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AMERICAN JOURNAL
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D.
Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com., Cor. Mem. Met. Soc., -
and For. Mem. Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., and Hon. Mem. Lin. and Statis. Socs.,
Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Tieeean Nat. Hist. Bie Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow ;
Nat. Hist. Soc., Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc., Bristol, Eng.; Hon. Mem. Roy.
Sussex Inst., Brighton, Eng.; Cor. Mem. of the Nat. Hist. Soc., and of the
Archeolegical Soc., Athens, Greece; Lit. and Hist. Soc., Quebec;
Mem. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in the U. States. .
AIDED BY
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B.
Assistant in the department of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology in Yale College; Cor. Mem.
of the Meteorological Soc., London; Sec. of the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc., Mem. of the Conn,
Acad. of Aris and Sci. ; Cor. Mem. of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, &c.
VOL. XXXVI.—FGES, 1839.
NEW HAVEN:
Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY &
HART and J. 8S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—WNew York,
G. & C. CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 44
William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—London, JAMES S. HODSON,
No. 112 Fleet St., and WILEY & PUTNAM, 35 Paternoster Row.—Paris,
CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon.
PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN.
CAT ee,
A A "a Ine * | itys
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI.
NUMBER I.
Page.
Art. I. Citations from, and abstract of, the Geological Reports
on the State of New York, for 1837-8, communica-
ted by Gov. W. L. Marcy, to the Assembly at Al-
bany, Feb. 20, 1838, - - - - E z 1
II. Some account of Violent Columnar Whirlwinds, which
appear to have resulted from the action of large Cir-
cular Fires; with remarks on the same; by W. C.
REDFIELD, - - - - - - - - 650
III. Additional facts relating to the Raleigh’s Tyfoon of
of August 5th and 6th, 1835, in the China Sea; by
W. C. RepFIELD, - - - ° - - 59
IV. Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock, propo-
sed as the line of reference, for State Geologists of
New York and Pennsylvania; by Prof. A. Earon, 61
¥. Account of the Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of
April, 1838; by Mr. J. Froyp, - - - - TH
VI. On the destructive distillation of the Sulphate of Ether-
ine or heavy Oil of Wine; by CLarx Hare, -
VII. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1838,
kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprern, - 78
VIII. On Meteoric Iron from Ashville, Buncombe county,
N. C.; by Prof. Cartes Upuam Sueprarp,M.D., 81
IX. Analysis of Warwickite; by Prof. Cuartes UpHam
SHEPARD, M. D., - - = - - - §&
X. Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America, be-
ing an extract from an unpublished Memoir on
the Geology of North America; by Dr. Cuar zs
DavBENY, - - - - - - - - 88
XI. Experiments on two varieties of iron, manufactured
from the Magnetic Ores at the Adirondack iron
works, Essex Co., N. Y.; by Waiter R.Jounson, 94
XII. Description of a New Fossil; by JounG. Antuony, 106
171107
Aacal ro
ere ~ * en “
®. °
1V CONTENTS.
XIIL Notices of the Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and
other Minerals found in the vicinity of New Bruns-
wick, N. J.; by Prof. Lewis C. BEck, - -
XIV. Note on the New Brunswick Tornado, ‘or Water Spout
of 1835; by Prof. Lewis C. Beck, - — - -
XV. Account of the Bituminization of Wood in the human
~ era; by Prof. Wm. CapprenTeR, - - 5, R=
XVI. The Construction of Galvanic Magnets ; a Joun B.
ZABRISKIE, M. D., - - - - - -
_ XVII. Electro-Magnetic Rotations; by Joun B. Zaszris-
KIE, M. D., - - - - - - -
XVIII. Steam Ships and Steam Navigation; by Junius Smiru,
XIX. Galvanic Batteries—On the benefit of Fresh Immer-
sion; by Cuartes G. Pace, M.D., - - =
XX. Application of the Galvanoscope to detect the Failure
of Water in Steam Boilers; by Cuas. G. Pacz, M.D.,
XXI. Dr. Jacxson’s Reports on the Geology of the State
of Maine, and on the public lands belonging to
Maine and Massachusetts, - - - - -
XXII. Obituary notice of the Hon. SrzepHen Van RENs-
SELAER, - - ~ - - - - -
XXIII. Some notice of the Kilee or Boomerang, a weapon
used by the natives of Australia; by CuarLes Fox,
XXIV. Meteorological Table and Register; by Prof. Loomis,
MISCELLANIES.
1. Echoes, - - - = = - - - - -
2, 3. Analysis of Marl from Farmington, Conn.—Tabular view
of the price of labor and subsistence in certain parts of
Continental Europe, — - - = - ~ « 2
4. Rain froma clear sky, - - - = z S =
5. European observations on the Meteoric Shower of Novem-
ber, 1838, - - - - : : Z u :
6. Meteorological Register for 1838, - - - = .
7. Chromate of potassa—a reagent for distinguishing between
the salts of baryta and sizontia, - - - - -
8. Frozen Wells, - - - - - - - -
9, 10. Ice formed at the bottom of a river—Fossil fishes of the
red sandstone, = - Era S - - - -
Page.
107
115
118
124
129
133
137
141
143
156
164
165
174
176
178
179
180
183
184
186
11,
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18,
22.
23.
24,
26,
28,
30.
ol,
30.
34.
30.
36.
of.
38.
39.
40.
41.
>. ee
CONTENTS. ts
12. Volborthite, a new mineral—Reclamation of M. A.
Warder, - - - L = - - - -
Quantity of Salt in sea water, - - - - -
Head of the Mastodon giganteum, - - = ; :
Notice of the use of the fumes of Nitric Acid in Pulmonary
diseases, - - - - - - - - -
Greece.—Revival of Letters, - - - dike -
Tongueless Dog retaining the power of barking, = - -
19, 20, 21. Officers of the New York Lyceum of Natural
History, elected February 25th, 1839—Royal Society of
London; honor to an eminent scientific artist—Progress
of the U. S. Exploring Expedition—Prof. J. W. Webster’s
Manual of Chemistry, new edition, - - - °
Notice of anew mode of preparing Fish Skins for Museums,
An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy, - - - -
25. Posteript to p. 71—The Mammoth, - ae -
27. Discovery of Mummies at Durango, Mécioc: Potala
of the star 61 Cygni,_ - - - - - - -
29. Ornithology of the United States—Third American
from the fifth English edition of Bakewell’s Geology, -
Chemistry of Organic Bodies and Vegetables, - - =
32. Olmsted’s Introduction to Astronomy—Temperature
of the Earth, - - - - - = = -
Subterranean Temperature, - - - - - -
Extract of aletter from M. Erdman, jun., to M. Arago, upon
the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia, - - -
Analogy between the organic structure and red color of the
globules in the blood of animals, and of thuse red vegeta-
ble globules named Protococcus kermesinus, - - -
Cause of the Red Color of Agates, - - - - -
Phosphorescence of the Ocean, - - - - -
On the Composition of anew Indelible Ink, = - - -
Depth of the Frozen Ground in Siberia, - - - -
Notice of a Chemical Examination of a Specimen of Native
Iron, from the east bank of the Great Fish River, in South
Africa, - - - - - - - - -
Dr. Bowditch, - - - - - - - 2
To our Subscribers and Readers, - - - - “ 5
195
196
197
198
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
213
214
216
¢ n™ ro
% Pas
vi ; CONTENTS,
NUMBER II.
Page.
Art. I. Some notice of British Naturalists ; by Cuartes Fox, 217
If. On the Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes ;
by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Prof. Chem. Univ. of Bonn.
Communicated by the Author, - - - 230
III. Descriptive Catalogue of the North American. Insects
belonging to the Linnean Genus Sphinx in the Cabinet
of TuappEvs Wititiam Harris, M. D., Librarian of
Harvard University, - - - - - - 282%
IV. On American Amphibia; by Anm. Sacer, M.D., - 820
V. "Translations relative to Bowlders and Cobalt Ores, from
the Néues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geolo-
gie und Petrefaktenkunde, herausgegeben von Dr. Lr-
ONHARD und Dr. Bronn. Jahrgang, 1838. Rev. W.
A. LAaRNED, - - - - - - - - 3825
VI. A New Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets
by Galvanism; by J. Lawrence Smiru, Student of the
Medical College of South Carolina, - - - 335
VIL. Remarks on the “Natural History of the Fishes of Mas-
_ sachusetts, embracing a Practical Essay on Angling;
_by Jerome V. C. Smitu, ie 1 ” By D. Humpureys
Storer, M. D., - - - - - 337
VIII. Electro Magnetism ; by Ceuat G. Pace, M. D., 350
IX. Observations on Electricity ; by Cuas. G. Pacr, M. D., 353 |
X. Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December
6 and 7, 1838; communicated by Epwarp C. Herrick, 355
XI. On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an ac-
count of Observations made on and about the 20th
April, 1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - - -, 358
XII. Notice of a Report on a re-examination of the Economi-
cal Geology of Massachusetts; by Prof. Enwarp HitTcu-
cock. Communicated by Prof. C. U.Sueparp, - 363
MISCELLANIES.
1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory, - - - - - - - - - 379
2, 3, 4. African Meteorite—New Species of Argulus; notice
from Dr. 'T. W. Harris—Cabinet of Minerals for sale, 393
Ww
4
CONTENTS. Vil
Page
5, 6. Correction—Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirothe-
rium, and of various Animals, in sandstone, - - 394
7. New Works received, - - - - - = - 399
Specimens in Geology are wanted for a public institution.
Those of organic remains and of the junctions of rocks are most
desired. 'They must be excellent in their kind, of considerable
size, say from 4 to 8 inches square, fresh, and not rubbed, soiled
or bruised, extremely well characterized and labelled with care,
particularly as to locality and geological association. None must
be sent without previous notice. For such specimens a reasona-
ble, but not an extravagant, price will be paid. Superior speci- ©
mens in mineralogy are included. Letters may be addressed to
Prof. Silliman at New Haven.
NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS AND AGENTS.
The Editors will pay $1 00 in cash per No. for the following num-
bers of the American Journal of Science. Or if preferred, they will
credit them to the account of any subscriber at the rate at which re-
cent numbers are charged. Or they will exchange for them such
other numbers as may be desired of which they have a supply. The
Nos. wanted are shown below ina tabular form. If any No. is sent
by mail, the word RETURNED must be put on the envelope.
Vol. V. XI. XIII. XIV. XVI. XVII. XXII. XXVII.
Number 2 1. 132: Rack U2: ie ig oe Be
Entire No.12. 24. 27,28. 29,30. 33,34. 35,36. 45, 46. 55, 56..
ERRATA. r
P. 63, line 28, for carboniferous, read carboniferous—p. 64, 1. 6, for that, read
that ;—l. 27, for marble, read rubble—p. 65, 1.12, for Ernest, read Calus—p. 69,
1. 19, for their, read thin—1. 29, for Clair, read Plain ;—p. 70, 1.8, for Beeraft, read
- Becraft—\. 16, for lydian, read Lydian ;—1.17, for bluffs, read bluff ;—1. 26, for
equivalent, read equivalents—p. 83, 1.11 from bottom, for cholorate, read chlorate—
p- 85, 1. 20 from bottom, for crop-cleavage, read cross cleavage ;—1. 13 from bottom,
for in aa, read into a—p. 128, 1.18, 19, and 22, for ounces, read ounce—l. 2
from bottom, for experimenters, read experiments—p. 130, the letters A, B, and G.
on fig. 2, are misplaced—p. 132, 1. 20, after latter, read describe—l. 31, for tinning,
read turning—p. 189, top, for Mastodon Giganteum, read Mastodon giganteum—
p- 325, title, for Dr. Brown, read Dr. Brony.
Cover, for 32 Paternoster row, London, read 35.
Correction.—Since the communication of Dr. Sager was struck off, he has ob-
served that the description of the Salamandra agilis had proving been published
under another name. In the descriptions of the dental formule on p. 321, the
reader will substitute the specific name erythronota for agilis, and rubra ? for eryth-
ronota.
THE ye
AMERICAN.
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
Art. I.—Citations from, and abstract of, the Geological Reports
on the State of New York, for 1837-8, being State Document
No. 200; communicated by Gov. W. L. Marcy, to the Assem-
bly at Albany, Feb. 20, 1838.
We have already mentioned the former Rabat; Vol. xxxm, p.
186. The present contains three hundred and eighty four pages,
and is illustrated both by wood cuts and by a quarto atlas of litho-
graphic drawings, maps and sections fifteen, in number.
The communication contains—
1. A letter from James E. De Kay; 2. the report of Lewis C.
Beck; 3. of T. A. Conrad; 4. of W. W. Mather; 5. of E. Em-
mons; 6. of L. Vanuxem; and 7. of James Hall.
The document now before us, being a full octavo volume,
hardly admits of condensation. ‘The facts are very numerous,
and many of them of great importance. From the mass, we can -
do little more than to select a few of the most prominent.
1. The letter of Dr. De Kay refers to a verbal report made to
a joint committee of the senate and assembly, and-to an ultimate
report to be presented when the labors of the botanical and zo-
ological departments shall be closed—ably and happily, as we
cannot doubt, from the well known character of the gentlemen
charged with the care of those departments.
2. The report of Dr. Lewis C. Beck, on the mineralogical and
chemical department of the survey.
In Orange county, near the village of Monroe, is magnetic iron
ore, at the Wilks or Clove mine, and at O’Neil mine, in the vi-
Vou. xxxvi. No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 1
%
=.
2 Geological Reports on the State of New- York.
cinity, are beautiful octahedral and cubic crystals. There are
other deposits of iron within a mile, as at Forshee’s mine and the
Rich iron mine. Near Forshee’s mine, there are plates of mica
from nearly two to three feet in diameter.
The attention of Dr. Beck has been mainly directed to the min-
eral springs.
1. Brine Springs, or Salines.
The brine springs are chiefly in the middle and northern parts
of the State. They occur with little interruption from the county
of Otsego to Orleans and Genesee—nearly one hundred and sev-
enty miles east and west, and from Broome county in the south,
to near Lake Ontario, being about eighty miles. Still, among all
these, only the springs near the Onondaga lake (a fine bed of wa-
ter six miles by one) are wrought with much advantage.
This region is nearly in the centre of the length of the State,
and. is intersected by the great Erie Canal, at the distance of thirty
to forty miles south of Lake Ontario.
These springs all contain the muriate of lime and magnesia,
besides carbonate and sulphate of lime, and a little carbonate of
iron. Bromine has been detected in the Salina spring. _'The
spring contains fourteen to fifteen per cent. of saline matter, and
of sea water three to four.
Prof. Beck inclines to the opinion that these springs are impreg-
nated by solution of solid salt below; but we have no room to
state the grounds of this opinion, except that the absence of known
beds of fossil salt in our territory is not decisive against this origin,
since, in F'rance, where there are numerous brine springs, there
is only one known locality of fossil salt, namely at La Meurthe,
around which, brine springs had been wrought from the time of
the Christian era. . It is thought that the strength of the brine is
influenced by the height of the Onondaga lake, the brine being
strongest when the water of the lake is the highest. Dr. Wright,
superintendent, states, that in the spring of 1836, when the wa-
ter of the lake was unusually high, the brine had a density of 79°
by an instrument on which the point of saturation was 100°;
whereas ordinarily it does not exceed 63° or 64°. The higher
column of water in the lake is supposed to raise by its superior
pressure a stronger brine from below ; thus bringing it within the
a
Geological Reports on the State of New York. | 3
action of the pumps. ‘This is supposed to favor the hypothesis,
that the impregnation arises from solid mineral salt beneath.
The Onondaga lake is fresh water, and is secured from im-
pregnation from the surrounding saline marshes, by a stratum
of marl, from three to twelve feet thick, below which isa bed
‘Sof psa clay.
These salines are under the direction of the State authorities,
and four wells are worked—one at Salina, one at Syracuse, one
at Geddes, and a fourth at Liverpool, on the Oswego canal, all
upon the borders of this little lake.
The Salina spring affords more salt water than all the others ;
it is seventy feet deep, and the water is raised by forcing pumps
to such a height as to supply occasionally all the works in the vi-
cinity. ‘Temperature of the well, 50° Fah., brine limpid and
sparkling, with carbonic acid gas: specific grav. 1.11060 at 60°
F.: has remained of uniform strength for at least thirty six years.
It contains—
Carb. of lime, - - - - - Aye
Sulph. of lime, - - - - 4.72
Muriate of lime, - - - - 1.04
oy MmMashesia. || 21 - - - 51
Common salt, - - - - - 140.02
Oxide of iron, with a little silica and lime, - 0.04.
Carbonic acid, with a little lime and iron, - 0.09
Water, with a trace of bromine and organic matter, 853.41
1000.00.
This brine contains 1130 grains of pure and dry salt in a wine
pint, and 9045 grains cr 1.29 pounds avoir., in a gallon, and 43$
gallons yield a bushel of salt weighing 56 pounds, and 41$ gal-
lons give a bushel of merchantable salt, which contains about five
per cent. of water.
The Syracuse water gives a result almost identical—it is appa-
rently a very little weaker, but the difference is so small, that it may
be accidental; the same may be said of the Geddes well and of
that at Liverpool, which is indeed a little stronger: the average
yield of the four wells is 136.48 grains in 1000 of water, or nearly
1, whereas sea water affords an average of only #,, and ee Wwa-
es are therefore about twelve times as strong as sea water.
A Geoliztval Reports on the State of New York.
In 1830, of 3,804,229 bushels of salt manufactured in the
United States, 1,291,220 were obtained from the Onondaga —
springs, which in 1835 yielded 2,222,694 bushels; and if the —
other salt works in the United States have increased in the same
proportion, the Onondaga springs still yield more than one fourth -
of all the salt manufactured in the country.
Dr. Beck, to provide against loss of salt water, allows fifty gal-
lons for a prahel of salt, and estimates that if the pumps of the
Onondaga salines were to work three hundred days in the year, at
the rate of 44,700 gallons in an hour, they would yield 6,445,400
bushels in a year. It appears that in 1836, 100,000 gallons of
brine were lost at Onondaga, as the salt made was only 2,000,000
of bushels. 'The brine of this region is the strongest hitherto dis-
covered in the United States, unless it may be that on the Hol-
ston, Virginia, which, according to Prof. Rogers, yields about
twenty percent. of saline matter. 'The brine of the Kenhawa
springs in Virginia, contains no sulphate of lime ; and fuel, in the
form of mineral coal, is on the spot.
No saturated water, like that of Northwich in England, contain-
ing twenty six per cent., has yet been discovered in the United
States.
According to Dr. Beck, good quick lime added to the brine, fa
cilitates the obtaining of the salt, by decomposing and precipita-
ting the bicarbonate of iron and lime, and decomposing also the
muriate of magnesia— while the muriate of lime previously exist-
ing in the water, as well as that formed in this process, is in its
turn decomposed by sulphate of soda—thus adding to the pro-
duct of common salt, and precipitating the lime in the form of
sulphate of lime.
By solar evaporation, all difficulties are ausidee (except delay, )
and a pure salt is obtained in hard white crystals, which are
scarcely affected by the air. Evaporation by steam applied in
tubes, is next in point of advantage to that by the sun; and Dr.
Green, at Salina, employs this method with much success.
Syracuse is in the centre of the saline district, and combines
many advantages: it is on the Erie and Oswego canals and the
great western rail-road. ‘There are in the vicinity excellent agri-
cultural tracts, and vast quarries of the best limestone for con-
struction, and of gypsum for fertilizing; the best marls are also
found in inexhaustible quantities.
5
Table, showing the convposition of various specimens of Onondaga and foreign salt in 1000 parts.*
ne KINDS OF SALT Carbonates Sulphate | Sulphat ae HORE Pure chlo-
= : of lime and) of jime. af tones? and mag- |tide of so-| Total.
cS magnesia. : *-Inesium, . (dium.
S 1. Salt made by solar evaporation at Syracuse, - - - 7.00 - 2.00 | 991.00} 1000
& 2. do. . do. Geddes, by Mr. Brewster, | 1.00 | 6.50 - |Trace.| 992.50, 1000
~ 3. Table salt, prepared and put up by A. Woodruff, Salina, N. Y.| 0.20 | 6.61 - 1.46 | 991.73) 1000
2 A. Salt, labelled ‘extra good,’ made by Buel and Foote, Salina,| 0.38 | 5.78 - 3.50 | 990.44) 1000
iS 5, Salt made by boiling saturated brine, at the works of Dr. -
RQ Wicen, Saling,<------ 4 tg eS ~ 8.92 - 1.64 | 989.44) 1000
Ss 6. Salt made by slow evaporation, Syracuse, Mr. Byington, - 9.00 - 2.50 | 988.50) 1000
S 7, Salt made by boiling, at Salina, - - - - 0.40 |20.09 - 3.26 (976.25) 1000
= 8. Salt condemned at Salina, eee ee 4.32 |14.88 - 6.36 |974.44) 1000;
§ 9, Salt do. do. - - - - - - 5.52 {17.51 - - |976.97) 1000
=, {10. Turks Island salt, - - - - - - - 2.80 |13.167] - - |984.04 1000
ee ie Liverpool finesalt,~= = ese 0.23 | 8.77 | 2.01 | - |988.99) 1000
BS * All the specimens, previously to the analysis, were brought to a state of perfect dryness, by a heat of 400°
2 or 500°. The loss in weight was from one half to twelve per cent. In both specimens labelled “ condemned
S$ salt,” the proportion of water was very great. It was probably the imperfect manner in which the drying pro-
S cess was performed, rather than the amount of saline impurities which they contained, that subjected them to
the condemnation of the inspector,
+ And sulphate of magnesia.
6 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
The brine at the Montezuma springs is much weaker than at
Onondaga, yielding only ninety three parts of salt in one thousand,
instead of one hundred and thirty six, and seventy gallons of the
water are necessary to afford a bushel of salt.
Table, showing the composition of various Brines, from Onon-
daga and Cayuga counties, N. Y.
dz = 2 =
Se 5 iS
s, BE B |S
Hal |gs ge Aa gs
= aay afla|s¢/ es
Locality of the well or | 28 rete ie | as | Sail oe eel
. spring. Ss ll. |se/4 /8|s Sol ofa ae
Hele pes| Ste Mele, | ee Se
Gre Fa 2 (o) (o) ay = =
SRS BE OAS Sh fis) ei Soy la ay eI cs ) =
or Balaton g = = = = :
Sev He ye tes) ee S lee Penh ae as
Si hood Cle |e We.) O. ae alee
Ovonpsca.” Pe» ae ce
From the well at Geddes, {138.55}|0.06|0.04/0.10:4.93)0.79 /2.03]130.66 861.39|1000
From the well at Syracuse, |139.53}/0.07/0.02)0.14'5.69|0.46|0.83)132.39 860.40 1000
From the well at Salina, — /146.50/|0.09|0.04/0.17/4.72)0.51/1.04| 140.02 853.41/1000
From the well at Liverpool,}149.54/|0.67/0.03/0.13 4.04)0.77/1.72/142.85 850.39) 1000
Cayuca.
From a well at Montezuma,|101 .20|/0.08 0.02)0.18,5.25|1.00}1.40| 93.35,898.72/1000
Inflammable Gas.—Carbureited Hydrogen.
Disengaged in many places—at Albany, from a boring in the
slate, where a saline carbonated water is discharged—at the Oneida
springs in Vernon—in the Ontario gas springs, on both sides of
the Canandaigua lake—in Bristol, nine miles from the village, and
within three miles of it—in the Niagara gas springs near Lockport,
and so abundantly in a particular place, that it has been called
Gasport. ‘ :
Most remarkable in Fredonia, Chautauque county, three miles
south of Lake Erie, from the bituminous slate under Canadanea
Creek. Bubbles of gas every where rise through the water, and
most abundantly at and below the bridge. The gas burns with
a white flame, tinged with yellow above and with blue below the
burner. :
“ The illuminating power of this gas and its abundant supply, suggested
the idea of its employment in lighting the village. A copious discharge
of the gas was observed issuing from a fissure in the rock which forms
the bed of the creek, which it was thought could be diverted to a boring
on the bank. A shaft was accordingly sunk through the slate about
twenty two feet in depth, which occasionally passed through layers of the
Geological Reports on the State of New. York. 7
bituminous substance already described, and the result was, that the gas
left the creek and issued through the shaft. By means of a tube, the gas
was now conducted to a gasometer, and from thence to different parts of
the village. The gasometer had a capacity of about two hundred and
twenty cubic feet, and was usually filled in about fifteen hours, affording a
sufficient supply of gas for seventy or eighty lights.”
Besides the bituminous slate, burning with a flame like that of
the gas, there is an alternating sandstone, containing every where
small cavities filled with petroleum, and giving out a bituminous
odor. This liquid substance appears to have been every where
originally diffused through both the slate and sandstone, and thus
to have imparted the peculiar characters.
Gas appears to be generated and imprisoned below. It rises in
the banks when they are bored to the depth of twenty to thirty
feet, and it bubbles up through the water when it is low, but is
repressed when its height produces increased hydrostatic pressure.
Many of the wells in Fredonia are strongly charged with this gas,
and frequent disruptions of the strata evince the exertion of an .
expansive force from below. . The strata of slate and sandstone
are one thousand feet thick. 'This gas issues at long distances,
whose extremes are four hundred miles apart, and from strata from
fifteen hundred to 2000 feet thick. It is the opinion of Dr. Beck,
that this gas does not rise from coal beds, which by the views now
entertained of the geological structure of New York, are excluded
from its territory.
_ Nitrogen Springs.
Nitrogen gas rises from waters, and from the ground in Hens.
selaer county, six miles southeast from Bennington, Vt., and Cha-
teaucuay, Franklin county ; but the most remarkable nitrogen
spring in the State, is that of Lebanon, county of Columbia.
“This spring is about ten feet in diameter, and four feet deep, and dis-
charges a large amount of water. Its temperature is uniformly 73° F.,
while that of all the other springs in the vicinity is 52°, The water is
quite tasteless. Its specific gravity is scarcely above that of distilled wa-
ter, as it holds only a minute portion of saline matter in solution. The
following is the composition, according to the analysis of Dr. Meade, of a
pint of the water.
Chloride of calcium, = - - = - 0.25 sash
Chloride of sodium, - - - - 044
Carbonate of lime, - - - =) SsO819es *
Sulphate of lime, - 2) hs - 037 “
1.25
8 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
“ Bubbles of air continually rise through the crevices of the rock at the
bottom of this spring, which ascending rapidly through the water, occasion
an incessant agitation, and appear to break on the surface without being
at all absorbed by the water. This air is given out in the proportion of
about five cubic inches from a pint of the water, and it consists, according
to the experiments of Prof. Daubeny, of Oxford, now on a visit to this
country, who kindly furnished me with the results, of 89.4 parts of nitro-
gen, and 10.6 parts of oxygen, in the hundred. ‘This is equal to nearly
fifty parts atmospheric air, and fifty parts pure nitrogen, in the hundred.
Prof. Daubeny could not detect any carbonic acid in the gaseous matter
given out by this spring.
“So large is the quantity of water at the Lebanon springs, that advan-
tage has been taken of it, and of the elevation of the ground, not only to
supply all the baths, but to turn two or three mills erected within a short
distance: these mills are kept in action during the severity of the winter.”
Acidulous or Carbonated Springs.
The well known springs of Saratoga and Ballston are the most
conspicuous of this class in the State.
“ Composition of a pint of the water from the Congress Spring.
According to the late Prof. J. F. Dana. Grs.
Chloride of sodium, meh ie - - - 543
Carbonate of lime, - - - - - 18.0
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - - - 4.0
Carbonate of soda, - - - - - 2.0
Silica, with a trace of iron, - - - -
Total, 78.3
Cubic inches.
Carbonic acid gas, - - . - - 39.1
Azote, - - - - - - ° 0.9
Gaseous contents, - - * - 40.0
According to Dr. Steel. Grs.
Chloride of sodium, - - - - - 48.13
Hydriodate of soda, - - - - - 0.44
Bicarbonate of soda, - - - - - 1.12
Bicarbonate of magnesia, - - - = OT
Carbonate of lime, - - - - - 12.26
Carbonate of iron, 4 - - - - - 0.63
Silica, - - - - - Baten aes 0.19
Hydrobromate of potassa, trace, - - -
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 9
Cubic inches.
Carbonic acid gas, ie ee a 39.00
Atmospheric air, - - - - - 0.87
Gaseous contents, Di Po Mnme ne Gr neRal. (i) SONSy
“The temperature of these springs is said to be uniformly 50° F.”
Those of Ballston have proved more variable in their impreg-
nation, particularly with carbonic acid gas.
United States Springs.
“ Specific gravity, 1.00611. Temperature, 50°F. One pint of the
water contains,
Carbonate of lime, with a small admixture of
oxide of iron, - - = - - 3.65 grains.
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - - O72: soe
Carbonate of soda, - Sia ie - - al Gace
Sulphate ofsoda, - - - = - 0.22%
Chloride of sodium, = - - & tN pebon ee
Silica,* - - - - - - - LO. <
° 60.82 “
Carbonic acid 30.50 cubic inches,”
The mineral waters of Albany City are very similar to those of
Saratoga and Ballston, but contain a smaller proportion of car-
bonic acid gas.
Sulphuretted or Sulphureous Springs.—These are very nu-
merous, and are distinguished by containing free sulphuretted
hydrogen in solution, in greater or smaller proportions, (sometimes
perhaps saturated,) and sometimes carbonic acid, in addition to
various salts, among which are common salt, muriates of lime
and magnesia, sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda, sulphate of mag-
nesia, and carbonate of lime ; and not improbably the sulphuretted
hydrogen is itself combined in some instances with gases. No-
tices of many of these springs are contained in this Journal, and
derived principally from the researches of Professor Eaton. Jour-
nal, Vol. xv, p. 335.
* This water probably contains both iodine and bromine, but the quantity upon
which I operated was too small to admit of separating them and determining their
relative proportions. °
Vor, xxxvi. No. 1.—Jan.-April, 1839. 2
10 Geolobical Reporis on the State of New York.
The Avon springs are much celebrated, and of them a notice
was given in the last volume of this Journal, page 188.
“The waters of all the Avon springs give out powerfully the odor of
- sulphuretted hydrogen, and have a strong saline taste. ‘They speedily
blacken silver and the salts of lead. The solution of arsenious acid is but
slightly altered by it until after the addition of an acid ; from which I infer
that a portion of the sulphuretted hydrogen is in a state of combination
with some basis.”
We do not observe that particular mention is made of some
exceedingly remarkable sulphureous fountains eight miles N. W.
of Canandaigua. We visited them some years since, and were
saluted with the odor of the gas full half a mile from the fountains.
They gush from a hill, in a stream so copious as to turn a mill;
they rise also in vast abundance from an extensive marsh at its
foot, and sulphur sometimes of alemon yellow color, is abundantly
deposited.
The existence of sour springs containing free sulphuric acid,
mentioned in this Journal, Vol. xx, p. 239, is confirmed by Dr.
Beck.
“* Genesee Springs.—In the county of Genesee, we have, near North
Byron, a sulphuretted spring, the gas of which is so copiously given out
as to be inflamed; and in the southeast part of the same town are springs
of a similar kind. .
“* Sulphuric Acid.—A very remarkable locality in this vicinity deserves
to be particularly noticed here, as the occurrence is undoubtedly to be
referred to the same general agencies which are concerned in the pro-
duction of sulphuretted hydrogen. I refer to the Sour Spring, so called,
which exists in Byron, near the canal. The acid is produced from a hil-
lock about 230 feet long and 100 broad, elevated four or five feet above
the surrounding plane. According to Professor Eaton, the strength of
the acid increases in a drought. He states, that when he examined the
locality considerable rain had recently fallen, and the acid in most places
was very dilute, but in some it appeared to be perfectly concentrated, and
nearly dry in its combination with the charred vegetable coat. In this
state it was diffused throughout the whole hillock, which was every where
covered with charred vegetable matter to the depth of five to thirty or forty
inches, occasioned by the action of the sulphuric acid. Wherever holes
were sunk in this hill the acid accumulated, and also in the depressions
of the contiguous meadow grounds.
“There is another locality of a similar kind a hundred rods west of
Byron hotel, and two miles east of the former, which is remarkable, in
consequence of the great quantity of acid. It isa spring which issues
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 11
from the earth, in sufficient volume to turn a light grist-mill. Such an
"immense laboratory of sulphuric acid is here conducted by nature, that
all the water which supplies this perennial stream possesses acidity enough
to give the common test with violets, and to coagulate milk. Besides the
above, there are said to be several other sour springs in this vicinity.*
“T have particularly examined both the liquid acid and the brownish
vegetable matter subjected to its action.
“The liquid is transparent and colorless; and in the specimen upon
which I operated, had a specific gravity of 1.21304 at 60 F. It red-
dens litmus powerfully, has an intensely sour taste, causes a dense pre-
cipitate when added to muriate of barytes, but is not affected by nitrate
of silver. When ammonia is added to the liquid to saturation, a slight
precipitate of a reddish color is the result, and the clear solution is after-
wards also slightly affected by oxalate of ammonia. The oxide of iron and
lime indicated by the two latter tests are, however, in very small propor-
tion, as is evident from the fact that when the liquid is evaporated it
leaves only a trifling residuum. It is a nearly pure, though dilute, sul-
phuric acid, and not a solution of acid salts, as has been supposed ; for
the bases are in too minute proportions to warrant the latter opinion.”
“The occurrence of sulphuric acid in nature, in any thing like the pure
form which it here possesses, is of great interest, only a few localities,
and these rather doubtful, being hitherto known. An earth, somewhat
similar to that found in Byron, is said to exist in great quantities at a vil-
lage called Daulakie, in the south of Persia, between three and four days
journey from Bushire, on the Persian gulf. The natives employ it as a
substitute for lemons and limes, in making their sherbets, of which con-
siderable quantities are drunk, they being prohibited the use of wine. On
analysis the acid was found to be the sulphuric, and this was united to
iron; the solution in boiling water, when evaporated, yielding crystals
which seemed to be the acid sulphate of that metal.”
Sulphureous waters are found in various places on the Hudson,
in the counties of Onondaga, Niagara, Erie, Chautauque, Clinton,
and St. Lawrence, at Chitteningo, Sharon, Rickfield, Verona, near
Utica, and in many other places.
Petrifying Springs.—These are chiefly solutions of carbonate
of lime by means of carbonic acid gas, and its well known effects
in the production of stalactites, tufa, and transition, are numerous
and conspicuous in this state.
In this Journal, Vol. xxv, p. 172, is described a great tufa-
- ceous deposit in Schoharie county. In Herkimer county, near
the head of Otsquago creek, is a calcareous tufa with impressions ©
* Eaton in Silliman’s Journal, XV, 239. t Philosophical Magazine for 1824,
12 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
of numerous plants, identical with those now growing in the vi-
cinity. There is a single mass on the bank of the creek, about
300 feet long by 50 wide and so on to 40 thick. It has numer-
ous apartments, and at the end are tufaceous petrifactions of logs
standing obliquely against a side hill: they are still very perfect,
retaining the forms of the shabby scales of the bark, the knots,
&c. There are large masses of tufa near Syracuse, and in Mar-
cellus and Camillus are many calcareous petrifactions of leaves,
roots, and trunks of trees: such petrifactions are numerous near.
Rochester and Ithaca; and at the falls of Niagara and Genesee
they are incrusted with carbonate of lime from the running and
dashing waters. Near Chitteningo such appearances are numer-
ous, and a large trunk of a tree is conspicuous on the left hand, as
the traveller enters the village from the east ; it is imbedded in a
hill near its foot. Professor Beck found the petrified wood to con-
sist almost entirely of carbonate of lime, with small and variable
proportions of silica, alumina, and oxide of iron; in some speci-
mens there were traces of vegetable matter, and in others none.*
Water issuing from the superincumbent hills afforded to Professor
~ Beck, in 1000 parts, 998.06 of water, and 1.94 of carbonate and
sulphate of lime; still no sulphate of lime could be found in the
petrifactions.
Paleontological Department, by 'Timotny A. Conran.
This department has been organized since the former report,
and Mr. Conrad was detached from the geology of the third dis-
trict, for the purpose of fulfilling this duty, which is very impor-
tant to science, although it may not make so conspicuous a fig-
ure in the reports as some other departments. Mr. Conrad, whose
high qualifications for this duty are well known, has made it a
leading object to compare and identify as far as possible the for-
mations of the state of New York with those of Europe, at least
so far as to ascertain their geological equivalents.
“There are some geologists who wish to establish in every island and
continent, a peculiar system of rocks, independent of other remote coun-
tries; but when we consider that in the earlier eras of our planet, the
temperature was uniform and the seas comparatively very shallow; should
* We have seen in situ near Fredricksburg, Va., siliceous petrifactions of
trunks of trees, in which were ligneous fibres, not only not petrified, but retaining
their combustibility, while all around was stone, copying the original organization,
Geolovical Reports on the State of New York. 13
_we not expect to find all the organic remains of such periods to consist
chiefly of one group of species over the whole globe, especially when we
find the flora of the carboniferous era to have been every where nearly
the same? Are not rocks of the oolitic group in South America, ihe
cretaceous, and even the eocene of North America, mere extensions of
European systems, deposited in seas of the same periods, and containing
the same groups of shells? Deeper oceans and greater variation of tem-
perature have cast more uncertainty over the upper tertiary formations,
but the transition affords us the converse of this proposition; greater uni-
formity of temperature, a more perfect identity of organic remains, and
rock masses of more uniform character. That the sea of one of these
ancient eras was shallow, is proved not only by its universality, but by the
ripple marks and fucoides which every where pervade the strata. A
negative evidence is also supplied in the nature of the fossils. Dr. Buck-
land has shown how admirably the complicated chambers, and the exte-
rior surface of the Ammonites were constructed, to resist the pressure of
deep water. But shells of this genus were not created until more pro-
fuund seas had resulted from changes in the configuration of the earth’s
surface, subsequent to the deposition of the coal formations. The Go-
niatite, which has a plain exterior, and septa simply angulated, is un-
known in that part of the transition we have termed the Trenton group;
and in the upper part of the series it is among the rarest of the univalves,
abounding only in the carboniferous epoch. ‘The cephalapods, which
flourished in the lower transition, were reduced to the simpler structure
of the genera Cyrtoceras, Gyrthoceras, and a few kindred forms, with plain
arched septa, like the nautilus. ‘There is also reason to believe that the
brachiopods of the transition, so different from the prevailing form of the
superior strata which constitute the genus Terebratula, were, unlike the
latter, denizens of very shoal water. Immense numbers lived and were
entombed with the remains of terrestrial plants on the margins of islands
in the carboniferous epoch. The bituminous shale of the coal measures
is in some places stored with a species of Producta with long filiform
spines, all the specimens having the two valves in their natural position,
and the spines broken off from the shells simply by pressure of the su-
perincumbent strata. They were never subjected to the action of a
stormy surf, and yet land plants grew in the vicinity of the living shells ;
hence we infer a quiescent state of the waters around the islands of the
transition eras. But one exception has been noticed, which occurs at
Rochester, in a thin layer of limestone full of broken Pentamera; in
other places, single valves of bivalves occur, but the entire shells are so
remarkably abundant, that whatever may have been the force of currents
originating the breccias and conglomerates, the waters were remarkably
quiescent during the deposition of shales and limestones.”
14 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
“The course of our investigations having resulted in the conviction,
that the rocks of New York, with the exception of the upper part of the
Catskill mountains, terminate with the upper Ludlow rocks of Murchi-
son, we have an additional argument in favor of the universal nature of
ancient formations, and the contemporaneous deposition of our coal strata
with those of Europe. This correspondence, Professor Eaton has inferred
from the identity of the fossil flora, but the proof does not end here.
While the same kind of plants flourished upon the islands where now
are the continents of Europe and America, the same species of shells
existed in the waters which girded them. Thus in the ironstone layers
beneath the coal of Tioga county, the common European bivalve, Pro-
ducta scabricula, abounds just as it does at Coalbrook dale in the same
rock. Specimens from both countries, if accidentally mixed, could not
be separated by any mineral or conchological difference.”
“Limestone containing these fossils is not of frequent occurrence in
Pennsylvania or Ohio; the shells being chiefly imbedded in bituminous
shale and ironstone, and in Ohio, in chert.”
“1. The first group of strata, in the descending order, below the sand-
stone which contains impressions of terrestrial plants, consists of rocks
which are seldom calcareous, and appear to be equivalent, as mentioned
in my report of last year, to the Ludlow rocks of Murchison. In Mr.
Vanuxem’s report will be found an accurate account of the characteristic
species of each group.”
“2. The second group consists chiefly of limestone. Two intercala-
ted strata of sandstone occur, characterized by a species of fucoides,
which we have named #. Cauda-galli. No other organic remain is
found in this rock. The group is undoubtedly equivalent to the celebra-
ted Dudley limestone, the Wenlock and Dudley rocks of Murchison.”
“3. The third group has been termed “ calciferous slate’ by Eaton.
It is a gray limestone shale, containing all the gypsum beds of the State.
Organic remains are very rare, except on the Genesee river, where no
gypsum occurs. The lower part contains a thin stratum of limestone, —
made of broken valves of a Pentamerus. This is the only instance of
shells broken by attrition that has come under our observation through-
out the whole transition order. Above the Pentamerus, the well known
trilobite Asaphus caudatus is abundant. The group is equivalent to the
“dye earth’ of Shropshire, which is characterized by the trilobite above
mentioned.”
“4. ‘Saliferous sandrock’ of Eaton. Red sandstone and shales oc-
curring in the banks of Niagara river, are admirably developed at the
falls of Genesee river. The organic remains consist chiefly of Fucoides
Harlani, nobis (F. Brongniartii, Harlan.) Veins of fresh-water shells
occur in it at Medina. I obtained very perfect casts of the hinge of the
‘
Geological Reporis on the State of New York. 15
Unio, showing the cardinal and lateral teeth so distinctly as to remove all
doubt of the generic relations of the shell.”
“5. The fifth group consists of olive sandstone and slate, cut through
by Salmon river, in- Oswego county. Intercalated strata of limestone
occur in the lowest portion of the series, full of brachiopodous bivalves.
This and the preceding red sandstone group correspond in geological
position with the fourth group in the slate system of Wales, described by
Professor Phillips.”’*
“6. Black limestone and shale of Trenton Falls, embracing the ‘ birds-
eye limestone’ and ‘calciferous sandrock’ of Professor Eaton, and the
graywacke and slate of the Hudson river. ‘The group clearly represents
the ‘ black shale inclosing beds of graywacke, flagstone and calcareous
slate, which, prolonged to the southwest, join themselves to the trilobite
beds of black limestone and calcareous flagstone at Llandeilo.’t In Mr.
Murchison’s table, this group is termed ‘ Llandeilo flags.’ ”
“It is a curious fact, that whilst the Calymene Blumenbachii, ceased
to exist in New York after the final deposition of the Trenton series, it
escaped into remote seas, and lived in the era of the Dudley limestone.
The Cryptolithus tessellatus, on the contrary, seems to have existed, and
to have become extinct, at the same periods in the seas which deposited
the rocks of Llandeilo and Trenton Falls. The plants and crustacea
are peculiar to this group, and of the testacea, I have observed but two
species in a superior formation; Delthryris striatula, and a small Orthis
resembling O. crumena, but haying invariably four plaits or ribs on the
mesial elevation. Of the Polyparia, one only has been noticed above the
present series; Cyathophyllum ceratites. All these fossils occur in the
second group, in the limestone of the Helderberg mountain.”
We are obliged to omit the illustrative catalogues of fossils and
the description of new species.
Report of W. W. Matuer of the Furst Geological District.
Mr. Mather remarks: “ Details and facts, belonging strictly to pure
scientific geology, will not be made public until the publication of the
final report. The object of the annual reports is to give publicity to such
facts and localities as may be of practical utility, so that benefit may be
derived from a knowledge of them, during the progress of the survey.”
The great mass of valuable facts adduced by Mr. Mather
scarcely admit of condensation, and all we can do is to make a
few selections illustrative of different heads.
* Encyc. Metrop., article Geology, p. 568. t Ibid.
16 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
Queens, Kings, and Richmond Counties.
Peat.—This important but comparatively neglected combusti-
ble is abundant in the state of New York. Peat-has been dug
near Newtown, Long Island, for more than fifty years, and there is
an extensive and probably deep peat marsh, called Cedar Swamp,
near Jamaica: it is supposed to contain thirty thousand cords.
The inferior peats, including those of marine origin, make a
valuable manure. Many of these swamps, although covered with
vegetation, and it may be with moss and cranberry bushes, are
soft and tremulous, and admit of having a pole run into them.
The salt marshes it appears are, in the aggregate, steadily in-
creasing.
_“ A combination of several of the causes producing salt marshes, is
particularly favorable to their rapid increase ; such, for instance, as the
alluvion washed down by streams ; the fine materials swept from the head-
lands and carried into the bays and reenterings of the coast by the flood
tide where they are deposited ; the fine earthy matters, formed by the
surf grinding the pebbles on the coast, being transported by the tidal
currents into the bays and marshes and deposited there; the growth and
decay of multitudes of marine animals; the accumulations of marine
plants, drifted sea weeds, and other refuse of the ocean; and clouds of
drifting sand ; all of which concur to shoal the water more or less rapidly
in situations where it is protected seaward by beaches and islands.”
The salt marshes produce valuable crops of grass.
“The salt marshes of Suffolk county are estimated to cover an area of
55 square miles; of Queens county, 40 square miles; Kings, 12 square
miles, and Richmond, 9 square miles; making an aggregate of 116
square miles, or 74,246 acres, of marsh alluvion of the south coast of
New York, exclusive of the extensive marshes on the south coast of
Westchester county, which woud probably swell the aggregate to 125
square miles, or 80,000 acres.’
Encroachments of the sea.—The maritime parts of New York,
chiefly on the southern shore of Long Island, present interesting
examples of tidal and oceanic action, both destructive and accu-
mulative. Capes, headlands, and islands, are washing away,—
take the following example.
“Several examples of the encroachments of the sea on the land in
Suffolk county were mentioned in my first report. Others equally in-
teresting and instructive, and as important in their bearing upon eco-
nomical and topographical geology, occur in Queens, Kings, and Rich-
aa
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 17
mond counties. Hog Island, as it has been called, or Middle Island,
the name given by the coast surveyors, is gradually wearing away in
many places by the action of the waves during storms and high tides ;
but the N. N. E. and N. W. parts, are exposed to the waves of Long
Island Sound, and are wearing away more rapidly. The materials of
which this peninsula, as well as nearly the whole of Long Island, is com-
posed, is a series of beds of sand, gravel, loam, and clay. Boulders and
erratic blocks occur in one of the beds in great numbers, and as the surf
undermines the cliffs, they tumble down, and all the finer materials are
swept away by the tidal currents, and the oblique action of the surf on the
shore. ‘The headlands, generally, of the north shore of Queens county,
are washing away. The blocks of rock which were once imbedded in
the loose soil of the island are seen on the beach, extending out far be-
yond low water mark.”
“Sands’ Point, on which a lighthouse has been long built, was wash-
ing away so rapidly some years since, that it became necessary to protect
it by building a strong sea-wall along the shore. A reef of rocks, (the
remains of ancient lands,) extends out some distance from the shore.
_ The wall has afforded a protection against the encroachment of the sea,
and about an acre of land has been added to that belonging to the United
States, in consequence of the alluvial action of the surf depositing the
sand and shingle in the eddy on the south side of the point. Mr. Mason,
the keeper of the lighthouse, communicated these facts, and many others
of much interest. The broad and extensive sand beach, south of Sands’
Point, a mile or more in length, was, since his remembrance, a salt
marsh, covered with grass. Mr. Mason is nearly eighty years of age.
The materials swept from Sands’ Point and deposited on the edge of the
marsh, have been drifted and washed over its surface.
“* At and near Kidd’s Rock, three quarters of a mile eastward of Sands’
Point, the wasting of the cliffs from the effects of the waves is very evi-
dent. The cliffs present mural escarpments towards the Sound, but the
hills slope down gradually on the other side towards the salt marsh. ‘This
elevated land was formerly an island, but alluvial causes have formed a
salt marsh where the water was sheltered from the sea. The wasting of
the cliffs has caused the formation of long beaches, one connecting Kidd’s
Point with Sands’ Point, and the other connecting with the high grounds
S. E. of the marsh on the W. side of Hempstead Harbor. A small inlet
through the N. end of this beach allows the tide to communicate with
the marsh. Boulders and blocks are seen imbedded in the strata form-
ing the mural escarpments, and the shore below is also strewed with
them. They also extend some distance from the coast, indicating that a
considerable breadth of land has been washed away. The boulders pro-
tect the shore for a time, but the smaller ones and the shingle are gradu-
ally ground up by the action of the surf, and washed away, and during
Vou. xxxvi. No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 3
18 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
storms and high tides, fresh inroads are made. The beach between
Kidd’s Point and Sands’ Point covers a part of the marsh, the ooze and
marine peat of which, may be seen at the foot of the beach at ebb tide.
This indicates that high land, or else a beach, was once farther seaward,
to afford protection for the formation of that part of the marsh. Only a
few acres of high land remain at Kidd’s Point, and if it should continue
to be washed away as heretofore, (and much expense would be necessary
to prevent it,) a century or two would be sufficient to effect its entire re-
moval.
“Kidd’s Rock, as it is called, is a remarkable erratic block which was
imbedded in the loam of the tertiary formation. It has been undermined
by the action of the sea, and has slid down to the shore and cracked in
many large fragments. Viewing it from a little distance, one does not
realize its magnitude, but by climbing over and wandering among its
fragments at low water, it seems to grow upon the imagination. Its
fragments probably weigh at least 2,000 tons, and several sloop loads of
it have been shipped to New York for building stone. It is hornblendic
gneiss, and some of its masses abound in epidote. It is a durable stone,
and will stand any exposure unchanged.”
Coney island is washing away, as is the high bank near
Brown’s point, on Staten Island. ‘ Here a bank of shells, about
two feet thick, is exposed, within eight or ten inches of the natu-
ral surface of the ground.” Mr. Mather attributes them to the
natives; if our impressions are different, they are founded on sim-
ilar facts which we have observed elsewhere, as in Nantucket,
where a stratum of shells, but a little under the surface, extends
apparently through the Island, and must have been an oceanic
deposit, the last work of the tertiary epoch of that region.
Beaches are universal on the shores of Long Island, and spits
are numerous.
“The beaches and spits are trifling in extent and importance, when
compared with the Great South Beach of Long Island. This is a line of
alluvial sand and shingle, extending from Nepeague, in East Hampton,
to the mouth of New York Bay, a distance of 104 miles, and having a
direction of about W. 8. W. It is not continuous, but is divided by in-
lets communicating with the bays which are situated between this and
Long Island, and through these inlets the tide ebbs and flows. At Quogue,
and: several places east of this, Long Island communicates with the
beach, either by marshes or by the upland; but westward, for about 70
miles, a continuous line of bays, from half a mile to six miles broad, ex-
tends uninterruptedly, and separates the beach entirely from Long Island.
This Great Beach is a line of spits and islands. One of the islands is
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 19
about 25 miles long, with a breadth of a few hundred yards. ‘They are
all narrow and long, and when above the reach of the surf, they are cov-
ered by a labyrinth of hillocks of drifted sand, imitating almost all the
variety of form which snow drifts present after a storm.
“Rockaway Neck is the only locality west of Southampton where the
upland of Long Island approaches near the alluvial beach. The land
through this distance is increasing in area by constant depositions. The
beach at Far Rockaway, and for many miles east and west, is under-
going frequent local changes. The surf frequently washes away several
rods in width, during a single storm, and perhaps the next storm adds
more than had been removed by the preceding. The sea frequently
makes inlets through the beach to the bays and marshes, and as frequently
fills up others.
“The inlet to Rockaway Bay, called Hog Island Inlet, is continually
progressing westward by the oblique action of the surf driving the sand,
gravel, and shingle in that direction. The deposit of these materials on
the west end of the island beach, tends to obstruct the inlet to the bay ;
but the strong tidal current, during the flow and ebb of the tide, washes
away the east end of Rockaway beach, as rapidly as the other forms.
The inlet is thus kept open. Mr. Edmund Hicks, of Far Rockaway,
has been long a resident here, and to him I am indebted for the fact just
mentioned. He knows Hog Island Inlet to have progressed more than a
mile to the west within fifty years.”
“The encroachments of the sea on the east end of Long Island, were
discussed in my first annual report. Vast masses of the cliffs of loam,
sand, gravel, and loose rocks, of which Long Island is composed, are un-
dermined, and washed away by every storm. 'The water on the ocean
coast, to some distance from the shore, is almost always found to have
more or less earthy matter in suspension, much of which, except during
storms, is derived from the grinding up of the pebbles, gravel and sand,
by the action of the surf. This earthy matter is carried off during the
flood tide, and in part deposited in the marshes and bays, and the re-
mainder is transported seaward during the ebb, and deposited in still
water. After a close observation, I have estimated that at least 1,000
tons of matter are thus transported daily from the coast of Long Island,
and probably that quantity on an average is daily removed from the south
coast, between Montauk Point and Nepeague beach. This shore of 15
miles in length, probably averages 60 feet in height, and is rapidly
washing away. One thousand tons of this earth would be equal to about
one square rod of ground, with a depth of 60 feet. Allowing this esti-
mate to be within the proper limits, more than two acres would be re-
moved annually from this portion of the coast. It is probable that any
attentive observer would not estimate the loss of land there at less than
20 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
this amount. Nearly one half the matter coming from the degradation
of the land, is supposed to be swept coastwise in a westerly direction.
“There are many evidences that the east end of Long Island was once
much larger than at present, and it is thought probable that it may have
been connected with Block Island, which lies in the direction of the pro-
longation of Long Island. From Culloden Point, a reef of loose blocks.
of rocks projects similar to those points on Hog Island, Oak Neck, &c.
where they are known to result from the degradation of the land. Jones’
Reef, N. W. of Montauk Point, is similar, and Shagwam Reef, a little
farther west, projects three miles from the shore. It is ascertamed that
black fish (Labrus tautoga—Mitchill) are rarely found except about a
rocky bottom. It is also known that such a bottom of loose blocks of
rock is found wherever the natural soil of Long Island and the adjacent
islands, has been washed away by the sea. ‘These facts, with the well
known extensive fishing grounds for black fish around Montauk Point,
and particularly on the south shore, and between Montauk Point and
Block Island, give much probability to the idea, that a great extent of
land has been washed away by the sea.
“‘ Even if these evidences were insufficient, the present rapid degrada-
tion of the coast in that vicinity, the constant transportation of matter
westward upon the Great Beach, and the extent of this beach, (more than
100 miles long, with a breadth of 100 to 1,000 yards,) which is the result
of this action, would by most minds be deemed conclusive.”
Erratic Blocks.
They are the only wall and building stones on Long Island
and the contiguous islands, with the exception of a small tract of
gneiss in a place near Hurlgate. ‘The boulders of Long Island
are rarely found south of the hills, but on the north side are found
both imbedded and on the surface. Many of them weigh 50
tons or more; the fragments of Kidd’s rock weigh 2,000 tons or
more; a rock called Millstone near Plandome was estimated at
1,800 tons. Limestone blocks weighing from 1 to 5 tons, near
Sands’ Point, are exactly like the limestone of Barnegat, on the
Hudson, in Dutchess county many miles to the N. W.
On Staten Island a boulder, filled with fossil shells, was dug
from a well; it resembled the limestone of Buroft’s mountain, near
Hudson. <A similar boulder from another well in the same isl-
and, was like the limestone of the Helderberg, west of Albany.
It appears, then, that the boulders came from the W. and N. W.
and some of them hundreds of miles.
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 21
Sands, white and siliceous, are exported largely from the great
south beach to New York and the interior, for sawing marble,
making glass, &c.
Bricks.—300,000 to 350,000 are made annually near Jamaica.
Water is not abundant on Long Island, and is not permanent
on account of the porous nature of the strata, except at about the
ocean level. On Hempstead plains the wells are dug from 60 to
120 feet, through beds of gravel and sand, before water is reach-
ed. On most of the farms on Long Island, basin-shaped cavities
are made in the soil, puddled with clay, and filled by the rain wa-
ter; they are called watering holes.
Fossil shells and lignite are often found in digging wells on
Long Island.
The soils in Queens, Kings, and Richmond counties are dress-
ed with the sand, and the light soils with loam or clay, to pro-
duce a soil at once pulverulent and argillaceous, penetrable by
roots and retentive of moisture.
Near New York city, many farmers expend from $50 to $70
per acre for street manure, which, with that of the yard composts,
mixed with lime, rotten sea weed, ashes, barilla, bone manure,
and fish, is in common use.
Lime answers well on the light soils of Long Island and New
Jersey, and costs at Barnegat 64 cents a bushel.
The Clupea Manhaden of Mitchill, (Bony fish, Hardhead, or
Marshbanker, or White fish,) is very abundantly used for manure.
100,000,000 are said to be used annually on Long Island.
Marls.—There are immense bodies in the State of New York,
particularly in Columbia and Dutchess counties,—in one lake
100,000 loads of fresh-water shell mar], and on a small island in
it, many bushels of Uniones and Anodontas were seen in piles,
having been carried there by the muskrats.
There are also vast accumulations of peat in places too numer-
ous to be cited, and containing many millions of cords.
Marbles.—It is impossible even to name the numerous places
where good workable marble is found; that of Hudson was de-
scribed in this Journal, Vol. VI, p. 371.
The primary rocks we pass without a remark.
“ Tron Ores.—The iron ore of Columbia and Dutchess county is very
abundant, and makes iron of the best quality. The mines are numerous,
and in general they are easily worked and free from water. The ore con-
22 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
sists principally of limonite, which varies in its state of aggregation from
a yellow pulverulent mass to a compact brown ironstone. It is mammil-
lary, botryoidal, spongiform, and with stalactical shapes, some of which have
hemispherical and others acicular terminations, others are like bunches
of pendant moss. The solid stalactical forms are fibrous, with radii di-
verging from the center. The specimens are beautiful, and highly orna-
mental as curiosities and as minerals. ‘The mines yield an aggregate of
about 20,000 tons of ore per annum, which is worth at the bed $1 50 to
$2 50 per ton. There are ten furnaces, it is said, within twelve miles of
Amenia, which make, in the aggregate, about 10,000 tons of iron per
annum. They afford employment to about one thousand men as ore dig-
gers, coal men, teamsters, smelters, limestone diggers, é&&c. Some of
these furnaces are in Connecticut, near the line, and it is about as well
for New York as if they were within her own limits. All the iron is car-
ried to the Hudson River, and then shipped to various parts. There are
two furnaces in Columbia and Dutchess counties not included in the above
number, viz. Ancram and Hopewell furnaces. It is estimated that the
aggregate annual value of the pig iron made at these twelve furnaces, is
$400,000 to $500,000 per annum. Manufactories of malleable iron in
various forms, are attached to some of these furnaces, as the Columbia
furnace in Kent, the Ancram furnace, and some others. The malleable
iron from these furnaces is highly valued for its toughness and softness,
and is extensively employed in making anchors, musket and pistol barrels,
wire, &c.”
“The Amenia and Salisbury ore beds are the most extensively wrought
of any iron mines, of this kind, of ore in the United States, and the iron
from these beds is considered superior in softness and toughness to that
of any other mines in the country.
‘“‘The Amenia ore bed yields 5,000 tons of ore per annum, which gives
on an average 50 per cent. of pig iron. The mine is worked to the day
like an open quarry. A layer of earth and gravel, and broken rocks, cov-
ers the ore from five to twenty feet in thickness. This is first removed,
and the ore then excavated. ‘They have not yet found the bottom of the
ore in any place, although in one pit they have excavated into it 45 feet.
It improves in quality the farther they descend. No estimate can be formed
of the amount of ore in this bed, which probably unites with the others
north and south of it. Estimating its breadth at 100 yards, and its length
at 1,000 yards, with 15 yards depth, through which it is open, it is capa-
ble of yielding 1,500,000 tons of ore, and at the present rate of working ~
will last 300 years.”
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 23
Report by Ei. Emons, of the Second Geological District.
The county of St. Lawrence is 2,717 miles square—larger by
1,000 miles, than any other county in the State; shape triangu-
lar—the line on the St. Lawrence being 65 miles long. 'The
observations on the soils of this district, scarcely admit of abbre-
viation ; this is justly treated as an important topic in the various
reports. The account of the primitive and other rocks contains
many curious and interesting facts, which are illustrated by good
wood cuts.
Granite occurs in three modes. 1. In large irregular beds, or
protruded masses. 2. In veins branching irregularly into the ad-
jacent rock. 3. In overlying masses, analogous to overflowing
lava currents or greenstone. ‘This statement is in accordance with
the facts now ascertained to be so numerous in other countries,
containing granite, and it appears impossible to explain them
without admitting the igneous origin of the rock.
Limestone has not been admitted into that family of rocks, al-
though it is conceded that it has often been greatly altered by fire
—altered in situ, even to the obliteration of organic remains and
the production of a crystalline structure, while the carbonic acid
has been retained by the pressure of superincumbent masses.
The famous experiments of Sir James Hall, especially on the fu-
sion of carbonate of lime under great pressure, without losing its
carbonic acid, are still very precious to the theory of the igneous
origin of many rocks and even of limestone itself. We can easi-
ly imagine what exultation would have been produced in the
minds of Hutton, Hall, Playfair, and the other eminent advocates
of great igneous action in the interior of this planet, could they
have known such facts as Mr. Emmons has presented to us re-
specting limestone.
He is evidently of the opinion, that this rock is not always of
aqueous origin and stratified, but that it has been melted and in-
jected in the manner of the igneous rocks. Granting this to have
been true, it does not of course follow, that it was not, at least in
various cases, of aqueous origin, for fire may melt and inject such
a rock as well as any other, and where there are organized re-
mains, water must of course have been the agent of deposition.
Among the facts as to the position of limestone, the following
are remarkable. At Holesborough, the limestone, 20 feet wide,
traverses a bed of sienitic granite east and west ; it is also beneath
24 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
the granite and projects upward into it in a triangular mass. In
Lyndhurst, Upper Canada, the same fact exists, and the limestone
is interspersed among the granite. - At Gouverneur there are, near
the celebrated locality of phosphate of lime, veins of limestone in--
tersecting granite, and branching off from each other; in other
cases the veins of limestone alternate with granite. There is in
Harmon, near Tales, one lead ore vein a foot wide. 'There is
also a bed of limestone with angular masses of primary rocks
projecting from it, and such instances are common. ‘The lime-
stone and granite are in general perfectly distinct, but sometimes
they are blended.
The frequent occurrence of plumbago in primary limestone is
thought to favor its igneous origin, since it is so often produced
by furnaces.
In the vicinity of limestone, quartz is rounded as if from heat,
and is converted into hornstone.
Mr. Hall is of the opinion that the limestone of this region is
not stratified, and that its veins branching especially from below,
have the same evidence of igneous origin as those of granite and
trap.
Serpentine of great beauty, some of it being verd antique and
soapstone, occurs in this county.
Specular iron is found, and the hearth stones when it is smelted
have afforded crystals of metallic titanium. ‘There is also bog ore
in abundance.
Lead has been explored at three places in this county—the
Rossie, the Black Lake, and the Wilson vein.
“The rock in which these veins are found is gneiss, interlaminated
with hornblende. The gangue is carbonate of lime, coarse and crystalline,
with druses of beautiful calcareous spar. The dip -is nearly vertical,
slightly inclining to the north, as may be seen by the diagram exhibiting
a view of the eastern termination of the vein, as it was when first ex-
posed by the removal of the rubbish concealing it. The whole width
of the gangue is four feet. The whole depth to which the mine has
been worked, is 100 feet. At the depth of 40 feet, the average width
of the vein of lead, is 2} feet; at 80 feet, 3 feet ; and at 100 feet, 3} feet ;
showing a gradual increase in width. It is to be understood, that there
is not a width of solid galena of 3, or even 2 feet; but the width at which
the lead appears in the vein of spar, is as stated at the various depths. It
is every where more or less intermixed with the gangue, even when it is
the richest. It is considered, that a vein, 1 foot in width, having the
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 25
“proportion of lead, will pay a fair profit by working. The ore is re-
duced on the ground, or not far from the mines. The quantity of lead,
manufactured since the first of January, 1837, amounts to 2,029,415
pounds. fn conducting this process, it is found that dry pine answers a
good purpose in smelting. It is a matter of some doubt whether it is as
good as coal, especially coal of the hard woods. Still, there is economy
in its employment under many circumstances.”
“On the Black Lake, at Mineral Point, is another mineral region of
some note. The principal vein, at 25 feet from the surface is 25 feet av-
erage width. This resembles very much the Rossie vein, and has turned
out some large crystals of lead, similar to those produced at the Nash vein.”
“In the other veins of galena, which have been explored to the great-
est extent, and which have yielded the most, there is a remarkable free-
dom from minerals of inferior value, or the sulphuret of zinc and iron,
especially the latter. This is a favorable circumstance, and accounts for
the great softness of the Rossie lead. This increases its value, as it is
more readily converted into white lead.
“An examination of the country, in the vicinity of Rossie, must satisfy
any one that it has the character of a mineral region, and that there is
much probability that we have but just commenced in the mining busi-
ness, and that there are many other deposits of lead to reward explora-
tions.”
The sandstone of Potsdam reposes on the primary, and appears
as the oldest member of the transition series; it is a very valuable
quarry stone for building, and for a fire stone.
The geological structure of the opposite shores of the St. Law-
rence is very similar, but the strata dip in an anticlinal direction,
so as to form the valley in which the river runs.
_~ Temperature of wells,—they afford interesting evidence of the
state of the climate.
“The following table exhibits the temperature of the wells and springs
along the junction of the transition and primitive districts.
“The temperature of two wells in Hermon:
Ist. 52 feet deep,—temperature, - - - 45° Fah.
2d. 20 n 0 - - - a
“Of two wells in De Kalb:
Temperature of the air 75°, July 20, 1837.
Ist. Temperature, - - ” - - 44° Fah.
2d. 18 feet deep—temperature, - - - A
“ Of six springs in the village of De Kalb:
Ist, - - - - = - - . 45° Fah.
2d, - a ob mS oe - - | ASP i"
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. ‘4.
26 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
Se eee Ae a - - = ° 48° Fah.
4th, shaded, . See Sa ter eae Ago.
doth, open, - 2 = - EN ae ne ae 4geo.
Gig e Ree es Seales a ee nate? yee
~ “The springs, the temperature of which I have given, all gush out in
the valley in which the village of De Kalb is situated. ‘They properly
belong in the class usually called mineral springs. Abundance of tufa,
oxide and carbonate of iron are deposited on the margin of some of the
springs. ; ;
Temperature of air 75°, July 10, 1837.
“Temperature of two wells in Fowler :
Ist, open and exposed, - - - - 50° Fah.
ee ee eae et. Nee ee ee 45° “
“Of two wells:
Pet ee et eee es
2d, 15 feet deep, Se Rage ar met wt Beet a
“Temperature of a covered well 15 feet deep, in Gouverneur, 47°, air
75°, July 16.”
The average temperature of thirteen wells was 44° F., which
is very low, but the latitude is between 44° and 45° north.
County of E'ssex.
Surface, mountainous—steep and abrupt—on one side the hills
and mountains usually perpendicular, lofty and often pointed in
peaks.
The formations are,—1l, the primary, embracing granite and
gneiss; 2, the transition ; 3, the recent tertiary (pliocene of Lyell.)
The rock here called granite is composed chiefly of feldspar and
hyperstene ; the formation being thirty miles wide. In the most
perfect specimens of the Labradorite, there are two colors, blue
and green, and bronzed in weathered pieces; the colors are very
numerous, often of surpassing beauty, and polished pieces are
truly gems. ‘The slabs of this rock would form beautiful archi-
tectural ornaments.
Tron ore exists in vast abundance in this rock; in Moriah a
tract of thirty to forty acres is underlaid by iron at the depth of a
spade, and there.are numerous beds and veins in the vicinity,
forming collectively an immense mass of iron ore. It sometimes
branches in the rock like granite veins.
Dykes.—‘ The mineral character of the dykes may be reduced to four
kinds ;—1, a well characterized greenstone, with oval cavities, which
Geological Reports on the State of New York. a7
have been filled with chlorite or carbonate of lime; 2, a compact am-
phibole, or hornblende; and 3, sienite, or a compound of feldspar and
hornblende; 4, a reddish porphyry, in which the crystals of feldspar are
small and indistinct. They pursue an easterly and westerly course, and
extend a great distance; and, indeed, I have not been able to ascertain
their extent in a single instance. This is owing partly to the wooded
state of the country.. The largest of them is at Avalanche Lake. It is
80 feet wide, and cuts through Mount McMartin, nearly in its center.
The gorge formed by the breaking up of this dyke extends entirely or
nearly to its summit. A portion of the northern face of the wall may be
seen from lake Henderson, a distance of five or six miles. This gorge
exhibits, on a large scale, the powerful effects of frost and water, in
breaking up the solid crust of the globe. ‘In it are rocks from 50 to "100
feet in length, broken up from their original beds, and carried partly
down the declivity ; they lie in confusion in all directions, and constitute
together a mass of ruins from the base of the mountain to its summit.”
In the sandstone of Essex there are ripple marks at the depth
of seventy to eighty feet in the sandstone, which, with that of
Potsdam, is a part of the granwacke formation of Europe.
The tertiary formation of Lake Champlain presents some
interesting features. Mr. Emmons inclines to the opinion that
Lake Champlain, which is ninety seven feet above the ocean and
more than six hundred feet deep, was formerly connected with
the Hudson on the one hand, and the St. Lawrence on the other.
The tertiary deposited when this connection existed, rises in Ver-
mont 200 feet above the lake, and there is reason to suppose, may
belong to the same era with the bedson the Hudson. Many good
reasons are given for this opinion, and it appears that the ocean
overflowed here, as the rocks are deeply water-worn in continu-
ous channels, particularly at West Port, towards Essex, and marine
-shells are found in the tertiary beds of Essex county and of Lake
Champlain, although absent from those on the Hudson. The
tertiary strata appear to have been brought into day light, not by
drainage, but by an uplift of the land, and there are indications
that this is one of the most recent of the tertiary formations.
Mountains of Esser County.—Mr. Wm. C. Redfield gave an
interesting account of these mountains in Vol. xxxim, p. 301 of this
Journal. The following citations from the report may, however,
be interesting.
“The group, taken as a whole, is more lofty than the White Hills of
New Hampshire, though the main summit, Mount Washington, exceeds
Mount Marcy by 767 feet; for there remain unmeasured many peaks
28 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
which will exceed or come up to 5,000 feet, besides those now given in
the table.” :
The heights of the mountains as given in this report, are sub-
stantially the same as those stated by Mr. Redfield, Vol. xxxi1, pp.
311—320 of this Journal. It appears that Mount Marcy, the high-
est mountain, is 5,467 feet above tide, or 267 feet above one mile.
Mount McIntyre is 5,183 feet, Dix 5,200, and Dial mountain
4,900 ; thus four of these peaks differ little from one mile in ele-
vation, while Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, is nearly
800 feet higher than Mount Marcy, and therefore maintains its
rank as the highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains.*
Variation of the Magnetic Needle.—This subject, not provided
for by the law of the State authorizing the survey, has attracted
the attention of Mr. Emmons and his associate, Prof. Hopkins,
of Williams College, who makes the following remarks respecting
the influence of iron, particularly in this district : .
“The extensive iron deposits, which were noticed in the report of the
last year, constitute one of the most interesting features in the northern
geological section of the State. Considering the importance of these de-
posits in an economical point of view, nothing which may serve to throw
light upon their value or extent, can be regarded as irrelevant to the pur-
poses of this survey. In the present instance, there appears to be a mode
of establishing some general conclusions, at least, to which a clue could
not be furnished by those indications on which the geologist ordinarily
relies. This is to be found in the influence of large ferruginous masses
upon the magnetic needle. Deposits, far less extensive than those which
abound in Franklin county and Essex, are known to exert a local attrac-
tion, sufficient to derange the general directive tendency of the needle,
and render it entirely useless as an index to the true meridian. Nor
would it be at all surprising, even where no local derangement might be
apparent, should the needle be found to deviate some minutes, or even de-
grees, from the true magnetic north. Such a deviation, ascertained by
experiment at different points, might furnish a valuable criterion by which
to judge of the proximity of iron, of the direction of the bed or vein, and
perhaps its extent. This might especially be expected, were much of the
iron (as is the case in this district) of that kind known under the name of
the magnetic oxide.”
“The variation of the needle in this country at present is wesé, at all
points east of a certain line, called the line of no variation. 'This line
traverses the western and southern states, and appears itself not to be sta-
tionary. East of this line, the variation is increasing; at least this is
* This rank is now claimed for the Black Mountain, in North Carolina; height
6,476 feet. See this Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 379.
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 29
proved to be the case at several points where experiments have been
made. a
“At Williams College, in 1833, the variation was 6° 15’ W.
i 1837, ie 7° 45’ W.
Showing an annual increase of 22’ 30”
“The results annexed are deduced from observations made upon the
pole star at its greatest elongation, and upon the sun at equal altitudes.
“The first station selected was at Crown Point, about two miles south
of the old fortification. As no deposits of iron are known to occur near
this point, it was imagined that the needle would be nearly free from the
influence of local attraction. The variation from the pole star, at its
greatest eastern elongation, was found at this place to be 10° 57’. Ma-
king the necessary corrections, we shall find the variation of the needle
from the meridian to be W. 8° 47’. This reduction supposes the latitude
of the station to be 43° 55’, which can vary but little from the truth. The
next observation was made at Cedar Point, near Port Henry, about six
miles N. W. from the former station. Variation at this point, 9° 287,
At Moriah Four Corners, about two miles west, 10° 10’. Proceeding
still west, to a small pond, estimated at about six miles from the Corners,
on the main road to West Moriah, the variation was found to be 7° 18’.
The next observation was made at Weatherhead’s inn, in West Moriah:
variation, % V. .
“By comparing these results, it will be perceived that the variation in-
creases from Crown Point to Moriah Four Corners, and from thence de-
creases to Weatherhead’s, estimated at about 13 miles west of the Cor-
ners; so small a number of miles occasioning a deviation of 3° 9’. It
will be perceived, also, that at East Moriah (Four Corners) the variation
is greater than is due to the general influence of the earth. We should
be led, therefore, to infer the existence of some cause of local attraction
between Weatherhead’s and the Corners, and probably in the vicinity of
the latter place, as the variation at Weatherhead’s is nearly that which is
due to the earth’s influence, on that meridian.”
Mr. E. ascended a mountain in West Moriah, nearly as high as
Mount Marcy. In the woods on their way, they found the vari-
ation to be 8° 16’ W. On the top of the mountain, the variation
was 9° 33’, indicating a disturbing influence in the region still
farther west. It is justly observed that
“The connexion of magnetism with geology, is more intimate than it
may appear to be to persons who have not informed themselves of the pro-
gress and present state of the sciences. In evidence thereof, it may be
stated, that magnetic, and electro-magnetic powers, are active in disposing
and arranging the materials composing the crust of the globe; their ac-
tion, however, being more particularly proved in the transfer of metallic
30 Gealosical Reports on the State of New. York.
matter, or in other words, the operation of these forces furnishes us with
one mode of explaining how mineral veins have been filled.”
It is obvious, that the report of Prof. Emmons includes ooo
valuable facts and sound conclusions, which cannot be fully ap-
preciated, without an attentive perusal of the entire document.
Third District—Counties of Montgomery, H erkimer, Oneida,
and Oswego.—By Larpner VaNnuxeM.
This tract stretches from Lake Ontario easterly almost to the
Hudson, nearly crossing the State. It is particularly important,
from the uplift which a part of its strata have undergone, to form -
the valley of the Mohawk.
“The series of rock which forms the third district, from the Pennsyl-
vania line to the primary elevated region which separates the waters of the
Hudson from those of the St. Lawrence, inclines at a small angle to the
southwest, giving rise to that all important practical consequence and fact,
that every change of rock going north from the Pennsylvania hme to the
limits mentioned, brings us to a lower and an older rock; and on the
contrary, every new or different rock we arrive at going south, carries us
higher in the series, or nearer to the newest, the coal of Pennsylvania,
the final member of the great consecutive series of rocks ofgour portion
of the North American continent.
“The different groups, or series, or formations, of the third district,
have not all extended continuously over the limits mentioned, but ap-
pear, like the coal of the State mentioned, to have been restricted in
their progress north within certain limits, by a well defined east and
west line.
“From the coal series to the Mohawk valley, the restriction or limit
has been confined, so far as observations have been made, to a single
series or group; but at the Mohawk valley, throughout Herkimer and
Oneida, no less than five series terminate more or less abruptly, accord-
ing to locality, giving rise to that great depression, the Mohawk valley,
or conversely, the high range or great elevation which in these two
counties, and to the south of Montgomery, rises for a thousand or more
feet above the river.
“The valley of the Mohawk, therefore, forms in all that part which
traverses the three above named counties, an all important geological
line of division. A high and an abrupt elevation, caused by the appear-
ance of the northern, edges of the rocks of which it is formed, charac-
terizes the southern side of the valley; whilst the northern side, being in
general formed of the inclined planes of the surfaces of the rocks which
pass under and support those of the great escarpment, presents nothing
in common with its southern border.
Geological Reports on the State of Ni ew York. _3l
“The rocks, whose appearance commences in the bottom of the valley,
and which extend north, are the black shale, (with its overlying green
shale and sandstone,) the Trenton limestone, the bird’s-eye, the calcifer-
ous sand-rock, and the gneiss. The arrangement being in the descend-
ing order. Thus the black shale, relatively to the four other rocks, is
invariably the upper one, whilst gneiss is as invariably the lowest.
“The black shale, the Trenton limestone, the bird’s-eye, and the calcif-
erous, in their course north from the river, at different points, disappear,
finally leaving the gneiss, the oldest rock of the district, to form with its
primary associates, the great northern elevations, and to cover the greater
_ part of Montgomery, about three fourths of Herkimer as to length, and
that part only of Oneida county which forms the town of Remsen, in-
cluding that small triangle in the town of Boonville, which lies to the
east and north of Black river.”
There is in this region the most decisive evidence of uplifts,
“by an action from E. to W. in accordance with the general
character of the great uplifts of the globe, namely, the eastern sides
being mural, whilst the western slope off, becoming more or less
horizontal. Thus, in the valley of the Mohawk, the uplifts have
been invariably protruded through the black shale, at their eastern
ends rising like a wall, whilst their western ends gradually slope
off, and are lost in the same black shale, which, when the whole
Series is complete, forms the upper parts of the uplifts, and lies by
the side of the gneiss to the east, curving from a horizontal surface
towards that rock.” Along the Mohawk, there are three great
ranges of uplifts; one of them is well known under the name of
the noses, and exhibits the whole series, from the gneiss upwards.
These uplifts have disclosed many excellent quarry stones, and.
among them there is the bird’s marble, so called from the fucoi-
des or sea weed which it contains, being in a vertical position,
while in all the other rocks it is disposed parallel to the layers.
The calciferous sand-rock, consisting of sand and lime, often
contains siliceous concretions, and among them are rock crystals
containing anthracite, the latter derived probably from the fucoi-
des or sea weeds, the only common fossil of this rock.
Mr. Vanuxem supposes, that thermal waters have affected the
separation of the coal. ‘These waters he believes to have had
their origin in the calciferous rock, and he refers to it the ther-
mal waters of North Carolina, Virginia, the Hoosick, and the Ar-
kansas.
32 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
In Herkimer County, there are beautiful rock crystals at Mid-
dleville; they are numerous, and, except when they contain some
foreign aubcemee. as anthracite, are very perfect both in form and
transparency.
In certain shales and sandstones, there are in tits county rich
beds of iron ore, usually red and oolitic ; there are in different situ-
ations, one to two or three beds of the iron ore, and it appears to
have been deposited as an ore, when it met with an impervious
stratum ; and when the latter was pervious, the 1 iron was absorbed
and ea the rock. |
In a sandstone in the town of Starke, gypsum was discovered
in mining for silver ; this gypsum is here white, both before and
after calcination.
The water limestone series occurs in thin layers, rarely more
than 2 or 3 inches thick, of a uniform drab, and effervescing with
acids.
“In the limestone at the Falls of Niagara, and of numerous other pla-
ces, and in some of the water limes below that limestone, there is at the
separation of the layers a singular columnar appearance, presenting itself
at right angles to the layers, extending unequally as to length, bearing no
small resemblance to the sutures of the skull. When examined they show
the impress of a parallel fibrous or striated appearance, which is almost
invariably covered with minute scales of coaly matter. In vain I sought
last year for the cause of this common appearance. In examining the
upper layers of the water lime in Herkimer, the difficulty was solved:
specimens were discovered with the strie, and with carbonate of lime in
minute fibres as to thickness, but not in length, clearly proving that the
phenomena in question were caused by the crystallization of a saline sub-
stance in fibrous crystals at the joints of the rock, analogous to those beau-
tiful productions which all are familiar with, namely, the congelation or
crystallization of water in loose and spongy soils. This explanation meets
its confirmation in a specimen recently examined, which I brought last
year from the Falls of Niagara, in which the striated appearance is finely
exhibited, the specimen being exceeding fresh and unaltered; on the top
of the black or carbonaceous coating there are two small groups of fibrous
sulphate of magnesia, which the force of crystallization has ejected since
being in the cabinet, to the height of a quarter of an inch, and for want
of a support the ends coil over, as we find in the black part of the banks
of our ditches and other low grounds.
“From finding last year the sulphate of magnesia with common salt as
an efflorescence, below the upper falls at Rochester, and knowing that
Geoiogical Reports on the State of New York. 33
the fibrous form is the most common crystalline appearance of Epsom
salts, I am disposed to believe that this mineral is the parent of the phe-
homenon in question, the cause of which has been no small perplexity to
others as well as to myself.
“The carbon which invests the striz was a subsequent action, probably
a deposition from the same water which dissolved the ea analogous
facts being familiar to chemists.”
“ Upper limestone.—The last of the series but one of the rocks of Her-
kimer county, is the upper limestone, embracing the cornitiferous, the
geodiferous and the calciferous masses of Prof. Eaton; distinctions highly
characteristic to the western part of New York, but of no application in
this ; the fossils, relative position and general composition, being the pri-
mary characters. In the abundance and great variety of lapideous fossils,
such as sea shells, corallines and crinoidea, we are presented with a char-
acter which strongly contrasts with the water limestone, the red shale, or
any of the lower masses, with the exception of the Trenton limestone and
- the shales of Salmon river. In this limestone there is a more determinate
arrangement of the different fossils, a creation as it were by families, than
is to be found in any of the preceding rocks. ‘Thus different species oc-
cupy different layers, each in countless myriads, and extending over a
considerable extent of country. A whole race, seeming to be limited to a
few contiguous layers, disappearing with those lavers; to these other fos-
sils succeeded, they in their turn giving place to a new creation, and for
many repetitions during the deposition of this rock.”
At Trenton Falls the limestone is upwards of one hundred feet
thick ; the name, Trenton limestone, is in various places applied
to the dark, almost compact limestone, and to the light gray or
sparry, the latter made up of the remains of crinoidea, besides
other fossils. 'The Trenton limestone is capable of furnishing
rare and beautiful black marbles, adorned with the remains of ex-
tinct races of animals. The sandstone, called in Eaton’s survey
of the Erie canal saliferous rocks and gray band, is “ thickly cov-
ered with fucoides, successive growths of these plants seeming to
have been destroyed by the successive irruptions. of mud, giving
rise to the green shale that covers them.”
The red tron ore appears abundantly in Oneida county, in the
above named rock, and is mined in many places; its structure is
oolitic, or like wheat grains, or elongated sugar plums, frequently
containing the joints or disks of the encrinite, fragments of 'Tri-
merus, and more rarely Orthis. The beds of this ore are from
twelve to twenty inches thick.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 5
34 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
Caleareous tufa is extremely common in these a as are
immense series of water limestones.
Lime is very abundant in this region, and will supply to its
agriculture that indispensable ingredient of a fertile soil without
which cultivation cannot be permanent. The rocks of this dis-
trict are gneiss at the bottom, much water-worn ; calciferous rock,
reposing unconformably on the gneiss but much posterior in geo-
logical age, many rocks formed elsewhere between, being absent
here.
Bird's-eye limestone, its beauty being due to the vertical stems
of the Fucoides demisus. Trenton limestone, its fossils are very
numerous; in this are found the well known trilobites, Calymene,
Isotelus, &c. Black shale forms the floor through which the
other rocks have been thrust ; abounds in fucoides, &c.; contains
no fragment of other rocks. Green shale and its sandstones.
The upper Jayers abound with fossils, as Pterinea carinata, modi-
olario, pholadio, Productus planulata, &c. &e.
Millstone grit, formed of pebbles of glossy quartz ; water-worn.
Protean group, two hundred feet thick; shales and sandstones of
many colors, abound in fucoides, crustacea, &c. Red shale, no
fossils. . Water lime, no fossils; drab color; thin layers. This
rock, with the limestones above it, has furnished all the calcare-
ous tufa of Oneida and Herkimer. Upper limestone forms the
elevated plain south of the Mohawk; has many fossils, and
among them are trilobites. White sandstone.
Pyritiferous rock.—This rock is remarkably subservient. to
man’s primary physical wants in agriculture and building, and to
his intellectual in geological science, while there is little incentive
to mining.
It is probable that these formations have arisen from similar
causes with their supposed European equivalents, soon to be illus-
trated by Mr. Murchison’s great work on Wales.
Fourth District, comprising eleven or twelve counties lying on
Lake Erie, southern shore, east of Niagara, west of Cayuga
and north of the southern tier of counties ; o James Haut.
This district was principally surveyed by Mr. Conrad and Mr.
Vanuxem ; but some notices may be added respecting its scien-
tific and economical geology.
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 35
The rocks are principally limestones, shales, and sandstones.
There are no anticlinal or synclinal lines, no appearances of a
disturbing force in the line of bearing, the outcrop and elevation
being very uniform. The soil is eminently calcareous and fitted.
for wheat; there is great facility of transportation ; much excel-
lent building stone, and a stratum of rich iron ore for twenty or
thirty miles.
On the question of coal or no coal, Mr. Hall remarks:
“To those unacquainted with the true character of the coal formation
and the relative position of these rocks, there are, indeed, some appear-
ances that would indicate the presence of coal. Bituminous matter, or
petroleum, is present in all, except the lowest rocks of the district,* and
when we come to the shales above the mountain limestone, thin seams
and disseminated particles of highly bituminous coal are of frequent oc-
currence. The escape of inflammable gas, and the odor of bitumen
which accompany most of the rocks, are considered as evidences of coal
at no great depth below the surface, and under-this erroneous impression
the diggings or borings for coal have been undertaken. Although there
is no necessary connection between coal and petroleum, yet the presence
of this substance and the escape of inflammable gas from so many points
in the different rocks is truly remarkable, when we consider that these
rocks are so far below the slates and sandstones of the coal formation. It
would appear that the causes which produced the bituminous character
of the coal of Western Pennsylvania, were in operation at the time the
lower rocks were deposited.
“Whatever cause we please to assign for the production of this bitu-
minous matter, we shall readily perceive that it is not essentially depend-
ent upon coal, and that its presence in that mineral is rather accidental
than otherwise. The presence or absence of bituminous matter as char-
acterizing different ages or formations of coal, is worthy of little reliance.
We here find rocks of great thickness and extent, containing so much
bituminous matter as to render its presence observable on percussion ; ~
and cavities are often found filled with petroleum. Some of the shales
contain so much of this substance that they will ignite; and yet all the
fossil vegetables are a few species of Fucoides, the prevailing fossils in all
these rocks being marine Testacea. ‘The same rocks, too, that in our
district are bituminous, in the eastern part of the State are entirely desti-
tute of this substance: and in the latter place bear the same relation to
* The red marl and sandstone I have not found to be bituminous, though in-
flammable gas (carburetted hydrogen) issues from the rocks of this formation in
many places along the Erie canal, between Middleport and Gasport, Niagara
county. :
36 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
the anthracite that the former do to the bituminous coal of Pennsylvania.
I assert this from having carefully observed all the rocks, from the car-
boniferous or mountain limestone of the Helderbergh, (not bituminous,)
to the anthracite coal mines of Carbondale, Wilkesbarre, Plymouth, ac.
Pa.; and from the same limestone of Black Rock, (highly bituminous,)
tracing its connection with the coal of the northern counties of Pennsy!-
vania. The fossil vegetables of the two coals are, many of them, identi-
cal, and if they were not it would be no argument in favor of different
ages, for in the different or successive beds of anthracite, in the same
neighborhood, we almost always find different species of ferns and other
fossil plants.
“In general, each bed of coal is characterized by some species of fern,
which prevails in that one more abundantly than in any other. I feel
confident that further examinations will prove the identity of the bitumin-
ous and anthracite coals, which, by some geologists, have been considered
as distinct formations.’’* 3
_ Mr. Hall regards these rocks as passing below the proper coal
formation of Pennsylvania; fine sections are presented along the
Genesee and other rivers, so as to expose the stratification in ver-
tical walls, from two hundred to three hundred and fifty feet high.
These rocks are regarded as being above the Silurian system of
Mr. Murchison, (transition, ) and as belonging to the old red sand-
stone and carboniferous groups, and therefore below the coal, four
thousand feet, according to the section which has been delineated.
While we cannot but admit the soundness of the general con-
clusions of the New York geologists, we have had occasion to ob-
serve during several visits to Alleghany county, on the borders of
Pennsylvania, the still unimpaired conviction on the minds of the
most intelligent inhabitants, that coal exists along that line, both
in the state of New York and in that of Pennsylvania; but we
have never had opportunity to visit the places where on the most
credible testimony it is said to exist. :
The falls of the Genesee river at Carthage, below Rochester,
are excavated in sandstone, limestone, and. shales, the latter
abounding in beautiful fossils. The most remarkable falls are at
Portage, forty miles above, where in three leaps of sixty six, one
hundred and ten, and ninety six feet, the river descends two
* Prof Eaton, in his geological text book, published in 1832, suggested that the
anthracite and bituminous coals were of the same age, but this appears to have
been overlooked by those who have examined this formation.
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 37
hundred and seventy two feet within a mile or two. The banks
are vertical, presenting the most beautiful sections, and being for-
est clad, principally with evergreens, the scenery is in a high
degree grand and picturesque; at the deepest place the perpen-
dicular banks are three hundred and fifty one feet high.
Proofs of marine currents—Near Lockport a sandstone “is quarried
for flagging stones; it divides into layers of from half an inch to four
inches thick. The Lingula are discovered at this quarry, on the surface
of different layers, from two to five feet below the top of the stratum. As
the layers are removed, these Lingula present a singular appearance, hav-
ing their mouths all arranged in the same direction, and appear to be dis-
posed, at regular intervals, over a great extent of surface. ‘The direction
of the mouth is to the S. E. by S., and the beaks in the opposite direction,
or N..W. by N. There is a little ridge of stone extending from the beak,
and gradually sloping down to the regular surface of the rock, like a de-
posit of sand, before some obstacle in a current. On each side of the
mouth, or widest part of the shell, there is a depression, evidently pro-
duced by the current, and corresponding precisely with what we observe
where a current of water meets an obstacle, as it would in this case, in
the Lingula attached to the sandy bottom. Their mouths were, doubt-
less, in the direction from which the current came, for the purpose of ob-
taining food. It is impossible to avoid the conclusion, that the surface of
each of these layers was once the original surface of the sandy bottom of
an ocean, covered with living shells, over which a gentle current flowed.
There appears to have been a considerable interval between the deposi-
tion of one stratum and the next, for we find several successive layers
with the Lingula arranged in this manner; and I have never seen them
imbedded in the rock, or in any position than the one described.
“The direction of the current is pointed out by the ridges extending
from the beaks of the shells, and we thus have evidence of its course in
the sea, from which this rock was deposited, as well and as certain as of
the diluvial current from the scratches on the surface rocks, or of a recent
current from its action on a soft and yielding bed of sand or clay.”
In a stratum of iron ore which appears at various places be-
tween Little Falls and Niagara, the ore is in some places composed
of fragments of encrinital columns and of corallines, with Producta
catenipora, &c., all of marine origin.
Hydraulic cement.—Myr. Hall remarks that there is no rock to
which the term hydraulic cement is exclusively applicable; the
upper strata of the gypseous formations are used for this purpose,
and also the silico-argillaceous portions of many limestones; he
38 § Geological Reports on the State of New York.
adds, that substances are in various places used as cement which
are inferior to common mortar; and moreover, that one million
of dollars have been lost in the construction of the Erie canal
from the choice of bad materials.
The geodiferous limestone of Prof. Eaton “is well characterized at
Lockport and at Niagara falls: farther east it loses the geodiferous char-
acter, and diminishes in thickness. The rock is regularly stratified,
compact, of a gray, bluish gray or brownish gray color. It is sufficiently
distinguished from all other limestones by its finely granular texture, pre-
senting on fracture numerous shining points: the lustre is vitreous, or
resinous. The resinous lustre is produced by bitumen, which colors the
small crystalline lamine.- The most striking feature of this rock, in the -
localities referred to, is the numerous cavities, or geodes, many of them
filled with anhydrous gypsum, or lined with crystallized limestone or fluor
_ spar. The beautiful specimens of dog-tooth and rhomb spar, with sul-
phate of strontian and selenite from Lockport and Niagara falls, are from
cavities in this rock. Blende also occurs in the cavities with the minerals
mentioned. Many of these cavities present some partially decayed or-
ganic body. In some places the structure of the rock is very irregular,
presenting curved, contorted and concentric lamine, as if the mass had
been disturbed when partially indurated. The whole of this rock is bitu-
minous, particularly the upper. portions; the odor is perceived on per-
cussion.
“At the Niagara falls there are about eighty feet of this rock disclo-
sed; the lower portions are gray, becoming darker, and containing more
and larger geodes as we ascend. At the top of the falls it is of a brownish
gray color and resinous lustre, containing blende disseminated and in
geodes. Above this, there is a thickness of about one hundred feet,
which is less geodiferous, and inclining to a eae color.”
Gypsum in the gypseous marls and slates.—‘‘ The gypsum in the lower
part of the formation, is limited to thin seams or nodules, but after the
commencement of the slaty limestones, it is found in large masses, or beds,
of a few feet thickness, and limited extent. ‘These masses are of a flat-
tened spherical form, and are from a few pounds to fifty tons weight, com-
monly from five to twenty tons. The existence of these beds of gypsum
is indicated by appearances of the surface, which above the mass is raised
into a knoll or hillock. Sometimes the surface, to a considerable extent,
is covered with these hillocks, which resemble small mounds of earth.
When the soil is removed from one of these elevations, a corresponding
convex surface is presented by the limestone beneath, which is ctacked
and broken in every direction, as if by some elevating force. On remo-
ving the stone, further evidence of such force is perceived. The layers
ae
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 39
of limestone dip upon every side of the mass of gypsum, and as this mass
thins off at its edges, the strata of limestone meet those below and assume
their original, nearly horizontal position. From such appearances we
cannot doubt but the gypsum has been formed since the surrounding rock
became indurated ; and that the production of these masses has disturbed
the overlying strata. The decomposition of large quantities of iron py-
rites might, perhaps, explain the formation of gypsum, by a decomposition
of the limestone, but there is very little pyrites now remaining in the rock.
The masses of gypsum are sometimes stained on their edge with iron, and
bog ore is of frequent occurrence in the neighborhood. Hydro-sulphur-
etted springs are common, and the water of some wells is of similar char-
acter. ‘The water of some of these springs corrodes iron rapidly. In the
town of Byron, Genesee county, there is a spring arising from this forma-
tion, containing free sulphuric acid.
“Immediately surrounding each mass of gypsum we find layers of
loamy clay, called ashes by the workmen. ‘This ashes contains dissemi-
nated particles, and sometimes scarcely aggregated, friable masses of gyp-
sum. We have in this “ashes” precisely what would remain of the argil-
laceous limestone, should we abstract the calcareous matter by sulphuric
acid, or any other process.
“Tt is said by the inhabitants, that the small elevations indicating the
presence of gypsum are not observed till after the country has been cleared
of its forests, or in places where there have never been trees growing.
These changes in the contour of the surface are observable from one year
to another. In some places a mass of gypsum has formed under a build-
ing, altering the level of its foundation and disturbing its equilibrium.
Points on the surface which are now but slight elevations, will in a few
years become more elevated.”
Boulders and diluvial scractches, §c.—Gravel, sand, pebbles,
and boulders, are strewed more or less over the country.
“These boulders consist of the various granites and gneiss, together
with those of the sandstone from below, and of the limestone from above.
Besides this unequivocal evidence we have other, and if possible, more
positive proof, in the furrowed and polished surface of the limestone; which
is seen wherever the rock is exposed, from the Genesee to the Niagara
river. ‘The surface of this rock bears palpable evidence of the wearing
action produced by running water, carrying with it heavy materials of
sufficient hardness to wear away, and in some instances, actually to polish
the surface of the rock over which it passed. Where the rock is exposed
we find the surface has been worn, in some instances, till it is perfectly
smooth, and in others the original inequalities are but partially obliterated.
We often observe that the abrupt offsets from one thin stratum to another,
have been worn down to a gradual slope. In some places slight scratches
=
40 Geological Reports on the State of New York:
only are perceived, while in others they are numerous and deep, often ex-
tending for several feet, and in one case a continuous furrow was observed
one hundred feet in length. The general direction of these scratches is
N. N. E. and 8. S. W.; sometimes there are slight variations from this
course. The appearance of the scratches often indicates that they were
produced by two boulders coming in contact, when the lighter one was
moved out of its course, producing a furrow in the direction of the force
applied. “
““ Where the soil is removed from the polished and furrowed rock, we
find resting upon it, in many places, an irregular deposit of pebbles and
boulders, some of the latter of large size. These are frequently cemented
by a gravel or hard pan, with infiltrated carbonate of lime. Above this
stratum we have clay, sand, and loam, with little or no coarse materials.
These boulders are of various granites, limestone from the formation on
which they rest and from the south, and siliceous sandstone from the
north. These materials all attest the action of violent currents, and not
of a single and uniform current, but of opposite or conflicting ones. The
presence, in the same locality, of boulders from the north, with those from
the south, proves that opposite forces have prevailed either at the same or
at different periods.
“The extent of these diluvial formations, with the great numbers of
erratic blocks, and the evidence of long continued wearing action on the
limestone, proves that the force was not sudden and violent, but contin-
ued for an indefinite period. If then, we admit the presence of an ocean
covering the continent or a part of it, we should also admit the condition
of an ocean as we find it at the present time.”
“ Lake Ridge—Ridge Roads.—One of the most remarkable features
of the surface of the Fourth District is the ‘Lake Ridge, which is a
travelled highway from Sodus, in Wayne county, with some slight inter-
ruptions, to the Niagara river. West of the Niagara river, we find a con-
tinuance of this ridge, and it probably passes around the head of Lake
Ontario. Throughout the greater part of this distance, the ridge is well
defined, being a slight but actual elevation above the general surface of
the country. In some places, the descent is abrupt on either side of the
ridge, but in general, it is gradual. The elevation of this ridge above
Lake Ontario is, in Niagara county, about one hundred and sixty feet,
thouch there are variations of a few feet. The course of the road along
the ridge should not be taken as a guide for its elevation, as in some cases
the road passes over the point of a hill which projected into the ancient
lake, and at which place the ridge is not.so well defined. In other cases,
the ridge has been partially removed by streams, as a beach now is form-
ing along the lake shore. We often find this ridge divided into three or
four parallel ones, which extend for a few rods and then unite in one.
Geological Reports on the State of New York. Al
The elevation of the country on the north is exceedingly uniform, and
from the foot of the ridge there is a gentle, almost imperceptible descent,
to the lake shore. North of the ridge there are no valleys but such as
have been worn by the present streams. The country on the south is
not so uniform. In many places we find transverse ridges, jutting upon
and terminating at the lake ridge. The road in some places is at the
termination of such a transverse ridge, and at other times over the top
of it.
“The course of this ridge is nearly parallel to the lake shore, and from
four to eight miles distant. The width of the ridge at the base is from
four to eight rods, narrrowing to the top, which is often not more than
two rods wide. In many places it much exceeds this width.
“Tt is the prevailing opinion that this ridge has been the shore of Lake
Ontario, at a period when it had a greater elevation than at present.
There is indeed sufficient proof of this fact in every appearance of the
ridge, its materials, and in the surface of the country on the north and
south of it. ‘The soil on either side of the ridge is generally a clayey
loam, while the surface of the ridge is of sand or fine gravel. The
whole of the ridge is superficial, being composed of sand, gravel and
pebbles; the latter of sandstone, or other siliceous rock. All the mate-
rials are similar to those forming the beaches along the present lake shore.
There is no connexion between the ridge and the rock below, except that
the rock supports the ridge without altering its form or course. The ele-
vation of Lake Ontario to the level of this ridge furnishes the only plau-
sible means by which we can explain its present appearances; and how-
ever reluctant we may be to admit such a condition, we are forced to do
so from the abundant evidence furnished.
“The uneven country on the south side of the ridge is, in many places,
strongly contrasted with the uniform elevation and gentle slope on the
north. The absence of inequalities in the surface on the north of the
ridge, and at the same time the presence of boulders and pebbles, show-
ing the action of currents, can be explained only by supposing some gen-
tle force, like the lake waters, to have reduced the ridges and hills, and
have distributed the materials equally over the surface.
“ After the subsidence of the ancient lake, the accumulation of water
south of the ridge, forced the barrier, and has worn itself a channel to the
lake shore. In pursuing these water courses, we find a uniformly narrow
channel till we approach the ridge from the south, when there is a sudden
expansion, which, after passing the ridge, assumes a narrow channel till
near the present lake shore, when it again expands. We sometimes find
extensive swamps, limited on the north by this ridge; in some of them
there has not been a sufficient accumulation of water to force a passage
through the ridge, and artificial outlets have been made for drainage. By
this process, large tracts of valuable land are being reclaimed.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1—Jan.—April, 1839. 6
42 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
“Wherever wells have been dug, or excavations made in this ridge,
fragments of decayed wood, bark, and often branches and trunks of trees,
are found deeply imbedded in the soil. Shells of the Unio, é&c. are also
said to have been found, but I have not been so fortunate as to obtain a
specimen. In one excavation I obtained fragments of bark, wood, and
part of a branch, the latter of which was partially mineralized, present-
ing the appearance of charcoal, but harder, very brittle, and with a shi-
ning luster. ‘These specimens were obtained from about six feet below
the surface, where there appeared a thin stratum of fragments of wood,
bark, &c. as if it might have been accumulated on the surface of still
water, and afterwards covered with sand and gravel.
“Tt has been urged as an objection, that the ridge slopes on both sides ;
but this, so far from being an objection, is a proof that it was an ancient
shore. If we examine the shore of a lake or sea where the inland coun-
try is not far above the level of the water, we find there is always a ridge
accumulated. This is a natural effect from the action of the waves. and
of ice, pressing the loose materials onward till they are raised into a ridge,
which is still increased by the wind blowing the fine sand upon it, which
is deposited along the base.
“The ridge furnishes, perhaps, the best natural road in the country,
being from its nature at all times in good condition for travelling; and at
such seasons as the other roads are almost impassable, this one is scarcely
affected. ‘The surface is commonly of fine gravel or sand, with coarser
materials below, which allows the water to be absorbed and pass off be-
neath. Its convex surface and slope on either side, also prevents any ac-
cumulation of water.”
“ According to estimates made upon streams running from the ridge
to Lake Ontario, its height above the lake appears to exceed 200 feet ;
but upon this point we are not prepared at present to give positive infor-
mation.”
Outlet of small lakes into Lake Ontario.—A glance at a map
of the State, shows, in the western district, a large number of
beautiful lakes, several of them long and narrow. It is remark-
able that all of them, fifteen in number, become confluent in the
Oswego river, which discharges through this river into Lake
Ontario. F
Hardening of Iron.—“ When casting plough irons, they run them
upon a hardener, (which is a piece of cold iron,) so that for two inches
or so on the edge, which is liable to wear, the castings are hardened like
steel. The effect is, to change the usual granular texture Of the casting
into one that is lamellar, like bismuth. This difference is perceptible,
and the line of demarkation is also very evident when the casting is
broken.”
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 43
Prejudice against pure Gypsum.— A considerable proportion of the
gypsum at Heth’s quarry is transparent, and consists of leaves or lamine.
This variety also occurs at the plaster beds in the neighboring counties,
associated and mixed with the granular, compact, or slaty gypsum, and
is generally known by the local name of Isinglass Plaster. A strange
prejudice prevails with regard to this variety, which in some places also
extends to the fibrous gypsum. It is considered an impurity, and to be
injurious as a manure, and consequently those masses which contain it
are excluded and thrown aside. This opinion is entirely erroneous, for
the transparent and fibrous varieties are a purer article than the opake,
granular or compact forms of gypsum, and their transparency is occa-
sioned merely by their crystalline structure. Nearly one half of the
Neva Scotia plaster consists of the transparent, lamellar, and fibrous va-
rieties, which have been excluded at these quarries as an impure article.”
Shore of Lake Ontario and Height of the Water—‘“ The action of
the waves, together with the ice, have raised beaches, which in many
places protect the land from inundation during high winds. In the east-
ern part of the county, the banks are abrupt, consisting of gravel, sand,
and clay. These banks are gradually worn away by the waves, and the
materials carried to points where the banks are low. By this wearing
action, the lake encroaches upon the land in some places, while the
land is gaining upon the lake in others. In the course of a year, sev-
eral feet of these banks are abraded by the waves. During some years,
the lake is higher than in others, so that the wearing action is not uni-
form.”
“ For the last two years the lake has been higher than for many years
before; this is evidenced by the waves undermining the banks which had
become overgrown with trees and shrubs. . There is a tradition of a pe-
riodical rise of the lake, but it is not verified by observation. Although
this rising of the lake is not periodical, it does occur at intervals, and at
such times the beaches and sand bars are removed, to be deposited in
other places, and to fill up the mouths of streams. It therefore becomes
a matter of importance to protect the shores from such effects, and from
the loss of land thus sustained. To do this, trees and shrubs should be
permitted to grow on the banks, and shrubs with strong roots might be
planted to effect the same object.”
The waters of all the great lakes have been unusually high,
for two or three years past—in some places six to seven feet, and
extensive inundations of valuable lands, and of houses, and other
buildings have been the consequence.
At Buffaloon Lake Erie, when in September last, we had oc-
casion there to observe the fact, the waters had begun to subside,
and this is understood to be generally the case. ‘The best reason
AA Geological Reports on the State of New York.
which we have heard assigned for the occasional rise of the
waters, is the increase of the tributaries, by abundant rains in
cold and wet seasons, when also there is little evaporation. Winds
make temporary accumulations which may occur at any time,
but we believe there is nothing to support the popular impression
of a regular or periodical rise of the waters of the lakes.
Boulders of primary rocks are frequently mixed with those of
the vicinity. Feldspathic rocks abound, and there are rounded
masses of feldspar eight to ten feet in diameter, which are in
some places so abundant as to be broken up for building materials.
Waters.—They are all hard, containing muriate of lime.
Calcareous Tufa, is very abundant, and is often found involv-
ing great numbers of recent shells. Shell marl is found contain-
ing Cyclas, Lymnea, Planorbis, with other species of fresh-water
molluscs. There is in Livingston and Monroe counties, a de-
posit of this nature, three miles long, and half a mile to a
mile in breadth; it is supposed to contain 125,452,800 cubic feet,
or 2,309,056 loads. :
Gypsum is found in various places in this region, and is very
beneficial on grass lands, as well as for wheat and Indian corn ;
one bushel to the acre is generally considered as a sufficient
quantity for grass.
The usual remark, that vegetation is promoted by plaster, in
consequence of its attracting moisture from the air, appears to be
unfounded; it has very little affinity for water, and probably
precipitates the vapor only, as stony bodies generally do, and the
trifling quantity thus obtained, could hardly bring with it much car-
bonic acid for the food of plants. Ground plaster is sold for three
dollars a ton.
Hydraulic Cement.—“ Much of the cement now made is of very infe-
rior quality, and losses are constantly sustained from its use. This sub-
ject is one which requires strict and constant investigation, and the State
of New York would save large sums in the construction of her public
works by procuring a cement of good quality.
“A cement required to withstand the action of freezing water, should
contain little argillaceous matter. Clay, in any form, absorbs water abun-
dantly, and if frozen while containing water, the cohesion of the parti-
cles is destroyed. By this process, every time it is frozen, a portion of
the surface at least is removed, and finally the whole mass. The chem-
ical composition of this rock is so variable in different localities, and
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 45
indifferent parts of the same locality, that this test cannot always be
satisfactory. The chemical composition of a rock, producing good ce-
ment, should be ascertained, and similar external characters may after-
wards be relied on.
“A siliceous limestone, with a little iron or manganese in its compo-
sition, appears best adapted for hydraulic cement. Limestone of this
character can be found at intervals in either of the formations mentioned ;
but experience is necessary to choose the proper portions, and some local-
ities afford an article far superior to others.
“The formations from which this limestone has been selected, extend
across Monroe county from east to west; the one through the towns of
Penfield, Brighton, Gates, Ogden, and Sweden; the other through Men-
den, Rush, and Wheatland. At one locality in Ogden, this limestone
has been burned and used for cement in the locks on the Erie canal, and
is said to have been of good quality. ‘The same kind of stone may be
found at the upper falls on the Genesee, at Rochester. ‘The best mate-
rial of the kind, is on the land of Mr. Miller, in Penfield. The strata
are from two to four inches thick, compact and siliceous. The loca-
tion is near Rochester, and if it prove good and abundant, will be val-
uable.”
“Hydraulic cement can be obtained within five miles of the canal
throughout the whole extent of the fourth district. The same rocks
which furnish the article at Onondaga, continue to the Niagara river,
and a few experiments will prove that fifty or one hundred localities
can be found to afford good cement.” f
Building Stones.—There are many places in this region where
excellent building stone is obtained, but there is much also that
is-bad, as appears by the following statement, the truth of which
we have had occasion to observe.
“The red sandstone and the indurated marl of the same formation
have been used for building stone, but experience has proved what a
knowledge of their composition would have foretold, viz. that in Monroe
county, they are almost entirely unfit for any useful purpose whatever.
Many apparently compact blocks of this rock will, in the course of a few
weeks, if exposed, crumble into a loose mass. Where used in buildings,
it has in some cases been little affected by the weather, but in most, it
has been rapidly destroyed. ‘The aqueduct at Rochester, constructed of
this stone, has been for years in a dilapidated state, and will soon be en-
tirely unfit for use. The great objection to the stone, is the presence of
a large proportion of aluminous matter, absorbing water and destroying
the stone by the same process that the hydraulic cement is removed from
the walls of locks. The stone used for the aqueduct now being con-
structed, is far superior to the sandstone, but still unfit for the purpose.
A6 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
The compact portions are durable, but there are seams of argillaceous
matter, some of them scarcely perceptible, and others where this matter.
has been removed; all of these will absorb water, which, by expansion
in freezing, will finally split the stone. The effect of freezing water on
this stone, is illustrated in many of the locks in the vicinity of Syracuse,
where every stone in which the seam occurs is split. This objection is
a very serious one, and when a work of the magnitude of the Roches-
ter aqueduct is to be constructed, more care should be observed in se-
lecting the material.”
Cavity containing Water.—“ At Barre, in digging a well, rock occur-
red at 24 feet; upon passing into the rock 17 feet, a cavity was found,
from which a copious supply of water issued, rose to the surface, and is
permanent.”
Fucoides and Ripple Marks.—‘‘'The surface of the layers at some
points, as at Medina, is covered with fossil stems of vegetables, chiefly
of the family of Fucoides. The most common species is the Fucoides
Harlani, (Conrad,) in the form of stems which branch and cross each
other, and which possess transverse strie, and other evidences of an or-
ganic nature. Another very pretty Fucoides occurs at the same locality,
apparently consisting of short thick leaves, resembling a Cactus, and with
no apparent stems. The above are accompanied by other species of an
irregular form. ‘The new genus instituted by Mr. Conrad, Dictuolites
Beckii, occurs in the uppermost layers, and has not yet been seen at
any depth in the sandstone. It occurs in the upper layers one mile
south of Holley. About forty feet deep in the sandstone occur one or
two layers of about two feet in thickness, containing a new species of
Lingula, the L. cuneata, associated with fresh-water shells, viz. Unio
primigenius, Cyclostoma pervetusta, and Planorbis trilobatus, as descri-
bed by Mr. Conrad. Associated with the above shells, is a species of
Cytherina, very much resembling that which occurs in the bituminous
limestone of Wayne county.
“ At Medina can be seen, in great perfection, those appearances which
-have been called ripple marks. They consist of parallel furrows, or de-
pressions on the surface of the layers, resembling exactly the tide or rip-
ple marks in the fine sand on the shores of rivers. ‘They are slightly
waved, or serpentine, and sometimes run into each other. Near the cul-
vert at Medina, these furrows appear on both sides of the canal, without
any interruption, for about one hundred yards. They exist on the upper
surface of the upper layer of the sandstone, which is here gray, and very
siliceous, and contains the Dictuolites, or net-like Fucoides, which some-
times continue across the furrows, as if they had been inflexible. These
furrows are on several of the top layers, and occasionally we observed
the marks, not on the upper surface, but having a small portion of rock
above them.”
Veen) ee
Geological Reports on the State of New York. © AV
“The floor of a mill, or factory, immediately at the falls of Oak Orchard
creek, Medina, consists of a thick gray layer of sandstone, about forty
feet deep in the rock. ‘This layer presents an extensive surface, covered
with large and remarkably distinct furrows. Direction east 20° north.
“Cn the shore of Lake Ontario, north of Yates’ center, and ten miles
from Medina, the sandstone is red and variegated, and contains similar
marks or furrows, whose direction is north and south, and also north 20°
east. These layers are at a depth of more than five hundred feet in the
sandstone.
“Similar appearances are presented at Holley, on a layer of sandstone,
which also contained an individual of the Fucoides Harlani, which had
evidently bent and followed the irregularities. Direction of the furrows
not ascertained.
“T have examined similar furrowed surfaces, or water-worn surfaces,
of the graywacke at Saugerties, on the Hudson river; they are common
in the shales and sandstones of the Catskill mountain; and I have also
observed them on layers of a dark, compact limestone, which is quarried
at Glasco, three miles west of Saugerties.”
“* Limestone.—Thin layers of limestone are extracted from the bed of
Oak Orchard creek, between Medina and Shelby, and used at the former
place for flagging. They appear to be of a siliceous character, occur in
large slabs, and the surfaces are frequently covered with fossil vegetables
of the family of Fucoides; they strongly resemble the petrified stems of
vegetables.”
In Niagara county, “in descending the terrace on the north, we find
hills of diluvial matter, extending from the top and sloping gradually off
to the surface below. Where the northern extremities of the hills have
been excavated, we find large rounded masses of limestone and shale,
from the rocks south, with masses of granite. These are all mixed to-
gether in confusion; and the masses of limestone are worn and scratched,
as having been tumbled along with blocks of harder rock. From these
appearances, and the form of the hills, it is very evident that a current of
water flowed from the south. But again, on the summit of this terrace,
we find masses of sandstone from the north, often wedged into fissures of
the limestone, as if driven there by violent force. Although traces of op-
posing currents are not so apparent on the surface, their effects are more
evident on the rock beneath. In every case where I examined the lime-
stone in this county, it was worn and scratched from diluvial action. This
appears to have been effected by a force from the south, but in some places
there is undeniable evidence that a powerful force was exerted from a
northern direction. The following facts corroborate this opinion. We
often find fissures in the limestone having an east and west direction; the
rock forming the southern edge of this fissure is broken up in a manner
A8 Geological Reports on the State of New York.
that proves a force applied on the northern side, for a force in any other
direction could not produce the same result.”
The pebbles on the lake shore are faithful representatives of the
rocks of this region, and the siliceous limestone especially, con-
tains corallines, orthocere, bivalves, &c.
Boulders are numerous all along the surface of the countries
contiguous to the lakes, but they are deposited in different pro-
portion in different places.
“ Boulders of granite, and other rocks, are scattered over the northern
part of the county, in some places the surface being literally covered with
them, while in the southern part they are almost entirely absent. In
this respect, Niagara county differs from Monroe, where, in the south-
ern part, boulders are very abundant and of large size. ‘They are more
abundant in the eastern part of this county than towards the Niagara
river. ‘These boulders appear to follow certain courses, and to extend
in great profusion over certain districts ; this distribution appears to have
been governed by some law, and we may yet arrive at data which will
enable us to describe the diluvial and its varying characters with as much,
ot more precision, than we now do a stratum, or a series of strata, in an
older formation.”
Clay Stones.—“ The gray loamy clay above the blue clay, in Niagara
county, sometimes attains the thickness of four or five feet, and in some
places occupies the place of the blue clay, where this has apparently been
removed. ‘The gray, where it occurs, is entirely distinct from the blue,
and appears as if it might have been deposited at a subsequent period.
In this clay we find the calcareous concretions, called clay stones, or _
‘clay dogs; these substances assume all imaginary forms, sometimes the
most fantastic. They are often in the shape of spheres, and sometimes
two or more of them attached together. They appear at regular inter-
vals in the strata, and commonly a line of them marks the junction of
the gray with the blue clay below. ‘These substances are an earthy car-
bonate of lime, which is apparently deposited from the water percolating
from the surface. Tibres (apparently vegetable) extend from the surface
to the depth of three or four (sometimes twelve) feet, and around these
fibres, as a nucleus, the deposit is made. The gray loamy clay is per-
vious to water, while the blue clay is not. ‘The fibres never extend into
the blue clay, but always terminate at its surface. We find the clay
stones surrounding the same fibre at different depths, and can often
trace the connexion of several. Sometimes there are merely rings of
calcareous matter, the internal part still being clay. Those formed di-
rectly around the fibre, are usually perforated, but others are often at-
tached on every side, which are entirely solid. It appears as if the
Geological Reports on the State of New York. 49
-water was conducted downwards by this fibre, and the solid material de-
posited on every side, forming a ring. But when the accumulations are
large, or when the stratum below is impervious, the calcareous matter is
forced out on every side, and produces the fantastic forms which we so
often find.”
Niagara falls and river—A fuller account of these is prom-
ised ina future report. The strata at Lewiston, where the Ni-
agara river empties into the Lake Ontario, are found in the fol-
lowing order, and thickness from the top downward—limestone
twenty feet, shale eighty, limestone twenty, red marl and sand-
stone seventy, hard gray sandstone twenty-five, red marl to the
level of the river, and far below.
Some very judicious remarks are made respecting the possibil-
ity of the drainage of the upper lake or lakes, by the process of _
recular wearing by the current, and although the reasons sug-
gested by Mr. Hall are valid, it does not appear, that the drainage
is as he suggests impossible, for, a very moderate heave of an
earthquake, such as are common in South America, might at once
fissure the barrier, so that the water would flow with irresistible
violence, and drain every lake above, to the level of Ontario,
sweeping New England, New York, and the middle states, until
an equilibrium was established with the waters of the Atlantic.
Tn concluding our ample citations from these truly valuable re-
ports, we are much impressed by the fidelity, zeal and ability
which they so strikingly display. ‘They must be studied with
attention, in order to derive from them all the information, both
In economics, and in science, which they contain, and of which
we have given only the more striking examples.
REMARK.
Although it is our wish and intention to give some notice of all
the geological’surveys and explorations now going forward in the
United States, the number of the reports, and the pressure of
other matter, and of numerous duties, may cause, as they have al-
ready done, more delay than we could wish, and some may be
temporarily omitted until more general results can be obtained,
than those which depend on observations merely local.— Eps.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—-April, 1839. 7
50 : Whirlwinds excited by Fires.
Arr. II.—Some account of Violent Columnar Whirlwinds, which
appear to have resulted from the action of large Circular Fires ;
with Remarks on the same; by W. C. Repriexp.
Read before the Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sci., Jan. 22, 1839.
Since my attention was first attracted by the phenomena. of
our great whirlwind storms, I have found frequent occasions for
noticing the points of analogy, and also of dissimilarity, between
these great storms and the smaller classes of whirlwinds which
are known under the various names of squalls, thunder gusts, tor-
nadoes, water spouts, sand pillars, and the like. While pursuing this
inquiry, I received information of a few cases in which whirlwinds
of great activity and violence, appeared to have resulted from the
action of fires. The facts attending these cases, as then related to
me, were carefully noted, and were laid aside with a view, at a fu-
ture period, to incorporate them with a more general account and
examination of the smaller description of whirlwinds, than I have
yet found it convenient to undertake. In the mean time, the ver-
bal statement of these cases, both in Europe and this country,
through the medium of a friend who is distinguished for his at-
tainments in science, appears to have excited some interest in the
minds of meteorologists and others, and has occasioned applica-
tions to be made to me for a full statement of the facts. I there-
fore hasten to give them publicity, without the delay which the
execution of my original purpose would necessarily occasion.*
The most recent of these cases, being the first of which I ob-
tained notice, occurred in the year 1830, in the township of
Greenbush, near Albany. My account of it was obtained soon
after, from William Akin, of Greenbush, an observant and highly
respectable member of the society of Friends, on whose farm the
phenomenon happened. The facts were carefully taken down
in the presence of Mr. Akin, from his statements, and the ac-
count thus obtained was by his assistance, carefully revised and
corrected. |
* These cases were briefly announced in 1833, in a summary statement of some
of the facts and results in meteorology, which had then claimed my attention. See
this Journal, Vol. xxv, p. 127.
In regard to the brief statements which were comprised in the synopsis here re-
ferred to, it will continue to appear, if I mistake not, that the annunciations then
made, were something more than the mere expression of opinions or speculative
theories.
f
Whirlwinds excited by Fires. 51
Statement of William Akin. -
In the year 1830, I had cut the timber from a small tract of
wood land comprising about twenty-five acres, and the brushwood
throughout the field, had been piled and prepared for burning.
Previous to firing it, the brushwood lying near the outskirts of the
field was moved inwards, in order to prevent the spreading of the
fire to the surrounding woodlands, the materials thus removed
forming a circular range or heap around the general mass of com-
bustibles in the area of the field. On a warm and perfectly calm
day in the summer, this circle was fired on all sides, nearly at the
same time. "The smoke and flame soon gathered towards the
center of the field, where they whirled and ascended with great
rapidity,in a single column. With the strength of this whirl the
fire rapidly increased, and the heat and flame from opposite
sides, pressing inwards towards the ascending column, the latter
continued its spiral or whirling motion with great rapidity and
violence. It was a magnificent spectacle ; and was attended with
a loud, roaring noise, and a sort of crackling and nearly continu-
ous thundering ; resembling that which I have heard in a violent
hail storm.
This remarkable noise, which I think might have been heard
at a distance of several miles, was also accompanied by frequent
and loud snappings or explosions, resembling the reports of mus-
kets and pistols, as sometimes heard in an irregular running fire
of militia.
This roaring noise and the powerful whirling motion of the col-
umn, continued for a period of about twenty minutes, as near as I
can now estimate. The swift whirling of the whole, exceeded all
my previous conceptions of the velocity of wind. 'The height of
the smoky column seemed almost as great as the eye could reach.
At times, the column would assume a sinuous or wavy direction,
and would again become straightened into its upright position.”
I learned also from Mr. Akin, that he has on several occasions
noticed a whirling motion in the clouds during the exhibition of
a violent hail storm, and that such storms, according to his obser-
vation, are always attended by a continuous thundering roar, not
unlike that of the above described whirlwind. One of these hail-
storms he described as passing within three rods of the house
in which he resided ; tearing up trees, scattering their limbs in
52 Whirlwinds excited by Fires.
the air, and desolating a path or track of about fifty yards in width.
Another of these storms, of a more extended character, Mr. A.
describes as very destructive to the farm on which he then lived,
and as having left the ground covered with hail stones, to the
depth of four or five inches, and in particular situations, to the
depth of even twenty inches. ‘This hail storm acted on a track
of near two miles in its entire width, and was also attended with
the above mentioned peculiar noise in the atmosphere, during its
continuance, and also with heavy thunder and vivid lightning. In
this last case, no whirlwind was felt at the surface, but he supposes
one of considerable magnitude to have been in action in the at-
mosphere.
For an account of another interesting case of the same charac-
ter, and which I received not long after the above, I am indebted
to the Hon. Theodore Dwight, now of Hartford, Conn. and for-
merly a resident of this city. It was related to me more than
once by this gentleman, for my gratification, and was, at my re-
quest, drawn up by himself, and kindly placed at my disposal.
Statement of Theodore Dwight, E'sq.
“In the month of April, 1783, I resided at Stockbridge, in the
State of Massachusetts. 'The season, for a number of weeks pre-
_ vious, had been remarkably dry, and in various places much
mischief had been done by fires which were kindled in the
woods. Beside other fires, one occurred upon a mountain lying
between Great Barrington and Stockbridge, which spread and
advanced till it reached the northern termination of the moun-
tain, south of Stockbridge, near the river Housatonic, which
runs through the town. Near the foot of the mountain at
its northern termination, was an open field, in which a large
quantity of bushes and brushwood, that had been cut some time
previously, in clearing the field, was lying in rows and heaps for
burning, and had become perfectly dry and combustible. The
owner of the field, as the fire reached near its border, sent some
men to set all on fire around the field, in order to consume the whole
together. "The weather was mild and serene, and the atmosphere
perfectly still and undisturbed. I was residing at this time at the
distance of about half a mile from the fire, and my attention was
suddenly excited by a loud roaring noise like that of heavy thun-
der ; whereupon, going to the door, [instantly discovered the cause,
Whirlwinds excited by Fires. «BB
Upon the fire becoming general throughout the field, a whirlwind
had formed in the midst of the flames, and when I first saw the
phenomenon, its appearance was sublime and awful. The flames
were collected from every side into a large column, broad at the
bottom, but suddenly tapering to a much smaller size, and it
stood erect in the field to the probable height of 150 to 200 feet.
It was a pillar of living and most vivid flame, whirling round with
most astonishing velocity, while from its top proceeded a spire of
black smoke, to a height beyond the reach of the eye, and whirl-
ing with the same velocity with the column of flame. The noise
produced by this whirlwind, was louder than almost any thunder
I have ever heard ; and being much longer continued, was heard
at a greater distance than is commonly the case with thunder.
During the whole period of its continuance, the pillar of fire
moved slowly and majestically round the field; but generally the
air was entirely free from both fire and smoke, except what was
collected in the column. The spire of smoke, above the pillar of
fire, not only whirled around with the most surprising rapidity,
but owing to its great height, waved gracefully in the air, which
added much to the beauty and splendor of the exhibition. The
force of the whirlwind was so great, that young trees of six or
eight inches in diameter, which had been cut and were lying on
the ground, were taken up by it, and carried to the height of for-
ty or fifty feet.
The scene was to me perfectly novel; and though it occurred
_ nearly fifty years ago, is still clear and distinct in my recollection,
and it was one of the most magnificent spectacles that I have
ever witnessed.”’
“ New York, November 28th, 1831.”
Mr. Dwight related, also, that the men who lighted up the field,
became so alarmed by this whirlwind of fire, as to rush for safety
to the neighboring river.
During a visit to Amherst, in Massachusetts, in the month of
August, 1832, I obtained for Dr. Cowles, of that place, the fol-
lowing account of a similar case, which occurred in that vicinity,
under that gentleman’s immediate observation.
Statement of Doctor Cowles.
‘Tn the summer of 1824, I had prepared for burning the refuse
timber and brushwood, on seven acres of pine woodland, which
5. Se Whirlwinds excited by Fires.
had been cut over, for some months previous. A still day, which
proved very warm, was selected, in order to avoid the danger of
extending the fire to the neighboring woodlands by means of
the wind; -and as the materials’ were in fine combustible order, I
invited Seal friends to witness the burning. The combusti-
bles were collected in piles and ridges, and fire was set to the
outward portions of the field, on all sides, as fast as was conven-
iently practicable. 'The smoke and flames were now concentra-
ted in a large whirling column, over the center of the field, rising
in the form of a cone, and ascending toa great height. It was
attended with a heavy roar, which was heard at a great distance.
Although on a perfectly calm day, the action of this whirlwind
was so violent as to remove from the ground large pieces of brush-
wood, even from places not touched by the fire, carrying them
high in the air, from whence they afterwards fell without the lim-
its of the burning field.”
I learned also from Dr. Cutler, of Amherst, that his attention had
likewise been drawn to this phenomenon, mie he beheld from
near his own house, at a distance of a mile and a half from the
fire. He informed me, that it exhibited to his view, an elevated
pillar of black smoke, attended by a “roaring noise, like that occa-
sioned by the violent burning of a chimney.”
These statements were received from the above gentlemen,
and separately and carefully noted down on the spot.
An intelligent farmer, a resident of Delaware county, N. Y.,
whom I met on the 9th of May, 1832, informed me that he had
on several occasions seen whirlwinds formed in burning over
newly cleared lands; and had known them so violent as to take
up heavy limbs or branches into the air. He had recently seen
one in that county, which moved up the side of a hill, on a still
day, and prostrated trees in its course.
In the burning of a wooden building, I have myself seen a mo-
mentary effect which seemed analogous to the foregoing; and a
temporary impulse of this sort, I believe, is not uncommon in
large fires.* I have, however, seen no distinct account of phe-
* In the month of August last, (1838,) a similar phenomenon was observed in
the burning of one of the large wood yards and wood houses, belonging to Yale
College. The yard was a rectangular area, with the wood arranged chiefly on the
outer boundaries, and the same ascending column of flame and smoke was dis-
tinctly observed by many, but more particularly by Mr. B. L. Hamlen, the printer
of this Journal.— Eds.
Whirlwinds excited by Fires. 55
nomena like the foregoing, in those great fires which attend the
burning of cities or forests, even if during a gale; if I except the
account contained in the fallow extract, which appears to indi-
cate something of this kind on an ended scale.
“A Great Fire.—Mirimichi is mentioned* as connected with
one of those tremendous fires which sometimes arise in the Amer-
ican forests, and spread havoc by circles of longitude and latitude.
In the autumn of 1825, such a calamity occurred on the river
Mirimichi, which extended 140 miles in length, and in some pla-
ces 70 in breadth. It is of little consequence that no wind was
stirring at the time; for, as Mr. McGregor observes, the mere rar-
efaction of the air creates a wind, ‘“‘ which increases till it blows
a hurricane.” In the present case, the woods had been on fire
for some days without creating any great alarm. But “on the
7th of October, it came on to blow furiously from the westward ;
and the inhabitants along the banks of the river were suddenly
surprised by an extraordinary roaring in the woods, resembling
the crashing and detonation of loud and incessant thunder, while
at the same instant the atmosphere became thickly darkened with
smoke. ‘They had scarcely time to ascertain the cause of this
awful phenomenon, before all the surrounding woods appeared in
one vast blaze, the flames ascending from one to two hundred
feet above the top of the loftiest trees; and the fire, rolling for-
ward with inconceivable celerity, presented the terribly sublime
appearance of an impetuous flaming ocean. ‘Two towns, those
of Douglass and New Castle, were in a blaze within the hour;
and many of the inhabitants were unable to escape.
Multitudes of men on lumbering parties perished in the forest ;
cattle were destroyed by wholesale; even birds, unless those of
very strong wing, seldom escaped, so rapid was the progress of
the flames. Nay, the very rivers were so much affected by the
burning masses projected into their waters, that in many cases
large quantities of salmon and other fish were scattered upon their
shores. Perhaps the plague of fire has never been exhibited, or
will be, till the final destruction of this planet, on so magnificent
a scale.”
I am unable to give the authorship of this paragraph, hich
came to my hand through the columns of a newspaper; but it
* Mirimichi is in the British province of New Brunswick, near the southwestern
borders of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
56 Whirlwinds excited by Fires.
appears to have formed part of a more extended notice of that re-
gion of country ; and the occurrence of this calamitous fire, is a
fact well remembered. .
Remarks on the foregoing Cases.
Among the many considerations suggested by these interesting
phenomena, I shall notice in a cursory manner, the following:
1. The rarefaction which is ordinarily produced by fires, even
if they are of an extensive and violent character, is not attended
with these effects. Common observation and experience are suffi-
cient to determine this point ; and to show that rarefaction alone,
is entirely inadequate to the production of such results. The
strongest degree of heat which has ever been created in the at-
mosphere by fires, has never produced an ascending current of
sufficient power to prostrate or carry forward any contiguous body
possessed of tolerable stability or weight, much less to carry any
such body -into the air.
2. The foregoing results can be accounted for, only by a violent
vortical action, steadily maintained. 'This appears too plain to
need illustration.
3. The origin of the rotative action and its continuance for
a considerable period, in the circuit of conflagration, appear to be
chiefly owing to the circular outline of the several fires, and to the
absence of a disturbing horizontal current. When, however, the
principal seat of the vortical action is found in the body of an
elevated current of atmosphere, we then find that the progressive
action of the foot of the whirling column upon the earth’s surface,
and the resistance which is also offered to its progress by an in-
ferior cross current, are not sufficient to break up, or sensibly im-
pede, the regular action and progress of a powerful vortex. This
was strikingly manifested in the tornado which passed through
the city of New Brunswick, in New Jersey, in June, 1835.
4. The ascending power of the vortical column or whirlwind ts,
an these cases, strongly exhibited. We observe, that the heated
air from large fires, or even from the most powerful furnaces, ejec-
ted in a column at the heat of melted iron, will ascend only toa
comparatively short distance from the earth ; the ascending force
being lost in counter movements and convolutions with the adja-
cent colder air, and the combined product soon spreads off in a
Whirlwinds excited by Fires. 57
horizontal direction. But the spire of a columnar vortex, exhibits
a penetrating and ascending power which far exceeds, both in its
intensity and the extent of its action, any other ascending move-
ment that we witness in the atmosphere. This effect appears to
be owing to the spiral motion of the column, which presses on-
ward in the direction of its axis, until it reaches a limit of eleva-
tion whichis yet unknown. Even the ring vortex, which is some-
times seen to form at the muzzles of cannon or the ejection pipes
_ of high pressure steam engines, on their discharge, appears to pos-
sess the qualities of a projectile, notwithstanding its unfavorable
form ; and is also carried forward through the air, partly on the
rocket principle, by means of the rotary action by which the cir-
cular axis of the ring is involved; the line of progress in this case
being in the direction which is perpendicular to the plane of the
ring.* On the proximate causes and modus operandi of this as-
cending action in the columnar vortex, we cannot now dwell.
5. The analogy of the foregoing cases to those violent columnar
whirlwinds which are so often formed over the craters of active
volcanoes, and the apparent identity of the causes which produce
them, well deserve our notice. We may hence comprehend the
manner in which volcanic ashes, having no projectile qualities,
are carried to a vast height in the atmosphere, and become wafted
to a great distance by the different currents of the atmosphere
into which they successively subside. The loud roaring noise
and thundering detonations, which usually attend these volcanic
exhibitions, are also illustrated to some small extent, by the cases
before us.
6. It appears that these cases were attended by electric explo-
sions or detonations, and that, apparently, there was only wanting
the contact of more extensive masses of the higher and lower at-
mosphere, and the presence of a larger body of aqueous condensa-
tion, as in the case of the so called thunder cloud which so common-
ly attends the naturally formed vortex, in order to have produced
the phenomena of genuine thunder and lightning, on a most mag-
* The vortex here described is also produced in a beautiful manner, by the burn-
ing of bubbles of phosphuretted hydrogen gas, as they escape from water. In this
case the peculiar movements of the ring vortex, as well as the sustaining and ex-
panding power which appears to belong to aerial vortices, may be advantageously
observed.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 8
58 Whirlwinds excited by Fires.
nificent scale. This effect, it appears; is most fully produced in
the volcanic exhibitions above mentioned.
7. These cases may serve to illustrate, in some degree, the fa-
voring influences which are presented in the calm latitudes, near
the equator, and on the exterior limits of the trade winds in mid-
ocean, for the production of vorticular action, either in the form of
squalls, thunder gusts, or water spouts. The main horizontal
movements of circulation which are common to our atmosphere,
being here comparatively sluggish or inert, opportunity is thus
afforded for the minor influences of rarefaction to come into play ;
by which means, frequent squalls, water spouts, and other local
movements in the lower atmosphere, are excited in these regions.
8. The velocity and strength of the wind in the rotative action
of a vortex, the axis of which is in a vertical position, as in the
above cases, greatly exceeds that which is exhibited in other cir-
cumstances.
9. We may perceive, also, in these cases, how effectually the
heated stratum of air nearest the earth’s surface, may be caused
to penetrate a homogeneous and colder overlying stratum of cur-
rent, by means of the vorticular action ; a movement which is oth-
erwise physically impossible, except in a partial degree, by means
of other concurrent movements or favoring circumstances.
10. These considerations, and others. which suggest them-
selves, will enable us to account for the sudden and rapid forma-
tion of hail, in summer hail storms and tornadoes ; and in the struc-
ture of the hail stones, in successive layers, and their occasional-
ly fractured condition, we may perceive both the evidence and the
effects of the violent vortical action, and the successive changes
of temperature and hygrometric condition in which they have
been successively placed, before leaving the vortex, and while
falling to the earth.
11. These cases, viewed in connection with the reste phe-
‘nomena which have been exhibited in a multitude of instances,
appear fully to confirm the opinion of Franklin, in favor of the
general identity of the columnar whirlwinds with the so called
water spouts.
12. By the clue which is here afforded us, in the peculiar noise
and rumbling detonations of these violent whirlwinds, we may
become apprised of the existence of a violent vortical action in the
atmosphere, or within the envelopement of a visible thunder
Facts relating to the Raleigh’s Tyfoon. 59
cloud, even in those numerous cases in which the vortex or whirl-
wind does not reach the earth’s surface. :
13. Perhaps we have also, in these noises, a clue to the sounds
which are ascribed to certain moving sands, in the heat of sum-
mer, as in the case of Jebel Narkous, or the sounding mountain,
near Tor, on the Red Sea,* and also in the Reg-ruwan, on a hill-
side, near Cabul, which is described by the Emperor Baber and
by Capt. Burnes. From the descriptions given of the localities
and the other circumstances which attend these sounds, which,
however, cannot be here recited, I have been led to infer that they
proceed from the action of a whirlwind formed on the leeward
side of the hill, and revolving upon a horizontal axis ; analogous
in a degree, as I suppose, to the celebrated Helm Wind of the
Cross Fell mountain in Cumberland, (England. )
The inquiry opened to us by the consideration of these phenom-
ena is extensive and interesting, in all its bearings, and I cannot
but regret my inability to pursue it with the attention which it
so well merits.
New York, December 31, 1888.
Arr. IIl.— Additional facts relating to the Raleigh's Tyfoon
of August 5th and 6th, 1835, in the China Sea; by W. C.
REDFIELD.
To the Editor of the Nautical Magazine.
Sir—iIn my account of the tyfoon of August 5-6, 1835, in the
China sea, is a paragraph derived from the Canton Register, in
which it is stated, that “the American ship Levant, Capt. Du-
maresq, which arrived on the 7th, the day after the gale, came in
with royals set, from Gaspar Island in fourteen days, having had
light winds all the way up the China sea, and did not feel the
tyfoon.”+ The prolonged absence of Capt. Dumaresq from this
country, alone prevented me from verifying this statement. He
has now returned and has kindly placed his private journal in my
hands, from which I extract the following; which shows, that
in running into the path of the tyfoon from its southern side, the
* Wellsted’s Travels in Arabia, Lond. 1838. Vol. 1, pp. 23—27.
+ Am. Journ. of Science, Vol. xxxv, p. 212.
60 Facts relating to the Raleigh’s. Tyfoon.
Levant came so far under the heel of the storm as to make it ne-
cessary to take in the light sails and double reef the topsails.
mesersese i) Wintel. August 4th tees. [Neutiealtime |
N. N. E. S. W. Throughout these 24 hours fine breezes and clear
Distance | Breeze pleasant weather. All possible sail set. Current N. E.
by log, | 64 to | by N.50 miles. af
171 miles.)|. 8 knots. Lat. by obs. 12° 55/ N.
Lon. by chr. 112° 13/ E.
N.bESE.| 5. W. Aug. 5th. Commences with fine breezes, and pleas-
N. be. ant. All sail set and trimmed to the best possible ad-
Distance | Breeze vantage. Middle and latter part the same.
by log, 7 to Lat. by indifferent obs. 15° 55! N.
190 miles.|'84 knots.| Lon. ts gf) -d3° 240K:
Aug. 6th. Begins with fresh breezes, and cloudy.
All sail set. At4 P.M. passed a barque standing east-
1 ward. Through the night strong breezes and squally,
N. WwW. | Ss. S. W.
Wisisnee Bears with rain and heavy sea. Latter part the same. Took
by log 84 to in the royal studding-sails. [The ship was now run-
; :
ning into the path of the gale which had just passed.]
At il A.M. [6th.] heavy squalls, with rain in torrents.
Took in all studding-sails, royals, and top-gallant-sails,
and double reefed the top-sails. No observation: sun
- 225miles.|10 knots.
obscured.
Lat. by account, 19° 54! N.
Vom vc) 118° 38’ W.
N. 4 W.
North. August 7th. From noon to 8 P. M., strong breezes
n. + w. | South to and squally. -Shook out reefs and set all light sails.
North. eee Middle part, fine breezes and pleasant weather. At
nN. by E. | s. by w daylight made the Ass’s Ears bearing E. by N., distant
“| five miles. At 7 passed the Great Ladrone. After part,
ee Me to's. E. wind S. E. and pleasant.
N. E.
It appears from the foregoing, that on the southern side of the
storm, the 8S. W. monsoon was prevailing at this time, with even
more than its usual force. It happens, unfortunately, that no en-
try of the state of the barometer was made in this part of the
journal.
It also appears, that the position which I have assigned to the
Levant, in my geographical sketch, at noon on the 6th, is within
a few miles of her actual position at that time ;* and the main
conclusions which I adopted are confirmed by these extracts.
* See this Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 214. January, 1839.
Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock. 61
Owing to some oversight in my last communication, the name
of the Paracels was printed in the observations on the methods
for avoiding the heart of this storm, instead of the rocks « or shoals
called the Pratas, which were ieee
New York, February 19th, 1839.
Art. IV.—Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock, proposed
as the line of reference, for State G'eologists of New York and
Pennsylvania; by Amos Eaton, Senior Professor of Rensse-
laer Institute, and Professor of Civil Engineering.
Troy, N. Y., February 9th, 1839.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
- I was one of your earliest correspondents on Geology ; conse-
quently it is to be presumed, that I have introduced more errors
to the public, through your Journal, than any other individual.
In truth I consider your 35 volumes as a fair exhibition of the
birth, boyhood, and green manhood of geological science in Amer-
ica.
This article is intended chiefly for an auxiliary in aid of those
who wish to discuss the adverse views of my friends, Conrad and.
Rogers, which were referred to in your last number, while pur-
suing their investigations into the true order of superposition,
among the rocks of New York and Pennsylvania. As my age
and infirmities may soon drive me into the state of “untried be-
ing,” I will give a concise account of some facts familiar to me,
which might cost those gentlemen and other geologists much la-
bour and travel.
They being state officers of high responsibility, I shall not ask
them to receive my suggestions as of any other authority, than as
they may guide their footsteps to localities, which may be useful
in their inquiries.
The lime-rock which I have called corniferous, extends from
Lake Erie easterly and southerly, throughout most of the district
in question. Its characters are so unequivocal, that it is recog-
nized at sight, throughout its whole line, of about five hundred -
miles. It is a gray rock, often inclining to dark brown. Its color
gave the name to the village of Black Rock, at the outlet of Lake
62 Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock.
Erie. It abounds in hornstone and stone horns, (as the petrifac-
tion, Cyathophyllum, is called.) Seven distinct species are found
in this rock, at Bethlehem Caverns, in Albany county ; but the
Cyathophyllum ceratites is most abundant. As hornstone is found
in no other rock in the district, but the calciferous sand-rock, (a
good example of which is F'lint Hill on Erie Canal,) its presence
(hornstone) is a good test of the identity of the stratum. This
rock being less subject to disintegration than the overlying gray
slate, it may be traced by its naked out-cropping edge, and more
or less of its flat surface, as follows. It forms the bottom of the
whole eastern part of Lake Erie ; Fort Erie is on it, and its wall is
of blocks of this rock. Its north edge may be traced in an east-
erly direction, by way of Auburn, (the state prison there is built
of it,) to Otsego county. Here it changes its course; taking a
southeasterly direction to the south part of Albany county. Here
it exhibits its cavernous character, in the two caverns of Bethle-
hem ; and numerous other caverns are found in that vicinage.
From Bethlehem caverns it extends along the west side of Hud-
son River, through Esopus, (Kingston, ) Esopus strand, and up the
Rondout. Then it gradually disappears under the very gray
slate, (third graywacke,) which embraces Carbondale coal beds,
&c. This statement I make from my own personal examina-
tions; generally accompanied by my students in geology, from
time to time, through twelve successive years.
Throughout the whole extent of this vast rock, as you follow
it from Lake Erie to Esopus strand, it is seen to pass laterally to
the right, under higher rocks. It manifestly forms the basis rock
of the Catskill and the Alleghany mountains ; and it is said to crop
out on the west of Alleghany. It was for these reasons that in all
my geological surveys, I used this rock as the line of reference
for other strata; as strangers in New York City use Broadway
as a place of reference for other streets. I now advise the two
gentlemen referred to, (Messrs. Conrad and Rogers,) and other
state geologists, to take six points on this rock, and to proceed
from them in a transverse direction, over all the rocks above and
below it. The points I would assume, are—l, Lake Erie; 2,
Auburn; 3, at Otsego; 4, at Bethlehem caverns; 5, at Catskill ;
6, the Rondout creek, on the Hudson and Delaware canal.
As most of the geological surveys of the states, where such sur-
veys are undertaken, seem.to agree in applying the nomenclature
Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock. 63
which I adopted temporarily, until, by a general community,
they establish a better, I shall adopt it in this article, so far as re-
lates to the general rock strata. "These rocks I suppose dis-
tributed into four classes—prinutive, transtiion, lower secondary,
and upper secondary, and that each class is divided into three gen-
eral formations—carboniferous, quartzose, and calcareous. ‘The
Green Mountain range is primitive. The carboniferous formation
includes granite, hornblende rock, mica slate, and talcose slate,
alternating perpetually, and containing carburet of iron. The
quartzose is the range of granular quartz. 'The calcareous is the
vast range of granular lime-rock or marble.
The argillite, under which the primitive passes near the west
bounds of Massachusetts, is the carboniferous of the transition.
It contains anasphaltic coal in small quantities every where; also
a fucoid at the roof slate quarries of Hoosick. (This is Mr. Con-
rad’s opinion; but it resembles the spike of a Lycopodium.) 'The
vast ridge of first graywacke, called rubble or conglomerate, and
silicious graywacke, running through Rensselaer county, is the
quarizose formation. Shawangunk in Ulster county, is a contin-
uation of the same ridge. It is called millstone grit there, and is
the rock from which Esopus millstones are obtained. ‘The lime-
rock range (compact, shelly, sparry, and silicious, ) which extends
from Albany county to Sackett’s Harbor, form the calcareous. Its
distinguishing petrifaction is the genus F'ungia.
The second graywacke, under which the transition lime-rocks
pass, which extends from near Bethlehem caverns in Albany
county, by way of Utica, to Big Salmon River on Lake Ontario,
is the carboniferous or lower secondary. It contains anasphaltic
coal in small quantities every where. ‘The conglomerate or mill-
stone grit, very well characterized, is found in large patches, in
Oriskany, Westmoreland, &c., between Utica and Otsego. ‘This
is the quartzose formation. 'The corniferous lime-rock, before
described, is the calcareous of the lower secondary. Its distin-
guishinging petrifaction is Cyathophyllum. ‘The third graywacke
slate, which rests upon the corniferous lime-rock, is the carbontfer-
ous of the UPPER sEcoNDaRY. It contains all the great coal meas-
ures of Pennsylvania. 'The conglomerate overlying the gray-
wacke slate, and capping most of the high ridges of Catskill and
Alleghany mountains, is the quartzose. ‘The coral rag on the
Heldeberg, and in patches on said mountain, form the calcareous
of the UPPER SECONDARY.
64 Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock.
This generalization of our rocks requires extensive subdivisions —
in some localities. But numerous reviews, since I proposed this
nomenclature in your Journal of January, 1830, have confirmed.
me in its correctness. And I now ask state geologists to examine
these rocks, from the six proposed starting points, on the cornifer- -
ous or cherty lime-rock. 1 have considered that as the upper rock
in the lower secondary class. If I am right in regard to it, as an
equivalent of the cherty lime-rock of English authors, its vast ex-
tent and the important disposition it holds among North American
rocks, will make it very useful to geological surveyors. If I am
not right, it will be equally useful, for examining the relative po-
sition of other rocks ; as they can take their true equivalent places
in European systems, after its character is demonstrated. For
example, all our salt springs are in a red (or variegated ) sand-rock.
This rock is below the corniferous lime-rock, together with its pe-
culiar associate ; as ferriferous rocks embracing the iron stratum,
liasoid, (water cement, ) geodiferous or fetid lime-rock, all our gyp-
sum beds, &c. But there is on Catskill Mountain a red sand-rock
and conglomerate, resembling the red sand-rock and trap tuff under
the basaltic rocks on Connecticut River, and also on Hudson
River. As these red rocks all contain a fucoid, resembling that of
Mr. Conrad, found in our saliferous rock, I will refer the geologist
to these definite localities. On Catskill Mountain, twelve miles
west of the village of Catskill, about one mile south of the
Little Lake and mountain house, there is a round hill, about
two hundred feet higher than Little Lake. On ascending this
hill, alternations of red sand-rock and marble are found. ‘This
red sand-rock contains a species of branching fucozd, resembling
in general appearance the fucoid of Oak-orchard Creek, on the
Erie canal, between Genesee River and Lockport. I have found
it on said creek, so uniformly articulated, that I called it an eneri-
nus, until Mr. Conrad corrected me. But they differ from those
on Catskill Mountain, in that the latter have no articulations, so
far as I have examined. — I am at present a proselyte to the paleon-
tous method of reading out rocks. But, as the sand-rocks on the
loftiest peaks of Catskill and Alleghany mountains, are thousands
of feet above the corniferous lime-rock, and the saliferous rock
always below it; my learned friend, Conrad, ought to examine
the locality just mentioned; also a similar one at the southeast
foot of Mineral Hill in Blenheim, Schoharie county, and numer-
ous others.
- Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock. 65
I will here commence my directions for tracing rocks, which
extend along, laterally, above and below the CoRNIFEROUS LIME-
rock. Furst, those above tt.
1st Point.—At Lake Erie, a gray slate rock is seen lying im-
mediately on the corniferous lime-rock, along the south shore for
many miles. About two or three miles west of Eighteen Mile
creck, the rock becomes highly bituminous, and some specimens.
will burn freely. This is the genuine Pierre Asphaltique of
Henri Fournel, Canton of Neufchatel, Switzerland. I have a
‘specimen before me, which I received from M. Ernest Calus,
Pearl st., N. Y., together with Fournel’s treatise. On compari-
son, it appears to be the same mineral which M. Ernest used in
a state of fusion in constructing the specimen side walk, last
summer, above the Astor House. This rock promises to be of
vast use as a substitute for slate and tin on flat roofs, &c. This
rock, though it has the same geological position four or five hun-
dred miles, varies greatly in character. On its upper side lies a
thin siliceous pyritiferous lime-rock, containing numerous tere-
bratulae, (now made a new genus,) which consist wholly of iron
pyrites. In this I found branching corals, scarcely changed in
appearance from specimens recently from the ocean. The same
rocks rest on the corniferous, near the water’s edge, in lakes Sen-
eca and Cayuga. ‘The most unequivocal are seen near the head
of both lakes, on the east side of each; here they contain thin
layers of coal and much pyrites.
2d Point.—At Auburn, on the bank of the Owasco creek,
there isa slate rock lying on the corniferous, of a darker gray,
containing bituminous pyrites, and minute layers of coal.
3d Point.—At Otsego there are some almost insulated promi-
nences of similar slate, lying on the corniferous lime-rock, con-
taining coal.
Ath Point.—At Bethlehem Caverns, the same gray slate rocks
are seen reposing on the corniferous lime-rock, and it may be
traced many miles backward and forward, in a precipitous ledge.
But it becomes of a coarser texture, rarely containing coal, scarcely
bituminous, but contains a vast bed of iron pyrites, at the distance
of a few miles north of the caverns. Over this slate lies the true
coral rag of England, as appears to me from comparing speci-
mens. ‘The best locality is Coral Cave, two miles north of Knox
Village. Livingston Cave is in a very coarse third graywacke,
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 9
66 Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock.
geologically between the corniferous rock of Bethlehem Caverns,
and the coral rag rock of Coral Cave. Petrifactions are so nu-
merous in the upper lime-rock (coral rag) of the wpper forma-
tion that Mr. Conrad (our exceedingly careful palzontologist)
may here settle the true equivalent value of them, compared
with European specimens.
5th Point.—Catskill presents a field for much investigation.
Take the corniferous rock at Madison Village, or in the long
swamp, two miles westerly from the village, on the turnpike to-
wards the mountain. Both of these positions require a circuitous
route for tracing the rock to its dip under the Catskill mountain.
The best course is to go southerly and meet the mountain south
of Cauter’s Kill Clove. Following the Clove turnpike road, we
enter two miles into the mountain before we make more than
a moderate ascent. The ledges on each side present a profile
of more than a thousand feet of perpendicular rock. Here are
alternating layers of red sandstone, and slaty graywacke. The
red sandstone layers may be traced northerly until they pass
gradually into gray slate. The series of layers become alter-
nately conglomerate and unchanging red sandstone, towards and
at the top of the mountain. Organized remains are found there
thinly scattered through all the layers. I have generally found
bivalves in the gray, and fucoides in the red; perhaps this is not
found to be uniformly true.
6th Point.—The relative position of the corniferous lime-rock
along the Rondout, seems to me to offer some most important
subjects of reflection to the Pennsylvanian geologist. Here the
Shawangunk mountain is distinctly seen to dip beneath it, but
not to come in contact with it; the upper transition lime-rock
comes in between them. The same gray slate layer of Lake
Erie, Seneca, and Cayuga, here rest upon it, as appears by ac-
tually pursuing that rock to this place. But the rock, like all
others approaching the Alleghany mountains, has here become
more coarse and more quartzose. I have long since remarked
in this Journal, that rocks of the Catskill and Alleghany ridge
wore a more primitive (or coarse and harsh) aspect than equiva-
lent European rocks. My friend, Dr. Morton, recognized this
fact, and Brongniart’s decisions in regard to the vegetable fossils
of Pennsylvania, confirm the suggestion. But the all-conquer-
ing fact, that no rock is interposed between the corniferous lime-
—.
Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock. 67
rock seen on the Rondout, and the Carbondale coal beds, settles
the point. The Pennsylvanian geologists have a very great ad-
vantage in being able to say to all travelling geologists, “ take
passage up the Hudson and Delaware canal, and the Carbondale
rail-road, and you see, at every step, the naked gray slate rock,
without an interposed layer, and you will see vegetable fossils
in the ledges all the way, bearing more or less resemblance to
those adjoining the Carbondale beds of anasphaltic coal.”
When I commenced my geological surveys, the application of
organized remains for demonstrating strata, was not studied in
America. I had become acquainted with no method for deter-~
mining the character of such strata, but that of tracing them sep-
arately through a vast extent of country, and then comparing
their general characters. For this purpose I travelled some thou-
sand miles at my own expense and with the liberal aid of stu-
dents of Williams College, with Professor Dewey at their head,
where I was employed more than a score of years since, by the
authorities of the College, to introduce the natural sciences. Af-
terwards I travelled more than seventeen thousand miles on ge-
ologizing tours, at the expense of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensse-
laer. And I was always aided by several assistants and compe-
tent students. Had the application of palaeontology been then
as well understood as it now is, I could have settled the charac-
ters of most rocks as well in my closet, by the aid of specimens.
But it is a true remark in your last Journal, that strata must have
been first settled according to the method to which I was com-
pelled by ignorance to submit, before the service of organized
remains could be successfully employed. In this country, no
material progress had then been made in the study of organized
relics; and even now, we have very few good palaeontologists.
Directions for tracing rocks below the corniferous lime-rock, be-
ginning at the Bethlehem Caverns in Albany county.
Ath Point.—It appears to me, that European geologists are mis-
led in regard to their cherty lime-rock, mountain lime-rock, carbo-
niferous lime-rock, &c. By request, I gave a hasty extempora-
neous lecture on this subject before the New York Lyceum of
Natural History in May, 1831, to a very full house. I will here
take an opposite method for illustrating my views. I will simply
state facts, and beg my geological friends to follow my walks.
Most particularly do I beg this favor of the State geologists, Con
(a Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock.
rad, Rogers, Vanuxem, Emmons, and Hall. I believe that Em-
mons and Hall informed themselves practically on this subject
while they were my pupils. But the influence of a teacher on
the minds of affectionate pupils, is scarcely to be trusted. As the
expenses of all State geologists are (or ought to be) defrayed by
the State, I hope they will test my accuracy by personal exam-
ination. If Europeans are in an error, our geologists will do a
favor to science by correcting such errors, in a country where
(according to De Luc) “ nature operates on a vast scale.”
By travelling about a mile from Bethlehem Caverns on the Al-
bany road, we descend a steep ledge of graywacke slate, of about
sixty or seventy feet in thickness. This is a continuation of the
second graywacke of Big Salmon River, on Lake Ontario, Utica,
é&e. At the bottom of this slate ledge, we come to the upper
transition lime-rock. 'To demonstrate this assertion, we follow
that diverging lime-rock, by way of Amsterdam, around the prim-
itive spurs of Root’s Nose and Little Falls, and thence to Sack-
ett’s Harbor, on Lake Ontario. Its branches penetrate northerly,
far into the primitive district, between the high ridges. If we
proceed southerly from Bethlehem Caverns, we soon perceive
that it converges towards the corniferous lime-rock, and actually
comes in contact with it in the White Rock of Coeymans. The
two rocks then proceed southerly in contact, or nearly so, to Kso-
pus strand, and up the Rondout. But each retains its own dis-
tinctive characteristics ; the lower containing no hornstone and
no Cyathophyllum, but containing the fungia and transverse en-
crinites, &c. In England, these rocks probably run parallel, and
in contact, in most or all localities. Hence the confusion among
English geologists in the case of Conybeare’s carboniferous lime-
rock, in which they blend the uppermost rock of the transition
and secondary classes. ‘These two rocks by their diverging di-
rection on their northerly course, open so as to leave a wide dis-
trict between them. ‘This district is occupied by the second
sraywacke slate and rubble millstone grit of Utica, Big Salmon
River, Westmoreland, &c.
Subordinate rocks ; or Red Seutdstes group of De La Beche.
—In the years 1822 and 1823, when taking a geological survey
for Mr. Van Rensselaer, of a belt of 50 miles in breadth, from the
Atlantic to Lake Erie, I was much annoyed by our non-conform-
able salt-bearing rocks and their associates. Iinding no equiva-
Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock. 69
Jents in European rocks, I called them subordinate rocks, and thus
published them in my report of 1824. Before I published the
result of later surveys, and my geological map of the state of New
York, and of parts of the adjoining states, in 1830 and 1832, I
read De La Beche on red sandstone groups. Iadopted his name;
but there remains an incongruity, to be adjusted by state geolo-
gists, respecting the equivalency of the two localities, in reference
to their order of superposition in geological series.
On going westerly from Big Salmon Creek, along the south
side of Lake Ontario, the gray slate and conglomerate rock (both
I called second graywacke) are distinctly seen passing under the
red sand-rock, in which the salt springs of Salina, &c., are found.
No geological fact is more evident to the senses, in my opinion,
than that this red sand-rock, with its overlying associates, which
I have called the ferriferous strata, (embracing a stratum of red
argillaceous tron ore,) the Lasoid, (embracing gypsum, ) and geo-
diferous lime-rock, pass under the great corniferous lime-rock range,
at their southern edges. It is equally evident, that they termi-
nate at no great distance south of Erie Canal, in their edges, by
the approximation of the corniferous lime-rock above, and the
second graywacke below. The state geologists are particularly
referred to Niagara Falls. _ Here, and all the way to Queenston,
they will see all these strata in the ledgy shores; and a short dis-
tance above the Falls they will see the corniferous lime-rock, lying
upon the geodiferous, or fetid limestone, which is the uppermost
of the red sandstone group.
5th Point.—Here geologists should commence their examinations
at Madison village in Catskill. The transition lime-rock of Sack-
ett’s Harbor, Trenton Falls, Fort Clair, Amsterdam, Glenn’s Falls,
below the ledge of Bethlehem Caverns, at Coeymans, White
Rock, &c., is here seen in the bank of Catskill Creek, in its near
approach to, and sometimes in contact with, the under side of the
corniferous lime-rock. From Madison to Catskill village (about
4 miles) may be seen the chief varieties of this rock. The cal-
ciferous sand-rock, abounding in quartz crystals, (like the same
rock on West Canada Creek, near the Medical Institution at Fair-
field,) is found here. The hill east of the village, which forms
the west bank of the Hudson River, is geologically below it.
This is the genuine first graywacke ; which overlies the argillite
along the whole course of the river, from Fort Edward to New-=
v0 Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous Lime-rock.
burgh, a distance of about 180 miles. It also spreads over a great
proportion of the counties of Washington, Rensselaer, Columbia,
and the northwestern part of Dutchess. But the underlying ar-
gillite is seen forming the bed and sometimes the banks of most
of the river, throughout the whole distance ; and in various parts
of the four counties mentioned, the argillite is laid bare by the
disintegration of the graywacke. In some places, as at the north
end of Beeraft’s Mountain, two miles east of Hudson, the gray-
~wacke is covered with the sparry variety of transition lime-rock.
The highest ridges in Rensselaer county are terminated by the
- rubble or conglomerate of the first graywacke. Shawangunk
Mountain, before mentioned, in Ulster and Orange counties, is a
continuation of the same range. But the eastern boundary of the
state is mostly uncovered argillite. ‘There are numerous locali-
ties, on and near the banks of Hudson River, where extensive
beds of siliceous rocks (sometimes called lydian stone) are seen.
The rocky bluffs at Hudson city is that stone ; and it contains
the same fucoides which are found in the slate quarry of argillite
in Hoosick, Rensselaer county. It is also the chief rock at the
Troy ferry.
I will close this paper, which may be the last I shall ever send
you, by saying, that the limits between classes seem not to be as
well settled among geologists as they ought to be, in the present
advanced state of palaeontology. Our red sandstone group has
recently been placed among transition rocks by some geologists.
Surely the equivalent of our vast corniferous and transition lime-
rocks can be found in Europe. If we intend to correspond with
Europeans, we ought to agree in the great outlines of generaliza-
tion. ‘That our red sandstone group is below our corniferous
lime-rock, is surely believed by all who have been at Niagara
Falls. ‘That the uppermost transition lime-rock, and the gray-
wacke which overlies it, are beiow this group, is doubted by
none who have travelled from Sackett’s Harbor to Rochester,
along the south shore of Lake Ontario. It may be added, that
several species of Cyathophyllum, are very abundant in the cor-
niferous rock, and that two or three species of Fungia are often
found in the transition lime-rock; and the red sandstone group
lies geologically between the two.
I here take the liberty to disclaim all partiality for the names
I have used for the last score of years in any of my geological
Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838. = 71
writings in your Journal. I preferred using a kind of adjective
or descriptive name, to running the hazard of misapplying the
names of the great masters in the science, until I might have the
means of correctly understanding their applications. I claim no-
thing but that of having given the true relations of our rocks, with
plain, but accurate descriptions ; made in al! cases from my per-
sonal examinations. When the most approved names are set to
the rocks which I describe, it is my hope, that future geologists
will be in some measure relieved by my labors. But I acknowl-
edge that any one could have performed what I have done, had
he been sustained as I was, for nineteen years, (twelve of which
I was much in the field,) by the munificence of the lamented
Stephen Van Rensselaer. I did nothing but go from rock to rock,
comparing their structure, mineralogical constituents, and order of
superposition. This duty I performed faithfully, and with most
ardent zeal, according to the directions of my patron, from the
year 1820 to 1832. Since the year 1832, I have been chiefly
confined at home by difficult respiration. Specimens of organi-
zed remains, collected by students in their travelling tours, for
the last four or five years, I have carefully considered; and I
hope that my knowledge of them, though imperfect, may be use-
ful. It is Mr. Conrad’s duty to give us all he knows of them,
(which is as much as any man can give us,) in his final report.
P.S. Allow me a little space for acknowledging my obliga-
tions to Dr. Theodric Romeyn Beck, of Albany, for first propo-
sing to Gen. Van Rensselaer, that he should employ me as his
geological surveyor.
Art. V.—Account of the Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of
April, 1838. By Mr. J. Froyp ; communicated by J. H. Pat-
ton, Esq., Magistrate of the 24 Pergunnahs.
Abridged from the India Review and Journal of Foreign Science and Arts, for
July, 1838.
Tus remarkable whirlwind swept through the villages, near
the city of Calcutta, on a course nearly southeast ; its path being
from a quarter to half a mile in width.* The destructive effects
* The track of this whirlwind passed within three miles of Calcutta, on its east-
ern side, between the city and the great salt-water lake, Its average course on
72 Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838.
as exhibited on sixteen miles of its track, near Calcutta, were ex-
amined by Mr. Floyd, in company with the magistrate, soon after
its occurrence. 'The examination commenced at the village of
Codeleah, near the termination of its ravages, and was continued
from thence towards the northwest, on the line of the storm. —
‘“‘ At Codeleah many houses were destroyed, large trees were
torn up by the roots, and many were broken off at the stumps,
while the small and elastic ones escaped with only the loss of
leaves and branches. A peepul tree which had been standing
time out of mind, and to the knowledge of the oldest inhabitants
had never lost a bough, was the first tree that here encountered ~
the storm, and the first that fell. The circle from whence the
roots sprung, was 35 feet in diameter, and these being of extraor-
dinary length, caused the earth to come away with the tree, and
to leave a chasm of about 38 feet in width and 14 in depth ; most
of its stouter branches were wrenched off, and thrown into an ad-
joiming tank, at such a distance as to prove the extraordinary vio-
lence with which the tree was assailed. The paths were ob-.
structed by fallen trees, &c. and the tanks choked with branches.
Fifty persons have sustained bodily injury, but reports vary as to ~
deaths. Seventeen have their limbs severely injured, and I fear
cannot survive. The severest cases we advised to be removed to
the hospital at Allipore, but without effect; the “Gunga,” they
said, was close at hand, whither their friends would take them,
were they to die.
At Bykunthpore, for about a quarter of a mile, not a house, hut,
nor tree had escaped the violence of the storm; in fact every thing
that opposed its progress, was levelled to the ground. Persons vis-
iting the place, ignorant of the occurrence of the storm, would
suppose the mischief had been caused by fire. I had almost
come to the above conclusion myself on observing the stumps of
trees, withered leaves, and here and there posts of houses, &c.
Such was the violence of the wind, that cocoa-nut and date trees
were twisted out of the ground, and hurled to a distance of two or
three hundred feet ; granaries have been swept away, and life
both of man and beast destroyed. We traversed the whole ex-
tent of the village, and witnessed many shocking sights.
this part of the route, as given on the sketch, appears to have been South 37° East.
It appears to have been remarkable for its slow rate of progress, and it is to this,
perhaps, that its unusual destructiveness is in part to be ascribed.
Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838. 73
I also visited Majaree Gaon, Pergunnah Anarpeer, Dum Dum,
Anundpore, Baleaghatta, the salt water lake, and adjacent villa-
ges. Baleaghatta suffered less than other places, but Mr. G.
Princeps’ salt works, on the opposite side of the canal, have suf-
fered materially.*
On the canal, it would appear by information collected from
the boatmen and others, that fifteen lives were lost, and about
twelve boats. That there may have been more I do not deny ; I
saw only five wrecks, one of them in the new dock, said to have
been conveyed thither by the violence of the wind, the anchor of
which must have weighed at least twelve maunds! But in “ Bair-
nala,” almost every boat was swamped. ‘The villages of Sam-
bandal and Chowbagan have been laid desolate; men, women,
and children, as well as animals have died without number. I
say, without number, because there was an established hut in
Sambandal, and on that day, I understand, it was crowded to ex-
cess by people from the neighboring villages, as well as by res-
idents. In other villages the visitation has been awful indeed,
but in these places it surpasses all description. As far as the eye
could reach, not a house is to be seen. ‘The grass (I am at a loss
to account for it) has been consumed, and the choppers [frames ?]
of houses have vanished as if they were mere vapor. Dongahs
and saulteest have been carried up, and in their descent shattered
to atoms. The bark of the palm trees has been peeled off as
with a knife, and their leaves broken into shreds. [am of opin-
ion, that the effect of the whirlwind was more severely felt at
Chowbagan and Sambandal, than at any other part ; also that it
was owing to the vast expanse of water over which it took its
* Some particulars of the damage sustained by these works, are worthy of record.
Aniron salt boiler, weighing more than a maund, was lifted into the air and con-
veyed a few yards distance. The tiles of the terraces, laid in the best cement, were
ripped up as it were by suction. A boat lying on the ground for repair, disappear-
ed, and only a few fragments were found. It appears, from an observation made
by Prof. O'Shaughnessy in this month’s Asiatic Society’s proceedings, that some
of the salt fell in lumps at a great distance. Large beams were lodged on the salt
works from the opposite side of the canal. But the most extraordinary proof of the
force exerted in a lateral direction, was evinced in the projection of a slight bamboo
horizontally through one of the raised tiled walks, which pierced through the
whole breadth, breaking the tiles on both sides. It has been cut off and preserved
in situ, as the monument of the storm. A six pounder could hardly have forced so
light an arrow through a mass of earth five feet thick.—Editor of the India Review
t Canoes and hollowed logs of wood used as fishing boats.—Id.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. EO as
Y
74 Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838.
course ere it met with any impediment, and having encountered
one of the above villages almost immediately after crossing the
water, every thing before it was swept away. It pursued its
course in a southerly direction, levelling trees and houses in its
course, exhausting itself at Codeleah. —
These villages were inhabited chiefly by fishermen who were,
at the time, on the lake, and never felt the effects of the storm,
till on their return they found their villages demolished, and only
a few surviving to account for the occurrence.
Bakharies or split bamboos forming the choppers of houses, did
great execution. ‘The gomastah of the above villages gave me
the following romantic account of the storm.
“On Sunday, at about half past two P. M., the ainieeue came
on: at first it appeared in a westerly [N. W.] directions and to the
best of their judgment two dark columns that were visible whirl-
ing round and round, descending to the earth, had the appearance
of two huge daityas (or demons) preparing for combat ;—that a
second before they were fairly alighted they engaged in mor-
tal strife, and agitating the waters of the lake began their work
of destruction on land ;—that such as were in their houses, has-
tened out to witness this wonderful phenomenon, and ere they
could return to their homes, the sudden darkness that overspread ~
the place, the howling of the wind, and clouds of dust attending
it, rendered it impossible for them to bear testimony as to which
of the two gained the victory. That from the occurrence of the
whirlwind to the period it lasted or left these parts, it did not oc-
cupy twenty minutes, and was almost immediately followed by
sunshine. ‘There was little or no rain, but a severe fall of hail,
which probably deprived some of life.
At the village termed Mazare Ganw, the whirlwind came on at
about half past one o’clock; at Soorah, Anundpore, Balleaghatta,
Chowbagan and Sambandal, at two and three o’clock; and the
villages farther east, Bykunthgoor and Codeleah, four o’clockk,
and though not lasting long in each, its effects have been truly
distressing. It hailed in the above mentioned places, and in the
two last named villages the hail was triangular. I give this latter
information as I derived it, but at Dum Dum the -hailstones were
uncommonly large, one weighing, (as is said,) three and a half
pounds.”
Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838. 75
Statement exhibiting the number of lives computed to have been
lost, the names of the villages through which the hurricane
pha and other particulars.
-NAMES
OF THE
VILLAGES.
Anundpore,
Soorah, = -
Pagladanga,
Mr. Princeps’ Salt Works,
Botchtullah,
Chowhata,
Butgotchee,
Madoordooah,
Sambandal,
Kularabad,
Nazeerabad,
Anundpore,*
Jugdeepotha,
Hossainpore,
Autghurah,
Ranabatooah,
Dhaloo, -
Pauchpota,
Bykuntpore,
Codeleah, -
Sreekhundpr,
Kaderout, -
Sanorepore,
Khorde Rajpore,
Chingreepotah,
Hurreenabhee,
(rssh Simeen! UeecoN Voatieot tist Une it Wimcrt oceed Wire cit (S5 (Gireall Latent Wile Wea) Brose hoc |
t i 1 i 4 1 1 ‘ if 1 iT ' & 1 1 ' t iy ’ i] iy
1 ' 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 ‘ ! 1! 1
Sixteen miles.
Extreme extent of
the storm
Average breadth.
———
One quarter mile and half mile.
Direction of wind,
straight or revolving.
Revolving.
Oo.
sa
Eat e Ge
23\8 |4 |s E|2
S5.| 5 ie id Met Cniias
Roly |se)s5 Elles
Salsa les is-| Ss iss
eg\e"|e-i8 | g\o7
55/53 5 5 Shs
Z2a|4Z a 4 a |e
1
33
224) 105] 235. 31
13
21 |
91! 26 90 17
21
49) 5 i
41 z
53 6
5
34 =I
13 os
faecs 3
6 11239] 215 533 223
Remarks.—The extreme length of storm, properly speaking, is
sixteen miles, the effects from Kawrapakur to Anundpore (four
miles) being slightly felt.
* There appears to have been two villages of this name in different districts.
76 = Destructive Distillation of the Sulphate of Ettherine.
Arr. VI.—On the destructive Distillation of the Sulphate of
Eitherine or heavy Oil of Wine; by Cuarx Hang, of Phila.
Wuen the oil of wine is subjected in a retort, to a temperature
sufficiently high, a receiver refrigerated by snow and salt being
fitted to the beak, there passes over not the oil itself, but the yel-
low liquid which is obtained with the acid of a similar refrigera-
tion, in the process for forming the sulphate of etherine, by the
reaction of sulphuric acid and alcohol. This yellow liquid* con-
sists of a combination of sulphurous acid and ether, called by
Dr. Hare, who first described it, sulphurous ether, which boils
below 30°, holding in solution a small quantity of the heavy oil
of wine, which, by the formation of other more volatile com-
‘pounds, has escaped decomposition.
‘This experiment is interesting as proving that ether may be
formed from the sulphate of etherine, as well as the sulphate of
etherine, from ether; and thus adding a new link to the chain
which connects these two compounds. It may also perhaps serve
as the ground on which to base some theoretical speculations, on
the phenomena which attend the reaction of sulphuric acid and
alcohol, when subjected to the process of distillation.
According to the theory of etherification, which refers the
phenomena attendant on this reaction, to the formation and de-
composition of sulphovinic acid, the production of ether has been
ascribed to the tendency of this acid when heated, to resolve it-
self into its constituent parts, sulphuric acid, and ether. But
there has been some difficulty in understanding how, when the
process is pushed a little further, such large quantities of sulphu-
rous acid should accompany the ether, while the sulphate of
etherine, which one might, from the composition of sulphovinic
acid, have anticipated as the principal product, is formed in quan-
tities so small, as to appear rather the result of some accidental
play of affinities, than of a regular decomposition.
‘The composition of sulphovinic acid, has been variously stated
as 25°'+H+2H,, and 2 8:°:+E-+H,, while for that of the sul-
phate of etherine, we have had given S°*+-E-+H, and 28°"+2
K--+H. In the following remarks founded on the writings of
* This liquid has been designated as the ethereal sulphurous sulphate of ether-
ine, by Dr. Hare.
Destructive Distillation of the Sulphate of Etherine. 77
the European chemists, except so far as they are based on the
partial conversion of the sulphate of etherine, into sulphurous
ether by distillation, which I believe to be new, I shall assume as
true, that one of the formule given above, which supposes pre-
sent in each compound an atom of water for each atom of sul-
phuric acid. The explanation which I shall offer, will however
be still more applicable on the other view of the composition of
these substances.
It may easily be understood, that at the commencement of the
operation, while pure ether is alone given off, the sulphovinic acid
separates into one compound atom of etherine and water, one
atom of hydrous sulphuric acid, and one atom of the same acid,
which would be in the anhydrous state, did it not immediately
unite with an atom of alcohol or water. But it might have been
anticipated, that as the operation advances since the other substan-
ces present are continually diminishing, while the sulphuric acid
is increasing in quantity ; a period will finally arrive, when if
more than one atom of that acid were to leave the etherine, it
would no longer find any thing else, with which to combine ;
and that consequently, the sulphovinic acid, instead of separating
into two atoms of sulphuric acid, and one of ether, would at this
stage of the process, yield one atom of the same acid, and one of
sulphate of etherine. Instead however of obtaining the heavy
oil of wine in the receiver, in large quantities, replacing the ether,
which ought according to the theory thus rapidly sketched, no
longer to be evolved; we find there a yellow liquid, consisting of
sulphurous acid and ether in a state of partial combination, hold-
ing in solution a small quantity of the sulphate of etherine.
As it now, however, appears, that this same yellow liquid is
produced, when the sulphate is subjected to the process of distil-
lation, we may believe, that the result indicated by theory, really
takes place, the sulphovonic acid 2S::-+2 H:+E actually sepa-
rating; with one atom of aqueous sulphuric acid $:+H-, and
one of sulphate of etherine S:"+H:+E. The latter being unsus-
ceptible of distillation will then as I have shown, afford by its
decomposition the yellow liquid which we find actually pro-
duced.
This theoretical view is very much strengthened, by the fact,
that the sulphate of methylene which distils per se without al-
teration, is almost the sole product of the reaction of pyroxylic
78 Abstract of a Meteorological Journal.
spirit and sulphuric acid, under circumstances precisely similar to
those in which sulphate of etherine is produced in such small
quantity. We may therefore conclude, from the close analogy
which exists between the reactions of pyroxylic spirit and alco-
hol, that the sulphate of etherine is in the retort, the sole product
of the decomposition of the sulphovinic acid, as the sulphate of
methylene is of the sulphomethylic acid ; but that being unlike
the sulphate of methylene, incapable of distillation, it yields as a
result of its decomposition, the substances which we actually
obtain.
Arr. VIL—Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year
1838, kept at Marietta, Ohio, Lat. 39° 25’ N., and Long. 4°
28’ W. of Washington City; by S. P. Hitpreru.
THERMOMETER. s BAROMETER.
5 S8
S So
Months. piaalig a |S | Prevailing winds. :
Sybille Se a ge |g
eee le ele lee a lay We
Bp eee Dal rier Slee eee) OP pes (ewe A ee ee
January, |34.85)70) 6/64) 22) 19 2/12) s., s. w.e N. 29.85|29.12) .73
February, |20.86)43|-10|53} 17) 11) 1\79 W., N.W. & N. 29.68|28.65)1.03
March, 45.48/83) 10/73) 21} 10) 2/25 S$. W.& N. 29.65/28 98) .67
April, 48.64/84| 24/60) 19] 11) 4/45) N.w.,N.,8.5. 29.62)/29.00) .62
May, 55.51/85} 32/53) 14) 17) 5,71) ~— N. w.,N.,S 29260/28.88} .72
June, 70.94\83) 49]39) 21) 10) 6/92) s.,8. Ww. & Ss. 5. 29.53|29.00| .53
July, 76.33)95| 61/34) 26] 5) 0/96) 8s. w., w., N. w. 29.64/29.28] .36
August, 75.42/96) 56/40] 29} 2) 3/50) N., N. w.as.w. 29.65129.30) .35
September, |63.91/90| 38/52) 27) 3). 1133 N., N. E., Es 29.68129.33] .35
October, |48.76)80) 28/52! 20} 11! 1195) N. w., N. E.,s. E. 29.85}29.00) .85
November, |38.62|63) 10/53) 17] 13) 3/42) w., N. 5.,S.5., 8. 29.95|28.90}1.05
December, |28.15)52! -9|61) 15} 16} 1|08) ss. w., w., N. w. 30.00/23.80) 1.20
Mean, {50.62 35/48
Remarks on the year 1838.
In reviewing the changes of the past year, we find it marked |
by several striking peculiarities. In it we find greater extremes
of heat and cold, drought and moisture, than noticed in any other
for a long period of time. ‘The mean annual temperature is con-
siderably below that of this climate, being only 50.62; which
we should consider remarkable, when we remember the great
heat and dryness of the summer months. ‘The excess of caloric,
Abstract of a Meteorological Journal. 79
was, however, more than balanced by the cold of the winter and
spring months. The mean temperature of the four seasons is as
follows. It will be proper to remark that in estimating the win-
ter of 1838, I take in December of 1837, which properly belongs
to this winter. To have the seasons correctly united, the mete-
orological year ought to begin with December, in the place of
January, which gives a portion of two winters to the year, instead
ef an undivided one. .
Winter months 30.42. | Spring months 49.87.
Summer months 74.23. Autumn months 50.43.
Some portion of the winter, was remarkable for its severity,
especially the month of February, the mean of which is lower
by several degrees than that of any other for more than thirty
years past. ‘lhe mercury was below zero on a number of morm-
ings, and for the whole month it rose above the freezing point in —
the middle of the day, only on seven days. The mean for the
month is 20.86. ‘The spring months were cold and wet; espe-
cially May, more than half the days of which were cloudy or
rainy. Vegetation was very backward, and at the close of the
month, the Indian corn, which was only three or four inches high,
was white, and nearly as destitute of color as plants which grow
in the dark. 'The mean heat was five degrees less than that of
1837. In June the weather became warmer, but was still very
wet. arly in July the rains ceased, and it became hot and dry,
so that there fell in this month less than an inch of rain. In
August, the heat still-continued, accompanied by severe drought,
which was felt from the western side of Ohio, easterly to the
foot of the Green Mountains in Vermont. The mean heat of the
summer months, was five degrees greater than that of 1837. In
September, the heat and drought continued until the twenty sec-
ond of the month, when there fell a little more than one inch of
rain. After this period, the weather was cooler. October was
cold and dry, being five degrees below that of last year. Novem-
ber was the same, and ten degrees lower, being only 38.62 for
the month. In December the cold increased in the same ratio,
showing a mean for the month, of 28.15, and on the last day of
the year in the morning stood at nine below zero. The dry
weather still continued, and in place of the periodical, annual
rains which fall at the winter solstice, with far more certainty —
than at the equinox, we had only a thin coating of clouds for a
80 Abstract of a M eteorological Journal.
day or two, with the wind southerly, when it changed to W. N,
W., and continued to blow from those same dry points of the
compass, as it had done for the last five months. The Ohio
river, which rose a few feet early in November, soon fell again to
the same low stage which attended it during the summer, and
was finally closed by ice as early as the sixth of December. The
amount of rain for the year is 35.43, inches, which is about
seven inches less than the mean for this region. The diminu-
tion in quantity, however, has not been so much the cause of the
excessive drought which has distressed the whole western country,
as its distribution. ‘Two thirds of the whole amount fell in the
first half of the year, when the weather was comparatively cool,
leaving the hottest portion, and the autumnal months, with a very
scanty supply.
Effects of the drought.
All the crops which depend on the summer months for their
growth, suffered exceedingly. Amongst these, the potatoe, felt
the ill effects most seriously, especially as great heat, as well as
drought is very injurious to this valuable vegetable. In most fields
there was an entire failure, and the common price of twenty or
twenty five cents per bushel rose, to $1 and to $1 50. Indian corn
on the hill lands was also a failure; but in the old rich bottoms,
yielded a good crop. In new rich lands, there was a large growth
of stems and foliage, but not a bushel of ears to the acre, the
drought stopping the filling out of the grains. Beans failed in the
same way. Wheat, oats, and grass, ripening earlier in the season,
afforded good crops. Pastures were dried up in August, so that
some farmers began feeding their cattle and horses with hay early
in September. The streams, springs, and wells of water, became
greatly reduced, so as to occasion, in many places, much incon-
venience in procuring a supply for families and domestic animals.
The water mills, which in common years furnish flour and meal
to the inhabitants, were silent; and many farmers had to carry
their grain fifty or more miles, to mills worked by steam power.
Another serious evil has also arisen from the drought; nearly all
the salines in the west are located on navigable streams, and de-
pend on the water for the transport of the salt to market. The
low stage of the rivers prevented its removal in any large quanti-
ties, until the winter closed the navigation, thus disappointing the
-. On Meteoric Iron. 81
manufacturers of its sale, and greatly enhancing the price to con-
sumers of the small amount within their reach. ‘Traders on the
rivers cannot transport the produce of the country, nor the mer-
chant receive his goods, either from up or down stream, causing
a great scarcity and rise in the price of groceries, especially that
of Orleans sugar, which has for some years past nearly supplied
that old fashioned, but delicious article, maple sugar. As a con-
sequence of the drought, there has been a rise of nearly fifty per
cent. on all the articles of food, or the actual necessaries of life in
Ohio. However trivial the subject of meteorology may appear to
some persons, we have practical evidence of its relation to all the
comforts, if not the very existence of society. A predominant di-
_ rection in the course of the winds, for several months in suc-
cession, may produce and has produced very serious results to a
whole region of country. In Ohio, nearly all our rains are
brought by the southeasterly, southerly, or southwesterly winds;
while a dry state of the atmosphere, as generally attends the
westerly, northwesterly and northerly. For the last six months,
the prevailing winds have been from these quarters, and we can
safely infer that this has been a prominent cause in producing the
late drought.
January 10, 1839.
Arr. VIII.—On Meteorite Iron from Ashville, Buncombe county,
N. C.; by Cuartes Upuam Sueparp, M. D., Prof. of Chem-
istry in the Medical College of the State of South Carolina.
A spEcIMEN of supposed native iron was lately presented to me
by Dr. J. F. E. Harpy, for examination, accompanied with the
observation that it was not completely soluble in acids. It
weighed between nine and ten ounces; and had been detached
from a rounded mass nearly as large as a man’s head, which mass
was found loose in the soil, about five miles west of Ashville vil-
lage, near the southwestern base of an elevation of land, five
hundred feet high. It was the opinion of Dr. Harpy that other
masses existed at the same place.
The shape of the specimen in hand, evinces a distinct crystal-
line structure, approaching that of a flattened octahedron. Its
surface presents a dissected, or pitted appearance, occasioned by
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 11
82. On Meteoric Iron.
the removal of portions of the external lamin during its separa-—
tion from the original mass. The cells and cavities are perfectly
geometrical in shape, being either rhomboidal, tetrahedral, or in
the figure of four sided pyramids. Indeed, the resemblance of the
mass in this respect to that of an imperfectly formed crystal of
alum, is very striking.
It requires the application of numerous and powerful blows to
disengage fragments from the specimen. The hammer slightly
indents the surface ; and at length loosens sections of the external
laminee, which may be detached by the aid of a forceps. Their
shape is commonly that of an acute rhomboid, considerably flat-
tened in its dimensions; but they are capable of an easy division
into regular Seeeteans and tetrahedrons, whose exactness of
form rivals the cleavage-crystals of fluor. Some of the plates will
separate into leaves nearly as thin as mica, which substance they
even resemble in color, (being silver-white, inclining to steel-
grey,) and are slightly elastic, though when twisted up, they re-
main as a piece of thin iron would do under the like circumstan-
ces. ‘The shape of the thinnest fragments is as regular in outline
as the layers of the most highly crystalline fluor; and are deli-
cately striated in every direction, in accordance with the octahe-
dral cleavages.
Prior to the separation of any fragments, the surface of the spe-
cimen did not afford the metallic lustre; but was coated witha
thin blebby pellicle, apparently of hydrous peroxide of iron.
Those surfaces which have been recently developed, lose their
silvery grey lustre in the course of a few weeks, but without any
sensible attraction of moisture from the atmosphere.
Its specific gravity varies from 6.5 to 7.5; indeed, one fragment
mounted as high as 8. This diversity of results is no doubt de-
pendent on the compression of the fragments, produced during
their separation from the specimen.
Analysis.
A. Fragments of it were treated with nitro-hydrochloric acid.
The action was feeble until heat was applied, and afterwards less
striking than with metallic iron, or even with the native terrestrial
iron of Canaan,* (Ct.) A dark clove-brown matter remained after
some hours of continued digestion, troubling the transparency of
the solution, and forming also a distinct sediment at the bottom.
* See this Jour. Vol. x1v, p. 183, for Prof. Shepard’s notice of this iron —Eds.
On Meteoric Iron. 83
Acid was accordingly added in excess and the digestion renewed,
but apparently without diminishing the bulk of the insoluble mat-
ter. It was therefore permitted to subside, and the supernatant
fluid becoming clear on the following day was removed.
B. The insoluble matter was washed, dried, and examined
with the microscope. The greater part of it was in the condition
of an impalpable powder, while the remainder was in minute,
iuregular shaped’ blackish-grey grains. The whole was ground
perfectly fine in a mortar, and again treated with nitro-hydrochlo-
ric acid. After a long continued digestion, it diminished about
one half in bulk, leaving the balance of a light chestnut-brown
color, precisely resembling silicon. 'The solution obtained was
found to contain only iron. ‘The brown powder was fused along
with hydrate of potassa in a silver crucible; water was affused,
and the solution subsequently treated with nitric acid. A trans-
parent solution was instantly formed, from which ammonia threw
down floceuli of silicic acid, colored by peroxide of iron. A solu-
tion of potassa was now added, and the peroxide of iron separated
by the filter. The clear liquid was rendered acid. a second time ;
after which the addition of ammonia threw down white flocculi
of silicic acid.
C. The clear nitro-hydrochloric solution, A, first treated with a
solution of hydro-cholorate of ammonia, was cleared of its iron by
ammonia, whereupon the fluid assumed a pale blue tinge. It was
brought to the boiling point, and precipitated (in a close vessel)
with potassa. ‘To the remaining fluid was added, after the sep-
aration of the oxide of nickel by the filter, hydrosulphate of am-
monia, which occasioned a slight precipitate. It was separated
from the fluid, and examined before the blowpipe, but it simply
afforded the reaction of oxide of nickel.*
D. To a portion of the solution A was added lime water, freshly
saturated with chlorine. - No precipitate followed, from which we
infer the absence of manganese in the meteoric iron.
* In an experiment conducted as follows, a clear indication of cobalt was ob-
tained. The iron had been separated from a solution of the ore. The precipitate
by potassa from the hydrochlorated solution, together with the concentrated fluid
from which the oxide of nickel had been thrown down, was mingled with a por-
tion of the silicon to which potassa had been added, and the whole fused together
in a silver crucible. The well known color of smalt was constantly produced
when the crucible was withdrawn from the fire, just at the moment when the
mass was passing from the fluid to the solid state.
84 -On Meteoric Iron.
E. About two hundred grains of the minutest divided iron was
fused for upwards of an hour with its weight of nitrate of potassa.
Water was affused, and to the clear solution, saturated with acetic
acid, acetate of lead was added. A copious precipitate ensued,
in which a distinct straw yellow tinge was observable, and must
have been occasioned by the precipitation of a trace of chromate
of lead, (along with the chloride and sulphate of the same metal. )
F. Toa solution of the meteoric iron in nitric acid, nitrate of
silver was added. It occasioned an immediate precipitate, pro-
ving the presence of chlorine. ‘This element was also rendered
quite apparent by testing in the other method practiced by Dr.
Jackson, (to whom belongs the merit of having first detected it
in meteoric iron,*) viz. by mingling a solution of nitrate of silver
with water which had been boiled upon fragments of the iron.
G. The nitric solution, F, also became slightly clouded by
chloride of barium, proving the presence of sulphur in the me-
teoric mass.
H. Through the nitro-hydrochloric solution, A, was transmit-
ted a current of hydro-sulphuric acid gas, which simply occa-
sioned a cream colored cloud from the precipitation of hydrated
sulphur. Its yellow tinge led to the suspicion of arsenic, but chlo-
rate of potassa did not develope a decidedly green tint in the ori-
ginal nitro-hydrochloric solution, A.
It is proper to add that the proportion of chlorine set down in
the following analysis, was derived from heating to whiteness in
a small closely covered platina crucible, two grammes of the iron
in small fragments, the protochloride of iron being volatile at a
white heat. ‘The sulphur, chrome, aud cobalt being present only
in traces, no attempt was made to ascertain their relative pro-
portions.
Tron, § - - - - - 96.5
Nickel, - = - - 2.6
Silicon, - - - - 5
Chlorine, - - - - ‘2
Chromium,
Sulphur, :
Cobalt, in traces.
Arsenic?
99.8
Charleston, (S. C.) Dec. 26th, 1838.
* See this Journal, Vol. xxx1v, p. 332.
Analysis of Warwickite. 85
Arr. IX.—Analysis of Warwichite; by Cuartes Upnam Suep-
arp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of
the State of South Carolina.
In proposing the Warwickite as a new mineral species in a late
number of this Journal, (Vol. xxx1v, p. 313,) I remarked that I
should avail myself of a distinct crystal of the substance, belong-
ing to my mineralogical collection here, for obtaining a more cor-
rect knowledge of its chemical constitution. 'The results of the
“proposed inquiry are embraced in the following notice,
The crystal referred to was nearly two inches long, by one
third of an inch in diameter, and imbedded in white magnesian
limestone. It was presented to me by Dr. Horron, and is ticket-
ed Amity, which town adjoins Warwick, where the mineral was
-first discovered.
‘The specimen in hand affords but indistinctly the metallic re-
flections, so striking in the smaller crystals from Warwick. Its
diagonal cleavages also are less distinct. The color is grayish
-brown, approaching to black. ‘The crop-cleavage is very obvious,
and is oblique to the axis. Lustre, imperfectly metallic, in which
respect it resembles columbite and some varieties of rutile. Sp.
gr. — 3.0...3.14. Hardness = 6.0.
Its powder is of a chocolate-brown color, which during ignition
changes to purplish black; and the mineral loses during the pro-
cess 8 p. c. in weight—the particles afterwards cohering together
in a a porous mass.
1. On being treated in powder with sulphuric acid in a platina.
crucible, it slowly swells up and emits bubbles of hydrofluoric acid
-gas.. he application of heat causes a brisk effervescence ;. and
on holding a plate of glass over the capsule, it is distinctly cor-
roded by the acid vapor. A little water was added and the diges-
tion maintained for half an hour, when the whole of the powder
had suffered decomposition, having passed through various shades
of purple and gray to a pale, yellowish white. On adding more
water and boiling, the whole was taken into solution.
2. A portion of the clear sulphuric solution 1, was farther dilu-
ted and boiled, whereupon it threw down titanic acid in large
quantity.
86 S Analysis of Warwickite.
3. A portion of the solution 1, was treated with tartaric acid,
‘neutralized with ammonia, and examined for lime and ile i
without the detection of either.
4. A portion of solution 1, was precipitated by potassa, and the
precipitate treated with a solution of the same agent. The clear
fluid, on being separated from the insoluble matter by the filter,
was boiled with hydrochlorate of ammonia, which produced only
a faint troubling of the fluid, prowng that a trace of alumine was
present.
5. The insoluble matter, after digestion in solution of potassa
4, was agitated repeatedly with a solution of carbonate of ammo-
nia in a close vial. The clear fluid, after many hours standing,
was withdrawn by a dropping tube and boiled. It threw down
a yellowish white precipitate, which was separated by the filter
and ignited. No glow, like that evinced by zirconia, was observ-
able during the process. ‘The powder was redissolved by hydro-
chloric acid, without difficulty, excepting a few particles of titanic
acid. Its solubility subsequent to ignition showed that it was not
thorina, while its white. color proved it not to be the oxide of
cerium. It was therefore considered as yttria, although the tinc-
ture of nut-galls threw down from its hydrochloric solution an
orange red precipitate of titanium, evincing that traces of titanic
acid had also been.taken up by the carbonate of ammonia.
6. A portion of the neutralized solution 3, was tested for man-
ganese by the chloride of lime, without affording any indication
of that metal. Another portion was treated with hydrosulphate
of ammonia, which gave a black precipitate. It was separated
from the fluid, and fused with borax before the blowpipe, whereby
the reaction of iron was obtained.
7. A portion of the mineral was fused with anhydrous _carbo-
nate of soda, supersaturated with acetic acid, and tested with ace-
tate of lead for phosphoric acid, which acid was not detected.
Examination was also made for silicic acid, but with the like
result.
Having thus ascertained that the ingredients of the mineral are
fluorine, titanium, iron and yttrium, with a trace of aluminium, I
proceeded as follows to determine their relative proportions: The
yttria in the sulphuro-tartaric solution was precipitated by tartrate
of potassa, although it was found impossible to obtain it in this
way, entirely unmixed with titanic acid. Another method of
Analysis of Warwickite. 87
separating it was tried, by first throwing down the titanic acid
from a dilute sulphuric solution by ebullition, and then precipita-
ting the oxide of iron and yttria by potassa, and subsequently
withdrawing the yttrious earth from the iron by carbonate of am-
monia; but this process equally failed—titanic acid being also’
mingled more or less with the potassic precipitate: and I am
obliged to confess that I do not regard the proportion of yttrium in
the compound as yet determined with precision, although I con-
sider its presence as unessential to the mineral. The iron was
separated by succinate of ammonia. ‘To estimate the titanium,
the increase of weight in the mineral during its oxidation by stile
phuric acid was noted, and found to be 13. 2 on 48 parts. The
peroxide of iron and di-sulphate of yttria, (this being the suppo-
sed state of the iron and yttrium of the mineral after digestion in
sulphuric acid and ignition, ) were deducted from 61.2, which left
54.67 for its titanic acid. But 54.67 of titanic acid contains 32.9
of titanium. ‘The iron which corresponds to the quantity of the
peroxide obtained equals 3.5; and the yttrium answering to the
di-sulphate of yttria 0.4. Upon the supposition that the titanium,
the iron, and the yttrium are each combined with half an atom
of fluorine, we make up the original quantity submitted to analy-
sis, with the fractional excess only of 0.99, on 48.00 parts. We
have therefore in 100 parts of the mineral,
Titanium - - - 64.71
Tron - ~ - - 7.14
Yttrium - - - 80
Fluorine - - s-.2F 33
Aluminium, a trace.
e
ee
99.98
If we regard yttrium as adventitious, Warwickite is a compound
of twelve atoms of di-fluoride of titanium and one of di-fluoride of
iron. The formula is 12 Ti Fl + Fe FI.
Charleston, (S. C.) January 12, 1839.
88 Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America.
Arr. X.—WNotice of the Thermal Springs of North America,
being an extract from an unpublished Memoir on the Geology
of North America, read to the Ashmolean Society of Oxford
University, Nov. 26, 1838, and now inserted in this Journal,
by permission of the author, Dr. Cuartes Davseny, Profes-
sor of Chemistry and Botany in the University of Oxford.
TuermaL Warers.—In the State of New York, twenty miles
east of Albany, near the Shakers’ village of Lebanon, occurs a
spring possessing a constant temperature of 73° Fahr.
It emerges from the junction of talcose slate, with an impure
schistose limestone, containing though scantily, organic remains,
namely, five species of Fucoides, trilobites, &c. There is a
fault in the vicinity of the spring. This thermal water has been
frequently analyzed, but nothing of importance has been detected
in its composition ; it emits copiously bubbles of gas, which I col-
lected on the spot, and found to contain no trace of carbonic acid,
but to consist of nitrogen 89.4, oxygen 10.6. In the same
chain, as we proceed into the State of Vermont, we meet with
one or two other slightly thermal waters, as at Williamstown, in
Massachusetts, and at Canaan at the foot of the Green Mountains.
I am disposed also to consider the carbonated waters of Ballston
and Saratoga, which lie about fifty miles to the northwest of
Lebanon, as slightly thermal, for by reference to the table pub-
lished by the Regents of New York University ; it will be seen,
that Schenectady, the nearest post to these springs, at which ob-
servations are recorded, and situated a little to the south of them,
possesses a mean temperature of only 46.20° Fahr.
I found at Ballston one of the springs to be 50.5, and the
other 49.5; and at Saratoga, the new Congress 49.5, Hamilton
Spring the same ; and Congress Spring 51. At both these local-
ities, gas was given off, consisting chiefly of carbonic acid, but
containing, after this had been removed in the usual way, a re-
siduary portion of air, in which nitrogen and oxygen were both
present, but with an excess of the former, as compared with the
proportion existing in the atmosphere.
The next Groupe of thermal waters I shall notice is, that which
occurs in Virginia, and here I am indebted to Professor William B.
Rogers, for directing my attention to the geological structure of
Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America. 89
the country, immediately bordering upon these springs, which I
found to be strikingly corroborative of the views I had some
time ago announced, with respect to their being a general con-
nection between the occurrence of thermal waters, and extensive
disturbances or dislocations of the strata adjoining them.
In the midst of the beautiful mountain region of Virginia,
west of the Blue Ridge, but in that part of the chain which at-
tains the highest elevation, and the most picturesque character, is
situated an assemblage of mineral waters, which from their repu-
tation as medicinal agents, as well as from the purity and cool-
ness of the air which surrounds them, attract every summer from
all parts of the Union, and especially from the southern sections
of it, crowds of persons in search either of health or amusement.
Several of the most noted of these seem to possess the ordinary
temperature, and to owe their efficacy to the sulphuretted hydro-
gen with which they are impregnated ; such are the white, the
red, the blue, and the salt Sulphur Springs.
The three former derive their distinctive appellation from their
color, which is owing, probably, to the difference in the nature of
the Confervee, that grow in them, and impart their respective hues
to the water; the latter, designated as the salt, from the presence
of a larger proportion of common salt than is contained in the rest.
One, “the Sweet Spring,” is strongly acidulous and slightly
thermal, but two others which appear to possess no remarkable
mineral impregnation, are designated by the names of the Warm
and Hot Spring, from the more or less considerable elevation of
temperature which belongs to them.
The Warm Spring I found to possess a heat of 96° Fahr. ; the
Hot Spring one of 102°; whereas the mean of the climate ap-
pears to be about 56°.
Both Springs emitted bubbles of gas, in considerable abund-
ance of which I collected samples.
That from the Warm Spring was found to contain six per cent.
of carbonic acid, ninety four per cent. of nitrogen, and only six
of oxygen; that from the Hot Spring varied a little, according to
the source from whence it was taken ; the gas obtained from the
ladies bath, consisting of eleven per cent. carbonic acid, ninety
eight per cent. nitrogen, two per cent. oxygen; and from the
men’s bath, eight per cent. carbonic acid, ninety six nitrogen, and
four oxygen. ‘These proportions are computed, on the assump-
Vol. xxxvr, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 12
90 Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America.
tion, that an expansion of two per cent. takes place in nitrogen,
after phosphorus has been heated and volatilized in the vessel
that contains this gas.
Now both the above springs lie at a distanee of about three
miles, one from the other, in a valley, the direction of which is
nearly north and south, and it may be seen by reference to the
section, which Professor William B. Rogers has appended to his
Geological Report of the State of Virginia, that they are situated
exactly at the anticlinal axis already alluded to.* And on exam-
ining the rocks. on both sides of these springs, wherever the na-
ture of the country allowed of my exploring them, I found every
reason to place reliance on the correctness of his representation.
To the west of the Hot Spring, the more southern of the two
thermal waters a!luded to, the rocks become more and more in-
clined towards the west, as they approach nearer to the spring,
until at length in its immediate vicinity, they assume an almost
vertical position.
- Immediately surrounding the spring which issues from the bot-
tom of the valley are vertical beds of a blue fossilliferous lime-
stone, which is called number two, by Professor Rogers, being the
lowest but one of the rocks incumbent on those of the Blue
Ridge, which are included in his series.
A very compact sandstone used as a freestone succeeds, then
beds of clay slate teeth) and afterwards an highly james
sandstone.
Up to this point, the rocks are inclined at so high an angle,
that they may be regarded as vertical, and in consequence of being
so near the axis of the movement, they are often contorted and
much disturbed. Further to the west, however, they are suc-
ceeded by strata of sandstone, conglomerate, limestone and
clay slate, dipping at a gradually decreasing angle of inclination,
and this continues until they become nearly horizontal.
On the east of this spring, the density of the forests is such as
rendered it impossible for me to obtain any knowledge of the
mineral structure of the subjacent rocks, but this desideratum
was supplied by following the road running to the east of the
Warm Spring, which, as I have already stated, lies in the same
valley.
_ *In the former part of the paper whichis not contained in our present number.
—Eps.
Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America. 91
Here, as we ascend the so-called Warm Spring mountain, we
observe the very same rocks, successively presented to us, which
we had seen to the west of the Hot Spring, equally vertical in
the immediate neighborhood of the spring, dipping in the reverse
direction, at a high angle, farther to the west, and at length sub-
siding to a moderate inclination, at a still greater distance from
the axis of elevation.
Such are the particulars, which were originally communicated
to me by Professor Rogers, and which I had myself the satisfac-
tion of verifying on the spot; and I am the more pleased in com-
municating them, as they supply another, and that a striking ex-
ample, in addition to those I have adduced from other parts of
the globe, of the connection of Thermal Springs with great phys-
ical disturbances.
To these particulars I may add, that the Sweet Spring, the
only other instance of a thermal water which this country exhib-
its, is situated, according to Professor W. B. Rogers, in a locality
which evinces a considerable disturbance in the strata, as is rep-
resented in the section appended to his Report.
In Buncombe County, North Carolina, in the midst of a moun-
tainous region, occurs a thermal water, possessing a temperature
of 125° Fahr.
The rock from which it gushes, according to Professor Van-
uxem, is the calciferous sand-rock, the earliest member of the
Silurian system, or that resting immediately on the primary.
The layers of the rocks are very irregular, more or less vertical,
and of a white color, but at a little distance to the west, they
present the blue color common to the rock where the lime is in
excess, and clear, well defined lines of separation dipping to the
east.
The calciferous with the primary rocks to the east form a syn-
clinal (qu. anticlinal) line, as is the case near the Hot Spring of
Virginia.
To the west of the Alleghanies, in the State of Arkansas, at a
distance of more than two hundred miles west of the Mississippi,
not far from the river Washita, is another group of thermal waters,
which I took occasion to visit in the course of the last spring.
They are very numerous, bursting out from the side of a steep
acclivity which they have in process of time incrusted over with
a thick coating of stalagmitic matter. It is remarkable that the
92 Notice of the Thermal Springs of North ercorted
travertine which the springs formerly deposited, is different in-
color and appearance from what they produce at present; the for-
mer being dark looking, and containing a portion of iron, as well
as calcareous matter ; the latter quite white, and consisting en-
tirely of carbonate of lime.
The springs vary considerably in temperature, the hottest being
148°, the coolest 118° Fahr., according to my observations.*
They contain very little mineral matter, a pint evaporated to
dryness, yielding no more than 1.8 grains; of this one half was
carbonate of lime, and ith of a grain, silica) The rest was
chiefly common salt, but there was a mere trace of sulphuric acid,
when the water had been much concentrated. One of these
springs deposited an ochreous precipitate, and gave indications of
iron when tested. 'The remainder were entirely free from that
ingredient.
Most of the springs emitted bubbles of gas, which according to
my experiments, consisted of carbonic acid, 4 per cent., nitro-
gen, 92.4, oxygen, 7.6.
The rock which forms the basis of the hill, from which the
thermal springs of Washita issue, isa blueish fissile clay slate,
dividing into nearly vertical lamine. Incumbent upon it, how-
ever, are beds of chert, quartzy sandstone, and flinty slate, from
the junction of which, with the clay slate, the springs appear to
gush out.
The prevailing rock, however, in the neighborhood of the
springs, so far as my observation extends, is quartz-rock, some-
times assuming the character of whetstone slate, and in one local-
ity (situated within a few miles of the springs) quarried for houses,
but constituting a part of the sane extensive formation, which 1
have represented myself as having followed from Little Rock in
Arkansas, to St. Louis in Missouri.
The chain is regarded by Geographers, as a branch of the
Ozark mountains, and is the first elevated land met with on pro-
ceeding westward from the Mississippi, though its greatest height
is probably not more than 500 or 600 feet above the river. ‘The
only circumstance connected with this range of hills, which can
throw any light upon the origin of the thermal waters, that issue
* They are stated, however, in Silliman’s Journal, as rising as high as 154° or
156°.
Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America. 93
from it, is the breaking out at their foot, near New Madrid, of that
tremendous earthquake, which in 1812, caused the permanent
submersion of a considerable tract of land near the Mississippi,
now converted into an extensive swamp. Such is the depth to
which this tract has been submerged, that nothing but the sum-
mits of the trees, I am told, are seen standing above the surface
of the stagnant morass.
A slightly thermal spring which goes by the name of Mud:
Creek, exists in the same parallel as that of New Madrid, and at
a distance of not many miles from the submerged tract in ques-
tion.
Such are the principal particulars I have been able to bring to-
gether, either from personal observation, or from information sup-
plied me by others, with respect to the thermal waters existing
within the limits of the United States of America. The variety
of such phenomena, when the extent of country is taken into ac-
count, as well as the unfrequent occurrence of acidulous or carbon-
ated waters, might be anticipated from the unfrequency of earth-
quakes, the regularity of the rock formations, and the absence of
trap rocks from so large‘a portion of the continent.
Nevertheless, the occurrence of afew such springs in the midst
of the Alleghanies, and elsewhere, seems to show, that volcanic
operations are going on ina covert and languid manner, under-
neath certain parts of that range.
To these operations, acting formerly with greater intensity,
may perhaps be attributed the uplifting of the chain itself, as well
as the vertical and disturbed condition of the strata round about
the anticlinal line, whereas at present the same forces only man-
ifest their existence by imparting a higher temperature to a few
of the springs, which burt out at this point, and possibly also in
causing the emission of volumes of sulphuretted hydrogen, and
carbonic acid, which impregnate others within a certain distance
of this axis of elevation.
94 Experiments on two varieties of Tron.
Arr. XIl—Hzperiments on two varieties of Iron, manufactured
from the Magnetic Ores at the Adirondack iron works, Essex
County, N. Y.; by Watrrr R. Jonnsoy, late Professor of
Mechanics and Natural Philosophy in the Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia.
Tue portion of the State of New York, bounded eastwardly
by lakes George and Champlain, northwardly by the Canada line,
and northwestwardly by the river St. Lawrence, embracing the
counties of Warren, Essex, Hamilton, Clinton, Franklin, and St.
Lawrence, appears from various representations to be peculiarly
rich in the magnetic ores of iron. We may refer in particular to
' Mr. Redfield’s account of his exploring visits to the northern
sources of the Hudson,* and to Messrs. Hall and Emmons’ Geo-
logical Reports relative to that part of the State of New York.
Mr. Hall observes, that “ about a mile north of the inlet of Lake
Sanford,” (the site of the Adirondack works, at the settlement
called McIntyre,) “in the bed and on both sides of the stream, -
is a bed of ore, which cannot be much less than five hundred
feet wide, and in all probability, far exceeds that breadth. ‘This
bed, with one or two minor ones on each side of the stream, has
been traced for three fourths of a mile in a northerly direction,
and probably continues much farther southerly, as the great num-
ber of boulders and angular fragments of ore lying on the surface.
and imbedded in the soil, seem to indicate. Some of these boul-
ders of ore cannot weigh less than three tons.+
This ore, it appears, occurs in beds and not in veins, since it
lies “‘ parallel to the direction of the mountain range, and, when
in gneiss, parallel to its apparent stratification.”
Mr. Emmons considers{ that the beds at this place “ are parts of
a belt of an iron formation, which extends southwesterly through
the wilderness to the town of Chamont, in St. Lawrence County,
and that all along the line connecting those places, many beds re-
main to be discovered. No one of these beds of iron may be equal
to those of Missouri; still, put together, there is a much greater
quantity of it, and more advantageously distributed.”
* Am. Journal of Science, Vol. xxxu1, p. 303, Jan. 1838.
t First Geological Report of New York, Feb. 1837, p. 131.
¢ Second Geological Report of New York, Feb. 1838, p. 223.
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 95
The ore is stated to be in immediate connexion with a primi-
tive rock, the chief ingredient of which is, Labrador feldspar.
Two varieties of ore were received accompanying the two
kinds of iron here referred to.
The first variety of this ore is of a granular, but rather com-
pact structure, color of fresh fractures deep black, and shining ; that
of weathered surfaces reddish brown, owing to the formation of
a lttle peroxide. Its specific gravity is 4.2322.
The second variety has a compound structure, being in part
amorphous, and in part crystalline. The color is a brownish
black, except that of the crystalline portions, which is jet black.
Its specific gravity is 4.6636. From this ore, both specimens of
the iron were produced, but their difference consisted chiefly in
No. 1 being wrought at a higher temperature than No. 2.
The locality of these ores, and the site of the iron works, is
about forty five miles westward from Lake Champlain, between
Lake Sanford and Lake Henderson, which are one mile apart,
and according to Mr. Emmons’ barometrical measurements, it is
at an elevation of one thousand eight hundred and eighty nine
feet above tide water. The north branch of the Hudson, in the
distance of this one mile, has a fall of about one hundred feet.
The method of manufacture is by calcining the ore in kilns,
breaking up and separating the purer parts by revolving magnets,
reducing these parts to a malleable state in a forge fire, and draw-
ing the loup out under a common tilt hammer into bars, ready for
the market. This, or a similar method, is likewise pursued by
the Peru Iron Company, at Clintonville, and at other works in
Clinton County, in which about three or four thousand tons of
malleable iron are manufactured per annum.
The appearance of the two varieties of iron, when received,
was in some respects different. The structure of No. 1 was the
more compact and fibrous, that of No. 2, more granular and crys-
. talline, as indicated at the ends where the bar had been cut off
with the cold chisel. No. 2 also exhibited two or three dark
seams running along it longitudinally, and indicating less perfec-
tion in the welding than would be desirable.
Experiments on Specimen No. 1.
To ascertain the toughness and ductility of this iron when
cold, I caused the bar to be bent at a temperature of 50°, ata
96 Experiments on two varieties of Iron.
part where the breadth was 1.295 inches, and the thickness .59
inch. ‘This bend was made flatwise, and continued until the cor-
responding faces on the inside at about one inch from the middle
of the inner curve, were .4 of an inch apart, and the widest part
of the opening only .45 of an inch.
The alteration in the form of the bar appeared to be limited to
this portion. On measuring along the interior and exterior edges
of this curved part, the former was found to be 2.15, and the lat-
ter 3.8 inches, manifesting a difference in the length of the inner
and outer fibres of 1.65 inches in about 24 the original length of
the bent portion.
By this kind of trial, the whole form of the cross section of
a bar is changed, and, instead of straight lines, exhibits only
curves. In the present case, the parallelogram, Fig. 1, was con-
verted into the form of the curved Fig. 2, the largest curve be-
ing on the inside of the bend. This change of figure and dis-
placement of parts, was borne without exhibiting any signs of
rupture, until the degree of curvature above stated had been at-
tained, when a few cracks began to appear on the exterior part
of the bend.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
9
1.295.
The next test to which this iron was subjected, was to heat a
portion of the bar to redness, quench it in cold water, and then
bend the same portion cold, in the manner already described.
No difference of result was obtained, except a greater facility in
producing it. A few slight surface cracks were seen near the
close of the operation.
A third trial of a similar kind on a bar annealed and cooled in
dry ashes, resulted like the preceding, but exhibited rather more
cracks on the exterior surface of the bend, than either of the fore-
going.
Another trial of the toughness of this iron when cold, was
made by drawing out a bar .7 of an inch wide, .18 inch thick,
and 5.4 inches long, and twisting it cold, in the manner of a
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 97
common twisted auger, twice round, in the length just speci-
fied. 'The edges of the spiral were now exactly 7 inches long.
Hence the elongation of the exterior fibres on the edges was
aps =29.6 per cent. It is proper to state, that this experiment
was made after annealing the bar and cooling it off in dry ashes.
In attempting to carry the torsion beyond this extent, the bar was
twisted off at the jaws of the vice, in which the operation was
performed.
Having thus proved that this iron is not, under any circum-
stances, cold short, I caused the bar, 1% inches wide and .6 inch
thick, to be heated to a fair working red heat, and in that state
bent flatwise over the corner of an anvil, and a right angle exte-
rior and interior to be formed, #th of an inch from the end. The
exterior angle remained perfectly sound. On the interior, a thin
scale only of metal appeared to be corrugated and partly detached
from the rest of the mass, owing probably to a defect in weld-
ing, but not the least sign of a tendency to fracture was discov-
ered.
Another portion of the same bar was heated as before, and 3
inches of it bent over and hammered flat upon the face of the ad-
jacent part. Complaints are made by workmen, that much of
the iron which they employ will not sustain either of the two
preceding operations. 'They were, however, borne by the iron
under trial without evincing any weakness or undue distortion of
parts. A slight splintering only, similar to that just mentioned,
and on the same side of the bar, was seen in the last case.
A third test of the quality of the iron when hot, was afforded
by heating about three inches near the end of the bar and driving
a steel punch four fifths of an inch in diameter quite through it.
This was done without splitting or cracking it at the edges, as is
too often done in making screw nuts. Machinists are well aware
of the importance of a good material for the formation of screw
bolts and nuts.
The foregoing trials having, as was conceived, fully established
the freedom of this iron from the defects known either as hot
shoriness or cold shortness, and its softness and malleability being
amply tested by the cutting and hammering incident to these ex-
periments, the next step was to determine the absolute force of
cohesion, together with the extensibility, when subjected to lon-
Vol. xxxvr, No. 1.—Jan—April, 1839. 13 \
eae Experiments on two varieties of Iron.-
gitudinal strain, and the interior structure of the metal under va-
rious circumstances, including that of eto mn. the ordinary
way.
For this purpose fie bars were drawn out and prepared froma
the specimen already described, numbered I, II, IIL, IV, and IX,
each about nine or ten inches long, one inch wide, and a fifth of
an inch thick.
No. I, after being reduced to a nearly uniform size throughout
its length, was annealed at a red heat and allowed to cool slowly
in the air. |
No. II, was hammer-hardened, or beaten with moderate force
throughout its length until it had been for several minutes black,
the hammer being occasionally moistened during the process.
No IL, was forged out and hammered till it was only visibly
red in day light, being left at about the temperature at which
workmen cease their operations on many of the articles which
they produce.
No. IV, after being brought to uniform size, was ribald for about
three inches in the maidale: and was then annealed and cooled
slowly.
No. [X, was drawn out, cut in two in the middle and welded
together. ‘This sample was only six and a half inches long.
All these bars were then carefully gauged, both in breadth and
thickness at every inch of their lengths, before commencing the
trials of tenacity. The machine employed in testing them was
the same which had been used in experiments made at the re-
quest of the Treasury Department on the strength of materials for
steam boilers, and for a description of which the reader is re-
ferred to the report on that subject.*
The following table will be understood without any other re-
mark than that the breaking weights, in the fifth column, are cor-
rected for the friction of the machine. The specific gravities of
several of the fragments of each bar after it had been broken up,
are given under the head of observations, and may serve as well
to illustrate the general character of the iron in this respect, as te
indicate the effect of the several methods of preparation on the
density of iron.
* See also, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. xix, p. 84.
No. |
’ of | State of
the | the bar.
bar.
I.
be
II.
(73
iy4
Iil.
:
Upset
in the
centre
and an-
nealed.
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 99
TABLE I.
Experiments on the tenacity of Iron in specomen No. 1.
Com-
pletely
anneal-
experi-
ment.
ed.
Ham-
mer-
hard-
ened.
Ham-
mered
till
nearly
black.
Welded
Ix.
and
ham-
mered
till dull
red.
HO Oe
Wt
He 09 0D Ht
Ol 02 0
Area of
section
before
trial in
square
inches.
1890
1929:
1954
1986
2036
2007
1980
.2019
.2000
1983
2151
2163
2213
.2086
£2233
.2316
2282
2304
Breaking |Strength
weight in| in lbs.
Ibs. avoir-| per sq.
dupois. inch.
10175. | 53820
10288. | 53336
10345.5 | 52945
10874. | 52235
'10972.5 | 53941
'11029.5 | 53614
12967.5 | 65492
13053. | 64650
13399.75| 66998
111970. | 60363.
12454.5 | 57919
12768. | 59029
12910.5 | 58339
13110. | 62847
13623. | 61007
13737. | 59313
15162. | 66441
15561. | 66104
Observations. A
Length before trial, 10 inches—af-
ter trial, 13.5; total elongation of all
the fragments, 35 per cent. Specific
gravities after trial, 7.685, 7.676,
7.668 ; mean = 7.676. After the
Ath fracture the area of section was
1064 inch, instead of .1986 as at
first—diminution = 46 pr. ct. Mean
strength of this bar, 53311—great-
est difference, 170 lbs. — 3.2 pr. ct.
of the mean.
Length before trial, 9} inches—
after trial, 11 inches—total elonga-
tion, 20.5 per cent. Specific gravi-
ties after trial, 7.769, 7.756, 7.779;
mean = 7.768.
Mean strength, 65713—-greatest
difference, 2348 lbs. = 3.5 per cent.
of the mean.
Length before trial, 94 inches—
after trial, 124—total elongation,
28.94 per cent. Specific gravities
after trial, 7.760,7.778, 7.662; mean
= 7.730.
After the 2d fracture the area of
section at the point of fracture was
.1176—-diminution, 45.2 per cent.
Mean strength of this bar, 58.912—
greatest difference, 2444 lbs. — 4,15
per cent. of the mean.
Length before trial, 9 inches—
after trial, 11.2—total elongation,
24.44 per cent. of the original length.
Speeiie gravities after trial, 7.813,
7.731, 7.754, 7.634; mean = 7.733.
Mean strength, 63142—greatest dif-
ference, 7128 lbs. —11.2 per cent.
of the mean. The last two results
belong to the upset portion of the
bar. The thickest part of the upset-
ting remained however unbroken.
1845
10773. | 58395
Broke outside of the welding—
the strength is about the same as in
No. III.
The foregoing experiments confirm the evidence already ad-
duced, of the great toughness and ductility of this variety of iron.
Besides the facts mentioned under the head of observations in the
seventh column, we may add that after the first fracture of each
bar a measurement was taken between two of the inch marks still
100 Experiments on two varieties of Iron.
remaining on one of its parts, and the following results obtained, —
Viz. No. I, in original length of 6 inches had been elongated .87 in. = 14.5 pr. ct.
3 il, 6c 6b 4 Oh Re «sé OT Ai 2 a 13
66 Il, (73 be 5 iT 73 6 — 12 (73
“IV, ¢e & 4 ¢ j 7: SO GO ane
To compare this iron with others, it is proper to assume bar
No. III, as the standard, that having been hammered till of a dull
red heat. 'The report already cited furnishes us with abundant.
data derived from experiments made with the same machine, on
other kinds of bar iron in a similar state. Thus we have,
3 Tbs. per sq. in.
Iron from Salisbury, Conn., by a mean of 40 trials possessing a strength of 58.009 -
a Sweden, - es 4 « a: 58.184
OB Centre Co. Pa., a ogy = 58.400
os Lancaster Co. Pa., ie Py sds 4 58.661
fs McIntyre,Essex Co. N.Y.(asabove) 4 “ 42 58.912
“ England, cable bolt, (EB. V.) Bynes te 59.105
a Russia, a oe uf 76.069
Hence it appears that the last only is essentially superior to the
Adirondack iron. These are among the best varieties of bar iron,
in point of tenacity. The second class will be mentioned below.
The fracture of No. I, is of a light gray color, has a silky lustre
and generally displays a compact structure. It is worthy of re-
mark that most of the fractures took place in directions oblique to
the line of tension, and making with it, either in the breadth or
thickness, one or more angles of about sixty degrees each.
The fibrous structure of the metal was very marked in cutting
with the cold chisel, and was further developed by acids on a
part of the bar No. III, on the surface of which delicate lines
were shown traversing a distance of several inches. ‘The specific
gravity in the annealed state appears to have been increased 1.2
per cent. by hammer-hardening.
Experiments on specimen No. 2.
‘This was a bar one inch square and about two feet long. . It
was first bent cold, till incipient fracture appeared on the outer
edges of the curved portion, which took
place when the two limbs had approach-
ed so as to make an angle of 30° with
each other. ‘The exterior fibres in the
part to which the change of form had
been confined, were then found to have
vec, Ae 7 vs
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 101
a length of 7.43 inches, while those on the inside had but 4.8
inches. The difference 2.63 inches is to be attributed to the
combined influence of compression and elongation of the interior
and exterior fibres. By measuring and marking bars before and
after bending them, such differences may under certain restric-
tions be employed as means of determining the positions of neutral
axes. Changes analogous to those already observed in the form
of the cross section, were also remarked in the present instance.
The next trial was by turning a right angle when hot on a short
portion of the bar, and subsequently folding another part over flat
upon one of its faces. All the phenomena of developing curves
out of the square cross section were beautifully exemplified, and
the soundness of the iron when thus tested at a red heat, incon-
testably proved. A short portion of this inch-square bar was next
heated to a fair working/temperature and perforated with a punch
five eighths of an inch in diameter. No signs of cracking on the
sides or splitting longitudinally were observed.
Four bars were then prepared, in all respects similar to the first
four taken from specimen No. 1, and respectively treated in the
same way preparatory to a trial of their tenacity.
The bar marked V, was completely annealed.
cf tf VI, “ hammer-hardened.
a Re VII, “ hammered till cooled to a dull red heat.
a «VIII, “ = wpset in the middle and annealed.
As the upsetting of No. VIII, had of necessity increased the
thickness of that part to which the operation was applied, care
was taken to reduce by filing, the cross section in the middle of
the upset portion, to less than that of the rest of the bar, in order
to insure a fracture in metal actually in that state. The trials on
No. IV, had led to the supposition of an increase of strength by
the process of upsetting, contrary to an opinion entertained by
some practical men. Experiment No. 2, on bar No. VIII, in the
following table, in which the fracture took place at the filed
section, gives not only the highest result on that bar, but also
higher than any other obtained from this variety of iron, except
those derived from the hammer-hardened bar, No. VI, and conse-
quently confirms our previous deduction.
102 Experiments on two varieties of Iron.
TABLE II.
*
Experiments on the tenacity of Iron in specomen No. 2.
Area of ae B ss
0. No. of section | Breaking |Strengt :
of | Stateof | the , before |weight in| in Ibs. Obserwationss.
the | the bar. jexper-. trial in jlbs. avoir-) per sq~ | ————__=
bar. iment-, square | dupois. inch. Length before trial, 104 inches;
| inches. ___|__| after trial, 14.2—total elongation 38.5
V. | Com- | 1 | .2097 | 9946.5 | 47425 | per cent. Specific gravities after
«| pletely| 2 | .2121 |10146. | 47836 | trial, 7.680, 7.440, 7.670; mean =
“ lanneal-| 3 | .2131 |10146. | 47836 | 7.596. Mean strength of this bar,
4 | .2132 | 9975. | 46785 | 47328 ; greatest difference, 1080 lbs.
ce 5 | 2237 10459.5 | 46756 | —2.3 per cent. of the mean.
Length before trial, 10 inches; af-
“ in the
1
2 2242 |11542.5 | 51484 7.827, 7.592; mean = 7.739. Mean
20 center 3
4
5
.2317 |11913. | 51415 | strength, 49.311 ; greatest difference
2430 |11941.5 | 49141 | 4148 lbs. = 8.4 per cent. of the
.2513 |11856. | 47178 | mean. The experiments 1, and 5,
on parts not at all upset, conform
very nearly to the mean of the an-
nealed bar No. V.
« Jand an-
se | nealed.
VI. | Ham- | 1 | .2295 |12169.5 | 53026 | ter trial, 12—total elongation 20 per
“| mer- | 2 | .2226 12283.5 | 55182 | cent. Specific gravities taken after
“¢ jharden-| 3 | .2202 12682.5 | 57595 | trial, 7.608, 7.700, and 7.718; mean
ef ed. 4 | .2302 13081.5 | 56826 | — 7.675. Mean strength, 55657 5
greatest difference, 4569 lbs. = 8.2
; per cent. of the mean.
Length before trial, 10 inches; af-
VII. | Ham- | 1 | .2195 |10659. | 48560 | ter trial, 12.6—total elongation 26
“| mered| 2 | .2233 10687.5 | 47861 | pr.cent. Specific gravities after trial,
ltoadull) 3 | .2154 |10801.5 | 50146 | 7.654, 7.709, 7.712; mean = 7.692.
ad red 4 | .2159 |10858.5 | 50294 | Mean strength, 49215; greatest dif-
heat. ference, 2433 lbs. = 4.9 per cent. of
the mean.
Length before trial, 94 inches ; af-
ter trial, 12 3—total elongation 32.9
VIII.) Upset .2318 |10972.5 | 47336 | per cent. Specific gravities, 7.800,
The elongations observed after the first fracture on each bar,
were as follows:
No. V, in an original length of 6 inches, had been elongated .9 inch. = 15 per ct.
&e VI, 6c 6c 5 6“ 3 66 — 6 ce
ce Vil, (73 ce 5 ce ce 8d “eo — 17 “ce
“ VIII, &c ee 5 6 ¢e 55 ¢ cj], “
This variety of iron is thus seen to exhibit an extensibility by
this mode of trial, rather less than that of No. 1; the mean here
being for the four bars 124 per ct., and for the four bars of No. 1,
13.6 per ct. But on comparing the total elongations of all the
bars after fracture, we find, ,
From specimen No. 1. ~ From specimen No. 2.
No. I, gave 35. per cent. No. V, gave 38.5 per cent.
cee ie ese OOtD ee mean CTV AR Coe 20). ck mean
Co I 2S ae 27.2. SNE. 3? O20: te 29.3.
“IV, “ M4 « “VI, “ 329 «
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 103
From these two comparisons we may infer that there is but
little difference between the two kinds of iron in regard to exten-
sibility. From both modes of comparison, however, we are led
to notice the remarkable difference between the annealed and the
hammer-hardened bars. Thus by observing elongations after the
first trial, we have 14.5; 5 and 15: 6 for the ratios of extensi-
bility in the two kinds of iron; and by taking the total elonga-
tions, we have 35: 20.5, and 38.5 : 20 for the relations. This
is in accordance with what had been observed, while making ex-
periments on the strength of materials for steam boilers. The
difference in specific gravity between the annealed and hammer-
hardened bars, from specimens No. 2, is 1.01 per cent.
The iron now under consideration may be compared, in point
of tenacity, with American bar iron of the second class only.
Thus from the report before cited, we find, that bar iron from
Missouri, by 22 experiments, bore . 47,420 lbs. per sq. in.
That from McIntyre, by 4 expts. on
bar, No. VII, (as above) E ! AQ215 ee
That from ‘Tennessee, by 21 expts., 52,909 “ ef
a Baltimore, by 13 ‘ 55,213 © ie
Assuming the strength of specimen, No. 1., in each state in
which it was tried, asa standard, we find the following results of
a comparison between the two kinds of metal above examined,
viz.
53,311 — 47,328
Nos. I, and V, give Batis ome per ct. inferiority in
No. 2, when annealed.
65,713 — 55,657 ihe NO GeConaie
Nos. II, and VI, give Te Geman a ee per ct. inferiority in
No. 2, when hammer-hardened.
58,912 — 49,215 Renal aie
No. III, and VII, give — 53.912. = 16.4 per ct. inferiority
in No. 2, when hammered to dull red heat.
No. IV, and VIII, give “= 6g oe eke per et. inferiority
in No. 2, when upset and annealed.
And the mean difference is 16.15 per cent. in favor of No. 1, or
about one sixth of its total tenacity.
104 Experiments on two varieties of Iron.
The fracture of No. 2, presents less of the clear fibrous texture,
silky lustre, and uniform compactness, than ought to hermieceia
iron of the first quality.
A few general remarks seem worthy of attention in connection
with the subject of tenacity as presented by the above experiments.
The first is, that an the annealed state, different kinds of iron
more nearly resemble each other, in respect to strength, than in any
other condition. ‘This is verified by the last comparison in which
the difference between the two kinds, when annealed is seen to
be only eleven per cent; while in the other three conditions, it
varies from 15.2 to 21.9 per cent.
The second remark is, that in the annealed state, the same bar
has greater unifornuty of strength within itself than in any other
case. 'This is proved by comparing the greatest differences as
stated in tables I, and II, in the column of observations.
‘The two annealed bars are there seen to give for these differ-
ences between their highest and lowest results, 3.2 and 2.3 per
cent ; mean=2.75.
The two bars hammer- hardened, gave results, 3.5 and 8.2 per
cent; mean=5.85.
The two bars hammered to dull red heat, gave results, 4.15 and
4.9 per cent; mean=4.425.
The two “ae upset and annealed, gave results 11. 2 and 8.4
percent; mean=9.8.
The experiments on the annealed bars were, in both cases,
fully as numerous, as those on the same kind of iron in any other
state; and hence, other things being equal, ought to have pre-
sented, at least, equal discrepancies; while in fact, these are
scarcely more than one half as great as the least of the others,
and are less than one third as great in either kind of iron, as
those found in the wpset and annealed bars.
The third observation I would make, is that in upsetting part
of a bar, and subsequently annealing the whole of it, the differ-
ences in tenacity, between different kinds of iron, and between
the several parts of the same bar, are both at a maximum.
Thus the two varieties of iron, gave a difference of nearly
twenty-two per cent. from each other, and their mean diversity
for the same bar is 9.8 per cent. of its mean strength. This may
be satisfactorily explained only on the supposition, that upset-
ting iron éncreases its direct cohesion, since we know that anneal-
~
Experiments on two varieties of Iron. 105
ing alone diminishes it, while the structure is thereby rendered
more uniform. .
Our next remark is, that between the ordinary and the hammer
hardened state of No. 1, there is a difference in tenacity of 11.7
per cent. of the strength in the former condition; and that for
No. 2, this difference amounts to 13 per cent. The English ca-
ble bolt iron, above mentioned, manifested a difference of 20 per
cent., under similar diversity of treatment. The difference be-
tween the tenacity of No. 1, when annealed, and that when ham-
mer hardened, is 23.3 per cent. of the strength when annealed,
and for No. 2, this difference is 17.6 per cent.
Now as we have already proved, that hammer hardening di-
minishes the extensibility of a bar, it must follow, that stiffness
as well as strength, is essentially augmented by this treatment.
It may be further remarked, that by thirteen trials, the stronger
variety of McIntyre iron, had a specific gravity of 7.728, and by
twelve trials, that of the weaker kind was found to be 7.676, the
difference .6 of one per cent.—and that the mean specific gravity
of other kinds of bar iron formerly tried, was found by seventeen
trials to be 7.725. 'The Russian iron above mentioned, had by
the mean of ten trials on separate portions of the same bar, a spe-
cific gravity of 7.801, the highest being 7.8702, and the lowest
7.7586. These facts in connexion with the increase, both of
strength and specific gravity by hammer hardening, appear to fa-
vor, though perhaps they do not establish the supposition, that
whether from chemical constitution, or from mechanical treatment,
a deficiency in specific gravity, is an indication of inferiority in
the strength of tron. 1am aware of some apparent exceptions to
this rule.
In conclusion it may be observed, that the great amount of
much worse iron which finds its way into the American market,
will render even the McIntyre iron, No. 2, an object worthy of
the attention of the consumers of this article. But as a large
and increasing demand for good iron’prevails in the United States,
in proportion to the increase of finished and accurate machinery,
requiring superior materials as well as workmanship, there can be
no doubt, that any quantity which could probably be produced,
if possessing the properties of No. 1, would command a ready
market, and the best of prices.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 14
106 Description of a New Fossil.
Art. XII—Description of a New Fossil, (Calymene Buck-
land ;) by Joun G. Anruony.* ,
Cincinnati, February 5th, 1839.
TO PROF. SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir.—Havine within the past month discovered near this
place, another undescribed fossil, I herewith forward a description
to you, with a request that it may appear in the columns of your
Journal. .
Calymene Bucklandu. Anthony.
Cabinet of John G. Anthony.
Clypeo antice rotundato, sub-convexo, granulato et punctato ;
oculis minimis, remotis in lateribus capitis; tuberculis sex, dis-
tinctis, in lateribus frontis.
The buckler of this species is semilunate; the front sub-trian-
gular, and covered with granulations; the margin of the front is
thickened and rounded, that of the cheeks flattened out ; its pos-
terior raised rim running nearly parallel with the articulations of
the abdomen. The front has three nearly equal tubercules on
each side, placed in a deep furrow which separates it from the
‘cheeks; the eyes are very remote from each other, being situated
near the lateral angles of the cheeks. The cheeks form spherical
triangles covered with minute granulations, having small de-
pressed points among them. A narrow raised line passes from
the angle formed by the lip and margin, and is attached to the
oculiferous prominences, and a depressed line has an attachment
near it at the under part of each eye and passes over the anterior
margin.
The tail and part of the abdomen are wanting in this, the only
specimen yet discovered; eight articulations only remain. These
articulations possess a peculiar character, one which I have never
observed in any other species of Calymene; the costal arches of
the middle lobe although in reality separated from those of the
lateral lobes by a deep furrow, have the appearance of passing
beyond this furrow, and beeoming interwoven with them. 'The
lateral arches are nodulous.
* Read before the Western Academy of Natural Sciences, January 12th, 1839.
Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals. 107
This specimen is fossilized in grey limestone, the body con-
. tracted so that the buckler is nearly parallel with the back; this
has rendered two drawings necessary in order to give a represen-
tation of both the head and abdomen, each of which is charac-
terized by some peculiarities not common in this genus.
It is named after one, whose works on geology and fossil
organic remains, have given him an enviable station in the scien-
tific world. .
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Buckler of Calymene Bucklandii, Back of Calymene Bucklandii,
drawn by J. G, Anthony. drawn by J. G. Anthony.
Arr. XIIl.—WNotices of the Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and
other Minerals found in the vicinity of New Brunswick, New
Jersey ; by Prof. Lewis C. Becx.
AurnoueH many of the ores of copper are found quite abun-
dantly in various parts of the State of New Jersey, and extensive
mining operations evince the high expectations which have been
entertained of their value, I am not aware that any detailed de-
scription of them has been published. A brief and general ac-
count of them is given in Gordon’s Gazetteer of New Jersey,
and in Prof. H. D. Rogers’s report of the geological survey of
that State, made in 1836; and some of them are also noticed in
the general mineralogical works. Having been engaged at in-
tervals, for some time past, in studying the minerals found in the
vicinity of New Brunswick, and the copper ores of the State
generally, I propose to give the results of my observations and
analyses. I offer them, however, as mere notices, and not asa
complete account of these minerals.
Native Coprer.—Small pieces of this metal have been found
on the surface of the ground in various parts of New Jersey. In
the vicinity of Somerville, specimens weighing from five to ten
108 Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals.
pounds, have been obtained. The largest mass which has, to my
knowledge, been found in New Jersey, is now in the possession
of James C. Van Dyke, Esq., of New Brunswick. Its weight is
seventy eight pounds ; but a large piece has been detached, and
it is said to have weighed, when first obtained, one hundred and
twenty eight pounds. It was ploughed up by a farmer near
Somerville. On examining this specimen, pure metallic copper
is visible in various parts, but with it is intermixed the lead grey
oxide, and it is generally incrusted with the green carbonate of
copper. ‘There is also associated with these ores an earthy red
oxide in the form of a thin crust, and the cavities, which have
been formed by the partial decomposition which has taken place
on the surface, sometimes contain small quartz crystals. The
specific gravity of one of the purest masses of native copper, ta-
ken with considerable care, was 7.842; but in consequence of
the variable proportions of the oxide of copper which they con-
tain, scarcely any two specimens give the same results. In three
specimens the specific gravity ranged from 7.553 to 7.842.
A small mass of the purest native copper that I could obtain, _
was treated with nitric acid. It weighed 14.30 grains, and was
entirely dissolved by that agent, with the exception of a few mi-
nute particles, probably silica. ‘The solution was treated with
caustic potash, and boiled. ‘The black oxide of copper thus ob-
tained, when carefully washed to separate the potash and ignited,
weighed 17.95 grains, so that there can be no doubt of the mass
having been pure copper. Similar solutions of this mineral were
tested for the purpose of ascertaining whether any other metals
were combined with the copper; but none were detected.
The occurrence of the detached masses of native copper above
noticed, is not, however, so interesting as the vein or sheet of this
metal which is found in the city of New Brunswick. About fifty
rods nearly east of Rutgers College, a thin vein of this kind crosses
the red shale, which is here the prevailing rock. It sometimes
adheres so closely to the rock as to be with difficulty separated
from it. The thickness of the vein is from ;4th to 4th of an
inch; in regard to its extent, no certain information can be ob-
tained. It has, however, been traced for several rods; and I have
been informed, that previous to the American revolution, mining
operations were carried on here, and that a shaft was sunk which
extended for a considerable distance under the bed of the river.
Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals. 109
The specimens from this locality which I have seen, resemble
the copper of cementation. They are all malleable; but some
are much more so than others. Sometimes a thin plate of the
metal passes through the center, which is incrusted on both sides
with the oxide and carbonate, and a little adhering silica; while
at others, the metallic plate is on the outside. An average spe-
cimen was subjected to analysis, and gave the following results:
Copper, ‘= ~ - ~ 86.30
Silica, - - - - 2.55
Carbonic acid and oxygen, - - 11.15
100.00
Or metallic copper about 70, and oxide and carbonate 27.50, in
100 parts.
Rep Oxipe or Coprer.—lI have specimens of this mineral
from the Schuyler mine, the Bridgewater mine, near Somerville,
and from the immediate vicinity of New Brunswick. Some of
them have a lead grey color, and a high metallic luster, with an
imperfect crystallization. Others, and especially those from the
Bridgewater mine, vary in color from purple to brick red, have a
compact structure, and are nearly destitute of lustre. The pow-
der of all of them is reddish.
At New Brunswick, this oxide of copper occurs in thin veins
in the red shale, and is sometimes accompanied by native copper
and by the green and blue carbonates of copper. The color is
usually grey, the powder red, and, unlike the native copper, it is
brittle, and easily powdered in a mortar. The rock which is im-
mediately in contact with this mineral, is of a drab color, and ap-
pears as if it had been altered by heat.
The specific gravity of one of the best specimens that I have
obtained from this locality, is 4.758.. On being freed as much as
possible from the adhering rock, it was found to be composed of
Red oxide of copper, - - - 91.55
Silica, &c. - - - - 8.45
100.00
A specimen from the Schuyler mine, which was compact, and
had a brownish red color, had the following composition, viz.
110 Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals.
Red oxide of copper, - - 2 ee SBQG2-«
Silica, - ane Be - 17.41
Oxide of iron, - -— - “trace. °
99.93
But it is seldom that specimens of even this degree of purity
can be.obtained, and they are found only in small quantities.
Compound or CargBon AND OxipE or Copprr.—Associated with
the red oxide of copper, there is often found at New Brunswick a
dark earthy substance, which is quite friable, and is easily crushed
into grains between the fingers. But it sometimes also occurs in
separate veins of from half an inch to two inches in width. On
examining the mass with a magnifier, small black shining par-
_ ticles are seen diffused through it. At first I thought, from the
association, that they might be black oxide of copper; but upon
trial, I found the black particles to be carbon, probably anthra-
cite. When a portion of this aggregate is heated’ in the flame
of an alcohol lamp, it soon begins to glow, and it continues red
hot until a part of the carbon is consumed. ‘This, I suppose, is
owing to the oxygen of the oxide of copper. During the com-
bustion, no odor was observed. ‘Thrown into red hot nitrate of
potash, this compound burns, and loses about half its weight.
Heated to 300° or 400° F., it loses seventeen per cent. of- its
weight, which is probably caused by the driving out of the
water which it contains.
A portion of this substance, after being ignited, was treated
with nitric acid. The residuum, amounting to twenty five per
cent., was found to be silica. The solution was subjected to
the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, and to the clear liquor after
filtration ; ammonia was added to precipitate the = of iron.
The een is as follows:
Oxide of copper, - - - 17.50
Oxide of iron, - - - 5.00
Carbon, - - - - 35.50
Silica, - - - - 25.00
Water, - - - - 17.00
100.00
‘The carbon and silica being mechanically mixed with the ox-
ide of copper, the above proportions are very variable. Itisa fact
Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals. 111
of some interest, that so large a proportion of carbon should be as-
sociated in this manner with the ore in question ; nor can I con-
jecture by what decomposition it has been produced, unless by
that of the carbonate of copper, which may have originally ex-
isted in the rock in whicli this substance is found.
CarBonaTes or Coprer.—It has already been stated that some
of the specimens of native copper are incrusted with the green
and blue carbonates of copper. The most interesting locality of
these carbonates, however, is on the banks of the Delaware and
Raritan Canal, about a mile N. W. of New Brunswick. At this
point the strata of shale are nearly horizontal, and alternate with
a gray slate containing particles of mica.
In the cleavages and fissures of this slate, the blue carbonate is
found in the form of a crystalline incrustation. These crystals
effervesce, and are entirely dissolved in nitric acid. ‘The green
carbonate is sometimes associated with the blue. ,
This locality is near the bed of a ravine; and when it is re-
membered that the oxide of copper is very common in the rocks
of this vicinity, it will not be difficult to account for the forma-
tion of these carbonates, which J believe to be constantly going
on. Water, charged with carbonic acid, dissolves a portion of
this oxide, and whenever circumstances favor the escape of the
excess of carbonic acid, these salts are deposited. 'These min-
erals are manifestly the result of precipitation from an aqueous
solution; and in applying the above explanation, it is only ne-
cessary to admit that the carbonates of copper, by an excess of
carbonic acid, are rendered soluble in water.
BisiticaTe or Copper.—This mineral, which was formerly
often labelled phosphate of copper, was first correctly described
by the late Prof. George 'T. Bowen. It invests the impure ores
of copper found at the Schuyler, the Franklin, and the Bridge-
water mines; but it sometimes also occurs in small veins or
masses in the rock, which forms the gangue of these ores.
The color of this mineral varies from mountain green to a deep
bluish green. It is easily broken, and may be scratched by the
knife. Fracture, uneven, or somewhat conchoidal. Usually
opaque and dull, but sometimes translucent, and with a vitreous
lustre. When reduced to powder, and slightly heated in a pla-
tina crucible, it assumes a reddish color; but when the heat is
raised, it becomes brown or black. Before the blowpipe on char-
ae Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals.
coal it first becomes black, and on increasing the heat, the color
changes to red.
The analysis was performed by subjecting a portion of the
powder to a low red heat to expel the water. It was then mixed.
with about thrice its weight of carbonate of soda, and the whole
heated to redness in a platina crucible for upwards of half an
hour. 'The mass was dissolved in dilute muriatic acid, the so-
lution evaporated, and the residuum again dissolved in water,
slightly acidulated with the same acid, and this solution then fil-
tered. ‘The oxide of copper was thrown down by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and afterwards, the oxide of iron by ammonia.
The following is the composition of a specimen of this min-
eral from the Schuyler mine:
“Oxide of copper, - - - 42.60
Silica, - - - - 40.00
Oxide of iron, - - - 1.40
Water and loss, - - - 16.00
100.00
A specimen from the Bridgewater mine contained thirty seven
per cent. of silica. ‘The proportions therefore are subject to va-
riation ; and this will account for the discrepancy in the analyses
of Bowen, Berthier, and Kobell, noticed by Dr. Thomson in his
Mineralogy.
Gray SULPHURET oF Coprer.—This ore occurs at the Flem-
_ ington and Nashanic mines. It is massive, sectile, has a dark
lead grey color, and is sometimes in the form of roundish grains
in the slate rock. All the specimens that I have seen are exceed-
ingly impure. ‘The best one gave me the following results:
Quartz and silica, - - - 53.25
_ Copper, - - - - 38.75
* - Sulphur, - - - - 8.00
Tron, - Rae: Sete - - trace.
100.00
Copper Pyritrs, ok YELLOw Copper Ore.—This mineral
occurs massive at the Flemington mine, but I have found it only
in very small quantities. It has a brass yellow color, greenish
powder, and is a compound of the sulphurets of copper and iron.
Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals. 113
Such are the ores of copper, hitherto found in this part of New
Jersey. Although widely distributed, they do not occur in suffi-
cient quantity at any one locality, to render mining operations
profitable. Thousands of dollars have been expended in fruitless
researches, and other thousands will probably still be wasted in
the same manner, for in this business, the lessons of experience
seems to be of little avail.
I shall notice a few other minerals found in this vicinity.
SutpHate or Baryres.—In the slate on the banks of Law-
rence’s brook, about two miles southeast from New Brunswick,
narrow veins of a kind of ochreous clay, are sometimes observed.
In one of these veins, which was three or four inches wide, frag-
ments of crystals of sulphate of barytes have been found. They
are translucent, have a bluish color, and vitreous lustre. Specific
gravity from 4.422 to 4.447. By cleavage the primary form of
the crystal may be obtained.
About a mile west of New Brunswick, on the farm of I. C.
Van Dyke, Esq., there is another locality of the same mineral.
Some of the specimens are opaque, and havea yellowish color, with
a foliated structure. Others exhibit crystals of the primary form,
the right rhombic prism, which are translucent, and have a blu-
ish tint. But more frequently, they present folie, with two sides
of the primary, diverging from a centre, and gradually increasing
in width.
Fisrous Carsponate oF Lime.—This mineral occurs in the
strata of red shale, about half a mile above the rail road bridge
at New Brunswick. ‘The seams are from a quarter to half an
inch in thickness. ‘They are in some cases at right angles to the
strata, and at others paralled with them. The perpendicular
veins are either fibrous, or semi crystalline, like a plate of zinc.
The horizontal layers consist of delicate and almost silken fibres,
translucent, and of a bluish white color. Specific gravity 2.719.
Soluble in nitric or muriatic acid with effervencence.
As this mineral was supposed to contain carbonate of strontia,
I dissolved a portion of it in nitric acid, and evaporated the solu-
tion to drive off the excess of acid. ‘To a clear solution of this
salt in water, I added a saturated solution of sulphate of lime,
but no precepitate, nor even cloudiness resulted. ‘The sulphate
of lime employed in this way is, I believe, the most certain test
of the presence of strontia.
Vol, xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839, 15
114. Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals.
Mountain Learner.—A variety of this mineral, which from
its resemblance to horn, might be properly enough called mown-
tain horn, occurs in thin plates, associated with the native copper
and the oxide of copper at New Brunswick. It has a gray or
bluish white color, is composed of fibres, brittle, imbibes water,
and then becomes apparently more tender.
Small fragments alone, before the blowpipe curl up, and if the
heat is continued, melt into a white enamel or opaque glass.
These characters sufficiently distinguish this mineral from Abes-
\ tus, and from the Nemalite of Nuttall, to which it bears some re-
semblance.
I have also found in this vicinity, masses of the same mineral
of a more spongy texture, scarcely fibrous, and of a lighter color.
They resemble decayed wood. 'Their behavior before the blow-
pipe, is similar to that of the preceding variety.
Brrumen.—About two miles northeast of Somerville, there is
found in cavities in the slate rock, a variety of bitumen, which de-
serves to be noticed. It has the consistence of wax, and isofa black
or dark brown color. When heated to redness on a piece of pla-
tina foil, it burns with a yellow flame, emits a dense smoke, and
leaves a slight coaky residuum. It approaches more nearly to
the variety, called elastic bitumen, than any other, but it is softer
and is not elastic. My specimens have undergone no change in -
the three or four years in which they have been in my possession.
T make this remark because it has been stated, that the soft elastic
bitumen, by long keeping, becomes hard and brittle. The min-
erals of organic origin, allied to the one just noticed, have re-
cently been examined by Professor J. F. W. Johnston, and by
his able investigations, our knowledge of them has been greatly
extended. I regret, that the small quantity of this substance in
my possession prevented me from determining its other chemical
characters.
New Brunswick Tornado. P 115
Art. XIV.—WNote on the New Brunswick Tornado, or Water
Spout of 1835; by Prof. Lewis C. Brex.
TO PROF. SILLIMAN.
As some difference of opinion appears still to prevail concerning
the characters of the so called tornado, which passed through the
city of New Brunswick in 1835, perhaps you will do me the favor
to publish the following remarks. Having had, as I thought, a
good opportunity of observing it in its commencement and pro-
gress, I prepared a short account of it which was published in
several of the newspapers of the day. I subsequently collected
additional facts, and intended to have embodied them for publica-
tion in a more permanent form. But finding that I had adopted
views in regard to its character, entirely opposed to those of gen-
tleraen who had devoted themselves to these inquiries, I hesitated
and delayed, until I supposed little interest would be taken in the
subject. The discussions at the last meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, and Mr. Redfield’s paper in the last number of your valu-
able Journal, have led me however, to suppose, that the testimony
of an eye witness of this tornado may still be of some importance.
On the 19th of June, 1835, at about half past five o’clock in the
afternoon, while on board the steam boat Napoleon, then about
six miles from New Brunswick, (by the river, but in a direct line
not more than three or four miles,) one of my friends directed my
attention to a singular appearance in a northwesterly direction.
A very dense and low cloud stretched itself along for some dis-
tance like a dark curtain, which near the centre was dipping to-
wards the earth in the form of a funnel or inverted cone, and was
gradually uniting with another cone whose basis apparently rested
on the surface. At one extremity of this dark cloud was a smaller
one, having a flocculent appearance, which soon also became con-
ical in its form, but did not descend to the earth. These cones
seemed to have been formed by whirling movements produced
by currents of wind passing in opposite directions, viz. from the
northwest and south. In afew minutes the well defined char-
acter of these united cones was changed, and there arose a col-
umn, spreading at the top, and resembling a volcanic eruption.
A vast body of smoke, as it seemed, rose up and again descended,
producing a sort of rolling upward and downward movement.
116 - New Brunswick Tornado.
Presently the dense column was dissipated, and we could then
distinctly observe the whirling motion of the wind by the dust,
fragments of timber, &c., which were carried upward in its course.
Onward it swept with incalculable velocity, until another dark
and well defined cone was again formed, which remained sta-
tionary for an instant, and then again gave place to the eruptive ap-
pearance and whirling movement before mentioned. ‘Thus it
passed, distinctly visible, along the northern bank of the Raritan,
approaching in its course to within a mile of the boat. At this ~
point the whirling character* was very apparent, and may be
represented thus,
PO OOOOS
The alternations already described, continued, although much
less distinctly characterized, until the whole faded from our view.
On approaching New Brunswick, we witnessed the devastation
which the tornado had occasioned ; but it was in this city alone
that its mighty power was fully exhibited.
From inquiries since made there can be no doubt, that the
cone above described was formed about six or seven miles west
of New Brunswick, and that it remained stationary for some min-
utes. But when the second movement took place a dense cloud
overshadowed the city. Several intelligent persons have informed
me that slight, though distinct, explosions were heard. ‘The heat
of the air became oppressive, and volumes of smoke and even
flame, were thought to be issuing forth and rolling over in various
directions. Indeed, so general was this impression, that the
alarm bells were rung and the firemen hastened to their engines ;
but while all eyes were directed to the black and terrible column
which was approaching apparently towards the head of Albany
street, no one could fix upon the exact spot to which effort should
be directed. ‘This state of uncertainty, however, did not long
continue, for soon a tremendous wind rushed through the city,
and in an instant after, the dense column, which had been an ob-
ject of so much wonder and dread, stood on the opposite bank of
the river, as it were, rallying for another desolating march. |
* The direction of these whirls was the same as the hands of a watch; or from
the west round by the north, east, south and west.
New Brunswick Tornado. LEG
The course of the tornado from its supposed place of beginning
to New Brunswick, was a little north of east, in which direction
it continued to the village of Piscataway, about three miles dis-
tant, and which was almost totally destroyed; then inclining
somewhat to the south, it held.an easterly course, passing through
Perth Amboy and thence to the ocean. It terminated, as I have
seen it stated, by a fall of icé or hail and by a great commotion of
the water. ‘The fall of ice is said also to have characterized its
commencement; but on this point I have never been able to ob-
tain authentic information.
I shall add only a few remarks concerning the cause of this, at
least in our latitude, very remarkable occurrence. ‘The formation
of the inverted cone or funnel, so often mentioned, was undoubt-
edly produced by currents of air from opposite directions. But
whether these currents were caused by a vacuum arising from the
electrical discharges from the cloud, or whether the supposed va-
cuum was the result of these currents, it is difficult to determine.
But if this funnel may be compared to the tube which forms the
water spout, we may suppose that there was a current established
from the earth to the cloud. That there was an upward current
of this kind, is at least rendered probable, by many of the facts
which have been ascertained. Among these may be mentioned
the unroofing of those houses into which the air rushed through
the doors and windows, and the lodgment of these roofs nearly
in front of the houses to which they belonged. 'This upward
movement was distintly visible at a distance, and it was this
which caused the eruptive appearance already described. At the
same time there was also undoubtedly a whirling motion, to which
the destruction produced by the tornado is to be chiefly ascribed.
This motion, as I have already said, appeared to us from on board
the Napoleon, to succeed the upward movement and characterized
the progress of the tornado until it passed from our view. That
the tornado possessed this whirling character, was also abundantly
demonstrated by the appearances presented in New Brunswick
and its vicinity. According tomy measurement, its track through
the city was about three hundred yards; but the circle seems to
have been much larger where the cone was first formed, and on
the opposite side of the river the track seemed also to have been
wider. Near the circumference of the supposed whirls or circles,
was the line of the most destructive force of the wind. Several
buildings in their centres entirely escaped injury.
118 Bituminization of Wood.
I carefully examined the track of this tornado for nearly five
miles; that is, from Middlebush to New Brunswick, and thence
- onward on the opposite side of the river, and I must confess, that
I was greatly surprised when I saw it subsequently stated that
there was here no evidence of a whirling motion, but that the
“violence of the wind was produced by two currents making to-
wards each other, and having at the same time an onward mo-
tion.” Iam constrained to believe that had the facts been care-
fully examined without reference to a previously adopted theory,
- such an inference would never have been drawn from them.
Arr. X V.—Account of the Bituminization of Wood in the human
era, in a letter to Prof. Silliman, from Prof. Wu. Carpenter.
Jackson College, Louisiana, Dec. 18, 1838.
- Dear Sir,—In my last letter to you,* I mentioned a deposit of
bituminized wood at Port Hudson in this parish. At that time I
had examined the locality only, for a few minutes, and was mis-
led by appearances, as regards the extent of the deposit, and its
position relative to the bluff formation. I did not think at that
time, that the beds of bituminized wood extended under the beds
of the bluff formation, as I have ascertained is the case ; nor did
I think they were the ruins of extensive forests, as they undoubt-
edly are.
Figure 1.
High water Icvel, ess fo
QU a KG ae — AKK os
KW NK \ \
OO — 8
- (Lowavater ; 0 CCCCWORCC I.E SASS NN
IXQ\W UW AX AN WWWuwA
Figure 1, isintended to represent the bluff on which the village
of Port Hudson is situated. At the bottom of the bluff, and near
* Vol. 35, p. 344.
Bituninization of Wood. | 119
the level of high water of the Mississippi, may be seen a shelf
extending some distance into the river. The level surface of this
projecting shelf was covered by earth which had fallen from the
bluff, forming a kind of talus This superincumbent mass of
earth was removed in forming a new steam boat landing, anda
surface was exposed, covered with logs partly changed into a
glossy black coal, and with many stumps standing erect where
they had evidently grown. The logs and branches found on
this surface were very much flattened, some portions of them be-
ing very soft, while the remainder was in various degrees bitu-
minized. Many bore the marks of the axe so distinct as to be
recognized without hesitation by all who examined them. This
circumstance misled me, and induced me to consider the deposit
as much more recent than, as will be hereafter seen, it really is.
The axe marks must of course be, comparatively recent, though
they were evidently made before the change in the wood com-
menced. From the data obtained during my first hasty and su-
perficial examination, I concluded, that the deposit was a small
one, formed by the Mississippi, and resting against the clay of the
bluff, which I supposed to present a face somewhat similar to the
line, w y.
I was led to give the locacity a more careful examination, from
being told by those who had been long acquainted with the place,
that the bluff had within their recollection, retreated very consid-
erably, and in fact, a field which is said to have extended more
than four hundred yards back from the edge of the bluff, has
almost disappeared, by falling into the river beneath, which is
evidently encroaching rapidly at this time in consequence of a
strong current setting against the bank at this point, situated as it
is in the lower part of a considerable bend, which the river makes
here.
I will now proceed to give, in a manner as condensed as_pos-
sible, a statement of the result of a more thorough examin-
ation.
Figure 2, represents a section of the bluff.
No. 1. A layer of reddish sandy clay which forms the sub-soil
in this region.
No 2. A bed of sand of variable thickness, in which water is
obtained, by sinking wells to it in various parts of the adjoining
county. It often contains, and sometimes lies between beds of
120 - Bituminization of Wood.
quartz pebbles, which bear the marks of shells, encrinites, favos-
ites, asterias, &c. ; and there are often associated with it, lumps
or sometimes large masses of soft and bright red clay, without
grit, of the kind usually found accompanying veins of lead ore,
in the western country ; thickness 10 feet.
Figure 2.
High water
ee
“Ss
=
\
SS VAS
No. 3. A bed of bluish clay intermixed with a little sand, 22 ft.
No. 4. A very thin layer of vegetable matter, consisting of
small sticks, some of which are flattened and bitumanized. ‘This
bed sometimes vanishes and re-appears at short intervals. Its
thickness though varying, may be set down at one inch, —
No. 5. A bed of fine-grained aluminous clay, of a deep blue
color, which seems to have a tendency to break into blocks of ir-
recular cubic or prismatic forms, on account of thin septee or lam-
inee of a ferruginous brown color, which traverse it in various di-
rections. Reniform concretions are also formed in this clay,
which, when they first fall out, have the color of the clay, and
seem to differ from it only by being a little harder. After being
exposed for some time, they present the appearance of being
worn by running water; their surface becomes of a deep brown
color, but if broken, they will be found as light colored within,
as the clay in which they originated ; if exposed long enough,
the brown color pervades every portion of them. ‘These chan-
ges no doubt depends on the decomposition of some compound
. Bituminization of Wood. 121
of iron, which perhaps gives the blue color to the clay ; thickness
20 feet. ;
No. 6. A thin, but continuous layer of indurated ferruginous
clay of a nature similar to the nodules, presenting, when perfectly
indurated, and particularly when weathered, a texture exactly
similar to the red shales of the Alleganies, but without any sign
of cleavage ; thickness from one to two inches.
No. 7. A bed of clay, similar to No. 5, but of a somewhat
deeper color, and having a similar tendency to produce the uni-
form concretions spoken of above ; thickness ten feet.
No. 8. A bed of vegetable matter, containing logs, branches,
é&c., lying horizontally, and often so much flattened as to have a
diameter six or eight times as great in one direction as in another.
They are in various degrees bituminized, and softened; some be-
ing transformed into beautiful coal at one extremity, all appear-
ance of woody fibre being obliterated, and consisting of wood at
the other so soft that it is easy to crush a stick as large as the arm
between the fingers. The logs thus softened, are often cov-
ered with thin bark, and look as fresh as if just fallen. The
largest logs, when reduced to this state, can be cut through with
the spade without difficulty ; and wherever they projected a very
short distance from the bank they break off square, presenting
the same appearance as if they had been sawed off. In no case
did I perceive the least sign of transformation into coal, when this
softening had not taken place. On the surface of this bed, which
was exposed by the removal of the earth which had fallen on it
from the bluff, I discovered, as has already been said, pieces of
wood, which were changed into perfect coal, bearing the marks:
of the axe. These have no doubt been brought there recently,
deposited on the denuded surface of the bed, covered by earth
from the bluff, and rapidly bituminized. They cannot of course
establish the age of the formation, and can only show how short
a period these changes sometimes require. Many stumps are
seen in this bed, standing erect, and sending their roots to consider-
able depth, in the beds below. The outer layers of these stumps
scale off when exposed to the atmosphere, the squamee being bitu-
minized, the internal parts retaining to some extent the properties
of wood. I could not satisfy myself as to the species of tree
to which these stumps belonged, but as no cypress stumps are
to be seen, it is very reasonable to conclude, that the growth
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.-April, 1839. 16
122 Bituminization of Wood.
was not that of our low swamps. The only logs satisfactorily
recognized by me in this bed, were those of the water oak (Quer-
cus aquatica) and of a pine, together with a great deal of pine
bark, and the strobiles of the Pinus teeda; thickness four feet.
No. 9. A bed of fine aluminous clay, similar to No. 5 and 7,
but of a color deeper than either, and having a greater tendency
to form the same kind of nodular concretions, which tend in this
bed to arrange themselves in a horizontal and linear manner ;
thickness twelve feet.
No. 10. A bed of vegetable matter consisting of sticks, leaves,
fruit, &c., arranged in thin horizontal laminee, with very thin
layers of clay interposed between them. 'There are a great many
logs lying horizontally. 'The fruit of this swamp hickory (Juglans
aquatica) is very abundant ; the nuts are found compressed, but
rarely changed into coal. ‘The burr-like pericarp of the sweet
gum, (Liquidambar styraciflua,) are also found, and occasionally
walnuts, (the fruit of the Juglans nigra,) are met with. The logs
found in this bed, are those of the cypress, (Cupressus thyoides, )
swamp hickory, a cotton-wood, (either the Populus angulata or
heterophylla,) and other trees peculiar to the low swamps of
Louisiana. A great number of stumps are seen standing erect,
and sending their roots deep into the clay beneath. 'These are
principally cypress of the large size, common in our swamps, the’
wood of the internal parts retaining much of its hardness and
strength, the outside only being softened or changed into coal.
These stumps are surrounded by the peculiar knobs or stump-
like excrescences, called cypress knees, found on the roots of
‘the cypress when growing in a submerged soil; and which
standing up from the soil, from one to three feet, or sometimes in
deep water, six or eight feet, give the area surrounding one of
these trees, the same appearance as would be presented if a oreat
many small trees had been cut, and their stumps left standing.
They differ however, from stumps, by having rounded tops, cov-
ered by asmooth bark. 'The forest of which this bed contains
the remains, was evidently composed of the same trees, which are
now the common growth on the new made lands of the delta of
the Mississippi. ‘The cypress is peculiar to swamps which are
subject to overflow, and the cotton-wood and swamp-hickory are
among the first tenants of the land, after it has risen, by succes-
sive annual deposition, from the overflowing waters of the Missis-
Sippl, alittle above the level of low water ; thickness three feet.
Bituminization of Wood. 123
No. 11. A bed of aluminous clay of a lighter color than those
above. As the low water level is only about two or three feet
below the upper surface of this bed, nothing is known respecting
its thickness, or of the nature of the beds beneath. ‘The strata
associated in this formation seem to have an order of conformable
superposition with respect to each other, and to dip southward, as
the second bed of vegetable matter disappears below the low
water level, about two miles down the river, but I have never
heard of their cropping-out in any place north of this. What
may be the extent of country underlain by these subterranean
forests, I have no data to judge from ; as no excavations have ever
been made in the neighboring country, deeper than the wells,
which go only as deep as the bed of sand, marked No. 2, which
rests on the blue clay, No. 3; and the only chance of obtaining
sections of any depth, is where the river is encroaching on the
bluff. This is not a very common case in this immediate portion
of country, as the line of bluffs is not generally very near the
river banks, but separated from them by an intermediate strip of
level, swampy land, sometimes several miles broad, the surface of
which is about as high as the high water level. A bed of vege-
table matter, very similar to the thin bed, marked, No. 4, is to be
seen projecting from high banks in the vicinity of Jackson, (four-
teen miles from Pt. Hudson,) and as its situation is the same as
that, relatively to the blue clay, it is probably continuous.
No remains of animals have yet been found in any of the beds
of this formation, although it is but reasonable to expect that they
will be found ; and I look forward in hopes that a deep cut, which
is to be made through the bluff for the passage of the railroad
which ends there, may afford better opportunities of becoming
acquainted with the contents of the deposits.
A circumstance perhaps worthy of some farther notice is the
peculiar soft condition of the wood, previous to flattening and
transformation into coal, as it may be the means of saving some
geologists the trouble of accounting for the enormous pressure
they have thought necessary to the production of this effect.
The fact that this state seems always to precede the transforma-
tion into coal, would appear to favor the opinion, which is per-
haps the prevalent one, that it is only during incipient decompo-
sition, and perhaps during this peculiar soft state, that the woody
fibre is ever replaced by any other kind of matter. If we adopt
124 “ Construction of Galvanic Magnets.
Dutrochet’s views with regard to absorption, &c., and make the
application of them to account for phenomena of this nature,
such a state would be, if not necessary, at least most favorable
to such processes.
I have given this long description of a formation which ap-
pears to me somewhat curious, in hopes that you may find some-
thing in it to interest you. I will not apologize to you for de-
scribing a kind of formation which is so far from being rare ; for
Zam well aware that in addressing you upon this subject, my
motives will be a sufficient apology.
Remark.—We should like to compare this bituminized wood
with well characterized lignite —Fds.
Art. XVI.—The Construction of Galvanic Magnets ; by Joux
B. Zazsrissre, M. D., of Flatbush, N. Y.
Many experiments are still wanting to establish the best pro-
portions of galvanic magnets, and the most advantageous mode
of using them; such as the best shape of the iron, the maximum
size of the bar, the relative weight and best form of the winding,
the most advantageous mode of communicating the galvanic cur-
rent to rotating magnets, &c.
That the shape of the iron used in constructing galvanic mag-
nets will tend to vary the result of their action, must be evident
upon reflection. If we take as an example a common horseshoe
galvanic magnet, the most active parts are the two extremities ;
and although every portion of the iron contributes its effect from
induction, still this effect is continually decreased until it reaches
the center, when it is reduced to nothing. If then we divide the
iron in a magnet of this description (Iig. 1,) into five equal parts,
the iron in A may be considered as nearly
inert, and that in B and C as more powerful,
but still far inferior in power to D and E. D =
The part A, may then be considered as near-
ly useless as far as its own original effect is }
concerned, and useful only by acting asa © Sis
bond of union between the two extremities
of the magnet by conduction. Any form of
Fig. 1.
A
Construction of Galvanic Magnets. 125
the magnet, then, which will diminish the weight of A, to that
quantity which shall be sufficient for the conduction of the mag-
netic power between the poles and enable them to react upon
each other, will prove of great advantage in the construction of
these magnets by diminishing the weight of iron while this
power remains the same. 'This has been partially attempted by
Mr. Davenport, who made the iron in his magnets rather thinner
near the center, and heavier at the poles. But the same effect
may be much more advantageously produced by giving the iron
the form seen in Fig. 2. 'T'wo straight pieces of iron,
Band C, are welded to a smaller flat bar A, which
is large enough to conduct the inductive effects of
the two extremities upon each other, and by being B ‘s,
much lighter than B and C, lessens the weight of.
the whole magnet. ‘There are several advantages
resulting from this form. The sides, B and C, be-
ing straight, are capable of being wound more evenly and more
compactly ; for in curved magnets, the winding upon the outer
or convex side, must necessarily be more loose than that upon
the inner side of the iron, and upon this account a greater quan-
tity of wire can be put upon the same weight of iron when
- straight.
That the attractive force of a magnet is increased by the re-
action of the two extremities upon each other, may be easily
proved by the following experiment. Let eM
AB, CD, Fig. 3, be two magnets, having ae
the poles A and C of different names. The
attractive force of the lower extremities will
be increased if A and C be joined by a bar
of soft iron E. But this increase will by no 8B
means equal the sum of the separate action
of the four poles, A, B, C, D, or in other words, A will not impart
to Da force equal to that which it exerts upon the bar E, nor in
like manner will C impart an equal force to B. So that the
greater the active surface, the greater must be the power of the
magnet.
Again, although the magnetic power of the parts B and C in
the galvanic magnet Fig 1, is conveyed by conduction through
the parts D and E, yet as the conducting power of the softest iron
is very imperfect, the force exerted by the parts B and C through
D and E, is very far short of that which they would be able to
Fig. 2.
A
D
126 Construction of Galvanic Magnets.
exert themselves at their own extremities. That this is the case
may be easily proved by experiment. ‘Take any magnet, and —
apply to one of its poles a piece of soft iron. This iron will have
considerable magnetic power while in contact with the magnet.
But the power of this iron is much less than that of the mag-
nets, and the longer the iron, the less is its power.
If then we can bring into direct action the extremities of all
four of the parts of the magnet, Fig. 1, we shall increase the
power of the whole magnet while its weight remains the same.
This may be accomplished by means of compound galvanic mag-
nets constructed in the following manner. 'To the transverse bar
of iron, A B, Fig. 4, fasten, by welding, riveting, or screwing, the
four upright pieces of larger iron, C, D, E, F, and wind the whole,
either with wire or metallic ribbon, in such a manner that the
poles, C and D, shall be of the same name, but of a different de-
nomination from E and F, which are also alike. Upon connect-
ing C, D, and EH, F’, with the plates of soft iron G, H, which act
as the armatures of compound steel magnets, we shall have the
whole converted into a compound galvanic magnet, which may
be supposed to represent the magnet Fig. 1, having the extrem-
ities of the four parts B, C, D, E, brought into direct action, and
the part A, forged out into a bar of half the thickness, and twice
the length, which acts as the connecting point between the com-
. pound poles. Experiment proves the truth of the above reason-
ing. <A bar of iron one foot in length, and weighing one pound,
was wound with a piece of metallic ribbon of copper foil, cov-
ered with silk. With a weak charge of a small galvanic arrange-
ment, it lifted a little less than one pound at each extremity.
‘The same ribbon was then wound around the iron of a com-
pound galvanic magnet, constructed as in Fig. 4, and weighing —
four ounces; with the same charge, and the same battery, this
last lifted three pounds. Now this experiment gives us the in-
crease of power in favor of the compound magnet as 3 x4 is to
Construction of Galvanic Magnets. 127
2, or its effect as six times greater than that of the bar of iron.
Subsequent experiments confirm the great increase of power ob-
tained by componnd galvanic magnets.
As it is difficult to magnetize a large mass of steel, and as it
is preferable to magnetize small bars-and unite them into a com-
pound magnet, so it is found by experience to be very difficult
to magnetize by galvanism a large mass of iron to saturation ;
and the failure in a number of attempts to do so, together with
reasoning by analogy, led me to the construction of compound.
galvanic magnets. A mass of iron, two inches in diameter, was
wound with a copper ribbon one half an inch wide, and one
hundred and twenty feet long. Upon being connected with a
small galvanic circle, containing half a square foot of zinc, it
lifted nearly fifty pounds. 'The same ribbon was then applied to
a horseshoe of soft iron, two feet long and one inch in diameter.
With the same battery and the same acid, the latter lifted one
hundred and fifty pounds. Both these magnets were of the
horseshoe form, and nearly of equal weights. ‘This experiment
shows the difficulty of saturating with magnetism large masses
of iron; but if we divide perpendicularly each extremity of the
large magnet into four equal parts, and wind each part separately,
there will be no difficulty in completely saturating the whole.
Magnets made with hollow iron have been constructed and are
highly spoken of by some experimenters. With the same weight
of iron they may be made more powerful to a certain extent,
because more of the iron is brought near the winding and thus a
greater surface is brought near the action of the electrical current
but it soon reaches a maximum point. When the cavity is en-
larged, the circumference also must become larger, and a greater
length of wire or ribbon is required to go around it. On this ac-
count, with the same weight of wire, there must be a less num-
ber of layers of wire coiled around it, and the magnet will possess
less power. When the bore of a hollow magnet does not exceed
a certain size, its power must be greater than a solid magnet with
the same weight of iron, but this hollow magnet must be of less
power than when its cavity is filled up with soft iron,
As the power of an electrical current resides principally in the
surface of the conductor, it would seem reasonable that if the
surface of the wire which is wound around galvanic magnets be
increased, its magnetic effects will be increased. 'This is true to
128 Construction of Galvanic Magnets.
a certain extent, but not in proportion to the extension of the
surface. If we suppose a wire to be rolled out into a flat ribbon,
and covered with silk, we might suppose that the effect of the
wire would be increased directly in proportion as its surface be-
comes greater. If a wire ;', of an inch in diameter, be rolled
out to the width of half an inch, their surfaces will be as 3 to 12
nearly, and it might seem rational to suppose that the power of
the ribbon will be four times that of the wire, but this is not
found by experience, to be the case. The tenuity of the metal
opposes the free passage of the electric fluid, and the silk cover-
ing being thicker than the metallic ribbon, occupies too much
room, so that as many layers of the winding cannot be made in
the same space as of wire. Therefore, although the magnetic
energy of the ribbon is greater than of the wire, it does not
increase in the same ratio as the increase of the surface of the
winding.
I have made many experiments with ribbons of fourteen oun-
ees copper, or of copper weighing fourteen ounces to the square
foot, of four ounces, and of two ounces copper, in all of which I
found that with the same weight of metal, the thinner the foil,
the greater the power of the magnet, but that with the same sur-
face, the ribbon from fourteen ounces copper, possessed much
more power than those from the lighter foils.
I have repeatedly verefied a remark made by Dr. Page, in the
jast number of this Journal, that those magnets which lift the
greatest weights, do not always answer best for rotating magnets.
The galvanic magnets constructed with metallic ribbon, although
they will lift more, with the same weight of copper than wire
wound magnets, yet they will not rotate with as much rapidity.
This I always supposed to be owing to the resistance of the air
as their bulk is greater, but from the experiments of Dr. Page, it
would appear that the whole effect is not to be attributed to this
cause, as the same discrepancy is observed among wire wound
magnets. It would hence appear evident, that galvanic magnets
constructed by winding soft iron with metallic ribbon, and espe-
cially compound magnets are best for stationary magnets, as they
lift the greatest weight, and consequently must have the greatest
attractive power; but wire wound magnets are best for rotating.
Many experimenters also prove that the thinner the foil, the
shorter must be itslength. A ribbon of fourteen or sixteen ounce
Flectro-Magnetic Rotations. 129
copper and two inches wide, may be nearly two hundred feet
long, before we reach its maximum length. If this ribbon be half
an inch wide, the magnet which it is employed in constructing,
will lift more if we have two lengths of sixty feet each, than if
we employ one hundred and twenty feet in one ribbon. With
four ounce copper, one inch wide, fifty feet was the greatest
length employed, and when the copper foil weighed two ounces
to the square foot, about twenty-five feet was found to be the
maximum length.
Art. XVIL—E#lectro-Magnetic Rotations ; by Joun B. Zapris-
xigz, M. D., of Flatbush, N. Y.
Erctro-Maenetic rotations may be considered as of two
kinds. Ist. Those where the motion is produced by changing
the poles of one magnet or system of magnets, when they come
opposite to the poles of another magnet or system of magnets.
2d. Where a magnet or conductor is moved by ‘the tangential
force of an electric current.
The power of the first class is greater than that of the other
with the same weight of metal, and the same battery power, for
although the effect of the electrical current, especially when pas-
sing through a helix or flat spiral resembles, that of a magnet,
still it is not equal to the attraction and repulsion of the contig-
uous poles of powerful magnets.
The following experiments contain an application of the tan-
gential force operating in a manner never yet described.
In the winter of 1836, I made the following experiment. A
metallic ribbon, 180 feet long and two inches wide, was formed
into an oblong coil, so as to encircle a large compound magnet
two feet long which was suspended freely upon an axis within
the coil of ribbon. Upon connecting the extremities of the
ribbon with the poles of a galvanic battery, the magnet was im-
mediately thrown at right angles to the coil, when a lever moved
by the revolving magnets turned an apparatus which changed the
direction of the galvanic current in the metallic ribbon. The
rotation was thus continued until the magnet reached the revolu-
tion of half a circle, when the direction of the current was again
changed.
Vol. xxxvr, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 17
130 - Electro-Magnetic Rotations.
This apparatus is represented in Fig.1. Let AB represent a
coil of metallic ribbon, C D a magnet revolving upon an axis in
its centre. Upon connecting the extremities, F and G with a
Figure 1.
galvanic battery, the magnet will be thrown at right angles to the
coil by tangential action of the current; when it reaches this
point, the pin E upon the magnet C D moves a lever which turns
an apparatus for reversing the current in the coil. The motion in
the magnet is then continued until it reaches a half revolution,
when the pin EK moves the lever in the opposite direction, and
changing the direction of the current again, the magnet is im-
pelled as at first. 'The motions of this magnet were rapid, being
about one hundred and twenty revolutions in a minute, although
weighing six pounds, and would continue half an hour without
much diminution with the same charge of the battery.
Fig. 2, represents an apparatus by means of which the ribbon
may be made to revolve around the magnet. Let A B represent
Figure 2.
a galvanic magnet suspended upon an axisG. ‘The wires E F,
are the extremities of the wire which is wound around the mag-
net, and which pass through a copper tube which serves as an
axis for the revolving part of the apparatus. These wires are,
_ Blectro-Magnetic Rotations. 131
first well covered with silk so as completely to insulate them from
each other, and from the tube. A stout iron wire firmly riveted
to the magnet passes through the tube and being fastened to the
frame by a screw serves to suspend the magnet. ‘The ribbon C
D is wound over a thin frame of wood and each extremity sold-
ered to a semicircular strip of copper, forming when applied to
the lower axis, a pole changer similar to those of Dr. Page, this
pole changer is placed so as to change the direction of the cur-
rent in the revolving ribbon when it is at right angles to the
“magnet. The extremities of the wires EF press upon the se-
micircular strips of copper, and thus when a communication is
made between each of these wires, and the poles of a battery
they transmit a currunt both to the ribbon and to the magnet.
The ribbon will be found to move immediately to a position at
right angles to the magnet, and when it arrives at that point, the
direction of the current is changed by the pole changer, the mo-
tion is continued, and thus a constant rotation is obtained.
The same experiment is reversed by making a galvanic mag-
net rotate within a coil of metallic ribbon changing the poles of
the magnet when at right angles to the coil by means of the pole
changer.
The following (Fig. 3,) is a powerful machine acting upon this
principle. A and B are two galvanic magnets each one foot in
length, fixed upon the axis E, and turning freely within a wooden
Figure 3.
frame, around which is coiled the ribbon CD. The strip of
copper F' conveys the electrical current to the wires upon the gal-
vanic magnets A and B, through two pole changers, one for each
132 - — Ellectro-Magnetic Rotations.
magnet, and which are fixed to the axis, one above and the other
below the magnets. ‘These pole changers are fixed so that each
magnet changes its pole when at right angles to the coil of ribbon.
A strip of copper G is soldered to the copper F', and the outer ex-
tremity of the ribbon C D, while the inner extremity of the
ribbon is connected with another strip similar to F upon the other
side of the apparatus. Upon connecting these two strips of cop-
per with the two poles of a battery, the magnets will revolve with
rapidity. ‘This motion is much increased if a galvanic magnet
HT be laid across the coil and at right angles to it, so that its poles
are near the poles of the revolving magnets when their poles are
changed. ‘The same change of poles answers for both, and we
have in this way the combined effect of a rotation produced both
by a double magnetic force, and the tangential action of a current.
All persons who have made experiments in electro-magnetism
must have observed, that large magnets cannot be made to revolve
with as great rapidity as small ones. 'The small magnet will
not only make the greatest number of revolutions, but its ex-
tremities will move with much greater rapidity than the extrem-
ities of the large magnet, notwithstanding the latter a much
greater circle. ‘This is owing to several causes, one of which
may be a deficiency in the quantity of the galvanic fluid, there
not being a sufficient quantity generated in a small battery to
saturate a large magnet, at least for more than a few moments
after the commencement of its action. But when there is bat-
tery power sufficient, there is often deficiency in the means of
communication of the electrical current to the rotating magnet.
The communication being by means of two wires or small strips
of metal, and no greater with a large magnet or circle of mag-
nets, than with one small magnet, and as the most finished polish-
ing of the wires, and tinning of the semicircles of the pole chan-
ger, can bring little more than one point of each into contact, the
whole supply must pass through these two points. ‘The current
on this account does not pass as freely as it ought, and the mag-
nets do not possess the power they would if the communication
was less impeded. That this is the case, may be proved by
pressing the communicating wires of a revolving magnet together,
and the power of the magnet will, to a certain extent, increase
nearly with the pressure. But in a revolving circle, if we increase
the pressure beyond a certain degree, the increase of friction im-
. Steam Ships, and Steam Navigation. 133
pedes the motion of the apparatus, although the lifting power of |
the magnets will increase with the pressure. 'This shows that
with the ordinary apparatus, the means of communication is im-
perfect, and much power is lost. I have attempted to remedy
this by making two or more wires upon each side press upon the
same pole changer, but this increases the friction. Increasing the
thickness of the wire will allow more free circulation of the
fluid, until it reaches the points of contact; but as this does not
increase the surface in contact, it will not remove the whole diffi-
culty ; still itis always of great importance to have large commu-
nicating wires.
Art. XVIUI.—Steam Ships, and Steam Navigation ; by
Junius SMrru.
London, 21st January, 1839.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir—I was gratified to learn through my friends, Messrs.
Wadsworth and Smith of New York, that you discovered indu-
bitable marks of mental aberration* in my last letter upon steam
ships of war.
I was gratified because the conclusion to which you came
shows that there is something in that letter which took you by
surprise, something startling in the application of steam power to
the fortune of empires, something new in a statement which
shows the differential degrees of maritime greatness at a glance,
something that does not rest upon mathematical calculations, or
philosophical experiments, or physical power, or moral influence ;
but something so different from all this that its very elementary
principle is weakness, although its force is mechanical.
The questions you ask are just such, as in my present state of
mind, I should expect would be asked, namely, what will be-
come of a steam ship upon the wide ocean without masts, in case
a boiler bursts, the fuel is exhausted, or the machinery breaks
down and. the.ship is disabled? My answer is, that she would
then be precisely in the situation of an ordinary sailing ship dis-
masted, and would of course resort to the same remedy of rigging
jury masts. 'There is no difficulty whatever in having the foot
* Enthusiasm, not mental aberration.—B. 8.
134 Steam Ships, and Steam Navigation.
of the masts, from the keelson to the main deck, permanently
fixed, and the top-masts made to slide down by their side so as
to be easily hoisted in case of necessity. But I apprehend that
even this precaution, proper enough to be taken, would be en-
tirely useless EUS in the case of the breaking down of the
main shaft.
The bursting of a boiler at sea, which by the way I do not see
how it is possible to effect where Hall’s condenser is used, unless
by design, is a matter of no consequence as regards the working
of the ship, because she would never have less than four boilers,
and two would work the engines. The ship has two engines,
and a defect in one would weaken but not destroy the power, and.
therefore would not disable the ship.
Steam naval ships will be supplied with fuel upon just the
same scale as they are supplied with pork. If the commander is
weak enough to put to sea with a short supply for the intended
voyage, the ship must be put upon a short allowance until she
can make a port and lay in a fresh stock.
I am obliged to you for your questions, and if you can think
of any more which seem coupled with objection to steam ships
of war, pray let me have them, for the subject is of vast magni-
tude; one which involves the security of states, the freedom of
the seas, and the whole system of future maritime warfare, and
which will bear the sternest examination. Although an island,
as noticed in my last letter assailable at all points, is peculiarly
exposed to the assaults of armed steamers, I am not unmindful
that a continent may be equally defenceless. 'The United States
of America, stretching round half a continent, with a sea-coast
scooped into numberless bays, harbors, and inlets, with a govern-
ment bearing rule over a people almost too independent to submit
to any, urged on by ambition, vain of their acquirements, and
proud of their country, is, nevertheless, slumbering in dangerous
security. ‘Io such a people, the power of steam as a means of
national defence is of incalculable value. But do they perceive
it? or will they continue to slumber on until their cities, towns,
and villages, are battered about their ears? Do they think that
the golden images of successful avarice set up in every part of the
country, are no temptations to the daring bucaneer? and do they
not perceive, that unless the means of protection correspond with
the growth of the thing to be protected, the probability is that all
Steam Ships, and Steam Navigation. 135
will be lost? If we cast our eyes upon the European continent,
we find the reigning dynasties lost in every great enterprize.
They may indeed catch a glimpse of the far-off coast, looming in
the horizon, and speckled with objects indistinctly visible; but
they must wait for a nearer approach, a clearer atmosphere, before
they can realize the grandeur and beauty of the prospect.
"The emperor of Russia embarked with his family on the 3d
of October, at Stetin, in the steam boat Hercules, and found at
the entrance of the Gulf of Finland, the Russian fleet ranged in
order of battle. 'The fleet manceuvered before the emperor,”
&c. &c. &e.
If we did not know that hereditary talents are not necessarily
connected with hereditary rights, we should imagine the head of
a vast empire and the descendants of Peter the Great, seated upon
the deck of the Hercules, would catch an idea of the importance
of steam power from his very position, from the manner in which
he was conveyed into the presence of his fleet ; from the contrast
which the exhibition before him presented, and from the facility
and celerity with which he approached his fleet and withdrew
from it. But we are told that the emperor discourages steam
navigation. Let him. We cannot conceal the fact, that im-
provements upon a grand scale are scarcely compatible with the
notions of aristocratical and feudal governments. 'They tremble
under the secret apprehension, that they read their own doom in
the melioration of society, and therefore grasp the ‘‘rod of em-
pire’ with a firmer hold, and close the inlets of every stream
whose flowings would fertilize the public mind. But perhaps
even this exclusive state of things is not without its alleviation.
States of less physical force, unfettered by hereditary bonds, free
to move, free to act, seize upon the advantages thus cast upon
them, and occupy a position for which they are indebted to the
repulsive character of others, rather than to any superior sagacity
of their own.
This is the reason why nations just peering into notice, gain so
rapidly upon ancient dynasties. They have no antiquated thral-
doms to overcome, no prejudices to surmount, no prescribed limits
to check their career, no masters to consult, but with all the free-
dom and buoyancy of youth, bound away in pursuit of every
gainful enterprize, heedless of toil, regardless of restraint, intent
only upon securing the result. The single fact, that there are at
cS
136 Steam Ships, and Steam Navigation.
this moment, more steam vessels navigating the waters of the
Mississippi river, than all the steam vessels of Great Britain and
her colonies combined, and more than three times the number of
all owned upon the whole continent of Europe, is an irresistible
evidence of the truth of these remarks.
It is a question of the greatest magnitude, but one shih can-
not at present be answered practically, how many sailing ships of
war in naval combat would be equal to one steam ship of equal
force? We may suppose one seventy-four gun steam ship, placed
to the windward of four seventy-four gun sailing ships. It is
quite obvious, that the sailing ships cannot approach the steamer
in a direct line. If they attempt to tack in different directions to
gain an advantage in position, the very act of separation would
be instant destruction. If they form in line, perhaps the only
chance of security, the steamer may bear down upon a flank
ship, and what is to prevent her destruction? Fifteen minutes
would complete the work, and I fearlessly ask any nautical gen-
tlemen, who has the slightest acquaintance with steam ships,
what power a sailing ship has to defend herself, and what can
prevent the steamer from annihilating the four?
If this supposition carries any truth with it, these thirty steam
ships of the line are equivalent in battle to one hundred and
twenty sailing ships of the line, which I suppose would be suffi-
cient to show, that the latter in any naval engagement would be
utterly useless.
No doubt an actual engagement of two hostile steam fleets,
which, like armies of soldiers, can move in any direction, and at
any time must be terrific, and the destruction awful. But when
we recollect, that the violence of a storm, indicates its brevity,
we may gatherysome consolation from the hope, that the calam-
ities of war which have too often extended over many years, may
by a new system of naval warfare, be compressed within the
limits of a few months.
Galvanic Batteries. : 137
Arr. XIX.— Galvanic Batteries—On the Benefit of Fresh Ini-
mersion; by Cuantes G. Pace, M. D., Washington, D. C.
Tue fact is familiar, that the first few moments of immersion
of a galvanic pair, are attended with an intense action, which,
subsiding, leaves the battery in a state of low and rapidly di-
minishing action. But the solution of this fact, the cause of this
vivid primal action, yet remains in entire obscurity, although
many attempts have been made for its development. ‘The effer-
vescence of the battery, or the copious development of gas, is
doubtless a sufficient obstruction to the passage of the galvanic
current, to account for that subsidence which is found always to
occur when the evolution of the gas becomes audible, or is visi-
ble at the surface of the liquid. 'The following experiments will
show that the primal action of a battery, (or in broader terms, )
the galvanic current must be traced to some other source than
chemical action, or at least those obvious modes of chemical ac-
tion, recognized during the immersion of a battery. ‘These ex-
periments were performed more than a year since, and as they
led to conclusions mostly of a negative character, I have been in-
tending to pursue the subject farther; but being unable to grat-
ify my wishes in this particular, I am induced to publish the un-
finished investigation, trusting that the data thus afforded will
draw attention to a subject so important and interesting. ‘The
battery used, was an amalgamated zinc battery, similar to that
recommended in Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity. ‘Two copper
plates were prepared for the experiments, and in lieu of being per-
forated with numerous holes, were rendered slightly concavo-con-
vex, with a funnel-like tube at its centre. %
The figure represents a vertical, middle
section of the plate and its funnel. The
chief advantage of this form of plate over the
collander plate, is, that the sprinkling of acid
occasioned by the bursting of the gas bub-
bles, is entirely prevented. 'The flat perforated plate acts better
as a conductor ;. but the difference is so trifling, that I prefer the
latter for the sake of cleanliness. One of the copper plates was
. Immersed, and the action of the battery immediately observed
by the common test of the spark, produced by rupturing the cir-
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.-April, 1839. | 18
cc
138 _ Galvanic Batteries.
cuit, completed by a coil surrounding a bar of iron, or rather 2
bundle of iron wires. As soon as the primal action had sub-
sided, the plate was removed and immediately reimmersed.
The primal action was by no means as intense, nor of as
long duration as when the plate was first immersed. It occur-
red to me that there was something due in this case to the dry-
ness of the plate. To ascertain this point, the immersed plate
was withdrawn, and the second plate, which was entirely dry,
was immediately substituted; the primal action was as intense, -
and of as long continuance as with the first plate when first im-
mersed. 'That any new state of the liquid, induced by repose, is
not essential to the full action of a reimmersed plate, is proved by
this last experiment, viz. the introduction of a dry plate immedi-
ately after the withdrawal of an immersed plate. 'The plate was
then removed from the liquid and left standing over the battery,
while the other was dried by the fire. When this last was en-
tirely dried, the two plates were immersed in succession, with
the same difference in the results as before; the dry plate afford-
ing a more intense and lasting primal action than the wet plate,
which had remained out of the battery about the same length of
time. 'The experiment was then varied in every possible way,
but always with the same difference in favor of the dry plate.
The following experiment is still more striking, more especially
as the galvanic and chemical actions are not recognized in the
amalgamated zinc battery, until the plates are joined by a good
conductor. ‘The two plates were thoroughly dried by a fire, and
one of them then immersed and suffered so to remain about the
same length of time as the primal action had usually continued.
The action of the battery was then examined, and was found to
be much below that of its primal impulse, and after the first
junction of the poles, immediately subsided to the low standard.
Evincing no more activity than such accumulation as would be
due to the disjunction of the poles when the battery had been in
use for a considerable length of time. The other dry plate was
then immersed, and the primal impulse, on immediate examina-
tion, was found to be intense and lasting as in prior experiments.
From frequent observations, I am inclined to think, that chem-
ical action upon the zine of the amalgam is somewhat promoted
by the presence of the copper plate, although the two plates are
not in metallic contact. 'The above experiments, repeated many
Galvanic Batteries. 139
times, prove, beyond a question, a fact which rather contravenes
our experience in galvanic philosophy. A priori, we should have
decided in favor of the wet plate, as the conducting liquid would
be brought more immediately into contact with it, by means of
the thin stratum of liquid already adhering to the plate. Whether
dryness alone be the condition required for this superior action, or
some other condition necessarily involved in the absence of mois-
ture, I am unprepared to say; the course of my investigation hav-
ing been discontinued at this point. The subject is worthy of a
thorough examination, and seems to promise some new and import-
ant developments in respect to the construction of the galvanic
battery. The introduction of metallic salts as galvanic motors, and.
of membranous partitions to prevent the degeneration of action,
have much improved the battery as an instrument for research.
But it must be confessed that the batteries with the membranous
linings, are very inconvenient, and require too much attention
from the vitiation and decay of the membrane. ‘The gain, too,
is so trivial over the unprotected batteries where sulphate of cop-
per is used, that I have always preferred, for ordinary use, the
revolving zinc plate battery, described in a previous number of
this Journal,* or else the cylindrical, or square plate battery,
where the zinc plate is movable and supported entirely indepen-
dent of the copper. ‘The revolving zinc plate battery gains the
benefit of fresh immersion by the withdrawal, cleaning, and dry-
ing of the zinc plate without a cessation of action. But the gain
by fresh immersion is by no means so great here as in the pre-
sentation of a dry copper plate in the amalgam battery. It fre-
quently happens that a battery does not act until some minutes
after its immersion. In the acid battery the failure is owing to
the foulness of the zinc plate, which must be removed or pene-
trated by the acid before it can act upon the zinc. In the sul-
phate of copper batteries, the failure of action may arise from
the foulness of either plate. Hence it is important-to observe,
that both plates should be thoroughly cleaned when they are to
be used with the sulphate of copper. If the zinc plate be per-
fectly cleaned, there will be scarcely any galvanic action if the
copper plate is immersed, as it not unfrequently is, covered with
a film of insoluble carbonate. In the revolving plate battery no
* See Vol. xxxi1, p. 309.
140 Galvanic Batteries.
benefit is derived from the drying of the zinc plate unless it be
previously cleaned. From long and frequent use, I find that lead
is superior to copper for the negative plate. Immediately before
use, the surface of the lead which is to be opposed to the zinc
plate, should be well rubbed with coarse sand paper. It becomes
thus cleaned, and the numerous scratches made upon its surface,
serve as lodgments for the particles of copper deposited from the
solution of the sulphate. When the lead plate has been used a
short time, after such preparation, it receives a thick and ragged
coating of copper, affording an excellent conducting surface.
The superior energy gained by drying the negative plate in
the amalgam battery, induced me to hope that a battery might
be constructed wherein the greatest amount of galvanic power
might be obtained with the least possible consumption of the
zinc. ‘The experiment proves that galvanic, is far from being
commensurate with chemical action, and presents this singular
anomaly, that the galvanic power is greatest when the chemical
action is the least. Considering the obvious mode of chemical
action in the battery, viz. the formation of the sulphate of zinc,
we have first in the series of actions the decomposition of the
water, the union of its oxygen with the zinc, and the simulta-
neous evolution of hydrogen as an indicator of the extent of this
action. But the escape of hydrogen, which mechanically im-
pedes the primal action of the battery, is protracted for a con-
siderable length of time when the plate is dried prior to its im-
mersion ; and during nearly the whole of this time, the electrical
action is at its maximum. Suppose now a number of copper
plates attached to the circumference of a wheel, and by the rev-
olution of the wheel these plates are presented to the zinc of
the amalgam in frequent succession. ‘The last plate out of the
liquid would be the last to enter; and if each plate could be
thoroughly dried in the course of its revolution, according to the
foregoing statements, the electrical action would be constantly
at its maximum, and the chemical action at its minimum. In-
deed, I see no reason why a continuous copper plate, revolving
slowly upon the circumference of the wheel, would not give
the same result, attended with the advantage of unceasing ac-
tion, provided one part of this plate could be dried before its im-
mersion.
Application of the Galvanoscope. 141
Arr. XX. — Application of the Galvanoscope to detect the Fatl-
ure of Water in Steam Boilers; by Cuaruzs G. eh M. D.,
Washington, D. C.
Tue prevention of accidents by the explosion of steam boilers,
has become to us a subject of vast moment; and since its legis-
lation has been attempted, a multitude of plans have been devi-
sed, which should give warning of the approach of danger by
audible or visible indications of a deficit of water in the boiler.
No one of the plans so far proposed can be regarded as infallible,
and should even an wnexceptionable monitor of danger be ob-
tained, it would utterly fail of its purpose, if we could not rely
upon the prompt and faithful co-operation of skillful engineers.
Nothing can be imagined more simple than the plan adopted by
the French and English,* to show the level of the water in their
boilers. A stout, curved glass tube is connected with the inte-
rior of the boiler above and below the water, and shows plainly
at all times the level of the water in the boiler. It is not difficult
to understand why this simple invention has not received mer-
ited attention in this country, in some portions of which espe-
cially, the invariable rule has been to keep danger out of sight.
The plan I am about to propose, should it prove feasible, will
present a feature possessed by no other. As it will indicate the
state of things in the boilers with as much certainty to the pas-
sengers in the cabin as to the engineer in hisroom. ‘The pro-
posal is to make the galvanic action of the water upon a pair of
plates or single plate, operate upon the needle of a galvanoscope,
and the cessation of this operation an index of the failure of its
cause.
In the above figure, a represents a vertical middle section of
a steam boiler ; 6, a thick plate of zinc perforated with numerous
holes just under the surface of the water. ‘This plate must be
*E. g. in the Royal William, Atlantic Steamer, and in some steam boats on the
Delaware.
142 Application of the Galvanoscope.
insulated from the boiler by glass or some other non-conducting
substance ; e represents a galvanoscope, consisting of a coil of in-
sulated copper wire surrounding a magnetic needle; cd are the
terminations of the coil, connecting respectively with the metal
of the boiler and the me plate 6. When the water in the boiler
is above the plate b, the magnetic needle will take a position at
‘right angles to the coil of wire, when the water is below the
plate 6, the needle will assume its direction north and south.
When the action of the coil and that of the earth are in con-
junction, that is when the needle under the influence of the coil,
is at the same time in the magnetic meridian, it will fail to indi-
cate any want of action upon the plate 6. To provide for this
case, place another coil at right angles to and at a little distance
from the coil e, and connect it with the metal of the boiler and
the plate b in the same manner as the coil e; thus the failure of
action would be indicated by the departure of either needle from
its right angle position. The galvanic series in the above plan is
represented by the metal of the boiler and the plate 0; if the
boiler is of iron, the plate may be of copper or zinc; if the boiler
is of copper, the plate may be of iron or zinc. It perhaps would
be as well, on account of the remoteness of the two plates in the
foregoing plan, to introduce a pair of plates in lieu of the single
plate, connecting the one with the boiler, and insulating the
other from it. Where salt water is used in the boilers, there
would be no want of action, and it is probable that fresh water
heated to such a high degree, would always afford action enough.
It is a question, whether high pressure steam would form a con-
ducting medium between the plates. In the case of a single
galvanic pair, (however large,) I presume it would not. ‘The
humid atmosphere of a compound battery it is said, will keep up
an action for a considerable time after its emersion. Even this
point I consider as questionable, and have always attributed the
continuance of action after the emersion of large batteries, to the
acid and water adhering to the pieces of wood, or whatever sub-
stance is used, to separate the zinc and copper plates. No exper-
iments have been tried to test the value of the plan here proposed,
but as no suggestion should be lost on a subject of so much im-
portance, I have deemed it worthy of communication, hoping
that the hint may ultimately lead to something useful.
Reporis on the Geology of the State of Maine. 143
Pror. B. Smuman,—Dear Sir—In a recent communication
in your Journal, on the application of Electro-Magnetism as a
mechanical agent, I alluded to the invention of Mr. Sturgeon of
England, as being the first to establish this interesting branch of
science. I owe an apology to our distinguished countryman,
Prof. Henry, for the injustice done him in that communication,
and it gives me great pleasure in correcting my mistake, to con-
cede to that gentleman, the honor which he justly merits, of hav-
ing produced the first invention which led to the investigation of
this interesting subject, and laid the foundation of a new branch
of science. Yours truly, C. G. Pacer.
Arr. X XI.—Dr. Jacxson’s Reports on the Geology of the State
of Maine, and on the public lands belonging to Maine and
Massachusetts.
Tue history of geological investigations having for their object
the advancement of the arts and the improvement of agricul-
ture, carried on by liberal appropriations of the State Legislatures,
as well as by the General Government, furnishes an unequivocal
proof of the healthy and progressive state of the public mind.
And it should not be forgotten, that geology, aside from its
economical and practical bearings, viewed solely as an intellec-
tual and ennobling branch of physical inquiry, is now receiving
a larger share of attention than at any former period. This has
resulted mainly from our system of popular lectures, lyceums,
&c., by which facilities have been given to the dissemination of
knowledge, rarely, if ever equalled by any other people.
- The credit of proposing and carrying into practical execution,
the first geological State survey, belongs, we believe, to the le-
gislature of North Carolina.* Though buta few years have since
elapsed, the example has been followed to some extent by nearly
every State in the Union ; and researches have also been made into
the distant territories of Missouri and Arkansas. From the vari-
ous reports of the geologists employed, much information has
been obtained towards the preparation of an accurate geological
* The survey of North Carolina did not, we believe, embrace the whole State.
In Vol. xx11, p. 1, note, we stated our belief, that Massachusetts was ‘the first
example in this country of the geological survey of an entire State.”—Eps.
144 Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine.
map of the United States, for which the friends of science have
been anxiously waiting. ‘The reports of Dr. Jackson, four of
which have appeared, the first in December, 1836, and the last in
November, 1838, comprise a recognizance of the public lands be-
longing to Maine and Massachusetts, authorized by the legisla-
ture of the latter State, and also a survey of the entire State of
Maine, by its legislature. ‘The appropriation by the two States
was liberal, securing the labors of two assistant geologists and a
draftsman, and leaving the period for the completion of the work
undetermined. It reflects great honor upon the chief magistrates
of those States,* by whom the surveys were warmly recom-
mended, that their influence has been thus opportunely exerted,
as these able reports sufficiently show, in a way calculated to ad-
vance the best and most immediate interests of their constituents.
The first report is accompanied by an atlas of picturesque views,
and colored representations of interesting localities and sections
presented along the coast, as well as of the more remarkable in-
land prominences.- We offer an extract from this report, showing
the plan marked out by Dr. Jackson, as best calculated to give
him the geological limits and superposition of the different rock
formations of the State. In determining these, the sea coast af-
forded him remarkable facilities, by its bold and deep indenta-
tions, exposing its whole structure to view, with all its mineral
contents. He observes:
“The State of Maine is one of the most interesting sections of our
country, and presents a great diversity of geological facts, which are im-
portant in the advancement of the arts and sciences. No other State in
‘the Union has such an extensive and varied rocky coast, indented by
thousands of arms of the sea, and estuaries of great rivers.”
“Knowing from former observations, that the general direction of
strata in Maine is N. KE. and 8. W. I found that the coast section would
give me the extent of most of the strata in a longitudinal direction, while
the indentations, bays and mouths of rivers gave those of a transverse
order. I was anxious to divide the State as far as practicable, into squares,
so as to intersect every rock on which it is based, and explore the differ-
ent beds and veins of metallic ores as they presented themselves to view.
This plan has been followed and advantage was taken of the river courses
to obtain the most perfect views of the strata.”
* Governors Lincoln and Everett of Massachusetts, and Kent and Fairfield of
Maine. Under the former gentleman, a suitable appropriation had previously
been made for the survey of his own state; a work which, as our readers well
know, has been most ably conducted by Prof. Hitchcock.
Sy eae
Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine. 145
“The seaboard from Lubec to Thomaston was carefully examined, so
as to determine the nature and position of the different rocks. Then the
St. Croix was explored, and the line followed onward to Houlton. From
that place we proceeded to the St. John River, and pursuing its western
bank, we obtained a section of the strata, which cross the public lands,
and crop out along the course of that river. At the Grand Falls we took
canoes and examined the rocks and soils to the Madawaska River. By
following this plan, it will be seen on inspecting the map, that we have
made a reconnoissance of two sides of a very large square, forming the
eastern, and northern boundaries of the State.”
Dr. Jackson makes a division of his subject into topographical,
argicultural and economical geology ; the latter treating of those
substances which are of pecuniary value. The rocks enumer-
ated under the first head, are mostly members of the primary
class, forming the principal mountain elevations of the state,
and affording many valuable quarries of granite, and mica slate,
besides beds of white granular marble, and repositories of metal-
lic ores, which have already been made available to a consider-
able extent. ‘To these he has added feldspar, suitable for por-
celain ware, granular quartz for the manufacture of flint glass,
foliated argillite or roofing slate, soapstone, serpentine, verd-
antique and pyritiferous slate, the latter employed in the making
of copperas and alum. ‘he rocks of this class, as well as those
of later epochs, are frequently pierced through by powerful dykes
and veins of trap rock, which have left abundant proof, both
chemical and mechanical, of their firey origin, often changing
the rock into complete scoriz, and forming, by their sudden
intrusions and interfusions, singular metamorphic combinations
out of the previously existing strata. ‘The phenomena presented
by the beds of magnetic iron at Mount Desert and other places,
and also of the limestone at numerous quarries mentioned in the
reports, are of the most interesting character with regard to this
point. _We doubt whether there are any where to be found re-
corded, facts more strongly attesting the igneous theory than are
presented in the reports, and as the author had become conversant
with analogous appearances while visiting many of the most
noted localities in Europe, his inferences will be received with
sreat confidence by the public. By a careful examination of the
trap dykes, he has shown that they were ejected by at least four
distinct paroxysms of elevation, the last dyke cutting through and
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.~April, 1839. 19
146 Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine.
intermingling with the others, in such a manner as to leave no
doubt of its comparative newness.* Many striking facts of this
kind are presented, and the subject is well illustated by diagrams.
Masses of granite and slate are often included in the dykes, form-
ing an interfused kind of breccia, while the slate is not unfre-
quently converted into jasper, hornstone and chert, besides being
abundantly charged with pyrites; the trap itself assuming a
spongy or vesicular appearance, showing evident marks of fu-
sion. After mentioning several localities in reference to this
point, Dr. Jackson says, ‘it will be observed, that the slate rocks
where they are in immediate contact with the trap dykes, are
hardened into a kind of green -flinty slate, while more remote
from them, the slate is less hard, and is converted into novaculite
or hone stone, valuable for fine hones or oi] stones, and presenting
various stripes of blue, brown and green colors which run in the
direction of the strata.” 'Those who are accustomed to geolo-
gical observations will readily understand with what satisfaction
the following facts were recorded.
“Our excursion to Bald Head was exceedingly instructive, since we
there discovered the relative ages of most of the trap-dykes, the direc-
tions of which we had before been accurately recording, knowing that if
we put down exactly what we found in nature, some useful instruction
would certainly result. Here, then, to our surprise and gratification,
we met with absolute proof of their different ages, a result which I
had only hoped to have obtained after a long research. This locality
solved at once, by absolute demonstration, this important problem; for
here we saw the various.dykes cutting across each other, in such a man-
ner, as to prove their several different eruptions; and we may confidently
affirm, that four or five distinct eruptions of molten trap rocks have burst
through the strata of Maine.”
The chemical changes effected upon the limestone at some of the
quarries where the dykes are now left standing like immense walls,
are thus mentioned. ‘The limestone at its junction with the
trap is closely cemented to it, and is converted into a perfectly
white crystalline variety, which loses this character in proportion
to its distance from the dyke. The effect was the same in the
* One of these dykes is 500 feet wide, and extends completely through a moun-
tain of graywacke and clay slate 1900 feet high, rising higher above the sea than he
had ever seen that rock (trap) attain.
Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine. 147
beds of blue magnesian limestone, the compact rock, being al-
ways transformed into granular and semi-crystallized dolomite ;
the extent of the change being exactly proportionate to the size
of the dykes.” “It is interesting to observe,” says Dr. Jackson,
‘that the most valuable quarries of limestone opened, are those
distinguished by the dykes ; and even the lime burners, who are
certainly not aware what opinions are entertained by geologists,
and cannot be accused of theoretical bias, attribute a good influ-
ence to the presence of this rock.” The opinion of Von Buch,
that dolomite, or magnesian limestone, owes its magnesia in some
way to the igneous influence of the trap dykes which are now
found intersecting it, is not confirmed by any facts at the locali-
ties here referred to, nor indeed by any, so far as we know, which
have been brought to light in this country; and Dr. Jackson
hesitates not to say, ‘‘ that after carefully examining the places
referred to in Europe by Von Buch, he is convinced, that the
igneous-rocks acted there also, only by fusing a limestone which
contained magnesia in the original state.” .
Rich veins of magnetic iron ore, apparently contemporaneous
with the dykes of trap, were discovered in the granite and mica
slate of Mount Desert and Marshall’s Island. They are the most
compact variety, (the oxide ferroso ferricum of Berzelius,) and
possess polarity to a most astonishing degree; for Dr. Jackson ob-
serves, that a “compass needle will not traverse within thirty or
forty yards of a vein; and when a crowbar, or drill of steel, is
struck upon its surface, it instantly becomes a strong magnet, and
when suspended by a cord, will oscillate, and swing to the north
like a compass needle.”
The connection which exists between these dykes and the va-
rious metallic ores mentioned in the reports, is not a little remark-
able, and throws much light on the origin of both. It is thus
spoken of in the first report.
**Tt will be remarked by those who examine the facts stated in this
Report, that all the metallic ores which have been described, are found
in those places where trap dykes have been thrown up; and no one can
doubt that their origin was in some way connected. This fact is not
only interesting in a theoretical point of view, but also offers a valuable
guide to those who are seeking to discover metalliferous veins. It is also
an indication that the various ores mentioned, were injected or sublimed
from below, and that the veins may probably widen, and improve as
148 Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine.
they descend. This appears to be the case with the Lubec Lead
Mines, so far as they have been examined.”
“In Nova Scotia likewise, the most valuable beds of iron ore are found
in the immediate vicinity of similar rocks, while at Cape D’Or, in the same
province, we find an abundance of rounded (evidently once molten)
masses of copper, in the mixture of trap rocks with the new red sand
stone.”
The hypothesis of segregation, which has recently been offer-
ed in explanation of the origin of metallic veins in rocks, finds
no support from discoveries thus far made known in Maine ; and
we must think that, should it continue to be received at all, its
application must be limited to veins contained in those rocks,
through which there are also abundantly disseminated concre-
tionary masses of the same substance, at a distance from the
veins. 'The theory of igneous injection, certainly offers a more
unexceptionable explanation of all those veins of a contrary char-
acter, or whose substance is entirely foreign to the nature of the
rock in which they are contained ; and to oppose it on the ground
that the ‘‘ extinct volcanoes of France afford no other metallic min-
eral than ‘a little oligiste iron,’” (implying that if veins were form-
ed by igneous injection, these volcanic rocks would present them
to a great extent, ) seems to us hardly sufficient ; for we are not to
infer that the metals were always in a situation to be thrown up,
and therefore the rocks of some epochs, whose volcanic origin is
undoubted, may be comparatively, or even positively, nonmetal-
liferous, while others of the same character may abound in met-
als; at least, the objection referred to, is removed by the well
known fact, that various metals, such as tellurium, gold, copper,
iron, and antimony, are the frequent products of volcanoes not
yet wholly extinct. However, we are rather inclined to agree
with Mr. Bakewell, that these phenomena, whether caused by
electro-chemical agency, by sublimation, or by igneous injection,
are involved in much obscurity, and that the state of chemical
science, with the facts at present known, do not throw any cer-
tain light upon it.
The other metallic minerals enumerated, beside iron, are lead,
zinc, molybdena, titanium, manganese, copper, bismuth, and
tungsten. ‘The latter mineral, occurring in the usual form of
wolfram, which accompanies all the tin mines of Europe, has led
Dr. Jackson to anticipate the discovery of tin in Maine; a dis-
Reports on the Geology of the Siate of Maine. 149
covery which has as yet been made only in one place in the Uni-
ted States,* and is there confined to a few single crystals. The
discovery of gold was announced some time since, and specimens
were sent to Prof. Cleaveland for examination, said to have been
found at Albion. It proved to be an alloy of gold and silver;
but it is the opinion of Dr. Jackson, confirmed by persons resi-
ding near the locality, that the specimens were of foreign origin,
and that some deception had been practised.
Towards the eastern part of the State, the transition and sec-
ondary rocks are predominant, forming a large extent of the sea-
coast, and extending northerly to the boundary line of Canada,
and into the disputed territory, being rarely broken in their con-
tinuity by the old rocks, excepting one or two isolated moun-
tains. Among these are limestone, containing marine fossil
shells, sandstone, calciferous slate, graywacke, breccias, and all
the varieties of trap rock. This section of country is represent-
ed as being more valuable in an agricultural point of view than
any other in the State, and also as possessing local advantages
over any other in reference to its commercial and manufacturing
interests. It was here that the discovery of coal became a sub-
ject of great importance. Dr. Jackson states, that ‘all the char-
acteristics of the regular anthracite coal formation exhibit them-
selves over a great belt of country, from the Suboois to the
Aroostook and St. John’s, and extend to the Temiscuata Lake,
near the frontiers of Canada.” 'The new red sandstone on the
St. Croix River, was found to be connected with that of New
Brunswick, which contains the coal measures of Grand Lake,
and is identical with that in which the gypsum and bituminous
coal of Nova Scotia are found; but no beds of either varieties of
coal or of gypsumt+ were discovered, and Dr. Jackson thinks it
probable that some of the members of the bituminous coal series
are wanting, while the anthracite region, owing to the thick al-
luvial deposits that overlay the strata, and the unbroken forests,
has not received the careful examination which he would have
been glad to have given it. He does not propose boring, as the
readiest means of discovery, the dip of the rocks being generally
* Goshen, Massachusetts, discovered by Professor Hitchcock.
t In New Brunswick, just beyond the eastern line of the disputed lands, ex-
tensive deposits of red and white gypsum were visited by Dr. Jackson. He ob-
serves, that as it is subject to no duty, it is almost as valuable to Maine as if it
occurred within the State.
150 Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine.
so very bold that their outcropping edges, on the removing of the
soil, would expose the coal beds without it. The report speaks
of the many wild speculations that had been entered into in
searching for coal, where it was geologically impossible that any
could exist. We ourselves happen to know of one instance, in
which some persons in Maine, believing that they had discovered
indications of a coal mine on the Kennebec River, actually sent
a quantity of black tourmaline to Boston, which was exhibited
by one of the principal coal dealers there as anthracite coal, and
in a few days all the necessary implements for boring into a solid
ledge of granite were prepared and sent tothe spot. ‘The ex-
ploration was not abandoned until the sum of two thousand dol-
lars had been expended ; and we believe the history of mining in
this country, does not afford an instance of more blind and deter-
mined disregard of the principles of science, than this. Not many
months afterwards, a person, probably on his own responsibility,
visited Boston to obtain subscribers to stock in a new mining
company, and brought with him specimens of gneiss and mica
slate, in which he declared he had found a bed of bituminous
coal near the mouth of the Kennebec River. One or two per-
sons, known to the writer, became subscribers to the stock ; and
it was not until after one of them took occasion to visit the spot,
that the gross fraud was detected. Pieces of coal were found
there, but they came from Newcastle.
The most valuable and extensive iron mine discovered in
Maine, is on the Aroostook River. It is a compact red Hematite.
Its situation, in the midst of water power, and an abundance of
wood for charcoal, and its being also on the frontier of the State,
and near the United States Military Post, renders it, in the opin-
ion of Dr. Jackson, a favorable site for the erection of a national
foundry.
“The bed is included in red and green argillaceous slate rocks, and
runsin aN. W. and §S. E. direction to an unknown extent. It is thirty-
six feet wide, and was traced by us tothe length of 1090 feet, while there
is not a doubt that it runs across the country to an immense extent, and
probably belonging to the same range as the great bed of iron ore that I
discovered last year in Woodstock. Its direction would cause its line to
strike in the township belonging to Williams College and Groton Acad-
emy, situate near Houlton, and it will probably be found to cut through
this town. It is of great extent and evidently inexhaustible. Situated
upon a great and navigable river, where a large flat boat may run to the
St. John, there being but one obstruction at the falls, near its mouth,
Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine. 151
where there is a carrying place for half a mile, it is evident that this iron
may be advantageously wrought, not only for the supply of our territory,
but also for the inhabitants upon the St. John, for at Woodstock no less
than $120 is paid for a ton of bar iron, and we can afford to supply them
for a less price, with better iron than England can produce. This ore
yields fifty-three per cent. of pure metal, and will give sixty per cent. of
pig iron. It is the very best kind of ore to smelt, being easily mined,
and just heavy enough to make a good charge for the blast furnace.
Wrought by means of charcoal, it will yield iron equal in quality to the
best from Sweden, and capable of being wrought into the finest kind of
cast steel.”
The following is Dr. Jackson’s analysis of this ore.
“ Water, ; . ei: é ; 6.00
Insoluble residue, consisting of silex, F 8.80
Per oxide of iron, : . - 76.80
Ox. manganese, : : 7 ; 8.20
; 99.80
Loss, ‘ : : : A 20
100.00”
Much statistical information in relation to the limestone, gran-
ite, and other quarries, and the agricultural capabilities of some
parts of the State, as yet but little known, are set forth in the
economical and agricultural departments of the survey: the prin-
ciples on which are founded the application of science to farm-
ing, are also stated with great clearness, and several analyses of
soils from different parts of the State given; but we have room,
under this head, for one extract only, which points out, we think,
the best plan yet offered for rendering agricultural and analytical
chemistry a thing practically attainable by our farmers.
“Attempts have been made to render the art of chemical analysis
easy, so that farmers might be able to do them for themselves, but such
attempts have been entirely abortive, for it would presuppose a knowledge
of chemical science and manipulation rarely if ever in possession of any
but professed chemists, and it would be idle to put instruments and re-
agents into the hands of those who do not know how to use them. It
would certainly be very useful to the community, if our agricultural
brethren would establish a college or institute, devoted exclusively to those
arts appertaining to agriculture, and such institutions will ere long be
founded in each of the States, for we begin to see and feel the impor-
tance of a good scientific education among the farmers throughout our
152 Reporis on the Geology of the State of Maine.
country, and our young men ought to possess advantages so desirable and
important for their welfare and prosperity. It is evident that small schools
will do no good, since they would not be sufficiently well endowed to
command the services of scientific teachers, and hence if the attempt is
made, let there be one large and well endowed agricultural college in
each State, connected, if found practicable, with the usnal classical insti-
tutions, and forming a branch of each university. Many who do not de-
sire to spend years in the study of Latin and Greek authors, are stil] anx-
ious to learn the elements of those sciences which appertain to their pro-
fessions, and I have not the least doubt, that a well ordered and scientific
agricultural institute would prove one of the most popular and useful
schools in the country. In such a college, mathematics, drawing, sar-
veying, mechanics, architecture, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology
and the practical arts, each in their several departments, might be taught
by study and lecture, while every practical operation should be learned by
actual practice.”
The subject of diluvial phenomena is frequently alluded to in
the pages of these reports, and the facts stated are of the most
positive and convincing nature, tending to confirm the opinion
long entertained, and of which the evidences in other parts of our
country are numerous, that a mighty and devastating current of
water has swept over the surface of this continent from the north-
“west, carrying with it large masses of rock, scooping out vallies,
and leaving parallel furrows upon the sides of mountains.* For
a statement of these facts, of which we have space to give only
a part, we would refer our readers to Dr. Jackson’s second report,
page 148. He observes,
“Tn various sections of this report may be seen recorded the proofs of
diluvial transportation of rocks, far from their parent beds, and we have
every reason to believe, that this removal was effected by a tremendous
current of water, that swept over the State from the north 15° west, to
the south 15° east, and we have adduced in testimony, that such was the
direction of that current, numerous grooves, furrows or scratches upon
the surface of the solid rocks, in place, and have shown conclusively, that
the rocks which we find thus transported, proved to be portions of ledges
* The opinion that boulders generally have been transported by ordinary or
tidal currents whilst attached to masses of ice, and not by one general catastrophe,
seems now no longer tenable; De la Beche, more satisfactorily, we think, than
any other writer, has solved the problem of their occurrence, and established the
truth of Prof. Buckland’s hypothesis. See his Geological Manual; also Hiteh-
cock’s Report on the Geology of Massachusetis, and the Reports on the Geologi-
cal survey of New York.
Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine. 153
situated to the North of the localities where their scattered fragments are
found.
“Tt is a matter of surprise, that such enormous masses of rock should
have been moved so far by an aqueous current; but when it is re-
membered, that a rock weighs but half so much when immersed in
water, as it does when weighed in air, owing to the support given it by
the water around ; and when we reflect on the fact, that a rock is still
more powerfully supported under the pressure of deep water, it may be
conceived, that if a flood of water did once rush over the land, it might
have removed large and weighty masses of rock, such as we find to have
been the case.
“From the observations made upon Mount Ktaadn, it is proved, that
the current did rush over the summit of that lofty mountain, and conse-
quently the diluvial waters rose to the height of more than 5,000 feet.
Hence we are enabled to prove, that the ancient ocean, which rushed
over the surface of the State, was at least a mile in depth, and its trans-
porting power must have been greatly increased by its enormous pressure.
“Tt will be readily conceived, that if solid rocks were moved from their
native beds, and carried forward several miles, that the finer particles of
soil should: have been transported to a still greater distance, so we find
that the whole mass of loose materials on the surface has been removed
southwardly, and the soil resting upon the surface of rocks, in place, is
rarely if ever, such as results from the decomposition of those rocks, but
was evidently derived from those Jedges which occur to the northward.
“Tf an attentive observer examines the soil in the city of Portland, he
will discover, at once, that it is made up from the detritus of granite and
gneiss rocks, while the ledges in that city are wholly composed of the
argillaceous, talcose, and mica slate rocks, and granite and gneiss occur
‘in great abundance to the northward.
“ All the markings on the surface of the rocks, and the scattered
boulders of granite and gneiss, which abound in that soil, indicate its or-
igin to have been in the north 15 or20° west. I merely quote the above
locality, on account of its being a spot where most persons will have oc-
casion to examine the facts stated. The various sections of the State
present ample illustration of the same fact, and every one who will take
the trouble, may convince himself of its reality.”
We can only add his remarks in relation to the grooves :
“ Diluvial grooves in the rocks are exceedingly common in Maine, but
I know of few localities where they are so distinct as at Hope and Apple-
ton. Here they may be observed running in aN. W. and S. E. direction,
while they are very deep and perfectly defined. Their direction, it will
be remembered, does not coincide with that of the stratification of the
rock, and could not have resulted from disintegration of the different
Vol .xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.-April, 183). 20
154 Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine.
strata. ‘Three quarters of a mile S. E. from a hill in Appleton, they may
be seen forming deep channels in the rocks, to the depth of a foot, and
six inches in width. Since the direction and appearance of these
grooves, correspond with those observed in other parts of our country,
I feel no hesitation in attributing them to a similar origin. ‘They are
certainly the result of an aqueous current, which once prevailed over New
England, and probably over the whole world. The current from similar
grooves seen in other places, appears to have proceeded from N. to S.,
or from N. W. to S. E.”
Dr. Jackson has stated an important fact, proving that the rocks
along the coast, particularly at Lubec Bay, have changed their
level within the recent zodlogical period, having discovered at-
tached to the sides of the trap, at the distance of twenty-five feet
above high water level, numerous remains of shell fish, precisely
like those now living on the neighboring coast. He says,
“Tt is evident from the position in which these shells are found, and
the attachment of barnacles to the rocks in place, that the sea once stood
over the very spot, where these marine relics are deposited. Has the
level of the sea become depressed, or have the rocks been elevated? ‘To
answer these questions I would observe, that it would be difficult, if not
impossible, to account for a subsidence of the waters here, without a gen-
eral change of level inthe ocean; and this is not proved to have taken
place. We cannot suppose a partial subsidence of the waters; for the
bay communicates freely with the ocean, and the level would be invari-
ably maintained. The concurrent testimony of all geological observers
is in favor of a change of level in the land, by elevation ; and such a
change appears to have taken place here, within the recent zodlogical
period.”
The proof of such local elevations of rocks have been greatly
multiplied by the observations of geologists, during the last few
years ; and though it appears in some few places, that the sea has
subsided from its former level, and in others has risen; the
general inference from all facts bearing upon this point, is, that
the land only has been raised or depressed, and that the cause of
these changes, whether local or general, in the relative level of
the land and sea, must be sought for in the agency of earthquakes
and voleanoes. ‘These have happened not only within the pres-
ent zoological period, but within the last century, and even so
late as 1822, the land on the coast of Chili, for the distance of
more than one hundred miles, was suddenly raised three or four
Reports on the G'eology of the State of Maine. 155
feet, the paroxysm extending to the mountains of the interior,
and producing dislocations and chasms in the solid substratum of
granite.* Asa still later example, might be mentioned, the vol-
eanic island which suddenly appeared in the Mediterranean, and
almost as suddenly disappeared.
The topographical features of the State of Maine, are more
striking than has generally been supposed. Dr. Jackson has de-
termined the height of some of the most elevated points of land,
by barometrical observations, confirmed by triangulations by the
aid of Sir Howard Douglas’s reflecting semi-circle, and a pocket
sextant. Mount Ktaadn is the highest, “being 5,300 feet above
the level of the sea, or a little more than one mile perpendicular
elevation, and forming the most abrupt granite mountains in New
England.” The accounts which are given of the ascent of some
of these most remarkable eminences, as well as of the pictur-
esque features of the country generally, are written in that graphic,
enthusiastic style which it might be expected the subject would
naturally inspire ; and some of the incidents related, show that
perils were encountered of no common magnitude. Much nov-
elty was added to the expedition, by the necessity of engaging
Indian guides into some parts of the State, unoccupied by, and
almost unknown to the whites. The last report is in the form of
a daily journal or record, which though it does not admit of the
same generalization, has the advantage over every other, in in-
suring greater accuracy and minuteness of local detail; a desid-
eratum in the case of lands not yet disposed of, and of which
the rightful possession by Maine has been denied by a neighbor-
ing Province.
In thus giving the readers of this Journal but an imperfect
sketch of these able and interesting reports, we hope we have
prepared them for a rich treat in the entire perusal of them, and
led them to look anxiously forward to the completion of the sur-
vey, and the publication of the remaining reports, and the final
one, which will be accompanied by a geological map, colored
sectional views, é&c. &c. The State of Maine, we trust, having
secured the services of one so thoroughly qualified by study and
observation, will not permit a work so creditable to their liberal-
* Mrs. Maria Graham, as quoted in the Geological Manual, by De La Beche,
p- 131. J
156 Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer.
ity, and condusive to their best interests, to terminate short of
accomplishing all that was originally intended.
We had intended to have said, something of the rahiertaery of
the survey, and also of the fossil remains, but as these are to be
made the subject of more special consideration by Dr. Jackson,
hereafter, we shall omit, or at least defer, any notice of them at
this time.
Arr. XXII.— Obituary notice of the Hon. StepHen Van Bea
SELAER.
Durine the twenty-one years of our editorial course, we have
often been called, as our volumes evince, to lament the removal
of distinguished coadjutors, patrons and friends—friends of our
labors, friends of science and of mankind.
In all these relations, we knew the excellent man whose name
stands at the head of this notice.
He did not indeed, lay claim to great attainments in science,
but he evinced the highest opinion of its vaiue; he cheered its
laborers onward, by his kind encouraging voice; he sanctioned
their efforts by his influence, and sustained them, by bounties,
free and frequent, as the rains of heaven.
In this number of our work, a living witness, the pioneer* of
American geological surveys, records the early largesses of Gen.
Van Rensselaer, for the examination of the opulent and interest-
ing region on the Erie Canal; to that paper, we refer our readers,
and. to the results of the survey, as given by Mr. Eaton in our
fourteenth volume. It isin the character of a most munificent
and untiring patron of useful knowledge, that we commemorate the
name of our departed friend; but as he was not less distinguished
for his moral excellence, in every department of a long, active
and useful life, we hesitate not to cite his virtues as well as his
* Proressor Amos Eaton, was employed by Gen. Van Rensselaer, at his own
exclusive expense, to make a detailed examination of a very important and exten-
sive region, that on the Erie Canal, in the State of New York. Mr. Maclure, had
drawn his great geological sketch of the North American continent,a few years
before, but Professor Eaton’s was the first instance of an elaborate examination of
a region several hundred miles in length.
Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. 157
bounties ; moral excellence is the golden framework of the pic-
tures of science.
The late Gen. Stephen Van Rensselaer* was born in the city
of New York, in November, 1764. He was the lineal descendant
of one of the oldest families, which at the first settlement of the
country, obtained from the Dutch Government, the grant of the
manor of Rensselaerwyck, which after the country passed under
the dominion of the English, was confirmed by James IL., in 1685,
and again in 1704, by Queen Anne.
His father died when he. was a boy. His mother afterwards
married Rev. Dr. Westerlo. She was remarkable for her piety
and charity, and her influence as well as that of her husband, was
seen in the character of her son.
“The memory of that mother he cherished to the last, with a strong
and affectionate attachment. To her lessons of piety, most carefully in-
scribed upon his youthful mind, he often adverted with feeling interest, as
a great and permanent blessing. He had early been taught by her to em-
ploy a “ Manual of Devotion,” with which he commonly engaged in that
solemn duty ; and a worn-out copy, used to his dying day, remains a me-
morial, as much of his filial affection as of his habits of devotion. Her
mourning ring, which he always wore, he desired should be buried with
himf.
“He received the rudiments of his education first at a day school in this
city, and then at Elizabethtown, N. J. He was afterwards at the Kings-
ton Academy, where commenced his acquaintance with the lamented
Abraham Van Vechten; which ripened into a warm, confiding intimacy,
and survived in all its strength until the recent death of his friend. From
the Academy, he was placed by his mother, ever anxious for his religious
welfare, under the charge of Rev. Dr. Witherspoon, whom he accompa-
nied on horseback from this place to Princeton; partof the distance with
an escort provided by General Washington, by whom they had been hos«
pitably entertained at West Point. After a year or two of preparatory
study, he entered Nassau Hall: but subsequently removed to Cambridge,
where he graduated in 1782. Although too young to take an active part
in our revolutionary struggle, he was early imbued with the sentiments
and feelings which animated the men of that period, and retained them
through his life. He uniformly adhered to the political creed of the
* Dr. Vermilye’s funeral discourse.
t “* She was a daughter of Philip Livingston, one of the signers of the Declara-
tion of Independence, and sister to the wife of Dr. Livingston, late of New Bruns-
wick. She died, April 17, 1810, aged 64, leaving three sons and two daughters.”
158 Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer.
“Father of his Country.” His public career commenced in 1789, when
he was chosen to the Assembly of this State. He was next in the Sen-
ate : and in 1795, at the age of thirty-one, became its presiding officer, in
the capacity of Lieutenant Governor; which station he held for six years.
From 1800 to 1820, he was frequently in the Assembly ; was a member
of two different state conventions, called to explain and revise the Consti-
tution; and for several years occupied a seat in the Congress of the
United States. He was among the earliest and most ardent friends of
internal improvements throughout the State. In 1810 he was appointed
one of the State Commissioners, and for the last fourteen years of his life
was President of the Canal Board. He was at the same time the Chan-
cellor of the University of New York, President of the Albany Insti-
tute, &c.
“ His military course began in 1787; but he was never employed in
active service, except during the last war with Great Britain, when he
commanded on the Niagara frontier, with reputation and honor.
““ He was twice married, and leaves his widow and a numerous family
to deplore his loss.’’*
He was united to the first Dutch Church in Albany, in his
twenty-third year, and continued a zealous member until his
death.
In Gen. Van Rensselaer, we have a remarkable case of a man
of great weight of character, continually acting a conspicuous
part, where conflicting interests were often at his disposal, but who
never had an enemy; and whose name the tongue of slander
never assailed. Still he was always decided in his politics, from
the revolution to his death. Washington, Hamilton, Jay, C. C.
Pinkney, &c., were among his personal friends; and although he
outlived them, he never could outlive their principles. His mu-
nificent deeds of benevolence are found on the printed pages of
almost every leading religious and scientific journal in our coun-
try. Every important public improvement, exhibits evidences
of his generous zeal. But the strongest marks of his own pecu-
liar characteristic views, are found among his efforts to benefit
the common laboring classes. Through his munificence, those
*« Flis first wife was the daughter of Gen. Philip Schuyler of revolutionary
memory. Of this marriage, one son (the present Gen. Stephen Van Rensselaer)
remains. His second wife is the daughter of the Hon. Wm. Patterson, late Gov-
ernor of New Jersey, and at the time of his decease, one of the Judges of the
Supreme Court of the United States. Her nine children (six sons and three
daughters) survive their father.”’
Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. 159
useful sciences, which had been locked up among the learned
few, are now the property of the farmer, and the mechanic, and
of the heads and members of families in domestic life. Facts
and principles drawn from chemistry, geology, botany, &c., are
now familiar to persons of every class, and fill up the laborer’s
hours of leisure, as an exhilirating mental repast.
It appears from Gen. Van Rensselaer’s letter to the Rev. Dr.
Blatchford, dated Nov. 5, 1824, that he established the school,
afterwards called the Rensselaer Institute, in the city of Troy—
“for the purpose of instructing persons who may choose to
employ themselves in the application of science to the common
purposes of life. He states his principal objects to be to qualify
teachers, for instructing the sons and daughters of farmers and
mechanics, by lectures or otherwise, in the application of experi-
mental chemistry, philosophy, and natural history, to agriculture,
domestic economy, the arts, and manufactures. He remarks,
that every school district may have the be1e4t of such a course
of instruction, about once in two or three years, as soon as we
can furnish a sufficient number of teachers. I prefer this plan,
he observes, to the endowment of a single public institution, for
the resort of those only, whose parents are able and willing to
send their sons from home, or to enter them for several years
upon the Fellenberg plan. It seems to comport better with the
habits of our citizens, and the genius of our government, to place
the advantages of useful improvement, equally within the reach
of all. Whether my expectations will ever be realized or not, I
am willing to hazard the necessary expense of making the trial.
You will excuse me if I attach too much importance to the
undertaking.”
This school was incorporated by the Legislature of New York,
March 21, 1826, and has been in active and useful operation ever
since, under the zealous and efficient direction, and instruction of
Prof. Amos Eaton, who was appointed senior professor, and Dr.
Lewis C. Beck, was named junior professor. It was a peculiar
feature of this school, that the pupils were required by the founder,
to exhibit their proficiency, not in the ordinary method of ex-
amination, but by themselves giving lectures and performing
experiments.
Able instructors have been trained here, and among them are
several gentlemen now attached to the geological surveys of
several States.
160 Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer.
For a notice of the great geological survey on the Erie Canal, we
have already referred our readers to Mr. Eaton’s own paper in the
present number of the Journal, and we are pleased to observe, that
his authority is respected by the present State geologists. It is in-
dicative of the public spirit of Gen. Van Rensselaer, that when an
anonymous writer in the North American Review, questioned the
accuracy of the survey, he stated that he was willing, if the work
had not been done correctly, to take a re-survey of the geology
of our State as before, at his own expense.* The State Legisla-
ture might well have authorized him to fill up the chasms in his
surveys, which farther discoveries among organized remains re-
quired. It is stated to us, that all the State surveyors have found
Mr. Eaton’s geological map of 1830 and 1832, to be correct and
full, so far as respects order of superposition of strata. Geolo-
gical nomenclature was not then settled, (and is not yet,) but itis
averred, that there has not yet been any mistake discovered in
regard to the order of superposition.
The following statements will illustrate the character of Gen.
Van Rensselaer, and will evince that economy is not parsimony,
and is at least in his case, found united with great liberality.
He was projecting a journey with several of his children to
Lake Ontario, first by land to Lewiston, and then by water to
Ogdensburgh. From motives of economy as well as of conven-
ience, he declined using his own equipage, and employed a liv-
ery man to transport his party to Lewiston, and then to meet
them again at Ogdensburgh with his carriage.
Obviously it was not the love of money which caused him to
consider a moderate sum ($16 in four weeks) as worth saving ;
but it was his habit to practice economy and to make prudent and
wise arrangements in order that he might set a good example to
his children and dependants; that he might benefit those whom
he employed, and perhaps more than all, that he might have the
means of more enlarged liberality. It was a remarkable coinci-
dence, that, at the very moment while he was negociating the
arrangements with the livery man, two young gentlemen called
on him with good letters of introduction, being recommended as
men of piety designed for the christian ministry, and needing pe-
cuniary aid. He instantly filled a check for each of them for the
* See Journal Vol. XX, pp. 419, 420.
Obituary-notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. 161
sum of $100—#200 for both—and then finished the arrangements
for his journey. In this little history we see him combining
economy and presenting the example of it to his children, with
employment for a worthy man in his honest calling, and crown-
ing the whole with an act of prompt and liberal benevolence.
This, remarks Mr. Eaton, was a fair trait of his character and a
true specimen of the economy which he always urged upon thou-
sands of tenants: he adds, “who ever heard of this fact, but
those to whom [ may have told it?» He never told any one of
his charities. I scarcely dare relate those benevolent acts of this
extraordinary man where I was the only witness. Long will the
widow speak of his charities, the orphan lisp his bounties, and the
poor tenant melt in tears to bless him.”
“‘ Having been in his service,’ continues Mr. Eaton, ‘as a con-
fidential servant of science, for eighteen years, I have witnessed
acts in the line of scientific patronage which no one else has
known. He authorized me (and paid me richly) to educate one
student in practical science, from every county in our state, gra-
tuitously, at his expense. Some, not understanding his limit
came from other states. A Professor of Transylvania University,
aman of talents, isa case in point. IT assume to say, that our
calls were prudent; but we, his agents, never made a call for
funds without receiving his check by the first mail.”
He aided in sustaining various periodical as well as standard
works. In this Journal there exists monuments of his munifi-
cence, especially in the expensive plates on the geology of New
York in the fourteenth volume, which were furnished gratis by
him. He not only observed a sound economy, but also great
moderation in the use of the bounties of providence. He gave
“without stint,” and he gave in a manner so kind and win-
ning, so free from ostentation, as greatly to enhance the value
of the gift. Born to princely affluence, he sustained the dignity
of his station by a noble hospitality; but his own wants were
few and simple, and he was moderate and self denying in per-
sonal indulgence, while his boundless liberality ‘‘may be read
throughout the land in many churches of different denomina-
tions, in institutions of learning of various kinds, in works of
public utility, and on the lists of our benevolent and religious so-
cieties, which he has aided, and for which he was foremost to
suggest the plans and to devise the means.”
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 21
162 Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer.
Nor did his benevolence stop here, but diffused itself abroad, ~
descending by a thousand silent streams to the firesides of the
poor and destitute. Within two days of his decease, and while
confined to his sick chamber, he sent for his agent and said to
_ him, “It is very cold! how the poor must suffer! Go round and
see if there are any that want and give them what they need.”
“ The blessing of him that was ready to perish came upon him”
—he was constantly devising liberal things, and felt that he was
merely a steward of God’s bounty. He was great in goodness,
and his goodness was the fruit of his piety.
The Rev. T. E. Vermilye remarks in the discourse already
cited, that in Gen. Van Renssalaer there was a rare and delight-
ful combination of substantial qualities—a sound judgment and
strong good sense to perceive the right, with courage and decision
to maintain it; his quiet firmness was without obstinacy, but he
adhered to opinions which he deemed correct, and no one ever
questioned the purity and elevation of his motives.
His real humility was in strict keeping with the simplicity of
his manners; they were elegant and refined, and stamped with’
the dignity of the olden time, but without any assumption, or the
slightest indication of a sense of superiority. ‘There were in him
no arts to attract admiration. .
“Tt was certainly remarkable, that possessing boundless wealth,
standing in the highest rank of society, having enjoyed dignities
and station, and commanding universal respect and admiration,
his mind should have remained so completely untainted, his man-
ners so untouched by any of these things. He was unassuming
and simple as a child.
His affections were warm and kind in an uncommon degree:
they shed a delightful influence over his domestic scenes, and
made him the centre of a wide circle of friendship and affection,
embracing all classes of society.
The bible was his favorite volume—perused often and atten-
tively every day ; and in private devotion he sought the intelli-
gence and direction which he needed. He was assiduous in the
moral and religious instruction of his children and household, and
observed with exactness his public as well as private religious
duties. His death was in exact correspondence with his life.
His mental faculties remained unimpaired to the last. He died
at four P. M., on Saturday, Jan. 26, 1839, being in his 75th
Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer. 163
year. ‘He was sitting with his family without any indication
of immediate danger. Having been seized with coughing he
rose to obtain some relief; and the difficulty seeming to in-
crease, he said to his son who was with him, “can this be dy-
ing.” “He regained his chair, and while his family collected
round and were hanging over him, his spirit was released so
quietly that the moment was unperceived by them.”*
It would be a delightful employment to follow this truly wise
and good man through the various walks of his long and active
life ; but it would be out of place in this Journal, and is the ap-
propriate duty of the biographer.
It is not however beyond our province to exhibit Gen. Van
Rensselaer as the munificent patron of science, in support of
which he poured forth his thousands with the copiousness of his
own noble river.
It is impossible however to do him aes in this particular,
without taking into view his general benevolence, which reached
every human interest and evinced that enlargement of mind,
which enabled him to perceive and justly to appreciate all that
appertains to the happiness and prosperity of mankind. In this
view of him, especially, he appears truly great; and his well
balanced, enlightened, and _ principled philanthropy, places him
in the same group of great and good men, with Washington, Jay,
Howard, and Wilberforce. We cannot take leave of our admired
and. venerated friend, without holding him up as a model to two
classes of persons who are numerous in our country.
To the opulent we may say—what is the use of boundless ac-
cumulation! Why not, while in full life, enjoy the luxury of
doing good, and of seeing it done; why not make your money
work for you to produce you an immediate return of gratitude,
and a certain, an inappreciable reward, in the consciousness of
spreading blessings all around you. The grave makes you poor
indeed if you have no reversion of grateful remembrance, or an-
ticipations of good deposited in heaven—and who will thank you
for dying rich! Thousands might thank you for sowing bles-
sings with a liberal hand while you live!
* Rev. Dr. Vermilye’s Funeral Discourse.
t The Hudson, which runs through his vast estates, and near whose bank stands
the venerable family mansion, the ancient residence of the patroons of Albany, of
whom he was the lineal descendant and representative.
164 Notice of the Kilee or Boomerang.
‘To the ambitious youths of our country, who are striving for
wealth as if it were the summum bonum, we drop the cautionary
remark, that if they have no better views, disappointment will
surely crown their efforts ; for, without higher and nobler aims,
it is not in wealth to afford happiness; while efforts, prompted
and directed by a liberal and enlightened benevolence, produce
an immediate and sure return—payment, day i: day—with a>
rich reversion to come.
The wealth of this country is sufficient for all purposes of be-
nevolence, literature, science, and arts, and we trust that it will
be directed more and more to such objects.
The example of Stephen Van Rensselaer stands as a bright
signal light, to direct and cheer the wise and good in their career
through this short and transient life—long enough, however, for
great results of both evil and good, which end not with our brief
personal action here, but like mechanical impulses, are propagated
in successive and boundless vibrations.
Arr. X XIII.—Some notice of the Kilee or Boomerang, a weapon
used by the natives of Australia; by Cuartes Fox.
Tne first notice which I remember to have seen of the weapon,
was in aslight volume of travels in Van Diemen’s Land, pub-
lished about four years since in London, but with which I have
not been able to meet again. It is there described as made of
heavy wood ; and, as being in the hands of a native, a very dan-
serous and powerful instrument of offense. About three years
since, some specimens were imported into Dublin, and there soon
became such a demand for them, that they have since been man-
ufactured there. They are used by the students at Oxford and
Cambridge, to throw for recreation. ‘The specimen now in my
hands was imported from Australia; but is evidently intended
for England, and is made of light materials which could do little
harm should it chance to strike any one.
It isof some native wood, and has been either cut out of a
branch, having the appropriate bend by nature; or it must have
been twisted by means of steam, the vein of the wood following
the curve to prevent its splitting.
Meteorological Table-and Register. 165
- From A, the handle, to B, it meas- —
ures, including the curve, two feet nine
inches. It is two inches in breadth,
and about the eighth of an inch in
thickness. The upper side is slightly
rounded, the lower one is flat. By
holding the missile by one end, A, the
plane side undermost, and throwing
it towards C, as if to hit the ground
at thirty yards distance, and giving it,
on leaving the hand, a rapid rotary as
well as progressive rnotion, instead of striking the ground, it rises
in the air horizontally, sixty or eighty feet, flies round behind the
projector, and finally falls near his feet ; or if thrown with skill, it
may be made to form two circles before coming to the ground.*
The natives of Australia have attained to such skill in the use of
it, that they can hit objects at a great distance, and procure their
food by means of it; but to a foreigner, such a degree of accuracy
appears to be next to impossible.
The rotary motion may be tried on a small scale by cutting a
piece of card the same shape as the annexed wood cut, and throw=
ing it with a jerk of the finger, from the back of a book.
Arr. XXIV.—Meteorological Table and Register.
Tue following elaborate meteorological table of Prof. Loomis
we have inserted, as an example of the most improved mode of
keeping these registers. We regret that we cannot devote the
space requisite to continue them in ertenso ; and also to insert the
numerous tables that are sent to us by other valued correspon-
dents. Summaries are admissible in a condensed form, and par-
ticular registers, when remarkable from the place or phenomena.
We are happy to observe that a new periodical work has ap-
peared, devoted to meteorology. Such a record is much needed,
and we decidedly recommend it to the patronage of the public.
It is entitled, Meteorological Register and Scientific Journal ;
edited by James H. Coffin. Monthly, 16 pp. 4to, Oswego, N. Y.
Price $2 per annum.
* An explanation of the singular motions of this missile, is given in Lond. and
Ed. Phil, Mag., April, 1838, p. 329.—Eds.
Meteorological Journal.
166
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172 M eteorological Journal.
The barometer employed in the preceding observations, was
made by John Newman of London, and is similar to that of the
Royal Society of London. 'The inner diameter of the tube is .55
inch, and the tube plunges into a cylindrical glass vessel about
three inches in diameter nearly filled with quicksilver. The scale
is movable, and terminates at its lower extremity in an ivory
point, which by a screw may be brought to exact contact with the
surface of the mercury in the cistern. The scale is graduated to
half hundredths of an inch, and read by a vernier to the two thou-
sandth part of an inch. After the instrament was completed, I
directed it to be taken to the apartments of the Royal Society,
and. placed by the side of the Society’s barometer, where it was
left for a day, in order that both might acquire the same tempera-
ture. The two instruments were then read off alternately by
myself and Mr. Roberton, the assistant secretary of the Society.
The mean of observations at four different times, made my barom-
eter .012 inch lower than the flint glass barometer of the Royal
Society. The instrument is rendered portable by inverting, and
turning a screw in the bottom of the cistern. It was admirably
packed on springs, and I have reason to believe suffered not the
slightest injury from transportation. 'The height of the barome-
eter cistern above tide water at Albany, is believed to be 1131
feet. The correction for capillarity is assumed to be .006 inch,
and that for temperature is made by Schumacher’s Tables, Co-
penhagen, 1826.
The thermometers are all graduated by Fahrenheit’s scale.
The external thermometer is divided to fifths of a degree. It is
exposed on the north side of the building where there is a per-
fectly free circulation of air. It is on a level with the barometer
cistern, and 21 feet from the ground. 'The wet bulb hygrometer
is a common thermometer whose bulb is enveloped in a white
cotton rag, and kept wet by means of another rag hanging from
a vessel of water by its side. When the water freezes the in-
strument is not observed. Daniell’s hygrometer is of the usual
construction, and was made by Newman. At each observation,
the point at which the dew disappears, as well as that at which
it forms, is invariably noted and the mean taken.
The vane is attached firmly to an upright revolving shaft, to
whose lower extremity is secured a graduated circle. 'The zero
of this circle indicates the South point of the compass; 90° is
Meteorological Journal. 173
West, 180° is North, and 270°, East. 'The vane is moved by a
very faint breeze, and hence is seldom at rest. At each observa-
tion, its extreme excursions during an interval of about five min-
utes are noted, so that the observations in column seventh indi-
cate the variableness as well as mean direction of the wind.
This are of vibration is commonly from thirty to forty degrees,
and sometimes even ninety and upwards. The mean of these
daily arcs I call the mean variableness, which will be observed
to be uniformly greater in the afternoon than forenoon. "The
force of the wind is estimated by a scale in which 0 indicates a
calm; 1 a breeze just perceptible; 2 gently pleasant; 3 brisk ;
A very brisk; 5 high wind. ‘The mean direction of the wind
for the month is obtained, not by taking the mean of the num-
bers denoting the daily directions, which would be a very erro-
neous method, but in the usual mode of resolving a traverse ; the
wind’s direction being considered the course, and its velocity the
distance. We wish to learn whether the atmosphere merely
oscillates to and fro, or has a progressive movement. 'The obser-
vations indicate the latter to be the case. The northerly and
southerly motions are nearly equal ; but the westerly far exceeds
the easterly ; so that the absolute progress of the wind is nearly
from west to east, and at the mean rate of three or four miles
per hour. ;
In column eleventh, 0 indicates a sky perfectly clear; 10 en-
tirely overeast. The clouds are always noted when they cover
one tenth of the visible heavens, and their direction when it can
be ascertained. Sometimes a stratum of clouds is so uniform and
unbroken, as renders it impossible to detect any movement. In
all cases it is the highest observed stratum which is recorded.
The mean direction of the clouds is deduced in the same way as
that of the wind, with the exception that all the clouds are ne-
cessarily regarded as moving with the same velocity.
The rain gauge is a copper cylinder of ten inches diameter, ele-
vated 49 feet from the ground. ‘The water is measured in a glass
tube of one inch diameter graduated to tenths of an inch.
174 M iscellanies.
MISCELLANIES.
¢
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.
1. Echoes.
I. Musical echo in Virginia.
Description of a remarkable echo in Fairfax Co., Virginia, by Charles
G. Page, M. D., Washington, D.C. Dr. Birch describes an echo in
Roseneath, Argylshire, which it is said does not now exist. When eight
or ten notes were played upon a trumpet, they were returned upon a key
a third lower than the original notes, and shortly after upon a key still
lower. A similar curious property I accidentally discovered in an echo
on the grounds belonging to my father in Fairfax County, Virginia. The-
echo had long been observed as an interesting and striking phenomenon,
and gives three distinct reflections. ‘The second echo or return is much
the most distinct. It gives thirteen syllables with great distinctness, and
avery amusing effect is produced by uttering a question and answer in
the same breath, and at the same in a different tone. Jor instance, how
do you do? pretty well I thank you, how are you? ‘Twenty notes played
upon a flute are returned with perfect clearness. But the most singular
property of the echo is, that some notes in the scale are not returned in
their places, but are supplied by notes which are either thirds, fifths, or
octaves. When the second F in the scale is sounded by itself upon a
flute, the first reflection gives the same note, the second likewise, and
sometimes, though rarely, the last reflection gives C the fifth above. But
when the low F is sounded, the first return is always the same note, the
second return generally the octave above, and the last invariably the fifth
C in the octave above the note played. A slight change in the wind or
density of the atmosphere will frequently vary the result. The first nat-
ural F upon the flute is the only note which gives a distinct fifth; and it is
not a little singular, that the same note sounded by the voice or upon a
bugle is not thus modified, but is returned in the identical tone of utter-
ance. The first A upon the flute, gives by the first and second reflec-
tions, the same note, by the third reflection an octave above. The same
is true of B flat, but of no other notes in the scale. The peculiar config-
uration causing the three distinct echoes is perfectly visible, but the causes
of the remarkable modifications of certain sounds are difficult to explain.
It is evident that is not a case of simple refraction, for all refractions
whether of light, heat, or sound are governed by the refracting media.
The constantly varying atmosphere which is the medium in this case,
would not of course furnish constant results. The effect of refracting
media upon vibrations producing musical tones, is to distort and render
them disagreeable. It appears to me, that as the modified echoes are
Miscellanies. 175
always some harmonic tones of the original note, there is a strong anal-
ogy to the polarization of light and heat. The actual condition of the
vibrations is evidently as follows. A portion of them must be transmit-
ted or conducted by the reflecting surfaces, and the reflected portion pos-
sesses new and definite properties. 1 leave the fact in the hands of theo-
retical philosophers.
II. Echo, many times repeating.
The communciation of Dr. Page, reminded us of a surprising echo
between two barns on the estate of Philip Church, Esq., at Belvidere, Al-
leghany County, New York.
With this echo we are personally familiar, and its delightful and aston-
ishing reiterations have often held the hearers in admiration, of what we
believe is no where surpassed in the number and distinctness of the rep-
etitions. Their delicacy and distinctness, but not their number, are finely
exhibited among the mountains of Lake George, while the wide sweeping
echo, circling miles around, when a powerful horn is blown, or a cannon
is discharged among the White Mountains of New Hampshire, has some-
thing of the terrible and sublime, as in both these cases we have had oc-
casion to observe.
For the following notice, we are indebted to John B. Church, Esq.
—Enbs.
The echo repeats eleven times, a word of either one, two or three syl-
lables ; the sound at each successive repetition, gradually dies away, but
the echo retains its distinct articulation to the last; in a very favorable
state of the atmosphere, it has been heard to repeat thirteen times.
The barns stand nearly in a direct line, east and west, with their gable
ends towards each other. The echo sounds in the direction of the barn
opposite to the one at which you stand, and it sounds equally well from
either barn.
By placing yourself in the centre between the two barns, there will be
a double echo, one in the direction of each barn, and a monosyllable will
thus be repeated twenty-two times, but in such rapid succession as to ren-
der it difficult to count the repetitions.
At the same time with the repetitions in the direct line of the barns,
there is a lateral echo, which gives but one reverberation, indistinct, but
loud and apparently rolling along the amphitheatre of hills.
East and west from the barns are ranges of hills that skirt the opposite
banks of the Genesee river, distant from each other about one and half
mile, the barns are about half way between them, the range of hills on
the last, sweep in a bow around towards the N. W., till nearly opposite
the barns, whence they bear off north, approaching at the nearest point
in their course, to within fifty yards of the barns.
The hills, east and west from the barns, rise up rather abruptly from
the plain, but with a smooth and unbroken ascent; and although the
176 Miscellanies.
echo sounds as if reverberated from objects more and more distant, and
with distances very equally graduated, yet the eye can fix upon nothing
but the barns, and the range of hills opposite.
The echo reflects back every tone, and undulation of the voice, with
the utmost accuracy. : :
An echo is heard out of the line of the barns.
2. Analysis of Marl from Farmington, Conn.; by Prof. E. Hircx-
cock.—I have made an analysis of the Farmington marl, which you sent
me, and the result is as follows, in 100 grains heated to 300° ;
Sulphate of lime, - - - - 21
Carbonate ‘‘ - - - - 66.3
Phosphate ‘‘ - - - - 0.4
Soluble geine, - er R Lae - 3.1
Insoluble “ - - - - 9:7
Silica, alumina, iron, &c., - - - 18.4
This is certainly a rich marl, and I have been surprised to learn that
the farmers in Farmington have nearly given up its use. Hither a great
deal of experience in Europe, and some in this country, must go for noth-
ing, or this marl can ke made of great value.—Letter to Prof. S.
3. Tabular View of the price of labor and subsistence in certain parts
of Continental Europe. .
To Pror. Sittiman.—Dear Sir—While travelling on the Continent
of Europe, about five years since, I endeavored to ascertain, in the coun-
tries through which I was passing, how comfortable a person could make
himself by his own unassisted labor. 1 supposed that the wages paid toa
stout healthy laborer on a farm, might be taken as a fair sample of the
price of labor, and my inquiries were made chiefly of such persons as
they presented themselves in the fields by the way-side, although some-
times I extended them also to tradesmen. At the same time, I endeav-
ored to learn the prices of provisions, é&&c. The investigation was made
in a desultory manner; J have since regretted that it was not prosecuted
more industriously and with more system; but the results, such as they
are, may be interesting to the public.
My course during these inquiries was from Trieste to Vienna, thence
by Saltzburg, and through the Tyrol, to Constance, by Zurich and Basle
to Strasburg and Carlsruhe, and so along the banks of the Rhine to Hol-
land. The money, weights, &c., of the different countries, are here re-
duced to the American Standard. The time when the inquiries were
made was in August, September and October.
77
Miscellanies.
ages of an able bodied laborer on a| Wages of good journeymen |,, Pediatr 2
. farm. tradesmen. Og Bd | Ad 2-3 Bs
Places observed. jee re Bay ; é 5 5 as 5 EBls s Flour, aN
. . . . a= S S
per year. | per day i oun a wot per wee per day 2 Ble ae Se S, oes
Dollars. cents. cents. cents, cts. lets. lcts, |cts-
Stiria. 6.72 5 15 43.4) | 49.3 re neal
Near Saltzburg. 10 17 to 20 10
30 miles w. of Inspruck.| 8 to 12 12
Shoemaker
Near Feldkirk. 16 13 1-2, Tailor 10, 6
Carpenter 16. :
Bordering on Lake Con- ; Shoemaker 80
stance. 8 to 12, cents and | Mason 15, and | 5 6 \43-4| 5
found. pays 7 for board
Neighborhood of Zurich. 6 |71-2/51-2/71-2} Wheat 90 cts. per
bushel.
Tailor, 80 cts.
and found,
Neighborhood of Basle. Shoemaker, 5 |62-3/429-3)42-3 102-3
$145, and not
8 cents in summer, found.
6 2-3 cts. in winter ;
20 miles n. of Basle. 12 to 16 |they have meat but 42.3) 6
twice a week.
Neighborhood of Ras- Tailor, 40 cts.,
tadt. 16 13 Shoemaker, 40 42-31 6 |51-341-3
to 80 cts.
Carlsruhe. 10 2-3
: Wheat, 80 cents
Neighborhood of Weis- 16 8 Shoemaker, per bushel.
beden, 32 to 40 cis, Indian corn, 10 2-3
cts, per gallon.
Fe 12 in harvest time,
Neighborhood of Ruhr. 9 1-2 other seasons; 61-2 |7 1-4|51-2) 4 9 1-2
woman 5 cts.
14,35,
Neighborhood of Meer. pearance 8 1-2 19 to 24
16,
T
Butter pe
pound
cts. |cents.
8
10
9 1-2
13
13
102-3
102-3
(111-3
9 1-2
Cattle, &c.
Good Cow, $14.40.
Ox 3 years old, $17.20,
Horse 2 yrs. old, $44.00,
Sheep, do. do, $1.40.
Good Cow, $22.
Working Ox, $28.
23
Good work-horse 6 yrs.
old, $52. :
Sheep, $3.20.
Potatoes, 6 2-3 cts. per
bushel.
Goose, 48 cts.
Ducks, 43 cts. per pair.
Fowls, 16 cts. each.
Potatoes 20c. pr. bush’!
Beech wood, $5.60 for
216 cubic feet.
. sxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.~April, 1839.
Vol
Good Cow 2 1-2 years
old, $24.60.
|
|
178 Miscellanites.
It will be seen from this table, that the condition of the poor, is not
only a wretched one, but also a hopeless one. As the father has been, so
the son must be, and so also to other generations. The food of these la-
boring classes. consists of potatoes and milk, with coarse brown bread,
and meat in small quantities, two or three times a week. To this diet,
however, they are accustomed from childhood, and it is not much com-
plained of; but that brightness of hope which cheers him on, who by
daily savings is laying up comforts for the future, is unknown to them.
Their poverty is utterly desperate, and must ever be so. ;
Yours respectfully, G. J.
Near Portsmouth, Va., March 6, 1839. “
4. Rain froma clear sky.—The annexed account of a shower of rain at
Geneva, from a serene sky, having excited much interest, some additional
facts of a similar nature are added, for the use of future meteorologists.
Although occurrences of this sort are doubtless uncommon, yet a diligent
search will probably show, that they are less rare than has been supposed.
It will be noticed, that two of the cases occurred very near the time of
an unusual display of shooting stars, but there seems to be no reason
whatever for suspecting them to be connected therewith. E. C. H.
1. At Geneva, Switzerland, on the 9th of August, 1837, at 9 P. M.
around the horizon were large black clouds in much agitation. The
zenith was clear, and the stars shone with their usual lustre, when a
shower of large drops of tepid water fell in different parts of the city.
Many persons who were abroad at a quarter past nine, were obliged to seek
a hasty shelter from so unexpected a rain. The shower ceased in a min-
ute or two, but it was repeated several times in the course of an hour.—
Letter of Wartmann to Arago; Comptes Rendus de 1 Acad. des Sci.
Oct. 16, 1837; p. 549.
2. At Harvard, Worcester County, Mass., on the 13th of November,
1833, about 8 A. M. there was a slight shower of rain, when not a cloud
was to be seen, the weather being what is called pera fair.— This
Journal, Vol. xxv. p. 398.
3. On Wednesday, the 23d of April, 1800, between 9 atl 10, P. M.,
Philadelphia, Pa., was visited by a very curious phenomenon. A ower
of rain of at least twenty minutes’ continuance, and sufficiently plentiful
to wet the clothes of those exposed to it, fell when the heavens imme-
diately over head were in a state of the most perfect serenity. Through-
out the whole of it, the stars shone with undiminished lustre. Nota
cloud appeared, except one to the east and another to the west of the
city, each about fifteen degrees distant from the zenith. In order to be
satisfied that he was not under an ocular deception, the writer of this
paragraph called on two or three persons to witness the phenomenon.
They all concurred in the reality of the fact above related— True Amer-
can, quoted in N. Y. Spectator of May 3, 1800.
Miscellanies. 179
4. Descartes states (Meteora, cap. vi. sect. xvi. Amst. 1656) that he
had in several instances, during a hot suffocating time in the summer, ob-
served showers of rain in large drops, before any clouds had appeared.
5. Antonius le Grand, in his Historia Nature, (Lond. 1680, 4to,) re-
marks, that sometimes it begins to rain before the clouds are seen; and
that he once observed an occurrence of this nature, while walking in the
fields in a calm, hot, suffocating day. p. 273.
5. European observations on the Meteoric Shower of November,
1838.—In our Jast number, Professor Olmsted gave an account of the
observations made in this country at the time of the expected return
of the meteoric shower of November, which indicated that in 1838,
this phenomenon was visible chiefly on the morning of the 14th of
that month. ‘The inference which this fact naturally suggested, that
the exhibition was more splendid in places to the east of us, is now
amply confirmed by the following important information from Austria,
which we take from L’ Institut of Dec. 27th, 1838.
“«M. Littrow, Director of the Observatory of Vienna, has published
a notice in the Gazette of that city, which proves that an extraor-
dinary display of shooting stars was visible there in November last.
On the 10th of November, 1838, from 8 P. M. to the next morning,
nine meteors per hour were counted, which is, according to M. Que-
telet, about the average hourly number visible to a single observer
during the year. On the 11th, the sky was clear from 6 to 11 P. M.,
and twenty meteors per hour were counted. The night of the 12th
was so cloudy. that no observation could be made. On the 13th, the
sky cleared up about midnight and remained so during the rest of the
night. During these six hours, one thousand and two shooting stars
were observed, which gives a mean of one hundred and sixty-seven per
hour. But the phenomenon was far from being of uniform intensity
during this period. It increased in frequency from the first until 4
A. M., and after that hour, decreased. In the first hour, thirty-two
meteors were seen; in the second, fifty-two; third, seventy ; fourth,
one hundred and fifty-seven; fifth, three hundred and eighty-one ;
sixth, three hundred and ten. During the night following, (14th,) the
sky was too cloudy to permit observation.”
The number of observers should have been stated: we presume
there were enough to note all, or nearly all, the meteors visible above
the horizon of Vienna.
Miscellanies.
180
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Miscellanies. 181
RNA TIES E ar i RACY lata) ik eau te teeta 2 OD?
Coldest day, Oe Perane amas wi hielo) THU CRC IS ce ag (3
Range of Thermometer, . s A q s é 103
ieahes ee PAYS ee i! tay Ai pi pS A MN 8 caine, rm (ABS 0O
: Clande : : : - : - “ . 112.50
ERAN Lae 9) eyo ‘ : 2 : AS Ue ‘ . 32.50
Sato lh Showers, - ; : , ‘ ‘ 3s cay as)
Cresta LORS & iets noe Drift, : x ‘ ‘ ‘ : . 0.50
Snow, . Se 5 E P % : 16.50
Number of days observed, UR UR cane Meakin ame ee S71
Number of days Westerly winds, . . + « « « «. 163.00
« & « Easterly “ F 5 a F . ° 32.25
ty, 6 Le North “ i j : E : 4 fs 66.75
8) & “South és s i i i A 3 i 49.25
Number of days observed, it ae muihs oe ber staan le. lca nd yh lia ical aoe
es Temperature, 1836, “ : : - J : ; » 40.48
ee 1837, ; Seah i Ay At aT es)
fs AR rote 5) LOO Src renee tas mer tual hata tet a ee
Mean of three years, sAisia SH RS NE alk SM aemcaneita SEA Aik any
MONTHLY RANGE OF BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER.
BAROMETER. THERMOMETER.
Months. Max. |Date.| Min. [Date.| Range. | Max. | Date. | Min. Date.| Range. |~
Hieshiols afi 30.460 | 27 | 29.312 | 28 | 1.148 | +47 5 | —12 | 31 59
Bela. : 30.300 | 1 | 29.330} 16 | .970} 26 | 8.13 | —14 | 17 40
March, 30.424 | 4 | 29464] 19 | 960] 45 14 +9) 4 36
April, . 30.250 | 16 | 29.450} 3} 800] 55 28 12 | 16 43
May, . 30.150 | 1 | 29.460 | 26} .690 76 15 36} 8 40
June, . 30.044 | 20 | 29.450 | 7] .594 88 21 52} 8 36
July, . 30.271 | 14 | 29500 | 30) .771 90 7 52 | 22 38
Ais, 30.276 | 20 | 29.300 | 17 | .970 88 7 41 | 26 47
Sept. . 30.490 | 26 | 29.560} 1 .930 73 5 39 | 3 34
Occ. 30.384 | 17 | 29.300 | 6 | 1.084 72 1 31 | 29 4]
Nov. . 30.772 | 11 | 29.300 | 6 | 1.472] 51 5 | —3 | 24 54
Dees i 30.780 | 31 } 29.282 | 23 | 1.498 36 5 | —13 | 30 49
Mean. 30.383 | ‘| 29.392
SUDDEN FLUCTUATIONS IN BAROMETER.
Inches and parts.| Rise or fall. In what time Wind. Weather.
978 fall. 24 hours. 8. Storm.
1.148 fall. 24 hours. N. Storm.
534 fall. 12 hours. N. W. {Snow storm.| -
F 836 rise. 12hours. |N. 5. s. w.jStorm.
he 1.000 rise. 24 hours. Ss. Ww. |Storm.
8, .800 fall. 24 hours. S. Blowing.
21, 420 fall. 12 hours. w.s. |Cloudy.
Dec. 3, -750 rise. 24 hours. Ww. Clear.
5, .658 fall. 24 hours. N Rain.
oO 644 rise. 24 hours. Ww. Clear.
12, .988 rise. 12 hours. N.w. |Gale.
PA ley 1.050 rise. 24 hours. N. W. w. |Gale.
15, 16, -722 rise. 24 hours. N.w. Gale.
23, -702 rise. 6 hours. w. Gale.
28, 864 fall. 24 hours. s.w. |Snow storm.
182 -' M ascellanies.
SOLAR RADIATION.
Day and Hour. | 2 3 4 Weather.
A. M.: ; ; :
July 19, . 10.30 19.50 68 | 114 Clear. !
11.00 17.62 69 122 | A few light clouds.
11.30 19.50 69.5 118 Clear.
Noon. 20.00 71 120 Fleecy Clouds.
12.30 20.00 | 73 116 Perfectly Clear.
1.30 20.00 73 see Clear.
26, Noon. 14.67 71 94 |. Clear, blowing mer
27, 4 P.M. 17.07 77 SG Clear.
28, .| Noon.. 19.05 77 98 Clear.
3 P.M. 19.50 78 101 Clear.
29, ! Noon. 19.80 83 105 Clear, fresh breeze.
Aug.2, | Noon. | 17.30 | 73 100 | Clear.
Remarks.—These observations were made during the warmest and brightest
days of July, on: the Montreal mountain, place of observation 307 feet above St.
Lawrence. The first column gives the day and hour; the second, the indication
of Sir John Herschel’s Actinometer, (by Robinson, London,) mean of three ob-
servations :—the third, the temperature of air in the shade, Thermometer 5 feet
above the earth; the fourth, the indication of the Thermometer placed in the sun
on garden mould, (not blackened,) after an exposure of ten minutes. N.B. This
Actinometer was, in Sept. 1837, compared on the same spot, with one in the pos-
session of Dr. Daubeny of Oxford, England, and gave similar indications.
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION.
Day. 2 3 4 Wind. | Weather.
July, 18 to 19 69 60 50 N. W. Clear.
19 to 20 73 54 50 do. do.
22 to 23 71 55 50 N. do.
26 to 27 713 61 49 S.E do.
27 to 28 78 69 62 S. W. do.
28 to 29 80 70 65 Ss. W- Showery.
Aug. 610 7 76 69 63 Ss. W Clear.
Remarks.—The first column indicates the 24 hours during which the observa-
tion was made, reckoning from 9 A. M. of one day to9 A. M. of the next; the
second gives the maz. of the Thermometer in the shade, for the same period; the
third, the min.; the fourth, the indications of a register spirit Thermometer,
placed ona grassplot and exposed freely to the Heavens during the night. All
these instruments are made by first artists (British) and ona compared with
standards.
Storms, &c., during the year.
January 8—Wind shifted suddenly from N. W. to S.at2P.M.; at 4, blew a gale
—lasted most of the night—dust flying—no snow.
“ 27 to 28—Heavy snow storm from N. with heavy fall of snow—lasted
48 hours.
April 8—Storm with rain—wind, moving at N.—at 2 P. M. shifted suddenly to
to S. through E.—blew a gale with heavy rain.
July 29—3.30 P. M—Thunder storm from the N. W. with heavy rain. The
storm passed up the St. Lawrence, along the Montreal or north shore
of the river, returned in about 30 minutes down the south shore
along Laprairie, as far as Boucherville, and again returned up the
river with increased violence—thunder, lightning, and the heaviest
Miscellanies. 183
rain, falling in one continued tropical shower from 3.30 to 9 P. M.
At 10P.M., bright moon, starlight, and perfectly calm. The elec-
tric fluid fell and consumed a barn on the bank of St. Lawrence,
about 2 miles above the city. Thermometer in shade, previous to
storm, indicated 85°,—fell to 77° during storm, Thermometer in
the sun on garden mould indicated 112°, after exposure to storm,
same place, gave 77°.
September 22—Equinoctial gale commenced about 11 P. M. of 22d—continued
blowing, with heavy showers and without intermission, till sunset of
the 24th—wind varying from W. to S. W. and W.
November 5—Began to blow from the N. at 7 P. M.—blew hard all night, with
rain, till 9 A. M. of the 6th, when wind shifted suddenly to S. W.
and blew-a gale, with snow and sleet, till 9 A. M. of 7th, when
wind again suddenly changed to the N., and continued blowing
hard all day.
December 23—-Barometer rapidly falling all day, till 6 P. M. when lowest;
(29.282)—-then a heavy storm commenced from the N. W. and lasted
16 hours, with great violence—wind did not abate till noon of the
24th—during the storm the Barometer rose .702, and the Thermom-
eter fell 39°.
7%. Chromate of Potassa—a reagent for distinguishing between the
Salts of Baryta and Strontia; by J. Lawrence Smiru.*—Having had
occasion some months since, to examine a specimen of fibrous celestine,
from Niagara, I was led to suspect from its specific gravity, that baryta
was present.
With this supposition, I examined for baryta in the usual way, with
fluo-silicic acid; in fact, the only certain method that I was aware of.
The indication that this test gave of its presence, was so unsatisfactory,
that it led me at once to search for a more decisive, and more delicate
distinguishing test; and the following was the result of my labor.
It will be needless to detail the various reagents that [ had recourse to,
in my experiments, but suffice it to say, chromate of potassa satisfied my
most sanguine wishes; for no reagent with which I am acquainted, acts
so promptly upon any body, as does this upon the salts of baryta; and
moreover, so delicate in this test, that in one of my experiments in
which a grain of chloride of barium was dissolved in one gallon of water,
it gave immediate indication of the presence of baryta, although sulphu-
ric acid failed to do so; in fact, it will affect perceptibly a solution that
contains less than ;za)sa% part of baryta.
When a strong solution of chromate of potassa is poured upon a strong
solution of a salt of strontia, a precipitate (similar to that which is pro-
duced when a salt of baryta is used) will take place. Solutions of
these two salts of ordinary strength, will not affect each other.
Lest this fact should, under any circumstance, cause erroneous conclu-
‘sions, I sought for some acid which would dissolve the one precipitate and
* See Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. Jan. 1839, p.78
184 Miscellanies,
not the other. Acetic acid is the only acid among the many that I tried,
which answered thisend. If a small quantity of dilute acetic acid (cous
mon acetic acid, diluted with five times its weight of water, was used) be
poured upon the precipitate produced in the case of strontia, it will be
completely dissolved ; whereas no impression is culate on that from the
salts of baryta.
Acetic acid, so concentrated as to crystallize when its temperature was
below 50°, was poured on the precipitated chromate of baryta, and a por-
-tion of it was taken up, but in no instance did any quantity of the acid dis-
solve the entire precipitate.
With the above means, there need not now remain the least doubt in
ascertaining promptly, the presence of baryta in a salt of strontia sup-
posed to contain it; for all that is necessary to be done, is to add to a so-
lution of the salt, a solution of chromate of potassa, which, if baryta be
present, will produce a light yellow precipitate insoluble in acetic acid.
This reagent will also serve to distinguish baryta from lime.
8. Frozen Wells.
To Prorressor Sirziman,—Dear Sir,—There is a well near this vil-
lage, which has drawn the attention of the scientific and curious for many ,
years, but the phenomena which happen in it, have never yet been ex-
plained. I have taken some pains to ascertain the facts, and now com-
municate them to you, in hopes of hearing a scientific exposition of this
apparent contradiction of nature’s laws.
The well is excavated on a table of land, elevated about thirty feet
above the bed of the Susquehanna River, and distant from it three-fourths
ofa mile. The depth of the well, from the surface to the bottom, is said
to be seventy-seven feet ; but for four or five months in the year, the sur-
face of the water is frozen so solid as to be entirely useless to the inhab-
itants. On the twenty-third of the present month, in company with a
friend, I measured the depth and found it to be sixty-one feet from the
surface of the earth, to the ice which covers the water in the well, and
this ice we found it impossible to break with a heavy iron weight attached
to arope. The sides of the well are nearly covered with masses of ice,
which increasing in the descent, leave but about a foot space (in diam-
eter) at the bottom. A thermometer let down to the bottom, sunk 38°
in fifteen minutes, being 68° in the sun, and 30° at the bottom of the
well. The well has been dug twenty-one years, and I am informed by a
very credible person, who assisted in the excavation, that a man could not
endure to work in it more than two hours at a time, even with extra clothing,
although in the month of June, and the weather excessively hot. The
ice remains until very Jate in the season, and is often drawn up in the
months of June and July. Samuel Mathews drew from the well a large
piece of ice on the 25th day of July, 1&37, and it is common to find
it there on the 4th of July.
Miscellanies. 185
The well is situated in the highway, about one mile northwest of the
village of Owego, in the town and county of Tioga. There is no other
well on that table of land, nor within sixty or eighty rods, and none that
presents the same phenomenon. In the excavation, no rock or slate was
thrown up, and the water is never affected by freshets, and is what is
usually denominated “ hard,’ or limestone water. A lighted candle
being let down, the flame became agitated and thrown in one direc-
tion at the depth of thirty feet, but was quite still, and soon extinguished
at the bottom. Feathers, down, or any light substance, when thrown in,
sink with a rapid and accelerated motion.
The above facts may be relied upon as entirely correct, and a solution
of the mystery is respectfully requested, by
Your obedient servant,
D. O. Macomser.
Owego, Feb. 26th, 1839, N. Lat. 42° 10/.
Remarks.—We wish it were in our power to solve this interesting and.
difficult problem.
At the depth of more than sixty feet, the water ought not to freeze at
all, as it should have nearly the same temperature of that film of the
earth’s crust, which is at this place, affected by atmospheric variations,
and solar influence, being of course not far from the medium temperature
of the climate. Could we suppose that compressed gases, or a greatly com-
pressed atmosphere were escaping from the water, or near it, this would
indicate a source of cold; but as there is no such indication in the water,
we cannot avail animales of this explanation, unless we were to suppose
that the escape of compressed gas takes place deep in the earth, in the
vicinity of the well and in proximity to the water that supplies it. Per-
haps this view is countenanced by the blowing of the candle at the depth
of thirty feet, blowing it to one side, thus indicating a jet of gas which
might rise from the water as low as at its source, and even if it were
carbonic acid, it might not extinguish the candle, while descending, as
the gas would be much diluted by common air; and still in the progress
of time, an accumulation of carbonic acid gas might take place at the
surface of the water sufficient to extinguish a candle.
We would recommend that a bottle of water be let down, and by
means of a string so affixed as to empty the water, and of course to col-
lect the air both at the jet and at the surface of the water. It should
then be examined by lime-water and by other well known methods. As
the water is impregnated with carbonate of lime, this appears to indicate
a source from which the carbonic acid gas (if such it be) is derived, and
it may be forced into cavities as it is extricated until it is condensed to
such a degree as to escape from its prison, and in expanding it may pos-
sibly produce the requisite cold.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. 24
186 : Miscellanies.
9. Ice formed at the bottom of a river.—At the town of Scottsville,
on the James river in Virginia, many cakes of solid ice have been
seen adhering to the rocks at the bottom of the river, when the ice
above had broken away, and often when none had been formed on the
surface of the water. These collections of ice are usually formed in
shallow places, where the water runs pretty rapidly, but have been ob-
served two feet below the surface where the water moved along very
gently.” Ice has been taken out of this river, at the mouth of a small
stream, to the bottom of which fragments of brickbats and particles of
the soil, and grass of the bottom were attached, and this too, when the
water there was two feet deep, the ice five or six inches thick, and formed
apparently on the top of the stream. Ilow to account for this undubit-
able fact, and for these partial crystallizations at the bottom, I am some-
what ata loss. By dropping one line of explanation, you will much oblige
your sincere friend, Hues W. SuHErrey.
To Pror. Sriuiman.
Remarks.—Facts similar to those described by our correspondent, are
not uncommon in cold countries, and have been often described in Ger-
many, Great Britain and North America. In the Elbe, the fishermen
are often annoyed by the ground ice on the bottom, which prevents them
from fixing their anchors, and it is often brought up on the hooks instead
of fish. The ground ice is found in the northern seas, at the depth of
more than one hundred feet, and in the Baltic, at still greater depths.
Flood gates are sometimes stopped by the ground ice and mills are thus
locked in winter.
The ice sometimes rises to the surface, bringing up with it, mud, gravel,
sticks, and even in some cases, anchors and large stones, thus proving
that it is buoyant like common ice.
We have just now conversed with a gentleman, whose saw-mills in Al-
legany county, New York, on the Genessee river, are frequently stopped
by the ground ice, which he remarks sometimes forms a foot in thickness.
In his opinion it forms on the surface, as it is seen, every where in the
Genessee mixed with the water; but it is not easy to understand why it
should sink, except it were carried down by eddies and currents. It is
stated by Dr. Jas. Mease, (Edinb. Enc., article, Ice,) that the ground
ice uniformly freezes at the bottom, before there is any ice on the top.
10. Fossil fishes of the red sandstone.—In our number for Octo-
ber last, we noticed the discovery of a single species of fossil fish, by
Prof. Gale, in the red sandstone of New Jersey, and its apparent iden-
tity with an undescribed species of Paleoniscus found in the red sand-
stone formation of Connecticut, at Middletown. ‘The locality has
been further explored, and two fine specimens are now in the posses-
Miscellanies. 187
sion of Mr. Edward Renwick, Columbia College, one of which proves
to be the Catopterus gracilis of Redfield,* and the other a strongly
marked species of Paleoniscus, also found at Middletown. It ap-
pears, therefore, that most of the fossil fishes found in the Connecti-
cut sandstone, prove to be identical with those which have been found
in New Jersey. This discovery promises to be of some importance
in settling the geological relations of these sandstone formations. R.
1]. Volborthite, a new Mineral.—At the session on the 16th of
March, 1838, of the St. Petersburgh Imperial Academy of Sciences, a
notice by Dr. A. Volborth was presented ona new mineral containing
vanadium.
The vanadic acid has hitherto been found only in Mexico, Scot-
land, and the eastern part of Russia, and in combination with lead in
the form of vanadiate of lead. This new mineral, called Volborthite,
was communicated to the author by Dr. Rauch, who had purchased
it with other minerals, of M. de Solomirsky, from which he presumed
that it came from the mines of Solomirsky, (Syssersk?). It is a van-
adiate of copper, and consists of a mass of minute conglobated crys-
tals, of an olive color, and which are so small that their crystallo-
graphic characters cannot be well determined. Its fragments are
translucid—transparent, with a crystalline lustre by reflected light.
It scratches calcareous spar; streak, pale yellowish-green and nearly
yellow: gravity, =3.55. It undoubtedly occurs in great abundance
in the copper mines, between Miask and Katharinenburgh. Its gangue
is Beresite.—L’ Institut, (Paris,) Dec. 27, 1838.
12. Reclamation of M. A. Warder, in a letter. to Prof. Silliman, dated
Springfield, (Ohio,) March 8, 1839.—Much as I regret to occupy your val-
uable time, with any subject not strictly scientific, still, since the inser-
tion in the last number of your valuable and highly interesting Journal,
of J. G. Anthony’s letter, with its implied censure, calculated to convey a
false impression, I feel it due to my brother, Dr. J. A. Warder, to state,
that the fossil trilobite described by him, had been in my possession many
months, before I had an opportunity of presenting it to him to be de-
scribed and named. J am aware that the priority of discovery, is of little
consequence to the cause of science, and was submitted by Dr. Warder,
to the decision of those, who were disinterested, in the very letter, of the
July number, 1838, of which J.G. Anthony so unjustly complains; and
I should not now trouble you, if I did not fear that the censure will be
read without a reference to the letter from Dr. Warder.
* Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, vol. iv.
188 Miscellanies.
13. Quantity of Salt in Sea Water ; by Dr. Daubeny.
Proportion
of solid mat-
5 Sp. gravity |ter in 500grs
Locality. Latitude. Longitude. of the obtained by} Authority.
water. evaporation
in a water
path.
Atlantic Ocean, | Equator | 23.° 0! West, | 1027.85 | 19. 6 Dr. Marcet:.
South Atlantic, 21°.0/ 0. O 1028.19 | 20.6--]| .
North Atlantic, 25.30 32. 30 1028.86 | 21. 3
Indian Ocean, Equator | 84. 0 East, 1026.00 | 19.00 Dr. Daubeny
Do. Do. 8. 16 1025.90 | 19.23
Do. Do. do. depth of 625 ft.| 1027.47 | 20.88
Atlantic Ocean, Do. 19. 30 West, 1026.70 | 19.10 —
Bay of Naples, 40.50 14. 15 1030.00 | 22.30 ——
Marseilles. 43.17 5. 22 1031.00 | 23.10 —
Off Southampton} 50.54 1. 24 1027.00 |°19.40 —-
( 49.38 2. 0 about |10267.26 | 20. 4 —
49.10 4. 0 10269.08 els _—
49 28 6. 36 10269.99 SS
50. 5 9. 19 10269.99 + | 20.95 ———-
50. 0 12. 0 10269.99 SSeS
49.34 PP any, 10270.90 —-
47.27 13. 35 10271 .81 a
48.50 15. 30 10271.81 %| 20. 9 ——.
48.40 17. 40 10271.81 —
46.45 17. 34 ee Us ——
44.40 20. 15 10272 20.85 ——.
43.41 42 10272. —_
Water taken up| | 43.18 28. 38 10275.45 ; 5 ae
during a voyage] | 43.30 32. 9 10274.54 =
between Ports- |< 44.45 Spy 22 10272.72 ===
mouth and New| | 45 12 34, 52 10273.63 =SSsSss
York, in 1837. | | 45.36 Se 3 10271 81 SSS
45.40) 40. 14 10269.68 =
49.49 45. 45 10272.72 fs —
41.10 48. 23 10254.52 ae ———-
41.30 50. 48 10249.06 18. 9 ===
42.30 52. 10 10949.06 ¢ 5 ==
44. 0) 53. 51 10249 97 =
42 52 57. 18 10248.15 a ok ——
42.52 57. 58 10249.06 aa Ss
42.35 62. 00 10254.28 2) 4g 7 ——
41. 0 65. 43 10254 28 ? SS
40.40 67. 24 10256.34 aS
39.50 69. 27 10249.06 : —-
39.27 71. 13 10265.44 | 19. 2 —_.
Off Sandy Hook,) . . : ‘ 10229.04 ===
Drawn from a
depth of 80 fa- fa. 48. 23 10265.44 ey oan
thoms,
do.of 100 fathoms| 39.54 | 67. 34 10273.63 | 21. 0 am
Surface- water
nearest to the 10254.28 | 18. 7 ae
above, 2. 3grs.
difference... = ——_——
28.16 80. 0 10258.16 —
Between 27.30 — 10277 ,27 ———
Charleston and |4 24.40 —- 10273.63 20.90 —
Havanna, 23 28 —- 10273.63 : —-
23.15 —- 10276.36 ——.
Gulf of Mexico, | ¢ 24.23 84. 30 10276.36 SSS
between Havan-} 2 26.33 86. 47 10275 45 anes —
naand N.Orleans! ¢ 28.20 89. 00 10278.18 | 21. 1 —_——
Miscellanies. 189
. 14. Head of the Mastodon Giganteum.
To Pror. Sirtiman.—Dear Sir——-Enclosed I send you a profile
view of the head of the Mastodon Giganteum. The specimen from
which the drawing is taken, was brought to light during the year
1838, in excavating a mill-race on the land of Mr. Hahn, near Bucyrus,
Crawford County, Ohio, and is believed to be the most perfect one
which has-yet been discovered. We are thus enabled to complete the
skeleton of this gigantic quadruped, the remains of which are so
abundant throughout the western country.
Fig. 1.
Other portions of the skeleton were also exhumed. They were, ac-
cording to Mr. Briggs,* as follows:
Head.—The entire head, with the exception of the tusks.
‘“ Vertebre.-—6 Cervical; 6 Dorsal; 1 Lumbar; 5 Caudal.
Ribs.—28; 12 entire.
Pelvis ——The sacrum and the whole of the left side, and the ossa
pubis, and part of the ossa ischium of the right side.
Extremities.—1 Os-femoris; | Tibia; 1 Fibula; 1 Radius; 1 Ulna;
2 Patella; 11 Bones of the feet.”
I am also indebted to the same source for the measurements of the
head and under jaw.
* Annual Report on the Geology of Ohio, pp. 127, 8 and 9.
190 Miscellanies.
The greatest breadth of the head, formed by the occipital bone, is
243 inches, and this bone extends nearly to the superior part of the
head, a slight curve only being formed above it. This bone, which is
173 inches in height, is very rough and uneven, presenting a proper
surface for the insertion of large and powerful muscles necessary to
support the enormous head of the animal. The distance from the
base of the occipital bone, over the superior part of the head to the °
termination of the intermaxillary bones, is 573 inches. The distance
across the superior part of the head, between the temporal fosse, is
152 inches; while the greatest breadth of the head, formed by the
zygomatic arches, is 27} inches. Thus large spaces are left within
the temporal fosse to be occupied by powerful muscles. The distance
between the orbitary processes, over the anterior part of the head, is
22 inches. ‘The interior diameter of the tusk sockets is 53 inches.
The under jaw weighed, when taken from the earth, 69 pounds.
Its length is 2 feet, 6! inches; and the distance from the top of the
condyloid process to the angle of the jaw, is 121 inches; while the
articulating surface of this process is 53 inches.
These bones were found in a bed of fresh-water marl, formed in a
depression of a deposit of yellowish clay, which is a continuous
deposit, occupying the western portion_of the state. Beneath it, in
geological position, occurs a deposit of dark blue clay, resting uncon-
formably on the mountain limestone. ‘These deposits are composed
of finely divided particles, disposed in nearly horizontal layers, through
which are interspersed pebbles of primary and secondary rocks. These
superficial materials often attain a thickness of 150 or 200 feet.
The boulders, which are found so abundantly throughout the wes-
tern part of Ohio, repose upon these materials, and are, therefore, a
more recent formation.
I also send you a drawing of the crown of a molar tooth, (Fig. 2;)
belonging to the fossil elephant, exhumed about two years since, 1n
Miscellanies. 191
Seatac County, by Mr. Briggs and myself. A more particular de-
scription of these bones is contained in this Journal, Vol. xxxt1v, pp.
358-9. They were found in the blue clay before spoken of, which is
lower in the geological series than the fresh-water marl.
The bones of the Mastodon and elephant have been found in juxta-
position, at Nashport, in Muskingum County, which establishes the
fact, that they existed contemporaneously ; but whether they disap-
peared from the face of the earth at the same epoch, is a matter of
doubt. es Yours, truly,
J. W. Foster.
Zanesville, Ohio, 14th Feb. 1839.
15. Notice of the use of the fumes of Nitric Acid in Pulmonary diseases.
[Extract of a letter to the senior Editor.] :
Dear Sir—I cheerfully comply with your request, to make a statement
of the facts in my possession, with regard to the use of nitric acid for
pulmonary diseases. In the spring of 1833, Mr. Edwin E. Wells, now
Rev. Mr. Wells of Huntington, U. C., had a severe cold upon his lungs,
accompanied with a violent cough. The various prescriptions he em-
ployed, failed to afford relief, until at the earnest solicitation of a friend,
he was induced to use the nitric acid. This removed the disease, and in
a few days his health was perfectly restored.
The same spring, I was attacked in a manner similar to Mr. Wells,
and being afraid of the acid, it was not until the usual remedies had
failed, and my friends had become alarmed at my condition, that I con-
sented to use it. When I did so, I found immediate relief.
In 1827, Mr. James H. Trowbridge of Plattsburgh, under similar cir-
‘cumstances experienced like happy results from the use of the acid.
The most remarkable case is, that of Mr. Gray of Utica; who first re-
commended the use of the acid to Mr. Wells. The account he gave of
it was as follows. He had a cough with frequent and copious discharges
of mucus and blood; he became much reduced, and it was thought that
he was in the last stages of the consumption. At this time he com-
menced the use of the nitric acid, and immediately his health began to
mend. When he related to me this fact, he was in perfect health.
The following is the mode of using the acid: Pour a small quantity
upon a hot iron and inhale the fumes as they rise.. Repeat this several
times a day, until the disease is subdued. Mr. Gray said, that he, in ad-
dition to this, used to fill his bedroom with the fumes before going to
bed. The immediate effect is to produce a spasmodic action of the throat
and glottis, so that I suppose but a small part of the fumes enter the
lungs. .
After the first application, I experienced relief; the cough began to
subside, and expectoration became free and easy. I believe I applied it
192 Miscellanies.
but three or four times. In every case of using the acid in this applica-
tion, with which I am acquainted, the effects have been happy.
Yours respectfully, Davip Jupson.
New Haven, Feb. 14th, 1839. !
Remark.—The late Mr. Elihu White of New York, related to us sim-
ilar results obtained under his direction, but the event was not always fa-
vorable.—Sen. Ep. .
16. Greece.—Revival of Letters—We have received through our
friends, the Rev. Mr. Robertson, episcopal missionary, and G. A. Perdi-
caris, Esq., an account of the formation of two societies in Athens.
One for the cultivation of Natural History.
Another for inquiries in archeology.
Both societies have entered upon their duties, and we have received
pamphlets containing the constitution and doings of the Archeological
Society, and the address made before that body. The speakers could
not fail to catch the spirit of the occasion, for the meetings were held
on the Acropolis, and among the columns of the Parthenon.
Well may they be indulged in the enthusiasm which they manifest on
the recovery of their national liberty, and in contemplating the colossal
and beautiful rnins around them, over which twenty-five centuries have
winged their way, and left them still the admiration of mankind, despite
of the tooth of time, and the more barbarous hand of war as well as the
wanton aggressions of antiquaries.
The following extract of a letter from Mr. Perdicaris, dated, Athens,
Sept. 1838, is addressed to Professor Silliman, and will, we doubt not, be
perused with satisfaction by all admirers of Greece and of her antiquities.
It is hardly necessary to add, that Mr. Perdicaris (a native of Greece, of
the city of Berea, whose ancient inhabitants St. Paul styles noble) was
many years a resident in this country, travelled and gave finished lectures
in many of our cities, north and south, east and west, and was universally
respected as a scholar, a patriot, and a man of talents and moral excel-
lence.
Antiquities of Greece, &c.—‘‘ The antiquities of Greece have exerted
no ordinary influence upon her destinies. Her rulers actuated by their
reverence for her ruins, and envious to flatter the whims of the learned,
decided upon bringing the capital of modern Greece to Athens, and
by this simple act, have prejudiced the best interests of the dead and
the living. The removal of the capital to Athens, has brought modern
improvements into close contact with the matchless ruins of the ancients,
and has deprived them not only of that solitude which is one of the chief
charms of ruined temples, but has profaned the holy places of the dead
with the abominations of the living. It has turned the sites of temples
Miscellanies. 193
into stables, and in endeavoring to raise Athens from her ruins, it threat-
ens to put her out of the record, by destroying that which constituted her
chief characteristic—her deserted and solitary ruins. This plan has
not only failed to attain its chief end, but it has produced consequences
of a very mischievous nature to the interest of the Greeks. It brought
the metropolis of the nation at a distance of seven miles from the sea,
and has thus taken from the Greeks—what they might have had—a
commercial metropolis. While the people of other countries are strug-
gling for sites favorable to communication, and while the Greeks have
such central positions and such ports as those of Corinth and the Pi-
raeus, their rulers have brought them among ruins, and have thereby
shown their love for deserted sites, to the neglect of commercial and
political interests. This state of things is much to be regretted by those
who delight in the present progress of the world; and while I won-
der at the ill policy of the Greek government, I cannot deny the fact
that untimely efforts have produced some good results. Mr. Petakes,
the chief antiquary of the king, has been very active, and has suc-
ceeded in rescuing many fine works from the rubbish of time and bar-
barity. By the enthusiastic efforts of this individual, the ruins of the
Acropolis, have assumed a new aspect, and the eye of the visitor now
rests upon objects which a few years ago were buried beneath the ground.
Nearly two-thirds of the Propylaia have been saved, and the entrance
which of late had become a mere name, now presents a truly magnifi-
cent ruin. Besides, the beautiful little temple of Victory, without wings,
which was to the right of the Propylaia, and which was entirely under
ground, has been discovered, and restored to its just proportions. Many
baso-relievos have been found around the different temples, and the mu-
seum is already enriched with many exquisite fragments of the plastic arts.
The efforts of the king’s antiquarian, have been seconded by those of
the Archzological Society of Athens, and they are both actuated by hon-
orable emulation. The A. S. A. has proved itself very useful and is at
present employed in the excavation of the theatre of Bacchus, which as
you well know, is situated to the southeast of the Acropolis, and in its best
days could accomodate thirty thousand spectators. The seats of this
magnificent theatre being cut in the living rock, could not be affected by
time, and there is reason io believe that the greater part, if not the whole
of them will be laid open to the eyes. It is difficult to predict whether
they will find the well known spring of water, but even if they were to
fail in this, the clearing of the seats and its vast area will be a sufficient
recompense. ‘The cave at the termination of the seats, and half way up
the Acropolisis still to be seen, and is singular for the changes it has wit-
nessed, and interesting for the associations that cluster around it. It
seems to be a joint work of nature and art, and it is difficult to say which
of the two has had the greater agency in giving it its present shape.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.-April, 1839, 25
ue
194 Miscellanies. )
The rock in this cave is hard limestone, but half way up the interior, there
is a stratum which resembles the congealed rock of Malta, and which bas
‘the lines of the agate. In the upper part of the cave there are two
marble pillars, which formerly supported tripods, but which at present
stands like two sentinels over a spot sacred to genius and the tragic
muse.
Lest you should think that excavations are the only thing we attend
to here, I would beg leave to inform you, that we are equally busy in other
matters. ‘The cause of education, of justice and of civil government,
is making some progress; and Greece, though struggling with many an
impediment, is still indulging in the hope of success, and we may yet live
to see the day which will reward her by the attainment of the object of
all her efforts, the happiness of her people.
17. Tongueless Dog retaining the power of barking.—I have a favor-
ite spaniel dog of the “ king Charles breed,” thirteen years old, and as
he cannot relate a “ tale of wo” of himself, I propose todo so for him, in
as few words as possible.
In June last, in a small steel trap, set in the cellar, for the purpose of
taking rats, he was accidentally caught at about midway of the tongue,
and in this situation he remained about three-fourths of an hour. On
examination after he was extricated, the tongue was found started out of
its natural position in the mouth, some four inches. Every thing was
done to relieve his suffermgs, and in the hopes that the tongue would
again adhere to its former position in the mouth, but the tongue being
much mutilated, was found after a lapse of forty-eight hours, the weather
being warm, to have become perfectly black; at this time the “ poor old
dog” exhibited a desire to leave his kennel, which he was permitted to do,
and he went direct fer the ocean, where he “‘ cooled the fever of his blood”
by a swim; he thence went away and was absent alone about half an hour,
when he returned to his kennel perfectly tongueless, having as was suppos-
ed, torn out his own tongue, by putting his paws upon it, as he had before
been seen todo. He was fed during the time upon boiled rice and soup,
and ate the usual quantity, on his head being held up so that the food would
run down his throat. Necessity is said to be the mother of invention,
which seems to have been verified in this case, as the “‘ old favorite” now
feeds himself as well as he ever did, upon every variety of food; drinks as
well as ever, although after the manner of a pig, by running his nose more
than usual into the water, and what seems still more remarkable, he barks
with the same distinctness as usual, on the least intrusion upon his prem-
ises in the night time, as he did before the loss of his tongue, and is in
all respects seems as well as he was previous to the accident.
Boston, Aug., 1838.—Extract of a letter to the Editors.
Miscellanies. 195
18. Officers of the New York Lyceum of Natural ve We 'y, elected Freb-
ruary 25th, 1839.
JoserH Dulsevar, President.
Joun Torrey, Ist Vice President.
Joun Avucustine Situ, 2d Vice President.
Joun C. Jay, Treasurer.
Joun H. Reprieip, Corresponding Secretary.
Rosert H. Browne, Recording Secretary.
TssacnerR Cozzens, Librarian.
Joseph Delafield, James E. De Kay, John C. Jay, Robert H. Browne, -
H. C. De Rham, Curators.
John Torrey, Abraham Halsey, Joseph Delafield, James E. De Kay
John C. Jay, Committee of Publication.
John Augustine Smith, Joseph Delafield, William C. Redfield, John C.
Jay, Abraham Halsey, Cinnttbe of Nomination.
H. W. Field, A. R. Thomson, Samuel T. Carey, Committee of Fi-
nance.
James E. De Kay, William C. Redfield, Robert H. Browne, Library
Committee.
19. Royal Society of London—honor to an eminent scientific artist.—_
The chronometers of London, as well the excellent artists who make
them, are famous the world over; among them, Messrs. Parkinson and
Frodsham, are conspicuous, and their chronometers -have been proved
extremely accurate in voyages to the arctic regions, as well as to other
parts of the world. Mr. W. I. Frodsham of this firm has been recently
elected (as we observe by a London newspaper) a Fellow of the Royal
Society, an honor which appears peculiarly appropriate in the case of ar-
tists, who by the construction of fine instruments, contribute the most im-
portant aid to scientific discovery, and not a few of these artists deserve
the name of philosophers.
20. Progress of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition.—The Exploring
Squadron, of which we gave an account in our Jast volume, arrived
at Madeira, on the 18th of Sept. 1838, having left Norfolk on the 18th
of August. These ships sailed from Madeira, Sept. 24th, and Oct.
6th, entered Porto Praya, St. Jago, one of the Cape de Verd Islands.
On the 7th of October, they sailed for Rio Janeiro, S. A., at which
place they arrived on the 22d of November. From this port they
sailed for the south on the 8th of January, 1839, and were spoken on
the 18th of January in latitude 36° 40’ S., ten days from Rio Janeiro.
21. Prof. J. W. Webster's Manual of Chemistry, new edition —Marsn,
Capen & Lyon have in the press, “ A Manual of Practical Chemistry, on
196 Miscellanies.
the basis of Brande and Turner; containing the principal facts of the
"science, arranged in the order in which they are discussed and illus-
trated in the lectures at Harvard University, and various Colleges and’
Medical Schools in the United States: by J. W. Webster, M. D., Er-
ving Professor of Chemistry in Harvard College. The third edition,
with te additions and alterations, adapted to the present state of
the science.’
The reputation of this work is well known, the two former editions
having been adopied as the text book in many Colleges and Institu-
tions throughout this country. ‘The present edition has been carefully
revised, and rendered of a still more practical character than the preced-
ing ones, and many new engravings and other improvements introduced.
The publishers would refer those who are not already acquainted with the
work, to the 11th Vol. of the American Journal of Science, for a notice
of it, and to the Preface to Prof. Silliman’s Chemistry, in which he re-
marks, “‘ few books on Chemistry, contain so much important informa-
tion.”
Orders for parts as published, or for the entire work, may be addressed
to the Publishers, No. 133, Washington St., Boston.
anuary, 1839.
22. Notice of anew mode of preparing Fish Skins for Museums ; by
by Cuartes Fox.—(Commaunicated for this Journal.) —However desi-
-yable it may be to possess good collections of the skins of fishes, as of
birds and other animals, hitherto there has been some difficulty both in
preserving them, and making them look natural.
The old mode of stuffing fishes, is too laborious and expensive, ever to
be carried generally into effect; and the consequence is, that we find
fewer specimens of fishes in collections of natural history than of any of
the other branches of that science. At the late meeting of the British
Association for the advancement of science in Newcastle upon Tyne, a
novel mode was proposed by a physician, which combines both facility,
speed in execution, and a good appearance; besides which the expense
is little more than the original purchase of the specimen. As this is but
slightly noticed in the published reports, I am induced to send you a fur-
ther account of the process, hoping that it may prove useful.
The plan is to cut the fish longitudinally in two, parallel to and a little
on one side of the dorsal fin, to take the larger part and clean the flesh en-
tirely off it. The head is also to be cut in like manner, nearly to the mouth,
which, however, is to be leftentire. Thus, when done, there is the skin of
exactly half fish, and half the bones of the head. This having been accom-
plished,—and a little practice will enable any one to do it with ease, in an
ordinary sized specimen, in a few minutes,—all that remains, 1s to pin it
upon a board or piece of card; placing cotton below so as to keep the skin
Miscellanies. 197
in its original shape, and in this way to let it dry. ‘The writer has found
the top of acommon paste-board hat box, most convenient for small. speci-
‘mens, as having a rim which allows the pins to pass through without hitting
thetable. In this process the fins should be carefully extended, and nicely
fastened with small pins. When quite dry, it may be removed and placed
upon a thin piece of board covered with white paper, or otherwise as may
suit the fancy; fastened on with a little glue ; and a thin coat of varnish
rubbed over it. In this state, it has the natural appearance of a fish
swimming; and as no chemical substance, except a little powdered arse-
nic rubbed inside, or should it be preferred, a thin coat of diluted corro-
sive sublimate, is necessary to preserve it, the skin is not so subject to
fading as otherwise. ‘The eye is to be left in, which when dry gives the
entire specimen as in nature.
There are several specimens thus prepared, at present placed in the
museum of the Zoélogical Society in London; and both their appear-
ance, and the facility that they offer for scientific examination, recom-
mend them far above those stuffed in any other manner.
Should it be required to pack and carry such skins, it is better to leave
the finishing and varnishing to be done when they reach their destination.
They will travel with perfect safety if laid together without pressure ; and
a piece of thin paper be placed between each couple.
Of the fishes of this country,—many of which are both very interest-
ing and beautiful,—we have as yet, no good public collection. May it not
be hoped, that now, since they can be preserved with so much facility, it
will not be long before the commoner species, at least, will be brought to-
gether in one museum, for scientific use.*
23. An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy; by William A. Norton,
late Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in the University of
New York. 1839. 8vo. pp. 373, and 112 of tables.—This work is designed
by the author, chiefly for the use of students in the higher institutions of
learning. It is, however, more comprehensive than books of this kind
commonly are, and is furnished with a collection of tables and formule,
that it may also be of use to the practical astronomer. ‘The work consists
of four parts; of which, the first treats of the determination of the situa-
tions and motions of the heavenly bodies; the second, of the magnitudes
* Being recently in England, I found that the topic was creating a good deal of
conversation among scientific men and collectors; and I think this mode of pre-
serving fishes, may, from its great simplicity, do good here. The specimens I saw
were really beautiful; and came as near to nature, as the subject appears to per-
mit. Of course, asin all other things, practice is requisite to render it perfect.
We understand that this method has been, for some time, put in practice in the
Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, by Mr. Townsend.
198 Miscellanies.
and physical constitution of these bodies, and of the phenomena resulting
from their motions; and the third, of the theory of gravitation. The
fourth part is composed of problems in practical astronomy, to be solved
by means of the tables that are given at the end of the treatise. Under
the first of these four divisions, the author treats of the construction and
use of the more important astronomical instruments, gives the theory of
corrections, and then applies Kepler’s laws to the determination of the
places and motions of the bodies in the solar system; a chapter also is
here added on the measurement of time. The subject of eclipses and
occultations falls of course under the second division. It will perhaps be
thought by some, that the department of physical astronomy, which forms
the author’s third division, might have occupied, with advantage, a some-
what larger portion of his work. In elementary treatises on astronomy,
designed for students, this branch of the subject has, we think, not gen-
erally held that degree of prominence which it deserves, as a highly use-
ful means of mental discipline.
So far as we have been able to examine the treatise of Prof. Norton, it
has appeared to us an accurate and well digested work; and, accompa-
nied as it is with a valuable collection of astronomical tables, we think it
can hardly fail to be well received by the public.
24. Postscript to p. 71.—The remarks on the subject of the rocks of
the western part of the state of New York, being all secondary, require
some explanation. According to Buckland, they are mostly transition,
also most of the Cattskill and Allegany Mountains; because he does not
admit a class of lower secondary rocks. See Bridgewater Treatise, Vol.
I, p. 55. According to Conybeare and others, the encrinal limerock is a
lower secondary rock. See pp. 352 to 356. But this appears to be an
error, arising from his considering the transition encrinal and the cherty,
as the same rock. ‘That the rock at Fort Plain, on the Erie Canal, is the
genuine encrinal limerock of Conybeare, no one will question, who fol-
lows up the Otsquago Creek one mile. I could refer geologists to nu-
merous localities. No Europeon geologist, who admits a lower secondary
class, would include in the transition class, any rock in the state of New
York, west of the counties of Oswego, Oneida, Montgomery, Schenec-
tady, Albany, Greene, and Ulster, if he was convinced, that the encrinal
limerock is that which extends through Amsterdam, Fort Plain, Trenton
Falls, &c. to Sackett’s Harbor on Lake Ontario. A. E.
25. The Mammoth, (Mastodon? Eds.)—The following statement is so
interesting and important that we give it a place, although it is deficient
in responsibility. We resquest the unknown author to communicate with
us directly; and having made-a similar experiment successfully, in a very
Miscellanies. 199
similar case, that of an anonymous correspondent, in relation to Big Bone
Lick, Kentucky, (see Vol. xx. p. 372,) we are encouraged to try a similar
expedient again. We have copied the article from the Philadelphia Pres-
byterian of Jan. 12, 1839.
“It is with the greatest pleasure, the writer of this article can state,
from personal knowledge, that one of the largest of these animals has
actually been stoned and buried by Indians, as appears from implements
found among the ashes, cinders, and half burned wood and bones of the
animal. The circumstances are as follows :
“A farmer in Gasconade county, Missouri, lat. 38° 20’ N. lon. 92° W.,
wished to improve his spring, and in doing so, discovered, about five
feet beneath the surface, a part of the back and hip bone. Of this
I was informed by Mr. Wash, and not doubting but the whole, or
nearly the whole skeleton might be discovered, I went there and found
as had been stated, also a knife made of stone. I immediately com-
menced opening a much larger space; the first layer of earth was a
vegetable mould, then a blue clay, then sand and blue clay. I found
a large quantity of pieces of rocks, weighing from two to twenty-five
pounds each, evidently thrown there with the intention of hitting some
object. It is necessary to remark, that not the least sign of rocks or
gravel is to be found nearer than from four to five hundred yards; and
that these pieces were broken from larger rocks, and consequently car-
ried here for some express purpose. . After passing through these rocks,
I came to a Jayer of vegetable mould; on the surface of this was found
the first blue bone, with this a spear and axe; the spear corresponds pre-
cisely with our common Indian spear, the axe is different from any one I
have seen. Also on this earth was ashes, nearly from six inches to
one foot in depth, intermixed with burned wood, and burned bones,
broken spears, axes, knives, &&c. The fire appeared to have been the
largest on the head and neck of the animal, as the ashes and coals were
much deeper here than in the rest of the body; the skull was quite per-
fect, but so much burned, that it crumbled to dust on the least touch;
two feet from this, was found two teeth broken off from the jaw, but
mashed entirely to pieces. By putting them together, they showed the
animal to have been much larger than any heretofore discovered. It ap-
peared by the situation of the skeleton, that the animal had been sunk
with its hind feet in the mud and water, and unable to extricate itself,
had fallen on its right side, and in that situation was found and killed as
above described, consequently the hind and fore foot on the right side,
were sunk deeper in the mud, and thereby saved from the effects of the
fire ; therefore I was able to preserve the whole of the hind foot to the
very last joint, and the fore foot all but some few small bones, that were
too much decayed to be worth saving. Also between the rocks that had
sunk through the ashes, was found large pieces of skin, that appeared
200 Mixceliivenes:
like fresh tanned sole leather, strongly impregnated with the ley from the
ashes, and a great many of the sinews and arteries were plain to be seen
on the earth and rocks, but in such a state as not to be moved, excepting
in small pieces, the size of a hand, which are now preserved in spirits.
Should any doubts arise in the mind of the reader, of the correctness
of the above statement, he can be referred to more than twenty witnesses,
who were present at the time of digging. — Phil. Presbytervan.
26. Discovery of Mummies at Durango, Mexico.—A million of mum-
mies, it is stated, have lately been discovered in the environs of Durango,
in Mexico. They are in a sitting posture, but have the same wrappings,
bands and ornaments as the Egyptians; among them was found a poig-
nard of flint, with a sculptured handle, chaplets, necklaces, &c., of alter-
nately colored beads, fragments of bones polished like ivory, fine worked
elastic tissues, (probably our modern India Rubber cloth,) moccasins
worked like those of our Indians, bones of vipers, &c. It is unknown
what kind of embalming was used, for the mummies above mentioned,
or whether they were preserved by nitrous depositions in the caves where
they were found. A fact of importance is stated, that necklaces are
of a marine shell found at Zacatecas, on the Pacific, where the Colum-
bus of their forefathers probably therefore landed from Hindostan or from
the Malay, or Chinese coast, or from their islands in the Indian ocean.—Jb.
27. Parallax of the star 61 Cygni.—A letter from Prof. F. W. Bessel
to Sir J. Herschel, dated Konigsberg, Oct. 23, 1838, (contained in the
Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. Jan. 1839,) gives an account of observations
which he has made with the assistance of the excellent instruments of the
K6nigsberg Observatory, which in his view, authorize the conclusion that
the double star 61 Cygni has an annual parallax of 0'.3136. The sum-
ming up of this important communication, we give in the writer’s own
words.
- “As the mean error of the annual parallax of 61 Cygni (—0".3136)
is only + 0’.0202, and consequently not _1; of its value computed ; and
as these comparisons show that the progress of the influence of the par-
allax, which the observations indicate, follows the theory as nearly as can
be expected considering its smallness; we can no longer doubt that this
parallax is sensible. Assuming it 0°.3136, we find the distance of the
star 61 Cygni from the sun 657700 mean distances of the earth from the
sun: light employs 10.3 years to. traverse this distance. As the annual
proper motion of « Cygni amounts to 5’.123 of a great circle, the relative
motion of this star and the sun must be considerably more than sixteen
semi-diameters of the earth’s orbit, and the star must have a constant aber-
ration of more than 52." When we shall have succeeded in determining
the elements of the motion of both the stars forming the double star, round
Miscellanies. 201
their common centre of gravity, we shall be able also to determine the
sum of their masses. I have attentively considered the preceding obser-
vations of the relative positions; but I consider them as yet very inade-
quate to afford the elements of the orbit. I consider them sufficient only
to show that the annual angular motion is somewhere about 2 of a de-
gree; and that the distance, at the beginning of this century, had a min-
imum of about 15’. We are enabled hence to conclude that the time of
a revolution is more than 540 years, and that the semi-major axis of the
orbit is seen under an angle of more than 15’. If, however, we proceed
from these numbers, which are merely limits, we find the sum of the
masses of both stars less than half the sun’s mass. But this point, which
is deserving of attention, cannot be established until the observations shall
be sufficient to determine the elements accurately. When long continued
observations of the places which the double star occupies amongst the
small stars which surround it, shall have led to the knowledge of its cen-
tre of gravity, we shall be enabled to determine the two masses separ-
ately. But we cannot anticipate the time of these further researches.”
28. Ornithology of the United States, the descriptive part by J. K.
Townsenp ; the drawings from nature by French artists, Philadelphia,
published by J. B. Chevalier, 1889, Vol. I., part 1, large 8vo.
The prospectus states that this work will be published in monthly parts,
and each part will contain four plates, or eight birds, with sixteen pages
of descriptive matter. ‘Twelve numbers will complete a volume of forty-
eight plates, or ninety-six birds, with two hundred pages of letter press.
Five volumes will complete the work, the price, one dollar and twenty-
five cents each number, or about $60 for the work when complete.
The figures are reduced, and not drawn or colored in the highest style
of lithographic plates, but sufficiently well for all purposes of the ornithol-
ogist. The text is simple and unaffected, and the descriptions accurate.
29. Third American from the fifth English edition of Bakewell’s Ge-
ology.—In our last number, (Vol. xxxv. p. 385,) we mentioned the new
American edition of Bakewell’s Geology, by B. & W. Noyes, of New
Haven. The entire work extends to 596 pages, 8vo., of which the ap-
pendix by Prof. Silliman, occupies 122 pages.
There are nine plates, six of which are folded, and more than thirty
wood cuts.
- This American edition is printed with a large clear and legible
type, and ‘Upon white paper. American paper, as it appears partic-
ularly in the reprints of foreign works, is still decidedly inferior to
English paper, both in the quality of the material and the firmness
and beauty of-the fabric. If, however, we look back a few years, we
find the English paper, especially in their common and periodical works,
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.-April, 1839. 26
202 Miecollanves:
inferior to the American paper of the present period, and we have no
‘doubt that as soon as the American public will pay for the best paper, it
will be furnished by our manufacturers as has already been done in some
cases. é
The entire volume of Mr. Bakewell, as published by Messrs. Noyes, is
very handsome, and it is bound with an open back and strong cloth
covers, not needing to be re-bound. The retail price is $3.50.
We have already spoken of the contents of the work, and it is not for
us to speak of the American Appendix. That addition can be read or
omitted as may be agreeable to the reader, although it is supposed, that
the topics discussed in it may be acceptable to some. The editor has not
disturbed the author’s work. From this kind of license he has, when
acting as editor, always abstained ; conceiving that an author’s produc-
tion is sacredly his own, and that no one has any right to mutilate his
pages. We believe the present edition of Bakewell’s Geology, to be a
valuable addition to our geological literature. In connection with Mr.
Lyell’s works, and those of Dr. La Beche, already republished in this
country, and the Wonders of Geology, of Dr. Mantell, which will soon
appear in their London garb, but under American patronage, and ata
moderate price; our sources of elementary information will be as am-
ple as can be desired, while our local surveys, and the able reports de-
scribing them, are adding daily to our knowledge, of the facts most in-
teresting to our prosperity, and to our progress in this branch of science.
30. Chemistry of Organic Bodies and Vegetables, by Thomas Thom-
son, M. D., &§c. &c. &c.—This elaborate work is a part of the system of
Dr. Thomson, of which that relating to heat and electricity, 1 vol. 8vo.,
and the chemistry of inorganic matter, 2 vols. &vo., appeared some years
ago, followed by that on mineralogy, geology, and mineral analysis, 2
vols. 8vo.; and now we have another volume on the chemistry of vegeta-
ble substances, in I vol. 8vo., of more than 1900 pages. To this the inde-
fatigable author will still add another on the chemistry of animal matter,
and thus the circle of his works will be completed in seven volumes, most
of them large and full.
This learned author will then have been about forty years before the
public, and no one in Great Britain has contributed more than he has
done to promote the progress of chemical knowledge.
Always patient, laborious, vigilant and learned, he has risen above the
attacks (sometimes virulent and abusive) that have been made upon him,
and stands like a rock in the ocean, unmoved amidst the winds and the
waves.
The volume on vegetable analysis is a compendium of the discoveries,
principally continental, and still more appropriately German, Prussian,
and French, which have been made within a small number of years.
Miscellanies. 203
Some of them are exceedingly remarkable and interesting; but the en-
tire series of vegetable proximate principles is appalling from their num-
ber and from the copious vocabulary of new terms which have been intro-
duced. We hardly know whether to congratulate the young student on
the vast accumulation of facts, especially in vegetable chemistry, although
in a degree, the remark may be extended to all the branches of the sci-
ence. Let a beginner look at it as it now stands im the great works of
Thénard, Dumas, Schubart, Mitscherlich, Berzelius, and Thomson, and
he will feel that a great labor is before him merely to know what others
have done, still more to follow them with experimental research, and most
of all, to pass beyond them and enlarge the boundaries of the science.
The period has already arrived when it is and must be taught by selec-
tion, and it will be a happy result should the time ever come, when it may
be presented by a teacher under general principles, with no more facts
than are necessary to illustrate the principles, leaving the immense ency-
clopedia of the literature of chemistry, like the store houses of the other
sciences, to be explored as far as occasion may require, without compel-
ling the professor to lead, and the pupil to follow, through every maze of
the vast labyrinth.
If the full detail of facts is still to be given, the science must be divided
under different professors and comprised in several courses constituting a
system. :
31. Olmsted's Introduction to Astronomy.—Professor Olmsted has in
press, an elementary work on Astronomy, for the use of the students of
Yale College, designed as a sequel to his Text Book on Natural Philoso-
phy. Illustrated. by numerous wood cuts and copper-plate engravings.
1 vol. 8vo., pp. 350.
32. Temperature of the Earth.—The following observations were
made by Dr. Magnus with his Geothermometer, on the temperature of
a bore sunk by M. C. V. Wulffen, at Pitzpuhl, near Burg, about nine
English miles from Magdeburgh :
Ata depth of 150 feet, the temperature was 49.77 F.
sf 200 <« 6 50.67
gS 250 *“ as 51.8
re 300. « ry 53.15
&¢ 350.“ re 54.61
s¢ 400 « “ 55.62
os 457 “* £6 56.63
The bore was provided with iron tubes to the depth of 427 feet;
but when the observations were made, the portion below the tubes had
already become so filled up with mud, that it was impossible to cause
the thermometer to descend farther than 457 feet. The increase of
204 Miscellanies.
temperature in this bore was pretty regularly 2°.25 F. for every 100
feet. The deepest observation was at a point more than 200 feet be-
low the level of the sea; for the place where the bore begins, lies
111 feet above the level of the Pegel near Magdeburgh, which itself
is about the same height at Berlin, whose elevation above the Baltic
has been lately determined to be 108°.5 Rhenish feet.—(Poggen-
dorff’s Annalen, vol. xl. p. 145.)—Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal, July, 1838.
33. Subterranean Temperatures.—M. Walferdin has communicated
a notice to the Academy of Sciences, ona pit sunk by M. Mulot at St.
André (départment de ? Eure,) and on observations of temperature
made in that pit, at a depth of 830 English feet. The sinking has
been carried to a depth of 862 feet, without any spouting spring be-
ing met with. The following is the series of substances traversed,
together.with their thickness :
Ft. In.
Plastic clay, : : 5 . : 44 5
White chalk, : airs bcs ‘ : 400 6
Chalk marl, 5 ; 5 é = 95 9
Glauconite, é : : Be egal 45 4
Green sand, : : ‘ 4 : 276 9
862. 10
M. Walferdin made an observation on the temperature at a depth of
830 feet in this pit on the 18th of June last. Two of his thermomé-
tres a déversement were set down, each enclosed in a glass tube,
sealed by the lamp at its two extremities; and after a period of ten
hours, the one was found to indicate 64°.32 F., and the other 64°.27
F. The mean temperature of the plateau of St. André being un-
known, M. Walferdin has taken as his point of departure, the temper-
ature of the only pit existing in the commune, which he has found to
be 53°.96 F. at a depth of 246 feet. By calculating, according to
these data, the increase of temperature with the depth, we find it to.
be 1°.8 F. for every 101 feet 6.55 inches. M. Walferdin compares
this result with those obtained previously from observations made in
the pit sunk at Grenelle, and in that of the Military School, adopting
as a point of departure, the constant temperature (53°.24) of the cel-
lars of the observatory, ata depth of 91 feet 10 inches. Two exper-
iments, made at different times in the pit of Grenelle, at a depth of
1312 feet 4.31 inches, give for 1°.8 F. 103 feet 3.17 inches, and 101
feet 3.39 inches. In the pit at the Military School, (also sunk in
chalk,) and distant about 1968 feet from the pit of Grenelle, ata depth
Miscellanies. 205
of 567 feet 7 inches, the temperature was found to be 61°.52 F., thus
giving for 1°.8 F. 101 feet 2.6 inches. It thus results from observa-
tions made at various depths of from 567 feet to 1312 feet, that the
rate according to which the temperature increases with the depth zn
the chalk formation, appears to be regular in the Paris basin It
would be important to ascertain, by experiments made with care, if,
in the middle and lower parts of the secondary formations, the tem-
perature increases with the depth at the same rate; and M. Walfer-
din now proposes to direct his attention to this point.—Comptes Ren-
dus, 16th Avril, 1838.—1b.
34. Extract of a Letter from M. Erman, junior, to M. Arago,
upon the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia.—I hope you will
look with some interest at those parts of my historical journal which
treat of the climate of Northern Asia; and in relation to this subject,
I beg to direct your attention to the 242d and following pages. I
have there given the result of the data obtained regarding the climate
of the town of Jakouzk. The depth of a well which M. Schergin, a
merchant in the town, had then excavated to the depth of 50 feet
(English,) in the hope of finally reaching strata which were not froz-
en, and which would be capable of supplying water, was always,
when I made trial, at the temperature of — 6° R. equal to 18°.5 Fahr.
The temperature of the surface of the soil should not at the time have
exceeded this degree of cold, since the latitude of the place was
62° 1/29”. This result appeared to me eminently paradoxical ; but I
have since confirmed it, by calculating observations made on the tem-
perature of the air in the same town, during many consecutive years,
with thermometers which I have carefully compared with my own,
Some results are subjoined :
Mean month of 6 A.M. 2P.M. 9P.M.
(eo) (e) (e)
January, ; —32.8 F. —30.77 F. — 31.9 F.
February, . — 44.50 — 36.4 — 41.8
March, a 17.27 + 1.63 — 7.82
April, °. - + 8.15 + 30.43 + 17.15
May, . ‘ + 35.82 + 47.30 + 37.62
June, . é + 54.27 + 67.77 + 53.60
July; : + 64.40 + 79.70 + 61.70
August, z + 57.22 + 72.72 + 58.32
September, . + 38.75 + 50.00 + 40.55
October, é + 11.30 + 21.20 + 13.33
November, . — 13.45 — 917 — 12.77
December, . — 42.92 — 39.77 — 42.02
206 Miscellanies.
You will conclude from these observations, as I have in the accompa-
nying volume, that the mean temperaturé at Jakouzk is perfectly in
accordance with the temperature of the upper strata, which I have
observed, by taking my thermometer to a depth of 50 feet (English)
below the surface. 'This being the case, it necessarily follows, that
in boring deeper, unfrozen strata will not be reached till the increase
of heat resulting from the approach to the centre of the globe shall
amount to 6° R., equal to 453° Fahr. The experiments whicn have
hitherto been made in the pits of Europe, and those which I have
made in the Oural mines, carry this increase to 1° R. = 2°.26 F. for
every 90 or 100 French = 96 or 106 English feet. Hence, I do not
expect the unfreezing at Jakouzk at a less depth than 500 or 600
French feet = 533 or 639 English feet. The observations which M.
Schergin has made since My departure from Jakouzk, and during
which they have descended to a depth of 400 English feet, perfectly
confirm what I have advanced concerning the mean temperature of
the air and soil of this locality ; for they have since found at
the depth of 77 feet, English, a temperature of + 19.63 Fahr.
ee 119 2 = + 23.00
4 382 pion a + 30.88
They also indicate, for the strata occurring in this country, an in-
crease of heat in the ratio of 1° R. = 2°.25 F. to about 60 feet, En-
glish; that is to say, a much more rapid augmentation than has been
observed elsewhere. The only method, as it occurs to me, in which ©
we can explain this phenomenon, is by attributing to the upper strata
over Northern Asia a greater conducting power of heat than the other
parts of the globe, which we inhabit; and this result will be the more
striking, as it comes in some degree to support another result of the
same kind. In fact, the excessive variations of temperature which
have been observed at Jakouzk, and in other parts of Eastern Siberia,
during the course of the solar year, lead us to the conclusion, that the
earth’s surface is there endowed with a radiating and thermal power
much superior to that of Europe-—Comptes Rendus, 16th Avril,
1838.—Ib.
35. Analogy between the organic structure and red color of the
globules in the blood of animals, and of those red vegetable globules
named Protococcus kermesinus.—In a memoir read by M. Turpin to
the Academy of Sciences, on globules in animal fluids, we find the
following observations :—What has just been stated, regarding the
presence of smaller red globules in globules of the blood, is perfectly
explained by the very analogous structure of those small red vegeta-
Miscellanies. 207
bles, globulous and vesicular, so generally distributed throughout na-
ture, and which often tinge with a blood-red color, the surface of
calcareous rocks—the surface of water, both fresh and salt—snow
and ice—the crystals of sea-sali—and, finally, as we proceed imme-
diately to observe, the translucent and colorless substance of red
agates; vegetables which are more particularly designated by the
names of Protococcus nivalis, Protococcus kermesinus, Agardh, and
Hemaitococcus, &c. These small vegetables, though larger by a half
than the globules of the blood, still have with them a great analogy as
it regards their organization, and probably also their chemical compo-
sition. A transparent and colorless vesicle, (or perhaps two, the one
included in the other,) perfectly spherical, and filled with red and
reproducing globules, forms the whole of the organization of these
small vesicular vegetables, which, with some other analogous ones,
mark the first efforts of organization, and seem to be nothing more
than first attempts, or the representatives of the elementary or con-
stituent organs of the cellular masses of more complex vegetables
and animals. When the minute internal globules of these small veg-
etables begin to increase within the maternal vesicle, to become repro-
ductive seminules, they cause the vesicle to assume very much the
mammillated aspect of a strawberry. According to this mode of de-
velopment, is it not probable that those blood-globules, of animals
which, on account of their shape, are called strawberry globules, are
also produced by the increase of a certain number of the red globules
which they contain? All my microscopic researches compel me not
only to admit this analogy, but likewise to think that the red globules
of the globules of the blood are the seminules of those organized
bodies which are destined to replace, and sometimes to multiply, the
old globules of the blood, as they become extinct and cease to live,
as individuals, in the midst of the serum which serves as their habit-
ation, and in which they procure their nourishment.—J0.
36. Cause of the Red Color of Agates.—The red color of agates is
owing to a number, greater or smaller, of Protococcus kermesinus
accumulated together, or more frequently reduced to their small red
globules (seminules) agglomerated or coagulated, and distributed, ac-
cording to certain circumstances, in the colorless structure of these
siliceous compounds. Since we have now been considering, analogi-
cally, those innumerable Proctucoccus kermesinus, and the red globules
they contain, I beg Jeave to add, that microscopic and comparative in-
vestigations which I have recently made, and which I purpose to pub-
lish elsewere in all their details, have clearly demonstrated, that the
various colors, rose, orange, blood-red, and reddish-brown, (varieties
208 Miscellanies.
owing to a more advanced growth,) which are inclosed in, or which’
surround, the translucid and colorless structure of different kinds of ag-
ates, were found to be owing to the presence either of red globules uni-
formly mixed, as in the carnelian agate; or agglomerated into small
irregular clots, and distributed into circular waves, according to cer-
tain forms or conditions which existed at the time of the siliceous
conglomeration ; or finally, though more rarely, to these small red
vegetables themselves, quite entire, and with perfect distinctness visible
with the microscope. It is impossible to tind a resemblance in color
and polish more striking than that which is seen in a white glass phial
filled with Protococcus kermesinus, when compared with a carnelian,
as may be fully established by the trial —(M. Turpin.)—Ib.
37. Phosphorescence of the Ocean.—The naturalists of La Bonite
in her Jate voyage round the globe, have made many observations re-
specting marine phosphorescence, which are thus reperted to the
French Academy of Sciences.—Many observations made upon phos-
phorescent water, by means of reagents, of filtration, boiling, simple
examination, and with the help of the microscope, have led us to the
following conclusions. The phosphorescent property of sea-water is
not inherent in the nature of this liquid, but is essentially owing to .
the presence of organized beings. The animals which produce the
phosphorescence belong to different classes. In the first rank, we
find the minute species of crustacea which swarm in the sea, but es-
pecially a very small species having two valves, which possess this
remarkable property in the highest degree. All these species have
been collected, and carefully preserved in alcohol. Many mollusca,
principally small Cephalopedes pelagiens, Biphores (Salpae,) &c.,
and also many zoophytes, among which we remark Diphyes, Meduse,
&c., also possess the phosphorescent property. Finally, in certain lo-
calities, we also find on the surface of the ocean, very small yellowish
bodies which are nevertheless extremely phosphorescent. We have
encountered these small bodies in immense abundance when landing
at the Sandwich Isles, and in crossing from this archipelago to the
Marianne Islands. We encountered them in such vast quantities at
the Straits of Malacca, and upon the coast of Pulo-Penang, that the
whole surface for a great extent appeared covered by a thick yellow-
ish dust. These small bodies have been examined with the micro-
scope; but although they have been for a long time submitted to our
notice, we have never been able to detect the slightest movement con-
nected with them. At the same time, the experiments we have made
on them through the means of various reagents, lead us to the conclu-
sion, that they are organized and living bodies. They appeared
Miscellanies. 209
somewhat different, as taken at the Sandwich Islands, and in the
Straits of Malacca. The former were globular and transparent, with
a yellowish point in the centre, the latter were rather oval with a de-
pression in the centre, so that they were somewhat kidney-shaped ;
they also were entirely yellowish.
In all the animals which possess phosphorescence, the property
has appeared to us to depend upon a particular principle, probably a
secretion of these animals, which, however, differs as to the manner
in which it is scattered around. Some of them, as the small phos-
phorescent crustacea, can distinctly emit it in certain circumstances,
especially when, by any cause, they are irritated ; they then project
true jets, regular fusées of phosphorescent matter, in such quantities
as to form a luminous atmosphere in which they disappear. We have
succeeded in collecting a certain quantity of this matter upon the
sides of a vessel which contained a great number of these crustacea.
Others of these animals did not appear to possess the power of emit-
ting this matter, and in them it was developed only in certain circum-
stances, as for example, when they struck against any body, or when
they moved, or when causes of irritation operated upon them. In
others again, as in the Cephalopoda, and in some Pteropoda the phe-
nomenon exhibited itself in a way that was nearly quite passive. The
phosphorescent matter contained in their nucleus, or in other parts of
their bodies, shone constantly and uniformly so long as the animal
was inthe enjoyment of life, and along with this disappeared the light
they shed abroad. Finally, in the yellowish corpuscules above de-
scribed, the phosphorescent matter also shines almost uniformly, but
if brought into contact with any reagent, their lustre is first increas-
ed, and then insensibly vanishes away. The phosphorescent matter
which we collected on the sides of the vase, was yellowish, slightly
viscous, and very soluble in the water, which it rendered luminous at
the moment it was projected by the animal.—Comptes Rendus, No.
xv.,5 Avril, p. 458.—Id.
38. On the Composition of a new Indelible Ink; by Dr. Traill.—
In a paper lately read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Dr.
Traill, after an account of many unsuccessful experiments to produce
a durable ink from metallic combinations, stated that he was induced
to attempt the composition of a carbonaceous liquid, which should
possess the qualities of good writing-ink. The inks used by the an-
cients were carbonaceous, and have admirably resisted the effects of
time; but the author found that the specimens of writings on the
Herculaneum and Egyptian papyri were effaced by washing with
water; and on forming inks after the descriptions of Vitruvius, Dios-.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 1.—Jan.—April, 1839. a7
210 Miscellanies.
corides, and Pliny, he found that they did not flow freely from the
pen, and did not resist water,—qualities essential to a good writing- ©
ink in modern practice. The carbonaceous inks with resinous vehi-
cles, rendered fluid by essentia] oils, though they resisted water and
chemical agents, had the disadvantages of not flowing freely from the
pen, and of spreading on the paper, so as to produce unseemly lines.
Solutions of caoutchouc in coal naphtha, and in a fragrant essential ~
oil, lately imported from South America, under the name of aceite
de sassafras, (the natural produce of a supposed Laurus,) were sub-
ject to the same objections. The author tried various animal and
vegetable fluids as vehicles of the carbon, without obtaining the de-
sired result, until he found, in A SOLUTION OF THE GLUTEN OF
WHEAT IN PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, a fluid capable of readily uniting
with carbon into an ink, possessing the qualities of a good, durable,
writing-ink. To prepare this ink, he directs gluten of wheat to be
separated from the starch as completely as possible, by the usual pro-
cess, and when recent to be dissolved in pyroligneous acid with the
aid of heat. This forms a saponaceous fluid, whichis to be tempered
with water until the acid has the usual strength of vinegar. He
grinds each ounce of this fluid with from eight to ten grains of the
best lamp-black, and one and a half grain of indigo. The following
are the qualities of this ink. 1. It is formed of cheap materials. 2.
It is easily made, the coloring matter readily incorporating with the
vehicle. 3. Its color is good. 4. It flows freely from the pen. 5.
It dries quickly. 6. When dry it is not removable by friction. 7.
It is not affected by soaking in water. 8. Slips of paper written on
by this ink, having remained immersed in solutions of chemical
agents, capable of immediately effacing or imparing common ink, for
seventy-two hours, without change, unless the solutions be so concen-
trated as to injure the texture of the paper. The author offers this
composition as a writing-ink, to be used on paper, for the drawing
out of bills, deeds, wills, or wherever it is important to prevent the
alteration of sums or signatures, as well as for handing down to pos-
terity public records, in a less perishable material than common ink.
He concluded his paper by stating, that should it be found to present
an obstacle to the commission of crime—should it, even in a single
instance, prevent the perpetration of an offence so injurious to soci-
ety, as the falsification of a public or private document, the author
will rejoice in the publication of his discovery, and consider that his
labor has not been in vain.—Jd.
39. Depth of the Frozen Ground in Siberia.—“ At page 435 of vol.
24th of Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, we inserted Profes-
Miscellanies. 211
sor Baer’s communication to the Geographical Society of London,
<* On the Frozen Soil of Siberia.” We have now to add, that a fur-
ther communication on this subject, also by M. Baer, was read at the
‘meeting of the British Association at Newcastle. After stating very
shortly the nature of the experiments to be made at Yakutsk by or-
der of the Petersburgh Academy of Science, he remarks: “ It seems
to me very important for physical geography, to ascertain the thick-
ness of perpetually frozen ground, in countries whose mean tempera-
ture is considerably below 0° R. 1 will merely mention one point:
if, as is the case at Yakutsk, the ground never thaws at the depth of
from 300 to 400 feet, all the small streams whose superficial waters
only are kept in a fluid state in the summer, must be in the winter
entirely without water; and, vice versa, we may conclude, that all
rivers which do not come far from the south, and whose course isen- -
tirely within those countries which preserve perpetual ground-ice,
and_yet do not cease to flow in winter, must receive their waters from
greater depths than those which remain in a frozen state. It is, then,
clear that these veins of water penetrate the perpetual ground-ice.
This circumstance strikes me as ene not devoid of interest in the the-
ory of the formation of springs; and it would be very desirable, that
some researches upon this subject should be set on foot in high
northern latitudes. In the narrative of Admiral Wrangel’s Travels,
still in MS., there occurs a remarkable instance of very considerable
rivers in very cold countries being without water in winter, like our
itches and small brooks. He was riding, to the north of Yakutsk,
in about 65° lat. over the ice of a large river, when the ice suddenly
gave way, and his horse went under. He was himself saved by be-
ing thrown upon the ice at the moment his horse fell. He was la-
menting the loss of his horse to the Yakutskis who accompanied him,
as he knew not where to get another, when they laughed, and assured
him that they would soon get his horse back, and witha dry skin too!
They got some poles and broke away the ice, under which the bed
of the river was perfectly dry, as well as the horse and his saddle.
The Yukutskis was therefore aware that there was no water in the
winter-time, at the bottom of rivers of this size; and in this case the
water must have disappeared before the ice had gained sufficient
thickness to bear a loaded horse. Similar accidents, and similar re-
sults must doubtless have frequently occurred, during the many jour-
nies which the English have made in North America; and the agents
of the Hudson’s Bay Company must be well acquainted with the real
state of the small rivers in winter, in these high latitudes; 7. e.
whether all of them are in a fluid state below the ice or not. I am
collecting materials to ascertain the southern limit of perpetual
212 Miscellanies.
ground-ice in the Old World; those I have are not yet very com-
plete; but I am already aware, that this phenomenon extends much
farther in a southerly direction in Siberia, than in Europe. The far-
ther we go east, the more southerly we find the limit of perpetual
ground-ice. Humboldt found at Bogoslovsk, in Jat. 59° 45'N., at the
eastern foot of the Ural Mountains, small pieces of ice at the depth
of six feetin the summer. No permanent ice has been found in
Tobolsk in 58° N.; but at Beresow, in 64° N., where Erman found the
temperature of the ground above -+-1°R. at the depth of 23 feet, we
learn from the observations of M. Belowski, that the lower districts
are never without ice in the ground, so that it is brobable that Bere-
sow is near the limit of perpetual ground-ice. Farther east, this
frozen soil extends much more to the southward, even to the shores
of the lake Baikal; indeed, the whole of the southeastérn angle of
Siberia has perpetual ground-ice. Captain Frehre states, that in
1836, he there found the ground frozen at some distance below the
surface, and that this frozen stratum was continued uninterruptedly
quite to the underlying rock, to a depth from 10 to 40 feet.- But, as
he always found rock there, it would be difficult to say how thick the
layer of frozen mud would be in the lat. of 52°. It thawed on the
surface of the banks of the river, to a depth of from 2} feet to 6 feet,
and from 6 feet to 9 feet on the naked heights.; but, in the forests,
where the rays of the sun were intercepted, the thaw reached only
from 2 foot to 1 foot deep. If it be true, that there are places in for-
ests thee’ the ground is never thawed one foot deep, it would demon-
strate how little is necessary for the ground to be thawed for trees to
grow on it. The development of the leaves and vegetation depends
less on the temperature of the soil than on that of the air in the
spring; it only requires that the ground should be so far thawed, that
the tree may be able to draw from it a sufficient quantity of moisture
for its growth.”*—Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, October,
1838.
* Mr. De la Beche remarked, that, considered geologically, this paper of Prof.
Baer, was an important one. It showed that the temperature of those regions had
changed since the deposit of the detrital matter (for that was the character of the
frozen ground) inasmuch as, under the condition of a perpetually frozen surface,
no such deposits could take place.
Miscellanies. 213
40. Notice of a Chemical Examination of a Specimen of Native Iron,
from the east bank of the Great Fish River, in South Africa; by Sir
Joun F. W. Herscne..*
THE [portion analyzed of the] specimen in question weighed originally
24°79 grains, 5°12 of which were separated, and submitted to a hasty pre-
liminary examination for the detection of nickel, if any; but the quantity
“proving too small, the whole of the remainder was operated on in a subse-
quent trial.
The iron was highly malleable and tenacious, and apparently of excel-
lent quality, with a somewhat whiter and more silvery lustre than belongs
to the metal in its ordinary state, and apparently little hable to oxidation,
qualities which are observed in iron, of what is usually considered un-
doubted meteoric origin.
I should not think it necessary to detail the steps of the analysis by
which the presence of nickel in the proportion of 4°61 per cent. was de-
monstrated, but for a peculiarity in one part of the process by which an
inconvenience of frequent occurrence in chemical operations, and of a
very embarrassing nature, was obviated, and which may prove useful as a
hint to young analysts in other cases.
18°67 grains of the iron in one piece were digested in dilute nitric acid,
which dissolved the whole, with the exception of a trifling quantity aE
black scaly matter, apparently amounting to about a quarter of a grain.t
Towards the end of the solution the iron more than once brightened on
the surface, and assumed that peculiar and singular state of resistance to
the action of the acid which I have described in the Annales de Chimie
for September, 1833, and which has since been the subject of so much
interesting discussion by Professor Scheenbein, Mr. Faraday, and others.
In consequence, it was necessary to apply and maintain heat to complete
the solution.
The nitric solution was evaporated to dryness, water added, and evapo-
rated a second and third time. By this the whole of the iron was perox-
idized, and nearly the whole separated. It was then diffused and boiled
in water, to which a few drops of nitric acid were added, to take up any
oxide of nickel which might have been deprived of its acid by overheat-
ing, and set aside for subsidence, filtration being out of the question.
After standing a week, however, it was still perfectly opake, and loaded
with suspended peroxide of iron, and to get rid of this was the next object.
* Read before the Literary and Scientific Institution of South Africa: now ex-
tracted from Sir James E. Alexander’s ‘‘ Expedition of Discovery into the interior
of Africa.”” Lond. 1838, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 272. The specimen had been found
by Sir James E. Alexander, and presented by him to the Institution.
t This black scaly matter was in all probability graphite—Edit. Lond. and Ed.
Phil. Mag.
214 Miscellanies.
Lead being a metal easily eliminated, and incapable of interfering in
any of the subsequent processes, its introduction seemed not likely to
prove any source of further embarrassment; a few drops of dilute nitrate
of lead were therefore added; and being well mixed, as much sulphuric
acid as would saturate the lead, and a little more, was added, and the
whole boiled. The precipitation was complete, the lead carrying down
with it all the suspended ferruginous matter, and leaving a clear liquid of
a greenish hue, in which the presence of lead could not be detected.
The remaining iron held in solution was removed by heating it with
excess of carbonate of lime, in the manner pointed out by me in the Phil
Trans. for 1821, when after filtration, a liquid remained of that peculiar
tint of pale green which characterizes the solutions of nickel, and of con-
siderable intensity.
_The presence of this metal was ascertained on concentrating the solu-
tion by the usual tests, and its quantity concluded, viz. 0°86 grains, or
4°61 per cent. on the specimen analyzed.
Thus it appears that the specimen brought. home by Capt. Alexander
has equal claim to a meteoric origin with any of those masses of native
nickeliferous iron which have been found in different localities, and to
which that origin has, without other evidence, been attributed.
All those specimens, however, have, so far as I know, been insulated
single masses. But what constitutes the peculiar and important feature
of this discovery of Capt. Alexander, is the fact stated by him of the oc-
currence of masses of this native iron in abundance, scattered over the
surface of a considerable tract of country. If a meteoric origin be at-
tributed to all these, a shower of iron must have fallen; and as we can
imagine no cause for the explosion of a mass of iron, and can hardly con-
ceive a force capable of rending into fragments a cold block of this very
tenacious material, we must of necessity conclude it to have arrived in a
state of fusion, and been scattered around by the assistance of the air or
otherwise, in a melted, or at least softened state.—Lond. and Ed. Phil.
Magazine, Jan. 1839.
Al. Dr. Bowditchi—His Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex, late
president of the Royal Society, in his anniversary address delivered from
the chair, Nov. 30th, 1888, thus commemorates the character and death
of our distinguished countrymen.
“Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch of Boston, in the State of Massachusetts in
America, was born at Salem, in the same State, in 1773: he was removed
from school at the age of ten years to assist his father in his trade as a
cooper, and was indebted for all his subsequent acquisitions, including the
Latin and some modern languages, and a profound knowledge of mathe-
matics and astronomy, entirely to his own exertions, unaided by any in-
struction whatever. He became afterwards a clerk to a ship-chandler,
Miscellanies. 215
where his taste for astronomy first showed itself, and was sufficiently ad-
vanced to enable him to master the rules for the calculation of a Junar
eclipse ; and his subsequent occupation as supercargo in a merchant ves-
sel sailing from Salem to the East Indies, led naturally to the further de-
velopment of his early tastes, by the active and assiduous study of those
departments of that great and comprehensive science which are most im-
mediately subservient to the purposes of navigation. It was owing to the
reputation which he had thus acquired for his great knowledge of nautical
astronomy, that he was employed by the booksellers to revise several suc-
cessive editions of Hamilton Moore’s Practical Navigator, which he after-
wards replaced by an original work on the same subject, remarkable for
the clearness and conciseness of its rules, for its numerous and compre-
hensive tables, the greatest part of which he had himself recalculated and
reframed, and for its perfectly practical character as a manual of naviga-
tion: this work, which has been republished in this country, has been for
many years almost exclusively used in the United States of America.
“Dr. Bowditch having been early elected a Fellow of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, commenced the publication of
a series of communications in the Memoirs of that Society, which speedily
established his reputation as one of the first astronomers and mathemati-
cians of America, and attracted likewise the favorable notice of men of
science in Europe.
“During the last twenty years of his life, Dr. Bowditch was employed
as the acting president of an Insurance Company at Salem, and latterly
also as actuary of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company at
Boston: the income of which he derived from these employments, and
from the savings of former years, enabled him to abandon all other and
more absorbing engagements, and to devote his leisure hours entirely to
scientific pursuits. In 1815 he began his great work, the translation of
the Méchanique Céleste of Laplace, the fourth and last volume of which
was not quite completed at the time of his death. The American Acad-
emy over which he presided for many years, at a very early period of the
progress of this very extensive and costly undertaking, very liberally offered
to defray the expense of printing it; but he preferred to publish it from his
own very limited means, and to dedicate it as a splendid and durable mon-
ument of his own labors and of the state of science in his country. He
died in March last, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, after a life of singular
usefulness and most laborious exertion, in the full enjoyment of every
honor which his grateful countrymen in every part of America could pay
to so distinguished a fellow citizen.
“Dr. Bowditch’s translation of the great work of Laplace is a produc-
tion of much labor and of no ordinary merit: every person who is ac-
quainted with the original must be aware of the great number of steps in
216 Miscellanies.
the demonstrations which are left unsupplied, in many cases comprehend-
ing the entire processes which connect the enunciation of the propositions
with the conclusions, and the constant reference which is made, both tacit
and expressed, to results and principles, both analytical and mechanical,
which are co-extensive with the entire range of known mathematical
science; but in Dr. Bowditch’s very elaborate commentary every deficient
step is supplied, every suppressed demonstration is introduced, every re-
ference explained and illustrated, and a work which the labors of an or-
dinary life could hardly master, is rendered accessible to every reader
who is acquainted with the principles of the differential and integral cal-
culus, and in possession of even an elementary knowledge of statical and
dynamical principles.
“When we consider the circumstances of Dr. Bowditch’s early life, the
obstacles which opposed his progress, the steady perseverance with which
he overcame them, and the courage with which he ventured to expose the
mysterious treasures of that sealed book, which had hitherto been ap-
proached by those only whose way had been cleared for them by a sys-
tematic and regular mathematical education, we shall be fully justified in
pronouncing him to have been a most remarkable example of the pursuit of
knowledge under difficulties, and well worthy of the enthusiastic respect
and admiration of his countrymen, whose triumphs in the fields of prac-
tical science have fully equalled, if not surpassed, the noblest works of
the ancient world.” —ZJb.
TO OUR SUBSCRIBERS AND READERS.
That we may in future finish a volume in the last quarter of
the year, and begin a new volume in the succeeding January,
we shall publish two numbers of this Journal in July. No. 2 of
Vol. xxxvi, and No. 1 of Vol. xxxvu, will appear in that month ;
No. 2 of Vol. xxxvir, in October, and No. 1 of Vol. xxxvut, in
January. This effort will be made in order to avoid the confu-
sion arising from linking together two years by the same volume.
The consequent anticipation of one quarter of a year in the
payments, will, we trust, be readily acquiesced in by our sub-
scribers and agents, as this anticipation will occur but once, and
a full equivalent will be rendered.
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
Art. L—wSome notice of British Naturalists ; by Crarues Fox.
Narurat History, like other branches of science, has had its
infancy, its childhood, and its maturity. At first and in early
times, it observed isolated facts and grouped them promiscuously,
without skillful arrangement and classification founded on natural
analogies and differences. It has advanced slowly, until in our
times it has fallen into the train of the inductive sciences, and
now marches onward with confidence and success.
Solomon is the earliest naturalist ; then follows Aristotle, Pliny,
and Elian. Of the works of Solomon on natural history, we
know little, although he described “ Trees from the cedar-tree
that is in Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of
the wall; and spake also of beasts, and fowls, and of creeping
things, and of fishes.” It is believed that Aristotle not only had
access to his writings, but made great use of them in the com-
pilation of his own works. Natural History was to him a collec-
tion of miscellaneous facts; mingled with much that was doubtful,
and still more that was apocryphal: his works evince vast indts-
try in collecting, and a mind well adapted to research. In the
words of Mr. Swainson :*
“Tn his famous book, equ Zwav ‘Iotogues, he first sought to define
by the precision of language, those more prominent and compre-
hensive groups of the animal kingdom, which, being founded on
* Cabinet Cyclopedia.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April—-July, 1839. 28
}
*
218 Notice of British Naturalists.
nature, are exempt from the influence of time and the immuta-
bility of learning. Had this extraordinary man left us no other
memorial of his talents than his researches in zoology, he would
still be looked upon as one of the greatest philosophers of ancient
Greece, even in its highest and brightest age.
“With peculiar tact he brought the rules of philosophic reason-
ing to bear upon a subject to that time neglected ; upon the ex-
tent and depth of his personal researches; upon the clearness”
with which he arranged his results; and above all, upon those
obscure perceptions which he acquired while so employed, of hid-
den truths which were to be developed only in subsequent ages.
‘He discarded from his work all those popular tales, and fan-
cies, and beliefs, which were received by the mass of his coun-
trymen as religious truths sanctioned by antiquity, interwoven in
their history and consecrated in their poetry. The death of this
great father of the science, was the death of natural history in
the Grecian era. The splendor of his discoveries passed like a
comet. He left no luminary behind to follow his wake, still less,
to throw additional light upon realms which he had but glanced
upon.”
After nearly four hundred years, Pliny appeared and strove to
emulate Aristotle, but without his erudition or genius; his vo-
luminous works are chiefly compilations; they abound in fables
and prodigies evincing credulity rather than a disposition to in-
vestigate truth; and this is the more surprising, as Rome pos-
sessed the most wonderful menagerie that has ever been col-
lected, containing not only lions and other ferocious beasts des-
tined for the circus; but probably all that was rare and curious
in more peaceable tribes, since these were often exhibited in tri-
umphal processions. Pliny informs us that Sylla exhibited the
terrific spectacle of a combat of one hundred male lions. Cesar
had four hundred, and Pompey had six hundred lions at one time.
Natural history now declined in Rome, and with the fables and
absurdities of A©lian and one or two others, all records of science
expired for nearly fourteen hundred years. Nor was there, A. D.
1500, much more sound knowledge, as regarded the works of
the Creator, and the wonders of the earth and of the heavens,
than there had been in past ages.*
* As an instance of the ridiculous extravagancies into which some, calling
themselves Philosophers, rushed, even as late as the seventeenth century, we
copy the following actual Patents, of the period of 1634, as recorded in Ry-
Notice of British Naturalists. 219
In the sixteenth century appeared—with the revival of learn-
ing in England, Lister, Willoughby, and Ray; Belon in Mans;
Rondelet in France; Saleciani in Rome; Gesner in Germany,
Aldrovandus in Bologna, and others, producing among them im-
portant works on the leading branches of natural history.
The end of the sixteenth, and the beginning of the seven-
teenth centuries, were signalized by rapid advances in know-
ledge. The art of printing, now come into general use, and the
reformation, now fully established,—the former by extending and
making more common all kinds of knowledge, the latter by free-
ing the minds of men from that thralldom in which they had so
long been held,—prepared, if they did not force the way, fora
vigorous and successful emancipation of the human mind. Men,
remarkable for the freshness and grasp of their intellect, arose,
both on the continent, and in England; and not afraid of the
name of reform, they carefully scrutinized all the information
and theories which they had received from their fathers, and
boldly cast aside all which they did not find to be true.
Our present improvement and progress in science we owe pri-
marily to England. It was there, about 1600, that Lord Bacon
the father of natural science, arose. ‘To that country, and to
that master-mind, we are indebted for the logical precision which
alone could direct our steps in the search after truth: and it is
this period which we must mark as the new era in natural science.
As the rising sun dispels the mists and fogs of the morning, so
did the brightness of his exalted mind illuminate the darkness
around. ;
The object of this paper is to give a sketch of the progress of
natural history—limiting it, for the present, chiefly to the higher
orders of Zoology in Great Britain. We shall, therefore, now
mer’s Federa: ‘The Fish-call, or a looking-glass for fishes in the sea, very
useful for fishermen to call all kinds of fish to their nets, seins, or hooks.” ‘An
instrument which may be called the Windmate, very profitable, when com-
mon winds fail, for a more speedy passage of calmed ships and vessels on seas
and rivers.”” “A moveable Hydraulic, or chamber weathercall, like a cabinet,
which being placed in a room, or by a bed side, causeth sweet sleep to those who,
either by hot fevers, or otherwise, cannot take rest; and it withal alters the dry,
hot air, into a more moistening and cooling temper, either by musical sounds, or
otherwise.’ These patents were for fourteen years, and paid £1] 6s. 8d., yearly
to the Exchequer.—Sce Life and Adminis. of Edward, first Earl of Clarendon, by
H. T. Lister, Vol. I, p. 23, note.
ae
220 Notice of British Naturalists.
confine ourselves to that portion of the world; with an occa-
sional glance, but only incidental, at other countries, as our plan
is restricted within narrow limits. We shall at the same time,
give short sketches of the lives of such as have been peculiarly
devoted to this science, for its own sake. In this view, science is
in our utilitarian age more neglected in the present, than in some
former periods of its history. Men are too much taken up in at-
tempting to promote the minor arts. The philosophical spirit is
too much banished; that spirit, which Bacon has characterized
as the germ of life in the sciences. Hoping to be ourselves guided
by this spirit, we shall not however abstain from introducing ap-
posite proofs of the usefulness of the knowledge and study of
natural history.
The state of science towards the close of the sixteenth cen-
tury, presented a field of observation singularly calculated to at-
tract the curiosity and awaken the genius of Bacon.
“One of the considerations which appears most forcibly to
have impressed itself upon his mind, was the vagueness and un-
certainty of all the physical speculations then existing, and the
entire want of connection between the sciences and the arts.
Those things are in their nature so closely united, that the same
truth which is a principle in science, becomes a rule in art ; yet,
there was at that time hardly any practical improvement which
had arisen from a theoretical discovery. The natural alliance
between the knowledge and the power of man, seemed entirely
interrupted ; nothing was to be seen of the mutual support which
they ought to afford the one to the other. The improvement of
art was left to the slow and precarious operation of chance, and
that of science, to the collision of opposite opinions.’”*
To use Bacon’s own words in his Advancement of Learning :
“As things now are, if an untruth in nature be once on foot,
what by reason of the neglect of examination, and countenance
of antiquity, and what by reason of the use of opinion in simil-
itudes and ornaments of speech, it is never called down.”
But there was still another circumstance which, in a peculiar
manner, attracted his attention—the neglect then prevalent of
ordinary, and the thirsty zeal for extraordinary objects. What is
immediately before us, and of every day occurrence, however
* Professor Playfair.
bod
Notice of British Naturalists. 221
important and interesting it may be in its peculiar features, we
are apt to neglect and overlook. ‘That which is rare, and is sel-
dom observed, excites an active investigation. And thus it was
that the philosophers of old, in their pursuit of natural science, ap-
plied their chief attention to phenomena, and left the more general
laws of physics uninvestigated. Nobody sought to know why
a stone falls to the ground; why smoke ascends; or why the stars
revolve around the earth; while the discovery of a double-head-
ed snake, or a deformed bird, excited the warmest interest, and
the approach of an African seal to the shores of Europe, revived
the fable of a mermaid. But the natural consequence of this
neglect of common, and of minute attention to the extraordinary
occurrences, was to render it impossible to establish any general
or useful principles, and still further, to deduce any general laws,
It is a beneficial rule of the Creator, that that which is in nature
most truly valuable, should be the easiest of access; and it is in
the properties of such things as exist familiarly around us, that
we must look for the explanation of what seldom occurs.
To quote again from Bacon, in a passage which contains the
germ of much of his Novum Organum: “So it cometh often to
pass, that mean and small things discover great, better than great
can discover the small: and therefore Aristotle noteth well, ‘ that
the nature of every thing is best seen in its smallest portions,’
and for that cause he inquireth the nature of a commonwealth,
first in a family, and the simple conjugations of man and wife,
parent and child, master and servant, which are in every cottage.
Even so likewise, the nature of this great city of the world, and
the policy thereof, must be first sought in mean concordances and
small portions. So we see how that secret of nature, of the turn-
ing of iron touched with the loadstone towards the north, was
found out in needles of iron, and not in bars of iron.”
Notwithstanding, however, this well merited compliment to
the Aristotelian philosophy, as regards Natural Science, this
course is imperfect and deceptive. It has culled a few froma
great many things; it has taken its principles from common expe-
rience, and without due attention to the evidence or precise nature
of the facts; the philosopher is left to work out the rest from his
own invenMont
Like Luther before him, his great predecessor in shea work of
reform, although in another sphere, Bacon bore a strong enmity
222 Noties of British Naturalis
to what then went under the title of Avistolelicei philosophy. At
was indeed little better than an eclectic system, passing under
that great name, mingled with the dogmas of Popery, and was in
a great measure devoted to the propagation and support of trivial
arguments or positive error. Bacon was not unacquainted with
the writings of Aristotle; for in those days, to be well educated,
was to be an adept in his system; but his acute discrimination
soon perceived, that however well adapted, this system was to
act asa guide in some branches of knowledge; it was wholly
unfit for the investigation of natural science ; and in this respect,
was but the blind leading the blind.
Bacon cannot indeed be said, in toto, to have originated the:
inductive philosophy, for Aristotle himself does both use it and
recommend its adoption in certain cases. It is, in truth, founded
in the very nature of man’s intellectual powers, in the very fit-
ness of things. But he culled it forth from the mass of facts
and speculations where, hitherto, it had lain concealed and neg-
lected; he applied it where it had never been applied before,
and, in this respect, too great a degree of praise cannot be awarded
to him. If not an inventor, he stands at least next to that place
of honor; and we know not but that the new and just applica-
tion of old and venerable principles to new positions, demands a
genius more energetic and more subtle than his who first struck
upon the vein of thought. Few have power; fewer still have
courage to interfere with opinions rendered venerable by anti-
quity, or supported by high and noble names. It is by this ap-
plication of mind to matter, that mind becomes truly predomi-
nant, and claims to itself its high and commanding rank among
ereated things, and its mastery over matter.
Although Bacon pointed out to all succeeding naturalists the
course which they ought to pursue in their researches, he was
himself no naturalist. He was the commander of the host, but
he did not himself march at their head: he was by far too much
occupied with his investigations of the laws of mind and matter
to be able to pay any minute attention to the particulars; and
what he has left behind under the name of “ Natural History,”
is rather intended as an example to his successors, than as a work
of absolute profit. The great principle for which we are indebted
to him, was from the observation of a large body of physical facts
to deduce general laws, not by theorizing, but by steady and
stern induction.
a
Notice of British Naturalists. 223
“ As things are at present conducted,” says he, ‘‘a sudden transi-
tion is made from sensible objects and particular facts, to general
propositions, which are accounted principles ; and around which,
as around so many fixed poles, disputation and argument contin-
ually revolve. From the propositions thus hastily assumed, all
things are derived, by a process compendious and precipitate, ill
suited to discovery, but wonderfully accommodated to debate.
The way that promises success is the reverse of this. It requires
that we should generalize slowly, going from particular things to
‘those which are. but one step more general, from those to others
of still greater extent; and so on to such as are universal. By
such means we may hope to arrive at principles, not vague and
obscure, but luminous and well defined, such as nature herself
will not refuse to acknowledge.” The end of all knowledge is
utility, the improvement of the condition of mankind; and vain
must that species of it ever be which revolves within itself, and
has in view no ultimate effects.
It was not long before his works began to take effect among
thinking men. ‘Truth advances slowly; especially when long
established errors oppose its progress; but still, there are always
in society a certain number of persons, who, standing on a higher
eminence, like the Hebrew sentinels of old, receive the first
gleams of light, and inform those below ofthe fact. Bacon
awakened a spirit of inquiry; and the minds of men began to
be opened to the absurd fables of ancient authors, and: to cast
aside the interminable synonyms which obscured, while they
Were meant to elucidate natural history.
The first whom we may rank in the new school of British nat-
uralists was John Ray, or Wray, for he wrote his name in both
ways. He was born in 1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree, in
Essex; a small and picturesque country hamlet, but remarkable
for nothing else, we believe, except as being the birth place a few
years before of the celebrated William Bedell, bishop of Kilmore,
in Ireland; a man equally remarkable for his piety and modera-
tion; and respected and well treated by even his opponents and
enemies.
Ray was the son of a blacksmith, who, from the little we can
learn of him, appears to have been in his station, a person of so-
ber habits and respectability, and to have amassed sufficient prop-
erty to give his son a good education. Of the early years of the
»
224 Notice of British Naturalists.
naturalist we know nothing. Interesting as an account of this
period in general is, as giving some evidence of future activity
and eminence, it is too often lost for want of a record; and this
especially in the station in which young Ray’s early life was
past. He was when a boy sent to a classical school at Braintree,
and at the age of sixteen he entered, as a commoner, at Kathe-
rine Hall, Cambridge. Not being, however, satisfied with this
college, he was soon transferred to Trinity, where, in the usual
course, he took his degree. His abilities were certainly good ;
and he was remarkable at this early period for his proficiency in
the knowledge of the learned languages. He was likewise very
industrious ; and being aware of the value of time, he carefully
gathered up the fragments of it; and was able to accomplish not
a little, besides the usual routine of study. And here he soon
manifested his taste for natural history. Botany first attracted
his attention. Like Lord Bacon, he was extremely fond of flow-
ers; and he collected and examined what he met with during
his walks for recreation. As this was his first love among the
works of God, so was it always his strongest passion, and pre-
dominant over that for all other departments of nature. His abil-
ities soon attracted attention in the university. In succession he
became a Fellow of Trinity College; Greek and Mathematical
Lecturer, and Reader in Humanity, besides holding several other
offices. Not only was he an eminent tutor, but likewise a dis-
tinguished preacher. "Theology was a favorite study of his; and
he brought the books of revelation and of nature respectively to
bear the one upon the other. He was not however ordained at
this time; for, during the disorders of the Commonwealth, the
ministerial office was as generally held by persons not in orders
as the contrary. While thus diligently pursuing his graver duties,
he found time, in 1660, to publish his first work on natural his-
tory—a Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, in the arrangement of
which he was much assisted by a friend of the name of Rid. It
is neither the power of intellect, nor the brilliancy of gentus,
which is the peculiar honor of man; but the soundness of his
judgment, the strength of his moral feelings, and the warmth of
his affections. Without these latter the former are, as they con-
cern himself, mere baubles; trusts committed to him, it is true,
but which he wants the power properly to use.. And we may
here remark upon what appears to have been a distinguishing
“
Notice of British Naturalists. 225
part of Ray’s character, his admiration for friendship, and his
cherishing of his friends. We never find him alone. Is he wri-
ting a book? Some friend assists him in collecting the details.
Is he making a tour to increase his stock of knowledge? Some
brother in feeling is his constant companion. Is he engaged in
editing the works of another? He is performing the last melan-
choly duty for one who never forsook him, either in prosperity
or adversity.
This work may be said to be the beginning (of any importance)
of the publication of local floras ; a branch of literature which
has been of late so successfully cultivated; and which has had
more effect in ascertaining and fixing this part of the natural his-
tory of Great Britain, than even the writings of more scientific
and learned authors. And it is greatly to be desired that it were
more thoroughly prosecuted than it has hitherto been, im this our
own land. Not only do we want such accounts of plants, but
likewise of all the different departments of nature. From such
sources the great and commanding writers draw their informa-
tion; and if these minor springs run dry, we cannot possibly ex-
pect any truly important results. It was in this way that the
great Cuvier himself began, when engaged in his investiga-
tions of the inferior animals, while a tutor in Normandy; and
he owed not a little to it in after life. Hach district has its own
peculiarities which are easily observed by those who live there ;
and thus to collect information will ever be found a labor which
is fully repaid by the pleasure which accrues from it. To make
it public may cost more pains; but magazines and journals are
always ready to notice any important fact or observation. Pre-
vious to this time botany had been much neglected over the
whole of England; but this publication of Ray gave it a new
spring, and set up a model of what might be effected by others.
In Ray’s own words, ‘‘many were prompted to those studies, and
to mind the plants they met with in their walks in the fields.”
He had now hit upon a path along which his genius pointed, and
for the following of which his peculiar talents fitted him. Hav-
ing once begun, he eagerly pursued his researches; and not con-
tent with what he met with in the neighborhood of. Cambridge,
he extended his investigations throughout the greatest part of
England and Wales, and the south of Scotland. In these tours,
for he was only absent at intervals, he was generally accompa-
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 29
226 Notice of British Naturalists.
nied by Willoughby, whose various works on the subject are
well known, and whose fondness for nature was equal to his own.
Of these short journies he kept journals, which were afterwards
published under the title of Itineraries. 'They contain little that
is of general interest; and are curious chiefly from the account
which they give of the state of the roads and towns at that
period.
The restoration of king Charles II, bringing with it a return to
old manners and customs, and more peaceful times, Mr. Ray de-
termined to enter into holy orders. For this, as we have seen,
his previous education had been such as fully to prepare him;
and in December, 1660, he was ordained both deacon and priest,
by Dr. Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln. He however still remained
at the university, engaged in his previous-duties, without any
fixed cure of souls. In 1662, came the celebrated Bartholomew
act; and as, from conscientious motives, he refused to sign the
declaration, he lost his fellowship and other offices. From what
sources he now derived his income does not appear. Whether
his father had been enabled to leave him any property, or whether
his previous college appointments had been so lucrative as to en-
rich him sufficiently, none of his biographers mention. He how-
ever immediately set off, with a party of three, for a scientific
tour upon the continent, whence he did not return till March,
1665; and till, in conjunction with Mr. Willoughby, he had col-
lected a large number of miscellaneous specimens of natural his-
tory. ‘Then began his great labors; and those in which the or-
der and strength of his mind are peculiarly perceptible.
Bishop Wilkins had for some time previously occupied his
leisure in the study of botany ; and for the next two years, Ray
was engaged with him in classifying the plants of England; and
in throwing them into a natural arrangement. With his first plan,
as he informs us in his preface to the Synopsis methodica Stir-
pium Britannicarum, he was not altogether satisfied; and, as
was very natural on a subject so truly new, he perceived many
errors. In this trait, however, it is not difficult to trace the germ
of his future eminence.
Far as he had proceeded beyond all previous writers, he could
not be contented till he had attained the utmost excellency which
his imagination held out before him; and instead of sitting down
quietly to rest, one labor was but the precursor of another still
Notice of British Naturalists. 227
greater. ‘These errors he by degrees corrected, and laid the foun-
dation of that natural system which was so long afterwards
adopted. In 1667, at the age of thirty-nine, he was admitted a
member of the Royal Society of London, at that time no small
honor, and no little profit to the mind, as the greatest philosophers
of the day were its active members; in 1670, he published the
first edition of his History of British Planis.
From this period his life passed quietly away. The man of
science lives much by himself. He converses with nature: free
from the turmoil and anxieties of the world, his days are rather
marked by the progress of his discoveries in knowledge, than by
any thing which can interest the general reader. He gradually
became more celebrated as a naturalist ; and being still a person
of most industrious habits, his writings accumulated. Among
other subjects which engaged his attention at this time, we find
that he was actively employed in investigating the phenomenon
of the circulation of the sap in trees, the discovery of which was
reserved for later times, and a deeper knowledge of the princi-
ples of mechanical science. His writings are contained in about
twenty volumes. They have never been collected, and many of
them are now very scarce and difficult of attainment. Besides
his volumes on botany, which form nine independent works, he
edited the writings of his friend, Mr. Willoughby ; published his
own travels both in England and on the continent,—the most
remarkable topic in the latter of which is his description of Jock-
gates for canals, which appear to have been then quite novel,—
a collection of unusual or local English words; the same of prov-
erbs; a dictionary of three languages ; a persuasion to a holy life ;
the wisdom of God manifested in the works of creation; Physico
Theological discourses, with practical inferences; two volumes
on insects, and some minor volumes and papers.
With a glance at his private life we shall conclude this sketch.
After his return to England he appears never to have officiated
as a clergyman; but to have resided where his fancy led him, or
the society of his friends induced him. In 1672, he met witha
heavy affliction in the death of his old and constant friend, Mr.
Willoughby. This gentleman left him by his will, property to
the amount of £60 per year, and bequeathed to his care the edu-
cation of his two sons. 'The younger one afterwards became the
first Lord Middleton. 'Thus occupied he removed to Middleton
228 Notice of British Naturalists.
Hall, where he staid, in all, about four years ; and he appears to
have acted, not only the part of a valuable tutor, but of an indul-
gent guardian and kind parent to his charge. +
“In 1673,” says his biographer, ‘“ having lost some of his best
friends, and being in a manner left destitute, he began to have
thoughts of marriage; having met with a young gentlewoman,
(then in the family he was in,) of about twenty years of age,
whose piety, discretion, and virtues, as well as her person, recom-
mended her to him.”” Her name was Margaret Oakeley, of an
Oxfordshire family. They were married in the May following,
and he never appears to have had occasion to repent of his choice.
In 1679, having parted with his pupils, with an affection for
the place of his birth, he removed back again, as his years were
increasing, to Black Notley. Here for ten years he resided, being
actively engaged in writing, till in 1687, his health failed ; he
became infirm, and he died, worn out, in 1704, in the seventy-
sixth year of his age. He was buried in the Parish church, and
a monument was erected to his memory by his friends.
A good fame is the peculiar possession of the dead; and with
all his faults, few appear, in those busy times, to have left behind
them a more unsullied name. If we may judge from the high
station which he held in Cambridge, and from the internal evi-
dence of his works, he was a fine scholar, and possessed of both
descrimination and taste. Contemplation rather than action was
the peculiar form of his mind; but he wanted not activity, and
certainly was of a restless and most inquiring turn. While any-
thing was to be learned, which he thought it worth while to
employ himself upon, he allowed no difficulties to dishearten him
and no self-denial to prevent his pursuit. And we may here
make a general observation, that however much it may please
some to disparage the study of natural history, or to declare it to
be only fit for trifling and inferior minds, we not only see in this
case, but in all others, that eminence in this science is of peculiar
difficulty of attaimment. The highest powers of judgment, of
research, and of perseverance are necessary; and it has seldom
been reached, where general learning and a well regulated edu-
cation have not previously prepared the mind. Considering the
numbers who have attempted it, there are fewer who have made
any real progress in this, than in any other of the pursuits of
mankind.
Notice of British Naturalists. 229
Of his goodness of heart we have already had occasion to speak.
A child-like simplicity seems to have been a prominent point in
his character; and he enjoyed the society of those whose minds
were of a humble and inquisitive nature. His friendships were
unalterable ; and his course in life was marked by an absence of
quarrels, and the love of those connected with him. In 1682, he
was led into dispute with Tournefort and Rivinus. Literary con-
troversy is but too often the offspring of arrogance and folly on |
one side or the other, and seldom leads to any other result than
to leave each champion the more strangely convinced of the truth
of his own opinion. Ray was soon sorry for it and gave it over.
“'The contentious way of writing was by no means agreeable to
his sweet and peaceful nature, who, as he loved all men, so de-
sired to be at perfect peace and unity with all.” It is perhaps to
be lamented, that having voluntarily entered into holy orders, he
should so entirely have forgotten the vows which were upon him,
as not afterwards to have officiated; and we can only account
for it from the fact of his being in a measure prevented by the
Bartholomew act, and by the bent of his mind leading him, weakly
leading him perhaps, to other pursuits. Had he made natural
history a part of his studies while prosecuting his still more im-
portant profession, all honor would have been due to him; but as
it is, we can only be sorry that his course in this respect was not
different. In the words of one who knew him well, we conclude:
“In his dealings no man was more strictly just; in his conver-
sation no man more humble, courteous, and affable. Towards
God no man more devout. ‘Towards the poor and distressed no
man more compassionate, and charitable according to his abilities.”
He was but a man, and as such but weak and fallible. In
his works his piety is predominant. He never forgot that he
was occupied in searching the wonders of his God; or that his
labors were to tend to his honor and glory: and thus it is that
where science becomes the handmaid to religion, she is in her
appropriate sphere and is all glorious; but that when she de-
scends from this her proper place, then her form is polluted, and
her influence worse than evil.
Did we not confine ourselves especially to the writers upon
British natural history, the name of Willoughby, the friend of
Ray, would be deserving of high and honorable mention. He
was then in a great measure to zoology, what Ray was to bot-
230 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
any; but he included in his writings, species from all countries.
His chief works on birds and on fishes—which are still valuable
from the correctness of the plates—he did not live to finish, and
they were edited and published by cae Of his chee a
biographer thus speaks :
“And now, having mentioned the diligence of this great man,
let me add that it was such, and his labors so incessant in studies,
that he allowed himself little or no time for those recreations and
diversions which men of his estate and degree are apt to spend
too much of their time in; but he prosecuted his design with as
great application as if he had been to get his bread thereby. All
which I mention not only out of the great respect I bear to Mr.
Willoughby’s memory, but for an example, as has been before
recommended to persons of great estate and quality: that they
may be excited to answer the ends for which God gives them
estates, leisure, parts, and gifts, or a good genius, which was not
to exercise themselves in vain and sinful follies; but to be em-
ployed for the glory and in the service of the infinite Creator, and
in doing good offices in the world, especially een as tend to the
credit and profit of their own families.”
(To be continued.)
Art. Il.—On the Natural History of Volcanos and Earth-
quakes,* by Dr. Gustav Biscnor, Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Bonn. Communicated by the Author.
L. Are volcanic phenomena capable of a satisfactory explanation
JSrom the increase of temperature towards the centre of the earth,
or can chemical processes be admutied with greater probability
to be the cause of volcanic action ?
On inquiring into the cause of volcanic phenomena we must
not forget, says Von Humboldt, that the arrangement of volca-
nos sometimes in circular groups and sometimes in double lines,
is the most decided proof that their action is not dependent on
* From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour., Vol. xxv1, No. 51, Jan. 1839.
+ On the structure and action of volcanos in various parts of the earth, in the
Abhandlungen der Konigl. Acad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1822 and 1828, p. 137,
and in Jameson’s Phil. Jour. vol. v. p. 223.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 231
any trifling causes, lying near the surface, but that they are vast
and deeply-seated phenomena. Thus, for example, the whole
of the high country of Quito is one volcanic hearth, of which
the mountains of Pichincha, Cotopaxi, and Tunguragua, form
the summits. The subterranean fire breaks out sometimes from
one, sometimes from another of these vents, which are usually
considered as distinct volcanos. The earthquakes, with which
America is so dreadfully visited, are also remarkable proofs of
the existence of subterranean communications, not only between
countries free from voleanos, as has been long known, but also
between volcanic hearths situated at a great distance from each
other. All these circumstances prove that the forces do not act
at the surface of the crust of the earth, but that, proceeding from
the interior of our planet, they communicate contemporaneously
by fissures with the most distant points on the surface.*
Two hypotheses may be proposed respecting the causes of vol-
canic phenomena. ‘The one supposes them to be occasioned by
intense chemical action taking place between bodies having a
very great affinity to each other, and by which so great a heat
is produced, that lavas melt and are forced to the surface of the
earth by the pressure of elastic fluids. According to the other,
the earth at a certain depth is at a white heat, and this heat is
the chief cause of volcanic phenomena.
1. The hypothesis, which ascribes volcanic phenomena to intense
chemical action, shewn to be untenable.
We will not detain our readers, with an account of the earlier
hypotheses, which derive volcanic phenomena from the action of
iron upon sulphur, or from the combustion of pyrites or coal, as
their insufficiency is self-evident. But Davy’s discovery of the
metallic bases of the alkalies and earths was considered as throw-
ing a great light on this subject.
This distinguished philosopher, who instituted some very
interesting experiments at Vesuvius during its eruptions in 1814,
1815, 1819, and 1820, endeavored to explain the phenomena by
the oxidation of the metals of the alkalies and earths.t He
* Von Humboldt’s Reisen in die AXquinoctial Gegenden des neuen Continents,
t. i, p- 496, t. ili, p. 24, 26, and 40, offer many instances of this kind.
t Sur les Phenomenes des Voleans. Annales de Chim, et de Phys. vol. xxxvii,
p- 133.
232 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
thinks himself justified in supposing the caverns beneath the
Solfatara of Puzzuoli to have a subterranean communication
with Vesuvius, because whenever the latter is in action, the for-
mer is in repose. A slip of paper which Davy threw into the
mouth of the Solfatara, during an eruption of Vesuvius, was
not rejected, from which he concluded that there must be a de-
scending current of air. ‘The subterranean thunder, which is
heard at such great distances from beneath Vesuvius, seems to
him to indicate the existence of great subterranean caverns, filled
with gaseous substances, and that the same caverns which, du-
ring the activity of the volcano, continue for a long time to eject
enormous quantities of aqueous vapor, must be filled; during its
repose, with atmopheric air. In proof of the existence of exten-
sive caverns, he mentions those in the limestone of Carniola.
Now, as the metals of the earths in the supposed volcanic cav-
erns are not only exposed to the action of the air but also to that
of aqueous vapor, they will be oxidized at the expense of both,
and be converted into lava. He thinks his hypothesis pa ies of
explaining all the phenomena which he observed.
Davy also touches upon the circumstance, often mentioned by
seologists, that almost all great volcanos are situated near the sea.*
Supposing their first eruption to have been caused by the action
of the sea-water upon the metals of the earths, and the metallic
oxides, ejected from the craters in the form of lava, to have left
vast caverns, the succeeding eruptions would be effected by the
oxidations which would ensue in those caverns. Davy is of
opinion that when volcanos lie at a distance from the sea, as
those of South America, the water may be furnished from subter-
ranean lakes; for Von Humboldt asserts that some of these vol-
canos cast up fish.
If we wish to ascribe voleanic phenomena to chemical action,
says Davy, the oxidation of the metals of the earths and alkalies
* That volcanos may act at a great distance from the sea is proved by the Pesekan
in the centre of Asia, which is 260 geographical miles distant from any great sea,
and from which streams of lava have issued within the period of our history. Even
the opinion that the vicinity of extensive lakes operates on the volcanos of Central
Asia, in the same manner as the ocean, is unfounded. The volcano of Turfan is
surrounded by very inconsiderable Jakes, and the Lake of Temartu or Tssikul,
which is not twice as large as the Lake of Geneva, lies fully 25 geographical miles
from Pesckan. See alse Girardin in opposition to Davy’s hypothesis in Jameson’s
Phil. Journ. vol. ix, p. 136.
~
- Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 233
merits our attention in preference to any other process. He him-
self, however, observes, that the observations in mines and in hot
springs seem to indicate, with some degree of probability, that the
interior of the earth possesses a very high temperature, and that,
if the earth’s nucleus be supposed in a state of fusion, the expla-
nation of volcanic phenomena is simpler than according to his
own theory.
Gay-Lussac very justly remarks, that it is impossible to con-
ceive the admission of atmospheric air into the focus of volcanos,
as there must be a force within them acting outwards, by which
the liquid lava, a substance about three times as heavy as water,
is raised to a height of above 3000 feet, as at Vesuvius, and more
than 9000 feet in many other volcanos. A pressure of 3000 feet
of lava, equal to that of a column of water of 9000 feet high, or
to about 300 atmospheres, necessarily prevents the entrance of air
into the interior of the voleanos; and as this pressure continues
for many years, during which time the phenomena by no means
abate in activity, it is impossible that air should in any way con-
tribute to it.
The presence of water in voleanos during the various stages of
their activity is, on the ‘other hand, a circumstance repeatedly
witnessed by all observers.* Even the smoking during their in-
tervals of repose is, for the most part, nothing but a disengage-
ment of aqueous vapor. Violent eruptions are not unfrequently
followed by such enormous quantities of steam, that it condenses
in the atmosphere, and falls in heavy showers, as was the case
after the memorable eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed Torre
del Greco in 1794.+ Among the elastic fluids evolved from vol-
canos, besides aqueous vapor, we frequently find sulphuretted hy-
on gas, as, for example, from those at the equator ; and from
others, as Vesuvius, muriatic acid gas. But the formation of
these gases in the interior of volcanos cannot be conceived with-
out the presence of water.
If the oxidation of the earthy and alkaline metals were to take
place at the expense of water, enormous quantities of hydrogen
* See, among others, Monticelli and Covelli, der Vesuv. Deutsch bearbeitet von
Noéggerath and Pauls. Elberfeld, 1824, p. 157.
+ See von Buch’s geognostiche Beobachtungen, tom. ii. 152. There is, how-
ever, still another cause, which occasions these heavy showers, as we shall shew
afterwards.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 30
234 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
would be necessarily evolved during volcanic eruptions. But this
gas seems never to issue from volcanos. According to the ob-
servations of Breislak,* Spallanzani,t Monticelli and Covelli,{
Hoffmann,$ and Poulett Scrope,|| flames are never seen to rise
from the crater of Vesuviws. Neither did Gay-Lussacf during
his stay at Naples in 1805, during which he was a frequent wit-
ness of explosions, which raised the fluid lava to a height of
above 600 feet, ever observe a combustion of hydrogen gas. Each
explosion was accompanied with dense black columns of smoke,
which would have inflamed, had they been composed of hydro-
gen gas, as they were traversed by bright red-hot masses. Ac-
cording to Boussingault, neither hydrogen, muriatic acid gas, nor
nitrogen gas, is evolved from the volcanos, under the equator, in
the New World.** In opposition to this evidence, we have the
assertions of Von Buch.tt
Davy’s hypothesis does not account for the exhalations of car-
bonic acid gas (Mofettes,) which not only succeed every eruption
of Vesuvius, but also occur in the vicinity of extinct volcanos
and in places affording unquestionable traces of former volcanic
action (Auvergne, Vivarais, Eifel, Laacher See, Bohemia, and
so forth{{,) in amazing quantities, and as far as we can learn
from history, with uninterrupted uniformity. These phenomena
must necessarily be closely connected with volcanic action, and
cannot pass unnoticed.
But these disengagements of cabonic acid gas could not take
place in the presence of atmospheric air in those vast subterranean
cavities without their mixing together. Yet, according to Mon-
ticelli and Covelli,$$¢ the Mofettes of Vesuvius contain but little
atmospheric air, which seems not to intermix with the carbonic
acid gas until it reaches the surface. I have examined many
such exhalations of carbonic acid gas, in the vicinity of extinct
volcanos, (in the neighborhood of the Laacher See and in the
* Lehrbuch der Geologie, transl. into German by Strombeck, vol. mi, p. 117.
t Voyages dans les Deux Siciles, ete. vol. ui, p. 31. t Loco cit. p. 191.
§ A personal communication. || Considerations on Voleanos. London. 1825,
1 Loco cit. p. 420.
** Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. lii, p. 23. tt Loco eit. t. 11, p. 141.
tt Monticelli and Covelli, 1c. p. 191. Bischof and Noggerath in Schweigger’s
Journ. v. xliii, p. 28. Bischof in Schweigger-Seidel’s Journ. v. xxvi, p. 129. The
same in his Vulcanischen Mineralquellen. Bonn. 1826. p. 251. Von Buch in
Poggendorff’s Ann. v. xii, p. 418. $§ Loco cit. p. 194.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 235
Bifel,) as well as in places where there are no immediate volcanic
traces, (Hundsriick, the eastern declivities of the T'ewtoburger
Wald,) and, in general, have found a scarcely measurable quan-
tity of atmospheric air. According to Boussingault,* the elastic
fluids, which are evolved from the volcanos at the equator in the
New World, consist of a great quantity of aqueous vapor, car-
bonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and sometimes fumes
of sulphur; he considers sulphurous acid gas and nitrogen, on
the other hand, as accidental. This philosopher} also found the
same gases, viz., carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, in
the springs which rise in the vicinity of these volcanos. All
this is by no means favorable to the supposition of the existence
of vast subterranean cavities filled with air under the craters, and
an equally unfavorable circumstance is, that, according to Bous-
singault, no nitrogen is évolved from the volcanos under the
equator, which must necessarily be the consequence of oxidation
at the expense of atmospheric air.
Independently of all this, the metals of the earths have been
found by more recent experiments to be by no means so easy of
oxidation as Davy’s hypothesis assumed. Besides, this proneness
to oxidation must be supposed to be a property more especially
belonging to the metals of silica and alumina, as these earths to-
gether with oxide of iron, are the principal components of vol-
canic products—lavas, basalts, &c., generally amounting to about
0.8, whilst lime and alkalies, although never entirely wanting,
form but an inconsiderable proportion. But Berzeliust{ has shewn,
that silicium, the combustible base of silica, when freed of hy-
drogen by being gradually heated to a white heat, is incombus-
tible even at that heat in the air or in oxygen; and that it is
equally incapable of decomposing water. In like manner Woh-
ler found,$ that aluminum, the metallic base of alumina, is not
oxidized under a red heat, and decomposes hot water but very
slowly, while on cold water it has no influence whatever.
Therefore Davy’s hypothesis would be applicable only to the
metallic bases of alkaline earths and alkalies. But, as these oc-
cur only in small proportions in the volcanic rocks, it is scarcely
conceivable that so much heat should be evolved by their com-
* Loco cit. v. lii, p. 5. + Ibid. p. 181. { Poggend. Ann. vy. i, p. 221.
§ Poggend. t. xi, p. 146.
Ww
236 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
bustion at the ordinary temperature as would be sufficient to melt
the pure earths, or to inflame their metals, supposing them to
exist at the seat of the volcanic action. |
The slight specific gravity of the metals of the alkalies, also
proves fatal to Davy’s hypothesis; for, if the mean density of the
earth surpass that of all kinds of rocks, those metals cannot exist,
at least not in great quantities, in the interior of the earth.*
Davy’s hypothesis, therefore, according to the present state of
science, will not account for volcanic phenomena.}
Gay-Lussac,{ assuming that water supplied the oxygen in vol-
canos, endeavored to account for the absence of uncombined hy-
drogen among the exhalations of volcanos, by supposing it to
form such combinations with other bodies as would not inflame
by coming into contact with the air. ‘This is the case when it
combines with chlorine to form muriatic acid gas. He here re-
fers to the observations of Breislak,§ and of Monticelli and Covelli,||
which shew that this acid is among the exhalations of volcanos.
He himself, however, observes, that an enormous quantity of mu-
riatic acid must be evolved from the craters, if the hydrogen,
which would result from an oxidation by means of water, were
to enter into combination with chlorine. But it would be strange
that such an exhalation should not have been remarked sooner.
In order to account for the formation of muriatic acid, he men-
tions the experiments made by him and Thénard, in which they
evolved that acid, by introducing aqueous vapor into a mixture
of sand and common salt heated to a red heat. In support of his
position, he mentions the occurrence of common salt in the lavas,
from one of which, (that of Vesuvius in 1822,) Monticelli and
Covelli extracted more than 0.09, and in the slags which cover
the white hot lava, and which sometimes contain very beautiful
* Also the latest experiments, made with admirable exactness by Prof. Reich
in Freiberg, with the assistance of the torsion-balance, have given 5.44 for the
density of the earth, as a mean of 14 experiments which afforded very nearly the
same results. Versuche uber die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde mittelst der Dreh-
wage von F. Reich. Freiberg, 1838. This result accords very nearly with that,
which was found by Cavendish and Hutton. :
t Davy, however, afterwards abandoned his hypothesis. See Consolation in
Travel, or the Last Days of a Philosopher.
¢ Loco cit. § Loco cit. i, p. 57 and 94.
\| L. ce. p.172. See also Daubeny’s Description of Active and Extinct Volca-
nos. Lond. 1826. p. 372, and v. Humboldt’s Reise, etc. t. 1, p. 195.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 237
erystals of salt. He father notices the spongy lavas which con-
tain so much iron-glance, and is of opinion that this may also be
a consequence of the sublimation of chloride of iron, and its sub-
sequent decomposition, by coming in contact with aqueous vapor
and atmospheric air, while at a red heat.* And, lastly, he men-
tions that chloride of iron, in contact with water, becomes so ex-
ceedingly hot, that it is capable, in large quantities, of raising
itself to a white heat, and that the chlorides of silicium and alu-
minium must be able to produce a much more extraordinary de-
gree of heat.
it cannot be denied that there is some justness in these conclu-
sions. But it.must be remembered, on the other hand, that the
premises are only taken from appearances at Vesuvius,+ and that
the occurrence of common salt and muriatic acid in the products
and exhalations of volcanos, seems by no means to be general.
We have already quoted Boussingault’s observation, that muriatic
acid is not evolved from the volcanos under the equator in the
New World. 'The hot springs in those regions contain but little
* We may here notice the formation of artificial crystals of oxide of iron in a
potter’s furnace. Poggendorff’s Ann. v. xv, p. 630. Mitscherlich, who gives an
account of this, finds an-analogy between this formation and similar ones in vol-
eanos. He explains it by supposing that common salt and steam both act together
upon silica or siliceous combinations; and form muriatic acid, and that this comes
either alone or with a small quantity of water into contact with oxide of iron, or
ferriferous combinations. ‘Thus chloride of iron is formed, which is again decom-
posed by the aqueous vapors, and, if the decomposition proceed slowly, the oxide
of iron remains behind in large crystals.
In some volcanic eruptions, the conditions necessary for the formation of iron
glance seem, indeed, to have been very frequent, whilst in others they have been
entirely wanting. It is not only the lavas of Vesuvius and Aci-reale in Sicily, and
the rents in the lava of Stromboli, which contain distinct crystals of iron-mica; but
it is also found in the greatest abundance in Auvergne, (Volvic, Mont d'Or, Puy
de Dome,etc. . . . -). On the other hand, it has never been found by Nog-
gerath in the volcanic masses of the Siebengebirge, the Laacher See, and the Eifel ;
it has only lately been found that some of the slags of the Roderberg, an extinct
volcano, about two leagues distant from Bonn, are scantily covered with iron-
glance. See Thome der vulkanische Roderberg, &c. Bonn. 1835. p. 22. It is
worthy of notice, and speaks in favor of the probability of the above-mentioned
production of iron-glance, that in the places last mentioned, the appearance of
combinations of chlorine is very limited. :
t The observations of Von Humboldt, Gay-Lussac, Von Buch, and Monticelli,
made at different times, shew also that the exhalations of muriatic acid are very
variable. They are sometimes so frequent as to surpass the exhalations of sul-
phurous acid, sometimes only a few traces of it are found.
238 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
common salt.* In my frequent excursions in the vicinity of the
Laacher See and in the Eifel, I have never found any efflores-
cence of salt either on the undisturbed or fresh broken lavas, and
other products of the extinct craters in those districts. On the
uncovered walls of trass, in the Brohl valley, efflorescences are,
indeed, to be found, but they contain chlorides only as very sub-
ordinate ingredients.t ‘The lixiviation of trass, basalt, and other
volcanic rocks, also gives but a trace of common salt.t That
muriatic acid must have played a very insignificant part in the
eruptions of these ancient volcanos, seems to be proved by the
mineral springs which rise in their vicinity; for common salt is
one of their least considerable components, indeed they frequently
contain mere traces of it. This is the result of more than forty
analyses of mineral springs in those regions, which I have under-
taken during these last few years. But these waters would ex-
tract the chlorides. from the voleanic masses through which they
flow, if they existed in any considerable quantities in them, and
would return impregnated with them to the surface. ;
From all this we do not seem to be justified in considering the
chlorides as the chief agents in volcanic phenomena, although it
cannot be denied that they may, in some instances, co-operate in
their production.¢ It has even been supposed that the beds of
* Loco cit. p. 181. + Die vulkanischen Mineralquellen, &c. p. 243.
¢ Idem, p. 246 and 247. 3
§ Many volcanos have produced considerable quantities of common salt, as, for
instance, Vesuvius, Hecla, &c. Also sal-ammoniac is found among the volcanic
sublimations of Vesuvius and Etna, and almost exclusively in some volcanos of
the interior of Asia. Vauquelin found in a porous rock, constituting a considera-
ble part of the Puy de Sarcouy, in the chain of the Puy de Déme, 0.055 of muriatic
acid, which is worthy of remark in connection with the frequent occurrence of
iron-glance in that neighborhood. (Ann. des Mines. vi, p 98.) There are fel-
spar crystals in the trachyte, colored sulphur-yellow by muriatic acid vapors of a
former time. Common salt also forms the chief ingredient in the thermal springs
of St. Nectaire, in the department Puy de Déme. In the mineral springs of Mont
d’ Or, Vichy, Chaudes-Aigues, Vals, &c., on the contrary, it is in very small quan-
tities. In the lavas of Etna 0.01 of muriatic acid has been found. In basalt, Ken-
nedy found 0.01; Klaproth 0.0001 ; and I, 0.00085 of muriatic acid. I also found
that acid in a steatitic substance in the trachyte-conglomerate of the Siebengebirge.
See ‘Die vulcanischen Mineralquellen,” p 277. But this occurrence of muriatic
acid, which may, perhaps, be found in many other volcanic productions, is far too
inconsiderable for us to ascribe to it any great part in the production of volcanic
phenomena. Proust tells us that, according to Garicas Fernandez, the celebrated
salt mines at Poza, near Burgos, in Old Castile, are situated in the centre of a cra-
ter, in which the latter collected various voleanic products. Journ. de Phys. vol.
ly, p. 457.
-
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 239
rock-salt are of volcanic origin. But -this proves nothing more
than that rock-salt may have been raised from the interior of the
earth by volcanic power, and that the beds of salt are a conse-
quence of voleanic action, but not conversely, that chlorides and
the disengagement of muriatic acid are the cause of that phe-
nomenon.
Now, since neither any process of oxidation, nor processes in
which chlorides take an active part, are capable of affording a
satisfactory explanation of volcanic phenomena, we can scarcely
conceive any other powerful chemical process, which could alone
give rise to them. We may, therefore, look upon the hypothesis
which seeks the. cause of volcanic phenomena in intense chemi-
cal action as untenable.
Il. The hypothesis which supposes the temperature of the earth
gradually to increase towards the centre, to a red and white
heat, explains in a satisfactory manner (according to the pres-
ent state of science) volcanic phenomena as well as earthquakes.
If the heat of the earth continually increases with the depth,
the rocks must at a certain depth be in a state of fusion. But
since they possess such various degrees of fusibility, the more
fusible rocks must be in a liquid state, at depths in which the less
fusible ones are still solid. At certain depths there must, conse-
quently, be masses of melted rocks, enclosed in the solid rock, in
the same manner as.iron ores are melted and reduced in the less
fusible masses of which blast furnaces or crucibles are composed.
These depths must, according to the above hypothesis, be looked
upon as the seat of volcanic action. ‘The crystalline rocks are
the most easy of fusion on account of their containing alkalies,
which indeed are not wanting in any of them. So that, in gen-
eral, the more abundantly alkaline minerals, as felspar, mica, leu-
cite, &c., are contained in volcanic masses, the more readily will
they fuse.*
Sir James Hall+ has endeavored to ascertain the degree of fusi-
bility of various lavas and other voleanic rocks. ‘Lava from Ve-
* According to Von Buch, (Abhandlungen d. Konig]. Acad. d. Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, 1818-1819, p. 62,) it may be taken as a general rule, that all real lavas,
which flow in streams down the sides of volcanos, contain glassy felspar. Vesuvius
being the only exception out of so many is not worth mentioning.
+ Transact. of the Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh. Vol. v, &c.
te
240 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
suvius of the year 1785, melted at 18° of Wedgewood’s pyrome-
ter, lava from Torre del Greco not till 40°. But their fusibility
varied very considerably, according as the melted lava had been
cooled rapidly to a glass, or more slowly to a stony crystalline
mass. Thus, for example, those two lavas, when in the form of
a glass, both melted at the same degree, (18°,) whilst the lava of
1785 was less fusible than that of Torre del Greco, when of a
stony nature.* From other appearances it may, in general, be
concluded, that the fusibility of lavas is between that of silver
and copper. ‘Thus in the lava which destroyed Torre del Greco,
some gold and a few copper coins were found unmelted ; but the
silver coins were melted and baked together with some copper-
coins.| Davy found that a copper-wire of ,'; of an inch in diam-
eter, and a silver-wire of ;', of an inch, thrust into the lava near
its source, instantly melted.{ A wire of copper ¢ of an inch in
diameter, which I held in a stream of fused basalt, flowing out
from a furnace, melted immediately. But the basalt was doubt-
less heated far above its fusing point. Now according to Daniel,¢
silver melts at 2233° F'., but copper at 2548° F’.; we may there-
fore take a mean of 2282° F. (=100U° R.) for the melting point
of lava. ;
Now, if we suppose the increase of temperature to continue to
follow the same progression as has been discovered in accessible
depths, the lava must be in a state of fusion, according to the ob-
servations near Geneva and in Cornwall, at the depth of about
113505 feet, and from those in the Erzgebirge at about 126829
feet below the level of the sea near Vesuvius or Hina.||
* Glass is well known to be acted upon in a similar manner. When converted,
by being melted and slowly cooled again, into Reaumar’s porcelain, it becomes less
fusible.
+ Thompson: Notices of an English Traveller, &c. Breislak. (Voyage dans la
Camp., vol.i, p. 279,) mentions, that when bell-metal was plunged into the lava,
the zinc melted out, leaving the copper behind.
{ Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxxviii, p. 138.
§ Journ. of Science, xxiii.
|| According to my observations made on a cooling basalt-ball of twenty-seven
inches diameter, and which I shall communicate afterwards, the increase of tem-
perature from the surface towards the centre of the earth, seems to take place, not
in an arithmetical, but ina geometrical progression. But the exponent of this pro-
gression being very little greater than 1, this progression comes very near to an
arithmetical one. The depths, above calculated, being but insignificant in propor-
tion to the diameter of the globe, no great error has been committed in supposing
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 241
If we suppose steam to be the power by which the lavas are
raised from this enormous depth, and by which the volcanic
bombs, rapilli, and ashes are thrown up, and according to all ob-
servations hitherto made, water in its elastic state seems to be the
only means by which the lavas* and other volcanic rocks,+ are so
raised ; it is yet a question whether its expansive force could be
sufficiently raised by heat? Parrott reckons that the temperature
of lava, at the moment of its ejection, is five times as great as
would be necessary to raise it 48V00 feet by the elastic force of
steam, supposing the steam to be formed in the presence of water.
But from more recent inquiries on the elastic force of aqueous
vapor, this calculation must undergo considerable corrections.
The formula of Mayer, as altered according to the last results of
the experiments at Vienna corresponds the most nearly with the
elastic force of steam as actually observed, so that it may be con-
sidered as the most correct determination of its elasticity at higher
temperatures. If we wish to find the pressure of the steam in
the increase of temperature follows an arithmetical progression as far as these
depths. With this exception, we can hardly hope ever to become acquainted with
the true progression of the increase of the temperature to the interior. ‘Therefore
all such calculations, as the former, can but give approximations to the truth.
* Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, p.1€6. A short time before the great eruption of
Vesuvius, in the year 1805, he and Gay-Lussac observed that the watery vapors
in the interior of the crater did not redden litmus. Many other naturalists have
also found that the outlets of smoke of the Peak of Teneriffe emitted pure wa-
teronly.. Voy. de La Peyrouse, t. 1, p. 2. Hoffmann, in his letter to Von Buch
on the geognostical structure of the Lipari Islands, in Poggendorff’s Annal. vol.
XXvl, p. 9 and 45, and in several places in his account of the volcanic island which
rose in the Mediterranean Sea, vol. xxiv, p. 65. According to Monticelli and Co-
velli, the smoke which rises from the lava-streams consist almost exclusively of
aqueous vapor. Loco cit. p. 27, 65. and 83. Numerous fumaroles (exhalations of
aqueous vapor) rise on the island of Ischza out of the cracks in the lava. Forbes,
in Edinb. Journ. of Science, N. 8. iv, p. 326. Reinwardt, Verhandlingen van het
Bataviaasch genootsthap van Kunsten en Wetenschapen, negende deel, Batavia,
1823, p. 1. Ordinaire mentions, in his ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Volcans,” a mass of
melting iron having been cast to a height of 150 feet, out of a blast furnace, by some
water having accidentally got into it. See D’Aubuisson, Traité de Geognosie,
v. i, p. 215.
+ The water contained in basalt speaks in favor of this opinion. See Klaproth’s
Beitrige, &c., vol. iii, p. 249, and Kennedy in Appendix to the same, p.255. On
melting basalt, and introducing a gun-barrel into the crucible, I observed a consid-
erable evolution of aqueous vapor.
+ Grundriss der Physik der Erde und Geologie. Riga u. Leipzig, 1815, p. 264.
§ Arzberger in the Jahrbiichern des Polytechnischen Instituts, vol. i, p. 144.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—April-July, 1839. 31
he
. ea
242 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
Paris inches of a column of mercury from this formula, we shall
847.3
have log. ¢=2.8316686 + log. (213 +1) —
Ott
in which ¢ is the temperature in degrees of Reaumur a= Be
* us
It is clear that the elastic force of steam cannot surpass a cer-
tain maximum, which it reaches when its density is equal to
that of water. This is the case when the elasticity of the vapor
e= 232952 Paris inches of mercury, or nearly 8320 atmospheres,
which supposes a temperature of 2786° F.+
Thus, if aqueous vapor were to reach its greatest possible elas
ticity, its temperature must exceed that above assumed for the
melting point of lava by 504° F. The highest column of lava,
which steam at its maximum elasticity is capable of supporting,
is, therefore, if we suppose the specific gravity of liquid lava three
times as great as that of water, 88747 feet. But a temperature
of 2786° F.. will, according to the observations at Geneva and in
Cornwall, be met with at a depth of 139265 feet, and according
to those in the Hrzgebirge, at a depth of 155613 feet (about
thirty English miles) below the level of the sea near aa
or Hina.t
Supposing, then, the values found for the maximum elasticity
of steam for the corresponding temperature, and for the depth at
which that temperature must exist, to be correct, it would not be
possible, that a column of lava, of the whole height, from the seat
of the volcanos to the surface of the earth, should be raised up.
On the other hand, in the same manner as a bubble of air let into
a barometer, drives the mercury into the Torricellian vacuum far
above the barometric height, aqueous vapor may raise a column
of lava of a height equal to its expansive force into the channels
opening into the craters. Thus, then, it may happen that aqueous
vapor, though far from its maximum elasticity, may yet be able
to raise a column of lava equal in height to its elasticity from still
greater depths to the surface of the earth. A continual alterna-
tion of columns of lava and steam in the channels may be very
well conceived, the consequence of which would be an alternate
* On steam and steam engines in the Abhandlungen der Kénigl. technischen
Deputation fiir Gewerbe, part i, p. 344. + Ibid.
{ Supposing the mean temperature of this localtiy = 61° F
_ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 243
ejection of lavas, red hot masses, and clouds of steam, just as
Spallanzani,* Scrope,t and Hoffmann,{ observed on Stromboli.
_ We have now to examine the circumstances under which wa-
ter might find its way to the origin of volcanic action. ‘The diffi-
culties which present themselves when we suppose a direct com-
munication between the sea and the seat of the volcanos, have
already been discussed by Gay-Lussac. We shall make an at-
tempt to solve these difficulties. eh de
If we imagine the sea to have free access by means of fissures
to the seat of the volcanos, the depth of which, according to the
above calculation, may be taken at from 113505 to 126829 feet,
the elastic force of steam at that depth, where t=2282° F., will
be =5310 atmospheres. But the hydrostatic pressure of these
columns of water is only from 3547 to 3963 atmospheres. ‘The
expansive force of steam at that depth in which the temperature
is 2282° I’. is, therefore, greater than the hydrostatic pressure
opposed to it, so that the latter cannot resist it. But since, as
the temperature decreases, this expansive power diminishes more
rapidly than the hydrostatic pressure, there must be a certain
depth and a corresponding temperature in which they will be in
equilibrium. For a constant increase of temperature of 1° F. in
51 feet, this point will be at the depth of 88044 feet below the
surface of the sea, where the temperature is 1754°.5 F.;$ for,
according to the above formula, if ¢ be taken equal to 1754°.5,
* Voyag. t. ii, p. 21. u
t Considerations on Volcanos, &c., p.54. A phenomenon observed by Scrope
during the night in the crater of Stromboli distinctly shows, that, by the force of
aqueous vapor alone, the column of lava is raised. The lava once suddenly dis-
appeared in the depth of the crater; on the contrary, innumerable little columns of
steam appeared at the edges of the mouth of the crater, which arose with a hissing
noise. .‘This lasted for some minutes, when the melted mass rose again from be-
neath, and the phenomena pursued again its ordinary course. Spallanzani re-
marks very justly with a view to this, that the compressed vapors prevented from
being discharged by the sinking lava which had become tenacious on the surface,
will now escape laterally through the fissures in the walls of the edge of the cra-
ter, and in this case the lava cannot be elevated by them. It is not until the lava
has been sufficiently heated and become again liquid, that the vapor can rise again
with the lava, and that the phenomenon can be re-established.
{ Loco eit. p. 9.—D. Curbeto also observed that a dense smoke always followed
the streams of lava which were ejected on the 7th June, 1731, Von Buch in the
Abhandl. d. Berliner Acad. of 1818-1819, p. 77.
§ To simplify the calculation, I have supposed the mean temperature of the
surface = 32° F.
See 4
244 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
E 77028.
e=77028 inches of a column of mercury, or sie =2751 atmos-
: NE 98
gs044-
pheres, and —35- gives the same number. On the other hand,
for a constant increase of temperature of 1° F’. in 57.1 feet it ad-
vances to a depth of 105627 feet below the surface of the sea,
where the corresponding temperature would be 1881°.5 F. ;* for
the same formula gives e= 92435 inches of a column of mercury,
or 3301 atmospheres, when ¢ =1881°.5 , and a gives the
same value. Presupposing the correctness of the premises, these
88044
calculations shew the possibility of columns of lava of ——— =
3
20348 and a = 35209 feet being raised by the power of
steam from the respective depths of 88044 and 105627 feet below
the surface of the sea, whilst there is an uninterrupted communi-
cation between the sea and the volcanic focus. The difficulty
mentioned by Gay-Lussac, that the water would, under its own
pressure, take the gaseous form before reaching the strata, which
are at white heat ; without being able to raise the lavas, to cause
earthquakes, and to support the volcanic phenomena; is conse-
quently also set aside, in so far that the water cannot assume the
form of gas under its own pressure before reaching those depths
and their corresponding temperatures. At depths greater than
88044 or 105627 feet below the surface of the sea, if the commu-
nication with the sea remained free, a reaction would take place
in the column of water. Perhaps the phenomena mentioned in
Chap. xi, on Hot and Mineral Springs, vol. xxiii, of Ed. New
Phil. Journal, and observed by Horner near the Kurile Islands,
as well as the powerful stream of hot steam, observed by Hoff-
mann near Vulcano,t beneath the surface of the sea, probably at
the same place where the crater of the cone formerly thrown up
at this spot was situated, proceeds from a similar volcanic effer-
vescence. In general. the rising of smoke from the sea during the
eruptions of neighboring volcanos is by no means an uncommon
occurrence.{ ‘The reflux and the internal agitation of the sea is
* To simplify the calculation, I have supposed the mean temperature of the
surface = 32° F. + Loco cit. p. 67.
{ D. Curbetto (Von Buch loco cit. p. 78) observed a great quantity of smoke and
flames (?) accompanied with tremendous detonations, rise from the sea near Lan-
cerote, during the volcanic eruption on that island. Fish and pieces of pumice
were seen floating about. Several examples of this sort are cited farther on.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 245
also a forerunner of almost all eruptions, especially of those of
Vesuvius.
But if a reaction should take place in the column of water, yet.
the rising vapor would soon be so far cooled down as to become
liquid again, without the expansive force of the enormous quanti-
ties of vapor formed at the volcanic focus being thereby percepti-
bly diminished. In addition to this, the hydraulic resistance in
the narrow channels, through which the water is admitted, in-
creases very considerably as its velocity becomes greater. But
the column of water, by which the aqueous vapor is cut off from
communication with the surface, acquires very great velocity in
those narrow channels, from the enormously increased elastic
force of the steam, by which the resistance may very easily be
increased to the extent of much more than 1000 atmospheres.
So that, notwithstanding that the expansive force of steam whose
temperature exceeds 1754° or 1881° F., is greater than the hy-
‘drostatic pressure of the column of confining water, yet this re-
sistance may suffice, in the manner just mentioned, to raise a col-
umn of lava, of even a greater height than we have above reck-
oned, to the summit of the volcano. If we may be allowed to
make a comparison with an analogous phenomenon, it may be re-
membered that the touchhole of a cannon, or of a bore-hole in a
mine, does not weaken much the action of the powder, although
the proportion of the diameter of the touchhole to that of the
mouth of the cannon is as 1; 30.* If Perkins’s well known ob-
servation,t that water and steam cannot be forced through nar-
row openings in the red-hot generator of a steam engine, is appli-
cable to the gigantic generator, which formed the volcanic focus :
this might be added to the causes already mentioned, which afford
resistance in the channels through which the waters are admitted.
So long as the communication with the sea remained open, the
volcano could never come to a state of rest, although the forma-
* But even when the touchhole becomes considerably widened by frequent use,
the cannon is still of service, although, indeed, its power is somewhat dimin-
ished. Yet the force with which the powder projects the ball is equal to about
2200 atmospheres, in which the loss occasioned in the absolute expansive force of
the powder by the touchhole, &c., is already allowed for. Muncke in Gehlers
Physikal. Wortembuch, new edition, v. i, p. 712.
t Quarterly Journ. en July to Dec. ‘1827, p. 471, and Annal. de Chim. et de
Phys. xxxvi, p.435. See also Muncke in Poggendorff’s Ann. vol. xiii, p. 244, and
Buff in the same, vol. xxv, p. 591.
oe
+
246 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
tion, or much more the access of new lava from. remote places,
might require a long period before actual volcanic eruptions could
again take place. Of Vesuvius we know that the periods, when
it is entirely free from evolutions of aqueous vapor, are not of
long duration. On Lancerote some of the cones, which were
erupted eighty years ago, still continue to emit steam. The
cones of Jorullo emitted boiling hot vapors, and boiling springs
rose in the neighborhood at the time when Von Humboldt visited
them, that is, forty-four years after the last eruption. Burkart,
on visiting Jorudlo twenty-four years afterwards, saw scarcely
any evolution of watery vapor from these cones; but vapor of
the temperature of between 113° and 129° F. was still rising
from fissures in the neighborhood of the principal crater.* Very
hot vapor continues to the present day to issue in all directions
from the sides of the rocks on Pantellaria, and yet there seem to
have been no eruptions on this island since the commencement
of the historical era.
But it is very probable that the channels by which the water
enters become obstructed from time to time. This may be ef-
fected by the lava itself, which is the more likely, as the chan-
nels may perhaps be very narrow. It may, however, also be
caused by the hot steam. Indeed, Monticelli and Covelli ob-
served, during the eruption of Vesuvius in October of 1821, that
the fragments of lava, when no longer possessed of a great inter-
nal heat, remained separate; but that when they were them-
selves very hot, or traversed by the hot vapors, they united so
firmly together, that they could be separated only by heavy
blows with a hammer on the tenacious surface.{ If the aqueous
vapors of ordinary elasticity and temperature are able to effect
* Aufenthalt and Reisen in Mexico in den Jahren, 1825, bis 1834 Von Burkart.
Stuttgart, 1836, t. i, p. 227 and 228.
t Hoffmann, loco cit. p. 69.
¢ Loco cit. p. 10. It may perhaps be allowed here to mention an observation of
my own, though on a somewhat limited scale. I found that the stones by which
the Kaisersquelle at Aix la Chapelle is closed, and that the canals of the Schwerdtbad
at Burtscheid, which consist of black marble, were converted on the inner side into
a doughy mass by the continued action of the steam. But the temperature of this
steam is only 133° to 167° F. There occur innumerable instances of decomposi-
tions and alterations which rocks-suffer when exposed to the continued effects of
heat and acid watery vapors. See among others Krug von Nidda, p. 274. Burkart,
loco cit. t. 1, p. 194. j
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 247
this, what effect, it may be asked, may not steam of such extra-
ordinary elasticity, and of a temperature equal or even greater
than the melting point of lava, exert upon fusible rocks, solidified
masses of lava, &c., which it meets with far above the volcanic
focus in colder regions? Would not such steam convert the rock
into melted liquid matter? It is, indeed, difficult to conceive a
state of which even Papin’s digestor can give us but a slight idea. _
If the channels become obstructed after a considerable quantity
of water has found its way to the volcanic focus, the aqueous
vapor may attain its maximum elasticity, as the focus will act
like a steam-boiler closed on all sides, that is to say, it will be
able, according to the above calculations, to raise a column of lava
of 88747 feet.
The filtration of a large quantity of water, which, although it
becomes gradually heated as it descends, is prevented by its velo-
city from assuming the temperature of the strata through which
it passes, must tend to cool the volcanic masses. But it will be
cooled to a far greater extent by the considerable formation of
steam. In this manner a gradual solidification of the lava will
take place not only in the crater, but also in the great volcanic
focus itself,* whereby the termination of the volcanic eruptions
is produced.t he contraction of the walls of the voleanic focus
during the reduction of their temperature causes fissures in the
rocks,t by which the waters are admitted in other places. But
in doing so, it may frequently happen that these fissures do not
communicate with the channels by which the water is admitted,
and that the volcanic action is consequently for a time suspended,
but that on its revival the slightest shock is sufficient to break
* Necker, Memoires de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Ge-
néve. Geneéve, t. ii, parti, p. 155.
t Observations made on Veswetus and the Peak of Teneriffe shew, that the
greater part of the ashes is thrown out last, so that their appearance may be con-
sidered as a sign of the approaching termination of the eruption. In proportion as
the elasticity of the vapors diminishes, the substances will be thrown to a less dis-
tance, so that the black rapilli, which are the first ejected after the lava has ceased
to flow, will be cast farther than the white ones. Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i,
p- 245.
{ It is well known that considerable fissures are formed in lava during its cool-
ing, especially when it is on the surface of the earth. The streams of lava in the
country surrounding the Laacher-See, offer many instances of this kind. Hamilton
also mentions great fissures in the lava-streams of Vesuvius. Gilbert’s Annal. t. vi,
p. 23. See also Necker, loco cit.
248 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
through the walls, and thus to reopen the communication.* This
may even be caused by the expansion of the cooled walls of the
focus by the heat communicated to them from all sides; in the
same manner as a small crack ina crucible increases when eXpo-
sed to a red heat.
‘The more the temperature of the lava is reduced by the water
and the generation of the steam, the longer will be the time re-
quired for the refusion of the solidified lava. In this manner a
long period may elapse, as the lava is so very bad a conductor of
heat.t 'The repose and activity of a volcano are, therefore, the
alternate solidification and liquefaction of the lava, and: the inter-
ruption and renewal of the supply of water to the volcanic focus.
If the store of lava in the volcanic focus should at first become
exhausted by repeated discharges, the volcano is entirely reduced
* We may here notice the well-known phenomenon, that among the ejected
masses from a volcano, pieces of rock occur, which neither belong to the substances
composing the edge of the volcanic cone, nor to those found in the vicinity, and
therefore must be derived from masses concealed very deep under the volcano.
Vesuvius particularly, fuinishes remarkable instances of this kind. Such ejected ~
masses, however, are now found much more rarely than formerly on this or other
volcanos, from which it seems to follow, that the channels of the ejections have
been by degrees widened.
+ Monticelli and Covelli, loco cit. p. 15 and 39.
{ Experiments hitherto made shew, that long spaces of time are Tequisite to pro-
duce the strongest effects, viz., the elevation of lava to the greatest height. Von
Humboldt (Reise, &c., t. i, p. 261,) calls our attention to the circumstance, that
long intervals of quiescence seem to characterize the very high volcano. The
smallest of all, Stromboli, is nearly always in activity. The eruptions of Vesuvius
are less frequent, although they are still more so than those of Etna and the Peak
of Teneriffe. During the quiescence of the latter, from 1706 to 1798, sixteen erup-
tions of the former took place. From the colossal summits of the 4ndes, Cotopazt
and Tungurahua, an eruption is observed scarcely once in a century. We may
venture to state, that the frequency of the eruptions of active volcanos is inversely
as their height and mass. After these general remarks, we may mention the cir-
cumstance that large lava streams, namely, such as issue from Etna and Vesuvius,
never flow from the crater itself, and that the quantity of the melted matters is
commonly inversely as the height of the fissures from which the Java issues. But
a lateral eruption of these two last-mentioned volcanos always. terminates by an
emission of the ashes from the crater, that is, from the summit of the mountain
itself. This phenomenon has not been seen on the Peak of Teneriffe these last
hundred years. The crater-was most inactive during the eruption in the year
1798. Its basis did not sink, whilst the greater or less depth of the crater of Vesu-
vius, according to the acute remark of Von Buch, is an almost infallible sign of an
impending fresh eruption. Von Humboldt, p.268. All this shews that the condi-
tions requisite for producing the greatest effect, viz., for producing the highest de-
gree of the increased elasticity of the watery vapors, are not always present.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 249 -
to a state of rest, or at least until it receives a fresh supply of lava
from adistance. If the afflux of water be not interrupted, the
exhalations of vapor may still continue, of which we have already
mentioned several instances.
We may next consider how lava may be elevated from the
depth of a volcanic focus. 'The hypothesis, which ascribes vol-
canic phenomeua to the central heat, supposes that melted matters
exist at a certain depth. In adopting this opinion, we need not
assume that lava is produced by the melting of solid rocks, but
on the contrary, that melted matters have existed since the crea-
tion of the world.* In the annexed diagram AB represents the
\
-
boundary between the solid crust of the earth and the melted
matters in the interior of the earth ; CD represents a wide rent,
exhibiting a communication from the surface to the melted mat-
ters; EF, GH, IK, LM, &c., are narrow rents conducting water
from the sea or subterranean collection of water to the heated in-
terior ;} and F, H, K, M, may be caverns in the solid crust,
formed during the consolidation of the originally fluid matters of
a former period. Under these circumstances it may easily be
conceived, that water penetrating into the above mentioned rents
and caverns is converted into steam, which, by pressing on the
melted matters, causes them to rise through the rent CD. If the
lower opening in the wide rent at D be on the same level as the
whole boundary between the solid rocks and the melted matters,
* On this supposition, we assume that no basalt has been produced by the repeated
melting of any known rock. Leonhard’s Basalt Gebilde, &c. Stuttgart, 1832,
1od,-p. Choma
+ Water will naturally also penetrate into the wide rent, but, inasmuch as it is
not able to fill up the rent, it cannot confine the steam generated beneath, and the
latter will therefore escape.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 32
250 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
small quantities of these only will be raised upwards, for the sur-
face of the melted matters will soon sink below the opening of the
rent at D, and steam will rise. ‘Thus the elevation of a column
of lava to a considerable height by a column of steam will take
place. But if the lower opening of the rent CD descends more
or less below the surface of the melted matters, considerable quan-
tities of these will rise into it before this surface sinks below the
opening. The same may take place if between the opening of
the rent CD and the other rents, (those down which water flows
from the surface, ) ridges of solid rock reach downwards from the
solid crust into the fluid mass.
Such ridges may be viewed as occasioned by gradual solidifica-
tion of the fluid mass from above downwards, for it is well known
that melted matters, if they crystallize by cooling, exhibit on
their under surface considerable inequalities ; and the consolida-
tion of the melted matters in the interior of the earth is assuredly
produced by crystallization.
There is another circumstance which may cause a continuation
of the rent CD into the melted matters. After the rising of the
lava and steam in this rent, the walls of it are cooled by the for-
mation of steam, and by the atmospheric air having a ready access
to the empty channel. ‘Therefore these walls may gradually in-
crease by the solidifying of the melted matters; nay, the rent
may be entirely solidified and obstructed, so that it can only now
be re-opened by the force of steam previous to a new eruption
taking place. If even immense quantities of lava are ejected by
the steam, yet the level of the melted matters in the interior may
be but slightly changed, for in the same manner, as all seas on
the surface of the earth communicate together, so the melted
matter in the interior does the same. However, more or less time
may elapse, before the melted matter which has sunk at one place.
in consequence of ejection, can regain its former level by the
afflux of other melted matters from a distance. Therefore the
repose and activity of a volcano, besides depending on the inter-
ruption and renewal of the supply of water to the volcanic focus,
may also proceed from the alternate obstruction and re-opening of
the lava channel by the melted matters. In the latter case, in
the state of rest, exhalations of steam will take place, inasmuch
as water penetrates continually to the volcanic focus.
Natural History of Volcanos and E arthquakes. 251
But if the afflux of water be interrupted by an obstruction of
the water-ducts, and if none of the above-mentioned causes be
capable of restoring the communication ; or if, during the repose
of the volcano, the lava-ducts become so obstructed by consolida-
tion, that the steam cannot force its way through them, a volcano
may reach a state of perpetual repose. Such causes may have
effected the extinction of the volcanic activity of the numerous
extinct volcanos distributed throughout the globe. If this took
place at a former period, when the thickness of the crust of the
earth was still increasing considerably, in consequence of the
gradual cooling of the earth, and as this process is still going
on, there is no probability that such extinct volcanos will at any
time become again active.
If volcanos, for instance Hina, are considerably elevated above
the surface of the earth, it commonly happens that the walls of _
the lava-channels cannot resist the pressure of the melted matter
in their interior.. In this case rents are formed from which the
lava issues. Such rents are always seen in the direction of the
axis of the volcanic cone,* and their extent is often very consid-
erable. A rent of this description produced by one of the most
violent eruptions of E'tna, viz. that of the 11th May, 1669, was
24 German miles in length, and occupied almost one-third of its
height. Scropet saw distinct traces of it near Nicolosi so late as
the year 1819. Even the rent formed during the eruption in
1794, on the declivity of Vesuvius, towards Torre del Greco,
was, according to Von Buch 3000 feet in length, and according
to Breislak, 237 feet in breadth at its upper edge.
Other volcanos afford instances of the formation of rents and
hills. Thus, during the most violent eruption of Scapiar Jokul
on Iceland, in 1783, a rent eight English miles in length was
formed in a plain at the foot of the mountain. ‘Three craters,
from which immense quantities of lava flowed out, rose in the di-
rection of the rent, and afterwards a fourth appeared below the
sea in the same direction, and at a distance of thirty miles, the
eruption of which formed an island, which afterwards disappeared
again.{ Similar phenomena took place in the same year in the
island of Java. And Von Buch§ informs us, that in the island of
* Von Buch’s Beobachtungen, &c., t. il, p. 137.
+ Considerations, p. 158. t Ibid, p. 154.
§ Leonhard’s Taschenbuch, 1824, t. ii, p. 439.
+
we
(252 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
Lancerote, during the eruption in the year 1730, a rent was formed
above two German miles in length, on which about twelve con-
ical hills rose, whose summits were from 600 to 800 feet in
height.
In like manner. basaltic cones, (also porphyritic and granitic
hills,) are often seen, which are situated in a line, and of which
two or more are connected by rents, which are filled up by ba-
salt. Remarkable phenomena of this kind are seen near Murol
in Auvergne.*
It seems surprising that the same kinds of- lava are not always
ejected from volcanos. Von Bucht distinguished. on Vesuvius
alone, eighteen distinct principal kinds of lava; and old and new
lavas of E'tna also differ in their characters. The lavas of neigh-
boring volcanos are often very different from each other. In like
manner, unstratified rocks of very different natures are often met
with close to each other.{ The Siebengebirge, near Bonn, ofier
remarkable instances of this kind. There, trachytes, trachyte
tuffs, basalts, and basalt tuffs, are met with close to each other.
Basalt-dykes traverse the trachyte and the trachyte tuffs, and vol-
canic scoriz occur on the Roderberg, opposite to the Siebenge-
birge, on the left bank of the Rhine. However different all these
rocks are, yet they seem to lead. to the conclusion that their ori-
gin has been from the very same materials; for, notwithstanding
this difference in their nature, it would be easy to form in the
Siebengebirge a gradation from a white trachyte to a compact
black basalt.¢ On the other hand, there is every reason to sup-
pose that the nature of melted matters in the interior is different
in different places. If, therefore, after the ejection of melted mat-
ters existing in a particular spot, new eruptions will take place
only when such matters flow from remote places towards this
spot, we can hence easily conceive how different lavas may be
ejected at different times. In the Siebengebirge, as well as in
other places where unstratified or volcanic rocks occur, many in-
* Leonhard’s Basalt Gebilde, t.i, p. 408. t Beobachtungen, &c. t. ii, p. 174.
+ The lavas of Vesuvius, of the Solfatara, of Ischia, and of Etna, are quite differ-
ent in their nature.
§ See Leonard Horner, on the Geology of the Environs of Bonn, in the Trans-
actions of the Geological Society, vol. iv, 2d Ser. p.438. Von Buch states that in
several places in the neighborhood of Clermont and Puy de Dome, a transition
from granite into trachyte may be traced, and thus to have the gradation extended
from granite to basalt.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 253
stances are exhibited, which indicate that these rocks are of very
different ages.*
If the activity of a volcano ceases, but the channels by which
the waters enter remain open, the volcanic action may be replaced
by hot springs.t In this case it is easy to conceive that the me-
teoric waters, continually sinking into the hot interior, would
there assume the surrounding high temperature, and rise again to
the surface with a temperature, diminished proportionally to the
decrease of pressure, either through the former lava-channels, or
other fissures more recently opened.{ But if at that depth, the
hydrostatic pressure be greater than the elastic force, which the
water has there acquired, no steam will be generated in the whole
course of the spring; but, in the contrary case, from the lowest
point up to the point where the elastic force becomes greater than
the hydrostatic pressure, the water will escape in the form of a
vapor. However high the temperature of the water may be at
the lowest point of its course, whether in the liquid or in the
gaseous state, yet, when it reaches the surface, it cannot exceed
the boiling point. ‘The reason of springs but seldom attaining
even this maximum, may be either the loss of heat communicated
to the superior strata of the earth, or that they meet with streams
of gas, (carbonic acid, or sulphuretted hydrogen,) which, even if
possessed of very high temperature, will cause a depression of
their temperature, as 1s proved by experiments cited in Chap. II,
of Memoir on Springs, p. 336, vol. xx, Ed. Phil. Journ.¢ The
production of hot springs, according to the last species of volcanic
*L. Horner, |. c. p. 467.
+ Von Buch, loco.cit. p. 65. A remark of some interest, in tracing the connec-
tion of hot springs with volcanic phenomena, is made by Burkart, loco cit. vol. i,
p. 316, viz. that the boiling hot springs in the valley of Pate are situated on a line,
running from east to west, parallel to the general line, of voleanos in Mexico.
{ Von Humboldt is also of opinion, Reise, &c. t. i, p. 187 and 188, that the va-
por which rises from the ‘“ Varices del Pico” as they are called, and from the rents
in the crater of Teneriffe; is nothing but atmospherical water which has penetrated
by infiltration.
§ According to M. Arago, the hottest spring in Europe unconnected with mod-
ern volcanic action is that of Chaudesaigues in Auvergne, whose temperature he
quotes at 176° Fah. Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, 1836. The next hot-
test to this seems to he Thuez, in the Pyrenees, whose temperature is, according to
Professor Forbes, 1719.5 Fah. Phil. Trans. t. ii, p. 603, for 1826. Forbes believes,
p- 610, the baths of Vero, near Naples, the hottest spring on the continent of Eu-
rope, which is connected with modern volcanic action, the temperature being
182°.2 F.
254 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
action, may, however, be thus imagined; that the water which
descends to the volcanic focus is there converted into steam,
which, rising through fissures into higher regions, meets with at-
mospheric waters which it warms, and with them returns to the
surface.* The course of hot springs produced in this mauner
can, therefore, occur only at inconsiderable depths below the sur-
face. Lastly, it may happen that the lava last raised did not es-
cape from the crater or its lateral openings, but became solid on
its way onwards, and thus stopped up the channels. If, in this —
case, water should descend through rents into this still extremely
hot lava, hot springs would also thus be produced, supposing a
communication between these and other rents which lead to the
surface at a lower level; but these springs will decrease in tem-
perature by degrees as the lava gradually cools, till they reach
that degree which naturally belongs to the place where the lava
is situated. However, we have already proved by experiments
formerly mentioned, and calculations founded upon them, that, if
such masses of heated lava be of considerable extent, a very long
period may elapse before the decrease in the temperature of the
springs will be even perceptible.t On the other hand, there are
examples of a very rapid decrease in the temperature of hot
springs in the neighborhood of voleanos recently become extinct.
Thus, the temperature of the hot springs on Jorullo decreased
A0°.5 EF. in twenty four years, between the visits of Von Hum-
boldt and Burkart.{ The temperature of the mixture of gases
which issues from the rents in the Pass of Quindiu, near the Mo-
ral, in the Quebrada del Azufral, decreased from 1801 to 1827,
according to the observations of Von Humboldt and Boussingault,
from 118° to 66°.4.$. If, instead of this gas, a mineral spring had
flowed at this place, it would, doubtless, have suffered a similar
diminution of temperature. Boussingault mentions, on the other
hand, that, in a period of twenty-three years, the temperature of
* Perhaps the numerous hot mineral springs which rise at the foot of the still
smoking mass of rocks on Pantellaria, as well as the numerous hot sulphureous
springs in the vicinity of Sciacca, in Sicily, have a similar origin, Hoffmann, I. ec.
+ Die vulkanischen Mineralquellen, &c. p. 150.—I have calculated, that, under
the circumstances there mentioned, a mass of melting basalt, equal in size to one-
third of the Donnersberg, near Milleschau, in Bohemia, would be sufficient to have
heated all the water which has issued from the whole number of springs at Carls-
bad since the time of Adam. Fe
¢ Burkart, loco cit. t. i, p. 226. § Poggendorff’s Annal. t. xviii, p. 353.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 255
the hot springs of Mariana and Las Trincheras rose several de-
srees. According to the observations of Hamilton, Della Torre,
Abbé Soulavie, Von Humboldt, and Forbes, the hot spring named
La Pisciarella, which rises near Naples, from the exterior of the
cone of the Solfatara; is subject to extraordinary alternations in
its temperature, from 101° F. to 199.094 F.* But even in very
short periods striking differences are sometimes found. ‘Thus
Forster} asserts, that in the neighborhood of Tanna, a volcano
on one of the New Hebrides, the hot springs vary several degrees
in temperature from one day to the other.
There is not, perhaps, a more striking example of intimate con-
nection existing between volcanic phenomena and hot-springs
than in Iceland., As the volcanic eruptions are there confined to
the district of the trachyte formation, so also are the principal
mineral springs only found in this formation ;{ from which it
seems natural to infer, that it is one and the same process acting
in both cases, but in a different manner.$
The hot springs in this voleanic island confirm Krug Von Nid-
da’s system of classing thermal springs—namely, 1. such as are
constantly bubbling and boiling up—permanent thermals ; 2.
those in which this ebullition only takes place at particular peri-
ods, and which are perfectly tranquil during the remaining time
—intermitting thermals ; and, 3. those whose surface is always
undisturbed, and in which no bubbling or boiling ever takes
place. The springs of the first class always have a temperature
at the surface equal to that of boiling water under the usual at-
mospheric pressure. ‘Those of the second class only reach the
boiling point during their temporary ebullition, and lose consid-
erably in temperature during their period of rest. The springs of
the third class never reach the boiling point of water.
The most famous of the intermittent springs is the Great Gey-
ser. At the time when Krug Von Nidda visited it, it presented
two different kinds. of eruption. 'The smaller ones were repeated
regularly every two hours; and the water was thrown only from
fifteen to twenty feet high. The greater ones succeeded each
* Forbes, loco cit. p. 611. + Journ. de Phys. 1779, p. 434.
} All the hot springs of Mezico also rise out of trachyte and dolerite rocks. Burk-
art, p- 363.
§ Krug Von Nidda on the mineral springs of Iceland, p. 272, in KKarsten’s Archiv.
t. ix, p: 247, and in Jameson’s Phil. Jour. vol. xxii, p. 90 and 220.
256". Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
other at intervals of from twenty-four to thirty hours; in these
cases, the masses of steam ascended to the clouds, and the water
spouted to a height of ninety feet. For two hours after, one of
the smaller eruptions, during which time there were no traces of
action, and only thin clouds of steam were formed at the surface, -
the temperature of the water was 194° F., which was reduced
still lower by the evaporation. After a dull rumbling noise
within, the water suddenly began to boil up again, the basin was
filled till it flowed over, immense bubbles of steam burst from
the funnel-shaped opening, and projected the water to.a height
of about twenty feet. Immediately after the eruption, when
tranquillity was completely restored, the water was at the boiling
point, but its temperature soon fell below that degree.
The Strokr, the eruptions of which almost exceed in gran-
deur those of the Great Geyser, has this peculiarity, that it is at
the same time a permanent and an intermittent thermal spring.
It shows itself to be permanent by its incessant ebullition, and
intermittent by the tremendous eruptions which seem to be re-
peated at intervals of from two to three days.
No doubt can be entertained respecting the nature a the
agent by which the waters of the Geyser, the Strokr, and other
less considerable springs, are thrown to such an immense height.
It is, as in volcanos, a gaseous body, principally aqueous vapor.
We may, therefore, very fairly agree with Krug Von Nidda,
and consider volcanos in the same light as intermittent springs,
with this difference only, that instead of water they throw out
melted matters.
_ He takes it for granted that these hot springs derive their tem-
perature from aqueous vapors rising from below. When these
vapors are able to rise freely ina continued column, the water at
the different depths must have a constant temperature, equal to
that at which water would boil under the pressure existing at
the respective depths. Hence the constant ebullition of the per-
manent springs, and their boiling heat. If, on the other hand,
the vapors be prevented, by the complicated windings of its
channels, from rising to the surface; if, for example, they be ar-
rested in caverns, the temperature in the upper layers of water
must necessarily sink, because a large quantity of it is lost by
evaporation at the surface, which cannot be replaced from below.
And any circulation of the layers of water at different tempera-
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 257
tures, by reason of their unequal specific gravities, seems to be
very much interrupted by the narrowness and sinuosity of the
passage. The intermitting springs of Iceland are probably
caused by the existence of caverns, in which the vapor is re-
tained by the pressure of the column of water in the channel
which leads to the surface. Here this vapor collects, and presses
the water in the cavern downwards until its elastic force becomes
sufficiently great to effect a passage through the column of water
which confines it. The violent escape of the vapor causes the
thunder-like subterranean sound, and the trembling of the earth,
which precede each eruption. ‘The vapors do not appear at the
surface till they have heated the water to their own tempera-
ture. When so much vapor has escaped that the expansive
force of that which remains has become less than the pressure
of the confining column of water, tranquillity is restored, and
this lasts until such a quantity of vapor is again collected as to
produce a fresh eruption. ‘The spouting of the spring is, there-
fore, repeated at intervals, depending upon the capacity of the
cavern, the height of the column of water, and the heat gene-
rated below.*
The two distinct classes of eruption in the Geyser, which we
have already mentioned, seem to be attributable to two different
cavities. A smaller cavity fills quicker, and, therefore, empties
itself more frequently ; a larger one fills slower, empties itself
seldomer, but with greater violence. But the playing of the
Geyser, the Strokr, and some others, is subject to very great va-
* The eruptions of the Geyser and the Strokr, as observed by Krug Von Nidda,
agree exactly with his explanation of the action of the intermitting springs of
Iceland. A thick column of smoke suddenly burst out of the latter, and rose to the
clouds. The water was hurled with terrific violence out of the crater, and mixed
like a fine mist with the rest of the column to a considerable height. From time
to time, thin streams of water were seen shooting in a vertical or oblique direc-
tion through the column of smoke, sometimes rising to a height of a hundred feet
and upwards. Large stones, which had been previously thrown in, were flung
almost out of sight, and many so perfectly vertically that they fell down again
into the crater, and were again thrown up into the air, like a juggler’s ball. The
whole of the water was thrown out at the beginning ; and afterwards, the column
which ascended from the opening, was composed only of steam, which rushed out
with a whistling and hissing noise, and rose with incredible velocity into the
clouds. It continued for three quarters of an hour in this state of activity. It
then again became quiescent, except that the water, deep in the tube, continued,
as usual, to boil violently.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 33
Fa
258 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
riations. Channels may become stopped by the incrusting prop-
erty of the water. During the frequent shocks which accom-
pany the greater eruptions, some cavities may fall in, and be
choked up, and new ones formed. 'The greatest changes, how-
ever, are caused by the earthquakes, which from time to time
visit the island. 'Thus, during the earthquake of 1789, the
most important spring in the country, next to the Geyser, disap-
peared, and at present only steam is evolved from its mouth,
while the Strokr, which before this was but an inconsiderable
spring, increased to such an extent, that it is now considered to
rival the Geyser in importance. It may be observed, that the
eruptions of the Strokr have no connection whatever with those
of the G'reat Geyser. During the long eruption of the former,
the latter remained quiet, and wce versa. In general, each of
these numerous hot springs, which are here crowded together
in a very small compass, seems to be totally independent of each
other. This might also be inferred from the striking difference
in their levels.
It seems probable from the situation of the celebrated hot
springs of Iceland, (of which more than fifty may be counted in
a space of a few acres, at the foot of a rock about 300 feet high,
which leans against a chain of higher rocks ;) from the numerous
fissures in these rocks, which are composed of alternate layers of
tuffas, of slag-streams, and slag-conglomerates, as well as from
the fact, that the springs are confined exclusively to the lower
region, which extends along the foot of the hill, whilst on its
sides and summit are found only gaseous exhalations (aqueous
vapor and sulphureted hydrogen gas;) that these springs are
supplied from the meteoric waters of the neighboring hills, and
that, being originally cold, they are indebted for their high tem-
perature solely to the hot vapors which they receive from below.
The hot springs in Iceland seem, therefore, to be produced in the
manner described at page 253. -
Lastly, If the permanent obstruction of the ie and the water
channels has taken place, of course no hot springs can exist, or
at least they can only flow during the cooling of the lava last
ejected and solidified. ‘This seems to have been the case in the
voleanic district of the Siebengebirge, the Laacher See, and the
Hifel, as in these places no hot springs, with the exception of
the baths of Bertrich, are to be met with; although in the two
%
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 259
latter districts, the number of thermal springs whose tempera-
ture exceeds that of the soil at the most by a few degrees, are
enormous, and considerable exhalations of carbonic gas. give
evidence of former galvanic action. It may, however, be con-
jectured, with some probability, that in the vicinity of the
Laacher See, and in the Eifel, springs may have existed, whose
duration depended on the cooling of the masses of lava. Sim-
ilar circumstances seem to have occurred in Awvergne and Vi-
varais, although the hot springs, which are not uncommon in
those countries, show that many of the former volcanic channels
are still unobstructed. ie
The examination of deposits obviously formed from springs
which existed at a former time, may often present an indication
of their temperature. ‘Thus, on the volcanic tongue of land,
called the Sneefield-Syssel, in Iceland, we find none of the hot
mineral. springs which are so numerous in other parts of the
island, and which are distinguished by their holding silica in so-
lution, and exhaling sulphureted hydrogen gas. But, in former
times they existed here, for in many places we find siliceous in-
crustations in the form of tuffas and sinters. One cold spring,
which is now flowing, has certainly taken the place of a hot
siliceous spring, for its present deposits are only calcareous, and
quite distinct from the older incrustations.* ‘The circumstance
that arragonite is deposited from hot springs, calcareous spar,
on the other hand, from cold ones, gives us also an indication
of this kind. Since G. Rose} pointed out that the former is
only deposited from a hot solution of carbonate of lime, the
occurrence of arragonite in any deposit, leads us to infer with
certainty, that these deposits owe their origin to a hot spring.
If, on the contrary, we find calcareous spar in any deposit, we
may infer with equal certainty, that it. was produced by a
cold spring. |
If the melted nucleus of the earth be the common seat of the
volcanic activity of the whole earth, subterranean communica-
* K. vy. Nidda, loco cit. p. 282. t Poggendorff’s Annal. t. xl. p. 353.
t The following remark may not be entirely superfluous, viz. according to G.
Rose, arragonite is formed in a higher temperature only in the moist way, but
calcareous spar is formed in the dry way. Thus carbonate of lime crystallizes
from a state of fusion under strong pressure only in the form of calcareous spar.
Arragonite, exposed to a slight red heat, is easily converted into calcareous spar.
260 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
tions subsist between all volcanos. The existence of such com-
munications cannot be doubted. Immediately after the earth-
quake which overthrew Caraccas, there followed the great
eruption of the volcano of St. Vincent, and the earth no longer
trembled at Venezuela. When the dense, black column of
smoke, which, in the year of 1797, had issued for several
months from the voleano near that city, disappeared, the cities
of Riobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga, 280 English miles dis-
tant, were at the same hour destroyed by a violent shock.*
Other instances of this kind will be mentioned afterwards.
Andrea Lorenzo Curbeto’s description of the great volcanic
eruption in the island of Lancerote, for which we are indebted
to Von Buch,t also shows how, for six. years, from 1730 to 1736,
the gaseous fluids in the interior found new vents in all direc-
tions, sometimes here and sometimes there, and yet were not ca-
pable of preserving a single one permanently open. Sometimes
two or three openings were formed at once, with a tremendous
crash, accompanied with flames,(?) which alarmed the whole
island. At one time, three apertures united suddenly into one
very high cone ; lava flowed out below and reached the sea. If,
says that acute geologist, the unhappy Lancerote had, like Tene-
riffe, possessed a volcano, perhaps not one of those numerous
cones would have been thrown up, and probably not a single
village would have been destroyed.{ He thinks it highly prob-
able that this eruption took place entirely from one great rent.
* Von Humboldt Reise, t. 1. p. 498. t Loco cit.
} Von Buch supposes that only the gaseous matters, but not solid substances,
viz. lavas, slags, lapilli, and ashes, proceed from the focus of the volcanic phe-
nomena. He observes that these masses always show themselves to be of a na-
ture corresponding to the rocks out of which they are ejected.
We must not forget that Von Buch was at that time still attached to Davy’s hy-
pothesis, which ascribes voleanic phenomena to the combustion of the metals of
the alkalies and earths, and which does not require us to suppose the origin of
volcanic action to lie at any great depth. It is indeed, very different, according
to the hypothesis which we are endeavoring to defend. In this, the seat of the
volcanic actions is supposed to be identical with the place where the elastic forces
producing them act. The connection between the lavas, and the slags, lapilli,
and ashes resulting from them, and the rocks at the surface, would only then
show that the same material which composed the rocks, raised at a former period,
and now spread over the surface, has also served for the production of the more
recent volcanic formations. But it still remains to be taken into consideration,
that aqueous vapor, generated in the lowest point of the volcanic focus, possessing
its maximum of elasticity, and heated to the melting point of lava, or above it, is
capable, as we have already said, without the assistance of any other power, of
converting fusible rocks into a state of hydro-ignecus fusion.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 261
During the violent eruption in the low country of Skaptar
Jokul in Iceland, in 1783, which suddenly brought up the most
enormous masses to the surface, the lava burst forth at three dif-
ferent points, more than two geographical miles distant from one
another, and spread over asurface in the plain,* which is suppo-
sed to equal in extent sixty geographical square miles.- ‘This
mass is so considerable as to surpass in magnitude that of Mont
Blanc.} Under almost the whole of Iceland, there is a volcanic
furnace, which communicates by many apertures with the sur-
face. 'The masses of melted matter, therefore, seek an outlet at
various points, and many places are mentioned, at which the lava
has only been ejected once within historical times. ‘The vol-
canic phenomena are not confined to the island alone, they also
break through in the neighboring sea. In January, 1783, such
an irruption took place in the sea, eight geographical miles from
Cape Reikianes, several islands were raised, and great quantities
of pumice and light slags were floated on the coast. In June,
the whole island was shaken by earthquakes. ‘The submarine
eruption discontinued, and at a distance of fifty geographical
miles, the grand eruption of Skaptar Jokul commenced. On
the 13th June, 1830, a similar submarine eruption was re-
peated.t * a
- The immense masses of lava ejected from a single volcano,
-and the enormous extent in which volcanic actions are felt at
the same time, scarcely leave room to doubt that every active
voleano is in immediate communication with the whole melted
matter in the interior. In this manner alone can it be conceived,
how, for instance, the masses ejected at different times from
Vesuvius vastly exceed the whole bulk of the mountain,$ while
the latter seems upon the whole to undergo no diminution, for
* See Om Tordbranden paa Island i Aaret 1733, ved Student Soemund Mag
nussen. Kort beskrivelse over den eye Vulkans, Ildsprudning i Vester Sképte-
fells Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783 of Magnus Stephen sen. Kidbenhavn 1785.
Sir G. Makenzie’s Travels in Iceland. Ganlieb’s Island, 1819, p. 64. Th.
Gliemann geogr. Beschreibung von Island, 1824, p. 107. Pennant le Nord de
Globe, t. i.
t Barghaus Almanac for 1838, p. 75.
t Journ. de Géologie, t. i.
§ This was remarked even by the ancients; and Seneca, Letter 79, after stating
the difficulty, solves it by remarking, that the fire of the volcano, “in ipso monte
non alimentum habet, sed viam.’’—Daubeny on Volcanos, p. 155.
4
a
?
262 | Natural History of Volcanos and Harthquakes.
the falling in of its cone at:one period, appears to be balanced
by the Scoumilatinnd of ashes at another.
If arent, reaching from the surface to the melted matters in
the interior, be of great length, but not open throughout its
whole extent, the first eruption will take place where there is
the least resistance.
If this channel become obstructed, the volcanic fire will seek
another vent.* Violent concussions may open new fissures} and.
close old ones, by which frequent changes may be produced in
the channels of the lava and water. Fissures obstructed by lava
are closed so firmly as to be incapable of being re-opened ; new
ones, therefore, are formed. Thus it is, at least, if a volcano
produce eruptions from its sides. If it happen that a wide and
lasting vent. be formed, all partial- workings in the neighborhood
will cease. A similar combination, although on a somewhat
limited scale, is presented by groups of mineral springs, espe-
cially of hot springs. In such groups, new channels are seen to
open, new springs to rise, and old ones to close. 'The only dif-
ference is, that, as these changes are not accompanied with any
violent action, as is the case with volcanos, they require a preater
length of time for their accomplishment.
We have, in the preceding inquiries, as yet only supposed the
admission of water from the sea.- But this does not seem always
to be the case, even in volcanos situated near the sea. Accord-
ing to Hamilton,t the water of the springs and wells of Torre
del Greco diminished so much a few days before the great erup-
tion of Vesuvius, on the 15th June, 1794, that the corn mills at
the principal spring were nearly stopped, and it was daily neces-
sary to lengthen the ropes in the wells, in order to reach the
water. Some wells dried quite up, and on the morning of the
12th June, at Resina, a subterranean rumbling noise was heard.
after a heavy rain. Monticelli and Covelli$ relate that, before
* Thus the interior of the crater of the Peak of Teneriffe, shows it to be a vol-
eano, which for thousands of years has thrown out fire only from its sides. V.
Humboldt, Reise, t. i. p. 195. \
+ According to he inhabitants of New Andalusia, the soil in various districts in
their province has become more and more arid, in consequence of the frequent
earthquakes with which they are visited from time to time.—V. Humboldt, Reise,
teil. peek. { Phil. Trans. for 1795, p. 79.
§ Loco cit. pp. 12 and 63. See also Monticelli, in Leonard’s Taschenbuch fiir
die gesammte Mineralogie, vol. xiv, p. 87.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 263
the great eruption of this volcano in 1822, at the beginning of
January, the springs at Resina, St. Jorio, and particularly in the
places in the immediate vicinity of Veswvius, diminished percep-
tibly.* Monticelli observed similar phenomena before the erup-
tion in 1813, and he thinks that, in general, they are a sure sign
of one. . It is hardly to be doubted that rents were opened by
the earthquakes, through which the water descended to greater
depths, accumulating, perhaps, in great caverns, and from thence
found its way to the source of the volcanic action.
We find considerable accumulations of water in all mountains
traversed by numerous fissures. We will only now mention the
western declivity of the V'ewtoburger Wald, in which such con-
siderable rivers have their source; the Jura mountains; and the
Gemmt.~ ‘The volcanic inundations,-of which Von Humboldt
gives such extraordiuary examples,{ are an additional evidence of
the existence of such great subterranean accumulations of water,
in the vicinity of volcanos. Lastly, we have, further, examples
of voleanos coming into action after violent storms of rain; for
instance, the MMer-Api, in Java.§ In the Andes of Quito, the
Indians imagine they have observed, that the quanity of percola-
ting snow-water increases the activity of volcanos.|| Can it, then,
any longer be doubted, that the proximity of the ocean is by no
-* The same was observed twenty three days before the earthquake in Calabria ;
and also in the Peak of Teneriffe,in 1706. Von Humboldt, Relat. Hist. t.1. p-.
393. In Iceland, this phenomenon was observed before the terrible eruption of
Skaptar Jokul, in 1784. In general, in volcanic districts, the porous and much
fissured rocks swallow up the rain-water, and carry it down to very great depths.
Von Humboldt gives this as the cause of the extreme aridity which reigns in most
of the Canary Islands, notwithstanding the height of the mountains, and the mass
of clouds which travellers always see collected over this Archipelago. Reise,
seeds lla :
t+ Von Humboldt (Reise, t. iii, p. 229) mentions several rivers which lose them-
selves in the gneiss rocks. When these gneiss mountains were upraised, consid-
erable caverns may have been formed, which were afterwards filled with water.
$ Annal. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxvii, p. 128. This circumstance, however,
must be considered, that the strong heat over the active volcano dilates the atmos-
phere, and produces a rising stream of air. The consequence of that is an influx
of air from al} sides. But this air is accompanied with moisture, which, rising
with it, is condensed in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and falls down in
showers. Therefore, an active volcano affords not only water, which immediately
issues from its interior, but it also deprives all the environs of water. Du Carta sur
les inondat. Volcaniques. Journ. de Physique, t. xx, p. 103.
§ Memoir of the Conquest of Java. London, 1815, p. 40
|| Von Humboldt’s Reise, t. i, p. 263.
264 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
means a necessary condition in the production of volcanic phe-
nomena? But all that has been said respecting the channels by
which the sea-water is admitted to the volcanic focus, holds
equally good with respect to those admitting springs or rain-wa-
ter; only with this difference, that, in the more lofty volcanos of
America, the volcanic focus may be imagined much higher, and
yet columns of water of considerable pressure will not be want-
ing, provided those accumulations of water be siete at a great
height in the mountains.
The same power by which masses of lava are forced up, some- -
times so as to reach the surface and flow over it, or in other cases
becoming solidified in their channels, will also raise whole moun-
tains. These elevations may take place through rents of more
or less considerable width ; and partly form dykes, or mountains
of some magnitude ; or raise up or break through the upper strata
of the earth. Thus Von Buch* informs us that on the island of
Lancerote, during an eruption in 1730, a rent was formed above
two German miles in length, on which about twelve conical hills
had risen, whose summits were from 6U0 to 800 feet in height.
In like manner basaltic cones (also even porphyritic and granitic
hills) are situated in a line, and of which two or more are con-
nected by rents, which are filled up by basalt. Remarkable phe-
nomena of the kind are seen near Mural in Auvergne.t+
We have abundance of proofs of the rising of masses of yes
or at least semifluid matter,{ out of the interior of the earth,
the filling up of dykes with compact crystalline rocks, in all of
which, as in the rocks of undoubted volcanic origin, felspar forms
a necessary and principal ingredient.¢ We find these rocks in
contact with all the stratified and superficial formations, even
with those which are going on at the present day. But similar
masses, which have evidently flowed in streams from craters, are
* Leonhard’s Taschenbuch, 1824, Abth. ii, p. 439.
+ Leonhard die Basalt Gebilde, t.i, p. 408.
+ Cones of basalt, trachyte, and phonolite, whose inclination is often very con-
siderable, cannot have risen in such a thin liquid state, as that in which lava issues
from volcanos; for, according to the observations of Elie de Beaumont, already
mentioned, lava streams having an inclination of only 6° cannot form a continuous
mass. See on this subject, Leonhard, loco cit. t.1, p. 417, &c.
§ Felspar may certainly be considered as a dhursereikue sign of an igneous ori-
gin in rocks, as this mineral is never found in rocks, in the formation of which
the action er voleanic power can be proved to have been wholly excluded.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 265
also. found in positions which shew that they must have risen
from the interior of the earth, after the formation of the stratified
rocks, and found their way into fissures, which in many cases do
not reach the surface. Thus, granite, syenite, trachyte, the por-
phyries, the greenstone, and so on, up to the basalts, form dykes
in the stratified rocks as well as in one another. ‘They also not
unfrequently appear in beds between the strata of the Neptunian
rocks. Granites have been forced up to the surface at the most
widely different periods; we find them most commonly in clay-
slate, and in the greywacke formation, in gneiss and in mica-
slate, and they are sometimes connected with other more consid-
erable masses of granite. Even after the formation of the oolitic
and chalk groups, they have been ejected; but there are no
granitic dykes described as intersecting these rocks. ‘The stra-
tified rocks are usually altered in the immediate vicinity of masses
or dykes of granite; and their stratification becomes indistinct
and confused. The porphyries, like the granites, exist as inde-
pendent formations; but these are not so frequent or so exten-
sive, and are more frequently in contact with more recent stra-
tified formations than the granites. The trap rocks traverse all
the stratified rocks from the gneiss and greywacke group, at least
to the oolites inclusively. The basalts are found in all forma-
tions, from the transition and secondary rocks to the lignite inclu-
sively, nay, in the newest formations.* }
In general, some alteration in the adjacent rock and some new
mineral productions,t are found where such masses have been
forced up, and large and small fragments of the rock are not un-
commonly found firmly imbedded in the latter. We may here,
by way of example, mention the conversion of compact limestones
into marble, exactly as Hall changed limestones by heating them
in close vessels or under pressure ; and again, the disappearance
of the black color and the bitumen in the coal sandstone.
* Leonhard’s Basalt Gebilde, t. i1, p.6, &c.
t The adjacent rock, heated by the melting mass, might, by their both cooling
very slowly together, give rise to the production of crystalline substances (as horn-
blende, felspar, mica, by the contact of granite with clay-slate.) But the rock
would probably also take up substances from the melting mass (alkalies) which
would serve as a flux.
¢ The combustion of beds of brown coal seems also to have been effected by
igneous fluid masses which had risen from the interior. Thus the remains of such
combustions always occur in Bohemia, according to Dr. Reuss, (NOggerath Ausflug
Vol. xxxv1, No. 1.—April—July, 1839. 34
266 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
The conglomerates which frequently surround these volcanic
masses, and which are not confined to the basalts and trachytes,
but are also found accompanying the greenstones, porphyries, and
granites, Von Buch considers to be produced by the friction of the
rising matter. against the rock; and their existence is a further
proof of the pyrogenetic origin of these masses. .
Other phenomena lead us also to infer that crystalline rocks
have risen in a melted state. If, for instance, such rocks are sep-
arated by rents, crystals are often found in them, broken through
the middle, and both pieces are imbedded in the separated rocks.
Thus, my friend Prof. Noggerath has observed, that many of the
larger crystals of glassy felspar in the trachyte of the Drachenfels
are broken through in this manner, and that the one piece is dis-
placed several lines from the other. He observed the same phe-
nomenon more frequently in the porphyritic granite near Grop-
Jersgrin in the Fichtelgebirge.* The olivine in the basalt of
Burzet in Vivarais, presents the same appearance, according to
Scrope,t and the separated portions of crystals exactly correspond.
Faujas observed among the basalts of the bridge of Bridon adja-
cent columns, with included fragments of granite broken through,
in consequence of the formation of the columns. All these phe-
nomena prove that these crystalline rocks must have been still
soft, after the imbedded crystals had arrived at the stage of per-
fect solidification, and that the breaking of the crystals is a con-
sequence of cooling.
The occurrence of arragonite in the fissures and cavities of*
crystalline rocks, basalt, for instance, seems also, according to the
above-mentioned experiments of G. Rose, to prove, that these
rocks were at least still hot, when cold solutions of carbonate of
lime penetrated into the fissures.
Lastly, instances of the formation of dykes of volcanic matter
at the present day, offer a further proof, if further proof be necces-
sary, of their igneous origin, and the accounts given of the recent
eruptions at Ponohohoa in Owhyhee,{ establish the possibility of
eruptions through rents.
nach Bohmen. Bonn. 1838, p.171,) in the neighborhood of basalts, and these phe-
nomena are so enormous, that they cannot be considered as caused by accidental
combustion.
* Noggerath loco cit. p. 71. See also Goldfuss and Bischof, Physikalisch-statis-
tische Beschreibung des Fichtelbirges, t. ii, p. 114.
t Consider. p. 136. } Poggendorff’s Annal. t, ix, p. 141.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 267
If alterations in the adjacent rocks, or other phenomena already
mentioned, are not observed, we may infer that the elevations
have taken place in a solid state. Notwithstanding this solidity,
the highly elastic and exceedingly hot vapors may certainly cause
considerable chemical alterations in the elevated masses, as well
as in the adjacent rocks. |
It is impossible to determine any regular order of succession in
the elevation of the pyrogenetic rocks. ‘They occur in every pe-
riod of the stratified formations. Older ones have very commonly
received those of more recent date into their fissures. ‘There
scarcely exists a single unstratified rock which is not somewhere
to be found filling up dykes in granite. Basalt-dykes traverse
many unstratified rocks, such as trachyte, conglomerate, and oth-
ers. In Iceland, tufa is found alternating with slaggy lava; and
dykes of a porous trachytic rock traverse the tufa of Stromboli
and Vulcanello in the Lipari Islands, &c.*
Masses of melted matter will break through the bottom of the
sea more easily, because resistance is there the least considerable.
To this may be ascribed the frequent elevation of islands from
the bottom of the sea, not only in historical times, but also at the
present day, and under the eyes of observers, in whom the ut-
most confidence may be placed. 'The most extraordinary and
instructive island in this respect is Santorin, because it unites
the whole history of volcanic islands and islands of elevation. A
more beautiful, regular; and perfect crater or elevation.is not to be
found, than in the space which is almost entirely surrounded by
the inner circle of Santorin (which encompasses more than one-
half of it) and by its continuation as exhibited in the islands of
Therasia and. Aspronisi.| Here it is probable that the clay-slate
was broken through and upraised. These islands, therefore, form
an inseparable whole, and cannot have been raised one after an-
other. On the other hand, history and tradition inform us, that
nature has never ceased in its endeavors to create a volcano in the
centre of this crater of elevation. One hundred and eighty four
years before the birth of Christ, the Island of Hiera (now called
* De la Beche, Handbuch der Geognosie Von v. Dechen. Berlin, 1832. Absch-
nitt x1.
+ Von Buch in Poggendorf’s Annal. v. x, p. 172. See the drawing in his splen-
did atlas, and the sketch in these Annal. v. xxiv, p. 1.
268 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
Palaia Kameni*) was formed, and since that,.as it seems, many
other rocks have been raised in its centre. In 1427, this island
was increased. In 1573, the Little Kameni was thrown up, ex-
actly in the centre of the basin, accompanied with an ejection of
steam and pumice; and between 1707 and 1709, was raised the
New Kameni, which still continues to send forth sulphurous va-
pors.t Lastly, in the present moment another new island seems
to be about to appear to the east of Kameni, about 900 feet from
the coast of Santorin, according to the report of a naval officer of
Santorin,t (Nauplia, 4th December, 1834.) The inhabitants of
the island assert, that thirty years ago this bank lay at the depth
of 90 feet; in 1820, it was only 60 feet below the surface; and
at present the sea is only 20 feet deep over it. According to later
accounts given in the public journals, this bank continues to rise
so rapidly, that if it meet with no interruption in its progress, it
will, by the year 1840, be able to lay claim to the denomination
of an island. In the year 1713, it is said an island arose among
the small islands near Venice, accompanied with flames, smoke,
and the most vehement shocks. 'This phenomenon, which con-
tinued four weeks, drove away the inhabitants from the adjacent
islands. After about two years a similar occurrence was repeated,
and a second island was thrown up under the same circumstances.
These two islands are now, as the neighboring ones, inhabited
and cultivated.$
From Leop. Von Buch’s instructive exposition of the nature of
voleanic phenomena,|| which, together with the careful works of
Von Hoff, contain a critical compilation of all cases yet known of
the production of new mountains and islands by volcanic action,
we will borrow only the following examples of recent date. The
first I shall mention is the island of Sabrina, near St. Miguel, in
the Azores, which is celebrated for the many islands that have
* Von Hoff, Geschichte der natiirlichen Veranderungen der Erdoberfliche, t. ii,
p- 137. For an account of some crater-shaped islands, see Poggendorff’s Annal.
yv. xxiv, p. 101.
t See the account of Father Bourignon in Raspe’s specimen, &c. de novis a mare
natis insulis, 1763, p. 48.
} Allgemeines Organ fiir Handel und Gewerbe,&c. No, 23. 1835; and Jame-
son’s Phil. Journal, vol. xxi, p. 175.
§ Justi’s Geschichte des Erdk6rpers, p. 135.
|| Poggendorff’s Ann. v. x, p.1 and following; p. 169, 345, and 514 and fol-
lowing.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 269
attempted to rise in its vicinity, and which made its appearance
on the 13th or 15th June, 1811; it began to disappear in Octo-
ber, and towards the end of February, 1812, steam was only oc-
casionally seen to rise out of the sea at the spot where the island
was formerly seen.* Secondly, The rising of a new island near
Unalaschka, in May, 1796, which not only remained, but, up to
1806, had increased in circumference, as well as the peak in
height. It required six hours to row round it, and rather more
than five hours to ascend in a direct line from the shore to the
summit of the peak.t The creation of both these islands was
preceded by violent earthquakes, and columns of smoke, which
ascended from the sea, whilst stones were thrown to a great dis-
tance. Of Sabrina this surprising circumstance is related—that
the stones, on leaving the sea, were black, but suddenly became
red hot when they emerged from the columns of smoke. 'Tillard
found on this island the skeleton of a shark so calcined, that the
bones fell to powder on lifting it up. Of the other island it is
only said, that during the night fire rose, which was sometimes
so bright, that all objects were distinctly visible in Unalaschka,
at a distance of twenty leagues. Smoke continued to rise for four
years.
Phenomena of this kind have taken place still more recently
among the Molucca Isles, as we are informed by Prof. Rein-
wardt.{ Near the active volcano of Gonung Api, in the group
of the Banda Islands, a considerable mass of black rock rose up
ina bay, out of the sea, without any noise. When Reinwardt
visited this extraordinary spot in 1821, he found it still very hot,
and the newly raised mass sent forth boiling hot vapors. A pre-
cisely similar occurrence took place on the coast of T'’ernate. On
Lanecerote also, on the 31st August, 1824, after several days of
violent earthquakes, accompanied with a subterranean thunder
like noise, a new volcano burst forth with a terrific crash, emit-
ting streams of fire, so that the whole island was illuminated, and
* See also V. Humboldt’s Reise, t.i, p. 254, and t. ili, p.6. [tis worthy of re-
mark, that the small island of 1720 has reached exactly the same height as Sabrina
attained in 1811.
t It was, consequently, more than 1000 feet high. Unfortunately, the depth of
the sea at that place is not given. But it certainly offers an example of one of the
greatest elevations of the present day.
{ De incendiis montium igni ardentium insule Jave, &c, disputatio geologica.
Auctore van der Boon Mesch. Lugduni Batay. 1826.
270 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
throwing up so many red hot stones and fragments of rock, as to
form a mountain within twenty-four hours.*
The last occurrence we shall mention, and which is still fresh
in our memory, namely, the volcanic island which appeared in
July, 1830, in the Mediterranean, between the southwest coast
of Sicily and Pantellaria, shews, that these phenomena may take
place in two different ways. New islands may be formed in the
sea either by the elevation of solid rock, by violently breaking’
and raising up the original strata, or merely by the heaping up of
the loose masses which are ejected.t This event was of the lat-
ter description, and in its ephemeral existence exactly resembles
the above-mentioned case in the Azores. Under which of these
forms such volcanic productions appear, may depend on the na-=
ture and thickness of the rocks to be broken through, on the depth
of the sea at the place of the eruption, and the strength of the
volcanic force. However, the visible part of this island may,
perhaps, as is the case with many others, only have been the
summit of a peak situated in the centre of a crater of elevation,
which remained buried in the sea, similar to the cones of many
land volcanos, which, if they had been situated in the sea, would
have been unable long to withstand the action of the waves, as is
the case with most of these islands. Hoffmann,{ who approached
very near to this island, shortly after its appearance, saw quite
plainly, that it was nothing else than the edge of a crater, the
walls of which were gradually raised above the surface of the wa-
ter by the materials ejected from it. From this crater vapors
rose uninterruptedly with great violence, yet without noise, which
were succeeded by the ejection of slags, sand, and ashes. ‘The
appearance of this island was also preceded by a noise resembling
thunder, and by the elevation of a mass of black colored water to
a height of eighty-two feet, columns of smoke rising at the same
time to a great height. 'The accounts leave us in uncertainty
respecting one of the most important circumstances—whether
fire rose out of the crater or not. However, Hoffmann and his
companions are inclined to the more probable opinion, that this
volcano vomited no fire, and that what some observers took for
* Annal, de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxvii, p. 382.
t See, on the contrary, Von Humboldt in his Reise, t.i, p. 254, note.
{ Poggendorff’s Ann. t. XXIV, p. 75.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 271
flames, was only the feri/ii in the smoke.* Lightning, caused by
the electricity excited by the rapid evaporation, was observed
there, as it is during the eruptions of Veswviws and other igneous
mountains. At the end of December, 1830, this island, which
was 2100 feet in circumference, and the highest point of which
rose 210 feet above the sea, shared the fate of Sabrina, and dis-
appeared. From the bottom of the sea it had risen between 700
and 900 feet ; and from what depth below, may be conjectured
from the calculations previously given.
Thus, then, the rising of islands.out of the sea, is a well au-
thenticated fact, and if we should for a moment be left in doubt
concerning the cause of this phenomenon, by the appearance of
steam in the presence of the sea-water, yet the evolution of
aqueous vapor. from volcanic islands, enclosed on all sides by
solid rock, seems to dispel such doubts.
Examples of elevations on land. in historical times are much
more rare. Of these we are only acquainted with the elevation
of Monte Nuovo, near Puzzuoli, in 1528, which rose 400 feet in
about three days; that of Monte Rosso, near Catania, in Sicily,
in 1669, which rose to a height of 820 feet in about four weeks,
and that of Jorullo, which rose to a height of 1480 feet above
the plain, in one day, on the 29th September; 1759.+
These are also formed, like the volcanic islands, in two differ-
ent ways. The Monte Nuovo was formed by the accumulation
of the loose masses ejected from the volcano, whilst mountains
of basalt, trachyte, phonolite, &c. which are so abundantly scat-
tered over the surface of the earth, have been formed by the up-
raising of solid rocks.
Vesuvius, or rather its cone, seems also to present an example
of an elevation in the historic area. Its formation perhaps does
not go farther back than the period of the famous eruption of 79
after the Christian era, in which Herculaneum and Pompeti were
destroyed; for ancient writers never speak of the mountain as
* Without exactly wishing to generalize, this circumstance is yet sufficient to
render us distrustful in judging of descriptions of similar phenomena in which
flames are so often mentioned.
t Von Humboldt, Nouy. Espagne. v. ii. p. 290. See Burkart loco cit. vol. i, p.
226.
{ The late investigations of Buch, Dufrenoy, and Elie Beaumont, show that the
Monte Nuovo is a crater of elevation, therefore not entirely or chiefly composed
of loose masses of ejected rocks.—Ed. New. Phil. Journ.
272 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
consisting of two peaks, which they probably would have done,
if the Monte Somma had stood, as at present, distinct from the
cone of Vesuviws.* It is also remarked that the distance men-
tioned in ancient writers, as intervening between the foot of
Vesuvius and the towns of Pompeii and Stabiae, appears to
have been greater than exists at present, unless we measure it
from the foot of Monte Somma, so that this affords an additional —
probability, that the latter mountain was then viewed as a part
of the former, and that no separation between them had at that
time occurred. We may also be sure from the semicircular fig-
_ ure which the southern escarpment of the Monte Somma pre-
sents towards Vesuvius, that it constituted a portion of the walls
of the original crater ; and Visconti, it is said, has proved by ac-
tual measurements, that the centre of the circle, of which it isa
segment, coincides as nearly as possible with that of the present
crater. ‘There seems, therefore, little room to doubt, that the old
mouth of the volcano occupied the spot now known by the name
of the Attrio del Cavallo, but that it was greatly more extensive
than this hollow, as it comprehended likewise the space now
covered by the cone, which was thrown up afterwards in con-
sequence of the renewal. of the volcanic action that had been
suspended during so many ages. ‘This view likewise tends, as
it seems, to reconcile the accounts which ancient writers have
given of the structure of the mountain, antecedently to the pe-
riod before mentioned.
As for the mode of action of the vapors, it is indifferent whether
they have to contend with loose and unconnected, or with melt-
ing masses, only that the former are propelled into the air like
cannon balls,t and falling into a parabolic curve, accumulate and
* Daubeny, a Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos, &c. p. 144. See
also Von Buch in Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxxvii, p.173. —
t See the Historical Notices given by Daubeny, loco cit. p. 145, and following.
} V. Humb. (Reise, v. i, p. 226) calculates from the time the stones thrown out
during the lateral eruption of the Peak of Teneriffe, on the 9th June 1798, took
in falling (which according to Cologan was from twelve to fifteen seconds, reck-
oning from the moment they reached their greatest height,) that they were pro-
jected to a height of more than 3000 feet. In some similar observations made by
Von Humboldt during the eruptions of Vesuvius in 1805, he satisfied himself that
such observations are capable of a great degree of exactitude. Similar calcula-
tions made by other observers, give still greater heights. The maximum height
of such projections was observed at Cotopaai by La Condamine (Voyage a 1’ Equa-
teur.) He saw propelled laterally, a block of about 1000 square feet, to a distance
of nearly 13 geographical miles.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 273
produce a mountain, whilst the latter remain at the height to
which they are borne up by the elastic fluids.
In elevations of the latter description, the vapor cannot escape
through the uplifted mass. This mass is supported by the elas-
tic force of the vapor, cools gradually, and then remains, as it
were, wedged in between the strata it has broken through. But
according te Von Buch’s* observations on Palma and Gran Ca-
naria, it may happen, that the vapor bursts forth from the centre
of the mass it has raised, and thus exposes its interior. Sucha
crater would thus be the effect of the elevation of the island,
for which reason he gives it the name of crater of elevation,
(Erhebungs Krater,) to distinguish it from the craters of erup-
tion, by which true voleanos open a communication with the at-
mosphere.
Further, this philosopher has pointed out,} that volcanic cones
cannot be generated by the building up of streams of lava. He
infers this from observations made by Elie de Beaumont, and
which have been already alluded to. 'This philosopher meas-
ured the mean inclination of about thirty lava streams of Hina,
and of a great many of Vesuvius, and found that a stream hav-
ing an inclination of 6°, or even more, forms no continuous
mass. Such a stream inclines too much to be able to attain
more than a thickness of a few feet. When its inclination is
only 3° or less, the mass may be spread, and accumulated to a
considerable height.
Lastly, we have to notice the upraisings which are the conse-
quences of earthquakes, and often extend to large islands and
whole tracts of country. Elevations of small compass, accom-
panied by partial depression, which is no doubt merely a conse- .
quence of the elevations, were observed before,$ and during|| the
famous earthquake of Lisbon. Small elevations also took place
during that in Calabria.1 The commissioners who were em-
ployed to make observations of the earthquakes in the county of
Pignerol, relate, that the very day (2d April, 1808) when one
* Abhandlungen der Berliner Acad. loco cit. p. 58.
+ Poggendorff’s Annal. t. xxxvii. p. 170, &c.
{ Vied Memoire of Elie de Beaumont, in vol. xx. p. 376, &c. Edin. New Phil.
Journ. ; and Description Geologique de la France, t. iv.
§ Palassou Mém. pour. servir & l’Histoire Nat. des Pyren. p. 260.
|| Philos. Trans. t. xlix. p. 417. { Jour, de Phys, Ixii, 1806. p. 264.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—Apnil-July, 1839. 30
ae
274 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. -
of the most violent shocks was felt, the masting engine at Tou-
lon was elevated more than an inch.* This observation is wor-
thy of note, as it shows that many effects of earthquakes may
often take place at great distances from their seat, which, owing
to their minuteness, may escape observation, unless casually dis-
covered. For accounts of elevations of a more considerable kind
in equatorial countries, we are indebted to Humboldt. The ele-
vations in the island of Lancerote,t and those on the coast of
Cumana,{ are of this kind. -
The most remarkable instance of the elevation of great tracts
of country of late years, is that which took place in Chili, on
the 19th November, 1822. For the account of this important
phenomenon -we are indebted to Mrs. Maria Graham, a well in-
formed observer.$ After violent earthquakes, which were felt
through an extent of country 1400 English miles in length, and
during which, it appeared as if the soil was suddenly raised and
immediately sunk again, or as if the earth had an undulating
motion from north to south, accompanied with a noise like the
rushing of steam, the whole coast for an extent of about 100
English miles, actually rose between three and four feet within
twenty four hours.|| In all the small valleys the earth in the
gardens was disturbed, and sand and water rose in quantities
through the cracks. The granite rocks near the coast, which
are traversed by small parallel dykes, showed many narrow rents
parallel to the old ones in some instances. The former were
traced one mile and a half inland. The phenomena which most
forcibly arrested the attention of Mrs. Graham, were evident
marks of this coast having been raised in a similar manner by
earthquakes in former times, and indeed to a height of fifty feet
above the sea level.
* Idem, t. Ixvii. 1808. p. 308. t Relat. Hist. t. i. p. 188.
t Ibid. t. ii. p. 279.
§ Geol. Transact. v. i., Sec. Series, part ii. p. 413. Mr. Greenough felt dispo-
sed to call in question the observations of Mrs. Graham, but she has defended her
statements very creditably, and has been supported by Mr. Meyen, Berghaus An-
nal. der Erdkunde, t. xi. p. 129.
|| Fr. Place also confirms this account of the extent of the elevation, in Journ.
of Sc. No. xxxili, p. 36. According to the reports in the Ann. de Chim. et de
Phys. t. xxvii, p. 350, two volcanos, in the neighborhood of Valdivia, presented a
sudden eruption with a loud noise, and illuminated the whole country for some
seconds, but they soon subsided again. At the same time a slight shock was felt
in that town.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. Q75
The latter phenomena are so much the more important the
more frequently they occur. We can, therefore, have no diffi-
culty in admitting most earthquakes to have been the causes of
such elevations. Many coasts, as is well known, bear evident
marks of having been raised in former times. ‘Thus Vetch* ob-
served on the coast of the island of Jura, in Scotland, six to
seven terraces one above another, the lowest at the level of the
sea, the highest about forty feet above it, all covered on their
horizontal surfaces with pebbles like those which the sea still
throws up. Mr. Smith of Jordanhill has also pointed out, that
in a former time an elevation of the west coast of Scotland has
taken place.t Peron noticed a similar phenomenon on the coasts
of some islands in the neighborhood of Van Diemen’s Land.
Many other instances of this kind occur, which present traces
of elevations, some of them perfectly incontestable,t others very
probable.§ In conformity with this, are also the assertions of the
inhabitants of Olaheite,|| and those of the Moluccas, that their
islands still continue to rise.
The latest earthquakes, which, in the month of February,
1835, destroyed a great part of Chili, (Conception, and many
other towns,) offer also evident proofs of elevations occasioned
through their agency. Some days after this devastation the sea
did not rise to its ordinary level, the difference amounting to four
or five feet in height. ‘This difference decreased gradually; in
the middle of April it was still two feet. The fact that the isl-
and of Santa Maria has risen nine feet, proves the actual eleva-
tion of the country. Near 7Tubul, southeast of Santa Maria,
the country has risen six feet, and the island of Mocha seems to
have risen about two feet.**
The gradual elevation of Scandinavia and Finland is pecu-
liarly interesting. More than a century ago, Celsius called at-
tention to this phenomenon, and endeavored to account for it by
* Geological Trans. Sec. Series, v. i. part 11. p. 416.
+ Phil. Mag. v. x. p. 186; Jameson’s Phil. Journal, vol. xxv. p. 378; and Mem.
, Wernerian Soc. vol. vill. part i. in the press.
¢ Dolomieu Oryktol. Bemerk. tiber Calabrien. Frankf. u. Mainz 1789, p. 157.
§ Brochi in Biblioteca Haliana 1821. Sept. Breislak Reisen in Campanien, t.
ii. p. 115.
|| Correspondence Astronomique, v. x. p. 266.
| Poggendorff’s Ann. t. ii. p. 444, according to Prof. Reinwardt.
** Nautical Magazine, No, 49 and 51. March and June, 1836.
276 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
a gradual sinking of the level of the Baltic. Playfair,* how-
ever, remarked, as early as the year 1802, that an elevation of
the land may be assigned as the cause of this phenomenon with
more probability than a sinking of the water. 'This supposition,
he thinks, accords with Hutton’s theory, according to which the
continents have been actually raised by subterraneous powers,
and are even now supported by them in their place. Lastly, Von
Buch,+ without having seen Playfair’s work, gave his opinion,
“that the whole country, from F’rederickshall in Sweden to Abo
in Finland, is in the act of rising slowly and insensibly.” The
rising of the Gulf of Bothnia amounts, according to the obser-
vations communicated by Hallstrém, from 3.71 to 4.61 feet ; on
an average 4.26 feet during a century.{ Beds of sea-shells,
found sometimes 200 feet above the present level of the sea, as,
for instance, on the sea-coast and on the islands of Uddevalla,
as also on all the sea-coasts of the south of Norway, and which
sea-shells consist of such kinds as are still found living at these
places in the sea, prove how much the level of the Baltie has
changed even during the time that the present testacea have in-
habited it.§ But the rising seems to be very unequal at various
places. In the north it is more considerable than in the south.
On the eastern coast of the Danish islands of Mcen and See-
land, Lyell|| found no indication of a recent elevation of land.
The first place along the whole coast of the Baltic, where an
elevation is said to have taken place, is the town of Calmar.
Beyond the Swedish coast, on the coast of Finland, the inhab-
itants are perfectly convinced, either that the water sinks or the
land rises. This remarkable phenomenon has excited a general
interest among the Swedish naturalists, and caused continual
exact observations of the marks inscribed on the shores of the
Gulf of Bothnia. Thus Nilson thinks he has found convin-
cing proofs that the most southern part of Sweden is sinking,
whilst the remaining part is rising. He has also endeavored to
* Tllustrations of the Huttonian theory.
} Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland, t. 11. p. 389.
¢ Bruncrona u. Hallstrom in Poggend. Ann. t. il. p. 308.
§ Berzelius Jahresbericht, 1826, p. 292.
\| Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxxvill, p. 64.
{I Berzelius Jahresbericht, No, 18, p. 386, and Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xlii, p.
472.
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 277,
give probability to the supposition, that the sinking took place,
and still takes place, not suddenly, but gradually. F’orchham-
mer* likewise alluded to similar phenomena, in order to prove
that elevations in Scandinavia take place not only in different
proportions, but that a depression is also going on. He infers
from his observations, that the level of the coast of Denmark has
varied in a different proportion from that of the Swedish coast,
which he ascribes to the feeble earthquakes that have been felt
so often in Sweden, but never in Denmark. He estimates, ac-
cording to rough calculations, the elevation of the island Born-
holm, to amount to one foot in the course of a century.
If elevations of countries, in which volcanic actions are felt,
and which are agitated by violent earthquakes, be produced, as
is very probable, by the same causes as these phenomena, yet it
is difficult to imagine these causes to operate in elevating coun-
tries where no such phenomena occur, or where, at least, they
take place but rarely, or to a small extent. The latter is the
case in the Scandinavian Peninsula. 'That region has no active
volcanos, no hot springs—even thermal springs bearing a tempe-
rature of but a few degrees higher than the mean temperature
of the place, are considered as rarities ; whilst, in other countries,
they are of very frequent occurrence. All this proves that the
crust of the earth in this country must be very solid, and trav-
ersed by comparatively few rents or fissures.
Berzelius assigns as the cause of this rising of the Swedish
coast, the gradual cooling of the earth; and says: “Its diam-
eter, in this manner, decreases, and the consolidated crust leaves
either empty spaces between itself and the fluid mass, or sinks
downwards. Being, however, of so large an extent, that fold-
ings and bendings must occur, portions must rise up on one side
and sink on the other. ‘This supposition seems to be supported
by the sinking of the western coast of G'reenland, and of an
island situated in the Gulf of Youghall, a phenomenon which
has been recently pointed out by Elie de Beaumont and Pingel.
Kléden also has recently given much probability to the suppo-
sition of a sinking of the Dalmatian coast.t
* Phil. Mag. ser. ui, v. ii, p. 309, and Poggend. Ann. t. xii, p. 476.
t Poggendorff’s Ann., t. xlii. p. 361.
278 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
We shall endeavor to show in our next section what effect
might be expected on the surface of the earth, if its solid crust
should still continue to increase in thickness towards the interior
by gradual consolidation of the fluid centre. Besides, I think
that a sinking of the outer crust can scarcely be supposed to
occur, but that itis much more probable that caverns should be
formed at the moment when the fluid mass becomes solid. At
least the latter effect was seen in fusing two basalt balls, two feet
in diameter, in which many larger and smaller cavities were
found. I shall allude to these phenomena in another section.
If we take into consideration all that has been already said on
ejections and elevations, (sowlevémens,) we shall be induced to
adopt the following inferences. Masses of our earth, still in a
fluid state, may be raised through and above its solid crust. ‘The
rising of the lava in the craters of volcanos is a satisfactory proof
of this circumstance. Solid rocky masses, strongly heated, may |
be pushed upwards during violent convulsions, and elevations of
the original rocky covering, or be thrown up in the form of loose
masses, more or less heated. The not unfrequent rising of small
islands from the bottom of the sea, and the elevations (sowléve-
mens) actually observed to take place in the continents, are evi-
dences of these operations. All these phenomena are effects of
forces, which develope their whole intensity in a very short time,
often ina few moments. But large islands, and even whole coun-
tries may, in a very short time, be raised several feet, as was
shown in the cases of Chili and Santa Maria. On the other
hand, Scandinavia presents us with an instance of an elevation
which, compared with the preceding, takes place with extraordi-
nary slowness. |
Besides all these elevations which have been actually observed,
other appearances occur, which lead us to infer that elevations
have taken place previous to the existence of any record. ‘These
are the elevations of old volcanic masses, as basalt, trachyte, &c.,
their penetration into fissures, and the elevation of whole systems
of mountains. In regard to the first, the conclusion may, as has
been already shown, be cousidered as well founded as it is gen-
erally possible to be, when drawn from phenomena which have
taken place before any records were in existence. The similarity
between these phenomena, and those which have taken, and still
take place, before our eyes, render it extremely probable that they
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 279
were produced by forces which were in operation for a very short
period only. Changes in the contiguous rocks, and the imbed-
ment of fragments of them in the volcanic rocks, render it also
equally probable that these masses were raised in a fluid, or at
least softened state, and either rose above the surface of the earth
in the form of conical mountains, or remained adhering in rents
of the rocks. 'These phenomena, then, belong entirely to the
same class as the elevations of lava in volcanic craters. When,
on the other hand, no changes are perceived in the contiguous
rocks, when these have been simply broken through and upraised,
when the broken masses consist of acute-angled fragments of all
dimensions heaped one upon another, then we cannot assume
that the elevations took place in a fluid or softened state.
Were elevations of this kind the work of a short space of time,
or did they proceed slowly? In vain do we look around us for
some clew to the solution of this question. From physical
grounds we are led to the following conclusions. If fused rock
come in contact with water in the interior of the earth, the wa-
tery vapor disengaged, will operate, with the whole expansive
force which it can acquire from the heat of the rock, in a short
time ; provided that the continued formation of vapor be not lim-
ited by want of water. It is the same process as that which
takes place in the glass-blower’s blow-pipe when he forms large
globes. If, then, water acts on fused masses in a confined space,
we have the conditions requisite for producing a rapid elevation,
and therefore, as a general rule, we may regard elevations of fused
masses and rapid elevations as co-ordinate phenomena. If, on the
other hand, we imagine a solid rock deep under the surface,
whose temperature is far below a red heat, then its elevation
can take place only when a considerable source of heat exists un-
der the rock, which gives rise to the formation of vapor. But
the more the heat of the vapor exceeds that of the rock, which is
to be raised and supported by it,the more will it become conden-
sed, and thus a great part of the effect is lost. If the condensed
vapor return to the source of heat, it will again assume the form
of vapor, and thus a constant circulation will ensue. It is actu-
ally a process of heating by steam. If the solid rock be a very
bad conductor of heat, then that surface which is in contact with
the vapor, may gradually acquire its temperature, and the vapor
thus attain its maximum of operative force. It naturally depends
280 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes.
on the weight of the solid mass, whether the vapor can effect its
elevation, and by what elasticity. Although we must: suppose
that the elastic force of the vapor progressively increases, in pro-
portion as the temperature of the surface of rock in contact with it
rises; yet, on the other hand, we must consider, that when the
vapor, which had not yet attained its maximum of expansive
force, has effected an elevation, then, a regressive effect, as re-
gards duration of time, will ensue, because, by the elevation, the
space which confined the vapor has become enlarged. Secondly, -
if the conducting power of the solid mass be greater than we have
just assumed it to be, then the heat, which is communicated to
the surface of contact by condensation of vapor, is as quickly dif-
fused above, as it can be conveyed from the vapor below, and if
the latter produce a continued elevation, the effect must inevita-
bly be regressive. We can therefore conceive it»possible, under
the conditions stated, that the same force, viz. vapor of water,
which, when in contact with a fused mass, developes its whole
intensity in a short time, can produce only a gradual effect, when
in contact with solid masses whose temperature is far below that
of the vapor. We thus see the possibility of fused masses being
raised by vapor in a short time, while solid masses may be raised
very slowly by the same agent, and that the latter elevation may
20 on in a regressive ratio. Lastly, it is even possible that a grad-
ual elevation of a solid mass may continue, although the elevating
effect of the vapor has long ceased. For instance, if the subter-
raneous heating by steam continue, and if the heat, communica-
ted to the surface of contact by condensation of the vapor, be
diffused above more slowly than it is conveyed below, then it is
clear that the solid mass, supported by the vapor, will gradually
be expanded.
These remarks have shown that the operations of vapor, as an
elevating force, may be very various as regards the relations of
time and space, and that its effects depend not only on its own
temperature, but also on that of the masses it has to elevate, on
their relative conducting power, and lastly, on the capacity of the
space within which its operations take place.
We can therefore understand how the slow elevation of Scan-
dinavia may be the result of the operation of watery vapor, taking
place in a diminishing ratio, and how therefore this phenomenon
stands in close connexion with the original elevation of that
Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 281
country, which is principally composed of masses of igneous
origin. We shall pass over the consideration of the question,
whether this original elevation took place in a fluid or solid state,
that is, whether in earlier times these masses rose suddenly and
continued to rise more and more slowly as they gradually cooled,
or whether this gradually decreasing ratio has always existed.
We may, however, be allowed the remark, that the slow eleva-
tion which still continues when the operation of the vapor, as an
elevating power, has long ceased, may be regarded, according to
what has been stated above, as the result of an expansion pro-
duced by the caloric disengaged from the vapor during its con-
densation. For example, let us assume that the solid crust of
the earth in Scandinavia was 139,840 feet thick, that the ex-
pansion of this crust by heat takes place in the same ratio as in
earthern ware; then, an average increase of heat of 29.9 R. du-
ring the space of 1000 years, would be sufficient to effect an ex-
pansion of 4.26 feet in a stratum of the above-mentioned thick-
ness. And this is the average ratio of the rising of that country.
Be the cause of the elevation of Scandinavia what it may,
this circumstance is remarkable, that in the southern part of Swe-
den, where the country, according to Nilson’s statement, sinks,
secondary formations, viz. chalk, occur in great abundance, while
in the north of Sweden, as well as in Finland, the gneiss-granite
formation predominates. We must not, however, attach too
much importance to the connexion which appears to exist be-
tween the elevation of the northern part of Sweden and the prev-
alence of the latter formation, as Nilson* says, the chalk also lies
on gneiss, and less frequently on greywacke. It is neverthless
remarkable that the granite island of Bornholm, which is situated
opposite to the sinking coast of Schonen, is still in the act of
rising, according to the observations of Forchhammer above allu-
ded to.
As regards the sinking of countries, there is no difficulty in re-
garding it as the result of an elevation of neighboring countries.
Yet we can imagine many causes, independent of such elevations,
which may produce depressions. It does not, however, lie within
the scope of these remarks to enumerate these causes.
* Petrificata Suecana Form. Cretaceae, &c. 1827, p. 81.
Vol. xxxv1, No, 2.—April-July, 1839. 36
282 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
It remains to consider the elevations of whole systems of rocks,
events which must have taken place prior to the existence of our
records. ‘There is doubtless no difficulty in also explaining these
phenomena through the agency of steam. Elie de Beaumont,*
however, is of opinion, that these elevations are a consequence of
the inequality between the cooling of the interior and exterior
of the earth. We shall examine this subject, after pointing out
the laws that prevail during the cooling of ocr masses of —
matter.
To be continued.
Arr. Ill.— Descriptive Catalogue of the North American Insects
belonging to the Linnean Genus Spuinx in the Cabinet of
‘THappreus WiLLiaAM aL eas, M. D., Librarian of Harvard Uni-
versity.
Tue insects belonging to the order Lepidoptera have peculiar
claims to our attention.. In the adult or winged state they are
among the most beautiful, and in their previous or caterpillar state
are the most injurious of insects. Living while young principally
on the leaves of plants, they are at all times more or less exposed
to our observation, and too often obtrude themselves on our no-
tice by their extensive ravages. While it is comparatively easy
to discover these insects and observe their transformations, the de-
termination of their names and their places in a scientific arrange-
ment is rendered in many cases impossible, and in all exceedingly
difficult, to the American student, from the want of suitable de-
scriptive works on this branch of entomology. Having overcome
these difficulties myself only at a great expense and much loss of
time, it has occurred to me that a descriptive catalogue of our
Lepidoptera might be useful to others, while it would serve to
confirm the names given to these insects in my cabinet, and
transmitted in return for specimens to my friends. My own col-
lection has now become quite extensive, and contains a large
number of undescribed species from various parts of the United
States. Passing by our Butterflies, nearly all of which have been
* Poggendorff’s Annal. vol. xxv, p. 5d.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 283
figured and for the most part described in Dr. Boisduval’s “ His-
toire et Iconographie des Lepidoptéres de l’Amérique Septentrio-
nale,” I propose, at the present time, to offer for publication
descriptions-of the native insects in my collection belonging to
the second grand division of the order Lepidoptera, comprising
the Sphinges of Linneus. Should these be favorably received,
they may hereafter be followed by descriptions of our Phalene
or moths. 'The larve or caterpillars of many of the species are
described partly from my own observations, and partly from the
figures given by Mr. Abbot in his great work, on the Lepidoptera
of Georgia, edited by Sir James E. Smith. My obligations to
the gentlemen who have favored me with specimens will be
found recorded on almost every page of this catalogue, and I beg
leave to tender to them my most grateful acknowledgments, and
to solicit from them, and from others, a continuation of similar
favors. -
Linnzeus was led to give the name of Sphinx to the insects in
his second group of the Lepidoptera, from a fancied resemblance
which some of their larve, when at rest, have to the Sphinx of
the Egyptians. The attitude of these larve is indeed very re-
markable. Supporting themselves by their four or six hind-legs,
they elevate the fore-part of the body, and remain immovably
fixed in this posture for hours together. In the winged state the
true Sphinges are known by the name of humming-bird moths,
from the sound which they make in flying, and hawk-moths,
from their habit of hovering in the air while taking their food.
These humming-bird or hawk-moths may be seen during the
morning and evening twilight flying with great swiftness from
flower to flower. Their wings are long, narrow, and pointed,
and are moved by powerful muscles, to accommodate which
their bodies are very thick and robust. They delight most in
the honeysuckle and scarlet Bignonia, from the tubular blossoms
of which they extract the honey, while on the wing, by means of
their excessively long maxille or tongue. Other Sphinges fly
during the day-time only, and in the bright sunshine. Then it
is that our large clear-winged Sesize make their appearance among
the flowers, and regale themselves with their sweets. 'The fra-
grant Phlox is their especial favorite. From their size and form
and fan-like tails, from their brilliant colors, the swiftness of their
flight, and the manner in which they tale their food, poised upon
284 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
rapidly vibrating wings above the blossoms, they might readily
be mistaken for humming-birds. 'The Adgeriz are also diurnal
in their habits. Their flight is swift, but not prolonged, and they
usually alight while feeding. In form and color they so much
resemble bees and wasps as hardly to be distinguished from them.
The Smerinthi are heavy and sluggish in their motions. ‘They
fly only during the night, and apparently take no food in the
winged state, their maxilla or tongues being so short as to be
useless for this purpose. The Glaucopidide, or Sphinges with
feathered antenna, fly mostly by day, and alight to take their
food like the Aigerie, to which some of them bear a resemblance,
while others have nearly the form of Phalene or moths, with
which also they agree in their previous transformations.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA.
It was not my intention originally to give here the characters
of the genera, but to refer the student for them to the works of
Latreille and other entomologists. Upon further consideration,
however, I have thought that the labor of determining our Sphin-
ges by means of the catalogue would be much abridged, if a sy-
nopsis of the families and genera were to be prefixed to it.
Class Insecta.
_ Animals with jointed bodies, breathing through lateral holes or spiracles; pro-
duced from eggs; while growing subject to a transformation of three stages ; in
the first stage caHed-larve, caterpillars, grubs, or maggots; in the second pupe,
nymphs, or chrysalids; in the third stage provided with wings, a body composed
of three distinct parts, the head, thorax or trunk, and the abdomen, and having
two compound eyes, two antennz, from two to six palpi or feelers, and six legs.
Order Lepidoptera.
The young, called larve or caterpillars, are provided with jaws, and from ten to
sixteen legs. ‘They feed principally upon vegetable substances. The pupe take
no food, are incapable of moving about, are apparently without legs, these parts
with their other members being folded up and firmly soldered to the body. In the
third stage they are, with few exceptions, provided with four wings, which, with
the body, are more or less covered with little colored branny scales, lapping over
each other like the scales of fishes; their jaws are transformed to a tongue, more or
less long, and, when not in use, spirally rolled and concealed between the palpi.
Section I.—Papiliones.
Antenne threadlike and knobbed or thickened at the end. Wings not confined
by a bristle and hook; all of them, or the first pair at least, elevated perpendicu-
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 285
larly, and turned back to back when at rest. Only one pair of spurs to the hind-
legs in the greater number. Thorax moderate ; abdomen rather slender. Flight
diurnal. Larve with sixteen feet; transformation in the open air. Pupe angu-
lated, and fastened by silken threads, or ovoid, and enclosed in an imperfect co-
coon.
Section II.—Sphinges.
Antenne thickened in or just beyond the middle, tapering at each end, and
most often hooked at the tip; more rarely slender and nearly setaceous, with a
double row of slender teeth or hairs on the under side in the males. Wings con-
fined by a bristle or bunch of stiff hairs on the front edge near the shoulder of each
hind-wing, which is retained by a hook on the under side of each fore-wing ; when
at rest horizontal, or inclined on the sides of the body, the fore-wings covering and
concealing the hind pair. Two pairs of spurs to the hind-legs. Thorax thick and
robust; abdomen mostly conical. Flight of some in the morning and evening
twilight, of a few nocturnal, and of others-during the day. Larve with sixteen
legs ; transformation in or upon the ground, or in a silken cocoon. Pupz elonga-
ted ovoid.
Section ‘Ai.—Phaleenz.
Antenne (never knobbed at the end or thickened in the middle) slender and ta-
pering to a point, in some pectinated or feathered, in others simple or bristle-formed.
Wings confined together by bristles and hooks, the first pair covering the hind-
wings and horizontal or sloping when at rest. ‘Two pairs of spurs to the hind-legs..
Flight for the most part nocturnal. Larve with from ten to sixteen legs, transfor-
ming ina silken cocoon or in the ground. Pupe ovoid.
The Sphinges may be divided into two tribes.
Tribe I.—Sphinges legitime.
Larve colored, naked, for the most part horned on the tail, and feeding on the
leaves of plants; or whitish, slightly hairy, not horned, and living on woody mat-
ter within the stems of plants. Antenne of the winged insects tipped with a mi-
nute bristly tuft.* Palpi (except in the AXgeriade) with the third joint minute
and indistinct.
Tribe II.—Sphinges adscite.
Larve always colored, more or less hairy, never horned, feeding on leaves, and
transforming in a silken cocoon, which is fastened to the plants on which they live.
Antenne of the winged insects not tufted at the end. Palpi distinctly three-jointed.
The first tribe, or Sphinges legitime, may be divided into three families.
Family 1.—Sphingiade.
Antenne fusiform and prismatic ; ending in a hook, and, in the males, trans-
versely biciliated beneath; or, more rarely, curved, and, in the males, bipectina-
* This little tuft is obsolete or wanting in the Smerinthi.
286 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
ted beneath. Palpi pressed close to the face, short, thick, and obtuse, ue the
third joint minute and concealed. Body thick; abdomen el and not tufted at
the end. Flight crepuscular. Larve colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which
is sometimes costae and replaced by a ellen spot; they devour the i of
plants, and go deep into the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the
surface, under leaves, in an imperfect cocoon.
The North American genera in this family are six.
Genus I.—Smerinthus.
Wings more or less angular and indented, the front margin of the hind-wings ~
projecting beyond the upper or fore-wings when at rest. Antenne short, prismat-
ical and fusiform, arcuated or curved near the tip, transversely biciliated or bipec-
tinated beneath in the males. Tongue obsolete. Larve granulated, with the head
triangular, horned on the tail, obliquely banded on each side, and transforming in
the earth. -
Genus II.—Ceratomia.
Wings entire. Antenne elongated, abruptly ending in a short and slender hook,
transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi horizontal and nearly cylin-
drical. Tongue moderate. Abdomen longitudinally striped. Larve with horns
on the fore-part of the body, a row of little teeth on the back, a long caudal horn,
and oblique bands on each side; it transforms in the earth.
Genus III.—Sphinx.
Wings entire. Antenne long, abruptly ending ina short and slender hook, and
transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi rising and enlarged at the
end. Tongue long. Abdomen spotted or transversely banded at the sides. Larve
with oblique bands on the sides and a caudal horn, and transforming in the earth.
Genus IV.—Philampelus.
Wings sinous. Antenne long, attenuated at the end, with a long terminal hook,
and transversely biciliated beneath in the males.. Tongue moderate. Abdomen
not transversely banded or spotted at the sides. Larva short, thick, with the head
and first three segments rather small and capable of being drawn more or less
within the fourth segment; when young with a long, slender, recurved caudal
horn, which subsequently disappears and is replaced by a callous spot; sides with
oblique spots sloping backwards and downwards ; transforms in the earth.
Genus V.—Chcerocampa.
Wings sinous or angulated. Antenne rather short and slender, generally arcua-
ted, tapering, and ending ina long hook; more rarely straight, with a short termi-
nal hook ; transversely biciliated beneath in the males, Tongue moderate. Ab-
domen immaculate, or longitudinally striped, but never transversely banded at the
sides. Larve elongated, the fore-part of the body tapering and retractile; with
from one to three eye-like spots, or a series of oblique bands on each side ; caudal
horn short, sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot; transforms on the
surface of the ground, under leaves, in an imperfect cocoon.
~
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 287
Genus VI.—Deilephila.
Wings entire, upper ones acute. Antenne rather short, straight, gradually thick-
ening nearly to the end, which suddenly terminates in a small and short hook ;
in the males transversely biciliated beneath. Tongue moderate. Abdomen con-
ical, pointed, and transversely banded at the sides. Larva elongated, not tapering
before, and the head and first three segments not retractile, with a series of nine or
ten round spots on each side, and a long caudal horn; transforms in the earth.
Family II.—Macroglossiade.
Antenne fusiform, prismatic, ending with a hook, and transversely biciliated
beneath in the males. Palpi pressed close to the face, with the third joint minute
and concealed ; short, thick, and obtuse at the end in some; slightly elongated
and subacute in others. Body short and thick, or flattened a little; abdomen tufted
atthe end. Flight diurnal. Larve colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which is
sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot; they devour the leaves of
plants, and enter the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the surface in
an imperfect cocoon under leaves.
In this family we have three genera, Pterogon, Thyreus, and Sesia.
Genus VII.—Pterogon.
‘Wings angulated and indented. Antenne long, arcuated, tapering at the end,
with a Jong, terminal hook. Tongue as long as the body. Abdomen short
and conical. Larve attenuated before, with a series of spots, on each side, sloping
obliquely backwards and downwards, and a caudal horn, which is frequently ob-
solete and replaced by a callous spot: they transform in an imperfect cocoon un-
der leaves.
Genus VII.—Thyreus.
Wings angulated and indented. Antenne long, and ending with a long hook.
Palpi short, thick, and obtuse at the end. Tongue moderate. Abdomen ovoid.
Larve elongated, not attenuated before, longitudinally striped on the back,
obliquely banded at the sides, with a long and straight caudal horn: they trans-
form in the earth.
Genus [X.—Sesia.
Wings entire, upper ones acute, all of them transparent inthe middle. An-
tenn short, straight, gradually thickened towards the end, with the terminal
hook obsolete, and obliquely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi somewhat
elongated, subacute, and forming a conical beak. Tongue long. Abdomen short
ovoid, slightly flattened. Larve not attenuated before, longitudinally striped on
the back, with a short, slightly recurved caudal horn: they transform in an imper-
fect cocoon under leaves on the surface of the ground.
Family U1.—Ageriade.
Antennz.arcuated; either thickening to beyond: the middle, attenuated and
curved but not hooked at the end, and biciliated beneath in the males; or very
slightly fusiform and almost threadlike, and simple in both sexes. Palpi elonga-
ted, slender, distinctly three-jointed, prominent, separated and not pressed close to
the head, nearly cylindrical, covered with very small scales and almost naked ex-
288 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
cept at the base, which is hairy, and pointed at the tip. Wings more or less trans-
parent. Abdomen with a caudal tuft. Flight diurnal. Larve whitish, soft,
slightly downy, living within the stems of plants, and generally transforming in a
cocoon made of fragments of wood and bark cemented by agummy matter. Pup
with the edges of the abdominal segments armed with transverse rows of small.
teeth.
The American species in this family a be disposed in the genera Trochilium,
figeria, and Thyris.
Genus X.—Trochilium.
Wings narrow, entire, all of them, or the hind-pair at least, transparent. An-
tenn short, stout, arcuated, gradually thickened nearly to the end, which is eurved
but not hooked ; underside generally fringed with a double row of very short bris-
tles in the males. Tongue very short. Body thick; abdomen slightly tufted at
the end.
Genus XI.—/Egeria.
Wings narrow, entire, all of them, or the hind-pair at least, transparent. An-
tenne mostly elongated, sometimes short, arcuated, gradually thickened nearly to
the end, which is curved but not hooked ; underside generally fringed with a dou-
ble row of short bristles in the males. Tongue long. Body slender; abdomen
nearly or quite cylindrical, ending with a flat or trilobed tuft.
Genus XII.—Thyris.
Wings broad, subiriangular, more or less angulated and indented, opaque, with
small semitransparent spots. Antenne fusiform, but slender and only slightly
thickened in the middle, arcuated, and simple in both sexes. Tongue moderate.
Body short and thick ; abdomen conical, and tufted at the end.
Tribe II.—Sphinges adscite.
The species described in this catalogue may be disposed in pee families, Aga-
ristiade, Zygeniade, and Glaucopidide.
Family 1V.—Agaristiade.
Antenne straight, slightly thickened in or beyond the middle, and curved at the
tip. Palpi elongated, slender, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with the ter-
minal joint cylindrical, scaly or almost naked. Wings broad, subtriangular. Tail
hairy or tufted. Flight diurnal. Larve elongated, cylindrical, or enlarged a little
behind, slightly hairy, transversely banded or spotted, and without a caudal horn.
Genus XIII.—Alypia.
Wings broad, subtriangular, entire, and opaque, with large whitish spots. An-
tenne somewhat elongated and slender, thickened very gradually from beyond the
middle nearly to the tip, which is slightly curved, obtuse, and not tufted. Palpi
long, porrect, separate, with the first two joints very hairy. and the third joint cy-
lindrical, scaly, and obtuse. ‘Tongue moderate, and spirally rolled. Abdomen
somewhat elongated, nearly cylindrical, fringed at the sides and tip with short
hairs. Anterior and intermediate tibiz thickly clothed with hairs. Posterior tibiz
with two pairs of pretty long unequal spurs.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 289
Family V.—Zygeniade.
Antenne arcuated, abruptly thickened and curved beyond the middle. Palpi
generally elongated, sometimes short, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with ~
the terminal joint scaly or almost naked. Wings narrow, opaque, often spotted,
the hind-pair rather small. Abdomen more or less cylindrical, obtuse, and not
tufted at the end. Flight diurnal. Larvz short, contracted, variegated with spots,
slightly hairy, and not horned on the tail.
Genus XIV.—Mastigocera.
Wings long, narrow, entire, opaque, the hind-pair quite small. Antenne simple
in both sexes, filiform at base, suddenly thickened and fusiform beyond the middle,
very much attenuated towards the tip, and ending in a long curved point. Labial
palpi somewhat curved, extending considerably beyond the clypeus, separated,
well covered with hairs beneath the base; the penultimate joint longest, cylindri-
cal, and scaly ; the last joint also cylindrical, obtusely rounded at the end, and cov-
ered with small, close scales. Maxille (tongue) nearly as long as the body. Ab-
domen nearly cylindrical, obtusely rounded at the end, longitudinally grooved at
the sides before, with the basal segment strongly marked, and swelling on each
side into a little tubercle. Legs long and slender; posterior tarsi laterally com-
pressed, and hairy on the outside, in the males. |
Family VI.—Glaucopidide.
Antenne slender, almost setaceous, or very slightly thickened in the middle, and
distinctly bipectinated beneath in the males. Palpi slender, more or less elongated,
not pressed to the face. Wings sometimes narrow, and sometimes widened, en-
tire, and for the most part opaque. Abdomen nearly cylindrical, and frequently
tufted at the end. Flight diurnal. Larve cylindrical, hairy, without a caudal horn.
Genus XV.—Procris.
Wings narrow, elongated, opaque, and immaculate. Antenne slender, tapering
at each end, and bipectinated beneath in the males. Palpi small, short, pendent,
and nearly naked. Tongue short, but distinct, and spirally rolled. Abdomen
slender and nearly cylindrical in the males, thicker in the females, and tufted at
the end. Spurs of the hind tibiz two in number, and very minute.
Genus X VI.—Glaucopis.
Wings narrow in some, broad in others, entire, for the most part opaque, and
with the body more or less glossed with blue, sometimes spotted or partially trans-
parent. Antenne feathered or bipectinated in both sexes, the pectinations elonga-
ted in the males, and short in the females. Palpi more or less elongated and re-
curved. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Caudal tuft minute or wanting in the
greater number. Posterior tibiae with three or four spurs of moderate size.
From this Synopsis it will be seen that the divisions and arrangement which I
have adopted, differ somewhat from those of the entomologists of the present time.
The affinities or resemblances of the Lepidoptera, in their different states, are so
various, that it is impossible to preserve a natural connection between them in a
linear series. After repeated trials, I have concluded still to adhere to the views
of our great masters in Entomology, Linneus and Fabricius, especially as modern
entomologists are by no means agreed upon the limits of the larger divisions of the
Lepidoptera, and the order of the genera.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April—-July, 1839. 37
290 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. L.
SPHINGES. L.
Crepuscularia. Latr. Clostérocéres. Duméril. HHétéroceres.
Boisduval. (Part. )
. Tribe I. SPHINGES LEGITIMZ. L.
Family I.. SPHINGIADA. H. The Sphingians.
§ Alis angulatis. L.
Genus I. Smerinruus. Lattr.
* Antenne transversely biciliated beneath in the males.
1. S. excecata. Smith—Abbot. ’
Fawn-colored ; fore-wings deeply scalloped and toothed on the
outer edge, clouded and banded with brown; hind-wings rose-
colored in the middle, with a large round eye-like black spot,
having a pale blue centre, near the anal angle ; fringes narrow,
white; thorax with a central lance-shaped chestnut-colored spot,
the point of which extends upon the head. Expands two anda
half to three inches anda half. Marva granulated, apple-green,
‘with two short pale lines before, seven oblique yellowish white
lines on each side, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds upon the
leaves of the apple-tree, and upon those of Rosa Carolina also,
according to Abbot, who (in his Insects of Georgia, p. 49, pl. 25,)
has represented a variety of the larva of a yellow color, and green-
ish at the sides, which are obliquely banded with yellow, and
have two longitudinal rows of rust-red spots upon them. It en-
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Pupa_chestnut-
brown, with a short obtuse anal spine.
2. S. Astylus. Drury. = imtegerrima. H. Catalogue Ins.
Mass.* ‘ :
Cinnamon-colored; fore-wings angulated but entire, tinged
with rosy white at base, with whitish wavy bands near the tip, a
bluish mark along the inner margin, and a tawny yellow spot on
each outer angle; hind-wings tawny yellow at base, with a
round black eye-like spot, having a pale blue centre. near the anal
angle; middle of the thorax cinnamon-red, shoulder-covers paler
* Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by 'T. W. Harris; appended to
Prof. Hitchcock’s Report on the Geology, &c. of Massachusetts.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 291
with a rosy white tinge, and a brown edge above ; abdomen with
a longitudinal dorsal brown line. Expands from two and a half
to two inches and three quarters. Le Be
My specimens, a male and a female, were captured at Cam-
bridge on the Azalea viscosa.
3. S. Myops. Smith—-Abbot. = Rosacearum. Boisd.
Chocolate-brown ; fore-wings sinuated and angulated on the
outer edge, varied with wavy whitish and brown bands, with a
white Z at tip, and a tawny yellow spot on each of the outer an-
gles; hind-wings with abbreviated whitish and brown bands
upon the front edge, ochre-yellow next to the body, with a round
black eye-spot having a pale blue centre near the anal angle ;
head and shoulder-covers glossed with bluish white; a rusty
brown stripe in the middle of the thorax; abdomen with a few
tawny yellow spots on each side. Expands from two inches and
three lines to two inches and six lines. Zarva, as figured by Ab-
bot, (Ins. Georg. p. 51, pl. 26,) apple-green, the head margined
with yellow, and two rows of rust-red spots with six oblique yel-
lowish bands on each side of the body. Abbot says that it eats
the leaves of the wild cherry-tree, and buries itself in the ground
to undergo its transformations. Pupa deep brown.
M. Boisduval has named and figured but has not described this
species, in the first volume of his Species Général des Lepidop-
teres, pl. 15, fig. 4; moreover the name given by him is_ subse-
quent to that of Sir J. E. Smith, which is an additional reason
why it cannot be adopted.
* * Antenne pectinated on both sides in the males.
A. S. geminata. Say.
Rosy ash-gray ; fore-wings angulated and with a sinuous outer
margin, varied with transverse wavy rosy gray and brown lines,
a brown spot and angulated band near the middle, and a deep
brown semioval spot at tip; hind-wings rose-colored in the mid-
dle, with a large semioval black spot including two pale blue
spots near the anal angle; thorax with a large central semioval
brown spot. Expands from two and a quarter to more than two
inches and a half.
I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard, of Dublin, N. H.,
for my specimens, both of which are males. The figure of S.
ocellatus Jamaicensis, in Drury’s Illustrations, Vol. IL, pl. 25, fig.
2, 3, very nearly resembles the geminata, but it has only one blue
pupil in the eye-spot of the hind-wings. Mr. Kirby’s §. Cerisiz,
292 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
(Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pl. 4, fig. 4,) is probably identical
with Drury’s species.
* * * Antenne, in the males, with the joints distinct and doubly
bipectinated.
5. S. Juglandis. Smith-Abbot.
Rosy gray, drab, or dusky brown ; wings indented on the outer
edges; fore-wings with a dusky ante margin, a short brownish
dash near the middle, and four transverse brown lines converging
behind and enclosing a square dark brown spot adjacent to the
middle of the inner margin; hind wings with two narrow trans-
verse brown lines between two brownish bands; thorax with a
central brown line; abdominal segments plaited and prominent
at the sides. | Bapands from two and a quarter to three inches.
The females are much larger and of a lighter brownish gray color
than the males, with the square spot on the fore-wings less dis-
tinct. Larva with the head small, and the body attenuated be-
fore and behind, pale blue-green, witha long caudal horn, and
seven oblique white bands on each side. When disturbed it
makes a creaking noise by rubbing together the joints of the fore-
part of its body. It eats the leaves of the black walnut, and en-
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Mr. Abbot (Ins.
Georg. p. 57, pl. 29) has figured a remarkable variety of the larva,
which is of a crimson color, with the fore-part of the body and
the oblique bands yellow. Pupa deep chestnut-brown, granula-
ted, with six little tubercles on the head-case, a transverse row of
acuminated granules on the hinder edges of the abdominal seg-
ments, the last three of which segments are flattened beneath and
angularly dilated at the sides, with the tip broad, truncated, and
~ externally bidentate.
The antenne of the males of this species differ from those of
the preceding in having the joints distinct to the naked eye, and
each joint furnished with two teeth or short pectinations on each
side. Mr. Doubleday presented me with specimens, from Flor-
ida, which differ from our northern specimens only in being of a
darker color.
* * * * Antenne, in the males,
6. S. modesta.. H.
Drab-colored ; fore-wings scalloped, with a transverse dusky
band before the middle ; hind-wings purplish-red in the middle,
deeper red next to the base, and with a blackish spot near the
anal angle. Expands four inches and one quarter.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 293
‘I have never seen but one specimen, which was much rubbed
before it came into my possession. It is a female, with a very
thick and robust body, and simple antennz, and probably is the
North American representative of S. Tile and Quercus.
§ Alis integris, ano simplict. L.
Genus If. Crratomia. H.
I have been induced to propose a new genus for the reception
of a single species, presenting characters, in the larva and winged
state, which do not allow it to be included in the genus Sphinx
as now received. 'The larva of this species, in the possession of
horns on the fore-part of the body, exhibits a peculiarity which
hitherto appears to have been unnoticed or undescribed among
the Sphinges. The name of the genus, derived from gate,
horns, and ule, the shoulder, alludes to this peculiarity. An
analogous and still more imposing form is found in the larvee of
the Phalena, belonging to the genus Ceratocampa.
C. quadricornis. H.
Light brown; fore-wings with zigzag and wavy brown and
whitish bands, dusky in the middle to the inner margin, the an-
terior edge whitish, and alarge white dot near the middle ; hind-
‘wings with three dusky transverse bands, and a broad blackish
hind-border ; fringes dotted with white; head and a broad line
on each side of the thorax to the shoulders white; shoulder-
covers with three and abdomen with five longitudinal brown
lines. Expands four and a half to nearly five inches. Larva
pale blue-green, longitudinally wrinkled, with a pair of short
denticulated horns on the second segment, a similar pair on the
third, two parallel series of little teeth on the first four segments,
a dorsal row of larger teeth extending to the tail, a long bluish
caudal horn, and seven narrow oblique white lines on each side
of the body. It feeds upon the leaves of Ulmus Americana,
and transforms in the earth.
Genus III Sruix. L.
* Tongue-case of the pupa detached from the breast.
1. S. cingulata. F. = Convolvuli. Smith—Abbot.
Dark ash-gray, variegated with brown, body beneath white ;
middle of the hind-wings pink, with three or four black bands ;
fringes of the wings spotted with white; and five pink-colored
spots separated by short transverse black lines on each side of
294 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
the abdomen. Expands about four inches. Larva, as represent-
ed by Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 63, pl. 32) dark brown, with a dou-
ble chain-like rust-red dorsal line, a paler lateral line, a series
of eight hook-shaped yellowish spots on each side enclosing the
spiracles, and a short curved horn on the tail. Eats the leaves of
the sweet potato (Convolvulus batatas,) and enters the earth to
undergo its transformation. Pupa with a long hooked tongue-
case spirally recurved at its extremity. Inhabits the Middle and
Southern States.
I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston, S. C., for
a specimen. ©
2. S. Carolina. L.
Ash-gray ; fore-wings with blackish wavy lines; hind-wings
whitish in the middle, with four black bands, the two central
ones narrow and jagged ; fringes spotted with white; five orange-
colored spots encircled with black on each side of the abdomen ;
and the tongue excessively long. Expands about five inches.
Larva apple-green, transversely wrinkled, with seven oblique
white lines on each side, and a rust-colored caudal horn. Com-
monly known by the names of potato-worm and tobacco-worm,
from the plants on which it is found; transforms deep in the
earth. Pupa with along tongue-case, curved near the head,
straight and touching the breast only at the end, representing the
handle of a vase.
3. S. Drupiferarum. Smith—Abbot.
Pale reddish-gray ; fore-wings with a dark brown band ex-
tending from the inner margin to the tip, and crossed by slender
black lines between the nervures ;* hind-wings with two trans-
verse blackish bands; thorax dark chestnut, with the sides and
the head white; abdomen dark brown above, with a slender
dorsal black line and about five whitish lateral spots margined
with black. Expands three anda half to four inches. Larva,
according to Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 71, pl. 36) apple-green, with
seven oblique lateral bands, which are violet above and white
below, a line on each side of the head and the caudal horn vio-
let. Feeds on the leaves of the Celtis and plum, and is trans-
formed in the earth. Pupa, like that of S. Ligustrz, with a short
tongue-case detached from the breast:
* The veins, or elevated and branching lines on the wings of insects, are called
nervures by Mr. Kirby.
ad
%
Catalogue of North American ileal 295
4, §. Kalmie. Smith—Abbot.
_ Rusty-buff; fore-wings streaked with light ee and with a
narrow whitish band near the outer margin; hind-wings with a
narrow central and a broad marginal blackish band ; fringes
brown spotted with white; shoulder-covers white edged with
brown; abdomen with a slender dorsal black line and short
transverse bands alternately black and white at the sides; be-
neath dull reddish white. Expands three and a half to four and
a quarter inches. Larva, according to Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 73,
pl. 37) pale green, with seven oblique yellow bands, edged above
with violet, on each side, the caudal horn and a line on each side
of the head blue, and the hinder pair of legs yellow. Feeds on
the leaves of Kalnua latifolia, and transforms in the earth. Pu-
pa witha short detached tongue-case.
5). S. Gordius. Cramer.
Brownish ash-gray; fore-wings streaked with black between
the nervures, with the anterior and inner margin dusky-brown, a
white dot near the middle, and a large gray spot at base ; fringe
spotted with white ; hind-wings with a narrow central and a
broad marginal dusky brown band, and a white fringe; thorax
deep chestnut, with the sides and the head above whitish ; ab-
domen with a central black line, and the sides ash-white. trans-
versely banded with black. Expands three to three inches and
a half. Larva apple-green, with seven oblique white lateral
bands, slightly edged above with violet, a rust-red caudal horn,
and a brownish line on each side of the head. It lives on the
apple-tree, and enters the earth to be transformed. Pupa witha
very short detached tongue-case.
6. S. cinerea. H.
Ash-gray ; fore-wings long, narrow, and entire, with five short
oblique lines between the nervures ; hind-wings with two black-
ish bands; shoulder-covers slightly edged with black above ; ab-
domen with a narrow dorsal black line, and short alternate bands
of black and dirty white on the sides. Expands four and a half
to five inches and a quarter.
The specimens from which this description is taken were
raised many years ago from larvee, which, at the time, I neglect-
ed to figure and describe. 'T’o the best of my recollection, these
larvee were found on the lilac, and, with the pupz, corresponded
very nearly in form, color, and size, to those of the European S.
296 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
Ligustri. 'The present species is remarkable for the length and
sharpness of the wings, which are of a fine neutral gray tint, and
for the prominence of the head and palpi.
* * Tongue-case of the Page not detached, but buried, and sol-
dered to the breast.
7. S. sordida. H.
Dark gray ; fore-wings variegated with dark bone dashed
with a few blackish lines, and with a whitish dot near the mid-
dle; hind-wings with a blackish basal spot, and two broad. black
bands ; a dark brown line on each shoulder-cover ; abdomen with
a dorsal black line, and alternate black and light gray bands on
the sides. Expands two inches and three quarters.
Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to
me, I judge from analogy that it belongs to this division of the
genus Sphinx.
8. S. Hyleus. Drury.=Prini. Smith—Abbot.
Rusty brown; fore-wings mottled with white, banded with
jagged dark iow lines, with a white dot near the middle, and
a spot of the same color at tip; hind-wings whitish with a nar-
row indented brown band across the middle, and a broad one on
the outer margin; fringes spotted with white; a whitish line
above the eyes extending on each side of the thorax; two lon-
gitudinal rows of white dots on the top of the abdomen, and a
series of short narrow white bands on each side. Expands two
and a quarter to two inches and three quarters. Larva pea-
green, with six or seven oblique lateral whitish bands edged
above with pink, a purple caudal horn, and a pale blue line on
each side of the head. It feeds on the leaves of Prinos glaber
and various species of Vacciniwm, and enters the earth to be
transformed.
This insect is much like the Brontes of Drury, whieh how-
ever, is a much larger species, more distinctly andi with
white, &c.
9. 8. Pldbeia: F.
Gray ; fore-wings with a white dot near the middle, and five
or six short oblique blackish lines between the nervures; hind-
wings sooty black, dirty white at base; fringes white, spotted
with dark brown; abdomen with three black lines, one dorsal,
and two on each side, the latter enclosing a longitudinal series of
dirty white spots. Expands three inches. Inhabits the Southern
States.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 297
The only specimen which I have seen was taken by Prof.
Hentz in North Carolina, and now belongs to the Boston mace
ety of Natural History. ;
10. 8. Coniferarum. Smith—Abbot. “leh ie
Gray ; fore-wings with about three narrow and indented
brownish bands, a spot near the middle, one or two streaks be-
yond the middle, and the nervures near the outer margin brown ;
hind-wings dusky or blackish gradually fading into gray towards
the base ; fringes spotted with brown and white; abdomen gray
with brownish incisures. Expands one inch and three quarters
to two inches and three quarters. Sarva, as figured by Abbot,
(Ins. Georg. p. 83, pl. 42,) chequered with brown and white spots,
with a dorsal whitish line, and a short caudal horn. It eats the
leaves of various kinds of pine, and enters the earth to transform.
Mr. Leonard informs me that the tongue-case of the Pupa is
_ short, and buried so as not to rise above the leg-cases.
- For my specimen I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard,
who raised it from a larva found on the pine in Burlington, Vt.
In the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there is
a larger specimen, which was taken in North Carolina by Prof.
Hentz; the bands on the wings in the latter are less distinct than
in my specimen.
11. 3S. Lillo. La.
Gray ; fore-wings slightly indented on the outer margin, with
afew irregularly scattered black dots, and a blackish stripe ex-
tending from the base to the tip; hind-wings rust-red,; with a
broad black hind-border; thorax with five longitudinal black
lines, and abdomen on each side banded with black. In the fe-
male the blackish stripe on the fore-wings and the lines on the
thorax are usually wanting or indistinct. Expands three and a
quarter to four inches. Inhabits the Southern States, the West
Indies, and South America.
In the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there
is a specimen of this tropical insect, which was captured by Prof.
Hentz in the interior of North Carolina, where eventually the spe-
cies may become common. According to Madam Merian (In-
sectes de Surinam, page and plate 61) the Jarva, in Surinam,
lives on the leaves of a species of Psidiwm or Guava, is of an ob-
scure brown color, with a black dorsal line, some small irregular
white spots on the sides, and the head and caudal horn purple.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 38
298 ~ Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
The tongue-case of the pupa, from the figure, seems to be short
and soldered to the breast. From the shape of its body and
wings, this insect must belong to a very distinct group in the
Linnean genus Sphinx; but, without knowing more of the larva
‘and its transformations, I do not feel authorized to separate it
from the present genus.
Genus IV. Putwampetus. H.
The insects belonging to this genus cannot with propriety be
included in the genus Cherocampa of Duponchel, or Metopsilus
of Duncan, to which they approach the nearest ; and, therefore,
I have considered it proper to institute a new genus for their
reception. - They, indeed, seem to forma characteristic and typi-
cal group, peculiar to the New World, being found only in the
United States, Mexico, the West Indies, and the tropical parts of
South America. The larvee feed chiefly on the vine and the
plants allied to it, which suggested the name of the genus, de-
rived from gutew, I love, and dunehos, a grape-vine. In those spe-
cies whose transformations have passed under my own obser-
vation, the larvee when young were furnished with a long slen-
der caudal horn, recurved over the back like the tail of a dog;
when about half grown, the caudal horn is shed with the skin,
and is replaced by a prominent, eye-like, polished spot. The
oblique spots on the sides of these larvee slope downwards and
backwards ; this is also the direction of the bands in the larvee
of Pterogon ; but in those of all the other Sphinges the oblique
lateral bands slope upwards and backwards. 'The pupa is elon-
gated, attenuated at the fore-part, with a pretty long, robust,
rough, anal horn, notched at the tip; the tongue-case is buried
and soldered to the breast, and slightly longer than the wing-
cases; and the fore-part nf the abdominal rings is roughened
with deep punctures. In the perfect state, the fore-wings are en-
tire, acute, slightly emarginated below the tip in the males, and
almost faleated, with a sinous inner margin, and well-marked
hind-angle; the outer margin of the hind-wings is undulated or
slightly crenated; the shoulder-covers are large; and the abdo-
men is short, thick, conical, and usually immaculate. Madame
Merian in her Insectes de Surinam, plates 34 and 47, has repre-
sented the transformations of three species of this genus; and
two are also figured by Mr. Abbot in the Insects of Geom, plates
AO and 41.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 299
tl? Vitiss\ Vases
Grayish flesh-colored ; fore-wings, except the anterior and
outer margins, dark olive, with a broad stripe from base to tip,
crossed by another from the middle of the inner margin, a small
hook-shaped spot near the middle, and the nervures behind, of a
pale flesh-color; hind-wings pale green at base, with the inner
and hinder margins rose-red, a black spot near the middle and a
black transverse band behind; a longitudinal line on the head
and thorax, the shoulder-covers, two broad stripes on the abdo-
men, and a round spot on each side of its base of a dark olive
color. Expands about four inches. Larva, as represented by
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 79, pl. 40,) pale pea-green, longitudinally
striped on the top of the back and transversely at the sides with
brown, and with seven oval, oblique, cream-colored spots on each
side. According to Linneeus and Mad. Merian, it lives on the
grape-vine ; but Mr. Abbot has represented it upon Jussi@a erecta.
Inhabits the Southern States, South America, &c.
This insect fades very much by age, which changes the flesh-
colored portions to a pale reddish buff or nankin color. My spe-
cimens were received from Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston,
S. Carolina.*
2. P. Satellitia. L. = Licaon? Cramer.
Light olive, variegated with dark olive; fore-wings with an
abbreviated band beyond the middle, an oblong patch on the ba-
sal half of the hind margin including a square darker spot, a semi-
oval spot near the tip, and a triangular one near the hind angle,
of a dark olive color, and two approximated brownish dots near
the middle; hind-wings with a black spot near the middle of the
inher margin, and a transverse blackish band behind, obsolete
near the anal angle and ending there in a few small black spots ;
* T have received from Dr: H. B. Hornbeck, King’s physician, in the island of
St. Thomas, W.I., a species which is closely allied to P. Vitis ; and, as it is not
described in any of my books, [ am happy to describe it here under the name of
P. Hornbeckiana.
Above olive-gray ; fore-wings dark olive, with two silvery white stripes crossing
each other in the middle of the wing, the longest stripe toothed near the base of
the wing and obsolete thence to the middle, three of the nervures and a band on
the outer margin whitish, and two approximated black dots near the middle; hind-
wings on the inner margin pink, with a large square olive-colored spot, dusky be-
hind with a black transverse band ; an olive-colored line on the head and thorax ;
the shoulder-covers and first segment of the abdomen olive, bordered with white ;
upper part of the abdomen olive, with a central gray line; outer sides of the legs
and antenne white. Expands about four inches. Inhabits St. Thomas, W. I.
300 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
a slender line on the head and thorax, the shoulder-covers, and.a
transverse patch on the top of the first abdominal segment, dark
olive. Expands from four to four inches and three quarters.
Larva, when young, pea-green, with a slender recurved caudal
horn, and of the same color or of a clear light brown and without
a cil afterwards, with six oblique broad oval cream-colored spots
on each side of the body; feeds on the leaves of indigenous and
exotic grape-vines, and on those of Ampelopsis hederacea, and
enters the earth to transform. .
3. P. Achemon. Drury. = Crantor? F.
Red-ash colored ; fore-wings with a few short transverse brown
lines, and shaded with brown from the middle to the hind mar-
gin, with a square spot near the middle of the inner margin, an-
other near the tip, and a triangular spot near the hind angle, of a
deep brown color ; hind-wings pink, with a deeper red spot near
the inner margin, a dusky hind border, and a transverse row of
small black spots; palpi and a large triangular spot on each shoul-
der-cover deep brown. Expands from three to four inches. Larva
pea-green with a_ slender recurved tail when young, of the same
color or light brown and without a tail subsequently, with six
oblique oblong oval scalloped cream-colored spots on each side.
It eats the leaves of grape-vines and of the common creeper or
Ampelopsis.
This and the preceding species, in the larva state, -are very in-
jurious to our cultivated grape-vines.
Genus V. Cuerocampa. Duponchel.
Metopsilus. Duncan. ¢ Deilephila. (section.) Boisduval.
This genus was established, in 1835, by M. Duponchel,* to
receive certain European Sphinges the larvee of which have the
head and fore-part of the body retractile, the head being very
small, and the first three segments abruptly diminishing in size
from the fourth, which gives to the fore-part of the body a re-
semblance to the head and snout of a hog. Hence the French
name of these larvee, cochonnes, and the generical name proposed
by Duponchel, which is derived from yoigos, a hog, and xéury, a
caterpillar. 'This peculiarity in the form of the larvee seems to
-have suggested to Linnzeus the names that he has given to two
* Godart and Duponchel. Lepidopttres de France. Supplement. Tome II, p.
159. (1835.)
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 301
of the species, to wit, porcellus, the pig, and Elpenor, the name
_of one of the companions of Ulysses, who was changed to a hog
by Circe. In the year 1836, Mr. Duncan,* probably not aware of
the previous establishment of this genus, pointed out its charac-
ters under the name of Metopsilus, derived from mérwnoy, the
front, and wilds, slender, in allusion to the form of this part of the
larva. These naturalists, in separating this new group from the
genus Sphinz, or rather from Deilephila, seem to have had only
European insects under consideration ; but in America there are
several species, which, so far as similarity of form and habits, in
all their states, indicates a natural affinity, ought certainly to be
included in the same generical group, from which, however, they
will be excluded unless the characters of the genus are somewhat
modified to receive them. Believing the genus to be a good one,
and susceptible of modification, I have changed the characters of
it in the synopsis prefixed to this catalogue, so as to admit our
American species. In C. Pampinatriz, Cherilus, and versicolor,
the antenne are rather short and slender, arcuated, and end ina
very long slender hook; the fore-wings have the outer and inner
margins sinuous, so as to exhibit prominent outer and hinder an-
gles; the hind-wings have a sinuous hind-margin, and a promi-
nent angle near the tail; and the abdomen is rather short, and
conical at tip. The darve of the first two of these species have
the eleventh segment conically prolonged above, forming a base
for a very short slightly curved caudal horn, and the sides of the
body are marked with oblique bands sloping upwards and back-
wards. They transform above ground, under fallen leaves, or
slightly covered with grains of earth, connected by a few threads,
so as to form a loose imperfect cocoon. The pupa is short, thick,
obtusely rounded before, with the tongue-case imbedded, indis-
tinct, and nearly as long as the wing-cases; the tail is rather
blunt, and ends in a long, slender point, which, under a mag-
nifier, is found to be rough, and notched at the tip.
1. C. Pampinatriz. Smith—Abbot.
Light olive-gray above, shaded with olive ; fore-wings with a
dot near the middle, a transverse band near the base, a broader
band beyond the middle and a large triangular spot adjacent to
each acute angle and almost forming a third band, of an olive
color; hind-wings rust-colored, dusky behind, and gray next the
* Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library. Entomology. Vol. iv, p. 154. (1886.)
302 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
anal angle; head and shoulder-covers dark olive ; and a white
line on each side of the thorax at the origin of the wings. Ex-
pands two and a half to two inches and three quarters. Larva pale
sreen, with a longitudinal series of six triangular orange-colored
spots on the top of the back and a darker green lateral line; sides
below this paler, almost white, sprinkled with rusty dots, and
with six oblique green bands; caudal horn short, bluish green.
It varies in being of a clear light brown color, with the back~
bounded on each side by a darker longitudinal line, meeting at —
the origin of the caudal horn, the sides tinged with pink, and
obliquely banded with brown. Feeds on the leaves of the grape-
vine. Pupa clay-colored, sprinkled and punctured with black,
and with the incisures of the abdomen black. --
Mr. Abbot, on plate 28 of his Insects of Georgia, has represen-
ted this larva with the caudal horn too long and too much curved,
and the eleventh segment not so much produced behind as it
ought to be. This species, in the winged state, comes very near
to Cramer’s Sphinx Myron, which, from the figure, seems to
want the spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and, according to
Cramer, has a very short tongue, a character that does not apply
to the Pampinatriz. The larva, above described, is one of the
most injurious to our cultivated grape-vines; for, not satisfied
with devouring the leaves, it nips off the fruit-stalks when the
grapes are not more than half grown. I have gathered under a
single grape-vine above a quart of unripe grapes which had been
detached thus during one night by these larvee.
2. C. Cherilus. Cramer. = Azalee. Smith Abbot
Rust-colored ; fore-wings rusty gray tinged with blue, with a
dot near the middle, a few spots between it and the base, and a
very broad band beyond the middle, rust-colored ; hind-wings
rust-colored, dusky near the anal angle, with a whitish fringe; a
spot at the sides and a slender line on the top of the thorax, the
edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal segments
white. In the male the broad band of the fore-wings is marked
by a pale and a dark zigzag line so as nearly to divide it into two
bands. Expands two and a half to three inches. Larva, as rep-.
resented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 53, pl. 27,) varying in color,
being either pale green, with a narrow dusky dorsal line, a green-
ish line on each side, a blue-green caudal horn, and the sides
obliquely banded with green; or clear pale red, with the lines
and bands brownish, and the horn chestnut-colored. Mr. Abbot
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. — 303
says that it lives on. Azalea nudiflora, and that it spins itself up
in a thin web on the leaves. Pupa like that of C. Pampinairiz.
3. C. versicolor. H. .
Light olive, variegated with olive-green and white ; fore-wings
with narrow curved bands of white and olive-green, and a zigzag
white line at tip; hind-wings rust-colored, with the inner and
hind margin olive-green ; tips of the palpi, a line on each side of
the head above the eyes, a longitudinal dorsal line from the front
to the tail, and the edges of the collar and of the shoulder-covers,
white ; two spots on the metathorax and the abdominal segments -
on each side of the dorsal line tinged with dark buff. Expands
about three inches.
Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to
me, I have ventured to place it in the genus Cherocampa. The
palpi are rather thicker towards the tip than those of the two pre-
ceding species ; the fore-wings are not quite so much emarginated,
and consequently, their angles are not quite so prominent. The
under-side is quite as prettily variegated as the upper-side; that
of the fore-wings being pale olive, tinged with deep buff near the
hind-angle, with rust-red in the middle, and mottled and streaked
with olive-green and white; that of the hind-wings olive-green,
banded with white, dark olive, and buff. My specimen was taken
sitting upon the leaves of Azalea viscosa ; it was quite fresh, and
seemed to have been recently transformed.
Dr. Hornbeck has presented to me a species, from St. Thomas,
resembling the versicolor very nearly in color and form; but the
palpi are more prominent, the antenne are not so much arcuated,
and the terminal hook is much shorter. It evidently leads to the
genus Deilephila.
A. CG. tersa. Vi.
Grayish olive above ; fore-wings streaked from base to tip with
numerous narrow dusky and pale lines, and with a minute black
dot near the middle; hind-wings black, paler round the edges, .
with the anal angle and the fringe cream-colored, and a trans-
verse row of small wedge-shaped cream-colored spots near the
hind-margin ; a reddish white line on the sides of the head and
thorax ; shoulder-covers slightly edged above with rust-red ; sides
of the abdomen, and the body and wings beneath, rusty buff,
streaked and sprinkled with dusky olive-gray. Expands two and
three quarters to three inches. Larva, according to Abbot, (Ins.
Georg. p. 75, pl. 38,) pea-green or brown, with seven white eye-
304 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
like spots having a red centre and a black margin and connected
by a longitudinal white line, on each side of the body, and a red.
caudal horn. — It lives on Spermacocce Hyssopifolia, and, like the
other species, is transformed in an imperfect cocoon which it spins
-above ground. Pupa clay-colored, freckled with dusky spots. It
inhabits the Southern States, the West Indies, and South America.
I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook of Charleston, S. C., and
to Dr. H. B. Hornbeck, of St. Thomas, W. L, for specimens.
The antenne are straight, with a shorter terminal hook than in
the three preceding species; the outer margin of the fore-wings
is not so sinuous, and the abdomen is much more elongated, slen-
der and pointed. It may be necessary, hereafter, to institute a
new genus for the reception of this and several other closely al-
lied West-Indian and South-American species.
Genus VI. Dertrpnita. Ochsenheimer.
1. D. lineata. F. = Daucus. Cramer.
Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a pale buff-colored stripe from
the base of the inner margin to the tip, crossed by six white lines
on the nervures, the outer margin ash-gray, the fringe and edge
of the inner margin white; hind-wings rose-pink, with a white
spot near the inner margin, a black band at base, another near the
hind-margin, and the fringe, white ; a white line on each side of
the head above the eyes, and six lines, of the same color, placed in
pairs, on the thorax; two rows of small black spots and a slender
dorsal white line on the top.of the abdomen, the sides reddish,
with a short transverse black band on each side of the first ab-
dominal segment, and a white band behind it, followed by a lat-
eral series of alternately black and white spots. Expands from
three to four inches. Larva pea-green, with a longitudinal series
of nine or ten orange-colored oval spots encircled with black, on
each side, and an orange-colored caudal horn. Feeds upon the
leaves of the purslane and turnip, and of various other humble
plants, and buries itself in the ground to undergo its transforma-
tions. Pupa light brown.
Contrary to what is usual among our Sphinges, there are two
broods of this species in the course of one summer. ‘This is the
true Sphinx lineata of Fabricius, described by him as an Ameri-
ean insect in his “ Systema Entomologie.” His description of
the thorax, “ strizs tribus albis duplicatis,” applies exactly to our
insect, and not to the Livornica of Europe, with which it is often
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 305
confounded, and which has only four white lines instead of six,
on the thorax. The larva of the latter, moreover, differs from
that of our lineata. Dr. Hornbeck has sent to me from St.
Thomas, W. I., specimens which vary a little, but are not speci-
fically distinct from the lineata of the United States.
2. D. Chamenerii. H. = E’pilobu. H. (Catalogue.)
Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a sinuous buff-colored stripe,
indented before, beginning near the base of the inner margin and
extending to the tip, and a dark olive-brown tapering stripe behind
it, a black spot at base, a white dash and a diamond-shaped black-
ish spot before the middle ; hind- wings dark brown, with a trans-
verse rose-colored band, including a white spot near the body and
_ a deep red one before the anal angle ; inner edge of the fore-wings
and fringe of the hind-wings whitish; palpi white below; a
white line above each eye extending on the sides of the thorax,
where it is bounded above by a black line; abdomen with a dor-
sal series of white dots, two black and two alternating white
bands on each side of the base, and two narrow transverse white
lateral lines near the tip; segments beneath edged with white.
Expands from two and three quarters to three inches. Larva
green, somewhat bronzed, dull red beneath; with nine round
cream-colored spots, encircled with black, on each side, and a dull
red caudal horn. It lives on the E’pilobiwm angustifolium, and
(as Mr. Leonard informs me) transforms in the ground, without
making a cocoon. Inhabits New Hampshire.
The larva very closely resembles that of D. G'alit, as figured
by Roesel, III, Tab. VI, Fig. 1,2. For a specimen of it, and
for the insects in the winged state, [am indebted to Mr. Leonard,
by whom they were raised. ‘This species is the American rep-
resentative of D. Gali, and is also allied to several other Euro-
pean species, such as D. E'pilobu, E'sule, Amelia, Tithymali,
Dahlu, Euphorbia, &c.; but I am satisfied that it is perfectly dis-
tinct from all of them; and the long description which I have
given of it will render it easy to discover in what respects it differs
from them. Moreover it is a legitimate species, which is more than
can be said of all of the above-named European insects, some of
which are now admitted to be hybrids. Mr. Kirby (Fauna Bo-
reali-Americana, IV, p. 302,) describes a North American species,
under the name of D. intermedia, which, according to him, has
the stripe on the fore-wings of a pale rose color, and wants the
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 39
ty
.
306 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
dorsal series of white dots on the abdomen; in other respects it
seems nearly allied to the Chamenerii. When my Catalogues of
the Insects of Massachusetts were published I was not aware that
the specific name E’pilobii had been previously appropriated ; for
the species to which I then applied it I have now substituted
that of Chamenerii derived from Tournefort’s name for the genus
Epilobium.
§ Legitime ano barbato. L.
Family Il. MACROGLOSSIADE. H. The Macroglossians.
Sesiide. Stephens. Sesiade. Kirby.
* Wings angulated and indented ; antenne tapering at the end,
with a long terminal hook.
Genus VII. Prerocon. Boisduval.
P:2 inscriptum. H.
Ash-gray ; wings angularly indented ; first pair with two dusky
bands near the base, connected on the inner margin by a blackish
line, a few undulated and zigzag transverse lines beyond the mid-
dle, a dusky outer margin, a half-oval brown spot at tip, anda
small deep brown patch including a white I near the tip; hind-
wings reddish gray, with a dusky hind-margin; collar edged
with brown; abdomen with two dorsal series of black dots. Ex-
pands two inches. Inhabits Indiana.
- Of this species I have seen only two individuals, both females, ~
having rather long slender and simple antenne, attenuated and
curved so as to form a hook at the end. In the shape of the
wings and distribution of the colors this insect nearly resembles
some species of Smerinthus, from which genus it is excluded by
the length of the tongue, which nearly equals that of the body.
Pierogon Gaure, which I suppose to be the only legitimate spe-
cies of the genus that has yet been discovered in the United
States, is known to me only by Mr. Abbot’s figure.
Genus VIII. T’'uyreus. Swainson.
1. T. luguobris. L.
Brown; wings sinuated and slightly angulated on the outer
edge ; first pair with an oblique streak and an eye-like dot before
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 307
the middle, and a large triangular brown patch near the tip ; hind-
wings with two or three obscure transverse brown lines; male
with a triple-tufted tail. Expands two and a half to three
inches.. Inhabits the Southern States. Larva pale green, with
three darker longitudinal dorsal lines, nine oblique yellowish
bands on each side, and a long, slender, nearly straight caudal
horn. Mr. Abbot, from whose figure (Ins. Geog. p. 59, pl. 30)
this description of the larva-is taken, says that it feeds on Virgin-
ian creeper, Ampelopsis Hederacea, and that it enters the earth to
transform. 'The pupa is elongated, chestnut-brown, with a short.
anal point.
My specimen of this insect was presented to me by Dr. J. E.
Holbrook. It is closely allied to several South American species,
figured by Cramer, such as his Fegeus, Gorgon, &c.; and, in-
deed, the F'egeus may prove to be identical with it.
M. Boisduval (Icones Hist. des Lépidopteres d’Europe nou-
veaux, Vol. II, p. 15) refers the Gorgon of Cramer [?] to his genus
Pterogon; but, in my opinion, the genus 7hyreus of Swainson,
besides having the priority in point of time, is entitled to rank as
a distinct genus. Is the European Gorgon of Esper, Hubner,
and Ochsenheimer, quoted in Mr. Children’s Abstract of the
Characters of Ochsenheimer’s Genera (Philos. Mag. N. 8. Vol. V,
p- 37), the same as the Surinam species named Gorgon by Cra-
mer? Andif not, is M. Boisduval’s citation of Cramer’s name
correct ?
2. T. Abbot. = Abbotii. Swainson.
Chocolate-brown; wings very much indented on the outer
edge ; first pair with wavy and oblique blackish brown streaks,
and a black dot near the middle; hind-wings yellow, with a
broad blackish brown hind-border; edge of the collar and a trans-
verse stripe across the thorax black ; abdomen banded with black
at base, tufted at the sides of the hinder segments, and terminated
by a triple-tufted rust-colored tail. Expands from two and one
third to nearly three inches. Larva, as figured by Abbot,
(Swainson’s Zoological Illustrations, Part I, pl. 60) pea-green,
with narrow dorsal brown lines, nine lateral oblique yellowish
bands broadly bordered above with brown, and a long slender
slightly curved caudal horn. It feeds on the grape-vine. Pupa
chestnut-brown, with two yellowish abdominal incisures.
308 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
This species is not uncommon in the Southern States, and I
have one specimen which was taken in Cambridge, Mass.
3. T? Nessus. Cramer.
Dark brown; fore-wings with a sinuous and angular outer
edge, a pleciests brown band across the middle, another near the
outer margin, and a small rust-red spot near the tip; hind-wings
rust-red, with a dark brown hind-border; abdomen with two
pale yellow bands behind the middle, four rust-red spots on each
side, and a triple-tufted tail. Expands from two to two inches
and a quarter..
Of this species I have seen only females, in which the antenne
are similar to those of the same sex in 7. Abbotiz. The palpi,
however, are more acuminated, and approach in form to those of
Sesia Pelasgus, &c. It ought, perhaps, to be included in anew
genus, which, without a knowledge of the larva and pupa, I shall
not venture to propose.
* * Wings entire; antenne thickened towards the end, with
a minute terminal hook.
Genus [X. Sesia. F. (Syst. Gloss.)
1. S. Pelasgus. Cramer.
Wings transparent and iridescent, with a broad purple-brown
border and nervures; antenne and palpi, above, blue-black;
head and thorax olive; breast and legs eream-white ; abdomen
purple-brown below, ochre-yellow above, with the two middle
segments and a spot behind them purple-brown, and three lateral
_ white spots; tip with a central fan-shaped brown tail, and two
black tufts on each side of it. Expands from two to two inches
and one quarter.
2. P. diffinis. Boisduval. = fuciformis. Smith—Abbot.
Wings transparent and iridescent, with a narrow blackish bor-
der and nervures, and a rust-red spot at tip; antenne and palpi
black above ; thorax and breast covered with pale yellow hairs ;
abdomen black above, with two longitudinal patches of yellow
hairs, the two middle segments black, the next two covered with
yellow hairs, and the tip with a fan-shaped tail, which is yellow
in the middle and tufted with black on each side. Expands from
one inch and three quarters to two inches. Larva, according to
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 85, pl. 43.) pale pea-green, reddish beneath,
with a longitudinal dorsal line, a lateral pale yellow stripe, and a
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 309
short recurved caudal horn. In Georgia, it feeds upon the Ta-
bernemontana Amsonia, and forms an imperfect cocoon on the
surface of the ground. Pupa brown with the abdominal incisures
ochre-yellow.
My specimens were presented to me by Mr. Leonard, who cap-
tured them in New Hampshire, where the Tabernemontana does
not grow. ‘The larva must, therefore, be sought upon some other
plant; perhaps it may be found upon the Apocynum. M. Bois-
duval has named and given a figure of this species in his Hist.
Nat. des Insectes Lépidoptéres, Vol. I, pl. 15, fig. 2; and, as it is
evidently distinct from the European fuciformis, I have retained
the name proposed by M. Boisduval, although he has not estab-
lished a claim to it by any description of the insect. Mr. Kirby’s
S. ruficaudis ( Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 303,) is evidently different
from this species, and comes nearer to the Pelasgus, to which,
however, the description does not very weil apply, in many
respects.
Family I. AGERIADA. H. The Aigerians.
Genus X. T’rocuitium. (Scop.) Stephens.
Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. Zigeria. F. (Syst. Glossat. )
1. ZT. marginatum. H.
Black ; wings transparent; first pair with a broad onder the
tip, and a transverse band beyond the middle pale brown; hind-
wings with a broad black fringe; antenne black; two acre
dinal lines on the thorax, hind margins of the abdominal seg-
ments, orbits, palpi, and legs, except at base, yellow. Expands
rather more than one inch and a quarter.
This insect was taken in New-Hampshire, and presented to me
by the Rev. L. W. Leonard.
2. T. tibiale. H.
Brownish ; wings transparent; first pair with a narrow border
and an abbreviated band beyond the middle pale brown ; hind-
wings with a narrow brownish fringe; antennze black; orbits,
two lines on the thorax, edges of the abdominal segments, and
tibie yellow; hindmost tibize thickly covered with yellow hairs,
Expands one inch anda half. The yellow bands on the abdo-
men are much narrower and less bright than in the marginatum.
Found in New-Hampshire on the Populus candicans, and pre-
sented to me by Mr. Leonard.
310 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
3. T. denudatum. = (> ~
Chestnut-brown ; fore- -wings opaque, with a large epaeulst
transparent spot ae to the outer hind-angle, a rust-red spot
at base and another near the middle; hind-wings transparent,
with the margin and fringe brown, and a rust-red costal spot ;
orbits, edges of the collar, incisures of the abdomen, tibize, and
tarsi dull yellow; antenne brownish above, rust-yellow at tip
and beneath. Expands from one inch and a quarter to more than
one inch and a half. The transparent spots at the tips of the
fore-wings have the appearance of being caused by the removal
of the colored scales.
The specimens, from which the descriptions of these three spe-
cies are drawn up, had become somewhat oily, and it is possible
that some of their characteristic markings may have become ob-
literated. ,
Genus XI. Aicerta. F. (Syst. Glossat.)
Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. Trochihum. Scopoli.
1. Z. tricincta. H. (Catalogue.)
Blue-black ; fore-wings opaque ; hind-wings transparent, with
the border, fringe, and a short transverse line near the middle
black ; palpi at tip, collar, a spot on each shoulder, and three
bands on the abdomen yellow; antennz short, black ; four pos-
terior tibia banded with orange ; tarsi yellow, tipped with black ;
tail flat, with two longitudinal yellow lines. Expands from one
inch to one inch and two lines.
This species seems to come near to the European Asiliformis ;
but the male has only three yellow abdominal bands; while in
the Asiliformis there are five bands in the male sex. The an-
tenn are shorter and thicker than in the following species, and
are furnished beneath with a double row of short pectinations or
teeth, which are thickly fringed with hairs. 'The sexes were
captured together upon the common tansy.
2. AS. Cucurbite. H. (New-England Farmer.)
Fore-wings opaque, lustrous olive-brown ; hind-wings transpa-
rent, with the margin and fringe brown ; antenne greenish black ;
palpi pale yellow, with a little black tuft near the tip; thorax
olive ; abdomen deep orange, with a transverse basal black band,
and a longitudinal row of five or six black spots; tibiee and tarsi
of the hind-legs thickly fringed on the inside with black, and on
basta
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 311
the outside with long orange-colored hairs; spurs covered with
white hairs. Expands from thirteen to fifteen lines. Larva,
similar in form and color to those of other species of the genus,
lives in the pith of squash and pumpkin vines, which it leaves at
the root, and forms in the ground a cocoon composed of grains of
earth cemented by a gummy matter. Pupa, by the aid of the
abdominal denticulations, almost entirely excluded from the co-
coon during the last transformation.
The sudden death of the squash-vines, during midsummer, is
occasioned by the ravages of the larva of this insect. For further
particulars relating to it, a communication, by the author, in the
New-England Farmer, Vol. VIII, p. 53, for 1828, may be con-
sulted. This species seems to be closely allied to, but sufficiently
distinct from the tzbzals of Drury, and the Bombiliformis of
Cramer.
3. 44. caudata. H. = fulvicornis. H.* (Catalogue. )
Brown ; ma/e with the fore-wings transparent from the base to
the middle; hind-wings transparent, with a brownish border,
fringe, and subcostal spot ; antenne, palpi, collar, and tarsi tawny
. yellow; hind-legs yellow, end of the tibiz and first tarsal joint
fringed with tawny yellow and black hairs; tail slender, cylindri-
cal, nearly as long as the body, tawny yellow, with a little black
tuft on each side at base.. The female differs from the male in hav-
_ ing the fore-wings entirely opaque; the hind-legs black, with a
rusty spot in the middle of the tibie, and fringed with black; cau-~
dal tuft of the ordinary form and size. Expands from one inch
to one inch and three lines. Larva inhabits the stems of our
indigenous currant, Ribes Floridum.
The Zygena caudata, of Fabricius, has a somewhat similar
tail, but does not belong to the genus #igeria.
4. 42. Syfinge. H.
Brown ; fore-wings with a transparent line at base ; hind-wings
transparent, with a brown border, fringe, and subcostal spot ; an-
tenne, palpi, collar, first and second pairs of tarsi, and middle of
the intermediate tibie rust-red ; middle of the tibie and the tarsi
of the hind-legs yellow. Expands one inch and two lines. Larva
lives in the trunks of Syringa vulgaris, the common lilac.
* Credited to Mr. Say, in the Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by
mistake.
312 Catalogue of ee American Sphinges.
5. AN. exitiosa. Say.
Steel-blue ; male with the wings transparent, the margins od
fringes, and a band beyond the middle of the first pair steel-blue ;
palpi, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal
segments, two bands on the tibie including the spurs, anterior
tarsi, and lateral edges of the wedge-shaped tail pale yellow ;
female with the fore-wings opaque; the hind-wings transparent,
with a broad opaque front-margin and the fringe purple-black ;
antennz, palpi, legs, and abdomen steel-blue, the latter encircled
in the middle by a broad saffron-colored band. Male expands
from nine to thirteen lines ; female from fifteen to seventeen lines.
Larva inhabits the trunks and roots of the peach and cherry
trees, beneath the bark.
The larva is the well-known peach-tree borer, which annually
injures to a great extent or destroys numbers of these trees. For
the means of preventing its ravages, see Say’s Entomology, Vol.
II, and my communication in the New England Farmer, Vol. V,
p. 33. The insects above described, though very dissimilar, are
really the sexes of-one species. I have raised many of them from
the larve, and have also repeatedly captured them, in connection,
on the trunks of peach and cherry trees.
6. 42. fulvipes. H. (Catalogue. )
Blue-black ; wings transparent, margin and fringes, and a trans-
verse band beyond the middle of the first pair blue-black ; anten-
ne black, yellowish at the end; palpi beneath, a spot on the tho-
rax under the origin of the wings, intermediate and hindmost
tibix, all the tarsi, and the basal half of the underside of the ab-
domen orange-colored ; hindmost tibia somewhat thickened by a
covering of tawny hairs. Expands thirteen lines.
7. Aa. Tipuliformis. L.
Blue-black ; wings transparent, with the margin and fringes
blackish ; the first pair with a transverse blue-black band beyond
the middle, and a broad one at tip streaked with copper-color ;
antenne black ; palpi beneath, collar, upper edges of the shoulder-
covers, a spot on each side of the breast, three narrow rings on
the abdomen, ends of the tibie and the spurs pale golden yellow ;
tail fan-shaped, blue-black. - The male has an additional trans-
verse yellow line between the second and third abdominal bands.
Expands from seven and a half to nine inches. Larva lives in
the pith of the currant-bush.
| Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 313
This destructive insect is not a native, but has been introdu-
ced from Europe with the cultivated currant-bush.
8. Ay. scitula. H.
Purple-black ; wings transparent, with the margins golden yel-
low ; the first pair with a narrow purple-brown band beyond the
middle and a broad one at the tip ornamented with golden yel-
low lines; fringes blackish ; front and orbits covered with silvery
white hairs; antenne black; palpi, collar, upper edges of the
shoulder-covers, a narrow band at the base of the abdomen, a dor-
sal spot behind it, a broad band around the middle, the lateral
edges of the fan-shaped tail, anterior coxe, sides of the breast,
tibie and tarsi except at the joints, with the spurs golden yellow.
Expands about eight lines.
This beautiful little species is easily distinguished by the prev-
alence of yellow on the under-side of the body and legs.
9. 47. Pyri. H. (New-England Farmer.)
Purple-black ; wings transparent, with the margins, a narrow
band beyond the middle of the first pair, and a broad one at tip
purple-black, the latter streaked with brassy yellow; antenne
blackish; palpi beneath, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers, a
broad band across the middle of the abdomen, a narrow one be-
fore it, an indistinct transverse line at base, the posterior half of
the abdomen beneath, the sides of the breast, anterior coxe, legs
except the joints of the tibie, and the lateral edges of the wedge-
shaped tail golden yellow. Expands six lines andahalf. Larva
lives under the bark of the pear-tree.
For some further particulars respecting this species, see my_
communication in the New-England Farmer, Vol. IX. p. 2, 1830.
Mr. Edward Doubleday presented me with a new species of
4Eigeria which he captured in Florida, and Dr. J. W. Randall has
still another which was taken in Massachusetts. ‘To these gen-
tlemen belongs the right of first naming and describing these spe-
cies which they have discovered, and I do not feel myself author-
ized to anticipate them.
Genus XII. T'uyris. Illiger.
T. maculata. H. (Catalogue. )
Brownish black, sprinkled with rust-yellow dots; hind-mar-
gins of the wings deeply scalloped, with the edges of the inden-
tations white ; each of the wings with a transparent white spot,
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 40
314 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
which in the fore-wings is nearly oval and slightly narrowed in
the middle, in the hind-wings larger, kidney-shaped and almost
divided in two; palpi beneath, a spot before the anterior coxe,
the tips of the tarsal joints above, and the hind-edges of the last
three or four abdominal segments white. Hexpande from six to
eight lines.
This species comes very near to the fenestrata of Europe, but
is sufficiently distinct from it.
Mr. Doubleday has presented to me a much larger species of
Thyris, which was captured by him in Florida, and was new to
my collection. There isa figure of it in M. Boisduval’s Hist.
Nat. Ins. Lépidopt. Vol. I, pl. 14, where it is named 7. lugubris.
This name has not yet received the proper sanction of a descrip-
tion ; but, taking into consideration the circumstances under
which this nondescript came into my possession, I do not think
proper to describe it myself at this time.
Tribe Il. SPHINGES ADSCITZ.. L.
Family IV. AGARISTIADA. H. The Agarisiians.
Hesperi-Sphinges. Latr. Agaristides. Boisd. Zygenide. Kirby.
Genus XIII. Axyrrs. (Hiibner.) Kirby.
Zygena and Sesia. F. Agarista. Latr.
A. octomaculaia. F’.
Black ; with two sulphur-yellow spots on the fore-wings, and
two white ones on the hind-wings; shoulder-covers and front
sulphur-yellow ; first and second pairs of tibie thickly covered
with orange-colored hairs. Expands from eleven to fifteen lines.
Larva, as represented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 8, pl. 44,) cylin-
drical, elongated; yellow, with transverse rows of black points,
slightly hairy, and without a caudal horn. It lives on the grape-
vine, and encloses itself in a cocoon in the earth.
In some individuals there is a white spot near the end of the
abdomen, and the inner white spots of the hind-wings are en-
larged and cover the whole base of the wings. Mr. Kirby (Fauna
Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pl. 4, fig. 5,) has described another species
of Alypia, a native of Nova Scotia and Canada, and names it A.
MacCullochii.
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 315
Family V. ZYGENIADE. H. The Zygenians.
ZAyzenide. Stephens. Zygénides. Boisd.
Hitherto I have not met with any insects in the United States
belonging to this family ; but Dr. Hornbeck has sent to me, from
St. Thomas, a species which not only seems to be undescribed,
but must constitute a new genus, the characters of which are
given in the Synopsis, and those of the species in the note below.*
Family VI. GLAUCOPIDIDE. H. The Glaucopidians.
Procrides and Zygénides. Boisd. Zygeniade. H. Cat. Cte-
nuchide. Kirby. Callimorphe. Westwood.
Genus XV. Procris. F.
Ino. each.
P. Americana... = Aglaope Americana? Boisd. = dispar.
H. (Cat.)
Blue-black ; with a saffron-colored vile and a fan-shaped,
somewhat talabieds black caudal tuft. Expands from ten lines to
one inch. Larva, according to Prof. Hentz, hairy, green, with
black bands. It is gregarious, and devours the leaves of the
grape-vine, and undergoes its transformations in an oblong-oval,
tough, whitish cocoon, which is fastened to a leaf.
* Genus XIV. Masticocera. H.
From wéots, & whip or thong, and 200, horns ; the antenne being thickened
in the middle and tapering at each end like a whip lash. In the West Indian
insect to which I have applied this name, the antenne agree, in the main, with
those of JZgocera, as described by Latreille and other authors; but most of its
other characters disagree, and it has an entirely different form from that of the
type of the genus. These characters are so very striking, that I have ventured to
propose this new genus, although the transformations of the species are unknown
to me.
M. vespina. 1.
Light rust-brown; wings immaculate ; collar, first abdominal segments above,
third below, and a triangular spot on each side, white; head, thickened part of
the antenne, edge of the thorax behind the collar, and a large triangular spot on
each side of the second abdominal segment, black; breast black, spotted with
white; first and second pairs of thighs, except at base, middle of the hind-pair,
and extremity of the tibie, black. Expands from one and a half to one inch and
three quarters. Inhabits the island of St. Thomas, W. I.
The Zygena Eunolphus of Fabricius, and the Pretus of Cramer are probably
congenerical and closely allied to this species.
ee
=
316 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
This insect appears to be the same as the one figured in Gué-
rin’s Iconographie and in Griffith’s Cuvier, under the name of
Aglaope Americana, Boisduval; but it is not an Aglaope, for it
has a distinct, spirally-rolled tongue.
Genus XVI. Guavcorts. F’.
The insects which, at present, I refer to this genus, belong to
Zyzena of the Entomologia Systematica of Fabricius ; whose
Z. Gilaucopis, if it was not actually the type, furnished the ge--
nerical name which this author gave, in his last work, the Sys-
tema Gilossatorum, to this group of his former Zygene. Sev-
eral of the insects, which Mr. Westwood, in his edition of Drury’s
Illustrations, refers to the genus Callimorpha, without doubt. be-
long to the family Glaucopidide. Mr. Kirby has placed one spe-
cies, after Lithosia, in a family which he names Ctenuchide.
These insects seem to me much more nearly allied to the Sphin-
ges adscite than to the Phalene of Linneus, with which also
they agree in their diurnal flight, and in their transformations, so
far as the latter are known. Although they do not appear to be
strictly congenerical, I prefer to arrange them, for the present, un-
der the genus Glaucopis, in groups or subgenera, which, when
the larvee and their transformations are better known, it may be
proper to raise to the rank of independent genera.
Subgenus Syntomeida. Hi.
Antennz bipectinated, tapering at each end. ‘Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi short, not extending beyond the clypeus, slightly curved and hairy at base,
covered with short close scales; terminal joint somewhat acuminated. Wings
elongated, hind-pair small, with the discoidal cell closed behind by an acute-an-
gled nervure, the anterior branch of which crosses the subcostal nervure and ends
near the tip of the wing. Body cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and
with a rounded tubercle on each side of the first abdominal segment. Spurs of the
posterior tibie four, small, and approximated.
1. G. (S.) Ipomee. = Sesia Ipomee. CEmler, in letters.
Fore-wings greenish black, with three yellowish white dots
near the front margin and two others close together beyond the
middle ; hind-wings violet-black, with a transparent colorless spot
at base; body tawny orange; antenne and head black, the latter
spotted with orange; a broad stripe on the shoulder-covers, a
transverse spot on the thorax behind, and the incisures of the ab-
domen, black; legs violet-black ; coxze beneath, and a spot on
the thighs, orange-colored. Expands one inch and three quarters.
es
%
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 317
I received this species from Dr. A. G. Gimler, of Savannah,
Georgia, and have adopted the specific name that he gave to it,
and from which it is to be presumed that the larva lives upon the
Ipomea. The Melanthus and Nycteus of Cramer resemble it
somewhat, and are probably congenerical with it.
Subgenus Cosmosoma. Hiibner.
Antenne long, very much attenuated at the end, and with a double row of very
short pectinations beneath. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Palpi long, curved
upwards, and extending beyond the clypeus; the joints cylindrical, covered with
small scales, a little hairy at base, and obtuse at tip. Wings elongated, hind pair
rather small, and with the discoidal cell and nervures as in Syntomeida. Body
cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and with a small tubercle on each side
of the first abdominal segment. Spurs of the hindmost tibiz four and of moderate
s1ze.
2. G.(C.) Omphale. Hubner (according to Say). = Aige-
ria Omphale. Say.
Scarlet ; wings transparent, veined and bordered with black,
the first pair with a small black subcostal spot, and the black bor-
der very much widened at tip; head azure-blue ; antenne black,
with the tips white ; two terminal joints of the palpi, and a line
on each shoulder-cover black; four azure-blue dots in a transverse
row on the fore-part of the thorax ;~last four segments of the ab-
domen black, with four azure-blue spots on each side, and a dor-
sal black line extending from the middle of the second segment
including in it seven azure-blue spots; belly and outside of the
secoud pair of tibie black. Expands one inch and a half or more.
Inhabits Florida.
For a specimen of this beautiful insect I am indebted to Mr.
Doubleday. It cannot belong to the genus #/geria, to which it
was referred by Mr. Say, in his American Entomology, where it
is figured. As Hibner’s works are not accessible to me, I have
drawn up the characters of the subgenus Cosmosoma from the
specimen of the Omphale in my possession. Zygena Androm-
acha of Fabricius and the Caunus of Cramer probably belong to
the same subgenus.
Subgenus Lycomorpha. H.
Antennz rather short, curved, toothed or with very short pectinations on each
side, which give to the joints, when seen from beneath, a cordate or bilobed appear-
ance. ‘Tongue about half as long as the body, spirally rolled. Palpi short, hardly
extending beyond the clypeus, nearly horizontal and but slightly curved at base,
and covered with large and rather loose scales. Wings not elongated, rounded at
tip; discoidal cell of the hind pair long, extending nearly to the hind-margin, and
oy a
* ra
a
318 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.
closed by an oblique nervure. Body rather short, nearly cylindrical, not tufted
behind. Spurs of the hind- ‘lees three, two at the end and one e beyond the middle
of the tibiz.
o. Ge. CL. ) Pholus. Drury.
Blue-black, or deep indigo-blue, wings at base and shoulder-
covers orange-colored. Expands fourteen or fifteen lines. Larva,
according to Mr. Leonard, pale green, with yellowish spots run-
ning into the green (in a specimen preserved in spirit, pale green
mottled with red ;) head black, covered with a few short whitish
hairs ; body sparingly clothed with rather long hairs, which are
white at the sides and black on the back, the hairs arising singly
from minute tubercles, those on the third segment the longest
and with the others before them directed forwards. It eats the
lichens on stone heaps and walls in shady places, and undergoes
its transformations in a thin silky cocoon.
This pretty species is often seen flying in considerable numbers
in the fields, throughout the day, and at first sight would be mis-
taken for a species of Lycus.
Subgenus. Ctenucha. Kirby.
Antennz pectinated on both sides in the males, thickened in the middle with
extremely short pectinations in the females. ‘Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi slender, rising beyond the clypeus, nearly cylindrical and obtuse, covered
with small close scales, and somewhat hairy at base. Wings in some rather nar-
row, in others widened and rounded at the tip; discoidal cell of the hind pair
closed by an angulated nervure. Body nearly cylindrical, enlarged a little behind
in the females, with a few minute tufts at the sides of the segments, obtuse and
slightly tufted at tip; first abdominal segment with a conspicuous tubercle on each
side. Spurs of the hind-legs small, four i in number, two terminal, and two beyond
the middle of the tibie.
A. G. (C.) semidiaphana. FH.
Slate-colored; wings rather narrow and. subacute; first pair
brownish slate, with the anterior edge clay-colored ; hind-wings
semitransparent in the middle ; head and antenne black ; collar,
front edge of the breast, and base of the palpi, orange-colored.
Expands fifteen to sixteen lines. Inhabits the Middle and South-
ern States.
Dr. Charles Pickering, several years ago, gave me specimens of
this insect, which he captured near Philadelphia; there are also
specimens of it, in the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural
History, taken in North Carolina by Prof. Hentz; and I have re-
cently received several individuals, in fine preservation, which
were found by Mr. Doubleday in Florida. This species some-
Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 319
what resembles, in form and color, the Thetis of Linneus and
Drury.
5. G.(C.) Latreillana. = Ctenucha Latreillana. Kirby.
Fore-wings dusky drab, with a silky lustre, and the anterior
edge clay-colored; hind-wings rusty black; fringes of all the
wings white, interrupted with black in the middle; top of the
head, orbits behind, base of the palpi, front of the breast, and a
spot on the fore-part of each shoulder-cover orange-colored ; tho-
rax, abdomen, and coxe,. glaucous or greenish blue with a silky
lustre ; belly and legs light brown. Expands almost two inches.
Inhabite ee Eee hie and Maine, and, according to Mr. Kirby,
Canada and Nova-Scotia.
I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard for one specimen,
taken by him in New-Hampshire, and to Dr. J. W. Randall for
another from Maine. Although they are rather smaller than Mr. -
Kirby’s Latreillana, and do not exactly agree with the descrip-
tion in the Fauna Bor. Amer. Vol. IV, p. 305, I think that they
must be referred to his species. This insect has precisely the
same antennee and nearly the same form as the Glaucopis of
Drury and Fabricius, stated by the latter author to be a native of
Carolina, and is, without doubt, generically allied to it, and prob-
ably also to several other American species, such as the Pylotis
and collaris of Drury. ‘The following species, from the figures
given of them, seem also to belong to the same generical group;
viz. Glauca, Celadon, Circe, Celestina, Asterea, Cephise, Alec-
ton, Cassandra, and Porphyria of Cramer.
Subgenus Psychomorpha. H. (Catalogue) = Callimorpha. Westwood.
Antenne in the males pectinated on both sides, the pectinations rather short,
setaceous in the female, according to Drury. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi slender, nearly horizontal, extending a little beyond the clypewe: covered
with loose hairs so as to anae the joints. Wings short, somewhat triangular,
with the outer margins rounded; discoidal cell of he hind pair short, closed by a
sinuous nervure. Body slender, hairy at tip. J.egs short, hairy ; spurs of the hind
tibie three, slender, nearly concealed by the hairs.
6. G.(P.) Epimenis. Drury. = Psychomorpha maculata.
H. (Catalogue. )
Brownish black ; fore-wings sprinkled in spots with light blue
scales, which form a narrow band near the hinder margin, and
marked with a large yellowish white patch beyond the middle;
hind-wings with a broad dark orange-red band behind the mid-
dle. ‘The white spot of the fore-wings is indented towards the
es
s
320 American Amphibia.
middle of the wing, and on the under side there is a small trian-
gular spot near the base of the wing, and a short transverse one
beyond it which unites behind with the angular projection of the
large white patch. Expands r rather more than one inch.
I captured this beautiful insect on the wing at midday, in Mil-
ton, Mass., and have since seen it flying among the shrubbery at
Mount Auburn, Cambridge. There is also a broken specimen,
among Mr. Say’s insects, which was taken in Indiana. My spe-
cimen is a male, as is also the one in Mr. Say’s cabinet, and they
have the anal organs very large and hairy. Drury’s specimen
- seems to have been a female, for he says the antenne are seta-
ceous. It is possible that this insect is not one of the Sphinges
adscita ; but I place it here on account of its diurnal habits, and
a certain resemblance, more easily seen than described, which it
bears to some of the Gilaucopidida. It does not agree generically
with the types of Latreille’s genus Callimorpha. When my
Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts was published, I had
not seen a colored copy of Drury’s Illustrations, and failed to re-
cognize this insect in the uncolored one which I used.
Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 1, 1839.
Arr. IV.—On American Amphibia; by Asm. Sacer, M. D.
Detroit, (Mich.) March 5, 1839.
TO PROF. SILLIMAN.
Sir—Ir the following observations upon some of the American
_ Amphibia, and description of some new ones, appear worthy of
publication, you will confer a favor by inserting them in your val-
uable journal.
The structure and arrangement of the teeth, are of acknowl-
edged classific importance in distributing animals in a natural
series, and like most other characters are of variable importance
in different classes, depending upon the constancy and generality
of their existence, structure and arrangement. In the Class Am-
phibia, Lat., Order Batrachia, Brongn., they are generally regarded
as of generic value, (and here let me say that I have frequently
verified the truth of the observations of Drs. Davy, Weber and
others with regard to the biauriculate structure of the heart in this
ae ti
rae
* :
American Amphibia. 321
class, by which the ordinal character of M. Brongn. is invalida-
ted,) thus Rana and Hyla are distinguished . from Bufo, by the
presence of teeth in the upper jaw, and in two transverse processes
of the palate, generally anterior to the internal nares, sometimes
between, but never behind them, the toads being quite destitute
of both. The Salamandrae possess not only teeth in both jaws,
but also palatines, which according to most authors, are arranged.
in two longitudinal rows. 'This-character does not agree with
my observations upon our Salamandrae. Indeed so varied is the
arrangement of the palatine teeth in those American Salamanders
which have fallen under my obc2rvation, that if much importance
be attached to this character, they might be divided into several
sub-genera. My observations have not been sufficiently exten-
sive, to enable me to determine whether a classification founded
upon agreement in the general dental arrangement of the pala-
tines in this class, would be natural or coincident with one based
upon a general correspondence in all the generic characters. Fu-
ture investigation may settle that point. At all events it is believ-
ed that the modifications in the arrangement of the palatine teeth
from their constancy will be found to be of essential importance
in determining species, the more so from the admitted fact that
the color of these animals (a character much employed for this
purpose) is extremely variable. I shall content myself by sub-
mitting the result of my investigations. The palatine teeth of
the Salamandra erythronota, Raf., are arranged in two longitudi-
nal palatine rows, slightly diverging as they proceed backward.
This is the only species that agrees generically with the description.
The Sal. interrupta, Gr., has two longitudinal patches of palatine
teeth, each composed of several rows, nearly in juxta-position cen-
trally. In the Sal. agils, there is but a single longitudinal patch
of palatines composed of several rows so arranged as to form very
acute angles pointing forwards. The Sal. variolata, Gill., has be-
side an armation of the longitudinal palatine ridge similar to the
last, two partial rows on the transverse palatine ridge, interrupted
in the middle, curved backward and joined to the longitudinal
patch. Those of the Sal. maculata, Gr., are similar to the last,
but the longitudinal patch has fewer rows. The palatines of the
Sal. rubriventris, Gr., differ only from the Sal. variolata in having
the transverse and longitudinal rows separate. The Sal. bilineata,
has no longitudinal rows, and the straight transverse row has a
Vol. xxxvi1, No. 2.—April—July, 1839. Ay
322 _ American Amphibia. |
wide central interruption. The Sal. /wrida, has an uninterrupted _
transverse palatine row forming an obtuse angle directed forward.
The Sal. subviolacea, Bart., corresponds with the last in having
but a transverse row, but may easily be distinguished by this row
being undulating with a slight central angle. The palatine teeth
in all are curved backward and very acute. It will be perceived
that these nine species may be divided somewhat into three groups,
founded upon the possession of longitudinal or transverse teeth
only, or both combined. In nearly all, the general structure of
the tongue is similar to that of the Ranae, but.is more closely —
bound down; the sides and the posterior extremity which is quite
short and rounded, are free but not capable of being projected
from the mouth as in the Ranae.
In the Sal. lurida and subviolacea, it is almost perfectly bound
down all its length. JI would here remark that the expression,
“tongue not attached at the bottom of the gullet but to the edges
of the jaw,’ found in the works of the most eminent authors,
when applied to the Ranae, conveys an erroneous idea. I believe
in all the species of the restricted genus Rana, the tongue is com-
posed of two muscles a hyo-glossus and genio-glossus, the former
attached to the horns of the hyoid cartilage, the other to the an-
gle of the lower jaw. Such is the structure in all the- species
of Rana, Bufo and Salamandra I have examined. In the male
Bufo Americanus, Le Conte, as well as in the Hylae, there isa
sac beneath the tongue opening by an orifice on each side of
it ; a fact not mentioned in any of the books to which I have had
access. In the works of some of our American Herpetologists,
the fact of the existence of the external branchiae in the early
period of the development of the young tadpole, appears to be
doubted. I possess many specimens illustrative of this fact, as
well as the development of the anterior extremities of the tadpole
of the Ranae, previous to their protrusion.
The following appear to be nondescript species:
Sal. agilis, Nob. Palatine teeth an oblong patch, composed of
several rows so arranged as to form very acute angles pointing for-
ward; curved backward; length 23 in.; head $in.; tail 14 in.;
fore legs 4in.; hind legs $in.; head oval, flattish ; snout obtuse ;
nostrils lateral, small, round ; eyes prominent ; body and tail round,
the last terete, pointed ; toes minute, four anterior, five posterior.
Color of the head, back and tail above testaceous or lateritious,
4
American Amphibia. 323
dotted with livid; the head so thickly dotted as to obscure the
ground color; sides deep livid, spotted with straw color ; beneath
- straw colored, spotted with livid—sometimes the back as well as
sides, uniformly deep livid with minute pale yellow dots; (a dif-
ference not depending upon age, sex or season.) Skin smooth.
Sal. Zurida, Nob. Palatine teeth a single transverse row, form-
ing avery obtuse angle, pointing forward ; body somewhat gran-
ulated, sub-quadrangular; tail compressed, three fourths the
length of the body lanceolate, sub-acute ; skin beneath the throat
folded ; color above dark olive brown; beneath sub-fuscus ; a
tail aad beneath spotted with pale eles
Dimensions.—Total’ length 4! in.; head and neck # in.;
head 2 in. wide; body 1? in. tail 12 in.; fore legs ? in.;
hind legs § in.
Description.—Head rather large, gibbous, short, oval; snout
quite round before ; commissure of the jaws extends to the cen-
tre of the eyes; eyes large, prominent; nostrils minute, sub-
ovate ; neck thicker than the body; skin beneath plaited ; body
thick ; the spine forms a prominent ridge ; tail compressed, linear
lanceolate, somewhat obtuse ai tip, the edges obtuse ; legs short,
but broad; toes much depressed; head above smooth, shining
with minute pores; body and tail somewhat granulated; color
above very dark brown, tinged faintly with olive; beneath yel-
lowish brown ; an irregular row of yellow spots along the sides
and inferior part of the tail; beneath irregularly spotted with
the same. ‘The whole abdomen and inferior part of.the sides
appear to have a pure pale yellow ground. When viewed with
a glass, numerous minute depressions are visible which except in
afew spots are bounded with dark brown; Iris dusky golden.
Perhaps a variety of Salspicta, Harl.
Scincus lateralis, Say. var? nore a distinct species.
Description.—Total length 64 in.; length of head 14 ine’
width 2 in.; head and trunk 22 A tail 34 in.; form of head
ophioid ; trunk sub-quadrangular ; tail round, terete; a single
row of obtuse teeth in each jaw ; no palatine teeth ; tongue non-
extensile, emarginate at tip, soft, free; nostrils near the tip of the
snout, lateral, oval, bordered by a membrane; eyes dark, a rudi-
mentary third eye-lid ; the true lid covered with tetragonal scales;
pre a little below the surface, meatus auditorius externus
zz in. long, oblong oval, transverse, its outer margin serrated an-
a ad 4 bd
nt e*
(4 be? J
324 American Amphibia. edie Ps SS i
teriorly ; the anterior legs including the toes 2 in.; E ; toes 5, free ;
order of length 3 and 4 equal, 2-5-1; 1st, about half the length.
of 2d, which is one third shorter than 3d and Ath ; nails all much
compressed, deep, much curved at point and very ac: posterior
extremities 1; 1n.; toes five, much longer than the anterior
ones ; order of length 4—3—5-2-1 a regular gradation from } to 4
of an inch, the fifth opposable to the others ; nails as on the anteri-
ors. Head covered with plates; scales all round, imbricate and
wider than long; two rows of larger ones sub-quadrangular on
the sides of the lower jaw and beneath it, a large triangular one
beneath its extremity ; scales of the tail larger and wider in pro-
portion to their length than those of the body ; the central infe-
~ rior row much larger than the others; toward the end of the tail
the scales become sub-verticillate, the tip sub-acute ; 28 rows of
scales surround the trunk; the scales beneath the toes sub-ser-
rate, beneath the feet Ewebal as anus a transverse slit ; color
above olive brown; head eas ; a narrow line of dark
brown through the first lateral row of scales; another through
the third, extending from the head to the tail, then approximating
and passing on the first and second rows, one third the length of
the tail ; on the neck an oblique line, between them; a broader
stripe of the same color separates the back and sides, includes a
row, and half the two adjoining rows of scales, and extends from
the eye to the middle of the tail becoming narrower on the tail;
another somewhat obscure line of the same color, extends from
the lower angle of the tympanum to the tail where it is lost; legs
above of the color of the back with three irregular dark longi-
tudinal stripes, the central one wider; sides and trunk beneath
with a tinge of yellow on the latter; tail and legs beneath pale
lead color.
The species sometimes attains a size from 4 to 3 larger than
the specimen from which this description was drawn. It proba-
bly belongs to the genus Siliqua of Gray. Frequents houses.
Found, though rarely, in Detroit.
This drawing represents the upper surface of the
head. areal
* %
~
a als
>
Ne Prof. Struder on Bowlders. _ 325
Arr. V.— Translations relative to Bowlders and Cobalt Ores,
from the Néues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geognosie, G'eolo-
- gie und Petrefaktenkunde, herausgegeben von Dr. Leonnarp
und Dr. Brown. Jahrgang, 1838. Rev. W. A. Laryep.
I. On the Recent Explanations of the Phenomenon of Erratic
Blocks ; by Hr. Prof. B. Srruper.
Tur wish expressed in your last letter of publishing in the
Jahrbuch, my geological remarks upon the recent explanation of
the phenomenon of erratic blocks, is the occasion of the following
communication.
After all the endeavors, observations, and speculations of the
last ten years, we see the phenomenon of erratic blocks still veiled
in a mist, which hinders us from taking a full and exact view of
them, and which has not as yet permitted a general elucidation.
Hence we are disposed to view every new theory with favor, and
we overlook at first its difficult points, though they may be not a
few, because of the satisfactory explanation of others, on which
we have hitherto labored in vain.
The floating or forcing of bowlders by powerful currents of
water, still appears to me, to afford the explanation, which best
agrees with the facts, although at the same time I confess that I
.am not prepared with an entirely satisfactory answer to several
admitted and recent objections. In order to hold up the blocks
while floating from the Alps to the Jura, we suppose instead of
streams of pure water, streams of mud and detritus, without being
able fully to show what became of this smaller rubbish. In order
to carry them over the deep Swiss Jakes or the Baltic Sea, we -
assumé a kind of lateral impulse, while we make the avulsion of
the blocks cotemporaneous with the rise of the mountain and the
sinking of the sea: but, it is clear from examinations in Switzer-
land, that the spread of the blocks must have been later than the
formation of the present molasse-vallies,* which however we
deduce from the last heaving process of the Alpine range ; that,
moreover, in the later epoch of the molasse formation, the sea in
* Molasse is a term, descriptive of a soft green sandstone, occurring throughout
the lower country of Switzerland. —Lyell, Principles of Geology, Vol. 4, p. 75.—Tr.
326 Prof. Struder on Bowlders.
the interior of Switzerland, had: only a very small depth and al-
ternated with dry land such as we now regard as low land, (tief
land); and, finally, that the elevation of the Alpine chain could
scarcely have been an instantaneous thrusting up of the whole
mountain mass, in which the sea might have been slung on
high with it, but a very complicated process continued through a
Jong space of time.* ‘The great depth of the Swiss lakes has
ever been the principal objection with the opponents of that ex-
planation, and the ease with which the new ice and glacier theory
sets aside this difficulty, accounts of itself for the interest with
which it has been received. ‘The difficulty lies not, as I think,
in carrying the detritous streams and blocks over the lakes.
The water-course could do no more than force a part of the wa-
ter of the lake, and, considering the small difference of specific
gravity, the height and rapidity of the streams, hardly a very
important part, out of its basin and mingle with it; had the
stream at once poured itself out entirely over the whole lake, in
that case the back portion of the detritus would flow on over it,
as we see the upper water in our lake move over the deep, still
water. ‘The separation of the solid materials from the detritous
water might to be sure raise the bottom of the lake, yet not
more than we see the bottom of the molasse-vallies now elevated
in many places by diluvial ruins, that is, at the highest one hun-
dred feet. Nor is it difficult of solution why the basins of the
lakes have not been entirely filled up by the later transportation
of smaller blocks such as have occurred in part within the his-
torical period ; for, originally these blocks were not, as is gene-
rally supposed, so naked and free, as we now see them, but cov-
ered with thick coatings of rubbish. This appears very clearly,
among other examples, in the immediate neighborhood of Berne.
A row of low hills stretches in an arch convex to the west across
the Aar-valley close to the west end of our city, which has used
its contiguous eminences for breast-works. In the late demoli-
tion of the fortifications, these eminences which were universally
supposed to be works of art thrown up on the common level of
the ground, were penetrated to their center and it was found that
they consisted for the most part of enormous heaps of Alpine
* The imbedding among the diluvial ruins of the blocks at Stratligen and Utz-
nach, of unchanged pines and firs, plants and insects of the present time in brown
coal, appears to place the spread of this detritus at a very recent epoch.
Prof. Struder on Bowlders. O27
blocks, whose interstices were entirely filled wp with smaller
gravel and sand, which also occurred independently, in great
masses, as well over as underneath and along side the accumula-
tion of blocks. 'This chain of hills is manifestly the last remains
of amuch more general overspreading of detritus, which has
been torn to pieces and carried away by later water-courses. A
glazier-mound (Gletscher-Gandecke ) it is not, as I at first suppos-
ed, on becoming acquainted with the new veins, and Hr. v. Char-
pentier himself is the person who corrected my mistake; as just
at the time of our visit to the diggings, clear traces were brought
to light of orderly arrangement and a quiet subsidence from wa-
ter. In the mean while, the difficulty, in which the masses of
smaller rubbish place us, will be no reason in geology, which has
grown hardened against difficulties of this kind, for rejecting the
whole theory of diluvial currents, in favor of which there are so
many other facts. Indeed we have only to suppose the original
lakes to have been some hundred feet larger in extent than at
present, and then we have surrounding our lakes considerable
plains and broad valley flats, which the eye at once perceives
arose from. the emptying of earlier, much more extended lake
basins, and which have in fact received very large quantities of
that rubbish.
The ingenious theory Hr. Venerz has constructed, on the
phenomenon of bowlders, and which Hr. v. Caarrentrer has
been able with so much acuteness to bring into consistency with
the more recent geological views, builds for the blocks a bridge
of ice over the Swiss lowland and the abysses of her lakes and
has them sledded down by the advancing glacier, in rows (tra-
gen in Guferlinien) to its outermost limit, where they heap up
in ice-piles or glacier-walls. 'The glaciers, hitherto blocked up
on the back central chain, broke out from all the slope vallies
upon lower Switzerland, for the most part overspread it, and then
mounted to a considerable height up the Jura. The rubbing of
the ice occasioned the jags and erosions often visible to a great
height on the rocky walls of our slope vallies and which have
hitherto been regarded as evidence of the ancient water-courses.
And in order to support the assumption of so great a cooling of
the climate, a general elevation and distension of the whole Al-
pine region and its contiguous parts is presumed to such a height
as to sink the mean annual temperature of the lowland down to
328 Prof. Struder on Bowlders.
that of Chamouni. This theory rests principally, if not exclusively,
on observations made in the vallies of Valais, Savoy, and Vaud.
The appearances in the Aar-valley are less favorable to it. We
see around Berne not only the declivities on both sides of the
valley but the valley-bottom itself covered with blocks, and these
are not in any respect, as we have just seen, accordant with glacier
ramparts. Moreover, on the plateau of Langenberg and Belp-
berg, elevated nigh a thousand. feet above Berne, bowlder almost
strings itself to bowlder ; the whole surface of these hills, which
lie in the midst of the Aar-valley, is thickly strewn with blocks,
and although here and there we may suppose ourselves to have
observed a linear accumulation like the Swedish osar,* yet is
the direction of these ramparts usually parallel with the direction
of the valley; they appear to be the remnants of an earlier de-
trital coating mostly carried away by later streams, and not mo-
raines.t Moreover, in the upper Aar-valley, in the region of
Meiringen, exist facts, which if not in direct opposition, are yet
not in the desired coincidence with the glacier theory. There,
too, we see no old moraine. The blocks occur at very different
heights; they have been transported high over the Brunig, indeed.
more than two thousand feet high over the Aar-valley; we find
them in multitudes at the Scheideck-pass and at Zaun perhaps a
thousand feet above the valley-bottom ; then again at Ruti above
Meiringen, which may be situated some hundred feet lower than
Zaun; finally, almost in the valley-bottom itself, by Willigen,
and on the Kirchet, and. lower in the valley by Brienzwiler, Bri-
enz, Oberried, &c. But the glacier theory seems to me to be
pressed with the most weighty objections on the side of physics.
Supposing the present quantity of snow on the surface of Swit-
zerland to have remained unchanged, while the requisite refrige-
ration is derived from an alteration of the earth’s axis or any
other source, still the question at once arises whether in fact all
the vallies would fill with ice and then this flow together towards
Switzerland in one enormous, almost horizontal glacier? Leav-
ing too unsettled, the mode in which the as yet enigmatical
movement of the glaciers is effected, granting the hitherto gene-
* Oasar, elongated hills. Puitirps, Geol. p. 208. In Swedish ds is a chain of
hills, and dsar is the plural form and is more properly written osar.—Tr.
+ Moraine, the rubbish brought down by glaciers and left after the ico has
melted.—Tr.
A
Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 829
rally received explanation of Saussure and Escher, that it is by
the pressure of snow on the heights falling down, to be unten-
able, still we are justified in asking for analogies, in the coun-
tries where the state of things, which they assume, actually ex-
ists. If it requires a fall of temperature of only 6° at the highest
in order to secure the forming of glaciers at the foot of the higher
show mountain ranges, why do so many Alpine valleys, whose
annual temperature falls below the requisite degree remain desti-
tute of them? Why is not the Altai entirely encircled with ice,
where the temperature of the surrounding lowland scarcely rises
above 1°? Why hear we not of such colossal glaciers and im-
mense plains in Scandinavia and Greenland covered several thou-
sand feet entirely with ice?) Why are not Chamouni, Latschthal,
Bagne, &c., filled with glaciers? Manifestly the origination of
glaciers is not dependant solely on the relations of temperature ;
there appears also to be required in order to its being filled with
glaciers, a depth and breadth of the valley fixed in relation to the
height of the adjacent snow mountain range, which ought not to
be passed over. This simple remark must at once have. forced
itself upon geologists, so well acquainted with the Alps as those
who have attempted to establish the new theory ; and, apparently
in order to meet this objection, Hr. v. Charpentier thought it ne-
cessary to make the lowering of the mean temperature cotempo-
raneous with a considerable elevation of the mountain range, in
which however, it has not become clear to me, how it is consis-
tent that the land should be powerfully swollen by internal heat,
and at the same time while this higher heat is streaming out, cover
itself with ice? Granting, meanwhile, the possibility of such a
state of things, inasmuch as no rise of annual temperature is
reported of Scandinavia at the present time in the process of ele-
vation, we are obliged again to inquire, here too, after analogies,
and the Himalaya at once offers itself to us asa mountain range,
which might well be likened to elevated Alps. ‘This lies, to be
sure, 15° farther south than the Alps, but its summits con-
siderably exceed the height, (about 20,000 feet,) which H. v.
~C. requires for the loftiest Alpine top in the diluvial era, and in
still stronger contrast does the elevation of its valley-bottoms
and plateaux surpass that (5 or 6000 feet) to which the valley-
bottom of Switzerland ought according to the theory to have
been raised at that time. 'The state of things of the one moun-
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 42
Sah? Prof. Struder on Bowlders.
”
tain will allow of being transferred, with sufficient accuracy for
our object, to the other, if we deduct about 3500 feet from the
Himalaya heights in comparison with the Alps—which is about
the difference of the snow limits on the south slope of both ranges.
And what state of things do we find in the Indian Alps? “It
is remarkable,” says Rirrer, ‘“ that there never has been any re-
port of a single glacier formation throughout Himalaya. ‘The
sublime phenomenon of glaciers, which appear to have attained
their most perfect development in the European Alp-formation,
according to any observations hitherto made, never occurs in the
Himalayan Alp-region.” Thus, at first sight we are cut off fromany
comparison here and instead of immeasurable fields of ice, many
thousand feet thick, which we expected to see, we only meet with
snow on the peaks and caps in no greater, rather in smaller quan-
tities than on the Alps at their present heights. But a closer
view, points out another result, which may be pronounced almost
decisive of our question. With the elevation of the ground, all
the isothermal lines mount up rapidly in height. On the south
slope of the Himalaya, we meet with the extreme limit of culti-
vation at 9400 feet; in the deep indented vallies of the interior,
it mounts up to 10,700 feet ; on the plateau land, to 12,800 feet ;
and on the interior table land of Thibet, which can be best com-
pared with the upraised lowland of the molasse region, the same
appears at 14,000 feet, whence it goes no higher. ‘This eleva-
tion would correspond to perhaps 10,000 feet, in our latitude, or
to the heights of Diableret and Fitlis. Hence, a rise of ground,
even twice as great as that required by H. v. C., never appears to
produce the formation of such extraordinary glaciers as must be
assumed in order for the glacier to have formed the ice-piles of the
Rhone-valley, which at the Jura, must have mounted over the
valley-bottom about 2000 feet, and which must have extended
below to Soleure. We should arrive at still more striking con-
clusion, were we to apply the glaciers theory to the Scandinavian
blocks, and yet it is scarcely allowable to explain such similar ap-
pearances as occur in North Germany and Switzerland, by two
altogether different theories. What if in the hill country, at the
foot of the glacierless Himalaya, the phenomenon of erratic block
should reappear? Several accounts seems to establish the fact
beyond a doubt.
Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 331
We can avoid a part of these difficult questions, if we assume
with HH. Acassiz and Scurmerrr a general ice-covering of the
earth, a freezing of the water in seas, lakes and streams from the
poles to the equator. On the frozen inland sea, which thus in
part overspread Switzerland, the Alpine fragments might have
been slid to the Jura and to the slopes of the outjutting molasse
hills, and in the same manner the Swedish blocks could have
been shoved across the Baltic. 'The sudden occurrence of this.
ice-epoch was the cause of the destruction of the antediluvian
animal races and vegetable species, of which not a single sort has
survived to our time: and thus even in the earlier geological
epochs, the periods of heat and life have been interrupted by pe-
riods of freezing and death. This originally Indian view of na-
ture is capable of taking a very poetical form ; and Hr. Schimp-
fer has given us a specimen of it. It looses, moreover, with the
sword of Alexander to be sure, several of the most ravelled knots
in Geology and Paleontology, but to make it harmonize with
facts and with the prose of physical investigations, is a problem
which far surpasses at least my powers ,—the striking relations
between the dispersion of the blocks and the shape of the val-
lies, which must ever lie at the foundation of any satisfactory
theory, are left in the one lately proposed unregarded and unex-
plained. We see not how the blocks could have alighted, as they
often have done in great numbers, behind outjutting hills, or
pressed in upon the sides of the vallies; why, farther, their zone
rises so high on the Jura opposite the Rhone-valley, and then to-
wards Soleure gradually sinks down till it reaches the present
valley-bottom ; wherefore in the narrows of the vallies, the blocks
are altogether wanting, while on the contrary in the wide portions
they occur in the greatest number. But still more difficult is it
to see from whence this periodical freezing, this alternation of
heat and cold, of life and death, could have been derived. Not
from a change of internal heat, for we know from Fourier, that at
present, the influence of the internal heat upon the temperature
of the surface scarcely amounts to ;,° c. The warmth in which
we live, and which remains constant at different depths of the
ground according to latitude, and also agrees with the mean an-
nual warmth of the atmosphere, is almost exclusively an effect of
the sun. We might accordingly be referred to a periodical change
in the intensity of solar heat,—a problem, with which Herschel
302 ; New Cobalt Minerals.’
has recently busied himself without being able to find any
ground, in all the depths of astronomy, for a greater change of
annual heat than at the highest from 3° to 4°, and besides this
change could only have come on very gradually, and could never
have produced a sudden destruction of all organic nature. Still
less do we find in the unequal temperature of space surrounding the
earth, as assumed by Porsson, an explanation of the cause of these
changes of heat and cold in terrestrial: bodies; for, while a con-
siderable increase in the coldness of the space in which the earth
moves, would indeed produce a greater dissipation of the warmth
of the earth, a lower temperature of the polar nights and more
rapid loss of heat in our nights, it could scarcely be the means of
freezing over all the bodies of water on its surface; and further-
more, these changes could only after a long space of time exert
an influence—and that a very gradual one—on the annual tem-
perature and-organic life. We are thence peremptorily referred
to hypotheses to account for that change of temperature, but
hypotheses are justly regarded as unproductive, and, although
they played an important part in the geology of the last century,
yet certainly physical inquirers, who do so much honor to our age
as HH. Acassiz and Scuimerer, will again and again visit the
-smooth worn rocks before they resort to this extreme expedient,
and repeat the question to themselves and others, whether this
polishing could only be the effect of ice, or whether every possi-
bility is cut off, that they may have been produced by water cur-
rents, as previous to their labors was generally believed.
Il. On two new Cobalt Minerals, from Modum in Norway ;
by Hr. Prof. Dr. Wouter, (with a note by Prof. SHEparp,)
from a letter to Hr. Dr. Brum. —
We were too late with our examination of the new Modum
Cobalt minerals, which you gave me last autumn. My analysis
of them had been completed for some time, and I was about ar-
ranging the results, when I came across an acticle by ScurrRrEr
of Modum, in the last number of Poggendorff’s Annals, where the
same minerals are accurately and fully described.* ScHrERER’s
* The cobaltic-arsenical-pyrites here mentioned, is described by ScHEERER, as 0c-
curring in two varieties ; one of which is crystallized and compact, and as having
. New Cobalt Minerals. : 333
analysis agrees quite exactly with mine, and leads to the same
formula of composition. The arsenic-pyritical one has exactly
the same form as the arsenic-pyrites, and is distinguished from it
by a reddish color resembling cobalt-glance ; > points i ne directly
to the composition of arsenical-pyrites, wherein @ a part of the i iron
is replaced by a quantity of cobalt varying ee lifferer i
uals. From the crystals examined by me, I oun
ing compositions : hing:
Tron, - - - - 30.9
Cobalt, - - - = A.7
the exact mispickel lustre and crystalline form, even to the streaking of the prisms.
Sp. Gr. = 6.23. The analysis of crystals ao two to three lines in- length gave
Sulphur, - - - - : - - 17.57
Arsenic, - - - - Sale - 47.55
Tron, - - - - - - - 26.54
Cobalt, - - - - - - - 8.3]
‘ 99.97
It would appear moreover, that the proportion of cobalt varies with the size of
the crystal,—the larger the crystal, the smaller being the content of cobalt.
ScHEERER supposes that its presence is not attributable to a mechanical source,
but that it aids in forming a strictly chemical compound, inasmuch as the cobalt
replaces the iron.. He adds some account likewise of the geological position of the
ore with reference to the occurrence of the cobalt mine of Skutterud. This last
forms a vertical bed, or stratum whose direction is north and south, and termin-
ates suddenly at the-southern declivity of a mountain. Following the direction of
this stratum nearly a mile, there is found on the opposite side of the Storcte river,
the cobaltic-arsenical-pyrites bed, having the identical arrangement with that af-
fording the cobalt glance: It would hence appear that the cobaltic stratum had
supplied cobalt to that containing the mispickel as long as the metal held out.
The other variety has a tin or silver lustre, and a Sp. Gr. =6.78. It occurs com-
pact, with a conchoidal fracture, and a more or less distinct -tesseral cleavage :
also in single crystals exhibiting octahedral, cubic rhombo-dodecahedral and _icos-
itetrahedral faces. According to ScHEERER, it contained,
Arsenic, - - - - - : - 77.84
Cobalt, —- - - - - - - 20.01
Sulphur, - - - - - - - 0.69
Tron, - - - - - - - 1.51
Copper, - - - - - - - in traces.
100.05
Breiry avert has described this ore under the name of Tesseralkies—PoGcGEnp.
Ann. d. Phys. B. XLU, S. 546 ff.
The first mentioned ore here described, is without doubt, the same substance
which was noticed at Franconia, N. H., in 1824 by Dr. J. F. Dana of Dartmouth
College, (Vol. vu, p. 301, this Journal,) and subsequently in 1833 by Mr, A. A.
334 New Citalt Riera
Sulphur, - “ie = - 17%
Arsenic, =. - ah tas A7.A
Scheerer: found i in: two crystals 8.3 and 6.5 Aue of cobalt.
WwW e may name. this spieces to distinguish it from the common
Ic- bes, ¢ obalt-arsenic- pyrites.
In all the crystals examined by me, a circumstance was re-
marked, which Scuerrer has not mentioned, that the apparently
purest and best formed crystals were more or less penetrated with
clear crystalline quartz, the quantity of which in some specimens
made up almost a quarter of the weight, in which case the in-
ternal structure could be seen on the outside. This comming-
ling remained in all the crystalline portions, even when the whole
crystal was dissolved in aqua regis. Besides, there remained
small black spangles, still undissolved, which had altogether the
appearance of graphite, and are in fact nothing else. I have also
observed in this undissolved residuum still a third mineral, in
very hard, brownish yellow, but quite microscopic crystals, which
is certainly not quartz, but nothing could be determined concern-
ing its nature.
The second mineral, with limewhite color mingled with lead
gray, very definitely distinguished from that of arsenical-cobalt,
and which occurs both compact with scaly grooves and beautifully
crystallized in tesseral forms, the crystals oftener growing together
with crystals of cobalt-glance, is arsenical-cobalt with 4 more
arsenic than usual. According to my analysis, it contains,
Hayes of Roxbury, (Vol. xxtv, p. 387, this Journal.) Dr. Dana describes it as
occurring in crystals analogous, if not identical with those of mispickel; and Mr.
Hayes found their Sp. Gr. = 6.214, according to the analysis of the latter it
contains,
Sulphur, - - - - - - - 17.84
Arsenic, ~- : a - - - - 41.44
Tron, - - - - - - - 32.94
Cobalt, = - - - - - - 6.45
98.67
Loss partly iron.
Mr. Hayes proposed for it, the name of Danaite. Henry examined and de-
scribed numerous forms of this ore from Franconia (see my treatise.) I perceive
no sufficient reason for separating it from mispickel, with which it agrees in every
respect save in the substitution of a small per-centage of cobalt for iron.
The second variety of cobalt ore, described by ScurzRER and Wo6uLER does
not appear to differ from the normal varieties of smalentine (arsenical-cobalt.)
C. U. SHEeparp.
Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets. 335
Crystalline. Compact.
Cobalt, Be a SE MEN cA
Tron, - - 1.3 - - 1.4
Arsenic, - - 79.2 - - £9.
If we assume the trifling unessential commixture of iron to be
a substitution for cobalt, then this composition corresponds to the
formula Co As*, a combination, which must contain according to
estimate 20.74 parts of cobalt and 79.16 of arsenic.
The name proposed by Scurerer for this mineral, arsenic-co-
balt-pyrites, appears to me in other respects little appropriate.
It is a striking circumstance that neither of these minerals con-
tains nickle, which is elsewhere so constant a concomitant of
cobalt ; at least, it must have occurred in so minute a quantity
as not to be observed in the small portions of the minerals sub-
jected to analysis.
Art. VI.—A New Method of Making Permanent Artificial Mag-
nets by Galvanism ; by J. Lawrence Smrru, Student of the
Medical College of the State of South Carolina.
Ever since galvanism has been known to produce magnet-
ism especially under certain forms of apparatus, it has been a
great desideratum to retain permanently, the great power that
is generated within the limits of a few square inches of metal. —
A few years since, having seen what an intense degree of mag-
netic force could be generated in a bar of soft iron, by passing
galvanic currents around it ; the idea (very natural to most persons
witnessing the same experiment) occurred to me, whether this
magnetism could not in some manner be retained; I was aware
that so long as soft iron was made the agent it could, not; and if
tempered steel was used a difficulty would also present itself,
and it was not until about eight or ten months since that the
following experiments were put into operation. The object that
I had in view, was to substitute for the iron used in the electro-
magnet, red hot steel and cool it suddenly.
A few feet of copper wire were coiled as shown in the figure,
the arrangement being such, that the galvanism in its circuit
would generate north and south polarities, at the end of the re-
336 Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets.
Positive Pole. Negative Pole.
u is ee sy i : = =
spective coils. The coils were varnished in order that they might
be immersed in water, without any interruption taking place in
the current of the galvanic fluid. The two extremities of the
Wire were attached to a battery, consisting of a single pair of
plates, each plate of about twelve square inches. A horse-shoe of
- soft iron was then introduced into the coils to test their magnetic
power ; the iron was found capable of sustaining about one and
a half pounds. After withdrawing the iron, a piece of steel, of
the same shape, made red hot, was introduced and both steel and
wire were plunged into cold water, and contrary to my expecta-
tion the steel was found to be but feebly magnetic. I then re-
peated the experiment, with this difference, that before cooling
the steel, I united its two extremities (projecting below the ends
of the coils) by a piece of soft iron, which by keeping up the
circulation of the magnetic fluid, enabled me to procure a magnet
of some power, that is to say, the steel used weighing one ounce,
after undergoing this process, was able to sustain six ounces. It
must be recollected that the instruments used were of a rude
character, and that they could not create a temporary magnet, of
more than one and a half pounds power. By this experiment it
will be seen that one fourth the maximum power developed was
secured permanently, but it is not to be supposed that in all in-
stances the ratio of the power secured, to the power developed
will be as great as in this, but I believe if proper proportions be
observed in the steel used, there will be an approximation to this
ratio, even when the magnetic force is of great intensity.
This method of making magnets may be of some practical
utility, for the apparatus required is of the simplest kind, consist-
ing merely of a few square inches of copper and zink, and a few
Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 337
feet of wire ; moreover the magnets produced are of a greater
power in ninety to the generating energy, than those made ca
any other process, with which I am acquainted.
I will here mention an experiment which I have tried in com-
mon with others, of making magnets by attaching red hot pieces
of steel to an artificial magnet, or to the 7 electro-magnet,
and cooling them suddenly. |
To an artificial magnet capable of sustaining eight pounds, L
applied a piece of ignited steel weighing one ounce, semicircular
in form, and immersed it in water; it was found capable of sus-
taining three ounces, only about one fortieth of the power used,
and in no experiment, although many were made, was the ratio
between the produced and the producing powers greater.
The reason of this great disproportion appears to be, that when
the metal is raised to a red heat, magnetism is not easily induced
in it, and that it is only when it arrives at a lower temperature
in the cooling process, that it receives that magnetic virtue which
it retains, and this no doubt also accounts for its inferiority to the
first method mentioned—for there the galvanic fluid is made to
circulate around the steel ; and the current of the magnetic fluid
is also kept continuous by the soft iron uniting the two poles.
Art. VIJ.—Remarks on the “ Natural History of the Fishes of —
Massachusetts, embracing a Practical E'ssay on Angling ; by
Jerome V. C. Smita, M. D.” Read before the Boston Society
of Natural History, March 20, 1839. By D. Humpureys
Storer, M. D.
My report upon the Fishes of our State having been presented
to the chairman of the Zoological Commissioners, I feel that, as
‘their ichthyological curator, a duty is expected of me by this so-
ciety, before ceasing from my labors. In the year 1833, a vol-
ume entitled ‘‘ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusetts’
was published by one of our number. 'To many persons, various
inaccuracies contained in that work are at once obvious ; by oth-
ers, who have a slighter acquaintance with natural history, all is
supposed scientific and true ; while if errors really exist, it is cer-
tainly the duty of some one to correct them. I have thought it
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April—July, 1839. 43
gtk
338 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes.
va
would very naturally be expected of him to whom you have
ever entrusted the care of the subjects upon which the work in
question treats; and with this feeling, I have thrown together
the following observations, which I now offer without further
remark. -
Commencing with the Carrizacinous Fisues, the firs ten pa-~
ges are occupied with the history of two foreign species of Petro-
myzon, neither of which is found in our waters.
The marinus and fluviatilis should have been Americanus and.
migricans ; both of which were accurately described by Le Sueur
in the “'Transactions of the Philosophical Society” in 1818—
fifteen years before the appearance of this work. 'These two for-
eign species are accompanied by figures copied from the German
plates of Strack; and one or two points require to be noticed.
It is well known that one of the characteristics of this ge-
nus is “its seven branchial orifices.” Now it happens, that the
engraver of Strack’s plates thought that six would suffice, and
accordingly omitted one in his figure. ‘The American copy-
ist, while he has attempted to exhibit the very attitude of the fish,
has carefully followed his original, and the specimen before us is
minus a branchial hole. ‘The German did however continue the
dorsal fin to the caudal, as is natural. ‘The plate before us repre-
_ sents it as terminating at some distance in front of that fin.
The plate of the second species exhibits in Strack the true
number of branchial openings; this copy has but five!
I suspect that foreign ichthyologists will scarcely pardon the
presumption which would assert that these two species, which are
described as distinct by Linneus, and have been thus acknow!l-
edged by all succeeding naturalists, “are to all intents and pur-
poses the same fish.”
The thirty four following pages contain the order Seuacuir.._
In the prefatory remarks to this order, Dr. Smith observes, that
the male shark may at once be recognized by the appendages to
the ventrals, though he says “their use is totally unknown.”
Had he consulted standard works on the subject, he would have
found that these appendages were called “‘claspers ;” and know-
ing that the female did not possess them, their wse might with-
out much stretch of the imagination be inferred.
Hight species of sharks are here catalogued. The Scylliwm
canicula and catulus I have never seen, nor heard of, on our coast,
Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 339
They have undoubtedly been mistaken for the Squalus canis or
rather Spinax acanthias—picked dog fish. i
_ Eight pages are appropriated to the Carcharias vulgaris—
white shark ; and its history is illustrated by a figure from Strack,
while its appearance in our waters remains to be proved.
The Carcharias glaucus—blue shark—is evidently confound-
ed with the scylliiwm punctatum—mackerel shark—a common
species with us. :
A species of Zygena is found in our waters; but as we have
no proof given us of its being the vulgaris, our species must be
seen and described before it is acknowledged to be that species ;
and before we can receive the assertion in the pages before us,
that “scarcely a season passes by, in which fine specimens are
not taken in the vicinity of Nahant, about the Cape, &c.” To be
sure, we are told that ‘“ but a little time since, a sailor offered one,
recently caught, for sale, which he wheeled through the streets of
Boston on a barrow, attracting crowds of people who gazed upon
it in perfect wonder ;”’ but it was not the specimen of which we
have a figure, surely, which created such surprise in this good
city, because this is a copy from a German plate!
Of the species here registered as Selache mazimus—basking
shark—I have not been able to obtain the slightest information,
and have no doubt that it is the Somniosus brevipinna, (Le
Sueur) nurse or sleeper—described from a specimen taken by the
fishermen at Marblehead.
That a species of Torpedo exists on our coast, we have un-
doubted authority for believing; but as no naturalist has as yet
seen it, the species remains to be distinguished more definitely.
We have here an inaccurate figure of the Torpedo vulgaris
copied from Strack to illustrate our fish, when that species has -
been much more correctly exhibited by Pennant in his “ British
Zoology.”
Strack is again called upon fora plate of the Rata clavata-
thornback. The species called thornback in Massachusetts, I
have not had a proper opportunity to examine, having never seen
more than one specimen, and that previous to my determination
to describe our fishes from recent specimens; if I am not in error,
however, it will prove to be the Raia radiata—starry ray.
A species of Trygon is occasionally seen on our coast ; but its
characters have not yet been pointed out, so that it is premature to
340 Remarks on . Natural History of Fishes.
introduce it here with a 1 plate of the pastinaca—the European
species—especially as other species of this genus have been found
on the coast of Rhode Island, to which this is much more likely
to belong.
An elaborate account of the Stwrgeon—acipenser_ sturio—ac-
companied by a figure, follows the Sritacum: the Massachusetts
_ sturgeon is the sturio oryrinchus. ;
Four species are here included in the Piecroenarur. The
aluteres monoceros proves to be a new species to which I have
affixed the name of ‘“‘ Massachusetensis” in-my report to the Gov-
ernor: neither the ostracion triqueter nor bicaudalis have I ever
heard of on our coast. The specimen which Dr. Smith sup-
posed to be the latter fish, is a new species to which I gave the
name of Yalei, in a communication read to this society in 1836.
Under the head of Tetraodon turgidus—swell fish—we find
the following sentence, which cannot be passed over unnoticed,
however unwilling we may feel to write a line of unmixed cen--
sure. ‘The only apology we can make for not having dissected
one of them with reference to explaining their internal organiza-
tion, is the poor one, that there has not been time since the com-
mencement of this essay.” Here we see an author voluntarily
coming before the public, dedicating his labors to a distin-
guished LL. D., and offering as an apology for a neglect so
palpable that his own conscience accuses him, that he needed
time !- It is humiliating enough for him who has but a certain
_ time allowed him in which to perform a duty, to be compelled to
offer such an excuse, although he has a right to expect the cir-
cumstances of his case will be considered; but, when an individ-
ual to consult his own convenience, chooses to publish a superfi-
cial treatise with his name prefixed as its responsible author, such
an apology cannot be received by naturalists—regardless as he ap-
pears alike of his own reputation and the true interests of science,
Although in the Lopuoprancuu, the Syngnathus typhle is
described, and illustrated by a figure, I have not heard of its
having been seen in Massachusetts. ‘I'wo species have been sent
me by correspondents, both of which are new, and will appear in
my report.
Having reached the order Mauacopreryel ABDOMINALES, in
the genus Salmo, three species of trout are introduced, the “ ¢rwé-
ta, and “ fario,” and “ hucho,” while the only one I have been
Remarks on the Natural History Le Fishes. 341
able to learn any thing respecting, after two ha labor, the
* fontinalis,’”.is omitted altogether. et
Nine pages are devoted to the “ Clupea harengus’—Kuro-
pean herring; our species is the “elongata,” described by Le
Sueur in the first volume of the “‘ Journal of the aii, es of
Natural Sciences.”
Upon page 165, we have a figure of the “ H’sox luctus’? —_
pickerel—w hose history is spread over nearly twelve pages. Our
fish, is the “ reticulatus,’”’ which cannot fora moment be mista-
ken for the European species, by any person of common obser-
vation : we are here told that Dr. Williams, author of the history
of Vermont, states that the pike bears in that state the name of
muschilongae:—the maskinongé, is the “‘ esox estor.”
Ihave thought that little if any change was produced in the
color of our species by age; the largest | have ever seen was as
brilliant as smaller specimens. I suspect the brightness of their
coloring depends principally upon the locality ; thus, those brought
froma pond in Brewster upon the Cape, which has a sandy bot-
tom, are perfectly beautiful; while those caught at West Cam-
idee Pond, and others in this neighborhood, are far less attrac-
tive in their colors.
But one species of the genus “ Belone,’’ the “ truncata,” (Le
Sueur, ) is found on our coast ; this however is here omitted, and
a foreign species is introduced, with a figure as usual from Strack.
That one or more species of “ H'xocetus”—flying fish,.are oc-
casionally taken on board vessels in our waters is undoubted ; but
that the “‘ mesogaster” is one of these species, is far from being
proved.
The “ Cyprinus crysoleucas’”’ could not have been. known to
the writer of the volume before us: he says “Though we have
seen individuals two inches in length, they are oftener less than
one.” Of great numbers which have fallen under my notice, the
average is from four to six inches.
The “ Cyprinus oblongus” and “ teres,” I have not seen: the
writer seems not to have known that there existed more than one
species of sucker; for he says, “from the earliest period of our
boyhood, we have been familiar with the fresh water sucker, a
lazy, still fish, of a dingy color,” &c. &c. if
Under the head of ‘“‘ Cyprinus teres,” the writer speaks of a
fish which was taken by the keeper of the Boston light house in
342, Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes.
a lobster-pot, and calls it the sea-sucker ; he observes, it “has a
mouth precisely like the fish above described,” &c.; and from the
fact of its being introduced here, we infer it was considered a
neighboring species. 'The fish here spoken of, formed a part of
the collection of fishes purchased of Dr. Smith, and is the ‘ Um-
brina nebulosa” described and figured by Mitchill in his “ Fishes
of New York.”
The author is cuilty of a gross and altogether inshore
error in the following species; he speaks of the “ Abramis chry--
soptera’”—bream: now the common European bream is the
“ Abramis brama,” and as yet we know of no “abramis” with
us. The ‘ Pomotis vulgaris” is generally known as the bream;
it is the only species I ever heard of as being called bream in
New England, and as the “‘ Pomotis vulgaris’ is not mentioned
in the pages under examination, the inference is irresistible that
what is here called “ Abramis chrysoptera is the ‘‘ Pomotis vul-
garis.”” So that we have a foreign fish catalogued as being found
in our waters, which is included in the family Cyprinipag, order
Matacopreryen, instead of our own beautiful species, to receive
which, a genus was formed by Cuvier, and included in his fam-
ily Percoipes, order AcanrHopreryent, showing conclusively,
that the common name being given, the scientific name of a
foreign species is attached, whose common name was the same
as ours. :
Respecting the four following species, I have only to say, they
are all unknown in Massachusetts: the fishes which are known
_ as the “ Reach” and ‘ Dace” are not the European species ‘‘Leu-
ciscus rutilus” and “vulgaris,” but undescribed fishes.
The “ L. alburnus” and ‘“ cephalus” I have never seen; and
as no foreign fluviatile species has as yet been met with in our
state, I feel it is just to doubt their existence. That many of the
Cyprinipae would thrive in our waters if transplanted to them,
may reasonably be concluded from the rapid increase of the
“ Oyprinus auratus—gold fish, in our ponds; and my friend,
Rev. J. E. Russell, of Salem, informs me that an English gen-
tleman residing in Newburgh, New York, has stocked his ponds
with the Hnglish carp—“ Cyprinus carpio,” from a few, he
imported.
On page 189, isa figure of the “ Silurus glanis,” an European
fish, copied with considerable accuracy from Strack’s plates, de-
Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 343
signated as the “ Horn pout,” and described as our fish, which
belongs to a distinct genus. Dr. Smith observes, “there are
two species (of Silurus) in this vicinity. I never heard of one.
From a careful inspection of our market for two years, and a
constant intercourse with fishermen during that period, several of
whom for a long time were bank fishermen, lam satisfied the
Bank cod—“ Morrhua vulgaris,” is not taken in our waters. I
have accordingly described our species in my report under the
name of “ M. Americana.”
The “ Merlucius vulgaris’—Hake, is called by our fishermen
the “ Whiting ;’ our auihor, learning therefore that the Whi-
ting was found on our coast, has supposed of course that it was
the European Whiting, and we accordingly have here an ac-
count of the “merlangus vulgaris,” which is not seen with us.
Our “ Pollock” is not the European fish, but the “ purpureus”
of Mitehill. :
What can be more amusing than the remarks which we find
under the genus “ Raniceps.” The “ Blennius viviparous” and
‘« Raniceps trifurcatus” are here side by side as synonymes of the
same fish—Blenny. 'The one belonging to the order Acanrno-
TERyeu, family Gostompar; the other, to the order Manac-
opreryeu, family Gaprpar. Thisis notall; a perfect burlesque
of the ‘viviparous blenny,” appears in the form of a figure
copied from. Strack, with these remarks accompanying it; “on
looking over that splendid series of German lithographic plates
of fishes, by Dr. Strack, 1828, an exact figure even to the color-
ing was noticed, which truly exhibits the blenny of the harbors
of Massachusetts, and must therefore, we strongly suspect, have
been drawn from the American blenny.” After reading the
above, what can the student think, when we tell him that thes fish
was never found in our waters; that our blenny is totally un-
like the “ viviparous,” and instead of being caricatured in “‘ the
splendid series of German plates,’ was, years ago, figured by
Professor Peck, in the American Academy’s Transactions, as the
“anguillaris,” formed by nature.
Determined to have a“ Raniceps,” we find that Dr. Smith has
here introduced the “ blennioides ;’ the individual which he
speaks of, as “a cream colored fish truly disgusting in appear-
ance,’ was purchased of him by this society, and proves to be a
specimen. with the cuticle abraded, of what he upon page 243
a Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes.
calls incorrectly “muraend conger ;” but more of this in its ap-
propriate place.
Five species are mentioned in the family “ Porunose ease
but one of these, “ Hippoglossus vulgaris”—holibut, is found
on our coast. ‘
_- Under the head of ‘ Piaiesia vulgaris,” our compiler gives
the appearance and habits of the European flounder, and says
“it is one of the most common fish in Massachusetts Bay ;” and
for a figure, he introduces a wretched copy of Strack’s oe =
thes a. vulgaris” —plaice ! !
T'wo pages beyond, we have a copy of the “ Atel = ‘fisitat
der, from Strack, described as the ‘plaice; and both the flounder
and plaice described as the ‘“‘ Platessa vulgaris.” - It will at once
be perceived that these two copies of foreign fishes should be
transposed : the plate on page 214 should take the place of that
on page 216, and vice versa. Neither of these species however,
the “vulgaris” nor “flesus” is found with us.
Reference is made on page 216, to a species which is called
the ‘‘ American turbot,” supposed to be the “ European pearl,”
7,
it isthe ‘ Rhombus aquosus’—“ watery flounder.”
Neither the ‘“ Solea vulgaris” —“ Sole,” nor “ Rhombus masz-
imus’—“ Turbot,” were ever seen by any of our fishermen
upon this coast; the opinion was so firmly established, that what
is called in our market the “ turbot’? was the same as the foreign
turbot, that I could not persuade the fishermen that they were not
identical ; it was only when two fine specimens were brought here
the last season, of the true turbot, from the the coast of Ireland,
that they were satisfied of their mistake ; and even then, one of
the most experienced of their number insisted that although they
differed, the only difference was this, that wherever a whete spot
existed in the American fish, a spine took its place in the foreign
species, and that opinion he still entertains, although our fish is
oblong in its form, and the turbot is nearly circular.
The “ Cyclopterus minutus” is probably the young of the
“yulgaris.” Although the “ Hcheneis remora,” is here intro-
duced with a plate from Strack, it has not yet been found in our
wate's.
Twenty pages are devoted to the “anguilla vulgaris” and
“muraena conger,” neither of which is found on the coast of
New England. The former has been mistaken for the ‘“ mura-
Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 345
ena Bostoniensis” of Le Sueur. The latter, is the species unin-
jured which when defaced, Dr. Smith called “ Raniceps blen-
nioides,” it is evidently a new genus, which, from the appearance
of concealed spines distributed over its head, I have called ‘‘ Cryp-
tanthodes”’—and given the specific name of “ maculatus” on ac-
count of its mottled surface, arranging it in the family “ Buccar
Loricatar, mailed cheeks.”
Our writer seems to have been ignorant of the fact, that the
“ Anarrhichas lupus” — Cat fish,” was used as food among us.
Many of our fishermen prefer it to any other species. I have
eaten it at my own table, and should never wish a sweeter or
more delicate meal than that afforded by a young cat fish. It
is a little singular, that instead of Pennant’s plate of this species
having been copied, which is quite good, and within the reach of
all, Strack’s plate which is very incorrect, making the anal fin
to appear as high as the dorsal, should have been preferred.
Upon page 254, “ Labrus tautoga” should be “ L. America-
nus ;” we read here that ‘the Boston market is but poorly sup-
plied with them; whenever they are for sale, it seems to be the
result of accident.” 'The two last years our market has been
gluited with them, throughout the season in which they are
taken.
Upon page 259, we have a description of the cunner, or marine
perch as it is often called; and it is surprising that after the
author observes, ‘‘since the commencement of this little vol-
ume, no one species has given us more trouble and perplexity in
the classification than this ;”’ to find it arranged in a wrong genus,
with the sage remark, ‘“ to all appearance the perch or cunner is
the tautog in miniature; and if it were black it would be sup-
posed to be the young of that fish!” And this too, while the
preoperculum of the former is strongly denticulated throughout,
and the edge of that of the latter is perfectly smooth!
Among the “ Labroides,” we also find the “ squetee” arranged
asa ‘“‘ Labrus,” instead of being placed in the family “ Scienot-
des’’—genus “ Otolithus.”
Upon page 263, Dr. Smith probably refers to the “ Centro-
pristis nigricans,” when he speaks of the ‘“ Perca varia.”
The next eleven pages are occupied with descriptions of nine
species, neither of which is found in Massachusetts. We have
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 44
346 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes.
neither a “ Scorpaena,” nor a “ mugil,” nor a “ surmullus ;” and
yet here we find an account of each.
If instead of copying upon page 273, a plate of the European
perch, from Strack, our only species of cc Perca”’ the “flavescens”
had been delineated, while the writer before us had pea
error, he would have conferred an obligation. rh
The “ Bodianus leucos’”—“ rufus’—and “ pallidus” are all
unknown fishes to me.
Six pages are devoted to the “ striped bass” —“ Labrax lin-
eata,” here incorrectly called “ Perca labrax”—the European
species. Our writer observes, “one old fashioned bass only, is
known to us from Cape Cod to Maine:” if he will visit Boston
market in any of the spring or autumnal months, he may see an-
other very common and pretty species of bass—the “ mucrona-
tus’’—the ‘smaller American bass,” called by our fishermen
* Pond perch.”
The probability of the ‘‘ Uranescopus scaber” being found
here, may be inferred from the following remark of Rich-
ardson in his “ Fauna Boreal Americana”—the ‘“ Uranos-
copus scaber,” is common to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean,
without having been detected in the Atlantic.”
We are told by the writer that he had not found the “ 77i-
gla lineata” in Massachusetts—we have no “ Trigla’”’ on our
coast; but the Prionotus strigatus,” incorrectly called here
“ Trigla lineata,” is common at Martha’s Vineyard.
Four species of “ Cotti”—sculpins,” are here spoken of; one
of which, the “gobio,” we are told, “is universally known
all over New England ;” another, the “ guadricornus” “is found
along the whole coast ;” the “ scorpius” is illustrated by a fig-
ure from Strack; and with the “‘cataphractus” “the fisher-
men are particularly familiar under the name of ruper sceulpin
—horn sculpin,” &c. Not one of these fishes is ours—the
“‘ geneus,”’ and ‘“ Virginianus’’ and “ Groenlandicus” are common
along our entire sea-board, but not one of the above mentioned
species did I ever hear of being taken.
The “ Batrachus grunniens” is mistaken for the ‘ variega-
tus” of Le Sueur.
Under the genus “ Lophius,” we have-an account of the
“ piscatorius ;”’ our writer tells us he was fortunate enough to ob-
tain one, the body of which, was four feet in length, and “‘ when
”
«
_ Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 347
the jaws were open, it could receive a morsel as large as a man’s
head.” What excuse then can be offered for his illustrating this
species with the plate of a distinct fish—a foreign species—be-
_longing to another genus, which grows only to the length of ten
or twelve inches! the “ Chironectes histrio.” Such negligence
cannot be overlooked ; we'have the “ piscatorius” in our waters ;
or had the author preferred, as he ever seemed to have done, to
copy from figures rather than from nature, he could have found
a plate of it in any work on Ichthyology.
I have no doubt that Cuvier is correct in considering the
“ Scomber grex” and “vernalis” as the same species.
Neither the “ chrysos” nor the “ plumbeus” do I know.
Eight pagesare occupied with the “ Scomber scomber”—“ E'uro-
pean Mackerel ;” it is not found on our coast.
Respecting the “ Surmuilet,’ I would only introduce a single
remark of Dr. Richardson. “ Mudlus, in its geographical distri-
bution, is confined to the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Euro-
pean Atlantic, including the Baltic.”
Upon page 307, we are told that “the spinous fins (of the
Tunny) have a yellowish tinge ;”’ as the finlets are the only por-
tions of the fish, which are yellow, they are probably intended.
The “ Centronotus ductor’’—“ pilot fish,” may possibly be found
within the waters of Massachusetts, although I have never been
able to procure one.
The “Zeus faber”—common dory, I have never seen, nor
heard of as being found in our waters.
Although we are told in the volume before us, that the “ Chry-
sotosus luna”—(“ Lampris guttatus,’) “has been taken within
a day’s sail of Boston ;” and Richardson in his “ Fauna Boreali
Americana” accordingly observes under the head of this fish, that
“Dr. Smith enumerates it among the fish of Massachusetts ;”
I have never been able to learn any thing regarding it, from any
of the fishermen, and therefore, although as it is a northern
* species, further investigation may establish its existence in our
waters, I should be unwilling to consider the point as proved
from the notice here referred to.
Dr. Smith, tells us two species of ‘ Sword fish” have been
discovered : Cuvier knew but one.
The “ Seserinus alepidotus” is here catalogued in the family
“ Squamipenes,” instead of the “ Scomberoides,” as it should have
348 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. .
been: the only species described, is an inhabitant only of the
Mediterranean and Black Seas.
Under the head of “ Fistularia,’ we find the “ tabacaria”
illustrated by a figure from Strack ; and our writer says, ‘had
we not two excellent specimens of this fish taken near Holmes’
Hole, its existence would not have been credited so far north of
the Equator.” One of these ‘two excellent specimens” belongs
by purchase to this Society, and is not the foreign fish, but the
“ serrata.” - .
Thus have I taken a hasty review of that portion of the vol-
tuume before us which treats of distinct species: the remainder of
the work I have not referred to, determined to confine myself
only to what appeared absolutely necessary to be noticed. The
remarks upon the “ Anatomy and Physiology of Fishes,” and
the “ Treatise on Angling,” are foreign to my purpose. ‘The ac-
curacy or errors of the former, may be ascertained by consulting
any standard work on Comparative Anatomy ; of the latter sub-
ject I plead entire ignorance.
A few words more and my unpleasant task isdone. The 248
pages over which we have thus rapidly passed, contain notices of
105 species, of which 80 are foreigners, and but 25 are found in
the waters of our State. Of these 105 species, 36 are illustrated
by figures; of these 36 illustrations, but 9 accompany species
which are found on our coast; of these 9 figures, 6 are copied
from “ Strack’s Plates,” and 3 from Mitchill’s “ Fishes of New
York!” Of the 36 plates contained in this “ History,” not one
is drawn from nature. If “the chief value of a written history
is in its truth, and next in the evidences of its truth,’”* what reli-
ance can be placed in us as naturalists, when one of our number
is allowed to publish such a work as this, and it is permitted to
circulate for years without a word being said or a line written
to point out its inaccuracies? Why should we wonder that. Yar-
rell, in his “ History of British Fishes,” should really think that
the “ Stlurus glanis” and ‘“ Petromyzon marinus” were found
in Massachusetts, or that Richardson in his ‘“ Fauna Boreali
Americana,” guarded as he generally has been in receiving what
is stated here, should almost believe that the “ Lampres gutta-
tus,” and “ Clupea harengus,” and “ Merlangus vulgaris,” and
* North American Review, No. 53, p. 439.
ea
> Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 349
E’cheneis remora,” were inhabitants of our waters, when not a
doubt of the correctness of this compilation i is Sas ey an
American ichthyologist ?
I have studiously avoided noticing any of the numerous exag-
gerated stories which are so liberally distributed throughout the
pages before us, feeling they could not deceive the naturalist, to
whom alone I would address myself; but what can be thought of
the assertion on page 75, that the “ Astacus Bartonit”—ltile
craw-fish, which measures from “the tip of the rostrum to the
end of the tail two inches,” and the ‘ Astacus marinus’”—our
common lobster, are the same species! I will make no comments
upon this statement, but beg permission to extract a few lines
from the page referred to. “On some of the highest points of
the Green Mountains between Massachusetts and New York, in
those small basins of water which are formed between different
eminences, lobsters are not only numerous, but really and truly
formed precisely like those of the ocean ; yet they rarely exceed
two inches in length. 'The question at once arises, how came
these animals in that locality, if the ova of the lobster were not
conveyed there by some bird? 'The fresh water together with
the climate of those high regions, has prevented the full devel-
opment of these miniature lobsters, though in character, habit,
and anatomical structure, there is the most perfect resemblance ;
and were the ova from the family on the mountain placed under
favorable circumstances in the borders of the sea, we have no
doubt that the progeny would be as large in one or two genera-
tions as any specimens which are exhibited from the ocean.”
Such is the “ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachu-
setts.” I have endeavored honestly to review it. Believing fully
the remark of Babbage, ‘that the character of an observer,
as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed,’’* I have felt no pleasure
in the progress of my examination ; the duty has been performed
for this Society, that when ridiculed for the publication of one
of its members, they may be able to say, we are aware that these
errors exist; they have been pointed out by him who felt called
upon to do so.
* « Reflections on the decline of Science in England, by C. Babbage.’’ p. 182,
350 : Electro Magnetism. i, * 7
& a3
Arr. XVIII. —Electro Magnetism; ; by Caries G. Pacey M. D,
‘Washington, D. C. .
In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, of this Journal, I described a revolving
armature and mentioned that the plan admitted of enlargement
only with the alteration of the mode of revolution. I must pre-
mise here, (as I have heretofore expressed myself,) that I do not
suppose this power susceptible of infinite increase, and in giving
these descriptions to the public, Iam only selecting from the mul-
titude of machines I have constructed, such forms as obviously
economize a given galvanic power. A number of machines
wherein the poles of the magnets were changed, and others where
the poles were not changed, but both systems, the stationary and
revolving, were rendered magnetic and non magnetic at intervals,
have been laid aside as not worth describing. Another form
wherein the magnets were made to revolve and attracted by sta-
tionary armatures is obviously defective, as will be readily seen by
referring to figure 3d, and supposing the systems reversed. If the
armatures were stationary, and the charged magnets revolving,
the magnets would always be attracted by the nearest armature ;
consequently the magnets would be charged only during one half
of a revolution. Figures 1, 2, and 3, are modifications on a large
scale of the revolving armature described in No. 2, of the last vol-
ume of this Journal. In figure 1, } 0, are two Electro Magnets
Fig. i
| E ANAT
disposed at right angles to each other, and firmly secured to
wooden pillars. Where it is practicable, the magnets should be
“mee oc electro Magnetism. 351
supported by. wood, as every piece of metal of any kind surround-
ing a magnet, detracts from its action, by reason of closed cur-
rents excited by the disturbance of magnetic forces. For the ac-
tion of closed currents see Vol. xxxv, No. 2, pages 254 and 5.
The armature a, is mounted upon a. brass shaft e, as I have here-
tofore shown by experiment that an iron or steel shaft detracts
sreatly from the inductibility of the armature. At e, firmly secur-
ed to the shaft is the electrotome or cut-off, the black portions
representing the intersections of ivory or other non conducting
material. 'I'wo pairs of plates (compound series) are connected
by their poles with the cups pp. By the revolution of the arma-
ture the two magnets are charged in succession, and thus the
action is maintained during the entire revolution.
ae
it :
Oe i) (el aN
St
| |
|
) hh
Lai
(
Jy
X Nin: sn
Figure 2, exhibits a machine of more simple construction than
the last, or perhaps than any other. It possesses also the advan-
tage of straight magnets much preferable to the U magnet. bb
are wooden frames or braces supporting the straight magnets m m.
a a are the two armatures upon the brass shaft e. The electro-
tome constructed upon the same principle as that of figure 1 may
CY EF
Fe ID
MATL OS Darbar arnt ae
f:
on 1
——
feo
352 Electro Magnetism. — re
be placed at e, and the wire connexions as’ Suet directed. This
is at once a very beautiful and simple machine, but in order to re-
alize its full power, the two straight magnets should be charged
by separate batteries. It cannot be made very large with any
economy, and the proportions should be very different from those
seen in the figure ; the armatures should be much shorter =
the magnets.
Figure 3, represents a revolving armature machine, invented
in the month of March, 1838.
a
Tin A a
S|
Als
The magnets 5 b b b are secured by brass screws to the braces
ec. The armatures aa are attached to two arms e e, which in
this case may be run upon a steel shaft. 'The electrotome is sim-
ilarly constructed and placed, and the connexions similar to those
of figures 1 and 2. This is the last of a series of experiments
made with reference to this subject, and after much attention, I
am inclined to give it the preference. Soon after this was in-
vented, a machine of larger size was built by the subscription of
several gentlemen in Boston. It contained eight magnets, four re-
volving armatures and the revolving system was one foot in diam-
eter. Not being able to be present during its construction, some
Observations on Electricity. 353
etrors were committed, and on the first trial it made only eighty
revolutions a minute. The remodeling was delayed until fur-
ther subscription should warrant the proceeding ; and I regret to
learn that the recent disastrous fire in Boston has destroyed the
machine and batteries.
Art. [X.—Observations on Electricity ; by CHARLES G. Pacer,
M. D., Washington, D. C.
Ir is somewhat singular that the following fact has so long re-
mained in obscurity, especially as the Franklinian theory has de-
rived its principal support from the converse of this fact: “Ifa
pith ball be laid in a groove on the table of the universal discharger,
and a Leyden jar or "battery be discharged in the direction of the
groove, the ball will be propelled in the direction of the passage
of the fluid, that is, from the positive to the negative.” It must
have happened, that in every case of repetition of this experiment,
the jar was charged in the ordinary way, viz. the interior or in-
sulated coating charged with vitreous or positive electricity ; for .
it will be found that if the insulated coating be charged with
negative or resinous electricity, the ball will be propelled contrary
to the supposed direction of the fluid, that is, it will move from
negative to positive. ‘If a card be placed upon the table of the
universal discharger, and the wires or directors be brought into
contact with the card on opposite sides, but at some distance
from each other, the perforation made by a discharge between
the points, will be found nearer the negative than the positive
wire.” By reversing the experiment the same error will be found
in this statement. If the negative surface be insulated, the per-
foration takes place nearest the positive wire. 'T‘he same correc-
tion will apply to the experiment with the flame of a candle be-
tween two cups of phosphorus.
Curious result from the configuration of the electric spark at
the positive and negative surfaces. If a tapering jet from which
issues a stream of hydrogen gas be applied to a conductor charged
positively, the gas will be inflamed nearly every time the spark
is drawn; but if the conductor be charged negatively, the gas
will rarely be kindled, frequently requiring six or more applica-
tions before it succeeds.
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 45
354 Observations on Electricity.
During the month of October last, I made a number of experi-
ments with a view to ascertain the utility of presenting points
only upon one side of the plate in the electrical machine. My
attention was called to this subject by a singular experiment
shown to me by Mr. Daniel Davis, which for some time appeared
rather enigmatical. -A circular plate of glass was charged by
movable coatings, and on removing the coatings, it frequently
happened that both sides of the plate when presented to a charged
electroscope, exhibited signs of the same species of electricity.
After numerous repetitions with a very careful examination, it
appeared that only the central portion of the negative side was
charged negatively, while a considerable annular space exterior
to this, was charged positively ; the redundant positive electricity
having forced or spread itself over the edge of the plate. On
reversing the experiment. and making the redundancy upon the
negative side, the negative electricity appeared to pervade both
surfaces as did the positive before. Some of our instrument
makers have been in the practice of placing the collecting points
of the prime conductor only upon one side of the electrical
plate, finding that they answered better in many cases, than a
row of points upon both sides, although no satisfactory reason
has been given for this difference. After witnessing the above
experiment, it occurred to me that the difference was owing to
the facility with which electricity distributes itself upon glass,
especially if it be not entirely clear and dry. Experiment fully
confirmed my anticipations, and I was surprised to find to what
extent the plate might be discharged by the application of a con-
ductor to any part of its charged surface. 'The prime conductor
having been removed, the plate was turned several times and the
silk flap thrown back leaving both sides of the plate exposed in
a highly charged state. ‘The hand was then laid upon the plate
at some distance from the edge and quickly withdrawn. On ex-
amining the plate not only the parts under and contiguous to the
hand were discharged, but the whole of that portion directly op-
posite to the hand on the other side of the plate was found dis-
charged to the same degree, although the distance over the edge
of the plate was in some cases fifteen inches. It will be found
that single or only two points on each side of the plate and near
its circumference will succeed better than numerous points upon
one side.
Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 355
Art. X.—Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December
6 and 7, 1838; conununicated by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec,
Sec. Conn. Acad.
Various observations made in this country on the shooting
stars of December 6 and.7, 1838, were published in the 72d No.
of this Journal. By recent intelligence it appears that this mete-
oric display was also noticed in distant regions.
1. Rev. Peter Parker, M. D. in a letter to my friend, Mr. A.
B. Haile, dated Canton, China, January 12, 1839, (received here
May 3, 1839,) after referring to the observations made there from
12th to 14th November, 1838, -states the following important
facts: ‘On the fifth of December, [1838, at Canton, N. lat. 23°
30’; E. lon. 113° 3/] however, the falling meteors were still more
abundant, [than on the morning of November 14, 1838,] one
hundred and sixty being counted in the space of one hour from
eight and a half to nine and a half o’clock, P. M.; and a few eve-
nings after this they were much more frequent. have often kept
a lookeut since, but no recurrence has been witnessed.” 'The
Canton Register of Dec. 11, 1838, gives the following account of
the same event: ‘‘ With reference to the highly interesting me-
teorological observations taken on the 12th and 13th ult., we have
been informed that a much more remarkable phenomenon was
noticed on the evening of the 5th inst., when from half past eight
to nine, one hundred and eight meteors were counted ; and from
nine until half past, fifty two; the moon and clouds then inter-
rupted the view.”
The number of observers is not stated, but it was doubtless in-
sufficient to note all the meteors visible. 'The evening on which
the meteors were most abundant at Canton was probably the
seventh or eighth. 'The earliest observation after the third of the
month, which the weather permitted usat New Haven, was on
the evening of the sixth, about a day and a half later than the
first observation at Canton.
2. The London Times of Dec. 11, 1838, contains a letter from
Mr. George Jeans, a copy of which is here given, with the omis-
sion of a few unimportant remarks. ‘‘ Yesterday evening, Dec.
7, as I was amusing the son of a friend in this neighborhood with
a 42-inch telescope, the atmosphere being unusually good for
356 Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838.
telescopic observations, and what light airs there were, being from
W. N. W., we were surprised by the frequency of those meteoric
exhibitions called falling stars. From 6 to 7 o’clock, five min-
utes rarely elapsed without one, and frequently several descended
in quick succession, so that by estimation, I should think about
thirty were seen in that time. But from 7 to 8, it was very sel-
dom that a single minute passed without a meteor, and for a con-
siderable time it literally rained [?] without any intermission.
After 8 o’clock they became less numerous again, but still equal
to what had been observed at first, till half past 9. Nor had they
ceased between 10 and 11; and when returning home after mid-
night, though the moon was shining brightly, I counted several.
They were not of one kind alone, but of all the species usually
enumerated ; nor did they fall from one part of the heavens only,
but were widely diffused, and took various directions, chiefly to-
wards the S. and E., but not always. The mass of them were
not brilliant nor rapid, though occasionally there were some
splendid specimens of both, and then commonly with a train.
Very many of them came apparently from the zenith, faint and
blue, and nearly perpendicular. I cannot estimate the number at
less than 300 ; and though it is a mere guess, for I soon found it
useless to try and count them, I am inclined to think that below
the truth. Tetney, (N. lat. 53° 28’; W. lon. 50”) near Grimsby,
Lincolnshire, Dec. 8, 1838.” — .
This account is much less definite than could be desired. 'The
observations appear to have been made chiefly by one person,
watching only a part of the time.
3. In aletter dated Savannah, Ga., May 4, 1839, Mr. Thomas
R. Dutton communicates the following: “After I wrote you in
regard to the December shower of 1838, I obtained some inform-
ation with regard to it from Captain Dyer of the ship Eli Whit-
ney. He was then on his passage from Boston to this place, and
off Cape Lookout, (about N. lat. 34°; W. lon. 77°). He made
no memoranda at the time, and is not therefore certain of the
date, but thinks it was on the night of the ezghth; [more proba-
bly the seventh.| He says, ‘The meteors started, with few ex-
ceptions, from the meridian or near the zenith, and moved to the
W. and sometimes 8S. W. I noticed a few, however, moving to
the E. A great many I observed to commence their movement
a little to the W. of Capella, and others to the W. of Aldebaran,
Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 357
and in a few instances from other parts of the heavens. A few
left trails of light, but the most of them did not. 'The greatest
number was seen between 8 o’clock and 12, after which compar-
atively few were observed.’ Capt. D. informed me that he must
have noticed as many as two hundred, during the four hours
above mentioned. His testimony is worthy of entire confidence.”
None of the observers, whose statements are cited above, were
apprised (so far asI can learn) that any thing unusual was expect-
ed to occur at the time. On this account, their testimony will
perhaps by some be considered more satisfactory. It is to be re-
gretted that the observers did not notice, with more attention, the
region of the heavens from which the meteors appeared to radiate.
In regard to the question of the annual occurrence in December
of an uncommonly large number of meteors, I annex the follow-
ing extracts. ‘The evidence which they contain is quite indefi-
nite, and each one may allow them what importance he pleases.
(1.) “'The meteors called Falling-stars were much more fre-
quent during this winter than we ever before saw them, and par-
ticularly during the month of December,” [1824, at Port Bowen,
N. lat. 70° 20’; W. lon. 80° 40’]. Then follows a particular ac-
count of several meteors observed on the 8th, 9th, 12th, and 14th
December. Compend of the Journals of Capt. Parry’s Three
- Voyages to the Arctic Seas, (5 vols. 18mo, Lond. 1828,) vol. 5, p.
A9, &c.
(2.) M. J. Milbert, in chap. 3, of his Voyage Pittoresque a ? Ile
de France, etc. (Paris, 1812, 8vo,) gives a sketch of the meteor-
ology of that island, (S. lat. 20°; E. lon. 57° 30’.) In his ac-
count of the character of the fa ithe of December, he states that
this season is the time in which luminous meteors are seen trav-
ersing the heavens.* It cannot be determined whether his state-
ment refers to any particular part of the month.
(3.) “ During the severe concussions [of the earthquake] of the
Ath and 5th, [December, 1809, at the Cape of Good Hope,] the
watches and clocks lost a good deal of time, a fire-ball was ob-
* Cette saison brilante est celle aussi ou les météores brillent dans le ciel et se
présentent quelquefois comme un énorme globe de feu ou comme une longue fusée
qui traverse lentement l’espace, jetant une lumiére trés vive; d’autres fois ils pro-
duisent une détonation aussi forte qu’un coup de canon; il n’est pas rare de voir
paraitre tout-a-coup dans le ciel ces jets de lumiére qui, parfois, se divisent aprés
Yexplosion, en laissant une trainée blanchatre qui forme un léger nuage, et bientdt
qui se perd dans l’espace.” Tome 2, p. 83.
358 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803.
served over the mountains in the west; various shooting stars
appeared ; the firmament was completely free of clouds, éuc.””—
Edinb. Ann. Reg. for 1809. Svo, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 509.
(4.) In an anonymous table of the dates at which unusual
numbers of meteors have been seen, contained in the London
Monthly Chronicle, (vol. i, No. 9, Nov. 1838,) the sixth of De-
cember, 1826, is given. What authority there is for it, I do not
know. ‘The table seems to be derived chiefly from a similar one
published by M. Quetelet, with additions from various papers
which have appeared in this Journal.
New Haven, Conn., May 15, 1839.
Art. XI.—On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an
account of observations made on and about the 20th April,
1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec. Sec. Conn. Acad.
Ir is generally known that in April, 1803, a remarkable shower
of shooting stars was witnessed throughout a large part of the
United States. In order that an account of this interesting event
may be placed on permanent record, I have collected for this Jour-
nal the following statements concerning it.
As hypotheses which I do not credit, are often interwoven with
the testimony cited, I take occasion here to express my entire dis-
sent from the suppositions that shooting stars, whether single or
in showers, are connected, either as cause or effect, with earth-
quakes, pestilence, electrical discharges, winds, seasons of heat or
cold, or any particular sort of weather; or that the movements of
these meteors have any correspondence with the direction of the
wind, or with lines of magnetic dip or declination. That they
are connected with the causes of the Aurora Borealis, is quite
doubtful, yet it is well worthy of notice, that very brilliant dis-
plays of the latter have often occurred about the 13th of Novem-
ber.
I. Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803.
1. General account.— The newspapers from North Carolina,
Virginia, and New Hampshire, contain accounts of a remarkable
exhibition of meteors, or of shooting stars, seen at Raleigh, [N. C.]
Richmond, [Va.] and Portsmouth, [N. H.] towards the end of
Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 359
April, 1803. The beholders have, in several places, given certi-
ficates of what they witnessed. 'They declare that night the
heavens seemed to be all on fire, from the abundance of lucid me-
teors. They passed over head in all directions, and were too
numerous to be counted. One witness counted one hundred and
sixty-seven in about fifteen minutes, and could not then number
them all. This luminous display continued from one until after
three o’clock in the morning. Part of the time the light was so
great that a pin might be picked up on the ground. The modern
opinion of these appearances is, that they consist of phlogistous gas,
(inflammable air) catching fire in the upper region of the atmos-
phere. But itis not easy to explain wherefore the air of so many
parts of the continent was so over-charged with hydrogenous va-
por so early in the season.[!!] The coruscations are stated from
all parts to have been unusually frequent and brilliant.”— Medical
Repository, (Svo, New York,) 2d Hex. vol. i, 1803-4, p. 300.
2. Observations at Richmond, Va., N. lat. 37° 32’; W. lon.
77° 26’. “ Shooting Stars.—T his electrical phenomenon was ob-
served on Wednesday morning last at Richmond and its vicinity,
ina manner that alarmed many, and astonished every person
who beheld it. From one until three in the morning, those
starry meteors seemed to fall from every point in the heavens, in
such numbers as to resemble a shower of sky rockets. The in-
habitants happened at the same hour to be called from their houses
by the fire-bell, which was rung on account of a fire that broke
out in one of the rooms of the Armoury, but which was speedily
extinguished. Every one, therefore, had an opportunity of wit-
nessing a scene of nature, which never before was displayed in this
part of the globe, and which probably will never appear again.
Several of these shooting meteors were accompanied with a train
of fire, that illuminated the sky for a considerable distance. One,
in particular, appeared to fall from the zenith, of the apparent size
of a ball of eighteen inches diameter, that lighted for several sec-
onds the whole hemisphere. During the continuance of this re-
markable phenomenon, a hissing noise in the air was plainly
heard, and several reports, resembling the discharge of a pistol.
Had the city bell not been ringing, these reports would probably
have seemed louder. The sky was remarkably clear and serene,
and the visible fixed stars numerous the whole night. Weare
anxious to know at what distance from Richmond this phenome-
360 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803.
non has extended. It is hoped that persons who have remarked
it in other places, will not neglect to inform the public of the par-
ticulars; as such information may add in a great degree to the
fe dice of meteorology.
“Since writing the above, we have been informed that several
of the largest of these shooting meteors, were observed to descend
almost to the ground before they exploded. Indeed, many of
those which we saw, appeared to approach within a few yards of
the house tops, and then suddenly to vanish. Some persons, we
are told, were so alarmed, that they imagined the fire in the Ar-
moury was occasioned by one of these meteors, and in place of
repairing to extinguish the earthly flames, they busied themselves
in contriving to protect the roofs of their houses from the fire of
heaven.
“This circumstance of the shooting stars descending within a
short distance of the ground, is, however, a fact highly important
to be known; as it has been generally supposed that meteors
only proceed in a horizontal direction and never fly perpendicu-
larly upwards or downwards. 'Those which we particularly re-
marked, appeared to descend in an angle of sixty degrees with the
horizon ; but as the smaller ones were so numerous and. crossed
each other in different directions, it was only possible to ascertain
with any precision, the paths of the largest and most brilliant.”
—RQuoted in N. Y. Spectator, of April 30, 1803, from the Vir-
ginia Gazette, of Richmond, April 23, 1803.
3. Observations in Schoharie Co., N. Y. N. lat. 4240.
lon. 743°.—‘ In the Balance of the 17th ult. we republished oa
the Virginia Gazette, an account of a remarkable phenomenon
which was observed in Richmond. The same appearance of in-
numerable meteors or shooting stars, has also been announced
from various parts of Massachusetts ; and we have just received
a communication from a gentleman of veracity and respectability,
who resides in Schoharie Co. in this State, which gives in sub-
stance the following particulars. He was returning home from a
journey, late in the same night that the meteors were observed at
Richmond, when he was astonished at the immense number of
shooting stars which fell in all directions around him. Some of
them approached so near the earth, that he could plainly distin-
guish them between the high hills on the east and west sides of
him, which were distant not more than half a mile. Those that
Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 361
seemed to fall nearest were apparently as large as a barrel [!] and
had tails from 12 to 20 feet in length. He judges there was no
intermission (as to numbers and motion) for two hours, during
which time the whole hemisphere was illuminated.” — The Bal-
ance, (Hudson, N. Y.) vol. 2, p. 205, June 28, 1803.
4. Observations at Wilmington, Del. N. lat. 39° 41’; W.
lon. 75° 28’.—“ On the 16th and 17th [April, 1803] we had a
brisk storm with torrents of rain and lightning ; and early in the
morning of the 20th, electrical meteors were surprisingly numer-
ous and vivid. Newspaper accounts since inform us that the
same phenomena were observed over a great part of the country.”
—Dr. John Vaughan, in N. Y. Med. Repos. 2d. hex. vol. 2, (1805)
p. 140.
‘These are all the accounts of the display which I have been
able to procure. ‘They give no information concerning the point
of radiation, or the hour of the greatest abundance. The radiant
point was doubtless north of the ecliptic ; and it is perhaps not
unreasonable to conjecture that it was (as seen in this latitude)
near the region of the heavens where it appeared to be on the
morning of the 19th of April, 1839.*
This meteoric shower appears to be the legitimate successor
of those which occurred April 4th,t (morning of 5th,) A.D. 1095,
and April 5th, (morning) A. D. 1122, (both of the Julian style,
corresponding nearly to the 11th of the Gregorian.) I have not
succeeded in finding any meteoric shower in April, between 1122
and 1803, and can not determine whether there has been a regu-
lar progression in the time of the recurrence of the phenomenon.
No evidence has come to my knowledge, that any such display
was seen in April, 1830.
II. Observations on shooting stars, on and about April 20, 1839.
1. New Haven.—On the morning of Friday the 19th, Mr.
Francis Bradley and myself watched from midnight until 3
* The idea advanced by M_ Valz, (Com. Ren. Acad. Sci. 1838, 2d sem. p. 977,)
that during meteoric displays of the same name, in any two successive years, the
meteors appear to move in contrary directions, is irreconcilable with various obser-
vations which have been made in this country ; and it is quite improbable, viewed
theoretically. A short time will determine the question.
+ Erroneously stated April 25, 1095, in Com. Ren, 1836, 2d sem. p. 145, from
which work this date has been often quoted.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 46
362 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803.
o’clock. 'The sky was clear, and the moon interfered only until
about 1 A.M. One watched in the North quarter, the other in
the South. During the three hours, we observed fifty aoe me-
teors as follows:
From Oh. to th. A. M. in N. nine; in 8. nine = 18
Pink 2 & “<. eleven’ - 991k 1c le
Bes & “. thirteen; “ ten..=.23
Several of the meteors were large, and left trains, but there was
nothing remarkable in this respect.. One apparently as large as
Jupiter, fell near the horizon in the N. W. about a quarter past
two o’clock, which as it burst, shot forth three red fire-balls. The
times of flight were generally less than half asecond. Soon after
we took our stations, we noticed that the apparent paths of the
majority of the meteors, if traced back, would meet in a spot
somewhere between « Lyre and 7 Draconis, (about R. A. 273°,
N. D. 45°,) and the radiant did not appear to change its place
among the stars as they moved westward.
On the morning of the 20th, Messrs. C. P. Bush, M. Canales,
J. T. Seeley and myself, began observations at fifteen minutes past
midnight. During the hour next following, we observed nine-
teen meteors. The radiant could not be so well determined as
on the morning previous. The time was unfavorable :—the
moon (then near the first quarter) interfered, and the sky was
partially clouded. In good circumstances, we should probably
have seen double the number. Considering this quantity as only
about equal to the yearly average, we concluded to abandon the
field. An accident entirely prevented any further observation on
my part, for several days succeeding.
2. Hudson, O.—The observations of four members of Western
Reserve College were obtained, through the kindness of Prof.
Loomis. On the 19th, from 2h. to 3h. A. M., two observers,
looking from E. to W. by way of S., saw thir teen meteors ; from
3h. to 4h., twelve. On the 20th, es observers, saw, aa 2h.
to 3h. A. M., éwelve; from 3h. to 4 h. thirteen.
3. Geneva, N. Y.—Mr. Azariah Smith, Jr. watched at various
times on the mornings of the 16th, 19th, and 20th. He saw
several meteors, (two of unusual splendor on the 19th,) but the
number was not above the average. ll, or nearly all of them,
came from the head of Draco.—Observations at Rochester, N. Y.
and at Claiborne, Ala. detected nothing unusual. The news-
Report on a re-ecamination, §c. 363
papers mention that at Charleston, S. C., at 10 o’clock, P. M. of
the 20th, a fire-ball of great splendor was seen in the North.
The details above given lead to the conclusion, that no unusual
display of meteors was visible in this country on the mornings of
the 19th or 20th April, 1839. It is to be regretted that no thor-
ough observation was made on the mornings of the 21st and 22d.
It deserves to be mentioned, that the meteoric shower of April,
1803, is by European writers, almost universally referred to the
twenty-second day of the month. ‘The documents which I have
quoted, compel the belief that the true date is the twentieth. 'The
only ground for suspicion concerning it, is the apparent failure
on this day, for two successive years, of any recurrence of the
shower.
Arr. XII.—WNotice of a Report on a re-eramination of the Eco-
nomical Geology of Massachusetts ; by Epwarp Hrrexcock,
Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst Col-
lege. Boston, 1838.
Communicated by Professor C. U. Surparp, at the request.of the Editors.
Tue objects aimed at in the undertaking, were Ist, the collec-
tion and analysis of soils, with a view to their amelioration on
chemical principles; 2nd, the discovery of coal, marl and ores;
3rd, a more accurate determination of the boundaries to the vari-
ous rock formations ; 4th the scientific geology, and lastly to pro-
cure additional specimens for the illustration of the geology and
mineralogy of the State.
Prof. Hircucocx confines himself however, in the present re-
port pretty nearly to the first and second topics above enumer-
ated, and dwells particularly upon those developements of valu-
able materials within the commonwealth, which have been ef-
fected since the publication of his earlier reports.
As a preliminary to the consideration of soils, he classifies the
_ different kinds observed as follows :
1. Alluvium from rivers, do. peaty; 2. Tertiary soil, do.
sandy; 3. sandstone soil, red, do. gray; 4. Graywacke soil, con-
glomerate, do. slaty gray, do. slaty red; 5. Clay slate soil; 6.
Limestone soil, magnesian, do. common; 7. Mica slate soil; 8.
364 Report on a re-examination of the
Talcose slate soil; 9. Gneiss soil, common, do. ferruginous; 10.
Granite soil; 11. Sienite soil; 12. Porphyry soil; 13. Green-
stone soil.
The principal deposites of the 2d variety of soil occur in the
valley of the Connecticut river, and in the counties of Plymouth,
Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket. ‘The surface on these
places is usually covered with a white or yellowish silicious
sand, which forms one variety of these soils. Where the sand is
washed away, a deposite of clay is exposed, white, or whitish
in the southeastern part of the state, but bluish on Connecticut
river. ‘This is the other variety of tertiary soils. Hither of them
in a pure state, is exceedingly barren ; but duly mixed, they form
a very productive soil.” (p. 10.)
The limestone soil is confined to the county of Berkshire. It
is thus denominated because it contains more of the salts of lime
than any of the other soils of the state, although the calcareous
earth even in the limestone soil, is by no means abundant, it hav-
ing, in the opinion of Prof. H., been partially withdrawn by cul-
tivation. ;
The specimens of soil for analysis were taken in nearly every
instance from cultivated ploughed fields, and when practicable,
from land which had been long enough under cultivation to cause
the decay of all coarse vegetable fibres. Care was observed to
avoid on the one hand, rich soil situated near to houses, and on
the other, worn out and neglected fields. ‘The samples were
obtained at a depth of three or four inches below the surface ;
and in the selection, roots, undecayed manure, and large pebbles
were rejected. After having been previously spread for several
days upon boards, during the dry days of October, they were
transferred to tin canisters. A portion of each specimen was
withdrawn for analysis, and the remainder was enclosed in a
glass bottle, which is intended for preservation in the State col-
lection. One hundred and twenty such bottles were collected,
besides fifty others, containing marls, clays, muck-sand, marsh-
mud, ochres, &c.
In proceeding to the analysis of these numerous specimens,
Prof. H. remarks, that the objects were, ‘ first, to ascertain the na-
ture and amount of the earths that form the basis of the soils.
Secondly, the nature and amount of the salts that act as stim-
ulants to vegetation; and thirdly, to determine the amount and
Economical G'eology of Massachusetts. 365
condition of the organic matter which constitutes the nourish-
ment of plants.’
The time at his command, however, was inadequate toa rigid
analysis of these soils, according to the rules laid down for the
nicest processes of quantitative research. Being forced to con-
duct many analyses contemporaneously, the use of silver and
platinum vessels was of necessity out of the question; nor was
there room to verify results by repetition ; still he believes that a
sufficient approximation to the truth was secured, to answer the
purposes intended.
The almost total absence of carbonate of lime is a remarkable
feature in the soils of Massachusetts. But seven specimens of
the whole number effervesced with hydrochloric acid, when ex-
amined with the utmost care to observe this phenomenon; nor
did either of these examples afford carbonate of lime in a higher
ratio than about 3 per cent.
It was a leading object in the research to determine the quan-
tity of finely divided matter in the soil, since the best soils are
usually characterized by their fineness. Prof. H. thinks the
main defect of their soils to consist in the coarseness of their tex-
ture, and this he very properly attributes to the circumstance of
their originating, for the most part, directly from primary rocks.
The salts soluble in water, equalled from 1 to 2 parts in a
thousand of the soil, and in every case it was believed to contain
sulphate of lime (gypsum.) Carbonate of magnesia was also
very frequently an ingredient, though in mere traces. The pres-
ence of soda and potassa was not determined. The peroxide of
iron exists from 1 to 4 per cent., and upwards in few instances.
Prof. H. regards this last as an useful ingredient in soils. The ra-
tio of the alumina to the other ingredients varies from 1 to 18
per cent. ‘The instances are common in which he found it above
10 per cent., which is beyond what might have been supposed
for a region where the argillaceous formations are so uncommon
as they are in Massachusetts.
In respect to the earthy ingredients of a soil, it is undoubtedly
true that a very wide diversity of constitution is compatible with
fertility, provided the mechanical condition, and the proportions
of salts and organic matter are propitious. Prof. H. is of opinion
that ‘the salts especially admit of but little variation without
producing sterility, either by their deficiency or excess; and
366 Report on a re-examination of the
hence to determine their amount is an important point in agricul-
tural chemistry. And the differences which are so obvious in
soils derived from different rocks, do not depend entirely upon
the different proportions of the earths which they contain. For
the quantity and nature of the salts resulting from the decompo-
sition of rocks are considerably different. Thus we should ex-
pect, that the gneiss and granite soils would contain a larger
amount than usual of the salts of potassa, and where sulphuret
of iron prevails, of the salts of iron; the porphyry soils, of the
salts of soda; the graywacke and sandstone soils, of the salts of
lime, magnesia, and perhaps potassa and soda; the mica slate
soils, of the salts of magnesia and potassa; the talcose slate soil,
of the salts of magnesia: or perhaps more commonly we should
find the lime and magnesia wncombined with an acid,’ (we do
not perceive how this can be.)
‘Such differences as these in the constituents of soil, will un-
questionably affect their fertility; and it would be desirable to
ascertain how far they exist in the soils of Massachusetts. I had
hoped to accomplish this object ; but it will require a great num-
ber of delicate and accurate analyses, demanding far more time
than has yet been allowed me. As will be seen in the sequel, I
have attempted to determine the amount of the salts of lime in
all the soils that I have collected; but it will need comparative
trials by the ordinary modes of analysis before the peculiar char-
acteristics of the different classes of our soil can be pointed out ;
and besides I have made no attempt to determine the existence
and amount of potassa and soda in my specimens.’ p. 27.
Prof. H. next proceeds to the developement of a new method of
analysis derived from Dr. Samuent L. Dana of Lowell, Mass., and
which Prof. H. regards as a most important contribution to agri-
cultural chemistry. ‘The account is prefaced by the following
remarks from Dr. D.
‘¢ Geine forms the basis of all the nourishing part of all vegetable manures. The
relations of soils to heat and moisture depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under
its three states of ‘ vegetable extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould,’ the principle
which gives fertility to soils long afier the action of common manures has ceased.
In these three states it is essentially the same. ‘The experiments of Saussure have
long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. Ofall
the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical
importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and insoluble geine in
soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and propor-
tions of the earthy constituents and soluble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation
Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 367
of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as
undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the
labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, pub-
lished in the books, to see that fertility depends not on the proportion of the earthy
ingredients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are
these ; that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly, or chiefly, of one earth ;
or any soil, with excess of salts, is always barren; and that plants grow equally
well in all soils, destitute of gezne, up to the period of fructification,—failing of
geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then,
all that is essential; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with
the first. The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of
plants. The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury.
The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve
all into ‘ granitic sand ;’ by which I mean the finely divided, almost impalpable
mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica slate, sienite, and argillite; the
last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look
at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic principles constant constitu-
ents—silica, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphuric and phos-
phoric acids. Hence these will be found constituents of all soils. The phosphates
have been overlooked from the known difficulty of detecting phosphoric acid.
Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with mucilage or gelatine,
that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless the good effects,
the lasting effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on
its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to
yield variable quantities of the salts and earthy compounds; yet I believe, that
accurate analysis will show, that similar parts of the same species, at the same age,
always contain the inorganic principles above named, when grown in soils arising
from the natural decomposition of granite rocks. These inorganic substances will
be found not only in constant quantity, but always in definite proportion to ‘the
vegetable portion of each plant. The effect of cultivation may depend, therefore,
much more on the introduction of salts than has been generally supposed. The
salts introduce new breeds. So long as the salts and earths exist in the soil, so
long will they form voltaic batteries with the roots of growing plants; by which,
the ‘ granitic sand’ is decomposed, and the nascent earths, in this state readily solu-
ble, are taken up by the absorbents of the roots, always a living, never a mechan-
ical operation. Hence so long as the soil is granitic, using the term as above
defined, so long is it as good as on the day of its deposition; salts and geine may
vary, and must be modified by cultivation. The universal diffusion of granitic di-
luvium will always afford-enough of the earthy ingredients. The fertile character
of soils, I presume, will not be found dependent on any particular rock formation
on which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar form-
ations; but all our granitic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic
principles which plants demand. This is so true, that on this point the farmer al-
ready knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows:
a soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture. but the best possible
mixture does not give fertility. That depends on salts and geine. If these views
are correct, the few properties of geine which I have mentioned, will lead us at
once to asimple and accurate mode of analysing soils,—a mode, which determines
at once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable
nutriment,—a mode, requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental
tact,—one, which the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy ; and,
with a little modification, perfectly within the reach of any man who can drive a
team or hold a plough.”
368 Report on a re-evamination of the
Rules of Analysis.
1. “ Sift the soil through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; bake it just up to
browning paper.” ; .
2. “ Boil 100 grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or
carbonate of soda, in 4 ounces of water, for half an hour; let it settle; decant the
clear ; wash the grounds with 4 ounces boiling water ; throw all on a weighed fil-
ter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil, (1); wash till color-
less water returns. Mix all these liquors. It isa brown colored solution of all the
soluble geine. All sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any
phosphates, are on the filter. Dry therefore, that, with its contents, at the same
heat as before. Weigh—the loss is soluble gene.”
3. “If you wish to examine the geine ; precipitate the alkaline solution with ex-
cess of lime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if lime-water
enough has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colorless. Collect the geate of
lime on a filter; wash with a little acetic or very dilute muriatic acid, and you
have geine quite pure. Dry and weigh.”
4. “Replace on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents; wash with 2
drams muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold water. Wash till
tasteless. The carbonate’ and phosphate of lime will be dissolved with a little
iron, which has resulted from the decomposition of any salts of iron, besides a lit-
tle oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touched. We may estimate all as
salts of lime. Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in
boiling water. The insoluble will be phosphate of lime. Weigh—the loss is the
sulphate of lime ; (I make no allowance here for the difference in atomic weights
of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.)”’
5. “The earthy residuum, if of a greyish white color, contains no insoluble geine
—test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel—if the odor of burn-
ing peat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine isindicated. Ifso, calcine the
earthy residuum and its filter—the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine ;
that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegeta-
ble food. Any error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate, if one be
present, but these exist in too small quantities in ‘ granitic sand,’ to affect the result.
The actual weight of the residuary mass is ‘ granitic sand.’
“ The clay, mica, quartz, &c. are easily distinguished. If your soil is calcareous,
which may be easily tested by acids ; then before proceeding to this analysis, boil
100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the loss of weight is due to
the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron may be so considered ; for the ulti-
mate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime.”
“¢ Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as
before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter.”’* pp. 32-35.
* In applying Dr. Dana’s rules given in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I
found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several processes to-
gether. JT accordingly made ten compartments upon a table, each provided with
apparatus for filtering and precipitations, also 10 numbered flasks, 10 evaporating
dishes, and a piece of sheet iron pierced with ten holes, for receiving the same
number of crucibles. I provided, also, a sheet iron oven, with a tin bottom large
enough to admit 10 filters, arranged in proper order, and a hole in the top to admit
a thermometer. The sand bath was also made large enough for receiving the ten
flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes with almost as great
facility as one could have been carried forward in the usual way.
Economical Geology of Massachusetis. 369
A tabular view is given in the report of 125 analyses of soils,
conducted on the principles above laid down. 'The first column
of the table gives the soluble geine, the 2d, the insoluble geine,
_ the 3d, sulphate of lime, the 4th, the carbonate of lime, the 5th,
the phosphate of lime, the 6th, the granitic sand, the 7th, the
moisture absorbed in 24 hours by 100 ers. of the soil previously
heated up to 300° F'., the 8th, the absorbing power in propor-
tional numbers, and the last, the specific gravity of the soil. ©
Notwithstanding the expedition with which examinations ac-
cording to the foregoing rules are capable of being made, we can-
not but express our astonishment at the zeal and patience with
which the author must have labored in order to bring forward so
many results. And whatever may be the value which the chem-
ical reader may attach to the formula by which they are conduc-
ted, taken as a whole, still, in regard to the columns of organic
matter, of absorbing power and specific Sasa no objections are
likely to be urged.
Of Dr. Dana’s hypothesis respecting the state in which vegeta-
ble and animal matter exists in the soil, and the changes through
which it passes before being taken up by the roots of the plants,
it is exceedingly doubtful whether the progress of organic chem-
istry will ever raise it to the character of chemical theory. Re-
cent researches would rather lead us to regard soluble geine as
composed of at least three vegetable acids, viz. the crenic, apo-
crenic, and ulmic, together with a black matter called by Her-
mann (Journ. d’ Expm. t. 12, p. 277,) earthy extract: while the
insoluble geine is ulmic acid mingled with undecomposed veg-
etable remains. Hermann gives the following view of the con-
stitution of the above acids.
Crenic. Apocrenic. Ulmic.
Carbon, 535. (= Tatoms.) 1070:1(= 14 atoms.) 6190.
Hydrogen,;* 998 (= 16 *""") Si.aa= TAD BNE SUAS
Nitrogen, BB. EGY) PORES SE SS a Fe) OG
Oxyeeil, ! 600F (SS (OO) ee S0OR (22> Se Te eR
—_——_—_—_———
1323.3 (combining weight.) 1722.9 (combining wt.) 10000.
What therefore Dr. D. considers a simple salt, (a geate, ) is more
probably a family of salts, viz. a crenate, an apocrenate, and an
ulmate, with the addition moreover of earthy extract. How these
principles become the nutriment of plants is yet far from being
Vol. xxxvi1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 47
cy La Report on a re-eramination of the
cleared up, although there remains the best reason for supposing
that it chiefly depends upon their capacity to afford carbonic acid.
The more alkaline the bases united with these acids in a particu-
lar soil, the more favorable are the conditions for vegetation, a
fact which is apparently connected with the superior solubility of
alkalescent salts.
It may be doubted whether the steps directed to be taken in
the analysis for the determination of the salts of lime are free from
all objection. The treatment of the soil after being freed from
geine, with dilute hydrochloric acid, must necessarily take into
solution aluminium and iron, beside rendering a portion of the
silicic acid soluble. On evaporating the fluid to dryness as di-
rected, and treating the mass with boiling water, it would there-
fore follow that a residuum of alumina and sesquioxide of iron,
(owing to the partial decomposition of the chlorides of aluminium
and iron from evaporation to dryness, ) together with some silicic
acid (rendered insoluble by the same treatment,) would go to in-
crease the weight assumed to be pure phosphate of lime.
As might be anticipated therefore, we find the ratio of phos-
phate of lime in the soils of Massachusetts exceedingly high, va-
rying from 0.5 to 2 per cent.
Growing out of the same procedure, it appears also, that the
proportion of sulphate of lime must generally be rather too high:
for if, as we suppose, the hydrochloric acid attacks the aluminium
and iron, the aqueous solution regarded in the formula as chlor.
calcium only, must contain also the chlorides of iron and alu-
minium, as well as some silicic acid. Consequently, we find the
sulphate of lime quoted in some of these analyses at 3 p.c., and
even higher in a few instances.
The foregoing inadvertencies (as they strike us) in Dr. Dana’s
rules of analysis, are not conceived to vitiate in an important man-
ner the results contained in the report, nor do we mention them
because we imagine they were unperceived by the inventor of
the formula or by Prof. H.; but through a desire to induce these
gentlemen to obviate, if possible, the objections urged against it,
and still preserve its claims to convenience on the ground of fa-
cility of working and accuracy of result.
The report contains the following remarks respecting the re-
sults of these analytic investigations.
Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 371
They show us the amount of nutriment in the soils of Massachusetts ; also how
much of it is in a fit state to be absorbed by plants, and how much of it will need
further preparation. As this is probably the first attempt that has been made to ob-
tain the amount of geine in any considerable number of soils, we cannot compare
the results with those obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however,
for comparison with future analyses; and we learn from them, that geine, in both
its forms, abounds in the soils of the state, and that it most abounds where most
attention has been paid to cultivation. It ought to be recollected, that I took care
not to select the richest or the poorest portions of our soils; so that the geine in
this table is probably about the average quantity. It is hardly probable that the
number of specimens analysed from the different varieties of our soils is sufficiently
large to enable us to form a very decided opinion as to their comparative fertility,
especially when we recollect how much more thorough is the cultivation in some
parts of the state than in others. It may be well, however, to state the average
quantity of geine in the different geological varieties of our soils, which is as
follows ;
Scluble Geine. Insoluble Geine,
Alluvium, 2.25 - - - - 2.15
Tertiary argillaceous soils, 3.94 - Phi eee ge yy Dee
Sandstone do. 3.28 - - - - 2.14
Gray wacke- do. 3.60. = - - - 4,00.
Argillaceous slate do. 5.77 - = - - 4.53
Limestone do. 3.40 - - - - 4,04
Mica slate - do. 4.34 - - agua 4.60
Taicose slate do. 3.67 - - - - 4.60
Gneiss do. 4.30 - - - - 3.40
Granite do. 4.05 - - - Bre eet teyy
Sienite do. 4.40 - - - - 4.50
Porphyry do. 5.97 - - - - 4.10
Greenstone do. 4.56 - - - - 6.10
One fact observable in the above results may throw doubts over the fundamen-
tal principles that have been advanced respecting geine ; viz. that it constitutes the
food of plants, and that they cannot flourish without it. It appears that our best
alluvial soils contain less geine, in both its forms, than any other variety, except
those very sandy ones that are not noticed in the above results, because their num-
ber is so small. Ought we hence to infer that alluvium is a poor soil? I appre-
hend that we can infer nothing from this fact against alluvial soils, except that they
are sooner exhausted than others, without constant supplies of geine. For if a soil
contain enough of this substance abundantly to supply a crop that is growing upon
it, that crop may be large although there is not enough geine to produce another.
Now analysis shows that our alluvial soils contain enough of geine for any one
crop: and I apprehend that their chief excellence consists in being of such a de-
gree of fineness that they allow air, moisture, and lime, rapidly to convert vegeta~
ble matter into soluble geine, and yield it up readily to the roots of plants: but I
presume that without fresh supplies of manure, they would not continue to pro-
duce as long as most of the other soils in the state.. A considerable part of our al-
luvia are yearly recruited by a fresh deposite of mud, which almost always con-
tains a quantity of geine and of the salts of lime, in a fine condition for being ab-
sorbed by the rootlets of plants. And on other parts of alluvial tracts, our farmers,
I believe, are in the habit of expecting but a poor crop unless they manure it yearly.
Yet so finely constituted are these soils, that even if exhausted, they are more easily
restored than most others; so that taking all things into the account, they are
Yes
372 Report on a re-eramination of the
m
among the most valuable of our soils; and yet I doubt whether they ‘produce as
much at one crop as many other soils; though the others penabe require “more
labor in cultivation. Die
The amount of soluble and insoluble geine obtained by Dr. Dana’s mothe,
analysis, ought to correspond pretty nearly with the amount of organic matter ob- _
tained by the old method ; and by comparing the two tables of results that have
been given, it will be seen that such is the fact. Several circumstances, however,
besides errors of analysis, will prevent a perfect agreement. In the first place, by
the old method of analysis, 100 grains of the soil are weighed before expelling the
water of absorption; but by the new method, not until after itsexpulsion. Again,
by the old method only the very coarse parts of the soil are separated by the sieve :
but a fine sieve is used by the new mode, and this removes nearly all the vegeta-
ble fibre, which by the other method is reckoned a part of the organic matter.
Other causes of difference might be named: and hence we ought not to expect a
perfect agreement in the results of the two methods.
The three next columns in the Table contain the salts of lime in our soils, I
have already described the infrequency of the carbonate; but very different is the
case with the sulphate and the phosphate which were found in greater or less
quantity, in every soil analysed. In respect to the sulphate of lime, or gypsum,
it may not be unexpected that we should find it in all soils, since we know it to
occur in all natural waters throughout the state ; and we cannot conceive of any
other source from which the water could have derived it, except the soil. But the
phosphate of lime has generally been supposed to be much more limited, nay to be
scarcely found in soils, except where animal substances-have been used for manure.
It is possible that in all the soils which I have analysed, such might have been its
origin, though not very probable. Yet there is strong reason to believe, that this
salt is a constituent of all soils in their natural state. The arguments on this sub-
ject are stated so ably by Dr. Dana that I need only quote from his letter.
*¢ When we consider that the bones of all graminivorous animals contain nearly
50 per cent. ef phosphate of lime, we might be at liberty to infer the existence of
this principle, in the food, and, consequently, in the soil, on which these animals
graze. If we look at the actual result of the analysis of beets, carrots, beans, peas,
potatoes, asparagus, and cabbage, we find phosphate of ltme, magnesia, and potash,
varying from 0.04 to 1.00 per cent. of the vegetable. Indian corn too, by the anal-
ysis of the late Professor Gorham, of Harvard College, contains 1.5 per cent. phos-
phate and sulphate of lime. It may be said that this is all derived from the manure.
We shall see by and by. Let us look at the extensive crops often raised where’
man has never manured. Rice, wheat, barley, rye, and oats, all contain notable
portions of phosphate of lime, not only in the grain but in the straw, and often in
the state of superphosphates. The diseases too, ergot and smut, show free phospho-
ric acid. Can it be that, ewing to certain electrical influences of the air, in partic-
ular seasons, lime is not secreted by the plant to neutralize the free acid? May
not this be a cause of smut and ergot? Does it not point outaremedy? ‘Take too
the cotton crop of our country. What vast. quantities of phosphates do we thus
annually draw from the soil? Cotton gives one per cent. ashes, of which 17 per
cent. is composed of phosphate of lime and magnesia. 'The like is true of tobacco.
It contains 0.16 per cent. of phosphate of lime. If we turn to the analysis of forest
trees, we find that the pollen of the pinus abies, wafied about in clouds, is composed
of 3 per cent. phosphate of lime and potash. May not this too be one of nature’s
beautiful modes of supplying phosphoric acid to plants and to soils? If, as the late
experiments of Peschier have proved, sulphate of lime, in powder, is decomposed
be growing leaves, the lime liberated, and the sulphuric acid combining with the
Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 373
: potash i in the plant, why may not phosphate of lime, applied by pollen, act in the
same way? At any rate, the existence of phosphate of lime in our forest soils is
proved not only by its existence in the pollen, but by its actual detection in the
_ ashes of pines and other trees.—100 parts of the ashes of wood of pinus abies give 3
per cent. phos. iron; 100 parts of the ashes of the coal of pinus sylvestris give 1.72
phos. lime, 0.25 phos. iron; 100 parts of ashes of oak coal, give 7.1 phos. lime, 3.7
phos. iron; 100 parts of ashes of bass wood 5.4 phos. lime, 3.2 phos. iron; 100 parts
of ashes of birch wood 7.3 phos. lime, 1.25 phos. iron ; 100 parts of ashes of oak
wood 1.8 phos. lime; 100 parts of ashes of alder coal 3.45 phos. lime, 9. phos. iron.
‘These are the calculated results from Berthier’s very accurate analyses, and
those very curious crystals—detected in some plants—the ‘aphides’ of DeCandolle,
are some of them bibasic phosphates of lime and magnesia. Phosphate of iron, we
know, is common in turf; bog ore, and some barren and acid soils owe their acidity
to free phosphoric acid. If we allow that our untouched forest soil contains phos-
phate of lime, it may be said, that this, being in small quantity, will be soon ex-
hausted by Galivetion: and that the phosphates, which we now find in cultivated
fields, rescued from ile forest, is due to our manure ;—I give you the general result
of my analysis of cow dung, as the best argument in reply. My situation and du-
ties. have led me to this analysis. I give you it, in such terms as the farmer may
comprehend: water, 83.60; hay, 14. ; biliary matter, (bile resin, bile fat and green ~
resin of hay,) 1.275; geine combined with potash, (vegetable extract,) 0.95; albu-
men, 0.175.”
‘¢The hay is little more altered than by chewing. The albumen has disap-
peared, but its green resin, wax, sulphate and phosphate of lime remain, and when
we take 100 parts of dung, among its earthy salts we get about 0.23 parts phosphate,
0.12 carbonate, and 0.12 sulphate of lime. Now, a bushel of green dung as evacua-
ted weighs about 87.5 Ibs. Of this only 2.40 per cent. are soluble. Of this portion
only 0.95 can be considered as soluble geine.’’—pp. 43-47.
For the sake of comparison, Prof. H. has subjected a few spe-
cimens of soil taken from fertile western lands to the same kind
of analysis.
6 oles . = S = S 3 38
E g E : EE a e S a : 2 ie Remarks.
Bo |e E Ae} solo ae
Rushville, _ Ilinois,) 7.4 | 2.5| 3.4 | 0.6) 1.5 84.6 6.3 |
Sangamon co. .do. | 4.9) 5.6/1.2] 0.4 | 1.3 86.6) 6.3 |
Lazelle county, do, | 7.6 13.8] 1.4 | 0.4 | 3.3 73.5) 9.5 ; Nee
Peoria county, do. | 3.1/4.8) 3.5] 1.0 87.6) 5.7
Sciota Valley, Ohio, | 4.5| 6.7| 2.1 | 0.9 | 2.8 |g3.0| 5.3 Seba aaa
The above soils are evidently of the very first quality : the geine being in large
proportion, and the salts quite abundant enough, while there is still a small supply
of carbonate of lime to convert more insoluble into soluble geine, whenever occa-
sion demands. Still, if we compare the preceding analyses with some of those that
have been given of the Massachusetts soils, the superiority of the western soils will
not appear as great as is generally supposed. And there is one consideration re-
sulting from the facts that have been stated respecting geine, that ought to be well
374 Report on a re-examination of the
considered by those who are anxious to leave the soil of New England that they
may find a more fertile spot in the West. Such soils they can undoubtedly find ;
for geine has been for ages accumulating from the decomposition of vegetation in
regions which have not been cultivated: and for many years, perhaps, those re-
gions will produce spontaneously. But almost as certain as any future event can
be, continued cultivation will exhaust the geine and the salts, and other generations
must resort to the same means for keeping their lands in a fertile condition as are
now employed in Massachusetts, viz. to provide for the yearly supply of more
geine and more salts.—pp. 47,48.
Next follows some remarks upon the power of soils to absorb
water. This is conceived to depend principally upon the organic
matter they contain, and next upon the proportion of alumina,
after which cabonate of lime is considered favorable to the imbi-
bition of moisture. These ingredients of soil being essential to
fertility, the absorbing power, if correctly ascertained, becomes to
some extent a measure of its productiveness. Prof. Hrrcncocx’s
method of determining the problem in question, was to expose
100 grs. previously heated to 300° F’. in a cellar for 24 hrs. on a
small earthern plate. At the end of this period, the plate was
again weighed and the increase ascertained.
The power of a soil to absorb moisture is no doubt a very
important consideration to the agriculturalist ; and it appears to
us to depend upon several conditions beside those above hinted at.
For example, the mechanical condition of the soil must materially
influence its capacity for acquiring moisture. A finely comminu-
ted soil will absorb in a higher ratio than one which is coarse or
gravelly. The presence of carbonate of potassa, or chloride of
calcium, by their deliquescent properties will also powerfully aug-
ment the absorbability of a soil. It is in part owing to the alka-
line carbonate referred to, that the light soils in and near New
Milford, (Conn.) possess such superior qualities for agriculture.
This carbonate is supplied without interruption from the decom-
posing state of the feldspar in the granitic gneiss hills (called Can-
dle Mt. range) situated west of the village, and which run north-
ward to Cornwall. We know also, that wood-ashes constitute
the best amendment for light silicious soils, rendering them pro-
ductive in almost every species of crop, even when applied with
very small quantities of other manure. [Illustrations of this fact
are frequent upon Long Island and the dry sand soils of the Con-
necticut valley.
Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 375
_A new method for learning the absorbing qualities of soils has
lately been practiced by M. Berruier,* which appears to us as
particularly deserving of notice. It consists in filling a small filter
with the dry soil, and then thoroughly moistening it until water
drops from it; when the water has ceased dropping, the filter
With its contents is transferred to one cup of a balance and a
moistened filter of the same size to the other, when the gain in
weight is noted. The following are some results obtained in this’
way by Berrurer:
A vegetable soil from Ormeson, near Nemours, of a pale ochre
yellow color, taken from a vineyard and considered of excellent
quality, absorbed 0.36 its weight of water.
Quartzy sand of Nemours, such as is employed in the glass fac-
tory of Bagneaux, absorbed 0.227.
Quartzy sand of Aumont pulverized in a mortar, absorbed 0.30.
The kaolin of Limoges, absorbed 0.46.
The chalk of Meudon, when purified and in the condition of
Spanish white, gained by the process 0.35 its weight.
The report contains likewise several interesting experiments
directed to the converse of this problem, viz. to ascertain the ca-
pacity of soils to retain water, which is by no means proportional
to their powers of absorption: for these results we must refer the
reader to the report.
Prof. Hitchcock comes at the following very just conclusions
in respect to the soils of Massachusetts, viz. that the grand desid-
erata in them are carbonate of lime and an additional supply
of geine, or organic matter. He then proceeds to point out nu-
merous sources of these materials in different sections of the state,
many of which have been brought to light in the progress of the
survey.
An extensive bed of marl is pointed out as existing in the
northwest part of Stockbridge, in Berkshire county, on land of
Mr. Buck, a second in the same town, four miles from the court
house-in Lenox, a third in the northeast part of Lee, (the thick-
ness of which in some places is ten feet,) also several beds in
West Stockbridge. Numerous other beds have also been noticed
in the neighboring towns. 'The purest of these marls when dry,
are white and much lighter than the common soil, and they ea-
* Ann. des Mines, t. xiv, 1838.
|S Set ae
376 Report on a re-examination of the
sily fall to powder. They abound in small fresh water shells.
They contain from 50 to 90 p. c. of carbonate of lime, with con-
siderable organic matter and traces of phosphate of lime; and can-
not fail of proving an invaluable application for the adjoining
lands. ;
The clay-beds of the state are described as frequently contain-
ing calcareous matter, particularly those which give rise to those
curious rounded and flattened concretions, called clay-stones, and
which often consist of carbonate of lime in the proportion of 50
per cent. Calcareous diluvium abounds in Springfield, West
Springfield, and South Hadley. It consists of the detrital mat-
ter from a red slaty rock, which originally contained a few per
cent. of carbonate of lime. ‘The lime serves as a cement, and
imparts to the aggregate the firmness of a rock; but on being ex-
posed to the weather, it finally crumbles down and in this condi-
tion may be conveniently spread upon land.
The composition of the various limestones in the state is also
given, from which research it appears that they are chiefly dolo-
mitic. Several new localities are moreover added to the list; and
what to us was quite unexpected, two deposites of green sand,
one at Marshfield (in a region of granite) and the other at Gay
Head. Hydrate of silica, or the light silicious soil which under-
lies peat-deposits is also used as a fertilizer to some extent in the
state, and no doubt with good reason, inasmuch as its animal ori-
gin, (having composed originally the skeletons of infusoria,) its
impregnation with peat juice, and its favorable mechanical condi-
tion, must each contribute to render it highly serviceable.
Prof. H. next points out the sources of geine, or vegetable neu-
triment with much particularity and good judgment; and finally
concludes this part of his subject with the following remarks:
Though I have dwelt so long upon the analysis and improvement of our soils, it
will be seen that I have touched only a few of its more important features, and that
even these are but imperfectly considered. Many minor points, of no small im-
portance, however, have been wholly passed over, or only alluded to; and sensi-
ble that I cannot do them justice at present, I shall not attempt to discuss them.
My great object has been, after ascertaining the greatest deficiences in our soil, to
satisfy the Government that we have the means of remedying them and of making
great improvements in them, by the aid of chemistry. IfI may hope that I have
accomplished this object, then I take the liberty to inquire, whether it be not im-
portant enough, and whether there is not enough still left to accomplish respecting
it, to make the appointment of a State Chemist desirable? We ought to have still
further experiments made on the subject of geine, and the salts, which the soils
tr
ae *
_
: €
Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 377
contain : also accurate analyses of the crops grown on soils with different manures ;
and investigations as to the manner in which calcareous matter acts upon vegeta-
ble and animal substances: as also experiments directed by an able and experienced
chemist, on the best mode of bringing into use the vast deposites of geine and ve-
getable fibre which our state contains. And since we have chemists of this char-
acter among us, why should not the services of at least one of them be secured for
this object? The geological surveyor might often collect substances for analysis ;
but if obliged to go as thoroughly into the chemistry of the subject as is necessary
to valuable results, he cannot within any reasonable time accomplish the more ap-
propriate objects of his appointment. In at least one state of the Union, where
geological surveys are in progress, one gentleman is appointed, whose time and at-
tention are exclusively devoted to the chemical examination of the soils, ores, &c.,
collected. And I would fondly believe, that Massachusetts will not rest satisfied,
till this work is done at least as thoroughly as in any other state. I believe there
is abundant labor for an experienced chemist upon our soils alone: but many other
substances, found in the state, ought to be analysed, that their real value may be
known.
Among the secondary considerations relative to the soils of
Massachusetts, yet unsupplied in the report for want of time, we
presume, are descriptions of the subsoils, (or bottoms on which the
cultivable lands immediately rest,) the topographical situations of
the soils in respect to a supply of water from springs, lakes and
rivers, and accurate tables of the rain-guage and thermometer du-
ring the warm season ; all of which points are entitled to attention
among the elements for determining the agricultural capabilities
of a country.
Since the publication of Prof. H.’s first report, the prospect of
discovering workable beds of anthracite coal in the region of
grey wacke where it was predicted to exist, has become strongly
heightened. The Mansfield coal company have sunk a shaft to
the depth of 84 feet, from which a drift is worked horizontally to
a short distance into a bed of coal about ten feet thick. Its spe-
cific gravity is 1.79. It consists of carbon 96. alumina, iron, &c.
A. The railroad from Boston to Providence passes within 80 rods
of this mine.
No attempts have of late been made to re-work the coal at Wor-
cester, which is situated in an older class of rocks. Its specific
gravity is 2.12. It contains water 3. carbon 75. earths and ox-
ides 20.
Small and irregular veins of a very superior bituminous coal
are found in the sandstone of the Agawam River in West Spring-
field. It is in fragments mingled along with calcareous spar and
pieces of the sandstone rock, from which circumstance Prof. H.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 48
378 Report on the re-examination, §c.
thinks it may have been formed by sublimation, and accordingly
he infers that coal may exist beneath this spot, and that the por-
tions visible have been volatilized by the agency of trap, which
rock he supposes, from the situation of the sandstone, lies ata.
depth of between one and two hundred feet below the bed of the
river. If Prof. H. is right in his conjecture, the coal must be
reached before the above mentioned depth is attained.
Under the head of ores, we make the following extracts:
1. Carbonate of iron at Newbury. Sp. gr. = 2.94. Consists
of
Carbonate of lime, -_ - - - 45.67 —
« "magnesia, - - - 8.97
M7 _ iron, - - - - 21.76
et manganese, - - - 16.10
Silica and alumina, - - - 3.34
Loss, - - - - - - 4.16
It is very abundant.
2. Magnetic iron in Warwick. It is very abundant, but is
not worked on account of difficulties experienced in its reduction.
Sp. gr. = 4.47. Analysis.
Oxides of iron, - - - - - 66.4
Oxide of manganese, - = = = 16.6
Silica and alumina, > - - - 17.0
3. Chrome iron ore. This valuable ore is found in Chester,
where it occurs in serpentine, in couches from 5 to 18 inches wide.
According to Dr. Houranp it contains traces of platinum.
A. Limonite(Hemutite). This is abundant at several places in
Berkshire County, where Prof. H. admits that the beds extend
downwards into, and are embraced by the older rocks.
5. Copperas. The amount of this annually manufactured at
Hubbardston is seventy-five tons.
Several new localities of galena, blende and copper-pyrites are
indicated ; and the report concludes with brief notices of ochres,
clays, water-cement, soap-stone and serpentine-marble.
On the whole, the present work will be found to sustain the
character of the more voluminous report by which it was prece-
ded, and cannot fail of advancing the agricultural prosperity of
the state, to an elevation corresponding to that which she has
reached in the arts and manufactures.
| &
Scientific Proceedings, §c. 379
MISCELLANIES.
DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.
1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History in
the months of June, July, and August, 1838; drawn up from the Records
of the Society, by Aucustus A. Goutp, M. D., Recording Secretary.
He who makes a valuable discovery and refuses or neglects to impart
it, robs mankind of a blessing, and himself of the honor that is his due.
So it is with scientific bodies. The toilsome and ingenious labors of
many an original discoverer, though gratifying to him in their pursuit, gain
him no lasting credit; and he will be supplanted by some succeeding as-
pirant, because he fails to promulgate his discoveries.
None are so likely to have the fruits of their labors usurped as s scientific
men in America, where the means of disseminating researches are so
limited. In view of this, and from the consideration that our members
are entitled to the credit of the description of many objects previously un-
known to science, the following abstract of its proceedings, in the manner
of the “‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” has been
drawn up by the direction of the Society. It is offered for publication,
with the intention that, should it receive a place in the American Journal
of Science, it should be continued from time to time.
It may be proper, by way of explanation, to say, that it is the custom
to commit the objects presented at the semi-monthly meetings to members,
who are to report on them at a-subsequent meeting. It may be further
added, that most of the new species mentioned in this paper, in which
only short, specific descriptions are given, are described at length and
illustrated by figures in the ‘“‘ Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. II,
No. 2,” recently published.
May 16, 1838.—Gro. B. Emerson, Esq, , President, in the chair.
Dr. Cuartrs T. Jackson, reported upon some specimens of limestone
from the Welland Canal, presented by Stepaen Wuire, Esq. He
showed it to be a carboniferous limestone filled with fossil shells, identical
with those in the limestone found on the Aroostic River, Maine ; and of-
fered reasons for supposing that there was a continuous bed from Quebec
to the Aroostic.
Dr. J. announced that three cases of minerals, collected by him on the
public domain in the State of Maine, had been ordered by his Excellency,
Gov. Everett, to be deposited in our Hall, with the State collection of the
minerals of Massachusetts.
Rev. F. W. P. Greenwoop and Dr. A. A. Goutp, reported upon a pa-
per read at the last meeting by Jos. P. Cournovy, Esq., on a species of
%.
380 Scientific Proceedings of the
Thracia named by him Thracia Conradi. It had been previously re--
garded as Th. corbuloides, Deshayes, and is also described and figured by
Mr. Conrad as Th. dechvis, of authors. From the muscular and palleal -
impressions, the contour and surface of the shell, they were satisfied that
it is a new species.
They also reported at some Jength on the confused synonymy of the dif
ferent species of the genus Thracia, and showed that recent authors, es-
pecially Kiener, had increased, rather than n diminished, the confusion pre-
viously existing.
Rev. Mr. GreEnwoop reported upon several fruits from Burmah and
Siam, recently presented by Rev. H. Malcom. Among them were the
‘Tamarind, ( Famarindus Indica,) which is also found in the W. Indies,
where it is named 7’. occidentalis, although the differences in the two
hemispheres, if-any, are very slight; also the Anona squamosa, the sweet
sop of the English, which also grows in the W. Indies.
He also presented the fruit of the Mamea Americana, from the nut of
which the peculiar flavor of Noyeau is said to be derived.
Mr. Evwarp Tuckerman, Jr., presented specimens of the Geaster
guadrifidus of Persoon, and read a paper upon it. He considers it a new
addition to the Flora of North America, as Schweinitz, the only person
who mentions it, says “nondum Pennsylvanie.” It was found on the
sands beyond Mount Auburn, in company with G. hygrometricus. This
last is found on the bare sands only; while G. 4-fidus is found in firmer
earth under trees. ‘The name 4-fidus is very far from specific, the number
of divisions into which it splits being wholly accidental. The specific
name, fornicatus, Hudson, is better.
At this locality he found mote lichens than at any other. sina of the
size, he had ever examined. ‘The reindeer moss (Cenomyce rangiferina)
here grows to the length of five inches, eight inches being the usual length
in Lapland. A large number of species of the genera Cenomyce and Par-
melia are found here, some of the last genus of unusual size and lux-.
uriance.
Mr. J. KE. Tescnemacuer, presented the palatal tooth of the Paysites
polygyrus, Agassiz, an extinct species of shark. The strength and effi-
ciency of these teeth, viewed as instruments for crushing shells and crus-
tacea, are very remarkable. ‘The palatal teeth of this genus are very rare,
though the incisor or jaw teeth are common. Only a very few, and most
of those imperfect, are yet found in European cabinets. Mr. T. had seen
but two in England.
Dr. D. H. Storer read a letter from J: G. Antuony, Esq., of Cincin-
nati, in which he states that in his researches among the organic remains
of that vicinity, Trilobites with antenne occur; and requests the Society
to codperate in the investigation of this curious genus. The letter and
subject were committed to Mr. Teschemacher.
Boston Society of Natural History. 381
Dr. C. G. Pace, of Salem, through Dr. Wyman, presented a specimen
of Lilium with very extraordinary markings, found in company with Li-
lium Philadelphicum, and probably a variety of that species.
June 6, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair.
Joseen P. Cournovy, Esq., presented two species of Cidaris, and ac-
companied them with a written paper on the generic distinctions of the
Echinodermata, especially on those of the genera Echinus and Cidaris.
This paper was rendered peculiarly interesting by the writer’s personal
acquaintance with the economical value of these animals, and by his amu-
sing description of the manner in which they are served up and devoured
on the Mediterranean coasts.
Mr. C. also read a paper on the genus Patelloidea of Quoy and Gai-
mard, (Lottia of Sowerby,) a genus which is not to be distinguished from
Patella by the shell, but in which the animal is very essentially different.
His principal object was to show, and to illustrate by living specimens
upon the table, that the Patella amena of Say, and Patella alveus, Con-
rad, both belonged to this genus. He conjectured that the P. c@rulea and
P. pellucida of Europe, would also be found to come under this genus.
He showed that in the animal, the anal and genital orifices are not situa- —
ted, as stated by Quoy and Gaimard, like those of Patella, just back of
the head and near the right tentacula, respectively ; but that they are sit-
uated at the bottom of the cervical sac. near the base of the branchie.
He described a thin, subtriangular, corneous plate, situated perpendicu-
larly on each side of the lingual ribbon,-of which he had nowhere seen
any mention. He had constantly found it both im Patella and Patelloidea,
and thought it should constitute a part of their generic characters.
Mr. W. Wuirtemore, had found Planorbis armigerus, Cyclas similis,
and Physa heterostropha of Say, in a small pond in Cambridge, speci-
mens of which he laid upon the table.
Dr. Jereries Wyman, made a report upon an anomalous substance
resembling bone, recently committed to him. On submitting a definite
portion to fire, it gave out the odor of burnt leather, leaving a mass of the
same magnitude, but with a loss of 25 per cent. in weight, effervescing
with sulphuric acid. He remarked, that although concretions had been
found in nearly every cavity of the body, none of so large a size had been
found except in the alimentary canal or the urinary organs. Its rough
prominences forbade the idea that it was derived from the former, and
nothing of an analogous character had been taken from the human uri-
nary organs except in one instance. Its structure was laminated. The
only conclusion to which he could arrive was, that it was formed in the
animal economy, and probably in the system of some of the lower orders
of animals.
382 Scientific Proceedings of the
Dr. W. also made some remarks upon a skeleton of the sloth (Brady-
pus tridactylus) prepared by himself. The following are some of the pe-
_ culiarities in its structure, viz. its three toes; its walking upon the side
of the foot; the divergence of the posterior extremities from the pelvis ;
the articulation of the fibula as well as of the tibia with the astragalus;
the length of the anterior extremities, so that the fore arm, as well as the
hand, is planted upon the ground in walking, so as to bring the body into
a horizontal position; the extensive codssification which takes place in all
the bones of the hand and foot; the peculiar lateral disposition of the
claws, and the source of the deception in President Jefferson’s notions of
the Megalonyt, so philosophically and decisively controverted by Cuvier ;
the bifurcation of the zygomatic process; and especially the existence of
nine cervical vertebre instead of seven, as found -in all other animals.
This last point, he observed, was still controverted, it being contended
that what appears to be a transverse process only, does in fact bear the
rudiment of arib. Dr. W., however, has been unable to detect any thing
like an articulating surface in this specimen, an old one, by long macera-
tion of the bones. The eighth vertebra also has a distinct circular fora-
men for the vertebral artery, which is the distinctive character of the cer-
vical vertebre.
Dr. J. B. S. Jackson remarked, that in regard to the transverse process
bearing a rudimentary rib, something analogous was found in the human
foetus, the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra being a =e
arate piece which afterwards becomes codssified.
Dr. Storer stated, that he had received another letter from J.'G. AN-
THONY, Esq., of Cincinnati, communicating the discovery of a new ge-
nus of the Trilobite family, and that he had submitted it to Mr. Tesche-
macher.
June 20, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair.
JosepH P. Couruouy, Esq., began the reading of a monograph of the
Family Osteodesmacea of Deshayes, embracing the genera Thracia, Ana-
tina, Periploma and Osteodesma. He commenced with the genus Thra-
cia, and shewed the great confusion which now exists in respect to both
the generic and specific characters. This had arisen partly from British
writers having confounded the type of the genus, Anaiina declivis, Pen-
nant, (Anatina myalis, Lam.) with another species, Mya dechivis, Donov.
(Anatina conveza, Turton,) and more especially by Blainville supposing
a shell before him to be Anaé. myalis, which was not so, but was Anat,
trapezoides, and which he consequently removed from the genus Thracia
and made it the type of Osteodesma, which genus again, he erroneously
considers to be synonymous with Periploma, Schumacher. Hence have
originated numerous other mistakes in subsequent writers. He then en-
deavored at great length to reconcile the synonymy of the following spe-
cies, and the following are the results of his research.
Boston Society of Natural History. 383
THRACIA PUBESCENS, Leach. Mya declivis, Pennant, Maton and
Rackett, Wood, Dillwyn and Brown; Agatine dechivis, Brown.
Mya pubescens, Pulteney, Montagu, and Turton; Thracia pubes-
cens, Blainville, Deshayes, Kiener; Anatina myalis, Lam., Blainville.
It is believed that this shell has never been found on our coast; the
shell which Mr. Conrad supposed to be identical with it, proving, on fur-
ther examination, to be a distinct species. ig
THRACIA CONVEXA, Couthouy. Mya declivis, Dowauann: Mya con-
veza, Wood, Turton; Anatina conveza, Turton, (Brit- Biv..,)
Brown; Ligula distorta? Montagu.
THRACIA CORBULOIDES, Deshayes, Blainville, Lamarck, Kiener.
The exterior surface of the valves is not smooth, as described by
Deshayes, unless when the granular asperities have been accidentally
effaced.
THRACIA pLicatTa, Deshayes, Lamarck, Kiener.
THRACIA PHASEOLINA, Kiener; Amphidesma phaseolina, Lam.
Turacia simitis, Couthouy. Th. testa ovato-oblonga, aspera, al-
bida vel cinerea, subdiaphana, inequilaterali, latere postico lon-
giore, truncato et subcompresso, angulo obtuso ab apice ad mar-
ginem infero-posticam decurrente; cardine foveola subtriangu-
lari, valva utraque ligamento externé prominulo; intus alba, im-
pressionibus muscularibus anticé elongatis, quasi clavatis, posticé
rotundatis; impressi9 pallii Lae valdé excavaté; an ossi-
culum? Length 22, height 14, diameter 38 of an inch. Hab.
Coast of Brazil, not far from Rio Janeiro, whence it was brought
by a seaman, containing the animal.
In general aspect and its surface it closely resembles Th. corbuloi-
des; but itis destitute of the prominent ridge in the centre of the
valves, it is much less inequivalve, and its ligamentary apophysis is
much shorter, broader and more triangular, and its anterior muscular
impression is simple instead of double, as in that species. In outline
it approaches to Th. phaseolina, but is distinguished by its rough sur-
face and by its very marked strie of growth.
Turacia Conrapr, Couthouy. Th. testa albo-cinerascente. ovato-
transversa, ventricosa, subequilaterali, fragili, paullum hiante,
margine sinuato, anticé rotundata, posticé subtruncata, carina ob-
tusa ab apice ad marginem infero-posticam decurrente, ligamento
externé prominente, interné callu nymphale valva utraque inserto.
Length 238, height 2.4,, diameter 1,8, inches. Inhabits probably
the whole coast of New England.
This shell was described and figured by Mr. Conran, in his ‘‘ Ameri-
can Marine Conchology,” as 7h. declivis, under the supposition that it
was identical with Mya dechvis, Pennant; and besides mistaking ours
384 : Scientific Proceedings of the
for the British shell, he has given as synonyms the names of three distinct
species. In the “Catalogue of the Animals and Plants of Massachusetts,”
in Prof. Hitchcock’s Report of his Survey of Massachusetts, it is set down
as Anatina convera, Wood. In Dr. Storer’s excellent translation of Kie-
ner’s “Iconographie,” it is regarded as identical with Th. corbuloides,
Deshayes. From this it differs, however, in several important particulars,
such as its less elongated form. less truncated extremity, smooth surface,
and above all in the palleal impression forming posteriorly a deep and al-
most acute angle instead of the semicircular one of Th. corbuloides. The
only locality where this shell has been found alive is believed to be Chel-
sea Beach.
Mr. C. conjectured that Mya (Ligula) distorta, Montagu, referred by
Kiener to Th. corbuloides, would prove to belong among the perforating
Corbule ; and to these also he was disposed to refer Anatina truncat 1,
Turton. Both of them have similar habits of burrowing in the limestone
of the British coast.
July 18, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair.
Mr. Coutnovy, continued his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and made
remarks upon the following species. ;
PERIPLOMA TRAPEZOIDES, Deshayes. Periploma inequivalvis, Schum. ;
Anatina trapezoida, Lam.; Osteodesma trapezoidalis, Blainville.
- Blainville was led into the error of placing this shell in the genus Os-
teodesma from supposing it to be identical with Lamarck’s Anatina my-
alis. But he has committed another serious error in his generic descrip-
tion, which has been adopted by Rang in his “ Manuel des Mollusques.”
He says the shell is “ inéquivalve, la valve gauche plus bombée que la
droite,” whereas the right valve is more convex than the left. Perhaps
they were misled by the peculiar position of the ligament, which is re-
markable for being placed anteriorly instead of posteriorly, as in most
other shells; a fact not noted in any description. In the very perfect spe-
cimen under observation the ossiculum is nearly a complete semicircle.
Deshayes speaks of it as triangular.
OsTeopEsMA HYALINA, Couthouy. Mya hyalina, Conrad.
The genus Ostcodesma, Deshayes,.will doubtless prevail over Lyonsia,
Turton, and Magdala, Leach, MSS., all of which are founded on Mya
Norvegica, Chemnitz, the Amphidesma corbuloides of Lamarck. The
name is expressive of the distinguishing feature of the shell. Blainville
and Rang were led into the error of supposing Periploma and Osteodesma
to be identical; and Deshayes, though he notices the mistake and refers
to his article on Osteodesma in the Encyc. Method. for its actual charac-
ters, yet by a singular oversight that article is entirely omitted. Conse-
quently, it is to be found only in his recent edition of Lamarck. In the
“Catalogue of Animals and Plants of Massachusetts, 1834,” it is noted
Boston Society of Natural Eistory. 385
as Amphidesma corbuloides, Lam.; but the European shell is twice the
size, more elongated, more broadly truncated, more inequilateral, thicker,
and covered with a much stronger and more opaque epidermis. Dr.
Gould noticed the peculiarity of the ossiculum several years since, and
consequently referred the shell to the genus Lyonsia.
Mr. Cournovy, also read the description of a new species of Holts
lately found by him, and which he named
Fouts piversa. E. corpore limaciformi, posticé acuto, diaphano, lu-
teo-rufescente, capite distincto, sub-orbiculato, depresso; tentaculis
gracilibus elongatis duabus instructo, duabusque brevioribus ad par-
tem posticam capitis positis; branchiz aurantiace seriebus binis la-
teribus dorsi dispositis. Orificia generationis magna, juxta collum
ad Jatus dextrum, ano paullum pone; pede supra laciniato. Length
24, breadth 55 of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay, Chelsea
Beach.
Found among the roots of Laminaria saccharina. In its color and
general aspect it resembles HE. salmonacea, Nobis, but differs in the form
and position of the tentacula and genitalia. In £. salmonacea the lateral
tentacula seem to be a prolongation of the fleshy lips, instead of -being
placed near the neck; the superior ones are long, somewhat compressed,
and as it were serrated at the edges, while in E. diversa they are short,
smooth and round.
Dr. Jerrrtrs Wyman, reported upon a collection of fosstl bones from
the Brunswick canal, Georgia, presented by Mr. Cooper. It consisted of
eighteen bones belonging to the genera Bos, Elephas, and probably Mas-
todon. Among them were the atlas of a ruminant, of gigantic size; me-
tatarsal bone of right foot of genus Bos, about twice the size of the cor-
responding bone of the common ox which he exhibited by its side, and
similar to it in every particular; several vertebra of a Mastodon; portions
of a tusk and teeth of an Elephant. These teeth resemble those of an In-
dian elephant, but the layers of enamel are more numerous and closer.
An os calcis having the hinder portion broken off, but which is now longer
than that of our elephant, though not so massive.
Dr. W. had also examined some fossil bones brought from Burmah by
Rev. H. Malcom. They consist of a portion of the brim of the pelvis,
probably of a Mastodon; tooth exhibiting the longitudinal crescentic lay-
ers characteristic of a ruminant, and corresponding with a figure by Mr.
Clift in the Trans. of the Geol. Society, vol. vii, of the tooth of a deer from
the same locality; vertebra of a Saurian, also resembling a figure by Mr.
Clift, and which he regards as the vertebra of a crocodile, with all proba-
bility of truth. This locality on the river Irawaddy, below Ava, is the
only locality known where the bones of mammalia and saurians are found
associated.
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April—July, 1839. 49
386 Scientific Proceedings of the
Dr. Wyman had also examined the recent elephant’s tooth brought from
Singapore by Mr. Malcom. It indicates greater age than any other tooth
on record. The successive teeth have 4, 8, 12, 15, &c. transverse plates
of enamel, up to the eighth set which has 23 plates, which is the greatest
number heretofore recorded. But this tooth has 26 plates firmly solidified,
and some others are broken off from the anterior extremity; indicating a
very great age for the animal.
Mr. Tuomas M. Erewer, alluded to a remark at a former meeting
when speaking of the cow blackbird. He had said that its eggs could
not be hatched by the golden-finch, because that bird had not been ob-
served to breed before the first of Augnst, which is later than the breeding
season of the cow blackbird. This remark had nearly proved false. At
the latter part of June, Mr. B. had discovered two pairs of finches build-
ing their nests, and they had nearly completed them when the weather
suddenly became very warm, the nests were-deserted and the birds disap-
peared. . As yet, therefore his former remark holds good.
_ Dr. A. A. Gounp, had examined the marine production presented some
~ time since by Mr. Ballister, and commonly called Neptune's Goblet. He
had not been able to find any mention of it in Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom,
or in any scientific work, except in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv, p.
180, where it is described and figured by Col. Hardwicke under the name
of Spongia patcra. It is not a true sponge however, although it belongs
to the family of sponges. It is common in the vicinity of Singapore.
The President, (G. B. Emerson, Esq.,) read a report on the specimens
of paper and pasteboard manufactured from the Beach grass, and pre-
sented by its inventor, Mr. Sanderson, of Dorchester. The plant is the
Arundo arenaria, Lin. It is placed in the genus Calamagrostis by With-
ering and Decandolle, Ammophila by Hort and Hooker, Psamma by
Palissot de Beauvais, Torrey, Eaton and Beck, Phalaris by Nuttall. It
is called sea-reed or mat-reed, in England, and is found on all the shores
from Iceland to Barbary, and all the Atlantic shore from Greenland as
far south as New Jersey, at least. Its principal use heretofore has been
a negative one, connected with the very terms of its existence. It effect-
ually-secures the shifting sands on which it grows; and for that purpose
large sums are annually appropriated by government, that by its cultiva-
tion important harbors may be preserved.
Mr. E. had not succeeded in finding the ingenious gentleman who a
converted the otherwise useless stalks of this plant to so valuable a pur-
pose. The paper is not even, but it is smooth, sofi, and pleasant to write
upon, and takes ink well. It is firm and very strong, and may be whitened
readily. The pasteboard appears to be specially valuable.
Mr. Sannerson has thus opened a new source for industry to the en-
terprising inhabitants of the most barren parts of New England; and if
he is a benefactor to his race who makes two stalks of grass to grow where
Boston Society of Natural History. 387
but one grew before, surely he deserves well of his country, who indi-
rectly converts barren sands into fruitful fields.
August 1, 1838.—Mr. J. E. Tescuemacuer, in the chair.
After the reading of the records of the preceding meeting, Rev. Mr.
Malcom who was present, remarked in relation to the fossils brought by
him from Burmah, that they are found only at a small stream below the
city of Ava, where the region is perfectly sterile. The soil is clayey, and
the bones are very numerous and lie in abundance upon the surface.
The place abounds with petroleum wells, and this article is the only pro-
duct from whence the inhabitants derive their support.
He remarked that the Spongia patera was found only at Singapore,
and always grows below low water mark, and is fished up by divers.
A specimen of Burman tea was presented by him. It is raised in the
interior and compressed into globular masses of four or six inches in di-
ameter, some substance, said to be blood however, being mixed in to
cause their cohesion. ‘These are brought to the sea ports on the backs
of mules and sold at ten cents per pound. The Burmans use no other
tea, and yet Mr. M. found it to be unknown at Calcutta. He pronounced
it an excellent tea. ons Ae
Mr. C. B. Apams, read a paper entitled “ Remarks on some species of
shells found upon the southeastern shore of Massachusetts.” ‘They were
the results of his observations in several visits to that region, and contain
many interesting facts as to the habits, localities, and varieties, and sev-
eral important characteristic additions to the original descriptions.
CoLuMBELLA AvARA, Say. Differs a little from Say’s. description ;
cost 14 to 18 on the body whorl; young shells are carinate at the ter-
mination of the coste. Found at New Bedford and vicinity, Falmouth,
Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, but not north of Cape Cod.
Buccinum visex, (Nassa vibex, Say.) Number of revolving lines on the
body whorl more frequently 9 or 10; as many as3t»5 teeth on the inner
side of labrum. Rare. He had found five specimens about New Bed-
ford. Mr. P. G. Seabury had found others. They are all old and some-
what cretaceous, but in some the rufous bands are distinctly marked. It
has not been found north of Cape Cod.
Boccinum trivirratum, (Nassa trivittata, Say.) The two upper
bands of rufous are double, being on each side of one of the revolving
lines, and the third is often triple; the upper band is darkest, but in many
cases the bands from which the species derives its name are wanting. It
is generally covered with a dirty cinereous pigment. Abundant at Nan-
tucket, not unfrequent at New Bedford, and occasionally found living at
and near Boston.
B. opsoterum, (Nassa obsoleta, Say.) The cancellate and granulated
appearance mentioned both by Say and Kiener (B. oliviforme) is not a
388 Scientific Proceedings of the
constant character except in the adult shell; the white band upon the
inner side of the labrum is usually well defined. Inhabits not only our es-
tuaries but our ocean shores, though it seems to prefer places not exposed
to the surf. The finest specimens grow at Nantucket, where they are
abundant. In winter he had observed them to collect together in ae
filling up slight depressions in the flats.
Purpura vaPitLus, Lam. He had not seen this common species at
New Bedford, Wood’s Hole, or Nantucket; but had found Fusus cinereus
in situations where he expected to find that species.
Ranewxia caupata, Say. Well described by Mr. Say; the canal is
not longer than the spire, but equal or shorter. It is rare, and not found
north of Cape Cod.
Fusus cinereus, Say. The fauces are not unfrequently white ; some-
times there are bands of purplish red in the fauces; the transverse cost
are often nearly obsolete. Generally found clinging to the wet sides of
rocks near low water mark.
Mr. Apams also read descriptions of the following shells oe
discovered by him in the waters of Massachusetts.
JAMINIA SEMINUDA. J. testa parvu'la, acuto-conica, nitida, albida,
sub-translucida; anfractibus septem convexis, decusatim granulosis;
anfractu postremo infra striato; apertura elliptica, basi effusa; colu-
mella reflexa, uniplicataéa. Length .15, breadth .07 inch. Inhabits
Dartmouth harbor. 5
Only four specimens were found, about five feet below low water
mark, on valves of Pecten concentricus. In size and figure it resem-
bles Acteon trifidus, 'Tutten, but differs in its convex whorl, granu-
lous surface, and more distinét and uniform revolving lines; also in
its less rounded and more effuse aperture.
Pyramis Fusca. P. testa parvula, conicé, decisi; epidermide
fusca, nitida; anfractibus sex, convexis; sutura impressa, sub-dupli-
cata; apertura ovali, supra angulata, infra rotundaté; labro tenui;
columella convexa, reflexa, haud duplicata. Length .15 inch, breadth
.07 inch. Inhabits harbors of New Bedford and vicinity.
Cerituium Emersoni. C. testa parva, conica, elongata, longi-
tudinaliter rugosa, lineis granulatis cincta; anfractibus septemdecim,
planulatis ; apice acuta; sutura sub-impressa, ampla; apertura sub-
quadrata; labro pectinato ; columella in spiram ducta; cauda recur-
vata. Length .45 inch, breadth .12 inch. Inhabits New Bedford
harbor on the Fairhaven side, and Nantucket (?). A variety has the
granules obsolete, or coalescing into simple elevated, revolving lines.
CERITHIUM NiGRociINcTUM. C. testa parvuld, conico-cylindricé,
granulosa, nigro-rubra; anfractibus tredecim, sinistrorsum volventi-
bus; spira elongata, acuta; sutura sub-duplicata; apertura sub-ellip-
Boston Society of Natural Hitory. 389
tica, parva; caudaé recurvata. Length .3 inch, breadth .08 inch.
Inhabits Dartmouth harbor, clinging to sea-weed.
Differs from C. perversum, Lam., in the black sutural ridge, and in
the position of the middle series of granules; and from Murex ad-
versus, Montagu, in its recurved canal, its distinct suture and its color.
Mr. Couthouy concluded his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and also
instituted a new genus to include shells formerly embraced in genus
Anatina, but which, having a spoon-shaped hinge, are destitute of an
ossiculum. He thus characterized it.
Genus CocHLODEsMA.
Animal oval, compressed, enveloped in a thin mantle, closed by a
membrane in front, except at the anterior inferior extremity, where it
opens to give passage to a broad compressed foot, extending along
the whole inferior surface of the abdominal mass, which is inconside-
rable; edges of the pallium thickened, and a little rugose; siphons
long, slender, divided in their whole extent, and opening separately
into the branchial cavity.
Shell transversely oval, thin and fragile, sub-equilateral, convexo-
depressed, slightly gaping at both extremities, inequivalve, right valve
more convex, beaks moderately prominent, inchning a little back-
wards, summits cloven and sub-nacrous posteriorly; extremities
rounded. Ligament double, the external very slight and membra-
nous, the internal received into a horizontal, spoon-shaped process on
each valve, supported by one or two divergent falciform coste, pro-
jecting from it obliquely and posteriorly ; muscular impressions su-
perficial, remote, the anterior elongated-oval, the posterior small and
sub-triangular, united by a palleal impression profoundly indented pos-
teriorly.
The Anatina Leana, Conrad, is the type of the genus; and the
Anatina pretenuis, Turton, probably belongs to it.
Mr. Couthouy then read descriptions of the following new species
of shells.
Nucura NavicuLaris. N. testa parva, levi, fragili, ovali, sub-
equilaterali, luteo-virescente, anticé rotundata&, posticé truncatula,
cardine dentibus octodecim, intus albo-nitescente. Length 41, height
#5, breadth 3 of an inch. Inhabits Mee ects Bay. Vicinity of
Plymouth.
Beaks more central and basal outline much more strongly curved,
than in N. myalis, Couth.
BuLLa LineoxtaTta. B. testa parvula, oblongo-ovata, ferruginea,
transversim obliqué frequenterque striata, spira, meoctinalys apertura
magna, ad basim valdé dilatataé et sub-effusd. Length ;%, breadth
390 Scientific Proceedings of the
3, of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay. Taken from a fish’s
stomach taken off Race Point, and resembles B. lignaria in min-
iature.
Burra uiematis. B. testa perparva, hyalina, globosa, convoluta,
longitudinaliter tenué striata, spira nulla, apertura ad basim valde dila-
tata. Length => of an inch, breadth about the same. Inhabits Mas-
sachusetts Bay. f
Burra Govipr. B. testa parva, ovata, convoluta, fragili, alba,
transversim tenué striata, spird depressi, imperforata, interdum pro-
minula, anfractibus quatuor, superné rotundatis, suturis impressis,
apertura supra angusta, versus basim dilataté, columella arcuata.
Length 11, diameter 5, of an inch, nearly. Inhabits Massachusetts
Bay. In size and shape much like B. insculpta, Totten, but is
smoother, more solid and not umbilicated. Often the outer volution
forms an elevated, rounded ridge, encircling and rising above the
others.
PLEvROTOMA DEcUssATA. P. testa parvula, ovali, fusiformi, al-
bida, anfractibus quinque convexis, longitudinaliter plicatis, trans-
versé striis frequentibus tenuibus decussatis, apertura elongato-ovali,.
basi sub-canaliculata, Jabro tenui, levi, superné indentato, columella
nitida, depressd arcuata, ad basim sinistrorsum divergens. Opercu-
lum rudis. Length ,7,, diameter 3, of an-inch. Inbabits Massachu-
setts Bay. Distinguished from Fusus harpularius by its color, the
greater convexity of the whorls, and the angular sinus at the junction
of the lip. ,
ANCULOTUS DENTATUs. A. testa rotundata vel sub-conica, irregu-
lari, olivaceo-nigrescente; anfractibus quinque, ultimo magno, ventri-
coso, sepe fasciis duobus aut tribus radiis cincto; suturis impressis,
spird obtusa plerumque erosd; apertura erosa, basi effusa ; columella
atra arcuata, depressd, ad basim unidentata, posticé excavata, intus vi-
rido vel fusco-albescente. Operculo corneo, unguiculato. Length
19, diameter 11 inch. Inhabits the rapids of the river Potomac, Va.
Greatly resembles A. monodontoides, Conrad, but is distinguished: by
the peculiar flattening of its purple columella, the remarkable fossa in the
umbilical region, and its more obtuse tooth situated nearer the base.
Dr. T. W. Harris, made some remarks on the difficuliies met with by
himself and others in the study of Botany, on account of the want of strict
accuracy in our books. Thus, in Bige ow’s Florula, Vaccinium is placed
in Octeandria, while all our species are invariably 10-androus, and are so
arranged in all more recent works. Menyanthus has the stigma trifid
oftener than bifid, and sometimes quadrifid. Cheledonium, which belongs
to Polyandria, has only 8 to 12 stamens; while Crat~gus, which belongs
to 20-andria, is found with only 10 stamens.
Boston Society of Natural History. 391
Dr. H. had recently found a Stlene growing on earth thrown out from
a newly dug drain, and had since observed it on the corn-fields, near by.
It proves to be Stlene noctiflora, Sowerby. It flowers in the evening, and
Mr. Sowerby says the same flowers open for several successive evenings
until they are impregnated. Do H. nds this to be not true. Eaton says
the teeth of the calyx tube are equal; but they were alternately longer and
shorter. This plant may be considered as naturalized among us.
Beck pronounces the Lathyrus maritimus, Bigelow, to be Pisum mari-
timum ; but Dr. H. is confident that Dr. Bigelow is correct.
Mr. A. A. Haves, presented a specimen of native nitrate of soda from
Tamarugal in Peru. It contains sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, Jo-
date of soda, and chloriodide of sodium. In presenting this specimen
with its analysis, Mr. Hayes makes the first public announcement of the
discovery of Lodate of soda, as a new chemical species.
Mr. C. B. Avams, enumerated the minerals in the collections from Cal-
ifornia by Mr. Kelly, and from Nova Scotia by Rev. Mr. Prior, and made
various remarks respecting them, to designate their peculiarities and value.
August 15, 1838.—Dr. T. W. Harrrs, in the chair.
Dr. Jerrrices Wyman, exhibited a feetal kitten contained in its mem-
branes, showing the peculiar manner in which the placenta encircles the
foetus like a zone. Also the uterus of a mouse, showing its bead-like ap-
pearance when impregnated. Also the egg of the snapping turtle near
the close of incubation, showing the passage of the umbilical vessels
through a hole in the sternum. These are finally cut off and the aperture
closed by a peculiar muscle.
Mr. T. M. Brewer, remarked farther on the goldfinch alluded to at a
preceding meeting pale on 22d July be again observed the bird at its
nest, where there were four eggs. This was three weeks earlier than
usual, and the cow-bunting leaves us three weeks earlier still.
Mr. E. Tuckerman, Jr., presented some plants not yet catalogued, as
belonging to this country, they were Cladonia vermicularis, Cetraria ni-
valis, and a Parmelia, all from the White Mountains.
Dr. T. W. Harris read a paper entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the N. Ameri-
can insects belonging to the genus Cychrus of Fabricius, with descrip-
tions of some newly detected species.”” He proceeded to show that the ge-
nus Scaphinotus, Dejean, is established on very insufficient characters.
Those of Spheroderus are somewhat better. The same also with Mr.
Newman’s genus Irichroa. He concludes that the insects placed in Cy-
chrus, Spheroderus, Irichroa and Scaphinotus, are more closely related
to each than to any other genus, and can constitute merely subgenera.
The following are the new species :
Cycnrus Anprewsir. Black; thorax deep greenish blue, heart-shap-
ed, narrowed behind, and slightly margined at the sides; elytra deep blue,
392 Scientific Proceedings, Se.
faintly tinged with violet, slightly carinated at the base and sides, and with
punctured strie. Length, including the mandibles, nme and a half
lines. Inhabits North Carolina. Resembles C. marginatus and more
nearly still C. cristatus from Oregon.
Cycurus Leonarpu. Black; head transversely striated ; thorax viola-
ceous, subquadrate, narrowed behind ; elytra broad ovate, carmated at the
sides, bronzed violet, deeply crenato-striated. Length, including mandi-
bles, from 11 to 13 lines. Inhabits northern and western parts of Massa-
chusetts and New Hampshire. Hitherto confounded with C. viduus, from
which it essentially differs in color and its more dilated form.
Cycnrus tusercuLatus. Black opaque; head rugose and with two
longitudinal impressions on the front; thorax rugose, truncato-cordate,
contracted. behind; coleoptra ovate, very convex, granulated, with a triple
series of smooth tubercles on each elytron; epipleura rugosely punctured.
Length 7 to 8! lines. Inhabits Oregon.
Cycnrus ancutatus. Black; head carinated; thorax angulated at
the sides, much contracted behind; elytra violaceous-brown, somewhat
flattened, crenulato-striate ; legs brownish-piceous. Length 65 lines.
Inhabits Oregon.
Cycurus crisratus. Black; head carinated; thorax cordate, con-
tracted behind ; elytra crenato-striate, with a narrow, blue margin.
Length 5! lines. Inhabits Oregon.
Dr. Harris exhibited specimens of Mymphea odorata ee sanguinea)
from the Botanic Garden, Cambridge; and remarked upon the tendency,
strongly exhibited in these specimens, which all the parts of the flower
have, to become leaves.
Dr. Goutp remarked that this lily was originally brought from Mossy
Pond, in Lancaster, where it grows in one small spot. He was inclined to
regard it as a distinct species, having constantly found the angles of the
leaves more prolonged, the color darker and the size smaller than in WV.
odorata.
Mr. C. B. Anams, had spent a day at Fresh Pond, and gave an account
of the shells he had found there. They were the following species, viz. :
Unio nasutus, complanatus, and radiatus; Anodonta implicata, Say;
Cyclas similis; Planorbis trivolvis, bicarinatus, deflectus? and hirsutus,
MS.; Valvata tricarinata; Succinea ovalis; Lymnea heterostropha, col-
umellaris, catascopium, Physa heterostropha, Paludina decisa, lus rica?
Of Unio nasutus only one specimen was found, U. radiatus was abun-
dant, clean and beautiful. From one of them dropped a beautiful pearl
in the form of a flattened sphere, .16 inch in the longer and .11 mch in
the shorter diameter. Of Anodonta implicata, Say, he said, that a com-
parison of adult shells only, with specimens of A. cataracta from other lo-
calities might lead to the conclusion that they were distinct species; but
an examination of them in every stage of growth from the size of the
Miscellanies. 393
thumb nail upwards, renders it probable that they are only a variety of A.
cataracta, An undescribed species of Planorbis was found abundantly.
He first found it in Mansfield, and it has since been found by Dr. Gould
in Dedham, and he proposes to describe it under the specific name
hirsutus. Tt resembles the European albus in the revolving lines of hairs
by which it is covered. A minute species of Paludina seems also to be
new.
2. African Meteorite—(From the London Nautical Magazine.)—Ex-
tract from a letter, dated Nov. 24, 1888, written by a gentleman (on whom
reliance may be placed) residing at the Cape of Good Hope. “TI have
taken. the liberty to transmit under your charge, for Sir John Herschel,
the accompanying aérolite, another portion of an enormous aérolite, that
exploded in the department called the Cold Bokkeveld, about 112 miles
N N. E. of this place, on the morning of the 13th October, (1838,) and
which for magnitude ranks with the largest on record of undoubted au-
thority. Judge Menzies, returning from circuit, saw it traversing the at-
mosphere about 60 miles from the estate, where it exploded with a report
equal to the discharge of some heavy pieces of artillery, to the great as-
tonishment of the inhabitants, one of whom had a narrow escape from be-
ing destroyed by it. J am making strong efforts to secure a piece, said
to have made a hole in the ground that would admita dining table! This
may be exaggerated. A man declares the hole is three feet in diameter.
Also to collect information regarding its velocity, course, altitude, évc.”
3. New species of Argulus; notice from Dr. T. W. Harris.—It may
interest some of your readers to be informed of the discovery of another
species of ArcuLus in this country. It was found in the gills of a her-
ring, caught upon Brighton bridge from Charles river, during the month
of June last. It differs from Areutus foliaceus of Europe, and from the
species described in a former number of your Journal, vol. xxxiv, p. 225,
in the size and form of the body, and in the shortness of the legs. Hav-
ing presented the specimen to Dr. A. A. Gould, for description, I shall not
attempt to anticipate him by giving a detailed account of its specific char-
acters at this time.
Cambridge, (Mass.) Feb. 8, 1839.
4. Cabinet of Minerals for sale—The Cabinet of Minerals of the late
Dr. Young, of Edenville, N. Y., is offered for sale. This collection was
selected with great care by Dr. Young, and embraces the rare and beau-
tiful productions of Orange county, N. Y., and Sussex county, N. J. Its
crystals of spinelle, corundum, Franklinite, Brucite, Troostite, melanite,
hornblende, bronzite, idocrase, &c., &&c., would be an invaluable acqui-
sition to any public cabinet. It has been generally pronounced by min-
Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 50
394 M iscellanies.
eralogists to be one of the most select and beautiful collections ever formed
in this country.
_ Edenville, April 12th, 1839.
5. Correction.—In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, p. 375, we mentioned the suppo-
sed spontaneous crystalization of liquid carbonic acid in one of Dr. Tor-
rey’s tubes. Ina letter from him dated New York, March 1, it is re-
marked that the crystals which we had observed were ,
sulphate of ammonia, which was formed by the combina- ff
tion of sulphuric acid with ammonia during the decom-
position of the carbonate to obtain the carbonic acid
gas for condensation. He adds, “a very good method
of showing the rapid condensation of the carbonic acid,
and its ebudlition at the same time, is to surround the
upper part of the tube with a freezing mixture. Place
the mixture (ice and salt) in a bottle, the bottom of which
is cut off. The mouth is furnished with a perforated
cork, through which the upper part of the tube is thrust.
“‘T have been shooting with a kind of air gun, using
my liquified carbonic acid for throwing the balls, and I
hope soon to emulate Perkins’ steam gun.”
carbonie
acid.
sulph.
ammo-
nia.
6. Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirotherium, and of vari-
ous Animals, in sandstone.—The readers of this Journal are familiar
with the reports made by Professor Hitchcock, on the foot marks of
birds and perhaps quadrupeds upon the sand stone rocks of the val-
ley of the Connecticut River. See vol. xxix, p. 307, and vol. xxxii,
p- 174. We have cited also those observed ten years ago at Corn-
cockle Muir in Scotland, vol. xv, p. 84; and more recently near Hild-
burghausen, in Germany, vol. xxx, p. 191.
We shall now, from the reports of the doings of the Geological So-
ciety of London, cite some other facts of this class. We allude to
the now famous quarries of Storeton Hill, near Liverpool, England.
We have recently received from Prof. Buckland fine copies of these
impressions, and it is no more possible to doubt the genuineness of
their originals, than those of the most recent impression of a foot made
in any yielding surface of the present hour. The same is true of the
impressions of Prof. Hitchcock, whatever doubt may have been felt
by some persons who have never examined them.
The communication which we now cite was made to the Geological
Society by the Natural History Society of Liverpool, with drawings
by John Cunningham, Esq.
Miscellanies. 395
In the early part of last June, there were discovered in the Store-
ton quarries, on the under surface of several large slabs of sandstone,
highly relieved casts of what the workmen believed to have been hu-
man hands; and the circumstance having been made known to the
Natural History Society of Liverpool, a committee was appointed,
who drew up the report communicated to this Society.
The peninsula of Wirral consists of new red sandstone; and to-
wards the northern extremity, the formation may be separated into
three principal divisions. The lowest is composed of beds, slightly
inclined towards the east, of red or variegated sandstone, occasional-
ly abounding with pebbles partly derived from the coal-measures; and
in the bottom strata either angular or little water-worn. Seams of
marl are very rare in this division, the argillaceous matter being con-
fined to nodules or concretions of clay of the same color as the sand-
stone.
The middle division consists of white or yellow sandstone, in some
places argillaceous, and frequently containing round concretions of
clay, and pebbles. The strata are separated by seams of white or
mottled clay, occasionally almost imperceptible, but sometimes seve-
ral inches thick.
The uppermost division is formed of red or variegated sandstone,
inclosing also nodules of clay and pebbles of quartz; and it abounds
with strata of red marl. :
The Storeton quarries are situated in the middle division; and the
casts which have hitherto been noticed, occurred on the under sur-
face of three beds of sandstone, about two feet thick each. The
strata incline 8° to the northeast, but they are traversed by several
faults, which range in the strike of the beds. The authors of the re-
port are of opinion, that each of the thin seams of clay in which the
sandstone casts were moulded, formed successively a dry surface,
over which the Chirotherium and other animals walked, leaving im-
pressions of their footsteps; and that each layer was submerged by a
depression of the surface. The lowest seam of clay was so thin, that
the marks penetrated into the subjacent sandstone. The following
account is then given of a hind foot and a fore foot, selected from
slabs in the Museum of the Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Hind Foot, consisting of five digits; one of which, from its resem-
blance to a human thumb, has been generally distinguished by that
designation.
Inches.
Total length from the root of the thumb to the point of the se-
cond toe : : 2 : : . - - ee
Extreme breadth from the point of the thumb to the point of the
fourth tue. . 3 : : : : ° : OD
396 ‘Miscellamies:
‘ Wy Inches.
Breadth across the toes . : : : - es eee nc
Breadth across the palm . é : : Satirist é SUG
Length of the curved line extending from the root of the thumb
to its point . ‘ : : : : oe AE
Breadth of the ball of the ‘thuitb : : : : a ee
Relief of the ball of the thumb from the surface of the lab - ¢
Length of the first toe from the root to the eal ne : : - 52
Length of the second ditto Sen ice ; : : : - 5}
Length of the third ditto . ; : : : ; : . 4
Length of the fourth ditto : : : : a tage oy ee
Average breadth of the first three toes. Hiss : batiea |
Average breadth of the fourth toe rather less than . 5 cal i
Relief of the second toe, which presents the greatest prominence 8;
One hind foot has been observed which measured 12 inches in its
- greatest length.
Judying from the appearance of the casts, the sole of the foot
must have been amply supplied with muscles, the casts of the ball of
the thumb and the phalanges of the fingers being prominent. The
digit which has been called a thumb, is of a tapering shape, and is
bent backwards near the extremity, where it ends ina point. Itis
extremely smooth, and there is no satisfactory evidence of either a
nail or a claw. The toes are thick and strong, and had probably
three phalanges each, and at the terminations are traces of stout, co-
nical nails or claws. The sole of the foot is supposed to have been
covered by a slightly rugose skin, the folds of which are stated to be
distinctly visible in the casts of the toes.
Fore Foot. Perfect impressions of the fore feet are extremely rare,
owing either to the animal having used those feet lightly, or to the
impressions having been obliterated by the tread of the hind feet.
The best preserved cast exhibits a thumb and three tues, being defi-
cient of the fourth. The dimensions, which are generally half of
those of the hind foot, are as follows:
Inches.
Length from the root of the thumb to the point of the second toe 42
Total breadth not ascertained in consequence of the absence of
the fourth toe : : 4 : - : : : .
Breadth of the palm. : ‘ ‘ : : : : aie
Length of the thumb : “ : : : : : . 2b
Breadth of the ball of the thumb : : 4 : : oo fal
Length of the first toe. 3 : : : : : 73
Length of the second toe . : ¢ ; 4 Ee - aoe
Length of the third toe. : 5 - ; F : - 2h
Greatest breadth of the toes. : . : . : 6 oe
3 M: ich cHatine 397
The thumb is slightly bent back, and pointed, and the toes were
armed with nails.
Traces of one animal have been observed in a continuous line on
a slab ten yards long. The length of the step varies a little, but in
general, the distance between the point of the second toe of one hind
foot and the point of the same toe in the hind foot immediately in
advance, is between 21 and 22 inches. Each fore foot is placed di-
rectly in front of the hind, and the thumbs of both extremities are
always towards the medial line of the walk of the animal. Some
further observations are given by the authors with respect to the pro-
gression of the animal, on the supposition that the digit conjectured
to be a thumb, was rearly the first. Conceiving such to be the case,
they state, that the animal must have crossed its feet three inches in
walking, for the right fore and hind feet are placed 14 inch on the
left side of the medial line, and the left fore and hind feet 14 inch on
the right side of the same line.
The casts of the Chirotherium, although the most remarkable, are
by no means the most numerous, which exist on the Storeton sand-
stones. Many large slabs are crowded with casts in relievo, some of
which are supposed to have been derived from the feet of saurian rep-
tiles, and others from those of tortoises. Occasionally the webs be-
tween the toes can be distinctly traced. ‘It is impossible,” say the
authors of the report, ‘to look at these slabs and not conclude, that
the clay beds on which they rested, must have been traversed Dy mul-
titudes of animals, and in every variety of direction.”
A note by Mr. James Yates was then read, giving a brief account of
sketches of four differently characterized footsteps, traced from casts
precured at Storeton, each of which is distinct both from the casts of
the Chirotherium and the web-footed animal mentioned in the preced-
ing report.
A paper was afterwards read “On two Casts in Sandstone of the
impressions of the Hind Foot of a gigantic Chirotherium, from the
New Red Sandstone of Cheshire,” by Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bk
M.P., F.G.S.
These specimens first came under the notice of Colonel Bren
about 1824, and they were placed in the author’s cabinet in 1836;
but it was not until the recent discovery of the Chirotherium at Store-
ton, that their true nature was suspected. The exact locacity, at
which the specimens were discovered, is not known ; but it is proba-
able, that they were obtained from the neighborhood of Colonel Eger-
ton’s residence, near Tarporley, and from one of the beds of sand-
stone, which alternate with the red and green marls in the upper part
of the new red system in that part of Cheshire.
398 Mi iscellanies.
The casts, which consists of a rather soft and coarse sandstone,
were evidently formed in the impressions of two hind feet; and
though they have suffered from exposure to the weather for twelve
years, yet they are sufficiently perfect to have enabled Sir Philip Eger-
ton to take the measurements of the different parts, and draw up the
accompanying comparative table. Itis necessary to state, that though
he preserves the use of the term thumb for the convenience of com-
parison with previous descriptions, yet he is of opinion that the mar-
ginal digit which has been so designated, is not the representative of
the fifth, but of the first toe.
Large Chi-
; Hessberg Storeton rotherinm
Direction of the Measurements. Chirothe- Chirothe-- from near
rium. rium. Tarporley,
Length from the heel to the pout of the
Boe q 7,8). 8, tonne
Ath toe : ihe see
Breadth from the thumb to shin of Athtoe 6 3... 6
Breadth across the sole below the thumb 3 6... 3
Breadth from Ist toe-point to 4th toe-point 4 6 .. 4
From these measurements it appears, that considerable differences
exist in the three specimens of Chirotherium. Upon comparing the
footstep from Hessberg with that from Storeton, it will be found, that
the former is thicker and more clumsy than the latter; that the sole
is shorter and broader, and the toes wider and longer. The most im-
portant discrepancy, however, is in the position of the thumb, which
is placed much nearer the heel in the Hessberg specimens than in
those from Storeton. The cast from near Tarporley resembles the
latter more than the former; it nevertheless differs considerably in
the proportion of the breadth to the length of the sole, which is
greater; and in the proportions of the length of the toes to the length
of the sole, which is less than in the Storeton specimens. It is also
distinguished by the greater divergence of the toes from each other.
From these differences and the gigantic size of the Tarporley spe-
cimen, the author conceives that the animal which made the im-
pression was a distinct species; and he proposes for it, in compli-
ance with the adage ex pede Herculem, the name of Chirotherium
Herculis—Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1839.
Length from the heel to the point of the git yg Py hg 56 Bie
thumb - -
Length from the heel to the angle between
the Ist and2nd toes” - =i Sie tee
Pe OA Ondrand 3rd foes. 4) 4°...) 58 ae.. alee
2 ord and 4th toes. 4 0 58 ee, WO
Greatest breadth across the insertions of Bint Boe § 8 5
the toes - - - :
Breadth from the penis of the imme tod. Q he ee
0
0
6
Miscellanies. 399
7. New Works received.
From motives of convenience we have omitted, on the present
occasion, our usual list of acknowledgments ; but we are unwil-
ling to postpone the mention of the following works, which have
been presented since our last number.
1. Geological Report on the State of New York, continued
from last year, being State Document, No. 275; communicated
to the Legislature of the State, by Gov. Seward, Feb. 27, 1839.
pp. 351. Copies from L. Vanuxem, E. Emmons, and B. D. Sil- ©
liman.
2. Geological Report on the State of Michigan in continuation,
Doc. No. 23, Feb. 4, 1839, by Douglass Houghton, State Geolo-
gist. pp. 123. From A. Sager, and a second copy to the Yale
Nat. Hist. Society.
3. Second Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the
State of Ohio, by W. W. Mather, and several assistants. Colum-
bus. 1858. From C. B. Goddard, Esq.
4. First and Second Annual Reports on the Geological Sur-
vey of Virginia, for 1836 and 7, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Ro-
gers. Univ. Virg. pp. 87.
5. Report on the Geological Survey of Virginia, Doc. No. 56,
in continuation, for 1838, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Resets
Univ. Virg. pp. 32, quarto.
6. Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland. 1838. pp. 33.
7. Report on the Geology of Indiana, 1837-8, by D. D. Owen,
State Geologist. pp. 54.
8. Third Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsyl-
vania, by and from Prof. H. D. Rogers, State Geologist. 1832.
pp. 118.
9. ‘Trans. Am. Phil. Soe: Phil. Vol vi, Part L.-1838. p. 152.
From the Society.
10. Third edition in quarto of the catalogue of shells in the
collection of Dr. John C. Jay, N. Y., 1839. 2 copies. From the
author to B. Silliman, Jr., and to the Yale Nat. Hist. Society.
11. The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches
in the counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caer-
marthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester,
400 Miscellanies.
and Stafford, with descriptions of the coal fields and overlying
formations, by Roderick Impey Murchison, F. R.S., F. L. 5.,
Vice President of the Geological Society of London, &c. &c. &c.,
in two parts. Part I, containing over 600 pages, large and full
quarto, illustrated by 112 wood cuts and a map; with 13 pictur-
esque views, generally colored, and several of them folded. Part
II, Organic Remains and Sections, over 200 pages quarto, making
more than 800 for the entire work. There are 27 lithographic
plates for the organic remains, containing nearly 700 figures.
The colored sections are nine, generally taree folded, and con-
taining 111 distinct sub-sections.
he country described by the author, after seven years of
arduous exertion among the mountains and in the cabinet, is rep-
resented on a splendid colored map of five feet by three, after the
three sheets of which it is composed are duly joined. At the bot-
tom of this map is an ideal colored section, representing all the
rocks which are described by Mr. Murchison.
For this magnificent work we are indebted to the accomplished
author, who has achieved a signal triumph for British Geology
and for the science itself.
12. Seventh Report of the British Association for the advance-
ment of science, Vol. vi, pp. over 700—over 500 for the general
meeting, and about 200 for the sections, &c. &c.,—illustrated by
thirteen plates and maps, several of them folded. From the Asso-
ciation.
13. British Annual and Epitome of Science, for 1839, edited
by Robt. D. Thomson, M. D. From the editor.
14. Annual Reports for 1838 and 9, of the Royal Institution
of Civil Engineers London. From the Institution.
15. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, for 1838,
January to December inclusive—except August. From the So-
ciety through R. K. Kennett, Covent Garden.
INDEX TO VO
LUME XXXVI.
A.
Account, additional of shooting stars of
of Dec., 1838, 355.
Acknowledgments of new works, 399.
Adams, C. B., on shells found on shore
of Mass , 387. ;
shells of fresh pond, 393.
Adirondack works of N. Y , iron of, ex-
perimented on, 94.
Agates, cause of red color of, 207.
- Agassiz’s opinions relative to bowlders
quoted, 331.
Aikin, Wm., statement of circular whirl-
winds, ol.
America, N., thermal waters of, 88.
Amphibia, American, Dr Sager on, 320.
Analysis of acidulous or carbonated)
springs, 8.
by Dr Hayes, of cobalt ore from
N. H, 334
of two cobalt ores, 332-3, ques-
tioned, 332.
of iron ores.in Mass., 378.
of native iron from South Af-
rica, 213.
of meteoric iron, 81.
of nitrogen springs, 7.
of iron ore in Maine, 151.
of marl from Farmington, Ct.,
176.
of Salt springs at Onondaga and
elsewhere in N. Y., 3, 5, 6
of sulphuretted springs, 9.
of Warwickite. 85.
of soils, rules for, 368.
Angling, practical essay on. 337.
Anthony, J.G. discription of a fossil, 106 |)
Argulus, new species of, announced, 393
Ashville, N C., meteoric iron from, 81.
Astronomy, elementary treatise on, 197.
Olmsted’s introduction to, 293
described, 164.
B.
Baer, Prof., on depth of frozen ground in
Siberia, 210
Bakewell’s Geology, third Am. Ed., 2)1
Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839.
Baryta and Strontia, distinguished by
Chromate Potassa, 183.
Barytes, sulphate of in N. Y., 113.
Batteries, galvanic, the benefit of fresh
immersion of, 137.
Beck, Dr. L. C., notices of native copper,
~ ores of copper, &c., in N. J., 107.
note on N Brunswick Tor-
nado or Water spout of 1835, 115.
on mineralogical and chemical
survey of State of N Y,1
Berthier, M , mode of ascertaining the
absorbent qualities of soils by’ him, 375
Berzelius on cause of rise of Sweden,
277.
Bessel, Prof. F. W., discovery of paral-
Jax of star 61 Cygni by, 200.
Bischof, Dr. G., natural history of volea-
nos and earthquakes, 230.
Bituminization of wood in the human
era, 118.
Blocks, erratic, 20.
recent explanations of, 325.
Boiling springs, notice of, 253, 4, 5, 6.
Boomerang, notice of, 164. ;
Boston Soc. of Nat. History, paper read
before, 337
minutes of their proceedings,
379.
Bowditch, Dr. notice of, 214.
‘Bowlders and diluvial scratches, 39, 44,
Prof. Struder on, 325.
Brewer. T. M., on the cow blackbird and
goldfinch, 386-91
Bricks. quantity made in N Y , 21.
Brine springs in N. Y., 2.
British naturalists, some notice of, 217.
British Association, 7th report of, ack-
knowledged, 399.
Annual received for 1839, R. D.
Thomson’s, 4(0.
Australia, a weapon used by natives of, | Brunswick, N , tornado of 1835, 115.
Buckland, Prof, Calymene named after,
106
Building stones, 45.
C.
Cabinet of minerals for sale, 393.
Calcareous tufa, 44.
ol
402
Calymene Bucklandii described, 106.
Carpenter, Prof. Wm., account of bitu-
minization of wood in human era, 118.
Carburetted Hydrogen gas disengaged in
Catalogue of insects of genus sphinx i
N. America, 282
Carbon and ox copper compound of, 110.
Cavity containing water, 46
Cement hydraulic, 37, 44
Champlain, Lake, tertiary formation of,
27.
Charpentier, Hr. V , completion of Hr.
Venetz, theory of phenomena of bow]-
ders, 327.
Chemical examination of native iron,
213.
n
INDEX.
sel
Counties of Queens, Kings and Rich-
mond, 16.
Cowles, Dr., statement of c
occasioning wind, 54.
Currents, marine, proofs of in N. Y., 37.
D.
Dana, Dr., analysis of Congress Springs, 8.
. L., new method of analysis
of soils, 366 7
Danaite, proposed as a new mineral spe-
cies, 334. (NVote.)
Daubeny, Dr. C., his analysis of Lebanon.
springs quoted, 8.
on thermal waters in N.
America, 88.
ircular fires
action not the cause of volca-
nos, 231.
Chemistry of organic bodies, 202.
Cherty limerock or corniferous limerock
proposed as the line of reference to
State geologists; by A. Eaton, 61
China Sea tyfoon in 1835, facts relating
itby W.C.R., 59.
Chirotherium, footsteps of in sandstone,
397.
Chili, great elevation of land in, 274.
Church, John B., account of extraordina-
ry echo, 175.
Circular fires occasioning whirlwinds, 50.
Citations from Geol. Reports on State of|
N. Y , for 1837-8, 1.
Civil Engineers, institution of, received,
400.
Clay stones, 48.
Clear sky, rain from, 178.
Coal, occurrence of in Mass , 377.
Cobalt ores, two new, analyzed, 332
Coffin, James H. meteorological paper
edited by him, 165.
Columnar whirlwinds caused by fires, 50.
Conrad, T. A., report on the paleontolo-
gical department of the survey of N.
Copper in combination with carbon, 110.
Bisilicate of, 111. - :
Carbonates of, 111.
Gray sulphuret of, 112.
notice and ores of in N. J., 107.
Pyrites, 112.
red oxide of, 109.
Copperas, quantity of, manufactured in
Mass_, 378.
Correction, 394.
Corniferous lime-rock of N. Y., as a line
- of reference, 61. :
Couthouy, J. P., on two species of Cida-
ris and Patelloidea, 381.
monography of the Osteodes-
macea, 382-9.
County of Essex, report on, 26.
Counties of Montgomery, Herkimer
Oneida and Oswego, Geol. report on,
30.
quantity ofsalt in sea water,
188.
Davy’s hypothesis of volcanic action ex-
amined, 234, 5 et. seq.
De Kay, J. E. communication on zoolo-
gy of N Y., quoted, 1.
Deposites from hot springs indicate their
temperature, 25%).
Descriptive catalogue of N. American
insects of the genus Sphinx, 282.
Deepen of a fossil by J. G. Anthony,
10
De La Beche, red sandstone, of, 68.
Directions for tracing rocks, 67.
Distillation destructive of oil of wine, 76.
District, geological, of N. Y., report on,
Ast, 15. :
E. Emmons’ report on the 2d, 23.
geological, Vanuxem on the 3d,
30.
James Hall, on the 4th, 34.
Dog, tongueless, retaining power to bark,
Drought, effects of, 80.
Durango, Mexico, mummies at, 200.
Dwight, Theo., statement of, concerning
circular fires and wind occasioned by,
52.
Dykes in Essex Co., N. Y., 26.
how formed, 264.
E.
Earthquakes, natural history of, 230.
Eaton, A proposes cherty limerock, 61.
ostcript to his article on page
wa. 198. i sh
Echo, musical, in Virginia, 174.
many times repeating, 175.
Economical geology of Mass., report on
examined, 363.
Editors to subscribers and readers, 216.
Effects of drought, 80.
Electro magnetism, by Dr. Page, 350.
Electricity, observations on, by Dr. Page,
353.
Electro-magnetie rotations, 129.
Elevation of land in human era, instan-
ces of, 271.
INDEX.
Emerson, G. B., on a new paper from
beach grass, 386. ;
Emmons, E., report on the 2d Geol. dis-
trict, 23. ;
Encroachments of the sea in N. Y., 16.
Erman, M. Jr., letter to M. Arago, 205.
Erratic blocks, 20.
Prof. Struder on, 328, et. seq.
Essex county, Geol. report on, of by E.
Emmons, 23.
Etherine, destructive distillation of, 76.
Eee, (Continental) price of labor in,
76.
European observations on the meteoric
shower of Noy., 1838, 179.
Experiments on the iron of Essex county,
N. Y., 94.
tere expedition, U. S., progress of,
1
i:
Failure of water in steam boilers detected
by galvanoscope, 141.
Falls of Niagara, and river, 49.
Fibrous carbonate of lime, 113.
Fires, circular, occasioning columnar
whirlwinds, 50.
Fish skins, mode of preparing, 196.
‘“‘ Fishes of Massachusetts,’ reviewed by
Dr. Storer, 337.
Floras, local commencement of, 225.
Floyd, Mr. J., account of whirlwind in
India, April, 1838, 71.
Footsteps of Chirotherium in sandstone,
394.
Fossil fish in red sandstone, 186.
Foster, J. W., head of Mastodon gigan-
teum, 191.
Fox, Chas., notice of Kilee or Boome-
rang, 164.
notice of new mode of prepar-
ing fish skins, 196.
notice of British naturalists, 217
Fresh immersion of galvanic batteries,
Bye,
Frodsham, W.I., elected a member o
the Royal Society, 195.
Frozen ground in Siberia, depth of, 210.
Frozen wells, 184.
Fucoides and ripple marks, 46,
G.
Galvanic batteries, fresh immersion of,
137.
magnets, mode of preparing, 335.
mode of construction, 124.
Galvanoscope, use of, to detect failure of
water in steam boilers, 141.
Gay-Lussac’s opinion on volcanic action
examined, 226
Gas inflammable, disengaged at many
places in N. Y., 6.
ss
403
Gasconade county, Mo., mammoth in,
LE Wes
Geine, constitution of, 369.
quantity of, in soils of Mass., 371.
sources of supply, 376.
Geodiferous limestone of Prof. Eaton, 38.
Geological reports on State of N. Y., ci-
tations from, 1.
Geologists of N. Y.and Penn., referred to
the cherty limerock, by A. Eaton, 61.
Gecloey of Maine and Mass., reports on,
143050,
Bakewell’s, 3d Am. edition of, 201.
Geology of Mass., (economical,) by Prof.
Hitchcock, examined, 363.
Geological reports, several acknowledg-
ed, 400.
Geothermometer of Dr. Mangus, 203.
Genera of Sphinges, 384.
Geyser great. account of, 255.
Globules in the blood analogous to Pro-
tococcus kermesinus 206.
Gould, A. A., minutes of the procedings
ofthe Boston Society of Nat. Hist., 379.
on spongia, called Neptune’s
goblet, 386.
Granite occurring in N. Y., 23.
Gray wacke of Hudson river, 69.
Great fires occasioning whirlwinds, 55.
Greece, revival of letters in, 192.
Greenwood, Rev. F. W. P., and Dr.
Gould, on a species of Thracia, and on
fruits from Burmah, 380.
Gypsum in marles and slates, 38.
pure, prejudice against, 43.
Hi.
Hall, James, at the 4th geological district
of N. Y., 6.
Hardening of iron, 42.
Hare, Clarke, on destructive distillation
of oil of wine, 76. :
Harris, T. W., catalogue of N. Ameri-
can insects of the genus sphinx in his
cabinet, 282.
on genus Cychrus, 391.
new species of Argulus, 393.
T. W., remarks on the inaccura-
cies of botanical books, 390.
Hayes, Dr., proposes iodate of soda, as a
new chemical species, 391.
his analysis of a cobalt ore, 334.
Head of Mastodon giganteum, 189.
Height of water in Lake Ontario, 43.
Herschel, Sir J., letter to, on parallax of
the star 61 Cygni, 200.
chemical examination of
native iron, 213.
Hermann’s view of the constitution of
geine, 369.
Herrick, E. C., meteoric shower of April
20th, 1803, 358. ;
shooting stars of Dec. 1838,
350.
AOA
Herrick, E. C., shooting stars of April
20, 1839, 361.
rain from a clear sky, 178.
Hildreth, Dr. S. P., meteorological jour-
nal kept by him, 78.
Hitchcock, Prof. E., analysis of marl
from Farmington, Conn., 176.
report on re-examination
of economical geol of Mass. noticed,
363.
Hot springs replace volcanos, 253.
Humboldt, Baron Von, his opinion on
extent of volcanic action, 231.
Hurricane of 8th April, 1838, in India,
account of, 71.
Hydraulic cement, 37, 44.
Hydrogen gas carburetted, disengaged
at Oneida, and elsewhere in N. Y., 6.
Hydrostatic pressure when equal to elas-
tic force of steam, 243.
Hypothesis of chemical action in volca-
nos untenable, 231.
of increasing heat explains
volcanic action, 239.
I.
Ice at bottom of a river, 186.
in a well, 134.
Immersion of galvanic batteries, 187.
Impressions of animal tootstéps on sand-
stone, 34.
Indelible ink, new, composition of, 209.
Inflammable gas disengaged in N. Y.,
6, passim.
Internal fire, proof of, 261, et passim.
Iron ores in N. Y.,
hardening of, 42.
experiments on that from Adiron-
dack works, Essex, N. Y., 94.
its tenacity, 99, 102.
native, chemical examination of, 213.
ores in Mass., 378. eae
Islands, formation of from lava, 267-8-9,
and 270.
J.
Jackson, Dr. C. T., his geological reports
reviewed, 143.
on limestone from Welland
canal, 379.
Jay, J. C., catalogue of shells, 3d_edi-
tion, 399.
Johnson, W. R., experiments on two va-
rieties of Essex iron, 94.
Jones, Rey. G., tabular view of price of;
labor in Europe, 177.
Journal, Meteorological, 78, 165.
Judson, D., on use of nitric acid in pal-
monary diseases, 191.
K.
Kilee or Boomerang, notice of, 164.
Krug Von Nidda’s classification of hot
springs, 205.
INDEX.
L.
Labor, price of, on continent of, Europe,
176.
Lake ridge of N. Y., 40.
Larned, Rev. W. A.., translations relative
to bowlders and cobalt ores, 325. —
Lava, diagrams to show the ejection of,
249.
not uniform in ejections, 252.
breaking through sea and forming
islands, 267.
Lead, Prof. Emmons on occurrence of,
in N. Y., 42.
Leather, mountain, 114.
Lebanon springs analysed, 7.
Lepidopterous insects, catalogue of sphin-
ges. 282.
Limestone, Prof. Emmons on, in N.Y., 47
Lime, fibrous carbonate, 113.
Line of reference for state geologists, 61.
Lives lost by a whirlwind in India, num-
ber estimated, 75.
Loomis, Prof. E., a meteorological table
and register, 165.
description of his instruments, 172.
Lyceum of Nat. Hist N. Y., list of offi-
cers in, for 1839, 195.
M.
Macomber, D.O., account of a frozen
well, 134.
Magnetic needle, variation of, 28.
Magnets, galvanic, modes of construct-
ing, 124.
Magnetic (electro) rotations, 129.
Magnets, mode of preparing permanent
artificial ones, 336.
Magnetism, electro, by Dr. Page, 350.
Magnus, Dr., experiments on tempera-
ture of the earth, 203.
Maine and Mass., geological reports on,
reviewed, 143.
Malcom, Rey. Mr., on fossil bones from
Burmah, 387.
Mammoth, (Mastodon? Eds.) 198.
Manual of Chemistry, Webster’s, new
edition of, 195.
Marine currents, proofs of, 37.
Marietta, Ohio, Met. Jour kept at, 78.
Marl, where occurring in Mass., 375.
Mastodon giganteum, head of, 189.
Marcy, Gov. Wm. L., geological reports
communicated by him, noticed, 1.
Mather, W. W., report on the first dis-
trict of N. Y., geological survey, 15.
McCord, J. S., Met. Register kept at
Montreal by him, 180.
Mead, Dr., his analysis of Lebanon
spring quoted, 7.
Meteoric iron from Ashville, N. C., 81.
shower of Nov. 1838, noticed in
Europe, 179:
of Dec. 7, 1838, 355.
INDEX.
Meteoric shower of April 20, 1803, 358.
Meteorite, African, 343.
Meteorological Journal, abstract of, 78.
Register kept at Montreal,
1838, 180.
table and register, by Prof.
E. Loomis, 165.
Register and Sci. Journal,
edited by James H. Coffin, 165.
Mineral cabinet offered for sale, 393.
Mineral, new, Volborthite, 187.
Miscellanies, domestic and foreign, 174,
379.
Montreal, Met. Register kept at in 1838,
1380.
Mountains of Essex county, 23.
: how raised, 204.
Mountain leather, 114.
Mummies at Durango, Mexico, 200.
Murchison’s Silurian System received,
349.
Museums, mode of preparing fish skins
for, 146.
Musical echo in Va., 174.
N.
Naturalists, British, notice of, 217.
Native copper, and ores of, in New Jer-
sey, 1U7.
Nat. Hist. of fishes of Mass., reviewed,
337.
Navigation, steam, 133.
New York geological reports, 1.
New works received, 399.
Nitric acid in pulmonary diseases, 191.
Nitrogen springs in N.-Y. analysed, 7.
Norton, Prof. A., treatise on astronomy,
197.
Note on New Brunswick tornado, 113.
Notice, obituary, of Hon. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, 156.
O.
Obituary notice of the Hon. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, 156.
Observations on electricity, 353.
Qcean, phosphorescence of, 208.
Officers of Lyceum of Nat. Hist. N. Y.,
195.
Oil of wine, destructive distillation of, 76.
Carers introduction to astronomy,
03.
Onondaga, salt springs of, analysed, 6.
Ontario, Lake, its ridge, 40.
small lakes running into, 42.
shore of, and height of wa-
ter in, 43.
Ores of copper in N. Jersey, 107.
iron in N.Y., 21.
Organic bodies, chemistry of, 202.
Ornithology of U.S8., by J. K. Towns-
end, 201.
Outlet of small lakes into Ontario, 42.
405
P.
Page, C. G., on galvanic batteries, 137.
use of galvanoscope to detect
failure of water in steam boilers, 141.
Page, Charles G., on electro-magnetism,
300.
observations on electricity, 353.
on musical echo in Va, 174.
Paleontological department of survey on
N. Y , by T. A. Conrad, 12.
Parallax of the star 61 Cygni, 200.
Patton, J. H., account of hurricane in
India, communicated by him, 71. ;
Peat occurring in N. Y., 16.
Petrified wood in N. Y. and Va.,(note) 12.
Petrifying springs in N. Y., 11.
Perdicaris, G, letter on the revival of
letters in Greece, 192.
Postscript to p. 71, 198.
Potassa, chromate of, an agent to distin-
guish between baryta and strontia, 183.
Prejudice against pure gypsum, 43.
Price of labor and subsistence in certain
parts of Europe, 176.
Proceedings of the Boston Society of
‘Nat Haist., 379.
Progress of U. S. exploring expedition,
195.
Protoccocus kermesinus, analo
globules in blood, 206.
Q.
Quantity of salt in sea water, 188.
R.
Radiation, solar and terrestrial, 182.
Rain from a clear sky, 178.
Raleigh’s Tyfoon of Aug. 5th and 6th,
1835, 59.
lay, John, biography of, 223.
Reclamation of M. A. Warder, 187.
Red color in agates, 207.
Red globules in blood, 206.
Redfield, W. C., account of columnar
whirlwinds occasioned by fires, 50.
additional facts de Raleigh’s
tyfoon in China sea, 59.
Red oxide, copper in, N. Jersey, 109.
Red sandstone of De la Beche, 68.
|\Reference line for state geologists, 61.
Remarks on cases of wind caused by fires
56.
Remarks by the editors to subscribers and
readers, 49, 165, 1385 and 6, 216.
Remarks on the Nat. Hist. of the fishes
of Mass., 337.
Rents caused by volcanos, 251.
Reports on the geology of Maine and
Mass , 143.
Revival of letters in Greece, 192.
Ridge of Lake Ontario, 40.
Ridge roads, 40.
Ripple marks, 46.
gous to red
A06
River Niagara, 49.
Rotations, electro-magnetic, 129.
Royal Society of London, honor to an
eminent scientific artist, 195.
Rules of analysis of soils, 368.
Ss.
Sager, Abrm. on American amphibia,
Salt, quantity of, in sea water, 188.
Salt, quantity of, in 1000 parts, 5.
Salines in N. Y., 2.
analysis of several, 3, 5, 6.
Sandstone of Potsdam, N. Y., 25.
red, fossil fishes in, 186.
Sands, white and siliceous, 2L.
Saratoga and Ballston, 8.
Schimpfer, M., theory of bowlders quo-
ted and questioned, 331, 2.
Scientific proceedings of Boston Natural
History Society, 379.
Scratches, diluvial, 39.
Sheffey, H. W., account ofice at the bot-
tom of a river, 186.
Shepard, C. U., on meteoric iron from
Buncombe Co., N. C., 81.
notice of a report of, on the
economical geology of Mass., 363.
analysis of Warwickite, 85.
note to Wohler’s analysis
of cobalt ores, 332, 33.
Shooting stars of Dec. 1838, additional
account of, 335.
Shower, meteoric, of April 20th, 1803,
308.
April 5, 1095 and 1122, 361.
Siberia, depth of frozen ground in, 210.
Silurian System by Murchison, acknow]-
edged, 399.
Smith, Junius, on steam ships and navi-
gation, 133.
Smith, James L., on chrom. potassa as a
test, 183.
on preparing permanent mag-
nets by galvanism, 339.
Smith, J. V. C., remarks on his “ fishes of
Massachusetts,’ 337.
Soils, analysis of, new mode detailed 366.
classified, 363.
for analysis, how taken, 364.
in Kings, Queens, and Richmond,
21.
of Mass., table of geine contained
in, 371.
power of absorbing moisture, 374.
of the West analyzed, 373.
Solar and terrestrial radiation observed
at Montreal, 182 :
Sphinges, catalogue of the N. American,
282.
Springs, acidulated or carbonated, at
Ballston and Saratoga, 8.
Springs, brine, in N. Y., 2.
hot, in Iceland, 253, et seq.
INDEX.
Springs of nitrogen in N. Y., 7.
petrifying, in N. Y., 11.
thermal, of North America, no-
ticed, 88.
Stars, shooting, account of, 179, 355, 358,
State chemist proposed for Mass., 376.
Statement of lives lost by a whirlwind
in India, in April, 1838, 75.
Steam, the agent in volcanic action, 241.
boilers, the failure of water in, de-
tected, 141.
maximum, elasticity of, 242.
ships and navigation, 133.
Steel, Dr., analysis of Congress spring, 8.
Strokr, account of, 256.
Struder, Prof. B., on erratic blocks, trans-
lations from, 326.
Storer, D, H., remarks on ‘natural his-
tory of fishes of Massachusetts,” 337.
Subordinate rocks of N. Y., 68.
Subsistence in continental Europe, price
of, 176.
Subterranean temperatures, 204.
Survey of N. Y , geological, 1, et seq.
paleontological, 12.
cae duke of, notice of Dr. Bowditch,
14.
Synopsis of the families and genera of
Lepidoptera, 284.
AN,
Table of salt in 1000 parts of Onondaga
and foreign salt, 5,
Tabular view of the price of labor in cer-
tain parts of continental Europe, 176.
Temperature of the earth, 203.
of the ground in Siberia, 205.
increasing, the cause of vol-
canic action, 239.
Temperatures, subterranean, 204.
Temperature of wells in N. Y., 25.
Tenacity of Essex iron, 99, 102.
Tertiary formation of L. Champlain, 27.
Teschemacher, J. E., on palatal tooth of
Ptychodus polygyrus, 330.
Thermal springs, Von Nidda’s classfica-
tion of, 295.
Thermal waters of N. America, noticed
by Prof. C. Daubeny, 88.
Thomson, T., chemistry of organic bod-
ies, 202.
Tongueless dog retaining power to bark,
194.
Tornado of N. Brunswick in 1835, 115.
Townsend, J. K., ornithology of U.S.
by, 201.
Translations from Prof. Struder’s account
of erratic blocks, 325.
Tuckerman, E. Jr., on Geaster quadri-
fidus, 380.
Turpin, M., memoir by, on red globules
in blood, 206. f
Tyfoon of Aug. 1835, in China seas, facts
concerning, 59.
IND
V.
Van Rensselaer, Hon. 8., obituary no-
tice of, 156.
Vanuxem, L., on 3d geological district of,
Navy
Variation a magnetic needle, 28.
Venetz, Hr. , theory and phenomenon of
bowlders, 327,
Volborthite, a new mineral, 187.
Volcanic senor how explained by Davy,
132, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
by Bichof, 239.
depth of, 243.
by Gay Lussac, 236.
Volcanos and earthquakes, natural his-
tory of, 230.
Von Buch, L., on nature of volcanic ae
nomena, 268.
Von Buch, L., opinion on formation of
certain conglomerates, 266
observations on volcanic Cn
tion in island of Lancerete, 261), 264.
observations on - Palma and
Gran Canaria, 273.
on formation of volcanic éniigall
273.
WwW.
Walferdin, M., communication on subter-
ranean temperatures, 204.
Warder, M. A., reclamation of, 187.
Warwickite analyzed, 85.
Water contained in a cavity, 46.
modes of access to volcanic fires,
262, et passim.
AQT
EX.
Water spout at New Brunswick in 1835,
115.
Water in steam boilers, failure of, detec-
ted, 14].
Webster’s manual of chemistry, new edi-
tion, 195.
Wells, frozen, noticed, 184.
Whirlwinds, ‘columnar, by W. C. Red-
field, 50.
| Whirlwind of 8th April, 1838, India, no-
ticed, 71.
Winds occasioned by circular fires, 50.
Wood, bituminization of, in human
_ era, 118
| Works received and acknowledged,
399.
‘Wray, J., biographical sketch of, 223.
Wyman, Dr. J., on an anomalous sub-
stance resembling bone, 3381
on fossil bones from Georgia
and Burmah, 385.
on a feetal kitten, 391.
recent tooth of elephant from
‘Singapore, 386.
on the skeleton of Sloth, 382,
We
|
Yellow copper ore, 112.
Young, Dr., his cabinet of minerals for
sale, 393.
Z.
|Zabriskie, on construction of galvanic
magnets, 124.
electro-magnetic rotations, 129.
“4g
Vi ae
oD
7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS
AND STRANGERS. ~
Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt-
ed, because it is ‘not always practicable to write letters, where
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books and
pamphlets which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no-
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands,
would usually find both acceptance and insertion. —
In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to |
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading
the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty,
with which they presume us to be acquainted.
The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au-
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an
answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made
in these. pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.—
Eds.
SCIENCE.—FOREIGN.
Description and use of a dipping needle deflector, invented by
Robt. W. Fox, Esq. From Mr. Fox. Cornwall, Eng.
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. Description of the plan
for descending and ascending mines, by E. O. Gregelles, C. E.
From Mr. Fox.
Report of the Council of the Literary and Historical Society of
Quebec. From the Society.
India Review and Journal of Foreign Sciences, edited by F.C.
Corbyn, Esq. Vol. I, and Nos. 23, 24, 25, of Vol. III. From the
editor. Received through Dr. J. V. C. Smith of Boston.
1
2
Traité de Chimie, par J. J. Berzelius. 2¢ Partie, Chimie Organ-
igque, Tome, Sixieme ; kindness of the author, by request, to supply
a deficiency pecae eel by the loss of the same volume.
Theorie des Proportions Chimiques, et table Synoptique des Poids
Atomiques, par J. J. Berzelius; for J. D. Dana, (of the South Sea
Exploring Expedition.) From the author.
Kongl. Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar, for Ar. 1835. Stock-
holm, 1836. From Prof. Berzelius.
Arsberattelse om Vetenskapernas Framsteg, afgifne af Kongl.
Vetenskaps-Academiens Embetsman, D. 31. Mars, 1835. Stock-
holm, 1835. The last a duplicate. :
Experimental Researches in Electricity, by Sir M. Faraday ;
eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth series. From the author, by Dr.
Warren of Boston.
Experimental Researches in Electricity, (fourteenth series,) by
Sir Michael Faraday, D. C. L., F. R.S., &c. From the author.
London. Royal Institution, June, 1838.
On the present state of our knowledge in regard to dirmonatene
bodies, by J. F. W. Johnston, F.R.S., L. and E., F. G. 8. Prof.
Chemistry and Mineralogy, Durham, Eng. From the author, for Y.
C. Library. -
The economy of a coal-field, by Prof. J. F. W. Johnston. Dur-
ham. From the author, with a copy for Y. C. Library.
Description .and Analysis of a variety of Hatchetine, found in .
Wopeth colliery, near New ae by Prof. J. FE. W. Johnston.
From the author.
Synopsis of the New Castle museum, late the Allan, formerly the
Tunstall, or Wycliffe museum, to which are prefixed memoirs of
Mr. Tunstall, the founder, and Mr. Allan. 8vo. with plates, by Geo.
T. Fox, Esq., F. L. S. From the author. ~
Schedule of the monthly meeting of the Linnzan Society of Lon-
don. Mr. Fox.
Bronn, Lethaea geognostica, (Bogen, 49-60.) From the author.
Four beautiful lithographic plates of the footmarks of the Cheiro-
therium on the new red sandstone of Cheshire, Eng.: also of an un-
described animal, and of a fossil reed. From Rev. Prof. Buckland.
Supplementary notices to the first and second editions of Dr.
Buckland’s Bridgewater treatise. London. W. Pickering. From Dr.
Buckland.
3
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons D’Eau douce de Europe Centrale,
par Louis Agassiz. Prospectus. From A. Mayor, Esq.
Eighth Quarterly report of the Ophthalmic Hospital, Canton, Chi-
na, by and from Rev. Dr. P. Parker.
SCIENCE.—DOMESTIC.
Extract from the Report of the Hon. William Kinney, on the pub-
lic works of Illinois, Dec. 30, 1838. From Mr. Rogers.
Fossils of the Medial Tertiary of the United States, by T. A.
Conrad, Phil. 17 plates. From J. Dobson, publisher.
Monography of the family Unionidae, or Naiades of Lamarck,
(fresh water bivalve shells,) of N. America. No. 9. ‘Two copies.
By T. A. Conrad. J. Dobson, Phil.
Report of the Geological Reconnoissance of Kentucky, made in
1838, by W. W. Mather. From J. A. Tomlinson.
Report of Mr. Foster to W. W. Mather, Principal Geologist. of
Ohio: two copies, (one for Prof. Shepard.) From Mr. J. W. Foster.
An Introductory lecture on Chemistry and Geology, delivered
November 6th, 1838, before the class of the Med. Coll. of Ohio, by
Dr. J. Locke. From the author.
Report from Lt. G. M. Bache to the Secretary of the Treasury,
on light houses, light boats, &c. From Lt. Bache.
Treatise on Prolapsus uteri and other affections of the Pelvic vis-
cera. Four copies from Dr. Thomson, the author.
Jewett’s Family Physician. From Dr. M. Jewett.
Analysis of Blount Shelly and Talladega Spring, in Ala., by Prof.
R. T. Brumly, of Alabama University. From Prof. Barnard.
A pamphlet containing new theories of electricity, heat, attraction,
repulsion and gravitation, by and from John Tyler, Jr. Wm. and
Mary Coll. Va.
Second annual report of Dr. Douglass eae the State geolo-
gist of Michigan; two copies: one for the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc.
From Dr. A. Sager, Zoologist of the survey.
Second annual Report of the Geological Survey. of Ohio, by W.
W. Mather, and several assistants. Columbus, Ohio, 1838. From
Mr. C. B. Goddard.
Report of a Geological Reconnoissance and Survey of the state
of Indiana, made in the years 1837-8, by David Dale Owen, M. D.
geologist of the state. From the author. Idianapolis, 1839.
ce
An alphabetical catalogue of shells, fossils, minerals, and zoophytes,
in the cabinet of Joseph Sullivan, Columbus, Ohio. Three copies
_ from the author; one for the Yale Nat. Hist. Society.
The Louisville Journ. of Med. and Surgery, Nos. 1, 2, Jan. 1838.
A catalogue of plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukee, Wiscon-
sin Territory, by J. A. Lapham. From the author. 1838.
An inaugural Address delivered Aug. 21, 1838, by Elias Loomis,
A. M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Western
Reserve College. Two copies from the author. ,
Prof. Knight’s introductory lecture, Nov. 1838. from Dr. Knight.
An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy, by Prof. William A.
Norton. New York. Wiley & Putnam. 1839. From the author.
Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury on Steam. Engines :
two copies, one from Hon. Mr. Woodbury, and one from Hon. T.
T. Whittlesey.
Memorial of Charles Lewis Fleischmann, on the manufacture of
beet sugar. House of Rep. No. 62; 25th Congress. . From the
Hon. H. L. Ellsworth.
__An inquiry into the causes of the rise and fall of the great Lakes,
embracing an account of the floods and ebbs of Lake Ontario, by Ed-
ward Giddins, Esq. Lockport, N. Y. 1838. From the author.
Second Report on the Agriculture of Massachusetts, by Henry.
Colman, Commissioner for the Agricultural Survey ; embracing the
county of Berkshire. From the author.
Remarks on the North American insects belonging to the genus
Cychrus of Fabricius, with descriptions of some newly detected spe-
cies, by Thaddeus W. Harris, M. D. From the author.
Boston Journal of Natural History, containing papers and commu-
nications read to the Boston Society of Nat. History. Vol. Il, No. 2,
1839. From the society.
Medical Recorder. Vol. I, N. 3. Samuel Alley. Cincinnati.
March, 1839.
MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIC.
Congressional Directory of the 3d Session of the 25th Congress
of the U. S. A, Washington, Dec. 1838. H. L. Ellsworth, Esq.
Official army register for 1838. From Hon. J. Poinsett, Secre-
tary of War.
List of the post offices in the-United States. From Hon. Hi L.
Ellsworth.
5.
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian affairs, for 1838-9.
From Mr. C, E. Mix. :
Catalogue of medical students of Harvard University.
Twenty-second Annual Report of the American Education Soci-
ety. Boston. 1838. -
Report of the Commissioner of Patents, transmitting information
in relation to the duties of his office. From Hon. H. L. Ellsworth,
Commissioner. . )
Sixth Annual Report of the trustees of the State Lunatic Hos-
pital, &c. Worcester. From Doct. S. B. Woodward.
A bill to provide for the better security of the lives. of passengers,
on board of vessels propelled in whole or in part by steam, in Senate
of U. S., by and from Hon. J. Ruggles, U. S. Senate.
Dr. Miner’s Address to the candidates for degrees and licenses in
the Medical Institution of Yale College. Feb. 26th, 1839. Several
copies from the class.
Catalogue of the Medical College of the State of South Carolina,
for 1838-9. Charleston. From Prof. Shepard.
Engineer’s report to the New York and Albany Rail Road Com--
pany. From Mr. E. F. Johnson, Engineer.
Rev. Mr. Palmer’s lecture on study of History. From the author. -
The Alabama State Almanac for the year 1839. ‘Tuscaloosa, Ala.
From Prof. Barnard.
Commentary on Genesis, by Prof. Geo. C. Bush. N. ¥Y. Author.
Catalogue of the Calliopean Society. Yale College. 1839. From
the Society.
An Oration on the Colonization of New England, by Charles
Ripley. Louisville, Ky. 1839. From the author.
Funeral discourse, occasioned by the death of Gen. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, by T. E. Vermilye, D: D. From Ph. 8. V. R.
American Rail Road Journal and Mechanics Magazine. New
York. Vol. 3, N. Il. From the editor.
List of new and valuable English books imported by Wiley and
Putnam.
Address of J. R. Ingersoll at the annual meeting of the Pennsy]-
vania Colonization Society, Oct. 10th, 1838. From Mr. Elliott
Cresson.
Remarks of Hon. J.C. Calhoun of South Carolina on the gradu-
ation bill ; in Senate, Tuesday, Jan. 15th, 1839. From Mr. Calhoun.
6
Cincinnati Advertiser and Western Journal—Extra, Feb. Ist,
1839: containing the controversy between Cin. Med. Coll. and
Med. Coll. of Ohio. From Dr. J. P. Kirtland.
Arrangement of Lectures and Recitations in Harv. Univ., for the
second term of the Academic year, 1838-9. From Prof. Webster.
Annual Report of the trustees of the New England Institution for
the education of the blind. 1839. From Dr. Howe.
Periodical notice of Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N.Y. From Prof.
Amos Eaton.
Catalogue of architectural, embellished, scientific, and historical
books for sale; from the library of Major D. B. Douglass. From
Major Douglass.
The Advocate of Peace, Vol. 2, No. 10, whole No. 14, March,
1839.
The Hesperian, a miscellany of general literature, original and
select. City of Columbus, Ohio. Vol. Il, No.4. From J. L.
Riddell, M. D.
The Genesee Farmer and Gardener’s Journal, for March 16th,
1839, with a notice of the storm of Jan. 26th, by and from Willis
Gaylord, Esq. Otisco, N. Y.
Proceedings of the 3d Annual Convention of professional teachers
in the State of Ohio, held at Columbus, Dec. 1838. From Mr. W.
G. Williams.
Mr. McDowell’s Address. 1838. Princeton, N. J. From Mr. Eli —
Whitney.
Mr. Tallmadge’s report in the Senate of the U. S. on the memo-
rial of Dr. H. H. Sherwood on the subject of terrestrial magnetism.
Address before the Mercantile Library Association, New York,
by John H. Gourlie, New York. 1839. From the Association.
W. W. Gilman and Co.’s Catalogue of Morus Multicaulis for sale
by them.
Annual Catalogue of the officers and students of Jackson Col-
lege, for the winter session. 1838-9.
The Cause of Missions the Cause of God, a Sermon, by William
S. Gilly, D. D., N. Y. From the editor.
Annual Report on and Catalogue of Harvard University, 1837-8.
From Dr. Harris.
Memoir of Dr. Griffin, by W. B. Sprague, D. D. Albany. 1838.
From Dr. Sprague.
‘
7
Religion and Rank, a Sermon succeeding the funeral of the Hon.
Stephen Van Rensselaer, by Wm. B. Sprague, D. D. From the
author.
Dr. Sprague’s Sermon on the ordination of the Rev. Augustus A.
Wood. From the author.
Introductory Address, delivered before the Young Men’s Associa-
tion of Albany, Dec. 4, 1838, by and from Wm. B. Sprague, D. D.
MISCELLANEOUS.——FOREIGN.
A Catalogue of Books for sale by William Strong, 26 Clan st.
Bristol, Eng. 1838. From Mr. Fox.
What can Ido for my Brother? or an appeal to young and old for
the cause of Christian missions. London. 1838. From the author.
Durham University Calendar, corrected to Dec. 31st, 1838. From
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston.
Oxford Memorial of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, Nov. 1838.
Mr. Fox.
View of Central Exchange news room, New Castle upon Tyne,
where the 7th meeting of the British Association was held.
NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC.
Monthly Genesee Farmer, Jan. 1838. From the editors.
New Albany Daily Gazette, Friday, Dec. 21st, 1838. From S.
Whitman, with a letter on steam boilers: five copies.
The Presbyterian. Phil. and N. Y. Five Nos. for Jan. 5, 12, 19,
26. 1839.
Christian Journal, Vol. I, No.1. N. Y. Jan. 24, 1836.
Red River Whig. Alexandria, La. Vol. I, No. 33. Dec. 22d,
1839.
New York Times and Commercial Intelligencer, Jan. 26th, 1839,
with a notice of this Journal. From G. S. Silliman, Esq.
New England Farmer and Horticultural Register. Boston, Wed-
nesday, Feb. 6th, 1839.
Journal of Education. Marshall, Mich. Dec. 1838. From the
publishers.
Westchester Herald. Westchester Co. Pa. Feb. 5th, 1839. Dr.
Darlington.
Common School Journal, Vol. I, No. 1. Boston. Nov. 1838.
From Messrs. Marsh, Capen & Lyon.
Daily Buffalo Journal. Jan. 31st, 1839. From Mr. R. W. a
kins, with a‘notice of Vol. 35, No. 2, of this- Journal.
Journal of the American Temperance Union. Vol. III, No. 11.
Journal of Commerce, Wednesday, Jan. 23d. Notice of the med-
ical faculty of the University of the city of New York. From 1 Mr.
Elliott.
Baltimore Atheneum and visiter. Vol. I, No. 1.
The Rockton Enterprise and Mowhawk Valley News. Vol. I,
No. 1. From Mr. E. M. Griffing, editor.
Ohio Republican. Zanesville. Saturday, Feb. 10th, 1839. From
J. W. Foster. °
The Daily Georgian. Savannah. Wednesday, Feb. 13th, 1839.
From Mr. Buckingham, with a notice of his lectures.
Mobile Literary Gazette, devoted to literature, science, &c. Mo-
bile, weekly, for Feb. Ist, 8th, 15th.
Republican Farmer. Bridgeport, Ct. Wednesday, Feb. 27th,
1839. From Rev. James H. Linsley, mate remarks on the latitude
and longitude of certain places.
Friend of Man—Exira. Utica, N. Y. March 22d, 1839.
Louisville Journal. March 19th, with a notice of the discontinu-
ance of the enerale Medical Journal.
The Friend, a Religious and Literary Journal, seventh day, 3d_
mo. 16th, 1839. From Dr. Green, Phil., with notice of the struc-
ture of the trilobite.
Tri-Weekly Age, Augusta, Me., with notice of the legislative pro-
ceedings in that State. From Dr. C. T. Jackson.
Troy Daily Whig, March 30th, 1839, with a notice of the exam-
dnation of the Rensselaer Institute. From Dr. Eaton. —
FOREIGN.
The Morning Herald, London, Friday, Jan. 11th, 1839. From
Mr. Frodsham, F. R. 8.
The Court Gazette and Fashionable Guide. London. Saturday,
Jan. 12th, 1839.
SPECIMENS.
Cleavage crystal of cale spar from England. Mr. C. Fox.
A Kilee or Boomerang, an Australian weapon. Mr. Fox.
Dr. Thomson’s truss for prolapsus uteri. From Mr. Jewett
Five beautifully characterized specimens of minerals from Orange
Co. N.Y. From Dr. Wm. Horton.
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SCIENCE AND ARTS.
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