pneumatic eistene,

while the long leg of the bent tube is passed to the bottom |
of the large bottle, on turning the key of the stop cock of

the bell glass, the oxigen gas flows in, and lifts the common
air out, cad takes its place, thus filling the bottle with an at-
mosphere of oxigen gas, without resorting to the air pump,

and without wetting the inside of the bottle, which would,-

of course, render the experiment nearly nugatory, and the
result ambiguous. Jt is known when the bottle is filled with
oxigen gas, “by Elieing a taper, that instant blown out, to
the mouth of the boule, when if fall, the taper will be re-
lighted.

“Things being thus arranged, the flame of the poanaed
blow pipe is lighted, and Is jntroduced into the bottle, taking

eare not to bring it within nine or ten inches of the bottom: ~
the cork which is on the tubes, cleses: the mouth of the

bottle,* which is, from the first moment, kept cold. by.

copious streams of water poured incessantly over the
shoulders of the bottle, which, if neglected for a minute or
two, will grow hot—the vapour of the water formed will no
longer condense—it remains in the condition of steam, and

if the bottle be tight, will produce an explosion; or, if after

the glass is once hot, we attempt to pour on water, the bot-
tle cracks. But, by reasonable attention, theres is no diffi-

* Not, however, nbsolulely tight, fer fear os explosion, from the great

rarefaction arising ‘from De heat.

Professor Green on a case of sudden Crystahization. | 93

culty, and we let in both gases at once, or the hydrogen
only, and the oxigen as it is wanted, and thus produce as
much water as we choose, or as our gases will afford.

The experiment may be performed without first filling
the bottle with oxigen gas, and by operating with it full of
common air, but the nitrogen, ina degree, obstructs the
combustion, and the result is less satisfactory.

This little application of Mr. Hare’s blowpipe may, per-
haps, be of some use to chemical demonstrations, and
serves to evince the additional value of this fine instrument.

For an illustration of the above description, see the draw-
ing ona plate, at the end of this Number, where a section
of the pneumatic cistern, with the air cells—the recurved
tubes coming from them and terminating in the blowpipe,
and the connexion of the latter with the bottle, are ex-
hibited.

Arr. XIV.—On an instance of instantaneous Crystaliza-
tion—by Professor Green, of Princeton.

Tue instantaneous erystalization of a saturated solution
of the sulphate of soda or common Glauber’s salt, is fa-
miliar to every one who makes chemical experiments, and
perhaps the crystaline process I shall now mention, has been
often noticed before—I send you, however, the following
account, as I have not seen it any of the books on Chem-
istry. ’

In preparing the nitric acid from nitrate of potash and
sulphuric acid, I had occasion to stop the process just as
the red fumes of the nitrous gas made their appearance,
and of course, when the nitrate of potash was completely
dissolved in the sulphuric’acid—the next day I found the
solution perfectly transparent, and upon admitting the at-
mospheric air no change took place, but upon dropping into
it a small piece of the nitrate of potash, crystalization im-
mediately ensued, and the whole was quickly solidified.
There was, I think, a larger quantity of caloric extricated
during the above process, than in the instantaneous crystali-
zation of the sulphate of Soda—another difference was,
ihat the solidification did not. as far as I observed, com-

94 Morey on Mineral Waters, &¢.

mence on the upper surface and proceed gradually down-
wards, as in the sulphate of soda, but began to form: round
the small pieces of nitre which were thrown in.

Other particulars might be stated, but as the phenomena
are probably familiar to you, I omit them.

The above experiment is another proof that atmospheric
pressure is not essential to the crystalization of salts, nei-
‘ther could the phenomena be ascribed to the sudden’ ob-
struction of a portion of heat from the liquid on the admis-
sion of air, as the crystals were not first formed on the
surface ; hesides: I found in one or two instances, the fluid
erystalized throughout, when there was no Ex pOSULe: to the
air. 3

From the numerous experiments on saline crystalization,
made by Dr. Coxe of Philadelphia,* and Professor Ure of
the Glasgow Institution, no correct inferences, it appears,
can as yet be deduced ‘from the facts. The last gentleman
supposes that negative electricity may be the ies employ-
ed by nature.

Should not the erystals formed in the experiment I have
described, be called the Nitro-Sulphate of Potash?

2

Arr. XV.—On Ariifiecal Mineral Waters, ‘lth some re-
marks on Artificial Light ; Oy SAMUEL Morey, of Or-
ford, Vew-Hampshire.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Dear Si,

Besse something for the American Jounal may be
selected from the following thoughts and experiments, the
object of which is to furnish, ata cheap rate, an abundant
supply of light for many purposes, and also. to raultiply
fountains, such as those of Seltzer, Saratoga, &c. at such an
expense, and in such quantities and situations, that the calls
and necessities of every one may be conveniently gah

* See Annals of Philosophy, Vol. VI. page 101.

+ See Journal of Science and Arts, by Broude; Vol. ¥. page i06

Morey on Mineral Waters, &e. 95.

it is. well known, that the vapour of water, in passing
through ignited charcoal, is decomposed. If the product is
made to pass through water, the carbonic acid gas is ab-
sorbed, and the hydrogen is so far separated, as to be at
command for furnishing light, filling balloons, or other pur-
poses... If water be composed of 85 parts of oxygen and
15 of hydrogen,* and carbonic acid gas of about 28. of
carbon, in the 100; one pound of charcoal and not far
from four of water, ought to give something like two hun- -
dred and fifty gallons of carbonic acid gas, or enough to
supply that quantity of as nearly strongly impregnated
mineral water as is to be found in nature ;} and near five
hundred gallons, or about seventy-five cubic feet of hidro-.
gen gas, something like equal to ee -five pounds, or six
wax candles burning twenty-five hours, for affording light:
Some very trifling addition of spirit of turpentine or other
substance will be required to make the flame white. These
vases, as formed, may be forced into the aqueduct of a lim-
ited quantity of water, to be conveyed along with it tosome
desirable situation to be let out for use. The quantity of
water let in will depend on the quantity of mineral water
wanted. Ifa flame be applied to the surface of these
fountains, the hydrogen gas takes fire and burns on the sur-
face of the water: thereby, perhaps, exposing some . na-
ture’s hidden operations.

In this way, Towns, Cities, and Manufactories, may be,
ior aught that yet appears, supplied with a pleasant, healthy
jee and at the same time, and from the same materials,
abundantly lighted... There must be an addition of some
‘kinds of fuel, to preserve the red heat of the charcoal, and
io evaporate the water. But that will be trifling, especially
if it be a fact, as I fully believe, that carbonic acid gas, in
forming, always gives out, instead of absorbing, heat. If
$0, it is at least one source. of animal heat. As yet, my
attention, so far as my health would permit, has been di-
rected chiefly witha view to come at an easy mode of fur-

* The mostrecent authorities give the composition of water at 88.24 of
exigen, and 11.76 of hidrogen —Edilor.

t Gaoitie acid gas derived direcily from almost any species of burning
tuel, would be very prone to impart an empyreumatic taste and smell to
the water in which it is condensed.—Editor.

a Morey on Mineral Waters, &¢.

nishing mmeral springs, by the disengagement of the car-
_bonic “acid from marble, by the stronger acids. For that
purpose and others, 1 had a small cool spring of water
_ brought in a wooden aqueduct about one hundred and fifty
yards, having a descent of fifty feet, all the way on an in-
clined plane, so that the water should in nO instance, fill
the bore of the logs, and obstruct the passage of the gas OV
gases, if turned into the aqueduct with the water, or forced
in at the bottom. I found no difficulty in filling the aque-
duct with water, so as to give a pressure or head equal to
thirty or forty feet perpendicular. Very fine streams of wa-
ter, issuing under any thing like this head, and coming in
contact at nearly a right angle, with a plane surface, were
converted into a spray, as fine, much of it, as mist. When
this mist or spray was forced into an atmosphere of pretty
strongly compressed carbonic acid gas, it became suitably
impregnated with the gas, so as to form a very pleasant
drink. ‘To facilitate the impregnation, and to prevent a
possibility of any of the sulphuric acid being retained by
the water, and for other purposes, I filled. the vessel, (a
common three gallon stone jug answers well,) about two-
thirds or three-fourths, with grains of the marble, about the
size of large peas: the spray falling on these, passing slow-
_ly from one piece to another, gives more time and presents
an immense surface to the gas. In this way, water under a
pressure of twenty or thirty feet head, or much less, i issuing
at the rate of about two half-pint tumblers per minute, ‘flows
in, pure spring water at the top, and flows out nearly or per-
fectly saturated at the bottom: as much so nearly as any
known natural mineral spring. By adding one vessel: to
the top of another, or increasing the length, and increasing
tbe pressure, any desired quantity of the gas may be added
to the water.. Indeed, any part or the whole length of the
aqueduct may be filled with these fragments and with those
of iron. ‘The gas and water evidently dissolve more or
less of the lime and iron. Carbonate of soda, or any other
substance which renders the water more healthy or useful,
may be added in any desired quantity. The quantity of
‘water that flows in, may be regulated or stopped so as to
“meet very exactly the call or demand there shall be for the
rineral water. ‘The overplus of the spring water is applied
to keep the vegsels and mineral water coo!. This mineral

/

Morey on Mineral Waters, &e OF

water, with a portion of the gas, may be continued into an
aqueduct, and discharged into the bottom of a box, in which
they will rise up feruse, with the same bubbling appear-
ance as those of the natural mineral waters. Some of the
marble which I use appears to contain much sulphuretted
hidrogen,* and some iron pyrites. If the mineralized wa-
ter stands a day or two on these fragments of lime, it gives
the water as strong a smell and taste of this gas probably as
any natural spring in the world: and there is an appear-
ance of iron being deposited from this water by standing
m a glass vessel. How easy then to produce at one estab-
lishment, from a single spring of pure water, our choice of
any number of mineral waters, and those as good as any to
be found in nature or possibly better.

If the vinous fermentation should be adopted for pro-
‘curing the carbonic gas, a flood of it may be procured from
many sources, not only without expense, but even at a
profit.

But in those situations, where these waters will be most
wanted, and where they are much the most useful, I know
of no reason why an abundant supply of the gas, ready
formed, may not always be had, and that without expense——
-Tallude to brewertes. At as many of these as is neces-
sary (where there is steam or other power) it will be but to
avail ourselves of a forcing pump to drive the gas, as formed
and purified or from reservoirs, into suitable pipes with a
sufficient quantity of water, to be conducted to some pleas-
ant, suitable situation, far enough to have the water properly
impregnated, and then to be let out for use. If a greater
pressure than what the ground naturally affords, be wanted,
it is only to add at the outlet, a valve sufficiently loaded.
A small fountain may receive the water and overplus gas
above the valve, or they may be drawn below.

It appears necessary, that where the gas is disengaged
from limestone, the vessel containing that and the diluted
acid should in some way be agitated, so as to shift the posi-

* It is doubtless one of those fetid although erystaline and decidedly primi-
tive lime stones, which have been found repeatedly of late in this country :
their existence must give rise to interesting geological speculations. Is the
sulphuretted hidrogen, from which fetor is probably derived, owing to the
decomposition of pyrites by moisture? Pyrites often exists in primitive
rocks, but animal bones never.—-Lidilor.

Vor. TIL....No. 1. 13

98 Morey on Mineral Waters, &c.

tion of the pulverized marble. The best mode I have
tried as yet, is to cause the vessel to revolve, say a stone
jug, on an axis and end over end: and to have a portion of
the marble coarse. As the sulphate of lime forms on the

surface of these lumps, by their friction in rolling over each:
other, it appears to be worn off, presenting continually fresh

surface for the acid to act upon, and thereby continuing ve-
ry regularly, its operation ever so long. ‘These vessels may
be made to revolve (very slowly if necessary) by weights,

springs, or a part of the water—or may occasionally be
moved by hand. The gas presses out at one end of this
axis. A very cheap, quick, and agreeable mode of pre-
paring the water, where we have (or have not) an aqueduct
or head to resort to, is to take four or five, or more decan-.
ters, say of the capacity of a quart; fill them with fragments
of marble—set them in a row or other form, each with a
good cork; let atin tube screw upon the axis to receive
the gas, and press pieces of cork or other stuffing to the
vessel, to make it tight around the axis., This tube, near
the other end, is of a conical form, and turned down at a
right angle far enough to be inserted through the cork of
the first bottle: another tube, turned down at each end, so
that one leg shall pass through the cork also, to the bottom
of the first decanter, and the other through the cork of the
second decanter; and so on with as many as are to be used.

A small reservoir is to be placed. as' many feet above as
convenient, and the first'vessel, with a small pipe leading
down and through the: first cork, with an opening at the
lower end about one- -thirtieth of an inch in diameter. A
quantity of pulverized lime and water may be put into the
revolving vessel ; then more water, containing a small quan-
tity of clay or sulphate of lime. This, will be deposited on
the lime, so as to prevent the action of the acid when pour-
ed in, which may now be added, and this vessel corked.

It is now ready foruse. Put coal water: into the reservoir,
turn the vessel moderately a very little, if the gas is not al-
ready forming fast enough. The water strikes on the first
fragments of stone, is throw n over them, and passes over

the surface, from one to another, to the bottom, where it is

continually taken up by the tube with a pertion of the gas,

and discharged just below the cork of the second vessel ;
or thrown out in a spray by and with the gas; or else dis-

Morey on Mineral Waters, &c. 99

charged at the lower end of the tube in bubbles; thereby
furnishing a carbonic gas within and without, with an al-
most infinitely thin film of water between, to absorb it on
each side. By continuing the same process, it passes the
whole, let the number be ever so many. At the last one it
is thrown out, through a stop cock, as at common soda wa~-
ter establishments, or flows out in a continued stream with
the gas. It may be well to fill the first decanter, or even all
of them, with water, and discharge it into the last one, by
the gas, before the water is let in from the reservoir above.
These glass vessels may be placed ina trough to keep them
cold: this can stand on a table or side board, where the do-
mestics or other members of the family, may at any time
furnish a bottle or bottles of the mineral water when
wanted.

If tin plate tubes will answer, it is but a short day’s work
to prepare this apparatus, which may afford sixty or one
hundred and twenty tumblers per hour, with half a dozen
decanters. By increasing their number or size, any given
quantity in this way can be constantly or occasionally sup-
plied. One pound of sulphuric acid, if 1 mistake not,
ought to furnish gas enough to saturate sixty or seventy gal-
lons, or not far from one thousand tumblers of water. Ex-
periments, I think, justify me in saying, we may expect not
far from half this quantity, practically. I can but hope,
and do believe, if owned and properly managed by corpo-
rations and companies, it may and will do much, very much
towards annihilating the use of ardent spirits, as well as be
the means of saving many annually from an untimely death,
by drinking cold water, to say nothing of its usefulness in
other respects.

When currents of this gas, conveniently situated, are
found issuing naturally from the earth, they may be turned
to account. As for instance, at the Grotto del Cane, two
miles from Naples: if the gas from this grotto were receiv-
ed into an aqueduct, and carried in the direction of Naples,
or in any others, until a supply of water could be added,
_ the current might be continued until the gas and water were

perfectly united, and then they might be let out for use in
any situation most agreeable, or most conducive to the
comfort and convenience of that city and country.

_ Ornrorp, Sept. 27, 1820.

100 Liemoval of a Paratytic Affection

ia s Rosterints : Beet cele Beads
F rom an ounce of sulphuric acid, I oon obtain a
may say without trouble) about twenty ieablers of as ples
ant drink asJI could ask or wish for.
It isa great luxury, and I have no doubt that it has been
of much service to my health. The sulphate of lime here,
is worth six or eight times what the ground poarble'e costs.

Arr. XVI.—Case of a Paralytic Peectiong: cured by a
stroke of lightning. Communicated for this Journal, by
D. Otmsrep, a os or Chemistry in the College of
North Carolina.

Tue following case of recovery from a paralytic affection
by a violent stroke of lightning, was first mentioned to me
by a very respectable gentleman i in whose hearing I had re-
cited the well known galvanic experiments, performed by
Dr. Ure, of Glasgow, on the body of a culprit. My in-
formant not having had opportunity to investigate the facts,
was so obliging as to direct me to such sources of informa-_
tion as could be relied on; and J have since been favoured
with letters from the mdividual himself, and from respecta-
ble gentlemen in his neighbourhood. Common report, as
usual, had represented ihe case in the most marvellous col-
ours, from which it would appear, that tottering and wrink-
led age being restored, in an instant, to vigorous and
blooming youth, was no longer a matter of fable, - Accord-
ing to this authority, “the patient (Mr. Samuel Leffers of
Carteret County, N. C.) having reached a very advanced —
age, and suffering so severely under: a paralytic affection —
that his feet were unable to support him, and his face was
greatly distorted, acquired at once the full activity of his
early years, and a remarkable smoothness and beauty of
complexion. This complete exemption from decay and
infirmity, and the entire possession of his intellectual fac-
ulties, he had retained ever since, during a period of four-
teen years, which had brought him upon the verge of four-
score years and ten.’

' Desirous to ascertain how pines of this story was
matter of fact, l commenced a correspondence which finally

by a stroke of Lightning. 101

introduced me to Mr. Leffers himself, who is still living on
the eastern coast of this state, and has attained the age of
eighty-four years. As was anticipated, the marvellous cir-
cumstances reported of the case have dwindled away toa
small compass; but enough, perhaps, remains to render
the case somewhat interesting to those who cultivate the
study of medical electricity.

I beg leave to give the facts in the language of Mr. Lef-
fers himself, only premising, that I have received the most
ample and satisfactory testimonials of his perfect integrity,
particularly from the Rev. Mr. Arendell of Beaufort, who
characterizes his life ‘as affording a model of every vir-
tue.” The presumption, also, that the facts, as related by
himself, may be relied on, is strengthened by the simpli-
city of his narrative, divested as it is of all those marvel-
lous appendages, with which common report had amplified
and embellished the story. ‘The account is as follows.

“In the summer of 1806, waking after a night of quiet
rest, I felt an unusual numbness in the left side of my face. |
I was not alarmed, thinking it might be occasioned by lying
too long on that side; but on rising, I felt the effects more
painfully—I could not throw the spittle from my mouth;
and found great difficulty in speaking ; my eyelid was per-
manently fixed, while the eye remained open, and I was
unable to close it. These symptoms made me apprehen-
sive of having received a stroke of the palsy. After
some time, the disorder abated in other parts, and centered
im the eye, which, remaining uncovered both by day and
night, was exposed to constant injury.

‘Such was my situation until the 10th of August follow-
ing, when, as I was walking my floor during a thunder-
storm, I was struck down by lightning. After lying sense-
less fifteen or twenty minutes, (as it appeared,) | revived so
far as to be sensible of my situation, and to perceive the
objects around me. I recovered the use-of my senses and
of my limbs, by degrees, during the remainder of the day
and night, and felt so well the next day, that | was inclined
to give to a distant friend, an account of what had happen-
ed. I expected my letter would be short and imperfect
through want of eye-sight; but was most agreeably sur-
prised to find myself able to write a long letter without the

102 | On the Divining Rod.

use of glasses. Since that time, I have not felt a Bynipiain
of the paralytic disorder, but have reason to conclude that
it was effectually cured by the shock. But I have reason
to think, that the same cause which restored my sight, im-
paired my hearing, since a deafness commenced at the
same time, which has continued to the aa hour.
I am, Sir, with respect,
Your obedient servant,

SAMUEL LEFFERS. ic

‘Nie: XVII om the Dwining Rod, with reference to the

use made of it in evploring for Spri mes of water ; im
letter to the Editor, dated

Norrorx, (Con.) Oct. 23, 1820.

Remark.—¥very person, in the least conversant with the objects
of a scientific Journal, must be aware that an Editor is, 2m no case,
answerable for the opinions of his correspondents. We are will-
ing to preserve all well authenticated facts respecting the divining
rod, although we have the misfortune to be sceptical on that sub-
ject: perhaps, however, we ought in candor to add, that we have
never seen any experiments. Those so often related by the igno-
‘rant, the credulous, the cunning, and.the avaricious, are, in general,
aavorthy of notice’; but when attested by such authority as that of
the Reverend eentleman, whose name is sane to this letter, they
will ever command our ready attention.

Dear Sir,

Tam highly pleased with your Journal of Science ; and
doubt not of its being at once a source of instruction 1 and
an honor to our country.

Permit me to suggest the propriety of inserting an arti-
| ele, embodying a sufficient number of well authenticated
facts on the use of ‘* mining rods” in discovering fountains
of water under ground, to put their utility beyond a doubt.
1 presume that. yourself or some of your correspondents
are already in possession of such facts and could easily fur-
nish the article.

For myself, I, was totally sceptical of their efficacy, till
convinced by my own senses.

On the Divining Rod. 103
My class-mate, the Rev. Mr. Steele, of Bloomfield, N.

Y. called on me, a few weeks ago, and, in conversation on
the subject, informed me that the rods would “ work” in
his hands. We made the experiment. A twig of the
peach was employed for the purpose. It was at once man-
ifest that it bent, and often withed down from an elevation
of 45° to a perpendicular, over particular spots; and when
we had passed them, it assumed its former elevation. At
one spot in particular, the effect was very striking, and he
at once said there must be avery large current of water
passing under that place, or it must be very near the surface.
Linformed him that a large perennial spring issued at the
distance of perhaps fifty rods, and requested him to trace
the current, without informing him of the direction of the
spring. He did so, and it led him, in nearly a direct lime,
to the spring, which was so situated as to prevent his dis-
covering it till within one or two rods of its mouth. ‘The
mode of his tracing it, resembled that of a dog on his mas-
ter’s track, crossing back and forth, and he proceeded with
as little hesitation. The result, however inexplicable, re- |
moved all my doubts. It was in vain for me to reply
against the evidence of my senses, by saying, How can this
be? and why should not these rods operate in the hands of
one as wellas another? |

On a journey I have since taken to the south-east part of
New-Hampshire, I was pleased to learn the practical use
which has been made of these rods in that region, for a
year or two past, in fixing on the best places for wells. [I
was informed, by good authority, of a man, in that vicinity,
who could not only designate the best spot, but could tell
how many feet it would be needful to dig to find water; and
that he had frequently been employed for this purpose with-
out having failed in a single instance. I will recite one case
out of a number which were told me. A man who had
dug in vain for a good well near his house, requested his
advice. On experiment of the rods, the best place was
found to be directly under a favorite shade tree in front of
the house; and there the proprietor was assured he would
find abundance of water at a moderate depth. But on re-
flection, he was loth to sacrifice the tree, and concluded it
would answer as well to dig pretty near it. He dug; and
after sinking the shaft much deeper than had been directed,

104 "On the Divining Rod.

abandoned it in despair. He soon complained of his dis-

appointment. ‘ Did you then dig in the precise spot I told
you ba ‘‘T dug as near it as I could without injuring the
tree.” ‘*Go home and dig up that tree, and if you do not
find water at the specified depth, I will defray the expence.”

He did so; and obtained an excellent well at the given
depth.

As to the depth, it occurred to me at once, when seeing
the operation of the rods in the hands of Mr. Steele, that
it might be easily ascertained, by taking the angle they
inade at a few feet from the spot where. they became di-
rectly vertical ; and this, I conclude, is the mode of ascer-
taining it, though I was not informed.

Het me also mention a fact in optics, which I have 1 not
before witnessed, and which occurred to me when travelling
recently in company with a friend. As we were descend-
ing the hill perhaps two miles this side of Tolland, we
were admiring the fine view of the highlands, which are
seen stretching from north to south on the west of the Con-
necticut. All at once, the northern half of the range ap-
peared to change from the brown hue of an autumnal for-
est, to a bright and beautiful green, resembling the verdure
of a rich pasture in the spring, or a distant wood of deep
evergreens. But after descending a few rods further, it
assumed its native aspect. The sun, about three hours be-
fore setting, was then shining very brightly on the range,
and the sky clear, though damp. I conclude the effect was
produced by the particular angle of reflection, and the state
of the atmosphere. .

Yours with respect,
RALPH EMERSON.

P. S.—One morning, we witnessed a beautiful exhibi-
tion in nature, of the ‘ sun’s drawing water,” (asit is com-
monly termed,) produced by the shadow of a copse ona
hill, projected across a valley filled with a dense fog. It
led me to conclude, that that appearance is never produced
except in clouds of so thin a texture that the sun can shine
through them—contrary to what I had before supposed.
But you are too familiar with so common a phenomenon, to

-need any remarks upon it from me. R. E,

Hare’s New Calvange Sapo Theory, ce. 105

pe XVII. a Memoir on some new Modifications of
Galvanic Apparatus, with Observations in support of his
New Theory of Galvanism. By R. Harz, M. D. Pro-
om of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania.

‘From a bribed: paper, communicated to the Editor, by the author, and
copied from the Philadelphia Medical Journal.)

I wap observed that the ignition produced by one or r two
galvanic pairs attained its highest intensity, almost as soon
as they were covered by the’ acid used to excite them, and
ceased soon afterwards; although the action of the acid
should have increased during the interim. TI had also re-
marked in using an apparatus of three hundred pairs of
small plates, that a platina wire, No. 16, placed in the
circuit, was fused in consequence of a construction which
enabled me to plunge them all nearly at the same time. It
was therefore conceived, that the maximum of effect in
voltaic apparatus of extensive series had never been attain-
ed. The plates are generally arranged in distinct troughs
rarely containing more than twenty pairs. Those of the
great apparatus of the Royal Institution, employed by Sir
H. Davy, had only ten pairs in each. There were one
hundred such to be successively placed in the acid, and the
whole connected ere the poles could act. Consequently
the effect which arises immediately after i immersion, would
be lost in the troughs first arranged, before it could be pro-
duced in the last; and no effort appears to have been made
to take advantage of this transient accumulation of power,
either in using that magnificent combination, or in any other
of which I have read. In order to observe the consequence
of simultaneous immersion with a series sufficiently nu-
merous to test the correctness of my expectations, a gal-
vanic apparatus of eighty concentric coils of copper and
zine, was so suspended by a beam and levers, as that they
might be made to descend into, or rise out of the acid in
-aninstant. The zine sheets were about nine inches by six,
the copper fourteen by six; more of this metal being ne-
cessary, as in.every coil it was made to commence within
the zine, and completely to surround it without. The
sheets were coiled so as not to leave between them an in-

Sor. BEEN. 1.” 14

106 Hare's New Galvanie anyon tars Theory, &c.

terstice wider than a quarter of an inch. Each coil is in
diameter about two inches and a half, so that. all ‘may de-
scend freely into eighty glass jars two inches and three

quarters diameter inside, and eight inches high, duly sta-

tioned to receive them.*

My apparatus being thus arranged, two small lead pines:

were severally soldered to each pole, anda piece of char-

coal about a quarter of an inch thick, and an inch anda half

long, tapering a little at each extremity, had these sever ally
inserted into the hollow ends of the pipes: The jars being
furnished with diluted acid and the coils suddenly lowered
into them, no vestige of the charcoal could be seen: It was
ignited so intensely, that those portions of the pipes by
which it had been embraced were destroyed. In order to
avoid a useless and tiresome repetition, I will here state
that the coils were only kept in the acid while the action

at the poles was at a maximum in the experiment just men-

tioned, and in others which I am about to describe, unless.
where the decomposition produced by water is spoken of,
or the sensation excited in the hands. I designate the ap-
paratus with which I performed them, as the galvanic de-
Hagrator, on account of its superior power, in proportion to
its size, in causing deflagration; and as, in the form last
adopted, it differs from the voltaic pile in the omission of
one of the elements heretofore deemed necessary to. its
construction.

Desirous of ‘seeing the effect of the simultaneous immer-
sion of my series upon water, the pipes soldered to the poles.
were introduced into a vessel containing that fluid. No ex-
traordinary effect was perceived, until they were very near,
when a vivid flash was cbserved, and happening to touch
almost at the same time, they were found fused and incor-
porated at the place of contact. -T next soldered to each
pipe a brass cylinder about five-tenths of an inch bore.
These cylinders were made fo receive the tapering extrem-
ities of a piece of charcoal about two inches long so as to
complete the circuit. The submersion of the coils caused
the most vivid ignition in the coal. It was instantaneously
and entirely on fire. A piece of platina of about a quarter
of an inch diameter in connexion with one-pole, was in-

v

* See Bhates 27

4.

Hare’s New Galvanc Apparatus, Theory, &c. 107

stantly fused at the end on being brought in contact with

some mercury communicating with the other. When two

cylinders of charcoal having hemispherical terminations

were fitted into the brass cylinders and brought nearly into

contact, a most vivid ignition took place, and continued

after they were removed about a half or three quarters of
an inch apart, the interval rivalling the sun in brilliancy.

The igneous fluid appeared to proceed from the positive

side. The charcoal in the cylinder soldered to the latter

would be intensely ignited. throughout when the piece con-

nected with the negative pole was ignited more towards

the extremity approaching the positive. The most intense

action seems to arise from placing a platina wire of about
the eighth of an inch diameter, in connexion with the posi-
tive pole, and bringing it in contact with, and afterwards:
removing it a small distance apart from a piece of charcoal,
(fresh from the fire) affixed to the other pole.

As points are pre-eminently capable of carrying off (with-
out being injured) a current of the electrical fluid, and very
ill qualified to conduct caloric; while by facilitating radia-
tion, charcoal favours the separation of caloric from the
electricity which does not radiate ; this result seems consist-
ent with my hypothesis, that the fluid as extricated by Vol-
ta’s pile is a compound of caloric and electricity ;* but not

* According to the theory here alluded to, the galvanic fluid owes its
properties to caloric and electricity ; the former predominating in propor-
tion to the size of the pairs, the latter in proportion to the number, being in
both cases excited by a powerful acid. Hence in batteries which combine
both qualifications sufficiently, as in all those intervening between Chil-
dren’s large pairs of two feet eight inches by six feet, and the 2000 four-
inch pairs of the Royal Institution, the phenomena indicate the presence of
both fluids. In De Luc’s column, where the size of the pairs is insignifi-
cant, and the energy of.mterposed agents feeble, we see electricity evolved
without any appreciable quantity of caloric. In the calorimotor where
we have size only, the number being the lowest possible, we are scarcely
able to detect the presence of electricity. ‘

When the fluid contains enough electricity to give a projectile power ad-
equate to pass through a small space in the air, or through chareoal, which
impedes or arrests the caloric, and favours its propensity to radiate, this
principle heat is evolved. This accounts forthe evolution of intense heat
under those circumstances, which rarify the air, so that the length of the jet
from one pole to the other may be extended after its commencement.
Hence the portions of the cireuit nearest to the intervening charcoal, or
heated space, are alone injured; and even non-conducting bodies, as
quartz, introduced into it are fused, and hence a very large wire may be
melted by the fluid, received through a small wire imperceptibly affected,

See Silliman’s Journal, No.6, Vol. I. Thomsen’s Annals, Sept. 1819,
Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, October, 1939.

*

108 Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, &.

with the other hypothesis, which supposes it to be electri-
eity alone. 'The finest needle is competent to discharge’
the product of the most powerful machines without detri-
ment, if received gradually as generated by them. Platina
points, as small as those which were melted like wax in my

experiments, are used as tips to lightening rods without in-
jury, unless in nas SS aie a under esi
circumstances.

The hee experiment 1 conceive to be very foal
vourable to ‘the idea that caine ignition, arises. from a
current of electricity.

A cylinder of lead of about a quarter of an anol cetusicn.
and about two inches long, was reduced to the thickness of
a common brass pin for. about three quarters of an inch.
When one end was connected with one pole of the appara-
tus, the other remained suspended by this filament; yet it
was instantaneously fused by contact with the other pole. As
all the calorific fluid which acted upon the suspended knob,
must have passed through. the filament by which it hung,
the fusion could not have resulted from a pure electrical
current, which would have dispersed the filament ere a
mass fifty times larger had been perceptibly affected. Ac-
cording to my theory, caloric is not separated from the
electricity until circumstances very much favour a disunion,
as on the passage of the compound fluid through charcoal,
the alr, or a vacuum. In operating with the deflagrator, I
have found a brass knob of about five tenths of an inch in
diameter, to burn on the superficies only ; where alone ac-
cording to my view, caloric is separated so as to act on the
mass. Having, as mentioned in the memoir on my theory’
of galvanism, found that four galvanic surfaces acted well in
one recipient, I was tempted by means of the eighty coils
to extend that construction. It occurred to me that attempts
of this kind, had failed from using only one copper for each
zinc plate. ‘The zinc had always been permitted to react
towards the negative, as well as the positive pole. My coils -
being surrounded by copper, it seemed probable, that, if
electro-caloric were, as I had suggested, carried forward by
circulation arising from galvanic polarity, this might act
within the interior of the coils, yet not be exerted between
one coil and another.

* See Adams’s Hlectricitv, on points.

‘Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, &c. 109

f had accordingly a trough constructed with a partition
along the middle, so as to receive forty coils on one side,
and a like number on the other. This apparatus when in
operation excited a sensation scarcely tolerable in the backs
of the hands. Interposed charcoal was not ignited as easily
as before, but a most intense ignition took place on bring-
ing a metallic point connected with one pole of the series,
into contact with a piece of charcoal fastened to the other.
It did not take place however so speedily as when glasses
were used; but soon after the ignition was effected it be-
came even more powerful than before. A cylinder of pla-
tina nearly a quarter of an inch in diameter, tapering a little
at the end, was fused and burned so as to sparkle to a con-
siderable distance around, and fall in gers. A ball of brass
of about half an inch diameter was seén to burn on its sur-
face with a green flame. ‘Tin foil, or tinsel rolled up into
large coils of about three quarters of an inch thick, were
rapidly destroyed, as was a wire of platina of No. 16. Pla-
tina wires m connexion with the -poles were brought into
contact with sulphuric acid; there was an appearance
of lively ignition, but strongest on the positive side. Ex--
cepting inits power of permeating charcoal, the galvanic fluid
seemed to be extricated with as much force, as when each
coil was ina distinct glass. Apprehending that the partition
in the trough did not sufficiently insulate the poles from each
other, as they were but a few inches apart, moisture or
moistened wood intervening, I had two troughs each to hold
forty pairs, and took care that there should be a dry space
about four inches broad between them. They were first
filled with pure river water, there being no saline nor acid
matter to influence the plates, unless the very minute quan-
tity which might have remained on them from former im-
mersions. Yet the sensation produced by them, on the
backs of my hands, was painful; and a lively scintillation
iook place when the poles were approximated. Dutch
gold leaf was not sensibly burned, though water was found
decomposible by wires properly affixed. No effect was
produced on potash, the heat being inadequate to fuse it.

A mixture of nitre and sulphuric acid was next added to
the water in the troughs, afterwards charcoal. from the fire
was vividly ignited, and when attached to the positive pole
a steel wire was interposed between it and the other pole.

110 Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, &c.

the most vivid ignition which I ever saw was induced. I
should deem it imprudent to repeat the experiment without
glasses, as my eyes, though unusually strong, were affected
for forty-eight hours afterwards. if the intensity of the
light did not t produce an optical deception, by its distressing
influence upon the organs of vision, the charcoal assumed
a pasty consistence, as if in a state approaching to fusion:
That charcoal should be thus softened, without being de-
stroyed by the oxygen of the atmosphere, will not appeal
strange, when the power of galvanism in reversing chemical
affinities is remembered; and were it otherwise, the air
could have no access, ee because of the excessive rare-
faction, and in the next place as I suspect on account of
the volatilization of the carbon forming about it a cireum-
ambient atmospheres This last mentioned impression arose
from observing, that when the experiment was performed
in vacuo, there was a lively scintillation, as if the carbon in
an aeriform state acted as a syilien os of combustion on me
metal.

A wire of platina (No. 16) was faxed into a globule on
being connected with the positive pole, and brought into
contact with a piece of pure hydrate of potash, situated on
a silver tray in connexion with the other pole! The potash
became red hot, and was deflagrated rapidly with a flame
having the rosy hue of potassuretted hydrogen.

The great apparatus of the Royal Institution, am projectile
power was from six to eight times more potent than mine,
ft produced a discharge between charcoal points when ser
moved about four inches apart, whereas mine will not pro-
duce a jet at more than three fourths of an inch. But that
series was two thousand, mine only about a aren part
as large. ‘

A steel wire. of about one tenth ae an inch in diameter,
affixed to the negative pole, was passed up through the axis
of an open necked inverted bell glass, filled with water. A
platina wire, No. 16, attached to a positive pole being pass-
ed down to the steel wire, both were fused together, and
cooling, could not be separated by manual force. immedi-
ately after this incorporation of their extremities, the platina
wire became incandescent for a space of some inches above
the surface of the water. ;

Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, &c. 111

A piece of silvered paper about two inches square was
folded up, the metallic surface outward, and fastened into
- vices affixed to the poles. Into each vice a wire was screw-

ed at the same time. The fluid generated by the apparatus
was not perceptibly conveyed by the silvered paper, as it
did not prevent the wires severally attached to the poles
from decomposing water or producing ignition by contact.
In my memoir on my theory of galvanism I suggested,
that the decomposition of water, which Wollaston effected
by mechanical electricity, might not be the effect of divel-
Jent attraction like those excited by the poles of a voltaic
pile, but of a mechanical concussion, as when wires are dis-
persed by the discharge of an electrical battery. In support
of that opinion £ will now observe, that he could not pre-
vent hydrogen and oxygen from being extricated at each
wire, instead of hydrogen being given off only at one, and
oxygen at the other, as is invariably the case when the vol-
taic pile is employed. That learned and ingenious philoso-
pher, in concluding his account of this celebrated experi-
ment, says ‘‘ but in fact the resemblance is not complete,
for in every way in which I have tried it, I observed each
wire gave out both oxygen and hydrogen gas, instead of
their being formed separately as by the electric pile.”
Is it not reasonable to suppose that an electrical shock
may dissipate any body into its elementary atoms, whether
simple or compound, so that no two particles would be left
together which can be separated by physical means.
Looking over Singer’s Electricity, a recent and most
able modern publication, I find that in the explosion of brass
wire by an electrical battery, the copper and zinc actually
separated. He says, page 186, ‘‘ Brass wire is sometimes
decomposed by the charge; the copper and zinc of which it
is formed being separated from each other, and appearing in
their distinct metallic colours.” On the next page in the
same work, I find that the oxides of mercury and tin are
reduced by electrical discharges. ‘‘ Introduce,” says the
‘author, “ some oxide of tin into a glass tube, so that when
the tube is laid horizontal, the oxide may cover about half
an inch of its lower internal surface.. Place the tube on the
table of the universal discharger, and introduce the poiated
wires into its opposite ends, that the portion of oxide may
he between them. Pass several strong charges in succes-

i12 Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, ibe.

sion through the tube, replacing ihe oxide in its situation,
should it be dispersed. If the charges are sufficiently pow-
erful, a part of the tube will soon be stained with metallic tin
ealiiell has been revived by the action of transmitted elec-
tricity.” It cannot be alleged that in such decompositions
the divellent polar attractions are exercised like those
which characterize the action of wire proceeding from the.
poles of a voltaic apparatus. The particles'were dispersed
from, instead of being attracted to the wires, by which the
influence was conveyed among them. This being undenia- |
ble, it can hardly be advanced that we are to have one mode
of explaining the separation of the elements of brass by an
electrical discharge, another of explaining the separation of
the elements of water by the same agent. One rationale
when oxygen is liberated from tin, and another when libe-
rated by like means from hydrogen. In the experiment in
which copper was precipitated by the same philosopher at
the negative pole, we are not informed whether the oxygen
and acid in union with it were attracted to the other; and
the changes produced in litmus are mentioned notas. simul-
taneous, but successive. The violet and red rays of ‘the
spectrum have an opposite chemical influence in some de-
gree like that of voltaic poles, but this has not led to the
‘conclusion that the cause of galvanism and light is the same.
Besides, admitting that the icone results obtained by Wol-
laston and Van Marin. are perfectly analogous to those ob-
tained by the galvanie fluid, ere it can become an objection
to my hypothesis, it ought first to be shown that the union
between caloric and electricity, which I suppose productive
of galvanic phenomena, cannot be produced by that very
‘process. If they combine to form the galvanic “fluid when
extricated by ordinary galvanic action, they must have an
affinity for each cther. As I have suggested in my me-
moir, when electricity enters the pores of a metal it may
unite with its caloric. In Wollasten’s experiments, being
-eonstrained to enter the metal, it may combine with enough
of its caloric to produce, oS emitted, results. slightly ap-
proaching to those of a fluid in which caloric eXists in great-
er proportion.

But once more I demand why, if fadchanicel electricity
\f too intense to produce galvanic phenomena, should it be
rendered more capable of producing them by being: still
more concentrated.

Hare's New Galvanic Apparatus, Theory, &e.

If the one be generated more copiously, the other more
intensely, the first will move m a large stream slowly, the
last in a small stream rapidly. Yet by narrowing the chan-
nel of the latter, Wollaston is supposed to render it more
hke the former, that is, produces a resemblance by increas-
ing the supposed source of dissimilarity. ‘y

‘It has been imagined that the beneficial effect of his con-
trivaned arises from the production of a continued stream,
instead of a succession of sparks, but if a continued stream
were the only desideratum, a point placed near the condue-
tor of a powerful machine would afford this requisite, as
the whole product may in such cases be conveyed by a
sewing needle in a stream perfectly continuous. As yet no
adequate reasons have been given why, in operating with
the pile, it is not necessary, as in the processes of Van Ma-
rum and Wollaston, to enclose the wires in glass or sealing
wax, in order to make the electricity emanate from a point
within a conducting fluid. The absence of this necessity is
accounted for, according to my hypothesis, by the indispo-
sition which the electric fluid has to quit the caloric in
- union with it, and the almost absolute incapacity which
caloric has to pass through fluids unless by circulation. 1
conceive that in galvanic combinations, electro-caloric
may circulate through the fluid from the positive to the
negative surface, and through the metal from the negative
to the positive. In the one case caloric subdues the dispo-
- sition which electricity has to diffuse itself through fluids,
and carries it into circulation. n the other, as metals are
excellent conductors of caloric, the prodigious power which
electricity has to pervade them agreeably to any attractions
which it may exercise, operates almost Without restraint.
This is fully exemplified in my galvanic deflagrator, where
eighty pairs are suspended in two recipients, forty succes-
sively in each, and yet decompose potash with the utmost
rapidity, and produce an almost intolerable sensation*
when excited ‘only by fresh river water. I have already
observed that the reason why galvanic apparatus composed
-of pairs. consisting each of one copper and one zine plate,

* I do not say shock, as it is more like the permanent impression 9f liot
pointed wire, especially when an acid is used.

BM ANE Nou bec gt eke

i14 Hare’s New Gulvanic Apparatus, Theory, §c.

have not acted well without insulation,* was because .
electro-caloric could retrocede in the negative, as well as.
advance in the positive direction. I will now add, that ~
independently of the greater effect produced by the simul-
taneous immersion of my eighty coils, their power is m-
proved by the proximity of the surfaces, which are only
about an eighth of an inch asunder; so that the circulation
may go on more rapidly. Ri oS aria
Pursuant to the doctrine, which supposes the same quan-
tity of electricity, varying in intensity in the ratio of the
number of pairs to the quantity of surface, to be the sole
agent in galvanic ignition, the electrical, fluid as evolved by
Sir H. Davy’s great pile, must have been nearly two thou-
sand times more intense, than as evolved by a single pair,
yet it gives sparks at no greater distance than the thirtieth or
fortieth cf an inch. The intensity of the fluid must be at
least as much greater in one instance, than in another, as the.
sparks produced by it are longer. A. fine electrical plate
machine of thirty two inches diameter, will give sparks at.
teninches. Of course the intensity of the fluid which it
emits, must be three hundred times greater than that emit-
ted by two thousand pairs. The intensity produced by a
single pair, must be two thousand times less than that produ-
ced by a the great pile, and of course six hundred thousand
times less than that produced by a good electrical plate of
ihirty two inches. Yet a single pair of about a square foot in
area, will certainly deflagrate more wire, than a like extent of
coated surface charged by such a plate. According to Sing- —
er, it requires about ove hundred and sixty square inches of
coated glass, to destroy watch pendulum wire ; a lareer wire ~
may be burned off by a galvanic battery of a foot square.
But agreeably to the hypothesis in dispute, it compensates.
by quantity, for the want of intensity. Hence the quantity
of fluid in the pair is six hundred thousand times greater,
while its intensity is six hundred thousand times less; and
wice verse of the coated surface. Is not this absurd? What
does intensity mean as applied to a fluid? Is it not expres-
sed by the ratio of quantity, to space? If there be twice as
tauch electricity within one cubic inch,.as within another, is

.

* That ts, with the same mass of conducting Auid, in eontact with all the
surfaces, instead. of being divided into different portions, each restricted in
its action to ene copper and one zine plate.

Hare’s New Galvanic Apparatus, Pheory, §c. 115

ihere not twice the intensity ? But the one acts suddenly, it
may be said; the other slowly. But whence this difference ?
They may both have exactly the same surface to exist in.
‘The same zinc and copper plates may be used for coatings
first, and a galvanic pair afterwards. Letit be said, as it
may in truth, that the charge is, in the one case attached te
the glass superficies, in the other exists in the pores of the
metal. But why does it avoid these pores in one case
and reside in them in the other? What else resides in the
pores of the metal which may be forced out by percussion ?
4s it not caloric? Possibly, unless under constraint, or cir-
cumstances favorable to a union between this principle and
electricity, the latter cannot enter the metallic pores, beyond
a certain degree of saturation; and hence an electrical
charge does not reside in the metallic coatings of a Leyden
phial, though it fuses the wire which forms a circuit between
them.

Tt is admitted that the action of the galvanic fluid, is upon
or between atoms ; while mechanical electricity when unco-
erced, acts only upon masses. ‘T’his difference has not been
explained unless by my hypothesis, in which caloric, of
which the influence is only exerted between atoms, is sup-

posed to be a principal agent in galvanism. Nor has any
“other reason been given that water, which dissipates pure
electricity, should cause the galvanic fluid to accumulate.
“From the prodigious effect which moist air, or a moist sur-
face, has in paralyzing the most efficient machines, I am led
to suppose, that the conducting power of moisture so situa-
ted, is greater than that of water under its surface. The
power of this fluid to conduct mechanical electricity, is un-
fairly contrasted with that of a metal, when the former is
enclosed in a glass tuve, the latter bare.

According to Singer, the electrical accumulation is as
great when water is used, as when more powerful menstrua
are employed; but the power of ignition is wanting, until
ihese are resorted to. De Luc showed, by his ingenious
dissections of the pile, that electricity might be produced
without, or with chemical power. The rationale of these
differences never has been given, unless by my theory,
which supposes caloric to be presentin the one case, but
not in the other. The electric column was the fruit of De
Luc’s sagacions enquiries, and afforded a beautiful and m-

116 Hare's New Gaivanie Apparatus, Theory, &.

controvertible support to the objections he made to the idea,
that the galvanic fluid is pure electricity, when extricated
by the voltaic pile in its usual form. It showed that a pile
really producing pure electricity, is devoid of the chemical
power of galvanism. pay

We are informed by Sir H. Davy; oie when charcoal
polats in connection with the poles of the magnificent appa-
ratus with which he operated, were first brought nearly into
contact, and then withdrawn four inches apart, there was a
heated arch formed between them in which such non-con-
ducting substances as quartz were fused. I believe it im-
possible to fuse electrics by mechanical electricity. If op-
posing its passage they may be broken, and if conductors
near them be ignited, they may be acted on by those ignited
conductorsas if otherwise heated; but I will venture to
predict, that the slightest glass fibre'will not enter into fu-
sion, by being placed 1 in a current from the largest a
or electrical battery. / ;

-L am induced to believe, that we must eoialan light, as
well as heat, an ingredient in the galvanic fluid; and think
it possible, that, being necessary to vitality in animals, as
well as vegetables, the electric Auid may be the vehicle of
its diiipaisn:

I will take this opportunity of stating, that the heat sia
ved by one galvanic pair has been found by the experi-
ments which I instituted, to increase in quantity, but to di-
minish in intensity, as the size of the surfaces may be en-
larged. A pair containing about fifty square feet of each met-
al, Grilleadtltuce platina, nor deflagrate iron, however sma!l
may be the wire employed; for the heat produced in metallic
wires is not improved by a reduction in their size beyond a
certain point. Yet the metals abovementioned, are easily.
fused or deflagrated by smaller pairs, which would have no.
perceptible influence on masses that might be sensibly igni-
ied by larger pairs—These characteristics were fully de-
monstrated, not only by my own apparatus, but by those con-
structed by Messrs. Wetherill and Peale, and which are larg-
er, but less capable of exciting intense ignition. Mr. Peale’s
apparatus contained nearly seventy square feet, Mr. Weth-
erll’s nearly one hundred, in the form of concentric coils,
yet neither could produce a heat above redness on the small-
est wires. At my suggestion, Mr. Peale separated the two

Prof. E. D. Smith, on the Warm Springs, ge. 117

surfaces in his coils into four alternating, constituting two
galvanic pairs in one recipient. Iron wire was then easily
burned and platina fused by it. These facts, together with
the incapacity of the calorific fluid extricated by the calori-
motor to permeate charcoal, next to metals the best electri-
cal conductor, must sanction the position I assigned to it as
being in the opposite extreme from the columns of De Luc
and Zamboni. For as in these, the phenomena are such
as are characteristic of pure electricity, so in one very large
galvanic pair, they almost exclusively demonstrate the agen
cy of pure caloric. '

‘

Arr. XIX.—An account of the Warm Springs, in Bun-
come County, state of North-Carclina; by the late En-
warp D. Suitu, M. D. and Professor of Chemistry ond
Mineralogy in the South-Carolina College.

(Communicated to the editor, by the lamented author, just befors
his death.)

-Presuming that contributions to the natural history of

the United States will not be unacceptable, I now offer

some details respecting the situation and nature of the Min-

eral Springs of Buncome County, North-Carolina, which °

have, for some years past, been much visited by the inhab-
itants of the southern states, In the years 1816 and 1817
I had the opportunity of analyzing some of the water,
which had been carefully bottled on the spot and conveyed

in safety to me; and the results of this process were pub- —

lished in a newspaper of the day. Desirous however to
examine these celebrated waters at their fountain head,
made an excursion, in July last, for this express purpose :
and the information obtained by that journey, is now re-
spectfully presented to the view of the public.

These mineral waters are found upon the margin of a
river called the French Broad, about thirty two miles from
Ashville, the county town of Buncome, and five and a half
miles from the Tennessee line. Several springs have al-
ready been discovered, at various distances from each oth-
er, and the whole extent of ground, im which they rise, al-
though not accurately ascertained, is supposed to be at least.

118 Prof. E. D. Smith, on the Warm Springs

one mile. ‘They are generally so near to the bank, that in
moderate freshets the river comes into them, and it was as-
serted by one of the present proprietors that at a particular
- spot in the bed of the stream, about ten yards from the usu-
‘al bank, there was a constant jet of warm water. The depth
of the river is various, being in some’ places 10 to 15 feet,
and in others very shoaly. The last spring which has been
opened, is perhaps twenty yards further from the river than
the former ones, but its temperature is not quite so high.—
The supply of water in all of them is very abundant.

The original proprietor of these springs, a respectable
and intelligent old gentleman by the name of Nelson, in-
formed me that he supposed the first discovery of them to
have been made about forty years since, at which time this
part of the country was altogether uninhabited, and the per-.
sons who resorted to the viatens: had to encamp in their vi-
cinity. He has been personally acquainted with them, for
upwards of twenty years, and made the first and lowest es-
tablishment for bathing, near to a ferry, which is opposite to
his residence. Mr. Nelson further states that he has known
sundry cases of palsy, rheumatism, cutaneous affections, &e.
greatly benefited by the internal and external use of the
waters. The large establishment, and the one that is now
principally visited, is seated about half a mile higher up the
river, and has at the present time two large baths, whose.
temperature at the boils of the springs is 104° of Fahrenheit ;
but at the surface the temperature of the old bath, which is
very near to the river, is 100°, while that of the new which
is higher up the bank, is but 94°. [was informed that this
temperature was much increased, when there was a consid-
erable swell in the river, but f had no lo ppomemuiys of wit-
nessing the fact. *

A smaller stream of water, W Hoh is usually limpid and
shallow, comes into the French Broad on its southern side,
and separates the first bathing establishment from that which
is now used. The stream “affords the conveniences of a
saw, and grist mill, within a very short distance of the estab-
lishment, and without the necessity of a mill-pond. The
whole are situated in a beautiful and romantic spot upon
a large flat, contiguous to the water, and embosomed in
lofty mountains, among which the river winds, while the
valley in this spot appears not to exceed a mile in width, and

in Buncome County, North-Carolina. 119

js much narrower in all others, both above and below. These
mountains seem to consist principally of rocks, of which acon-.
siderable proportion in the immediate vicinity are compact
lime stone, both blue and grey. About six miles above the
springs there is said to be a veinof the sulphate of barytes, a
specimen of which was given me ; and in the vicinity of the
ferry below, there is a cavern of lime stone, which may be _
penetrated with convenience for thirty yards and from the

roof of which stalactitesare pendant. Near to this cave there
is another containing a large quantity of good yellow ochre.

There are said to be mines of cobalt, copper, and iron in
the neighboring mountains, but these are lofty and not very
accessible. I found that there was, from the local cireum-
stances of the establishment, considerable humidity during
the mornings and evenings, and a pretty high temperature
for several hours of the day. There were also sudden and
frequent thunder showers, but these were generally of short
duration. ‘These meteorological observations will perhaps
lead to the conclusion, that this watering place would not be
advisable for persons laboring under pulmonic or dropsical
affections,and J did not learn that any such had been bene-
fited by their residence.

After premising these remarks upon the situation and his-
torical account of these springs and the country in their vi-
ceinity, I will proceed to detail the particulars of an analysis
of the water, which was commenced on the spot in July,
1818, and recently concluded in my laboratory.

1. The appearance of the water at the fountain was lim-

pid, although there was a continual ascent of air bubbles to
its surface. —

2. The taste was insipid, excepting the disagreeable im-
pression made by its temperature, which has been aiready

~ stated to be 104° as the water emerged from the sand.

3. There was no smell perceivable by myself, or by an
intelligent friend, who aided my researches, although I was
assured by several persons that in some seasons this water
was impregnated with so strong and permanent an odour, as
to be sensible after it had been conveyed to some distance.
tn the immediate vicinity of the drinking springs, there
was undoubtedly an unpleasant effluvium, but this 1 attribu-
ted to the stagnation of common water in these low spots,
and the presence of decaving vegetable matter. It should

120 Prof. E. D. Smith on the Warm Springs

be remarked that, during one of the seasons above alluded
to, there were eran rains; but at the time of my Visit,
there had been an uncommon drought.

4. The application of the sulphuric and nitric acidegn to
separate portions of the water, produced no a
or discoloration.

5. The oxalic acid produced slowly a white cioud.
6. The oxalate of ammonia occasioned an instant ei
cloud. :

G Nitrate of mereury caused a brewitich yellow precip
itate.

8. Sirup a8 violets produced no effect. wi

9. ‘Turmeric paper was not altered. |

10. Muriate and nitrate of barytes, each occasioned: an

iminediate white precipitate.
11. Nitrate of silver produced a very slight, atin cloud,
when the water was fresh from the spring ; but after it" had
stood two hours, the nitrate of silver occasioned a denser
cloud instantly, and the precipitate became dark, when eX-
posed to the sun.

12. Prussiate of potash and gee of lime produced
no discoloration.

13. Acetate of lead occasioned an immediate ae
cloud. aus
14, Solution of soap in alcohol canted a supernatant ‘thie
cloud.

15. Alcohol had no visible effect.

16. Phosphate of soda caused an immediate white pre-_
cipitate.

17. Ammonia occasioned a slight supernatant cloud.

18. Carbonate of ammonia made no change of appear-
ance, until phosphate nf soda was added, when there v was
an immediate white precipitate.

19. Neither the infusion nor the tincture of gals produ-
ced any effect.

20. Silver leaf seemed to be slightly darkened.

21. Fresh made lime water was applied at the fountain,
but produced no effect. This experiment was repeated
many times, because a general idea was entertained that
carbonic acid was contained in the water and that the air
bubbles, which were constantly ascending from the bottom
of the spring, were really this gaseous “substance. This

in Buncome County, North- Carolina. 121

opinion was likewise corroborated by the following experi-
ment made in the summer of 1816, by the late and much
lamented Dr. Mc Bride, of Ciceiesins

“Lime water on being added, threw down a white, flaky
precipitate. On decanting the water and adding a few drops
’ of sulphuric acid, there was a violent effervescence and the
smell of the carbonic acid gas or fixed air. ‘The previpi-
tate also disappeared.” Concerning this experiment it may
be observed that the inference drawn from it, respecting the
presence of carbonic acid cannot be correct, for sulphuric
acid, when applied to the carbonate of lime, would consti-
tute another salt of considerable insolubility, and there
could not be a disappearance of the precipitate.* Any one
who will make the direct experiment, may be satisfied of
this fact. Whatever may have been the cause of the pre-
cipitate in Dr. Mc Bride’s experiment, repeated trials did
not afford me any such results ; but in order ta be more sat-
isfied upon the point, | placed in a tin vessel, of the form
described in Dr. Meade’s analysis of the Ballston and Sar-
atoga waters, one quart of the mineral water and set it on a
fire to boil, having previously inverted over it a decanter
full of lime water... This lime water was ascertained to be
good, by blowing into it some air from the lungs, which
made it of a milky colour. ‘The water in the tin vessel was
boiled for some time, but not the least cloudiness was in-
duced in the superincumbent decanter. From this deci-
sive experiment the conclusion must be drawn that no car-
bonic acid was contained in the mineral water.

Most of the preceding experiments were repeated upon
a portion of the water that had been boiled, but without any
variation of the results.

Three quarts were then carefully papiated and the fixed
product secured in white paper, for ate examination in
a more convenient place.

Some of the air bubbles, which were continually arising
in the Spies were received into inverted glass vessels.
On testing these with lime water no discoloration ensued,
but when placed over a burning candle, the flame was im-

* Unless a large portion of acid were added, when the sulphate of lime
would be dissolved.— Ed.

Vou. U....No. 1. 16

122 Prof. E. D. Smith, on the Warm-Springs

mediately extinguished. From these two experiments. it
was inferred. that this air was nitrogen or azotic gas. From
the whole of the humid analysis. ee chemical reader will
probably admit, that these waters contain, not only nitrogen
gas, but sulphuric and muriatic acids, and lime and magnesia,
all in a state of combination ; and that neither carbonic —
acid nor sulphuretted hydrogen, or any combination of sul-
phur, as had been generally believed, Were present. That
sulphur is never recognized, as an ingredient of these waters,
and that very wet seasons may not cause some combination
of it, Iam not prepared to deny; because in.addition to:
the remark of the peculiar odour of the water in wet sea-
sons, it may be stated that in {wo successive years, previous
to my visit, I had the opportunity of examining the water
brought in bottles to this place, | and then detected sulphu-
retted hydrogen. Supposing it possible however, that.
the keeping of the water for several weeks, might induce &
change of its properties, f brought away two bottles with me
and six {months afterwards examined them in my laborato-
ry, but found the results of analysis to be the same as at
the springs. 1 know not how to account for this variation
of properties, unless on the former occasions the springs
may have been little attended to, and from the decomposi-
tion of vegetable matter in them sulphuretted hydrogen may
have been eenerated ; or unless the causes, which occa-
sion the increased temperature of the water, may so vary
in differing seasons as to produce different decompositions
beneath the earth’s surface.

It was my intention to have proceeded with the examina-
tion of the fixed product, as soon as I returned to Colum-
bia; but some unexpected and unavoidable circumstances
have prevented until lately.

The results of this analysis are as follow:

1, On examining the papers, containing three powders,
each of which had been precured by the separate evapora-
tion of one quart of the mineral water, it appeared that each
paper was damp, and stained of a light fawn colour. In
iwo parcels, brilliant particles were visible to the naked eye;
and, viewed through the microscope, they were evidently
saline. The other ‘powder shewed no marks of crystalliza-
tion. The weight of the whole was twenty-eight grains, and
allowing for loss in transportation, perhaps it may be said

in Buncome County, N orth- Carolina. 123-

with propriety, that each quart of water contains about ten
grains of fixed product.

2. The whole amount (28 gr —“ Was putinto a small glass
bottle, and alcohol poured on, to the depth of aninch. This
mixture was frequently shaken, and stood for twenty hours.

3. It was then carefully filtered: washed with more al-_
cohol, and the filter dried by a regular and moderate heat.
The: powder separated from the filter, was weighed, and
amounted to twenty-three grains, and as the filter which had
been weighed both before and after use, appeared to retain
one grain, the quantity taken up by the alcohol, a be es-:
timated at four grains.

4. A smail portion of the alcoholic polation was diluted
with water, and tested with sulphuric acid and with a solu-
tion of copper; but as no effect resulted, it may be conclu-
ded that neither barytes nor ammonia were present.

5, The remainder of the alcoholic solution was evapora-
ted, but an accidental fracture of the evaporating vessel pre-
ented the ascertaining of the nature of the residuum.

6. The portion (23 grains) which the alcohol did not take
up, was then mixed with eight times its weight of distilled
water and stood for forty eight hours.

7. This mixture was then filtered, dried and weighed.
The residue was seventeen grains, so that six grains must
have been dissolved by the water.

8. This watery solution was then evaporated, and the
residue being re-dissolved in water, was tested as follows:
Nitrate of barytes gave a white cloud, so did carbonate of
soda. Oxalate of ammonia produced a thick white cloud.
Nitrate of silver had no effect. It may be inferred then,
that these six grains were principally sulphate of Magnesia,
and thata small portion of sulphate of lime was also pres-
ent.

9. Ten grains of the seventeen, that were not dissolved
in solution (6) were mixed with ten ounces of cold, dis-
tilled water, and boiled for some hours. On filtering and
drying, the ‘undissolved residue was between one and two
grains, so that nearly the whole of these ten grains was prob-
ably sulphate of lime.

10. A portion of the preceding clear solution was tested
as follows: Oxalic acid produced a white cloud slowly ; but
oxalate of ammonia, an immediate and thick white cloud.

124 Prof. E. D, Smith, on the Warm-Springs, &c.

Nitrate of barytes and carbonate of soda, each occasioned
a white cloud. Nitrate of silver made no change. The re-
maining solution, evaporated, re-dissolved and tested in a
similar manner, shewed the same results. The inference’
then will be, that this solution contained sulphate of lime
chiefly, with a trace of sulphate of magnesia. —_ Ay

11. The residue of one to two grains, being very light :
and bulky and of a dark ash colour, was moistened: with
water and exposed to the sun’s rays but after: a aay on time
was eal lost.

In making up the summary of the preceding, analysis, it
may probably be stated as follows. —

In the alcoholic solution (3) are present

Muriates of lime and magnesia, Hie A QU ease
In solution (7) Sulphate of magnesia i) 18) eral eee
By solution (9) Sulphate of lime in ca er MAL ome ag
Insoluble residue, . 23 a
DiGes: Se pa eta 1 gr.
From three quarts of water, 28 er.

It will be observed, that the results of the analysis of the
fixed product denote the presence of the same substances
as were detected by the humid analysis, and thus the one.
confirms the correctness of the other. The nature of these
mineral waters, having been thus ascertained, it becomes an
interesting inquiry, whether they can probably exert much
effect upon the constitution. ‘The great bulk of their in-
gredients would appear to be very inert, unless, according
to the opinion offered by Dr. Murray, in his excellent analy-.
sis of the Dunblane and Pitcaithly waters, the process oc-
casions a different combination of ingredients from that
which originally existed, and then the muriate of lime, which
is an active substance, would be present in a much lar-
ger proportion than appears from the analysis. Persons
using these waters, are in the habit of drinking from three
to four quarts in a day, and also of bathing twice. They
generally remain in the bath from a half hour to an hour,
and find. it so pleasant, they are loth to leave it. It was sta-
ted to me by a very respectable gentleman, who has resort-
ed to this watering place, fer several summers past, that af-
ter drinking the water freely for several days, it generally
had a brisk cathartic effect for a day or two, and after that

Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes, §c. 125

produced no sensible result. This gentleman is afflicted

with chronic rheumatism, and has always obtained decided

relief from the long sontinued use of the waters, both inter-

nally and externally. Upon the record book of the estab-

lishment, there are sundry interesting cases of benefit, im-

parted to persons labouring under rheumatism, palsy, or loss

of motion from other causes. I am inclined to believe that

long continued bathing in water of such an elevated and
constant temperature, must produce some effect in such ca~
ses as have been alluded to, independent of the mineral in-

gredients, and conjoined with them, it will probably be still

more efficacious. ‘The healthy, cheap and plentiful country,

in which the Buncome Springs are situated, the novel and

mountainous scenery, variety of company, &e. present many

attractions to the invalid, the idler and the curious, and will

no doubt, make this watering place, if properly attended to,

an inereasing source of profit to its proprietors.

South-Carolina College; March 1819.

Arr. XX.—Remarks on Dr. RAY Institutes of M at-
: ural Philosophy.— Phard American edition—1820.

‘For more than twenty years past, the compilation of En-
field has been extensively employed in this country as a text-
book in Natural Philosophy ; and at present, we believe, is
used for this purpose by nearly all the higher seminaries of
learning in New-England. The want of an elementary sys-
tem more select and better digested in its materials, more
free from erroneous statements and reasonings, and exhibit-
ing amore faithful outline of the existing state of physical
science, is beginning to be generally felt ; “put as the work of
Enfield will probably be retained in our seminaries for some
years to come, we have embraced the occasion furnished
by the appearance of a new edition, to make a few such
comments on it as may perhaps add somewhat to its value,
with the student, and at the same time prove not wholly un-
interesting to those teachers who have but limited access to
other authorities.

The Institutes of Natural Philosophy will be found on
examination to be little more than an abridgement, without
much alteration either in language or form, from different

126 _ Remarks ox Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

works on the same subject which appeared in the former
part of the last century. The Hydrostatics, Prieumatics,
and Optics, are chiefly taken from Dr. Rutherforth 5 as_ is
also the Astronomy, with the exception of the four last chap-
ters of Part II., which are borrowed from Rowning. The
Mechanics does not appear to have been derived so exclu-
sively from any single source. It is apparent, however, that
Rutherforth furnished the arrangement. ‘The filling up is
from various authors. ‘The chapters‘on the perpendicular
and oblique descent of falling bodies, the.vibration of pen-
dulums, (excepting the cycloidal theory taken from Row-
ning,) and the motion of projectiles, are chiefly from Helsham.
A considerable portion of the concluding section on cen-
tral forces, is copied, nearly in its original form, from the
Principia. The few pages of the original work devoted
to Magnetism and Electricity, we presume, were written a-
new by Dr. Enfield ;—but the additions made by the Edit-.
or of the second eee edition, which amount to two
thirds of the whole, are taken nearly verbatim from wie pub-
lications of Cavallo.

The compiler of this work, while sitting with bis pen in
one hand and his author in the other, appears never to have
indulged fora moment the illiberal suspicion that his author
might be in the wrong. The consequence is, that when-
ever his originals erred, the error is faithfully transcribed in-
into his abridgement. The number of these errors multi-
plied in his own hands, from the want of sufficient care to -
shape and adjust materials, detached from their original
connexions, reduced in their dimensions, and sometimes
brought together from heterogeneous sources,—in such a
manner as to form parts of a connected and harmonious
whole.—Nor is the praise of judicious selection much bet-
ter deserved, than that of freedom from error. Proposi-
tions and scholia of little interest or importance compared
with others which might have taken their place, often occur :
complex and unsatisfactory demonstrations are admitted
where those of superior clearness and elegance were attain-
able : and while one chapter of an original author is pared
down to meagerness itself, another is left in a state of
redundancy. Even in those parts of the work to which no
objection can be made on the score either of accuracy or
importance, occur abrupt transitions in the subject or man-

of Natural Philosophy. 127

ner of handling it, parenthetical propositions, and haltings
or retrograde movements in the march of investigation, for
which the student who is unacquainted with. the secrets
of book making, and honestly ascribes the whole to the os-
tensible author, will be utterly at a loss to account.

In a treatise on Natural Philosophy designed exclusively
to introduce the student to the elements of the science, we
are not so unreasonable as to look for originality in the ma- —
terials... Accuracy and judicious selection in the principles,
reasonings, and experiments, unity of plan, and clearness of
arrangement, together with a good degree of neatness and pre-
cision in style, are all that can be expected, or even desired.
The introduction of original speculations would in general —
rather impair than enhance the merits of a text-book for
learners. But the merits just enumerated we certainly have
a right to expect, from one who takes on himself the respon-
sibility of adding to the number of books without adding to
the amount of knowledge in the world ; while he contrib-.
utes to withdraw from public notice, and accelerate the obliv-
ion of those older authors, who deserve the gratitude of pos-
terity for their original discoveries. We can make no bet-
‘ter apology for Dr. Enfield in allowing so ill-digested a com-
pilation to go before the public, than to suppose that he was
hindered from giving it the necessary attention by the en-
gagements of a laborious profession, or that he had not suf-
ficiently. familiarized himself with the subjects on which the
wants of his pupils, (as he informs us in his preface,) impos-
ed on him the necessity of writing. Like his distinguished
colleague in the Warrington Academy, Dr. Priestley, he
seems to have been not unambitious of the reputation of
universal learning. Elocution, history, biography, sermons,
metaphysics, prayers and hymns, alternately occupied his
attention and his pen. ‘To complete his claims, it might
seem necessary that his name should be in some way con-
nected with the departments of physical and mathematical
science. How far considerations of this nature may have
had influence in bringing the Institutes of Natural Philoso-
phy before. the public, we must leave for those who have
better means of information concerning the character of the
author than ourselves, to decide.

Whatever was the reason why this work originally ap-
peared in se imperfect a state, it was at least incumbent o

128 Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Instatutes

those who have had the charge of editing subsequent edi-
tions to give it a thorough revisal, and to correct its errors.
Instead of this, they have been chiefly solicitous to add to
its bulk; and while they have given it a far more motley
and heterogeneous aspect than it originally possessed, by
forcing asunder the parts of the original to make room for
quotations from later authors,—quotations which seldom coa-
lesce, which sometimes repeat, and sometimes clash with
those parts of the original which are retained without alter-
ation,—they have extended rather than diminished the
amount of its inaccuracies. Pal Shae re
_ From this last remark we must except the edition which
has appeared the present year. It has been submitted to
the revisal of a gentleman well known as a mathematician
and an instructor; and we are happy to notice that a large
number of the most palpable and embarrassing of the erro-
neous statements of former editions are rectified. =
But although the present edition appears in a form con-
siderably superior to either of its predecessors, we still re-
gard it as very far from possessing the character which is
demanded by the present state of learning in our country,
and the mode of instruction adopted in our colleges. With
the exception of the Electricity and Magnetism, and a few
particulars in the Astronomy, it is borrowed from sources
nearly a century old; and hence presents scarcely any idea
of the progress made in the different branches of philosophy
since the period of Newton. In mentioning this as an im-
portant defect in the work, we would not be understood to
imply that the theoretical principles of philosophy were
studied with less success at that period than at present, or
that almost every elementary proposition which would now
find a place in a text-book for schools might not be found
in the sources from which Enfield borrowed his compila-
tion. So far as mere theoretical investigations are concern-
ed, the writers of the period to which we refer, afford an
ample fund of valuable materials to a compiler. But it
must be allowed that they pushed the application of mathe-
matical reasoning to physical inquiries to a faulty extreme.
They too seldom gave themselves the trouble to inquire
how far their ingenuity in forming deductions was leading
them astray from plain matters of fact, and how far they
were building systems of principles for a world of material

af Niall Philosophy. wie 129

substances which ae only in their own imagmations.
Ifit be desirable, in studying Natural Philosophy, to ac-
quire just ideas of the properties ‘and mutual actions of
bodies as they actually are, those experimental details by
which the results. of theory are modified and corrected,

musi enter extensively even into an elementary treatise.
Bat in this respect, the original work of Enfield is almost
totally deficient. Like those from which it is borrowed, it
contains little more than a naked series of mathematical
principles ;* with scarcely an intimation that any of them
are at variance with facts. Nor do we think that the edi-
tors of later editions have been fortunate in their at-
tempts to supply the deficiency. We look in vain to the ad-
ditions they have made, for any account of the late research-
es of philosophers into the nature and laws of action of
those modifying causes which were once regarded as too
stubborn to yield to calculation, and which theory according-
ly overlooked. The names of Bossut, Coulomb, Hutton,
Dalton, Biot, Young, and other great experimentalists who
have almost created ; a new era in philosophy, by their suc-
cess in gleaning up the scattered laws of nature which New-
ton and his cotemporaries left behind them ; in compelling
empirical formule to perform the office of Te aws where the
subject is incapable of theoretical investigation ; and in as-
eertaining the precise values of those arbitrary constant quan-
tities without which laws themselves are incapable of prac-

* While we regard this work as too exclusively mathematical in its con-
tents, we would by no means wish to see ifs present mathematical form
discarded. With the exception of electricity, magnetism, and a few topics
included under other branches, to which this mode of discussion is certainly.
ill suited, we regard the ferm of proposition and demonstration into which
Enfield has thrown his Institutes as constituting its chief recommendation,
when compared with most other elementary works. It disc iplines the stu-
dent more effectually, and renders his task better defined, than a more loose
and popular form; and atthe same time facilitates the employment of the
instructer and examiner. We will add that so far as our own experience
extends, the mode of discussing physico- mathematical subjects which was
fashionable a century ago, that is, by a statement of principles in common
laneuage, and demonstrations annexed, is farsuperior, for the purposes of
elementary mstruction, to the modern analytical mode, in which the theorem
terminates the investigation, and is expressed by an alvebraic. formula.
The employment of the latter mode is doubtless occasionally necessary,
and it is almost always the most concise ; but the former, w henever it can
be employed, has altogether the advantage in its power to interest, and te
impress the imagination and memory of the student, while it is incompara-
bly better fitted to the purposes of recifation.

Vous FEY.....No. 1: jee

130 Remarks on. Dr. Enjield’s Institutes

tical application,—these names, we say, scarcely once occur
in a work which embraces nearly the whole extent of the
philosophical studies in our systems of liberal education.—
We are aware that the best selection of topics for such a
a work must often be a delicate task ; 5 and that there will be
room for differences of taste and opinion concerning it. Not
every thing that is highly valuable will on this account be.
admissible. Many of those details which are of high
importance in their applications to practice may possess
none of that elegance which would attract the attention of
the general scholar ; ; and many investigations which com-
bine elegance with utility may be inaccessible to him, from
involving mathematical principles with which he is not fa-
miliarized, or requiring an extent of discussion to render
them at all intelligible which would be inconsistent with the
claims of his other pursuits. Among the great variety of
theoremsand principles which belong to the different branch-
es of Natural Philosophy, our own Ghote 1 in making a se-_
Jection for an elementary work, would be determined ‘by. the
following requisites. 1. The ihenredt should possess, in a
purely mathematical point of view, a good degree of ele-
gance. 2. It should admit of satisfactory proof, either ex-
perimental or demonstrative :—if the latter, it should be.
such as to exercise without fatiguing the learner, and should
as seldom as possible require a : series of lemmas, or merely
subsidiary propositions. 3. It should be very nearly, if not
accurately conformable with fact,—or if otherwise, the mod-
ifications demanded by experiment should be capable of a
neat-and simple explanation. 4. Itshould-have some per-
ceptible bearing on what is practically useful,—or at least
form a link in a chain of investigations which terminates in
some practical result.

If tried by the foregoing tests, the contents of Enfield’s
Philosophy will be found extremely defective. We have
no hesitation in asserting that a work of the same size with
this, in which the selection was judiciously made, would
not have more than half its contents, in any form, common -
with it,—and that, (without increasing the difficulties or di-
minishing the interest of the study, by crowding in a multi-
tude of naked results unaccompanied by the necessary il-
lustrations,) it might be made to comprise more than twice
the amount of valuable facts and principles. ‘To substan-

of ‘Natural ‘Philosophy. oe 131

tate an assertion which may perhaps be deemed harsh,
we will just glance at the contents of the Second Book,—
a part which certainly affords a not unfavourable specimen
of the execution of the whole. As all the improvements
which we propose are predicated on the supposition that the
size remains unaltered, (a supposition rendered necessary
by the limited time which ean be properly devoted to this
subject in our colleges,) we begin with the general remark
that room might be ‘gained for several important topics now
omitted, by abridgements i in the demonstrations, particular
ly thosé in which variations are introduced, and various oth-
ers in which prolixity contributes not at all to clearness.—
The chapter on percussion might have been easily made
to include, within its present limits, a general theory of im,
pact in bodies imperfectly elastic, and a statement and recon-
ciliation of the apparently jarring theories of Newton and
Leibnitz concerning the measure of force in moving bodies.
To that on the composition of forces, might have been ad--
vantageously subjoined the results of impact in spherical
bodies, whether non-elastic or elastic, which meet each oth-
er from directions not in the sameright line. If the theory of
the cycloidal pendulum, detailed at length inch. v. sec. 3. de-
serves to be retained, itis only forthe sake of a theorem which
Enfield has by astrange oversight omitted ; we mean that which
determines the tzme of vibration. \ This theorem is valuable
principally as it also determines the limit of the time of vi-
bration of the common pendulum, when the arc is made in-
definitely small. But as the subject is now left, not only
is no true information given to the student concerning the
time of vibration in a Pmenlor are, but the eeoa
blunder of Keill, Parent, Musschenbroek and others, in
making it ere to that in the chord,* is imposed upon him.

* This is not indeed in so many words afirmed ; but several of the demon-
atrations imply it, and become nugatory unless it is admitted. Thus in prov-
ing that vibrations in small unequal ares are performed in nearly equal times,
the inference is made from the chords to the ares on the ground that ‘very
small arcs differ very little from their respective chords in length or decliv-
ity.” The same language had been used before by Helsham “and Ruther-
forth. But it must be obvious-to all who are in the least familiarized to the
subject of ultimate ratios, that although the are and its corresponding chord
ultimately agree in “length,” they “differ totally in “declivity.” In all
states of the are and chord, (and therefore when both are indefinitely small,}
the declivity of the former, on the highest point, is twice that of the latter.
The accelerating force down tl be cher di is uniform; inthe arc it isas the sine

132 ‘Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

The theory of equilibrium in the mechanical powers (chap.
vi.) might have been stated in a more concise and popular
form, grounded on the principle of virtual velocities, to make
room for a brief account of prime movers, and the motion
and maximum effect of machines. The subjects of friction,
and the construction of wheel carriages, are now dispatched.
in half a page,—less than half the room occupied by the
difficult and almost useless proposition onthe wedge. These
important and practical subjects ought to be discussed much
more in detail; nor ought the former to be grounded on the
experiments of Vince, to the exclusion of the much more
important and diversified ones of Coulomb. In chapter vit.
the mathematical theory of projectiles is pursued to the
length of ten or twelve propositions; and we are left to an
incidental remark of a single sentence inserted by the editor.
of the second edition, for all our information concerning the
total discrepancy between theory and practice. Several
parts of this chapter possess very little interest, even in a
mathematical point of view ; and had they been much more
important than they are, they ought to have given way to
such a statement of the principal results of experiment on
the motion of projectiles as the writings of Robins, Rum-
ford, and Hutton mighthave easily furnished. Several lem-
mas introduced from the Principia, into the concluding sec-.
tion on central forces, although needed forthe objects which
the original author had in view, are here entirely out of
place. Such of them as were wanted should have been di-
vested of their latinized idiom, and translated into a more
modern and intelligible dialect. Several of the more im-
portant theorems relating to motion by a central force vary-
ing inversely as the square of the distance, might have been
subjoined with the utmost advantage to the single one with
which the Book now closes.—The subjects of rotatory mo-
tion, the funicular polygon and equilibrium of arches, the

of the distance from the lowest point, or ultimately as the distance itself. This

last circumstance establishes the equality of the times of vivration in very

small cirentar arcs and in the cycloid, on grounds independent of the high-

er calculus ; for it is evident that the radius of curvature at thelowest point

is the same for both curves. Instead, therefore, of its being true that the

times of vibration in the are and chord approach to an vltimate ratio of
equality, they approach to a ratio of finite inequality. No one but the stu-

dent can need {0 be infovmed that the former is the least, in the ratio of.
0,7854 to 1.

of Natural Philosophy. | 133
strength and stress of materials, with various others of minor
importance, are left entirely unnoticed. We are not prepar-
ed to decide how far these omissions are judicious. ‘The
attention of the student may certainly be distracted by at-
tempting to crowd too great a variety of ‘subjects within a
narrow compass; and it must be admitted that most of the
subjects just referred to, if introduced at all, must be treated
at some length, to render them useful, or even intelligible.
We should suppose, however, that some account of the
principles which determine the transverse strength of
beams, would not be misplaced, even in a work of this lim-
ited extent.

In these remarks, which might, if necessary, be equally

extended to all the other branches, we would by no means:
imply that the editors of Enfield are censurable for not
making all the changes in their author which would improve
him,—or that the attempt to make these changes, had any
one leisure and inclination for the task, would be an advisa-
ble one. It would be quite as easy, and on every account
much better, to write a new system. We have made them
to invite the attention of those who superintend the philo-
sophical department in our public seminaries, to the impor-
tance of putting it in their power to dispense with their
present text-book entirely, by furnishing one for themselves.

As much the greater part of the erroneous statements of
former editions stand A ccica in the last, we think it
will be doing the student an acceptable service, for the pres-
ent, to present him with a list of those which will be most likely
to mislead him, or toembarrass his progress.—-The remainder
of this article being intended only for those who are sufli-
ciently interested in the subject to follow us with a copy of
Enfield in their hands, our comments will sometimes be
made with more brevity than might otherwise be consistent
with clearness.

Book I. Prop. 5. “ Some bodies appear to pessess a pow-
er the reverse of the attraction of cohesion, called .repul-
sion.” Of the five experiments adduced in support of this
proposition, the first four,—namely, the depression of mer-
cury around iron, and in capillary tubes, the suspension of
a needle by water, and the depression of the surface around
a floating piece of tin-foil »—are so far from furnishing any

\

134 Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

evidence of a repulsive power in bodies, that they are mere
examples of cohesion, modified by circumstances. If we
suppose the force of aggregation between ‘the particles of
mercury tobe more than twice their force of cohesion to
iron and to glass,* it appears from the investigations | of
Clairaut, that a depression ought to be the consequence.—+
The suspension of a small needle on water is owing to a
certain degree of viscidity in this fluid,—in consequence of
which the particles of the uppermost stratum present more
resistance to separation than can be overcome by the down-
ward pressure of the needle. Those who are acquainted
with the extendedresearches of Count Rumford on this sub-
ject, will find no more reason for ascribing the support of a
‘needle on water to a positive repellency, than the support of
acannon ball on ice. Both are alike owing to the eche-
sion of the upper surface. ‘The only difference i is, that as
the cohesion is many times the least in the former case, the
weight of the supported body must be proportionally less,
when compared with the surface it exposes.

Book Il. Prop. A. This proposition, (besides that the
demonstration is unsatisfactory,) is out of place ; as the
chapter is confined by its title to the comparison of uniform
motions. It ought to have been deferred to ch. v.

Prop. 22. Cor. 1. is evidently ‘erroneous. A second
“ Cor. 1.” is inserted under this pie Oe: which belongs
to the preceding one ; for it is true only of non-elastic bod-
ies.

Prop. 30. The demonstrations ef the laws of oblique de-
scent in the annexed corollaries, are rendered unnecessarily
obscure by changing the denomination of the entire force of
gravity, which was F in the preceding section, to unity. In
a subsequent demonstration relating to the pendulum it 1s
again changed to A. We mention these changes, not as
involving « any thing positively erroneous; but as an illustra~
tion of our sonenal remark concerning ‘hie want of care in
the compiler, to reduce the notations af the different authors
from whom he borrowed, to a common standard.

Prop. 37. The denionstration i is defective, from not being
extended, as it easily might be, to the supposition that mo-

* Perhaps it ought rather to be s said —to “the jfilin of moisture see is
ordinarily attac hed to the silace of glass.” Sce Hativ—Traité de Physique,
1, 225, Biot], 455.

of Natural Philosophy. 135

tion is lost in passing from one plane to another. The dem-
onstration of the 38th is also inconclusive, because it has
uot been previously shown that the total loss of motion in
passing through a set of planes becomes evanescent, when
the planes become indefinitely numerous, and their sue-
eessive inclinations indefinitely small.

Prop. 47. The demonstration shews that we may fore a
body by assembling particles round a given point, such that
the body shall balance itself about this pomt; but it by no
means shews that when the body is given, a point about
which it will balance itself can be found ;—much less that
this point, as the proposition implies, 1 is the same for all posi-.
tions of the same ody.

Prop. 49. The diagram employed in the proof of this
proposition is drawn so inaccurately as to render if scarce~
ly.intelligible. . There was the less reason for this inaccura-
cy, as in Rutherforth, from whom the diagram is copied, it
is drawn correctly.

Prop. 51. The demonstration of this important theorem
isJess general than the enunciation requires, by being con-
fined to the case in which the bodies move in the. same
plane. The statement with which the first corollary begins.
is true only under such limitations as the student can searce-
ly be supposed able to apply.

Prop. 56. In the great majority of instances in : which the
screw is employed, the resisting force is not moved up
through an inclined plane, as the demonstration supposes.
it would be far more simple and satisfactory to infer the law
of equilibrium directly from the relative velocities of the
points of application of the power and resistance.

Prop. 57. Schol. 1. “In all compound machines there
will be an equilibrium, when the sum of the powers are to
ihe weight, as the velocity of the weightis to the sum of
the velocities of the powers.” No interpretation can be put
upon this statement which will render it tue. The error
arose, we presume, in some such manner as the following.
It was apparent that in compound machines, (or rather im
machines where several powers put several resistances in
equilibrio,) the sum of the products of the powers each inte
its velocity, was equal to the sum of the products of the
weights each into its velocity. ‘This equation had the ap-
pearance of emg capable of resolution into an analogy:

136 Remarks on Dr. Enjield’s Institutes .

‘and the resolution was accordingly made. But in doing it,
two things were confounded which are widely different : the
sum of the products, aid the product of the sums.—lt would
have been better if the compiler had not attempted. to de-
viate from Rutherforth. Supposing only one power, and
only one resisting force which balance each other through
the intervention “of a series of mechanical Papeete
“power will be to the weight simply as the velocity of the
weight is to the velocity of the power.*

Prop. 60. Schol. The method here given of, finding
the initial velocity of a projectile, gives only that part of it

.which is in a direction perpendicular to the horizon. ‘To
obtain the whole velocity, this result ought to have been in-
creased in the ratio of radius to the cosecant of the angle of
elevation. But it would have been altogether preferable to
omit noticing a method so entirely useless and even de-
ceptive in practice, and to have substituted for it that by the
ballistic pendulum.

Prop. 68. In the last edition, several. Halianbte errors
which formerly perplexed the demonstration have been cor-
rected ; but the reasoning is still far from being demonstra-

eet The erroneous figure of former editions is also retain-

The circle GNV, apace of GML, should have had
= fora its centre, and GM should have ison an tes naw:
ing ‘T’ for its farther focus.
- Def. 16. Schol. It is improperly asserted in this elo
lium, thet ‘‘ the projectile and the centrifugal forces differ
from each other as the whole from the part.” These forces
are dissimilar in kind, and are incapable of comparison.
They stand to one another in the same relation as pressive
and percussive foices. If the tangent which measures the
projectile, and the subtense ahaa: measures the centrifu-
gal force, be diminished indefinitely, as they must be before
we can properly make the attempt to compare them, the
latter becomes evanescent in respect to the former. The
centrifugal is rather a consequence of the projectile ee,
than aor of it. !

Prop. 70. ‘ When bodies revolve in-a circular orbit
about a oe the centripetal a and centrifugal forces are
equal.” This proposition implies that in other orbits these

= See Rutherferth’s System, Vol. P. Art. 72s

‘of Natural Phalosophy. 137

forces are not equal. But the demonstration is such as
would prove them no less equal, in all cases whatever.—
We must confess ourselves ata loss to assign any consistent
meaning to the term “ centrifugal force,” in relation to or-
bits not circular. Is this force measured by the distance by
which a revolving body would be more remote from the
centre, in a given small time, if the centripetal force were
suspended, than it actually is while the centripetal force
acts? If so, the centripetal and centrifugal forces are al-

ways equal, for the same point of an orbit, whatever be its
figure. Or is it measured by the absolute increase of dis-
tance from the centre, which would take place in a given
small time, if the body were abandoned to its projectilé
force? If so, in passing from the higher to the lower ap-
sis of an excentric orbit, the centrifugal force i is a negative
quantity.

Lemma 4. The inference concerning the equality of the
are to the chord and tangent in their vanishing state, is in-
conclusive when the tangent is less than the arc, as it will be’
in certain positions of the subtense. ‘The demonstration
may be rendered complete in the followimg manner :—AB:
AD+DB:: AC: AB+BC. But AB+BC is ultimately
equal to AC ; hence AD+ DB is ultimately equal to AB,
and much more is the arc AB equal to the chord AB.

The first Part of Book LI. which treats of Hydrostatics,
presents us with several instances of explicit or implied er-
ror; particularly prop. 2, prop. 13, Schol. and propositions
24, 26, 31, and 86. But we have no room to dwell upon
them; and shall therefore pass directly to the second Part,
which is devoted to Pneumatics.

Prop. 51.. The force with which wind strikes a sail of
civen dimensions, was stated in former editions as varying
in the duplicate ratio of the cosine of the angle of incidence.
In the last edition, the term szne is substituted for cosine.
The phrase ‘angle of incidence” was before used in the same
sense as in optics: it is now employed in the ordinary sense
of mechanics. But this correction goes but little way to-
wards freeing the proposition from exception. If the sail
be supposed confined to move in the same direction with
the wind, which the demonstration seems to imply, a reso-
lution of the force on a third independent account was ne-

eessary, which would have reduced that part of the force
Vou. UTE.....No. 1. 18

138 Henints on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

which is effective to the ratio of the cube of the sine, instead
of the square.* But as the variation of the force deter-
mined from experiment differs totally both from the square
and the cube, it would have been better to erase pone
sition, than to attempt to amend it.

Prop. 55. Schol.. The mode in which the constant ve-
locity of sound is attempted to be explained, (which, like
the rest of the scholium, is copied from Rowning,) is whol-
ly erroneous: nor do we think it easy to substitute an un-
exceptionable theory of the mechanism of aerial pulsations,
without involving mathematical principles of a higher order
than the student is supposed to be acquainted with.
~ Prop. 56. Schol. 3. “It is found by experiment, that
air is necessary to the existence of sound, of animal life, of
fire, and of explosion.” ‘This, like several other statements
scattered up and down the work in which chemical princi-
ples are alluded to, needed correction to render it accord-
ant with the present state of our knowledge on these sub-
jects. The experiments of Biot and Chladni shew that
sound is transmitted by solid bodies as well as gaseous ones,
and that it may be conveyed to the organs of hearing with-
out the intervention of air, by forming a communication
between the sounding body and the head by means of a
solid conductor.—That fire and explosion require air for
their existence, is true only in the most loose and popular
sense of the terms. In particular, that the explosion of
gunpowder cannot be effected in a vacuum, as is implied in
one of the annexed experiments, is an entire mistake.+

The articles on the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer,
and steam-engine, are extremely defective in point of valu-
able information, compared with what might have been said
about them within the same limits, and in several respects are
calculated to leave erroneous impressions: but we must
content ourselves with giving this general caution against
placing implicit confidence in them.

* This theoretical determination may be seen, Gregory's Mechanics, fT.
539, We.

+ Robins, Hntton’s Math. Dictionary, &c.

} It may be proper Just to state, for the information of es who may
have access to no other rule than that given page 110, in making loose estt-

of Natural Philosophy. 139

Book IV. Prop. 1. Scholium. The editor of the Lon-
don edition of 1799, left the question undecided, as. Mr.
Cavallo had done, whether any other than ferruginous bodies
are capable of magnetic properties. ‘I’his scholium has been
retained ; although the experiments of ‘Tourte of Berlin,*
and Lampadius, place it beyond a doubt, that nickel and
cobalt possess the same capacity, in this respect, with iron,
except ian inferior degree. According to Lampadius, (see
Thomson’s Annals, 1815,) the “‘ magnetic energies’’ of iron,
nickel, and cobalt are as the numbers 55, 35, and 25, re-
spectively.

Prop. 2. Schol. If it were worth the while to retain
the experiments of Musschenbroek on the variation of the
magnetic force at all, in place of the far more important
ones of Coulomb, the numbers ought at least to have been

corrected. Had the editor of the second edition taken
' these experiments from Musschenbroek himself, instead of
taking them from Cavallo, he would have avoided the error
of making the distances all ten times too large.t The de-
nomination employed in the original statement (see Philos.
I. 206. Ed. 1744,) is tenths of inches. instead of inches.

Prop. 10. To illustrate the mode of finding the declina-
tion of the needle by amplitudes of the heavenly bodies,
the following example is stated: ‘If the magnetic ampli-
tude is 80° eastward of the north, and the true amplitude is
82° towards the same side, then the variation of the needle
is 2° west.” This statement cannot be reconciled to any
definition of the term “‘ amplitude ;” and it cannot be re-
conciled with the usual definition and the one given in the
Astronomy, except by making all the alterations which fol-
low: “If the magnetic amplitude be 10° N. of E. and the

mates of altitudes from the barometer, that the ascent corresponding to 1-10
in. fall of the mercury, instead of being one hundred and three feet, is
ata mean, (that is, when the barometer itself is at 30 in. and the thermom-
eter at 60°,) only about ninety-three feet.

* Nicholson’s Journal, Vol. 26.

+ If perfect exactness in such a case were of any importance, it would
be necessary to recollect, that Musschenbroek’s denominations were Rhin-
land measure; which are greater than the English in the ratio of 1,03 to 1.

We acknowledge ourselves indebted, for the above remark, to the sug-
gestion of a scientific friend. _

140 Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

true amplitude is 8° towards the same side, then _ varia-
tion of the needle is 2° east.”

Prop. 10. Schol. 2. The late and accurate obeenattets
of Mr. Gilpin* and Col. Beaufoy on the diurnal variation
of the needle in different months of the year, present wide
deviations from the results here given from Mr. Canton. Both
the observers just mentioned, “make the extremes of the
mean diurnal variation in different months, about 11’ and
4’; and both place the time of the maximum earlier in the
year than was done by Mr. Canton. Col. Beaufoy cate
son’s Annals, 1819,) places it in April.

Prop. 11. Schol. 1. The dip of the needle is here rep-
resented as probably ‘“ unalterable at the same place.”—
Whatever be the cause of the dip, this supposition is ex-
tremely improbable, while the declination is known to be
variable, and to be, im common with the dip, the result of
the tendency by which the needle places itself in the mag-
netical line. Nor do the observations made at London du-
ring the last century, warrant the inference made in this
Scholium. As measured by Whiston in 1724, it was 75°
10’: and nearly accordant with this result is that of Gra-
ham, obtained in the following year. Cavendish, in 1775,
found it to be 72° 30’, and Gilpin, in 1805, 70° 21’. These
observations, after every allowance is made for the imper-
fection of the instruments employed, leave no doubt that
the inclination of the needle has undergone a gradual dimi-
nution in London, during the last century. According to
M. Humboldt, (see Biot—Traité de Physique, IIE. 136 Wa
similar diminution has taken place, during the same period.
in France.

Book VI. Prop. 13. Schol. 1. The statements concern-
ing the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to ‘that
of deviation, in passing to and from water and glass, are
true only under a limitation which is not distinctly pointed
out,—namely, that the angle of incidence is indefinitely
* small.

Schol. 2.. The partial reflection of light by the second
surface of transparent media, when the angle is within the
limit for light to be refracted, is erroneously ascribed to
“inequalities” of the surface. If this were the true cause.

* Philos, Trans. 1816.

of Natural Philosophy. < EAL

no distinct image of an object could be seen by light thus
reflected. oe aad ;

Prop. 17. Exp. The effects of a single dense medium,
bounded by a convex surface, on parallel, diverging, and con-
verging rays, can never be illustrated by a convex lens,
which produces two successive refractions,;—one by a con-
vex surface of the denser, and the other by a concave sur-
face of the rarer medium. ‘The lens presents the combined
result of the former part of prop. 17, and the latter part of
prop. 18. In particular, a convex lens can never render
converging rays ‘less converging,” as is asserted in the
fourth paragraph under the Exp.

Precisely similar remarks might be repeated concerning
the introduction of the concave lens to illustrate the several
cases of prop. 18.—Both these experiments, if introduced
at all, should have been placed after prop. 18; and the man-
ner in which each illustrates’ both propositions should have
been pointed out.* ,

Prop. 22. Cor. 2. The corollary is right; but the inves-
tigation which is given of it, is incorrigibly wrong. By
comparison with the figure, it will be seen that it gives the
position of the principal focus of a glass sphere within the
sphere; and that of a sphere of water, comcident with the
hinder surface. ‘The proper mode of proceeding would be,
first to determine the focus of parallel rays entering a den-
ser medium by prop. 22; and then to find by prop. 23, the
focus of rays converging (to the point just found,) when
passing out of a denser medium into a rarer, through a con-
eave surface of the rarer.

Prop. 26. ‘“'The image will not be distinct, unless the
plane surface on which. it is received be placed at the dis-
tance of the principal focus of the lens.” For ‘ princi-
pal,” read—* corresponding to the distance of the object.”

Prop. 35. “ Though the distance of the object from the
lens be varied, the image may be preserved distinct without
varying the distance of the plane surface which receives it.”
The distance of the plane surface from what? The second
mode of doing it, pointed out in the demonstration, is in-

* Both these propositions have materially sufered in point of clearness,
feom employing as diagrams sections of lenses, instead of media indefinite
in the direction towards which the rays proceed after refraction,—as well
as from the inaccurate manner in which some of the lines are drawn.

142, Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes
consistent with the supposition that the distance ef the plane
surface, either from the object, or the lens, remains unalter-
ed. Those who will consult Rutherforth’s Optics, Ci.
VII. will see that this inconsistency has arisen from an at- .
tempt to blend into one, two propositions of which the con-
ditions were different. We will add, although the remark
has no relation to the last edition, that the mistake in the
statement of the magnifying power of the double micro-
scope (prop. 147.) arose from precisely the same source.
Rutherforth investigated the two ratios on which the magni~
fying power depends in separate propositions,—first sup-
posing the eye at the station of the object glass, and then
at the limit of distinct vision. In uniting these two propo-
sitions into one, Enfield madvertently retained the condi-
tion of the former. Za seg aetna Gi ea
Prop. 44. “Reflection is caused by the powers of at-
traction and repulsion in the reflecting bodies.” This pro-
position is altered and abridged from the following in Ru-
therforth: “ Bodies refract and reflect light by one and the
same power, differently exercised in different circumstan-
ces.” ‘The illustration of this proposition by the original
author is an excellent one, considering the state of optical
‘knowledge at the time he wrote; but in the hands of his
abridger, although all.the suppositions made by Rutherforth
ave retained, and we are required to admit that ‘ bodies at-
tract those rays which are very near them, and repel those
a little farther from them,” yet no use is made of the at-
tracting surface, and the most interesting part of the propo-
sition, the reflection produced by the second surface of the
medium, (in regard to which so much pains had been taken
in the previous scholium to exclude other hypotheses,) is
entirely omitted. The student is left to wonder why “ at-
traction” is mentioned in the proposition as having any
concern with reflection; and the identity of action in the
medium by which refraction and reflection are produced, is
kept out of his sight.
Prop. 46. Schol. Although perhaps nothing positively
erroneous is advanced in this scholium concerning Sir Isaac
Newton’s theory of fits of easy transmission and reflection,
we cannot but object to a naked statement of a theory,
stripped of all the facts which it was formed to explain, and
“made at the same time in so obscure a manner as must im-

of Natural Phiiosophy. 143

‘pair the respect of the student for its illustrious author.
The hypothesis of fits, however it may seem fitted to excite
ridicule as exhibited in this scholium, is now justly regarded
as one of the most striking displays which Newton ever
made of his transcendant genius. In the hands of Biot
and his companions in the career of discovery, it has ac-
quired an importance of which Newton himself could have
had no adequate conception.—Whether the principles of
this now highly interesting and important department of Op-
ties can be reduced to the level of a system of elementary
instruction, is deserving of serious inquiry. A digest of the
phenomena and laws of polarization, involving no difficul-
ties which would render it inaccessible, or deprive it of its
interest with those who aim at nothing more than general
views of science, appease at least to be as yet a desidera-
tum.

Prop. 58. “In all mirrors, plane or spherical, &c.”
This proposition, in regard to spherical mirrors, is true only,
of those pencils of reflected light which are indefinitely
near the perpendicular.

Prop. 68. In the demonstration it is stated that “ by
prop. 31, the diameter of the image, when the object 1s
given, 1s inversely as the distance of the object.” ‘This is
not said, in prop. 313 nor is it true, except when the object
is very remote. ‘The image formed by a lens is not in cir-
cumstances analogous to that produced on the retina of the
eye; for the lens has no provision for preserving the image
distinct, for different distances of the object, without vary-
ing the distance of the plane surface which receives it.

Prop. 73.“ When equal objects in the same right line
are seen obliquely, their apparent lengths are inversely as
the squares of their distances from the eye.” ‘The limita-
tion, ‘in the same right line,’ has been very properly in-
serted by the editor ‘of the present edition; but to render
it cofrect, it wants another limitation which the proposition
originally had as given by WRutherforth; that is, “ When
equal objects are seen very obliquely,” &c. When the ob-
ject is of finite magnitude, the obliquity must be very great,
in order that the proposition may hold true,—unless indeed
the object itself be very small; in which case it holds true
for every degree of obliquity. But under this last modifi-
cation, it requires a different demonstration ; and is more

144 Remarks on Dr. Enjield’s Institutes

properly referred to the subject of apparent velocity, than
of apparent magnitude. As referred to the head of appa-
rent velocity, the proposition might have been thrown into
the following simple and not inelegant form: “* When a body
moves uniformly in a right line, its apparent velocity will
be inversely as the square of the distance from the eye.”
In demonstrating the 83d and 85th propositions, it is
stated as the reason why the image produced by a convex
or concave lens is erect, that the axis of the pencils which
proceed from the extremities of the object “ only cross one
another at the lens.” It should be, ‘ because they only
cross one another at the eye.” The pencils which pass
from the extreme points through a lens, do not; in fact, meet
each other till they reach the eye. Figs. 8 and 9 convey
no idea of the manner in which the pencils come to the
eye, except in the single case in which the eye is in contact
with the lens; nor is there any other diagram in the Optics
which gives the student any information on this important
point.—The remark scarcely need be added, that almost all
the propositions in this chapter which state ‘the effect of
lenses on apparent magnitude, have unsatisfactory demon-
strations. Jt is taken for granted that at whatever distance
from the lens the eye is placed, the pencil which enters it
from the same point of the object diverges as if from the
“same point in space. But the fact is, that as the eye re-
cedes from the lens, the rays which enter the pupil from
the same point of the object, gradually change: the axis of
the pencil, instead of coinciding with the centre of the jens,
passes above or below it, according as the point of the ob-
ject is above or below. Hence it is improper to assume
that the pencil from A (figs. 8 and 9) diverges as 1! from the
same point D for all distances of the eye from the lens.
The assumption is erroneous, except when the object is
extremely small, and it ought not to be made even in this
case without proof.* ; Sel Gat
Prop. 89. If this proposition were one of the least val-
ue, it would be desirable that it should have a more satis-
factory demonstration than its present one, which on several
accounts 1s wholly inconclusive.

* The remarks made in this paragraph are equally applicable to the pro-
positions in the succeeding chapter, which relate to vision as affected by
mirrors.

of Natural Philosophy. . 145

The statements concerning the brightness of the image,
made in different propositions of this chapter, are not legit-
imately proved; for the number of rays received by the
pupil from any one point of the object may be increased,
and the brightness nevertheless diminished,—on account of
the increase of apparent magnitude.

Props. 108, 110, and 111, assert unconditionally con-
cerning the magnifying power of mirrors, what is true only
in certain positions of the eye. If, for example, the object
be nearer a concave mirror than its principal focus, and the
eye be in the centre of concavity, the image, instead of
‘‘ appearing larger” than the object, as is asserted in prop.
108, will appear of the same magnitude ; and if the eye be
brought still. nearer the mirror, the image will appear the
smallest. _

Prop. 144. Schol. 1. “Oftwo Saeiae telescopes which
magnify equally, the shorter will give a more imperfect im-
age than the longer. For the image appearing equal in both,
but being farther from the object-glass in the longer than
the shorter, must be in reality larger or more magnified ;
whence the defect arising from the different reftangibility of
the rays, will be more visible in the longer than in the short-
er telescope.”’—The statement with which this paragraph
begins is correct. ‘The reasoning subjoined is evidently
erroneous, and leads to a conclusion the reverse of what
was first asserted. If two telescopes were exactly similar
in all their parts, differing only in size, it is manifest that the
imperfection of the image arising from unequal refrangi-
bility, would be the same in both. But the smaller would
shave the disadvantage of rendering the object less bright,
in the duplicate ratio of the linear “dimensions. To render
the brightness the same in both, the object glasses must be

made equal; in which case the one of least focal distance,
_ being a greater portion of a sphere, would produce the most
imperfect image.

Schol. 2. The account of achromatic lenses in this sche-
lium omits the essential circumstance on which the whole
explanation turns. We are told that a convex lens of crowa
glass is to be united with a concave one of flint glass in such
a manner that “ the excess of refraction in the crown glass
may destroy the colour caused by the flint glass.” Here
the student will naturally inquire, how the crown glass can

Vou. IIT....No. 1. 19

446 Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

possess an excess of refraction, without also possessing an
excess of dispersive power? Forthe removal of this diffi-
culty,no hint is given of the great fact which lies at the
foundation of Dollond’s improvements, viz. that the dis-
persive power of different media is not proportioned to
their mean refractive power. Unless he has the sagacity
to conjecture that this may be the case from the obscure
statement above quoted, he will remain in ignorance of what
has been justly regarded as the greatest discovery made in.
Optics since the period of Newton. tit '

Book VII. We had hoped to see the numerical express-
ions. for the- principal magnitudes, distances, and angles
which occur in Astronomy, corrected in the present edition
80 as to correspond with the present state of the science. But
with the exception of two or three manifest errors of the —
press, and the general table at the end of part I., the num-
bers of former editions, many of which are a century old,
are retained. We will therefore, once for all, give the cor-
rections of those which may be considered as ascertained
with the most precision. The student can, if he chooses,
go over them with his pen. ;

Prop. 3..Cor. 133, 137, for 3985 ready “0-4. 3856,

Prop. 3. Cor. 229 1230) Ae Ge Blas

Prop. 8. Schol. 23°:28' 5?\(1820), 23°. 2957"
Do. h- one degree 2° 42/-

Prop. 33. 32! 47" » 32! 354”
31 40 aie SE BM

32 12 32. 3)

Prop. 51. Schiol. line 9 ‘Ho aiath ~ tenth
ky Wea 110. d. h. in.

Prop. 116. Schol. 1 18 28,6} 1:18 27,6

213 17,9 3 13:13,7

7 3 59,6 7 342.6

1618 5,1 — 16 16 31,8

Prop. 117. Cor.179, 182, 194,000,000 190,000,000

* Delambre, Playfair, Lambton, Bowditch, &c.
+ Laplace.

; + These numbers are Flamsteed’s. The corrections are given from Lap-
ace.

_ of Natural Philosophy. 147

Praprissicg - 240,000 , 238,200*
Prop. 135. 5201 5203
Ge apes : 9538 - 9539
Props. A, B, 182. Part. HI. = 2” A a
ey | 100,000 - 400,000.

~ Prop. 13. To make the demonstration from fig. 10, con-
sistent, KPLH ought to be regarded as a circle in the heav-
ens; it is therefore improper to place the spectator at P.
The diagram should have been constructed like fig. 2, with
a small concentric circle to denote the earth.

Prop. 35. Cor.‘ Hence it appears that the earth, at the
winter solstice or Capricorn, is mits perihelion.” The stu-
dent will be apt to infer, from this mode of expression, that
the two points mentioned have some necessary connexion.
But so far is this from being true, that the time when the
earth is in its perihelion is about ten days later than that of
the winter solstice. ‘The angular motion of the earth in the
interval (for 1820) is about 9° 50’.

Prop. 35. Prob. 6. The method of finding the bearing
of two places on the earth’s surface, here described, is
manifestly erroneous, except when the places are very near
each other. This part of the problem does not appear ca-
pable of a solution on the artificial globe.

Chapter ur. on Twilight, has undergone several material
improvements in the last edition. The Cor. to prop. 37, is
however out of place, and should have been expunged.
The demonstration of prop. 39, is freed from several theo-
retical errors; although we think the attempt to distinguish
between the sun’s centre and upper limb, in an angle lable
to so much uncertainty as the sun’s depression at the com-
mencement of twilight, attended with no advantage sufficient
to compensate for the additional complexness it gives the

* In calculating this distance, 57’ 11’ was retained as the mean equatorial
parallax: this being the result obtained by Delambre and Lalande, and be-
ng employed in Burg’s Lunar Tables.

_t Delambre, Astronomie IIT. 142. Philos. Trans. 1818. Although Mr.
Pond fixes the greatest possible limit at 0’,5, he supposes that in all proba-
bility the double parallax does not equal 0”,25, even for Arcturus and Lyra.

It issearcely necessary to remark that when either of ithe foregoing num-
bers are employed in calculations, in different parts of the Astronomy,
corresponding alterations must be made in the results deduced from them.

146 Remarks on Dr. Enjieid’s Institutes

demonstration.— After all, we should have been much bet-
ter pleased to see the proposition entirely omitted, than any
attempt made to amend it. The hypothesis that the rays
which come to the eye at the end of twilight are brought by
a single reflection, is a very questionable one. ‘The power
of reflecting light possessed by the atmosphere, must de-
pend on one or both of two causes: 1. It may reflect some
of the rays which pass through it in consequence of a defect
of transparency. 2. It may reflect in the same manner as
light is ordinarily bent back into a denser medium. This
last mode of reflection, if it ever takes place without an ab-
rupt change of density, is evidently more likely to take
place, in proportion as the variation of density is more rapid.
Now whichever of these causes operates to produce twi-.
light, it must evidently exist in a far higher degree in the
lower, than in the higher regions of the atmosphere. Hence
instead of a single reflection at the height of forty-two
miles, two or more successive reflections may quite as pro-
bably transmit to the eye the light with which twilight clo-
ses.*-But even admitting the correctness of the assump-
tion that twilight is produced by a single reflection, it is
most obvious that no inference can be deduced concerning
“the height of the atmosphere,” or even the height at
which it ceases to reflect light. ‘The only legitimate con-
clusion is, that forty-two miles is the limit beyond which.
light is not reflected in sufficient quantity to affect the or-
gans of vision. If, instead of this vague proposition, the
law of atmospheric density at different altitudes had been
inserted in its proper place in the Pneumatics, the subject
would have been exhibited in a far more interesting and in-
structive form. . SER
‘The subject of the moon’s librations, in props. 78—S82,
is managed with singular infelicity. ‘The introductory pro-
position should be, that ‘the time of the moon’s rotation
on its axis is equal to the mean time of its revolution round
the earth,”—instead of beginning with the fact that “the
moon always has nearly the same side toward the earth,”
and drawing the strange inference that ‘af the moon re-
volves-about its axis, its periodical time must be equal. to
that of its revolution round the earth.” The librations

* See Vince's Ast. 1. Art. 206:

of Natural Philosophy. 148

should be assigned each to its proper cause; that in lati-
tude to the obliquity of the axis to the plane of the orbit,
and that in longitude to the excentric form of the orbit,—
instead of blending the explanations of both under the
loose proposition, “ the librations of the moon may be ex-
plained on the supposition that the moon has a revolution
on its axis.” In prop. 81, the equality of the times of ro-
tation and revolution is inferred from the librations; while it
isin fact a matter of direct observation, and must be pre-
supposed in explaining the librations themselves. In prop.
82, the elliptical form of the moon’s orbit is inferred from
the libration in longitude. We very much doubt whether
the species of oval to which the moon’s orbit most nearly
approaches could have been determined from direct ob-
servations on so trifling a change of phase. The proper
mode of presenting this part of the subject would be, to
infer the elliptical form of the orbit from the observed rela-
tion between the anomaly and the apparent diameter; and
then to employ this conclusion for the explanation of the
libration in longitude. .

Prop. 83. Schol. In stating the results of Dr. Hers-
chel’s observations on the altitude of the lunar mountains, it
ts mentioned that ‘ one was found to be about a mile in
height ; but none of the others which he measured proved
to be more than half that altitude.” By consulting the orig-
inal memoir: in the Philos. Trans. and another which he
has published since, it will be seen that Dr. Herschel’s re-
sults differ much less from the estimates of the older As-
tronomers, and from the recent and accurate measurements
of: Schroter, than is here represented. Dr. H. makes
several over a mile, and one, nearly two miles in height.

Prop. 106. ‘Tf the moon, when new, is in one of its
nodes, the eclipse of the sun will be central. It should be,
—*to the inhabitants of some part of the earth it will be
centrally eclipsed in the zenith.” To those parts of the
earth at which the moon js never vertical, a central eclipse
can happen only when the moon is not in its nents at the
the time of conjunction.

Prop. 113, which affirms a motion “ i antecedentia,”
of the satellites of the superior planets while passing from
one elongation to. the next through their inferior conjunc-
tion, is no less erroneous than the propositiens of former

150 Remarks oi Dr. Enjield’s Institutes

editions concerning the retrogradation of the primary plaa-
ents; and, should, like them, have been rectified or struck
out. All that can be said with truth is, that during the spe-
cified interval the motion of the secondary is retrograde
relatwely to its primary; and even this statement can
scarcely be extended to the satellites of Herschel.*

Prop. 114. “ 'The greatest elongations of a satellite on
each side are equal.” ‘This proposition has several excep=
tions. ‘The orbits of the third and fourth satellites of Ju-
piter have a very sensible excentricity ; and the same is true
of the fourth (now more generally numbered as the sixth)
satellite of Saturn. See Laplace: Syst. du Monde. The
latter, according to Delambre, (Ast. III. ae) has an 5h
ticity nearly equal to that of our moon.

Prop. 123. Several of the particulars ee. in the an-
nexed scholium from Sir I. Newton, have now become ob-
solete. In particular, the quantities of matter in Jupiter
and Saturn, instead of being to that in the sun in the ratios
of 1 to 1100 and 2360, are now known to be in the ratios wt
1 to 1067 and 3534.4

Prop. 135, is founded on the erroneous theory ok retro-
gradation previously laid down; and therefore should have
been corrected.

Prop. 155. The demonstration af this proposition is in
part fallacious. It is said to be contrary to prop. 51. cor. of
Book II, that the centre of gravity of two gravitating bod-
res should move; and is inferred that if one of the bodies
is projected in any direction, the other must acquire (by
what means we are not told) an equal motion in the oppo-
site direction. Now this is so far from following as a ne-
cessary consequence, that the other body will not in faet
acquire any such motion; and if a ileal aay movement me

* We have not attempted, in the general ist of edrenetionén ichseetl
146, to rectify the periodical times of the satellites of Herschel ; for oe
the exception of the second and fourth, their distances from their primary
are wholly conjectural ; nor is even their mber regarded.by Dr. Herschel
as yet fully ascertained. His last detenninanor of the synodital revolutions
of the second and fourth, given in the Philos. Trans, for 18i5, is as follows:

II. 8d. 16h. 56/.5”.
IV. 18d. 11h. 8/ 59”.

The inclination of their orbits to ‘the ecliptic he finds to be 780 58/,—

much farther from See ean ey than has Beem heretofore supposed.

‘+ Mec. Céleste. Part. I. Ch. 9.

of es 151

given to one of them alone, the common centre of gravity of
the two will not continue at rest. Nor does this contradict
the proposition referred to in the Mechanics ; for the com-
mon centre will move uniformly in a right line. The propo-
sition should have stood thus: “The sun and any planet
revolve round a common centre of gravity, which remains-
at rest, or has a uniform rectilineal motion.”

Prop. 162. This theorem, as it stood in Rowning, was
preceded by an investigation of the motion of the apses
produced by a force varying in a greater or less than the
inverse duplicate ratio of the distance. As nothing analo-
gous to this investigation has been retained by Enfield, the
assertion that when the force varies faster than in the inverse
duplicate ratio of the distance the line of the apses will
move forward, and vice versa, made in the course of the
demonstration, i is wholly gratuitous. —

Prop. 163. The demonstration is not only inthe ale to
the proposition, but from an inadvertent change in the con-
ditions as laid down by Rowning, a blunder is carried
through it and the annexed corollary. The demonstration
affirms that if the moon is passing from the higher to the
lower apsis and its gravity increases too fast, ‘ it will ap-
proach nearer to the earth” than it would otherwise do,
“and describe a portion of an orbit less excentric, or near-
era circle.” The former statement is correct; but it con-
tradicts the latter. So in the corollary we are told that
“when the gravity of the moon towards the earth decreas-
es teo fast, the excentricity of the orbit will increase; and
when her gravity towards the earth increases too fast, the
excentricity will decrease.” The fact is, that in both cases
alike the excentricity will increase. It is when the gravity
increases or diminishes too slow, that the excentricity will
decrease. ‘Those who will give themselves the trouble of
consulting the prop. as it stands in Rowning, will find no
difficulty in perceiving how a hasty abridger might shift the
tonditions of the demonstration.

Props. 164 and 166. Why two propositions so nearly
idee should find a place in this chapter we can give no
account,—unless that the compiler had forgotten that he
had given a theorem on the motion of the nodes from Row-
ning, and therefore looked for one in some other author.
So much at least is certain,—that prop. 166, and this only,

fom Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

among those which compose the chapter, is borrowed trom
- Rutherforth. Mt.
Prop 168. Schol. This method of finding the direction
of gravity includes only the effect of the centrifugal force.
Including the joint effect of rotation and of figure, the di-
rection is manifestly that of a perpendicular to the tangent
plane of the earth’s surface, or of a normal to the elliptical
curve of the meridian passing through the given place.
Prop. 173. In the concluding paragraph of the demon-
stration, the relative forces of the sun and moon to raise
tides are erroneously stated. ‘The real forces are directly
as the masses, and inversely as tle cubes of the distances.
The concluding scholium of the Astronomy consists of |
extracts from a, paper of Dr. Herschel’s in the Philos.
Trans. for 1795. These extracts are so unskilfully made,
and are presented in so disjointed a form, as to afford scarce-
ly any idea of the train of argument pursued in the origi-
nal. But in the original itself, high as is the estimation in
which the author is justly held as an observer, we must be
permitted, to think that there are several statements which
cannot be defended. With the view of multiplying the
points of analogy between the sun and the planets, and
thus increasing the presumption that the former is inhabit-
ad, he endeavours to shew that both primaries and seconda-
ries shine in some measure by their own light. The partial
illumination of the moon, for example, during a total eclipse.
cannot be entirely ascribed to the light which may reach it
from the earth’s atmosphere;—‘* because, in some cases,
‘the focus of the sun’s rays refracted by the earth’s atmos-
phere must be many thousand miles beyond the moon.”
Dr. Herschel assumes as the basis of this calculation that
the rays of the sun are bent by the atmosphere at only an
angle of 31’. He seems to have inadvertently neglected
the circumstance that the rays undergo a second equal re-
fraction in passing out of the atmosphere. In consequence
of this, the real inflection is 62’, (or rather 66’, taking 33’
‘as the mean horizontal refraction,) so that the focus of the
sun’s rays as refracted by the earth’s atmosphere can never
in fact be so distant as the moon. An observer stationed at
the moon, even during a-central eclipse of the sun, would
see a luminous ring encircling the earth. The light thus
thrown upon the moon’s disc is amply sufficient to explain

of Natural Philosophy. 155

its par tial illumination during a central eclipse. Were Dr.
H.’s assumption concerning the amount of atmospheric 1e-
fraction correct, his conclusion would not follow ; for the
same agency of the atmosphere which ‘produces iwilight
to an observer stationed on the earth’s surface, will produice
the same eflect to a second spectator, stationed any where
behind the first, and in the same tangent plane of the earth.*

Another obvious proof that Dr. H. was misled by his zeal

to find points of analogy between the sun and the other

bodies of the system, at least so far as the phosphorescent

quality of the moon is concerned, is, that light is not given
off in any sensible degree from the crescent which is unen-

lightened by the sun, just before and after opposition,

The attempt to remove an objection to the sun’s being
Panabiacd by supposing that ‘“ heat is produced by the sun’s
rays only when they act on a calorific medium,” and that
they are the cause of heat only “ by uniting with the mat-
ter of fire which is contained in the substances that are
heated,” together with the arguments advanced in support
of these strange positions, certainly ought, for the credit of
one who has deserved so highly of astronomical science, to
have been suppressed. They are too far behind the pres-
ent state of Chemistry, and too little essential to the object

_ which their author had in view, to deserve transcribing into
the pages of an elementary work, which is intended ‘to be
employed in instruction.

In passing to the Appendix,—our limits will not allow us
to notice a variety of errors which occur in the progress of
the examples; nor a number of small inaccuracies unne-
cessarily introduced into the mode of projecting solar
eclipses. The tables of epochs (which terminate with the
present year) should have been extended; and might also
have been advantageously corrected from those of Delam-
bre and Burckhardt.—But the most important positive er~
ror, perhaps, which occurs in the Appendix, relates to the
method of finding the arguments of the moon’s latitude.
In Ewing’s Astronomy and all the editions of Enfield ex-
cept the last, we have given over the IIld table, “* Arg. 1—

* Hence the 93d Proposition, which ascribes the light transmitted to the
moon’s disc during a total eclipse to “ the reflection of rays of light falling
upon the earth’s atmosphere,” is doubtless in part carrect.

Vou. Ill.....No. 1. 290

154 Remarks on Dr. Enjield’s Institutes

)’s mean anomaly 5” and over the Vth, “ Arg. IV—@’s
mean anomaly.” Both these arguments are wrong. | ‘Those
who may have the curiosity to look mto Mason’s edition of —
Mayer’s Lunar Tables, from which Ewing’s were abridged,
ieee see at a glance how these erroneous captions originat-
“They are in fact the 3d and 5th arguments of Mayer’s
Fines but Mayer’s 3d table is omitted, and his 10th is’
made Ewing? s 5th. The captions were inadvertently cop-
ied, although they belonged, in consequence of these omis-_
sions, to the wrong tables. In the last edition, the-caption
of the third table is altered to make it agree with the gene-
ral directions for finding the arguments of Latitude given in
Prob. 8th; but that of the 5th still remains. erroneous, as
well as ihe general rule under Prob. Sth. It should be,
‘subtract the moon’s mean anomaly from the second argu-
ment,” &c.3 and the caption of table 5th should be, * Ang.
{1.— y’s mean anomaly.”

The principal part of the corrections and alterations made
by the editor of the last edition have our entire approbation.
Particularly in regard to two highly important propositions,
the one relating to the law of refraction, in the Optics, and
that on the sun’s parallax, in the Astronomy, he has probably
done the best that the elementary character of the work
admitted. "There are a few. instances, however, of | altera-
tions, the propriety of which appears very questionable,
and which justice to the labours of former editors oo
us briefly e notice.

Thus in the first proposition, “ Matter my A and mere
extension is infinitely divisible,’ the clause in italics is pe-
culiar to the last edition. We recollect having seen in
Hutton’s Dictionary an attempt to establish a distinction be-
tween “actual” and “ potential divisibility ;” but we could
not understand it; nor are we any more fortunate in regard
to the lancuage just quoted. If the term ‘ divisibility” it-
self means nothing more than the possibility of: being di-
vided, to say that matter may be infinitely divisible is a sole-
cism. ‘The distinction between the divisibility: of matter
and that of extension seems to depend on the definition of
the term. If by ‘‘divisibility” be meant merely the pos-
sibility of being ideally divided by mathematical planes
without any separation of parts, then the property is one
which belongs to matter and to extension in precisely the

of Natural Philosophy. 155

same sense. But if in the phrase “ divisibility of matter’
be included the additional idea of discerptibility, or the pos-
sibility of being separated into parts not in contact, then the
property is one which belongs no degree to pure exten- —
sion. In neither case does the distinction made in the pro-
position as quoted above appear to have any foundation.
That matter zs infinitely divisible in the first sense, is almost
self-evident: whether it is so in the last, (admitting the ex-
ercise of any supposable power which does not change the
nature of matter,) is a question which lies beyond the reach
of the human faculties.

We notice, in the second place, that three experiments,
on the approach of light bodies floating on water to each
other, or to the side of the vessel, have been transferred
from prop. 5, where they were originally placed to illus-
trate the cohesion between solids and fluids, to prop. 4,
where, if they illustrate any thing, it must be the cohesive
attraction between two solid bodies. It is true that these
phenomena are only indirect consequences of the attraction
between solids and fluids ; and a scholium was very proper-
ly added by the author, (which has been omitted in all the
subsequent editions,) to aid the student in tracing their con-
nexion with the proposition. But it is most certain that
they have nothing to do with the cohesive force of two
solid bodies. When there is an elevation or depression of
the fluid around both of two floating bodies, they will ap-
proach: when there is an elevation around one and a de-
pression around the other, they will recede. ‘These are
mere results of capillary action; and as such, admit of an
easy explanation from the general theory of Laplace.*—A
popular idea of the mechanism of these phenomena will be
gained from the following experiment, by which we have
been much amused, and which we do not recollect to have
seen noticed. ‘Two small giobules of mercury, carefully
laid upon water, will swim. Let these globules be brought
within one or two inches, and it is surprising to observe the
rapidity with which they dart together... If one of the glob-
ules. is forced to the edge of the water, (the vessel being
of such materials as to be capable of being moistened,) it

* See Méc. Céleste. Sup. an dix, Livre: Biot—Traité de Physique I. 462.
Haiiy 1. 237 ‘

156 _ Remarks on Dr. Enfield’s Institutes

will recede with an activity which might seem the effect of
animation. But on holding the vessel in the light, the se-
cret of these motions will be apparent. Each globule will
be seen to have a depression around it, which perceptibly,ex-
tends to the distance of more than half an inch. The globules
will be seen to rush together, not from any mutual attrac-
tion, but because, in doing it, each descends down an inclin-
ed plane. 'Two needles, laid on water and kept parallel to
each other, will exhibit similar appearances.

In the Optics, under Prop. 18. Exps. 22, 23, 55, 56, &c.
the term focus, as used to denote the point as if from which
diverging rays proceed after refraction or reflection, is
changed into imaginary radiant. 'The latter term is doubt-
less the most descriptive of the actual condition of the rays,
and by some writers is uniformly employed instead of vir-
tual or negative focus. But to introduce this distinction
increases the complexness of enunciation of several impor-
tant theorems which are already too complex.* It were to
be wished, for the sake of these theorems, that we had some
term which should merely express the point where the lines
of direction of a pencil of rays meet, before refraction or
reflection,— without including the idea of divergency or con-
vergency ; and another to denote the same thing after re-
fraction or reflection, As long as this is not the: case, we
are not cenfident that any advantage i is gained by changing
the denomination of focus, when virtual, to imaginary radi-

‘ant. But if the change is made at all, it ought at least to
be carried through. This has not been done by the Editor ;
and the consequence is, that several propositions contain an.
implied error. He has inserted ‘ imaginary radiant” after
“focus” in prop. 55; but in props. 22, 23, and 56, which
equally required a similar addition, and in prop. 54, which
required a substitution, neither has been made. Such an
addition would, it is true, have rendered the enunciation of
some of these propositions exceedingly perplexed; but
consistency demanded that it should be done, or that the
language of former editions should be left unaltered.+

* Such), in Enfield’s Cae are props. 21, 25, 54, 56.

t It must be admitted that the language of former editions, in this re-
spect, was not entirely consistent with itself. Defs. 8 and 18, and the Schol.
to def. 13, needed modification.

of Natural Philosophy. 157

The erroneous theory of the stationary points and retro-
gradations of the planets in Ch. 4. Part. I. of the Astrono-
my has been very properly expunged from the present edi-
tion. An investigation is substituted, (p. 262,) which gives

the formula D ee for.the sine of elongation of
y2— 2 Lavan
‘ y2—V2 ;
the superior planet, and d ae for that of the

inferior pianet, at the time when each is stationary as seen
from the other. Instead of these cumbrous formule, which
require the calculation of the velocites, and are unfitted for
logarithmic computation, we should rather have seen the in-
vestigation so conducted as to terminate in the equations,
cot E = tea and cote = sail E being the
elongation of the superior, and e that of the inferior planet.
These expressions are far simpler, besides being confined
to terms of the distances.*

* We have taken no notice, in the progress of these remarks, of errors
which are merely typographical, or which might have arisen from mistakes
committed by the compiler in transcribing. We will therefore subjoin a
list of such as affect the sense, and as the student will not probably be able
to rectify for himself, with their corrections. Many of them are peculiar
to the last edition.

oF|? oF |?

Book II. Prop. 30. Car. 6. For ae read, :
Share Lemma GU vor centrifugal (three times) centripetal.

Book IV. Prop. 10. Schol. 2. table at top. For 12° 2/ 19° 2".
Book V. Prop.5. Exp.6. For cups metallic cups.
. | Prop. 11. line 2. For electrified unelectrified.
Prop. 14. Exp. line 7. For positively negatively.

Book VI. Prop. 37. Exp. line 21. For diverging converging.
Prop. 126. Schol. For 42° 20/ 42° 2/.

Book VIE Prop. 18. For half year _ half a year.
Def. 40. For earth earth’s orbit.

Prop. 57, end of Schol. For al iad

) -P—p p—P
Pag. 295. 8th col. against Merc. For 14.24.5.28 24.5.28.

3d col against Herschel. For 1908352 19183852
Do. head of last 2

i lista ist. he earth.
a bnanee Cs mean distances mean dist. of t

158 = Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building.

Arr. XXI.—A Description of Irurex Town’s Improve-
ment in the construction of Wood and Iron Bridges: in-
tended as a general system of Bridge-Building for rivers,
creeks, and harbors, of whatever kind of bottoms, for any

“practicable width of span or opening am eee part afer the
country.

To establish a general mode a constructing wooden and
iron Bridges, anil. which mode of construction shall, at the
same time, be the most simple, permanent, and economical,
both in erecting and repairing, has been, for along time, a
desideratum of great importance to a country so extensive,
and interspersed with so many wild and majestic rivers as
ours is. It has been too much the custom for architects and
builders to pile together materials, each according to his
own ideas of the scientific principles and practice of Bridge-
building, and the result has been, Ist. That nearly as many
modes of construction have been adopted as there have
been bridges built. 2d. That many have answered no pur-
pose at all,jand others but very poorly and for a short time,
while most of the best ones have cost a sum which deters
-and puts it out of the power of probably five-sixths of those
interested in ferries, to substitute bridges, which would ob-
viate the many dangers and delays incident to them.

That architects and builders adhere to their own ideas 1n
the construction of not only bridges, but of buildings, is
almost universally true; they are obstinately opposed to the
adoption of any other mode than their own, consequently
it is as true, and it is seen to be so, throughout the country,

(and it is much to be regretted,) that in very few instances,
either in erecting bridges or buildings, there is any model
either uniform, or, in general, very good. But in bridges
and public buildings, it would seem, something better might
be expected, if men scientifically and practically acquaint-
ed with such subjects, would step forward, in a disinterest-
ed manner, and determine between principles which are
philosophical, and those which are not, and between modes
of execution which are founded in practice and experience,
and those which are founded in ignorance and inexperience ;
and in matters of taste, if they would determine in favour
of classic and well established taste, and that which is the

Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building. 159

_ offspring of unimproved minds and whimsical fancies, which
are ever upon the rack to establish new things, the creation
of their own imaginations; and which are therefore sure to
be wrong for this good reason, that their authors are so.

Perhaps the following proposition comprises what is the
most important to be determined with regard to a general

system of Bridge-Building, viz.

By what construction or arrangement will the least quan-
tity of materials, and cost of labor, erect a bridge of any
practicable span or opening between piers or abutments, to
be the strongest and most permanent, and to admit of the
easiest vonage?

In giving the best answer to this proposition, which I am
capable of, after a number of years’ attention to the theory
_ and practice of this subject, I shall refer to the plates ac-
companying this article. The mode of construction is so
simple and plain to inspection, as'to require little explanation
of them.

Figure 1, is an elevation of one of the trusses of a bridge;
one, two, or three of those trusses placed vertically upon
piers, are to be considered as the support of the bridge, and
are to be of a height, at least, sufficient to admit a waggon
to pass under the upper beams, which lie horizontally upon
the top string-piece of the side trusses; and on these same side+
string-pieces rest the feet of rafters, which form a roof to
shingle upon. In this case, a middle truss is used, which
will always be necessary in bridges of considerable width;
the height of it will be as much greater than the side ones
as the height or pitch of the roof. The height of the trus-
ses mast be equal to the whole height of the bridge requir-
ed, aad is . be an exact continuation of the work represent-
ed in Fig. 1.

The eight of the trusses is to be proportioned to ihe
width of the openings between the piers or abutments, and
may. be about one-tenth of the openings, when the piers are
fifteen fect or more apart—a less span requiring about the
same height, for the reasons before stated.

The diagonal bearing of these trusses, is composed of
sawed plank ten or eleven imches wide, and from three tc
three and a half inches thick; it may be’ sawed from a1
tumber that will last well, when kept dry. White sia
spruce are probably the best kinds of timber for the pur-

160 Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building.

pose, on account of their lightness, and their not belie so
subject to spring or warp as white oak.

The nearer those braces are placed to each other, the
more strength will the truss have, and in no case are they
to be halved or gained, where they intersect each other ;
but they are to stand in close contact, depending entirely
on three or four trunnels, which go through each joint or in-
tersection, and where the string-pieces pass over these joints
the trunnels go through them also, and are each of them
wedged at each end to keep the timber in close contact; a
chain or champ is necessary to bring the work ngit to-
gether.

The trunnels may be made of white oak, one and a half
inches in diameter. ‘They are made very cheaply and ex-
cellently, by being rived out square, and driven, while green
or wet, through a tube fitted to a block and ground to an
edge at the top end; they are then to be seasoned before.
they are used.

The string-pieces are composed of two thicknesses of
plank, of about the same dimensions as the braces, and
they are so put together as to break joints as shewn at Fig.
6. This renders long hewn timber unnecessary, as also
any labor in making splices, and putting on iron work.

For any span or opening not exceeding one hundred and
ihirty feet, one string-piece at top and one at bottom of each
truss, if of a good proportion and well secured, will be sufii-
cient, (see Fic. 2.;) but as the span is extended beyond
one hundred and thirty feet, two or more at top and bottom
would be required as shown in Fig. 1 where two string-
pieces run over the two upper and lower series of joints or
intersections of the braces, and in wide spans the floor-
beams. fe be placed on the second string-piece as shown
at Fig.

Fig. 3, shows on a larger scale how each joint is secured,
by w fick it is seen that the trunnels take hold of the whole
thickness of each piece. |

Fig. 4, is a section of a bridge of this construction, and
shows the manner in which the braces and string-pieces
come together, and also the manner of making the fisar of
the bridge, and of putting beams and braces over head,
which are to be connected with the middle iruss for the
purpose of bracing the bridge agaist lateral rack or mo-

JMr. Town's new mode of Bridge-bwiding. 163

iion. Very flat pitched eats will be preferable, as it-will,
in that case, be a greater Samper to the BL ReEpatl of the
bridge.

Fig. 5, is qa floor or plan cof bridge, showing the
_mode of bracing and the haaraiet)

Fig. 6, is a view of the bottom or top edge of the
string-pieces, and shows how the joints are broke in using
the: plank, and also how the trunnels are distributed.

This mode of construction will have the same advantages
in iron as in wood, and some in cast-iron which wood fas
not, viz. that of reducing the braces in size between the
joints and of casting flaunches to them where they intersect,
thereby making it unnecessary to have more than one bolt
and nut to each joint or intersection.

When it is considered that bridges, covered from ie
weather, will last seven or eight times as long as those not
eovered, and that the cheapuess of this mode will admit of
its being generally adopted, with openings or spans be-
tween piers composed of piles, and at a distance of one
hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet apart,
then the construction of long bridges over mud bottomed
rivers, like those at Washington, Boston, Norfolk, Charles-
ton, &c. will be perceived to be of great importance, espe-
cially as the common mode of Pui is so exposed to fresh-
ets, uncommon tides, drift-wood, and ice, as not to insure
‘safety or economy in covering them, and consequently con-
tinual repairs, and often rebuilding them, become neces-
sary. ‘There is very little, if any, doubt, that one half of
the expense, computing stock, and interest, that would
be required to keep up, for one hundred years, one of the
common pile bridges, like those at Boston, would be suffi-
cient to maintain one built in this new made, keep it cover-
ed, and have all or nearly all the piers built with stone at
the’end of the one hundred years. If this be the case, it would
be great economy tocommence rebuilding, by degrees, in this
manner. ‘The saving, in the one article of floor planks, if
kept dry, would be very great, as by being so. much wet
they rot and wear out in about half the time.

For aqueduct bridges of wood. or iron no other mode
ean be as cheap or answer as well; this mode has equal ad-
vantages also in supporting wide roots of buildings, centres
of wide arches in masonry, trussed floorings, partitions,

Vou. Ifl.....No. 1. oF

162 JM. Town's new node of Bridge-building..

sides of wood towers, steeples, &c. &c. of public buildmgs,
asi it requires nothing more, than common planks instead ‘of
long timber—being much cheaper, easier to raise, less sub-
ject to wet or dry-rot, and requiring no iron work.

Some of the advantages of consent putes) accord-
ing to this mode are the following : e &

it There is no pressure against Bee or piers, as
arched bridges have, and consequently perpendicular sup-
ports only, are necessary ; this saving in wide arches is very
great, sometimes equal to a dnnd part ¢ of the hele erevense
of the bridge.

2. The shrinking of timber ue little. or no ) effect apthe
strain upon each plank of the. trusses, both. of the braces
and string-pieces, is an end-grain strain or lengthwise of the
wood. 7

3., Suitable: ee can be easily procured ae aes at
common mills, as it requires no large or long timber—de-
fects in timber may be discovered, and wet and dry rot pre-
vented much more easily than could be in large timber.

4. There is no iron work required, which at best is not
safe, especially in frosty weather.

5. It has less motion than is common in bridges, anu
which is so injurious and frequently fatal to bridges—and
being in a horizontal line, is much less. operated bipeitt by’
winds.

6. A level. road-way is among the most, important ane
tages of this mode of construction. ; Hh aa

7, The side-trusses serve as a frame to cover, upon, anil
thereby save any extra weight of timber, except the cover-
‘ing itself{—and the importance and ‘economy of covering
bridges from the weather, i is too well understood to need re-
commendation after the a es which this equate has
already had. ,

8. Draws for shipping to pass through, may with. es
safety be introduced in any part of, the bridge, without
weakening it as in arched bridges, where the strength and
safetyof the arches depend so much on their pressure
against each other and abutments, that a draw, by destroy-
ing the connexion, weakens the whole superstructure.

G;' The great number of nearly equal parts or joints into
which» the” strain, occasioned by a great weight upon the
bridge, is divided, is a very important advantage over any

Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building. 163

other mode, as by dividing the strain or stress into so ma-
ny parts, that what falls upon any one part or joint is easily
sustained by it without either the mode of sccuring the
joints, or the strength of the material being insuificient.

10. The expense of the superstructure of a bridge would
not be more than from one-half to two-thirds ‘ok other
modes of constructing one over the same span or opening ;
this is a very important consideration, especially im the
southern and western States, where there are many wide
rivers, and a very scattered population to defray the ex-
penses of bridges.

11. This mode of securing the braces by so many trunnels,
zives them much more stren eth when they are in tension-strain
than could be had in the common mode of securing them
by means of tennons and mortices, for tennons being short,
and not very thick, compared with this mode, nor having
so much hold of the pins or trunnels as in this case, will, of
course, have much less power to sustain a tension or pulling
strain, and it is obvious that this strain is in many cases
equal to, and in others greater than, the thrust or pushing
strain. Itis also very obvious, that this pushing or thrust
strain in the mode of tennons and mortices receives very
little additional strength from the shoulders of the tennons,
as the shrinkage of the timber into which the tennon goes, is
generally so much as to let the work settle so far as to give
a motion or vibration, which, in time, renders them weak
and insufficient.

12. Should any kind of arched bridge, for any reason,
be preferred, however it may be arched either at top or bot-
tom, or both, still this same mode of combining the mate-
vials, will have all the advantages as to cheapness and
strength, over the common ones of framing, as in case of
the horizontal or straight ones before described. In cases
where abutments are already arth it may sometimes be
preferred.

'Side-walks may with equal ease be constructed, either
on the outside or inside of the main body of the ‘bridge,
which particular, as also the great strength of the mode, &c.
may he better seen by examination of the models which
are (or soon will be) placed in most of the principal cities
of the United States, and no merit is either desired or
claimed in this new mode of construction, by the patentee,

164 Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building.

which the mode itself dees net command, even on the most
strict philosophical investigation as to its mathematical prin-
ciples, the easy, practicable, and advantageous application
of materials, the advantages it possesses in mechanical ex-
ecution, and its simplicity, strength, economy, and durabili-
ty, as a general and uniform mode of Bridge-building.

Science and practice will, in a short time, decide on this
question so important to this extensive country.

I shall conclude this article by a few ideas, taken’ froin
the celebrated Robert F ulton’s treatise on canal navigation,
page 117, and subsequent ee

In England, the attention of engineers has of late years
been much engaged on bridges of ion, "Phese bridges,
as experience produces courage, are progressively enlarging
their dimensions, nor should I be. surprised if genius should
in time, produce the mechanic rainbow of one thousand
feet over wide and rapid rivers. In crossing the rivers im
such countries as Russia and America, an extensive arch
seems to be a consideration of the first importance, as the
rivers or even rivulets, in time of rain, suddenly swell toa
great height, and in the spring, on breaking up of the ice,
the i immense quantity which is borne down with a rapid
stream would, if interrupted by small arches and piers, col-
lect to such a weight as ultimately to bear away the whole.
It is therefore necessary that, in such situations, an arch
should be extended as far as possible, and so high as to
suffer every thing to pass through, or the inhabitants must,
without some other expedient, submit their passage to the
easualities of the weatiter.

The important objection to bridges of wood is clei
rapid decay, and this objection is certainly well founded
when particular situations are alluded to where timber is
scarce and consequently expensive. But in such countries
as America where wood is abundant, I conceive it will be a
fair eriterion to judge of their application by calculating on
the expense of a bridge of stone, and one of wood, and
then compare the interest of the principal saved in adopt-
ing the wood bridge, with the expense of its annual repairs.

I have before exhibited the necessity of constructing
bridges in America of an extensive span or arch, in order to
suffer the ice and collected waters to pass without interrup-

Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building. 165

tion: and for this purpose it must be observed that a wood
arch may be formed of a much greater length or span than
it is possible to erect one of stone; hence wooden bridges
are applicable to many situations where accumulated waters
bearing down trees and fields of ice, would tear a bridge of
stone from its foundation.

It therefore becomes of importance to render bridges
of wood as permanent as the nature of the material will
admit. he ee

Hitherto, in bridges not covered from the weather, the
immense quantity of mortices and tenons, which, however
well done, will admit air and wet, and consequently tend to
expedite the decay of the weak parts, has been a material
error in constructing bridges of wood.

But to render wood bridges of much more importance
than they have hitherto been considered, first from their
extensive span; secondly from their durability ; two things
must be considered, first that the wood works should stand
clear of the stream in every part, by which it never would
have any other weight to sustain than that of the usual car-
riages, secondly that it will be so combined as to exclude as
much as possible the air and rain.

When the true principle of building bridges of wood is
discovered, their progressive extension is as reasonable as
the increased dimensions of shipping ; which, in early ages,
was deemed a great work if they amounted to one hundred
tons burthen; but time and experience have extended the
art of ship-building to two thousand tons, and in the com-
bination and arrangement of the various and complicated
parts, there certainly is more genius and labour required
than in erecting a bridge of five hundred or one thousand
feet span: but the great demand for shipping has rendered
their formation familiar, and their increased bulk has gradual-
ly grown upon our senses, But had a man, in the infancy of
naval architecture, hinted at a vessel of two thousand tons,
I am inclined to think his cotemporary artists would have
branded him as a madman.

Wote

Those who wish to purchase rights, and to obtain particular
directions for building bridges according to this improve-

166 Hall on the Staining of Wood, and

ment, (the description of which is annexed,) will please
to write to. me at the City of Washington in the District of
Columbia, where myself or an fet will at all times ate

Poeun p tly to the business. :
-ITHIEL TOWN.

Ann. XXI-—On the Staining eae wad ow “Medical
Electricity; by Joun Hawn Esq. of Ellington, Conn.
Communicated in a letter to the einions : ‘dated May 30th,

ee

{

Dear Sir, , ei Ss
Wuen | closed the iptten W dace accompanies thhigs 1 fos
got to mention a stain, as cabinet-makers would call it, for
some sorts of wood used in the making of cabinet furniture.
This stain consists simply of a decoction of walnut or
hickory bark, with a small quantity of alum dissolved in it,
in order to give permanency to the color. Wood, of a white
color, receives from the application of this liquor, a beauti-
ful yellow tinge, very little liable to fade. Indeed, so far as
I have ascertained the fact by several experiments, the color
does not appear to fade at all; and I have good reason to
think that it will abide until it is worn off- So far as I have
tried the experiment, the color retains its proper state, when
not defended at ail from the action of the light and the air;
when protected by varnish, it will, of course, be still less
liable to change. I have in my house .an article of furni-
ture stained in this manner, which has stood exposed to the
near light of a window fifteen months, and the color appears
at this time, if any change has taken place, even bushi
than at first. Bead
This stain is particularly pied to several sande ye. fur-
niture which are commonly made of maple. It gives a
beautiful and delicate tinge to the high posts of bedsteads,
when made of that kind of maple which is called curly or
curled. But to that kind of maple which is called bards-
eye, it gives the finest appearance of any. This spe-
cies of wood is commonly prepared, by cabiet-makers, by
scorching its surface over a quick fire? which does not, at
the same time, smoke. The wood, after being thus scoreh-

on Medical Electricity. 167

ed, is made smooth in the: usual way, and varnished. The
scorching produces a great variety of dark shades and
specks on the surface; these have generally been consid-
ered to possess considerable beauty, ‘and the wood, so pre-
pared, has come into pretty extensive use in the making of
particular sorts of cabinet furniture. When birds-eye ma-
ple is thus prepared, except the varnishing, if it is then
stained with the walnut dye, it receives much additional
beauty. In the common mode of preparing that wood, the
colors are black, of various shades and degrees of intense-
ness; and that ica of white, though cee tarnished,

which is natural to maple. These colors are destitute of
any other lustre than what the varnish merely gives them.
But the application of the walnut dye gives a lustre even to
the darkest shades; while to the paler and fainter ones it
gives, in addition to this, a somewhat greenish hue; and to
the whiter parts, various tints of yellow. The whole, to-
gether, has a very pleasing effect on the eye, and is very
ornamental when used, with taste and judgment, in particu-
lar parts of some kinds of furniture. For pannel work,
the yellow stain alone, without the previous scorching, has
avery delicate and pleasing appearance. Both modes of
staining give the wood very much the appearance of figured
satin 5 ‘and, for particular purposes, are altogether superior,
in their effect, to mahogany. Such, at any ‘rate, is my own
opinion; and such, too, is that of all who have received
specimens of work done in this manner.

In staining cherry wood, cabinet-makers generally em-
ploy some kind of red paint, rubbed in small quantity inte
the wood. ‘This paint fills up the pores of the wood, oe
by that means conceals the natural grain. Uhis concea
ment of the grain, causes the surface to look as if inea
and greatly detracts from the beauty of it. When this spe-
cies of wood is stained with the walnut tegion, and reddened
somewhat with a tincture of some red dye whose color is
not liable to fade, a handsome tinge is given to it, which
oes not hide the grain; and which becomes still more
handsome as the cherry itself grows darker by age. ‘The
effect of the compound stain on apple tree meed, is the
same as that on cherry.

Walnut bark makes the most permanent yellow for dying
rlothvof any of the vegetable substances used in this coun-

i68 Hall on the Staining of W wisi and

try for that purpose, with which T am acquainted. | Care
should be taken that the dye be not too much concentra-
ted; when this happens, the color is far less bright and deli-
cate : and approaches nearer to orange. Itis hardly ne-
cessary to add, that the dye should be boiled, and kept,
in a brass, or some other vessel into the composition: of
which tron does not enter,

On a Elbit

Sine I have taken upon me to write, 1 will adel some- -

thing on another subject. Soon after the general proper-
ties of electricity were discovered, and attention to them
had become fashionable, it was suspected to possess medic-
al virtues of great value, and of extraordinary character.

Essays to prove those virtues were accordingly made, and
with exactly the success which might have been anticipated
from the peculiar character of the electric fluid, and the
peculiar propensity of mankind to form, in the first instance,
high-wrought expectations from something new and striking
to the senses; and then to vibrate to the opposite extreme,
so soon as the novelty is lost im habitual contemplation, and
those senses are cloyed with repeated gratification, or dis-
gusted with disappointment. For a while, it was believed
by many, that electricity would have the same efficacy in
the cure of all diseases, as the inventors of nostrums as-
sert that their preparations possess. After this, public
opinion changed ; and now, for a good while, little reliance
has been placed on the medical, properties of the electric
fluid in any case. As the truth, ‘however, is oftener found
to lie between extremes, so, I apprehend, it will be found
in the present instance. That electricity does actually pos-
sess some valuable medical properties, I deem to be cer-
tain; and cannot but regret that trial of them is not oftener,

but more judiciously made. Ideem it to be equally cer-
tain, that these properties have, in a great measure, failed ot
proper credit, because electricity has been too exclusively

applied to patients by way of shocks. Had it oftener been
used by way of insulating the patient, and then extracting

the fluid from the diseased part by moving a metallic or
other conductor, frequently over it, I have no doubt that its
application would have oftener been attended with success.

But I do not intead to write a treatise—I barely give these

*y*

—

on Medical Hlectricity. 169

hints; and will now state one class of discases, in which I
have found, by repeated experiments, beneficial effects to
result from the use of electricity by way of insulation.
~The kind of complaints to which I allude, is that peculiar
soreness and pain which result from what we commonly
call, the taking of cold. This soreness and pain, we all
know, are often very troublesome, and difficult to be re-
moved; and are usually seated in the jomts, in the head,
and muscular parts of the body. They are very common
in cases of influenza, and very troublesome. I have tried
imsulation, in the manner just stated, on several persons af-
fected with these complaints, and do not recollect that it
ever has, in a single instance, failed of giving speedy relief.
In every instance, I believe, the pain and soreness have been
completely removed. ‘The cough and expectoration still
continue, but have generally subsided soon, and seem to
yield more readily to the medicines commonly given for
these complaints. Perspiration at once becomes more free,
and the breathing less obstructed. ‘These facts have been
known to me for a considerable number of years; but such
have been the general prejudice against the efficacy of elec-
tricity, on the one hand, and the inflated encomiums on its
virtues made by empirics on the other, that I have seldom
ever suggested them evento my friends. I however consider it
my duty now to do so; and hope that the suggestion may
contribute to the relief of some, at least, who may hereaf-
ter be afflicted with these complaints. In cases of influ-
enza this relief is often of great importance; and it is to
these cases, in a special manner, that the remedy seems to
be adapted.—I have never yet known, and I have often
made the experiment, that electricity has proved beneficial
in nervous diseases; unless spasms, of certain kinds, are
considered as properly belonging to that class. In some
spasmodic affections, | have seen essential benefit resuli
from electricity. What effect this fluid may have on pain
and soreness, arising from other causes than the taking of
cold, and that, whatever it is, which produces influenza, I
am unable to say. [It is proper that I should state further,
that notwithstanding I have often made the experiment, I
have never known the least benefit to result from giving
electric shocks in any case whatever. Still 1 by no means
intend to deny that shocks may be useful in certain diseases.
Vou. UL.....No. 1. 22

170 Jarman on Gas Lights.

Art. XXIIL.—On Gas Lights. a unceaeen an a letter
to the Editor, by Tuomas Jarman, Esg. of Bristol,
England.* :

State-Street, New-Haven, 2d Jan. 1821.

My Dear Sir,

As you seemed to think the facts I mentioned to you this
inorning, worthy of notice, I beg leave to state them in wri-
ting.

The streets of the city of Bristol, in which I reside,
were lighted with lamp oil till about two years ago, when a
few persons united in forming a company for supplying the
city with gas from pit-coal: I was one of that company ; and
we deemed it expedient to obtain an Act of Parliament for
the protection of our property, and recovery of the annual
income to be derived from the sale of our gas. In this we
were opposed by the Corporation of the city, and the Com-

missioners for paving and lighting it; but they at length —

withdrew their opposition, on our agreeing to light the
streets of the city with as many lamps as they chose at the
rate of £5 per lamp, per annum ; each lamp to have such a
burner in it as would consume a certain quantity of gas per
hour; and we were to be limited to a profit of ten per cent.
on our capital employed; we engaging to employ at least
£50,000 in the undertaking: that sum was immediately
subscribed; and we accordingly sell our gas to the public at
£5 per lamp per annum 3 and to individuals at various pri-
ces, differmg according to circumstances, and to the de-
mands made for it. To give you an instance:—I have a
house in the city where my professional businesst is carried
on, and in which f use six rooms, and an entrance hall; the
gas is conveyed into each of these places by pipes from
the main pipe in the street; and I burn the gas till ten
o’clock at night, for £25 a year: this is nearly about what

* In consequence of his haying been present at a Chemical Lecture, in

the Laboratory of Yale College, when Gas Lights were spoken of and ex~

lubited— Mr. Jarman being on a visit to this country.

* That of a solicitor.

me

"e

Jarman on Gas Lighis. 171

it cost me for candles before; but I have an unvarying and
brilliant light in every room, without any trouble but the
turning of a key. All the offices and shops (or stores) in
Bristol, of any respectability, purchase the light in the same
way, and from hence the profits arise. It is intended, how-
ever, to sell the gas by measure; as some abuses have crept
in by individuals burning the gas longer than they contract
for: a Gas-Meter has been invented, which, placed at the
entrance into the house, ascertains the quantity of gas used.
{tis a box containing a wheel, which revolves more or less
in proportion to the gas driven through it, and when it has
made a certain number of revolutions, moves an index,
which ascertains the number; and is so constructed that it
cannot be altered to deceive the proprietors. Most of the
churches, and other public buildings, take the light at vari~
ous prices, proportioned to the time in which they use it;
~ and the streets through which it already passes, are as light
throughout the night, asin broad day. The Gasometer and
other works are near the entrance into the city. I need
not describe them to you, as you so perfectly understand
them, and gave so accurate a description of them this
morning as surprised me; you having only seen the very
limited, commencement of the gas works in London, when
you were there.* I had the honor of being Chairman of.
the committee appointed by the Company for conducting
the Bill through the Houses of Lords and Commons; and
while I was in London had great satisfaction in seeing the
progress of the gas-manufactories there: all the principal
streets are lighted by gas—so are most of the public build-
ings, and particularly the theatres; these latter have gaso-
meters of their own; and the light produced is the most
brilliant that can be imagined; the centre-light in Drury-
lane theatre, passing through an immense number of cut
glass lamps, arranged with great taste and elegance, resem-
bles the light of a mid-day sun in splendour, and is too daz-
azling to look on. ‘The light thrown on the stage from the
orchestra is also very beautiful, and admirably managed.
Bat there is a more important use made of gas, both in
London, and other great cities; Manufactories are lighted
with it, and carried on at a much less expense than before.

* Tn 1805,

172 Jarman on Gus Lights.

A friend of mine works his glass manufactory by it through
the nights of winter, and has a gasometer of his own. One
of the taverns in Bristol is lighted by its own gasometer ;
and most of the coffee-houses in London are lighted by the
public gas. At first, the management of the pipes and keys
not being well understood, an offensive smell used to be
produced ; but now it is very seldom found; the purifying of
the gas, by passing it through lime-water, is general; but a
person at Exeter in Devonshire has obtained a patent for
purifying gas, by passing it through lime unmixed with wa-
ter, as T understand: it is said to be placed on perforated
shelves in a receiver, through which the gas is made to pass
in its way from the furnaces to the*gasometer ; and this is
said to. be a much more effectual way of removing the of-
fensive smell than by passing it through lime water ; but we
have not tried it at Bristol.

I forgot to mention to you that the charcoal and tar, pro-
duced from the coal at the works, are profitable to us, and
help to make up our ten per cent. I should also mention, |
ihat any surplus profit is to be applied to the reduction of
the price for lighting the public lamps, as a remuneration to
the public for permitting us to carry our mains (i. e. our
main-pipes) through the streets.

No accident has ever happened in Bristol since the works
began; except that one evening an unlucky mouse got into
the first pipe, and by moving a valve, prevented the gas
from passing into the mains, and consequently all the lamps
went out, and the city was in darkness for half an hour;
but it happened to be early in the evening and not very dark;
and a repetition of the accident ts now effectually prevented.

Bath, Cheltenham, and many other towns, are now light-
ed by gas. I believe fifty or sixty acis of Parliament have
passed incorporating companies for this purpose ; and when
the committee waited on Lord Grenville (who is our Lord
High Steward) for his support in the house of Lords, he
told us he had no doubt the use of gas would be universal;
he recommended us to visit a manufactory lighted by gas
produced from oil, which he thought more beautiful than
that produced from coal; and it certainly did appear to be
more brilliant; but we have coal in abundance, and not
oil. ‘The coal we use is the small brush coal, such as
smiths use, and it is cheaper than the other pit-coals.

Observations on Lead Ores. 173

I have now, I believe, repeated to you the principal facts
I mentioned this morning. If they afford you any amuse-
ment I shall be highly gratified.
I am, dear Sir, ,
Your obliged and obedient friend and servant,

THOMAS JARMAN.

Arr. XXIV.—WNotice of an argentiferous galena, from
Huntington, and of another Lead Ore from Bethlem, Conn.
with mescellaneous observations on Lead Ores—the lat-
ter extracted chiefly from authors.—Epiror.

Tue localities of galena, within the territory of the Uni-
ted States are very numerous.

We have published but a very small part, of those that
have come to our knowledge, chiefly because the quantities
discovered, have been in most instances, too small to make
it an object to prosecute the research; and still, when we
remember that the first hint of the existence of a valuable
mine may arise from the occurrence of a minute quantity of
ore, it is obvious that all such facts ought to be preserved,
either in public or private documents.

In Dr. Bruce’s Journal, (pa. 65,) some account is given
of the valuable and interesting lead mines near Northamp-
ton in Massachusetts, and, in the present number of this
work, an abstract is given of some of the principal facts
stated by Mr. Schoolcraft, respecting the rich mines of Mis-
sourl. These mines, from their richness, and from the
facility with which the ore is obtained, it is probable, will
supply the demands of this country, for ages, and if they
cannot entirely exclude the introduction of foreign lead,
there appears little probability that many other American
lead mines can enter successfully into competition with
them. |

We make this remark, not to discourage enterprize in
other places, but to produce caution, in plunging into the
heavy expenditures which inevitably attend mining opera-
tions—while the returns are always in a degree uncertain.

But, with respect to the poorer localities of lead, there is
another consideration which may be worthy of attention; it

174 Observations on Lead Ores.

is a well known fact that most galenas contain silver; of
course, most of the metallic lead of commerce contains it.
Among a considerable number of American ores of lead,
which we have examined by chemical means, we have
found only one, entirely without silver; this was the lead
ore which is found near Shawnee Town, in the Hlinois,
along with fluor spar. :

We have extracted silver from the thin sheet lead, which
comes as a lining for the tea chests from China.

In most instances, whether in the case of ores, or of me-
tallic lead, the proportion of silver obtained by us has been
too small to admit of profitable extraction, but we have now
the pleasure of stating an instance of a contrary character.

We have had occasion, more than once, to call the atten-
tion of our readers to the mine of Mr. Ephraim Lane, sit-
uated in the town* of Huntington, eighteen miles west of
New-Haven. Ba

The great diversity, especially of metallic substances,
in this place, indicates a mining region, although it is difti-
cult to say which of the numerous metals found there, will
ultimately be the prevailing one, either im quantity or in
value.

It will be recollected, that the excavation is very slight,
having as yet, scarcely exceeded ten or twelve feet.

Galena has been constantly found, but in quantities toe
small for profit, if the lead alone were regarded. ‘This ga-
lena is not the steel grained kind; it is the foliated—in
plates of moderate size, usually not exceeding one-quarter
or one-half of an inch in diameter. It is interspersed in a
quartz gangue, and is obtained, as yet, with difficulty.

The occurrence of native silver some time since in the
same mine, and indeed almost in contact with the lead,
might well have raised an enquiry, whether this galena
were not peculiarly argentiferous. On examination, this
proves to be the fact. }

* For the sake of forcign readers we will observe, thal tbe word town is
eften used, in the northern and middle states, as a /errilorial term, meaning
a certain geographical crea, (usually six miles square,) often expressed also
by the word township, and although it usually contains, within the territo-
ry, @ town in the Kuropean sense of the word, it does not, necessarily
imply such a nucleus of houses and population, both being sometimes
scattered over the whole surface.

y"

Ee

Observations on Lead Ores. 175

In order to extricate from it, a striking quantity of silver,
it is not even necessary to reduce the sulphuret of lead to
the metallic state. It is sufficient merely to lay some frag-
ments of the lead ove upon a cupel, and to place this upon
a fragment of a brick in the forge fire. This simple method
of operating we learned from the proprietor, Mr. Lane, and .
repeated the experiment with entire success. ‘The cupel is sur-
rounded by ignited charcoal, and some pieces of burning coal
ure laid an an arched form, over the cupel, so as to preserve,
at once, a good red heat, and to admit of the access of air.
The forge bellows are very gently blown by an assistant,
and, at the same time, a blast of uncontaminated air, from
common hand bellows, is thrown upon the lead ore, in such
regulated quantity, as to oxidize the lead, without cooling
it too much, and the sulphur is in the mean time dissipated.

By preceeding in this manner, we obtained in a short
time, two per cent. of good silver, estimated in relation to
the. metallic lead contained in the ore.

In another operation, after previously reducing the ore to
the metallic state, and proceeding in exactly the same man-
ner, we obtained three and a half per cent. of good malleable
silver.

There is no reason to believe that these processes were
conducted with more accuracy, than is attainable in the
large way, and we are therefore justified in concluding, that
Mr. Lane’s lead ore is rich in silver, and is worthy of being
explored for that object.

{t was our intention to have given the result upon this
ere in the humid way, and we had obtained the nitric solu-
tion, and, by the aid of common salt, precipitated both the
lead and the silver in the form of muriat; the muriat of
lead was then dissolved in boiling water, and the muriat of
silver obtained upona filter. Butas we have not found leis-
ure to complete the process ; it must be reserved for an-
other occasion. We think however that there can be no
mistake in admitting that the lead in this ore contains one-
thirtieth of silver,* and is therefore one of the richest ar- -
gentiferous galenas. #

We have been called upon to examine another lead ore,
from Bethlem in Connecticut, about thirty miles N. W.
from New-Haven.

* Mr. Lane’s ore is accompanied by suiphat ef lead. as an tnernstation -
according to him this is equally rich in silver.

176 Observations on Lead Ores.

It was discovered during the late autumn, in digging a
well, and appeared to form a vein, or possibly a bed, at the
depth of eighteen or twenty feet.

The country is primitive, but the specimens brought to
us, appear to have been deposited in loose ochreous earth,
by which they are enveloped.

The structure of this ore is a mixture of small foliated,
granular, or steel grained, and fibrous ; in some places it is
so distinctly Bene as to indicate strongly a combination
with antimony.*

Having reduced this ore to the metallic state, we exam-
ined it by cupellation, and obtained a distinct globule of
silver, but it bore only the proportion of one-five thousandth
part to the lead—viz. less than six ounces to the ton.

That of Southampton, (Bruce’s Journal, pa. 69,) gave
twelve ounces and one-eighth to the ton, viz. about one-
two thousand four hundredth part; that of Missouri contains
only a trace.

As this is a practical subject, which may prove of im-
portance to this country, especially as the oxides of lead
obtained during the extraction of the silver would go far
towards paying the expense, we will subjoin a memorandum
of facts respecting lead and its ores, which, in a very con-
densed form, we had eccasion, some time since, to abstract
from works of good authority, principally from the Chem-
ical Essays of Dr. Watson, late Lord Bishop of. Landaff,
and from Aikin’s Dictionary.

Notes on Lead.

The expense is not paid, in Great Britam, by less than
twelve ounces of silver to the ton, or six-tenths of an ounce
to one hundred pounds of ore; some say nine ounces of
silver to the ton of ore, will pay the expense, including loss
of lead.

The ore of Brunentit Moor, Yorkshire, contained two
hundred and thirty ounces of silver to the ton, or more than
eleven ounces to one hundred pounds.

Duruam and Westmoreland, seventeen ounces to a ton.

* The Bethlem ore is said by the discoverers, Messrs. Gideon Alen and
Abner Strong, to be in abundance, but as their attention has been di-
rected to it principally on account of the silver il might contain, they have
mot, as yet, explored thoroughly for the lead.

Observations on Lead Ores. 177

That of Poutnaen in Brittany thirty-nine ounces.

Lead ore is dressed, washed, SLE and roasted in a
reverberatory.

In Derbyshire a ton of ore ig put at once into the furnace.

Two thousand one hundred pounds of ore do not yield
more than one thousand four hundzed pounds of lead, or

sixty-six per cent.

Three tons or six thousand pounds of ore are worked
off at a smelting house every twenty-four hours.

Lead ore melted by a wood fire, yields one-tenth more
lead than by pit-coal. (Watson IIT. 253.)

The cupola furnace is in general use for the smelting of
lead ores in Derbyshire ; (See Watson, III. 275 5) it is a
reverbaratory ; this furnace may be constructed any where,
and is not noxious to the workmen.

One ton is put in at a time, and three charges worked off
in twenty-four hours; in six hours from the charging of the
furnace the ore becomes fluid as milk; a bushel of lime is
thrown in to absorb the slag, which i is then raked to one
side ; a hole, previously stopped with clay is opened, and
the reduced metal runs out.

By fusing the lead ore too soon, and raising the heat too
high, much of the lead is volatilized, along with the sulphur.

Derbyshire lead is said to contain two grains of silver in
a pound of lead.

Mine Est Kyr-Kyr, is asserted by some, to afford sixty
pounds of silver in every ton of lead ore; by others only four.

There are some lead ores in Great Britain, which, al-
though poor in lead, contain between three and four hun-
dred ounces of silver in a ton.

The best kind of Derbyshire lead ore is worth £7 a ton.
(Wat. III. 310.)

Steel grained lead ore is asserted to be awe richer in
silver than other kinds.*

There is no place in Derbyshire where silver is now ex-
tracted from lead.

It was done at Matlock a few years since, but is now
abandoned, from the failure of the lead ore ;—it yielded |
fourteen ounces to a ton. .

* See the remarks on this subject, pa. 69, of the present Number.

Vou. III....No. 1. is Og

178 Observations on Lead Ores.

At Patterdale, the ore yields fifty or sixty ounces of sil-
yer to a ton. |

The poorest lead ores yield most mee

‘From seven to ten thousand tons of lead are covalicd! an=
nually in Derbyshire.

The tests or cupels are made of four parts of calcined
bones, and one part unwashed fern ashes; wood ashes are
sometimes used without washing.

If galena be free from pyrites the lead may be melted
out without roasting, otherwise not. (BI. II. 620.)

One-eighth of an ounce, or less, of gold or silver may be
separated “from one hundred pounds of lead by scorification.

The lead is recovered from the cupels by pounding thena
up, and mixing the powder with inflammable matters by
the aid of heat.

Fourcroy (VI. 74) asserts that every sulphuret of lead
contains silver ; ; we believe very few are without it.

Galena, with small facets, or of'a granulated texture, is
apt to contain most silver; but this is, im our view, not an
infallible criterion.

- Fourcroy (VI. 82) gives the following process. Roast
the ore, weigh, and fuse with two parts of black flux, or bo-
rax and charcoal and a little decrepitated salt, and try the
button on the cupel, (pa. 84,) after the nitric solution is
made, precipitate it by carbonat of soda, one hundred and

thirty parts of the carbonat of lead contain one hundred of

lead—ammonia dissolves out the silver,* but cupellation
is best.

Tron precipitates both lead and silver. (Fourcroy.)

The proportion of silver in lead, wanies from anes
hundreth to one-twelth. !

The lustre of galena is impaired by silver ; this metal is
more commonly found in the octohedral than the cubical
varieties.

Blende and calamine often occur with galena.

“Antimony is commonly in argentiferous lead ores, which
hardens the lead; and the processes for getting rid of the
antimony are the s same as for extracting the silver.

Cupels may be made of any infusible earth of little co-
hesion, (Aikin, 1. 110 ,)—cores of ox horns are wee at
the tower.

* This may however be dangerous, as fulminating silver may be formed.

On the formation of Ice. 179

Analysis.

Galena, when pure, has the proportion of eightf-five lead,
and fifteen sulphur; but five particular specimens gave the
following more complex results :

Lead 54 69 68 64 63
Sulphur : Bente AG eee Te
Carbonat of lime and silex 38 15 16 18 19

Pyrites are frequent in lead ores, and sometimes antimo-
ny, copper, gold, and silver. |

Arr. XXV.—Circumstances connected with the formation
of Ice on still waters, and with the continued action of .
cold upon the fluid beneath.—Eprror.

New-Haven, Jan. 12, 1821.

Tue recent cold weather, which, with an uniformity not
common in this maritime region, has prevailed with little in-
terruption, for nearly a month, varying between 3°* below 0,
and ten or twelve above—(for the coldest parts of the twen-
ty-four hours) has produced on our mill ponds ice of fifteen
inches in thickness. This ice is remarkably firm and trans-
parent, entirely free from intermixture of spongy portions,
and resembles, very much, fine masses of rock crystal,
with a slight cerulean tinge.

* This is not mentioned as the extreme cold of this climate, but only as
the extreme hitherto observed by us, this winter; this occurred at eleven
P.M. on the 10th inst. We have the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermome-
ter, occasionally depressed here to 10° and 12° below 0. d

P.S. Jan.20. Since the above note was written, the thermometer has
here (just before’sun-rising on the 19th) indicated 12° below 0. In the in-
terior it has been much lower, and ia Maine, as the newspapers inform us,
ithas been 35° below 0, thus approximating to the congelation of the
quicksilver. At Norwich, Conn. it has been 26° below 0.

_Jan.25. Yesterday the thermometer sunk 5° from sun-rising till ten
o'clock, and was then about 0, and remained very little above through the
day, allhough the sun shone bright ; several times this winter, the maximum
of cold has been several hours. after sun-rising. This morning, at sevea
o'clock, the thermometer was 14° below—and at eleven last evening, it
was 9° below 0. In other exposures it was, in the morning 16°, and even,
in one instance, 174° below 0—all these being greater degrees of cold than
were ever observed here before: and the average of the winter, thus far, is
colder than that of any preceding winter on record here. Still there have
been particular days, whose average has been colder. On the 25th, it was 2
o’clock P. M.before the mercury rose to ©, and at 3 o’clock it was 2° above.

180 On the formation of Ice.

The filling of the ice-houses (which, within a few years,
have become considerably numerous in this town,) has af-.
forded good opportunities of observing some small cireum-
stances, the mention of which may not be superfluous, =
though, perhaps, not entirely novel.

The first thing to be noticed is the regularity of the lave
ers of ice produced by each night’s congelation. In masses
fifteen inches thick,* there are “twenty- one distinct layers—
quite as distinct as those of agate, or striped jasper, or of
the annual rings produced by the growth of wood. These
layers, near, and at the top, are from one and a half to two
inches thick, and at the bottom, next the stream, they are
from one-half to one quarter of an inch—giving an average
of nearly three-quarters of an inch, Although, (owing
‘doubtless to the different degrees of cold, in different nights,) ~
the layers of ice do not decrease in an uniform ratio their
decrement is still tolerably regular, and when we compare
the extremes (granting that the cold was not diminished,
and the truth was it was rather increased on the whoie,) we.
are struck with the wide difference, and, of course, with
the almost non-conducting power of ice ae relation to heat.

This is one provision, among others, made by the creator,
to prevent very deep congelation, which would be attended
with deplorable consequences. Had the accumulation of
ice, in the present instance, gone on uniformly, in the high-
est ratio, the ice would, during these twenty-one nights have
been forty-two inches, or three feet six inches thick, and *
during eight weeks or fifty-six days of such severe weather,
it would have become 112 inches, or nine feet four inches
thick, which would insure winter’s cold, and consequent
sterility, in the vicinity of that ice during the next summer;
(for the heat would not be sufficient for its fusion,) and con-
sequently perpetual cold would be established ; the suc-
ceeding winter, and all succeeding winters, would only aug-

ment the effects.

{t is now a good while, siace Count Rumford pointed out
the most important reason which prevents the entire conge-
lation of deep waters in winter,—namely, that water cooled
to 40° pem to expand, and continues to do so, thus be-

* Jan. 30. The cakes of ice are now twenty one inches thick, but still,
although the recent cold has been much the most severe, the lower Jayers of
ice are only from 4 to ?ths of an inca thick.

On the formation of Ice. 181

coming so light as to remain on the surface, till it freezes at
32°; of course, the upper layer freezes, while those below
are still above the freezing point, and are now cooled al-
most solely by the very slow conducting power of ice and
Wwater—the currents of cold water down, and of warmer
water up, by which almost exclusively the water was cool-
ed, before it arrived at 40°, being in a great measure pre-
vented, after the first film of ice is formed on the surface.

Mankind are little aware how much they are, indebted to
such apparently trivial laws for their comfort, and indeed
for their very existence ; for itis undeniable, that had the
creator omitted to endue water with this unparalleled pe-
culiarity of contraction, and had ice been as good a con-
ductor of heat as the metals, the polar seas would, even in
the early ages, have been frozen to the bottom; all other
waters, not excepting the oceans within the tropics, would
have been successively converted into a solid as enduring
as granite; vegetable and animal life would have become
extinct ;—the very atmosphere might have congealed, and
in the language of Dr. Black, all nature would have. bes
come a silent, lifeless, and ewig ruin.

In the case of congelation which has elicited these oe
there was another circumstance worthy of observation.

The layers of iee were much more transparent in the di-
rection of their length than in the opposite; this arose from
the distorted refraction of light occasioned by innumerable
air bubbles, from the size ae duck shot to that of a small
pin’s head, which were, in every imstance, to be observed
at the junction of the layers, and at the top of each par-
ticular layer, excepting that on the surface, where there
were none. If we mistake not, these peculiarities can be
satisfactorily explained. It is well known that all natural
waters contain air in solution, and that itis expelled by boil-
ing, by the air pump, and by freezing.

On the surface of the water, when the first layer of ice
was formed, there was nething to retain the air bubbles; as
they were evolved, they passed through the water and es-
eaped. But after the first layer of ice was preduced, the
air bubbles that were extricated by the chilling of the wa-
ter next below, were of course arrested by the ice, and
during the succeeding night were frozen in and detained.
Had the cold continued equally intense during the day as

182 Dr. Oliver on the Prussic Acid.

during the night, the air bubbles mght have been equally
diffused through the i ice, but, as the nights (according to the
usual course of things) are marked by a rather sudden and
commonly by a considerable increase of cold, the layer of
water about to congeal, was made suddenly to evolve the
dissolved air, and this, from its levity, rising rapidly through
the as yet fluid water, necessarily collected with considera-
ble regularity, just at the bottom of the last formed layer
of ice, but still completely within the new one.

It was observable that the layers of air bubbles were well
defined and regular on the upper side, but irregular on the
lower—many bubbles being below the general level, and
appearing to have been arrested before they wee time to
arrive at the upper surface of the water.

MEDICAL CHEMISTRY.
—-—=<———_

Art. XXVI.—On the Hydrocyanie. or Prussic ‘Acid, by
B. Lynpe Ouiver, M. D. of Salem, Mass.

Insanum quiddam esset, et in se contrarium, existimare ea, que adhue
nunquam facta sunt, fileri posse nisi per modos adhue nunquam tentatos,
Bacon Nov. Organ. Aphor. Vi.

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Sir,

Havine read in your excellent Journal of Science and
Arts, a very interesting paper on the Prussic Acid, in which
an. invitation is given ‘0 physicians to transmit their remarks
en the trial they may have made with this active agent ; [
now beg leave to avail myself of it, and hope that you will
pardon my prolixity.

Itis now more than nine years since I ¢ gave an attention
to this subject,* nor did I then know, that the Prussic acid

* In Dr. Thatcher’s interesting work, entitled, Observations on Hydro-
phobia, p. 280, the following note occurs: ‘’The cherry laurel is the same
as the lauro-cerasus, of which we have a particular account in Cullen’s
Materza Medica, as being one of the most deadly of all the vegetable poi-
sons. A cautious use of it has been attempted m some diseases, and my
friend and correspondent, Dr. B. Lynde Oliver of Salem, has recently em-

~

Dr. Oliver on the Prussic Acid. 183

had been prescribed in Europe, nor have I since seen any
evidence of such early prescription.* ‘The inclosed cer-
tificate+ will prove that, since 1811, the Prussic acid has
been prepared in this town, and has also been kept for sale.
I believe that many quarts of the article have been sold
during the last nine years, and prescribed. Ata sale at the
Chemical Laboratory, not long since, a very considerable
quantity was found on hand, and sold.

| By-referring to my common place-book, I find, that it
was in the autumn of 1811, that I prevailed on Mr. John
Hunt, Chemist and Apothecary, to make for me a small
quantity of the Prussic Acid. It was prepared according
to the process of Dr. Schaub (vide Med. Repos. Hexade
2d, Vol. I. p. 314,) and afforded the characteristic smell,
and when tested, gave evidence of the presence of the
Prussic principle.

ployed it, and contemplates prosecuting his experimental tests relative to its
medical properties. The Prussic Acid is obtained from the lauro-cerasus,
and is also a deadly poison to animals. There is evidently an affinity be-
tween the laurel and the wild black cherry, (prunus Virgina,) the kernels
of which have long been known to prove poisonous. These several sub-
stances having attracted the attention of Dr. Oliver, were subjected. to his
experimental inquiries, and he has suggested the trial of them in hydropho-
bia. He proposes for trial the Prussic acid, as being readily obtained by a
chemical process, and. as affording the efficient principle in the lauro-cera-
sus. The leaves of ths black-cherry might subserve the purpose of a sub-
stitute. He judiciously observes, that it is sufficiently unpleasant to admin-
ister poisons before their precise dose is ascertained, but medicines and
poisons are convertible terms, and differ only in their doses.’? See Murray’s
Materia Medica. Dr. Thatcher’s Book was printed in 1812—but the cor-
respondence of the parties was several years antecedent to the publication.

* This was 1ith July, 1820, when the communication was dated—but a
delay in printing of it, has given occasion to an addition of later date.

+ Anderson Township, Hamilton County, State of Oirio, Nov. 16, 1820.
This may certify, that in the: autumn of the year 1811, at the request of
Dr. Benjamin Lynde Oliver, and_ by directions received from him, the sub-
scriber, then an inhabitant of Salem, Massachusetts, and by occupation
Apothecary and Chemical Operator, prepared a quantity of prussic acid,
and after testing it in the presence of said Oliver, delivered a portion of it
for the use of a patient then under said Cliver’s care, And that the sub-
seriber delivered the prussic acid (at the order of said Oliver,) for the use
of a number of patients, previous to the winter of 1812-13, when he deliy-
ered it for the use of his brother, William Hunt, of Salem, Massachusetts.
And further, that the Prussic acid was not known to the Apothecaries of
Salem as a medicine, antecedent to Dr. Oliver’s order on the subscriber for
the preparation of it. ;
JOHN HUNT.

w

184. Dr. Oliver on the Prussic Acid.

Some of the first experiments which I made with this
' pail agent, gave rather flattering results, although. it
afterwards Bien failed in giving the rele anticipated. Such,
however was the success ‘attending my trials, that I was in-
_ duced to recommend the acid io my medical brethren.
Several of them administered it, and with a success that oc-
casioned a demand for the article in the shops. Antece-
dent to my researches, the acid had not been seen in this sec-
tion of the country, nor had any conjecture been made of its
medical properties, that I have heard of by any person; but
of this the early date itself of the certificate affords paaer
_ sumption.

The circumstances which igaeed me to turn my 3 atten-
tion to the subject were, the want of success attending the
common modes of treating the phthisis pulmonalis, and my
having a very near relation in the incipient stage of that
disease,* I had read in Murray’s Apparatus Medicarninum,
(when treating on the subject of prunus lauro-cerasus,) the
following, “ Unica brevitate laborat Linnei (Amen. ac. Tr.
4, p. 30,) effatum, quod folia per Belgium usitatissima sunt
pro infusione in morbis pulmones depascentibus (utor vero
propriis ejusdem verbis) Phthisis eundem intellexisse, ex
libro ejus de Materia Medica colligo, in quo hie morbus
significatur.”” Some other hints to the same purpose, by
anhicn writers, are to be found in the same article. The ex-
periments made with the aqua lauro-cerasus, by Dr. Brown
Langrist, had also suggested to my mind the probability of
the laurel proving a useful medicine. About the year 1810,
a small quantity of laurel-water came into my possession ;
I prescribed it m the case of my relation with good effect,
and likewise in the case of one other patient laboring under
the same disease. But my laurel-water became exhausted
in a short time. . I then applied to the late Professor Bar-
ton of Philadelphia, to ask his aid in procuring for me some
_ of the leaves of the prunus lauro-cerasus. He very kindly

‘sent me a small quantity which was all that could then be
procured. A tincture was made of the leaves, which, on
trial, yielded the same result as the laurel-water. ek here

* T have spoken of the disease as being in the incipient stage, as the ex-
pectoration was not purulent, but such progress had the malady made, thet
most of the persons who saw the patient supposed it would prove fatal; and
_ one physician pronounced that the disease appeared like desperate phthisie.

Dr. Oliver on the Prussic Acid. 185

again, the medicine was exhausted before the cure of the
disease. ‘This put me upon reflecting, that if I could pro-
cure the Prussic acid, that I then should be able to prescribe
the efficient principle of the lauro-cerasus, and might then
command any quantity of it. JI therefore applied to the
Chemist above mentioned, and was furnished with the de-
sideratum. It was prescribed for my relative, and soon
manifested. its good effects in relieving the cough, promoting
appetite, and shortly producing a complete suspension of the
malady. In several other patients, it appeared to palliate
the symptoms. In some other cases little or no effect was
manifested. 'This failure in the acid, I am now inclined to
think, arose from its degeneration and decomposition, either
from the agency of the vehicle it was exhibited in, or from

the dose not having been accommodated to its deteriora-

tion. Although this want of success in many of the cases
lessened’ my confidence in the remedy, yet it did not pre-
vent me from prescribing it. I soon after saw two more ca-
ses of phthisis which were cured by the acid. They had

not reached the purulent stage.

I have generally found it necessary to increase the dose
of the acid, until it manifests its effects on the system by
producing a pain of the head or dizziness. There are,
however, some constitutions found in which those symptoms
do not readily take place from the action of any dose, in
which it is prudent to give the acid, but who still derive
benefit from its use : and on the other hand, some are found
in whom a very small dose excites much disturbance in the
system, and who can scarcely bear the medicine in any
dose.

Iam not certain that I have ever seen any permanent
bad effects from its cautious exhibition. I have known,
however, when the dose has been augmented too suddenly,
a very great distress to be excited in the stomach, attended
with dizziness and faintness, accompanied with a rapid
pulse. These symptoms often being followed with retching,
on the patient’s lying down on the bed soon went off, and
left her remarkably well afterwards.

I have seen two cases of mania, attended with obstruct-
ed catamenia, which were cured by the acid; the disease,
however, recurred in one or both patients. I once exhibit-
ed the prussic acid to a patient, who had long laboured un-

Vou. MJ.....No. 1. 24.

186 Dr. Oliver on the Prussve Acid.

der an organic disease of the heart—the malady was attended
with great palpitation of that organ, and pain at the breast,

and insufferable sense of anguish on ascending an eminence;
the patient told me that he could not “bear the medicine
as it exasperated all his complaints.” I had some doubts
whether the disease was to be classed with Angina Pectoris,
or the one before mentioned. Probably, both diseases
sometimes proceed from the same source. Dr. Willan has
remarked, that almost all the cases of Angina Pectoris he
had known, arose from organic disease of the heart. Does
it not afford some reason for conjecturing, from the bad ef-
fect of the prussic acid, that the group of symptoms de-
nominated Angina Pectoris, may arise from a sudden loss

of irritability in the muscular fibres of the heart? and do’

not the effects of stimuli in relieving a paroxysm of Angina
Pectoris countenance the same conjecture ? I have found
the acid remarkably increase the appetite for food. - I havé
known it to be useful in a case of stricture in the esopha-
gus, and asthma. J have seen it give more sudden relief in
whooping cough, and in the late influenza, than any medi-
cine I ever exhibited. I once prescribed it in a case of
hydrophobia, but without success. The acid in this case,
itwas afterwards found, had lost much of its virtue, although

it was not rendered entirely inert. In this case, the acid was.

given freely, but | now much regret that it had not been
more freely given, or that it had not possessed more virtue.

1 should hope, that the unfavourable result of this case,
would not prevent the farther trial of the hydrocyanic acid
in hydrophobia, as it seems to me, to be a medicine of

ce

much promise 5 and for the reasons before assigned, it seem-

ed here not to aus had a fair trial.

The prussic acid which I have used, has been much

weaker than that of Scheele, or the preparation used in
France and England. As Gay Lussae tells us, that the
pure prussic acid will be decomposed in an hour; and as
we know that of Schecle will retain its virtue much longer,
may we not infer that a preparation which is still weaker,
will retain its strength much longer? Tam satisfied, that I
have seen some of the Salem preparation, (which i is origin-
ally weaker,) and have prescribed it after it has been made
more than a year, when it has evinced its retention of its
virtue by the cure of the disease it was prescribed for.

Effects of the Prussic Acid, 187

I do not recollect to have heard, that the laurel-water is
liable to lose its strength by keeping, and this may be con-
sidered as a dilute prussic acid.

If the above facts be correct, may we not infer from them,
that a weak preparation of the acid is better to be kept in the
shops than a stronger? and also for another very important
consideration, that the danger of too large a dose being ad-
ministered, is very much lessened.

L should recommend the trial of the prussic acid in An-
gina Trachealis or Croup, but not to the exclusion of bleed-
ing, and the other remedies which have had the sanction of
experience. As the prussic acid has the power of repressing
mordinate arterial action, and also the property of lessening
the tendency to spasmodic action in the muscular fibre, we
may expect, from the first, a diminution of the inflamma-
tion; and from the latter, that it would counteract the dis-
position to a fatal spasm of the glottis, which even a small
portion of the adventitious membrane formed in croup, is
liable to excite, if it happen to be placed near the glottis.
Analogy, in other cases of internal inflammation of hollow
cavities, leads to the conjecture, that in irritable habits, such
spasm may occur even from the bare inflammation of the
parts: a still farther argument for the ue an of the
acid.

I am, Sir, with great respect and esteem,
Your obedient servant,

B. L. OLIVER.

Arr. XXVII.—Reports and Memoranita of cases in which

the Prussic Acid has been administer ed.

1. By Dr. J. A. Assebies of Brattleborough, Ver (Com-
- munication dated Aug. 4, 1820.

_ Miss P. Keyes, a young lady of about twenty, for three
years had laboured under a protracted cough. It was of
that species produced by catarrh, in which the mucous
membrane of the bronchia appears to be the seat of the
complaint. She had no symptoms which would denote the
incipient stage of either tubercular or apostematous phthisis.

188 Effects of the Prussic Acid. —

A great variety of medicines had been used without any
Sensible benefit. About a year since, she commenced the
use of the hydrocyanic acid, in doses of two drops, every
four hours, diluted in water. In a few days the cough be-
gan to abate, and in a week or two she was entirely free
from the complaint. Since which time, her health has
been almost uninterruptedly good. She finds, however,
that a slight catarrh will sindare a return of cough, but this
has, usually, abated with the other catarrhal symptoms ;—if
not, a few drops have, always, produced a cure.

Another Lady, in whom symptoms of tubercular phthi-
sis were well marked, experienced much benefit from the
use of the acid in doses of two drops every four hours; the
cough became less tedious, the hectic abated, and the pulse
diminished from ninety to seventy-five per minute, in twen-
ty-four hours from the commencement of the use of the
acid; but the head became giddy to such a degree as to
render it necessary to diminish the quantity taken. The pa-
tient continued, apparently, gaining for ten days, when there
was an increase of the symptoms—an increased quantity of
the acid again abated the symptoms, eight or ten days long-
er, when the violence of the symptoms returned, but could
not be relieved by the acid, nor r by apy other medicine _
used.

I have used the acid in several other cases, with various .
degrees of success. From all of which, and from what has
been published, I have no doubt that the: hydrocyanic acid
is one of the most valuable sedatives we possess. To digit.
purp. it is to be preferred on account of its not producing
those tremors, and that disagreeable depression which are
sometimes known to follow the use of that doubtful remedy.
The disagreeable effects from the use of the acid, will
abate on a subduction of the medicine, but the unpleasant
effects from the use of digitalis are well known to continue
several days ;—And, further, it may be asked whether the
use of digitalis, in hectic cases, does not serve to under~
mine the already shattered constitution?

Il. By Professor Dewey.

As our physician had some ekhes cases, I made for him
some prussic acid, accordivg to Scheele’s pracess. It has

Effects of the Prussic Acid. : 189

now been used for some weeks, with favorable results so far.
it has been used for asthma with complete success in a
case of long standing. In the whooping cough, its effects
are very favorable, as tried thus far. In some instances it
produces sleep—pleasant indeed—but the person would fall
asleep when he seemed fully awake—sleep but a short time
—but drop asleep again unexpectedly. Ina case of almost
constant cough, and laborious breathing when there was not a
cough, and which had not been affected by any medicine tried
for weeks, it effected a cure in two days, attended with reno-
vated health. The patient had been sick for three months
with fever. In one hectic case fast becoming past cure,
the acid had a very good effect, and also in two others, one
of which commenced with bleeding at the lungs, almost to
death. It remains to be seen how permanent its influence
will be. I suppose the acid has usual strength, for inno case
have more than two drops been given in twenty-four hours.

If. From Dr. J. W. Wesster.

Dr. Webster informs the Editor, that he has prescribed.
the Prussic acid in many cases, in the Boston Alms-House, |

especially in spasmodic asthma, and chronic coughs, with
the greatest benefit. As an external application to irritable
ulcers, it has also proved exceedingly beneficial.

May 13, 1820.

IV. By Dr. 1. 8S. Comstock, Hartford.

Cases illustrating the effects of the Prussit Acid, as a reme-
dy t im Pulmonary Diseases.

Case Ist. A. M. aged about thirty, had been afflicted
with symptoms of tuberculous phthisis for more than two
years—had during that time made use of a great variety of
medicines, and had taken a journey of several hundred
miles on horseback, into a more temperate climate, without
any permanent benefit. His cough, the most distressing
symptom, was of the tickling kind, not attended with ex~
pectoration, but an unremitted irritation of the trachea de-
prived him of comfort and of rest. This was not at ali
times sufficient to produce the convulsive motion of the

>

190 Effects of the Prussic Acid,

diaphragm ; but only a heaving of the chest, a burried re-
spiration, and an expansion of the ale nasi. When the
cough occurred, the turns of which were frequent, partic-
ularly towards morning, it was dry, hollow, and gave that

peculiar sound, as though the quantity of air respired was

not sufficient to fill the tube through which it passed. Ap-
petite tolerable—digestion more or less bad—bowels cos-
tive—countenance pale and hollow—emaciation considera-
ble—able however to walk about, and attend to some busi-
ness—pulse sixty-nine in a minute.
In this state, Sept. 2d, 1820, he beeen to ned the e prussic
acid.
R Syrup Sugar i ounce.
Water vii ounces. Cr as "
Prussic Acid 64 drops.
He began by taking three drachms of this julep three
times a day. For a few days, no apparent effect was

produced’ on any of his symptoms. On the fifth day there-

fore the dose was increased to half an ounce of the julep,
five times a day, making twenty drops of the Prussic acid
in twenty-four hours. The effécts of the remedy now be-
came obvious; and on continuing it for several weeks, and

- watching all the symptoms of the patient, and consequences

of the medicine, with much attention, I am confident that
the following observations on this case are well founded.
“Ist. The pulses being counted three times a day for
eighteen days, it was found that no effect on the number of
pulsations was produced. It was however obvious that the
medicine had its influence over the heart and arteries—the
peculiar tense, or windy feeling of the pulse being changed

“to comparative softness, and gave to the touch a more heal-

thy and agreeable sensation.

“Qd. ‘The costiveness was obviated by the remedy.

3d. The appetite, and digestive powers were improved.

Ath. Its immediate effects were stimulant and cordial.

_ 5th. Its secondary effects were soporific, so. that the pa-
tient frequently found it difficult to keep himself awake after
he had taken a dose of four drops. This effect was uni-
form for several weeks, but different m degree.

6th. Immediately after swallowing a dose of the prussic
acid, the patient experienced a peculiar sensation, approach-
ing to numbness, and which he described as beginning at

eS Se yee Yee

et

Effects of the Prussic Acid. 191

the head, and gradually approaching the extremities. This
sensation lasted only a few moments, and was followed by
no disagreeable consequences. _

7th. It seemed to produce a slight degree of stricture
across the chest. ‘This effect was not, however, so clearly -
ascertained as the others, this symptom not always following
the use of the remedy.

8th. On intermitting the remedy, its good effects, par-
ticularly on the cough, became much more apparent than
when the patient was under its immediate influence. This
observation has been verified in several cases.

This patient, after taking the prussic acid for several
weeks, became obviously much better in many respects.—
The digestive powers were improved—the appetite better
~~sleep less disturbed by turns of coughing—countenance
observed by every one to look more healthy. The cough,
however, did not cease to be troublesome, and indeed seem-
ed to be Jess affected by the remedy than any of the other
symptoms, and it is but fair to state, that notwithstanding
the indications of returning health, as above described, the
medicine, either by continued use, or the influence of the
cold season on the patient, seemed afterwards to lose its
powers, and was finally discontinued. The patient, how-
ever, is still confident that the prussic acid has been of es-
sential service to him, and will probably again resume its
use.

Case 2d. C.A. laborer aged twenty-seven, of a healthy
constitution, but bilious habit, on exposure to cold was seiz-
ed with a violent catarrhal affection, attended with a dis-
tressing cough, which left him scarce any repose day or
night ; at night particularly, the cough became so exaspe-
rated as almost entirely to deprive him of rest. When I
saw him, five weeks after the commencement of his com-
plaint, his countenance was pale, languid, and shrivelled ;
and he was apparently worn out by the violence of his dis.
ease, and the want of ordinary sleep—pulse feeble, but not
much accelerated—complained of great muscular debility,
so that slight exercise produced copious sweating. For
these complaints he had already taken the usual remedies
prescribed by physicians, without any relief.

In this state, I prescribed for him the prussic acid in do-
ses of three drops, three times a day, in a convenient vehi-

192 Hffects of the Prussic Acid.
ele. This quantity was to be increased, one drop each
day, or until it produced some obvious effect. The good
consequences of this course were immediate, and altogether
beyond my expectations.

Having been for the last two weeks distressed by a con-
stant irritation of the trachea, and unable to obtain much
repose, he found the first night, after taking the remedy, that
ihese symptoms were so much alleviated, that he enjoyed a
night’s rest, to which, for many weeks, he had beena stran- -
eer; and by persevering in the same course, for a single
week, he was perfectly cured, without any other medicine.

Case 3d. L. C. aged six years, (October, 1820,) was
siezed with a violent catarrhal affection, attended with a
shrill and nearly convulsive cough, difficulty of respiration,
and great anxiety. Pulse quick—tongue furred with a
white coat—hot surface—and loss of appetite. Had taken
various remedies without alleviating the cough, difficulty of
breathing, or other symptoms. In this state, the third day
after the attack, I prescribed for her the prussic acid in do-
ses of one drop every two hours, in simple syrup. The
promptness with which this prescription relieved my little
patient of her most pressing symptoms, gave the highest
satisfaction to her anxious friends, and to me an unequivo-
cal pledge of the power of the remedy in such cases. Af-
ter three or four doses, the cough and difficult respiration
began to subside, and completely disappeared under its
use in about two days.

This being the only case in which I have used the prus-
sic acid when the system was laboring under considerable
febrile affection, it may be proper to remark, that I did not
observe the immediate action of the remedy to have the
least influence on any of the symptoms of fever, which the
case exhibited. The fever, being of the sympathetic kind,
and depending on the irritation, which the remedy seemed
so promptly to control, of course began to subside when
its cause was diminished, and finally, was cured with it.

In this, and the last related case, it was as obvious to me
that the symptoms of disease were cured by the prussic
acid, as it is in ordinary cases that opium relieves those of
the same, or of any other description. © a

Case 4th. A child aged two years, had been afflicted
with the whooping cough about two weeks. I prescribed

Effects of the Prussic Acid. 193

half a drop of prussic acid, in sweetened water, every two
hours; to be increased to a drop on the next day. The
mother, who knew nothing of the nature of the medicine,
informed me that, on increasing the dose, the child became
dizzy, and could not walk strait, but observed no other con-
sequence. She was therefore advised not to increase the
quantity above the half drop. The first effect was to di-
minish the aggravated, and distressing paroxysms of cough-
ing which afflicted the patient, particularly during the night,
and to procure some repose. The medicine being continu-
ed, the symptoms gradually disappeared, until at the end of
about one week, I was informed by the mother that the child
had no more turns of coughing, and was in fact cured of all
disease.

Observations.

T have witnessed the operation of the Prussic acid in ten
or twelve cases, all of them diseases of the lungs or catarr-.
hal membrane. .

That it acts with tense energy on the living system can-
not be doubted by any one who has made experiments with
it on animals or insects, and that it possesses great power as
a medicine, when given in proper doses, will not be denied
by those who have administered it as such.

But whether its effects are directly sedative, as supposed
by Dr. Magendie, Orfila, and others, may reasonably admit
of doubt. It is well known that the principle of life may be
as completely (and even more quickly) destroyed, bya stimu-
lant which shall, in an instant exhaust the sensorial power
beyond a certain point, as by any means with which we
are acquainted.

The effects of lightning and electricity. are examples.
Here not only the phenomena of life, but the principle of
irritability itself becomes extinct ina second of time. And
we know of a great variety of stimulants which produce
the same effect, the time being in inverse propernign to the
energy with which they operate.

But it may be fairly doubted, whether we are acquainted
with any substance which affects the principle of life by di-
rectly destroying the source from which the sensorial power

Vor. Bboy No. 1 us 25

194 Effects of the Prussic Acid.

emanates, or which prevents its influence in any way, but
by exhaustion. | is LE
The instantaneous operation of the prussic acid, in large

doses, is then, in this respect, analagous to that of other
powerful stimuli. But we are not acquainted with a single
substance ever denominated sedative, which acts with any
comparative promptness. — ae ae mph
- In case Ist, related above, it is stated that the prussic acid
operated as a cordial and stimulant. As a proof of this, it
is proper to state that the patient, whenever he felt unusual
lassitude or fatigue from exercise, was for many weeks in the
habit of taking a dose of four or five drops, particularly be-
fore dinner; which not only had the effect to relieve those
feelings, but also to promote his appetite. That such ef-
fects necessarily involve the quality of a stimulant in the
article taken, I believe will not be denied.

Its laxative power, which I have witnessed in several in-
stances, is a further proof of the same quality. The fact
also, that it sometimes produces stricture across the chest is
another proof that it is not a direct sedative, but would
seem to show that it possesses some tonic, as well as stimu-
lant powers. .

Its secondary, or sedative effects seem to be peculiar ;
and in greater proportion to the excitement produced, than
is common to other stimulants. These effects seem also to
be more permanent, particularly on the irritability of the
membranes, but without producing any perceptible influ-
ence In retarding the action on the heart and arteries.

In the second and third cases it produced all the good
effects in calming the cough and irritation, which we com-
monly expect from opium—but with this obvious difference,
-that the prussic acid seemed to cure those symptoms, which
are only palliated by the use of opium. If future experi-
ments should prove this to be the case, the prussic acid
must become an article of the highest importance to physi-
cians, since, besides its curative powers, its use is not fol-
lowed by the disagreeable consequences which frequently
attend opium, and might, undoubtedly, be given in many

eases in which that article is inadmissible. re

In catarrhal affections, attended with membranous irri-
tation, cough, &c. whether recent or of long standing, T am
satisfied that this is a medicine of peculiar powers.

Effects of the Prussic Acid. 196

In the first stage of catarrhal, or tuberculous phthisis, I

am induced to believe, from Re sions made on five ca-
ses, that it will alleviate most of the urgent symptoms.—
Whether it will cure patients actually laboring under con-
sumption, in any stage of the disease, is, perhaps, as yet
undecided. But by the controul which it appears to pos-
sess over the morbid irritation of the membranes, there is
little doubt but it will, at least for a time, retard the progress
of the disease, and prevent the approach of ulceration.
This position seems, indeed, to have been proved in a
‘considerable number of instances.
In cases where the lungs are already ulcerated, with the
concomitants of the third stage of consumption, there is no
reason to believe it does any permanent good. I have
known one instance, however, of this kind, where it seemed
to operate as a palliative, by obviating the costiveness, and
lessening the disposition to cough.

One word concerning the mode of giving the prussic acid,
and I have done.

As this article is given only by drops, I have fund: it
most convenient to measure out a certain number of fluid
drachms of the vehicle, as of syrup of Tolu or of sugar
and water, into which is then dropped, one or two drops of
prussic acid to each drachm, The paee a is then a measured
quantity of the julep. -

I have known several instances ales the medicine lost
its effect by being exposed to the light, by taking out the
cork several times a day from a vial of unmixed prussic
acid, for the purpose of dropping out each dose, or from
leaving the cork loose.

V. By Dr. A. S. Monson, of New-Haven.

I would notice the following case as illustrative of the
beneficial operation of the prussic acid in incipient phthisis.
The patient had been subject to chronic catarrh for seve-
ral years, to dyspnoea after much bodily exercise, and lat-
terly to slight cough, expectoration, and pain in the breast;
which symptoms, by recent additional colds, had been much
aggravated.
The expectoration, mixed ott Reiid blood, had now he
come purulent and dark coloured, of a very offensive teal

196 Effects of the Prussic Acid.

and a considerable haemoptysis soon supervened. ‘The
usual remedies were resorted to. The abatement of cough
by the use of opium was not sufficient to counterbalance »
the inconvenience resulting to the patient from its use ; nor
was the haemoptysis (which was considerable every forty-
eight hours) lessened by depletion, een medicines,
spare diet, &c. &c.

The phosphorous acid most certainly and most speedily
suppressed the hemorhage from the lungs, but so iene as
the cough continued it was certain to return.

Under these circumstances, the use of the prussic acid
was advised and commenced. By its prompt administra-
tion, the cough was soon subdued, and with it, the other
concomitant symptoms. Its use was continued, as the
cough appeared to demand it, for about forty days. The
patient was bled twice, and during the latter part of the
time, for several days, took the tincture digitalis to diminish
the frequency of the pulse. With a view F of lessening the
offensiveness of the expectoration, he inhaled carbonic acid
gas; but whether any advantage was gained by it was diffi-
cult to decide. id

The feetor diminished with the quantity of the expecto-
ration, until what was expectorated became mere mucus,
and finally ceased entirely. Small hopes were entertained
of a recovery in this case, either by physicians, or by the
friends of the patient. The expectoration was, on inspec-
tion, pronounced purulent, and the simplest test confirmed
itto beso. The patient has often called on me to ac-
knowledge his gratitude ; and is, at this time, perfectly free
from cough, and from every other symptom of disease.

Communicated by a Cotsen

A site with the signature of W. in the last sfueiteh of
the New-England Journal of Medicine and Surgery re-
lates three cases of the unfavourable Bpevatices of the prus-
_ sic acid.

He commenced under the impression that the dose usu-
ally administered is from six to twelve drops, and says he
began with four, and never increased the dose beyond ten
drops given twice or three times a day. What physician, at
all acquainted with the strength of this article as it is com-

Effects of the Prussic Acid. 197

monly employed in medicine, would not be prepared, on
reading this paragraph, to expect worse consequences than
what actually ensued. ; :

But what result should we not anticipate from the unpre-
cedented dose of eight drops to a child, only seven or eight
years old! :

It seems that the dose of the medicine was so great in
the first case as to produce loss of sense and of motion; the
same symptoms precisely which result from too great a
dose of opium.

The unwillingness of the writer, at first, to refer these
symptoms to their true cause, argues his inexperience in the
use of the powerful medicine he was administering.

The second case above referred to, is one of a lady, who
after taking a second dose of five drops, experienced a
strange disturbance in the head, and symptoms of debility.

In this case ‘the patient had no suspicion she was taking
a medicine possessed of any peculiar violence.” Without
adverting to the necessity of cautioning the patient of the
power of any medicine, in order to ensure accuracy in the
dose, we cannot help animadverting upon the impropriety
of such bold prescription, in the case of a remedy of almost
unexampled energy.

It is the gradual effect of the medicine upon the system,
resulting from moderate doses, continued for some time, up-
on which all its medical efficacy depends.

Who can, with impunity, prescribe, in large doses, opium,
digitalis, corrosive sublimate, or arsenic, or any of the more
powerful articles of the Materia Medica? What violent and dan-
gerous symptoms might we not reasonably expect, were we
to prescribe for a dose, thirty-two drops of digitalis, or five
grains of corrosive sublimate, or ten grains of arsenic? To
obtain the salutary effect from any of them, they must be
administered in smaller doses, and with the necessary pre-
caution to the patient not to exceed the prescribed dose.

We would refer this writer to the researches and experi-
ments of Magendie and others on prussic acid—by which
we think he will be convinced that even prussic acid may
be administered with safety if administered also with due
caution. ne

MEDICUS..

198 Effects of the Prussic Acid.
SP an lite A depts aR aati

VI. A useful little volume ns been published in New-
Haven,* containing a transcript of Dr. Magendie’s memoirs
on the prussic acid, with prefatory remarks by the trans-
lator, Dr. J. G. Berea al with some additional cases of the
use of the acid, and an appendix by Dr. Alfred S. Monson.
“It will afford much useful information to those who wish to
employ this acid.

The following is Dr. Monson’s process for preparing the
acid :

Pour into a glass retort, eighteen fluid ounces of a satu-
rated solution of prussiate of mercury, at the temperature
of 65° of Fahrenheit; add to it two ounces and an half of
iron filings; pour upon these, two ounces by weight, of
strong sulphuric acid, and distil off two fluid ounces into a
receiver containing one fluid ounce of distilled water. The
receiver must be surrounded with ice, and covered with a,
cloth to render it dark.

To get rid of the colouring matter, together with some
sulphuric acid, and iron that come over, it may be redistilled
from dry carbonate of lime.

A tubulated receiver is employed: this is connected with
the retort by means of one or two adapters of common
length; the junctures are made perfectly tight, a tabe of
safety leads from the tubulure of the receiver into a little
water, and a tube descends from the retort to the bottom of
the receiver.

Remarks.

Dr. Monson, in the volume mentioned above, observes:
*‘In forming the prussiate of mercury, I have observed,
(and the same fact was noticed by Professor Silliman ) that
if only half as much of red oxid of mercury as of Prus-
sian blue be used, as directed by Scheele, the whole of the
Prussian blue is not decomposed, and more of the prussiate
of mercury is obtained, by adding more of the red oxid,
and boiling them again.

To ascertain the precise quantity required to produce a
saturation, I have employed several proportions. From
these experiments it results, that where the materials are of

* By Howe & Spalding, and A. H. Maltby & Co.

Or Le up ee

Notice, &c. 199

the best quality, two and a half parts by weight, of the red

oxid, to four of the Prussian, blue, is the best proportion. I
prefer using a larger quantity of water thanis directed, to aid
the mutual action of the Prussian blue and of the oxid of
mercury.

Sixteen fluid ounces of distilled water, at the temperature
of 65°, will hold in solution five hundred and thirty-five
grains of erystalized prussiate of mercury.

Pi * & x % *

Memorandum.

Dr. Atrrep S. Monson, of New-Haven, and Dr. J. L.
Comstock, of Hartford, constantly keep the Prussic Acid
for sale for the use of Physicians.

On the fidelity and accuracy of these gentlemen, entire
reliance may be placed; and those who wish for supplies
of the Prussic Acid are, by their permission referred to them.
—Epirer.

=r BQO«-
NOTICE.

Tuis number, having already exceeded the size of any
preceding one, and containing thirty-nine pages over the
stipulated amount of matter, it is with great regret, that
the Editor is compelled to postpone many miscellaneous
articles which were in readiness. Among them were a No-
tice of the Achzologia Americana—of Professor Gorham’s
Chemistry—of the Revue Encyclopedique of Paris—of Mr.
Brongniart’s Geological opinions concerning certain Ameri-
can Formations, and of specimens sent by him to illustrate
the art of making porcelain—of the American Geological
Society, and of donations to it, especially of a splendid
one by the President, Mr. Maclure—of some original Ob-
servations of Professor Hare—of new Localities of Ameri-
can Minerals—of articles of Foreign Intelligence, by Pro-
fessor Grisecom—and of others, by Dr. J..W. Webster, &c.
&c. We hope to give most of them in our next, which
mav be expected (1). V.) in May.

i

4 ae ip
ae 9.
ret i
sian &

THE

ae a AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

_ MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.
oe

Art. I.— Account of the Native Copper on the southern
shore of Lake Superior, with historical citations and mis-
cellaneous remarks, in a report to the Department of War ;
by Henry R. Scnooicrartr :

: a.

cas

(The following letter accompanied Mr. Schoolcraft’s Report.)
Ausany, Feb. 16th, 1821.
FO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Sir,
Dh,

Accrevasty to your request, and the permission of the Sec-
retary at War, I enclose you a copy of my report on the
Copper Mines of Lake Superior. In preparing it, I have
consulted the former travellers of the region, and by com-
bining their remarks with my own, endeavoured to present,
in an embodied form, all the information extant upon the
subject. It has been a cause of regret to me however, that
more time was not devoted to the mineralogy and geology
of that section of country, but it appeared incompatible
with the more important objects of the expedition, and 1
could only make use of the time that was allowed to me.
In presenting the subject to the Secretary at War, I thought
my observations would be more acceptable in a practical
and business form, than as assuming the character of a sci-

-entific memoir, and in choosing an intermediate course, I

have probably said more on the geology of the country than
Vou. TIL...No. 2. "26

ee ih sliailt ee
202: » Jr. Schoolerafiten the

may be thought important to the statesman, and less than
will we considered satisfactory to the professed geologist
and scientific amateur. A few marginal notes have there-
fore been added, but I have been studious not to overload
the original MSS. in that way. I do not send the views
and geological charts accompanying the report to Mr. Cal-
houn, as it would be very inconvenient at the present period
to copy them, and as the subject may be sufficiently under-
stood without these embellishments. ;

- With respect to the deductions, so far as science is con-
cerned, it is hoped they will be read with. candour, and
therefore submit them to your, judgment and to that of the
scientific public.

With great respect, and regard,
your most obedient servant,

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
“Vernon, Oneida Co. (N. ¥.) Nov. 6th, 1820. |
“* Hon. Jonn C. Caunoun, Secretary at War,
DIR,

“TF have now the honor to submit to you such observa-
tions as have occurred to me, during the recent expedition
under Gov. Cass, in relation to the Copper Mines of Lake
Superior; reserving as the subject of a future communica-
tion, the facts I have collected on the mineralogy of the
country explored generally.

The first striking change in the mineral aspect of the
country north of Lake Huron, is presented near the head of
the Island of St. Joseph in the river St. Mary, where the
calcareous strata of secondary rocks are succeeded by a
formation of red sand-stone, which extends northward to

the head of that river at Point Iroquois, producing the falls _

called the Sault de St. Marie fifteen miles below, and thence
stretching northwest along the whole southern shore of Lake
Superior to the Fond du Lac, and into the regions beyond.
This extensive stratum is perforated at various points by up-
heaved masses of granite and hornblende, which appear in
elevated banks on the margin of the lake between Dead riv-
er and Presque Isle, and from the Porcupine mountains ten

Native Copper of Lake Superior, &c. 203

leagues to the west of the Ontonagon river. It is overlay-
ed in other parts by a stratum of grey sand-stone, resembling
certain varieties of grauwacke, of uncommon thickness,
which appears in various promontories along the shore, and
at the distance of ninety miles from Point Iroquois, consti-
tutes a lofty perpendicular wall upon the water’s edge cal-
led the Pictured Rocks, which is one of the most com-
manding objects in nature. So obvious a change in the
geological character of the rock strata in passing from lake
Huron to lake Superior, prepares us to expect a correspond-
ing one, inthe imbedded minerals, and other natural associa-
t1ions,—an expectation which is realized during the first
eighty leagues, in the discovery of red hematite, prehnite,
opal, jasper, sardonyx, carnelion, agate, and zeolite.

The first appearances of copper are seen on the head of
the portage across Keweena point, two hundred and seventy
miles beyend the Sault de St. Marie, where the pebbles
along the shore of the lake contain native copper dissemi-
nated in particles varying in size from a grain of sand to a
lump of two pounds weight. Many of the detached stones
at this place are also coloured green by the carbonate of
copper, and the rock strata in the vicinity exhibit traces of
the same ore. ‘These indications continue to the river On-
tonagon, which has long been noted for the large masses of
native copper found upon its banks, and about the contigu-
ous country. This river (called Donagon on Mellish’s Map)
is one of the largest of thirty tributaries which flow into the
lake between Point Iroquois and the Fond du Lac. It orig-
mates in a district of mountainous country intermediate be-
tween the Mississippi river and the fakes Huron and Superi-
or, and after running in a northern direction for one hun-
dred and twenty miles, enters the latter at the distance of
fifty one miles west of Point Keweena, in north latitude 46°
52! 2 according to the observations of Capt. Douglass. It
is connected by portages with the Menomonie river of
Green Bay, and with the Chippeway river of the Mississip-
pi, routes of communicatien occasionally travelled by the
Indians in canoes. At its mouth there is a village of Chip-
peway Indians of sixteen families who subsist chiefly on the
fish (sturgeon) taken in the river; and whose location, in-
dependently of that circumstance, does not appear to unite
the erdinary advantages of Indian villages in that region.

204 Mr. Schoolcraft on the

A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from
the lake up the river three or four leagues, where it is sue-
ceeded by high broken hills of a sterile aspect and covered
chiefly by a growth of pine, hemlock, and spruce.. Among
these hills, which may be considered as lateral spurs of the

Porcupine mountains, the Copper Mines, so called, are situ-—

ated, at the distance of thirty two miles from the lake, and
in the centre of a region characterized by its wild, rugged,
and forbidding appearance. The large mass of native cop-
per reposes on the west bank of the river, at the water’s
edge, and at the foot of avery elevated bank of alluvion,
the face of which appears, at some former period to have
slipped into the river carrying with it the mass of copper
together with detached blocks of granite, hornblende, and
other bodies peculiar to the soil of that place. ‘The copper,
which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in connexion with
serpentine rock, the face of which, it almost completely
overlays, and is also disseminated m masses and grains
throughout the substance of the rock.(1) The surface of
the metal, unlike most oxydable metals which have suffered
a long exposure to the atmosphere, presents a metallic bril-
liancy ;* which is attributable either to alloy of the pre-

(1) In preparing this report, a more particular description of the geog=
nostic character of this mass of copper was deemed unnecessary, but in

presenting it for the perusal of the amatuers of natural science, it may be’

proper to add—that the serpentine rock is not in situ, nor is it so found in
any part of the regions visited. To account for its appearance in a section
of country to which itis geologically foreign, it would be necessary to enter
into the enquiry ‘‘by what means have the loose masses of primitive rocks.

been transported into secondary countries’’—an enquiry which is incom-

patible with the limits of this report, and which, moreover would, in itself
furnish the subject of a very interesting memoir. I will now however
suggest, what has struck me im passing through that country—that the Por-
cupine mountains which are situated thirty miles west, are the seat of ex-
tinguished volcanoes that have thrown forth the masses of native copper
which are found (as will be mentioned in the sequel) so abundantly through-
out the region of the Ontonagon. This opmion is supported by the fact
that those mountains are composed (so far as observed) of granite, which is
probably associated with other primary rocks, and among them serpentine—
that the red sand-stone rock at their base is highly inclined towards the
mountains so as to be almost vertical, and apparently thrown into this 'posi-
tion by the up-heaving of the granite—and also, that their elevation which
has been calculated by Capt. Douglass and myself at 1800 feet above the
level of lake Superior—their conical and rugged peaks, and other appear-
ances, are such as frequently characterize volcanic mountains. _

* This however, is 20 uncommon appearance of native copper.—Eb.

Native Copper of Lake Superior, &c. 205°

«ious metals, or to the action of the river, which during its
semi-annual floods carries down large quantities of sand
and other alluvial matter that may serve to abrade its sur-
face, and keep it bright. The shape of the rock is very
‘irregular—its greatest length is three feet eight inches—its
greatest breadth three feet fourinches, and it may altogether
contain eleven cubic feet. In size, it considerably exceeds
ihe great mass of native iron found some years ago upon
the banks of Red River in Louisiana, and now deposited
among the collections of the New-York Historical, Socie-
ty, (1) but on account of the admixture of rocky matter, is ~
inferior in weight. Henry, who visited it in 1766 estima-
ted its weight at five tons. (2) But after examining it with
scrupulous attention, I have computed the weight of metal-
lic copper in the rock at twenty two hundred pounds. ‘The
quantity may, however, have been much diminished since
its first discovery, and the marks of chissels and axes upon
it with the broken tools lying around, prove that portions
have been cut off, and carried away. The author just quo-
ted observes ‘that such was its pure and malleable state,
that with an axe he was able to cut off a portion weighing
a hundred pounds.” Notwithstanding this reduction it may
still be considered one of the largest and most remarkable
bodies of native copper upon the globe, and is, so far as
my reading extends, exceeded only by a specimen found in

avalley in Brazil weighing 2666 Portuguese pounds. (3)

Viewed only as a subject for scientific speculation, it pre-
sents the most interesting considerations, and must be re-
garded by the geologist as affording illustrative proofs of an
important character. Its connexion with a rock which is
foreign to the immediate section of country where it lies,
indicates a removai from its original bed, while the intimate
connexion of the metal and matrix, and the complete en
velopement of individual masses of the copper by the rock,
point to a common and contemporaneous origin, whether
that be referable to the agency of caloric or water. ‘This
conclusion admits of an obvious and important application

(1) See Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal, p. 124, 218.
(2) See Henry’s Travels and adventures, p. 205.

(3) Philips’ Mineralogy.

206 Jr. Schoolcraft on the

to the extensive strata of serpentine and other magnesian
rocks found in various parts of the globe! The Ontonagon
river at this place is broad, rapid and shallow and filled with
detached masses of rock out of place, which project above
the water, and render the navigation extremely difficult,
during the summer season. The bed of the river is upon
sand-stone similar to that which supports the Palisadoe
rocks upon the Hudson. There is an island nearly in the
centre of the river which serves to throw the current against
the west bank where the copper reposes, and which as it
is the only wooded island noticed in the river, may serve
to indicate the locality of this mineral treasure to the future
enquirer.

Several other masses of native copper have been ae
on this river at various periods since it has been known to
Europeans, and taken into different parts ef the United
States and of Europe, and a recent analysis of one of these
specimens at the University of Leyden, proves it to be na-
tive copper in a state of uncommon purity, and uncombin-
ed with any notable portion either of gold or silver.

A mass of copper discovered by the Aborigines on an
island in lake Superior at Point Chegoimegon eighty miles
west of the Ontonagon, weighed twenty eight pounds, and
was taken to the island of Michilimackinac some years ago
by M. Cadotte, and disposed of. It was from this mass
that the War Department was formerly supplied with a spe-
cimen, and from which the analysis alluded to, is also un-
derstood to have been made. About eleven years ago, a
trader by the name of Campbell procured from the Indians
a peice of copper weighing twelve pounds which they
found on an island in Winnebago lake, about a hundred
miles in a direct line east of the copper rock on the On-
tonagon. This was also taken to the Island of Michili-
‘mackinac and there disposed of. Other discoveries of this
metal in masses, varyjng from one to ten pounds are stated
to have been made on the shores of lake Superior—the Fox
river—the Chippeway—the St. Croix, and the Mississippi .
about Prarie du Chien, but the statements do not rest on suf-
ficient authority to justify any particular enumeration. The
existence of copper in the region of lake Superior appears to
have been known to the earliest travellers and voyageurs.
As early as 1689 the Baron La Hontan in concluding a de-

Ne ee

a

Native Copper of Lake Superior, &. 207

scription of that lake adds “that upon it, we also find cop-
per mines, the metal of which is so fine and plentiful, that
there is not a seventh part loss from the ore.” (1) In 172}
Charlevoix passed through the lakes on his way to the
gulf of Mexico, and did not allow the mineralogy of the
country to escape his observation. ‘ Large pieces of cop-
per,” he says in speaking of lake Superior, “are found in
some places on its banks, and around some of the islands,
which are still the objects of a superstitious worship among
the Indians. They look upon them with veneration as if
they were the presents of those gods who dwell under the
waters; they collect their smallest fragments which they
carefully preserve without however making any use of them.
They say that formerly a huge rock of this metal was to
be seen elevated a considerable height above the surface
of the water, and as it has now disappeared, they pretend
that the gods have carried it elsewhere ; but there is great
reason to believe that in process of time the waves of the
lake have covered it entirely with sand and slime; and it is
certain that in several places pretty large quantities of this
metal have been discovered without being obliged to dig
very deep. During the course of my first voyage to this
country, I was acquainted with one of our order (Jesuits)
who had been formerly a goldsmith, and who, while he was
at the mission of Sault de St. Marie used to search for this
metal, and made candlesticks, crosses, and censers of it, for
this copper is often to be met with almost entirely pure.” (2)

In 1766, Capt. Carver procured several pieces of native
copper upon the shores of lake Superior, and about the
sources of the Chippeway and St. Croix rivers, and pub-
lished an account of these discoveries in his book of travels,
which has served to give notoriety to the existence of that
metal in the region alluded to, without however furnishing
any very precise information as to its locality or abundance.
He did not, from his own account traverse the southern
shore cf the Jake, but states that virgin copper is found in
great plenty on the Ontonagon or Copper Mine river, and
about other parts of lake Superior, and adds—“ that he ob-
served many of the small islands, particularly those on the

(1) La Hontan’s voyages toe Canada,p. 214.

(2) Charlevoix’s Journal of a voyage to North America, vol. 2. p. 45.

208 Mr. Schoolcraft on the

eastern shores, were covered with copper ore, which appear-
-ed like beds of copperas, (sulphat of iron) of which pany
tons lay in a small space.” (1)

Five years after Carver’s visit (A. D. 1771,) a conemee
able body of native copper was dug out of the alluvial earth
on the banks of the Ontonagon river by two adventurers of
the name of Henry and Bostwick, and, together with a lump
of silver ore of eight pounds welehe of a blue colour and

semi-transparent, transported to Montreal, and from thence
shipped to England, where the latter was deposited in the
British museum after an analysis of a portion of it, by
which it was determined to contain 60 per cent of silver. (2)
‘These individuals were connected with a company which
had been formed in England for the purpose of working
the copper mines of lake Superior, among whom were the
Duke of Gloucester, Sir William Johnstone, and several
other gentlemen of rank. ‘They built a small vessel at
Point aux Pins, six miles above the Sault de St. Marie, to
facilitate their operations upon the lake, and a considerable
sum of money was expended, first,—in exploring the north-
ern shore of the lake, and the island of Maripeaux, and af-
terwards,—in the mining operations which were authorized
upon the banks of the Ontonagon. ‘These transactions will
be best illustrated by a quotation from the narrative account
which Henry has himself published. After returning from
the Canadian shore of the lake, and passing Point Lroquois,
where the silver ore was found, he observes,—‘‘ Hence we
~eoasted westward, but found nothing till we reached the
Ontonagon, where, besides the detached masses of copper
formerly mentioned, we saw much of the same metal: im-
bedded wn stone. Proposing to ourselves to make a trial on
the hill, till we were better able to go to work upon the sol-
id rock, we built a house and sent to the Sault de St. Marie
for provisions. At the spot anes upon for the com-
mencement of our preparations, a green coloured water
which tinges iron of a copper colour, issued from the hill,
and this the miners called a leader. In digging they found
frequent masses of copper, some of which were of three
pounds weight. Having arranged every thing for the ac-
commodation of the miners, during the winter, we return-
-ed to the Sault.

(1) Carver’: Travels p. 67. (2) Henry’s Travels, p. - 30.

JVative Copper of Lake Superior, &c. 209

“Early in the spring of 1772 we sent a boat load of pro-
' visions, but it came back on the 20th day of June, bringing
with it, to our surprise, the whole establishment of miners.
They reported that in the course of the winter they had
penetrated forty feet into the face of the hill, but on the ar-
rival of the thaw, the clay on which, on account of its stiffness,
they had relied, and neglected to secure it by supporters,
had fallen in aes from the detached masses of metal,
which to the last had daily presented themselves, they sup-
posed there might be ultimately reached a body of the same,
but could form no conjecture of its distance, except that it
was probably so far off as not to be pursued without sinking
an air shaft; and lastly,—that the work would require the
hands of more men than could be fed in the actual situa-
tion of the country. Here our operations. in this quarter
ended. The metal was probably within our reach, but if
we had found it, the expence of carrying it to Montreal
must have exceeded its marketable value. It was never
for the exportation of copper that our company was form-
ed, but always with a view to the silver, which it was hoped
‘the ores, whether of copper or lead, might in sufficient
“quantity contain.”

Eighteen years after the failure of this. acme (1789)
Mc Kenzie passed through lake Superior on his first voyage
of discovery into the pound and in his description of lake
‘Superior says,—‘‘ On the same side, (the south) at the riv-
er ‘Tennagon, is found a quantity of virgin-eopper. The
Americans, soon after they got possession of that country,

sent an agent thither; and I should not be surprised to hear
of their employing people to work the mine. Indeed, it
might be well worthy the attention of the British subjects
to work the mines on the north coast, though they are not
supposed to be so rich as those on the south.” (1)

The attention of the United States government appears
first to have been turned toward the subject during the ad-
‘ministration of President Adams, when the sudden augmen-
tation of the navy rendered the employment of domestic
copper in the equipment of ships, an object of political as
well as pecuniary moment; and a mission was author-
ized to proceed to lake Superior. Of the success of this

3 (1) McKenzie’s Voyages, p
Vot. iL. iow? 27

210 ? Wr. Schoolcraft on the -

mission, as it has not been communicated to the public,
nothing can with certainty be stated, but from the enquiries
which have been: instituted during the recent expedition, it
is rendered probable, that the actual state of our Indian re-
lations at that period arrested the advance of the commis-
sioners into the regions where the most valuable beds of
copper were supposed to lie, and that the specimens trans~
mitted to government were procured through the instru-—
mentality of some friendly Indians. cmpleyed for that pate, :
ose.

Such are the eles which those who ie preceded me
in this enquiry,, have thrown upon the subject, all of which
have operated in producing public belief in the existence
of extensive copper mines upon lake Superior, while trav-
ellers have generally argued that the southern shore of the
lake is most metalliferous, and that the Ontonagon river may
be considered as the seat of the principal mines. Mr. Gal-
latin in his report on the state of American manufactures in
1810 countenances the prevalent opinion, while it has been
reiterated in some of our literary journals, and in the nu-
merous ephemeral publications of the times, until the public
expectation has been considerably raised in regard to them.

Under these circumstances the recent expedition under
Gov. Cass, entered the mouth of the Ontonagon river on —
the 27th of June, having coasted along the southern shore
of the lake from the head of the river St. Mary, and after
spending four days upon the banks of that stream in the ex-
amination of its mineralogy, proceeded on the first of July
towards the Fond du. Lae. While there, the principal part.
of our force was encamped at the mouth of the river, and
the Governor, accompanied only by such persons as were —
necessary in the exploration, proceeded in two light canoes ©
to the large mass of copper which has already been deseri-
bed. We found the river, broad, deep, and gentle for a dis-
tance, and. serpentine in its course,—then becoming nar- _
rower,-with an increased velocity of current, and before.
reaching the copper rock, full of rapids and difficult of as-
cent. At the distance: of three or four leagues from the
lake, it is skirted on either side by a chain of hills whose —
extreme elevation above the bed of the Ontonagon may be
estimated at from three to four hundred feet. These hills
appear to be composed of a nucleus of granite, rising

JNVative Copper of ‘Lake Superior, Fe. ali

ihrough a stratum of red sand-stone, and covered by a very
heavy deposit of alluvial soil full of water worn fragments
of stones and pebbles, and imbedding occasional masses of
native copper. Suchis the character of the country in the
immediate vicinity of the copper rock, and thelatter is man-
ifestly one of those imbedded sabeenece. which has been
fortuitously exposed to the powerful action of the river
against an alluvial bank.

During our continuance upon this stream we found, or-
rather procured from the Indians, another mass of native
copper weighing nine pounds (Troy) nearly ; which will be
forwarded to the War Department. This specimen is par-
tially enveloped by a crust of green carbonat of copper.
which is in some places fibrous, and on the under side mix-
ed with a small portion of adhering sand, and some angular
fragments of quartz, upon which it appears to have fallen
in aliquid state. ‘There is also an appearance of crystal-
ization upon one side of it, and a portion of adhering black
oxyd, the nature of which it is difficult to determine by
ocular imspection. Several smaller pieces, generally weigh-
ing less than a pound, were also procured during our ex-
eursion up the Ontonagon, and in the regions east of it, but
all, excepting those cut from the large mass, are somewhat
oxydated, or otherwise encrusted upon the surface. ‘The
geological structure of the country in detail, and the mine-
ral appearances of the shore about the copper rock and
at other points along the river, between that and the lake,
are also of a highly interesting character, but do not appear
to me to demand a more particular consideration in this re-
port.

The discovery of masses of native copper is generally
considered indicative of the existence of mines in the
neighborhood. ‘The practised miner looks upon them as
signs which point to larger bodies of the same metal in the
earth, and is often determined, by discoveries of this nature,
‘in the choice of the spot for commencing his labours. The
predictions drawn from such evidence, are also more san-
guine in proportion to the extent of the discovery. It
is not, however, an unerring indication, and appears liable
to many exceptions. A detached mass of copper is some-
times found at a great distance from any body of the met-
al, or its ores; and these on the contrary, often occur in the

212), Mr. Schoolenaje on the

earth, or imbedded in rock hse where here) has been no
external discovery of metallic copper to indicate it. So far
as the opinions of mineralogical writers can be collected on

this point, they teach,—that large, veins of native copper |

are seldom found, but that it is frequently disseminated in
masses of various size in the rocks, and among the spars

and ores of copper and other mines; and when found in
scattered masses upon the surface, is ‘yather to be consider-—
ed as a token of the existence of the sulphuret—the car-_
bonate, and other ores of copper, within the circle of coun- .
try where it occurs, than as the precursor to, contiguous:
bodies of the same metal. “ Native copper” says Cleye-
land, “is found chiefly in primitive rocks, through: vpetiied it

is sometimes disseminated, or mége freqaéntly at éfitgrs into
the composition of eeiie veing, which traverse these ‘rocks.

It is thus connected with gramte, gheiss, micaceous-and ar-_

gillaceous slates, granular, limestone, chlorite, serpentine,
Aeansition and secon-

porphyry, &c. It also occurs. im:
dary rocks. It accompanies other: gres of copper, as the
red oxyde, the carbonate and sulphuret of copper, pyzitous
and grey copper, also the red and brown oxides of iron,
oxide of tin, &c. Its usual gangues are quartz, the fluate

and carbonate of lime, and sulphate of barytes. At Ober-
stein it occurs in prehnite; and in the Faroe islands, it ac~

companies zeolite.

‘« Native copper is not rare, nor is it found in ‘coflicient
quantity to be explored by itself. It sometimes occurs in
loose, insolated masses of considerable size.” (1)

From all the facts which I have been able to cola: on.

lake Superior, and after a deliberation upon them since my

return, | have drawn the following conclusions :—

Ist. That the alluvial soil along the banks of the ‘Onto

agon river, extending to its source, and embracing the con-

tiguous region which gives origin to the Menomonie river of
Green Bay, and to. “the Ousconsing, Chippeway and St.

Croix rivers of the Mississippi, contains very frequent, and
some most extr aordinary imbedded masses of native copper;
but that no body of it, which is sufficiently. extensive to be-
come the object of profitable mining operations, is to be
found at any particular place. This conclusion is support-

x be

(1) Cleveland's Mineralocy, YP. 450.

Native Copper of Lake Superior, §:c. 213

ed by the facts already adduced, and so far as theoretical
aids can be relied upon, by an application of those facts to
the theories of mining. A further extent of country might
have been embraced along the shore of lake Superior, but
the same 2 eli pears applieablento tte oes.)

2d. That a mineralogical survey of the rock formations
skirting the Ontonagon, including the district of country
above alluded to, would result in the discovery of very val- .
uable mines of the sulphuret, the carbonate and other prof-
itable ores of copper; in the working of which the ordi-
nary advantages of mining would be greatly enhanced by oc-
casional masses, and veins of native metal. ‘This deduction
is rendered probable by the general appearance of the coun-
iry, and the concurrent discoveries of travellers,—by the
green coloured waters which issue in several places from
the earth,—by the bodies of native copper found,—by the
cupreous tinge which is presented in the crevices of rocks
and loose stones,—by the geological character of the coun-
try, and by other analagous considerations. _

These deductions embrace all I have to submit on the
mineral geography of the country, so far as regards the
copper mines. Other considerations arise from the facili-
ties which that section of country may present for mining
operations,—its adaptation to the purposes of agriculture,—
the state, and dispositions of the Indian tribes, and other
iopics, which a design to commence metallurgical opera-
tions, at the present period would suggest. But lam not
aware that any such views are entertained by government,
and have not considered it incumbent upon me in this com-
munication, to enter into details on these subjects. K
may be proper, however, to remark, that the remote situa-
tion of the country containing the most valuable mines,
does not, at the present period, favour the pursuit of min-
ing. It would require the employment not only of the ar-
tificers and labourers necessary to conduct the working of
mines, but also, of a military force to protect their opera-
tions,—first, while engaged in exploring the country, and
afterwards, in their regular labours. For, whatever may
be their professions, the Indian tribes of the north, possess
strong natural jealousies, and in situations so remGte, are to
be restrained from an indulgence in the most malignant pas-
sions, only by the fear of a prompt military chastisement.
In looking upon the southern shore of lake Superior, the

Bit; |) cca TAS Schoolcraft on the

period appears distant, when the advantages flowing : from a
military post upon that frontier, will be produced | by os
ordinary progress of our settlement ;—for it presents: few
enticements to the agriculturalist. A coysiderable portion
of the shore is rocky 3 3; and its alluvions a general of too
sandy and light a texture for profitable husbandry. With
an elevation ‘of six hundred and forty one feet above the
Atlantic ocean, (1) and drawing its waters from territories
all situated north of the forty fourth degree of north lati-
tude, lake Superior cannot be represented as enjoying a
climate very favourable to the productions of the vegetable
kingdom. Its forest trees are chiefly those of the fir kind,
mixed with white birch, (betula papyracea, the bark of
which is so much employed for canoes by the northern In-
dians,) and with some varieties of poplar, oak, and maple.
The meteorological observations which I have made, indi-
cate however, a warm summer, the average heat of the
month of June being 69°, but the climate is subject to a
long and severe winter, aa to storms, and sudden trans-
_itions of temperature, during the summer months. We saw
no Indian corn among the savages upon this lake, whether
the climate is unfavorable to its ‘growth, or the wild rice (ze-
zania aquatica) furnishes an adequate substitute, is not, cer-
tain. A country lacking the advantages of a fertile ‘soil,
may still become a very rich mining country, like the coun-
ty of Cornwall in England,—the Hartz mountains in Ger-
many, and a portion of Missouri in our own country ; but
this deficiency must be compensated by the aUvANIAB eS of

(1) This level is predicated upon the following facts and estimates which
J extract from my “ Narrative Journal.’’
“Elevation of lake Erie above the tide waters of the Hudson ac- ce
cording to the Fepeee of the New-York Canal Commission- - jo

ers = - - = 560°
Estimate fall of Detroit river 20 miles at 6 ae permile - ~ ae > 10
- §t. Clair River 30 miles at 4imches . - = 10
Rapids of St. Clair River at the outlet of lake Huron, in the
_ distance of three miles ares)
Estimated fall of the river St. Wary, Geeeeen the Detour. and
_ Point Iroquois, 60 miles at three inches per mile, Cans not }
included) — - - - - + - Bi if a eee 375
Nibish Rapid - - - - - - eet =) GOs
Sugar Island Rap id - - ein - 6
Sault de St. Mavi ae Gecorawn to Col Gratiot) se? e - uD 10.

ENE oT ‘Level of Lake Sypeiion G41, ut

¥

Native Copper of Lake Superior, &c. oe

seographical position, contiguous, or redundant population,
and the facilities of a ready commercial intercourse. To
these, the mineral district of lake Superior can advance but
a feeble claim, while it lies upwards of three hundred miles
beyond the utmost point of our settlements on the north-
western frontier, and in the occupation of savage tribes
whose hostility has been so recently manifested. Concern-
ing the variety, importance, and extent of its mineral pro-
ductions, little doubt can remain. Every fact which has
been noticed tends to strengthen the belief, that there are
extensive copper mines upon its shores, while the informa-
tion that has been gathered in the course of the late mission,
renders it certain that not only copper, but iron, lead, plumba-
go, and sulphur are productions of that region, together with
several of the precious silicious, (1) and crystalized minerals.
It is rendered probable also, that silver ord 1s imbedded in the
transition rocks of the region; and whenever it shall be-
come an object with the American government, or people,
to institute mineralogical surveys of the country, no doubt
can be entertained but such researches will eventuate in dis-

-coveries of a highly interesting character, and such as can-

not fail, both to augment our sources of profitable industry,
and to promote our commercial independence. In the
event of such operations, the facilities of a ready transpor-
tation, either in vessels or barges, of the crude ore to the
Sault de St. Marie, will point out that place as uniting with
a commanding geographical position, superior advantages
for the reduction of the ores, and for the subsequent conver-
sion of the metal either into ordnance or other articles. At
this place a fall of twenty two feet in the river in the dis-
tance of half a mile, creates a sufficient power to drive hy-

(1) The Carnelion is first found on approaching the Pictured Rocks on
lake Superior, and afterwards becomes very abundant along the shore ex-
tending to the Fond du Lac. Sandy lake on the head of the Mississippi
isa good locality of this mineral, and it is found around the shores of the
numerous little lakes in that region. In descending the Mississippi it is con-
stantly met with in the alluvial ‘soil. At the foot of the Falls of St. Antho-
ny itis sparingly found; around the shores of lake Sepin it is very abund-
ant, and it may be traced below Prairie du Chein, and evenas low as St.
Genevieve, as | have mentioned in my view of the mines. According to

the classification of Werner, which is founded on “alternate bands of red i

and white,” many of these specimens may be considered as Sardonyx.
They are often associated with common chalcedony, with cacholong, and _
‘with certain varieties of agate and flinty j jasper. {na few instances the
common opal, in small fragments, is met with.

216 Letters of Mr. Brongmart with remarks.

‘diate works to any extent; while the surrounding coun-

try is such as to admit of an ‘agricultural settlement.
_ Laccompany this report with a geological chart of a ver-
tical section of the left bank of the Mississippi at St. Peters,
embracing a formation of native copper, and in which the
superposition of the layers of rock, and the several subde-
posites forming the alluvial stratum, exhibit a remarkable
order. “Che curvatures in the lines of the alluvial stratum,
represent a natural mound or hillock recumbent upon the
brink of the river, which has partially fallen in, thus expo-
sing its internal structure. The formation was first noticed
by the garrison who quarried stone for quicklime, and for the
purpose of building chimneys, at this spot. The masses of
copper found are all small, none exceeding a ound m en

I have the honour to be sir, ea awl
with great respect, and regard, — a)

your most obedient servant,

ory.) : HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. vp

Art. I].—Miscellaneous suedanod relating to ee

Mineralogy and some connected topics, in extracts of let-
ters from Mr. Aurx’r. Bronentart, member of the Roy-
al Academy of Sciences, Engineer of Mines, &c. of Paris
with remarks by the Editor to whom the letters were As
dressed. Nat rab

Tue observations of Mr. Brongniart, especially on some
American localities will probably be interesting and instruc-
tive to others in this country, as they have been to us; this
has induced us to give publicity to remarks which although
“not forwarded for this purpose, cannot fail to do honour to

Ri mee respectable author. . .

His first letter, dated Oct. 9, 1819, is a reply to one ac-
ine American specimens transmitted. to him, and
about some of which his ‘opinion was asked. Mr. Bu ae
art observes :—

*T transmit you to-day through the intervention of Mr
- Doolittle,

“J. A collection sufficiently complete, of substances
adapted to the manufacture of porcelain, and illustrative of
the principal changes and processes which these substances

Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks, 217

undergo, in arriving at the condition of Porcelain. ‘The cat-
alogue which is in the box will give you an idea of the order
of these processes.” MEET G i
Mr. Brongniart, as is well known, is director of the great
National manufactory of Porcelain, at Sevres, near Paris, and
therefore, authentic specimens, of this kind received from him,
must be regarded as particularly valuable. A mere translation
of the catalogue, (which is however, full and detailed) without
an exhibition of the specimens, would probably not be very
useful. We will content ourselves with saying, that the
‘specimens are very instructive, and conduct the observer,
gradually, from the crude natural clay, sand, white feldspars,
decomposed graphic granite, &c. through the regular series
of changes, till we arrive at the finished vessel, possessing
the whiteness, lustre, infusibility,* imperviousness to fluids,
and delicate translucence, which are among the qualities that
characterize one of the most perfect and beautiful produc-
tions of human skill... The tablets that illustrate the paint-
ing of the porcelain, are particularly elegant, and embrace
most of the colours that are applied for the purposes of dec-
oration. 2 nite
Gold and platina are applied in the metallic state, and bur-
nished so as to produce the proper lustre and colour of those
metals. But, in most instances, the metallic oxids, applied
by the pencil, are incorporated by heat, and actually form
part of the substance of the porcelain, so that the colours
cannot be discharged, and are scarcely liable to fade even
by the action of light. Thus, cobalt gives an intense blue-
chrome—a grass-green, and gold-rich purples and violets.
The principle of their application is the same with that of
lass and enamel staining, and the superb painted glass win-
dowsin the Gothic Cathedrals in Europe evince both the early
perfection of the art, and the endurance of these colours, from
century to century, in unfaded splendor.t These facts are
finely illustrated by Mr. Brongniart’s specimens, which will
be freely submitted to the view of those whom either curi-
osity or interest may allure to this subject. Before return-

* By furnace heats.

+ It isalmost unnecessary to remark, that the colours of the animal and
vegetable kingdom which form our common dyes are inapplicable in
cases where they must be burnt ¢f, as it is termed; they would of course be
destroyed. .

Vot. II.....No. 2. 28

8

218 Letters of Mr. Brongmart, with remarks.

ing to the letter, we will add (a fact that appears not to be
generally known in this country,) namely, that the steel lustre
on porcelain is metallic platina, and that the copper lustre is
metallic gold to which this particular tinge is imparted by
an umber basis below—the gold being partially pervious to
light and the only metal that is so. It is sufficiently curious
that the gold is applied to the porcelain in the condition of

fulminating oxid ; the oil of spike is used to make it adhere,
and the fulminating properties are gradually destroyed with-
out an explosion.*

The time will arrive, when the manufacture of Tene
will become a great object in this country, and we cannot be
too early in acquiring the requisite information.

Mr. Brongniart goes on to mention, |

«2, Some minerals and rocks from the environs 5 of Pac
and from France, and even from foreign countries, which
(he adds) I hope will be interesting to you.” '

Among these specimens are many illustrating the - mine-
ralogical : survey of the environs of Paris, made by Messrs.
Cuvier and Brongniart; they are particularly valuable in
that connexion, and especially as giving precise ideas of the
signification of ‘the terms used by those gentlemen.

«3. Distinct copies of some of Mr. Brongniarts works—
he observes,

‘J would also have added a copy of my essay upon the
classification of mixed rocks, published in 1813, &c. but I
have only one perfect copy. Besides, I have since that pe-
riod made many changes in this classification, and I intend,
as soon as possible to publish a new and much more com-
plete edition than the first.” __

This remark is cited that Geologists n may avail themselves
of Mr. Brongniart’s aid, as soon as his new edition shall ap-
penss we shall not fail to give our readers the earliest notice
of it

In justice to the numerous contributors to this work, we
feel authorized to publish the following remarks upon, the
American Journal, which if it were exclusively or even prin-
cipally our own production, we should of course suppress.

“J have received sir, and I continue toreceive, with regular-
ity, your J ournal of Science and Arts, and J return you my par-:

* A private communication from London to the Editor.

Letters of Mr. Brongmart, with remarks. 219

ticular thanks for your kindness in sending itto me. I have
not only myself derived from it both pleasure and instruc-
tion, but f have put in the power of various persons to en-
joy it also, and they as well as myself find it very well exe-
cuted and consequently very interesting. I was gratified to
observe that you had been so kind as to insert the notice
upon the manner of collecting petrifications; a notice
which I had not myself published except for the promotion
of my own views; still 1 tender you my acknowledgments.

*‘ But I reserve for the end of this letter, the object that
has interested me most, and that which has been with mea
subject of instruction and of very varied reflections—name-
ly, the rocks and petrifications, which you have had the
kindness to send me and which I received in October last.

“‘T have already made an incipient study of them, and 1
intend to return to it when I shall be able to combine all the
means adapted to determine exactly or rather more prectse-
ly these fossil organized bodies. 1 shall confine myself then
for the present, to the communication of some of the reflec-
tions, which these rocks have excited, and of some of the

determinations which I have made respecting them; these
determinations are made in accordance with the classifiea-
tion of mixed rocks which I published in 1813.

“The serpentine of New-Haven, of which you have sent
me so beautiful a specimen, constitutes one of the ornaments
of my cabinet and is referred with great precision to my spe-
cies, ophicalce veinee*, (viz. veined serpentine limestone.)

“ The rocks which accompany the Anthracites of Wilkes-

barre and of. Rhode-Island are, according to my classifica-
tion, the +Phyllades pailletees ; one of them contains the
impression of a leaf of fern, whose species appears to me a
little different from all those of Europe which I possess. -

“| shall be very desirous that circumstances may permit

you to enrich me still further, with specimens bearing the
impressions of vegetables, and of all other fossil organized
bodies, which are found in your coal formations, or in those
of anthracite, and finally in all your bituminous formations.

* This remark was quoted in Vol. 2, p. 165, under the head of American
Yerd Antique Marble.

+ The Phyllades of Mr. Brongniart are schists with an argillaceous basis,
céntaining mica, quartz. feldspar. amphibole, marl, &c.
/

220 Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks.

It isa very important object for Geology, to ascertain the
resemblances and differences which exist between the im-
pressions in the different countries of the terrestrial globe.
I have been much occupied in this labour, and my son, who
is devoted more particularly to botany, than to other branch-
es of natural history, has aided me effectually in this work.

«The bituminous formation of Westfield, near Middletown,
appears to me very different from the formation of coal and
anthracite of Wilkesbarre and Rhode-Island. You alsore- —
mark that this coal (if nevertheless it be true coal) is found
only i in thin veins, that itis bituminous, &c. This forma-
tion appears to me to have the strongest resemblance to that
of the bituminous mar! slates of the copper mines in the
country of Mansfield and Hesse. The presence of copper
is not an essential thing, and besides, it may be that pyrites
or some other metallic sulphurets accompany this bitumin-—
ous formation ; what is certain and very remarkable, is, that
this bituminous slate i is perfectly similar to that of Mansfield
and that the impression of a fish, which we find in that which
you have sent me, is entirely like one of the species of fish-
es found in the Mansfield slates—it is the Paloeothrissum
freislebenense of Mr. Blainville—a species of fish altogeth-
er peculiar; and which has been no where found, except —
in these formations of bituminous slates—often alliance
of the mines of Mercury of the Palatinate, and of Musse,
near Autun, department of the Saone and Loire. Indeed
sir, the resemblance is so striking, so complete, that if it had
not been sent by such a person as yourself, I should have
feared that it was a rock with the impression of a fish, which |
had been formerly transmitted from Hessia to America, for
some cabinet, and which oo mse had been
erroneously labelled.

“ For the purpose of convincing you of these aloes ;
so remarkable on account of the great distance, and still, so
complete, notwithstanding this distance, | send you a spe-
cimen of the bituminous slate of Mansfield, with the impres-
sion of a fish, and a very imperfect, but sufficient piece of
those from the environs of Autun. If you are desirous of a
greater number of the former specimens, on being made ac-
quainted with it, I will procure them for you. You per-
ceive © sir, how this first and singular specimen has excited
my curiosity, and what a pleasure you will do me if you

Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks, 221

can procure others for me. It will be very interesting to
obtain a suite of all the fossil organized bodies which are
found in the bituminous formation of Westfield; I am in-
clined to think for instance, that impressions of genuine ferns
will be found there; it isa thing to be verified by farther
observations.” ; ae vam
Unhappily for science, the research which led to the dis-
covery of the impressions of fish, alluded to by M. Brongn-
iart, has been abandoned. There is no doubt however,
that the specimens were genuine. | bh alee ss
The person who brought them, obtained them at the depth
of about 40 feet, while exploring for coal, four miles west
of Middletown: he brought his chaise box full of them te
New-Haven; he had probably never heard of the fish of Mans-
field and Hesse, nor had he any theories, of any kind, to
serve ; his single object being the discovery of coal for pur-
poses of profit. It is remarkable that the coincidence
which struck Mr. Brongniart so powerfully, and in which he
looked for the additional, although adventitious fact of the
existence of copper, holds, perfectly, even in that particular.
The great formation of which the Westfield locality is a por-
tion, may be denominated the trap formation of New England.
Excepton the south where it touches the sea at New-Haven.,
it is bounded all around by primitive country. It extends
more than one hundred miles from the sea coast into the
interior, and varies in width from three or four to twenty-
five miles ; ridges of columnar green-stone trap, stretching,
generally from north to south, in the direction of the length
of the formation, and sometimes attaining the height of sever
or eight hundred feet, constitute the most prominent feature ;
they repose on a sand-stone rock——(considered by Mr. Ma-
clure as the old red sand-stone) formed by the ruins of
primitive rocks sometimes unseparated, and varying in its
composition from a pudding or breccia with very large frag-
ments, toa fine grained sand-stone, and this in its turn pass-
es into an argillaceous sand-stone, and in some places into
slaty clay. Beneath the sand-stone rock, lie slaty rocks
(we mean argillaceous schist or thonschicfer) of various
qualities, often divided by thin veins of coal and jet, im-
pressed with what appear to be reeds and other elongated
vegetables, and frequently the rock is, throughout, so bitu-
minous as to burn onthe fire. It was in such strata as

222 Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks.

these, that the fish were found at Westfield, beneath argil-
laceous sand-stone. Now, throughout this whole trap form-
ation, copper is found—principally in the sand-stone rock
beneath the trap. [tis in the form of copper pyrites, of —
oxid of copper, of green and blue carbonat, and of native
copper.* Many shafts have been opened for working it, and
the Connecticut state’s prison for convicts is in the aban-
doned pits and galleries, wrought many years ago, for cop-
per, in the sand-stone beneath the trap, in the township of
Granby in Connecticut. The existence of the copper then,
in this region, fulfils another condition | ‘of resemblance be-
iween the countries alluded to by Mr. Brongniart, and those
in this region. We would add, that although no more fish
have been obtained at Westfield, because the pit has long
been filled with water, they have been found in various oth-
er places in the same formation. Particularly at Sunder-
land in Massachusetts, in rocks that pass under Connecticut
river; they were discovered by that excellent observer, Mr.
Edward Hitchcock, who says they are very numerous.
They are found in the argillaceous sand-stone. ‘The addi-
tional interest imparted to our trap region by the remarks
of Mr. Brongniart, with the peculiar nature of the country,
will, we trust, induce some of our geologists to examine the _
entire formation with more scrupulous care, and to give a
connected report of the whole. It isa feature almost un-
ique, in American geology, and should not be allowed to re-
main without a complete and skilful delineation, especially
as the prehnite, zeolite, chabasie, analcime, laumonite, chal-
cedony, agate, &c. which are found imbedded in the “ag
impart an additional interest to the research.

We return to Mr. Brongniart’s letter :—

‘The compact blackish limestone from the environs of
Lake Ontario, contains petrifactions, which I have not yet
been able exactly todetermine. I suppose that there is one
species of Orthoceratite, and I observe among them many en-
trocites. But these generic determinations are too vague,
and therefore ever inadequate. The case is the same
with the sand stone of Cayuga, containing ee bine ag

* For some remarkable examples of very fine specimens As the fatter see
Vol. J. pa. 55, of this Journal, and Bruce’s Journal, pa. 149; the former cf
these pieces weighed six, aud the latter ninety pounds,

Letters of Mr. Brongmart, with remarks. 223

which I shall perhaps be able, at some future time, to give
you the exact name. Mee»

‘‘T had intended to adopt a more exact order, in the min-
erals and specimens which I send you, but I have made up
the box by little and little, and it would require too much
time to commence it anew. You can easily arrange the
rocks and minerals from the environs of Paris, by means of
the numbers transmitted by me; the same as those that Mr.
Cuvier and myself have published in the Geology of this
country, which work you will find in the case.

“‘T am afraid that I may have included in this box, many
things which you already have, but, being without any thing
to direct me in my selection, I have preferred sending
some useless pieces, rather than omit any thing which I im-
agined might interest you.

“‘If you should entertain the intention of sending me
some minerals and rocks of your country, I will take the
liberty of indicating my wishes more particularly.

“‘Every thing that relates to the secondary formations
and to the fossil organized bodies which they contain, spe-
cimens from the formations west of the mountains, and es-
pecially from the limestones, of all formations, with their
petrifactions, from the coal strata with their impressions—
of these I am particularly desirous.

“‘T perceive that your position will not allow you, in per-
son, to collect specimens of these rocks, which in general
appear to be very remote from your residence ; but I sup-
pose that by means of your pupils and correspondents, you
can procure some of the objects so useful in my geological
researches.”

“T ought not sir, to make all these demands of you if I
had not received proofs of your civility, and were I not aware
of your zeal for the progress of natural science. I am de-
sirous, in return, to render you similar services here, and I
beg of you to make use of my good will in this respect.”

In a subsequent letter from the same gentleman, dated
Nov. 3, 1820—There are remarks relating both to Europe
and this country, which we are not disposed to withhold from
our readers. '

‘“‘T have been performing a tour, exclusively geological,
through the whole of Italy, for the purpose of examining

224 Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks.

the extent and the nature of the tertiary* formations, anala-
gous to those in the environs of Paris. I have not only tra-
ced these formations quite to Rome, but I have fully ascer-
tained, by conversations with M. Brocchi, that they are
found also at the extremity of Calabria near Regio. =
_ “JT have had moreover, a long time, in my collection, a
piece of madrepore which came from this region, and
which led me formerly to suppose, the existence of such
formations, among those that were so far removed from
what we had been accustomed to consider as their centre ;
I have learned from him that they exist under the volcanic
rocks of Ischia; + finally, saw them near Geneva, at a great
elevation, in the environs of the small town of St. Remo,
and on my return at the foot of the southern side of the
Alpes, from Bassano to the environs of Verona at Rouca,
Bolca &c. 1 am occupied in digesting a notice upon the
analogy of these formations with ours, and I have learned
with much satisfaction that Mr. Buckland, who on his return
from Italy, also saw the same places, observed the same a-
nalogy, an analogy which holds in almost all the characters,
and especially in the group (“ensemble”) of fossil ae
and other marine bodies, which they contain.

“Thus a definite position is assigned in the strata of the
globe, to the celebrated fossil fish of Bolca, that is, in the
tertiary formations in analogy with those in the environs of
Paris, and with those of other places. Mr. Beudant has
just found these same formations in Hungary, and Mr. Prevost,
one of my former pupils, has recently discovered them near
Baden in the environs of Vienna, in Austria. He has pre-
pared a memoir on this subject, and will soon read it to the
Institute.

_ “But this analogy, so striking and complete, between the
rocks and the tertiary formations, in countries very remote
from each other, is not the only one which exists, and which

_has strongly impressed me as well as Mr. Buckland.

“The greater part and possibly the whole of the rocks.
which compose the crust of our globe, present, in their na-
ture, in their structure, and in their order of superposition

* We presume coinciding generally with the Seton nts forse of
pie Ed.

\

+A small Istand, scarcely four leagues from N aples.

Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks. 225

resemblances so striking, that often it would not be possible
in a collection, to distinguish a. psammite* or a compact
limestone which came from England, from one, from the
environs of Vienna or of Rome, provided the labels did not
give us information as to the different places.

‘“‘ Weare certain of these resemblances, as to all the coun-
iries of Europe, and from indications sufficiently clear, we
presume them for Asia, Africa, America and the islands.—
It remains to establish them in a manner evident and cer-
tain, and to prove that they exist at such great distances.

“It is for you sir—it is for the numerous and well inform-
ed geologists, who inhabit the greater part of the American
states, to follow up these observations, and to put it in our
power to compare, with precision, the American formations
with ours; with this view I have already sent to you, and to
other American naturalists, and I will continue to forward,
suites of European Rocks.

“You have also transmitted those that were, in this
point of view, very interesting, and which I have already
had the honour to acknowledge.

“I ask the continuance of these interesting relations, so
useful to the sciences and to true philosophy and so hon-
ourable to. myself.

“I have just terminated a work which I began five years

ago, upon a family of organized bodies, called trilobites.—-
I received the last year, from the Royal Academy of Sci-
ences, an impression in plaster, of an American trilobite
_sent to the academy by Dr. David Hosack of New-York, and
which came from the region of Albany. I pointed out in
my report, the similiarity between the formations in which
this fossil was found and those in England, France, Sweden
and other countries of Europe, where the same animal re-
mains have been found, but at first, I could not establish any
difference between that of M.Blumenbach and that of M.
Hosack,—the plaster cast which represented the latter,
was 50 ill defined, that no exact judgement could be passed
‘upon the differences or resemblances.

“Tn repeating these observations, and comparing again,
this j impression with two other specimens of trilobite, one of
which alan; came from America, they were united by Mr.

*A Tae sects sand stone (in Mr, Brongniart’s nomenclature.) _

‘Vou. IIl.....No. 2. 29

226 Letters of Mr. Brongniart, with remarks.

Ducald. I have discovered characters sufficiently distinct
to establish a particular species, remarkable for the large-
ness of the eyes, and which I denominate Calymene macrohp-
talme. 1 learn from these specimens, and from some
others which I have received, in different ways—that trilo-
bites exist in America, as well as in Europe, that the ani-
mals differ very little (if indeed they constantly differ at all)
from those of Europe, and that they are, in both cases, found
in the schists phyllades, or in the transition NRE EEE or
at least, in those which are very ancient.

“But sir, these are only first impressions ; i address
them to you, and to all the American geologists, that you
and they may enable us either to reduce them to pertains
or to abandon them.

‘‘ My son who accompanied me into Italy, and | ule (as
observed in a former letter) is more particularly devoted to
Botany, continues his research-upon the determination of fos-
sil plants. You were so good as to send me pieces, which in
relation to this subject were very curious, but, unfortunately
the impressions were not sufticiently diversified or exact, to
determine the differences and resemblances of the plants,
belonging to the coal formations of Europe and America. —

“‘T must then again commend myself to your zeal for the
advancement of the sciences, and to your kindness towards
myself. Ishall here terminate this letter, which, already
too long, would be much more extended still, if I were only
to glance at the various subjects for reflection ventas my late
travels have presented.”

Thus we have taken, we trust, not an improper bats
with the letters of Mr. Brongniart. We have made the
most important parts of them public, because we believed
we could in no way so effectually promote his liberal and
laudable views, as by exhibiting them in his own language.
In addition to the observations upon this subject on page 7
of this volume, we would say, that geological deductions
drawn from the comparison of a great number of particu-
lars, collected from many different countries, exhibit a good
example of the Baconian or inductive course of reasoning,
and afford us the fairest prospect of arriving at truth. Such
a research is as different from the visionary hypotheses with
which geology formerly abounded, as_the analytical course
of modern chemistry, is from the ancient assumption of the
four elements.

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c. 227

» We may without impropriety, urge on all the friends of
geology, the importance of aiding Mr. Brongniart in his
great enterprize. Noman is better qualified to conduct it
to a successful issue, and after the specimen which we al-
ready have, of manly, perspicuous and interesting writing in
Mr. Brongniart’s Elements of Mineralogy, so well known in
this country, we cannot doubt, that the results of the pres-
ent research will be communicated to the world ina form
equally alluring and useful. — .
We take the liberty therefore to invite our friends and the
friends of science, especially beyond the mountains, and
more especially in the vicinity of the various coal and other
secondary formations, to collect and forward such speci-
mens as are alluded to above, and such as are described in
Mr. Brongniart’s note, published in the first volume of this
work. His address is Paris, Rue St. Dominique, No. 71,
but we will, when desired, cheerfully act as the medium of
communication, still giving due credit to the individuals who
may make efforts on this occasion, so interesting to science,
and which may be so honourable to the American character.

Arr. I.—WMiscellaneous notices and memoranda of facts,
relating to American Mineralogy, and Geology, Local-
tues of Minerals, &c. &c.

1. Cursory notice of some parts of North and South Caro-
lina; by Dr. Timorny Dwicut Porter, one of the

_ faculty of the Un. of S. Car. in a letter to the Editor, dated
Cues S. Car. Oct. 18, 1820.
Dear Sir,

' T wave recently returned from a hasty ride of about four
hundred miles, into, and through the Northwestern portions
of this state.. The limitation of my time was a matter of re-
gret to me, as it prevented almost entirely any of my favor-
ite researches. The country which below Columbia is
very nearly a perfect level, and after, as it were ascending
one stair at this place, (which is situated on the falls in the
Congaree, and is said to.be the boundary of the primitive

228 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &.

formation,) continues to exhibit the same appearance for a
-day’s ride toward the mountains, then becomes undulating ;
and the hills gradually crease in height, and steepness, till
they rise into mountains near the Blue ridge. The rocks
at the falls, at Columbia, are granite—next to these in one
spot, I noticed on the east side of Broad river, at about
eight miles distance from Columbia, green-stone; on the
other side of the same stream none of this latter rock met
my observation on the route westerly, to Pendleton Dis-
trict, but instead of it, sand-stone, stratified : and partially
disintegrated granitic ‘and’ shistose rocks. ‘The surface of
the earth was covered very extensively, in every part of my »
ride, with loose irregular fragments of quartz, varying in size
from an inch or two to two feet in diamater. I saw no
masses of quartz in place—but no particular examination
was made. The appearance of the country is precisely the
same with that of Virginia where the titanium was found ;
{See Vol. II. p. 143 of this Journal. ]—and here too, the
same mineral was met with. Crystals of quartz, many of
them handsome, were collected in the road in different pla-
ces. The celebrated Table Mountain lay near my route,
and was visited; that great mass of granite, eight hundred
and twenty-two feet in height, and almost absolutely perpen-
dicular, extending near a mile with the same smooth and
even front, but so covered that no termination is to be seen
from the station of the spectator, produces strong impres-
sions of grandeur.

A new road is now cutting across the Saluda mountain,
and passes through granite, some of it very fine and hand-
some, much like the Chelmsford Granite, used in Boston.
In one spot a vein of gneiss lies in the granite, in the side of
the mountain—but perhaps vein is not the word proper to
express the truth in this case, block might be better. At
about fifteen or twenty miles from the eoneane on my re-
turn to Columbia, green-stone began to appear, crossing my
path, and alternating with granite : it continued for thirty
miles or more to meet me, passing to the South. Some of
the : specimens were very fine grained and handsome, others
of coarser texture, exhibiting much the same variety as the
New-Haven mountains. I had very little opportunity to
search for particular minerals ; a few fell in my way, and of
course were not neglected.. A very few small specimens

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, §c. 229

will accompany this letter. The four sided and terminat-
ed crystals* were furnished me by a ramble in Buncomb,
N. C. they scratch quartz, with difficulty. The onyx-like
striped specimen was found near the same place, by Col.
Blanding or Mr. Poinsett, probably the latter.

2. Confirmation of the genuineness of the locality of Amert-
can Corundum, mentioned p.7 of this Volume. Extract
of a letter from Mr. John Dickson to the Editor, dated
Charleston, March 9, 1821. Bo:

As to the locality of the Corundum I thought it had been
noted. I think it was Laurens District; atall events it was
picked up by my own hands, if not in situ, in a place to
which no geological or mineralogical specimens had ever
been carried, and which it could have reached only by one
of the usual and natural accidents which displace minerals
of all kinds, and leave them at greater or less distances
from their peds. I am sure it is American and Carolinian.

I hope to revisit the upper country in three or four
weeks, and shall pay particular attention to this point, and I
am in hopes of obtaining other specimens equally well
marked. I shall be able then perhaps to correct any mis-
takes I have made on former occasions. My brother, Dr.
S. H. Dickson, will accompany me on this tour, and we

* Crystals of Zircon.—The crystals alluded to here are parallelopipeds, with
-rectangular bases—a four sided pyramid is set upon the prism, sometimes at.
both ends, and in such a manner, that the angles of the base of the pyramid
correspond with those of the prism—the crystals are very smooth, of a light,
almost drab brown colour, and they have a somewhat varnished appearance,
a little resembling the vesuvian. The edges, sides and solid angles have great
neatness and finish. They scratch quartz, carnelian, and other siliceous
stones, and even slightly impress beryl. The specific gravity is 4.—they are
completely infusible by the common blow-pipe, but before the flame of Hare’s
compound blow-pipe melt into a white enamel.

All these characters induced us from the first, to think the crystals found
by Dr. Porter, to be zircon, and in this opinion we are supported by Proj.
Cleaveland, to whom we have since transmitted aspecimen. It will be ob-
served that the specific gravity is somewhat less than that commonly attrib-
uted to zircon, and the angle formed between the planes of the prism
and the corresponding ones of the pyramid, differs a little from those laid
down in the books. The crystals are from one fourth to three fourths ofan
inch long, and from two eighths to three eights of an inch in diameter.
This interesting lecality should receive farther attention.—{ Edzfor.?

230 Miscellancous Notices in Mineralogy, ii &c.

shall both be gratified if we can add any thing to me stock
of useful knowledge by the best gues akg we can make.
sy Pa

3 Tiinde for water Cement. ow s

The following notice of fie lime used in the aiib- -aqueous constr menue ae
the great canal i in the state of New-York, we owe to the kindness of W. W.
Woolsey, Esq. Thespecimens alluded to have been received, but we have
not yet been able to subject them to any experiments. i

Extract of a letter from Bonet Wright, Esq. chief Engi-
neer of the Erie Canal, to W. W. We volsey, Esq. —
New-York, dated wee Tune 24, 1820. ss

Deny Sir,

The specimen of Ar sillo-ferruginous limestone, ierevetls
presented, is found in great abundance in the counties of
Madison, Onondaga and Cayuga, in the state of N ew-York.
_ When found in place, it is always under the blue lime, which

is uniformly overlaid with grey lime. The grey is the up-
per stratum, and is found in large heavy blocks ; the whole
six or eight ‘feet in thickness, The biue which next occurs,
is various in thickness, and from it is made the beautiful
white lime. Under the blue lies the first described, which
is found to be a superior water cement, and is used very
successfully in the stone work of the Erie canal, and believ-
ed to be equal to any of the kind found in any other coun-
try. I cannot give you the analysis—if convenient to give a
sample to Mr. Silliman for his examination, it might be use-
ful to the community to have its properties fully understood,
and if he thinks it merits a place in his useful publications
I presume he will give it. Ido not know thatit is found in
the counties west of Cayuga, but presume from the geolo-
gical character of that county it may be found in all the
‘country west to Niagara, and probably further west. It is
pulverized (as it will not slack) and then used by mixing two
parts lime and one part sand. It hardens best under water,
and it is believed its properties are partially lost if permit-
ted to dry suddenly, or if not used soon after mixing.

Mr. Canvass White, a friend of mine, has obtained a pat-
ent for it when used for hydraulic purposes, and it is be-
lieved it will answer an excellent purpose for rough casting,

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, Sc. 23k

&ec. For cisterns it will be much used, no doubt, and for
all the principal erections of stone work for canals, it is in-
dispensable. |
Respectfully, 1 am,
Dear Sir, your Obedient Servant,
BENJAMIN WRIGHT.
W. W. Wootsey, Esq.

We are informed by Mr. Woolsey that the price of this
lime, pulverized and burnt and delivered at Utica, is twenty
cents the bushel. Mr. W. remarks, that ‘‘ Mr. Wright is a
gentleman equally distinguished for respectability of char-
acter, and high attainments as a civil engineer,” and that
‘f “ his aa may be relied on.’

Postscript, April, 3, 1821.
In February we had an interview with Mr. White, from

whom we obtained the following result of the analysis of
the caer lime, by Dr. Hadley.

Carbonic acid, - = 35,05

Lime, - - - =, 25,

. Silex, - Ai Mive hy ws 15,05
Alumine, - - - - 16,05
Water, - - - - 5,03
Oxid of iron, - - - 2,02

98,20

To this notice we add the following extract of a letter from
Myron Holley, Esq. one of the Commissioners of the great
canal, dated Albany, 20th January, 1821.

Mr. White, one of our Engineers on the Erie canal, and
aman of good character and useful attainments, especially
on subjects connected with his profession, discovered, in
the course of the season before last, the material for making
an excellent water-proof-cement, existing in great abun-
dance in the western district of this state. And we have
made extensive and profitable use of his discovery i in the
locks and other mason-work of the Erie canal. — Itis proba-.-
bly superior to Parker’s Roman-cement, in quality, and may

232 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c.

be afforded at less than half the expense of that. It will,
therefore, probably soon come into general use throughout
‘our country, whenever such cement is required. Mr.
White has some specimens of the stone which constitutes
the principal material of his ceed: which he intends
presenting to ks .

4. “Micaceous Iron ore, for alieiote of Halal

We have recently seen this ore in very thin delicate
plates from Virginia, and from Mr. Lane’s mine in New
Stratford, Conn. That mentioned (pa. 50, Vol. I.) as oc-
curring near Bellows Falls on the Gonnecticut river, we are
informed by Professor Hall, is found at Jamaica, in Ver-
mont, twenty miles directly west of Bellows Falls. Itis a
remarkably beautiful but very fine gramed variety—in its
structure much resembling the finest grained Dolomite of the
Alps; the plates however, although thus minute, are dis-
tinctly visible, but their coherence is so feeble that they
crumble easily between the fingers; the grains are not af-
fected by the magnet. We have recently received a spe-
cimen of this fine mineral from Dr. I. A. Allen, of Brattle-
borough. He states that it is found in Ball Mountain, which
rises five hundred feet above the water in West river. Dr.
Allen will supply specimens by exchange or otherwise.
From the adhering matter, this ore would appear to be im-
bedded in mica slate.

pe see of the Suiliin Stenite, Jasper, Amygdaloid, §e.

The uncommon beauty of the polished specimens of ids
rock, induce us to give the following particulars denied
' from the Rev. Elias Cornelius.

The specimens accompanying this were taken from a
rock which is found in Salem, Mass. near the eastern ex-
‘tremity of the peninsula, or neck of Jand upon which the
town is situated.

The rocks in its neighborhood are either pure granite, or
that variety of it called sienite, the hornblende of which is
diffused in different proportions, from a few specks scarcely
discernible, to very considerable quantities.

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &§e. 233

The only difference between the rock which has so re-
cently been wrought, and that which is commonly found is,
that it has a finer texture, and is capable of the highest pol-
ish—its hornblende wee also diffused 1 ina kind of porphy-
ritic manner.

The mass from which it is taken lies upon the side of a
hill—in the form of a ledge, and may be split into slabs
without digging, or any similar difficulty. The quantity ap-
Lee to be very considerable.

4 ‘ i

We have received from Dr. B. L. Oliver, handsome pol-
ighed specimens from Salem, some of which we are inclin+
ed to call Jasper ; those which we are told are called Por-
phyry at Salem, appear to be rather amygdaloid; the for-
eign imbedded substances are rather ovoidal, or almond
shaped concretions, than crystals; the latter, imbedded in
some basis, being necessary to constitute a true porphyry.

6. Microscopic crystals of Iron Pyrites.
Extract of a letter to the Editor, dated Baltimore, Oct. 22, 1820.

Tue object of the present letter is to send you inclosed,
some ofthe most minute, cubic and octahedral, and other varie-
ties of crystals of sulphuret of iron that leversaw; they were
sent to this place from Scotville, Kentucky, as flowers of si-
ver. I pronounced them at once to be pyrites, and thought
them powdered fragments, but the lens betrayed the crys-
tals, which are beaatitul and well defined. I do not recol-
lect seeing in any cabinet such small ones, and I feel desi-
rous that you should possess a specimen. If you think it
worth while to notice their discovery in Kentucky, you
candoso. Tam very truly, yours,

R. GILMORE.

These crystals are singularly beautiful; they are so mi-
nute, that they look like brass filings. —| Ed. ]

7. Limpid Quartz, froin Fairfield, New-York.

jscabaee of quartz are innumerable, and even trans-

parent crystals are very common, but we have received
Vou. T.....No. 2. 30

234 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c.

some quartz crystals (among other minerals which we may
notice on a future occasion) from Dr. Porter of Plainfield,
Mass. which for their perfect transparency equal any thing,
of the kind, that we have ever seen; they do not exceed one
fourth or one third of an inch in diameter, and the largest
that has been obtained is only three fourths.

8. Agaric Mineral.

- Professor Hall in a letter to the editor, states, that a sub-
stance found in Vermont, and there called chalk, effervesces
with nitric acid in precisely the same manner that English
chalk does; it answers all the purposes to which Spanish
white is applied, and is used in making putty; and is from
the Lyndon, Caledonia County, where it exists in inexhaus-
table quantities. The specimen transmitted by Prof. Hall, °
corresponds with his description, and has every appear-
ance, as he intimates, of a disintegrated carbonat of lime,
whose minutely divided parts have been feebly reagglutina-
ted. It so strongly resembles agaric mineral that we have
ventured to give itthat name. =

9. Marbles of Kentucky.

We have received from Mr. Joseph W. Edmiston, hand=
some specimens of compact marbles from Kentucky—they
are stated to be from the counties of Clark, Jessamine and
Woodward. Their colours are yellow, smoke and ash grey
and they are considerably variegated by darker clouds.—
Being from a secondary country, their structure is wholly
‘compact, and they are, most remarkably different from the
highly crystalized marbles of the primitive countries.

10. Fetid Crystalized Limestone.

We formerly mentioned a fetid crystalized limestone
transmitted by Prof. Dewey. Mr. Samuel Morey of Ox-
ford, New-Hampshire, has transmitted another, which al-
though fetid by friction and percussion is very distinctly
erystalized and its colour greyish white. It is from the vi-
cinity of Oxford, from a quartz mountain in a country high-
ly primitive. 5 ecieg

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c. 238

These facts connected with that mentioned by Dr. Hay-
den, (Vol. 1, p. 307) and by Prof. Dewey, seem to evince
that the fetid odour of minerals cannot always be traced to
organized matter. ;

11. Fluor Spar on the Genesee River.

{Communicated by Mr. John Boyd, a eumee of the Senior class in Yale
College, from Winchester, Conn. ]

Fluor spar in transparent cubical crystals imbedded in fe-
tid limestone, is found in the bottom of the great Western
canal, on the east shore of the Genesee river, at Brighton,
Ontario county, N.Y.

Chalcedony is found among the loose masses of rock be-
low the Genesee falls, at Carthage, Ontario county.

We have seen this fluor, it is very well characterized, the
crystals are from one half to three fourths of an inch in di-
ameter; being deposited upon a black limestone, and being
themselves transparent and white, with a slight tinge of
blue, they forma pleasing contrast with the limestone.—Ed.

12. Chalybeate Spring at Latchfield.

Extract of a letter to the Editor from James Pierce, Esq.
dated Litchfield, August 22, 1820.

I have recently discovered in this town a chalybeate
spring that promises to be of considerable utility. It issues
from an extensive bed of sulphuret of iron, situated on the
eastern side of Mount Prospect, four miles west of the vil-
lage of Litchfield. The spring is copious and perennial,
exhibiting in its course much oxid of iron, ochre, and a
white deposit. ‘The extract from gall nuts, or an infusion
of white oak leaves produces a copious precipitate of the
gallate of iron, changing the colour of the water nearly black ;
neither lime-water or sulphuric acid effected any change. A
dense white precipitate was produced by acetate of lead, in-
dicating probably a muriate or a sulphate. A peculiar
smell, by popular opinion attributed to sulphur, is pereepti-
ble at the spring; the hands retain this smell for hours after
washing in its waters. An astringent effect and soreness of

236 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c.

the throat is produced by a free use of the spring. Iron is
evidently the chief mineral ingredient of this water, but I
was destitute of tests for satisfactory examination. A yellow
deposit is observable in vessels containing standing water
from this spring, and less effect is produced upon the water
by astringent extracts. A patient afflicted by the rheuma-
tism, attended by much debility has been greatly relieved
by a free use of the spring for a few days, and a complete
cure 1s anticipated.
Mount Prospect, above ientioned, isa pesky. wood clad,
elevated ridge, of two miles extent. From its summit an
interesting and diversified view is presented of villages, and
lakes, and of a well cultivated, healthy country. Sienite,
rendered porphyritic by crystals of feldspar, is the predomi-
nant rock of the mountain; it presents ledges of considera- |
ble height and extent. Beds of sulphuret of iron are ob-
served on both sides of the mountain, sometimes exhibiting
a white efflorescence. Native sulphate of iron has been col-
lected on this mountain, and used in dying by the adjacent
inhabitants. The spring is a ready much resorted tay and»
has excited considerable interest. :

Bone

In an additional letter from Mr. Pierce, dated March 20,
1821, we are informed that the above mentioned “ mineral
spring has attained considerable reputation, and effected
cures of obstinate rheumatic complaints, that have resisted:
ordinary remedies: its water has been sent for weekly from
Hartford, and has been considered equal to that of a .
Stafford spring.” | :

13. Chalybeate Spring at Catskill —Marl and Pf at the

same place.

Extract of a letter to the Editor from James Pierce, Esq.
dated Litchfield, March 20, 1821.

I discovered at Catskill last fall, a copious, never failing
chalybeate spring, within half a mile of that village, as rich”
in iron as any water in America. With an extract from
‘gall nuts or oak bark, it makes a tolerable writing ink.

a

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c. 237

Though adjacent to a turnpike where hundreds are daily
passing, and exhibiting abundant ochreous indications, its
chalybeate character had remained unsuspected. Itis now
much frequented, being found very beneficial as a tonic.

In the neighborhood of Catskill I have met with several
beds of rich marl ; the proprietors were ignorant of the use
of this earth in agriculture; and in the same vicinity, rocks
and extensive beds of calcareous tufa, deposited by streams
issuing from caverns in limestone hills.

14. Catskill Lyceum, &c.—Extract from the above letter.

The attention of the well informed residents of Catskill
has been of late excited to the study of mineralogy, botany,
chemistry and agriculture, and they have recently organized
a scientific institution under the name of the Catskill Lyce-
um of Natural History, composed of between twenty and
thirty resident, and as many corresponding members, who
evince much zeal, and have formed a small cabinet of miner-
als and plants. The corresponding members are mostly of.
the learned professions, and resident in the counties of
Greene, Columbia, Delaware, Ulster and Otsego, generally
elected at their own solicitation. I think that in time, the
Catskill Lyceum will become a numerous and efficient so-
ciety, well calculated to disclose the resources of the region
in which it is located.

I have occasionally read to this society papers cn natural
History, dwelling more particularly upon mineralogy, exem-
plifying the remarks by specimens to render the external char-
acters of minerals more familiar; I have endeavoured to in-
duce research by drawing their attention to valuable minerals,
which, from the geological character of the river valley, and
adjacent districts, may be met with ; as silver, lead, copper,
plumbago, iron, gypsum, alum, salt, coal, marble and marl.
T have found in different parts of the Catskill mountains, ex-
tensive ledges richly impregnated with alum, and salt licks
in the same region. Some springs of Columbia and Greene
county hold im solution muriate of soda. I have found.
new localities in the valley of the Hudson for galena, plum-
bago, and iron.
_ If IT make Catskill my residence the ensuing summer, 1
will explore the Catskill, Shuongunck and Highland ranges.

238 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c.

z have embodied many new facts relative to the natural His-
tory, scenery and inhabitants of the Highlands of New York
and New-Jersey, obtained by personal examination.

15. The Globe had a beginning.

Mr. Amos Eaton, lecturer on Geology and Bouts at
Troy, Professor in the Castleton Institution, &c. infers that
the earth is not eternal, because the ruins of its rocks in the
form of gravel, sand, &e. being constantly borne down by
the rains, torrents, &c. to the sea and other low situations,
there ought by this time to be no “ projecting rocks,” not
one “naked cliff,” but all should have been “ alluvial.”

By collecting and drying the sediment from the water of
ae river Hudson, opposite to the city of Albany, during
three days of the great freshet of April, 1819, he found that
it amounted to a certain quantity for every quart of water;
the quantity of water being duly estimated from the dimen-
sions of the channel and the rapidity of the current, Mr.
Eaton computes that twelve hundred tons of alluvial earth
passed in three days.

16. Ehill of Serpentine.

Extract of a letter from Dr. William Atiwnter; dated West
field, Mass. March 12, 1819.

With this letter I send you some specimens of stone
which abound in this neighborhood. In the second num-
ber of your Journal of Science, &c. there is an account of
the different strata in the Southampton level leading to the
lead mine, in which the writer, Mr. Amos Eaton, mentions

a vein or quarry of serpentine rock between this town and

Russel. The dark coloured specimens are, J presume,
_ from the same quarry as the one to which he refers. The
green coloured specimens are from a mountain fifteen or
twenty miles distant. The mountain, or bluff, which is per-
haps as large as east rock at New-Haven, 1 1S wholly oes
ed of this kind of stone or marble.

he specimens mentioned aber are very dark” green
serpentine, with numerous patches and spots of tales and

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, §c. 239

other magnesian minerals imbedded; the polished pieces
are handsome, and large slabs, such as might probably be
obtained, would be ornamental in architecture.—Ed.

17. Fetid Dolomite.
Extract of a letter from Professor Dewey, to the Editor.

_ [have found dolomite in Lee, east of Stockbridge, per-
fectly fetid—as much so as any of the fetid carbonates of
lime. On breaking, the odour is strong, and continues for
some time; and friction gives it off abundantly. The stone
has the appearance of dolomite, and not of the fetid lime-
stones, and a solution of it in sulphuric acid gives magnesia
in abundance. Dolomite is very abundant indeed in this
county. I find that most that is usually called limestone, !s
dolomite.

18. American Wavellite.

On the subject.of the Wavellite mentioned p. 249. Vol. .
II. Professor Dewey in letters to the Editor remarks :

Since I wrote you, I find that Wavellite is mentioned in
Aikin’s mineralogy as occuring in stalactical forms in Eung-
land; Professor Cleveland does not mention this. There
is indeed no doubt in my mind, that the new mineral found
at Richmond, is Wavellite. Continued for one hour in a
high red heat, it lost thirty six per cent. of water—I had be-
fore known it lose thirty three per cent., and thirty. The
continuance and the degree of heat obviously throw off
more water, and I find very little besides alumine left. 1
think it must be called hydrargillite. It occurs in an earthy
form, and has been found in another town. I intend to send
you a more full account of it. _ |

19. Geological survey of the County of Albany, &c.

Under the direction of the Agricultural Society of the
county of Albany, a geological survey of that county has
been recently executed by Dr. Theodore R. Beck and
Professor Amos Eaton, with a particular reference to the
improvement of agriculture. The attempt is novel in this

240 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &§c.

country, and is creditable both to the patrons and agents. it
‘this work, which appears to be executed with laudable fidel-
ity and ability. We wish it may be followed by similar ef-
forts in other parts of this country. We observe also, among
numerous other important subjects discussed in the fourth
volume of the Transactions of the Society for the promo-
tion of useful arts in the state of New-York, an elaborate
paper on alum, by one of the obove gentlemen, namely, Dr..
Theodore R. Beck.

He has concentrated much useful information on pees im-
portant practical subject and the paper may be advanta-
geously consulted by those who wish to obtain the most im-
‘portant facts without the trouble of consulting numerous au-
thors.

Dr. Beck’s memoir contains “the following remarkable
fact:—A distinguished American general was interred, sev-
eral years since, at the town of Erie, on the border Me the
lake of the same name. His son, three or four years ago,
removed the remains to Chester county, in Pennsylvania.
‘On raising the body, it was found in a high state of pres-
ervation, so much so, that the features were readily recog-
nized by those who had previously known the general. The
flesh was indurated to such a degree that it could mgiaehe
oe from the bones by a’ knife.”

In short, the body appears to have been a perfect natur-
al mummy; the preservation is imputed to aluminous salts
which abound so much there that ‘‘ quantities of crystalized
alum are found on the surface of the ground.”

20. Alum in decomposed mica slate.

Among the sources of alum, there is one sgt we oe.
never seen mentioned by any author. It is from the decom-
position (net of clay slate, which all authors mention, but)
of mica slate. We have been frequently presented with
specimens of alum formed in decomposed mica slates, as
from the towns of Preston, Waterbury and Hunting-
ton, m Connecticut, and indeed. we. have seen but a few
instances als American alum, derived from any other source.

i If. We are not in anerror, this body had. been interred more than twen-
ty years.—Ep.

ESS Notices vn Mineralogy, Geology, fc. 241

It is, as we are informed, so abundant in some places, that
the people use it in dying, without resorting to any other
supply. We are not aware that this source of alum has
been observed in other countries. We have not room to
discuss the origin of the alum in these cases; but we will
add, that in some decomposed mica slates, we have seen
sulphur i in a state of freedom, mixed with the proper con-
stituents of the rock, and burning abundantly with the char-
acteristic flame and smell when thrown on the fire. Indeed,
is it not probable that alum will be obtained from more
rocks and minerals than have yet been thought of for this
purpose. The very remarkable example of Breccia from
Mount D’Or in Auvergne in France, mentioned in volume
two page 356 is an apices in point.

21. Lomuchoble loswled of ae

Garnet is a nll of such fiedneat occurrence in primi-
tive countries, that it would be useless to attempt to point out
all its localities. In Connecticut it is most abundantly dif-
fused through the vast strata of mica slate and gneiss, bat —
especially of the former. The cornet: mentioned in the
following account are remarkable for the neatness of their
cr ystalization—the planes are smooth, the angles, and edg-
es well defined and they:are bounded, each by twenty four
tr apezoidal faces ; ‘not unfrequently they occur in pairs;
their general size is from that of grape shot to that of mus-
ket and pistol balls; they are imbedded in a mica slate,
composed almost entirely of Mica which is in plates and
possessed of so little cohesion, that both on the outside and
inside of the rock, it crumbles easily between the fingers.

22. Gras Rock.

\Bxmast of a letter from Mr. Lloyd Seeley, to the Editor,
dated Weston, Ct. May 27,1820. *

- Garnet Rock or the precipice in and about which, gar-
nets are found in abundance and perfection, is situated one
mile and an half South of the Congregational meeting-house
in the town of Reading, and about one half mile North-west
of the junction of the iwo largest branches of the Saugatuck

Vou. I....No. 2 31 aye

242) Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c.

river, which unite a short distance above the south bounda-

ry of the town of Reading. This precipice is about sixty
rods North-west of the house of Mr. John Gray, and’ about
seventy-five rods West of Mr. Seth Andrus’ house. The
North-west branch of Saugatuck river rans a winding course
in a southerly direction at the foot of the hill, on the top of

which are the rocks under consideration. ~ “At the passage of
the river in this place are erected on the east side, a carding

machine, and on the west, a saw-mill, not laid down on the

map of the State. Thirty rods west ‘of these. two buildings

on the west side of the stream, I ie Mie ee to we

most abundant. a

The hill on which are the rocks and precipices, is: per-
haps sixty or seventy feet high, and of very steep ascent.
On the top of the hill, the rocks are situated, and at the base
of these rocks on the South-east side, the garnets will be
seen by the most inattentive observer, projecting from the
rocks ina manner resembling musket balls, shot half way
into a board. These rocks are overshadowed with trees of
red cedar which grow in their interstices. This kind of
trees extend to the North and West of “ Garnet Rock” for
more than a hundred rods, while on the South and South-
east, an extensive, uncultivated plain is presented to the eye,
so that an observer acquainted With the description of this”
spot, would be able to tell where it beet when he was at a
distance of some miles.

The inhabitants seem to be gratified, in isi duideds to
strangers who wish to visit the place, and even assisted me
in my endeavours to procure garnets for those friends who
esteem them as valuable scientific curiosities.

I have been thus particular in my description of the love! |
boundaries of “ Garnet Rock,” so that whoever needs it, may
be at no loss to find the spot which must afford to every scien-
tific visitor, pleasure in proportion to the interest he feels in
the progress “ prologice, and mineralogical a

23. Curious variety of Carbonat of Lame resembling <
Cine oC Mineral. =—( Communicated. a, a
Fou koilbe south ae Maudie (Vermont,) ¢ on the great’
road from Bennington to Rutland, there is a mags of disin-
tegrated lime-stone, from which is made a beautiful lime for
plaistering rooms.

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, §&q 248

Immediately west of the road, is a narrow marsh thirty
or forty rods wide, at the western extremity of which, a
steep bank rises, perhaps twenty feet in height; through this
bank at right angles to it, a chasm has been worn by a small
stream, to the level of the marsh adjoining. The banks of
the chasm thus formed, disclose a mass of loose earth of a
dusky white, exhibiting an appearance very much like that

of a bed of slacked lime, somewhat aluminous, when tritur- —

ated between the fingers; it has a degree of lubricity ; when
it is soaked by the water, it adheres to the shoes like com-
mon.clay, difficult toruboffK a

In some places in the vicinity of the stream, where the
earth has been penetrated by the water, and dried again by
the action of the sun, the surface exhibits nodules of the
size of a walnut, minutely perforated, appearing like a very
compact moss, its organization also, like that of moss, be-
ing very easily destroyed, by compressing it with the thumb.

Detached pieces are found, possessing a curious struc-
ture. At first it would seem that they were pieces of turf,
the roots of which had been incrusted with lime ; but. the
whole is easily reduced to a fine white powder by tritura-
tion. In some cases this ramification is very minute and
very beautiful, in others it is coarser and very irregular.
Some exhibit the appearance of the incrustation of a lime-
stone cave, but without polish and very porous.

This earth is very easily deprived of its carbonic acid,
and is converted into a finely pulverized quick-lime resem-
ling wheat flour. .

‘The quantity must be considerable, as the whole bank

appears to be composed of it. J.R
24. Virginia and Minois fluor spar.

In Dr. Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal, Vol I. p. 79. there
is a notice of this Virginia fluor spar, communicated by the
tate Professor Barton of Philadelphia. RN 3
_ Through the kindness of the late Richard P. Barton, Esq.
of Virginia, and of his son, Mr. D. W. Barton a member
of Yale College, we last summer, received a box of this fluor
spar. Some circumstances may be mentioned in addition to,
orin illustration of Professor Barton’s account. It appears
that “the fluor spar is found at the footof the north moun-

»

244 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &.

tain on the east side, twenty five ane south west of Win-
chester, and it appears to be confined to a small spot of
ground not exceeding twenty or ‘thirty yards square.” _Al-

though this fluor spar is spoken of as occurring in loose pie-
ces, it evidently cannot be far from its native bed, which
must be in the lime-stone of the contiguous mountain.

- Among the specimens sent to us, the violet fluor is, in
some instances inlaid like mosaic, in large, white, and bril-
liant fragments of rhomboidal calcareous spar 5 the con-
trast produced by the violet fluor in its white bed is beautiful.

This fluor spar is highly pase per eseeae ea oe on
red hot iron in the dark.

We do not observe any crystals among our specimens, ie
though the cleavage and fracture shew the Ph a
structure. 1p Nias

In exposing some pieces, recently to shosphunesdened we
observed the fragments thrown around by decrepitation were
frequently very distinet tetrahedra, thus giving us, spontane-
ously, the Bess Si molecule a — Pye ia
“tion.

P.S. Since writing the above, we have learned the fol-
lowing additional particulars from Mr. D. W. Barton. |
_ The fluor spar may be said to be at the foot of the nor th
mountain, as the ascent is not perceptible until you arrive
at this spot. It is found on a small ridge of yellow clayey
soil, deposited in the space intervening - “between two walls
of lime stone, which is the common rock in the country ;
indeed within this vein (which is probably twenty or thirty
feet wide) the crystalized carbonat of lume alternates with
the fluor spar.

The direction of the vein is parallel withthe range of the
mountain, i.e. nearly north and south. The land has once
been cultivated, and the fluor spar near the surface has been
broken by the plough and dispersed over a: space of forty or
fifty yards in extent. The locality has never been diligently
explored, and it is therefore not ascertained whether the
mineral exists in masses of considerable magnitude. How-
“ever, all the researches that have is het been made indi-
cate that at does. iid

Illinois fluor. —In Vol. I. p 525 of an Journal the. duit
found near Shawnee Town Tiinois,) is mentioned. We

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, Ge. 245°

understand it continues to be discovered in increasing quan-
tities, and in a recent letter from Shawnee Town, we are
informed that it has been found in loose masses as large
as twenty-four pound shot; they are of a fine violet colour
and the surface is covered completely with cubical crystals ;
they have as SPE ake of having been Heed in beds
of oe c ne 4

25. _ Manganese and Sulphat of Line i im Vi inginia.

<i a setter from the late Rich. P. Burton, Esq. we are in-
formed that the manganese mentioned by Dr. Barton (Bruce’s
Journal, Vol. I. p. 80,) is found in considerable quantities
ten or twelve miles east of the locality of the fluor ig but
not in the same mountain.

Very lately also, plaster of paris has been coord in
Jefferson county at the foot of the Blue Ridge, and near
Shanandoah river, twenty-five miles north east from Win-
chester. I believe, adds Mr. Barton, that in no othef in-
stance has sulphat of lime been found on the east side of
the Alleghany mountains in Virginia. On the west side much
has been found, on the Holston andi« on the Kenawa.

26. Alum-stone and pide sites in Ohio, with remarks
on vee remains.

Extracts of Ie Letters from Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville.

‘Speaking of the line rocks of Zanesville, Ohio, of which
some account was a ae (page five) in this volume, Mr.
Atwater remarks:

Alum-stone is fea until found one two and three feet in
thickness, remarkably rich. Immediately above the shale,
f have found it in such situations in Bho ds abundance and i in
many places.

‘The flint beds of Ohio, are seeaewlitl Gite caltt from
those of England, and I intend to point out that difference
at some future day, and also to send you a complete set of
specimens from our flint beds. Copper, I suspect, fre-
quently occurs in our flint beds ; I must collect what I deem
to be such. The green carbonate of copper is said to oc-
cur in great abundance in the flint beds of Athens county,
about sixty miles from this place.

*

gis ilaisiacs Notices in ‘islets pend &e.

abled. to compare ours sui or. ae nes aie this com-
parison, I hope to be enabled to lay before you, withina few
months. ‘The bamboo, I think, certainly grew in England,
but I see no cassia, nor palm leaves. The largest roots
found in iron stone in England, appear to have belonged t to
some plant fescue the water hilly. ae

27. Notice of a Dolomite and description of a soft green
rock—by Mr. George Chase,ina letter to the editor dated,
Randolph, Vt. Nov. Sth, 1818.

(See Vol. I. p: 241 of this Journal.) In ‘addition to th

very singular limestone which I mentioned in a former . let-

ter, there is on a farm in Northfield fourteen miles to. the
northwest, a limestone—white as snow—perhaps it may be
called a Dolomite. In Roxbury, there is a rock of whicl
the following isa description. ‘ Will not strike fire—can be
scratched with a nail—slightly unctuous—general appear-
ance of the mass green—small pieces grass-green—this
colour when the stone is wet, is very lively—small pieces
harden by exposure to the blowpipe, but a large piece put
into the fire seemed to break easier after burning than be-
fore—the spots or specks throughout the stone of a whi-
-tish colour, effervesces feebly with nitric acid—those parts
of the deepest green do not effervesce—scaly and splintery

fracture—well fitted to be sawed and cut being free from
rifts—magnet does not take up small pieces which xe,

been exposed to the heat—there is occasionally i
stone an appearance of minute scales of mica.” In]
el, a town adjoining, a rock similar to this is cut into p
fitted for hearths, &e. bat its colour is different, being o
bluish grey. I can think of nothing in your ‘cabinet itr
sembles more than grauwacke slate, but the composition is
evidently different, smce this is a primitive country. The
geological situation of this rock is between - the clay and
mica slate.

Is not the above rock chlofite slate with some intermix-
ture of carbonat of lime? Its infusibility is however sane?
this SUB OETOR we have not seen apy epceien: Ep.

say

’

Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, &c. 247
Be Pumice Stone floating on the Mississippi.

ie is mentioned by a western ‘correspondent that at every
rise of the Mississippi, pumice stone floats down from the
heads of the Missouri river. Mr. Schooleraft in his book
mentions similar facts; the pumice stone has been observed
floating even below Natchez.

Every one will see the obvious inference with respect to
volcanoes in the west. :

29. Fossil Bones found in East-Windsor, Connecticut.

In Vol. il. p. 146 of this Teva mention is made of
bones found imbedded in red sand-stone through which
they were sinking a well; and the suggestion was made that
"te may possibly be human.

he following extract of a letter from John Hall, Esq.
of Ellington, Connecticut, dated May 27th 1820, expresses
a different opinion.

Doctor Porter, a respectable surgeon, resident. on the
spot was present a considerable part of the time while the
well was digging, and had the best opportunity for forming
a judgement o' the nature of these bones. He says that
the bones did not belong to a human body, but to some an-
imal; and that the animal must have been about five feet
in length. The tail bone was easily discovered by its nu-
merous articulations distinctly visible when the bones were
first obtained ; and by its being projected, in a curvilinean
direction beyond the general mass.

Dr P. further says that he critically Seated the bones
as they appeared when first extricated from the rock; that
some of them, indeed, resembled particular bones in the
human body, but would also compare with certain bones
of other animals. He further confirms what, indeed, is
otherwise evident, that the bones, after exposure sometime
to the air, begin to crumble fast, and lose much of the ap-
pearance which they presented at first. He has specimens
of the tail bone now in his possession,

248 Miscellaneous Notices in Mineralogy, Geology, Su.
30. Coal found é in Somers and in Ellington, Connection.

Additional extract es the letter mentioned above. :

MI saw, a few days ago, a jeep of ‘coal which came , from
Somers. I was informed that a considerable quantity might
be obtained near the spot from which this was taken. My
informant was unable to describe the kind of ground from
which the coal came; all that he knew. was, that-it was
woodland. I believe that I never told you that I discover-
ed a small quantity of that substance on my farm last sum-
mer, it was found imbedded in shelly sand-stone, in a hol-
tow between twohills, in ground of the secondary. formation.
Tt was in the form of thin lamelle and burned freely aoe
senited by a candle. The quantity. found was very small.

31, Geological character of the lisestae’ of the Missouri
Lead Mine region. - Bape ih

Remark.—In the “ notice’? of Mr. Sch oolceatie view of the Miscou lead
mines, (p. 63 Vol. 3,) doubts were expressed by us respecting his account of
the limestone of that region; we doubted whether it could be primitive,
and were inclined to think it must be of the tranistion class ; 3 we addressed
a letter to Mr. S. for specimens and explanation on this point ; the “nofice’’
however was printed before Mr. Schoolcraft’s letter arrived, but his letter
was wrilten before he had seen the “notice.”’ pals

Extract of a letter to oe ve ‘feet Mr. H. R. Schooleraf
dated oe Jan. Sst. 1821.0

i an to rely to your able ope of ne »mber
28th, which has this moment come to hand. Its. delay i is
attributable to my unexpected tarry at this city instead of
New-York; and although it is probable that it is now too
late to make use of my reply in the way ‘contemplated, it
may still be thought acceptable. = pat

“As to the primitive character of the Missouri mining
country” 1 am happy that your enquiry offers me the op-
portunity of saying that subsequent observations upon the
upper Mississippi, where the same formation exists, and a
more minute examination of specimens brought from Mis-
sour! in 1818, have convinced me that the mines are seated
in transition limestone. Tre texture is ervstaline and grann-

!

_ Professor Buckland’s Instructions, &c. 249

larly foliated and some specimens are translucent on
the edges, but it is to be remarked, that neither the crys-
talization or translucency are perfect, such as we see them
in well characterized specimens of primary limestone. A
farther examination has also disclosed to ine organic petri-
factions of madreporites, and other relics, very sparingly im~
bedded, and sometimes not to be noticed for miles in suc-
cession, even where the abrupt nature of the country ex-
poses it to examination. ‘The metalliferous formation is
overlayed by a stratum of calcareous carbonate manifestly
secondary, but this appears to have been much broken
down, and washed away, as it is only seen capping bluffs
and eminences.
As to the primitive region which I have described about
the sources of the river St. Francis, you can place every
reliance upon it. It will be necessary, however, carefully
to distinguish the limits which I have fixed to this forma-
tion, and which, I believe, are defined with sufficient pre-
cision in the work. The rock here is red granite, consist-
ing, mainly of feld spar and quartz, with very little mica.
It is traversed by veins of green stone, which is in some
places rendered porphyrytic by large greenish and flesh-
coloured crystals of feld spar. Of all these I shall take a
pleasure in furnishing you duplicate, on my arrival at New-
York, in the spring, as my specimens are now there, and I
shall have no means of access to them before that time.

r

Art. 1V.—* Instructions for conducting Geological Inves-
tigations, and collecting Specimens; by Rev. Professor

Bucxuanp, of the University of Oxford, England.
(Communicated for insertion in this Journal by Prof. Hare of Philadelphia.)

In collecting specimens to illustrate the geology of our
country, one great object isto obtain those substances which
are of most common occurrence in it. |

Tn Vol. L. (p. 71) of this Journal, we published the instructions of Mr.
Brongniart for collecting geological specimens, especially those containing
organizedremains. Wishing to give as wide a circulation as possible to
this species of information, so eminently needed in this country—we now
publish the instructions of Professor Buckland which, if we mistake not,
will be found like those of Mr. Brongniart, tobe drawn up with that skill
which we might indeed expect from men so thoroughly versed in the subject.

Vor. III.....No. 2. 32,

250 Professor Buckland’s Instructions, &c.

‘The best authorities to be consulted are engineers, min-
_ers, masons, well-diggers, and quarry-men: the latter have
in the course of their work, constant opportunities of col-
lecting what is most valuable, viz. fragments of stone
containing in them the petrified remains of animals and
vegetables; and it requires no knowledge of geology to ob-
tain from such persons good information and specimens. —

It is desirable to get from every country specimens of
all the varieties of rocks occurring in it; e. g. of building-
stone, free stone, marble, limestone, slate, and all kinds of
common rocks and also of every variety of fossil shells,
plants, bones and metallic ores, with a list of all the places
where similar rocks and similar prsamie remains are known
to exist.

If several varieties of stone occur in the. same cliff or
quarry, specimens of each should be taken and numbered
according to their order of succession, marking the upper-
most No. 1. and thence descending. ‘The thickness and
quality of each bed should be also mentioned, and whether
they contain shells, plants, or pebbles in them; - ce they do;
specimens of each should be collected.

If the rocks are stratified, i.e. divided into beds, it
should be noticed whether they are horizontal or inclined,
or contorted.

If inclined it should be stated at what angle, and towards
what point of the compass.

If contorted, a sketch would be desirable. |

Slight sketches of any sections of strata on the sea-coast,
showing their inclination, and marking the changes that oc-
cur in their substance and colour, will be of great value.

Where there are wells, it will be desirable to get a list of
the strata sunk through in digging them, giving the thickness
of each from the surface downwards.

In volcanic districts to get a list of volcanos now in action,
and of the craters of volcanos ; ; stating their position and
distance from the nearest town. —

To get a list of all places known to contain coal, bitu-
men, salt, alabaster, metallic ores, and precious stones 5
specifying their kinds, ens io what extent they have been
worked.

In cases of coal-pits, specimens of the coal itself, and of the
differentstrata sunk through to obtain it, especially those which
have impressions of plants on them, will be valuable. Also

Professor Buckland’s Instructions, &c. 251

a list of the number and thickness of each of the beds of
coal and their supposed extent, stating whether limestone
or iron ore, or springs of bitumen occur near them.

Fossil plants, corals, shells, fish, and bones of all kinds,
with a portion of the rock in which they are found, are of
all specimens the most valuable. Also fossil tusks and teeth
and horns of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, stag,
&c. &e. which abound in diluvian gravel over Europe,
North America, and Siberia. | :

If there be any example of petrified human bones, spe-
cimens of them, accompanied by portions of the substan-
ces in which they occur, and a minute description of their
situation and circumstances, are particularly requested: they
should be sought in beds of diluvian gravel, which are
spread abundantly over the surface of all great vallies in the
world. Oe

Rules for selecting and conveying specimens.

In selecting specimens of common rocks, the best size is
that of a common flat piece of Windsor soap, taking not the
outside bit, but the second slice that is struck from the block
by the hammer.

Every specimen should be ticketed with the name of the
place where it is found, or with a letter or number referring
io a catalogue describing it: in case of places little known,
their distance from the nearest important town, and in what
direction should be specified.

Every specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece
of paper, and the whole closely packed with moss or hay,
ina barrel or strong box, to be sent by ship to London, di-
rected to ‘ Rev. Professor Buckland, Museum, Oxford, to
the care of Mr. Hunneman, 5 Mead-street, Dean-street,
Soho, London.” The bill of lading, with notice of the
arrival of the vessel, should be sent to Mr. Hunneman, who
is Mr. Buckland’s agent, and will duly forward the package
to Oxford.

‘Itis desirable to get sent to England a list of the best maps and books de-
scriptive of foreign countries, specifying how far they are correct, and their _
time and place of publication; and also a list of the names and address of
all the naturalists that may be resident in them, stating to what department
of natural history they have given most attention, and whether they would
be willing to correspond with persons in England who are devoted to the
same pursuit.

252, Bursting of Lakes through Mountams.
Arr. V.—Bursting of Lakes through Mountains.
| (Communicated for this Journal by ap sttibe’ a
TO core see

‘T'ae modern theories of the earth have certainly gone
too far in ascribing geological appearances to second causes.
We have specimens of what I deem this kind of extrava-
gance in Volney’s Views, in the Notes on Virginia, and in
the Appendix to the American edition of Cuvier’s Theory.
In the Notes on Virginia we are told, that the Blue Ridge
at Harper’s ferry was torn asunder by the pressure of wa-~
ters on the north west. The writer of the appendix has
improved upon the hint, and maintains that the North River
at West Point, the Delaware below Easton, the Schuylkill
to the south west of it, and the Susquehannah below Har-
tisburgh, find their way ‘through the mountains, by passages
torn open by the pressure of “Lake Ontario, of which that
mountain was formerly the south eastern boundary !

It requires but a slight acquaintance with the courses of
the mountain, its figure: and altitude, and the configuration of
the valley alone its north west side, to be satisfied, that all
ihese hypotheses are not only improbable, but certainly un-
philosophical.

The Highiands from West Point are extended lmaasty un-
broken into Georgia. In Jersey, this range of mountain
is known by the name of Kittatinny, from a tribe of In-
dians of that name that occupied a considerable extent of
district along its base, near where the Delaware river passes
through it : “in Pennsylvania it is distinguished by the name
of the South Mountain: and in Virginia it is known by the
name of the Blue Ridge. I would adopt the Indian name,
and denominate the whole, the Kittatinny mountain. North

east of Harrisburgh, it sweeps round to the south east, cross-
es the Susquehannah above Columbia, and returns in a cir-
cular course until it regains its ordinary direction, south east
of Carlisle. ‘That bend is the lowest part of the range.
Its altitude for twenty miles is at least five hundred feet less
than that of the Highlands at West Point. The valley be-
tween the Kittatinny mountain and what I call the Powhat-
tan range, known by that name in Virginia from the father

Bursting of Lakes through Mountaons. 253

of Pocahontas, is continued from the North River into
Georgia, without interruption from even one ridge. I have
travelled along it nearly five hundred miles, at least 1 am
acquainted with it from Newburgh to Fincastle in Virginia.
The tide flows across this valley in the North River, of
course it is here much lower than at Fincastle, which is two
hundred miles from the sea-board. So that the waters of
James River might be brought by a canal into the Hudson
river near Newburgh.

To say nothing of the unphilosophical hypothesis that
represents the mountain torn asunder at six points simulta-
neously, it is most evident, that the supposed lake could
never have risen within five hundred feet of the summit of
the Highlands at West Point, as they would have discharg-
ed themselves over the summit of the mountain below Har-
risburgh. The same remark applies with still greater force
to the passage of the Potomac, at Harper’s Ferry.

But what is most decisive, the height of land on the route
of our northern canal, is only one hundred and fifteen feet
above the head of the tide at Still Water, on the Hudson.
Hence the waters of the lake would have: discharged them-
selves by lake Champlain and the Sorrel into the St. Law-
rence, before they could rise within fourteen hundred feet of
the summit of Butler Hill, near West Point.

Is it not the best theory of the earth, that the Creator, in
the beginning, at least at the general deluge, formed it with
all its present grand characteristic features °*

If the above short dissertation comports with the design
of your Journal it is at your service.

Truly yours.
J. W. WILSON.

Newburgh, 29th March, 1821.

.* The Creator undoubtedly brought all matter into being and established
the laws which govern it; the operation of those laws then is always a fair
subject of discussion, and although it is the shoréest itis not the most instruc-
fave aes to cut the knot where it may be wntied.—Ed.

254 Geology and Mineralogy of the

Arr. VI. ieee nearest and Mineralogical Observations on
the North West Portion of Lake Huron; by Dr. Jou
I. Biessy, of the Medical Staff of the ‘Batsh army i
Canada, and Assistant Secretary under the 6th ib Vth

_ Articles of the Treaty of Ghent.

_ TO THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

SIR,

I very respectfully beg your acceptance of a few asa
gical observations on the north west portion of Lake Huron;
collected under rather favorable circumstances in the sum-
mer of 1820.

The part of Lake Huron under examination is ‘contained
within the Latitudes 45° 46’ and 46° 20’; and by the Lon-
gitudes 83° and 84°, with some ater of small im-
portance.

At the upper part of this space the waters of Take Sugide
rior are received, through the medium of the straits of St.
Mary and the minor Lake, George ; and by three channels,
the sum of whose breadth perhaps does not exceed a mile—
as the interval of three leagues or more between the north
and south shores of Lake Huron, is here (lon. 84° lat. 46° ©
20') principally occupied by the Henge islands of La Crosse
and St. Joseph.»

St. Joseph, with which we are more immediately con-
cornea is compact in shape and woody, rising to the height
of five hundred feet in the centre. It is about sixty-five
miles in circumference. Its most southern point is at Fort
St. Joseph, in the latitude of 46° 5’—six miles north of
‘Drummond Island.

This latter island is the most western of the great Meni
touline chain; which in the latitude of 45° 58’, divides the
Lake into two unequal parts. One extremity approaches
to within a mile of the South Main, in lon. 83° 52’, pad the
other is contiguous to Cabot’s Head.

Drummond’s Island is an assemblage of . nels an mo-
rasses, seventeen to twenty miles long, by five in cee
breadth.

The lesser Manitou, which next presents itself in the line,
is ofa similar fiemiacn and is about seven miles in diameter.

N. W. Portion of Lake Huron. : 255

Of the Grand Manitou, which now succeeds, little is
known. Its western termination is remarkable for its ma-
jestic precipices.

The northern mainland is hich, barren and rocky; the
southern shore, being of a secondary formation, is level, and
abounding in marshes and the densest woods.

The north west portion of Lake Huron, (whose outline
has just been traced) in common with the rest of the earth’s
surface, exhibits many evidences of change and convulsion;
when, and in what manner effected, | am not prepared to
state; but they are obvious.

The original form of the bed of the Lake may be de-
seribed as a triangular valley of great extent, divided in an
easterly direction by the Manatouline Ridge into two une-
quai parts, the northern being rocky and of variable ele-
vation; and the southern more uniform in its level, and
generally lower: in its present form, the bed of the Hu-
ron Lake is covered with the debris of distant countries :
its rocks are furrowed and abraded ; its loftiest heights over-
thrown, (of greenstone, one of the most tenacious of miner-
als, as in the narrows of St. Joseph) separating large tracts
from the Main; and finally, passages from ten to twelve
miles wide and ten long, are forced in the Great Manitou-
lime barrier itself. These violences, and particularly the
first and last, indicate a more general and powerful agency
than that of a gradual accumulation of the waters of Lakes
Huron and Superior, whose united surplus requires only an
outlet of three hundred yards in breadth (R. St. Clair) in
place of the four Manitouline Detours. The effect of a
gradual accumulation of water would have been to have fil-
Jed the north division of Lake Huron, and in the end, to
have inundated the lower grounds on the south and east by
an embouchure at the point of least elevation in the Great
Ridge. Iam inclined to the opinion that an enormous body
of water has rushed over these countries (a “ debacle’’)
swept from distant lands, the collossal fragments of rock so
frequent in the Lake ; and formed the breaches called the
detours; perhaps at the same time when the passages of the
Hudson and Shenandoah were opened, and the heights of
Quebec, and the marshes of Montreal were covered with
the ruins of annihilated mountains.

256 Geology and Mineralogy of the

- These frapments are incredibly numerous in Lake Hu-
ron, and may be divided into two geological classes, the for-
eign and the native. The former are the more plentiful,

-and are round and smooth. ‘They are seen every where
but are collected principally in the interior of the coasts and
islands either in confused heaps, or in parallel ridges, and
crowning the highest acclivities in great numbers and the frag-
ments are of various dimensions. ‘They belong almost exclu-
sively to the older orders of rocks, and are therefore of a
northerly origin. Granites, gneiss, mica slate, and porphyries
prevail, of ee which J never saw in situ, although I have
skirted the north shore for two hundred miles, and havetrav- |
ersed the wilderness to the east north east for six hundred
miles. Mica slate I never met with in a fixed state, excepting
a few strata of the black variety at the Falls des Chat, on the
Ottawa.

The other class is small, angular and ragged. They.< are
most frequent on the beaches, whither they are driven by
the waves.

A curious fact is presented by many parts of Lake Huron,
and very strikingly in the north channel to St. Mary’s. It
shews that the debris of the present day is nearly stationary.
The containing shores of this channel are of different forma-
tions, the one veing of limestone and the other of green-
stone; each shore is lined with its own debris, and without
admixture. A few well rolled granites, puddingstones and
an occasional greenstone do however occur among the cal-
careous matter.

In the spring the ice occasionally removes Fadeey = of
great size. During the winter it surrounds those which are
placed i in the shallows, and on being broken up in April by
mild weather, and a casual rise of water,* it carries them to
some other shore. Remarkable instances of this are found
on the islets near the south end of St. Joseph, where a few
yards from the water and little above its level, are deposit-
ed rolled stones some yards in diameter, with a furrow ex-
tending from them to the water, most probably tracing the,
Jast steps of the route to their place of rest.

Changes in the form of the bed of the lake indicate very
strongly changes also in the nature and quantity of its water.

* This is very commonly observed on the aAtdes blowing a few d days from
the opposite quarter.

NN. W. Portion of Lake Huron. 257

I believe (together with Dr. Mitchill of New-York) that
it has been formerly salt, and that in the course of time it
has been diluted by rivers, rains, snow, and dews: a con-
stant drain materially assisting. The sturgeon, a sea fish, is
frequent in this lake and in great perfection. The falls of Ni-
agara prevent their access from the sea. ‘The very immen-
sity of the flood which has buried a continent, identifies it
with the ocean. But I need not multiply proofs after Dr.
. Mitchill’s powerful arrangement of evidences.

Many of the facts just stated, shew that the waters of Lake
Huron have been in much greater quantity than at present’
and to them may be added the marshy alluvions, and the exten-
sive collections of sand around the bases of precipices, and
on the sides of heights. Ancient beaches are not uncom-
mon at some distance from the water, as on the Lesser
Manitou. It is likewise evinced by the belts of rolled mass-
es which gird every slope, and even mark the successive
retreats of the lake.

The dense vegetation which covers the islands and envi-
rons of Lake Huron, restricts our geological inquiries in a
great measure to the immediate edge of the water; a nar-
row border where the nature and stratification of the rocks
are disguised by a multitude of causes.

The rocks of the districts embraced in the tour of 1820,
belong to the transition and secondary classes of Werner.

The transition formation occupies the north shore of the
lake and some of its subordinate islets, from lon. 83° 42 to
the foot of Lake George. From the small portion submit-

‘ted to examination, it is difficult to detect their relation with
the rocks around them, and even their comparative ages I
was unable to assign positively, from their never over-lying
each other, and from their various and often indistinct incli-
nations. ‘They appear to be intermediate to the primitive
regions on the north and the secondary on the south.

With respect to the surrounding rocks, those on the north
and north east being situated in inaccessible fastnesses, Iam
ignorant of their nature. On penetrating for two miles in
that direction by means of a marshy creek, I found no
change. On the north west the transition is succeeded by
the first slaty sandstone. On the west and south horizontal
limestone is universal. Easterly they are bordered by a
very extraordinary rock which, as far as my limited experi-

Vor. TMl.....No- 2. ao

258 Geology and Mineralogy of the

a

ence or reading avails me, is unexampled. | I refer to a rock
which has induced the Canadian voyagers to give to the
tracts around the Missassaga river the characteristic eis
lation of ‘“ Le Serpent.”

The extent of this rock in any dimeptiba I have not as-
certained. I first observed it on the northern mainland,
fifteen* miles above the river Missassaga, and afterwards,
for many miles towards the river Thessalon; when morasses
and luxuriant forests conceal all traces of stratification, until
we reach the pelemporneod of the greenstone, about to be
described. —

It is an intermixture, in he Maree, af a light coloured
greenstone, and a granitous compound of minute texture,
{consisting of white quartz and red feldspar, the latter being
im excess.) ‘These substances mutually penetrate and tra-
verse each other in nearly equal quantities, so that either
may be considered matrix or vein at pleasure ; and each is
indicated externally by knotty, straight, waved, or stellular
configurations of its own proper color, which is lively and
strongly contracted. (See plate, fig. A.)

The direction of this “ Serpent” rock is north west, will
a south west dip at an angle of 70°. Accompanying it, in
the lake, a few granite mounds rise above the water, hold-
ing a northerly course, an. example of the low level of de
primitive rocks in America. :

We have here an instance of a iliad. rock being fevinea
from the intimate union of two others, pre-existing and co-
temporaneous, which have met in the same state of fluidity,
and have been enabled by violent agitation or strong cur-
rents, to insinuate themselves into each other’s strueture in a-
very equable manner. Satis

dts geological relations and its origin, place it among the
transition class of rocks. ;

Easterly from this locality for twenty miles or more, -por-
phyritic granites, gneiss and trap, alternate along shore In
BrOnpe forming islets, naked rocks - reefs, abe granite and

*T was wind-bound for two ae there.

+ Previous to this, a tease or 50, a few vertical strata shew themselves
among the marshes, which circumstance did not permit me to examine ;
but from their brown color, close texture, Wc. I conjecture them to be a ;
trap; particularly as fragments of that rock ofa brown color are common
on the adjacent islands. s

ica W. Portion of Lake Huron. 259

gneiss having a ‘northern direction, and the trap a south west
course.

These last ened rocks are ictnicely primitive, and are
supported on the north and north east by others of that or-
der, as for instance, for thirty-seven miles further to the east
is a large trappose* formation, at the west end passing into
greenstone, but at the eastern being nearly a pure horn-
blende, highly crystalline, and rising in precipices which
reflect a metallic lustre in certain positions. The islands of
La Cloche are of this substance, which occasionally be-
comes a clinkstone, and has given to this picturesque cluster
its present name.

The rocks for two hundred miles to the north east of this
spot are, with the exception of a little white marble, invari-

ably small grained quartzose gneiss.

Having now cursorily noticed the geology of ihe country
in connection with the transition rocks of the north west por-
tion of Lake Huron, I shall enter upon their description.

A greenstone in various modifications occupies the north
main, from lon. $2° 42’ to the head of the Narrows of St.
Joseph, a distance perhaps of twelve miles. In the exten-

~ sive marshy bay, east of the broad promontoryt+ in the mid-
dle of this distance, this rock forms islets (either barren or
fringed with a scanty vegetation,) rising from the water in
round and smooth ridges. Itis the same here as at the low-
er end of the promontory, where it is a dark greenstone,

very compact, yet shewing a schistose tendency in its weath-

ered portions. It is rather thickly studded with rolled
masses of from one to eighteen inches in diameter, of the
red granitous ingredient in the Serpent rock—a curious fact.
In some parts of this headland these fragments are so nu-
merous as to give to the rock the character of a-conglome-
rate; the imbedded substances being a large proportion of
the whole.

They disappear gradually, but entirely or nearly so, and
the form of a splintery greenstone slate is now and then as-
sumed, differently colored, commonly of a dark leaden blue,

* With a south west direction and vertical. Among them at one place |
observed a few granite strata running north.

+ The want of appellations for the different localities is severely fel im
Speaking of unfrequented countries.

260 Geology and Mineralogy of the

but running both abruptly and insensibly into cream or
straw yellow, red, biue, and light green. It clearly observes
anorth west course, either ata high angle north east, or ver-
tically. This greenstone is a: slate on the south east side of
the excellent harbor at the west end of the promontory.

The greenstone of the contiguous large island (proceeding
north west) i is at first for a short distance brown, in shades,
and slaty, and then becomes almost pure hornblende, split-
ting into thick blocks, and containing few or no nodules 3
occasionally however changing to a reddish hue from a pre-
dominance of feldspar, as the flattened rhombs of that min-
eral in the fissures would seem to indicate. The rock soon
after continues to the end of the island in the form it wore
on the promontory, with smaller granitoid nodules. Some-
times the splinteriness is remarkably great. The direction,
&c. continue the same.

At the spot where the hornllenrii is most shandaade ee
waving vems of ligneous asbestus traverse the rock for some
yards. ‘The matrix is so difficultly frangible that I could
not remove specimens more than two inches long. Itshews
itself by insensible gradations ; the centre only of the vein
being perfect. Here are also vertical veins of quartz half a
foot in diameter, containing cavities lined with hexahedral
prisms of great size. ‘The surface of the rock occasionally
takes a polish and becomes undulatory. In the concave

ortion there is often a round congeries of small and very
bilhant rock crystals of a honey yellow color, which at-
tracts the eye immediately. The only other foreign mine-
rals E found are galena, in a thready vein three yards long,
dipping obliquely into the rock, and cale spar.

"The bluff at the lower end of the narrows (which are two
and a half miles long) is also greenstone passing into the
slaty species, and is here penetrated by a strong seam of
quartz, containing much of what I conceive to be copper
pyrites in mass, and in obscure octohedral crystals. » The
sound part yields readily to the knife, and is every where
encircled with yellow and green crusts of various shades. I
am at present unable to apply the proper tests tom not hav-
ing access to the specimens.

On passing upwards along the line of precipices constitu-
ting the narrows of the north channel to St. Mary’s, we find
the rock to take a reddish brown hue, and to become very

NV. W. Portion of Lake Huron. 261

splintery ; so much so that the precipice frequently changes
into a steep declivity of schistose debris. At the head of
the narrows the greenstone is much less disintegrated, and
dips into the clear and deep waters in compact walls of al-
most pure hornblende. ‘The contiguous islets (filling up the
interval of a mile between St Joseph and the main,) are of
a similar formation, and are composed of aggregated ridges,
rising to a great height, and presenting to the current rapid
slopes of smooth rocks or perpendicular cliffs.*

The head of the narrows being the seat of a strong cur-

rent, is one of the north west limits of Lake Huron. Ad-
vancing still north westward we come to the lower of the
two basins (included between the north main and St. Jo-
seph) which separate Lake Huron from Lake George on
this side. ‘The shores of the lower basin being marshy or
alluvial, as is to be expected at the entrance of so confined
a pass as that of the narrows, no strata are met with as far
as Tam aware, until we arrive at the rapid formed by the
line of islets, dividing the lower from the upper basin. Here
a new order of rocks occurs.
_ It is of quartz and is of the transition class, as appears
- from its associations, its inclination and the breccias and
nodules which it frequently contains. It prevails from hence-
to Lake George, (five and a half miles.) Its direction is
distinctly north west, with a dip either vertical or obscure ;
but at the islets of Encampment Douce, at the foot of the
rapids of the Great Nibish, this is perhaps not quite so evi-
dent from the innumerable rents and dislocations, and from
original displacements. .

On the third large island from the rapid of the basins,
{above mentioned) a parallel stratum of almost sienitic
greenstone occurs, and the same is seen on the main three
miles north north west. It may be a continuation of the
stratum of the rapids. ea

The composition of this quartz rock varies much. | It is
here an aggregation of minute grains of vitreous quartz ce-
mented by the same substance, opaque and of a milky white
colour. It is easily frangible, and becomes soft and pow-
dery on exposure to the weather: the external surface how-
ever is frequently hard and smooth in patches. Its frac-

* Dir. N. W. dip. vertical.

262 Geology and Mineralogy of the

ture is earthy-conchoidal. The only substance I met witli
‘in its fissures was brilliant and well-formed quartzose prisms
of a red colour. ; a ks

The north shore only of the upper basin exhibits any
stratification and it is of the transition quartz; but whether
precisely of the same species as that of the rapid of the ba~
sins I know not. At Encampment Douce it changes; in
becoming crystalline, compact, translucent at the edges,
~conchoidal, and in passing occasionally by imperceptible
shades into a feldspathic form; the fracture being then foli-
ated, fragments schistose, lustre shining, and the translu-
cency at the edges very slight. It is very commonly stud-
ded with nodules of red and brown Jasper, averaging an
inch in diameter, and often arranging themselves in the
form of belts or stripes of from one to five feet in breadth, |
mingled with round pebbles of white and black quartz.
Every part of the north west portion of Lake Huron abounds
in a conglomerate of this rock ; rich in Jaspers of all col-
ours, and occurring in blocks of great magnitude. IT never
met with this species in situ. ;

Small proportions of black and brown hematite are not
unfrequent in the rock of Encampment Douce, and are as-
sociated with a bluish black, scaly, ore; of iron I suppose.
Quartz is sometimes met with in a state of crystallization.

[have not traced the transition farther than two miles up
the Great Nibish rapids. ‘ ts

Having finished the observations on this class of rocks,
the following inferences may not be out of place.

The “ Serpent” rock was not deposited in the Wernerian
method of gradual deposition, but it is the product of the
forced union of two nascent formations; and which it is
most easy to conceive took place horizontally, and not in
their present inclination: thereby pointing out an after-de-
pression or elevation. on

All this applies equally to the greenstone conglomerate :
of which it may be remarked that it is of a different era
from the “ Serpent” rock, though composed of nearly the
same ingredients. The granitous compound is here in the
form of rolled balls; which indicates that it had previously
existed independently, had been reduced to fragments and
subjected to attrition. § i

N. W. Portion of Lake Huron. 263

It may be conjectured that these two rocks owe their ori-
gin tothe trap and granite on the north east, or that they
have been evolved from the same repository Pes in closer
combination.

The Huttonian theory explains these phenomena, by pro-
viding powers and materials. -

Further evidences of the convulsions to which this part
of Lake Huron has been submitted, are afforded by the six
distinct species of conglomerate in the state of debris, and
as many of breccia which every where abound ;* and by the
brecciated and vesicular limestones of Michilimackinac.

Most probably the first fletz sandstone is the rock in jux-
ta position on the north west, with the transition quartz
just described.

It have not visited in favorable circumstances the line of
junction, and I saw the former first distinctly at the falls of St.
Mary, among the petty rapids of the marshy islets around
the falls. In the summer of 1819, while travelling in a ca-
noe, at dusk, I observed in Lake George not long after leav-
ing the inclined strata, a number of islands with moderately
high cliffs of horizontal rock, breaking into parallelopipeds,
which perhaps are the first fletz sandstone, especially as
much of its debris is found with sharp edges on the rapids of
the Great Nibish.

The portage of the falls of St. Mary furnishes the best
means of examining the stratification of this mineral. The
stores of the North West Company are founded upon it;
and it is traced, imperfectly covered with mould and herb-
age to the arealie channels of the falls, in horizontal or
slightly inclined layers of some thickness. It breaks and
splits readily. Itissoft. Its colours are principally brown
and dull white or red, occasionally with yellow spots or cir-
clets. Itis the sandstone of the Genesee oy NY:
without so large an impregnation of iron.

This rock is every where surrounded by morasses.

Tn returning through Lake George into Lake Huron by ei-
ther side of Isle a la Crosse, we gradually emerge from swam~
py musquito grounds into a calcareous formation, as is seer:
by the debris on the beaches. No fixed stratum, I believe,
is met with but on the North side of Si. Joseph, or in the

* These are classed in the Appendix.

264 Geology and Mineralogy of the

latitude of the Manitoulines. With the exception ae the
narrow selvage of transition and primitive on the North main-
land, the whole of Lake Huron rests on secondary lime-
stone. I have myself noticed it encroaching on those class-
es as far East as the river des Francois on the North shore
—and found it to be the only living rock in the South and i 1D
the Manitouline chain of Islands; including that of St. Joseph.

The calcareous basin of Lake Huron (and the remark

may be extended to Lower and Upper Canada) differs from
those of Europe* in essential particulars: in being often
non-crystalline and full of organic remains while in comact
with the oldest rocks—without observing their direction and
inclination. Again in the Canadas, limestones deposited in
the midst of fletz countries are sometimes highly | cr ystalline,
and crowded with fossilized animals. —

The following facts illustrate these observations.

Between the mouth of the River Des Francois and the
groupe of Islands named La Cloche, there are several isles
of some magnitude whose centre or nucleus is of gneiss, lof-
ty and barren—girded by a broad zone of dark coloured
horizontal limestone. which is loaded with vegetation. I
landed on one of them and found the rock 10. “be soft and

knotty, and full of organic remains. ‘The same appearance
occurs between La Cloche and Messassaga.

A gentleman of the party met with an island off the River
Thessalon composed of a number of parallel ridges of gran-
tte much disturbed and broken; whose intervals contain

horizontal limestone thus. [See the Plate, fig. 2.] ihm

Inthe rear of the promontory of the Cedar Island, passage _
near Kingston, on Lake Ontario, I observed horizontal
compact, dull, brown limestone overlying gneiss in a simi- -
lar manner. Farther east, in the contracting portion of Lake
Ontario, this Rock ute the immediate bank with the
primitive emerging behind it thus. [See the Plate fig. 3.]
The intervals of these mounds are often (as i m Lake Hu-

ron) filled with secondary limestone.

An occurrence nearly the same takes place at the Falls
of Montniorenci near Quebec.

_ Repeated instances are met with in the thousand islands
near Kingston where white quartzy sandstone, rests, in hor-
izontal layers on granite.

* Rurope. however, does contain a few similar examples,

NV. W. portion of Lake Huron. 265

The crystalline grey or brown limestone of the Island of
Montreal, of the Falls of the Chaudiere on the river Ottawa;
and of the Falls of Montmorenci, and Point Aux Trembles
near Quebec, are examples of secondary strata assuming
the structure of the primitive class. Their fracture is slaty
in the large, and imperfectly conchoidal in the small. They
yield to the knife, but not to the nail. Their fracture-sur-
face is full of rhomboidal facets, and resembles that of Horn-
blende. ‘They are at the same time full of bivalves, turbi-
nites, branches of coral, of fibres of wood, and of small
drusy cavities of pearl-spar and yellow Blende.

_A strong odour of sulphur is exhaled on percussion.
_ The limestones of the North West portion of Lake Hu-
ron vary considerably in character and contents; and may
be divided into three principal species, viz. that of St. Jo-
seph and the islets on the north shore—that of the Manitou-
line Range and that of Michilimackinac.

To commence with that of St. Joseph, as being nearest
the elder rocks, it is of various shades of brown, which are
usually light. Itis soft, knotty, schistose, and of an imper-
fect conchoidal fracture. |

It seldom shews itself in ledges of more than two yards
high, and then is much shivered; the fragments being blunt,
and weathered. The lower strata are often of a greenish
tinge—not occasioned by decaying vegetables and only af-
fecting the surface, but also the deeper and sound portions.
This variety is remarkable for its number of what appear to
be clove brown shells, oblong, and of the size of millet seeds.
On Isle Vert, (six miles East of St. Joseph, and two from
north shore) this substratum rests upon a very dark blackish
brown limestone so schistose as to be in fact a shale, as tru-
ly so as that of Niagara. It contains no shells. It is under
water. Rhomboidal, pearl, and dog-tooth calc spar are the
only minerals I met with in this limestone. P

An enumeration of its organic remains is placed in the
appendix. I have to lament that Tam not more familiar
with this interesting part of Geology. ;

‘The limestones of the Manitouline Range although in part
on the same level with the species, just described, differ
from it in many respects; and thus themselves are not al-
ways the same. That a basin of secondary deposition,
should contain on the same level, rocks of different charac-.

Vor. W.....No. 2. 34

266 Geology and Mineralogy of the «

ter, is a curious fact, and appears to lead to the conclusion

that the great solvent medium (according to Theories) may

have been, at the same moment, charged with several forms

of mineral substances in fields or districts ; and without any

evident barrier to prevent their commixture—a supposition
which involves a perfect state of repose or a steady motion
as in rivers, equality of specific gravity and of fluidity, &e. <
of none of which conditions are we assured.

In Lake Huron the brecciated and vesicular species of
Michilimackinac, the quartzose of the Grand Manitou and
Drummond, and the odorous variety of the Lesser Manitou
are on the same level.

The soft and brown kind of St. Joseph and the light col-
oured schistose and non-organic* of the Lesser Manitou are
both on the level of the Lake also. ; on

Lake Ontario presents similar appearances; Be
to sandstone. At Sackets Harbour thirty-five miles from
Kingston the limestone is of a very deep blue, and com-
monly largely studded with very convex bivalves. At the
latter place on the same plane, the limestone is brown
and blue, without a shell (as far as I saw) and abounding in
tremolite. At Gauanoque at the head of the one thousand
islands, on the same level with the limestone of Kingston is
a white quartzy sandstone which continues to line the de-
scent of the St. Lawrence to Montreal, covered by lime-
stone. Further, if it be allowed (and I believe it must be)
that during the first three miles from Lake Ontario, the Gen-
essee River does not ascend eighteen feet, we shall then
have the first fletz sandstone of that locality, the blue and
brown limestone of Sackets Harbour and Kingston, and the
white sandstone of Gauanoque on the same parallel of height.

I have been induced to enter into these digressions, from,
their being the vehicles of new facts respecting the Geology
of unexamined countries.

To return, the rocks of the Western part of the Meco
ie Islands are so deranged, and so concealed by debris
and vegetation t that it requires opportunities superior to.
mine to ascertain correctly the nature of the successive
strata from the level of the Lake to the summit of the Grand
Manitou. | : w

* Without organic remains: |

NV. W. portion of Lake Huron. 267

At Collier’s Harbour, the British post at oti west end of
Drummond Island, a little higher than the water there is.a
light brown liiestaries hard, with few or no organic remains,
but full of superficial spherical excavations.* No fixed
rocks are then visible until an elevation of eighty feet is
attained, when low precipices of a whiter and much harder
limestone protrude through the sides of the slope. They
are either somewhat slaty, or broken into large cuboid
blocks. It is here the singular organic remains of the local-
ity are found.

On the North side of the Lesser Manitou and toward. the
east end, the rock at the level of the lake is of two
kinds, the one, white, hard, and so slaty as to resemble a
shale, and without fossil remains, the other, is plentifully
supplied with these substances and is dark, soft, full of knots,
and very much less slaty. The interrupted low cliffs which
range along the acclivity of the Island from thirty to seven-
ty feet above the water, furnish a dull brown granular, rath-
er hard, slaty limestone, which gives out a disagreeable odor
on percussion and is free from shells, as far as I could ob-
serve.

This island does noi seem to agree in its geological for-
mation with Drummond Island. Its rocks are very much
‘concealed by vegetation and debris. It is proper to register
every bhecnnnn respecting these countries, as from their
remoteness, total want of attractions and moreover from the
difficulty of subsistence, visits to them will be very rare and
brief.

The west end of the Grand Manitou, at the level of the
lake has a flooring similar to that of Collier’s Harbor, and
at the height of ten—thirty feet, a slaty rock like that of the
cliffs of the Lesser Manitou; but inodorous. This is in the
middle of the detour. ‘Toward the south end of this
channel there is a rocky bluff divided into enormous cubes,
piled upon each other to the elevation of fifty feet or more.
The foot of the higher precipices (which in the middle of
the Detour rise two hundred and fifty feet) and the beach
in general is strewn with the quartzose limestone of Drum-
mond, and abounds in the same kind of organic remains.—

* These are tolerably accurate parts of spheres, commonly one and ahalf
inch in diameter, and containing on their ner surface another series of cay-
ities. They are so numerous as sometimes to run into each other.

268 Geology and Mineralogy of the

Masses of honeycomb and chain madrepores are frequently
met with two or three yards in diameter ; but the material
of which they are composed being more calcareous they are-
not so beautiful as those at Collier’s Harbour. A description
of the organic remains of the Manitoulines (as far as they
have been examined) will be found in the Appendix.

The island of Michilimackinac, (situated close to the —
straight dividing Lakes Michigan and Huron; and in the
latter) is of an oval form and nine miles in diameter; the
long sides being lofty precipices rendered picturesque by
their fantastic shapes and luxuriant dosti: and the ek
sides, pebbled beaches. ae

The rocks are calcareous 5 ‘antd the oe idea of then na-
ture is afforded by the south-east extremity of the north-
east precipice which may be described as follows :—A few
soft strata, very thin, white and horizontal, shew themselves
at the top; but below this the iinesne becomes yellow
and ragged. Much of it is compact, but it is more usually
occupied by vesicles (as from bubbles of air) encrusted with
erystals of quartz in botryoidal clusters. A few of them are —
three or four feet in diameter, and contain smaller cavities
in several series. Other parts contiguous to this, are an ag-
gregate of angular fr agments of slaty limestone cemented
as if by semifusion, and with interstices lined with quartzose
crystallizations. The size of the fragments varies from one
to eight inches. ‘They also are of an ochry yellow. | The
bottom of the cliff is in horizontal strata, which are mode-.
rately thick, very soft, even so as to write, and of a white,
or bluish colour. I have been thus minute, on this spot a8
the herbage does not permit an examination at any other
except in small patches where similar sraeulea tags were no-
ticed.

‘The north-west half of this long side of the elas sles
clines in height very gradually and consists-of debris except--
ing a few schistose strata at the top. Not far from the end
a road is making up the steep (1819.) Here the limestone
contains a few blue and white striped flints, which are re-
markable for being broken, small, and angular. ‘They are.
also met with onthe beach. J met with no organic remains.
A friend saw a single bivalve. ‘There are indeed several
fragments of the limestone of the Lesser Manitou on the
shore, penetrated by a multitude of short i incisions as with
the point of a knife.

o%

NV. W. Portion of Lake Huron. 269

The other long side possesses the same geolopical fea-
tures as the one just described. The breccia perhaps
abounds more here. The slaty portions are found at every
fevel and at one place in strata two feet thick. About the
middle there is a cave, about three yards in its great-
est depth, formed by the concurrence of several of the cav-
ernous, bowl-shaped hollows, thus creating one of great di-
mensions; whose interior is subdivided into ‘smaller cavities
seriatim.

The beach is covered almost exclusively with fienebaees
slaty, vesicular and brecciated. I saw the vesicular species
after it had been exposed to the heat of a kiln. It had suf-
fered a change of colour only from its ochry yellow, to a
brown or black.

The stratified limestone burns profitably.

Two, if not three eras and modes of formation are here
clearly distinguishable. ‘The first and oldest is the slate,
which is seen to floor the lake for miles around. Upon it
are supported two calcareous masses which mingle with
each other and with short slips of the schist in the greatest
disorder; and having a few of the broken flints interspers-
ed. In all probability they are veins of strata which have
been overwhelmed by a sudden violent force.

-Heat may have been the means of raising, comminuting,
and partially melting this bed of limestone. Steam, a prin-
cipal agent, may have insinuated itself into the more yield-
mg ee ; and the whole, has finally, consolidated. |

Appendix.

As this paper has already assumed an inconvenient size,
f shall content myself with noticing in the briefest manner

possible, the conglomerates, and a mineral with which | am

acquainted. The description of the organic remains, must
also be greatly limited.

The conglomerates are curious, and are met with prin-
cipally in the shape of debris. ‘Their matrices are of two
kinds, quartz and greenstone. ‘The quartzose species ex-
hibits three forms—its nodules are sometimes exclusively,
translucent white quartz. In other instances they are mass-
es of greenstone; but by far more commonly they are of

270 Geology and Mineralogy of the

_ jasper,* red, green, ash, and greenish brown and black, ei-
ther uniform, or in stripes and clouds. The first and last
of these species often run into each other.

_ The greenstone conglomerates are also of three sttoe
that of quartz nodules, of the granitous compound, of the
« Serpent rock,” and of greenstone nodules.

Breccias of the same composition with these conglome-
rates are not uncommon.

Near Collier’s Harbour and on an islet near the Grand
Manitou a curious mineral occurs in rolled fragments of close
grained granite.

It is in the form of octohedral crystals yas rounded cde
es—one specimen was found three inches in length and two
and a half in breadth. A section discovers the following
appearances. The external coating isa slender layer of
dark copper colored mica in promiscuously arranged frag-
ments, succeeded by an inner ring of a substance resem-
bling hornblende, which insensibly passes into a yellowish
ereen mass of fibres radiating from the centre of the erystal,
where, however they disappear in the form of a Avinitish
yellow powder. [See plate, fig. 4.]

The organic remains of the limestone of St. Joseph in-
clude numerous and very extraordinary appearances similar
to what Dr. Lloyd of Oxford in his Ichnographia calls Al-
veoli—cylindrical tubes or cases, of various sizes—sometimes
giving off branches,—belemnites, coralites, impressions of
weeds, four species of entrocite, five of bivalves, trochites
and turbinites.| There are also, honey comb and chain
madrepores, and many singular impressions &c. which are
perhaps non-descript; but no adequate idea can be fovmaed
of them without accompanying sketches.

Drawing No. 5, is one fourth of the size ofa cli ta-
ken from a small island off the river Thessalon on the north
coast of Lake Huron. It was found imbedded in a large
fragment of limestone. ‘The raised and more perfect: por-
tion is elevated above the matrix, one and a half inches.
The mass separates into two parts in the line of the delin-

_* Insome rare examples, masses of greenstone accompany the jasper, in-
dicating the destruction of a greenstone, pein to the formation of the
“jasper conglomerate.

+ The shells in Lake Huron, at present seit are tellinites, artis,
cochlites, turbmites and various bivalves.

ao®

N. W. Portion of Lake Huron. 244

eated rent. The interior consists of calc spar. At the right
end there is a smooth cylinder one inch in diameter and
two and a half inches long, issuing obliquely from the body
of the Remain. I can offer no conjecture as to the nature of
this substance, except that they are orthoceratites.* They
have been called fossilized sturgeon, but the direction of
the flakes in that fish, and an examination of a transverse sec-
tion forbid the idea. ‘They were first noticed in 1820 by a
surveying party.

All these remains are calcareous. .

The fossilized remains of the Manitouline range must be
the subject of a separate paper, as together with those of St.
Joseph, and the necessary drawings, they occupy fifty-five
pages. They are composed of quartz, frequently so fine as
to approach to the form of calcedony.

Numbers 6 and 7 are varieties of organic remains abun-
dant in the quartzose limestone of Collier’s Harbour: in which
they are wholly or partially imbedded. They are composed
of quartz with a small proportion of lime. Their colour is
brown of different shades. The external surface is more or
less situated longitudinally. ‘The interior is filled with a
granular, sandstone-like substance, or presents radii issu-
ing from the centre, or irregular cavities lined with quartz
and botryoidal calcedony. ‘They are more or less flatten-
ed, but sometimes they are nearly circular. No. 6 its the
most common form. The usual length of a joint is an
inch. I have seen one, two inches long, and with a mode~
rate breadth. The latter dimension has never exceeded
two and a half inches or been less than one inch. No. 6 is
illustrative of the ordinary expansion at the socket part of the
joint. No.7 presents great expansion at this part with mod-
erate size. Fragments only have been found. I have seen
fifty. The longest is twenty-seven inches, which tapers
gradually to one extremity, a circumstance not observed in
any other case. ‘I'wo fragments of similar form have been
met with lying parallel and contiguous. In another exam-
ple one is partially imbedded in the other without mutual
derangement. ‘These substances greatly resemble vertebre,
of what animals I know not. They belong to members of

* Judging from the drawing, these remains appear to us similar to some
found south of Lake Ontario, and which Mr. Brongniart thinks are or--,
thoceratites.—Vid. p. 222 of this Vol.—[ Editor]

272 Geology and Mineralogy of the

the same family, but their diversity of form indicates differ-

ent organizations and consequent faculties and habits. [ti

remarkable that these remains have no processes, nor place

of insertion for other bones. — at ye
Quebec, March 25, 1821.

Extract from the letter which accompanied the preceding
; memoir. — Weak

Possibly too great stress has, been laid on limestone of
recent formation being found in contact with granite without
observing its inclination.* 7.” aK

The want of a more detailed Topography of these dis-
tricts is greatly felt: from its length and tediousness, it is
incompatible with the plan and interests of a periodical
work. I hope the epitome J have prefixed willsuffice. It
would have been impossible to have furnished engravings
for all the organic remains—their description occupies filty
six pages. ‘The Topography and Geology with its appen-
dix fill one hundred and twenty pages of matter equally con-
densed with those now before you. This has been present-
ed to the Earl of Dalhousie. | cites vi tee

rs

% We do not think so; this fact as well as many others mentioned by Dr.
Bigsby is very curious and interesting. —|[ Kd. | fer gba

Dr. J, Porter's Floral Calendar, &. Q73

BOTANY.

Arr. VIL—Floral* and Miscellaneous Calendar for Plain-
field, Mass. 100 miles West of Boston, (Lat. supposed
about 42° 30’ N. and Lon. West from Lond. 73°—more
than 100 miles from the ocean—country fel and elevated, }
by Dr. Jacop Porter. |

Remark.—Floral Calendars, very much in detail, having been objected ta
by some persons, the editor has selected only what he supposed the author
deemed the most interesting observations,from a calendar still more in detail.

It appears by this Journal, that in the course of five months, about
twenty rainy days occurred, and in the same period there were fourteen
cloudy and fogey days, but without rain. ‘The notices of temperature, and
weather being unaccompanied with any thermometrical observations, have
been generally omitted, except where some connected circumstances ren-
dered thei interesting.—Ep.

1819.—Jan. 24.—Common chickweed partly, and hair-
cap moss fully blown.

Feb. 8. Before this date, the roads were settled and trav-
elling good.

26. Heavy snow.

March, 17, 18. Snow in some places ten or twelve feet
deep, and so hard as to bear men and animals.

April 2. The first blue-bird seen. In some places the
snow is still above the tops of the fences, entirely conceal-
ing them. ‘The farmers are now tapping their sugar-maple
trees, which are very abundant here, and furnish the domes-
tic supply of sugar ; the tapping of the trees began before
March 26.

3. Warm. The song of the robin heard for the first time.

7. Summer bird heard to sing.

11. The aments of the alder and poplar considerably

"swelled.

13. At sunrise a very large and beautiful rainbow. The
ground is about two thirds bare, though in some places, the
fences are entirely concealed by the snow. Several chirp
ing birds are seen.

14. The first butterfly seen; the bees are also eee?
to venture abroad and the song - of the marsh quail has been

* The dates may be considered as being generally those that icles to the
@arliest events of the kind.

Vor. IIl....No. 2. ah

(274 Dr. J. Porter’s Plorai and

heard for a few days past. Making sugar is now the em-
ployment of our farmers. |

15. So warm that we sat with open windows. The: sn
der in blossom, its beautiful aments waving gracefully over
the snow. The buds of the hazel are also tipped with red.

16. The threelobed hepatica or wes leaf begins to show
its buds.

17. A severe storm of rain, snow aaa hail, atiended with
some thunder and lightning.

21. 'The hazel and hepatica in blossom. —

22. The eroaking of the frogs is heard for the first time.

23. Found the clatonia or spring beauty in flower at
Worthington. Some deep snow- -banks still.

24. Sun eclipsed. .

26. Farmers are now beginning to plough.

27, Roundleaved violet in blossom. 3

28. Woodpeckers and blackbirds appear.

29. Swamp willow in blossom. Reh

May 1. So warm that an umbrella is agreeable. ae
thronium or adders tongue in blossom.

2. Early corydalis or colic weed and two species of pelea
in blossom ; the trees are beginning to put forth their leaves,
the chirping of the wren is heard, and the groves are full oy
music. |
3. Lombardy poplar and Canada violet in blossom. |

4, Observed the balm of gilead, red maple, yellow birch,
rhomboidal trillium, lead Shee or bellwort, on
delicate chrysosplenium or golden saxifrage and field equis-
etum in flower. The sun shines with a scorching heat, and
vegetation is surprisingly rapid. _ Here and there however,
a bank of snow is still to be seen on the hills.

5. Found the elm, fly, honeysuckle, colt’s foot and straw
berry 2 in blossom at Cummington. The large poisonous |
leaves of the veratrum or poke root and the “wooly heads
ef the polypods are starting up every where by our brooks.
The first swallow seen. i

6. The white birch, sugar maple, owecteenen ah vi-
olet and bluish houstonia mn flower at the same place. Very
warm; the first chimney swallow seen. It is the season
for sowing English grain. In the woods the leaves are not
large enough to form much shade, but the long delicate
aments of the yellow birch, waying over our head, appear

Miscellaneous Calendar. 215

like the fringe of an umbrella. ‘The herbaceous plants are
flowering every where, and the petals of the roundleaved
violet, in particular, resemble specks of gold scattered
around ‘the path.

8. Found the viburnum, the blue violet and the delicate
three leaved panax in blossom. This beautiful pee: of
panax is very abundant with us.

9. Found the beech tree and threeleaved arum or indian
iurnip in flower.

12. The yellow violet and prostrate mitella in blossom.
The first snake seen.

14, The currant bush and red berried elder in blossom.

17. The plumb tree and dentaria or tooth root in blossom.
Plumb trees do notsucceed well with us, many of them having
large black excrescences on their limbs. Peach trees do
not eae at all; indeed, very few at present attempt to
cultivate them. The root of the dentaria has a sharp
spicy taste, not unlike that of horse radish. ‘“* Radices,”
says Michaux, ‘ab indigenis, loco sinapis, a ciborum con-
dimentis exsiccantur.’

18. The wild red cherry tree, aronia or shad tree, cow-
slip and dandelion in blossom.

19. The small veronia or smooth speedwell and two spe-
cies of granaphalium in flower.

20. The threeleaved coptis or gold thread and dewberry
in blossom.

- 21. Pleasant. Farmers are engaged in planting their po-
tatoes and indian corn, which has been deferred till now on
account of the late storm. The first yellow bird seen.

22. Warm and pleasant. Found the apple, peach and
red cherry trees, the iron-wood, june-berry, and anemone,
twoleaved mitella, painted trilliutn, wild gooseberry bush,
caulophyllum, slender rush, two species of ranunculus and
two of saxifrage in flower on the banks of Westfield river,
Cummington.

23. Pleasant. The moose-wood wild currant and rose-
‘flowered convallaria in blossom. The est is the rosy strep-
topus of Michaux.

24. Ash tree in flower. The bob uy lincoln and ue
bird, seen for the first time.

25. Shepherd’s purse and common cerastium, or mouse
ear chickweed in bloom.

276 - Dr. J. Porter’s Floral and

26. Windy and cold; in the morning 4 beautiful rain
bow.

27. Dwarf cornel and hispid gaultheria i in flower. The
latter is sometimes used by the common people as a 1 substi=
tute for tea.

28. Clear and cold. This morning the ‘ground is white
with frost. — Ri FE A
29. Frost this morning. © She . Ee
31. Our orchards are now in full bloom. | Ree |

June 1. Large convallaria in flower. Kaas

2. Pleasant. Found the red oak, butternut, choke cher-
ry, common ranunculus, clustered and umbelled convalla-
ula, veratrum or poke root, water erysimum, trientalis, wa-
ter cress and a beautiful species of gooseberry bush in flow-
er, the most of them on the banks of Westfield river, Cum-
mington. The delicate trientalis is the only native plant,
that we have of the seventh class.

4, Visited the bog in Goshen, where I found the higer
chokeberry, the elaucous kalmia, the dwarf and rosemary
leaved, andromedas, a species of eriophorum or cotton
grass, the stemless cypripedium or lady’s slipper, and two
species of vaccinium in flower. ‘To the botanist this is an
interesting spot, and I would take the liberty of recommend-
ing it with emphasis to the attention of botanists. The
pine, larch, mountain ash, sarracenia and many other very
interesting trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants grow here.
This bog is about three fourths of a mile east of Keith’s -
Hill in Cummington. Observed the thorn bush and two-
leaved convallaria in blossom by the road side.

5. Sarsaparilla in blossom..

6. The redberried actea or panebere medeola or indian
cucumber, white clover and strawberry blite in flower. The
white clover is the shamrock of the poets. The strawber-
ry blite grows wild in this place. I have also observed it a
few yards from the sulphur-spring at Ballston Spa. —

7%. Very warm; towards night a thunder shower. Black
cherry tree, bluey ed grass and common sorrel in blossom.

8. In riding to Northampton, I observed in flower at Go-
shen the yarrow, celandine, yellow oxalis, or upright wood,
sorrel and raspberry bush; at Williamsburg the locust tree,
high blackberry and thimble berry, garden and wild colum-
bine, red clover and common potentilla ; and at Northamp-

Miscellaneous Calendar. 274

ton the barberry bush, two species of honeysuckle, one of
them growing wild, two species of azalea or swamp pink,
narrowleaved kalmia, spotted geranium, red top and foxtail
grass, besides lilac, snow ball, rye and many other exotics.

9. Extremely warm; towards night a severe thunder
storm. Common iris or blue flag in = at the same
place. ‘The first fire fly seen.

10. The prunella, small znothera and: delicate krigia in
flower at Northampton ; longstalked smilax at Williams-
burg.

12. In the morning, sharp thunder and lightning with tor-
rents of rain; in the afternoon pleasant.

13. The white flowered oxalis or stemless wood sorrel in
blossom.

a Virginia hydrophyllum or burr flower in blossom.

. Pleasant. Strawberries which are excellent and
be ee here, are now beginning to ripen.

16. Warm. Found the red connel, golden senecia or
ragwort and threeleaved convallaria in blossom at Cum-
mington.

17. Mountain ash, Norway potentilla and common alsine
or chickweed in Hlessone,

18. Another species of cotton grass and a very delicate
species of spergula in bloom. In the afternoon a thunder
storm with some hail; in the night, another tremendously
severe, with large hailstones and torrents of rain; the hail
in some parts of the town, so large as to break the glass.

19. Windy. Found the grape vine, broadleaved kalmia,
purple sarracenia or meadow cups, common galium or clea-
vers, white weed, large veronica or, marsh speedwell and
circea or enchanter’s night shade in blossom at Cumming-
ton. The fantastic sarracenia grows aiso at Goshen, Ash-
field and Hawley. Doctor David Hunt also informed me
that he has found at Northampton, numerous specimens of
the sarracenia with yellow blossoms.

20. Very pleasant. The sanicle, small late and
exquisitely beautiful and delicate lmnea in flower. The last
mentioned plant may be found on the margin of a small
brook, about a mile east of the meeting house. I have al-
so discovered it in the east part of Savoy, on each side of
the county road leading from Plainfield to Adams. All the
specimens that I have seen, are didynamous.

278 Dr. J. Porter’s Floral oe

21. Pleasant; clouds uncommonly beautiful. Yellow
water lily, potamogeton or floating pond weed, plantain,
climbing palyeeua and slechoma ¢ or ground ivy in blos-
. Common fleabane in blossom. a
be Found the broadleaved ledum or Labrador tea,
three leaved menyanthes, common avens, craneberry and a
handsome species of sedge in blossom, at the bog near
Hawley meeting house, a most interesting spot. Observed
the common cynaglossum or hound’s tongue and the woody
gaa ee or bittersweet in flower by the ae peehy
. False flax in blossom.

* Some of our fields and pastures : are now so com-
pletely covered with the blossoms of the common ranuncu~
lus, here called the yellow weed, as to have the apeeaance
of being wrapt in sheets of gold.

28. False mustard in blossom.

29. Red and wild rose, mitchella and a es of rere
grass in blossom.

30. Sage in blossom, ‘ind indian corn nestecie to tassel.

July 1. “Lilyleaved malaxis in blossom.

2. Flax, motherwort, sow-thistle, mimutlus or mon-
key flower and climbing celastrus or saff tree in flower, the
two last on the banks of Westfield river, Cummington. —

3. Blackberried elder, bristly aralia, large enothera, round
leaied mallows and small flowered hypericum in blossom.
In the evening a comet seen in the northwest.

4. Fair. “Mullen, common asclepias or milk- weed,
fringe flowered orchis and one-sided pyrola in blossom. »

5. Frost. this morning. Air uncommonly clear and
weather very fine. Found the large flowered raspberry,
common hypericum or johnswort, agrimony, Virginia or
tall anemone, field thyme, two species of avens and two of
galium or cleavers in blossom, on the south side of Deer
Hill, Cummington. Spiked epilobium or willow herb and.
commom nettle, also in blossom. ~The red raspberry is, be--
ginning to ripen. Gi Ae ead

7. Roundleaved orchis in Bisccik

8. Roundleaved hypericum, Canada or simone ny
pericum and purple vervain in flower, and currants begin-
pas to ripen. Farmers are beginning to cut their grass.

Sere warm. Mustard, catmint, buckwheat, common

4

Miscellaneous Calendar. 279

spergula or tangle weed, and the climbing red flowered bean
in blossom ; the last attracts the humming bird.

12. Found the common sumach, white spirea, panicled
andromeda, upright lysimachia, tuberous cymbidium, white
nymphea or fragrant water lily, adder’s tongue, arethusa,
comarum or marsh fivefinger, common typha and a hand-
some species of scutellaria or skull cap im flower, and june-
berries ripe at Goshen bog. The fragrant nymphea eros
also at Ashfield.

13. Weather very fine. Umbelled chimaphila, common
stachys or hedge nettle, and knot grass in flower.

14. Wheat, cockle, spotted polygonum or heart’s ease,
common gnaphalium or life everlasting, and cud weed in
blossom.

15. Cloudy. Ponte: in blossom.

es Bass wood in blossom.

. Maize in blossom.

He Spikenard, ginseng, penthorum and coloured willow-
pee in blossom.

_ Nettleleaved vervain in flower. The farmers are
mie engaged in hay making.

21. Cloudy, the sun shining at intervals with a scorch-
ing heat. Found the clematis or virgin’s ‘bower, tansy,
heartleaved lysimachia, hop, yellow nodding lily, impatiens
or touch me not, and a delicate species of veronica in flow-
er, the most of them in the meadows at Cummington. The
hop grows wild at this place. The spring and summer
have been, thus far, very favourable to vegetation; indian
corn and potatoes, very flourishing; grass, not so good as
usual, owing, probably, to the open winter; peas, fit for the
table» Crickets begin to chirp.

22. Very warm. Found the hydropeltis or water shield,
cordate pontederia, sheathleaved dulichium or bog rush,
roundleaved drosera or sundew, transparent eriocaulon or
pipewort, and a species of prinos in flower at the Crooked
Pond. During the latter part of the season, this is a very
interesting place of resort to the botanist.

23. Weather the same. Wormwood, water pepper and
pig weed in blossom. ‘The first mentioned plant is natural-
ized and very common in this and the neighboring towns.

24. Found the common amaranth, elecampane, ampelop-
sis, sideflowering skull cap, one flowered monotrapa and

280 Dr. J. Porter’s Floral and

whorled eupatorium in blossom, the most of them at Cum-
-mington. The asters are also beginning to blossom.
"26. Spear thistle in blossom. hy

31. Cucumbers fit for the table. , ‘oe

August 2. Whiteflowered cynoglossum, common eupa-
torium or thoroughwort and linearleaved epilabium in blos-
som. Notwithstanding the extreme heat of the a ee
itis still very healthy; no prevailing disease.

4. Tall ambrosia or Roman wormwood in blossom, sind
high blackberries ripe.

6. Green corn fit for the table.

7. Intensely warm. There are at t present some cases of
dysentery among us. — "

8. The golden rods, of whieh we have several species,
are beginning to blossom. I once used a tincture of the
root of our most common species in brandy, as a tonic in
my own case of spitting blood from the lungs, with very
considerable benefit. The proper dose for an adult, is a ta-
ble spoonful, two or three times a day.

9. Finger grass in blossom. Grasshoppers very diynd-
ant for two or three weeks past.

10. Warm and pleasant; clouds cumulous and very
beautiful. Annual flea bane, burdock, chelone or snake
head, wild sunflower, fennelleaved cicuta and two species of
sagittaria in flower; all, except the two first, on the banks
of Westfield river.

11. Potatoes fit for the table.

12. Currant bushes defoliating.

13. Found the downyleaved spirea, or handhaele and
longleaved drosera in blossom, and high blue whortleber-
ries ripe at the crooked pond. Small berries or the com-
‘mon gaultheria.

18. Collinsonia, pennyroyal and commom niersaent in
flower at Cummington.

19. Simple sparganium in flower at Hawley Farmers
engaged in harvesting their wheat, rye and oats 5 5 crops very
excellent. |

23. Early apples ripe. >

24, Very clear and pleasant. Suing frost this mabning
on low grounds. Hemp in blossom.

. 27. Common tobacco in blossom.

28. Berries of the mountain ash turning red.

a

‘“Miseslidineous Calendar. 281.

31. Visited the ous oniy The leafless utricularia,
water lobelia and floating villarsia or spur stem grow here in
great plenty, but the gr owth of these interesting plants has
been so much retarded this season, by the flowing of the
pond, that they have not yet blossomed. ‘The last year, I
found them in flower the eighteenth of this month. The
utricularia grows also at Ashfield and Hawley, the villarsia
in a pond near the village of Sand Lake, New-York.

September 1. Common bidens in blossom.

2. Farmers cutting their stalks.

A, Beech drop and bladderfruited nicandra in blossom.

5. Indian corn ripening very fast. ,

6. Black cherries ripe.

9. Drooping neottia and largeflowered dene in blossom,
and common elder berries ripe. The leaves of our forests
are beginning to assume the livery of autumn.

11. Farmers beginning to make their cyder. .

15. Frost this morning. Clear, cold and windy.

16. Spearmint and witch hazel in blossom.

22. Leaves of the beech tree turning yellow and falling.

29. Maple and yellow birch defoliating, the leaves of the
maple being, many of them, of a bright scarlet.

30. Artichoke in blossom. Farmers harvesting their
corn ;—crops abundant and very excellent.

1820.—March 19. The first woodpecker seen. Flies
brisk and lively. The crust of the snow, owing to the late
storms of hail and rain, is so very hard that a small dwelling
house has been moved about a quarter of a mile upon it!

20. Farmers are beginning to tap their sugar maples.

23. Blue birds appear.

24. Robins appear.

29. In warm situations the aments of the alder are con-
siderably swelled.

April 6. Buds of the willow ae: swelled.

7. A fall of snow.

11. Farmers busy in making sugar. . :

16. Found in warm woods the (nee-lbed hepatica in
flower. The first butterfly seen. Inmany places the snow
is still two or three feet deep.

18. Alder in bloom. The croaking of the foe heard
for the first time.

19. Poplar and claytonia in blossom. —

Vor. ELY:.....No. 2, 36

282. Dr. J. Porter's. Floral and

20. So warm that we sat with open windows. ‘The
round leaved violet in blossom. ‘The first miller seen.

22, Red maple, swamp willow, and dog’s tooth de in
blossom.

23. Martins arrived.

24. Wild strawberry, chrysosplenium or golden saeiiee
tuberous corydalis, and two species of sedge in blossom.

25. American elm, Lombardy poplar, and sessile leaved
uvularia in flower.

26. The-song of the wren heard for the first time. Dark
purple trillium in flower.

29. Sugar maple in blossom.

30. Two leaved mitella and three leaved panax in flower.
The month of April has been uncommonly warm and pleas-_
ant; and vegetation is remarkably forward, indeed, it is a
common remark with us that it was never ‘known to so
forward at this season of the year.

May 1. Fly honeysuckle in blossom. —

2. Ash tree, and blue, . Canada and yellow violets ip
blossom.

3. Currant bush in blossom.

4, Viburnum, sweet gale or Dutch myrtle, and sweet-
scented white violet in flower.

5. Dandelion in blossom.

6. Yellow willow in blossom. has

7. Indian turnip and wood anemone in flower.

8. Beech tree, shad tree and red-berried elder i in oq,

9. Iron wood in flower. ;

10. Plum tree and heart leaved tiarella in flower. ‘The
buds of the mountain ash appear. en
11. Pennsylvania saxifrage in blossom. __

12. Apple tree, red cherry tree, and heart Jeaved epipac-
tis in blossom. In the afternoon a copious thunder shower
with some hail. “

13. Thunder shower with hail. ei

Me Cowslip, chickweed, and smooth veronica in flower.

. The first swallow seen. ©The three leaved coptis or
gall thread, and bluish houstonia in flower. Farmers plant
ing potatoes and Indian corn.

21. The first bob of lincoln seen. _

22. Common cerastium or mouse ear chickweed in blos-
som.

Miscellaneous Calendar. 283

23. Indian corn, that was planted very early, starting
from the ground. Common yanunculus or ye weed in
blossom.

24, Caulophyllum, glaucous kalmia, painted trillium, and
water cress in flower at Cummington. Our ee trees are
now in full bloom.

26. A severe storm of rain | and snow.

27. This forenoon the hills in Ashfield, Goshen and
Windsor are white with snow,

28. Frost this morning. King birds appear.

29. Quince, wild columbine, golden smyrnium, and
clammy azalea in flower at Conway.

June 3. Rosemary leaved andromeda, (see the figure on
the plate) and small enothera in flower at Goshen.

_ 5. Grasshoppers appear. Black cherry tree, and white
flowered oxalis in blossom.

7. Virginia hydrophylium in flower.

8. Fire flies appear.

10. Red and white clover in donee.

12. Strawberries ripe, and green currants fit for the table.

14. Crickets begin to chirp. Upright wood sorrel, and
golden senecio in flower.

15. Mountain ash in flower.

16. Norway potentilla in flower.

17. Prunella and Philadelphia fleabane in blostat:

21. Linnea and circea or enchanter’s nightshade in
flower.

23. Mullen in blossom.

24. Red rose in blossom.

26. Broad leaved kalmia in flower.

27. Onesided pyrola in flower.

28. Mitchella in flower, and red elder berries ripe.

30. Farmers beginning to mow. Wild rose, black ber-
tied elder and common asclepias in flower.

July 1. The weather for some time past has been ex-
tremely warm and dry. Round leaved pyrola in flower.

2. Common hypericum and fimbriate orchis in flower.

3. Red raspberries ripe. Spiked epilobium, large flow-
ered raspberry, and transparent pipewort in blossom.

6. Virginia hypericum in flower.

‘te Phytolacea or poke and umbelled chimaphila in blos-
som.

284 Floral and Miscellaneous Calendar.

8. Farmers very busy in hey Locusts begin to
sin g.!

10. Blconmpaties gay eypripediuia, baal inflated babelia
in flower. Currants ripe.

12. Indian corn in blossom, and red garden cherries ne

13. Thimble berries ripe.

17. White flowered cynoglossum i in flower.

18. Nettle leaved vervain in flower.

20. Green peas fit for the table.

22. Virginia demalis, common elymus, topseed, and | a
species of aster in flower at Cummington.

24, Button bush in flower.

26. Cucumbers fit for the table.

31. Spearmint in blossom.

August 4. Burdock in blossom.

5. Downy neottia in blossom.

6. Common golden rod, and Virginian versia in blossom.

7. Rye fit for the. sickle. Decurrent gnaphalium in
flower.

8. White fringe flowered orchis and bulb, bearing cicuta
in flower at the bog near Hawley meeting-house.

10. High blackberries ripe, and green corn fit for the table.

15. Potatoes fit for the table. Grasshoppers so abun-
dant for some time past as to be very injurious to vegeta-
bles, particularly to grass and Indian corn. eek

22. Currant bushes defoliating.

24. Common gratiola in flower. Springs se ncoly low.
Many rocks in the North Pond, which I do not recollect
ever to have seen before, appear above the water. On one
of these we cut the figures 1820.

25. Berries of the mountain ash turning red.
26. Watermelons ripe.

29. Black elder berries ripe.

30. Black cherries ripe. -

’ ;
Errata in the oe Sie

Page 215, date May 19, for granaphalivm read gnaphaliun.
ee 278, ** July 2, for mimutlus read mimulus, —

Roafinesque on « fossil Medusa. 985

_ FOSSIL ZOOLOGY.
New-York, 11th mo. 21st, 1820.
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN.

Respected Friend—At the request of C. S. Rafinesque,
I take the liberty of forwarding his description of a suppos-
ed fossil medusa, contained in a paper sent by him to the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia some time
ago. The paper by some accident got mislaid, or it should
have been forwarded long before. Wal
I remain with best wishes, and sincere respect,
Thy friend. .
REUBEN HAINES.

Arr. VIIL.—Description of a fossil Medusa, forming a
new genus. ‘Trianisites Cliffordi, by C. S. Rart-
NESQUE.*

The genus Medusa of Linneus is now become, by the
multiplied observations and discoveries of many zoologists,
an extensive tribe of animals, containing a great many gene-
raand more than two hundred species. 1 have myself dis-
covered in Sicily and in the Atlantic ocean many new ones,
which are partly enumerated in my former works, and 1
mean to describe now a fossil one, which has been discov~
ered in Kentucky, by my worthy friend John D. Clifford of
Lexington, in whose collection I have seen it. I believe
that this is the first instance (at least in the United States)
of an animal of that tribe being found in such a fossil state,
and I do not at present remember any author’s mentioning
any species found fossil in Europe. This may therefore be
entirely a new discovery, to which we are indebted to the
unwearied researches of Mr. Clifford; the only merit I claim
is of having ascertained that his specimen does not belong
to any known genus, and is therefore an extinct one. It is

* Now Professor of Botany and Natural History in Transy!vania Univer-
sity, Kentucky.

286 Rafinesque on a fossil ene

well known that the animals of that tribe are of a soft gela-
tinous substance and structure, they do not leave any exuviz
after their death, and they are very easily destroyed by the
‘contact of any hard substance, whence it is no wonder that
their fossil remains are so rare : yet in the specimen under
consideration, the animal appears quite perfect, and is em-
bedded in a crystallized limestone; the mode of its fossili-
zation is therefore very singular. We must either suppose
that this extinct species was of a harder cartilaginous sub- .
stance, or that the liquid in which it was swimming or floating,
was coagulated at once: it even appears probable to me that
both circumstances may have occurred, since the specimen
is in its proper natural position, and not in the least com-
pressed nor altered; but the whole of it is changed into a
similar stone to that which surrounds it: the animal howev-
er is become rather silicious as usual with fossil mollusca

or r polyps.
Genus Triantsites—(See the engraved figure.)

Generic definition.—Body with three unequal peduncles
or appendages underneath, the middle one with a mouth or
opening at the extremity, surrounded by two fascicles of
short tentacula. Back simple, not ombrelled.

Generic observations—The generic name derives on
Greek words meaning, three unequal appendages. In the
natural arrangement this genus will belong to the real family
medusa, and to the sub-family branchypia, having peduncles
or appendages underneath and no wing nor bladder on the
back, next to the genus pelasgva of Peron and Lesueur; but
it differs from it, and indeed from any other of that tribe,
by having a sort of trifid body, and the tentacula only 1 near
the mouth. The following species is the type of the ae

Trianisites Cliffordi.

“Specific definition—Back subconical and subacute, axil-
las obtuse and unequal, peduncles compressed transversally
obtuse, the shortest larger, the longer one smaller and op-
posed to it, the middle one nearly as ‘Tong, extremity fim-
briated by the tentacula.

Rafinesque on a fossil Medusa. 287

Description.—Length or height of the specimen six inch-
es, breadth above three inches. Back rounded convex
conical, nearly acute, dividing itself gradually underneath in
three branches or peduncles, all unequal in length and size,
the axilla or sinuses of the division are also unequal and ob-
tuse. The lateral peduncles are quite detached from the
middle one, and slightly curved outside : they are both situ-
ated obliquely, and slightly compressed in the direction of

~ the obliquity. The longest peduncle is also the slenderest

and quite obtuse at the end; the shortest which is opposed
thereto is the thickest and slightly obtuse at the end; its
length is only about two and a half inches, while the long-
est is about four and a half inches long. The central pe-
duncle is quite straight, obliquely compressed also, attenua-
ted at the end and about four inches long, the opening is ter-
minal and furnished above on each side by a large fascicle of
tentacula, assuming a kind of fringed appearance ; they are
eapillary, flexuose "and thickly fasciculated, longer than the
central peduncle and reaching the end of the longest pedun-
cle, the outside tentacula appear to be the longest. The
longitudinal section of the animal shows an appearance of
internal vessels as in many medusas: three central faint ves-
sels appear to run through the peduncles in a slightly flex-
uose form and to unite near the back, while the whole cir-
cumference shows many short capillary vessels deriving
from the surface, extending obliquely inside, but not reach-
ing quite to the central vessels. A transverse section shows
the curious respective obliquity of the peduncles, and that
their inward circumference is slightly striated by those small
superficial vessels. ;

Specific observations. — This interesting animal remain
was found in 1817, by Mr. J. D. Clifford, near Lexington
in Kentucky, in an upper stratum of compact bluish lime-
stone, granulated and crystallized: the specimen is quite
imbedded in it, of the same appearance, but rather smooth-
er and of a paler colour. It was not accompanied by any
shell nor other fossil, but stood alone, and rather below the-
stratum where so many shells are found. I have dedicated
the species to its discoverer, in whose rich museum it is ts
be seen. C. 5. RAFINESQUE

Philadelpina, 12th January, 1819.

288 Magendie on Absorption.

_ PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICAL CHEMISTRY.

Heteacs of aletter to the Editor, from Mr. Isaac Doalil
dated Paris, Nov. 9, 1820.

_ Dr. Magendie’s Memoir on abeorisiin has: ceeciteel con-

siderable sensation among the faculty here; he has been so
obliging as to confide to me his manuseript, from which I
have made the accompanying translation, for your Journal.
Dr. Magendie has looked over my — and found it
correct,

Ant. IX.—Memoir on the Mechincsn, of Sabet mM vd
mals of red and warm blood ; by F. Macenpte, of Paris.

Read before the Academy of Brann, at Paris, on the 9th October, 1920.
Translated from the Brench of the author’s manuscript; by I. AE use

Wuenever any substance, whether liquid, gazeous, or
in a state of vapour, is kept for a space of time in immedi-
ate contact either with an external or internal surface of our
bodies, that substance is absorbed; or, in other words, it
passes into the sanguiferous vessels, mixes and circulates
with the blood, and produces thus on Gurorgans: aes el-
ther salutary or hurtful.

This Physiological effect is especially remarkable in vi

action of poisons: a single drop of hydro-cyanic (Prussic)
acid, placed on the tongue of a dog, causes death na few
y seconds, by being carried to the brain with the blood. I

have often produced effects equally prompt, by the applica-
tion of substances reputed much less powerful than Prussic

‘acid, by simply taking care to increase propernanams the
rapidity of the absorption.

‘A result of this nature was well calculated to excite curi-
osity 5 but our aliments, our drinks, our medicines and even the
air itself, become useful tous only ‘after being absorbed. We
contract, by means of absorption, many diseases, some of
which are even, dangerous. In a word, our very existence
is so closely cotmected with this phenomenon, that were it
to cease for a moment, death would be the almost immedi-
ate consequence.

Mugendie on Absorption. 289

No study is therefore, at the same time, more curious, and
more important than that of absorption. ;

The first step to be taken, after establishing the reality
of the phenomenen, was to discover the instruments ; or in
other words, which are the organs that exercise the absorb-
ing faculty. 1 have had the honour to present to the Acad-
emy several rmemoirs on this subject, which have been re-
ceived with approbation. . eee ae

The following general consequences result from my for-
mer researches ; Rees

Ist. The veins are endowed with the absorbing faculty ;

_ Qndly. It is not demonstrated that the vessels which ab-
sorb the chyle are capable of absorbing other matter ;

_ $dly. The absorbing power of the lymphatic vessels, oth-
er than the chylous, is not yet established on satisfactory
evidence. es

From these genera! facts may be deduced a great num-
ber of secondary facts ; we may here comprehend, for ex-
ample, why the absorption is slow in some cases, and very
rapid in others; why certain substances appear to produce
greater effects when absorbed in certain points than when
absorbed in others; why certain organs entirely deprived
of lymphatic vessels, such as the eye, the brain, &c. possess
nevertheless strong powers of absorption.

The solution of these questions was doubtless matter of
some importance ; but the main question was not yet agita-
ted; it was not known by what mechanism the absorption
was effected.

The most accredited books contain no satisfactory solu-
tion on this point; their authors have proceeded as the hu-
man mind generally dees in most cases where it is in a state
of complete ignorance, on points on which it would be high-
ly important for it to be enlightened. It begins by suppo-
sing certain beings and then endows them with the faculties
necessary to produce the effect observed ; and it generally
happens that it repeats its own history without being aware
GL ity) ‘

Tn the case before us, authors began by supposing radt-
cals, orifices, absorbing mouths, §c.; these radicals, these
mouths do not fall under our senses; this is what might have
been expected; but they have the faculty of pumping, of
sucking, of absorbing the substances with which they are

Vor. FEL....No. 2. a7

290 Magendie on Absorption.

placed in. contact; these operations are not performed with-
out discernment; they are done with the nicest sense of
discrimination ; those organs choose with great exactness
what ought to ‘be. taken in and what rejected ; and it is not
until after dué examination that they determine to exercise
their absorbing power.

It is sufficient merely to doubt ‘of the truth of sath aie
nations to become at once sensible of their absurdity ; but
they seldom produce this effect. Such is the charm which
they exercise over our minds that we are easily led to be-
lieve them true ; and we afterwards repel with passion what-
ever might tend to undeceive us.* It is, however, time
that such deceptions should flisapHeae from the doctrine of
Physiology. pa,

I believe I do not exaggerate m asserting ‘that hitherto,
nothing positive has been advanced relative to the mechan-
ism by. which absorption is effected in animals of schol ae
warm blood.

Some experiments which I have made this year seem to
me to throw some light on this important subject; when I
shall have related the circumstances, the judgment of the
Academy will show me whether I am mistaken, or whether
I have hit upon the truth.

In a public lecture on the mode of action, of rnedichied! 1
was showing the effect of a certain quantity of water, at the
temperature of 40° Centigrade, (104° Farenheit) introdu-
ced into the veins; in making this experiment, the idea
struck me to observe the effect of the artificial plethora thus
produced, on the absorbent faculties; consequently, after
having injected nearly a litre (almost an English quart) of
‘water, into the veins of a dog of a middling size, I introdu-
ced into the pleura a small dose of a substance, the effects
of which were well known to me. It struck me as singular
that those effects did not appear until several minutes: ‘after
the time in which they are ordinarily seen. I immediately
repeated the experiment on another animal, and obtained a
similar result.

In several other essays the effects were ‘observable at re
time when they should manifest themselves; but they were —

* At each in the present state, and meh the absurd ce of education in
which we are brought up.

Magendie on Absorption. 291

much weaker than would have been produced in the usual
state of the body, by the dose submitted to absorption, and
were prolonged much beyond the ordinary term.

Finally, in another experiment, where I had introduced
as much water (about two litres) as the animal could support
and remain alive, the effects were altogether imperceptible,
the absorption was probably prevented. After waiting near
half an hour for the effects which are generally developed.
in two minutes, I reasoned as follows: if the distention of
the veins is the cause of the non-absorption, that cause ceas-
ing to operate, the absorption should take place. I there-
fore immediately caused the jugular vein of the animal to be
opened, and I saw with great satisfaction, that the effects
became manifest in proportion as the veins emptied them-
selves.

I then thought of making the contrary experiment; that
is, to diminish the quantity of blood and to see whether the
absorption was more rapid; the result proved my conjec-
tures well founded. About half a pound of blood being ex-
tracted from an animal, the effects which would not have oc-
curred until the expiration of two minutes, manifested them-
selves in less than thirty seconds.

It might nevertheless be suspected that it was less the dis-
tention of the blood-vessels than the alteration of the blood
which retarded or prevented the absorption. To overcome
this objection I-made the following experiment; a very co-
pious bleeding was practised ona dog; the quantity of blood
was immediately replaced by an equal quantity of water of
the temperature of 40° (Centigrade) a determinate quantity
of the solution of nux vomica was introduced into his pleura,
ihe effect was as prompt, and as intense as though the na-
ture of the blood had undergone no change.* It is then to

* Several attempts were made which, though they could not answer the
purpose for which I intended them, may, nevertheless, be usefully noted
here, as they seem to open a new field for discoveries.

To change the nature of the blood, I at first thought of injecting oil into
the veins, supposing that this innocent substance would circulate with the
blood without inconvenience ; the result did not answer my expectations ;
the animal subjected to the experiment died in a few instants after the in-
jection of an ounce of oil into its jugular vein. On examining the organs,
after the death, I observed that the oil had obstructed all the ‘ramifications
of the pulmonary artery, and had thus stopped the circulation and the res-
piration, by preventing the passage of the blood to the left side of the heart
by the pulmonary veins. The oil had produced the same effect as an inert

292. _ Magendie on Absorption.»

the distention of the blood vessels that the diminution or
total want of absorption must be attributed. =
From that moment I became, as it were, completely mas-
ter of the phenomenon, which, until then, had been to me
an impenctrable mystery. Being now able to produce or
prevent its developement, to render it prompt or tardy, in-
tense or feeble, at pleasure, it was difficult that its nature
should entirely escape my investigation, = nowt
‘In reflecting on the constancy and the regularity of the
phenomenon, it seemed to me impossible to connect it with
what the physiologists term vital action, such as the action
of the nerves, the contraction of the muscles, the secretion
of the glands, &c. It was much more reasonable to com-
pare it with some physical effects: and among the conjec-
tures that may be permitted on the subject, that which
would make absorption depend on the capillary attraction of
the vascular membranes on the absorbed matter, was un-
doubtedly the most probable; this supposition agrees per-
fectly with all the facts observed. For, if we suppose this
cause to preside over the absorption, solid substances insol-
uble in our humours, being unable to traverse the mem-
branes of the small vessels, should resist absorption, which
is exactly the case: solids which, on the contrary, are capa-
ble of combining with our system, or of dissolving in the
blood, would be susceptible of being absorbed, which is al-
so conformable to observations. ‘The greater number of
liquids, whatever be their chemical natures, being capable
of wetting, or being promptly imbibed by the vascular
membranes, should be rapidly absorbed, this conclusion is"
confirmed by experience, even with the caustic liquids. In_
this hypothesis, the greater the distention of the vessels the
less marked would be the absorbing power, and the mo-
ment might arrive when that power would be no longer sen-

Feet

and impalpable powder, suspended in water, and which causes immediate
death if it be injected into the jugular vein, because it obstructs the last di- _
visions of the pulmonary artery. (See Vol. I. of my Elementary treatise -
of Physiology.) Not having sttceeded in the introduction of oil, I had re-_
course to a slight solution of gum-dragon, which produced exactly the same _
effect as the oil. After these trials] contented myself with injecting water
after having withdrawn the blood. These facts show how important itis”
that every thing which enters into circulation with the blood, should arrive —
there in exceeding small particles, and after being, as it were, strained —
through the agents of absorption. This use of the absorbing organs had
not, I believe, been heretofore observed. % hci

Magendie on Absorption. 293

sible. ‘The absorption would be more rapid in proportion
as the vessels became more numerous, and their size di-
rainished, because the absorbing surfaces would become
more extensive.

This action of the membranes once aed: nothing
can be easier than to comprehend how absorbed substances
are transported towards the heart, since they are constantly
drawn forward by the current which exists in the interior of
even the smoothest vessels.

I was so much tlie more willing to admit this supposition
as I well remembered that, on poisoning an animal by piere-
ing its thigh with a Java dart, all the softer parts which sur-
rounded the wound, to the A odee of several lines, turned
to a brownish yellow colour, and assumed the bitter savour
of the poison.

But a supposition which best connects a certain number
of phenomena, 1 is, at bottom, but a more convenient manner
of expressing them ; and only assumes the character of a
theory after being confirmed by direct experiments, suffi-
ciently varied to leave no room to doubt.

It therefore became necessary to continue my research-
es in order to determine at what point my supposition would
become inadmissible.

The affinity of the vascular membrane for the Aes
absorbed, being supposed to be the cause, or, at least, one
of the causes of absorption, this effect ought to take place as
well after the death as during the life of the animal. This
fact could be easily verified, for the vessels of a certain size ;
it is true that, taking into consideration their diameter, their
thickness and their smaller extent of surface compared with
the capacity of the canal, the experiment should present but
a feeble though still appreciable absorption.

I took therefore one end of the jugular vein of a dog,
which, in an extent of more than three centimeters (about
one and a quarter English inches) did not receive any
branch, and stripped it entirely of its surrounding cellular
substance ; ; L attached a glass tube to each extremity, by
which means I established a current of warm water in its
interior; I then plunged the vein ina slightly acidulated li-
quid, and carefully collected the liquid of the interior current.

From this disposition of the apparatus it is evident that
no communication could exist between the interior current
and the exterior acidulated liquid.

294. Magendre on Absorption.

During the first minutes of the experiment the liquid
which I gathered did not change its nature, and after twelve
or fifteen minutes it became sensibly eed; ; the gina
had taken place. ; van

repeated this experiment with veins taken from the hu-
man body, the effect was the same. ,

This phenomenon manifesting itself in the veins, [ ull
see no reason why it should not equally take place when ap-
plied to the arteries; I consequently made the experiment
on the carotid af a small dog which had died the preceding
day, the result I obtained was exactly similar; I remark-
ed moreover, that the absorption became more rapid i in pro~
portion as the acidity and eoapeeare of the exterior nants
were increased.

‘If the capillary absorption was produced on the large
blood vessels after death, why should not a similar effect
be produced on the same vessels i ina living state? ©

_ If experience did not give me this result, all my reason-
ings would be overthrown, and my supposition destroyed.
And I felt so much the less confidence in the success of the
experiment as I kept in mind the observations which we
daily hear of the changes which death operates in the phy S-
ical properties of our organs.

Nevertheless, as I had often found in my researches, dhe
advantages of doubting the exactness of generally re-
ceived opinions, I determined on making the following: ex-
periment. |

I took a young dog, of about six weeks old, at which: age
the vascular membranes, being very thin, are better adapted
to the success of the experiment. I uncovered one of the
jugular ves and isolated itcompletely throughoutits whole
length. I stripped it carefully of all its appendages, especial-
ly of the cellular substance, and of some small vessels which:
adhered to it: I placed it on a card in order to prevent its
having any point of contact with the surrounding parts.
Thus prepared, | dropped on the surface of the vein, and
opposite the middle of the card, a thick aqueous solution of
‘alcoholic extract of nux vomica, a substance which acts
with great energy on dogs; I! was very careful that no por-
‘tion of the poison should touch any part except the vein
and the card, and that the current of blood in the interior
should be unobstructed. Before the expiration of the

—————

dMagendie on Absorption. 295

fourth minute the effects which Lanticipated began to mani-
fest themselves, feebly at first, but afterwards with so much
activity that I was obliged to have recourse to pulmonary in-
flation to prevent the death of the animal. |
I intended to repeat this experiment, but I was unable to
procure any other than a full grown dog, much larger than
the former; the coats of his veins were consequently much
thicker. The same effects were produced, but, as might
have been expected, their appearance was much more tar-
dy ; and they were developed only after the tenth minute.
‘Satisfied with this result as to the veins, I was desirous of
ascertaining whether the arteries possessed analogous prop-
erties. Yet the arteries are not, in the living animal, in the
same physical condition as the veins; their texture is less
spongy and offers more consistence ; their tubes are much
thicker in proportion to their diameter, and they are, more-
over, constantly distended by the blood thrust forward from
the heart. It was, therefore, easy to foresee that, if the phe-

‘nomenon of absorption did really take place in the arteries,

the effects would become visible much later than in the
veins; this belief was fully confirmed by experience in the
case of two large rabbits; after having stripped with the
greatest care, one of the carotids in each of them, it was
more than a quarter-of an hour before the solution of nux
vomica could traverse the sides of the artery.

Although I ceased to wet the artery as soon as the effects
became visible, one of the rabbits died. And, to assure
myself that the poison had really traversed the coats (pa-
rois) of the artery, and that it had not beenabsorbed by the
small veins which might have-escaped my dissection, I care-
fully detached the vessel which had served for the experi-
ment, and opened it throughout its whole length; the per-
sons who were present tasted with me the small portion of
blood which remained adhering to the interior surface of the
artery, and we all found in it the extreme bitterness of the
extract of the nux vomica. :

Absorption by the large vessels was, therefore, well as-
certained to exist, as well during life as after death. It re-
mained only to furnish direct proof that the smaller vessels
possessed the same faculty ; their multiplicity, their ex-
treme tenuity, their thinness and the great extent of their
coats, were so many conditions which would tend to favouw
the production of the phenomenon.

296 Magendie on Absorption.

To develope it after death, it was necessary to find a
membrane in the vessels of which a current could be es-
tablished which should imitate the circulation of the blood.
J at first made choice of an intestinal part ; but was obliged
to renounce my experiment on account of 1 the extravasation
which took place in the cellular substance, and because the
liquid found great difficulty in passing from the artery ito
the veins. I next tookthe heart ofa dog which had died the
preceding day, and forced a quantity of water at the tem-
perature of 30° Centigrade (S6° Farenheit) into one of the
coronary arteries, the water returned with facility, by the
coronary veins, into the right auricle whence it ran into a
vase fixed for the purpose; I then poured half an ounce of
slightly acidulated water into the pericardium. At first, the
injected water gave no signs of acidity, but at the end of
five.or six minutes it presented unequivocal traces of acid.
‘The effect was then evident for the small vessels of a dead
animal, and J had no occasion to recur to new essays, or to
ehefies other animals to-prove that the same effect exists in
living ones. The experiments related in my memoir on the
organs of absorption in mammiferous animals (mammiferes )
leave no doubt on this subject, according to the judgment
of the academy itself.
_ But one possible objection remained to be removed,
which was, that the membranes which are permeable after
death, do not seem to be so during life; in the dead body
vthe bile transudes into the peritoneum, and tinges with yel-
low all the parts which exviron the gall-bladder, which ef-
feet does not appear to take place in the living animals; the
fact is true, I have witnessed it too often to be disposed t to
deny it; but it does not appear to me to be indispensably
necessary to draw thence the conclusion that the membranes
-are impermeable during life; for if we suppose that the
sides (coats) of the vesicle (gall- bladder) i in the living ani-
mals admit the process of the bile, the sanguiferous current
which exists in the small vessels of which these sides or
coats (parois) are principally composed, would carry off the
bile as fast as it impregnated them; this effect cannot take
place in the dead body, since the circulation no longer ex-
ists to carry off the matter which the vessels imbibe.

Besides, I have often observed that even in living a
the membranes are penetrated and coloured by substances

a on Absorption. 297

with which. they are in contact. For instance, if a certain
quantity of ink be introduced into the pleura of a young
dog, in an hour’s time the pleura, the pericardium, the in-
tercostal muscles, and the surface of the heart itself will be
sensibly tinged with black. (1)

It appears then to be established beyond all doubt, that
all the blood vessels, whether arterial or venous, great
or small, in dead bodies or in living ones, possess in their coats
(parois) a physical property by which we may perfectly ex-
plain, and to which we may reasonably refer all the princi-
pal phenomena of absorption. ‘To affirm that this property
1s the sole cause which produces that effect would be going
beyond the limits assigned by sound logic; but in the pres-
ent state of known facts, I am acquainted with none which
tend to invalidate this explanation ; on the contrary, they all
tend to confirm the exactness of it.

For example, Lavoisier and Mr. Seguin have proved, by
a series of interesting experiments, that the skin, while cov-
ered by its epidermis, does not absorb water, nor any other
substance. But the epidermis is of a different nature from the
vascular membranes ; it isa sort of varnish which does not
imbibe, as every one may observe on his own body while
bathing; but as soon as the epidermis is taken off, the skin
absorbs like all other parts of the body, because the sides
of the vessels are then immediately in contact with the sub-
stances destined to be absorbed. Hence the necessity of
placing beneath the epidermis the substances to be absorbed
in innoculation and vaccination; hence, also, the necessity
of long continued frictions ; and, often the employment of
greasy substances, to facilitate the absorption of certain
medicaments by the skin covered with its epidermis; hence,
likewise, the preference given to those parts of the body
where the epidermis is thinnest for the application of medi-
caments by friction.

| will cite, as another example, the absor ption hich takes
place by all parts of our bodies of the most irritating sub-
stances, and even of substances which are capable of pro-
ducing chemical changes in our organization. This effect
is entirely opposed to the supposition that absorption is a

(1) This effect is observable with still greater facility in smaller animals,
such as rabbits, guinea pigs, mice, &c. &e.

Vor. HIl....No. 2. 38

298 Magendie on Absorption.

mere vital action, and that the absorbing orifices exercise a
sort of choice; but it carries with it no degree of improba-
bility when once absorption is assimilated to a physical op-
eration.

These consequences have a relation not only to a healthy
state of the body; but how many pathological phenomena
may not be more easily understood and explained by com-
paring them with the experiments which I have related! —

The cure of the dropsy, of obstructions, and of inflamma-
tions by bleeding; the evident want of the action of medica-
ments in violent fevers, when the vascular system is strongly
distended; the practice of some physicians who purge and
bleed their patients preparatory to admmistering active med-
icines ; the employment of Peruvian bark during the re-
cess, and for the cure of intermitting fevers; the general
or partial Edema in cases of organic affections of the heart
or lungs; the use of ligatures applied to members that have
been stung or bitten by venomous animals, to prevent the
deleterious effects that would otherwise ensue, &c. &c.

As to the influence that the knowledge of these facts may
in future have over the manner of treating different affec-
tions, it appears to me likely that every physician sufficient-
ly enlightened to relinquish aneient prejudices, will find in
the single circumstance of the greater or less absorbing pow-
er of the blood vessels, in proportion as they are more or
less distended, a fruitful source of curative indications. —

From the above experiments I conclude that the capilla-
ry attraction of the smaller blood-vessels, appears to be the

cause, or, more properly, one of the causes of what is
termed venous absorption.

This conclusion does not, in any manner, interfere with
the absorption of chyle which is effected in the small intes-
tines by the chylous vessels; an absorption with which
shall occupy myself specially hereafter; still less does it in-
terfere with the absorbing power of the lymphatic vessels ;
nevertheless, the experiments above described seem to in-
dicate that if, in most cases, these vessels do not absorb, this
circumstance is owing to the want of a current in their
interior, and not to any particular quality of the vessels them
selves, which possess the same physical genie: as the
veins.

In supposing that I am not mistaken, either in the facts
which I have related, or in the consequences I have de-.

Magendie on Absorption. 299

duced therefrom, I should even then, only have ex-
plained the absorption of substances which are soluble
in our humours; gases and vapours cannot be submit-
ted to capillary attraction, and yet, every one knows that
these bodies are absorbed, and that often, with great rapidi-
ty. An animal plunged into sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
and immediately withdrawn, is often struck with death. 2!
have seen rabbits die fron a single inspiration of prussic va-
pour. How can these phenomena be explained ?

To understand them, we must remember that the mem-
branes of animals seem to offer but a feeble resistance to
the free circulation of the gases and vapours. Blood con-
tained in a bladder, reddens at its surface as though it were
in Immediate contact with oxygen gas; pure hydrogen gas,
confined ina bladder, promptly acquires its detonating qual-
lity, if the bladder remain exposed to the atmosphere. On
the other hand, we are acquainted with many physiological
facts in which the living membranes conduct in the same
manner. The venous blood reddens in the lungs, when it is
separated from the air only by the vascular membrane ; the
same effect is produced in the gills of fishes. The beauti-
ful experiments of Mr. Edwards have recently proved that
the skins of certain reptiles offer a phenomenon entirely an-
alagous.

Ihave myself lately proved that, in birds and young mam-
miferous animals, the blood reddens, and assumes the arte-
rial qualities, in the jugular vein when uncovered and ex-
posed to the air, if the precaution be taken to slacken the
circulation by a slight pressure on the lower extremity (ex-
tremite cardiaque) of the vein.

It appears, therefore that the absorption of the gases and
vapours, should be attributed to the permeability of the liv-
ing membranes to those bodies. The theory of that per-
'meability is not yet well understood, notwithstanding the ef-
forts of some celebrated men, such as Priestly and Dalton ;
but here physiology must stop, and depend for its future
progress, on the advances of physical science.

300 Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections.

Arr. X.—On the application of Medico-Chemistry to Cal-

culous Affections; by the late Enwarp D. Suiru,*
M. D. Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy, in the
South- Carolina College. i B

Tue benefits which are continually resulting from chem-
ical investigations, are peculiarly striking in the application
of such investigations to the advancement of medical sci-
ence. For, although it must be confessed that a rash en-
thusiasm may have unwisely attempted to explain the mys-
teries of some Phenomena, that are observed in the living
system, by the analogy of the results of the action of chem-
ical agents upon dead matter, it must be granted that there
are cases, in which the useful application of chemical know!-
edge is conspicuous. Animal chemistry is undoubtedly a
complicated subject, and from its nature, must necessarily
be involved in much obscurity ; but ingenious and patient
analyses have already developed some facts in connexion
with this branch of the science, that are exceedingly im-
portant and interesting and well calculated to display some
of the causes of imperfection in the healing art. ‘The la-
bours of Scheele, Wollaston, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Pear-
son, Berzelius and others, in the analyses of urine and uri-
nary calculi, have diffused upon these subjects, a light that -
is very cheering to the friends of science and humanity.
We are now enabled totake a clear and satisfactory view of
what was heretofore involved in much doubt; and instead
of timidly groping in the blind paths of empiricism, we may
walk boldly upon the highway of correct principles. This
is the sure road, and if we are careful not to deviate from it,
must gradually conduct us towards the attainment of our ob-
ject. It has been truly observed by the editors of the Ed-
inburgh Review “that caleulous complaints are among the
worst of human maladies, and that to investigate the nature
of the stone, for the purpose of discovering solvents, which
might remove it, has accordingly been long considered as
one of the noblest problems in practical chemistry, and

*This is the last communication for. this Journal with waich the editor was
favoured by the respectable and estimable author of this memoir; it was
transmitted a little before his death, but it has not been convenient to pub-
lish it before.—Iin. ;

Prof. E. D. Simth on Calculous Affections. 3034

among the best services which that science could render to
the healing art.””*

In this grand and humane enterprise, omitting the men-
tion of inferior names, the genius of a Black was exerted in
vain; and we are now reluctantly compelled to concede
that itis hopeless to search for solvents of caleulous concre-
tions in the living system. But, although the researches of
the chemist have, in this instance, failed to discover a reme-
dy for a deplorable evil, they have nevertheless produced a
great benefit by suggesting the means of preventing a calam-
_ ity, which they cannot remove when it is once formed. The
able experiments and reasonings of Mr. Brande, the pres-
ent chemical lecturer at the Royal Institution, London, aided
by the practical experience of Sir Everard Home, have
greatly elucidated this subject and are calculated to afford
much instruction and consolation to the scientific and philan-
thropic inquirer. From their investigations, together with
those of the philosophers already nam would seem that
the components of calculi are often different from each oth-
er and that upon their specific nature must depend the
use of the preventwe remedy.

Here it is that chemical knowledge is of signal benefit
and affords usa clue in a labyrinth, that would otherwise be
impervious. A kind providence often furnishes premonito-
ry symptons of threatening dangers, and by a timely atten-
tion to these, an impending evil may be averted. Thus it
has been ascertained by chemical analysis, that the urine is
a very compound fluid, containing both acids and alkalies
in various states of combination, but so adjusted as that the
whole should present an apparently uniform and homogene-
ous mass in the healthy state—by disease, these circum-
stances may be altered, and there may be an undue pre-
dominance of acid or alkaline matter, both tending to pro-
duce calculous concretions and requiring different modes of
treatment. Observation has proved that the greater num-
ber of these concretions consist of uric acid, -principally,
while the remainder are formed by certain neutral salts, or
earths, which ought to be held in solution by an excess of
acid, but are deposited in the bladder in consequence of
disease. Happily, before any such depositions take place,

* See No, 33, 1810.

302» Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections.

a change in the qualities and appearance of the urine gen-
erally indicates the approaching mischief and affords the
opportunity of arresting its progress. When the uric acid
is In excess, it occasions irritation in the urinary passages
and finally, a discharge of very small crystals, like red sand:
and when the alkaline salts predominate, a fine white and
sandy substance is voided.*

A previous knowledge of the subject and a proper atten-
tion to these indications will generally enable us to apply
correct remedies and thus to destroy in the germ what
would be irremediable’at maturity.

Without stopping to investigate the fact, whether there
may be a short and direct communication from the stomach
to the bladder, or whether this communication may depend
upon the retrograde action of the absorbents, it will be suf-
ficient to assert what has been proved by numerous experi-
ments, that the character of the urine can be changed by
substances, that ‘taken into the stomach. Its nad
state of free acidity can be entirely altered and it can
be made obviously alkaline in its nature ; and upon this cir-
cumstance has been grounded the practice of administering
alkalies for the relief of gravelly complaints. This seems
to have been the practice of the ancient Greek physicians,
as stated in the second volume of Johnson’s Animal Chem-
istry, and it is well known to have been that of the mod~
ens, from the era of Mr. Steven’s celebrated lithontrip-
tic down to the present time. A little reflection will satisfy
that this mode of practice has been too empirical ; for if
chemical analyses have demonstrated that calculous concre-
tions are sometimes of opposite natures, it must be allowed
that the same remedy cannot be adapted to every kind. Ii
is then surely incumbent upon the physician to ascertain the
real nature of the case; and, from the want of knowledge
to do so, there can be fe donk that such diseases, instead
of being relieved, have often been aggravated. To this
difference in the constitution of calculous matter it is owing
that both the strong and the weak acids have sometimes
been used with eminent benefit; and yet the indiscriminate
prescription ofacids would frequently produce the most seri-
ous injury.

* London Medical and Physical Journal, Vol. 30, page 327, &.

Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections. 803

Admitting, however, that satisfaction has been obtained
with regard to the peculiar nature of the disease, a question
of much importance still remains to be discussed.

In the case of a tendency to form uric calculi, which are
supposed to be the most common, it is not a matter of in-
difference what particular alkali is used to counteract this

‘tendency. ‘Mr. Brande clearly shows that an alkali, ad-

ministered to a calculous patient, stands no chance of reach-
ing the uric concretion in a caustic state; for the ure con-
tains both phosphoric and carbonic acid uncombined. But
experiment clearly shows that neither carbonates nor sub-
carbonates exert any sensible action on uric acid: in other
words the affinity of the uric acid for alkalies is weaker than
the affinity of carbonic acid for the same bodies: therefore
alkaline liquors cannot act as solvents of the uric caleuli.”*

Experiments made upon healthy urine, tend to show that
the internal use of sub-carbonates of pot-ash and soda oc-
casions a considerable and speedy deposition of the phos-
phates (a circumstance, that ought to excite a caution in the
fashionable use of soda-water, by persons in health) proba-
bly by neutralizing the free acids, which hold these salts in
solution; while the similar use of the alkaline earth, mag-
nesia, does not produce this effect but in a very limited de-
gree. Hence the inference has been drawn, that in calcu-
lous cases, which need alkaline remedies, magnesia is to be
preferred; and the particular mode of its action has beer
accounted for, both by the assumption that the disposition
to generate uric acid in undue quantity commences in the
stomach, and by the fact, that magnesia from its insoluble
nature, will remain in the stomach long enough to combine
with any acid that may be formed there—if this acid does

not exist in the stomach, the use of the sub-carbonates of

potash and soda does little good ; because, from their great
solubility, they are carried too rapidly out of the seat of
disease and being conveyed into the bladder, may pro-
duce injury there by causing a deposition, which would not
otherwise have taken place, while magnesia, retarded by its
uisolubility, acts efficaciously upon the acid and is totally
neutralized by it. In case of no acid existing, then both
the sub-carbonated alkalies and magnesia will be injurious,

* Edinburgh Review. November 1820.

304 = Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections.

as will be noticed hereafter. ‘The carbonated alkalies will
be likely to prove less i injurious than the sub-carbonates, be-
cause their greater proportion of acid will tend to prevent
the deposition of the phosphates in the bladder: but
at the same time they are equally inert as the sub- carbonates
as to the acids* in the stomach.

The preceding reasoning is amply confirmed by direct
- experiments, upon cases of uric acid, with alkaline carbo-
nates and sub-carbonates and with magnesia. The result
proved that the use of magnesia ereatly relieved or entire-
ly removed the symptoms of uric acid, while the other rem-
edies produced no such effect.

I have been led to pay more particular attention to this ;
subject, from the circumstance of my own case, which is-
believed to have been of the nature alluded to, and a suc-
cinct account of which may serve to shew a practical con-—
nexion between some remarks that have already been, and
some that are yet to be made. an

During a considerable portion of the year 1817, Thad
lived in a very sedentary manner and for some part of the
time was unusually abstemious in diet, closely confined in
the damp walls of a new brick haiti g, which was fre-
quently neither well ventilated nor warmed. In November,
I experienced several short and pungent attacks of a pain
im the right side, and near the region of the kidneys, which
were removed in a little time by a stimulating potion ; but
at length, in a few hours after drinking a glass of wine,
from which I had long abstained, a severe and most distres-
sing paroxysm came on and continued for several hours.
Some of the symptoms indicated a violent, flatulent cholic,
while from others it might be concluded that either rheu-
matism, or the passage of calculous matter fron the kidney
to the bladder was the cause of suffering. Considerable
eructations took place, there was acute and fixed misery in

the loin and hip of that side, and frequent shooting and
lancinating pains down the right thigh urethra, &c. but
there was no nausea of the stomach nor febrile affection.

Stimulating potions were used, and also embrocations and

Nv ¥
* We presume that the writer intended to restrict this remark to the uric
acid, for it is notorious that the carkonate, &c, neutralize and remove acids
in the stomach. —ED.

Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections. 305

enemas without relief. Castor oil was also given; but the
suffering continued for several hours, until at length sleep
was gradually induced, and I awoke with no other sensation
than a soreness of the parts, which had been affected. No
such violent attack occurred again, neither did the urine at
any time, exhibit any other appearance of disease than an
unusually rapid separation of its mucous particles. Ina
little while however, it was observed that a few hours of
close application to study, standing for a short time, or any
exposure to cold, always induced a considerable pain in the
back, hip and urethra; and when this pain was present,
the calls to void urine were more frequent and its passage
through the canal occasioned great irritation—and finally
this acrimony increased so much as to produce slight he-

maturia and the discharge of small membranaceous fila-
ments. Abstraction from mental employment, equal and

comfortable temperature, and moderate exercise, together
with a regular and more generous diet, afforded much tem-~
porary relief. ‘To make this benefit more permanent a
journey, of several weeks duration was undertaken; but
there wassuch aconstant succession of wet and cold weather
that I returned with deteriorated health, and the distressing
sensations in the urethra became so great, that frequently
they prevented sleep, and these sensations were much ag-
gravated by the use of any indigestable food and particular-
ly by wine. ‘The whole system began to sink under con-

tinued suffering and gloomy apprehensions, and in this state

I resolved again to consult an ingenious medical friend, of
this town, who had before aided me with his advice. It
was his opinion that an acrimony of the fluids was exhibit-
ing itself in the urine and was probably the principal cause
of the symptoms, and if not arrested that it would termi-
nate in the formation of calculous concretions. The sub-
carbonate of soda had been already used without apparent
benefit and therefore, for the reason stated in a preceding
part of this memoir, it was determined to make use of mag-
nesia. Doses of a tea spoonful each, twice in the day,
were exhibited for several days, and, although at first con-
siderably purgative, they soon ceased to be so. The un-
pleasant sensations were gradually ameliorated, and at the
end of four days disappeared altogether. Since that time

occasional imprudencies in diet or much confinement have
Vor. HV.....No. 2. 39

306 = Prof. E. D. Smith on Caleulous Affections.

occasioned slight returns of the complaint, but two or three
doses of magnesia have never failed to remove it. And it
appears to be not an unfair inference that the injurious ac-
rimony was generated in the stomach and therefore quickly
and efficaciously counteracted by the internal use of the al-
kaline earth.

‘To attempt a practical provement of the preceding ae
tails, 1 would offer the following suggestions.

1. Has not the doctrine of the humoral pathology been
ioo hastily and entirely disearded, and would not the admis-
sion of it, to a certain extent, fend to elucidate some of the
phenomena, connected with our subject : if

The extravagance of theorists, in almost any depieiaant
of science, has sometimes carried them so far beyond
the bounds of rational induction, as to involve in one com-
mon condemnation both truth and error; and this perhaps,
has been the fate of the Humoral Pathology. Very lately
this subject has been ably treated by Professor Cooper, of
Philadelphia, in his ingenious discourse upon the connex~
ion of chemistry with medicine, and in which it has been
plainly shewn that the applications of chemical science
throw much light upon the reprobated doctrine. As an ad-
ditional proof to what has been there and elsewhere stated
of active substances being found in different viscera of the
human body, after being taken into the stomach, it may
be observed that Mr. L’Heiminier, an able French chem-
ist and naturalist, now resident in Charleston, found the
phosphate of mercury in the urine of a child, that had been
taking calomel internally forsome time previously.

2. Is it not of great importance that those, who undertake
to practice the healing art, should be well acquainted with the
principles of chemical science, inasmuch as it is only by such
an acquaintance that they can, in many cases, be directed
to a correct understanding of the subject before them? The
observations which have been made respecting the use of
remedies in calculous complaints, obviously indicate the ne-
cessity of a well informed and discriminating judgment, and
they prove farther that a particular knowledge is requisite
for the successful treatment of the diseases of such com-
pound fluids, as are found in the living system—the very
nature of such fluids demanding an accurate and compe-
tent attention to the various changes, which may be produ-

Prof. E. D. Snvith on Caleulous Affections. 307

ced in them by the ae continued use of particular sub-
stances. Thus, although a tendency to form uric calculi
. indicates the propriety of using alkaline remedies, it is cer-
tainly of consequence what peculiar alkalies are employed
and a judicious selection can proceed only from an acquaint-
ance with the specific and distinguishing properties of each.
May it not be apprehended that a want of due attention to this
subject has retarded the progress of medical science, and
ought not any opinion in favour of such neglect, to be com-
batted as a dangerous error?

3. From the. knowledge of the composition of urine and
of urinary calculi, should not even the really scientific phy-
sician proceed with caution in the use of his remedies?
This query is connected with the fact, that not only do dif-
ferent calculous affections require distinct and totally oppo-
site remedies, but also on another circumstance. A reme-
dy, which is demanded in a certain state of things, may,
by its too long continuance, not only counteract the evil,
which it was intended to do, but it may produce an oppo-
site and equally injurious state. In such a case the chem-
ical knowledge of the prescriber could alone direct the
course, that should be pursued. From the analyses of
healthy urine it appears to be granted that when it is first
_voided, an acid character predominates, and it is believed
that a certain degree of this predominance is necessary, for
the purpose of holding in solution the various neutral salts,
with which the urine is charged; now, if this be the fact, it
is easy to conceive that an increased quantity of this acid
will occasion disease of one kind, and a diminished propor-
tion that of another.

If therefore, in the attempt to remove the former state,
the remedies employed, be pushed too far, there can be no
doubt that the latter would be induced.

To possess then the knowledge, that would be requisite
for maintaining in equilibrium these easily alternating con-
ditions of the system, as also to select the preferable reme-
dy for any determinate class, must be highly advantageous,
if not indispensable. Numerous experiments, connected
with this subject, have induced Mr. Brande (London Medi-
eal and Physical Journal, Vel. 30) to draw the following
therapeutical conclusions.

308 Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous Affections.

1. “‘ That where alkalies fail to relieve the increased se-
cretion of uric acid and to prevent its forming calculi in the
kidneys, or where they disagree with the stomach, magnesia
is generally effectual; and that it may be persevered 1 in for
a considerable time, Gillon inconvenience, where the ten-
dency to form excess of uric acid remains. :

2. ‘‘ When the alkalies or magnesia are unpropetly con-
tinued, after having relieved the symptoms connected with
the formation of the red sand or uric acid, the urine ac-
quires a tendency to deposit the white sand, consisting of the
are magnesian phosphate and phosphate of lime:

3. “The mineral. acids (muriatic, sulphuric and nitric)
diminish or entirely prevent the deposition of the phos-
Pate but are apt to induce a return of the red gravel.

. “That vegetable acids, especially the citric and tar-
wee are less liable to produce the last mentioned | effects,
even when taken in large doses for a long time ; and that
carbonic acid is particularly useful in cases, her the irrita-
ble state of the bladder prevents the exhibition of other
remedies.”

Under this head perhaps it would be well to notice that,
in some cases, the long continued use of magnesia in large
doses seems to have produced bad effects, by occasioning a
mechanical constipation of the bowels, (see Journal of Sci-
ence and the Arts, No. 2

4, As calculous complaints are maladies of such a griev-
ous nature, would it not be practicable to prevent them
by an early and assiduous attention to diet, habits of life,
&c.—and is it not probable that such attention would be effi-
cacious, from the analogy between arthritic and calculous
affections, as ascertained by Dr. Wollaston’s analysis of
gouty concretions ?

In cases of gout, even where accompanied with an he-
reditary diathesis, it is well known that a rigid adherence to
a particular plan will greatly mitigate, if not prevent, that
disease 5 and analogical reasoning would infer the probable
success of a similar practice in cases of calculus. To ac-
quire the inforination that would be valuable here, it would
be necessary to have accurate accounts of the ages, em-
ployments, diet and constitutions of those, who have been
known to be afflicted with calculous complaints. In a late
valuable work on caleulous disorders, Dr. Marcet, of Lon-

Prof. E. D. Smith on Calculous “Affections. 309

don, has furnished some information of this kind, and it is
much to be regretted that his materials were so scanty.
From his table it appears that out of five hundred and six
calculous subjects only twenty-eight were females. Upon
this fact some useful reasoning might perhaps be founded.
The habits of females are, commonly speaking, more seden-
tary than those of males, and yet it has been generally ad-
mitted that men, of sedentary lives, are more liable to calculi
than others ; but may it not be questioned whether in such
cases the influence of diet has not been too much overlook-
ed? Is it not a general fact that females are more tempe-
rate in their diet than males; and again, resorting to the
analogy with gout, do we not find that the proportion of wo-
men, affected with this disease, is much less than that of
men’ With regard to calculous complaints, I am aware
that anatomical reasons would make their occurrence less
frequent in women than in men; but this difference can
scarcely account for the vast disproportion, which has been
observed. '

Dr. Marcet’s table shows that nearly one half of the cal-
culous patients were under fourteen years of age, and that
these children were only from the poor classes; a strong
argument in favor of the influence of diet in promoting such
diseases. That the diet of an animal has an important ef-
fect upon the disposition to produce particular calculi may
be inferred from what is stated by Dr. Wollaston, (London
Med. and Phys. Jour. Vol. 25) respecting the proportion of
uric acid found in the excrements of different birds, which
had been nourished by different kinds of food. From this
it appears, that those which consumed the most animal mat-
ter, furnished the greatest proportion of uric acid, while the
herbiverous animals exhibited an inconsiderable quantity.

To the supposed influence of diet it may be objected that
persons, sedentary from their occupations or from their be-
ing confined by wounds, Nc. to the horizontal. posture, are
peculiarly liable to urinary calculi: but this hability may
probably be attributed to the following causes. 1. Such
persons are subject to indigestion, whatever may be their
diet, and then the acid is found tooabundantly. 2. Finding
that their situation makes vegetable food peculiarly indi-
gestible and productive of inconvenience, they may resort
chiefly to animal, which is far more productive of the acids.

310 ProftE. D. Smith on Calculous Affections.

In connection es this part of the subject would it not be
a valuable, pathological fact to ascertain, whether females i In
general, and male children are more subject to one peculiar
kind of calculus than to another; and _ whether this is like-
wise the pase; with regard to male ae at different Lee
ods of life ?

It might also be an useful inguiry, what influence liens
has in producing such a state of the system as favors the
formation of calculous matter. We are told that such dis-
eases are exceedingly rare, either in very hot or very cold
countries ; and to discover whether the extremes of tem-
perature prevent such alterations of the digestive powers,
as take place in more temperate climates, would therefore
be an interesting physiological fact. ss

From all that has been now said, may it not be inferred
that, with respect to uric calculi at least, their formation is
generally preceded by an impaired state oe the digestive or-
gans, which state may be produced either by diet too luxu-
tious or too much impoverished, by occupations of too
sedentary a nature, by uninterrupted mental pursuits, by
confinement, even in active employments, toa close room,
&e.: a combination of two of more of these causes being
sufficiently injurious, although one alone might not be so.
And if this influence be correct, the propriety of using rem-
edies that act chemically upon ‘the fluids, while the other
plain indications are likewise attended to, is sufficiently evi- ~
dent.

Hoping that this imperfect essay will incite the inquirer
after knowledge to investigate, for himself, the sources of in-
formation as to this interesting subject, among such I would
take the liberty to mention the 22d,.23d, 24th, 25th, 30th
and 34th volumes of the London Medical and Physical
- Journal, and Dr. Marcet’s treatise upon calculous disorders,
observing however that of this last work I have seen only a
review, but that I entertain no doubt of its being the most
satisfactory which has yet appeared.

_ Sonuary, 1819.

On Printing Presses and their Theory. 311

MECHANICS AND ARTS, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS,
1 tig :
Art. [X.—On some recent improvements in the construction
of the Printing Press; with a particular notice of that
lately invented by Mr. John I. Wells, of Hartford, Ct.
by A. M. Fisuer, Professor of Mathematics and Natu-
ral Philosophy in Yale College.

Tue principal defect in printing presses of the ordinary
construction, so far as the mechanism employed to procure
again of power is concerned, consists in the want of adap-
tation of this power to the variable resistance which is to be
overcome. ‘The elastic substances interposed between the
form of types and the platen, present at first a compara-
tively trifling resistance ; but it gradually increases as the
platen descends, and must finally be made immensely
great, in order to attach the ink with sufficient firmness to
the paper. But to overcome this resistance the mechanical
advantage furnished by the screw is perfectly uniform. 'To
make up for the want of an increasing advantage in the me-
chanism, the pressman is obliged to place his body in such
an attitude that his weight shall conspire with the force of
his museles, and to exhaust on the bar as much motion as
he can accumulate in a pull of three feet, in order to give it
a species of percussive effect. Hence the employment of
pulling at the common press has been always regarded as
one of the severest kinds of labour; nor has it been repre-
sented without reason as often ‘‘ destructive of health and
life.”

It has long been an object with those interested in the
improvement of the art of printing, to introduce into the
press a variable power, which shall increase with the resist-
ance to be overcome, and thus render the pull on the bar a
nearly equable one throughout. ‘The earliest contrivance
for this purpose which appears to have been in any degree
suecessful, was that of Mr. Roworth, a London printer.* In
his press the screw was dispensed with, and a plain spindle
-substituted in its place. ‘To the under side of the head o1

* See art. Printing, Rees’ Cyc. fora more full account of this construction.

312 On Printing Presses and their Theory.

summer, ete the spindle was inserted, was attached a
species of inclined plane, rounded off so as to have a varia-
ble inclination. Through the spindle immediately beneath
ran a cross bar, which ‘plied against this winding surface,
and forced the spindle down as it was turned round ; rapidl
at first, but more slowly as the inclination diminished, ae
at last with a velocity as trifling as was shewn by experi-
ence to put the press into the best working state. In a
press recently invented by Mr. Medhurst, an ingenious Eng-
lishman, the power is gained by means of two iron rods,
one on each side of the spindle. ‘These rods pass down
from the summer to the top surface of a circular enlarge-
ment of the spindle, and rest at each end in hollows which
allow them a racking motion. The two extremities of each
are equidistant from the centre of the spindle, but are pla-
ced in a winding position when the platen is raised. The
bar turns the spindle partly round, and moves the lower
ends of the rods so that they come towards a vertical posi-
tion, and bear down the platen with that kind of i increasing.
mechanical power which every one has seen exemplified in
bringing a prop erect by driving at right angles again the
bottom.*

But in most of the recent attempts to improve ‘the con-
struction of the printing press, a kind of mechanical power
has been resorted to in different forms, somewhat different
from either of the foregoing; one which is well known to
every theoretical and practical mechanician, but which has
scarcely acquired a distinct name. To attempt to reduce it
to the head of the lever or wedge, as has been sometimes
done, appears an unwarrantable extension of the meaning
of these terms; and yet I know not how to designate the
principle better than to call it that of combined levers. It is
ihe power of thrusting possessed by the outer extremities of
two straight rods, placed obliquely end to end or riveted to-
gether, when the moving force is applied to bring, ‘them
straight. Let a pair of compasses, or a carpenter’s rule the
iwo halves of which shut together with a joint, be opened
nearly straight and placed between two parallel obstacles :
on taking the rivet between the thumb and finger and vary-
ing the angle, it will require no skill in mechanics to discoy-

* The principle of this combmation will be investigated in the Supple-
ment,

On Printing Presses and their Theory. 313

er that there is a gain of power, which gradually imcreases
as the two halves approach a straight line, and becomes im-
mensely great at the moment this position is attained. The
thrust of two such arms is precisely the same, and varies ac-
cording to the same law for different angles, as the pull in
the simplest case of the funicular polygon ; that is, when a
rope is tended by a certain force and is drawn aside from
a rectilineal position by pulling at the middle. _

This principle is introduced «in different forms into the
Ruthven, Stanhope, and Columbian. presses. In that in-
vented by Earl Stanhope itis employed to give a diminish-
ing velocity to the screw: in the Columbian press of Mr.
Clymer, it is employed to give a diminishing velocity to a
large lever of the second kind, which is substituted for the
screw. ‘These two presses, especially the latter, from their
durability, the neatness and uniformity of the impression
they produce, and the diminution of labour they occasion
to the pressman, have been justly held in high estimation.
To the excellence of the Columbian press, honorable testi-
monies have been borne in foreign countries: among others
has been a present of six thousand rubles to the inventor
from the Emperor of Russia.

But of all the presses which act on the principle of com-
pound leverage, the one recently invented by Mr. Wells,
of Hartiord in this State, appears to possess the highest re-
commendations. It has now been in operation in various
parts of the country more than two years,—a period suffi-
ciently long to furnish an experimental test of its excel-
lence ; and it seems due no less to the interests of the me-
chanical arts in this country than to the ingenious and wor-
thy inventor, that a more particular account of it than has
hitherto appeared should be given to the public..

A perspective view of this elegant piece of mechanism is
given, plate II, fig. 1. The frame is of iron, cast (with the
exception of the feet) ina single piece; and is of such form
and dimensions as to be incapable of springing, while the
press is in operation. The platen (4) is of cast iron, and is
of the dimensions of an entire form. The circular projec-
tion in the middle, with six radiating pieces, gives it an am-
ple degree of firmness. ‘The platen is immediately acted on
by bringing nearly into a straight le the two main levers
(6) and (17). These levers, in presses of the mdi sIze,

Vor. UIL.....No, 2. 40

314 On Printing Presses and their Theory.

are fifteen inches each in length ; 3 and in the position repre-
sented in the figure, which is that of the greatest obliquity,
they want two and a quarter inches at their point of contact
of being straight.» The lower end of each lever is four inch-
es broad, and is rounded off into a portion of a cylindrical
surface of half an inch radius. A piece of steel fixed within
the circular projection in the middle of the platen has a hol-
low bush or bed of corresponding figure: in this the lower
end of the lever (17) is set: The upper end of this lever is
hollowed out in the same manner to receive the lower end
of (6); and the upper end of (6) to receive a projection
from the under side of the top of the frame. At (5) there
is a provision for raising or lowering this projection by slips
of sheet iron or tin, and thus adjusting the position of the
levers to the best working state. The ends of the levers
and the beds in which they rest are overlaid with steel, and
the beds are so contrived as permanently to retain a small
quantity of oil. (9) is a spindle of wrought iron fastened at
the upper end by ascrew and nutto the shorter arm of the bal-
ance lever (7), and branching below into three parts, each of
which is attached by an adjusting screw to the platen. This
answers the double purpose of keeping the platen steady,
and enabling the weight (18) attached to the longer arm of
the lever (7) to hit the platen and carry back the bar imme-
diately after each pull. The platen is still farther guided
by lateral projections which run in grooves — with
the cheeks of the press.

The mode in which the movement of the working bar

_ (12) is transmitted to the main levers, will be best under-

~

stood from Fig. II. which is a representation of the parts 11,
12, 13 and 15, as they would appear to an eye looking down
upon the press from above. The bar BA (the lever work-
ed with the hand) is. inserted into a strong cast iron roller
(13), which turns in sockets secured to the right cheek of
the press. From this roller, about six inches above the bar,
proceeds an arm AC three inches in length, and to the ex- |
iremity of this is connected by a joint the driving lever CD,
twenty-one and a half inches long. The extremity D is
connected in a similar way with ey iron rod EF, one end
of which slides in a pewter guide (represented by 10, in
Fig. 1.) while the other end is fastened by a hook and eye
to the upper main lever (6), at the distance of an inch from

Gn Printing Presses and their Theory. = 318

ithe bottom. (16) is a bar check, which limits the revolu-
tion of the bar to a precise are. "The carriage part of the
press, which stands in front of the upright iron frame, pre-
sents nothing materially different from the Columbian press,
and will not require a particular description.

The operation of the mechanism will now, it is believed,
be sufficiently apparent. When the bar BA is brought
round, the roller A and the arm AC are made to turn with
it: this drives forward the lever CD, and this in its turn
gives motion to EF, which by means of the elbow at F
brings the two main levers (6) and (17) towards the posi-
tion of a straight line. As the movement of the bar is con-
tinued, the mechanical advantage not only increases from
the gradual approach of the two main levers to a vertical po-
sition, but from the approach of AC and CD towards a
straight line. The combination is therefore one which is
eminently adapted to effect that rapid increase of power
near the end of the pull, which has been already mentioned
as the great desideratum in the construction of this part of
the printing press. ‘To determine the actual gain of power
atthe beginning and at the end of the pull, measures have
been taken from an individual press, of the lines necessary
for the computation. When the bar was thrown back, the
angle ACD (of the triangle ADC formed by joining the
three centres of motion with straight lines) was found to be
=113° 52/, CDA=7° 12’, and the distance of the centre of
motion of the two adjacent ends of the main levers from the
Straight line joining their outer extremities =21 inches.
The length of AC was 31, and the distance from A to the
part of the handle where the hand was generally applied
was 24 inches. Hence, as will appear from the theorems
annexed to this paper, the gain of power will be found by
compounding the four following ratios: 24 to 33, Cos. 7°
12!to Sint/ 113° 52',.:15" to 2x 23, and 14 to 15; which
gives a total of 20 to 1.

At the end of the pull, the angle ACD =1720, the angle
CDA=1° 3', and the distance of the vertical levers from a
straight line, acounding to the specification of the inventor,
which was found nearly exact, = halfaninch. Hence the
gain of power will be found by compounding the following
fuss 24 to 34, Cos. 1° 3’ to Sin. 172°, 15 to 2x4, and
14 to 15; which gives a result of 763 to 1.

316° = On Printing Presses and their Theory.

It thus appears that the power gained is about siemens
times greater at the end than at the beginning of the pull.
While the re-action of the elastic substances which form
the tympan is small, the mechanical advantage is small, and
the platen is. brought down rapidly ; but as the resistance
increases, the power gained undergoes somewhat more than
even a proportional increase, so that during the last mo-
ments of the revolution, the pull actually grows somewhat
easier. Jn consequence of this, although the bar is stopped
suddenly by the action of the check, nothing of that violent
jar is produced on the arm, which is ‘so serious an incon-
venience in the common press; and to relieve which most
pressmen find it necessary to sacrifice a part of the force
exerted by inserting an ore sag we over Jap tenons of
the summer. “6

~ Let us now compare fee a moment the sgehauiely fonte
vantage furnished by this combination with that furnished
by the screw of the ordinary press. In all presses alike,
ihe perpendicular motion of the platen may be regarded as
a constant quantity. It must necessarily rise a sufficient
distance to allow the thickness of the tympan frame to pass
freely under it. The distance allowed for this purpose ap-
pears to be in general about 2 of an inch. But in addition
to this, in the screw press, we must allow at least1of an
inch for the spring of the summer; making the vertical dis-
tance described by the interior relatively to the exterior
serew half an inch. Then supposing the length of the pull
to be no greater than in the Lever press, the mechanical ad-
vantage gained will be uniformly 44:1. But if we sup-
pose, as is generally the the case in fact, that the distance
described by the hand is greater by about a foot, (although
the increase of the distance is in reality only an exchange of
one disadvantage for another,) the power gained will be
uniformly 66 to 1. Hence, on the most favourable hy pothe-
sis, the strength of the pull at the last point, independently
of the force already accumulated in the body, ay be but

1. as great in the Lever as in the screw préss; or? as great,
if but half a form is worked at once with the latter.* og

* The force actually exerted at the last point of the: Uestehakion of the read
in the Lever press, was found by measurement to be on an average, for the
Rentess kinds of work 30 lbs. ; for the heaviest, 45.

Wwe

9 On Printing Presses and their Theory. 317

must not be supposed however that this ratio is a fair crite-
rion of the total strength exerted. This is probably about
half or 2 as great, in the former as in the latter. When a
pressure is to be produced between the paper and form of
types of from 25 to 35,000 pounds, it is not in the power of
mechanism to supersede the application of a considerable
aggregate force to the bar. The superiority of the Lever
press lies much more in the equalization of the force which
it occasions, than in the reduction of its total amount. It is
true at the same time that the Lever press does considerably
diminish the total force of the pull; but it is chiefly by per-
mitting a diminution in the thickness of the elastic substan-
ces which form the tympan, and dispensing with the spring
of the summer,—not from the peculiar nature of the mechan-
ism which effects the gain of power.

By admitting the two main levers (6) and (17), or the
two horizontal ones AC and CD to come much nearer to a
straight line, a far greater mechanical advantage might have
been obtained ; but it would have been of no practical use.
The inventor has rightly judged that it is time to stop the
bar when it begins to move sensibly easier. If it were per-
mitted to go further, the platen could descend but an ex-
tremely minute interval, and consequently the elastic re-
action of the tympan and blankets would remain nearly sta-
tionary. At thesame time, the positive disadvantage would
be incurred of rendering it impossible for this elastic force
to produce the return of the bar.

‘There are a variety of circumstances relating to the Lever
press, aside from the peculiar nature of the power it em-
ploys, which recommend it to the attention of the owners of
printing establishments.

1. The foree exerted being exactly gauged by the pin
which stops the bar, the impression of different successive
sheets will be absolutely uniform, except the trifling and
searcely perceptible difference which may arise from the
variable thickness of the paper.

2. For the same reason, the pressman will fad it much
less easy, if disposed, to do his work imperfectly. Indeed
from the superior facility with which the press is worked,
the temptation to slight his task is in a ae measure re-
moved.

3. The whole of a form being *orkea at once, and the
platen admitting a superior evenness of surface and exact-

318 On Printing Presses and their Theory.

ness of movement, the different pages of the same sheet will
present a neater and more uniform appearance than when
worked with a wooden platen and two pulls. This. remark
is especially applicable to the duodecimo page.

_ 4. By admitting a less thickness to the tympan and its
contents, it produces a less rapid wear Pe the hair strokes of
the letter.

&. ‘The ribs on which the carriage r runs have the peoulias
construction seen in the figure, by which the friction is much
reduced, and the waste of oil diminished.

6. From the best estimate which can be made, ee press
will in a course of years be attended with an actual ie of
money to the purchaser.*

Many of the foregoing advantages, it is eee conceded,
are such as this press possesses in common with that of Mr.
Clymer; but without detracting from the merits of the lat-
ter, there is little danger in hazarding the prediction that its
use will be speedily superseded; and that as it has lene

* The grounds of this conclusion are the following. In the first frien ie
wear is almost nothing. With the exception of the main roller (13) which
with its sockets is of cast iron, and the jomt C, (Fig. I.) all the moving
parts slide over an extremely small arc; and these are made of hardened
steel. ‘The writer has examined the parts most exposed to wear in a press
which has been in constant operation nearly two years, and the effects of
friction were found wholly insignificant. The slight roughnesses which had
been left on the surfaces by the manufacturer were scarcely aifected. It is
obvious, however, that the wear of many of the parts might become very
‘considerable before the action of the press would be sensibly impaired ;
and that others might be replaced ata trifling expense. The original cost
of a common: wooden press is about one hundred and seventy dollars ; ; and
the annual expense of maintaining one will consist of the following items: in-
terest on the original cost $10,203; principal to be replaced, supposing: ‘the
average time’of wearing-out to be ‘twenty-five years, $6,80; repairs, inclu-
ding accidents and insurance, $10,00. "The interest on the first cost of the
Lever press is from 18 to 21 dollars; principal to be replaced i in all proba-
bility not $2; repairs &c. perhaps $4,00. This estimate is made out from
inquiries addressed to different printers who have been conversant with both.

The foregoing particulars are such as chiefly interest the proprietor of a ,

printing establishment ; but no inconsiderable additional advantage has
‘been conferred on the public by Mr. Wells, in lightening the task of the
journeyman. Not only is the pull rendered far easier, as has been already
shewn at length, but the number of pulls is reduced one half. Those who
might apprehend areduction of wages from an acknowledged reduction of
their labour, can scarcely be expected to be among the most forward to pro-
claim the extent of their obligations to the inventor of the Lever press; but if,
as the writer has been credibly informed, it has in some instances been hired
by individual journeymen at an annual: expense of fifty dollars, in prefer-
ence to using the common presses offered them by their employers, a stronger
cestimonial to its superiority from this class of persons could not be desired.

On Printing Presses and their Theory. 319

prior inventions into the back ground, it must in its turn
yield to the progress of 1 improvement. The points of supe-
riority in the Lever, over the Columbian press, appear to be
the following. 1. It is afforded at two thirds of the expense.
2. The mechanism is lighter, and more compactly stowed.
3. From the greater simplicity of structure, it is less lable
to get out of repair, and is more easily put in order when
out of repair by a person of common mechanical skill. 4.
The surfaces which move in contact are so contrived as to
be kept oiled without being taken in pieces. Accordingly,
those who have had trial of both, so far as the writer can
Jearn, both owners and workmen, give the preference to the
Weve: press.

High as is the perfection to which this press has been
brought by its inventor, it would be strange if it were abso-
lutely incapable of improvement, or if farther experience
should not point out some changes for the better. Among
the infinite variety of which the adjustment of the levers is
capable, there can be but one which is absolutely the best;
and it is scarcely supposable that this one has been yet at-
tained. A slight variation of the position and form of the
working parts in different successive castings, promises more
effectually than any thing else to make known those slight
improvements of which they may still be capable. Several
of the parts appear to possess superfluous strength. The
cheeks might probably be reduced to one half their present
size with “advantage. The top and bottom of the frame
must be made strong, because they require to be incapable
of sprnrging as well as of breaking. But while this is the
cease, the strain on the sides so far as it is produced by the
two main levers is wholly a longitudinal one, and the re-ac-
tion of the driving lever against the right side is comparative-
ly small. Admitting the re-action of the platen, in perform-
ing the heaviest work, to be thirty-five thousand pounds, the
two sides would possess sufficient strength to prevent their
being drawn asunder if made of sound cast iron three-fifths
of an inch square. But if reduced to one half their present
size, they would possess sixteen times this degree of strength.
The driving lever also, if made very nearly straight, as it’ -
might be without interfering with the main levers, might be
diminished one half or two thirds in size. On other im-
provements of a more problematical character which have
suggested themselves, it will not be necessary to enlarge.

320 On Printing Presses and ie Theory.

Hf SUPPLEMENT. oe

As the power gained by different epMatOhs like ae
referred to in the preceding pages seems to have scarcely
attracted the notice of writers on Mechanics, J shall Subjoin
an investigation of such as are most likely to occur in prac-
tice, for the information of those who may be concerned in
the invention or improvement of machines which contain
such combinations, and to whom it may be sometimes im-
portant to know with precision the mechanical advantage
they gain by different supposed arrangements of machinery:
and the strain to which the different parts are subjected. .

Prop. I. Let CB (Plate Ill. Fig. 1.) be a straight rod,
moveable about C, and BA another rod, connected by a
joint with CB at B, and with its other extremity A confined
to move in the line: CA produced: it is required to deter-
mine the power which applied at B, in a direction at right
angles to CB, will overcome a given resistance acting on
the point A, in the direction AC.

The power will be to the resistance, in his, as in all pik
er cases, in the inverse ratio of the velocities of their re-
spective points of application. We have therefore only to
investigate, for any given position of B and A, the velocity
with which B moves, or the circular are DB increases,
compared with that of A’s motion on the line CA. For
_this purpose, draw the perpendicular BP, put AB=a, C

B=6, AC=a, BP=y, and DB=z.. Then a= far—y2+

f : —ydy ay dy
/2-y2 ; and taking the fluxions, Moe: | 2 Ly?

Fae ap
ae ; hence by division © ae _ Wb, 2
V b2 = aa by aaa
“This expression gives the ratio of the velocities of A and B;
and hence is to unity as the power is to the resistance. Bui
by reinstating the values for which x, y, &c. were substitu-
ted, it admits of simplification. Reducing the terms to a
common denominator and restoring their palges. it becomes
BR. AC. smBAC , sinABC ABC _ sin ABC
AP CB cosBAC sinBAC cos BAC

er is to the resistance overcome, as the sine of the angle

But de

- That is, the pow-

On Printing Presses and ther Theory. 321

made by the two rods, is to the cosine of the angle, made
by the rod to which the resistance 1s opposed and the direc-
tion of the resistance. ;

Cor. 1. If the power, instead of being applied at B, is ap-
plied at any other point X in CB or CB produced,—pow-
er: resistance: : CBrsin ABC : CX-cos BAC.

Cor. 2. If the rods CB, BA become equal in length,
J b2—ya = Va2—y2, and the seneral expression is reduced to
Om at i is, the power isto the resistance as twice the
cosine of half the angle contained by the rods is to radius,—
‘or as twice the distance of their point of junction from the
line joining their outer extremities is to the length of either.

Cor. 3. If the power, instead of acting in a direction
perpendicular to CB, act in the direction of BP, itis seg
mferred that power : resistance : : tan BAC ian BCA :

Prop. II. It is required to determine the ratio of the or
ces which keep each other in equilibrio when the point A
(Fig. 2.) is confined to move in any other given line AH.

From © draw Cé equal, and infinitely near to CB, and
from 6 as centre with BA as radius, intersect AH in a. fern
6, a, and draw the perpendiculars ar and 4s. Ar is ultimate-
ly equal to Bs. For Ar—Bs =AB—rs =ab—rs = (as may

a

be easily shewn) ~~ This being an infinitesimal of

the second oie is clbniaely evanescent in respect to
Ar, and consequently Ar—Bs=0, or Ar=Bs. It follows
that Aa: Bb:: sec BAH: sec bBs::sec BAH: cosec
CBA:: sin CBA: cos BAH. But Aa and Bd measure
the velocities of the points A and B; hence power: resist-
ance : : sm ABC : cos BAH. This result includes that of
the last Prop. as a particular case.

Prop. III. Let the extremity A, instead of moving. in a
straight line, be confined to move in a circle, by being con-
nected with the rod AC’, moveable about the fixed point
C’: the power applied to B will be to the resistance acting
at A with which it is in equilibrio, as the sine of CBA is to
the sine of O’AB.

For draw through A the line AH pernendicolar to AC’:
then the initial motion of A will be in the line AH, and by
the last Prop. power: resistance :; sin ABC : cos BAHL.

Vor. IIT.....No. 2. 4}

322 On Printing Presses and their Theory.

But, BAH= comp. BAC’; therefore Poyiens : resistance :
sin ABC : sin C/AB.*

Cor. 1. When the the radii stand in opposite directions
as C/A, CB’, ABC becomes a reflex angle of more than
180°; but the sine of any arc is the same (except in regard
to its ‘siga) as the sine of its supplement to 360°; hence, as
before, the two ferces applied at A and B’ will be. in equili-
brio when they are to each other as the sines of the ane
ABYC, C’AB' to which they are respectively applied. —

Cor. 2. The same result may be extended to the case in
which A and B are confined to move in any lines whatever,
straight or curved, to which a tangent can be drawn. For
let AH and Bé be the tangents at ‘the points A and B; and
power : resistance :: cos ABb : cos BAH, or (lrawing the
normals CB, C’A,) :: sin CBA : sin CAB.

Remark.—The foregoing results will equally apply apa
the rods CB, BA, &c. are curved, and when in con-
sequence of being iacetied into dierent parts of the same
roller, they are not in the same plane ;—provided that CB,
BA, &c. are taken as the perpendicular distances from the
central line of one roller to that of another.

Pros. IV. Let there be three levers CA, C’B, CD,
(Fig. 3.) moveable about C, C’, and C’, as centres, and hav-
ing their other extremities connected by straight rods AD
and DB: the power applied to A will be the resistance act-
ing at B perpendicularly to C’B, as sin CAD x sin C’DB
is to sin ADC” x sin DBC’.

This proposition evidently follows oe the first Cor. to the
last, and is equally true for all possible positions of the cen-
tres C, ©’, Cand of the rods CA, C'B,C’D. ean

Cor. When CA and AB come into the position of a a
straight line, sin CAB vanishes, and the power gained will
be infinite. If the rods be so disposed that C’D and DB
come into the position of a straight line at the same time,
the power gained at the moment of atennine this position
heegnce infinite upon infinite. |

Puce. V. If any number 7 of equal ‘rods be connected
by rivets at their middle and ends as in Fig. 4, the end C

«This proposition determines the eal advantage gained at any
given part of revolution of the bar, in the Stanhope press. ~

On Printing Presses and their Theory. $23

being fixed, and A being moveable along CA; the power
applied at B” and acting perpendicularly to CA is to the
resistance overcome at A, as twice the tangent of BAC is to

Suppose in the first place that the power is applied at B :
by Prop. 1. Cor. 3. it will be 1o the resistance : : 2 tan
BAC:1. But the nature ofthe combination requires that the
tods should in all states be parallel to each other; hence
velocity of B'=3x vel. B; vel. B’=5x vel. B, &c., and
power at B’= | power at B; so that power at B”: resist-
anceatA::2 x 2tan BAC: 1::2tan BAC: 5. In the
the same manner it may be shewn, whatever be the num-
ber of reds combined, that power: resistance :: .2 tan

BAC : n—1.

Prop. VI, (Fig. 5.) Let the two levers of Prop. I. instead
of being united at B, act on each other by means of circu-
lar cheeks BD, B'D, having equal radii BO, B’O’, less than
BA : it is required to determine the power which, applied
to B at right angles to BA, shall overcome a given resist-
ance acting at A in the line AC.

To simplify the investigation of the relative velocities of
B and A, let it be supposed that when B suffers an indefi-
nitely small change of position, A and C move equally in
opposite directions. ‘Then the centres O, O’, of the arcs B
D, B/D, will describe lines perpendicular to AC ; and if
the motion of B be continued, the point of contact D, the
sentres O,O’, and the points B, B’ will all fall upon AC to-
gether. Let ab (Fig. 6.) be the position which AB assumes
when it has moved an indefinitely small distance : the point
o will be in the perpendicular OP, and ao will be equal to A
O. Drawing the perpendiculars, bg, oh, Ae, and placing f
at the intersection of AO and ao, it may be shewn as in the
demonstration of Prop. Ul-that Be =Oh=ea. Hence Ae:
ho:: tan OAP: cot OAP:: sin? OAP : cos? OAP::O
P?:AP?. Bysim. tri. ae: ho:: Af: fo. But fO may be
taken as=fo; therefore Af: fO:: OP? : AP?. By compo-
sition, fO: AO :: PA? : AO’; hence, putting A to denote
the angle BAP, fO=AO cos?A. Likewise oh =Ae. = ss

pee sin2 A’
and Ae=Aa. sin A; so that oh = Aa. — By sim. tri. gb:
$ sin

% nt
oh:: Bf: Of; thatis. (by substituting the values already found,)

B24 - On Printing Presses and their Theory.

ob: Aa. fst) YOB-4AO. cos? A: AO. cos? A. Divi-

ding the eee and fourth terms by Te? we obtain, gb: 4

Aa:: OB+A0. cos? A: AO. sin A. But gb represents
the velocity with which B moves, reduced to the direction
of a perpendicular to BA, and Aa denotes the cotemporane-
aus velocity of A. Hence the power is to either of two
equal resisting forces applied to A and © as AOvsin A:
AO ‘cos? A+OB.—If the angle BCA be not too large,
we may suppose C immoveable, ea the whole resistance ap-
plied at A. We shall then have power : resistance applied
at A:: 2AO-sin A:: AO-cos? A4+-OB.

Cor. When A is so small that cos? A may be consider-
ed as == 1, power : resistance :: 2AO sin A: AB. When
the two ends B,B’, are immediately: ne to each other,
as in Prop. I. the ratio is that of 2sin A: 1. Hence when
two levers act by circular cheeks, they furnish a mechanical
advantage greater than that of two simple levers of equal
length at the same angle of obliquity, in the ratio of the
length of the lever to the excess of this length above the ra-
dius of curvature of the cheek.*

Prop. VU. Let two equal rods AB, A’B’ (Fig. ”) eatin
on the immmoveable points A,A’, support the circular plane
BEB’ at two opposite points of the circumference B,B’; and
let this plane be capable of turning round and sliding paralle!
to itself onthe fixed line CF, which passes through its centre
‘and rises perpendicularly from C the middle of the line AA’:
if DE be drawn parallel to CA, the power acting at the cir-
-cumference B, is to the weight resting on BEB whieh 1 It
will support, as: the sine of BDE to radius CA, is to CD.

“se .
* This principle (which may be called. that of excentrie waiters) ie the
Tar ther advantage of entirely avoiding friction between the adjacent surfaces.
It deserves an inquiry whether the immense power which can be thus com-
manded does not admit of bemg advantageously introduced into certain kinds
of machinery. Possibly it would be an Improvement to construct the adja-
cent ends of the two main levers of Mr. Wells’ press in this form.

It would be easy to assign the ratio of the power to the resistance for differ-
ent obliquities of AB and CB’, when BD, B’D, are elliptic arches having
AB, CB’ for their semitra nsverse axes. But the ‘result would be of no prac-
tical importance, on account of the difficulty of grinding the surfaces BD B’D
to an exactly elliptical form. Whatever be the nature of these curves, the
proportion given in the Cor. will be true for very small obliquities, if “
BIO! be tuken le to the radii of curvature at the points B,B’. :

On Printing Presses and their Theory. 325

Draw BP perpendicular to DE and join AP. Then the
plane ACDP is perpendicular to the plane BEB’; and BP
drawn perpendicular to their line of common section is also
perpendicular to the plane ACDP, and therefore to the line
PA which it meets in that plane. Hence APB is a right

angled triangle, and AP?-+-PB?—AB?. If BD be put—
De A AB=a, CD=z2, and BE=z, BP will be-
come==sin 2, DP = cos z, and AP? (~DC? 4+AC-PD’ )
=2?+(r'vcos z). Hence sin? z+#?+4(r'“cos z)?__a?.
Expanding (r’ + cos z)?, and substituting r? for sin 2z+-cos”
z, we have a+7?—2r' cos z+r? Es Taking the flux-

ions, 2 eda = 2 7’ oa (cos 2)—=— 7 2 sin z dz; and by resolu-
tion, de > —d2.227.\sinz 22. But dx and —dz express the
velocities of she mbit to which the weight and He Pe are
respectively applied; so that power : weight: :— = Sin 2

sin BDE to rad. AC: CD.

Cor. 1. When BDE=0 or 180°, sin BDE vanishes, an
the gain of power becomes infinite. But DE is. evidently
the position which BB’ assumes when AB and A’B’ come
into the same vertical plane. Hence the weight infinitely

exceeds the power necessary to support it, when the two
rods come into the same vertical plane. When the angle
EDB is so small, or the line DC so large, that the variation
of DC may be neglected, the power necessary to support
a given weight will, vary as the sine of EDB, the angular
distance from the position at which it becomes evanescent.

Cor 2. Every thing else being the same, the gain of pow-
er from this combination will increase in the same propor-
tion as the distance of the lowest points of the rods from C
is diminished.

Cor. 3. If, as will generally be the case, the two extrem-
ities of each rod are equidistant from the central line CF,
or AC=-BD, the power will be to the meet simply as
BP: CD.

326 Manufacture of Sulphat of Iron.

Ai XII.—Some account of the Copperas mines and mans
_ factory in Strafford, Vt. ; oy Dr. < oun Locke. ~

ek ‘

‘ilu mine is situated about Heelies wiles from Dartmouth
College, and about five miles from Thetford, Vt. Itis near
the summit of a hill which rises probably two or three
hundred feet above the bed of thie streams in the vallies
below.

The gangue in which it occurs is mica slate, the strata are
which, are very highly inclined to the horizon, and present
their long ridges above the surface in various parts of the
hill, particularly at its summit. There are occasionally
veins of quartz in the slate. The rocks for several miles
around are, as far as I observed, principally mica slate.
There are no particular indications of iron at any consider-
ble distance from the mass of the mine, but the transition
from the slate to the pyritic ore is abrupt. The mine has
been opened obliquely up the hill, about twenty rods in
length and four in breadth. ‘The ore has been traced near
half a mile, running pretty much in the direction of the stra-
ta of the slate. s

The ore consists of an aggregate of quartz and «assent
posed pyrites in small grains. In its granular aggregation,

the ore resembles the quartz and feldspar in fine gramed
granite. The pyrites constitutes the greater proportion.
Many specimens contain abundance of needle shaped crys-.
tals of schorl. Its fracture possesses a metallic lustre, and
most of it approaches in colour to pale brass, from which it
varies to steel grey. 2

The ore is very compact and is obtained for’ laren heatae
ing by drilling and blowing. In manufacturing it into cop-
peras it goes through the several operations of decomposition,
lixiviation and evaporation, each of which constitutes a dis-
tinct operation. For several years the manufacturers effect-
ed the decomposition in the following manner: the ore was
broken into fragments of a foot or less in diameter, and
heaped upon inclined scaffolds erected and floored with ©
plank for the purpose. Thus exposed to the action of air
and moisture it very gradually decomposes at the surface.
Thus from the same mass of ore a solution was obtained,
year after year, either by the rains or by the application of
water by other means. The solution was received from
the inclined seaffolds in plank cisterns.

Manufacture of Sulphat of Iron. 829

For three or four years past they have adopted a more
expeditious method of decomposition, which was discover-
ed in the first place by accident. They break the ore into
much smaller fragments, three inches and less in diameter,
and throw them into a convenient heap, taking care to leave
air holes at the base, so as to allow the air to pass freely
through the heap. On applying water the decomposition
commences, and so much heat is evolved, as presently to
raise the temperature of the heap to such a degree as to
charr wood, boil water, sublime sulphur, &c. Great quan-
tities of sulphurous acid gas are evolved during the process,
and in the course of three or four weeks the whole becomes
deintegrated and ready to fall into the state of powder. It
then by lixiviation with water, yields all its copperas atonce ;
the process is performed in a plank cistern. P :

When I visited the mine last summer one of these artificial
volcanoes happened to be burning. ‘The sulphurous acid
produced had run down the side of the hill below, and kill-
ed the grass and leaves of the trees for several rods, as com-
pletely as though they had been scorched by fire. It was
even dangerous to approach it except on the windward side. |
I thrust a stick into it and it was charred to blackness in a
few minutes. I obtained needle-shaped crystals of sulphur
which had evidently been formed on the external surface of
the heap by sublimation. I was informed that the sulphur
usually melted and ran down into the cavities, and that it
frequently burned with flame in various parts of the heap.

~The manufactory in which the processes of evaporation
and crystalization are performed, is placed on the declivity
quite below the mine. This gives great facility to all the
operations, allowing the various reservoirs to be so arranged
one above another that the liquor may be transferred from
One process to another merely by means of a trough.

The bottoms of the evaporating vessels are of lead,
and about ten feet square; the sides are of wood about
three or four feet high. The bottom is supported by a
number of parallel brick walls, placed at a small distance
from each other. The avenues or arches between these —
walls communicate at one end with the arch in which the
fire is placed, and at the other with the common flue.

The ore is a sulphuret of iron with a small proportion of
copper; and the solution, first obtained, is a sulphate of iron

328 Manufacture of Sulphat of Tron.

and copper with an excess of acid. “During the process of
evaporation a leaden vessel, having its sides perforated and
containing fragments of old iron is suspended in the liquor.
The iron at the same time that it neutralizes the excess of
_acid, decomposes the sulphate of copper and the copper is

| precipitated in the form of a fine powder which the work-

“men call “copper mud.” In a conversation with Profes-
sor Cleaveland upon this subject he observed, that he could
not conceive why the copper did not form a pellicle upon the

iron. I think its detachment is referable to the constant —

and active operation of the acid in the hot liquor, removing
the copper as fast as it is deposited. Hydrogen gas which
I collected in tumblers and burned, is evolved during
the solution of the metallic iron in ‘the acid liquor. When
the liquor is first heated it becomes turbid with some ae od
material, probably alumine.

After ‘the liquor has been sufficiently cvaperdted it is
drawn off into cisterns to crystalize. Branches of trees are
put into them as a nucleus for the crystals. When the
erystalization has proceeded as far as it will go, the remain-

ing fluid is drawn off, and returned to the evaporating ves- ,

sels. The cistern remains lined several inches in thickness
with crystals, like a seode. ‘The branches have a fine crop
of foliage and fruit “composed of beautiful green crystals.
The crystals are very large and perfect, presenting numer-
ous brilliant facets which are often several inches broad. I
obtained some which were perfect four sided prisms with a
rhombic base six inches in length and half an inch broad.
Every thing about this ihineral manufactory is curiously
reddened with iron rust. When a dry day succeeds a rain
or a shower, the whole mine becomes covered with a white
crystalline efflorescence like a hoar frost, and the rain water
which runs down into the cavities of ihe mine becomes so
strong a solution as to crystalize. Wherever the solution
‘dribbles from the rocks, or leaks from the cisterns, large
stalactites are formed so precisely like icicles that they
would not be distinguished from them were it not for their
green colour. These stalactites are very numerous at some
seasons and present a very beautiful spectacle. ms
An ingenious method has been contrived to catch the
wash of the whole mine. There has been cut in the com-
pact ore, quite across the lower edge of the mime, a chan-

Manufacture of Sulphat of Iron. 329

vel, into which by its inclination the mine discharges the
wash of every shower, together with the natural oozing
from the hill above. A trough conveys the fluid from the
channel to the boilers. To increase the effect of this natu-
ral brook of copperas, the ore has been broken into large
fragments, and heaped along the upper side of the chan-
nel, there to undergo a slow decomposition precisely as it
does upon the scaffolds mentioned above. |

The mine where it has not been opened is covered with
oxid of iren which consists principally of incrustations of
vegetables. s

In the part where I examined these incrustations they are
about three feet deep. The vegetables seem to have been
enveloped by a thin uniform crust, but having decayed and
disappeared the crust remains an empty mould or pattern of
the vegetable. The general figure of the vegetable is pret-
ty welll preserved 1 in the external form of incrustation ; 3 but
the internal cavity is wonderfully perfect, the sinuosities
of the bark, the veins of the leaves and the strie of the
buds are preserved to microscopic minuteness. The im-
pressions are so perfect that it is difficult for one to con-
vince himself that the real vegetable is not there. All the
vegetables that we should expect to find upon a given spot
of ground, in the woods, seem to occur there. I could in
general recognize the species and even the varieties.
Among the specimens I obtained were the following : hem-
lock branches and cones; nuts, burrs, and leaves of the
beech ; hazel nuts and a species of golden rod which I re-
eognized by a peculiar swelling often produced upon this
plant by an insect. I could not ascertain that any animals
had ever been found incrusted. The incrustations are divi-
ded into several strata by layers of oxid, which have a
structure so compact as to a a fracture almost or quite
vitreous.

The superintendant told me that four men manufactured
one hundred tons of copperas in a year, besides carrying on
the business of a small farm.

A small quantity of the ore has heen finned which had
undergone a spontaneous decomposition and was thought to
be very rich. The superintendant told me, that a barrel of
it afforded three hundred and thirty- -three pounds of coppe-
ras. When I considered the quantity of iron the liquor dis-

Vou. TIT.....No. 2. 42.

330 Remarks on Chemical Theory, and on

solves, and the water it acquires in crystalization, _ State-
ment seemed less incredible than at first.
Ihave deposited specimens of the gangue, of the! erste
its various conditions, the crystals, &e. in the New-England
Museum, Boston. a chee ss its

Art. XML. pee on some ie ARE “of Modern Chemical
Theory, with a notice of “the Elements of Chemical Ser-
ence, in two volumes, with plates; by Joun Goruan, M.

D. Member of the American Academy, and Professor of
Chemistry in Harvard University, Cambridge.”

ip

ris ees

Homo nature minister et spas Lins —Bacon.

Tue present peat is didiaemcicd by oudenal mental
activity ; it might indeed with great propriety be denominated
the intellectual age of the world. At no former period, has the,
mind of man been directed, at one time, toso many and so use-
fulresearches. Name whatever department of human’knowl-.
edge you please and you can at once, find men of talent and in-
dustry vigorously engaged in pushing its interests, and extend-
ing its boundaries, while the press is prolific, beyond all for-
mer example, in productions upon every art and every sci-
ence. Even that department of knowledge, whose ele-
ments admit of no extension or modification, is as a practi-
cal subject, pressed with unprecedented vigor and success
into the still savage recesses of all the continents ex-
cept one, and to the remotest islands sprinkled in the In-
dian, the Southern and the Pacific oceans. Every thing
that relates to man’s duties and rights, as a moral, social and
intellectual being—all that concerns his mental powers in
their varied operations, and all that respects the physical ex-
istences around him, is explored with unceasing industry and
perseverance. The physical sciences have, in this general
career of intellectual effort, attracted a distinguished degree
of attention, and the civilized world is filled both with ama-
teurs and with labourers in every department of this un-
bounded field. A century has now passed, since (principal-
ly by the labours of Newton) ihe mechanical laws of the
universe have been, as to their most’ important features, defi-
nitely settled; the last century has added comparatively lit-

Gorham’s Elements of Chemistry. 331

ile to the fabric, although the endless relations of quantity
continue to afford inexhaustible topics for the researches of
theoretical mathematics, and we may add also, innumera-
ble practical applications of these theoretical speculations.
After all the labour that has been bestowed on the subject,
the study of the external forms and of the internal constitution
of natural things has not been exhausted,—in a word, Natural
History and Chemistry continue to afford an endless variety
of topics of observation and research. Every year new
minerals, animals and plants present themselves to the min-
eralogist, the zoologist and the botanist, respectively ; this is
‘true, even in the oldest countries, in those that have been
most minutely and faithfully explored, and every voyageand
every tour of discovery, in unknown or imperfectly known
regions, adds abundantly to the stores of natural history.
It is however true that in the greater number of countries
the most conspicuous and important objects have been al-
ready observed and described, and particular naturalists
have, in a sense appropriated them as their peculiar prop-
erty; it isalso true that in new countries conspicuous subjects
eccasionally occur, but most of the objects now found are more
minute and less valuable than those that were before discov~
ered, and the labour of the present period is often bestowed
rather on the gleanings of the field, than on its first abound-
ing harvest. With that science, whose object it is to as-
certain the composition of bodies, the case is however wide-
_|y different. It is, in all probability, in its very nature, in-
exhaustable. Its domain being co-extensive with the phys-
ical creation, (or rather with that portion of it which is ac-
cessible to man,) chemistry is bound to attempt the analy-
sis of all things, in earth sea and air. It is required of it
to unfold, not merely the immediate state of combination,
in which the parts exist, but to discover as well their ulti-
mate elements, as their proximate principles. Great diver-
sity of opinions has existed respecting the elements of
bodies; these opinions have vibrated between the four as-
sumed by the ancients, and the forty, fifty, or more admitted by
the moderns. The progress of discovery has tended con-
stantly to increase their number, and’yet without any abso-
lute certainty, that any of them are really elementary. In-
deed, it is obvious, that this certainty can never be attained,
for were the great number of elementary bodies, now ad-

332 Remarks on Chemical Theory, and ox

mitted as such, to be ultimately reduced to two, (which: is
physically possible) —and although it is self evident that
there cannot be fewer than two elements;—still it is clear-

"dy possible that the two which appear to. be. elements, may

be in their turn, decomposed—each may contain one new

“body and one before known or possibly each may consist

of two new bodies, and these again may contain each one
new body or more; and thus, when the subject has appar-
ently reached the point of greatest simplicity, it may again —
become more complex and ultimately carry the enquirer
farther than ever from the desired result.* ‘This is one great
reason why the researches of chemistry are boundless.
Another is, that independently of our theoretical views as
to the number and nature of the elements, we can never
know when we have formed every possible combination ;

the progress of chemistry has constantly evinced that com-

pounds are produced which, as we have every reason to be~
lieve, exist no where in nature, and nota few of them are.
possessed of astonishing properties. For these reasons
principally, chemistry has, in our times exhibited more fluc-
tuations, than any other science ; immense activity has been
exerted in its various departments and a great number of in-
genious and able men, spread over all enlightened countries,
have been and still are constantly occupied in its numerous and
diversified operations. Fromal] these causes ithasarisen, that
chemistry has, during the last twenty or thirty’ years, produced
more elementary books than perhaps any other branch of
science. This has resulted, in a considerable degree, from .
the necessity of the case, because the progress of the sci-.
ence has been so rapid, that it has required but a few years
to throw a particular edition of a good elementary work into .
the back ground, and therefore new editions and new books:
have been frequently multiplied. In this view of the subject,
(although there were already many good works on chemis-
try,) Professor Gorham had undoubtedly the same right as.
other authors who have preceded bens to give aes science a
new elementary treatise. sia
EM F
bid * We a not mean to say that this will be the fact ; oe Sosiliinds cuff
cient for our purpose. In point of fact, it. appears probable that most of the

bodies now: admitted as elements. will I retain cai Figesnsooed
Pe ae oy ° b 3 ¥ nat

Mish Aa P ts : Mie ene eae

Garhemntsl Elements of Chemistry. 333

it appears, however, from his preface, that this was not
his original motive; he remarks: ‘the work which is now
_ offered to the public, was originally intended, by the author,
as a text-book to the lectures delivered by him, to the med-
ical students, and under graduates of Harvard University.”
This object, was unquestionably a correct one, for it would
generally be advantageous to every class, to have the pecul-
iar course of instruction which they are to receive laid be-
fore them in a concise and perspicuous printed form, for
most studentsin a college have no time to do any thing more
than to follow their instructor, in the shortest route possible,
and in general it is of very little use to recommend to them
the perusal of various authors; the greater part of them
will obtain little more than what they get either from the
lips or the pen of their immediate instructor.

But Professor Gorham goes on to remark: “¢ while ar-
ranging the materials, it was'thought that by extending it
(the work) to a greater length, and dilating more upon the
general principles of the science, it might still answer the
purpose above mentioned, and at the same time, be adapt-
ed to a class of readers who might wish to acquire a
knowledge of the laws of oes without entering much
into its practical details.” » é

In stating his design, the author observes, that a work
which on the one hand shall be more diffuse than that of
Dr. Henry, and-on the other, less extended than the elabo-
rate and profound system of Drs. Thompson and Murray,
will be sufficient to include the most important facts in
chemistry without tasking the memory of the student with
a mass of matter, the knowledge of which, though indis-
pensable to the Bp aatve chemist, must be uninteresting to
the general scholar.” He observes with sufficient modesty ;

—‘ This work is a compilation; it has no claims to origin-
ality, though from the unsettled state of some parts of “the
science, there is room for the exercise of the Judgement in
determining the value of opposing doctrines.”

Perhaps “this work may be regarded as occupying a niche
not exactly filled before. It does not claim to present a
system of chemical knowledge with the fullness of the great
works of Fourcroy, Thompson, Murray and Thenard,
but among the works of middling and minor size—as those
of Brisson, Jacquin, Heron, Park, and the Conversations on

334 Remarks on Chemical Theory, and on

chemistry—La Grange and the abridgments of ‘Thompson
and Murray, Chaptal, Lavoisier, Accum, Brande, and even
Henry,* ithas, we believe, a right to claim a peculiar character
as being more full than any of them, and more philosophical
than most of them, while it is not encumbered with more of
the details of the practical parts of the subject, than are ne-
cessary to illustrate the philosophy of the science, a ind
pears to be the great object of the work. eat

It would be saying a great deal to affirm that ane pak
can surpass the fine elementary treatise of Dr. Henry, pro-
vided we take into view its particular destination. It com-
bines in a happy manner, the perspicuous exhibition of
principle, with ample details of experiment. These are
stated with great precision—the selection is happy, and we
believe that few of Dr. Henry’s statements relating either
to principle or practice can be seriously invalidated. His
_ book has maintained its standing for more than twenty years,
and has passed through nearly half that number of editions.
It is not perhaps likely to be soon superceded—it had its
feebler youth—it now flourishes in vigorous maturity, and it
promises ultimately toenjoyagreenoldage. ‘Thereisindeed
little interference between the works of Dr. Henry and Dr.
Gorham. Each has its appropriate object and mode of exe-
cution, and we think Dr. Gorham having resolved to go be-
yond his original plan of a text book, has been judicious,
in giving his ‘work the form of a eeneral treatise on the phi-
losophy of chemistry. It bears more resemblance to the
elements (in two volumes) of the late lamented Dr. Murray,
than to any other book, but it is fuller, and much more re-
cent than his latest edition. shaZilivt

The plan of Professor Gorham’s work is. thus He by
himself: : “ The first part is devoted to the general laws of
the science, and to the properties and modes of action of the
powers or agents which are concerned in the production of
chemical phenomena. In the second part, are detailed the
properties and relations of ponderable bodies and their com-

* The American reader will it ued to ae ingaed, hated in addition to
the foreign works enumerated in the text, Drs.’ Ewell, Cutbush, and Bache
have each ad in this oy a work on | the elements of chemistry.

¢ ws oe

tit will sf course be understood that we ii nt alld to Dr. idee s
large system in 4 vols. ' rere Gt oPesaey oh Nea

Gorham’s Elements of Chemistry. 335

pounds. This part is formed into two divisions; im the
first, is given an account of the properties of tnorganic mat-
ter; the subject of the second is organic matter; and organic
matter has been as usual, divided into vegetable hid animal.”’

Mineralogy and geology have been very properly omit-
ted; those topics are too extensive to be adequately inclu-
ded in a chemical treatise, without swelling its size oy in-
conveniently.

For these subjects, Professor Gorham refers iis eilbie
to “the excellent work of Professor Cleveland,” and we
may be allowed to add, that we think te reference alto-
gether judicious.

Professor Gorham’s work (which we have teen prevent-
ed by the pressure of occupation, from recommending be-
fore) is now too well known to make it necessary to give an
analysis of its plan and contents. We shall therefore limit
ourselves to a few remarks intended principally to recom-
mend this performance to the attention of those who may
feel interested in chemical science, and who still have never
perused this valuable production. The work is embraced in
two octavo volumes, containing together, nearly eleven hun-
dred large and full pages, neatly and correctly executed,

and illustrated by seven good plates.

The subordinate arrangementof the subjects bearsa strong
resemblance to other modern chemical works, and we are
not disposed to object materially to any important feature
in Dr. Gorham’s arrangement, except so far as we would
raise similar objections against the arransemients of most au-
thors of the present period.

Perhaps there has been of late years, toogreat a failing
given to the admission of new principles, when the evi-
dence of their existence has been slender, and in some in-
stances, far from being satisfactory. This we imagine, is
the case with the principle called fluorine. On any evi-
dence which we now possess, it can hardly be entitled to a
place in a system—certainly not, if it is to form the basis of
important inductions, and of analogical reasoning. The new
view of chlorine, for example, can ‘scarcely deviirs much
support from so feeble an ally, and the student, on reading
the article fluorine, is disappointed in finding how little it
amounts to, after all. At present, we apprehend fluorine is
scarcely entitled to a more distinguished place than ina

“336 Remarks on Chemical Theory, and on

memorandum, printed in connexion with the: article fluoric
acid or better perhaps ina general appendix, containing sim-
ilar things. '[he same is probably the fact with some other
principles, both elementary and proximate, and it would,
Wwe Imagine, conduce to the progress of the science, and to
the comfort and advancement of learners, if newly discov-
ered things, when their character is dubious, were kept long-
er in waiting at the door, until their title to admission and
their proper place were very clearly made out. In chemis-
try, as in other branches of knowledge, we are too apt’ to
proceed upon the presumption, that we. know every thing,
and we construct our arrangements accordingly; but, our
errors it is probable, are not few, and our deficiencies, must
without doubt, be very numerous. ‘The unexpected dis-
covery of some new and important principle, frequently
produces a very extensive influence on the relations of other
bodies, and of course on the state of the science. . How
“great was the change produced by the discovery of oxigen,
and of the constitution of water, and of the atmosphere,
and how ramified and important, are the relations which the
new views of chlorine introduced into almost every part
of the science of chemistry. The subject of chlorine is
one respecting which, we may perhaps evict ie ae of
those whose opinions we respect.
In the first place, we are far from thinking es ee is expe-
dient, to introduce this difficult and complicated subject, in-
to the early part of a course of lectures or of a treatise. It
is impossible, either upon the old or new theory, to examine,
with success, the numerous and important facts in which chlo-
rine acts a part, without an acquaintance with a large number
of bodies and without a considerable familiarity with chemical

phenomena and reasoning. We are aware that if it be, as

many chemists suppose, a distinct principle of combustion,
analogy would lead us to place it where Dr. Thomson, Dr.
- Gorham and others have done—that is, next to oxigen;
but if it be really a distinct principle of combustion, it nev-
er comes within the experience of mankind in any common
case, nor in any case, except in philosophical or manufacturing
experiments. The discussion of any part of its properties, and
_ even the mention of its name, may therefore be omitted, -with-
out the slightest i inconvenience, till we have gone on so far in
the subjectas to have introduced, ina natural and familiar way,

Gorham’s Elements of Chemistry. 337

all those precursors which are necessary to announce so im-
portant a body, and then we may begin upon its history
with the commanding advantage, of being freed from the ne-
cessity of anticipating, and of being always Reneeily intel-
ligible.

It was one of the great ivan of Dr. Black’s mode of
instruction, that he carried his pupils forward in their course,
with an ascent so gentle, that they scarcely perceived that
they were mounting, till they learned it from the ey
increasing extent of the horizon. »

We are aware that it is not the sopeecth analogy with
oxigen alone, which induces the early mention of chlorine ;
writers and teachers are allured, by the imposing extension
of the analogy so as to include four principles of combustion,
namely, oxigen, chlorine, iodine, and fluorine. Of the last
we have already remarked that its very existence is ex-
tremely hypothetical, and its nature is if possible still more
so. The fact is otherwise with iodine; this is a well es-
tablished and well characterized body—but except the at-
traction to the positive pole in the voltaic arrangements,
which property it enjoys in common with oxigen and chlo-:
rine, what peculiar claim has it to be ranked as a supporter
of combustion. Certainly it is in no common sense a sup-.
porter of combustion, and the solitary fact that its vapour
supports combustion, or something that appears like it, in
‘the case of potassium, can scarcely be considered as giving
‘it a title to rank along with oxigen and chlorine to the for-
mer of which, itis in all other respects, and to the latter in
most respects, so unlike. Indeed this very remarkable
body isso peculiar in the tout ensemble of its properties,
that it appears at present better to give it a niche by itself
whenever it may appear most convenient ; but we are dis-
posed to think that it ought not to be introduced very early,
and that wherever it may be placed it should be oes
to chlorine.

_ As to the new ahieony le ahlvadnes irsell this is not the
place to discuss a subject, which, traced into all its ramifica-
tions, and discussed invall its important bearings, would alone
occupy a volume. We are aware that most chemists have
anon anes new views, and chaste in the most recent systems

* Excepting its elegitiend eiahass

vo ME eS 43

338° Remarks on Chemical Theory, and on

and elementary treatises they are now inwrought into the .
whole texture of the science. But the late acute and logic-
al Dr. Murray never became a convert to those views, al-
though he did in the latter part of his life perhaps virtually:
abandon the old ground ; Professor Berzelius, whose name
stands as high as that fe any man, was-a vigorous and for-
midable opponent of the new. views, and we have not heard
that he has changed his opinions. If we may be permitted
to express an opinion, but without any intended disrespect.
to the highest authorities of the day, we would add that there
appears to have been rather too much haste to adopt the
new theory, in all its. bearings—not only its proofs, but in
its hypotheses. and conjectures, and to carry them in the
form of doctrine, into every part, of the science. In the
supposed play between oxigen, hydrogen, chlorine’ and the
metallic bases of the fixed alkalies and earths to. produce
the muriates and the chlorides respectively ; a maze in
which they are made to pass, insensibly, into one another, |
back and forward, and that often with no perceptible change’
of properties, and often also with no. better proof than the
convenience of these supposed changes; in this dance of
affinities there isas large a claim on our acquiescence in the
authority of names, as can well be found in the history of.
science. A moistened chloride becomes a muriate and a
dried muriate a chloride, and yet Thenard informs us, that:
a crystal of common salt although formed in the midst of
water is still nothing but a chloride 5 but this crystal mois-
tened or perhaps dissolved becomes a true muriate. Who
can believe, rather we should say, who ought to believe
that where there is so total a change i in composition there:
should be so little in external and physical properties.
_ The non-combustion of charcoal too in. chlorine, which»
does admit of explanation upon the old view, confessedly
admits of none at all upon the new: it is true this is now
called an ultimate fact, but what is this more than to say
over again, that the thing cannot be explained. Those
very judicious writers, Dr. Henry and the Messrs. Aikins,
in their Chemical Dictionary (at least in the last editions of,
or additions to those works that we.have seen, ») take a‘more —
cautious ground and giving many of the most important ex-
pling upon both theories, reserve their final opinion for
a day of greater clearness and’ sina if the panne

Gorham’s Elements of Chemistry. 339

of authority were necessary, we should not be afraid to be
found insuch company...

_ We are aware that the new cay of chlorine ee the ad-
vantage of the old in some important points, and that the
old is liable to some formidable objections, but we cannot
help thinking that it will ultimately appear that there is
something get to be discovered on this subject, which will
evince that it is not now fully understood by either party,
and that light will break in which will clear up the dark pla-
ces in oth theories, cr substitute one which is better than
either. At present the state of the subject seems to de-
mand caution and reserve, and we are inclined to think that
it is still incumbent on a teacher and of course on a writer,
to give the double explanations which unfortunately are al-
most every where equally applicable to the phenomena con-
nected with this singular topic. We can discern no dis-
advantage in this course, and itis certainly adapted to give a
fuller view ie the whole — than if we exhibit one side
alone.

It is not one th the least of the disadvantages as the new
view that it has led to a copious list of new names and de-
rivatives, thus adding to the onerous burden, which the spirit
of neology, so prevalent in modern times, is daily imposing
upon us. Thus the student must now learn that muriatic
acid is hydro-chloric acid and muriates are hydro-chlorates,
&c. In the same manner the prussic acid (we mention it
for illustration and not as being connected with chlorine,)
‘has become the hydro cyanic acid, and the prussiates are
hydro cyanates or cyanurets, and in the view of Mr. Porrett
the prussic acid should be called the chyazic acid, or the
ferruretted chyazic acid, and the compounds chyazates or
ferruretted chyazates, &c. Surely, this multiplication, es-
pecially of cumbrous and ill-sounding names, is very un-
fortunate and is to be justified only by imperious neces-
sity.
But unfortunately, a new discovery is no sooner made, or
‘supposed to be made, than we have a crop of new terms,
grounded of course upon the assumption, that all is correct
in the statement of facts; but perhaps in a short time, an
additional discovery ora correction of a former one imposes
‘the necessity of a new series of terms, or of important
modifications of former ones, and thus the nomenclature is

>

340 Remarks on Chemical Theory,'&c.

constantly fluctuating. We would not be so unreasonable .
as to say, that there should be no changes in the language of
chemistry, but they should be as few as possible, and they
should not be lightly made upon every trivial occasion.
To the term chlorine we do not however object ; or ‘ies
contrary we think it a happy word, concise and well sound=
ing, and being derived froma sensible property of the body,
namely its colour, it does not involve controversy, or take
for granted a subject in dispute. The derivations from it
are also good and nothing can be better imagined than chlo-
ric, acid chlorates, oxid of chlorine, chloride, &c.; for wheth-
er chlorine be simple or compound, these terms. will ever
remain correct. But, when the terms derived from hydro- —
gen are added to those from chlorine, we not only have
cumbrous expressions, but they are involved in all the fluc-
tuations of a disputed theory. As there was no necessity
of precipitancy on this point, and no harm could have re-
sulted from continuing to use the words muriatic acid, muri-.
ates, &c.—we should prefer them to hydro chloric: acid»
gas, liquid hydro chloric acid, hydro chlorates, &c. We
are perfectly aware that these terms are in entire consisten-
¢y with the original principles of the French nomenclature,
and it may be ultimately. proper to adopt them. But as a
principle we object to precipitancy in new. modelling a
nomenclature, iespecaaly where the cei must be nu-
merous and important. pin em
‘It is the rage of the day to make new eeu sini it 1s
without doubt, proper, on many occasions, but great cau-
tion and thorough consideration should direct every such:
step 5 otherwise it will retard instead of praentiee the ‘pro-
gress of science. NN lh
These remarks are meant to i of a sencieil nature, and
are not to be understood as bearing in any peculiar manner, ©
on Professor Gorham’s work. He has gone no farther on
this head, than he is supported by some of the first authori-
ties in the scientific world. In closing these miscellaneous
remarks, we hasten, with pleasure to express our general
opinion of the merit of the elements of Dr. Gorham. This work
is not surpassed by any one with which we are acquainted,
asa perspicuous, chaste and philosophical treatise. The doc-
trines of chemistry are stated with sufficient fullness and they
are well connected, so as to form (as far as the present state

Chlorine and Hydrogen. — 341

of the science admits of it) a regular and connected system.
The statements evince a correct and discriminating mind,

and there is sufficient evidence that the author has thorough-
ly studied his subject. We believe few chemical works
may be relied upon with more safety, both as regards the
statement of facts, and the fair and philosophical induc-
tions that are drawn from them. It is said that a for-
eign chemist of eminence has remarked that this work con-
tains more of the science of chemistry than any other. As
Americans we may be gratified with such an observation,
not because we would wait for an European decision of the
merits of an American work before we ventured to admire
it ourselves; for we have both in literature and science,
enough of native talent and learning, to justify original ef-
forts and opinions of our own; sustained not in the spirit of
vanity and of self adulation, but in the firmness of independ-
ence, and in that spirit of self respect which is at once our
right and our duty. We are happy in saying that, in our
view, Professor Gorham has executed his difficult task,
with much faithfulness and ability, and his country has oc-
casion to be proud of his work. His style is pure, per-
spicuous and concise, without becoming dry and repulsive ;
indeed we may say it is characterized by an elegant sim-
plicity, and the reader finds himself in company with one
who is at once instructive and agreeable.

We consider it as no small thing, that this country has,
in so short a time, produced two elementary treatises, of so
much merit as those of professors Cleaveland and Gorham,
and we are not afraid that either of them will suffer by
close examination either at home or abroad. :

‘In this country it is no small thing to have set so good an
example, and we trust that its future scientific treatises will
be marked by equal correctness and ability.

Arr. XIV. — Miscellaneous Chemical Notices.

‘)

“¢ Chlorine and Hydrogen—danger from their mixture.

Bien since Mr. Cruickshanks, of Woolwich, England, —
pointed out the mutual action of chlorine and hydrogen,
these gases have been freely mingled, by chemical demon-

A

342 Chlorine and Hydrogen.

strators, and no one has (so far as we are informed) indicated
any danger, unless the direct rays of the sun were allowed
to fall upon the mixture. In common with others, we have
been accustomed to mix these two gases, in presence of the
classes, and, without apprehension, to leave them to their
own mutual action. The result, it is well known, is the pro-
duction or evolution* of muriatic acid; which, when the ves-
sel stands over water, or is opened in contact with thet fited,
is instantly absorbed.
Being aware of the danger arising from the mixture of
chlorine and hydrogen gases, when “exposed to the sun’s
direct rays, we have been sufficiently cautious on that head.
In one experiment, we mingled, in equal volumes, about
three quarts of the gases; they were introduced,—first the
hydrogen, and then the chlorine,—into a strong flask’ of
green glass: the vessel was wrapped in a thick coarse towel,
corked, and laid on the snow, (January, 1820,) by the side
of a brick wall, where the sun’s meridian rays were received
_withoutany interposing obstacle. We now removed the towel,
with all possible speed, and ran to the distance of thirty feet ;
where we had just time to observe marks of a powerful action,
as evinced by a white fume, rapidly undulating through the
flask, when it exploded, with great force, and a violent re-
port, reducing the glass to very small fragments, als of
which struck us, as well as other observers.
~The present season, (February 16, 1821 ,) being deaths
of showing this interesting experiment to the pupils, the gas-
es were, in the presence “Ofthe classes, mixed as before, in
a similar vessel, and in about the same quantity. The audi-
ence, consisting of two hundred, or more, formed a large cir-
cle, out of doors: the flask was placed i in a wooden box, which
‘was carried into the sun’s rays; then, by hand, we suddenly
threw up the lid, and slipped into a contiguous door of the
laboratory. There was scarcely time to escape, and, indeed,
hardly an appreciable interval of time, before the explosion
occurred, with such violence, as not only to rend the glass,
but to, blow the box into pieces, which were thrown all
around. : ck a

* According as the phenomena are explained by the new or the old theory.

Chlorine and Hydrogen. 343

In this instance, as well as in the other, the undulating
white fume was observed; and, in both cases, the air around
and above, for several yards, was filled with a dense white
cloud, which appeared to be muriatic acid gas, condensed
by the moisture of the air. These facts are not stated be-
cause they are new, (as they evidently are not,) but they will
serve to give additional force to the caution derived from
another fact which we are now to mention.

Being desirous to ascertain whether this remarkable effect
could be produced by the radiation of a common culinary
fire, we filled a common Florence-oil flask (well cleaned)
half full of chlorine gas, and were in the act of introducing
the hydrogen in the pneumatic cistern. There was not only
no direct emanation from the sun, but even the diffuse light
was rendered much feebler than common, by a thick snow
storm, which had covered. the sky-light above w ith a thick
mantle, and veiled the heavens in a singular degree, even for
such a storm. Under these circumstances, the hydrogen
was scarcely all introduced, before the flask exploded, with
a distinct flame;* portions of the glass stuck in the wood
work of the ceiling of the room, and the face and eyes
escaped, by being out of the direction of the explosion:
nothing but the neck of the flask remained in hand. This
occurrence, then, proves, that a mixture of chlorine and hy-
drogen gases may explode spontaneously, even in a diffuse
light, and even in a very dim light. We have not seen this
fact mentioned by any writer, and have therefore been thus
minute for the sake of cautioning others. Itis evident, that
the explosion of considerable quantities of these gases, when
ihe operator is near, must be attended with great danger:
and it is therefore obvious, that some peculiar precautions
are requisite when this experiment is repeated. Such pre-
cautions have occurred to us, but, as we have not had op-
portunity to put oe in practice, we forbear to state them
at present.

The progress of Bieuaictiy has.been such in this age, as
frequently to demonstrate, that tremendous energies are
slumbering all around us; we grope on in our experiments,
walking, without solicitude, over hidden mines; and, fre-
quently, the first hint we have of their existence, is derived

* Ae reported by bystanders—we did not observe it.

344 ~ Chlorine—Radration, &e.
from some thunderstroke, from whose effect, the experi-
menter is happy if he escape uninjured. — Editor. ee

“son B. In the first experiment, related i in. this notice, ‘the
flask was not covered while filling, but it was done in an

under-ground laboratory, where the Tight was imperfect <.

in the second experiment, the flask was filled in an upper
room, when the sun shone out of doors, but the flask | was
covered by a thick towel: in the third, although i in an upper
room, it being a very dim light, no precaution was used, and

the glass was not covered ; on the other hand, there was no .

heat from any adventitious cause, nor could the effect be at-
tributed to any thing peculiar, for we had made this mixture
many times before, under similar circumstances, without any

explosion.— Ed. ,
2. Chlorine produces heat in the skin. —

( (Communicated, in a letter, dated Philadelphia, Oct. 9, 1820, from Professor
Hare to the Editor.)

1 find, among the obvious qualities of vulécine: one ssuhiohs
L belies: has never been mentioned as such. The air
around being at about 60, it produces a sensation of heat
equal to 90 or 100, on immersing the hand in it, though the
common (hermoriéter/ should diotehewadiered when im-
mersed. The differential thermometer shewed the gas
slightly warmer; but the effect thus indicated was too small
to have affected the hand, and possibly may arise from
chemical action on the atmospheric air, with which it com-
municates, or the moisture init. Perhaps a sort of chemical
action takes place, between the gas and the insensible per-
spiration of the skin, as the power of chlorine in decompos-
be animal effluvia is well known. iene ron

3. Radiation of Heat through Glass.

x neglected to mention to you, that I had, abuse two eats
ago, two large brass mirrors, sixteen inches diameter, one
foot focus, accurately turned by a fixed radius of two feet.
By these, an incandescent ball of iron, about three inches
diameter, being placed in one focus, phosphorus was igni-
ted, in that of the other, at the distance of sixty feet. But

Barns often struck by hghtning. 345

my object for introducing this topic now is, more particularly
to state, that the phosphorus was ignited, on one occasion,
at the distance of twenty-two feet, notwithstanding the inter-
position of alarge pane of glass, twenty inches square. This
shows, that glass i is permeable by radiant heat from very
hot bodies. [had my hand on a lever, to which the pane
was attached in order to raise it; but 1 had not time to get
it under way. For this experiment, the phosphorus was
melted on cotton, at the bottom of a tube, and the cotton
afterwards divided, under water, into pieces of a proper size.
Being placed ina candle wick, the candle may be lighted.
by wi mirrors, which is a very pretty result.

4, Construction of Galvanic Apparatus.®
(See Professor Hare’s Memoir in the present volume.)

I am constructing a galvanic apparatus, in a glass jar, two
and a half inches in diameter, by eight inches in height, of
coils of copper and zinc; the zinc plates are about nine
inches by six, and are rolled up with the copper by means
ofa mandrel, and two pieces of soal leather interposed, one
eighth of an inch thick, the copper beginning on the inside
and ending on the outside; so that it takes fourteen inches
of this metal. There will be eighty pairs only, at first. The
-soal leather is used merely to give them the proper spiral ;
and is, of course, withdrawn, when they are taken off the
mandrel. Narrow pieces of wood are employed to keep
them apart afterwards.

* Although the descr iption of this apparatus has been published, we have

thought it best to preserve this memorandum, because it contains some usefu!
directions relative to the mechanical construction.—Ed,

ART. Xv. —Peculiar ioe of Barns to be struck by
hghtning.—Epitor.

Tue fact, that barns are much more frequently struck by
lightning than any other description of buildings, is notori-
ous. Every summer presents a calamitous list of these
buildings burnt in thunder storms; and it is no very uncom-
mon occurrence, that several are consumed by the same
thunder storm. Instances are at hand in sufficient numbers;

but, as these occurrences are so frequent, it is not thought
Vor. Hf.....No. 2. A4

346 Barns often struck by lightning.

necessary to enter on the proof of the fact, which will there-
fore be taken for granted.—What then is the cause?

_ It will be observed, that these events more generally oc-
cur after harvest, or hay-time, when the barns are more or
less filled with hay and grain ;* which renders the calamity
peculiarly distressing, as, in many Estee the farmers’
hopes are blasted in an hour.

It is obvious, that the produce ge the fields, eat tena
in a barn, must give rise to a copious evaporation. This is
peculiarly the case with hay, which, especially when put up
still damp, (and it always is so in a degree,) sweats (as it is
termed) very powerfully ; a hand thrust into the mow, is
often rendered sensible of great heat and moisture, and a
visible vapour is often abundantly exhaled, when a heap of
such hay is moved. As the large barns of ‘the farmers often
contain many tons of hay and grain, it is obvious, that this
cause is sufficient to produce the rise of a great column of
vapour into the atmosphere, and that may be the fact for
weeks together.

Vapour i is a good conductor of the clecinié fluid ; aie nie
the lightning may be determined, by the attraction of the va-
pour, ‘to descend upon the barn, rather than to strike atrandom.

There is an additional fact, which is worthy of being men-
tioned. Evaporation, viz. the very act of forming vapour,
produces electrical excitement; the vapour itself is differ-
ently electrified from the bodies around, and to produce a dis-
charge of the electric fluid, it is necessary only that there be
a decidedly different electrical state between two contiguous:
bodies; as, for instance, between the vapour arising from
the barn and the neighbouring thunder cloud. It is imma-
terial which is positively, and which negatively electrified.+

Both these causes then,—that is, the conducting. power of
the vapour, and its different electrical state, may conspire to
direct the lightning where to strike; and, from the combusti-
ble nature of the etal contents of barns, as wellas of the build-
ings themselves, it is in no way surprising that, when struck,
they are almost inevitably consumed. ‘The most interesting
qugaian remains—What can be done to aemicdy the evil?

o ota in the language of the English annie

+ The electrical excitement, produced by eve poration, is seen in the fa-
miliar experiment of putting a few live coals into a crucible; the crucible
is placed on the cap of the gold leaf electrometer, and water is ‘dropped upon
the coals, when the gold leaves of the ele ctrometer instantly diverge.

On the Compressibility of Water. 347

‘The answer is obvious. Let every man furnish his barn,
as well as his house, with a lightning rod. In the case of
such low buildings, a rod, which, without a curvature, may.
pass up at one end, would cause but a trifling expense, and, it
is believed, would, in most cases, prove a perfect security.
When the barn is very long, it may be better to let the rod
pass over the middle of the roof, or else to have two rods—
one at each end of the building. |

Arr. XVI.—On the Compressibility of Water; by Jacos
Perkins, Esq.—from the Philosophical Transactions of
London; read before the Royal Society, June 29, 1820,
and forwarded to the editor of this Journal, by the author.

(With Notes, by a Correspondent.)

Havine believed, for many years, that water was an elas-
tic fluid, | was induced to make some experiments, to ascer-
tain the fact. (a) ‘This was done by constructing an instru-

(a) Although the experiments detailed in this paper present the subject of
the compressibility of water in several new and interesting points of view,
they cannot be regarded as the first by which this property has been ascer-
tained to belong to liquids. Soearly as the year 1764, a series of experiments
was instituted by Mr. Canton, (Phil. Trans. Vols. 11 and 12, Hutton’s
Abridgement,) from which it decidedly appears, that not only water, but
liquids in general, sensibly expand by removing the pressure of the atmos-
phere, and contract-under additional pressure. The method of Mr. Canton,
for moderate differences of pressure, is susceptible of a high degree of accu-
racy, and seems to have been conducted with every necessary precaution.
He found that, in the medium state of the thermometer and barometer, water
expands one part in 21740 by the removal of the pressure of the air, and
undergoes an equal diminution of bulk by subjecting it to the pressure of an
additional atmosphere in a condenser. Similar results were cbtained, from
a series of experiments, directed to the same object, by M. Mongez, in France.
Yet most of the continental writers on physics seem unacquainted with these
results, and still appeal to the vague experiment of the Florentine academy
for the proof that water is incompressible. Deluc found that, on breaking
off the sealed end of the tube of a water or oil thermometer, and admitting
the pressure of the air upon the column of the fluid, it instantly sunk. But,
instead of ascribing it to the compressibility of the fluid, he resorts for an
explanation to the hypothesis, that liquids, however carefully purified, still
contain a portion of air, which, although chemically combined with the fluid,
retains some part of its elastic force, and thus yields to an increase of press-
ure. It is somewhat singular, that this conclusion should be quoted with
approbation by Biot, in his late elaborate treatise, (I. 195.) without express-
ing any suspicion that the phenomena may arise from the compressibility of
the liquid. That most of the air which ordinarily exists in water tends, on
xemoving the external pressure, to assume the gaseous form, and to rise in
bubbles, is well known from experiment; but so long as no more air is

348. On the Compressibility of Water.

ment, which I calla piezometer, and which is represented
in Plate XXXII, (PI. 3 of this No.) Fig. 1. The cylinder, A,
was three inches diameter, and eighteen inches long. — ‘The
end, B, was made water tight, by means ofa plate, which was
soldered firmly to it. At the other end, C, a cap was made —
to screw on and off at pleasure; being also made water-tight.
The rod or plunger, D, which was five-sixteenths of an inch
in diameter, was made to pass through a tight stuffing box, E.
On the rod, immediately above the Aree box, was fixed a
flexible ring, a. A cannon, Fig. 2, of a pei as size to
contain the piezometer, was fixed vertically in the earth,
the muzzle being left about eighteen inches above ground,
and the touch-hole plugged tight. At the mouth, a strong
cap, A, was firmly screwed on. In the center of this cap,
a small forcing pump, B, was tightly screwed, the piston of
which was five- -eighths of an inch in diameter. There was
an aperture, C, in the cap, to introduce a valve, for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the degree of pressure. One pound
pressure on this valve indicated an atmosphere. The piez- -
ometer, which was completely filled with water, was intro-
duced into the cannon, which was previously filled with
water, and additional water forced in until the cap showed
signs of leakage; the valve, at the same time, indicating a.
pressure of one hundred atmospheres. The piezometer was
then taken out of the cannon, and the flexible Ting found to —
be eight inches up the rod, evidently proving the rod to have
been forced into the cylinder that distance, showing, also, a
compression of about one per cent. (6) We have seen, by
repeated experiments, that, to be able to produce this degree
of EOE oie, three per cent. must be pumped into the:

sone than can exist in the liquid state, (as was the case in the sihentaten ts va
of Deluc,) there is every reason to suppose that it possesses the physical
properties of a liquid, and has as little compressibility as the ‘water with |
which it is united. Accordingly, Mr. Canton found that water was no more _
compressible when saturated with air, than when deprived of it by boiling.
—M. Hauy, (Traité de Physique, I. 198.) although he denies that water is _
compressible in any appreciable degree, at the same time justly appeals to its
power of conducting sound, as.an evidence that it is in fact an elastic fluid.

(8) By calculating the:solid contents of the piezometer, and of that part of —
the rod which was forced into it, the real compression will be found to have .
been only one-half per cent. ‘There j is reason to believe that the error lies
here, rather than in the dimensions given at the beginning of the article, as
the supposition that the compression was one-half per cent. harmonizes with |
the statement afterwards made, that the apparatus last employed g gave the.
compression twice as great as the first.

On the Compressibility of Water. 349

gun. This fact proves, either that the gun expands, or that
the water enters the pores of the cast iron; it is probable
both these circumstances contribute to produce this effect.

This experiment was made in America, in the year 1819,
and before I had time to strengthen my apparatus for the
purpose of making farther experiments, I was obliged to
embark for this country. On my passage, however, I had
frequent opportunities of repeating those 1 had already
made, and of making others, by a natural pressure. They
were as follows. The piezometer, by the assistance of fifty-
four pounds of lead attached to it, was sunk in the ocean
to the depth of five hundred fathoms, which is about equal
to the pressure of one hundred atmospheres. When drawn
in, the gague or ring was found removed eight inches up the
rod, indicating, as in the before-mentioned experiment, a
compression of one per cent. This experiment was several
times repeated, and with the same result.

The next experiment was that of sinking a strong empty
porter bottle to the depth of an hundred and fifty fathoms,
having first tightly corked and sealed it, in the following
manner. Six coverings of cotton cloth, saturated with a
composition of sealing wax and tar, were strongly fastened
over the cork, by a cord wound round them, directly under
the projection at the neck of the bottle. After the bottle
had been suffered to remain at the depth mentioned a few
minutes, it was drawn up. No water was found to have
been forced into it, neither was there any visible change at
the mouth.

The same bottle was again sunk, and at the increased
depth of two hundred and twenty fathoms: when drawn in,
it was found to contain about a gill of water; but not the
slightest visible change had taken place in the sealing.

The same bottle was now sunk, for the third time, to the
still greater depth of three hundred fathoms, and when
drawn up, only a small part of the neck was found attached
to the line. Its appearance was truly interesting. The
bottle was not broken by external pressure, but evidently
by the expansion of the condensed sea-water, which had
found its way through the sealing. Upon examination, it
was found that the cork had been compressed into half its
length, making folds of about one-eighth of an inch; and
that the coverings, consisting of six layers of cloth and —

350 On the Compressibality of Water.

cement, had been torn up on one side before the bottle burst.
The effect produced upon the cork can, we imagine, be ac-
counted for only in one way, viz. that “the water, divided
nto very minute particles, must, by the surrounding pressure
of water, have been forced through the coverings, and filled
the bottle ; that the water thus forced in, and condensed to

a great degree, expanded as the pressure was removed by —

drawing it towards the surface, not only so as to press the
cork back into the neck, and, owing to the resistance of the

coverings, to compress it half its sIZe, but ‘to ae ae

neck from the body of the bottle.

Experiment 4. An empty porter bottle, the srenbest

that could be found, was stopped in the following manner.
A cork, with a large head, was firmly driven into the neck ;

it was then covered with six layers of fine linen, saturated.

with a composition of tar and wax; over them was applied

a covering of leather, and all perfectly secured by being
well bound at the neck. The bottle, thus prepared, was.

sunk two hundred and seventy fathoms. When drawn in,
it was found perfectly sound, and the sealing unchanged ;
but filled with water to within an inch of the cork. ‘The
coverings were: taken off, layer after layer, but no signs of
moisture were visible. Had the bottle remained down a
sufficient length of time to have completely filled, it would
undoubtedly have been broken by the expansion of the
water upon being drawn towards the surface, as was the
case in the former experiment. It is worthy of remark,
that, when the water from this bottle was poured into a
tumbler, it effervesced like mineral water. (c) |

Experiment 5. In this éxperiment, two strong” bales
were sunk to the depth of five hundred fathoms. “One of

‘them was stopped with a ground glass stopper, and well

cemented, then placed in a strong canvass bag. When the
bag was drawn in, it was found that the bottle had been
crushed into many thousand pieces. ‘The other bottle was
very tightly corked, but, not having been left down a suffi-

cient length of time, it came up whole, having filled to within.

one anda half inch. ‘The cork had been driven in aaa

(c) This effervescence doubtless arose from the escape of the air eck,
had been let down in the bottle, and was forced into combination vee the
water which made its way through the corking.

On the Compressibility of Water. 351

mained so; but the cementation was unaltered, excepting
at the surface, where it had become a little concave.

Being satisfied that the piezometer, as first constructed,
would not show all the compression, I determined to make
one differently modified. The object was, to avoid the fric-
tion occasioned by the collapsing of the leather upon the rod,
under such great pressure. ‘The drawing in Plate XXXII,
(Pl. 3,) Fig. 3, shows another modification of the piezome-
ter, made since I have been in this country. This proves
my suspicions to have been correct; since, under the same
pressure, it indicated nearly double the compression shown
by the former. (d) f A

This instrument is constructed as follows, Fig. 3 bemg a
section of it. It is simply a small tube, A, closed at the

end, B, and water-tight. At the upper end, C, the water is

allowed to enter through a small aperture, E, closed by a
very sensible valve, opening inwards. The tube is flattened
at D, in order that it may yield to the expansion of the
water, when taken out of the press.

-(@) It seems scarcely credible, that the whole difference between the re-
sults of these two sets of experiments could be owing to the friction of the rod,
employed in the first set, against its stuffing box. The friction, on this sup-
position, must have been sufficient to counteract an excess of pressure on
the outer end, of fifty-seven pounds. ‘Nor is it probable that any error,
which may be supposed to have arisen from the neglect to ascertain the tem-
perature of the compressed water in the first experiments, would be sufficient.
to account for the difference. The temperature of the water in the cannon
was undoubtedly raised, by a diminution of specific heat, analogous to what
takes place in other cases of compression; but, unless the experiment was
completed ina very few moments, its sensible heat must have been reduced
nearly to a level with that of the surrounding air. We are not informed
what time was allowed for the equilibrium of temperature to be restored,
nor what the temperature of the water was at the commencement of the
experiment ;‘ both which circumstances are necessary to an accurate esti-
mate of the error which might have arisen from the neglect to ascertain the
temperature after compression. If, however, we suppose the previous tem-
perature to have been 50°, and the rate of expansion for different tempera-
tures to be the same under all degrees of pressure; the elevation of the
water in the piezometer on compression, as is easily inferred from the inves-
tigations of Deluc, must have been no less than 26°, to produce an increase
oft, inbulk. Is it not more probable than an error was committed m
estimating the pressure? The valve, C, Fig. 1, is not particularly described;
but it would require to be constructed with peculiar accuracy not to indicate
too great a pressure, in consequence of the water insinuating itself between
the top of the cap and the part of the valve which rests upon it, before it
sensibly lifts the valve. The lever too, by which the valve is held down,
unless made of great strength, would prove a source of deception, by its lie~
bility to spring. s

352 On the Compressibility of Water.

The experiment with this instrument was made at Mr.
Kirr’s manufactory, in the presence of many scientific gen-
tlemen. The piezometer, being perfectly filled with water,
(the weight of which was accurately known,) was put into
an hydraulic press, and subjected to a pressure of about
three hundred and twenty-six atmospheres. When it was
taken out and weighed, there was found an increase of water
amounting to three and a half per cent. This water had
been previously boiled, and cooled down to a temperature
of forty-eight degrees, and kept at the same temperature
during the experiment.

A machine, calculated to avoid loss of pressure from de-
struction of the materials of which it is composed, will be
made with all convenient speed. This machine, being con-
structed with metallic stuffings and flexible metallic. pistons,
will effect a much greater pressure than the hydraulic press,
the power of which is limited by the animal stuffing now
used. It is probable, a pressure of from two to three thou-
sand atmospheres may be obtained, before the metallic ‘ol
ton is destroyed.

_ It is expected that this machine will be sinceeailys accu-
‘rate to give the exact ratio of the compressibility of water
with much greater precision than has hitherto been obtained;
but the results of farther experiments must be the gees of
a future communication. (e) is
29, Austin Friars, June 6, 1820. bo ai.

(e) The experiments described in this paper establish the i impor tant con-
clusion, that water continues to yield to a compressing force, after it has been
rendered vastly greater than has been hitherto employed; but much remains
to be done, in order to give our views on this subject the extent and precis-

_jon which it would be desirable to attain. The exact degrec of condensation
by a given pressure, and the law of variation in the density for different
“pressures, both remain in uncertainty. The experiments of Mr. Canton,
which seem entitled to much confidence, from the mode in which they were
‘conducted, and which have the singular confirmation of explaining the
known velocity of sound in water, make the compression, by a single atmos-
phere, Sonne. ue epee s last experiments give to each atmosphere an
average pomrresion of sso: M.Oersted, (Journal de Physique, October,
1818,) makes it 7z455- Which of these deserves the most reliance? To
‘reconcile the results of Mr. Canton with those of Mr. Perkins, we must sup-
pose the compressibility to increase as the pressure increases; a supposition
contrary to the laws of all other elastic substances.—Should our ingenious
‘countryman continue to prosecute his researches on this subject, and « extend
them to much higher pressures, as is promised i in his concluding paragraph,
it would be peculiarly desirable that the law of condensation By. different

}

Engraving upon Steel. 353

I

ART. XVIL—WNotice of Mr. datob Perkins’s Invention of
Engraving UBOR Steel. —Epitor.

Tur American public are aes ed that Mr.
Perkins, has given to the, before, comparatively perish-
able labours of the engraver, a degree of perpetuity which
may well vie with that of bronze or marble. We allude
to his well known discovery of a method of engraving
upon steel. In an interview with Mr. Perkins, some years
since, we were informed by him, that his steel plates, after
being duly prepared, were, by a particular process, car-
ried on by the aid of fire, decarbonized, as (if we do not
misremember) he termed the operation. ‘The result, at any
rate, was to soften the steel, so that it would admit of the
easy application of the graver. The design being made,
the plate goes through another fire process, by which it is
hardened to a high degree; and then the work becomes so
permanent, that the plate may be passed through the rolling
press to an almost indefinite extent, without undergoing any
material wear.

We have just received, from Mr. Perkins, (now in Lon-
don,) a planisphere of the “ solar system; shewing the orb-
its of the primary planets,* transferred to the plane of the
ecliptic, with the place of aphelion; and exhibiting, also,
the satellites, the ring of Saturn, some of the comets and
their orbits, the ecliptic and its constellations, &c. This
plate, executed on steel, and published by Perkins, Fairman
and Heath, is nine niches and three-fourths, by eight and
three-fourths; it was drawn and engraved by Lowry, whose
reputation is well known in this country, and is a beautiful,
and—for its particular object—a perfect thing. It is a fine
engraving; and the lines and shades are sufficiently delicate
to evince that this mode of engraving is susceptible of great
precision. Upon the margin of the plate, there is written,

degress of pressure should be exammed. Forsmall pressures, the usual law
of elastic bodies, when made to undergo slight variations of form, viz. that
the variation of bulk is proportional to the compressing force, may be re-
garded as sufficiently established by the experiments of Canton and Oersted.
But farther experiments are wanting, to ascertain whether it continues to
hold true for pressures of several hundred atmospheres.

* Including those of the new discovered ones, VesTA, Juno, CERES and
PALLAS, whose orbits are all included between those of Mars and Jupiter.

Vou. IIT....No. 2. 45

354 . Tests for Arsenic.

in pencil—‘ From the number of impressions taken from a
similar plate to this, we have no doubt of obtaining two
hundred thousand proof impressions from this plate.”’
When it is recollected that the common number of proof
impressions is two thousand, and that one plate scarcely
affords more than four or five thousand prints, Mr. Perkins’s
invention may well be regarded as one of great value, and
as enhancing, in a high degree, the importance of the pro-
ductions of the pencil and the graver, so that statuary has
scarcely any superiority in this respect, while it has no
means of multiplying copies, except the slow and tedious
ones by which the originals are produced, or the substitu-
tion of plaster casts. Asien :

Art. XVIIL.—Tests for Arsenic.—Ep1tor.

Ir is a question very interesting to medical jurisprudence,
whether there is any test for arsenic, which can be implicitly
relied on, to such an extent as to justify, on that ground
alone, the condemnation of an accused person. Some ex-
perience, in such cases, has produced in us an increasing
impression, that nothing short of the actual production of |
the metallic arsenic can be safely relied on for the above
purpose, aithough various tests may serve, more or less per- |
fectly, to guide the inquiries, and to influence the opinion
of the practical chemist.

A pupil, Dr. T. D. Porter, now a member of the faculty
of the University of South Carolina, in his inaugural disser-
tation states, that he finds, on repeating some of the popular
experiments, with onion juice, which were some time since
published in the newspapers ;—that the onion juice, with
the solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) but without
the carbonate of potash, produces, in a weak arsenical solu-
tion, ‘‘a shade like Scheele’s green;” but, if carbonate of .
potash be added, the effect is completely different. Con-
sidering Scheele’s green as a test that has been much relied
on for the discovery of arsenic, Dr. Porter formed it in the
usual way, with sulphate of copper and subcarbonate of
potash; in one experiment, a decided precipitate was pro-
duced from a stronger, and, in another, a scarcely percepti-

Agriculture.— On Spring Pasture. 355

ble one, from a weaker, arsenical solution. Coffee was then
added to the solution of copper and of carbonate of potash,
but without arsenic, and the effect resembled that of the
stronger arsenical solution, more than this last was resembled
by that of the weaker.

But the most important facts mentioned by Dr. Porter
remain still to be stated. He found, that,—in the production
of Scheele’s green, by arsenic, sulphate of copper and car-
bonate of potash,—chromate of potash might be substituted
for the arsenic; and that it produced a precipitate not to be
distinguished, by the eye, from Scheele’s green. He aseer-
tained, also, that even Mr. Hume’s celebrated test, nitrate
of silver, (as modified in its application by Dr. Marcet,)
gave, with chromate of potash, a yellow precipitate; which,
when placed side by side with one produced by arsenic,
could not be distinguished by their colour.and appearance.
Dr. Porter’s experiments appear, then, to throw still greater
suspicion on the infallibility of tests. for arsenic, and are
worthy of being repeated.* His results were exhibited to us.

* The nitrate of silver used by Dr. Porter, was the lunar caustic dissolved,
and the chromate of potash contained an excess of alkali, having been formed
by heating potash on chromate of iron.

AGRICULTURE.

—j—.

sa XIX. —On Spring Pasture; by Professor Ex1 Ives.

A PLANT which will grow in the autumn, of a size suf-
ficient to make it an pale of food for cattle, and which
will not be destroyed by our severe winters, is much need-
ed by the farmers in the northern and eastern states.
‘The severity of the weather in January, and the sudden
transitions of the temperature mm March and April, are
equally unfavourable to vegetation. All the grasses occa-
sionally, and at least the foliage and the roots of many, are
‘destroyed by the severity of the winter and spring.

The burnet (poterium sanguisorba) has been recom-
mended to be cultivated for early spring pasture. Objec-
tions exist against cultivating the burnet for this purpose.
In the first place, it requires the whole of the previous sum-

356 Agriculture.—On Spring Pasture.

mer for its growth, and it is, toa considerable extent, killed
by the frost ; according to the experiments made in England
with this plant, as related in Miller’s Gardiners’ Dictionary,
it appears that, even in Great Britain, the crop is so scanty,
as to render it an object unworthy of the attention of the
farmer.

A species of vetch was recooninerted! for a sae feed;
but, by an experiment which was made, every plant was
destroyed by the severity of the winter, or the sudden change
from winter to the occasional summer heat of March.

Excepting the winter grains, wheat and rye, I know of no
plant that promises so much to the farmer, for the purpose
of supplying his cattle with green food in the spring, as the
woad (isatis tinctoria.) This plant is less affected by the
temperature of the winter and spring months, than any other
plant, unless it be those appropriately called evergreens.
It is cultivated, so far as I have been able to learn, only for
the purpose of dying.

The woad is a biennial, very little, if at all, ap resall by
the winter. It affords an pundant foliage ; pale together
with the upper part of the root, is readily eaten by cows, in
March, April and May. The woad might be sown in July
or August, after plowing in the stubble, and would make
fine green feed for cattle in March and April. After the
leaves and a part of the root are eaten by cattle, it will sprout
again; and, probably, if eaten off in April, would be suffi-
ciently grown, by the last of May, to be valuable to plow in

as a green dressing for potatoes. This plant is extremely
tenacious of life, and will flourish in a meagre, sandy soil.

A small piece of ground was sown, in June, with the seeds
of the woad, which was fed by cows in April. They ate it
vety readily, and no unpleasant taste was given to the milk.
_ The experiment was made on a small scale; the cows sub-
sisting on the woad but part of the time.

It will require more experiments to determine the eal
value of the plant as food for cattle. From the experiment
above related, it is abundantly proved, that it does not suffer »
from the severest frost, its foliage not being injured,—that
its growth is merely suspended by severe freezing weather,
—that its life is readily extended, and that it is nutritious to
cattle. .

The above article is offered to adeienltiniots! as worilly of
their attention, for the purposes above specified.

ee

Archeologia Americana. . 357

INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES.
=n 8 QO«-- eee
1. Domestic.

A. Archeologia Americana. Transactions and collections of
the American Antiquarian Society. Vol. 1. 1820.

Tue American Antiquarian Society, as appears from the
act of incorporation, was instituted at Worcester, Massachu-
setts in the year eighteen hundred and twelve. The imme-
diate design of the association, in the language of their pe-
tition to the legislature of Massachusetts, is “‘ to discover the
antiquities of our own continent; and, by providing a fixed
and permanent place of deposit, to preserve such relics of
American antiquity as are portable, as well as to collect and
preserve those of other parts of the globe.” From the time
of their incorporation to January 1820, the Society had
collected a library of more than six thousand volumes of
rare and valuable books, some of which, it is believed, can-
not be found elsewhere in the country. ‘The cabinet is
stated to be likewise respectable. The national govern-
ernment has ordered its laws, &c to be sent to the society ;
and the legislature of Massachusetts has directed the Sec-
retary of the state to furnish the institution with two copies
of all their laws and other publications, which they now
have or may hereafter have. The society has experienced
like indulgence from the legislatures of most of the other
states. For the preservation and proper arrangement of the
library and cabinet, a commodious and substantial building
has been erected at the expense of the president of the so-
ciety, Isaiah Thomas, Esq. of Worcester; whose munifi-
cence in this instance, as well as in his valuable dona-
tions to the library of the society, and im the aid he has af-
forded towards completing the examination and surveys of
the antiquities in the western country, justly entitle him to
an honorable rank among the benefactors of the literature
of the union. |

The volume mentioned above, is the first in the series of
the proposed publications of the society. After a historical

398 - Archeologia Americana.

account of the origin and progress of the society, the volume
commences with Father Hennepin’s narrative of the discoy-
ery of the river Mississippi and the adjacent country, by the
lakes; and of La Salle’s undertaking to discover the same
river, by the gulf of Mexico. ‘Then follow several highly
interesting communications from Caleb Atwater, Esq. of
Circleville, Ohio, respecting the ancient fortifications and
tumuli, which exist in that and the adjacent states. We have
next, a full account of the Indian tribes inhabiting Ohio, by
John Johnson, Esq. conjectures respecting the ancient inhabit-
ants of North America, by Moses Fiske, Esq. and a communi-
cation on the antiquities and curiosities of western Pennsylva-
nia, by President Alden. After these, follow several highly val-
uable papers written and published at different times, by S. L.

Mitchell, LL, D. “showing the progress of his mind incoming -

tothe conclusion, that the three races of Malays, Tartars, and
Scandinavians contribute to make up the American popula-
tion.” 'Tothese are subjoined, a description of a cave, in
Kentucky, by J. H. Farnham ;—of a mummy found in the
same cave, by Charles Wilkins, Esq.; of the Caraibs who
inhabited the Antilles, by William Sheldon, Esq. ; and of a
great and very extraordinary cave in Indiana.

It is not our object to give a review, or an abstract of this
volume :—the latter would, indeed, be scarcely practicable
without the accompanying engravings to illustrate the de-

scriptions. We would merely invite the attention of the

public to the work, which we think highly creditable to the
individuals who have contributed to its pages, and to the so-
ciety in whose name it appears. It is a point of no small
consequence gained, when a man of the intelligence, zeal
and activity of Mr. Atwater can be brought heartily to en-
gage in an undertaking so extensive and arduous, as a com-
plete examination and survey of the numerous vestiges of
the ancient population, which, there is little reason to doubt,
once extended from the straits of Bhering to Mexico; and
perhaps through the whole of the American continent. It
is much to be hoped that this gentleman will be encouraged
to proceed, and to give to the public as ample descriptions
of the antiquities in the country west of the Mississippi and
on the gulf of Mexico, as he has now done of those in his
own state and neighborhood. There is undoubtedly a gen-
eral similarity in all these ancient works, in whatever part’of

Archa@ologia Americana. 359

the continent they are situated; yet the examination of the
whole will be useful; as the few weapons, ornaments, and
instruments of labor, which may still be found, will afford
new varieties, and furnish important aid, in any comparison
between these and similar remains in the northern regions of
Asia and Europe.

The Asiatic tumuli scattered over the whole tract from
the borders of the Wolga and its western branches, to the
lake Baikal, and perhaps to the straits which separat
Asia from ‘Amorita: according to Mr. Tooke, are found only
in plains and extensive deserts, which seem to have been
the abode of a nation which subsisted by pasturage and the
produce of the chase. "There is in this respect, a striking
resemblance between the ancient mounds of Asia and Amer-
ica: as none, it is believed, have yet been found in America
in the mountainous regions. It is true Mr. Tooke supposes
these Asiatic monuments to be of comparatively modern
date, and refers them to the Tartars of Jenghis Khan and
their immediate successors, and it is certain that the Kal-
mucs are still in the habit of burying horses, arms, &c. with
their chiefs. The truth probably is, that these monuments
are of very different ages; and that there are among them

those of the ancient Scythians, as well as those of the mod-.

ern Tartars who have succeeded them. It is by a careful

discrimination of the different ages of these tumuli; their

several peculiarities, and especially the utensils which may

be discovered in them; and by an exact comparison of

these with similar remains on our own continent, that we
can hope to approximate towards the time when these latter
works ‘were erected. Whatever may be thought of this, all
will admit, that the subject of these pees is one of ra-
tional curiosity.

We consider this publication as adding much to our former

stock of materials for deciding the question which has so |

long perplexed historians and antiquaries, and which has
led to so much vague speculation,—we mean, the original
peopling of America. While we acknowledge our obliga-
tions to the Antiquarian Society for what they have already

done, we would express a hope they will not relinquish the
inquiries which they have so successfully commenced. It

is an object which falls directly within the design of their as-
sociation and what they have already accomplished will fa-
cilitate their future operations.

360 American Geological Society.

2. American Geological Society.

A stated meeting of this society was held at the house of
Professor Ives, on the evening of the first Mond in De-
cember. ;

Reports were made to the society. of the receipt 5—

I. Of a box of specimens from Professor Dewer: ; they:

_are chiefly primitive and transition rocks, and are illustrative
rincipally of the geology of the vicinity of Williams Col-
ege, and of the region between it and the Hudson river. —

If. Of two boxes from the president of the society, Wi-
uiam Macuure, Esq.3 these contain geological specimens,

« collected and ticketed” by Mr. Maclure during his differ-

ent travels* in Europe, and are therefore a conttibution to-

wards a cabinet of foreign geology.

III. Of two boxes from Col. Georce Gipss, first vice-

‘president; one of these was mentioned in the last report,
and consists of foreign specimens, chiefly in mineralogy ;
the pieces are select and fine. The other _ is Sa
of domestic specimens.

IV. A collection of books from the srecidlont of the soci-
ety: they are,

1. The Transactions of the Geological Society of Lon-
don, as far as published, in 5 vols. quarto, with 150 plies
chiefly coioured.

2. The Transactions of the Wernerian Society of Edin-

burgh, as far as published, in 2 thick vols. Svo. with between
40 and 50 plates, principally coloured.

3. Journal de Physique, or Journal of Natural Science,

_(Paris,) 54 vols. quarto, with numerous platesf.
_ 4, Chemical and Economical Memoir on the production
of Joan quarto.
5. Mineralogy of France, by Rozzin, 1 vol. 8vo.
6. Meidinger’s work on Fishes, royal folio, with fifty su-
perb coloured plates.

* This gentleman has, in person, examined the geology of almost every
yortion of Europe, as well as of the civilized portions of North America.
He has visited several countries repeatedly, and has inspected most of the
iteresting localities of minerals in Europe and America.

+ With the promise of thirty-four more volumes, as soon as they ean be
obtained.

American Geological Societi, he 36)

qa Batsch’s Elements of the History of the Fungous
Plants, 1 vol. quarto, with 42 beautiful coloured plates.

8. Botany of J. J. Rosseau, 1 vol. 8vo.

9. Colvet’s complete treatise on Nurseries, 1 vol.

10. Jaquin’s descriptions and representations of the rarer
plants. of the Czsarian Garden, at Schoenbrunn, Vienna, in
4 vols. royal folio, with 500 elegant coloured plates—a mag-
nificent work.

11. The able Gardener’s Almanack for 1808, 1 vol.

12. The Gardener’s Calender for 1816, 1 vol.

_ Besides the above works, relating to the physical scien-
ces and arts, there are several works in the fine arts.

13. Designs of Leonardi de Vinci, 1 vol. folio, with 66
plates chiefly in outline.

14. Collection of designs engraved from the famous mas-
ters—drawn from the collection of the electoral Palatine -
academy of the fine arts, at Dusseldorf, 1 vol. folio, with 67
plates in outline.

15. Description of the bas reliefs and figures, &c. found
among the ruins of the baths of Titus, and Sh Livy, engra-
ved for the Cabinet of the Count Hele 1 vol. royal fol-
10, with 74 fine plates.

16. Pictures, statues, bas reliefs and cameos of the Flo-
rence gallery and the Pitt palace, 2 vols. royal folio, with
117 plates in the most finished style of Parisian engravings
as each plate contains (in a great proportion of instances) two,
or three distinct pictures—the work comprehends from two
to three hundred separate designs, executed in the most ex>
quisite manner and as the subjects are from the pencils of
the first artists of Italy and other countries, the entire work
with the accompanying descriptions is unrivalled.

Fo following works are of a Miscellaneous nature.

. Life of Frederic the second, 7 vols, 8vo.

th Atlas of the Prussian monarchy with statistical tables
and numerous designs illustrative of tactics and the art. of
war, in the whole 103 maps and designs i in 1 vol. folio.

19. Statistical annals of France in 33 vols.

20. Statistical archives of France in 6 vols. =

21. Extracts from the deliberations of the council of

Vou. TI....No. 2. 46

362. ° American Geologecal Socvety.

siete and a number of other small works put in to
fill the trunk.*

In Mr. Maclure’s donation, there are more than 1100 fine
plates without reckoning those i in the Journal de Physique,
and in the smaller works, which would probably amount to
iwo or three hundred more.

This gentleman’s liberality to purposes of science and hu-
manity, has been too often, and too munificently experien-
ced in this country to demand any eulogium from us. It is
rare that affluence, liberality, and the possession and the love
of science, unite so signally in the same individual.

~¥V. Count Bournon’s Treatise on Mineralogy or rather,
that part of it which relates to the Carbonat. of lime, in 3
vols. large quarto with 72 plates, presented by Mr. Wate
uram C. Woousey of New-York.

The society directed a committee to procure cases with

glass fronts for the reception of the above books and of such

as may hereafter be presented to the society. They also
ordered that the name of the society and that of the donors
of the books should be stamped upon them in gold letters.

Since the meeting of the society, Horace H. Hayden,
Esq. of Baltimore has presented to the society a copy | ps
his geological essays. [See P: 47 of this volume. |

P. S.—A box of specimens for the society has been ve
teed: from James Pierce, Esq.—this box has not yet been

opened.
A box is announced as being on its way from Profes-
sor Dev This is the second from this gentleman.

* Mr. Maclure, in a letter to one of the officers of the Geological Society,
remarks that the reason why the collection of books is of so mixed a nature,
is, that being packed at Paris along with the whole of his library, they were
not assorted, but were put up indiscr iminately, and forwarded to Havre,
whence this trunk was ordered to be sent to the American Geological So-
ciety. Its members will consider themselves fortunate that they are thus
fortuitously ae into possession of such interesting and rare ees

+ This remark as respects the present case, will be well understood in
Philadelphia, and especially im the academy of Natural Sciences.

Sulphat of Strontian. 363
3. Remarks on the study of Geology.

In a recent letter to the editor, from William Maclure,
Esq. President of the American Geological Society, dated
at Paris, are the following remarks : “It has always appear-
ed to me that the science of geology was one of the sim-
plest and easiest to acquire of any: the number of names
to be learned is small, and the present nomenclature al-
though rather generic than specific, is not difficult. In teach-
ing geology | would have a cabinet of specimens containing
all the rocks divided into four classes, or as many of them as
F could procure, keeping always in mind, that the most com-
mon are the most useful. I would begin by giving the stu-
dent an exactidea of all the rocks of transition, at one end
of which he will find the primitive, and at the other the sec-
ondary, which two classes are so different in their structure
as not to be easily mistaken. The alluvial rocks encroach
on the secondary, as soon as they have remained in contact
long enough to adhere, and take the consistence of rocks,
for the whole secondary, was at one time, alluvial, when
they were first deposited by the waters, excepting always
the volcanic.” :

We are not willing to withhold an additional remark :—
when speaking of this Journal, he observes: “In some of
the memoirs of geology there it a little tnaccuracy in the .
names of the rocks which should be as strictly scientific as
possible ; the Wernerian nomenclature Is still the best under-
‘stood.” ial

Every such hint, coming from such an authority as Mr.
Maclure than whom no man (with the single exception of
Col. Gibbs,) has so good a right to give advice on the sub-
ject of American geology, is worthy of attention and will
have its full weight in this country.

4. Sulphat of Strontian.

Fxtract of a letter to the editor from Professor Douglass of the Military
Academy at West-Point, dated Black Rock, (N. Y.) May 5th, 1820.

My Dear Sir,

The mineral which I had announced to you upona slight
examination of it as sulphate of barytes, (see Vol. II. p. 241)

364 Map of Mountains.—Epidote.

proves to be sulphate of strontian. Its specific gravity, 1
find to be 3.85 to 3.90. The crystal a flattened prism of ©
six angles, formed as it were by the bevilment of two op-
posite “lateral edges of a four sided prism, thus producing
four obtuse angles of 140° each, and leaving the other
two of 76° each. I have no crystal which will lead me to
the form of its termination. ;

This mineral is found in a small clan called in « our maps.
of last summer, Mouse Island; it lies Pkont a mile west.
Bass, or Put-in Bay Island.. The crystals intersect and
cross each other in every possible direction, as will ap-
pear to you by some of the largest specimens. ‘They easily
separate however, or rather break to pieces by a slight stroke
of the hammer. The gangue isa compact grey lime stone.

5. Map of Mountains.

Cummingsand Hilliard of Boston, have just published* an
engraving presenting at one view, the comparative heights of
the principal mountains in the world, with corrections, and up-
wards of one hundred additions of the principal American
mountains. We havea copy of this map and think it well wor-
thy of being possessed, both for geographical and geological
purposes, as it produces, at a coup d’ eal, an impression, for
which no description can be an adequate substitute. The
annexed heights, latitudes and names, give the most impor-_

tant particular information, and the map neatly mounted,
eee and varnished, forms a handsome parlour picture.

Ep.
6. Epidoie.

Dr. Webster informs us, that very beautiful epidote and
fibrous prehnite have been lately found in the trap rocks of
Nahant, nine miles north east of Boston.

% Price: coloured and mounted on rollers $5,25, plain $4,00—coloured:
and not varnished 4,25, pee

535

%,
Bs

Annals of Ne ature.—Fossil Fish. 365

7. Western Minerva, or American Annals of Knowledge
and Literature; a Quarterly Journal to be published in
Lexington, Kentucky.

The motto is un peu de tout and corresponds with the
sketch drawn in the prospectus. This literary and scientific
journal will be published quarterly, in Lexington, Kentucky,
in numbers of eighty pages, forming every year a volume of
three hundred and twenty pages or more. The first number
was promised for January, 1821, and the other numbers to ap-
pear successively in April, July and October following.

8. Annals of Nature.

Professor Rafinesque has published the first number of an
annual or occasional Journal, which he denominates Annals
of Nature, or Annual Synopsis of new Genera, and species
of animals, plants, &c. discovered in North America. This
work is established principally for his own discoveries and
for those of his friends. His first number contains sixteen
pages, and is occupied upon animals under the classes suck-
lers, birds, reptiles, fishes, crustacea, insects, worms, mollusca,
polyps, and porostomes ; and upon plants under the classes
eltrogynes, mesogynes, endogynes, symphogynes, aniogynes,
gymnogynes, phanerians, cryptians, fungians, and algians.
Under these respective classes both of animals and plants
many species are embraced.

9. Fossil Fish.

On page 222 of this volume mention is made of the fossil
fish, found at Sunderland, Mass. by Mr. Edward Hitchcock.
This gentleman at our request, has caused this place to be
more thoroughly explored, and we have now the pleasure
to state, on the authority of a letter from him, dated April
9, 1821, that fifty or sixty specimens of fossil fish have been
discovered at Whitmore’s Ferry, Sunderland, by those
whom he has employed. We are informed, that there are
two distinct species of fish, and as we have not yet obtained
the box of specimens, put up for us by the kindness of Mr.
Hitchcock, we subjoin the catalogue received with the letter,
as this will impart some valuable information.—Ep.

366 Severity of Cold at Plattsburgh.

List of ¢ organi remains and accompanying rocks, contained
in a box forwarded to Ero Silliman by Edward
-Mitchcock.

No. 1. Pudding stone perhaps Zrauwacke state) obeaiHen
from the bottom of Connecticut river, Whitmore’s Ferry,
Sunderland, Mass.

2. Slate lyine immediately above No. 1, commencing at
ihe sifface of the river and extending upwards of ten feet,
containing one species of fish.

3. Same rock containing another species of ish.

4. Same rock, fish impressions, two fish lying across } each
other.

5. Fish impressions, same slate rock.

6. Fish impressions.

7. Organic remains in same slate.

8... 5 do. do. do.

9. Specimen of a reddish slate two hundred fous! above
the fish.

10. do. brown slate three hundred feet above the
fish. ie

11. do. do. do. do. with
a vegetable or animal relic penetrating the specimens.

12, Vegetable remains on the same general formation.

13. Slate three hundred feet above the fish containing a
clam shell.

More particular information will be found i in the labels.

10. Severity of cold at Platisburgh® on Lake Champlara.

_ Extract of a letter to the Editor, dated March 17, 1821, from Dr. Lyman
Foot, surgeon in the United States Army. f -s

[t is now snowing violently and hal been snowing for
thirty six hours; the inhabitants here call it the ‘‘ equinox-
ial storm.” ‘The weather has been very cold at this place,
during the last winter. The Jake Champlain is now passa-
ble on the ice in every direction; I have seen ice cut out of
the lake this winter, which I should judge to be three feet
thick. The thermometer on the 25th of January last, at
Reveillee stood 23° below 0. Notwithstanding the intense
cold here, we do not suffer so much as you would naturally

* Lat. 44° 42’ N,

Fiuor Spar of Genesee and Illinois. 367

suppose. Every one prepares for it, and no one ventures
out without being properly guarded. On that extremely
cold day, Jan. 25th, wrapped in buffaloe skins, furs, &c. J
drove six miles ina sleigh without any inconvenience.

11. Crystals of Snow.

Professor Dewey, in a letter to the editor, mentions,
tions, that in a late fall of snow, he observed double crystals,
formed by a junction of two of the stars of six rays and of
two others of the same form, but with bifurcated points ;
they were, in each instance, united by the ends of the three
contiguous rays, on each crystal, and of course, the middle
ray of the three, formed, in each instance, a continued right
line passing through both crystals. The single crystals we
suppose to be correctly represented in Figs. 1 and 4 of
that plate of Vol. Il. which illustrates Professor Green’s
piece on snow crystals,—see page 338.

12. Fluor Spar of Genesee.

_ We have just received (May 1, 1821) from Mr. H. R.
Fenn, of Rochesterville, Ontario County, N. Y. some spe-
cimens of well crystalized fluor spar, which were discover-
ed by him, half a mile from Rochester on the Genesee riv-
er in the bed of the great canal. ‘They are scattered in cav-
ities of secondary lime-stone rocks. ‘The discoverer re-
marks that this mineral is found there in considerable quan-
tities, and that some crystals are an inch and a half square.

N. B. We presume that if this locality be not exactly the
same as that mentioned page 235 of this volume, it must at
least be in the same formation; the specimens received
from Mr. Boyd and from Mr. Fenn, cannot be distinguished
from each other.—Eb. f

13. Fluor Spar of Ilinois.

At page 52 Vol. I. we mentioned this locality of fluor
spar, and again at page 243 of the present volume. We
have this day (May 2, 1821) received through the kindness of
Capt. Abm. Hawkins of Shawneetown, some superb speci-
mens, which we mention for the sake of drawing the atten-
tion of mineralogists to this locality, the most remarkable

368 Slide from Mount Pilatus to the Lake of Lucerne.

that has been observed in North America and probably one
of the most interesting in the world. A specimen now lies
before us more than six inches square, on which are depos-
ited between three and four hundred distinct cubes and par-
allelopipeds some. of which are an inch in diameter, and
others so minute as to be almost microscopic; they are ofa
deep violet and purple colour, and the whole group (except
that it has not quite the freshness of specimens which have
been recently taken from the cavities of mines) is scarcely
inferior to the finest pieces of Derbyshire and France.

II. FoREIGN LITERARURE AND SCIENCE,
1. Slide from Mount Pilatus to the Lake of Lucerne.*
Communicated by Professor Griscom. ;

A slide waserected in 1812, by Mr. Rupp, forthe purpose
of bringing down to the lake of Lucerne the fine pine trees
which grow upon Mount Pilatus. ‘The wood was purchas-
ed by a company for 3,000/ and 9,000/ were expended in
forming the slide. The length of the slide is about 44,000
English feet, or about 8} miles, and the difference of level of
its two extremities Is about 2,600 feet.

It is a wooden trough about five feet broad and four deep,
the bottom of which foistss of three trees, the middle one
being a little hollowed, and small rills of water are conduc-
ted into it to diminish friction.

The declivity at its commencement is about 223°, and it
was calculated by Professor Playfair thata heavy body, not
retarded by friction, would describe the whole length of the
trough in 66”.

The large pines with their branches and bows cut off,

are placed i in the slide, and descending by their own cavity '

they acquire such an impetus by their descent through
the first part of the slide, that they perform their journey of

* Although these facts have been already published in our newspapers we
are willing | to present them in a more permanent form. Indeed it often
happens that articles of scientific and literary intelligence go the round of
our principal newspapers, before it is possible that they should appear in
our more permanent journals. When the articles are interesting and im-
portant we shall not think this a sufficient reason for omitting “to insert
them.—ED.

—

— Ongenized Water. 369

eight and a quarter miles in the short space of six minutes.
Only one or two descend at a time, but by means of signals
placed along the slide, another tree is launched as soon as its
predecessor has plunged into the lake. Sometimes the mov-
ing trees spring or bolt out of the trough, and when this hap-
pens they have been known to cut through trees in the
neighborhood as if it had been done by an axe. When the
trees reach the lake, they are formed into rafts, and floated
down the Reuf into the Rhine. —

The very singular phenomena described by Mr. Playfair’s
paper, arise from the diminution of friction, in consequence
of an increase of velocity, and may be regarded as an ex~-
perimental confirmation, on a large scale, ‘of the ingenious
views of Coulomb who had'the merit of diseovenibs this
remarkable property a friction.— Eb. wae Journal.

Be Omecinieed Water.

Oxigenized water as prepared by ‘Phenard is a real com-
bination of water with oxigen, and not a simple solution of
oxigen gas in water. It is not analagous to any compound
at present known in chemistry. Its density is 1.452 and
when poured into common waiter it flows upon it hke syrup.

The phenomena presented by its contact with other sub-
stances differ entirely from those ordinarily observed. Thus
platina, gold, silver, and oxide of manganese decompose if
immediately ; separating the whole of the combined oxigen
gas, and without appropriating to themselves any part of it.
This cannot be explained by affinity, at least as the term has
generally been used. This is certainly one of the most re-
markable discoveries of modern times, and opens to chem-
ists a new career, which can hardly fail to extend their views
of chemical combinations. ‘The oxigenized water has been
employed in restoring ancient pictures for designs, which
have been spoiled by the gradual combination of sulphur or
sulphuretted hydrogen with the white lead used by the

painters. It is only necessary to wash the dark spots with

water feebly oxigenated, i. e. with five or six times its vol-
ume of oxigen. ‘The dark hue immediately disappears.
The sulphuret of lead is converted into sulphate, which is
white. .

Vor. III.....No. 2. 47

370 Ivory Paper.—Manufacture of Glass.
| 3. Lithographic Paper. pata ity aye

Cpu Lasieryeie has reported to the Society D’En-
couragement of Paris (under date of June 28th, 1820) i in

favour of the Lithographic paper or cards, invented by

Senefelder. The card is covered on one or both of its fa-
ces, with an argillo-calcareous mixture, which has the prop-

erty of receiving the ink or the crayon and of undergoing’
the ordinary preparation and furnishing proofs as neat and.

perfect as those obtained from designs traced on stone:
Common writing is easily transferred to the lithographic
or papyrographie plate and copies of it taken. The Persian
ambassador being present with the commissioners at their
examination of the press, wrote in Arabic a note, of which
copies were taken. The translation is as follows :

Mirza Aboul Hassan Kham, ambassador extraordinary
from the illustrious court of Persia, residing in the delightful
city of Paris, the 24th May, 1820 of the christian era came
to see the papyrographic press which has been invented in
France, and which offers greater facilities than any other:
All that I have seen in Paris, either with respect to the cli-
mate or to objects of art, surpasses all _ I have seen in
other countries.’ | 3

4. Ivory Paper.

A Mr. Einsle of London has invented what he calls Ivory
Paper which is found in regard to hardness, smoothness and
whiteness, to answer as well as ivory in the hands of minia-
ture painters. A premium of thirty guineas has been assign-
ed to the inventor by the Adelphi Sheen’ in London.

fi Manufacture of Glass.

-M. Westrumb has found that the salts of potash and so-
da deprived of their water of crystalization answer as well
as the pure alkali itself in the fabrication of glass. Muriate
of soda, sulphate of potash, and particularly sulphate of so-
da, contain much water. The latter loses fifty eight per
cent by drying. ‘Twenty four parts of sulphate of soda are
thoroughly dned and mixed with eight parts of powdered
charcoal and sixteen of good white sand. The mixture is

Potash in Sea Water.—Salt.—Iron Boat. 371

to be calcined in the drying oven until the sulphur is dissi-
pated and then transported into the pots for fusion. It gives
a superb glass.—/nnals General de Sciences de Physique
Brussels, May, 1820. a .

6. Portable Gas Lamps.

These have been contrived by David Gordon of Edin-
burgh, and it is probable they will become quite common in
private families. Lh ie
They and made of strong copper, either spherical or cyl-
indrical, with hemispherical ends. The gas from coal or
oil is forced into them by a condensing pump, and is dis-
charged through a stop cock to the burner. A reservoir of
six inches diameter and nine inches high, filled with gas,
eondensed by twenty-five atmospheres will burn six hours,
and afford a light equal to five candles of six to the pound.
If the gas be obtained from oil, such a lamp will burn
twelve hours. A sphere twelve inches in diameter will con-

tain sufficient gas for two argand lamps, equal to twelve

eandles, burning six hours with coal gas or twelve hours with
gas from oil. Such lamps can be filled with very little ex-
pense or trouble, in every town where there is a public manu-
factory of coal gas.—Edin. Journal.

". Potashin Sea Water.

Dr. Wollaston has ascertained the existence of potash in
sea water. It is in the state of sulphate and constitutes rath-
er less than gy'o0 part of the water.—Idem.

8. Salt.

The European salt mines and salt springs produce annu-
ally, as nearly as the estimate can be made, from twenty-five
to thirty millions of hundred weight of salt.—Idem.

9. Iron Boat.
The iron passage boat on the Forth of Clyde canal, con-

structed under the direction of Henry Creighton, Esq. for-
merly of Soho, has an extreme length of sixty feet, beam

237 at Electrometers.

thirteen feet and depth five feet. Withiwo hundred pas-
sengers it draws forty eight inches of. water. The weight
of iron is twelve and a half tons, rather less than that of a
wooden vessel of less internal dimensions. It is found to
be more easily tacked than a wooden boat.—Idem.

10. Supply of Water to Glasgow.

The city of Giesan is supplies with water from the
Clyde.» This stream is commonly very turbid, but the wa-
ter filters through a body of sand into a well on the. left
bank of the river. Into this well dips a flexible iron tube
which passes across the river, lying on its bottom. ‘Three
engines are employed on the other side to raise the water,
two of thirty-six inch cylinders and seven feet stroke, and
one of fifty-four inch cylinder and eight feet stroke. The
flexible tube is the invention of the late celebrated J. Watt.
He bee. his first idea of it from observing a lobsters tail.

Idem.
11. Aur and Water support Vegetation.

A fig tree, seven and a_ half feet high, with a stem five
and a half inches in circumference, is growing luxuriantly
in the hot house of the botanic garden of Edinburg, com-
pletely suspended from the ground, and without a particle
of earth to nourish it. Water is thrown over it every day.

Idem.

12. Electrometers.

The Abbe Haiiy has’ contrived two very delicate and
useful electrometers. Ist. A fine crystal of Iceland spar
attached to the end of a lever, and suspended by a silken
string, is electrified vitreously by simply pressing it between
two fingers. It retains its excitementtwo hours; and i is not
much altered by dipping in water.

2d. A supportis made of sealing wax in chick is stuck.
aneedle that serves as a support and centre of vibration of a
small bar of silver or copper terminating in balls.

This retains its excitement much longer that when sus-
pended by silk.—French Journal.

Royal Society of London. 373

13. Extraordinary Surgical Operation.

The mostéurprising and most honorable operation of sur-
gery is, without any contradiction, that executed by M.
Richerand, by taking away a part of the ribs and of the
pleura. The patient was himself a medical man, and not
ignorant of the danger he ran in the operation he had re-
course to, but he also knew, that his disorder was otherwise
incurable. He was attacked with a cancer on the internal
surface of the ribs and of the pleura, which continually
produced enormous fungosities, that had been in vain at-'
tempted to be suppressed by the actual cautery. M. Rich-
erand was obliged to lay the ribs bare, to saw away two,
to detach them from the pleura, and to cut away all the
cancerous part of that membrane. As soon as he had
made the opening, the air rushing into the chest, occasion-
ed for the first day, great suffering, and distressing shortness
of breath; the surgeon could touch and see the. heart
through the pericardium,which wasas transparent as glass, and
could assure himself of the total insensibility of both ; much
serous fluid flowed from the wound, as long as it remained
open, but it filled up slowly by means of the adhesion of
the lungs with the pericardium, and the fleshy granulations
that were formed in it. Atlength the patient got so well that
on the twenty-seventh day after the operation he could not
resist the desire of going to the medical school to see the
fragments of the ribs, that had been taken from him, and in
three or four days after, he returned home and went about
his ordinary business.— Thomson’s An.

14. Royal Society of London.

Dr. Wollaston has been chosen ad interim President* of
the Royal Society of London. It would be difficult to
name any philosopher of the present day, who excels him
in acuteness of perception, as well as depth of attainment. ©
A paper by him was read before the Royal Society in June
last, on sounds inaudible to human ears. On observing that
the ears of a person were insensible to the sound of a small
organ pipe which was far within the limits of his own hearing,

4 ™

* Sir Humphrey Davy has since been chosen president.

374 Antidote to Corrosive Sublimate.

he found upon examination that this person’s hearing ter-
minated at a note four octaves above the middle E of the
piano-forte. Other instances were then referred to, of the
insensibility of certain persons to various acute sounds,
such as the chirping of the grasshopper, crickets, and spar-
rows, and especially the squeaking of the bat, the existence of
which is unknown in many individuals from its being iau-
dible to them. ‘The pitch of the sound was stated to be
about five octaves above the middle E. ‘The author fixed
the limits of his own hearing at six octaves above the same
note. The range of human hearing includes upwards of
nine octaves, the whole of which are distinctly audible to
most ears, although the vibration of the acuter sounds is
six or seven hundred times more frequent than that of the
lower. The author concluded by observing that it is very
probable that other animals are so organized as to be able to
distinguish sounds still more acute and of course more in-
audible by human ears, and thus to possess what may be
considered a new sense.— Thomson’s An. ae

15. Prisons.

A Society for the Amelioration of Prisons has been es-
tablished at St. Petersburg eta ikin Galitzin is the: presi-
dent. —fev. Ency. |

16. Pompera.

A Hier of ashes having fallen recently on the ruins of
‘Pompeia, M. De Gimbernat, a Spanish naturalist, compared
its composition with that of the substance under which the
city was anciently buried. He did not find the least resem-
blance between them; whence it appears doubtful wheth-
er the ruin of that city was occasioned by a shower of ash-
es. The same philosopher observed that some days after
the eruption, the crater of Vesuvius was covered with Pee
taline © marine salt——Ibid.

17. Antidote to Corrosive Sublimate.

M. Taddei professor of Pharmacy i in the hospital of Sari-
ta Marie Nuova, of Florence has ascertained that the glu-

Manufactory of Thimbles.—Auscultation. 375

ten of wheat dissolved in water with soap, destroys the ter~
rible effect produced in the animal economy by corrosive
sublimate. He has published a memoir on this subject
which is highly praised in the Italian Journals. —Ibid.

18. Schools.

Sihiocts for the instrustion BF the poor on the system of
mutual instruction are making rapid progress in Italy. The
duchess of Parma has established three, two at Parma and
one at St. Donino.— Ibid.

19. Manufactory of Thimbles.

A thimble manufactory has been established in France
by Rouy and Berthier, in which the mechanism is so in-
genious and perfect that they can afford to make steel thim-
bles lined with gold and of elegant workmanship, at the
rate of eighteen or twenty francs per dozen. The same kind
of thimbles lined with silver, can be afforded at six or seven,
per dozen. Common iron ‘thimbles, closed at the end, can
be sold for one franc per dozen.

In this single branch of manufactory, France has been
tributary, it is said, to other countries, to the amount of
875,000 francs. At present it is supposed that French
thimbles will be sought after in other countries—Bul. Soc.
ad encouragement.

» 20. Auscultation.

This singular method of discovering the various disor-
ders of the chest by percussion, was, we believe, first sug-
gested by Avenbruggen, a physician in Venice, who pub-
lished a work on the subject, since translated by M. Corvi-
sart. A memoir has lately been presented to the French
Academy, by M. Lacunec, detailing the various modes of
employing this discovery.

Among others, Mr. L. recommends using a tube with
thick sides, or a cylinder, pierced along its axis with a nar-
row aperture. ‘I’his, on being applied to the chest of a
person in good health, who is speaking or singing, produces
a sort of trembling noise more or less distinct; but if an ul-
cer exists In the Jungs a very singular phenomenon happens.

Saar - Evaporation of Spirits.

The voice of the sick person can no longer be heard by
the ear at liberty, the whole of the sound passing along the
aperture of the cylinder to the observer. Commissioners
appointed by the French Academy, have verified the exper-
iment in various cases of consumption.

21. Languages. ;

M. Frederick Aldeling counsellor of state to the emperor
of Russia, has lately published i in one hundred and fifty
three pages. ‘A view of all the known languages and
their dialects.”

In this view, we find in all 937 Asiatic, 587 European,
276 African, and 1264 American languages and dialects
enumerated and classed, a total of 3064.

22. Evaporation of Spirits.

_ The rapidity of evaporation and the cold produced by it
have been applied by Mr. Ritchie of Perth, to the deter-
mination of the strength of spirits.

“Having made three very delicate hydrometers, according
to Leslie’s construction, I inserted the bulb of one of daar
with strong whiskey, the bulb of another with a mixture of
equal quantities of the same spirits and water, and the bulb
of the third with water. I watched the descent of the fluids
in the stem till each had gained its maximum of cold and
marked the cold induced by the water 40, by the diluted
spirits 64, and by the strong spirits 88. Now the difference
40 and 64. is 24, and between 40 and 88 is 48. Hence the
following proportion 24:48:: the strength of ane dilute
to the strength of the strong spirits.

This I have tried with different proportions of ee and
water, in different states of the atmosphere, and found the
same property uniformly obtain. ‘The experiment requires
io be performed with great delicacy and care, as the spirits
soon acquire their maximum, after which the sa in the
tube begins to ascend—An. of Phil.

23. A newly discovered flower of extraordinary dimensions.
Mr. Brown read before the Linnean Society of London a

memoir on a new species of plants, discovered in Sumatra

*

Van Diemen’s Land. B77

a
in 1818, by the late Dr. Jos. Arnold. It‘has been named
Rafflesia, from Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles under whose -
pie bee Dr. Arnold travelled.

This flower springs immediately from a horizontal root.

The stem is covered with round imbricated floral leaves,
of a darkish brown colour, and not very unlike a cabbage.
The size of this flower is surprisingly great, when fully ex-
panded its diameter is three feet, and its weight is fifteen
pounds. Its tube holds twelve pints.
- Mr. Brown im treating of the affinities of this singular
plant, compares it principally to the aristolochias and passi-
floras. He has not undertaken to decide however, to which
of these two species it approaches the nearest. He sus-~
pects that it is parasitic upon the root which supports it; but
to decide this question more fully, further observation ap-
pears to be necessary. ; ;

The largest flower that has hitherto been found is the
purple flower of the aristolochia cordifolia. According to
the measurement of Humbolt its diameter is sometimes six-
teen inches. Upon the borders of the river Magdalena
children amuse themselves in covering their heads with it.
is fi An. de chimie, Aug. 1820,

24. Chinese Dictionary.

Mr. Morrison is advancing with his Chinese Dictionary.
The second part of this important work was begun in
April 1811. It will contain one thousand pages in 4to and
more than twelve thousand chinese characters explained by
numerous examples. In the month of April 1817, they had
finished six hundred pages, comprising nearly eight thou-
sand characters. ‘The impression of all the volumes will
require at least ten years. 4

25. Van Diemen’s Land.

A printing office was established in 1818 at Hobart’s town
in Van Diemen’s land, to which convicts are sent from Eng-
land. The first book published there was the history of
Michael Howe, a convict, who, at the head of twenty eight
brigands, disturbed the peace of the colony during six years.

Vou. FY.....No. 2. AS

378 Comforts of Travelling in Finland.
26. Egypt.

‘The grand uel at Ramainah, which extends from. ais
ro to Alexandria, was completed in the month of January
1820. The Pacha made a voyage upon it to assure him-
self that the whole of it has been executed agreeably to
his instructions.— Rev. Ency.

Egypt under the intelligent and active Paverimiene of the
present Pacha is opening “commercial relations with differ-
ent parts of the world, by means of agents sent by his or-
ders. Specimens of anes sugar have been received at
Trieste from Egyptian manufacture. Cotton, silk, and
cloth are also manufactured in that country.—Jdem.

27. Temple of Jupiter Ammon.

After sixteen days of great fatizue employed in travers-
ing the desarts of Lybia and Marmorica, M. Frediani an
Ytalian traveller, has at length succeeded in discovering the
famous edifice called the great temple of Jupiter Ammon,
which it is supposed has not been visited since the time. of
Alexander the great. M. Frediani was accompanied by an
escort of two thousand men, and was obliged to open, his
way by force to this celebrated monument of superstition.

Idem.

28. Comforts of travelling in Finland.

fn the course of last winter, the Russian government es-
tablished, for the comfort of travellers, along the gulf of
Finland, from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt, euard houses,
at the distance of three Verstes, or half a league from each
other. They are well warmed by stoves, and offer to stran-
gers a comfortable retreat during the night. The top of
each house is lighted by a reflector which. can be seen at a
great distance, and during a thick fog, a bell is frequently
rung as a call to those who may wander from their track.
Large posts are also erected surmounted by a pavilion to
serve asa guide during a deep snow. At mid distance an
mn is kept, well provided with needful refreshments.

Idem. —

ak pte

_ Education of the Poor. 38
29. Monument of Pultowa.

_ A monument of cast iron has been erected at Pultowa by

the emperor Alexander, in memory of the victory obtained

by Peter the great over Charles the 12th of Sweden.
Idem.

30. Biography of Linneus.

‘Chaver has recently brought to light at the house of a
florist, a biography of Linneus, in the Swedish language,
written by himself and continued to his death.

-'The manuscript has been sent to Upral and will soon be
published in an 8vo. of five hundred pages. It will be or-
namented with six engravings, presenting two portraits of
the celebrated naturalist, a fac simile of his writing, his
monument in the cathedral church and the arms of his fam-
ily.—Idem. .

31. Jurisprudence in Switzerland.

_A premium of fifty louis has been granted to M. Han-
gard by a convention of inhabitants of the Canton de Vaud,
in Switzerland, for the best dissertation on the question,
“‘ would the institution of juries in criminal cases prove ad-
vantageous in the Canton de Vaud.” The memoir will be
printed at the expense of the Canton and spread through-
out Switzerland. The author has decided against the es-
tablishment of juries in Switzerland though an admirer m
general of that excellent institution. But in the Canton the
judges are appointed by the people at determinate periods ;
they receive nothing from government, and have neither
grace, favours, nor fortune to hope for. Their independence
is established by good laws, and they enjoy besides the en-
tire confidence of the nation. These reasons with many
others, not less plausible, are developed in the memoir with
great precision.—ddem.

32. Education of the Poor.

If the school for poor children at Hosfevyl demonstrates
the happy influence of a moral education upon a large scale,

380 : Mecheine.

it is a fact that similar results may be obtained in smaller es-
tablishments. There exists a poor woman who has devoted
herself to the education of unhappy orphans: without any
other resource than public and private charity. She has
eight of these orphans, and supports them as well as_her-
self with twenty nine francs per month. Her dwelling
costs her four francs per month, so that there remains only
a batz per day for the maintenance of each individual. The
children are, nevertheless, in good condition, and nothing
in their exterior indicates misery. This wonder of econo-
my is still surpassed by the ability with which this respecta-
ble woman supports her authority and instils mto her chil-
dren habits of order and neatness and the love of labour.

She has been led instinctively to adopt the Lancasterian
mode of education by assigning to the elder the instruction
of the younger children. Would it be difficult to find in
each district females thus qualified, who might serve for
two or three villages, and who might be furnished with lodg-
ing, fuel, and a small lot of ground which the pupils would
cultivate? Government might encourage such establish-
ments by granting a premium to the communes which
formed them. ‘The following is an instance similar to the
above.

The widow Rumph, aged 70 years, residing near Bethe:
ny, supports, with less than thirty francs a month, five boys
and three little girls. These children are remarkable for
their lively and happy countenances, their good condition
and polite behaviour. The widow Rumph has been the

mother of fifteen children and has pas thirty two at. ae
own breast. —LIdem. of Scalia

33. Medicine.

M. Re, Professor of Materia Medica in the veterinary
school of ‘Turin, has discovered that the lyeopus europceus
of Linneus, called the herb of China by the whabitants of
Piedmont, where it grows abundantly, especially in marshy
places, possesses the same properties as the guinguing and
may be conveniently used as a substitute. —Idem.

New Hydraulic Ram. 281
34. Bible Society of Athens. |

1 Bible Society has been formed at Athens in Greece,
the direction of which is committed to twelve respectable in-
habitants, all native Greeks.

35. Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Greek.
A Dictionary of the Greek Language, Ancient and Mod-

ern, is now in the course of publication at the patriarchal
press at Constantinople. It will form more than six large ©
folio volumes, the first of which has already appeared. This
important work is under the auspices of the present patriarch
Gregorios, a native of Peloponnesus, a prelate as virtuous
as he is enlightened. :

36. College of Chios.

The grand College of Chios, has already become a kind
of European University. Ambrosios Argentis, one of its pu-
pils aged 17 years, has just published a discourse on Navi-
gation, in which he exhorts with much ardour, his country-
men to engage in commercial navigation, as an imperisha-
ble source of riches and prosperity.—Idem.

37. Fruitfulness of the Potatoe.

Marseilles —There has been brought here from London,
a kind of potatoe which is a prodigy of vegetation. A single
tubercule has produced 1,058 kilogrammes (2,160 pounds)
of potatoes, the quality of which is excellent—Dvreppe.

38. Distillation of Sea Water.

P. Nicole an apothecary of Dieppe has succeeded in dis-
tilling sea water so as to deprive it of the disagreeable odour
which it isso apttoretain. This he haseffected by causing
the vapour to ascend through a stratum of charcoal.—Jdem.

39. New Hydraulic Ram.

M. Godin, Rue de Poliveau, No. 21 Paris, has invented
a new hydraulic Ram of such simplicity as to be easily exe-

282 Remarkable Petrifaction.

cuted by any village ploughman. {t is adapted to the rais-
ing of water for agricultural,and economical purposes. M.
Godin furnishes those who desire it with engraved repre-
sentations of his machine, accompanied with instructions,
for its fabrication, and if desired a model in relief.—Jdem.

40. Sea Signals.

Experiments have been made in the neighbourhood of
Paris upon a new kind of nautical telegraph, intended to
furnish by day and by night the means of enabling seamen to
communicate with each other, and with a neighbouring
coast, in all languages at the distance of three or four
leagues. 'This improvement may be the means of dimin-
ishing the number of shipwrecks.—Idem.

41. Remarkable Petrifaction.

A tree about twenty six inches in diameter has
been found in the actual erect condition in which it grew,
but in a state of complete pretrifaction, in a sand stone quar-
ry near Glasgow in Scotland. ‘The body of the tree itself
is composed of sandstone similar to the rest of the quar-
ry. But the bark has been converted into a perfect coal,
which adheres firmly to the tree and renders it easy to re-
move the rock with which the tree is incrusted. About
three feet of the bottom part has been uncovered. ‘This
portion is situated about forty feet below the surface of the
earth, ina solid quarry of sand stone. The roots may be
seen dipping into the earth precisely as the roots of living
trees do. Four large roots may be seen issuing from the
trunk and extending about a foot before they are lost in the
quarry. The upper part of the trunk and branches has not
been traced. This petrifaction demonstrates that the sand
stone has been formed at a period posterior to the existence of
large trees, and that the water-worn appearance of the quarry
pebbles of which the sand stone is composed is not a deceit-
ful indication, as some Geologists would persuade us, but
quite correct. But if the sand stone which constitutes so
great a proportion of the coal beds, be a formation posterior
to the earth’s being covered with wood, we can entertain
no doubt that this was the case also with the slate clay, and

Magnetism by Voltaic Electricity. 283.

the coal which alternate with this sand stone. If the coal
formation, exists as a portion of the old red sand stone, we
can entertain no reasonable doubt that the old red sand
stone itself was formed after the earth was covered with wood,
and if it turn out to be true, as there is some reason for Bee
lieving that the transition and some of the primitive rocks,
alternate with the old red sandstone, we must conclude that
these rocks also have been formed after the earth was cov-
ered with wood.—Thomson’s Annals, Nov. 1821.

42, Spontaneous Combustion.

A barrel of oat-meal which had been left in a recess of
ihe chimney of a house in Glasgow, took fire while the fam-
ily were absent at bathing quarters last summer. Nothing
remained but the iron hoops of the barrel and a few pieces
of charcoal. The meal was probably a little moist.—Jdem.

43. Magnetism produced by Woltaie Electricity.

A new and interesting discovery has been made in relation
to the connexion between Voltaic electricity and Galvanism.
It has been ascertained that the Voltaic (Galvanic) fluid, diree-
ted ina proper manner, is capable of communicating magnetic
properties to bars of steel. If steel bars or rods be exposed to
the Galvanic current, placed in the direction of the magnetic
axis, no effect follows ; ; but if they be placed parallel with the
magnetic equaior, they become magnetic, the end placed te
the west becoming the north pole of the new magnet, and
that toward the east the south pole. The galvanic influence
is so great in this respect as to exert its power at a distance
of some inches (even ten or twelve) so that if the steel bar
be moved in a circle round the course of the galvanic cur;
rent, but always kept parallel to the magnetic equator it be-
comes magnetic.

When an electrical or a voltaic battery of considerable
quantity is charged, the compensating or discharging wire
becomes magnetic upon the completion of the discharge.
Common needies or bars of steel placed transversely on the
wire, or under it, or on its sides, become permanent magnets
on the discharge.

384 Population of Greenland. —

If the quantity of electric fluid be very great, contact
with the wire is not requisite. In one instance magnetism
was communicated at fourteen inches distance from the
conducting wire. It was also communicated through plates
of glass and even when the bars or needles were immersed
in water. These experiments were made both at the Roy-
al and London Institutions. At the latter, the electrical
batteries used, were from eighteen to seventy cubic (square)
feet. ‘The voltaic troughs of four inch plates, mounted
with double copper agreeably to Dr. Wolloston’s plan.

a Phil. Mag. for Nov.

44, French Translations from the Arabic.

The French literati are occupied at this time in a work
of some importance, preparing translations of Plutarch,
Salust, Tacitus, Aristotle, Hippocrates, &c. from the Ara-
bic MSS. into which languages many or all the best Greek
and Roman authors are known to have been translated.

The French Ambassador at Constantinople, M. Giardin,
has lately sentto Paris fifteen valuable MSS. in Arabic, from
the Imperial Library there, among which are the complete’
works of Plutarch and Heroditus.—Jbid.

45. New Alkali. —

Pelletier and Caventon have, it appears detected another
alkaliin the seeds of the veratrum sabadilla, or meadow
saffron. It has been named veratrine. It is white, pulveru-
lent, without smell, but excites violent sneezing ; it is very
acrid, but not bitter, producing violent vomiting in so small
doses, that according to some experiments, a few grains
may cause death. It is but little soluble in cold water,
boiling water dissolves about ;4,, part, and acquires an
acrid taste. It is very soluble in alcohol. The super sul-
phate alone appears to form crystals.—Ibid. :

46. Population of Greenland.
‘The whole population of Greenland, according to the last

report of the missionary board, consists of three thousand
five hundred and eighty-six individuals, spread through

Gas Hlumination. 385

seventeen colonies on the western coast. The interior is
not habitable owing to accumulations of ice. The popu-
lation has increased seven hundred and fourteen since the
year 1789,—-Ibid.

47. Mildew.

Dr. Cartwright has ascertained that a solution of com-
mon salt, sprinkled on wheat infected with mildew, com-
pletely removes the disease. Six or eight bushels of salt
will serve an acre, the expence will be more than repaid
from the improvement of the manure, arising from the salt-
ed straw. The efficacy of this remedy has been complete-
ly verified. Its operation is so quick, that in forty eight
hours, ie vestiges of the disease are hardly discernible.

Lord.

48. Theory of Electricity.

A paper was read by Dr. Van Marum, at the Royal In-
stitution of the Sciences at Amsterdam in 1819, the reason-
ing of which goes far to prove that the Franklinian hypoth-
esis of a single electrical fluid is the true one; and that the
theory of Du Fay, of vitreous and resinous fluids principally
supported by the French philosophers, does not so well ex-
plain the phenomena. ‘The paper of Van Marum is pub-
lished in Thomson’s Annals, December 1920.

49. Gas illumination,

Has been introduced into one of the districts of Paris
with the best effects, under the judicious direction of M.
Darcet. ‘The hospital of St. Louis which contains seven
hundred patients is finely lighted by it, as also the hospital
for incurables in Rue des Recollets, ane the Maison de San-
ti, Rue St. Denis and the prison de St. Lazare. Three
hundred lights are sufficient for the hospital St. Louis.
The gas is obtained by the distillation of con.

Vou. TT....No. 2. 49.

/

386 Connenon between Magnetism and Electricity.

. 50. Todine.

‘This substance has been found to be an excellent reme~
dy in the cure of Goitre. An able memoir upon it by Dr,
Coindet in the Bib. Univ. of Geneva contains the following.
ode is a stimulant, it gives tone to the stomach, and excites
appetite ; it acts neither as a cathartic, nor diuretic, nor
does it excite sweating; but its action is directed to the re-
productive system, and especially to the uterus. If given’
ina certain quantity and continued for some time, it is one
of the most active emmenagogues that I know. It is per-
haps by the sympathetic action that, in the greater number
of cases it cures Goitre. This substance deserves, under
this new point of view, the attention of physicians, and I
doubt not, that it will become in skilful hands one of the
most powerful remedies with which modern chemistry has
enriched the materia medica. It has been discovered in
sponge and in peat. ¢

51. Mercurial Atmosphere.

Mr. Faraday chemical operator at the Royal Institution,
Lendon, bas found that when a thin stratum of mercury
rests In the bottom of a clean vial, a piece of gold leaf care-
fully suspended from the stopper, becomes in the course of
a few weeks, whitened by a quantity of mercury through ev-
ery part of the bottle, the mercury remains just as before.

; Brande’s Journal.

52. Connexion between Magnetism and Electricity.

The discoveries of Professor Oersted of Copenhagex
which so clearly establish the connexion between Mag-
netism and Voltaic electricity have been considered so im-.
portantas toinduce the Royal Society of London to vote him —
the Copley medal. We insert from the Journal of the Roy-
al Institution, a summary of these highly interesting results.

‘No discovery has, for a long time, so strongly excited
the attention of the philosophic world, as that of the mag-
netic phenomena belonging to the voltaic apparatus; we
shall, therefore, endeavour to give our readers a short state-
ment of what has been done in this department of scientific
inquiry.

Conneaion between Magnetism and Electricity. 389 _

i. If the extremes of a voltaic battery (we will suppose
it to consist of 20 pairs of 8 inch plates,) be connected by
a platinum wire, it becomes heated, and, if of sufficiently
small diameter, it suffers ignition. Let us suppose such a
wire W, lying upon the supports P and N, which represent

the positive and negative conductors of the active Voltaic
apparatus, P being connected with the first zinc plate, and
N with the last copper plate ; upon bringing the north pole
of a common magnetic needle delow and at a right angle to
the platinum wire, it will be repelled or driven downwards ;
if we now remove the needle keeping it in the same posi-
tion, so that its north pole may be above the platinum wire,
it will then be attracted towards it. If the electric poles be
reversed, these phenomena will also be reversed. __

If we suppose the conjunctive platinum wire to be vertic-
al, instead of horizontal, and in that position approach it
with either end of the magnetic needle, the needle will os-
cillate, but will not be permanently attracted or repelled by
any part of the conjunctive wire.—Professor OrrsTep.

2. If asmall steel bar be attached to the conjunctive
wire, and parallel to it, it does not become a polar magnet ;
but if it be attached transversely, it does become polar, and.
it becomes north and south, or south and north, according
to the direction of the supposed electric current traversing
the conjunctive wire, according as one or the other end of
it is positive or negative. Thus supposing W to represent
the platinum conjunctive wire of the Voltaic apparatus, and

388 Connexion between Magnetism and Electricity.

N.S a wire of iron attached transversely to it, the latter be-
comes permanently magnetic.—Sir H. Davy. -

3. If we suppose a second conjunctive wire parallel to,
and similarly situated with, the first, as in this figure, those

Digs. evo eens ere N)

wires will wttract each other; but ifone conjunctive wire be
traversed by the electric fluid in one direction, and another
in an opposite direction, as m the following wood-cut, those

PE ren ee ere rN
Nica oe a a

wires will repel each other. In this circumstance, the dis-
similarity of the electro-magnetic and of simple electric
phenomena is observed: for bodies similarly electrified re-
pel each other, and, dissimilarly electrified, attract each
other; but here the horizontal wires, similarly electro-mag-
netized, attract; and, dissimilarly electro-magnetized, re-
pel each other.—M. Amprre. ener

4. The shock of a Leyden Jar, or battery, passed through
a wire, confers upon it, at the moment of its passage, prop-
erties precisely similar to those of the Voltaic apparatus.

To render a steel bar magnetic, it is not necessary that
it should touch the conjunctive wire, to which it is attached
at right angles, for the electro-magnetic influence is convey-
ed to some distance, and is not excluded by the interposi- —
tion of a plate of glass, of metal, or of water.—Sir H. Davy.

5. The phenomena, exhibited by the electro-magnetic
or Conjunctive wire, may be explained upon the supposition
of an electro-magnetic current passing round the axis of
the conjunctive wire, its direction depending upon that of
the electric current, or upon the poles of the battery with
which it is connected.—Dr. Wo.uuasTon.

ole

WVotices of Vegetable Remains in Coal Strata. 389

In the above figure, such a current is represented in two
sections at right angles to the axis of the wires, when simi-
larly electrified, from which it will be apparent that the
north and south powers meeting, will attract each other.

In the following figure, the sections of the wire are shown

dissimilarly electrified, by which similar magnetic powers
meet, and consequently occasion a repulsion.

53. Notices of Vegetable Remains in Coal Strata.
TO THE EDITOR.

SIR—The very close resemblance the figures in your
last Journal marked C 3—C 4—, bear to a remarkable
sandstone which occurs abundantly in the coal fields of
Scotland, must strike every one acquainted with the latter.

On the shores of the Frith of Forth are vast quantities
of this sandstone in various imitative forms, more com-
monly resembling branches of trees. These are seldom
less than an inch in diameter, and often exceed four inches.
Branches of smaller size are sent off from the larger, and.
the exterior of all is covered with the impressions so well
delineated in Mr. Granger’s paper. Although they have
been examined by many distinguished naturalists in Great
Britain, no satisfactory explanation of them has been pub-
lished. ‘The following notice of similar appearances is from
Teg Magazine for December, 1820.

Your's, &e.
J. W. WEBSTER.

“ Large Organic Remains.
“In some of the sandstone rocks which alternate with

ihe seams of coal, in a great many if not in all the coal-
fields of England, the remains of very large. thin, hollow or

390 Ancient Sarcophagus, from Dr. J. W. Webster.

reed-hike vegetables have been found, sometimes lying along
in the stone, and sometimes standing erect therein ; the in-
side hollow of the vegetable being now completely filled
with sandstone, in all respects like that which surrounds it,
and the vegetable case or sheath is found converted into
perfect coal ;* on the outside of which coaly case or sheath,
the papilia or places where very numerous large leaves
were once attached to the vegetable, are in general visible; —
and not uncommonly, particularly in the medium and
smaller sizes of these reed-like remains, the leaves are yet
attached and ina coaly state, and spread out into the sand-
stone on every side: itis seldom that these remains are
quite round, but mostly somewhat oval; particularly to-
wards the bottom, where they usually swell out into an ir-
regular club-like form, much more resembling the lower
parts of coralline and other aquatic stems, than the com-
mencement of the roots of a tree, or of any land plant; no
branches have ever been observed, proceeding from the
sides or the tops of these remains; but. it is very common
to observe the smaller and medium sizes of them, to ter-
minate at top in a large bud, very closely resembling the
top of an asparagus shoot in the state the same are brought
to market. In a free sandstone quarry on the western side
of Glasgow, a large organic remain has lately been found,
which in every essential particular seems to agree with the
description above mentioned.”

54. Ancient Sarcophagus. (J. W.W.)

Dr. E. D. Clarke has communicated to the Cambridge
Philosophical Society a discovery which he had made re-
gpecting the supposed alabaster soros, brought by Mr. Bel-
zoni from Upper Egypt; and which he had found to con-
sist of one integral mass of arragonite.—Jbzd. 3

* “Ji seems more than probable, that hollow vegetable pipes contributed
greatly to supply the masses of which the coal-seams are now composed ;
because, on the tops of many coal-seams of inferior quality, and where much
earthy matter is found mixed with the bad coal, such pipy vegetables, near-
ly or quite collapsed, and converted into coal, very much abound ; the pa-
pilia, and sometimes the leaves also, being visible on the outsides of such.
collapsed pipes, cr flattened reeds as they are very commonly called. In
the process of forming good or perfect coal, a crystalization of the vegetable
mass has taken place, by which all traces of organization are obliterated.””

Sihceous Sinter of the Azores. 391
55. Siliceous Sinter of the Azores.

Mr. SILLIMAN,

In examining some varieties of siliceous sinter from the
Azores, I have met with one which differs from any hither-
to found in Iceland or other countries, where the substance
occurs under those forms usually seen in our cabinets.
From the island where this variety occurs (St. Michaels) it
might perhaps be distinguished by the term Michaelite.
From the specimens before me I send you the following
description. Your’s, &c.

J. W. WEBSTER.

External Characters.

_ Color snow white, reddish and yellowish white, passing
in some specimens to yellowish grey.
It occurs in long slender (capillary) filaments, from one
to four inches in length. ,
The filaments cross each other in every direction.
On the cross fracture, viewed with a microscope, a lus-
tre between vitreous and pearly is observed.
It is translucent. Brittle and light.
When reduced to powder and rubbed on glass it scratch-
es it.
Specific gravity 1.866. -

Chemical Characters.

Infusible without addition before Brooke’s blowpipe.

Constituent Parts.

Silex, - - 97.0

Alumina, - rantciies ts,
Tron a trace, - =

Water, - - - 1.5
100

1X grains in fine powder, intensely ignited in a platina
crucible for fifteen minutes, lost 0.98125 grains, equal to
16.35 per cent.; it is an hydrate of silex and is composed of
Silex, - 83.65
Water, - + 16.35

392 — Notice of the Revue Ene yelopeigne ¥e.

This approaches very nearly 2 propottionals of water
—= 18 — five proportionals of Silex = 80.

§

Geological and Geographical Situation. s

It occurs in cavities in massive and other varieties of si-
ter, and upon conglomerated masses of altered lava and
pumice, in the vicinity of the hot springs of the island of
Saint Michaels, (Azores) and has probably been deposited
from the waters which held it in poluven by their elevsie
tqinpeTan lire aided by an alkali.

56. Swainson’s Zoological Miscellany.

Notice communicated by Professor Rafinesque, in a letter
dated Lexington, 10th October, 1820.

Tam requested by the author to have the following no-
tice inserted in your Journal.

“Mr. William Swainson of Liverpool, a gentleman. who

has travelled in Brazils, Greece, Italy, Sicily, &c. was to
commence publishing in London, in October, 1820, a Zoo-
logical Miscellany, with coloured plates. He is an able
naturalist and painter, two qualities which will render his
work very valuable. It is to be on the plan of the Zoolo-
gical Miscellany of Dr. Leach, where so many new objects
have been elucidated, and to contain the figures and de-
scriptions of the new animals which he has discovered in
his travels. It will be published in monthly numbers, in
Svo, each number will contain four highly finished colour-
ed plates of new and unfigured or imperfectly known birds,
fish, shelis and insects, all from original drawings by the au-
thor, who has likewise engraved the plates. ‘The price will
be two shillings and six pence per number. He has also a
monography of the genus of humming birds, with colour.
ed engravings of each species, nearly ready for the press.”

57. Notice of the Revue Encyclopedique, ene in Paris
under the direction “ Mr. Julien.

This Monthly Journal has but recently begun to be
known in this country. Indeed. its publication began only

Notice of the Revue Encyclopedique, &c. 393

two years since, but this period has been sufficient to shew
that it is one of the ablest and most interesting publications
of the kind extant. :

‘i embraces within its plan

“* Analysis of and extracts from choice works.
Bais Memoirs, notices and miscellanies, poe objects of
ads interest.
*« Literary and scientific news from all countries.

ri ‘A Bibliographical Bulletin, or annunciation of new
works both French and foreign, the substance of all the
most remarkable productions in literature, the sciences and
the arts.”

It is remarked of it in one of the Paris Journals,* that
a numerous and select band of literary, scientific and
learned men; of authors, and distinguished writers of all
descriptions labour in this work, and seem honourably to
represent in it, universal literature and the extent of hu-
man knowledge. This new “ Recueil literaire” has al-
ready obtained honourable mention and copious extracts
are made from it in many of the literary and scientific
Journals of Germany, England and Italy.t The effect
of this Review is to open a central channel of commu-
nication to the friends of science and humanity, whatev-
er part of the globe they inhabit, and in whatever depart-
ment of the sciences and arts they exert their efforts. It
offers and already promises a valuable and continued ab-
stract of all the works useful to man in society. It presents
by degrees the annals of comparative civilization.

It is remarked that the six numbers published in the six
first months of the year 1819, contained analyses or extracts
or simple annunciations of more than three hundred choice
works; a collection of more than thirty memoirs or notices
of a general interest upon literature and the sciences; and
lastly, many pictures of the movements of human genius,
manifested in different countries, by the labours of learned
societies or by those of public utility, by inventions and dis-
coveries, by the measures of government in support of edu-
cation and of industry, and by marks of honour rendered to
distinguished and useful men.

* L’ Independant, Journal general, politique, literaire et militaire.

+ Itis beginning to be quoted in the American Journals.

Vor. IIl,....No. 2. 50

394 Notice of the Revue Encyclopedique, &e.

In another Parisian Journal* there is a very minute and
animated picture of this Review, and an analysis of the last
number in detail: our limits will allow us to cite only some
passages. ‘The work is spoken of as being highly meritori-
ous on account of the extent and importance of the plan,
the merit of the execution, the reputation and talents of its
editors, the noble end which they have in view and the
spirit of moderation and of true philanthropy by which they
are actuated. ‘Ihe United States and with them our own
humble labours and those of our collaborators are honoured
with a good degree of attention in this Journal. It is re-
marked, i in the notice before us, that the United States ap-
pear to cultivate particularly the physical sciences and sta-
tistics, and that we are a rising nation (une nation naissante)
still occupied in making out the inventory of the riches of
our vast territory and of the means of exploring. them.
Speaking of the -notice of all nations in the Revue En-
cyclopedique the Journalist goes on to remark—“ thus, in
their turn, many different countries have been passed in re-
view, brought together and compared, and the noble ex-
amples, the public works, the important facts, the pregnant
observations collected with discernment and presented with
perspicuity, have contributed to manifest and still to excite
the movement of human intellect, embraced in the peace-
ful sphere of the sciences, of letters and the arts. With re-
spect to that division of the work which relates to scientific
and literary intelligence, it is remarked that the review pre-
sents a true panorama of the civilized world, and that we
there see appear, in succession, in the course of more than
sixty articles, all*the nations known; the summaries of
their journals of science and of the labours of their literary
and scientific societies ; the designations of prizes propos-
ed and of prizes distributed ; the particular objects of the
researches of skilful men in every country ; the actual con-
dition of national schools and their progress, especially
among communities recently organized; extracts of letters
respecting scientific travels or which have reference to
some useful public object, with respect to antiquities, arts,
sciences or the progress of civilization; inventions and dis-
coveries, the immediate publication of works, the organiza~

\

* Le Moniteur Universal, for August 10, 1820,

Notice of the Revue Encyclopedique, &e. 395

tion of public establishments, universities, museums, hos-
pitals, savings banks, &c.; national remunerations, accord-
ed by governments or by societies to learned men and to
benefactors of the human race ; monuments consecrated to
celebrated men; the phenomena of natural history or of
meteorology, processes of domestic economy, statistical ex-
tracts, discoveries of objects of art or of ancient manu-
scripts, the finest recent productions of architecture, sculp-
ture or painting, the progress of mutual instruction adopted
by all governments that interest themselves in the well be-
ing of their people, the state of lithography ; the new dra-
matic productions which obtain a degree of celebrity, and
the direction given to the influence of the theatres which
may become schools of public feeling ; lastly, obituary no-
tices of men whose lives have been illustrated by good ac-
tions or by good productions; such are the infinitely varied
subjects which are created and multiplied in this gallery of
nations.

It is added, “The Revue Encyclopedique is not then
merely a scientific work destined for the savans; or, literary,
for mere scholars, or national, designed for one nation only.
It is a methodical collection of interesting facts, which
evince the activity of the genius and industry of man, upon
all parts of the globe. It is a philanthropic enterprize in
which all elevated minds ought to be interested, and all
generous hearts summoned to form a kind of electric and
mysterious chain infinitely extended, embracing the desti-
nies of man and which from age to age, from country to
country, unites all the thoughts, all the works having refer-
ence to the great end of the preservation, amelioration and
alleviation of the condition of man, as well as to the more
free and complete developement of the human faculties
and of the social institutions which constitute true civiliza-
tion.”

Such are the views entertained in Paris of this periodical
work. As far as we have had opportunity to peruse it,
they are (abating perhaps a degree of enthusiasm which is
certainly pardonable on such a subject) justified by the ex-
ecution which evidently involves an amount and variety of
knowledge and Jabour unprecedented, we believe, in the
execution of any periodical work. . :

396 Palermo.
58. Atomic Weights of Bodies.

Extract of a letter dated Glasgow, November 2, 1820, fom. :
Dr. Thomas Thomson Regius, Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Glasgow, &c. &c. to the Editor.

T have but little scientific news to communicate to you.
Little is doing at present in chemistry, either in this coun-
try, or on the continent of Europe. I am at present en-
gaged in a set of experiments, to determine the true atomic
weights of bodies with mathematical accuracy, and I have
already made considerable progress. A first paper on the
subject has just appeared in the annals for November, a
second will appear in the January number. Having this
winter a course of clinical lectures to deliver, and being
anxious to take the opportunity of investigating more exact-
ly than has been done, the state of the urine in various dis-
eases, I shall be obliged to interrupt my experiments for
the winter, but I shall resume them next May. As soon
as I have completed this investigation I shall have it in my
power to apply mathematics to chemistry.

59. Palermo.

Extract of aletter to the Editor from Mr. William C.
Woodbridge, of the American Asylum for the Deaf and
Dumb, dated February 25, 1821, Palermo.

‘The University (of Palermo) has a noble unfinished
building, a small philosophical apparatus and scarcely any
chemical. There are thirty schools, where lectures are de-
livered on every branch of science, and about five hundred
students who attend gratis. ‘The professors are supported
by the funds now much reduced, and by government. At
the Royal Palace is the observatory, under the direction of
Professor Cacciatore, a scholar of Piazzi. It contains sev-
eral very fine instruments, particularly a circle for the ob-
servation of altitudes, which is said to be unique. It was
made by Ramsden and presented by him to the University
when Piazzi was the Professor. It is said to have cost him
two years labour. It seems to be about three feet in di-
ameter and revolves horizontally in an iron frame, fixed on

Appendix. «397

a foundation of stone, at the beielt of at least sixty or seven-
ty feet from the ground.

‘Palermo offers little that is interesting in mineralogy.
The able Ferrara tells me that the whole region is transi-
tion limestone, and calcareous tufa, and that the only inter-
esting minerals are jasper and agate. It is situated much
like New-Haven, on a plain, surrounded by mountains.
The country is beautiful.

«The weather has been as mild as September is with us.
{n two instances only have we had a little snow, which.
melted immediately. Green peas and other vegetables are
abundant. Oranges are just ripening.”

APPENDIX.
—@—.
Communicated (in MS.) for this Journal.

Read before the New-York Lyceum of Natural History, April 30, 182{.—
(This communication came too late for insertion in its proper place.—

Editor.)

The Coca of Peru; a plant whose leaves are employed
most extensively by the native Americans for a masticato-
ry, as the Asiatics chew Betel.

Abstract from a communication of Hippotirr Unanue,
Proto-medico of Peru, Secretary of the Philosophical So-
ciety at Lima, &c. &c. to Samuen L. Mitcaitt, dated « at
Lima, Ist Feb. 1821.

The mternal commerce in the leaves of the Coca is im-
mense throughout the provinces of this viceroy, although it
is in extensive and constant use, both in Upper and Lower
Peru. The aboriginal natives are the principal consumers.

The native Indians believe the use of the Coca to be in-
dispensable. ‘They must chew it, or cease to live. The
Spaniards employ it merely as a remedy ; ; or whenever the
inclemency of the season induces them to adopt the Indian
custom. Its operation is similar in almost every particu-
lar, to that which the East-Indians experience ‘from Bes
tel. The leaves are the parts gathered for the mouth.
They excite a flow of spittle, which is not rejected as by

i

398 Appendix.

tobacco-chewers, but swallowed together with the substance
extracted from the plant. Employed in this way, tlie Coca
enables the people, whose principal articles of substance
are maize and potatoes to undergo the toil of cultivating the
land, the labour of working the mines, the fatigue of tending
herds of cattle in the mountains, and other severe exercises.
In short they find the coca capable of repairing lost vigour,
of withstanding the assaults of time, of opposing the inroads
of the elements, and of performing in short, the function of
a true ————* elevating the spirits on occasions of trouble
and inducing a forgetfulness of the ils of life, as is observed
in the Odyssey, on the drink prepared by Helen to refresh
her guests: | pos

Charmed by that virtuous draught, th’ exalted mind,

All sense of woe delivers to the wind.
i Lib. 1v.

From analysis it appears, that the Coca contains much
zum and no resin. ‘The gum has a bitter and stimulant
taste; and the leaves exhale an agreeable smell. When
chewed, the coca is warm to the tongue and palate, stimu-
lates the glands, and provokes a copious flow of saliva.
This, with the abundance of gum expressed and swallowed,
produces a most comfortable operation on the stomach,
which is nourished and supported by the gum. In some

weakly persons who are not accustomed to its action, the

nerves are sometimes affected, and an agreabie sleepmess
induced. If an alkali, (such as quick lime, for example)
is mixed with coca in chewing, the virtues are much in-
ereased. Its virtues are considered as tonic, nutritive
and calming. Hence are explained the remarkable ben-
efits derived from it by the well Indians. ‘They who are
sick, may be thrown into a sweat by drinking a hot tea
of it. It is excellent against the humid asthma. In the
same preparation it strengthens ‘the stomach, removes ob-

- structions, loosens the bowels, and relieves colics. It is an

admirable remedy for hypochondriacs, and dyspeptics.
They who are addicted -to chewing it, have fine and sound
teeth. ;

* A word in the MS. was here rendgred illegible by the seal; the idea is
however, fully exhibited by what follows.—| Editor. ]

Appendix. 399

its extraordinary restorative and prophylactic qualities
recommend it to be used by seamen who are exposed to the
hardships of all climates, and by soldiers who are obliged
to hazard themselves in all sorts of expeditions.

The Coca isa shrub of middling size, growing on the An-
des. It belongs to the class Decanpria, and order Diey-
nia. Its botanical name is Erythroxylon Peruvianum, or
Peruvian red-wood. The leaves are eliptical with short
footstalks, alternate, entire, smooth and shining, three-nerv-
ed, with the two lateral nerves oes observable than the
middle one.

The Coca is cultivated in many tracts adjoining the moun-
tains, and blossoms in May and June. It grows best in the
strong, moist soils of hot climates. ‘Therefore it is most
congenial to the valleys. The seeds are planted during the
moist and rainy season, to wit, in December and January.
When grown to the height of a foot and a half, they are
transplanted into the grounds prepared to receive them.
The shrub lives many years, and in favourable situations,
the leaves may be picked, three times in twelve months.

This plant had acquired great celebrity in the time of the
Incas, before the invasion of the Spaniards. ‘The smoke of
the leaves was the holy incense offered to the sun, on the
most solemn occasions.

A more complete and detailed history of the Coca, was
published in that highly respectable work, the Peruvian
Mercury, embracing its botanical description, culture, com-
merce, use and virtues, with agricultural and economical
remarks. From that performance, the present is but a con-
cise abstract.

—o——
TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Several communications came too late for this number, and will be no-
ticed in ournext. Some memoranda of errata forwarded to us have been
mislaid; they are, however, either obvious or unimportant.—[ Editor. |

INDEX.

Absorption, Dr. F. Magendie on, 288
Achaialaya, drift wood of, 18
Acid Prussic, or hydrocyanic, 182 & 187
Adams, William, A. 5 © Agaric Mineral of Vermont, 234
Affections, Calculous, 300
Affection, paralytic, cured by lightning, 100 —
Albany, geological survey of the county, 239,
Alkali, a new one, 384 :
Allen, J. A. Dr. on West River mountain, 73
prussic acid, 187
Alluvial districts, view of, 48 Alum slate, 28.
Alum, essay on, 240
in mica slate, 240

| at Zanesville, 245 Amber, variety of, 8
American Geological Society, 360
Amygdaloid of Salem, 232
Analysis of hydraulic lime, 231
Anecdote, historical, 33—42 Annales de chimie, &c. 87
Anthracite, 41 Apparatus, galvanic, Prof. Hare’s, 105
construction of, 345 3
Archeologia Americana, notice of, 357
Arrowacks, their names for things, 31
Arsenic, tests for, 354 Athens Bible Society, 281
Atmosphere mercurial, 386 Atomic weights of bodies, 396
Atwater, Caleb, Esq. alum, &c. 245

William, serpentine, &c. 238 Auscultation, 375

; B.

Banks‘of the Mississippi, 16

Barns, their liability to be struck by lightning, 345

Barton, R. P. and D. W. on Virginia fluor— manganese and
sulphat of lime, 243

Basin, calcareous of lake Huron, 264

Beck, T. R. Dr. mineral survey, &c. 239

Bees, honey, memoir on, by J. C. Vanden Heuvel Esq. 79

Bigsby, John, I. Dr. on lake Huron, &c. 254

Biography of Linneus, 379 Blossom of lead, 67

Blow-pipe, of Hare, 87—90—91 _ Boat of Iron, 371

Bones, in alluvion 53, of rattlesnakes, 85, fossil in East-
Windsor, 247 :

Boyd, John, Mr. fluor spar of Genesee, 233

Brattleborough, localities of minerals near, 76

Bridge building, by Mr. I. Town, 158

Bridges iron, 164 Bringier, L. Esg. his memoir, 14

Vou. III....No. 2. S|

402 INDEX.

Bristol, England, how lighted by gas, 170,
Brongeiart, ees Mr. his views, 993297 hig vane 216
his remarks on American localities oo 220° >
Buckland, Prof. his Instructions, &c. 249 - fd pisses
Bursting of lakes through mountains, 2520 FS MEN
Calubila, its geological chatdonbe, 224-973 os
Calendar, floral, by Dr. J. Porter, Droits es
Canal, Erie, lime see tt constructing, 230) i:
Carolinas, mineralogy and geology of parts of, 1 & 227
Catskill, mmeral spring, 236, marl and tufa, &c. do. agg
ceum, 237 Cayuga, Torebratuites, fim: 222
Chalybeate, waters, 235—236
Chase, George, Dolomite, &c. 246
Chemistry, medical, 300 ily ie ¢
Chemistry, Wlements of, Dr. Gorhams, 330 Re ans
Cherokees, 35—38—39—43 &e. | Chesnut, Savi 77
Chinese Dictionary, 377 Chinquapin, gs oo
Chios, College in, 281
Chlorine, theory of, Sg explosions of, with hydrogen.
341—heat on the skin, from, 344 .
Clay, Country of the Carolinas, 2
Clays, 26 ‘Clifford, J. D. fossil Meds, OS aisvs
Coal impressions from England, 246 Coca of Peru, 397
Coffin, ancient, 37 Cold of f January 1821, ete 179
on Lake Champlain, 366
Combustion, Spontaneous, 283 — a oe
Comstock, Dr. on Prussic acid, 189 Ras Sai
Conglomerate of Lake Huron, 259-269 : hate
Copper native of Lake orc 201—2 12 of Connectient
&e. 222. ™
Copperas, mannfactory of in Vermont, 326 0
Cornelius E. Rev. 232 Corendune in Carolina, 4229
Cruelty, Indian, 43 Crystalization, instantaneous, -
— theory of, by H. H. Hayden, Esq. es &e.
Dp

La:

Deltas of rivers, how formed, 55
Deluges, physical causes of, 52. ;
Dewey, C. Prof. on Puassie acid, 188—fetid aolawiite, 239
~ wavellite, ga9..- donation to Geol. Poe 357
on snow ‘crystals, Bowe Mies
Dickson, John Mr. on Min. and Geol. of Cwoliies |
Dictionary, Chinese, 377 Divining Rod, 102.
Dolomite, 246 Dolomite, fetid, 239 :

INDEX.) 403

Doolittle, Isaac, letter and translation of a memoir, 288
Drift wood, 17.
E.

Earthquakes and eruptions, 20
Eaton, Amos Prof. 236—238
Edminston, J. W. Kentucky marbles, 234.
_ Education of the poor, 379 Egypt, its canal and arts, 378
Electricity, medical, J. Hall, Esq. on, 166
theory of, DOO. cc) Mele
Electrometer of Abbe Hatiy, 372.
Elements of Chemistry, notice of Dr. Gorham’s, 330
Ellington, Connecticut, coal there, 248
Enfield’s Institutes, ee ou, 125
Emerson, R. Rev. on divining rod, 102
Engraving on steel, by Mr. J. Perlane 353
Epidote at Nahant, 364 Essays, geological, 47
Experiments with Dip ence Deflagrator, 107 Sc.
Explosion of fulminating mercury, and chlorate of potash, (note) 90
chlorine and hydrogen, 341 Evaporation of api, 376
K.

Fenn, H. R. Mr. discovers fiuor spar, 367
Petia limestones, 234—239
Finland, comforts of travelling in, 378 -
Fish, Tose at Westfield and Simdentanal 299-365

, Belea, near Verona, 224
Ficher, A. M. Prof. on printing presses, 311
Floral and Miscellaneous Calendar, 273
Flower of great size, 376
Els} spar “on Genesee river, 235—367

in Virginia, 243, Mlinois, 243-—367
Foot, Lyman Dr. on cold at Plattsburgh, 306
Formations, geological of the globe, their similarity, 225

= off different kinds on same level, 266
Fortifications, ancient, 37 - Fossil a 285
Fusions by Prof. ee s blow- Pipe, 87
G.

Galena sehen ede 173:

Galvanic apparatus, construction of, 345

Galvanism, theory of, by Dr. Hare,105_

Garnet locality in Reading, Conn. O41

Gases, mechanical agency of, 52

Gas illumination, 370—385 | Genesee river, fluor spar, 2365

Geodes, 2 Geological essays, 47

Geologists, American, their duty, 225

Geology, &c. of Carolinas, 1—Mississip. Region, 15—Troy, 73
remarks on the study of, 363

404 INDEX.

Gibbs, G. Col. donation to Am. Geol. Soc. 357

Gilmor, R. jr. Mr. pyrites microscopic, 233 __

Glasgow, how supplied with water, 372

Glass, manufacture of, 3'70 Globe not eternal, 238
Gold of Cabarras county, N.C. 3

Gorham, John Prof. his elements, 330 —

Granite in South Carolina, 2, 3, 228

Granger, Ebenezer, Esq. on cart formation of Zanesville, 5
Green, Jacob Prof. on bones of rattle snake, 85—crystalization, 93
Greenland, population of, 384 —

Green stone of S. Car. 998-—of Lake neta, 259
Griscom, John Prof. on foreign literature and science, 368
Gum elastic tree, 44

H..
Hadley, Dr. his analysis of hydraulic lime, 231
Haines, Reuben, letter from, 285
Hale, Moses, Mr. notice of Troy, 72 ;
Hall, John, Esq. on the staining of wood, and on medical ane
_ eity, 166—on fossil bones, 947—-coal, 248
Hall, F. Prof. on iron, &c. 57—agaric as 234
Tie. Rob. Prof. he deflagrator, 103--345—on chlorine, 344
heat, 344 Haity Abby, his elegtrometens 372
Hawkins, Abu. Tilinois fluor, 367
Hayden, H. H. Mr. his Geological essays, a7
Hydrogen & Chlorine, explosions of, 341 ek,
Hygera del Oule, taeaie gum tree, 44 Historical anecdote, 33
History of Lake Superior copper, 248
Hitchcock, Ed. on Fossil fish, 365
Heematite of Lake Huron, 262
Holley, Myron, Esq. on water cement, 231 ~ Hones, 26
Honey bees, memoir on, 79 Hot Springs of Wachitta, 29°
Huron Lake, geology of its N. W. Shore, 254
Hydrargullite, American, 239 _
L& J.
Ice, circumstances respecting its formation, 179
Illinois, fluor spar, 243
Impressions vegetable, of Zanesville, 5
Improvements in printing presses, 301,
Indian nations, 30—their languages, 35.
Institutes, Enfield” s remarks on, 125
Instructions of Prof. Buckland, 249
Jodine, its medical powers, 386
ron eres, 26—of Vermont, 57—micaceous, 332 .
, native of Louisiana, 45 Iron, mountain, 63
———, Sulphat of, manufactory of, 1 in Veitoont, 326
satis tinctoria, proposed for apis feed, 354
Tsinglass, (mica) i in So, Carolina, 3
ives, Eh, Prof. on spring pasture, ‘BBS. Ivory paper, 370

INDEX. 405

Jasper, brown, striped &c. 262-—270

Siapiters Ammon, temple of, 378

Jarman, oe, Esq. on Gas lights, 170
me

Kaykag, W toniox: anecdote of him, 42

Kentucky. Marbles, 234 pine

L.

Lakes, bursting of, &c. 252

Lane, Ephraim, his argentiferous galena, 173

Lamps, pertable gas, 370 Languages, Indian, 35
of omiaiasl their number, 376

Lead mines of Missouri, 24, 60 & 63

Lead ores, &c. notes on, 176 Lead ores, argentiferous, 173
Leconte, Mr. his opinion, &c. 7 Leffers, Samuel, his case, 102
Lightning, why it strikes barns, 545 ~ Lignite, 9

Limestone country and cave, 4
Lime, for water cement, 230, its analysis, 231

disintegrated, 242 |

stone of Missouri, its geological character, 248

secondary crystaline 265,
Linneus, biography of, 379 Litchfield mineral Spring, 235
Lythographic paper, 370 Localities of minerals, 76
Locke, John, Dr. on manufacture of Copperas, 326
M

Maclure, William, esq. 357—his donation to American Geologic-
al society, 360—on study of geology, 365
Magendie, F. Dr. en absorption, 288
Magnetism by galvanism, 283-—-286
Manganese of Vermont, 57—of Virginia 245
Marbles of Missouri, 93—of Kentucky, 234
Mastodon, fossil remains of, 22 :
Medical electricity, J. Hall. jr. 168. Medusa fossil, 285
Mica, 26, mica slate, alum in it, 240
Michilimackinac, island of, its geology, 268
Michiwacan, province of, 36 © Mildew, remedy for, 385
Mill-stones, burr, 28 Mining in Missouri, how edaoted. 70
Mineralogy, &c. of Carolina, ane: Mississippi region, Lec,
Missouri, 59 Mineral productions of Missouri, 24-——67—71
Mineral, a singular one, 270
Mineral ee atiioiel formation of, 85
Minerva Western, 265 Mines of lead in Missouri, 24-59
of pyrites in Vermont, 326 Mississippi, banks of, 16
Missouri, its marbles, 23—lead mines 24—lime stone, 248
Mitcbill, S. L. Hon. Mr. Prince’s letter to, T—answer 78
Mr. Vandenheuvel’s letter to, 79
on Coca of Peru, letter to, 397 ,
Mounds, indian, 36. Mountain, of iron, 65-—table, 228.
Mountains, bursting of, 252—map of, 564

406 - INDEX,

Monson, A. S. Dr. on Prussic acid 195

Morey, Samuel, Mr. on mineral waters, 94.
fetid limestone, 234 é

Nations, Indian, 30 Na dare aie of, 365

Notice of Hayden’ S essays, 47—of archeologia americana, 357.
of Schoolcraft’s mission, 59 Notiecs, chennai » 241

O. salts we
Ochre in Vetmont, 58 At ne: a he Pew
Oliver, B. L. Dr. on Prussic, 182. cecitenes 233

Gimetead: D. Prof. on a peculiar effect of cheng 100 . :

Ontario lake petrifactions from, 222
Operation, surgical, extraordinary, 373 —
Ores of lead, of Missouri, 24 Yo ae
iron on the Wachitta, 26 Organic remains, 389 ~
Osages, 31—32—34 vies
F.

BAson any freislebenense of Westfield: Conn. 290

Palermo, extract of a letter from, 396°

Paper, lithographic, 370—ivory do. 370°

Paralysis cured by lightning, 100

Pasture, spring, Dr. E. Ives on, 345 =

Poskae. Jacob, Mr. on compressibility of water, 347—engra
ving on steel, Soa.) soe

Petrifaction, aeneicabiles 282

Pierce, ees esq. on mineral wa aters, &e. 235

Eilatus, mount, slide down, 368

Plaster of Paria in Virginia, 245 :

Pompeia, how covered, S74 Poor, education of, 379

Porter, 'T. D. Dr. his Sicich; &c. 227—tests for arsenic, 354 |

Porter, J. quartz from him, 234—floral, &c. Ealenes a PA te

Poran Dr. fossil bones, 247. :

Presses, printing, improvements and theory, Sid

Prince, Wm. Mr. on a singular vegetable productbns 77

Rrisse acid, 182

Pullowa, monument at 379 Pumice stone on Mississippi 247

Pyrites, 1 iron, 3; Og ee of in Venens 326.

Quartz in South Carolina, 3—in issounk: 67 say
_ Fairfield, New-York, 233° ie Drie a
age substitute for, S808” ) te Cage

Ration oftbeat ‘through A a 344
Rafinesque, Prof. on fae Medusa y285' vo. 0% i
Ram, hydraulic, 281 ~ —_—- Rattlesnakes, bones of, 85
Region, sandy of the Carolinas, 1
Remaind, organic of L. Huron, ‘270-—anknown, O71
Remarks on Enfield’s Institutes, 12 :

INDEX. | 407 |

Revue Encyclopedique, notice of, 392
Rock, garnet, 241 Rod, divining, 102

Salem Sienite, &c. 232 Salt, 27—Springs, 33
quantity of made in Europe, 371
Salts, various used in glass makmg, 370 - Sand a Se QF
ae high hills of, 2 Sarcophagus, ancient, 390 —
Schinidt. DE 80
Schoolcraft, H. R. Mr. on Missouri lead, 59—limestone,, ke. 248
on native copper of L. Superior, 201—Schools, 375

Sea water, distillation of, 38 ' Signals, 282
Seeley, Lloyd Dr. garnet locality, 241
Serpent Rock of ak Huron, 258 . Serpentine, hill of, 238

Shaquaw Cherokee, his prophecy, 39 Sienite of Salem, 232
Silliman, B. compound blow-pipe, es ores, 173
formation of ice, 179 &c.
Silver of West River mountain, 75, note.
in lead ores, 175 Sinctetis Siliceous, 391

Slate, argillaceous in Carolina, 2. Alineaoe 28—micaceous

with alum, 240 Slide down Mount Pilatus, 368
Smith, Ed. D. Prof. on Buncombe springs, 117-—calculous affec-

tions, 300 Snow crystals, 367
Society, Atierican Geological, 357—Royal of London, BEN
Somers, Connecticut, coal in, 248
Speculations, geological, 262 Spirits, evaporation of, 376
Springs, salt, 33

warm of Buscomlie Cause N.C. 117 ie
Staining of wood by J. Hall, Esq. 116 3
State’s prison of Connecticut, in an old copper mine, 222
Steel, mode of engraving on, 353.
Stafford, Vermont, its copperas manufactory, 326
Strontian, sulphat of from L. Erie 363
Sublimarc Corrosive, antidote against, 374
Sulphate of lime, 26
in Virginia, 245

Superior, Lake, copper of, 201
Surgery, extraordinary operation on, 373
Survey, geological, of Albany County, 239
’ Swainson’s zoological miscellany, 392
Switzerland, jurisprudence of, erie

Table mountain, 22 Temple of Jupiter Ammon, 37&

Terebratulites of Cayuga, 222 Tests for arsenic, 354

Theory of printing presses, 311
chemical, modern, remarks on 330

Thermometer at ‘New-Haven, Jan. 1821, (note) 179,

Thetford, copperas manufactory near, 326

408 INDEX.

Thimbles, manufacture of, 375
‘Fhomiaen, Thomas, Prof. extract oF letter nes S96;
Titanium, oxid of, (note) 3

in South Carolina, 208
ditch of Lake Huron, &c, 254)
Trap region, of New- England, Qt he EAL
Transition formation of Lake Huron, 957 Ae Shia eat
Translations from the Arabic, 384 Trees in alluvion, 53 —
Trilobite of Albany, 225. ‘Troost: G. Dr. on. Oe ae:
Troy, geological notice of, 72 _
Town, Tthiel, Mr. on Bridge Building 158

he

Unanue, Hippolite, letter from to eel 8. L. Midi 397
was
Vanden Heuvel, IoC: Bsq. on n honey Aces, 79
Van Diemen’ s land, OU
Vegetation how suppor ted) 372
Vegetable i impressions of Zanesville, Ohio. 5
‘remains in coal, in Scotland &c. 389
Virginia fluor spar, 243
Voleano, whether West River. Mountain was ever the seat of
eee 73
Ww.
Wachitta, cove = of 20—28, hot springs of, 29
Ware, N. A. Esq. his opinion on drift wood, 19 (note)
Warm springs of Buncombe county, N. Car. 117.
Water, formation of, by compound blowpipe 91
its compressibility. 34 a 369
of the sea contains potash, 371 _ oan
Waters, mineral, artificial formationof, 95.
chalybeate, 235 Wavellite, American, 239
Webster, J. W. Dr. on prussic acid, 179-—epidote 364
ef Sinter of St. Michael, DOM OH a
Westfield, ‘Conn. its analogies with Mansfield i in Hesse, 296 ;
¥ Serpentine, 238
West river mountain, notice of, 73. =White, Ganv vass, Mr. 329
Wilson, J. W. Mr. on bursting of lakes through mountains, Q52
Woad recommended for spring pasture, 355 ati
Wood, modes of staining 166 } igen
Woodbridge. W.C. Mr. extract of a letter from, 395,
Woolsey, W. W. Esq. 230
Wright, Benjamin, Mr. on Plage ae lime, 230°

Yellow wood, 44
Zanesville, coal formations,5 © —- Zinc, sulphuret of, 63
Zircon of South Carolina, 229 (note) )

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JHARTRFORD, CON.

AMERICAN

£

{ JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

AND ARTS.

a5
he

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, ETC. IN YALE COLLEGE; CORRES-
PANDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS; MANUFACTURES AND COM=-
MERCE OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MINERALOGICAL
SGCINTY. OF DRESDDON, AND OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES IN AMERICA.

VOL. HE....No. 1.....Fesruary, 1821.

ENTIRE NUMBER, VIE.

ee

ae NEW-HAVEN:
I PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY 8, CONVERSE, FOR THE EDITOR.
ts

t:

re

Sold by the Publisher and Howe & Spalding, New-Haven; Huntington &

Hopkins, Hartford; Cummings & Hilliard, Boston; Ezekiel Goodale,
’ flallowel, Maine; A.'T. Goodrich & Co. New-York; Littell and Henry,

- Philadelphia; Caleb Atwater, Circleville, Ohio; Thomas] Ray, Augus-
ta, Ged.; Henry Whipple, Salem, Mass.; Edward J. Coale, Baltimore ;
(|) ‘Timothy B. Porier, Columbia, S. C.; John Mill, Charleston, S.C. ; Mil-
ler & Rutchins, Providence, R.1.; Thomas R. Wililams, Newport, RL;
William T. Williams, Savannah, Geo. ; Luke Loomis, Pittsburgh, Pa. ;
- Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Me. ; Professor D. Olmsted, Chapel Hill Col-

CONTENTS
eae

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.

Ant. 1. Mr, John Dickson on the Mineralogy and beology of aig big
South and North-Carolina =
2. Ebenezer Granger, Esq. on vegetable impressions in rocks ‘of

Zanesville Coal formation —- mh ome mca

3. Dr G. Troost on the Amber of Maryland Peanut neat il

4. L. Bringier, ne on the region of the Mississippi, &c. : 15

5. Notice of Mr. H.H. Hayden’s Geological Essays. - =< 47

6. Prof, F. Halli on ores of Iron and Manganese - 57

7. Notice of Mr. Schooleraft’s work on the Missouri lead mines ee. 59

8. Mr. M. Hale’s Geological Notice of Troy - = es

9. Dr. J. A. Allen on the we River Mountain, with lonalities of
Minerals - CAUSES Sites Ponta ea. oe

- BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

10. W. Prince, Esq. on ahybrid production between the Spanish
Chesnut and Matyland Pingaapin, with ee by: Prof. S.

L. Mitehill Jn - 77
11. J. C. Vanden Heuvel, Esq. on American. Honky Bees - 79
12. Prof. J. Green on Bones of the Rattle Snake - = = 85

~ CHEMISTRY, PHY SICs, MECHANICS AND THE ARTS.

13,/ Up on the fusion of various bodies by Hare's Blowpipe—from the
; sghaeee of Chemistry, &c. with remarks by as ane - 87

ea ee a SS ee a

‘new mode of orming water - - =. 91
14. Prof, Green on instantaneous crystalization = - + -~ 93
15. Mr. S. Morey on Mineral Waters, &c. - 94
16. Prof. D. Olmsted on a peculiar effect of lightning - - 100°
17. Rev. R. Emerson on the divining rod - is het 102
| 18. Prof. Hare on new Galvanic apparatus and thebry - 105
19. Prof, E.D. Smith on the warm pane of Meee County, N.
C. (posthumous) — - Wy
20. Remarks on Enfield’s Philoso ophy, third editign - oe {Ce
21. Mr. Town’s new mode of Bridge-building - | - 158
22. J. Hall, Esq. on the staining of pwd, and on medical electricity 166
23, Thomas Jarman, Esg.on Gas Lights - - 170
24, Editor's notice of an argentiferous Galexa, &c. - - 173.
26, Editor on the formation of ice in certain circumstances --» V9

MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. |

26. Dr. B. L. Oliver on priority of medical use of the Prussic Acid 182 —
27. Cases illustrating the medical effects of the Prussic Acid = =. 187

‘Hutieton &
Goodale, :

ING

omis aie Pa;
el Hill V8

THE egetieinliss kf. j OURNAL :
OF ae
SCIENCE AND THE ARTS.
oe : Y :
THIS WORK, EDITED BY

Prue or Silliman, of Vale College,
A) Now PUBLISHED FOR THE EDITOR AT NEW-HAVEN, BY

SHERMAN CONVERSE, PRINTER AND AGENT.

THE work is published in quarterly numbers, of which two make
a volume containing at least 320 pages, illustrated by engravings, of
which, when very expensive, a part of the cost is paid by the au-
thors or contributors. Two volumes will be pu blished the present year.

This Journal, the only one devoted to American Science and
Arts, which has: ever been attempted, has received the general
§ approbation of the scientific public, both at home and abroad, and
has been adequately supported by original commanications. Expe-
rience has evinced the necessity of requiring that the payments of in-
dividual subscribers should be in advance.

To the friends of American Science, and to the friends of the
prosperity and reputation of this rising empire, the interests of the
Amenican JourNAL oF Scimnce are respectfully commended. It
cau never prove a lucrative work : and it remains for the public |
to say whether it shall be sustained, so that those engaged in it may
not be losers, or whether it shall be relinquished, with the painful cer-
E tainty that this vast republic will not support a solitary Journal,
devoted to its Science and its Arts.’ . Its increasing patronage, and
the marked approbation with which it is received in Europe, afford
however, grounds to believe that it will be continued. a

-- @ BOs. :
TERMS.

Three dollars a volume in advance. An omission to remit for a

new volume is of course a discontinuance.
‘Oke Term of credit to general agents, 6 months, from the apt
cation of No. 1. of each volume.

Hi. FOREIGN LITERATURE & pat

i Slide from Mount Pilatus - - 368
2 Oxygenized water - -. a Cee NS BBO

_ 3 Lithographic pener- 4 Ivory ‘ag Matiutactite of
‘Glass - - - fs = - 370

6 Portable Cat ran. 7 Potash in the sea. 8 Salt.
9 Iron boat - - - - - - 371

10 Glasgow, how supplied with water. 11 A acho
12 Electrometers - 372

13 Extraordinary Surgical Operation. 14 Royal Sie,
ety of London - - . - 373

15. Prisons. 16 Pompela., 7 Antidote to corrosive
sublimate - 374

18. Schools. 19 Manntacture of Phimbiles, 20 is:
cultation = - - 375

21 Languages. 22 Evaporation ae pes: 23. a lange
Flower - 376

24 Chinese Diniohary. 25 hia Dismen’ s Lane - 377
26 Egypt. 27 eee of ie Ammon. 28 Fin-

land - 378
29 Pultowa. 30 ioaneos 31 Ss iieeiland. 82 The Puts 379
33 Medicine - . 880

34 Athens. 35 Greek: Liudieioaie: 36 Chios: 37 Pota-
toes. 38 Distillation of Sea-water. 39 Hydraulic Ram 381

' 40 Sea Signals. 41 Petrifaction - -~ 382
42 Combustion. 43 Magnetism - - 383
44 Translations from the Arabic. 45 New en

46 Greenland - - - - 384
AT Mildew. 48 Electricity. 49 Gas lich - - 385
50 Jodine. 51 Mercurial Atmosphere. 52 pectian &
Electricity - - - - - ce 386
53 Vegetable Remains, &c. - : - . 389
54 Ancient Sarcophagus - - += + + 396
55 Siliceous Sinter — - 391
56 Swainson’s Zoological Miscellany. 57 Revue En
cyclopedique - - 392
58 Atomic weights of Bodies. 59 Pilewin - - 396
Appendix.
Coca of Peru” - - * - = . * 397
| =O @ex:--
ERRATA.

2, page 240—line 21 from top, for we believe, read I believe.
351—last line, for waters, read craters.
352—line 17 from top, for Dr. Boru, read Borre.

ol. 3. 184—line 17 from top, for Medicarninum, read Medicaminum:
do.—line 27 from top, for Langrist, read Langrish.

. 190—line 30 from top, for ea, read wiry.

A bee 372—read 372 for 237 and 3 for 2 on pages 381, 2 and 3.

4

> “Stay o.

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL
or ve

| SCIENCE AND THE - |

uT
|

-GQe—

THIS WORK,
PUBLISHED FOR THE EDITOR AT NEW-HAVEN, BY

SHERMAN CONVERSE, PRINTER AND AGENT,

Ts now issued in quarterly numbers, of which two make a volume |

containing at least 320 pages, illustrated by engravings, of which,

when'very expensive, a part of the cost is paid by the authors or |

contributors.

||
il

This Journal, the only one devoted to American Science and |
Arts, which has ever been attempted, has received the general |
approbation of the scientific public, both af. home and abroad, and |
has been adequately supported by original communications. Expe- |
: tience has evinced the necessity of requiring that the payments of in-

dividual subscribers should be in advance.

Yo the friends of American Science, and to the friends of ae
prosperity and reputation of this rising empire, the interests of the —
American JournNAL oF Scrence are respectfully commended. It |
can never prove a lucrative work : and it remains for the public |
to say whether it shall be sustained, so that those engaged init may | |
not be losers, or whether it shall be relinquished, with t :e painful cer- |
tainty that this vast republic will not support a sclitary Journal, |

devoted to its Science and its Arts. Its increasing patronage, and —

Os the marked approbation with which it is received in Europe, afford —

however, grounds to believe that it will be continued.
> BQO«~
TERMS.

Three dollars a volume in advance. An omission to remit for a
new volume is of course:a discontinuance.

o= Term of credit to general agents, 6 moaths, from the publi-
cation of No. 1. of each volume.

eR

ay,
PLY Ae

HNN
__3 9088 01298 3995