Full text of "American journal of archaeology"

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THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

&rcf)aeologtcal Snstttute ot America

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY

&econb

THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

VOLUME XXVI

CONCORD, N. H.

PUBLISHED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY

$re**

American Journal of Archaeology

SECOND SERIES

THE JOURNAL OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
Vol. XXVI, 1922 C C

V \

Cfcitortal IBoarb

Editor-in-Chief

WILLIAM NICKERSON BATES

Professor in the University of Pennsylvania.

Associate Editors
GEORGE H. CHASE (for the American School at Athens'),

Professor in Harvard University.

ALLAN MARQUAND (for Mediaeval and Renaissance Archae-
ology},

Professor in Princeton University.

R. V. D. MAGOFFIN (for Roman Archaeology),

Professor in Johns Hopkins University.

LEWIS B. PATON (for Oriental Archaeology},

Professor in the Hartford Theological Seminary.

FRANK G. SPECK (Jor American Archaeology},

Professor in the University of Pennsylvania.

SIDNEY N. DEANE,

Professor in Smith College.

Honorary Editors
JAMES C. EGBERT (President of the Institute},

Professor in Columbia University.

EDWARD CAPPS (Chairman of the Managing Committee of the

School at Athens),

Professor in Princeton University.

JAMES A. MONTGOMERY (Chairman of the Managing Com-
mittee of the School in Jerusalem),

Professor in the University of Pennsylvania.

Cottorial (Contributors'

Professor SAMUEL E. BASSETT, Professor HAROLD R. HASTINGS,
Classical Archaeology. Classical Archaeology.

Professor CARROLL N. BROWN, Professor ELMER T. MERRILL,
Classical Archaeology. Numismatics.

TV,. T. T Professor JOHN C. ROLFE,
Miss MARY H. BUCKINGHAM,

m . 7 ,, 7 Roman Archaeology.

Classical Archaeology . _ _

Dr. JOHN SHAPLEY,
Dr. THEODORE A. BUENGER, Christian and Mediaeval

Classical Archaeology. Archaeology.

Professor HAROLD N. FOWLER, Professor ARTHUR L. WHEELER,

Classical Archaeology. Numismatics.

CONTENTS

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA: PAGE

ALBERT W. BARKER Domestic Costumes of the Athenian Woman

in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C 410

JOHN R. CRAWFORD A Child Portrait of Drusus Junior on the Ara

Pacis ; 307

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR A New Type of Archaic Attic Grave

Stele 261

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR Structural Iron in Greek Architecture . . 148
HARRIET BOYD HAWES A Gift of Themistocles : The "Ludovisi

Throne "and the Boston Relief 278

WALTER WOODBURN HYDE A Terra-Cotta Head in the Loeb Col-
lection 426

STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE Heracles and The Old Man of the Sea . 174
W. A. OLDFATHER Studies in the History and Topography of Locris

HI 445

A. KINGSLEY PORTER Pilgrimage Sculpture 1

GISELA M. A. RICHTER AND RHYS CARPENTER Dynamic Sym-
metry from the Designer's Point of View 59

DAVID M. ROBINSON An Amphora of Nicosthenes in Baltimore . . 54
THEODORE LESLIE SHEAR Sixth Preliminary Report on the Ameri-
can Excavations at Sardes in Asia Minor 389

ALISON MOORE SMITH The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in
Early Christian Art 159

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS:

L. R. DEAN Latin Inscriptions from Corinth III 451

E. H. SWIFT A Group of Roman Imperial Portraits at Corinth. IV.

The Torsos 131

J. DONALD YOUNG A Sarcophagus at Corinth 430

ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS AND DISCUSSIONS (July, 1921-June, 1922).

SIDNEY N. DEANE, Editor.

NOTES ON RECENT EXCAVATIONS AND DISCOVERIES; OTHER NEWS . . 89,339

Oriental and Classical Archaeology: General and Miscellaneous, 89,
339; Egypt, 92, 342; Babylonia and Assyria, 95, 343; Syria and
Palestine, 96, 343; Asia Minor, 97, 347; Greece, 98, 352; Italy, 101,
361; Spain and Portugal, 107, 362; France, 108, 362; Holland, 363;
Switzerland, 109; Austria, 109, 366; Germany, 363; Sweden, 110;
Russia, 111; Great Britain, 111, 366; Northern Africa, 113, 369;
United States, 115, 375.

Early Christian, Byzantine, Mediaeval, and Renaissance Art: Gen-
eral and Miscellaneous, 118, 377; Italy, 118, 377; Spain and Portu-
gal, 380; France, 120, 380; Holland, 121; Switzerland, 381; Ger-
many and Austria, 122, 381; Roumania, 122; Sweden, 383; Great
Britain, 123, 383; United States, 124, 384; Australia, 386.

American Archaeology: General and Miscellaneous. 128. 386.

vi , CONTENTS

SUMMARIES OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES CHIEFLY IN CURRENT PERIODICALS, 193, 477.

Oriental and Classical Archaeology: General and Miscellaneous, 193,
477; Egypt, 196, 480; Babylonia, Assyria and Persia, 197, 482;
Syria and Palestine, 199, 485; Asia Minor, 201, 485; Greece, 202,
485 (Architecture, 202, 485; Sculpture, 202, 487; Vases and Paint-
ing, 207, 491; Inscriptions, 207, 492; Coins, 208; General and Mis-
cellaneous, 208, 492); Italy, 211, 493 (Architecture, 211, 493;
Sculpture, 211, 494; Vases and Painting, 213, 495; Inscriptions,
213, 496; Coins, 214, 496; General and Miscellaneous, 214, 497);
Spain, 216, 498; France, 216, 499; Switzerland, 217, 500; Austria,
218; Sweden, 218, 500; Great Britain and Ireland, 218, 501;
Northern Africa, 219, 503.

Early Christian, Byzantine and Mediaeval Art: General and Miscel-
laneous, 219, 504; Italy, 220, 505; Spain and Portugal, 223, 507;
France, 224, 507; Belgium and Holland, 226; Germany, 227, 509;
Poland, 227; Sweden, 228, 509; Great Britain and Ireland, 228,
509.

Renaissance Art: Italy, 229, 510; Spain, 234, 512; France, 512; Bel-
gium and Holland, 234, 513; Germany, 515.

American Archaeology: General and Miscellaneous, 235, 514.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL BOOKS: 1921.

SIDNEY N. DEANE, Editor 237

General and Miscellaneous 237

Egyptian Archaeology 241

Oriental Archaeology . 243

Classical Archaeology 245

Greek and Roman 245

Greek, 246 (I, General and Miscellaneous, 246; II, Architecture,
247; III, Sculpture, 248; IV, Vases 248; V, Inscriptions, 248;
VI, Coins, 248);

Roman, 248 (I, General and Miscellaneous, 248; II, Architec-
ture, 249; III, Sculpture, 249; IV, Vases and Painting, 249;
V, Inscriptions, 250, VI, Coins, 250).

Christian Art 250

(I, General and Miscellaneous, 250; II, Early Christian,
Byzantine, and Mediaeval, 253; III, Renaissance, 256).
Abbreviations used in the News, Discussions and Bibliography .... 129

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-THIRD GENERAL MEETING OF THE AR-
CHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA AT THE UNIVERSITY OF

MICHIGAN, Ann Arbor, December 28, 29, 30, 1921 77

Preliminary Statement 77

Abstracts and Titles of Papers Read :

The Minyan Migration. J. PENROSE HARLAND 77

The Ludovisi Sarcophagus and the Dating of Roman Sarcophagi.

A. L. FROTHINGHAM 78

Some Early Mediaeval Manuscripts in the Library of J. P. Morgan.
ALBERT M. FRIEND ...... 79

CONTENTS

Some Oriental Elements in Mediaeval Spanish Architecture.

GEORGIANA GODDARD KING 79

The Manufacture of Pueblo Indian Poetry. CARL E. GUTHE 80

Notes on Greek Furniture. GISELA M. A. RICHTER 80

A New Epitaph from Sinope and a New Epitaph in Dialogue Form

from Sardis. DAVID M . ROBINSON 80

A Gift of Themistocles: Two Famous Reliefs in Rome and Boston.

HARRIET BOYD HAWES 81.

(a) A Possible Allusion to the Erechtheum in the Peace of

Aristophanes; (b) Salmoxis and the Lysippean Portrait of

Alexander. GEORGE W. ELDERKIN 82

The Bearing of Proportions upon the Dating of Ionic Columns.

HOWARD CROSBY BUTLER' 82

Structural Iron in Greek Architecture. WILLIAM B. DINSMOOR . 82

Stucco Reliefs in Rome. EMILY L. WADSWORTH 82

The Origin of the Asiatic (Sidamara) Sarcophagi. C. P. MOREY . 83

Native American Painters. EDGAR L. HEWETT 84

Imagines in Imperial Portraiture. EMERSON H. SWIFT ..... 84
New Photographs of Greek Sculpture. CLARENCE KENNEDY . . 84
Medusa as Artemis in the Temple at Corfu. A. L. FROTHINGHAM 84
The New Prehistoric School: America Digging in France. GEORGE

GRANT McCuRDY . 85

The Primitive Christian Cycle in Asia Minor W. FREDERICK

STOHLMAN 86

The Appearance of the Horseshoe Arch in Western Europe.

.ERNEST T. DEWALD 87

American Excavations at Zygouries, near Corinth. J. PENROSE

HARLAND - 87

PLATES

I. Torso from Corinth

II. A Gift of Themistocles: A. Earth and the Ismenian Nymphs: Rome.

III. A Gift of Themistocles: B. Priestess: Rome; C. Ministrant: Boston.

IV. A Gift of Themistocles: D. Young Lycomid: Boston; E. Flute-Player:

Rome.

V. A Gift of Themistocles: F. Demeter, Eros and Persephone: Boston.

VI. Vase from Sardes: Actual Size.

VII. Types of Greek Dress.

VIII. The Seven Against Thebes: Sarcophagus at Corinth.

IX. The Death of Archemorus: Sarcophagus at Corinth.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

Christ and Evangelists: Arles-sur-Tech (Pyrenees-Orientales)

Lintel: St.-Andre-de-Sorrede (Pyrenees-Orientales)

Haloed Figure inside Church: St.-Andre-de-Sorrede (Pyrenees-Orien-
tales) '--..

Journey to Emmaus: Cloister: Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) ... 8

viii CONTENTS

Cloister Capital Dated 1073-1076: Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) . . 9

Cloister Capital: Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) 11

Pentecost : Cloister : Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos) 14

Virgin from Sahagun: Museo Arqueologico Nacional: Madrid .... 15

Sculpture of Ambulatory: St. Sernin: Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) ... 18

Detail of South Portal: St. Sernin: Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) ... 19

Puerta de las Platerias, West Half: Santiago de Compostela (La Coruna) 20
West Tympanum: Puerta de las Platerias: Santiago de Compostela (La

Coruna) 21

East Tympanum: Puerta de las Platerias: Santiago de Compostela (La

Coruna) 22

Jamb Sculpture: Puerta de las Platerias: Santiago de Compostela (La

Coruna) 23

The Creation of Adam : Puerta de las Platerias : Santiago de Compostela

(La Coruna) 24

Detail: Puerta de las Platerias: Santiago de Compostela (La Coruna) . 26
The Creation of Adam: Puerta de las Platerias: Santiago de Com-
postela (La Coruna) 27

Columns: Convent of Benedictine Nuns: Santiago de Compostela (La

Coruna) : From Cast in Chapter-House of Cathedral 29

Detail of Tympanum: Conques (Aveyron) 32

Detail of Tympanum : Conque's (Aveyron) 33

Detail of Spandrel : San Isidoro : Leon 36

Tympanum: San Salvador: Leire (Navarra) 37

Sculptures from La Daurade: Museum: Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) . 39

Annunciation: Museum: Toulouse (Haute-Garonne) 40

Detail of Frieze: Carrion de los Condes (Palencia) : Santiago .... 42

Capital from Sahagun: San Marcos: Leon 44

West Jamb : Santa Maria la Real : Saniigesa (Navarra) 45

Detail of Jambs: Ste.-Foy: Morlads (Basses-Pyrenees) 46

Two Apostles: Camara Santa: Oviedo 47

Portico de la Gloria: Cathedral: Santiago de Compostela (La Coruna) 49
Group of Saints: Portico de la Gloria: Cathedral: Santiago de Com-
postela (La Coruna) 50

Amphora of Nicosthenes: Side A: Baltimore 54

Amphora of Nicosthenes: Side B: Baltimore 56

Amphora: Metropolitan Museum: New York 61

Analysis of Amphora in Metropolitan Museum 63

Kalpis: Metropolitan Museum: New York 64

Analysis of Kalpis in Metropolitan Museum 65

Analysis of Modern Vase 66

Archaic Female Figure: Gyrene 114

Head of Youth: New York 116

Statuette of Boxer: New York 116

Statuette of Diadoumenos: New York 117

Cloth Binding of Sacramentorium: Sixth or Seventh Century: Trent . 121

Portrait of a Young Man: New York 126

Torso from Corinth 136

Small Armored Torso: Corinth . 140

CONTENTS ix

Torso in Elaborate Armor: Corinth . . . . 142

Design on Breastplate : Torso: Corinth .............. 146

Foundation of Theban Treasury : Delphi 149

Entablature of Olympieum: Acragas 150

Ionic Ceiling of Propylaea: Athens 153

Peristyle Ceiling: Temple at Bassae 155

Pediment Floor of the Parthenon 157

Cornice of the Temple of Castor and Pollux: Acragas 158

Sacrifice of Isaac: Fresco in Catacomb of SS. Pietro e Marcellino: Rome 160

Sacrifice of Isaac: Sarcophagus in S. Ambrogio: Milan 161

Sacrifice of Isaac: Fresco at El Bagawat 162

Altar from Alexandria 163

Terra-cotta Altar of Imperial Period: Alexandria 164

Sacrifice of Isaac: Pyx in Museo Civico : Bologna 165

Sacrifice of Isaac : Pyx in Berlin 166

Sacrifice of Isaac: Miniature of the Etschmiadzin Evangelary .... 167

Sacrifice of Isaac: Mosaic in S. Vitale: Ravenna 168

Scyphus in Philadelphia: Side A 174

Scyphus in Philadelphia: Side B . . 175

Relief from Assos in Louvre 177

Heracles and Triton: Old Temple of Athena: Athens 178

Hydria: Metropolitan Museum: New York 179

Oenochoe Signed by Cholchos: Berlin 181

Bronze Plaque from Olympia 183

Head of Warrior: Fifth Century: Cambridge 204

Head of Athlete : Fourth Century: Cambridge 205

Silver Rhyton from Mycenae 208

Bust of Saint Peter: Providence 224

Leather Chest: Lucca 230

Tabernacle by Bernardo Daddi: Rome 233

Madonna by Pinturicchio : Rome 234

Stele in New York: Face ....'.- 262

Stele in Athens: Face 263

Proportions of the Two Stelae . . . . '. : ..-'.

Stele in New York: Back 265

Stele in New York: Left Side 266

Development of Doric Cyma 268

Stele in New York: Top

Stele in Athens: Winter's Restoration

Mortise and Tenon in Archaic Pedestals

Stele in New York: Restoratio*i

Five Types of Archaic Attic Grave Stelae

Demeter, Pluto and Persephone: Sherd from Eleusis . .

Persephone, Hades-Dionysus and Demeter: Cylix in Berlin

"Sons of Earth": Orneus, Pallas, Nisus and Lycus: Crater from the

Acropolis . . .

The Birth of Erechthonius: Terra-cotta in Berlin

Sacrifice at a Family Altar: Red-figured Crater in Hermitage Museum 294

Plan of Couch-Altar 29 ?

X CONTENTS

Aged Woman with Horn Restored: Boston 300

Relief from Olympia: Copenhagen . 302

South Frieze of the Ara Pacis 308

South Frieze of the Ara Pacis . 310

Tomb at Brad 318

Horseshoe Arch in Syriac Manuscript: Paris 319

Sarcophagus in Villa Mattei: End 321

Pagan Stelae: Museum of Leon 322

Stele in Archaeological Museum: Madrid 323

Portion of Gallo-Roman Altar: Bordeaux 324,

Interior of San Juan de Banos 326

Porch of Church No. 12 (Ramsay and Bell) 327

Horseshoe Arch in Merovingian Manuscript, No. Lat. 11627: Paris . . 328
Horseshoe Arch in Carolingian Manuscript, Bibliotheque National, No.

257: Paris 329

Ivory in Collection of Count Horrach: Schloss Hradek: Bohemia . . 334

Tower and Gate: Pednelissus 349

Arched Gate: Pednelissus 350

Youths Exercising: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens 354

Wrestlers: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens 355

Cat and Dog Fight: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens .... 356

Four Horse Chariot: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens .... 356

Four Horse Chariot: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens .... 357

Youths Playing Hockey: Base from Themistoclean Wall: Athens . . 357

Eros from Roman Baths: Cyrene 371

Madonna by Michelozzo: Florence 378

Madonna Attributed to Durer: Pyrmont 382

Life-size Marble Horse's Head found at Sardes in 1914 391

Painted Terra-cotta Tile from Sardes: Length, 0.42 m 392

Painted Terra-cotta Tile from Sardes: Length, 0.49 m. 393

Sherds of "Melian" Type: Sardes 395

Vase from Sardes: Height, 24.9 cm 396

Spot where Gold Staters of Croesus were found : Sardes 397

Vase which Contained Gold Staters: Sardes: Height, 0.118 m 398

Six Gold Staters of Croesus from Sardes: Ob verse and Reverse 399

Contents of Hellenistic Tomb: Date, ca. 190 B.C.: Sardes 401

Lamps from Hellenistic Tomb : Sardes . 402

Roman Sarcophagus Tomb : First Century, A.D. : Sardes 403

Contents of Roman Sarcophagus: Sardes 404

Fresco from Roman Tomb : Sardes: Length, 2.68 m 406

Lamps from Roman Tomb with Peacock Frescoes: Sardes 407

Facade of Roman Building: Sardes 408

Ionic Chiton with Pseudo-sleeves 415

Amphora in Museum of Fine Arts: Boston 416

Stele of Melite 417

Attic Grave-Relief 418

Cybele: Museum of Fine Arts: Boston 419

Standing Figure: National Museum: Athens 420

Standing Figure f rom Priene: London 421

CONTENTS x i

Figure on Column Base of Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: London . . 422

Grave-Relief of a Young Girl 422

A: Head of Terra-cotta Figurine: Munich; B: Marble Head of Athlete :

Olympia 427

Right End of Sarcophagus at Corinth : Section 431

Lid of Sarcophagus at Corinth : Section 432

Back of Sarcophagus at Corinth 433

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 17 452

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 20 455

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 21 456

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 22 457

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 23 457

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 25 453

Latin Inscription" from Cormth, No. 26 459

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 27 459

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 28 460

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 29 461

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 30 461

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 47 466

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 48 467

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 49 468

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 53 469

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 54 470

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 55 470

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 56, Frags. 1 and 2 471

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 56, Frag. 3 471

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 58 472

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 59 473

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 60 474

Latin Inscription from Corinth, No. 61 475

Head from Parthenon Frieze : Paris 487

Torso: Rhode Island School of Design: Providence 489

Unidentified Portrait Head from Delos 490

Votive Relief : Eleusis 491

Bronze Statuette of a Prophet: Berlin 508

Crucifixion by Matthias Griinewald: Essen 514

SHrcfmeological
institute
of America

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

MODERN art may be considered to have begun with the Byzan-
tine renaissance of the tenth century. This outburst of artistic
activity seems to have spread from the East over Europe. Be-
fore the year 1000 renewed artistic activity appears sporadically
in several widely separated regions of the West. In Spain archi-
tecture rose during the tenth century to extraordinary heights;
capitals were carved with surprising skill in the Rhone valley, as
in the crypt of Cruas or the baptistry of Venasque; while in Ger-
many the Ottoman miniatures and ivories developed types of
such beauty, that they impressed indelibly the memory of the
twelfth century sculptors of France, and still serve as models to
artists of today. By the eleventh century, the renaissance had
enflamed the entire continent of Europe.

In the East, figure sculpture was applied to the exterior of
churches apparently as early as the seventh century, certainly
from the time of the tenth century renaissance. The church of
Achthamar in Armenia, a dated monument of 915-921 is adorned
with sculptures which seem to indicate an Eastern derivation for
many of the later developments in the West. 2 Not only is the
fact of monumental sculpture in stone here foreshadowed, but
here are found numerous details which have become characteristic
of occidental sculpture of the twelfth century. The draperies of

1 The question of illustrations, always embarrassing, has become in this paper
insolvable. The truth is that sculpture can be studied intelligently only by
the aid of more photographs and better photographs than are anywhere at the
disposal of the public. While awaiting the millennium when really adequate
collections of photographs will have been acquired by our museums and libra-
ries, my only way has been to choose for reproductions such sculptures or
details as the reader might not be able readily to find in other publications.
For well-known works I have tried to indicate books in which they have al-
ready been illustrated. But reproductions of the quality of those in M. Vitry's
Reims or M. Houvet's Chartres are exceedingly rare. In the average half-tone
and I am well aware that my own are no exception precisely those details
essential for accurate study are lost.

2 The church at Achthamar has been published by Strzygowski, Die Baukunst
der Armenier und Europa, Wien, Scroll, 1918. 2 vols., 4to, pp. 289 f.

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series Journal of the J

Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 1.
2

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

Guglielmo and Santiago, the medallions of Angouleme, the ad-
dossed statues of Loches and Estella, the gestures of Chartres and
Aries, and a myriad of other features of western sculpture are
anticipated.

One of the oldest extant monuments of western sculpture is
preserved in a remote village of the eastern Pyrenees. It is
precisely in such regions that archaeology has taught us to look
for retardataire art; and, indeed, no one who had an archaeological
reputation to lose, or still less to win, would ever have dared
assign the lintel of St.-Genis-des-Fontaines to an earlier period

than the latter part of the
eleventh century, were it not
for a unique chance. The
lintel is dated between 1021
and 1024 by an inscription of
unquestionable authenticity. 1
This rare good fortune fur-
nishes us with a conspicuous
landmark to guide our course
over the uncharted waters of
the early eleventh century.

St.-Genis-des-Fontaines
does not stand alone. In the
tympanum of the not very
distant church of Arles-sur-
Tech is incorporated a relief
(Fig. 1) obviously of the same

FIGURE 1. CHRIST AND EVANGELISTS

ARLES-SUR-TECH (PYRENEES-

ORIENTALES).

school, but of finer and more
advanced execution. This relief also happens to be dated; the
church was consecrated in 1046. We can, therefore, see the prog-
ress that has been scored in twenty years. The same rate of de-
velopment, if maintained, might easily arrive in another half
century at the perfection of the capitals of Cluny. The sculp-
tor of Arles-sur-Tech doubtless knew the earlier work at St.-
Genis-des-Fontaines; but that was not the only source of his
inspiration. If we compare his facial types, the folds and borders
of his draperies with the Bible of Rosas 2 we shall be convinced that
he also studied miniatures.

1 The relief of St.-Genis-des-Fontaines has been illustrated by Andr6 Michel,
Histmre de I' Art, Paris, Colin, 1905-1912. 9 vols., 8vo, I, 2, p. 597.

2 Paris, Bibl. Nat., Cod. lat. 6; illustrated by Clemen, Die romanische Monu-
mentalmalerei in den Rheinlanden, Duesseldorf, Schwann, 1916. 4to, pp.
335-336.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 3

Another monument belongs to the same group. In the lintel
of St.-Andre (Fig. 2) which is the next village to St.-Genis-des-
Fontaines are sculptures so similar that one is almost tempted to
call them the work of the same hand. St.-Andre is, however,
evidently slightly later than St.-Genis; if we compare the heads
of the three Christs we shall perceive without difficulty that they
fall in the order St.-Genis, St.-Andre, Arles-sur-Tech. The relief
of St.-Andre may be assigned to ca. 1030 without fear of serious
error.

In the interior of the church at St.-Andre has been preserved
a fragment of relief (Fig. 3), mutilated almost beyond recognition.

FIGURE 2. LINTEL: ST.-ANDRE-DE-SORREDE (PYRENEES-ORIENTALES).

It represents a haloed figure, possibly an apostle, holding an object
broken away, perhaps a book. The interest of this figure for
our study lies in the circumstance that the legs are crossed.

This mannerism, which became a characteristic motive of the
Spanfsh and Aquitanian schools of the twelfth century, is of very
ancient origin. It is found for example in stone sculpture, in a
Roman relief of the museum of Aries, and in the spandrel figures
of Zwartnotz in Armenia, 1 a monument which dates from 641-661.
The latter instance is of especial interest, because the legs are
placed in precisely the "x" position generally associated with the
twelfth century work of Toulouse. The motive of crossed legs
was also widely diffused among ivories and miniatures in the East
and West. It is impossible to determine from which among the
many possible sources our sculptor borrowed the motive. 2

1 Published by Strzygowski, op. tit. p. 427.

2 It may not be without interest to quote a few specific instances to show
how common this motive was in the art of the first ten centuries. It is found

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

Several facts of importance may be deduced from the study of
this group of sculptures of the first half of the eleventh century
in the eastern Pyrenees. First is the indication that Europe
derived its' sculptured architecture from the East. In the pointed
beard, the top-shaped head, the low and flat relief, the work at

St.-Genis recalls Achthamar. The
upper wings of the seraphim are
crossed in the two sculptures in
precisely the same manner. The
acanthus leaves of St.-Genis and
St.-Andre are obviously of By-
zantine type. One hardly knows
whether to ascribe the horseshoe
arches to the influence of Ar-
menia or to that of Spain.

Nothing would of course be
more perilous than to assume that
St.-Genis was the first architec-
tural sculpture executed in Europe
after the Romans. It is, indeed,
nearly certain that there were
earlier examples. St.-Genis is
merely the earliest extant instance
of certain date available for
study; but a"s such is a monu-
ment of the greatest significance
in enabling us to trace the drift
of artistic currents. That the
tide was flowing from the orient
does not seem open to question.

in an ivory box-cover of the fifth, sixth or seventh century preserved in the
archaeological museum of Ravenna and illustrated by Pelka, Elferibein, Berlin,
Schmidt, 1920, 12mo, p. 39 ; in an Irish-manuscript of very early date, Dublin,
Kells Gospel, Trinity College, A. I, 6 (58), illustrated by Zimmermann,
Vorkarolingische Miniaturen, Berlin, Deutsches Verein fiir Kunstwissenschaft,
1916, 8vo and 4 vols., Folio, p. 169; in a south Anglo-Saxon gospel of the ninth
century, Rome, Vat. Barb. Lat. 570, fol. 9b, illustrated by Zimmermann, op.
cit. p. 314; in a miniature of the Bible of Charles the Bald at the Bibliotheque
Nationale, illustrated by Venturi, Storia dell' Arte Italiana, Milano, Hoepli,
1901 f., 7 vols., 8vo, II, p. 281; in a psalter of the same library dating from the
tenth century, illustrated by Diehl, Manuel de I' Art Byzantin, Paris, Picard,
1910, Svo, p. 569; in a miniature of a Bible of S. Paolo f. 1. m. at Rome dating

FIGURE 3. HALOED FIGURE INSIDE
CHURCH : ST.-ANDRE-DE-SORREDE
(PYRENEES-ORIENTALES) .

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 5

It would be interesting if we could determine how the sculptor
of St.-Genis absorbed these oriental influences. It seems as if
either he, or one of his immediate predecessors, must have come
in direct contact with the East. But it is certain that he also
made use of an ivory carving. M. Andre Michel has remarked
that the draperies and the drawing of certain heads show analo-
gies with the pax of Duca Orso at Cividale. 1 Even closer, per-
haps, is the relationship to ivories of the Ada group. The draper-
ies may be compared with a book-cover representing a beardless
Christ surrounded by the evangelists in the Fitzwilliam Museum

from the third quarter of the ninth century, illustrated by Boinet, La Miniature
Carolingienne, Paris, Picard, 1913, Folio, pi. CXXIV; in a St. Gallen manu-
script of the last half of the tenth century at thellniversitatsbibliothek at Basel,
No. B IV. 26, f . 68, illustrated by Escher, Die Miniaturen in den Easier Biblio-
theken, Museen und Archiven, Basel, Spittlers, 1917, Folio, VIII; in the Bam-
berg Apocalypse of the tenth century, illustrated by Wolfflin, Die Bamberger
Apokalypse, Miinchen, Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1918, p. 38;
in a tenth century Fulda miniature of the Universitatsbibliothek at Basel, No.
A. N. IV. 18, f. 31, ed. Escher, -op. cit. p. 34; in a manuscript of the eleventh or
twelfth century, illustrated by Diehl, op. cit. p. 576; in a manuscript of the
Winchester school, early eleventh century, British Museum, Stowe 944, illus-
trated by Herbert, Illuminated Manuscripts, London, Methuen, 1911, 8vo,
plate XIII; in a psalter of St. Swithun's Priory, school of Winchester twelfth
century, British Museum, Cotton MS., Nero, C IV, f. 39; in the miniatures of a
menologe grec of the eleventh century, executed at Mount Athos, Moscow,
Bibliotheque Synodale, No. 183, illustrated by Treneff, Miniatures du menologe
grec du XI e Siecle de la Bibliotheque Synodale a Moscou, Moscow, 1911, Folio;
in the mosaics of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, assigned to the
twelfth century; in the mosaics of Kief, dating from soon after 1037, illustrated
by Diehl, op. cit. p. 482, and by Milet in Andre Michel, op. cit. I, 2, p. 192, etc.
Crossed legs are also characteristic of the school of miniature painting of Salz-
burgsee for example the Perikopenbuch von St-Erentriid, Miinchen, Kgl.
Hof- und Stiftsbibliothek, Clm. 15903, c. p. 52 or the Gebhardsbibel in the
Stiftsbibliothek of Admont, Cod. 511, illustrated by Swarzenski, Die Salz-
burger Malerei, Leipzig, Hiersemann, 1913, 2 vols., 4to, taf. XXVIII, XXIX,
XXX. I strongly suspect, however, that this group of manuscripts was in-
fluenced by the sculptures of the Southwest. Thence seem to come the attenu-
ation, the revealing draperies, the heads tipped up, the movement, all character-
istic of these miniatures. The armor is of precisely the same type as in the
cloister reliefs of Santo Domingo de Silos. There is, indeed, nearly formal
proof that the manuscripts were inspired by the sculptures. The initials of the
Perikopenbuch aus Passau, Munich, Clm. 16002, illustrated by Swarzenski, op.
cit. p. 300 have addossed figures evidently derived from jamb sculptures.

i Illustration in Fogolari, Cividale del Friuli, Bergamo, Istituto Italiano
d'Arti Grafiche, 1906, 8vo, p. 51.

6 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

of Cambridge, 1 the peculiar form of the aureole with the ivory of
the same subject in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum. 2

The three monuments which represent for us the school of the
first half of the eleventh century in the eastern Pyrenees are all
in the churches of Benedictine abbeys. It was only at a later
period that Arles-sur-Tech, with which St.-Andre was united, was
given to Moissac, and thus became Cluniac. In the first half
of the eleventh century all three monasteries were of the pure
Benedictine order, and thus in close ecclesiastical relationship, as
well as geographical proximity.

Since Cluny was the child of the Benedictine order, it is not
surprising to find that important characteristics of Burgundian
sculpture are foreshadowed at St.-Genis. The motive of angels
holding an aureole with the figure of Christ was assuredly not new
in sculpture; it is found for example in the paliotto of Pemmore at
Cividale. 3 It was, nevertheless, destined to become a favorite
theme of the Cluniac school. The violent movement of the
angels of St.-Genis foreshadows the superb angels supporting the
aureoles of Burgundian tympana like Charlieu. The draperies
of St.-Genis in their simple overlapping broad folds, cut like
those of Chinese statues of the Tang dynasty, and in their man-
nered spirals and whirls are strangely like the types of drapery
consecrated by the Burgundian style. The motive of a lintel
decorated with figures standing under the arches of a blind arcade
became characteristically Burgundian. From all this we gather
another proof, were any needed, of how closely Cluniac art
depends upon Benedictine art.

By far the most significant fact about the eleventh century
sculptures of the Eastern Pyrenees is, however, their existence.
Was it only in remote mountain valleys that sculpture flourished
at this period in Europe?

A little reflection suffices to bring conviction that such was not
the case. Wackernagel 4 has brought to light the activities of the

1 Illustrated by Goldschmidt, Die Elferibeinskulpturen aus der Zeit der
Karolingischen und Sdchsischen Kaiser, Berlin, Cassirer, 1914, 2 vols., Folio, I,
No. 7.

2 Illustrated ibid. I, No. 23.

8 Illustration in Fogolari, op. cii. p. 47.

4 Die Plastik des XI. und XII. Jahrhunderts in Apulien, Leipzig, Hierse-
mann, 1911. 4to. This study of Wackernagel, and the brief but weighty
article by Professor Charles R. Morey, on the 'Sources of Romanesque Sculp-
ture' in the Art Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 1, 1919 are fundamental for the intel-
ligent study of mediaeval art.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 7

sculptor Acceptus in Apulia. Of the three pulpits by his hand
(those of Monte S. Angelo and Canosa are signed), one (Monte
S. Angelo) is dated 1041 by an inscription. The activity of the
master, therefore, falls in the second quarter of the eleventh cen-
tury. In his work, especially in the head at Monte S. Angelo,
there is none of the crudeness which archaeology has been in the
habit of assuming as characteristic of the sculpture of the eleventh
century.

The same mastery of form, the same sense of beauty is shown
in other stone sculptures of the eleventh century. Weese 1 has
published three remarkable statues at St. Emmeran of Regens-
burg, of which the Christ is dated between 1049 and 1064 by an
inscription. Again we find competent technique, a feeling for
form and beauty. The Regensburg statues show stylistic affin-
ity with the tomb of St. Ysarn (1048) at Marseille, a highly
naturalistic work of a subtlety rarely attained by the twelfth
century. When we compare these works in stone with sculptures
in metal, such as the doors (1015) or the column (1022) of Hilde-
sheim, or the Area Santa of Oviedo (1075), we perceive, first, that
the plastic art of the eleventh century was different in style from
that of the twelfth century, but not necessarily inferior either in
conception or in execution; and secondly that the modern archaeo-
logical dogma, that the sculpture of the eleventh century was
crude and barbarous is a serious and fundamental error.

But it is more than time to turn to the great school of sculpture
which flourished in the southwest of France and in Spain.

" Pour la sculpture romane" M. Bertaux has written, "il n'y a
pas de Pyrenees." It is a commonplace of history that the exist-
ing frontier between France and Spain was first established by
St. Louis. Before the thirteenth century the mountains formed
no barrier. The same peoples, Basques or Catalans, lived, as
they still live, on both slopes.

This fundamental fact has nevertheless been ignored by archae-
ologists and historians of art. All students of Romanesque sculp-
ture have followed one another in establishing a rigid division
following the modern frontier. They have seen in Toulouse one
school, in Spain another school. And especially if the author was
French, he has found at Toulouse originality, power, inventive-
ness; in Spain thoughtless copying of French motives. The fact

1 Die Bamberger Domskulpturen. Zweite Auflage. Strassburg, Heitz, 1914.
2 vols., 8vo, p. 103.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

that at this period Toulouse was not French had no power to
dampen the enthusiasm of patriotism. National vanity appears
to have found the liveliest satisfaction in depreciating the monu-
ments on the Spanish side of the frontier, and in praising those on
the French side.

Interest in this sport appears to have blinded all eyes to the still
surely obvious truth, that the art of the two sides of the frontier

is precisely the same. One
style stretched from Santi-
ago along the pilgrimage
road 1 to Toulouse and
Moissac and Conques. This
art is neither French nor
Spanish. It is the art of the
pilgrimage. It is as idle to
discuss whether its creative
centre was at Toulouse or
at Santiago, as it is to dis-
cuss whether that of north-
ern French sculpture was at
Paris or Amiens. Both
Toulouse and Santiago were
centres. The same sculptors
were active at both. Reli-
giously and consequently
financially, Santiago was cer-
tainly the more important.
The cathedral possessed six
sculptured portals against

FIGURE 4. JOURNEY TO EMMAUS:
CLOISTER: SANTO DOMINGO DE SILOS

(BURGOS).

the single one of St.-Sernin.
The atelier at Santiago hence
naturally employed more
artists than that of Toulouse ;

among the extant fragments we can trace seven times as many
hands at Santiago as at St.-Sernin. The average quality of the
work at Toulouse may be slightly above the average at Santiago,

1 The importance of the road of St. James was brought sharply to the notice
of the world of scholarship by the classic work of M. Bedier (Les legendes
epiques, Paris, Champion, 1913, 4 vols., 8vo). The subject has recently been
studied by Miss King (The Way of St. James, New York, Hispanic Society,
1921, 3 vols., 12mo) in a work indispensable to the student of northern Spain.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 9

although the best work at Compostela equals if it does not sur-
pass anything at St.-Sernin. Nothing in Spain is more deca-
dent and degraded than the portal at Espallion or some of the
work at St.-Bertrand-de-Comminges. Sculptors from Santiago
not from Toulouse were called to work upon the church of
San Isidoro of Leon and upon Ste.-Foy of Conques.

A peculiarity of the school of the pilgrimages is the creation of
oases of art in the midst of deserts. Sculpture flourished, as a

FIGURE 5. CLOISTER CAPITAL DATED 1073-1076: SANTO DOMINGO DE

SILOS (BURGOS).

rule, only in pilgrimage churches throughout the entire southwest.
Toulouse and Moissac are as isolated in sterile Languedoc as
Santiago in the wilds of Gallicia. Exceptionally the art spread
from the pilgrimage churches to the abbeys or cathedrals or
parish churches not on the road to Segovia, Sepulveda or Soria
in Spain, to Albi or St.-Antonin in France. Several of the off-
shoots north of the Garonne showed great vitality; but in southern
Languedoc, as in Spain, they withered and died. It was from the
pilgrimages that the art was born ; it was by the pilgrimages that
it lived; and it was only in the pilgrimage churches that it really
flowered.

10 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

The study of pilgrimage art must begin with a monument which
is neither on the road, nor of the order of Cluny. Santo Domingo
de Silos, lies to the south of Burgos, and a day's journey from the
regular route of the pilgrims. It may be conjectured, however,
that not a few would detour in order to visit so holy a monastery ;
the pilgrim's wallet and cockle-shell of the Christ in the Journey
to Emmaus (Fig. 4) argue that pilgrims were often seen in the
abbey. This is, I believe, the first time in art that Christ at
Emmaus is represented as a pilgrim to St. James.

Santo Domingo died in 1073, and was buried in the cloister, the
construction of which he had begun. In 1076 the body was
moved, but the epitaph on a capital of the cloister still remained,
and still remains (Fig. 5). A cenotaph was subsequently erected
to mark the place where the body had first rested.

From this it follows as an inevitable consequence, as M.Bertaux
has so brilliantly proved, that the capital with the inscription
dates from between 1073 and 1076. Indeed, even graver con-
clusions follow. The study of the internal evidence of the cloister
itself proves, whatever has been said to the contrary, that the
north and east galleries and the north bay of the west gallery are
all substantially contemporary with each other, with the capital
with the inscription, and with the six reliefs of earlier style. 1

Whoever will compare the ear of the harpy in the dated capital
(Fig. 5) with the ear of the Christ in the Deposition, or the hair
conventions in the capital with those in the reliefs, will be con-
vinced that the two are not only of the same period, but by the
same hand. The lettering of the inscription of 1073-1076 is
exactly like that of the reliefs. The sculptured capital of the
cloister representing the four and twenty elders (Fig. 6) is obvi-
ously by the same hand as the reliefs on one side, and the dated
capital on the other. It is incredible that such similar works
should be separated by a period of eighty years as asserted by
orthodox archaeology.

It may indeed well be that the reliefs are slightly later than
1073-1076. After the cloister had been begun, building activity
seems to have been transferred to the church. This was con-
secrated in 1086. Although an inscription implies that the clois-
ter, too, was dedicated at this period, it is possible, and I think

1 M. Bertaux has illustrated three capitals and three reliefs in Andre Michel,
op. cit. II, 1, pp. 221-226. I reproduce (Figs. 4 and 7), two reliefs not illus-
trated by M. Bertaux.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

probable, that the reliefs were executed after this date. This
would bring them into the last fifteen years of the eleventh cen-
tury. The Doubting Thomas, with its developed canopy, evi-
dently the latest of the series, may have been sculptured as late as
1100. This canopy in fact at first gives the impression of being so
advanced in style that one wonders whether it be not of even a
later period; but it will be remembered that such canopies were
used in ivories and miniatures
of the tenth century. 1

It seems in fact certain that
either German ivories, or the
Byzantine originals from
which these are derived, exer-
cised an overwhelming influ-
ence upon early Languedocian
and Spanish sculpture. The
motive of the raised hand with
the palm turned outwards, so
characteristic of Toulouse and
Santiago, and already present
in the relief of the Doubting
Thomas at Santo Domingo, is
certainly derived from ivories.
We find it in the Ada group
ivories as early as the eighth
century 2 and in the middle
of the ninth century in the

school of Mainz. 3 There is

FIGURE 6. CLOISTER CAPITAL: SANTO

every reason to suppose that DOMINGO DE SILOS (BURGOS).

it was taken over from some
such work by the sculptor of Silos. He doubtless derived his

1 See for example the book-cover of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin,
illustrated by Goldschmidt, op. tit. II, Nos. 52, 53; or the Benedictional of Paris,
of the school of Winchester, illustrated by Homburger, Die Anfdnge der Mai-
schule von Winchester im X. Jahrhundert, Leipzig, Weicher, 1912, 8vo, pi. IX.
The motive probably originated in miniatures, in the ornaments placed either
side of arches in Carolingian manuscripts, as in the late ninth century Gospel of
Morienval, preserved at Noyon, and illustrated by Boinet, op. tit. pi. LXXXI.

2 See Goldschmidt, op. tit. I, pi. II.

3 Ibid. II, No. 40. The motive also occurs in miniatures, as for example the
Besangon Gospels of the school of Winchester, illustrated by Homburger, op.
tit. pi. XI, and a Byzantine manuscript of ca. 1100 of the Thompson Library,
illustrated in the catalogue, pis. Ill, XXII.

12 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

canopies from the same source. There is consequently no reason
why the presence of the latter feature in the relief of the cloister
should disquiet us in our dating. The scale ornament with
which the canopies are decorated is much used in the cloisters of
Moissac, which it is known were built in 1100.

When the reliefs of Santo Domingo are compared with the nearly
contemporary work at Cluny, 1 it becomes clear that there is a
striking resemblance between the two ateliers. The style of both
is characterized by the same mastery of line, the same delicacy of
technique, the same clinging draperies falling in the same folds
over the legs, or hanging down in the same zigzag edges; the faces
although very different are alike in being archaic and convention-
alized. Santo Domingo and Cluny are indeed sisters, and nearly
twin-sisters, born of the same parents Byzantium and Bene-
dictine art. If Monte Cassino had not been destroyed we should,
perhaps, have found there the explanation of both. Santo
Domingo himself was, we know, during his entire life in close touch
with Monte Cassino; and it is evident that Monte Cassino and
Cluny were united by many bonds. The church of San Marcello
of Capua, which depended directly upon Monte Cassino, has pre-
served a portal 2 dating apparently from the early years of the
twelfth century, and which has points of contact with both Cluny
and Santo Domingo de Silos.

Compared with the sculptures of Arles-sur-Tech, dated 1046,
those of Santo Domingo de Silos show no advance beyond what
may readily be accounted for by the period of forty years separat-
ing the two works. The little capitals of the arcades of the Santo
Domingo reliefs are of the same type as the capitals of Santiago
(1078-1102). The most significant analogy of all, however, is
with the Christ of St. Emmeran of Regensburg, 3 a work proved by
an inscription to have been executed between 1049 and 1065.
Not only are the clinging draperies with broad flat folds similar,
but we find the same convention of indicating the modelling of the
draperies by two parallel lines, the hair and beard treated in the
same manner.

M. Bertaux seems to have been deterred from assigning the

1 See Porter, 'La Sculpture Romane en Bourgogne/ Gaz. B.-A., Octobre,
1920.

2 Photograph by Alinari.

3 Illustrated by Weese, Die Bamberger Domskulpturen, Strassburg, Heitz,
1914, 2 vols., 8vo, taf. 20.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 13

sculpture of Santo Domingo de Silos to the eleventh century by
the form of the shields, which are pointed, whereas round shields
are believed to have been in use until the twelfth century. It is,
however, hardly necessary to insist upon the danger of attempting
to date works of art by the "history of costume." Since the
latter is itself founded upon the dating of works of art, we are
manifestly instituting a vicious circle. The mitres of the Aries
fagade are a classic example of the pitfalls that beset the unwary
archaeologist on such paths. In point of fact, pointed shields
were known before the twelfth century. They are found upon
the vaulting capitals of Airvault; these were executed before 1100,
since the church was consecrated in that year. The pointed
shield is also found in a manuscript of the eleventh century il-
lustrated by Quicherat. 1

From the aesthetic point of view, the reliefs of Santo Domingo
represent a notable achievement. The formal and archaic com-
position is founded upon a subtle appreciation of the significance
of opposed lines and masses. How satisfactory, for example, is
the grouping of the guards about the tomb of Christ; how ex-
quisite the two end figures, lunging strongly outward from the
central group, as in a Pontormo drawing. There is the perfection
of balance in the Nicodemus and the Joseph of Arimathea bending
over the dead Christ; and the diagonal line formed by the lid of
the sarcophagus is singularly happy. We shall have to journey
far before we encounter again composition as original and as suc-
cessful. And can even the proudest moment of the Italian Re-
naissance show a relief to equal the Pentecost (Fig. 7) apparently
the earliest, and certainly the finest of the series with the twelve
apostles, like candle-flames, swirling towards the Day-Spring from
on high?

Of Sahagun, the most important Cluniac possession in Spain,
and a focal point on the road, there remain only fragments of
sculpture. The grand Virgin (Fig. 8) now in the archaeological
museum at Madrid, lacks the delicacy of technique characteristic
of Santo Domingo, but in compensation possesses something of
the aloofness and impassivity of a Tang Buddha, which the
sculpture so unexpectedly resembles even in technical detail.
The folds of the drapery are doubtless derived from Cluny ; some-
thing in the shape of the group with two symmetrical and strongly

1 Histoire de Costume en France, Paris, Hachette, 1875, 8vo, p. 135.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

empathic curves, reaching their widest point at the hips recalls
Charlieu, 1 as do also the zigzag drapery edges. But the figure
remains essentially Spanish. Evidently it is a product of the last
years of the eleventh century; in fact there can be no doubt that it

belonged to the church
of Sahagiin begun in
1080 and consecrated
in 1099.

The school of sculp-
ture, so brilliantly in-
augurated at Santo
Domingo de Silos, did
not remain without
descendants. At
Souillac, in the valley
of the Dordogne, are
incorporated in the
west wall of the
church fragments of
an ancient portal. 2
These sculptures, it
is evident enough, are
closely related to
those of Santo Do-
mingo, but one feels,
especially in certain
I? of the faces, the fresh-
ness of the fountain-
head of Cluny. The
aesthetic value of the
work is uneven.
Something of the sense
for composition of the Santo Domingo sculptor is carried over
into the relief with the story of Theophilus. The two seated
saints flank the central group, as Memmi's Santa Giulitta and
Sant'Ansano flank Simone's Annunciation. The figure of the
prostrate Theophilus, to whom the Virgin returns his bond, com-

1 1 illustrated this tympanum in the Gaz. B.-A., Octobre, 1920.

2 The sculptures of Souillac have been illustrated by Vitry et Briere, Docu-
ments de Sculpture frangaise du Moyen Age, Paris, Longuet, 1904, Folio, pi. 8,
and by Andre Michel, op. cit. I, 2, p. 621.

FIGURE 7. PENTECOST: CLOISTER: SANTO
DOMINGO DE SILOS (BURGOS).

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

bines with the shrine to form a sort of arch over the four figures
enacting the central portion of the drama. The same sense for
composition presides in the altogether remarkable trumeau. Here
in the midst of apparent confusion all is order. The thrice re-
peated figure of a bird-headed monster divides the frpnt face into
carefully balanced and rhythmic patterns. The wrestlers of the
farther side are among the inspired creations of mediaeval art.
Satisfying, too, even in ruin, is the
Joseph that once doubtless flanked
the portal; while the opposite Isaiah
haunts every memory. There is, it is
true, in this figure a certain something
which leads one to understand why
solemn archaeologists, notwithstand-
ing his clearly engraved name and
ample beard, have set him down as a
" foolish virgin"; but the movement
of the figure is so stimulating, the
swirl of the draperies so intoxicating,
the lines of the scroll so decorative, that
the severest critic must capitulate.

The Musee Massenat at Brive pos-
sesses fragments of a Christ in Limbo
which are by the same hand as the
sculptures of Souillac. The suspicion
arises that they may be another
fragment of the portal.

The latest work upon the Moissac porch is inspired by Souillac.
The tympanum seems to have been placed originally over the west
portal; it was subsequently transferred to its present position, and
at this time were executed the trumeau and the reliefs of the porch.
Since the abbot Roger, who died in 1131, is represented in the ad-
justment work as a saint, the transfer of the tympanum took place
and the later sculptures were executed, after this date.

The sculptor of the later work at Moissac 1 was an inferior
artist who imitated alternately the earlier tympanum and Souil-
lac. His trumeau is inspired by Souillac; but the admirably
subordinated detail of the original has been suppressed, and the
crisscrossed monsters are copied from the earlier capitals of the
1 The Moissac porch has been illustrated by Vitry et Briere, op. tit. pis.
V and VI.

FIGURE 8. VIRGIN FROM
SAHAGUN: MUSEO AR-
QUEOLOGICO NACIONAL:
MADRID.

16 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

Moissac porch. The trumeau has gained a certain brutal power,
but has lost the finer and more imaginative qualities of the
Souillac original. The prophet in relief on the east .side of the
trumeau is obviously imitated from the Souillac Isaiah; but the
life, the movement and the vigor of the original figure are lacking.
Santo Domingo draperies have been supplanted by the Cluniac
draperies of the tympanum; the figure, notwithstanding its man-
nerisms, is dull. Even more commonplace is the prophet of the
west jamb, and how inferior to the Joseph of Souillac! But it is
in the Peter and the Isaiah flanking the doorway that the inferior-
ity of the Moissac artist is most apparent. The Peter is an un-
happy adaptation of the angel to the left in the tympanum; the
Isaiah repeats the outlines of the Souillac Joseph. The reliefs
with scenes from the story of Lazarus, like those opposite dealing
with the early life of Christ, are plodding imitations of the manner
of the tympanum. In the representation of the vice of Luxury,
however, the sculptor shows quite unexpectedly wealth of imagi-
nation and tragic power. This is a great grotesque. Opposite,
the Visitation also rises to extraordinary heights. I should hardly
know where to find more sensitive line, more expressive drawing,
more delicate finish. One is tempted to conjecture that these
masterpieces are by another and much finer hand.

The influence of Santo Domingo de Silos continued to be
exerted until a late period of the twelfth century. The series of
reliefs, part of which is preserved at St.-Guilhem-le-De*sert and
part at the University of Montpellier, is derived from this original.
The Romanesque cloisters of southern France and Italy seem
nearly all to have been influenced directly or indirectly by the
same prototype. That at Aries is a particularly faithful imitation.

The cloister of Moissac was, as an inscription proves, in con-
struction in the year 1100, and the pier sculptures 1 appear to
have been executed in this year. Moissac was a Cluniac abbey on
the road; but inspiration was sought not in Burgundy, but in
Santo Domingo de Silos. Thence is derived the architecture of
the cloister with its coupled columns (the pointed arches are, of
course, the result of a later reconstruction); thence the pier
sculptures, thence the plastic style.

The Cluniac grace and movement which bubble at Santo
Domingo have dried up at Moissac. These figures seem made of

1 Two of the pier sculptures have been illustrated by Andre" Michel, op. dt~
I, 2, p. 616.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 17

cast iron. The scale has been coarsened; the figures appear
frozen. This immobility produces at first sight an impression of
archaism; but on closer study it becomes evident that the Moissac
sculptures must be later than Santo Domingo. The facial types,
while closely related to those of the Spanish cloister, are more
varied and far better characterized. The conventions for the
hair and beard, while very similar, are at Moissac more naturalis-
tic. The gestures are more varied and freer than at Santo
Domingo. Finally, to resort to a mechanical proof, the form of
the letters of the inscriptions at Santo Domingo is more primitive
than at Moissac.

The internal evidence of style entirely reinforces, therefore, the
documentary evidence that Moissac cloister is later than Santo
Domingo. It is hardly necessary to point out how closely the
Moissac sculptor has followed his predecessor. The convention
of two parallel lines used to indicate the folds of the draperies, the
drawing of the eyes, the gestures, the position of the feet placed on
a sloping shelf, many other details betray a close relationship.
Indeed the Spanish influence at Moissac was always strong. "On
remarque sur un chapiteau des caracteres arabes maladroitement
copies par un lapidaire ignorant leur signification" 1 The crossed
animals of the porch capital are similar to those of a Mozarabic
codex of the tenth century published by Gomez-Moreno. 2

Like the sculptor of Santo Domingo, the master of the Moissac
cloister made much use of ivory-carvings. It seems to have been
directly from this source, rather than from Santo Domingo, that
he derived the arches under which his figures are placed. 3 The
horizontal bottom line of the draperies and the modelling of the
faces is strikingly analogous to the ivories of the Fitzwilliam
Museum at Cambridge 4 and the Stiftsbibliothek of Frankfurt. 5
The motive of two angels carrying a medallion, which is found on
one of the capitals of the Moissac cloister, also occurs in an ivory

1 Andre Michel, op. cit. I, 2, p. 617.

2 Iglesias Mozdrabes, Madrid, Centre de Estudios Hist6ricos, 1919, 2 vols.
4to, p. 363.

3 The motive occurs also in a Roman relief in the museum of Sens. The
parallel of the ivory-carvings seems, however, closer compare, e.g., the
Echternach ivory at the Cluny (Goldschmidt, op. cit. II, No. 25), or the Ada
group ivory of the tenth century in the Bibliotheque Nationale (ibid. No. 36),
or that of Darmstadt (ibid. No. 39).

4 Goldschmidt, op. cit. I, No. 120.

5 Ibid. No. 121.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

of the Ada group, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum of
London. 1 I suspect, indeed, that the sculptor held in his hand one
of these ivories. The peculiar stiffness and coarseness of his
figures must be due to this inspiration. So, too, their strength.
After all, this, the earliest extant cycle of the apostles in French

sculpture, is also the most unfor-
gettable.

The capitals of the Moissac clois-
ter are the work of the same atelier
that executed the pier sculptures, if
not of the same master. They are less
under the influence of Santo Domingo
de Silos. There was here originated
an iconographic program to which the
twelfth century repeatedly turned
for inspiration.

In the ambulatory of St.-Sernin of
Toulouse are enwalled sculptures 2
which are clearly related to the pier
reliefs of Moissac. Since the original
position of these reliefs in the church
is unknown, it is impossible to deter-
mine their date with accuracy by
documentary evidence, although the
building dates of the church have
come down to us. A new basilica
was begun, presumably soon after
the foundation of the chapter regular
in 1077; this was consecrated a first
time in 1096 and a second time in
1119. St.-Sernin was an imitation of
Santiago, and even threatened to de-
velop into a serious rival. Among the fabulous relics claimed by
the chapter were the oliphant and the bodies of six apostles, in-
cluding "the greater part" of that of St. James himself! The
new basilica, begun in the latter part of the eleventh century, was

1 Ibid. No. 14. This motive occurs frequently on ancient sarcophagi. But
I can see little evidence that the master of the Moissac cloisters made any use
of Roman models. The motives of ancient sculpture which are found in his
work may well have come to him through the ivories.

2 Three have been reproduced by Vitry et Briere, op. cit. pi. IV. I illustrate
one of the angels, Fig. 9.

FIGURE 9. SCULPTURE OF
AMBULATORY: ST. SERNIN:
TOULOUSE (HAUTE -GAR-
ONNE).

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

almost the exact duplicate of the great church at Compostela.
All this was too much for the patience of Cluny which had the
interests of the pilgrimage so vitally at heart. The Cluniacizing
bishop of Toulouse found a pretext for
expelling the canons (1082), and in-
stalled monks of Cluny in their place.
A year later the pope interfered to
restore the canons. These had now,
however, learned their lesson; they
perceived that their best interests,
like those of Cluny, lay in fostering
the pilgrimage. The guide of the
twelfth century makes of St.-Sernin
one of the principal pilgrimage
churches, but the author feels called
upon to warn the reader against the
spurious relics of St. James.

The style of the ambulatory sculp-
tures clearly shows derivation from
the Moissac piers. Figures of the
same adamantine hardness are placed
under similar arches; the proportions
and the general effect are strikingly
analogous. The curious wings of the
Toulouse angels recur in certain capi-
tals of the Moissac cloisters. The
Toulouse sculptures are, however,
later and inferior. The drapery folds,
although very similar, are more com-
plicated and less well understood; the
drawing of the feet is much poorer;
the faces are less well done; the hair
conventions are weaker. On the
other hand it is certain that the sculptor of St.-Sernin was in-
fluenced by Spanish art. He owes important peculiarities of his
style to the area of San Millan de Cogulla, which is a dated monu-
ment of 1053. 1 He was also influenced by Santo Domingo de

1 This area has been published by Sentenach, in Boletin de la Sociedad
Espanola de Excursions, Mo XVI, 1908, p. 4 f. Mr. Walter S. Cook first
called my attention to this publication. I am also indebted to the same friend
for the observation that the sculptures of Santo Domingo de Silos show points
of contact with English manuscripts of Bury St. Edmunds an acknowledg-
ment which I neglected to make in a previous article.

FIGURE 10 DETAIL OF
SOUTH PORTAL: ST.
SERNIN: TOULOUSE
(HAUTE- GARONNE).

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

FIGURE 11. PUERTA DE LAS PLATERIAS, WEST HALF: SANTIAGO DE
COMPOSTELA (LA CORUNA).

Silos. If we compare the face of his seraph (Fig. 9) with the har-
pies of the dated capital of 1073-1076 at Santo Domingo (Fig. 5)
we find the same long nose, the same badly placed eye, the same
low head, the same omission of the forehead. The Toulouse am-
bulatory sculptures are in fact extraordinarily unpleasant produc-
tions. They may be assigned to about the year 1105, and it may
be conjectured that the canons of St.-Sernin having learned of the

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

new sculptures of Moissac, lost no time in causing them to be
imitated.

The Mephistophelian south portal of St.-Sernin l must have
been executed before, and probably considerably before the con-
secration of 1119. It has evidently undergone a very radical
restoration in modern times, and presumably under Viollet-le-Duc
in 1855. The first impression/indeed, is that of being in the
presence of a modern work. The restoration may account, at

FIGURE 12. WEST TYMPANUM: PUERTA DE LAS PLATERIAS: SANTIAGO

DE COMPOSTELA (LA CORUNA).

least in part, for the ugliness. We are fortunately able to judge
of what must have been the quality of the original from other
productions of the same artist a fragment of a seated figure in
the museum of Toulouse, and certain sculptures at Santiago.
This master appears, as has often been pointed out, to have de-
rived his art from the ambulatory sculptures. Undoubtedly,
however, he also sought inspiration from a miniature; to this must
be due the iconography, the movement, the throwing back of the
heads of the apostles. An innovation of capital importance was
the flanking of the portal above by figures of St. James (Fig. 10)
and St. Peter.

M. Male has announced that these figures of St. James and St.
Peter are by the same hand as the similar figures at Santiago.

1 Illustrated by Andre" Michel, op. cit. I, 2, p. 615.

22 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

There is, beyond question, a resemblance; but the much finer
quality of the Santiago figures (Fig. 11) and numerous other dif-
ferences prove that these are not the works of the same master.
It is, however, evident that one must have influenced the other.
Which is the original?

The documents d6 not determine the question. The St.-
Sernin portal was doubtless finished before the consecration of

FIGURE 13. EAST TYMPANUM: PUERTA DE LAS PLATERIAS: SANTIAGO
DE COMPOSTELA (LA CoRUNA).

1119; but it is hardly conceivable that it could have been executed
before 1110. The choir of Santiago appears to have been com-
pleted in 1102; the nave was at once attacked, and finished in
1124. The transept portals would presumably have been
sculptured in the earlier rather than in the later part of this
building campaign, say between 1102 and 1112. No definite
conclusion as to priority can be drawn.

The internal evidence of the Santiago portal is in the highest
degree confusing and complicated. M. Bertaux was the first to
observe that the sculptures (Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17) are not
all of the same style; he announced that he could distinguish the
work of two different hands. In point of fact, the sculptures are
the work of many distinct artists fourteen according to my
count.

A glance at the present Puerta de las Platerias suffices to reveal

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

the fact that we have to do with a conglomeration of fragments
not in their original position. No order is traceable in the com-
position as a whole. Little statues, big statues, pieces of statues
are walled in helter-skelter. The man riding on a monster of the
west tympanum (Fig. 12) is inserted horizontally. The woman
holding a skull just below (Fig. 12) has had her shoulder and part
of her head cut off to adapt her to her present
position. The flying angel in the spandrel to
the right, above this same tympanum, cuts
across the archivolt (Fig. 11). Romanesque
sculptures, it is well known, were carved be-
fore being placed; and Spanish Romanesque
builders were notoriously careless in their
assembling of these previously prepared deco-
rations. It is, however, incredible that mis-
fitting should have been carried to this de-
gree. Moreover, details like the beginning of
an archivolt under the feet of the third
apostle, upper row, left-hand side (Fig. 11),
show that certain sculptures have been
wrested from a very definite place in which
they belonged.

The description in the Pilgrims' Guide
proves, indeed, that certain ones the Ex-
pulsion (Fig. 11) and the sign of the zodiac,
Sagittarius (Fig. 11) which are now in the
south portal were originally in the north
portal. It has been supposed that when the
latter was reconstructed in the seventeenth
century, the discarded reliefs were added to
the previously intact sculpture of the south
portal. That sculptures of the north portal
were introduced into the south portal is cer-
tainly true. But recognition of that fact
does not solve the mystery of the south portal.

The truth is, I think, that the Puerta de las Platerias has been
twice rebuilt. The mouldings of the two arches have advanced
Gothic profiles (Figs. 12 and 13). They are far more developed
than, for example, those of the portal of St.-Sernin. The brack-
eted lintel is similar to Mateo's in the Portico de la Gloria (Fig.
28). The least difficult hypothesis seems to be that Mateo re-

FIGURE 14. JAMB
SCULPTURE: PU-
ERTA DE LAS
PL ATERI A S 1
SANTIAGO DE

COMPOSTELA

(LA CORUNA).

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

constructed the Puerta de las Platerias in the second half of the
twelfth century. It may be conjectured that at this time he in-
corporated fragments from the west fagade. In fact the God
the Father in white marble (Fig. 11), now in the spandrel between

the two portals, must be the
same as that described in the
Guide as forming part of the
Transfiguration of the west
fagade.

The incoherencies of the
composition, it is true, can
only be partially explained
on this hypothesis. The

z&p

same extraordinary mixture
of subjects that exists today
in the tympana (Fig. 12, 13)
is very exactly described in
the twelfth century Guide.
The four angels in the span-
drels (Fig. 11), the lions over
the central columns (Fig. 11)
are all as they were in the
twelfth century. On the
other hand, there are notable
points of divergence between
the description and the ex-
isting monument. One of
the "feroces leones" has dis-
appeared. The jamb sculp-
tures are not those described
in the Guide. Instead of the
existing Sign of the Lion, St.
Andrew, Moses and a bishop,
there were four apostles.
" In liminaribus eiusdem
introitus, sunt duo apostoli
quasi valvarum custodes, unus
ad dexteram, et alius ad sin-
istram, similiter in alio in-
troitu sinistrali, in liminari-
bus scilicet, alii duo apostoli

FIGURE 15. THE CREATION OF ADAM:
PUERTA DE LAS PLATERIAS: SANTI-
AGO DE COMPOSTELA (LA CoRUNA).

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 25

habentur." Such discrepancies indicate that the portal has
undergone a radical reconstruction. The jamb sculptures could
hardly have been changed without tearing the portal down and
rebuilding it.

The Puerta de las Platerias, therefore, consists of fragments of
at least three different portals, heaped together at two recon-
structions, one of the second half of the twelfth century and the
other of the seventeenth century. Fortunately, however, the
description mentions specifically certain reliefs which can still be
identified. These must without any question have belonged to
the original portal.

Among the sculptures thus described in the Guide is the St.
James (Fig. 11), which resembles the statue at Toulouse (Fig. 10) .*
Even more happily for our investigations, the description men-
tions in detail the woman holding a skull in her lap of the west
tympanum (Fig. 12). It gives, indeed, an explanation of the
subject which otherwise would entirely escape us. The figure
represents the vice of Luxury, typified by the legend of the
adulterous wife, whose husband forced her to fondle twice a day
the head of her lover while it corrupted in her hands. This same
subject is represented in a capital of Santa Marta de Tera, 2 a
church in which the Toulousan master seems also to have worked.

The interesting part of this relief is that it really is by the
hand of the sculptor of the portal of St.-Sernin. Doubt is not
possible. Not only are the types, facial modelling, draperies,
hands, feet and hair conventions identical, but there are the same
mannerisms like the horizontal line following down the shin line
and the incision in the bulge of the drapery folds.

The work of our sculptor at Santiago did not end with the
Luxury. The man riding a monster inserted horizontally above
(Fig. 12) is by his hand; as are also two of the jamb sculptures, the
St. Andrew of the east jamb of the west portal and the woman
with crossed legs holding a lion of the east jamb of the east portal
(Fig. 14) and the boy holding a cock just below her.

1 Miss King, op. tit. Ill, p. 252 deduces from the iconography that the
Toulouse St. James must be derived from the similar figure at Santiago.
This conclusion is confirmed by the study of the style of the two sculptures.
There must have been a continual interchange of masters between the two
ateliers of Toulouse and Santiago.

2 See the illuminating publication by G6mez-Moreno in Boletin de la Sotidad
Espanola de Excursions, Afio XVI, 1908, p. 81. G6mez-Moreno appears to
have been the first to perceive the relationship of Santiago to the rest of Europe
in its true light.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

These unrestored sculptures give an opportunity to judge of
the artistic stature of our artisb. He is surely of higher rank than
one would suspect from St.-Sernin. He possesses vigor and
power, and attains a certain effect at the expense of the finer
qualities.

The woman holding the lion (Fig. 14) is a strange subject. We
should be entirely embarrassed for an explanation, were it not that

the theme recurs in a relief
now in the museum of Tou-
louse and coming from St.-
Sernin. 1 Here are seen two
women, similarly seated with
crossed legs, one holding in
her lap a lion, the other a
lamb. It is the illustration,
as Lahondes recognized, of a
legend attributed to St.
Augustine, but manifestly of
much later date, according
to which, in the time of
Julius Caesar, a strange
miracle took place. At
Toulouse, at Rome and at
Jerusalem were born from
women a lion and a lamb,
symbolic of the two natures
of the coming Messiah. 2 It
is evident that we have here
another attempt of the
canons of St.-Sernin to rival
Santiago. For the usual
.triad Compostela, Rome,

Jerusalem, is substituted the triad Toulouse, Rome, Jerusalem.
It was entirely natural that the miracle should have been com-
memorated in the sculpture of St.-Sernin. The meaning was
underscored by the inscriptions, which have, however, been so
strangely misunderstood Signum leonis. Signum arietis. Hoc
fuit factum T(olosae) tempore Julii Cesaris.

Now there can be little doubt that this subject was originally

1 Illustrated by Vitry et Briere, op. tit. pi. IV, fig. 5.

2 Lahondes, Les Monuments de Toulouse, Toulouse, Privat, 1920, 4to, p. 460.

FIGURE 16. DETAIL: PUERTA DE LAS
PLATERIAS: SANTIAGO DE COM-
POSTELA (LA CORTINA).

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

created at Toulouse, where it was at home, and copied at Santiago,
where there was no reason for it to be represented. Hence several
important conclusions. The Toulouse sculptures of the lion and
the ram, although of much finer quality than those of the south
portal, must be about contemporary with them; and our sculptor
of the south porch of Santiago and of the south portal of St.-
Sernin must have been at Toulouse, and, presumably, have
worked there, before he copied
at Santiago the work of his
more gifted contemporary.

But we are by no means at
the end of the complications!
The sculptor of the Toulouse
signs also worked at Santiago.
By him are in fact the David
(Fig. 16) and the Creation of
Adam (Fig. 17) walled into
the west buttress and the
Sacrifice of Abraham op-
posite. This is, perhaps, the
finest of all the pilgrimage
artists. There are no data
sufficient to determine the
land of his origin. His David
sits under an arch like those of
the pier sculptures of the
Moissac cloister; but this
same motive it will be re-
called was copied in the
ambulatory sculptures of St.-

Sernin. For all his Toulousan vulgarity, our master is not with-
without quality, even finesse; and he betrays at moments, as in
his superb Adam, knowledge of Burgundian models.

It is important to observe that the master of the south porch
of St.-Sernin may have executed jamb sculptures at Santiago.
Two of his works the St. Andrew and the Sign of the Lion are
now used as jamb figures, and jamb figures of the most primitive
type, that is reliefs of the inner jamb, at right angles to the door.
It is possible that the St. Andrew is still in its original position.
The description makes it certain that in the early twelfth century
both the northern and southern portals had jamb sculptures.

FIGURE 17. THE CREATION OF
ADAM: PUERTA DE LAS PLATERIAS:
SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA (LA
CORUNA).

28 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

Those of the north portal represented the four apostles, Peter,
Paul, James and John; all held books in their left hands, and their
right hands were raised in benediction. The relief embedded in
the west buttress, next to the lion, may be one of these apostles.
In the jambs of the south portal were four other apostles whom the
Guide does not name more specifically; it is entirely possible that
Andrew may have been among them.

The fact that jamb sculptures, set at right angles to the door,
were found at Santiago, is significant. Guglielmo used this
same motive at precisely this moment at Cremona (1107-1117);
his prophets, like the Santiago apostles, are on the inner face of the
jambs, at right angles to the door. 1 Did Guglielmo copy from
Santiago or the Santiagoan sculptor from Guglielmo? Or both
from a common original? I suspect that the latter may have
been the case. The portal, unfortunately of undetermined date,
at Elindsche near Garni in Armenia, 2 is flanked by reliefs, one with
crossed legs, representing Peter and Paul. Jamb sculptures are
also found facing inward on the portal of S. Andrea of Barletta.
This monument, it is true, is not earlier than the thirteenth cen-
tury, but is significant as representing the survival of an earlier
type in a region singularly exposed to oriental influences. At
St.-Michel-de-Cuxa, in the eastern Pyrenees, jamb sculptures seem
to have appeared early in the twelfth century. They appear to
have been set on both faces of the jamb, and enclosed in a frame
after the Byzantine manner. Reliefs flanking the doorway exist
at Souillac, Moissac and Beaulieu. It seems probable that the
motive originated in the East.

The work at Santiago may not have been unknown to the
sculptor who about 1125 executed the reliefs of the Hotel de Ville
at St.-Antonin. These figures produce the effect of addossed
sculptures, arid may be derived from the jambs of Compostela.
The Adam of St.-Antonin faintly recalls the Adam of the Creation
at Santiago. Stylistically, the work at St.-Antonin shows the in-
fluence of Burgundy in the draperies, and especially in the spirals
of the knees. Its closest relative is the tympanum at Moissac.

In the portal of Santiago are incorporated three marble columns
(Fig. 16) entirely covered with sculptures of figures standing
in arched niches. Since the description of the twelfth century

1 Guglielmo 's prophets at Cremona are well illustrated by Monteverdi, II
Duomo di Cremona, Milano, Bonomi, 1911, 12mo, pp. 13 f.

2 Illustrated by Strzygowski, op. tit. pp. 812 f .

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

refers to these remarkable productions, there is no doubt that they
belonged to the original construction. To cover a column with
arched niches filled with reliefs is a Byzantine idea; it occurs in the
columns of the ciborio of S. Marco at Venice. The actual work-
manship at Compostela is undoubtedly local; the figures are of the
pilgrimage style, and similar to the other reliefs executed before
1124.

The suspicion arises that
these columns may have in-
spired the much later colon-
nettes of the convent of the
Benedictine nuns (Fig. 18).
On each are addossed the
figures of three apostles. I
have never been able to ob-
tain access to the originals
of these sculptures, which I
know only from the casts in
the chapter-house of the
cathedral. Hence I have no
helps but the style to es-
tablish the date. However,
it seems evident that the
colonnettes must be much
later than the work anterior
to 1124 in the Puerta de las

FIGURE 18. COLUMNS: CONVENT
OF BENEDICTINE NUNS: SANTIAGO

DE COMPOSTELA (LA CORUNA):
FROM CAST IN CHAPTER-HOUSE OF
CATHEDRAL.

Platerias. Statues addossed
to columns, it will be re-
called, appeared at Beauvais
and at St.-Denis about 1140.
I see nothing to prove that

the Santiago colonnettes are earlier than this date. The closest
analogy to them which I know is the compound colonnette from
Chalons-sur-Marne, now in the Louvre, which also has three ad-
dossed figures, and is likewise of undetermined date.

With this group of monuments should, perhaps, also be included
the columns with sculptures in relief in the archeveche at Albi.
These are said to be fragments of a secular building, such as the
sculptures of St.-Antonin still adorn. Inscriptions REX SAUL,
REX SALAMON leave no doubt as to the iconographical mean-
ing of two of the figures. Of the other two, representing women,

30 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

one is probably the Queen of Sheba. The style seems to show
derivation from many different sources. Draperies of Chartres
and Beauvais, postures from the Moissac porch, limbs of Santiago,
hands of Rieux-Minervois are combined with the manner of the
third quarter of the twelfth century.

The sculptured column of the cloister of St.-Bertrand-de-Com-
minges continued this pleasant tradition down to the eve of the
thirteenth century. 1 Here four figures are addossed to the same
colonnette, but in the cloister of Aix-en-Provence there is only one.
With these cloister figures should be grouped those of Ganogobie
and Lavaudieu, although the latter is no longer in situ, having
been sold. At Chur in Switzerland are preserved four columns
with addossed figures; and there are others in the strongly Lom-
bard facade of the Schottenkirche at Regensburg. The motive
survived until late in the thirteenth century, and travelled as far
east as Bamberg in Germany and as far south as Liguria and even
Tuscany it appears in the f agades of the cathedral at Genoa
and the Pieve of Arezzo. The more archaic types of jamb sculp-
tures similarly survived in late repetitions; reliefs on the jambs of
the portal are found at Leire in Spain, at the cathedral of Foligno
in Umbria, at S. Maria Maggiore at Toscanella, at Clermont-
Ferrand in Auvergne, in the cathedral of Trani in Apulia, at San
Clemente di Cassauria near Torre dei Passeri in the Abruzzi, in
the cathedrals of Zara and Trau in Dalmatia, at S. Antonino of
Piacenza and the cathedral of Lodi in Lombardy and at Marsico
Nuovo in the Basilicata. Archaistic jamb sculptures are found in
Spain at Monterey, 2 at Las Caldas de Oviedo and at Villaviciosa.

The sculptured columns of the Puerta de las Platerias are far
from being the only traces of Byzantine influence at Santiago.
One suspects it, indeed, of underlying much of the work, and if we
knew more of Byzantine sculpture it is likely that we could detect
definite traces. One fragment is indeed certainly Byzantine. It
is that strange bust (Fig. 11) inserted in the spandrel between the
two doorways, and which the Guide shows to have originally be-
longed to the Transfiguration of the west fagade. The Byzantine
foliage in the boss betrays the origin of the sculptor. But this is
not all. A head of strikingly similar character is found in a relief

1 The column of St.-Bertrand-de-Comminges has been illustrated by Vitry
et Briere, op. tit. pi. XXVIII, fig. 7.

2 Illustrated by Fatigati, Portadas Artisticas de monumentos espanoles,
Madrid, Hauser y Menet, 1907, 4to, p. 18.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 31

of San Marco at Venice, representing the sacrifice of Isaac. 1 The
relief, like the sculptured columns of the Venetian ciborium, is
ascribed currently, but not necessarily correctly, to a very early
date. However this may be, these two points of contact between
San Marco and Santiago deserve observation.

There is a head similar to that of Santiago in the portal of
Santillana del Mar. Since the rest of the sculptures of this fasade
are crude, I am almost tempted to conjecture that the master of
Santiago passed through Santillana, and touched this one figure
with the finger of his genius.

One of the most interesting of the artists who worked at Santi-
ago is the master who executed the three figures, probably of apos-
tles at the left hand edge of the upper row (Fig. 11), the Expulsion
just below (Fig. 11) four figures at the right hand edge of the lower
row, the figure just above the Sacrifice of Abraham in the east
buttress, and the Betrayal of the eastern tympanum (Fig. 13).
Since the Expulsion is mentioned in the description of the twelfth
century, our master worked upon the original construction.

This artist shows close relationship to some of the work at
Conques. If we compare the draperies of Christ and Judas in the
Santiagoan Betrayal (Fig. 13) with those of the prophets in the
niche to the left of the Abraham at Conques (Fig. 19) ; the head of
Christ in the Santiagoan Betrayal (Fig. 13) with the head of the
second prophet in the niche to the left of Abraham at Conques
(Fig. 19) ; the rosettes scattered on the background of some of the
reliefs at Santiago with the stars of Conques; we shall be convinced
that the two groups are related. Conques seems distinctly more
naturalistic and advanced in style than Santiago.

Another sculptor at Santiago shows even closer analogies with
a second sculptor at Conques. This is the artist who executed at
Compostela the Flagellation (Fig. 13) and the Crowning with
Thorns (Fig. 13) in the centre of the lower register of the east
tympanum; the Epiphany (Fig. 13) just above; the neighboring
grotesque; an angel carrying a crown near by (Fig. 13); and the
west jamb figure of either portal representing Moses with the
tablets of the law and a bishop. A curious convention for
representing the lower edge of the draperies with redoubled folds
is like the signature of this artist. Now precisely this same con-
vention recurs at Conques in the group of figures to the left
Christ (Fig. 20). The similarities do not end here. The figures

1 Photograph by Alinari.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

FIGURE 19. DETAIL OF TYMPANUM: CONQUES (AVEYRON).

in the two monuments are of the same stocky types. The head
of the Christ in the Flagellation at Santiago (Fig. 13) is like the
head of the king at Conques (Fig. 20). The short skirts of the
executioner at Santiago are like those of the same figure at Con-
ques (compare Fig. 13 with Fig. 20). The square hair line is
characteristic of both works. The draperies of the Moses at
Santiago are entirely similar to those of the abbot leading the king
at Conques. That the two groups are by the same hand seems

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

FIGURE 20. DETAIL OF TYMPANUM: CONQUES (AVEYRON).

certain. Again, however, we note that the sculptures of Conques
are more advanced.

The Betrayal by the first master of Santiago must have formed
part of the same series of reliefs with the Crowning with Thorns
and Flagellation by the second. Therefore the two worked to-
gether at Santiago. We are justified in concluding that the same
pair worked together also at Conques.

It is probable that these sculptors were of Spanish origin. The

34 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

work at Conques "is more advanced than that at Santiago. It is,
moreover, evidently of Spanish character. The brilliant poly-
chromy suggests a Spanish origin; it is, perhaps, by way of Con-
ques that the tradition reached Auvergne. The facial types are
thoroughly Spanish; they already foreshadow those of Mateo.
The devils, too, are of Spanish type, and not unlike those of the
western tympanum at Santiago.

If the portal at Conques is by the sculptors who worked at Com-
postela before 1124, and, presumably, considerably before, it is
evident that orthodox archaeology has made a serious error in
ascribing these sculptures to the end of the twelfth century.
Indeed the style is entirely that of the second quarter of the twelfth
century. Certain figures, like the one with the cane, the third to
the left of Christ (Fig. 20), show points of contact with the pulpit
of Isola S. Giulio, which dates from ca. 1120. 1 Yet the character
of the work at Conques is so advanced that one is inclined to as-
sign it to as late a date as possible. It is not improbable that it
was erected about 1130, contemporaneously with the great tym-
pana of Vezelay and Autun.

So important a work as the tympanum at Conques is naturally
not without connections in many directions. Certain draperies
and certain faces recall Cluny. The truncated pediments are
characteristic of the sculpture of Auvergne. It has been believed
that the masters of Conques thence derived the idea. I know,
however, of no truncated pediment in Auvergne more ancient than
that of Conques, unless it be Thuret, which, indeed, looks more
primitive, but is undated and may be in reality only crude.

Certain of the facial types of the second master of Conques
resemble those of the school of the Velay, such as may be seen in
the cathedral and museum of Le Puy. I suspect, however, that
these may be derived from Santiago rather than from Conques.

From an aesthetic standpoint, Conques produces a deep im-
pression. Notwithstanding the somewhat restless and confused
effect of the division into zones by bands with inscriptions, the
freshness of the polychromy, the quaintness of the faces, and the
vigor of the modelling combine to make of this one of the grand
achievements of Romanesque art.

1 Noak, in the Dritten Bericht ueber die Denkmaeler Deutscher Kunsl, p. 43,
notes analogies between the pulpit at Isola and the east choir at Mainz. The
latter he dates 1125 on independent grounds. It is reassuring that his chronol-
ogy, arrived at by entirely other ways, should agree to a year with mine.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 35

^ Before leaving this pair of sculptors who worked together at
Santiago and at Conques, it is interesting to note that the relief of
the Flagellation at Santiago appears to have been the starting-
point for a whole group of interesting sculptures. If we compare
this Flagellation with the one at Beaucaire, we shall be in no doubt
as to whence the Beaucaire sculptor derived his inspiration. Now
from Beaucaire in turn are derived the series of reliefs dealing with
the Passion which belonged to the pulpit and screens of the
cathedral at Modena, and the celebrated frieze of St.-Gilles. 1

Still another sculptor of Santiago has left us the relief of the
Creation of Adam embedded in the east buttress (Fig. 15). He is
an inferior creature who plods along at a respectful distance behind
the master of the south portal of St.-Sernin. He follows him so
faithfully that he must have worked about the same time.

The hand of the same master may be recognized in the portal of
San Isidore of Leon (Fig. 21). This church seems to have been
the object of a number of reconstructions which succeeded each
other from the middle of the eleventh century until the final con-
secration of 1149. The portals were doubtless executed .some-
what before this date. If our sculptor was active at Santiago
about 1120, he could easily have worked at San Isidore twenty

1 Current archaeology has fallen into another error in considering the frieze
of St.-Gilles as dating from the end of the twelfth century. It is certainly
contemporary with the great statues below, and consequently of the 1140's.
Mr. Allan Priest has remarked, and will shortly publish, analogies between the
St.-Gilles frieze and the lintel of the south portal of the west facade at Chartres
which justify the inference that the two are the work of the same master. The
Samson of a capital of St.-Andre-le-Bas of Vienne reproduces exactly the youth
to the right in the scene of the money-changers at St.-Gilles, from which the
Vienne figure is obviously copied. Now the Vienne capital is dated 1152 by
an inscription, so that the St.-Gilles frieze is certainly earlier than this date.
Confirmation of the early date of St.-Gilles is afforded by the pulpit at
Cagliari which was executed between 1158 and 1162 (see Scanno, Storia dell'
arte in Sardegna, Cagliari, Montorsi, 1907, 4to, pp. 277 f.) I am indebted to
Professor Voge and Miss King for knowledge of this significant monument.
Most amazing of all, an exact parallel to the extraordinary animals below the
St.-Gilles frieze is to be found in the lion underneath and behind the throne of
S. Niccola of Bari, and this is dated by an inscription 1098! Also the lions
beneath the columns at St.-Gilles are closely analogous to those beneath the
footstool at Bari. The peculiar curls of the Bari caryatids recur at St.-Gilles
and Chartres. The Bari master executed in 1107 an archivolt at Monopoli;
the heads of this are very similar to those of the St.-Gilles frieze. To complete
the cycle, the throne of Bari is most closely related to the work of Guglielmo,
but is earlier than anything we know by him.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

years later. The passing years, however, seem to have brought
him no greater maturity; his Virgin and St. Isidore of Leon are
stupidly copied from the St. James (Fig. 10) and St. Peter of
Toulouse.

It was apparently from the already troubled waters of Leon
that somewhat later the sculptor of St.-Bertrand-de-Comminges
drew the inspiration if that word can be applied to so sorry a

performance for his
tympanum.

With the comple-
tion of the cathedral
of Santiago in 1124
ends the great cre-
ative cycle of the
pilgrimage school.
From this time sculp-
ture reflects now one,
now another foreign
influence. It veers
about like a weather-
cock, pointing now to
Burgundy, now to
Lombardy, now to
the West, now to
Provence, now to the
Ile-de-France. The
strangers, constantly
passing back and
forth on the road,
brought with them
motives from the four
quarters of the world.
The most distant and
unexpected models

were copied. The pilgrimage churches became an international
mixing-pot of styles.

In the third decade of the twelfth century, the influence of
Burgundy was assuredly the most prominent. The great tym-
panum of Moissac was executed under this inspiration. 1 At

1 See Porter, 'La sculpture du Xlle Siecle en Bourgogne,' in Gaz. B.-A. y
Octobre, 1920.

FIGURE 21. DETAIL OF SPANDREL: SAN
ISIDORO: LEON.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

Leire (Fig. 22) Burgundian influences are at work too; but com-
bined with other elements. The St. James is another replica of
the over-copied St. Peter of Toulouse; the Visitation is reminiscent
of that of the Moissac porch; the skirts of the figures in the tym-
panum fall in folds .precisely like those of the figure to the right in
the tomb on the south side of Conques; the flaring lower garment
and the trailing sleeves recall Notre-Dame-la-Grande of Poitiers;
the caryatid lions, Lombardy.

The same polyglot and cosmopolitan character permeates the

FIGURE 22. TYMPANUM: SAN SALVADOR: LEIRE (NAVARRA).

well-known jamb sculptures from the chapter-house of St.-
Etienne in Toulouse. 1 The assistant of Gilabertus marks at once
the extreme development and the extreme degradation of the
Toulousan style. Cynicism could go no further. These strange
creations in their mocking, demoniac attitudes, their stocky pro-
portions, their coarse quality make us understand the character of
the Albigensian heresy; after studying them, one almost finds St.
Louis sympathetic. Like all the sculpture of the Southwest of
this period they reflect a multitude of foreign influences. The
facial types seem to be derived from a master of Santiago the one
who did the St. James and the St. Peter. They are, however,
obviously much later and more advanced. Some of the draperies

1 Seven are illustrated by Voege, Die Anfange des monumentalen Stiles im
Mittelalter, Strassburg, Heitz, 1894, 8vo, pp. 71-74; five by AndrS Michel, op. .
cit. I, 2, p. 624; four by Vitry et Briere, op. tit. pi. IV, fig. 4, 6.

38 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

come from the same source. The master also knew the " signs"
of St.-Sernin. Other draperies are inspired by the tympanum of
Moissac. The niches in which the figures stand, and possibly also
their halos with a radiating pattern l are derived from Nicolo's
earlier, crisper and more archaic work at Ferrara (1135). The
capitals of the niches show the influence of the Moissac cloister.
The movement of the draperies of certain figures is Burgundian,
the draperies, the hair and beard conventions, and the ornamented
borders of others are derived from St.-Denis (1137-1140) or
Chartres (1145-1150). There is a thirteenth century feeling in
the faces and hair conventions which suggests a date in the second
half of the twelfth century. If we compare these heads with
Beaulieu (ca. 1135), we shall be convinced that they are notably
later. The tomb of Donna Bianca (1156) at Ndjera is from the
point of view of style closely related to the St.-Etienne sculptures.
The analogies in the draperies are striking. 2 The activity of
Gilabertus ' assistant can hardly fall before the fifth decade of the
twelfth century.

The study of the style of Gilabertus himself leads us to the same
period. He comes out of Autun (1132) and shows the strong
influence of St.-Denis (1137-1140) if not also of Chartres (1145-
1150). He shows points of close contact with Chadennac (1140).
A date about 1 145 would, therefore, be in agreement with what
we can deduce from the style of the two masters. 3

1 This is a stock Byzantine motive frequently repeated in western and even
in Chinese! art. It is found for example on the archivolts of S. Marco at
Venice, at Bamberg, in the tympanum of the Caecilienkirche at Cologne
(Clemen, op. tit. p. 788), in the Grabstein der h. Plektrudus (ibid. p. 789), in
the tomb of St. Junien, at S. Andrea of Barletta, etc. Such halos are typical
of the Ada group miniatures and ivories.

2 The sculptures at Beaulieu are illustrated by Vitry et Briere, op. tit. pi. V.
The Njera tomb is reproduced by M. Bertaux in Andre Michel, op. tit. II, 1, p.
242.

3 My suggestion that the Gilabertus of Toulouse is to be identified with the
Gislebertus of Autun has been received in some quarters with incredulity. I do
not insist upon the point. This question of hands is one seldom susceptible of
absolute proof, and which must always remain largely a matter of personal con-
viction. If it will help to maintain the peace, I shall not contradict, whatever
my belief may be, anyone who asserts that Gislebertus of Autun was one, and
Gilabertus of Toulouse another of the same name, which was distinctly not a
common one, but still not unprecedented, especially in Burgundy. A certain
type of mind will always find satisfaction in arguing that the poems of Homer were
not written by Homer, but by another Homer. With such I shall not quarrel.
The essential point is recognition of the facts that Gilabertus of Toulouse is of

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

FIGURE 23. SCULPTURES FROM LA DAURADE: MUSEUM: TOULOUSE
(HAUTE-GARONNE) .

The capitals of the cloister of La Daurade at Toulouse, now
gathered together in the museum, are of two distinct periods.
The earlier is closely analogous to the cloister at Moissac, as we
may easily convince ourselves by comparing the two Daniels.
It is indeed difficult to determine which is the older. On the
whole the Daurade seems to be slightly the more archaic; but in
any case the two monuments must be nearly contemporaneous.
It is evident that the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos was well
known to these artists. The second group of Daurade capitals
is of much later date; some of them are by the same hand -as the
sculptures of the chapter house.

The jamb sculptures (Fig. 23) have little relationship to those

Burgundian derivation; that his art comes out of Autun; and that his style,
however different superficially, is essentially Gislebertian. This much will, I
venture to predict, not be disputed by anyone really familiar with the monu-
ments. In the first place, where, except at Autun, could Gilabertus possibly
have been formed? His draperies, so closely parallel to Autun, are like those
found nowhere else in the entire range of Romanesque art. Compare the
Thomas of Toulouse with the capital of Autun representing the angel warning
Joseph to flee. The facial types are identical, the eye is done in the same man-
ner, the beard and hair conventions are very like, the drapery on the right leg
of the Toulouse figure is identical with that on the left leg of St. Joseph, being

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

of St.-Etienne. It is evident at a glance that they are much less
vital. They are, as Voge recognized nearly thirty years ago, flat
imitations of Chart res. One perceives, however, that they are
much later in date than their original. This is clear not only in
the less vigorous modelling, in the monotony of the composition,

and the general common-
placeness of the execution,
but in certain of the heads
which have already Gothic
character.

There is, indeed, proof
that this master worked
about the end of the cen-
tury. The draperies of the
jamb sculptures of the Daur-
ade are precisely like those
of the celebrated Annunci-
ation of the Toulouse
museum (Fig. 24). The head
of the Gabriel annunciate
is exceedingly like the head
of the prophet to the right
in Figure 23. So striking are
the points of similarity that it

FIGURE 24. ANNUNCIATION: MUSEUM:
TOULOUSE (HAUTE-GARONNE).

would not be difficult to be-
lieve the two the work of the
same sculptor. There can be
no question in any case that
they 'are contemporary.

formed of sagging folds of three parallel lines (a similar convention runs through
the St.-Etienne capitals), the border of St. Joseph's sleeve has a pattern of dots
like the falling edge of St. Thomas' mantle, the ear of the angel is the same
peculiar ear as the ear of the Andrew, the ear of Joseph is like the ear of Herod
in the Dance of Salome. The capitals of the niche at Autun have, moreover,
foliage of the same character as the capitals of the niches at Toulouse. At
Toulouse and at Autun there is the same fondness for border ornaments, the
same preoccupation with covering the entire surface with a network of decora-
tive lines. The feet are not very dissimilar compare those of the St. Peter at
Autun with those of the Herod at Toulouse. The hands at Toulouse are more
developed. There are the same horizontal bandings on legs and arms at Tou-
louse and Autun. The legs of the beardless apostle holding a scroll finished by
Gilabertus have draperies very like those of the right leg of the tall standing
figure to the left of the Autun aureole.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 41

Now the head of the Toulousan Gabriel annunciate is almost
equally close to the heads of the four glorious jamb sculptures that
raise the portal of Valcabrere to more than antique heights. 1 It
is only upon second thoughts we perceive that the radiance of
this remarkable work proceeds from the heads, or to be more
exact, from three of the heads, and from the outer figure on the
right-hand side; the rest is not only inferior, but intolerably
blundering. There can be no doubt that two very unequal hands
worked together on this portal.

The finer of these hands, as we have said, is close to the master
of the Toulouse Annunciation. His heads have the same stern
quality as that of the Gabriel; like that one could almost believe
them inspired by an archaic Greek model. They are, indeed,
-extraordinarily fine. In looking at them, we seem to breathe the
atmosphere of demigods and heroes. This twelfth century artist
of the Pyrenees attains all that Rome would have been, but never
was.

His uncouth assistant is of little intrinsic merit, and probably
a local light, since we find his hand again in the addossed figures
of the neighboring cloisters of St.-Bertrand-de-Comminges. 2 In
the tympanum of Valcabrere he seems to be trying feebly to
imitate Burgundian models. His was clearly an unskilful chisel
of the end of the twelfth century.

Indeed the significance of the Valcabrere sculptures in this
connection lies in the fact that their date can be determined.
The church of Valcabrere was consecrated in 1200. The portal
must, therefore, have been executed somewhat before this time.

All this brings the date of the Toulouse Annunciation and the
Daurade fragments down to at least the last quarter of the twelfth
century. It is exceedingly improbable that they are earlier than
1175.

Closely related to the Daurade fragments in style, is the holy-
water basin from Narbonne, now also preserved in the museum of
Toulouse. So far as I know, no one has ever suspected this of
being earlier than the end of the twelfth century.

The portal of Carennac 3 is of the school of the pilgrimage rather
-than of that of Burgundy, although the priory was Cluniac, and

1 Illustrated by Vitry et Briere, op. cit. pi. XXVIII, fig. 6.

2 Illustrated by Vitry et Briere, op. cit. pi. XXVIII, fig. 7.
Illustrated by Baum, Romanische Baukunst in Frankreich, Stuttgart,

.Hoffmann, 1910, 4to, p. 89.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

it is not certain that the pilgrims passed this way. In the style
is conspicuous that mixture of influences which is the peculiarity
of pilgrimage art. Influences of Burgundy are not absent;
reminiscences of Santiago, of Souillac, of Toulouse may be traced.
The division of the composition by horizontal and vertical bands
recalls Conques on the one hand, and St.-Junien on the other.
One has the impression at St.-Junien that the sculptor has been
largely influenced by some work in metal, a chasse or an altar-
frontal such as those
of St.-Gilles and
Santiago described so
minutely in the Guide.
The peculiarities of

the Carennac com-

...
position seem to be

determined by the
attempt to accommo-
date an original, rec-
tangular in shape, to
the lunette of a tym-
panum. One of the
most striking borrow-
ings at Carennac is
the head of the apostle to Christ's left in the second row. This
is a modernized but faithful copy of Guglielmo's Jeremiah at
Cremona. 1 As for date, the Carennac portal seems about con-
temporary with that of Conques. It may consequently be as-
signed to ca. 1130.

The tympanum at Mauriac presents obvious points of contact
with that of Carennac. It is later and more Burgundian; and
we notice here in the folds of the draperies over the abdomens the
influence of the school of the West, which does not appear at
Carennac. The lions under the jambs are certainly Lombard.
Mauriac is situated in the remote mountains of Auvergne, and
the style might well be retarded. I doubt whether this portal is
earlier than 1150.

The composition of the fine frieze at Carrion de los Condes

(Fig. 25) is certainly derived from a Limoges chasse; in this case

we are able to put our finger upon the very model. It is the

reliquary formerly at Santo Domingo de Silos, but now preserved

1 Illustrated by Monteverdi, op. cit. p. 14.

FIGURE 25. DETAIL OF FRIEZE: CARRION DE
LOS CONDES (PALENCIA): SANTIAGO.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 43

in the museum at Burgos. There is further evidence that the
chief master of Carrion he obviously did not work alone knew
Santo Domingo; for his style is closely related to the well-known
Annunciation of the cloister. 1 I almost question in fact whether
that work be not by his very hand. The master of Carri6n also
sought inspiration in other quarters besides. He seems to have
known the later work at Charlieu, and to have taken from it his
hands and feet of such peculiar type, and the angel sculptured in
relief on the column. Certain capitals and his organ-pipe draper-
ies show knowledge of the facade of St.-Trophime of Aries.
From Provence came also without doubt the idea of a sculptured
frieze. The bestarred aureole may have been inspired by Con-
ques. The voussures are derived from some monument of Saint-
onge, possibly Aulnay. Numerous motives have been taken from
Toulouse and Santiago.

Since our sculptor knew the frieze of St.-Trophime, he must
have worked after 1152. On the other hand he was earlier than
Mateo. He shows no knowledge of the Portico de la Gloria,
although he was clearly acquainted with the earlier work at
Santiago. The activity of Mateo must have begun in the early
70's. We can, therefore, date the Carrion frieze to ca. 1165.

Aesthetically, this is one of the grand achievements of the
twelfth century. Ruined and battered as it is, we recognize in it
immediately the expression of a great creative mind. The
apostles, especially to the left, are of superb contour and delicious
rhythm.

The much restored Christ of the north portal of Lugo is inspired
by the Christ of Carrion.

The inferior and later work at Mimizan also evidently owes
much to Carrion. Mimizan, in turn, seems to have been one of
the sources for the north portal of Chartres. The sculptor of the
side portal at St.-Benoit-sur-Loire likewise appears to have known
Carri6n. The sculptures of Sauveterre have been ruined by
restoration. Originally they probably came close to Mimizan,
and showed points of direct contact with Spain.

A curious combination of influences is shown by a capital
coming from Sahagun, now at San Marcos of Leon (Fig. 26).
The artist had been to Santo Domingo de Silos and had been
impressed by the sculptures in the cloisters. He combines heads
copied from the early work of the eleventh century with draperies

1 Illustrated by M ? Bertaux in Andre Michel, op. tit. II, 1, p. 228.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

taken from the Annunciation. He must, therefore, have worked
after 1170. His activity is doubtless to be connected with the
consecration of 1183.

A different set of influences came to the front in the extraordi-
nary sculptures of Sanguesa (Fig. 27). The close relationship to
the jamb sculptures of Chartres is obvious. The master of the
left-hand side he has signed his name, Leodegarius (Leger)
seems, indeed, to have drawn his inspiration solely from Chartres;

but the finer artist of the
right-hand jamb knew St.-
Loup-de-Naud and Autun as
well. His sensitively mod-
elled heads and his draperies
both recall the Autun tym-
panum. In the tympanum
and upper part of the fagade
other hands are at work.
The Last Judgment of rudi-
mentary type recalls the
Moissac tympanum, but it
surmounts a Virgin and
Apostles in arches after the
manner of Chartres. The
spandrels are filled with mis-
cellaneous bits of sculpture,

some of which show Lombard influence; the upper part of the
portal with statues in niches is inspired by Pictave models. The
architecture recalls Notre-Dame-la-Grande of Poitiers.

The date of Sanguesa is a delicate question. The church was
given, it is known, to St. John of Jerusalem in 1132. It would be
natural to suppose that the reconstruction was begun immediately
afterwards. The sculptors of the portals, however, knew
Chartres; and it is the orthodox belief that the portal of Chartres
was not begun until 1145. Of all the derivatives of Chartres,
Sanguesa is by far the most archaic; we may, therefore, assign
the portal to ca. 1150.

The remarkable sculptures at Ripoll are a work of the same
class. Jamb sculptures from the Ile-de-France, draperies like
those of Gilabertus at Toulouse, rinceaux taken from Nicolo's
work at Sagra S. Michele, voussures from St.-Denis, a saw-tooth
moulding from Rome, monsters from Lombardy, drapery and

FIGURE 26. CAPITAL FROM SAHAGUN
SAN MARCOS: LEON.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

heads from the work of Guglielmo, a technique influenced by the
bronze doors of Novgorod in Russia, all combined in a most ex-
traordinary composition that follows episode for episode a tenth
century Catalan manuscript. This work impresses one as later
than Sangiiesa, but it must have been executed before 1160.

San Miguel of Estella is
distinctly more advanced.
The convention of hatching
to represent the feathers of
the wings, common in Spanish
sculpture of this period, is,
perhaps, derived from Byzan-
tine originals through ivories
of the Ada group. The heads
of the addossed figures of
Estella are inspired by those
of the right jamb at Sangiiesa,
but are coarser and later.
Certain draperies seem to
have been influenced by the
master of Carri6n. Others
recall the fa$ade of St.-
Trophime of Aries. The
prophets seem inspired by
those of the Daurade at Tou-
louse. We are evidently
about 1185.

The master of San Miguel
of Estella worked also at
Tudela. Although these
sculptures have been extrava-
gantly praised, they do not seem, in point of fact, to be of extra-
ordinary merit.

The work at Armentia is more interesting. This is in some
ways the most typical of all the pilgrimage churches. Ideas bor-
rowed from everywhere caryatids from Chartres, apparently,
however, not taken directly, but through some intermediary
which I cannot determine; a tympanum that seems like the weak-
est and faintest echo of Autun; draperies borrowed now from
Aries, now from the master of Carrion, now from Chartres; a
labyramb and two angels that is like a magnification of an abacus

FIGURE 27. WEST JAMB: SANTA
MARIA LA REAL: SANUGESA

(NAVARRA).

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

in the Moissac cloister; and withal a wistful tenderness such is
the work donated by the bishop of Calahorra, D. Rodrigo Cas-
cante (1146-1190). These sculptors must have been active about
the same time as the master of San Miguel of Estella, and they did

not know Mateo's
work at Santiago.
We may infer, there-
fore, that Armentia
dates from about
1180.

A typical monu-
ment of pilgrimage
art is, or alas was,
the church of Ste.-
Foy at Morlaa"s. A
Cluniac priory on
the road and dedi-
cated to the great
saint of Conques, it
naturally fell under
precisely the same
influences as the
monuments beyond
the Pyrenees. The
restoration of the
nineteenth century
has unhappily re-
duced the magnifi-
cent portal (Fig. 28)
to an even more pitiable state than the sculptures of St.-Sernin.
What remains is, indeed, a modern copy. A few fragments pre-
served in the local museum and casts under the rafters of the roof
are all that can give an idea of the quality of what must have
been one of the most interesting portals of southern Europe.

A conspicuous element in the style is the evident Burgundian
influence. The twin portals with tympana grouped under a
larger tympanum recall Avallon. It is true that twin portals are
characteristic of Santiago, where the iconography of the north
portal with Christ and the evangelists had analogies with Mor-
lads. Since the tympana of both Santiago and Avallon are
destroyed, an exact conclusion cannot safely be drawn. The

FIGURE 28. DETAIL OF JAMBS: STE.-FOY;
MORLAAS (BASSES-PYRENEES).

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

Flight into Egypt of the right-hand tympanum resembles vaguely
the unforgettable rendering of the same theme at Bois-Ste.-Marie.
The addossed jamb figures are placed high up, in the Burgundian
manner; they float like the figures on the archivolt of Anzy-le-
Duc. The movement of the angels in one of the capitals to the
left is distinctly Burgundian. There is
noticeable likewise the influence of the
master of the southern porch of St.-Sernin
who also worked at Santiago. His are the
draperies, his the feet, his the movement of
the apostles. From Lombardy came the
caryatids of the trumeau and of the vous-
sure with the elders. The elders them-
selves, like the figures of the outer vous-
sures, all seated on a roll-moulding, are later
derivatives of the north portal at Toro. We
are clearly at the- beginning of the last
quarter of the twelfth century.

In the cloister of Oviedo are two curious
reliefs, dating, perhaps, from about 1200,
representing Peter and Paul. This strange
art, in which the vigorous archaic modelling
of the draperies and bodies contrasts so
strangely with the Gothically immobile
faces, reappears at Santillana del Mar, where
in the cloister are, by the same hand, a
Virgin, a Santa Juliana with devil, and a
most impressive Christ. The strange altar
at Santillana is of a different style, and not
closely connected with any other work
known to me. Its least distant relatives are
Leire on the one hand, and the Puerta de las Platerias on the
other; as both of these are stations on the road, it may be in a
manner considered a derivative of the art of the pilgrimages, as
the crude sculptures of San Quirce may be grouped with Leire.

We have now arrived at the moment when there dawned in
Spain a third period of sculpture, unhappily of brief duration,
but in some respects even more brilliant than that which opened
the twelfth century. This golden age is ushered in by the sculp-
tures of the Camara Santa of Oviedo (Fig. 29). In the dim light

FIGURE 29. Two
APOSTLES: CAMARA
SANTA: OVIEDO.

48 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

of a small chapel, the figures of supernatural apostles are addossed
two by two against the vaulting-shafts. An Egyptian solemnity
invests these sculptures, which, indeed, unite the fervor and imag-
ination of Spain, the restraint of France, the delicacy of Burgundy,,
the strength of Toulouse, and the mystery of the Middle Ages.
In comparison even the Portico de la Gloria seems coarse and cold.
This, not that, is the supreme masterwork.

Who was this superhumanly gifted sculptor? I was at one time
tempted to believe that the Oviedo Cdmara Santa was an early
work of Mateo. But the hypothesis, seductive as it is, cannot be
held. Notwithstanding the many analogies, the difference in
style is too great. The Oviedo master is a comet which flashes
with extraordinary brilliance across the horizon, then disappears.
At a period when the sculptors of northern France were listlessly
repeating the timeworn gospel of Chartres; when Provence was
sinking into such senility as the tympanum of Maguelonne; when
Benedetto had not yet awakened Lombardy to new life; when
his own compatriots were patching together works out of stolen
fragments with as little conscience as a modern architect and as
little coherence as a crazy quilt, this unknown artist created out of
his own genius a great and a new manner. We can say that he is
related to, or even derived from, the sculptures at Carrion; but
we still have not plucked the heart of his mystery. Nothing in
Toulouse, nothing in Languedoc, nothing in Spain (unless it be
Santo Domingo de Silos), I almost wrote nothing in Europe, sur-
passes the apostles of Oviedo.

Mateo knew Oviedo, certainly. He knew much else besides.
The Christ of the Puerta de las Platerias (Fig. 11), which must
be part of the original doorway, since specifically mentioned in
the Guide, exercised a profound influence upon Mateo as, indeed,
upon much other work of the twelfth century. The " organ-pipe "
draperies so familiar at Aries seem for example to have been here
originated. Mateo's lovely St. James (Fig. 30) is certainly de-
rived from this model.

From Vezelay Mateo came by his jamb sculptures, raised above
the columns; the great figure of the Deity in the centre of the
tympanum, and the figure on the trumeau below; perhaps, too,
the idea of a porch. From Lombardy or was it perad venture
Apulia? came the figure which passes as the portrait of the
artist, and the monsters under the columns, the latter, perhaps,
by the way of Provence. From Aries came, I suppose, the pro-

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

portions of his jamb figures, which seem to approach this canon
more closely than that of northern France.

The result of these influences, plus the genius of Mateo, was
the first work of Gothic sculpture in Europe. Neither the Porte-
Ste.-Anne of Paris, nor the jambs of Senlis foreshadowed to such
an extent the future development of the style. It is not too much
to say that the work of Mateo stood to the thirteenth century in
much the same relationship as that in which the early school of
the pilgrimages stood to the twelfth century.

FIGURE 30. PORTICO DE LA GLORIA: CATHEDRAL: SANTIAGO DE COM-
POSTELA (LA CORUNA).

Little of Mateo's life is known. We find him at work at San-
tiago in 1168; twenty years later the doors of the Portico de la
Gloria (Figs. 30 and 31) were hung, so that the sculptures must
have been essentially finished by this time. As late as 1217,
however, he was still master-builder at Compostela.

The Portico de la Gloria is in quality less fine than the Ca-
mara Santa of Oviedo. This or that detail has been surpassed
by this or that master of northern France. But for the sum of
the impressions it remains, perhaps, the most overwhelming
monument of mediaeval sculpture.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER

FIGURE 31. GROUP OF SAINTS: PORTICO DE LA GLORIA: CATHEDRAL:
SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA (LA CORUNA).

Notwithstanding the casts which were made for the South
Kensington Museum, the polychromy is still on the whole well
preserved. This singularly increases the realism of the figures.
In northern Europe the coloring of the statues has usually been
destroyed; but one suspects that it was never as vivid and
naturalistic as that which still remains on Mateo's work. These
figures are, indeed, almost startling, they seem so to jump out at
us; their effect may be compared to that produced by certain
Florentine painters of the Quattrocento such as Castagno or
Pollaiuolo. Their existence is realized with extraordinary facility.
They anticipate the naturalism of Glaus Sluter.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE 51

We have here not the mystic profound art of the Gothic cathe-
drals of the north; it is much more a good-natured realism not
without a streak of vulgarity; an art which would impress quickly
the passing crowd and required no painstaking study for its ap-
preciation. In all this it is fair to see the point of view of the
average pilgrim with his interest in the extraordinary, his bon-
hommerie, and his, perhaps, not over-profound intellect.

The influence of the art of Mateo, as might be expected, was
enormous. The sculptures of the cathedral of Orense have long
been recognized as having been inspired by the Portico de la
Gloria. Although they are assuredly far from equalling their
original, they by no means deserve the aspersions which it has
been fashionable to heap upon them. The western portal of San
Vicente of Avila is one of the best works inspired by Mateo; in
quality it is indeed little if at all below his level. It seems here
as if the Mateo tradition had been purified by fresh drafts from
Burgundy. The Annunciation of the west portal, as M. Bertaux
recognized, is by the same hand. Ciudad Roderigo and Toro
may also be considered as derivatives of Mateo.

But it was not only in Spain that the influence of Mateo was
felt. His art, as little as that of his predecessors, found in the
Pyrenees a barrier.

The sculptors of Bamberg sought inspiration from Mateo. It
has been much discussed whether the apostles and prophets of
the choir screen are derived from Saxony, from Byzantine tradi-
tion, or from Toulouse. It is probable that the sculptor was
acquainted not only with Saxony and the sculptures of St.-
Etienne and Cahors, but also with the jamb sculptures of Santiago.
His Isaiah 1 is reminiscent of the prophet to the left of the left-hand
doorway at Santiago. This Compostelan prophet seems indeed
to have inspired the facial type of the school of Bamberg. The
Bamberg sculptors were also influenced by the Daniel of Santiago
(Fig. 31, second statue from left). The Hosea 2 is manifestly in-
spired by this model of which it reproduces even the curls. The
Bamberg "smile" may as well be derived from Santiago direct,
as via Reims.

Internal evidence, therefore, justifies the inference that the mas-
ter of Bamberg had been to Compostela. Now there is external

1 Illustrated by Weese, op. tit. p. 7. It is the prophet holding a saw, next to
the David.

2 Illustrated by Weese, op. tit. p. 4.

52 A. KINGSLEY PORTER

proof that he had been to the Holy Land. He has sculptured
his own portrait in the tympanum of the Gnadetiir. On the sleeve
of his coat may clearly be seen a cross, indicating that he had
made the pilgrimage to the Holy Land. We are probably justi-
fied in assuming that, like so many others, he combined this
journey with that to Santiago.

It was, however, in France that the work of Mateo proved most
fecund. His St. James on the central trumeau of Santiago (Fig.
30) is the ancestor of the Beaux Dieux of Chartres and Amiens.
The great porches of Chartres were, perhaps, inspired by Mateo's
Portico de la Gloria, which, as originally built, must have pro-
duced a not dissimilar effect.

The sculptors of Reims sought inspiration at Santiago. The
statue of Daniel, on the left jamb of the Portico de la Gloria
(Fig. 31, second statue from the left) determined the type which
gives the school of Reims its peculiar and unforgettable character.
It is the influence of archaic Santiago that lifts Reims above the
classicism and monotony of the work at Amiens or the south
portal of Chartres. Everywhere through the cathedral of Reims
echoes and reechoes the theme of the Daniel of Santiago, but
varied and beautified. We recognize it in the angels of the but-
tresses, in the angel of the Annunciation, almost unaltered in the
Sourire, embellished and transposed, but still unmistakable in
the Joseph, in the Anna, in the Queen of Sheba, in the Solomon, in
the caryatid of the west fagade, in the angels of the Coronation. 1

It is, I think, admitted by competent critics that the sculp-
tures of Reims show German influence. It has not, however, so
far as I am aware, been remarked that the head of a prophet about
the rose of the south transept 2 reproduces the Jonah of the Bam-
berg choir screen. 3 The Reims figure, I think, must be a work of
that sculptor of the second atelier at Bamberg, who has been
suspected on independent grounds of having been connected
first with the earlier atelier at Bamberg, then with Reims (where
he shows himself especially familiar with the transepts) before
being called to direct the second Bamberg atelier. I detect, in-
deed, his hand at Reims also in an angel of a buttress of the south
fagade. 4 The suspicion arises that it may have been this master

1 All these sculptures are reproduced by Vitry, La Cathedrale de Reims, Paris,
1920, Folio.

2 Illustrated by Vitry, op. cit. II. pi. LVII.

3 Illustrated by Weese, op. cit. II, p. 4.

4 Illustrated by Vitry, op. cit. II, pi. LXVIII.

PILGRIMAGE SCULPTURE

who fetched the smile of Mateo's Daniel from Santiago and
handed it on to the " Joseph master" of Reims.

However this may be, the debt of the sculptors of Reims to
Santiago does not end with the smile. Other facial types appear
to be derived from the same original. More than this, the Reims
sculptors owe to Santiago one of their happiest innovations. At
Chartres, at Amiens, at Senlis, in all the older northern French
portals, the jamb figures stand in rigid rows, facing nearly or
quite stark outwards. Mateo had animated his (Fig. 31); they
turn as if to talk with each other. Now this motive of Mateo's
is reproduced at Reims.

A. KINGSLEY PORTER.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

glrdjaeological
^Institute
of America

AN AMPHORA OF NICOSTHENES IN BALTIMORE

AMONG the vases at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore
is an amphora signed by Nicosthenes, which, so far as I know, has
not been published. It was purchased in 1887 along with several
other vases by a few members of the Baltimore Society of the Ar-
chaeological Institute of America, and is said to have been found

near Caere, whence came so
many of Nicosthenes' vases.
It is undoubtedly the vase
listed by Klein 1 as from Caere
in the Magasin Ruspoli.
Klein speaks of "Am Hals je
ein Faustkdmpfer," whereas in
reality there are two boxers on
each side, but my friend and
former teacher, the late Pro-
fessor Loeschcke of the Uni-
versity of Bonn, and later of
Berlin, told me that this vase
and an archaic Attic hydria
with the Perseus story, which
is also in Baltimore in my own
collection, came from the

Ruspoli collection, where he
had seen them.

The amphora is 0.30 m. high. 2
Part of the lip on one side (Fig.
1) has been restored. The
amphora is of the elongated
metallic form, invented by Nicosthenes, with projecting moulded

FIGURE 1. AMPHORA OP NICOS-
THENES: SIDE A: BALTIMORE.

1 Die Griechischen Vasen mil Meister signatured, 1887, p. 64, No. 45.

2 0.155 m. to the first ridge and 0.034 m. from there to the next ridge. Height
of neck from small ridge at base 0.075 m. 0.12 m. across top of mouth. Diam-
eter of foot 0.10 m. Greatest circumference below lowest ridge 0.525 m., on
ridge 0.535 m. Smallest circumference around neck 0.20 m. Breadth of handle
to left of signature 0.05 m., to right from 0.042 m. to 0.047 m. Inside the mouth

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the
Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 1.

AN AMPHORA OF NICOSTHENES 55

ridges on the body, broad flat handles, neck with concave profile,
and conical mouth. The form was popular with the prolific fac-
tory of Nicosthenes, the most productive of all Greek potters
known to us, who out of nearly a hundred signed vases or frag-
ments preserved made fifty-two or more amphoras. 1 The shape
was more probably borrowed from Ionia, as Pottier 2 says, than
from Ionic Etruscan bronze jugs. 3 The clay is reddish-buff and
covered with a buffish slip, a practice which was followed even in
Mycenaean days, but which was especially characteristic of the
Ionian fabrics. Nicosthenes may have learned the art at Naucra-
tis, where his signature has been found/ and he introduced the
idea into Attica. Several artists probably painted for Nicos-
thenes' factory which produced mostly black-figured vases, but
also seven or so in the mixed or red-figured technique, among
these artists Epictetus and Beazley's" Death and Sleep Painter" ; 5
but the main designs on many of the amphoras are little more than
decorative. Such is the case on the Baltimore vase except on the
neck where there is a figured scene. The designs on Nicosthenes'
vases, as here, are not executed with care but they show a pro-
gressive spirit and originality.

Just above the ridge at the top of the flaring foot of the vase is a
ray pattern, then a broad wavy or zigzag line in the color of the
slip, then a frieze of rays with the pointed ends downwards, then a
tongue pattern, and between the projecting ridges a double ivy
leaf pattern. On the shoulder is a meander pattern with alternat-

are two broad black bands, the lower 0.018 m. broad, the upper 0.017 m. broad,
separated by a strip of red clay 0.007 m. wide, then a strip of red 0.005 m. wide,
then a narrow black band, and then black rays pointing inwards.

*Cf. Wiener Vorlegebldtter, 1889 and 1890-91; Walters, History of Ancient
Pottery, I, pp. 384 ff.; Louvre Album, pis. 70, 71; Gaz. Arch. 1887, p. 108; Rom,
Mitt, V, 1890, pp. 322 ff.; Arch. Anz. IX, 1894, pp. 180 ff.; J.H.S. XVIII, 1898,.
p. 292; etc. Boulanger, Nikosthenes, un atelier de ceramique a Athenes au
temps des Pisistratides, an unpublished dissertation cited by Perrot, Histoire de
VArt dans I'Antiquite, X, p. 256, mentions 89 signed vases or fragments. Nicole,
R. Arch. IV, 1916, pp. 388-391, 61, lists 94. But four have recently been
found at Veii and there are others including a fragment in the Fogg Museum
in Cambridge, Mass. Perhaps those mentioned by Nicole, op. dt. 61, No. 93,
as found at Caere, are the same as those from Veii in the Museo di Villa Giulia.

*B.C.H., XVII, 1893, pp. 431 ff.; also Buschor, Greek Vase-Painting, p. 87.

3 Cf . Loeschcke, Arch. Zeit. XXXIX, 1881, p. 35.

4 Cf. Dumont et Chaplain, Les Ceramiques de la Grece propre, p. 312; Brit.
Mus. Cat. II, p. 272, No. B600 53 .

5 Hoppin, A Handbook of Attic Red-figured Vases, II, pp. 224 f.; Beazley,
Attic Red-figured Vases in American Museums, p. 23.

DAVID M. ROBINSON

ing meanders of different form, as is shown clearly in Figures 1
and 2, and above this again a tongue or godroon design. On the
handles (Fig. 1) are in one case to right of signature two rows
of twenty-six black rays pointing toward the centre, and on the
other twenty-five such rows.

On the neck of the vase on either side is represented a boxing
match between two short-haired nude youths, whose hands are

covered with straps of leather
to protect them, Ifiavres called
at fjiL\LxciL } 1 supposed to be
innocent and safe as the name
implies when compared with
the more brutal and harder
<r0aip<u or juup/iijKes or cestus of
later date as seen on the fa-
mous bronze boxer from Sor-
rento. 2 The ;uiXtx&t were long
strips of untanned hide, prob-
ably kept soft in some way,
wound on our vase diagonally
across the front and back of
the closed hand 3 and several
times about the wrist. 4 On
one side (Fig. 1) where the
modern restoration is, the head
and arms of the combatant to
the left are missing, though a

FIGURE 2. AMPHORA OF Nicos- bit of both elbows remains.
THENES: SIDE B: BALTIMORE. He has his left foot advanced

and his opponent likewise ad-
vances the left foot. His left arm (hand missing) is stretched
well forward and his right arm is bent at the elbow with his right

1 Cf. Paus. VIII, 40, 3; Plato, Laws, 830 B; Jiithner's edition of Philostratus,
Gym. 10; Apol. Rhod. Argonautica, II, 52-53.

2 Cf . Brunn-Bruckmann, Denkmdler Gr. und Rom. Sculptur, pi. 248.

3 Brauchitsch, Die Panathendischen Preisamphoren, p. 145, thinks that the
fingers and ball of the hand remained free, but they are not so represented on
the Baltimore vase.

4 Cf. Arch. Zeit., XLI, 1883, pi. II; Baumeister, Bilder, fig. 33, Brit. Mus. Cat.
of Vases, III, pi. Ill; Juthner, Antike Turngerdthe, pp. 66 ff.; Gardiner, Greek
Athletic Sports and Festivals, pp. 402 ff.; Frost, J.H.S. XXVI, 1906, pp. 213 ff.;
Hyde, Olympic Victor Monuments and Greek Athletic Art, pp. 234 ff.

AN AMPHORA OF NICOSTHENES 57

hand raised above and behind his head. This is the usual position
in representations of boxing. Mr. Frost ] holds that this is merely
a conventional rendering and that the Greek boxer stood with
his feet nearly level. But, as Gardiner 2 says, "so far from hold-
ing the body square, it would appear from the vases that the
Greeks exaggerated the sideways position. For frequently the
left foot and left arm of one boxer are represented as outside, or
to the right of the left foot and arm of his opponent," as on the
amphora 3 signed by Nicosthenes and illustrated by Gardiner, 4
where the position of the boxers, and especially of the figure to
the right with his'raised right hand is very similar to ours. There,
too, the two figures have short stocky legs and big hips as on our
vase and the eye is rendered in full front. On our vase even the
incised breasts are in full front view and on the figure to the right
seem to be on the boxer's back.

On the other side of the neck (Fig. 2) both figures are well pre-
served. The one to the left is lunging forward with his left leg
slightly bent and left foot advanced, head and body erect. His
right arm is drawn back, bent at the elbow which is raised level
with the shoulder, the fist held down ready to strike. His left
arm is stretched upward and forward, the hand closed, somewhat
similar to the boxer to the left on the Panathenaic amphora il-
lustrated in Gardiner, op. cit. p. 427, Fig. 148. His breasts are in
front view, though those of his opponent are correctly given in
profile, and his eye like that of his opponent is in full front and
round, whereas the eye of the man on the other side of the vase is
almond-shaped. The position is that assumed by the Greek boxer
after he first puts up his hands, and it is frequently depicted on the
vases. 5 His opponent draws back his head out of reach of the.
opening lunge and guards himself with both hands, holding up
and back his right hand, ready to strike, and protecting his face
and upper body also with the outstretched left hand across his
opponent's left. The position is quite similar to that on the
Panathenaic Berlin amphora pictured by Gardiner. 6 Gardiner 7
speaks of this symmetrical position which is so common in

1 Loc. cit.

2 Loc. cit.

3 Brit. Mus. B. 295.

4 Op. cit. p. 420, fig. 143.

5 Cf. Gardiner, op. cit. p. 419.

6 Op. cit. p. 422, fig. 144.

7 Op. cit. p. 419.

58 DAVID M. ROBINSON

wrestling groups, where one boxer is represented with right foot
advanced, as extremely rare, though it occurs on the Panathenaic
vase illustrated by him on p. 407, Fig. 135 in the boxer to the left.
Our vase thus adds one more exception to the usual rule, 1 and also
shows how the Greek boxer followed the American style of boxing
rather than the old English style, using both hands freely, being
active on his feet, and varying his attack. The stiff high guard on
our vase also confirms the idea that the Greek boxer hit only at
the head, which would explain why the body is so often left un-
guarded in representations of boxing.

It remains to mention the signature which runs below the .box-
ers last described. It is of the usual form and is perfectly pre-
served except for the first epsilon. Nl KO*0[E]N E M E P 01 E^ EN.
The Baltimore vase, then, is of importance not only to the student
of Greek athletics for the rendering of a boxing match 2 in a rare
way, but to the student of Greek vases because it is another
amphora signed by Nicosthenes dating about 530 B.C. or earlier
the only one in America 3 so far as I know.

DAVID M. ROBINSON.

THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY,
BALTIMORE, MD.

1 Gardiner, op. cit. p. 426, says that the vases "do prove undoubtedly that the
Greeks understood how to give force to a blow by lunging, and inasmuch as the
lunge is always with the left foot, it seems probable that they understood the
importance of not changing feet." Our vase would seem to indicate that they
did change the position of the feet, at least in guarding in early days.

2 Boxing was a Greek sport from the earliest to the latest days. The Minoan
rhyton (Hall, Aegean Archaeology, pi. XVI) from Hagia Triada in Crete shows
several boxing groups, and Homer describes a boxing match in Iliad, XXIII,
699 ff. Cf . Hyde, op. cit. pp. 234-246.

3 There are other shapes by Nicosthenes, at Bryn Mawr College (A.J.A.
XX, 1916, p. 316; in Philadelphia (A.J.A. XIII, 1909, pp. 142 f.); Boston (Re-
port of Boston Museum, 1900, p. 36; 1901, p. 36; 1903, p. 70; Nicole, op. cit.
61, Nos. 77, 87, 88); and New York (B. Metr. Mus. X, 1915, pp. 98 ff.); there
is an unpublished, unsigned handle of such an amphora at the University of
Chicago; and in the Fogg Museum, Cambridge, Mass., a fragment of an am-
phora with a silen and the signature. The date 530 to 520 B.C. agrees with
the conclusions drawn by Langlotz in his recent important monograph, Zur
Zeiibestimmung der strengrothfigurigen Vasenmalerei und der gleichzeitigen
Plastik.

Archaeological
Sntftttute
of America

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY FROM THE DESIGNER'S
POINT OF VIEW

THE proportions of Athenian vases have always been a source of
special delight to lovers of Greek art. The effect of a well-made
Attic shape is, indeed, so peculiarly satisfying to our artistic
sensibilities that we have long vaguely felt that there must be a
definite underlying principle that makes it so; in other words,
that the whole must be an interrelated theme, in which the pro-
portions of the different parts to one another are all nicely
thought out. For Athenian pottery is, as has been well said, the
only " architectural " pottery in the world. It shares with Chinese
or Persian pottery beauty of curve; but in contrast to both of
these it is strongly articulated. While one fine curve is what the
oriental artist mostly aimed at, the Greek liked to separate the
different parts of his vase from one another. He not only con-
siderably narrowed the neck and the base of his body, but gen-
erally broke the continuity of his line at these points, making the
neck, the body, and the foot three clearly defined parts; and by
occasional further articulations in the neck and the foot and by
the regular addition of handles he introduced still more divisions.
The proportion of these distinct parts to one another give a
Greek pot its unique quality of a well-designed piece of architec-
ture. How important an element this subtle interrelated propor-
tion is can be seen when we look at modern imitations of Greek
forms, which, though they often correspond fairly closely in
general outline to their models, almost invariably lack the ele-
ment of vitality so conspicuous in the Athenian products.

Was this extraordinary sense of proportion so inborn in the
Greek artist that he attained it unconsciously in whatever he
created? Or did he produce it only after deliberate and pains-
taking effort? It is hard and, perhaps, impossible to decide this
question definitely; but we may look at the evidence at hand.
We know that temperamentally the Greek artist was very willing
to exert himself. To him art was not something to be produced
on the spur of the moment in a haphazard fashion, but the result
of highly trained endeavor. Not only could he stick to a few

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the

Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 1.

60 GISELA M. A. RICHTER

structural problems in sculpture almost for generations until they
were satisfactorily solved a feat that no artist before him had per-
formed ; but he planned for himself carefully worked-out canons
of proportion in the human figure which held sway for long pe-
riods at a time. In architecture he was equally painstaking.
The gradual development of the echinus outline in the Doric
capital is proof enough of how absorbing the perfect solution of a
single problem was to him; and the subtle refinements of temple
buildings have long ago convinced us of the painstaking work
which went to produce the results we admire. So that the Greek
sculptor and architect, at least, did not rely solely on their artis-
tic inspiration though they had an unusual amount of it ! but
worked hard on laws governing their art and applied them with
assiduity.

It is, therefore, not a far-fetched idea to suppose that an Athe-
nian potter was akin in spirit to his fellow artists; that he did not
make his shapes as the whim dictated, but designed them before-
hand, and then executed them to given measurements. That
would be the practice of a potter of standing at the present day.
He pins a drawing of his shape on a board by his side and controls
the widths and heights of the pot he is making by the use of rules
and calipers. Why should it not have been the same with his
Greek predecessor who temperamentally was even more prone
to fastidious, accurate work, as the highly finished character
of his products shows? Since Athenian pottery is invariably
" turned" as well as " thrown" on the wheel, a design could be
copied with great faithfulness, while the shrinkage in the fire was,
of course, proportional.

But if we concede that it was natural for the Athenian potter
to design his vases before making them, and that their harmo-
nious proportions are not improbably due to conscious calculation,
there comes the further question: What proportional scheme
did he use in his design? In the past we have not devoted much
attention to this important question, simply because we had no
clue as to what this proportional scheme was. It is true that
Vitruvius mentions a linear unit in architecture and sculpture,
but this has been given up as unworkable, so it seemed useless to
apply it to pottery. But now Mr. Jay Hambidge has come for-
ward with an entirely new suggestion. 1 According to him the
different parts of an Athenian vase are not interrelated in linear

1 Cf. Dynamic Symmetry, The Greek Vase, Yale University Press, 1920.

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY

proportion but in surface areas. In other words, the proportion
is not arithmetical but geometrical. And it has this further
property that it is the same proportion which is operative in
nature; for it apparently occurs in plant and shell life and, per-
haps, even in our own skeletons. So that it is not an arbitrary
formula, but a principle identical with that underlying the pro-
cesses of natural growth, and as such one that would help to ex-
plain the peculiar sense
of rhythm and vitality
of Greek art. To sup-
port his theory Mr.
Hambidge has meas-
ured or rather had
measured for him a
large number of vases
in different museums,
analyzed them accord-
ing to his geometrical
scheme, 1 and found
that they conformed
with surprising accu-
racy. Mr. Caskey has
done the same with
over two hundred
vases in the Boston
Museum and has come
to the same conclu-
sion. Professor Rhys
Carpenter, however, in FIGURE 1. AMPHORA: ME*ROPOLITAN

a recent number of the MUSEUM: NEW YORK.

AMERICAN JOURNAL

OF ARCHAEOLOGY, 1921, No. I, pp. 17 ff., has not only questioned
this evidence, but presented what to him appear serious objections
to the theory. As the question at issue is of importance, and Mr.
Carpenter's difficulties are not those of a single person but shared
by others who, perhaps, have not gone so fully into the matter
as he has, it is worth while to meet these objections, if possible.
Mr. Carpenter's two chief contentions are briefly that (a) Mr.

1 In this article we take for granted an elementary knowledge of this scheme
on the part of our readers. We are throughout using the terms adopted by Mr.
Hambidge.

62 GISELA M. A. RICHTER

Hambidge's geometrical ratios are purely accidental and, per-
haps, due to skilful manipulation on the author's part; and in
many cases an arithmetical linear ratio can be made to serve as
well; and (b) that to obtain Mr. Hambidge's geometrical ratios
is a matter of such abstruse mathematics that we cannot credit
the " humble slaves" which produced Athenian pottery with this
advanced knowledge.

Mr. Caskey in his Geometry of Greek Vases, pp. 26-34, has dealt
at length with Mr. Carpenter's attempts to translate dynamic
ratios into linear units, and, we will refer the reader to his conclu-
sions. I propose here to deal chiefly with Mr. Carpenter's other
contention that the dynamic scheme is so " redoubtable " and
" mystify ing" that it is unlikely to have been used by the Athe-
nian potters. To try and settle this point we must be no longer
analyzers of Greek vases, but designers of them. In other words,
we must no longer deal with a vase as a finished product, of which
the proportional scheme has to be determined, but with the
shape as it might exist in the brain of the artist. Let us imagine,
then, that we are the Greek potter who is designing the beautiful
black-figured amphora (Fig. 1) a vase chosen at random, 1 as one
of obviously fine proportions and one that has not been hitherto
measured. The measurements of this amphora are:

Total height 47 . 1 cm.

Totalwidth 38.2

Width of lip 24

Height of lip 3.5

Smallest width of neck ,. 15.5

Height to bottom of neck 10.6

Height of foot (with moulding) 3.8

Width of foot . 20.6

Height of handles 44 . 5

Height to projection of handles : 34 . 55 "

The dynamic ratio of its containing rectangle, i.e., its height
divided by its width, is 1.236, which is "two whirling squares."
To obtain such a rectangle all we have to do is to draw one whirl-
ing square AN on top of another MW a very simple geometric
exercise (cf. Fig. 2). By applying a square FW in the whole

1 This amphora and the kalpis described below are both recent accessions of
the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The measurements were taken by Miss Van
Ingen, an assistant in the Classical Department, Mr. Bollo, the Museum de-
signer, and myself, the three of us checking one another's conclusions continu-
ally.

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY

figure AW, and by subdividing the whirling squares into their
component parts of squares and smaller whirling squares again
a very simple undertaking and by drawing the diagonals of the
chief figures so formed, we obtain the salient points as follows:

Width of lip = intersection of the diagonals BJ and EH

Height of lip = intersection of the diagonals CJ and EH

Smallest width of neck = intersection of the diagonals BN and GE

Height of foot= intersection of the diagonals PIT and TQ

Greatest width of foot = intersection of the diagonal FW and side PS (error of

1 mm.)
Height of handles = intersection of the diagonals CH and BJ

The little moulding marking the bottom of the neck comes
exactly on the line of a 1.045 figure applied within the 1.236

FIGURE 2. ANALYSIS OF AMPHORA IN METROPOLITAN MUSEUM.

figure; and the intersection of the diagonal of this 1.045 figure,
KO, and of the square, BL, gives us the point of the projection of
the attachment of the handle a conspicuous point in the design.

GISELA M. A. RICHTER

What is there mystifying and abstruse in this drawing, 1 which
with the help of a rule, a T square and dividers can be made in a
few minutes, and which presupposes only the elementary knowl-
edge of the chief subdivisions of a whirling square? Though
arithmetically these rectangles with their decimal ratios may
seem " redoubtable," geometrically which is the way the de-
signer used them they can be mastered by a child of ten. And

yet there is nothing
mechanical in design-
ing a vase by this
method. The choice
of points which is
the most important
part of the design
is left entirely to the
instinct of the artist;
so that all the method
supplies is a useful
framework within
which the imagination
can play at will. We
may guess that the
artist's procedure was,
perhaps, as follows.
First he drew freehand
a rough sketch of his
shape; then he put

this into a containing rectangle of dynamic ratio, drew his sub-
divisions and diagonals, checked thereby his proportions, and
then altered these where necessary to make them conform to
the dynamic scheme. In time his eye may well have become so
trained that there were hardly any alterations in his first sketch.
To take another example, this time a red-figured kalpis, pur-
chased recently by the Metropolitan Museum (Fig. 3) likewise
a beautiful shape not hitherto measured. ' The measurements are
as follows

Greatest height 37 . 55 cm.

Width, with handles . . ... 39.6 "

Width of body 31 .5 "

Width of lip 14.6 "

Smallest width of neck . . 9.7 "

FIGURE 3. KALPIS: METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM: NEW YORK.

l lt must be remembered that the drawings have been reduced one-fifth of
their full size.

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY

Width at bottom of body 9,2 cm.

Width of foot ' ' ' ' 13^8

Height of foot (with moulding) 2.21

Height of handles at side 25 . 89

Height of handle at back 35 . 85

Height to top of panel at shoulder '. . 31 . 55

Height to top of palmette border 23 . 35

Height to bottom of palmette border 20. 15

These give the following ratios:

Rectangles formed by the greatest height and the greatest width (i.e., including
the handles), 1.0557, which is the reciprocal of the figure made up of half a
square plus the reciprocal of a root five rectangle (.5 +.4472).

Rectangle formed by the greatest height and the width of the body, 1.191,
which is two squares minus half a whirling square (2 .809).

From the designer's point of view these " redoubtable " rec-
tangles are obtained by very simple methods. The drawing of a
square, its bisection, and the addition of a root five rectangle on
the longer side of the half square gives the allover shape (Fig. 4).
By subdivisions of the obvious component parts, such as drawing

FIGURE 4. ANALYSIS OF KALPIS IN METROPOLITAN MUSEUM.

a square EY and a .809 figure IY in the 1.191 rectangle, and by
drawing the diagonals to these figures, the salient points are easily
obtained as follows :

GISELA M. A. RIGHT ER

Width of lip = intersection of the diagonal AZ and the side IJ (of the .809 figure)
Smallest width of neck = intersection of the diagonals AZ and OF
Width at bottom of body = intersection of the diagonal QJ with side RT
Width at top of foot = intersection of the diagonals MZ and VN
Height of foot = intersection of the diagonal QU and side RT (of square in *5
rectangle SX>

Height of handles at side = continuation of line VK to side AO

Attachment of handles at side = intersection of diagonal LD and side BP

Height to top of panel on shoulder = end EG of square EY

Height to top of palmette border = intersection of diagonals OF and AZ

Height to bottom of palmette border = intersection of diagonal LD and side BP

The whole performance amounts to a rather delightful draw-
ing exercise without

B c D any use of compli-

cated ratios or num-
bers one which we
can well credit any
intelligent Greek to
master with ease.
Mr. Carpenter makes
much of the supposed
ignorance and lowly
status of the potters.
As a matter of fact
these potters were
merely non-citizens,
foreigners who might
be highly intelligent
people. And all we
have to judge them
by their work
shows us that they
were masters of their
art; so highly expert
in all the technical
difficulties of their
profession, that their
FIGURE 5. ANALYSIS OF MODERN VASE. intelligence is

vouched for.

As a third example let us take not a Greek vase but a modern
one, which was designed and executed according to dynamic

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY 67

symmetry (Fig. 5). As it is a very simple scheme, it may help
to show how easy such a design can be. The containing rectangle
(the greatest height, 25.4 cm., by the greatest width, 15.7 cm.)
has a ratio of 1.618. That is, it consists of a whirling square,
obtained by drawing a square EM, bisecting one side of it at j[
and making the line DJ equal to the line EJ. We apply a square
in this figure on the end AD, and thereby have two squares over-
lapping to the extent of figure El. We likewise apply a square
in the smaller whirling square AG, namely BG. If we draw the
diagonals of the figures thus formed, our salient points are ob-
tained very neatly as follows :

Width of lip = intersection of the diagonals AL and EC
Smallest width of neck = intersection of the diagonals AI and HG
Width at base of body = intersection of the diagonal AL with side HI
Width of foot = intersection of the diagonals AI and EB

Now let us turn to the method of work advocated by Mr.
Carpenter, viz., the use of the linear unit. If we take the actual
measurements of the amphora and of the kalpis, the smallest
common divisor is found to be .01 cm. in both cases. We should
have to suppose, then, that the potter took his rule, divided it
into parts of T&IF cm. in length and then proceeded to get the
widths and heights of the salient points of the vases thereby.
This would be such a " redoubtable" arithmetical feat and the
procedure of work so tedious that it is unthinkable that the
Greeks attempted it. But supposing we allow a reasonable
" workman's error,'' could the static scheme not be made to fit
better? To give it this chance, I sent the measurements to Mr.
Carpenter and the following tables are the best results he could
obtain :

Measure-
Amphora Measurements ments in
Actual Intended Error "Dactyls"

Total height 47.1 cm.. .46.98 cm.+00.12 cm.. .27

Extreme width 38.2 .... 38.28 ... -00.08 22

Foot: height (to middle of base ring

of bowl) 3.6 .... 3. 48... +00. 12 2

width (greatest) 20.6 .... 20.88 . . . -00.28 12

width (on base ring of bowl) . . 12.2 .... 12.18 ... +00.02 7

Bowl: height (from middle of base

ring to join of neck) 32.85 .... 33.06 ... -00.21 19

width (v. "extreme width"

supra)

68 GISELA M. A. RICHTER

Measure-
Amphora Measurements merits in
Actual Intended Error "Dactyls"

Neck: height (with lip) 10.65cm.. 10. 44 cm. +00. 21 cm... . 6

height (without lip) 7. 15 6.96 ... +00. 19 4

least width 15.5 .... 15.66 ...-00.16 9

Lip:height 3.5 .... 3.48 ... +00.02 2

width 24 24.36 . ..-00.36 14

Average error 00 . 161 cm.

Assumed value of dactyl 1 . 74 "

Assumed value of foot 27 . 84 "

Measure-

Kalp's Measurements ments in

Actual Intended Error "Dactyls"

Body: height to top of panel on

shoulders 29.6 cm.. .29.52 cm.+00.08 cm.. . 15

width (greatest) 31.50 31.49 ...+00.01. . 16

width (at bottom) 9.22 9.84 . . . -00.62 5

Neck: height from top of panel on

shoulders (including lip). .. 6.00 5.9 ...+00.10 3

Width 9.7 9. 84. ..-00. 14 5

Lip: width 14.6 .... 14.76. .. -00.16 7

Foot: height (to bottom of mould-
ing) 1.95 1.97 ...-00.02 1

width 13.8 . ... 13. 78... +00. 02 7

Total height of kalpis 37.55 .... 37.40 . . . +00.15 19

Extreme width of kalpis 39 . 6 39 . 36 ... +00 .24 20

Handles: height at side (i.e., distance

aboveground) 25.82 25.58 ...+00.24 13

height of handle at back ... 35.85 35.43 ...+00.42 IS

Projection of handles ( = ' 896 ~ ' 315 j 4.05.... 3.94 ... +00.11 2

Average error 00 . 1777 cm.

Decorations

Height from bottom of body to pal-

mette border (bottom) (=20,15

02.25) 17.90.... 17.71 ... 00.19 9

Height of palmette border ( = 23.35 -

20.15) 3.20 ...

Interval (palmette border to panel on

shoulders=25.05-23.35) 1.7 .... 1.97... 00.27 1

Height of panel on shoulders ( = 31.55

-25.05). N. B. Panel, therefore,

twice as high as palmette border ... 6.5.... ...

Distance from bottom of palmette

border to top of panel on shoulder 11.4 11 .8 ... 00.40 6

Assumed value of dactyl 1 . 968 cm.

Assumed value of foot . . ..31.5"

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY 69

It will be noted (1) that the units of measurement 1.968 cm.
and 1.74 cm. not only vary in the two vases, but are both arbi-
trary, having no apparent relation to the Greek foot; (2) that
to make the vases fit even this scheme, the "error" has to be con-
siderable. When in a width of only 9.22 cm. a reduction is made
of more than 6 mm., the difference is so great that the whole
appearance of a vase is changed thereby. If we allow such
" errors" any vase could be made to fit any scheme. 1

Similar attempts at making actual measurements of vases fit a
static scheme have led Mr. Caskey to the important conclusion
that "in most cases one or more or all of the following obstacles
are encountered: (1) The unit chosen must be arbitrary, hot
some simple division of the Greek foot. (2) The unit must be
made very small, so that the proportions have little more signifi-
cance than a mere record of the dimensions would have. (3) A
large margin or error must be admitted. (4) Even if the propor-
tions can be expressed in fairly large divisions of the Greek foot
no reason appears why those particular lengths were chosen
rather than others."

I will let the reader judge which works out the simpler or more
attractive method of obtaining salient points in Greek vases
geometrically, according to Dynamic Symmetry or arithmeti-
cally, by means of a linear unit. Naturally if the proportions of
Greek vases worked out obviously into static measurements, in
such simple proportions as the example quoted by Mr. Carpen-
ter, op. cit. p. 33 (which is drawn at the small scale of 1 in. by
less than 2 in., when obviously distances would approximate),
we could persuade ourselves that that may have been the method
used; though we should have been surprised to find that the Greek
potter by using so obvious a scheme of proportion obtained such
subtle results. But since actual experiments show that they do
not, and since, therefore, we have to suppose that the potters
continually varied their unit and made it of infinitesimal lengths,
it is difficult to believe that this finicky method of designing was
in use by Athenian potters. And why should we believe that the
Greek potter could not perform the simplest drawings in geom-
etry and yet in arithmetic was so well versed, when we know
definitely that it was geometry rather than arithmetic that the

1 In two other vases measured statically by Mr. Carpenter the results were
similar. For instance, in a foot of a small oinochoe only 12.5 mm. high he was
forced in order to make it conform to allow an error of almost 3 mm.

70 GISELA M. A. RICHTER

Greeks delighted in and were proficient in ; l and that those very
rectangles which to Mr. Carpenter seem so obscure, to the Greeks
were the topic of common conversation, as the discussion at the
opening of Plato's Theaetetus shows (147 D).

Professor Rhys Carpenter concludes his article on Dynamic
Symmetry as follows: "To sum up, when we notice (1) the
multiplicity of indices for the containing rectangles, (2) the
elaborately various and seemingly arbitrary combinations of sub-
rectangles and diagonals by which the chief points of the vase are
established, (3) the complete irrelevance of these rectangles to the
actual areas of the vase, and especially to the contour curves
which are so largely the animating life of an ancient vase, and (4)
the frequent minute divergence between this intricate analysis
and the simple ratios of the linear scale, we must allow that Mr.
Hambidge's discovery of a far-reaching and long-forgotten
Graeco-Egyptian lore of dynamic symmetry is still very much
sub judice. As it stands, the evidence is ingenious, but ambigu-
ous. A priori, the probabilities are all against its being true."
Let us examine these four points in the light of our recent experi-
ence of designing the vases:

(1) and (2) As a matter of fact the multiplicity of indices is not
nearly so great as we may imagine. As Mr. Caskey has shown
(op. cit. p. 25) " a large proportion of vases conform accurately to a
limited number of comparatively simple rectangles," and after
his long experience of measuring actual Greek vases he is able to
write (p. 26), " In actual practice I have found that doubt as to the
choice between two ratios very rarely arises." The same is true
with the points which determine the details of the vases. An
examination of Mr. Carpenter's drawing (Fig. 6, p. 31) might lead
one to suppose that the points to be chosen are so numerous and so
close together that the whole scheme seems absurd. But we must
remember that this drawing is quite misleading because its scale
is too small. Half a millimeter in so tiny a rectangle (less than 4
by 5 cm.!) would mean several millimeters in a full-sized vase,
and when you begin to design you soon find that several milli-
meters make a considerable difference.

1 Cf. on this subject L. Whibley, A Companion to Greek Studies, pp. 200-204,
and A. N. Whitehead, Encyclopaedia Brittanica, s.v. Geometry, p. 71: "The
arithmetic of the ancients was inadequate as a science of number. . . .
Hence, perhaps it arose that till comparatively modern times, appeal to arith-
metical aid in geometrical reasoning was in all possible ways restrained. Geo-
metry figured rather as a helper to the more difficult science of arithmetic."

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY 71

(3) Mr. Carpenter thinks that " the contour-curves are largely
the animating life of an ancient vase" and complains that to Mr.
Hambidge " these outlines are seemingly irrelevant." As a mat-
ter of fact when we try to design Greek shapes we presently dis-
cover that it is the proportions which largely determine the curves.
We need only attempt, for instance, to widen the neck of the
amphora (Fig. 1) by three millimeters (1.5 mm. on each side) to
realize what a much flatter and less " animated" curve that
would produce, or to widen the base of the body by the same small
amount to see how the whole character, not only of the curve, but
of the entire vase would be changed. In short, it is the pro-
portions (which incidentally are the most important factor in
determining the curves) which are the vitalizing element in a
Greek vase.

(2) And why does Mr. Carpenter call these points " arbitrary "?
In geometry the subdivision of rectangles by diagonals and by
perpendiculars to diagonals is anything but arbitrary. The
rectangles so formed are always intimately related to the larger
rectangle, and can be expressed in terms of the containing rec-
tangle, for any minor shape produced by a cutting of a major
shape is by mathematical necessity in terms of the whole. So
that such subdivisions produce a theme of interrelated rectangles,
comparable, we might say, to the phrases of a musical composition.

(3) But there is another objection to these "points" which
troubles Mr. Carpenter it is what to him appears "the complete
irrelevance of the rectangles to the actual areas of the vase."
He explains this difficulty at length in the earlier part of his arti-
cle: "The geometry is all in rectangular areas, but the coincidence
of these areas with the vase is a matter largely of points on lines.
Thus a certain area will establish the width of the lip, but it is not
properly the area of the lip which is so determined, it is its linear
horizontal extension. Actually, it is mainly the linear measure-
ments along horizontal and vertical axes which are determined by
this geometry of rectangular areas." But how would Mr. Carpen-
ter have us design anything a vase, a capital, a temple or a chair
if not on the flat? That has always been the practice of archi-
tects or of designers of anything in three dimensions, whether
rectangular or rounded, and it is difficult to imagine any other
method. There again actual practice in designing is a great
help, for it teaches us what, perhaps, seems strange at first
thought that the proportions upon a single vertical plane de-

72 GISELA M. A. RICHTER

termine the proportions of an object in three dimensions, and the
beauty of a temple facade, of a column, of the hull of a ship, as
well as of a vase, is determined by the proportions of a rectangular
section. And very naturally "the hastiest measurements per-
formed on a photograph" do not tally with such a design on
paper; nor do the measurements on the photograph of any build-
ing tally with those of its blue print for the simple reason that in
an object of three dimensions you have to deal with perspective.

(4) For Mr. Carpenter's fourth objection, the frequent minute
divergence between the "intricate" dynamic analysis and the
"simple" ratios of the linear scale we have already referred to
Mr. Caskey's conclusions (op. cit. p. 28). Moreover, in o'ur own
experiments we have learned that at least in the designing of
Greek vases (as against the analysis of them) the dynamic scheme
is often simple compared to the intricate mathematics the use of a
linear unit entails.

We must not conclude without a brief reference to another at-
tack on Dynamic Symmetry by Edwin M. Blake of Brooklyn,
New York, published in the Art Bulletin for March 1921. This
attack is based, as Mr. Blake expresses it, on "mathematical and
psychological" grounds. The mathematical objection resolves
itself into the multiplicity of possible indices and this we have
dealt with above. It is perfectly true that by putting in every
conceivable subdivision of the various rectangles the scheme is
reduced to absurdity. But actual experience with analyses of
Greek vases shows that the Greeks did not subdivide their rec-
tangles in such a far-fetched, intricate manner, but used only the
obvious component parts. Any proportional scheme can be re-
duced to absurdity in like manner. If we held that the Greeks
used a linear unit, the possible division of linear lengths into in-
finitesimal parts would not militate against the scheme, as long as
the designers actually used large, simple divisions. It is only
when analyses prove that the linear unit, if used, was a small
fraction, that the theory becomes untenable. Similarly, in dy-
namic symmetry if actual analyses showed that such an intricate
scheme as Mr. Blake suggests was in use, we should, of course, all
agree that the idea was absurd. But actual experience demon-
strates it was not, and that Greek vases can be analyzed in a much
simpler and more obvious method.

Mr. Blake's "psychological" objections are, perhaps, too per-
sonal to have general application. But we may point out that

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY

though Mr. Blake sees no beauty in certain figures of specific
proportions, Plato did. He thought, for instance, half of the root-
three rectangle (i. e. the scalene triangle in which the square of
the greater side is three times that of the smaller) the "most
beautiful" shape. 1 Moreover it is not only the containing shape,
but its possibilities for design through its coordinating properties
that make it of artistic value. So that if Mr. Blake says that
"we cannot base differences of artistic quality on the distinction
between rational and irrational quantities because the eye is pow-
erless to make the distinction," this is a purely personal confession.
As it stands, then, we agree with Mr. Carpenter that Mr.
Hambidge's discovery is still sub judice. No discovery of such
far-reaching importance as this one can be accepted without long
and many-sided weighing of the pros and cons of the evidence.
But in order to determine finally this question, it is essential that
as many archaeologists as possible should work independently on
the problem take their own careful measurements from actual
vases and make their own analyses and, if possible, their own
designs, and then see where this cumulative evidence leads us
to. A priori, however, it seems to me, given the painstaking
temperament of the Greek artist and the subtle character of the
dynamic scheme, there is a possibility that we are at last in
possession of the actual working scheme of Greek design.

GlSELA M. A. RlCHTER.

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART,
NEW YORK.

1 Cp. Timaeus, 54 C.

74 RHYS CARPENTER

PROFESSOR CARPENTER'S REPLY

Miss Richter was good enough to include in her article some,
calculations of mine by which I showed that the amphora and
kalpis could be very simply measured off on a linear rule if (and,
of course, only if) we allowed a workman's error averaging some-
what less than two millimeters. The suggestion was that the
potter would measure off foot, bowl, neck, and so forth with a
graduated rule, so as to get the elements of the vase into propor-
tion. The rule was a rough approximation to a foot rule divided
into sixteen dactyls. 1 The tables show that the dimensions of
the two vases can be read off with such a foot rule in terms of
simple numerical units, if we allow that the potter did not trouble
to be perfectly exact. I dare say he worried more about getting
his curves and lines to suit his eye than about following a purely
mathematical precision. Even so, the table shows that he usually
transgressed by very little more -than a millimeter.

The suggestion of such a discrepancy is anathema to the Dy-
namic Symmetrists : well may it be, since they have pledged them-
selves to the ideal accuracies of geometry. Yet two millimeters
is not much of an error. Miss Richter's own geometry is out by
more than half that. In her Figure 1 the " dynamic ratio," on
which the whole performance depends, is fixed at 1.236; yet 47.1
divided by 38.2 ("its height divided by its width") really yields
1.233 which means that the actual amphora is more than a milli-
meter too low for the dynamic scheme. 2

Aristotle has here a wise and healing word. In Eth. NIC. 1098
a 27 he says, XP^ Kal TT\V d/cpi/3eiaj> firj 6/xotcos kv awaffLV tTrtfrjTeiv,
dXX' tv e/cdoTou Kara rrjv VTroKeifJLevrjv v\r)v Kai kirl TOGOVTOV </>' 6o~ov
olnflov rrj ne66du>. Kal yap T'IKTUV Kai 7cojurpi7s Sta^epoprcos eTrifrjroOcri
rr)v opdrjv- o jj.lv yap e<f>' cxrov xPW'wn ^pos TO epyov, 6 de rl kffriv fj

TTOLOV TL.

The minute accuracy demanded and delighted in by the Dy-
namic Symmetrists is a transference of modern scientific usage into
a wholly irrelevant context. I doubt if very many people meas-

1 The ancient potter had obviously no arithmetic to perform in this connec-
tion. The elaborate arithmetical calculations of which Miss Richter complains
are wholly modern and (alas!) wholly mine.

2 1.236X38.2 = 47.215. In the kalpis of Fig. 3, 1.0557 should strictly be
1.0546, and 1.191 should be 1.192.. These are trifling discrepancies, but they
somewhat dim the lustre of an apparent three-place decimal accuracy.

DYNAMIC SYMMETRY 75

ured anything accurately to the fraction of a millimeter before
modern times. Miss Richter grants that even a photograph of a
vase will not yield true measurements "for the simple reason that
in an object of three dimensions you have to deal with perspec-
tive"; and yet this invisible accuracy is demanded for the vase
itself.

But it is of capital importance to realize that even if the potters
did not measure off their vases in the way that I have suggested,
this is not the slightest proof that they used the method of designing
by Dynamic Symmetry. It is the strength of Mr. Hambidge's
whole contention about Dynamic Symmetry that its employment
in ancient times cannot be disproved; it is its weakness that it
also cannot be proved. In that respect it rather resembles the
Ptolemaic system of astronomy.

To keep to Miss Richter 's excellent distinction between (1) the
modern analyst, and (2) the ancient potter,

(1) Mr. Blake l and I tried to show (and I think on the whole
we succeeded in showing) that the modern analyst's ability to
furnish a satisfactory dynamic analysis for any or every Greek
vase proved nothing whatever about the actual existence of Dy-
namic Symmetry as a practice of ancient Greek potters. Mr. Blake
with an amusing (but I fear malicious) "root 13" of his own de-
vising proceeded to show that there were not one, but many (he
even suggested, mathematically innumerable) dynamic analyses
for any given pot.

Once the probable analysis has been decided upon by the
analyst, all other possibilities and potential constructions are, of
course, eliminated, and we have

(2) The potter's supposed original scheme, which may be com-
paratively simple, as Miss Richter shows. So far, neither Dynamic
Analyst nor skeptic has really proved anything at all about the
ancient potter. I do not see that either of them ever can or will.
If anyone is convinced of the cogency and rationality of fixing the
points through which the outline of a vase is to run, by the pro-
cesses which are advocated in (let us say) Figure 4 of Miss Rich-
ter's article, I think Miss Richter has (for that reader) won her
case.

A few more specific matters invite comment:

1 In Art Bulletin, March, 1921.

76 RHYS CARPENTER

It is inadmissible to maintain that the dynamic proportions
determine the curves. Through given points at base, handle, and
neck, any number of different curves may be drawn.

The analogy between root 5 as it appears in the Hambidgean
geometry of any given Greek vase and the underlying geometry of
nature in phyllotaxis, proportional growth in shell-forms, etc., is
not reputable. (Miss Richter does not press it.)

For the criticism that I have taken advantage of the small
scale of my drawings, see the footnote to p. 32 and lines 2-3 of
p. 34 of my previous article.

I must protest, wholly without rancor, that in her answers to
my four " points" Miss Richter has neither met nor everywhere
grasped the original arguments. But even that must be forgiven
in an adversary who makes such delightful sallies as that against
Mr. Blake for his " purely personal confession" that his eye can-
not distinguish between rational and irrational quantities.

RHYS CARPENTER.
BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.

It is generally futile, as we know, to reply to a reply; the con-
troversy might well be endless. If one's best ammunition has
had so little effect, rl i>a Kanvunev ? But figures fortunately are
figures, and perhaps I may be permitted to point out that (1)
Professor Carpenter's "foot'' rule 27.84 cm. in one case and 31.5
cm. in the other not only does not tally with the Attic foot of
32.7 cm., 1 but presents a variation of 3.66 cm. (or 36.6 mm.) in the
two given cases. Can we really call this " approximation,"
rough or otherwise? (2) The fact that 47.1 cm., the height of the
amphora Fig. 1, divided by 38.2 cm., its width, really yields 1.233
instead of 1.236 makes a difference, it is true, of 1.1 mm.; but this,
if distributed between the two dimensions as it naturally would
be for the calculation of the ratio means only a fraction of a
millimeter. Everyone will allow that this is permissible; for the
"minute accuracy" imputed to Dynamic Symmetrists by Pro-
fessor Carpenter is not of their own contention. There is a
golden mean, however, in pottery as elsewhere, between finicky
and sloppy work.

GISELA M. A. RICHTER.

1 Allowance for shrinkage does not help, since that would amount to
about 10%.

grcfmeologtcal
Unstitutr of
America

GENERAL MEETING OF THE ARCHAEOLOG-
ICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

DECEMBER 28-30, 1921

THE Archaeological Institute of America held its twenty-third
meeting for the reading and discussion of papers at the University
of Michigan December 28, 29, and 30, 1921, in conjunction with
the American Philological Association. Three sessions for the
reading of papers were held, and there were two joint sessions
with the American Philological Association. On December 30
the members of the Institute were the guests of the Detroit
Society of the Institute at luncheon, and of the Detroit Arts and
Crafts Society at tea. The abstracts of the papers which follow
were furnished by the authors.

WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 28. 2.30 P.M.

1. Dr. J. Penrose Harland, of the University of Michigan, The
Minyan Migration.

The results of the recent excavations in Hellas, particularly those conducted
in the Peloponnesus by the American School, have confirmed the conjecture of
Eduard Meyer and other historians, that the first invaders of "Hellenic" or
Indo-European stock arrived in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula ca.
2000 B.C.

In the Early Helladic Period (ca. 2500-2000 B.C.) the Peloponnesus appears
to have been inhabited by a non-Indo-European race akin to the Lycians of
Asia Minor. The evidence from the traditions and dialects points to this, and
the archaeological evidence, which shows a close cultural connection between the
Peloponnesus and the Cyclades in this early period, supplements the other
evidence and ties it up with the Early Helladic Period.

That the regime and civilization of these non-Indo-European Early Helladic
Peloponnesians were brought to an abrupt and sudden end ca. 2000 B.C. by an
invading people from the North (probably South Thessaly and Phocis), is
clearly shown by five or possibly six points of evidence. (1) The Early Helladic
settlement at Korakou was destroyed by a general conflagration at the end of
the Early Helladic Period. Zygouries also shows traces of destruction by fire
at this time. (2) Several Early Helladic sites were destroyed by fire and never
reinhabited. (3) Sudden cessation of the lustrous paint technique and typical
shapes of Early Helladic (hand-made) pottery. (4) Sudden appearance of
wheel-made Gray Minyan ware in highly developed state. Probable origin in
Phocis. Another new ware, matt-painted pottery, also appears, but its prov-

American Institute of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the 77

Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 1.

78 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

enance has not yet been determined. (5) Change in the type of house. The
curvilinear hoop-roofed house supersedes the Early Helladic rectangular house
with a flat roof. (6) Possible change in burial customs.

Of the three strata of dialects in the Peloponnesus, the Indo-European
"Arcadian" follows the non-Indo-European dialect (of the Early Helladic peo-
ple), but precedes the Dorian. Therefore, the Middle Helladic invaders spoke
"Arcadian," and were the first people of "Hellenic" or Indo-European stock to
enter the Peloponnesus, where they arrived ca. 2000 B.C. To these people made
up of many tribes I have applied the name Minyan, as a comprehensive "label
of convenience," because of the conspicuous part that gray Minyan ware
played in this event, and in the first centuries of this people's regime in the
Peloponnesus. The "Minyans" appear to have dominated the. Peloponnesus
from ca. 2000 B.C. until they were forced to yield a greater part of it to the next
invaders, the "Achaeans," ca. 1400 B.C.

2. Professor A. L. Frothingham, of Princeton University,
The Ludovisi Sarcophagus and the Dating of Roman Sarcophagi.

There are various pitfalls in the dating of Roman sarcophagi. The two more
important to which I want to call attention are: (1) The use of inscriptions as
proof of the date of the work; and, (2) The use of the central figure on the
sarcophagi as equally indisputable proof of the date. A fragment in my pos-
session of the cover of a sarcophagus where the framed space for the inscription
remained uninscribed is an example of a quite general fact that a sarcophagus
was often left uninscribed in the work-shop for a long time until purchased,
and that sometimes an inscription was added from one generation to
several centuries after the carving of the sarcophagus. In the same way the
remodelling of the principal figure on a sarcophagus relief to represent the per-
son to be buried in it was often a much later piece of work, in either one of two
cases : either as in the case of the inscription because the sarcophagus had not
been used, or was waiting for its purchaser in the workshop; or, second, because
the sarcophagus, after being used once, was pilfered from its original tomb and
put to the use of a second occupant. An example of this first category is a
fragment also in my collection.

The two greatest sarcophagi of the Roman Empire both in point of artistic
merit and size, belong to this last category: (1) The sarcophagus of porphyry
in the Vatican, which I have proved was originally the sarcophagus of the Em-
peror Marcus Aurelius, stolen later from the mausoleum of Hadrian by the
Emperor Constantine in order to place in it the body of his mother Helena;
(2) The so-called Ludovisi sarcophagus of white marble in the National Mu-
seum in Rome, which is the subject of this paper. It has been more or less of a
mystery because it has been attributed to the latter part of the third century,
when Roman sculpture was in full decadence; and yet is, perhaps, the greatest
masterpiece of Roman dramatic relief sculpture, a masterpiece both in com-
position, in sentiment and in technical execution. This date has been assigned
to it entirely on account of the head of the principal figure on horseback, by
many supposed to be an emperor. This head is undoubtedly a piece of late
third century work. What I shall prove in this paper is that this head is abso-
lutely different in style and execution from every other head on the sarcophagus,

GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 28-30, 1921

that the head was re-cut, and that the sarcophagus itself is a splendid work of
the earlier part of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. It is unique in the wonderful
way in which the background, which is so prominent a part of relief sculpture
in all Greek and Roman art, is here entirely eliminated. Every space is filled
with figures, so that the eye sees nothing but the intensely dramatic battle scene
realistically portrayed in the open. Finally, in its pyramidal-like composition,
in the dying away of the dramatic action toward each end of the relief, and in
the intensity and variety of emotion expressed both in the heads and in the
figures, it is the greatest work of an unknown genius who lived nearly a hundred
years earlier than the time of the supposed execution of the sarcophagus. In
other words, it is a work of about 170 A.D. instead of about 270 A.D.

I had previously shown that the other great sarcophagus, the supposed tomb
of Helena, was in reality the tomb of Marcus Aurelius, whose sculptures were
equally remarkable for their beauty and suppressed dramatic qualities, and
was executed immediately after his death, with a portrayal of the funeral sacri-
fices that accompanied the burial of his body. The Ludovisi sarcophagus I
believe to have originally contained the body of one of the leading generals of
Marcus Aurelius, killed in one of the northern wars of his reign. A century after
his death, his tomb was desecrated, his body thrown out of the sarcophagus and
the head of his figure re-cut to represent the new occupant.

It is interesting to be able to assign these two great works to practically the
same period, and to connect them both with Marcus Aurelius.

3. Dr. Albert M. Friend, of Princeton University, Some Early
Mediaeval Manuscripts in the Library of J. P. Morgan.

Besides the manuscripts in the Library of J. P. Morgan there are very few of
early mediaeval date in America which are illuminated. The New York Public
Library owns a lectionary illuminated probably in the abbey of Corvey near
the Hartz Mountains in the early tenth century, and Mr. Henry Walters pos-
sesses a gospel book with miniatures which resemble those of this same period
of the school of Cologne. In the Library of Mr. Morgan the Ashburnham
Golden Gospels from Lindau (Morgan Ms. 1) can be demonstrated to have been
illuminated in St. Gall together with the Folchard Psalter during the last third
of the ninth century. The back cover of this manuscript which is worked in
gold, silver and enamels, was also made in the same abbey, produced during the
last years of the eighth century. The mutilated gospels from the collection of
the Comte de Troussures (Morgan Ms. 333) is one of a group of manuscripts
illuminated in the abbey of St. Bertin at St. Omer under the abbot Odbertus
(986-1007) . The missing illuminations of thte manuscript may be identified in
the first part of Ms. 56 in the library at St. Omer. The manuscript called the
Gallican Missal from the collection of Henry Yates Thompson (Morgan Ms.
641) was illuminated in the scriptorium of Mont-Saint-Michel. It resembles
most closely Ms. 72 in the library at Avranches. Because of certain allusions
to the return of Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, from the First Crusade
and of certain additions to the list of Saints the Missal can be dated ca. 1100.

4. Professor Georgiana Goddard King, of Bryn Mawr College,
Some Oriental Elements in Mediaeval Spanish Architecture. (Read
by Professor William B. Dinsmoor.)

80 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

Moorish work being excluded, the features selected lie in well-defined regions;
at the east and the north coast, in the basin of the Ebro or the Duero, at Segovia
or at Merida. At Merida Visigothic work is like East-Roman ; near Jaca occurs
the disk and the Syrian apse enclosed within a square wall; the Syrian south
cloister is found at Segovia where Templars were, and in Asturias where exiles
dislodged by Moslems might meet in the seventh and eighth century; there also
the chambers flanking the apse and entrance with other dark chambers above.
The Limousin single-aisled church, and the columns and corbels of Spanish
Romanesque, have also Syrian prototypes. Coptic are the triple apse and
triple dedication of altars in pre-Romanesque; also probably the transeptal east
end of Asturian and Mozarabic churches. The Byzantine centralized type
with roofs at different levels was copied in the east and clumsily in the north.
Domes are all of eastern form (though the most interesting are Moslem), mary
ribbed, and fluted; some are on squinches, some on conical trompes, nine only
on true pendentives. At Zamora and thereabouts is the outside ribbing, like
the Greek; and many Eastern types of moulding appear. Contact with the
East is fairly indicated by (1) Byzantine dominion in the sixth century; (2) cults
of Egyptian gods and Syrian saints; (3) the monastery of Silos, and other eccle-
siastical associations; (4) the trade route by the Ebro to the Atlantic, and
another by the Camino de plata; (5) the Crusades in Navarre and the northeast.
Postscript: the knot is magical.

5. Dr. Carl E. Guthe, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
The Manufacture of Pueblo Indian Pottery.

This paper was based on a detailed study of pottery-making as now carried
on at San Ildefonso, a pueblo near Santa Fe. The investigation was made
under the auspices of the Department of Archaeology of Phillips 'Academy,
Andover, Mass. Its purpose was to record the method of manufacture of
Indian pueblo pottery before innovations were introduced and before com-
mercialization ended the native practice. The various steps in moulding, sun-
drying and scraping, slipping and polishing, decorating and firing the pottery
were explained and illustrated. 1

6. Dr. Gisela M. A. Richter, of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, Notes on Greek Furniture.

No abstract of this paper was received.

7. Professor David M. Robinson, of the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, A New Epitaph from Sinope and a New Epitaph in Dialogue
Form from Sardis.

The first part of this paper dealt with an inscription of the third century
A.D., which was first published by the author in the A. J. P. XXVII, 1906,
p. 448. Recently the inscription has been taken to Constantinople and has
been republished with a photograph in B. C. H. XLIV, 1920, p. 361. The
photograph published now makes the author's readings certain as opposed to

1 In the absence of Dr. Guthe, this summary of his paper was kindly furnished
by Mrs. Guthe.

GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 28-30, 1921 81

those given by Reinach in R. Arch. Ill, 1916, pp. 341 ff. However, in the
last line a new reading, al8y was proposed and several verse translations
were read, including the following:

No tomb is here, only a stone, a slab, a sign
To mark Narcissus full of graceful charm benign.
Goodness was his, noble were all his ways; his heart
Held Pylian Nestor's far-famed speaking art.
Envy, who crushest all things, I upbraid thee, nay
Hast thou no shame at all when such men pass away?

The second part of the paper dealt with a stele found at Sardis in 1914. It
is of the late Hellenistic or Roman type, probably first century B. c., quite
like those discussed in Pfuhl's article in Jb. Arch. I. XX, 1905, pp. 47 ff.,
especially like those on pp. 52, 54. This stele represents in a niche a draped
female figure with similar attendants on either side. In the upper part on a
shelf are represented a lily, papyrus, a basket, and to the left of the lady is
carved an alpha. Below is a metrical Greek inscription which is difficult to
read but which is extremely important for sepulchral symbolism. It may be
rendered into English verse in somewhat this fashion:

Graceful the shape incised upon the carven stone

And delicate the lines of beauty shown.
"But whose?" None of the muses nine. Instead

The name Menophila is plainly read.
"Wherefore the shelved lily and the alpha lone,

The book, the basket, and the wreath of stone?"
Wisdom's the book and what about the head is worn

Means office. Alpha shows an only-born.
Well-woven household virtues in the basket blend

But fate unweaves each interwoven end.
The petaled flower? Like lily pure it was her time

To bloom. Death stole it from the garden of her prime.

"Handful of dust am I." Of such, as many dead,
Are praises sung by friends, and fond words said.

Not so, ah me, with parents. To their silent years
Thy going left a legacy of tears.

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 29. 9.30 A.M.

1. Dr. Harriet Boyd Hawes, of Wellesley College, A Gift of
Themistocles: Two Famous Reliefs in Rome and Boston.

The "Ludovisi Throne" and the Boston tri-partite relief formed the ends and
adjacent side pieces of a couch-altar in the sanctuary of the Lycomids at Phlya.

(1) The fish and pomegranate shown on the Boston relief were food forbidden
to initiates in Attic mysteries. These attributes and early rules of Greek
iconography make the seated figure on the left of the Boston relief Demeter, the
one on the right Persephone. Between them stands Eros. Only at Phlya were

82 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

these three divinities worshipped together. Themistocles restored and deco-
rated the Lycomid sanctuary at Phlya, which had been burnt by the Persians.
Time and place accord with the style of the reliefs. (2) At Phlya Earth was
named the Great Goddess and her mysteries antedated the mysteries at Eleusis.
Phlyus was accounted her son, Lycus her great-grandson. The central figure
on the "Ludovisi Throne" is Mother Earth supported by attendants who may
be called the Ismenian Nymphs; Pausanias mentions a House of Lycus near
Ismenus' shore and an altar of the Ismenian Nymphs at Phlya. (3) The veiled
woman on the Roman relief is a priestess celebrating the mysteries of Earth.
(4) The old woman on the Boston relief is a ministrant in the mysteries of Earth.
The object she held in her hand was a horn; it has been chiselled away because
of its mystic connections. Other mystic objects, such as liknon and ptuon,
stood in front of her completing the required width of the slab. (5) The youth
on the Boston relief is a young Lycomid chanting hymns of Orpheus in honor of
Eros, as narrated by Pausanias. (6) The flute-player on the Roman relief is also
celebrating the Lycomid rites of Eros.

The ideas embodied in these marbles are "Orphic"; they were derived from
the pre-Hellenic religion and formed the background of Euripides, whose child-
hood was spent at Phlya in the days when these reliefs were being carved.

2. Professor George W. Elderkin, of Princeton University, (a)
A Possible Allusion to the Erechtheum in the Peace of Aristophanes;
(b) Salmoxis and the Lysippean Portrait of Alexander.

These papers will be published in full.

3. Professor Howard Crosby Butler, of Princeton University,
The Bearing of Proportions upon the Dating of Ionic Columns.

The material of this paper will appear in full in Volume II

of Sardis.

4. Professor William B. Dinsmoor, of Columbia University,
Structural Iron in Greek Architecture.

This paper will be published in full in a later number of the
JOURNAL.

5. Miss Emily L. Wadsworth, of Meriden, Connecticut, Stucco
Reliefs in Rome.

The use of stucco reliefs, that is of modelled stucco or plaster, was very popu-
lar for interior decoration in Rome during the first two centuries of the Empire.
Thanks to the medium used, and to the employment of a method both expedi-
tious and practical, that of working free hand quickly before the plaster could
dry, the reliefs are usually full of spirit, freedom and originality. Several
important examples are well known the decorated vaults from the house dis-
covered in the Farnesina gardens, and the interiors of the Tombs of the Valerii
and of the Pancratii on the Latin Way. There are others, less well known,
which are, perhaps, even more interesting. At Castel Gandolfo, on the wall of a

GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 28-30, 1921 83

semicircular corridor in the theatre built by Domitian in his Alban Villa, there
is a continuous frieze with subjects appropriately connected with the stage.
Two tombs recently discovered under the church of San Clemente on the Ap-
pian Way contain reliefs which are coarser and heavier, but at the same tune
very decorative and attractive. The reliefs which decorate the walls, piers and
vaults of the so-called Underground Basilica, the most spectacular of the recent
discoveries in Rome, add greatly to the mysterious atmosphere of the monu-
ment. The range covered by the subjects is very great, including mythological
scenes, genre and humorous scenes, rustic shrines, portrait heads, cult objects,
stylized victories and subordinate ornamental motives.

6. Professor C. P. Morey, of Princeton University, The Origin
of the Asiatic (Sidamara) Sarcophagi.

The additions to the series made by Weigand (Jb. Arch. I. 1914), and by
Stohlman (A J.A. 1921) have increased the known examples of the Asiatic
(Sidamara) sarcophagi to about 55. A monograph on the series as a whole,
including a catalogue raisonne, will be published by the writer as a fascicle of
H. C. Butler's Sardis in 1922. The present paper is a resume" of a chapter
of this monograph, dealing with the location of the atelier which produced the
earlier sarcophagi of the series in the second half of the second century.

That the series as a whole was made in Asia is now generally admitted.
Proof of origin in Asia Minor is found in the fact the majority of the examples
found in situ were discovered in Asia Minor, in the persistent resemblance of
the architectural motifs of the sarcophagi to details of Asiatic buildings, in the
eastern character of the marble, wherever analysis has been made, and the
Asiatic provenance of the specific parallels for certain figure-types used by the
sculptors of the atelier.

Weigand has isolated the types of the Lesbian cyma used in Syria, Asia
Minor, Greece and Italy in the second century A.D., and the Lesbian cyma of the
sarcophagi conforms to the Asiatic variety. Another peculiarity of the earlier
sarcophagi is the concave entablature flanking the central aedicula, as on the
sarcophagus of Mem, a disposition which reproduces that of the prostas of
Asiatic stage fagades, such as that of Azani and especially Sagalassus. The
later sarcophagi of the earlier group imitate the later stage facades of Asia
Minor when the entablatures have become of rectangular plan throughout.

The sarcophagus discovered at Sardis enables us to limit the centre of produc-
tion to the vicinity of Sardis, since the neglect shown in carving the right lateral
face shows that the sculptor was acquainted with the position to the right of the
steps of the tomb which the sarcophagus was to occupy, and where such neglect
would not be noticeable. The Sardis example belongs to the earlier group of
the series, and shows thus that its atelier must have been in the vicinity of
Sardis. The distribution of the earlier group in Asia Minor reveals that all but
one of the inland examples were found in Lydia or on its borders; hence Weigand
was right in guessing that they were produced in Lydia. Six have been found
in Lydia; five in coast towns of Asia Minor to which they could have been ex-
ported; five more in Italy where export is certain. This indicates a seaport as
the centre of export. Of the two seaports of Lydia, Smyrna and Ephesus, the
latter has most in its favor. The copying of a detail of the frieze of the Ionic

84 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

temple on the Ilissus on one of the sarcophagi and also on a relief found at
Ephesus, in both cases with an accuracy that extends to the actual dimensions,
indicates that sarcophagus and relief were executed in the same atelier. The
ornament of the Lydian group is closely paralleled by that of the upper story of
the Library at Ephesus, finished under Antoninus Pius, and one of the most
popular of the figure types used in the Lydian atelier is being fashioned by one
of the sculptors in the representation of a studio carved in relief on a fragment
from Ephesus in the Ottoman Museum. In Lycia the sarcophagi seem to have
been known as &yyeia 'A.<riai>&. in contrast to the local ones which bore the name
of byytLa TOTTtKa (cf. inscription published by Heberdey, Sitz. Wien. Akad.
XLV, 2, p. 27, No. 26). 'A(nav6s at this period could only refer to the
Roman province of Asia of which Ephesus was the capital. The atelier which
produced the earlier group to which the Sardis example belongs is thus seen to
be Lydian, having its centre probably in Ephesus. The evidence for the loca-
tion of the later atelier which produced the sarcophagus of Sidamara and its
congeners is less decisive, but points to a centre in the north of Asia Minor,
possibly one of the sea-coast cities, as Cyzicus, Nicaea, or Nicomedia.

7. Dr. Edgar L. Hewett, of the School of American Research,
Sante Fe, Native American Painters.
No abstract of this paper was received.

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 30. 9.30 A.M.

1. Mr. Emerson H. Swift, of Princeton University, Imagines in
Imperial Portraiture.

This paper will be published in full in a later number of the
JOURNAL.

2. Mr. Clarence Kennedy, of Smith College, New Photographs
of Greek Sculpture.

No abstract of this paper was received.

3. Professor A. L. Frothingham, of Princeton University,
Medusa as Artemis in the Temple at Corfu.

The results of the German Emperor's excavation of a very archaic temple at
Corfu are about to be published, according to Professor Dorpfeld, who directed
the excavations in 1910 and subsequent years. In 1911 I said that the temple
might be one of Artemis and made the revolutionary suggestion of the identity
of Medusa with Artemis in this instance, owing to the extraordinary fact that
the central figure in the terra-cotta pedimental sculptures of this temple was a
figure of the Gorgon Medusa flanked by her two children, Pegasus and Chrysaor,
and by her two colossal lions. I expressed this theory in a letter published in
the Nation and in an article in the American Journal of Archaeology of the same
year. Recently Dr. Dorpfeld writes me that an inscription discovered after
the publication of my theory has proved that the temple was in fact a temple of

GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 28-30, 1921 85

Artemis and he has accepted my theory of the identification of Medusa with
both the Goddess and the Sun and that the temple was dedicated to her. This
should put an end to the old theory of Medusa as a frightful, evil demon and a
bogey, which I have been fighting ever since 1910, and is the most spectacular
proof of my theory, that she was a goddess, which I expect to embody in a
special volume.

There are two phases in the creation and development of the Gorgon Medusa.
Originally she is pre-Olympian. She is a child of Mother Earth and belongs to
the primitive stage of proto-Hellenic religion, the matriarchal stage when the
mother goddess was supreme and when the great snake, the emblem of life, was
also the emblem of the great productive forces of mother earth. Medusa was
the embodiment of this material productive force. The second stage in the
Gorgon evolution coincided with the substitution of the male for the female
deity as leader of the Pantheon, when in the duality of productive forces the
father-sun-heat took the upper hand of the other element in the production of
life, the mother-earth-moisture element. In this second phase the darting
snakes of the solar heat around the Gorgon's nimbus were symbolic of one side
of the Gorgon's function, in the same way as the great snakes at her girdle were
symbolic of the earth moisture forces of the great mother.

The pediment at Corfu is unique not only in its subject but in its importance
as by far the earliest pedimental sculpture of Greek art. The rest of the pedi-
mental sculptures besides the Gorgon and her four accompanying figures repre-
sent apparently the primitive conflict between the gods and the giants and the
victory of the forces of order over chaos. Zeus appears as a subordinate figure
in the fight. The two children of Medusa represent the two elements of heat
and moisture. Chrysaor is Apollo in his character of sun-god. In historical
times the epithet of Apollo as a solar god was Chrysaor, and his darting arrows
are described as snakes. Pegasus, the horse, is of course the well-known em-
blem of Poseidon, the god of waters, and therefore in primitive Medusa sym-
bolism represented the other element, moisture. At Corfu, therefore, Medusa
is the great producing force of the universe through a combination of heat and
moisture. She is the presiding genius over the creative evolution out of which
world order is produced. There are a number of small decorative pedimental
compositions with the Gorgon head as central figure, both as a solar and as a
vegetation or fertility emblem. They are, therefore, echoes of the thought
embodied in the Corfu pediment.

4. Professor George Grant McCurdy and Professor Charles
Peabody, of the American School of Prehistoric Studies in France,
The New Prehistoric School: America Digging in France.

The new School of Prehistoric Studies began excavations on time at the
beginning of July, 1921, in an abri, or rock-shelter of Mousterian epoch,
adjoining the famous Mousterian Station of La Quina, near Villebois-Lavalette,
(Charente). This site had been awarded the American School by Dr. Henri
Martin, of Paris, from whose original idea the School took birth. The workers
were the Director, Professor George Grant MacCurdy, of Yale University and
Mrs. MacCurdy, Miss Crockett of Radcliffe College, Miss MacCurdy the niece
of the Director, and Mr. A. W. Pond, a graduate of Beloit College, and the

86 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

winner of the scholarship of two thousand francs offered by the School. Dur-
ing two months of excavation, mostly confined to the American abri, but oc-
casionally running over into other upper palaeolithic stations, a fair quantity of
stone implements, especially scrapers was found, and very many animal bone
fragments and teeth (the reindeer, horse, bison and hyena were most numer-
ously represented). A fine pointe de la gravette, a bone point and a hunter's
bone tally of Aurignacian age are among the unusual specimens found. The
most important thing to emphasize is the opportunity the students have there
of doing their own excavating and learning at first hand the value of specimens;
also the privilege which is theirs of studying in the well equipped laboratory of
Dr. Martin near by, and of profiting by his advice. After the close of the
digging, excursions were taken to the Dordogne and to the sites and caverns of
Lot, and the Pyrenees; these included the famous Tuc d'Audubert and Trois
Freres, shown by the hospitality of Count Be*gouen. The budget for the
second year is guaranteed, applications for the two scholarships offered are
coming in, and there is no reason for discouragement as to the immediate
future of the School.

5. Dr. W. Frederick Stohlman, of Princeton University, The
Primitive Christian Cycle in Asia Minor.

The student of Early Christian art is struck by the disparity between the
great number of monuments found in Rome, dating from the first four centu-
ries, and the corresponding dearth of monuments found in Asia Minor. The
catacomb paintings and sarcophagi of Rome furnish a comprehensive cycle of
scenes, whereas for Asia Minor we have to wait until the sixth century to con-
struct even a limited cycle. But a very complete cycle for Asia Minor can be
reconstructed if, instead of confining ourselves to monuments found in Asia
Minor, we take into account those at Rome and elsewhere that show a close
connection with Asia Minor 'art. Now the columnar sarcophagi of Rome and
Gaul show the closest connection in architectural arrangement, style and canon
of the figure with the pagan columnar sarcophagi of Asia Minor. The early
columnar types of Rome and Gaul copy the types of the Asia Minor sarcophagi
in the use of the three niched, arch and gable, five arch, and level entablature
types. As time goes on these forms break down into fantastic combinations
and in addition there arise such forms as the city gate, where the background is
filled with a succession of gates with crenellations, the tree type, where the
branches of trees form the arcade, the Red Sea type and the Star and Wreath
type. These types, distinguished as they are from the ordinary frieze sar-
cophagus by their architecture, are further marked by a distinctive cycle of
scenes, scenes which never occur on frieze sarcophagi and a good many of which
continue in Asia Minor and Byzantine art of a later date.

The scenes found on columnar sarcophagi and never on those of the frieze
type are: (1) Beardless Moses in the Crossing of the Red Sea; (2) Job; (3) Mar-
riage of the Virgin; (4) Joseph's Dream; (5) Christ healing two blind men;
(6) Christ healing the paralytic at the pool of Bethesda; (7) Christ and the cen-
turion; (8) Christ washing the feet of Peter; (9) Crown of thorns; (10) Simon of
Cyrene; (11) Symbolic Crucifixion; (12) Paul stoned at Lystra; (13) Execution
of Paul; (14) Peter released from prison by the Angel; (15) Peter led to execu-

GENERAL MEETING, DECEMBER 28-80, 1921

tion, Peter carrying the cross. To this list must be added another almost as
exclusively confined to the columnar type: (1) Isaac on the altar in the sacri-
fice of Isaac; (2) Beardless Moses receiving the laws; (3) Beardless Moses strik-
ing the rock; (4) Ascension of Elijah; (5) Hebrews refusing to worship the image;
(6) Betrayal; (7) Christ before Pilate; (8) Delivery of keys to Peter.

This list alone would mark the columnar sarcophagi as a group apart, but
they are grouped together by stronger ties than iconography since they are dis-
tinguished from the frieze sarcophagi by marked characteristics in the architec-
tural arrangement. These architectural features are derived in some cases
directly and in others indirectly from pagan Asia Minor sarcophagi, and this
alone would make us look to Asia Minor for the place of origin of the scenes.
But when this is reinforced by the appearance of these scenes in later Asia
Minor and Byzantine art, and in many cases by tneir limitation to Asiatic and
Byzantine art, we can feel confident that they represent the Primitive Christian
Cycle of Asia Minor.

6. Professor Ernest T. Dewald, of Rutgers College, The Appear-
ance of the Horseshoe Arch in Western Europe.

This paper will be published in full in a later number of the
JOURNAL.

7. Dr. J. Penrose Harland, of the University of Michigan,
American Excavations at Zygouries, near Corinth.

No abstract of this paper was received.

1921
July- December

ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS 1

NOTES ON RECENT EXCAVATIONS AND
DISCOVERIES; OTHER NEWS

SIDNEY N. DEANE, Editor
Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS

AN EPIGRAPHIC BULLETIN. In R. fit. Gr. XXXIII, 1920, pp. 403-432,
P. ROUSSEL gives a classified list of books and periodical articles relating to
Greek epigraphy which have appeared in the years 1917-1919, together with
brief indications of their contents.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WESTERN ASIA. In Exp. Times, XXXIII,
1921, pp. 37-39, A. H. SAYCE discusses the latest Babylonian, Hittite, Pal-
estinian, and Egyptian discoveries that bear upon the interpretation of the
Old Testament.

CONSTANTINOPLE. Two Inscriptions. Two inscriptions in Constan-
tinople are published by K. LEHMANN in Ath. Mitt. XLII, 1917, pp. 185-190
(fig.) ; one an apparently Ephebic list of about 250 names, of late Hellenistic
date, and possibly from Cyzicus, and the other from a Christian tombstone.

CYPRUS. Archaic Sculptures. In' Ath. Mitt. XL, 1915, pp. 53-70 (4 pis.;
10 figs.), M. OHNEFALSCH-RICHTER publishes five archaic sculptures from Fran-
gissa in Cyprus, now in the British Museum. Of these three, a four-horse
chariot group and two bearded heads, are of terra-cotta, and are of local work-
manship, influenced by both Greek and Phoenician art. The other two are
beardless heads of limestone, sex uncertain.

EMMONA. Excavations in 1916. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919,
Beiblatt, cols. 155-164 (4 figs.), W. SCHMID describes the excavations at Em-
mona in 1916 and gives plans*of the streets and buildings.

NECROLOGY. Geoffrey d'Ault-Dumesnil. The vice-president of the
prehistoric section of the Association pour 1'enseignement des sciences anthro-
pologiques, Geoffroy d'Ault-Dumesnil, died at Paris, March 11, 1921, at the
age of 78 years. His explorations, especially of the megalithic monuments of
Brittany, and his collections of the lesser remains of prehistoric times, as well

i The departments of Archaeological News and Discussions and of Bibliography of Archae-
ological Books are conducted by Professor DEANE, Editor-in-charge, assisted by Professor SAM-
UEL E. BASSETT, Professor C. N. BROWN, Miss MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, Dr. T. A. BUENGER,
Professor HAROLD N. FOWLER, Professor HAROLD R. HASTINGS, Professor ELMER T. MERRILL,
Professor LEWIS B. PATON, Professor A. S. PEASE, Professor JOHN C. ROLFE, Dr. JOHN SHAPLEY,
Professor A. L. WHEELER and the Editors, especially Professor BATES.

No attempt is made to include in this number of the JOURNAL material pub
December 3 1,1921.

For an explanation of the abbreviations, see pp. 129-130.

90 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

as the extent and sureness of his knowledge, were well-known and appreciated.
Unfortunately he published almost nothing. (S. R., R. Arch. XIII, 1921, p.
153.)

Alfred Cartier. Alfred Cartier, a scholar whose chief, but by no means sole
interest was in prehistoric archaeology and the history of art, was born August
30, 1854, at Geneva where he died June 8, 1921. A very appreciative notice of
his life and work, with a bibliography, is published by S. REINACH, R. Arch.,
fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 179-181.

E. Bormann. Eugen Bormann died March 4, 1917. He was born October
6, 1842, and succeeded Hirschfeld at Vienna in 1885. As a pupil of Mommsen
he was especially interested in Latin inscriptions and devoted many years to
the eleventh volume of the C. I. L. (Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919, Beiblatt,
cols. 347-350.)

Max Dvorak. Max Dvorak, a pupil of Wickhoff and Professor of the
History of Art at the University of Vienna, died at Vienna, February 8, 1921, at
the age of 47 years. His best-known work, on the riddle of the art of the broth-
ers Van Eyck, appeared in the Jahrbuch of the Austrian museums. He pub-
lished also a monograph on the Palazzo Venezia and was editor of the Jahrbuch
of the Zentral-commission for the study of monuments and of the short-lived
Kunstgeschichtliche Anzeigen. (S. R., R. Arch. XIII, 1921, p. 152.)

Robert de Lastegrie. In R. Arch., fifth series, XIII, 1921, pp. 147-150,
SALOMON REINACH contributes a notice of Robert de Lastegrie, who was for
many years generally considered the chief of French mediaevalists. He was
born at Paris, November 15, 1849, and died at the chateau du Saillant (Correge)
January 29, 1921 . He was not a very prolific writer, but his works are solid and
valuable. Perhaps the most important among them is L' architecture religieuse
en France (Vol. I, fipoque romane, 1912), in which he maintains the derivation of
Romanesque from Roman architecture.

Jules Nicole. The foremost Swiss Hellenist, Jules Nicole, was born at
Geneva in 1842 and died in the same city April 14, 1921. His most important
single publication is that of the Geneva papyri (Vol. I, 1896) ; in one of these he
embodied new evidence relating to the trial of Phidias (J. Nicole, Le proces de
Phidias, Geneva, 1910). (S. R., R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, p. 182.)

Joseph Offord. Joseph Offord, hardly a professional archaeologist, but
nevertheless author of numerous notes and articles on Egyptian, Syrian, and
even Greek archaeology, died in London, January 31, 1920, at the age of 68
years. (S. R., R. Arch., fifth series, XIII, 1921, p. 152.)

W. R. Paton. The eminent Hellenist, W. R. Paton, died at Samos, April
21, 1921, at the age of 63 years. He was of Scotch origin and studied at Ox-
ford. He married a native of Samos and settled at Vathy on that island.
His earliest important work was the Inscriptions of Cos (1891, in collaboration
with Hicks), his latest the edition and translation of the Greek Anthology (1916-
1918, Loeb Classical Library). (S. R., R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, p. 182.)

Samuel Ball Plainer. Samuel Ball Platner was born at Unionville, Con-
necticut, December 4, 1864. He was graduated from Yale College in 1883 and
received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale after two years of study, in 1885. In
the autumn of that year he became instructor in Latin and French in Adelbert
College of Western Reserve University, at Cleveland, Ohio. He was made
Assistant Professor of Latin in 1890, Professor of Latin in 1892. He was

MISC.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 91

Secretary of the Managing Committee of the American School of Classical
Studies in Rome, 1897-1911, Annual Professor in that school, 1899-1900,
President of the American Philological Association, 1900-1901. He was a
member of the Archaeological Institute for more than twenty-five years and
for several years was a member of the Council. His published writings, apart
from brief articles and reviews, were few. The most important is his Topog-
raphy and Monuments of Ancient Rome (1904, 2nd ed., 1911), an admirable and
very trustworthy book. A Dictionary of Roman Topography, begun in collabo-
ration with Mr. Thomas Ashby of the British School at Rome, is to be com-
pleted by Mr. Ashby. It was in order to finish this work that Professor Plat-
ner sailed for Europe in August, 1921. He died suddenly at sea, August 20,
of heart failure. No man was ever of a more lovable disposition.
Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus

Tarn cari capitis? H. N. F.

Andre de Ridder. The death of Andre de Ridder, May 12, 1921, took
from the Louvre another of the distinguished members of its staff. He passed
from the Ecole Normale to the Ecole d'Athenes, and at Athens he prepared the
catalogues of the bronzes of the Archaeological Society and of those found on
the Acropolis (1891 and 1896). The best known among his other works are
the Catalogue des vases peints de la Bibliotheque national, the Catalogue de la col-
lection de Clerq (19041911), and the catalogue of the bronzes in the Louvre.
(ETIENNE MICHON, R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 182-184.)

NORTHERN DALMATIA. Various Discoveries. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I.
XVIII, 1915, Beiblatt, cols. 175-188 (10 figs.), A. COLNAGO gives the results of
his excavations in Northern Dalmatia. At Maslenica two graves containing
coins of Constantine I and II were opened. At Krupa parts of the town wall
were examined and one of the gates apparently located. The contents of four
of the graves found at Starigrad (Argyruntum) in 1913 are described. Further
investigations of the Roman roads in Northern Dalmatia were made. Small
objects from Medvigje and Ervenik and Latin inscriptions from the necropolis
at Cyijina Gradina are published.

SOFIA. Small Reliefs. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919, Beiblatt,
cols. 43-50 (7 figs.), G. KAZAROW publishes seven small reliefs, all but one
fragmentary, found in Bulgaria. Six are in Sofia and one in the gymnasium
at Rasgrad. Two represent the Thracian horseman, one Dionysus, and two
Mithra.

SOUTHERN ISTRIA. Ancient Villas. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915,
Beiblatt, cols. 99-164 (41 figs.), A. GNIRS describes in detail the remains of the
elaborate villa excavated by him on the south bank of the Val Catena, on the
island of Brioni Grande, and publishes a sketch of a restoration. He also
gives an account of various ruins on the north bank and describes the remains
of the Roman villa on the bay of Olmo Grande, Southern Istria.

THRACE. The Necropolis of Elaeus. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp.
130-136, C. PICARD reports that the excavations begun in the necropolis of
Elaeus in GaUipoli in 1915 (see ibid. 1916, pp. 40-47; A.J.A. XXI, 1917, p.
93) were resumed in 1920 and have resulted in the discovery of 28 graves.
The fact that most of these burials were in pithoi indicates that the part of the
cemetery recently excavated is older than the earlier excavated portion, which
contained some sarcophagi. This inference is confirmed by the character of the

92 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

pottery found in the graves. The few figured vases found were of the black
figured style, indicating that this part of .the necropolis dates from the late sixth
and the early fifth centuries B.C.

EGYPT

THIRTY YEARS' PROGRESS IN EGYPTOLOGY. In Exp. Times,
XXXIII, 1921, pp. 110-114, W. E. PETRIE gives a survey of the recent dis-
coveries in Egypt and of the progress that has been made in tracing the history
of civilization in that country.

THE EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM.
A special number of B. Metr. Mus., supplementary to that of November,
1921, is devoted to reports on the activities of the Egyptian Expedition of the
Metropolitan Museum in 1920-1921. A prefatory note by A. M. LYTHGOE
(pp. 3-4) is followed by an account of the excavations at Lisht, by A. C.
MACE (pp. 5-19; 21 figs.). Here the investigation of the pyramid of Amenem-
hat I was resumed after an interval of six years. On its western side the house
walls of a settlement of much later date than the pyramid were first studied
and removed. Numerous small objects illustrating the daily life of Egyptian
villagers were found. In the brick silos of this date some glazed amulets were
discovered which indicated that the period of the village was not later than
Dynasty XXII. On the Xllth Dynasty level a conspicuous monument is a
large mastaba of white limestone, with a solid core of bed rock. It was planned
as a part of the pyramid buildings, and was probably intended for the burial
of a relative of the king; not, however, the queen, since the reliefs discovered
indicate that the person commemorated was a man. Some of the foundation
stones were reused stones of the Old Kingdom. North of the mastaba, in a
corridor 14 m. wide between the inner enclosure of the pyramid and a brick
retaining wall was a double row of burial pits which were no doubt the tombs
of the princesses. All had been thoroughly plundered in ancient times. A
part of the base of the pyramid was uncovered. Quarriers had not left a single
casing-stone. The most interesting find of the season's work was a foundation
deposit, in which were rough bricks containing plaques with the name of the
king and of the pyramid. The latter was Isut-khau. It had been supposed
that the name of the pyramid was Kanefer, but perhaps this is to be recog-
nized as the name of the district. N. DE G. DAVIES describes the work of the
Museum for the Tytus Memorial Fund in the study and copying of the paint-
ings in the tomb of Neferhotep at Thebes (pp. 19-28; 11 figs.). Excavations
in the Theban necropolis are the subject of an article by H. E. WINLOCK (pp.
29-53 ; 30 figs.) . In the regions south of Deir el Bahri some unfinished tombs of
the Xlth dynasty were discovered. The platform near which these tombs are
grouped was cleared and it was proved that the tomb discovered by Mond,
though less monumental than might have been expected, and outside the tem-
ple axis, is the royal tomb, probably that of the last king of this line. The
most important discovery was made in the Xlth Dynasty temple originally
excavated by Naville at Deir el Bahri. The shrines in the ambulatory about
the pyramid, according to Mr. Winlock's theory, were earlier than the temple
itself, and the king Mentuhotep with whom they were associated therefore
earlier than the Mentuhotep who built the temple. Mr. Winlock's chronology
was strikingly confirmed by his discovery of two tombs in positions related

EGYPT] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 93

to the two northernmost shrines, but outside the hypostyle hall beneath which
other tombs of this series were discovered. One contained the sarcophagus
of the queen Aasha'it. The sarcophagus is a fine example of Middle Kingdom
sculpture. The coffin contained the mummy of a young woman, accompanied
by traces of her ornaments. Many folded sheets of linen were laid over the
mummy. The other contained the remains of an infant princess named Mait,
encased in a coffin and sarcophagus far too large for the child. This tomb,
though it had been entered, had not been plundered, and the wrappings of
the mummy contained five necklaces of gold, silver, and precious stones. H.
G. EVELYN WHITE (pp. 54-62; 11 figs.) describes researches in the monasteries
of Wady 'n Natrun. Architectural photographs were made, and some valuable
manuscript fragments were discovered.

RECENT EXCAVATIONS OF THE SERVICE DBS ANTIQUITES. In
C. R. Acad. Insc. 1920, pp. 359-366, PIERRE LACAU reports on the activities
of the Service des Antiquites de 1'Egypte in 1919-1920. At Denderah M.
Baraye has completed the excavation of the Mammissi or birth-temple at-
tached to the great temple of Hathor. It dates from the reign of Nectanebo II,
and its decorations relate to the birth of Horus. Near this building are the
remains of one of the most ancient Christian basilicas discovered in Egypt.
At the right of the temple has been found the rectangular basin of an artificial
lake. It is evident that the arrangement of a temple precinct resembled that
of a great private estate. At Achmounein M. Lefebvre has discovered an im-
portant tomb of the Ptolemaic period, constructed by a high priest of Thoth.
The walls are covered with funeral and genre scenes and inscriptions. There
are some novel elements in the scenes depicted, such as the representation of an
elephant; and the style reflects Greek influence. In the burial pit were three
sarcophagi, one of which contained a wooden coffin of mummy shape, remark-
able for an inscription which was executed in small bits of colored glass paste.
Not far from this site was a necropolis of the mummied ibises of the nome.

CAIRO. An Edict of Hadrian. In R. EL Gr. XXXIII, 1920, pp. 375-
402, P. JOUGET publishes and comments on an edict of Hadrian of which two
papyrus copies are found in the Museum at Cairo. It announces the postpone-
ment of the collection of taxes in certain districts of Egypt in view of the fail-
ure of the usual irrigation from the Nile. It is to be dated 136 A.D.

DEIR-EL-BERSHEH. The Tomb of Dehuti-Nekht. In B. Mus. F. A.
XIX, 1921, pp. 43-46 (5 figs.), D. DUNHAM describes the contents of the rock-
cut tomb of Dehuti Nekht and his wife, excavated at Deir-el-Bersheh by the
Harvard University-Museum of Fine Arts Expedition in 1915. Two remarkable
wooden sarcophagi, each consisting of two cases, the interiors of which show
paintings of numerous figures and objects designed for the service of the souls
within, were found in this tomb, and have now been installed in the Museum
of Fine Arts. Numerous models in wood came from the same tomb, including
many boats.

FARAS. The Oxford Excavations. In Ann. Arch. Anth. VIII, 1921, pp.
65-104 (20 pis.), F. LL. GRIFFITH continues his report on the Oxford excavations
in Nubia (see ibid. VIII, 1921, pp. 1-18, and A.J.A. XXV, 1921, p. 292).
There are few traces of settlement in Nubia in the period of the Old Kingdom.
In the period of the Middle Kingdom the country between the First and Sec-
ond Cataracts was occupied by communities of Reisner's "C-group." The

94 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

remains indicate that they were a pastoral people. A sub-division of the chro-
nology of this period, based on the types of graves, has been attempted. Re-
mains of Egyptian fortresses show how the authority of Egypt was maintained
in this remote region. Temples are found at some of the great centres. By
the time of Sesostris I the C-group civilization was practically extinct in lower
Nubia. A culture somewhat less dominated by Egypt is represented by the
necropolis of Kerm, above the Third Cataract. With the rise of the Theban
power of the New Kingdom all independent civilization in Nubia was over-
whelmed. The region was governed by an Egyptian viceroy, and imposing
temples were built. None of the temples of Nubia, however, are later than the
time of Rameses II. At Faras the Oxford Expedition has excavated a ceme-
tery of the C-group. The graves are oval pits enclosed by circular superstruc-
tures of rubble with flat roofing slabs. Five stelae of white marble were found
in the cemetery, but it is uncertain whether they were intended to mark graves.
The cemetery had been plundered. Fragments of clothing, most commonly of
leather, were found; and beads in the graves of women and children. The
pottery discovered was not in the graves themselves, but on the old ground
level within the superstructures. Some was of Egyptian wheel-made ware,
some of local handmade. Most of the material in this cemetery is later than
Dynasty XII. Near the proto-dynastic village of Faras are the remains of a
fort of the Middle Kingdom, measuring about 70 m. by 80 m., and built of
mud brick, surrounded by a solid wall 3.3 m. thick. Few objects were found
in it; but mud sealings discovered here showed designs characteristic of the
Middle Kingdom. The most important monuments of the New Kingdom
discovered at Faras are the following: (1) Ruins of a temple of Hathor on an
isolated rock south of the Meroitic enclosure, originally built early in the
New Kingdom period, and later restored in limestone brought from Egypt by
Hatshepsut; (2) a grotto cut in the side of the rock facing the river in the reign
of Rameses II, probably a shrine; (3) a temple of Rameses II, now represented
by a number of sculptures and inscribed blocks in the southwest angle of the
great Faras enclosure; (4) a temple of Thutmosis III, of which only fragments
are preserved, on the west side of the citadel; (5) a great temple of Tutank-
hamun north of the walled town, covering an area 56 m. by 25 m. and consist-
ing of a colonnaded court, hypostyle hall, and sanctuary. Numerous sculptured
blocks of this temple indicate that the building was dedicated to the king
himself. A fragment of a granite group representing a king of the XVIIIth
Dynasty between Ammon and another god has a long inscription in honor of
the king, who was apparently one of the Akhenaton group, probably Tutank-
hamun.

KOUBANIEH. The Cemeteries. In R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921,
pp. 158-163, EDOUARD NAVILLE gives a brief summary of the results of Dr.
Junker's excavations at Koubanieh, near Assuan (Bericht uber die Grabungen
der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien auf den Friedhofen von El-Koubanieh-
Sxid (Winter 1910-1911) ; ibid., El-Koubanieh-Nord (Winter 1910-1911). The
two cemeteries are not of the same date, the southern one being the earlier.
Both are Nubian, rather than Egyptian. Their dates range from Reisner's
period A to his period C. In general Junker's results confirm Reisner's conclu-
sions, but there are details in which they disagree.

BABYLONIA, ETC.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 95

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA

ASSYRIAN CHRONOLOGY. The excavations of the Deutsche Orient-
Gesellschaft at Assur, the ancient capital of Assyria, have yielded a number
of lists of kings that are of the utmost importance in reconstructing the chronol-
ogy of the kings of Assyria, and incidentally also of the kings of Babylon. This
material has been gathered, translated, and tabulated by E. F. WEIDNER in
Mitt. Vorderas. Ges. XXVI, 1921, 2, pp. 1-66 (5 pi.). Eleven fragments of
lists of Assyrian kings have been discovered. (1) Two lists give the names of
the kings only in chronological order. (2) Two lists give the names of the kings
with remarks in regard to their family relationship to their predecessors. (3)
One list gives the kings of Assyria and of Babylon in synchronism, arranged
according to the order in which they began to reign. (4) Five lists give the kings
of Assyria and of Babylon in parallel columns of contemporaneous reigns.
<5) One list gives the eponyms for a series of years beginning with Adadnirari
I and continuing down to Ashurbanipal. On the basis of these texts it is now
possible to reconstruct the entire list of Assyrian kings from Puzur-Ashir I
(ca. 2100 B.C.) to Sin-shar-ishkun and the fall of Nineveh in 606 B.C. The
synchronistic lists also throw a flood of light on Babylonian chronology since
they enable us to fill up the gaps in the great Babylonian lists A and B. Weid-
ner now estimates the beginning of the dynasty of Amurru, of which Hammur-
abi was the sixth king, at 2057 B.C. This is a difference of 168 years from the
date 2225 B.C. supposed to have been established astronomically by Kugler and
accepted by E. Meyer and many other Assyriologists. In R. Assyr. XVIII,
1921, pp. 83-94, W. F. ALBRIGHT subjects Weidner's conclusions to an elabo-
rate criticism, and comes to the conclusion that he has made several mistakes
in his calculations and that the beginning of the dynasty of Amurru is still to
be placed where Kugler has fixed it.

BRITISH MUSEUM EXCAVATIONS IN BABYLONIA. In Archaeologia,
LXX, 1918-1920, pp. 101-144 (6 pis.; 13 figs.), R. CAMPBELL THOMPSON
reports on the excavations which he conducted for the British Museum in 1918
on the mound of Abu Shahrain, the site of ancient Eredu. The following are
his principal conclusions. (1) There was not much occupation of the mound
after Sumerian times. This is clear from the lack of later objects, and from the
character of references to Eredu in Assyrian cuneiform texts. (2) The later
Sumerians used the mound as a necropolis. Many Sumerian interments were
found, generally near the surface, and accompanied by pottery of Sumerian
type. The lack of larnax coffins indicates that there was no extensive occupa-
tion of the site in Assyrian times. Records found in the excavations show that
restorations on the site were carried out by Nur-Immer, Bur-Sin, and Ur-
Engur. The buttress of plano-convex bricks discovered by Taylor shows that
the Sumerians built here at an early period. (4) Before the Sumerian occupa-
tion the city of Eredu, like other cities in this region, was inhabited by a pre-
historic race identical with the people found by De Morgan at Susa and Mus-
sian. This people seems to have migrated from the Hindu-Kush. Many
fragments of their pottery, painted with geometric designs in black, were found,
as well as numerous other objects of clay and stone. (4) By the evidence of
mussel-shells it is shown that Eredu was not on the sea, but near the tidal
water of the Euphrates lagoons. In Proc. Soc. Ant. XXXII, 1920, pp. 22-42
(26 figs.), H. R. HALL describes the excavations which he conducted in Meso-

96 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

potamia for the British Museum in 1919. At Abu Shahrain, continuing Cap-
tain Thompson's excavations, he discovered a quantity of stone implements,
pottery, clay sickles, etc., of the chalcolithic period, and uncovered the remains
of a series of Sumerian houses, the walls of which were built of crude brick and
covered with stucco. A bastion of rough limestone blocks is of interest because
the use of stone is so rare in Babylonia. At ancient Ur (Tell el Mukayyar)
the east face of the temple-tower or ziggurat was cleared to its base; a palace
of the kings Ur-Engur and Dungi of the "First" Dynasty of Ur was exca-
vated, and a part of the wall of the temenos of Nannar, with casemates, was
found. Streets and tombs of the late Babylonian city were discovered, and
fragments of portrait statues in dolerite, probably belonging to the time of
the destruction of Ur by the Elamites, 2350 B.C. In the graves were burial
pots and larnaces, with small pottery and other objects. At Tell el Ma'abed
or Tell el'Obeid four miles west of Ur, finds of special interest were made.
Within the walls of a pre-Sargonic building, and under a brick platform built
by one of the later kings of Ur was found a cache of copper and other objects.
Some seem to have been parts of a throne which was supported on the backs of
copper lions. The heads of the lions, which are finely executed, seem to have
been cast. The place of the clay core was taken by bitumen, in order to rein-
force the copper; so the heads exist both in the bitumen cast and in the copper
shell. They had tongues of red jasper, teeth of shell, and eyes of blue stone,
shell, and red jasper. Other heads of animals and birds were found, and it has
been possible to transport some of these to England. The most remarkable
object discovered was a copper relief, about three feet high, representing the
lion-headed eagle, Imgig, the tutelary genius of Lagash, holding two stags by
the tails. This has also been removed to England. An interesting architectural
find was a group of mud pillars ornamented with geometric patterns in mosaic.

SYRIA AND PALESTINE

THIRTY YEARS OF PALESTINE EXPLORATIONS. In Exp. Times,
XXXIII, 1921, pp. 87-92, R. A. S. MACALISTER traces the progress of excava-
tion in Palestine during the thirty years that have elapsed since the first work
was begun by W. F. Petrie at the mound of Tell-el-Hesy, the Biblical Lachish,
down to the present excavations that are going on at Askalon.

ASKALON. Reports of Excavations. In Pal. Ex. Fund, LIII, 1921, pp.
162-172, J. GARSTANG and W. J. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS discuss the results of the
excavations at Askalon up to the time of writing in October. Four archaeo-
logical periods are now clearly recognizable: first, the Canaanite, extending
from about 1400 B.C. to 1100 B.C. Here appear the Mycenaean iron glaze
ware, the base ring jugs, cyma bowls and wish-bone handles that are character-
istic of the Canaanite period in other mounds of Palestine. Near the top of
this period an alabaster fragment of the XIX th dynasty was discovered.
Second, the Philistine period. This presents a homogeneous and unbroken
culture from the end of the XlXth dynasty to the intrusion of new influences
from the West. Third, the Greek period; and fourth, the Roman. The clear
discrimination of the Philistine level from the earlier and the later levels is
expected to do much toward the solution of the problem of the origin and char-
acter of Philistine civilization.

ASIA MINOR] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 97

BETH-SHAN. The Excavations of 1921. In the Pennsylvania Gazette,
March 3, 1922, p. 441 there is a report of the excavations carried on for the
University of Pennsylvania by Clarence S. Fisher at Beisan, the ancient Beth-
Shan, or Scythopolis in Palestine. The work was begun in June 1921 and
continued until October. The city was at one time extensive, but the citadel
was comparatively small and at least seven different cities were built upon it.
This first campaign was largely devoted to uncovering the top of the mound
where there were remains of an Arab city. Below it was a Byzantine city with
some large churches elaborately decorated, and below this a Roman city. A
deep trench was also dug to the lowest stratum which was found to date from
about 1700 B. c., i.e. before the Semites entered Palestine. The most important
single object discovered was "a large stela inscribed with hieroglyphic charac-
ters of about the fourteenth century. " The line of the old city wall can be
traced on the west and north, and ruins of temples, theatres and public buildings
belonging to the Scythopolis of the classical period are to be seen covering an
extensive area. The complete excavation of the site will take many years.

JERUSALEM. The Temple-Mount. In Exp. Times, XXXII, 1921, pp.
506-507, A. H. SAYCE discusses the Temple in the light of the latest archaeolog-
ical researches, particularly the recently published report of Captain Weill,
La Cite de David (Paris, Geuthner, 1920). Mount Zion was the rocky spur be-
tween the Kidron and the Tyropoeon valleys. The Jebusite fortress was at
the southern end, the Temple-mount was in the middle, and to the north was
Ophel, separated from the Temple-mount by a depression and a cavern con-
taining Canaanite tombs. The name Uru-Salim, or Jerusalem, as it is written
in the Amarna letters, is Babylonian, and this indicates that the town was of
Babylonian origin and dated from the period of Babylonian supremacy in the-
west as early as the dynasties of Akkad and of Ur. The double cave under the
Mosque of Omar is a sanctuary of the neolithic age, and the Temple-mount
continued to be a sanctuary of the Babylonian immigrants of the Bronze Age.
In one of the Amarna letters the king says: "The city of the mountain of
Jerusalem, the name of which is the city of Bel-En-Urta (NIN-IB) has re-
volted." This is the origin of the puzzling Yahweh Yireh of Gen. xxii, 14.
Yahweh has displaced the "owner" (Semitic ba'al, Sumerian en) and Yireh is
the etymological equivalent of Urta. In the geographical list of Thutmosis III
Har-el, "the mount of God," occurs where Jerusalem would be expected, and
this is the origin of Ariel, the name that both Isaiah and Ezekiel apply to the-
Temple-mount.

ASIA MINOR

BOGHkZKEUL The Palace of the Chatti. In Ath. Mitt. XLII, 1917,
pp. 99-170 (25 figs.) V. K. MULLER discusses the five structures uncovered at
Boghazkeui in 1906 and the following years, places the type of structure mid-
way between the simplicity of the Mesopotamian and the complexity of the
Cretan palace, and emphasizes the influence of the west and the north, rather
than the east, upon the shape of the palace of the Chatti.

CILICIA. A Journey in 1914. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, Beiblatt,

cols. 5-60 (22 figs.), J. KEIL and A. WILHELM give a general report of a journey

made by them in 1914 in Cilicia. Starting from Alaja (the ancient Korakesion)

they visited Anemurion, Aphrodisias, Seleucia on the Calycadmus, Olba,

98 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

Corycus, Elaiussa-Sebaste, Hierapolis-Kastabala and Anazarba. Various in-
scriptions were found. Full publication will be made later.

EPHESUS. Excavations in 1913. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915,
Beiblatt, cols. 77-88 (5 figs.), R. HEBERDEY reports that in 1913 an elaborate
fountain building was uncovered at Ephesus. It stands on a podium with eight
columns in front. Its dimensions are, width 29.20 m., length 37 m. In Chris-
tian times a small chapel was erected within the building. A much injured life
size portrait head was found. Ibid. cols. 279-286, J. KEIL objects that the
building was not a fountain, but a sanctuary.. He also reports upon his exami-
nation of the "wall of Lysimachus," part of which was built in Byzantine times,
and publishes three late Greek inscriptions.

PHOCAEA. Recent Excavations. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 119-
129, F. SARTIAUX reports the resumption of researches on the site of Phocaea
(see ibid. 1914, pp. 6-13). In the vicinity of the previous excavations have
been found .(1) a number of early Christian tombs; (2) a great mosaic of ele-
gant Hellenistic design, forming part of the pavement of a peristyle surround-
ing an interior court; (3) a sarcophagus containing fragments of Myrina figu-
rines; (4) a stone of palaeolithic form; (5) fragments of a gray pottery, difficult
to date, but recalling Trojan ceramics. Exploration of the promontory of
Phocaea has yielded fragments of pottery dating from the Mycenaean to the
Roman period. A study of the geological history of the promontory shows that
it was originally an island. This fact confirms a tradition preserved by Nicholas
of Damascus (Muller, Fr. Hist. Gr. Ill, p. 53, fr. 387) and identifies the "island"
of Bacchium described by Livy (XXXVII, 21).

SAMOS. Inscriptions from the Heraeum. Inscriptions from the Heraeum
of Samos, found by the German excavators up to June, 1914, are published by
M. SCHEDE (Ath. Mitt. XLIV, 1919, pp. 1-46; 2 figs.). They date from the
Athenian conquest in 439 B.C. to Roman times, and are chiefly euergetic de-
crees (cf. Ber. Kunsts. XLI, 1920, pp. 117-131; A. J. A. XXV, 1921, p. 87).

GREECE

ACTIVITIES OF THE FRENCH SCHOOL AT ATHENS. In C. R. Acad.
Insc. 1921, pp. 35-46, T. HOMOLLE presents a summary report of the activities
of the French School at Athens in the year 1919-1920.' One of the students,
M. Demangel, has made a new study of the archaic relief in the Acropolis
Museum, representing a figure entering a chariot. He believes that the person
represented is Artemis, and that the relief is from a building connected with
the cult of Artemis Brauronia on the Acropolis. M. Demangel has made ex-
cavations on the site of the temple of Athena Pronaia at Delphi, showing the
varying extent of her precinct at different periods. In the seventh century there
was a polygonal circuit wall. In the sixth century the precinct was extended
towards the east and south. Fragments of ashlar wall built in the fourth
century to replace polygonal wall also of the fourth century were discovered.
It is proposed to identify the temple of Athena Pronaia as the so-called "temple
of the perjurers," because near it are the socles of stelae similar to those near
the adjoining two treasuries, to which this name has hitherto been given, and
because an inscription from one such stele was discovered, recording the con-
fiscation of forfeited lands to the profit of the treasury. By trial diggings
parts of the foundation of a circular building were found near the tholos, indi-

GREECE] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 99

eating that an earler tholos had existed on this site. M. Renaudin has recog-
nized on a height called Kastraki, near Port Tholon, southwest of Nauplia, an
important prehistoric settlement which he would identify with Asine. He has
also begun the exploration of a Mycenaean necropolis at Scala Skoinochori,
northwest of Argos. A catalogue of the Theran vases in the possession of the
French School has been prepared by M. Renaudin. He assigns a later date to
the characteristic pottery which has hitherto been attributed to the close of
the Middle Minoan period and the beginning of the Late Minoan. M. Dreyfus
made a journey of archaeological exploration in the region of Pangaeum, and
studied inscriptions at Delphi.

AEGIRA. Discoveries in 1915. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919,
Beiblatt, cols. 1-42 (25 figs.), O. WALTER describes the ancient remains of
Aegira which he explored in 1915. The town wall, which in places is finely pre-
served, can be followed for most of its circuit. Northeast of the acropolis is a
level space, partly supported by terrace walls, upon which are remains of sev-
eral buildings, among them a theatre. Some of the seats and portions of the
stage buildings were visible without excavation. There were two Siaf^/mra.
Northeast of the theatre was a small prostyle temple, identified as the temple
of Zeus. Near the south wall were found a headless statue in .armor and a
large bearded head of Zeus (see below) identified as the cult statue by Euclides
mentioned by Pausanias. North of this temple are several small ruined build-
ings. Parts of an aqueduct were noted; also part of the marble torso of a boy,
and an inscription of the fourth century with the name 'Ao-roptS^j], not
otherwise known.

ATHENS. The Nike Temple. Results of more accurate measurements
and of identifications of new blocks of the Nike Temple are given by A. K.
ORLANDOS in Ath. Mitt. XL, 1915, pp. 27-44 (2 pis.; 11 figs.). (1) Measure-
ments of Ross and Le Bas are corrected for crepis, intercolumniations, paras-
tades and orthostatae. (2) A block of the profiled sub-base of the grating
between columns and antae of the cella shows that the grating was put in when
the temple was built. Originally there was a profiled sill in the middle opening.
(3) The blocks of the cella walls were laid Qopwdov, the successive layers
diminishing in height. (4) The plan of the temple was not rectangular but
trapezoidal, due either to carelessness or to haste. (5) Of the blocks of the
frieze, o should be placed third from the east on the south side, and m and g
third and fourth on the north side. (6) Places are assigned to two new geison
blocks and to one already identified by Stevens. (7) Sima blocks have been
identified; three served as bases for acroteria.

Ostraca from the Ceramicus. The most important ostraca from the Ger-
man excavations in the Ceramicus, together with others already known, are
published by A. BRUECKNER in Ath. Mitt. XL, 1915, pp. 1-26 (4 pis.; 10 figs.).
Most of these have to do with the party conflicts of 450-440 B.C., i.e., a contest
.between Thucydides, son of Melesias, and Cleidippides, and an attempt to
ostracize Damon, son of Damonides, both Cleidippides and Damon being
partisans of Pericles. An ostracon marked drj/jt&Xijs and another marked
drjfjiwXees (i.e., "he who has lost his S^os"), belong to the time before Solon,
and indicate early steps in the development of the Cleisthenic ostracism.

ELIS. Excavations in 1914. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, Beiblatt,
cols. 61-76 (5 figs.), O. WALTER reports upon the excavations carried on at Elis

100 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

in 1914. Temple C proves to have been rebuilt in late times. North of it was
a building of sun-dried brick and still farther north a temenos in which vases
and terra-cottas were found ; also terra-cotta heads, some of life size, a statuette
of Artemis and an archaic inscription on bronze written boustrophedon.
Further excavations were carried on at the stage buildings of the theatre. To
the northwest some late graves were opened, in one of which was found an oval
gold plate with the figure of Athena armed with shield and spear upon it.

MYCENAE. The Excavations of the British School. In The Times Lit-
erary Supplement (London), October 13, 1921, p. 660, A. J. B. WAGE reports
on the second season of study and excavation at Myceneae by the British
School in Athens. (For an account of the first campaign, see ibid. June 24,
1920 and August 19, 1920; see also AJ.A. XXV, 1921, pp. 87-88.) In the
region of the Grave Circle the Ramp House proved to be of megaron type; it
dates from the Third Late Helladic period. Walls of the First and Second Late
Helladic periods were discovered below it, and fragments of frescoes with grace-
ful naturalistic designs. At a lower level were remains of the Middle Helladic
age, including some graves, which show that the Grave Circle included only a
part of the cemetery which originally existed on this site. Study of the Lions'
Gate proved that the relief was cut out with the use of the saw and the drill.
The lions' heads may have been of steatite. The gateway was originally
roofed. On the summit of the acropolis the plan of the palace was studied.
There are traces of settlement in the Early Helladic period, and of construction
in the Middle Helladic period. Early in the Late Helladic a palace was built
here, the home of the kings who were buried in the Shaft Graves. Of this
structure only fragments of walls, -frescoes, pottery, and miscellaneous debris
remain. The later palace of the Late Helladic period was much more extensive,
including "a large court lighting the rooms and corridors looking on it, two
entrances, a large hall with columns, storerooms, staircases, and at least two
storeys." A feature of striking interest is a great staircase with lobbies and
landings like that of the stairway at Cnossos. New fragments of the stucco
decoration of the great hall were found, fallen face downward on the pavement,
and injured by the fire which destroyed the palace. From the porch of the me-
garon staircases and a lobby led to the domestic apartments. Here was a
stepped tank, covered with red stucco. A magazine containing a number of
inverted jars and much broken pottery was found. Excavations near the car-
riage road, south of the Treasury of Atreus, resulted in the discovery of three
rock-cut tombs. The first contained a single skeleton, some terra-cottas and a.
carnelian sealstone showing a man vaulting over a bull. In the second were re-
mains of several burials, many sherds, and some complete vases of the Third
Late Helladic period. It is evident that such tombs were reopened from time
to time for new burials, and that on these occasions objects connected with
earlier burials were swept aside and broken. The largest of the three tombs
has not yet been completely excavated. In the dromos were sixteen skeletons-
and a great quantity of pottery fragments. Another cemetery of more rudely
cut tombs was discovered on the north slope of Kalkani hill. This goes back
to the beginning of the Late Helladic age, and has yielded many small objects
of interest, including a necklace of crystal, carnelian, glass, gold, and amber
beads; painted vases, including a fine libation vase, perhaps imported from
Crete; and several beautiful intaglios, two of which show a cow suckling a.

ITALY] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 101

calf, and two the Great Mother holding her snakes, and attended by her lions,
with the symbol of the double axe. Although inhabited early in the Bronze
Age, Mycenae first attained importance in Middle Helladic times (1800-1600
B.C.). At the end of this period it was dominated by Cretan culture, and in
the First Late Helladic period it was a city of wealth and power. After the
fall of Cnossus it was the principal centre of Mediterranean civilization (1400-
1100 B.C.). The splendor of its buildings, and the technical skill revealed in
their plan and construction show that this culminating period of Mycenaean
power must not be regarded as a degenerate age.

PAROS. Prehistoric Houses. The remains of prehistoric houses on or
near the acropolis of Paros are described by O. RUBENSOHN in Ath. Mitt. XLII,
pp. 1-98 (2 pis.; 103 figs.). Both circular and rectangular foundations have
been discovered. The pottery shows a development parallel with that of
Phylakopi and free from Cretan influence to the time of Phylakopi I 3 . Then
there is a break of several centuries during which the site was uninhabited.
But with the late Mycenaean period the vase fragments reappear and the
series is continuous down to the time of Melian ware.

SKOINOCHORI. A Prehistoric Settlement. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921,
pp. 100-106 (4 figs.), C. PICARD reports on M. Renaudin's excavations at Skoi-
nochori in Argolis. His investigations have proved that the site was occupied
in the Helladic age, probably at a period as early as the Early Minoan. A few
handmade sherds were found in the stratum immediately above virgin soil.
In a later stratum were fragments of a local ware imitative of Minyan pottery
dating from Middle Helladic II. At a still higher level were remains of houses
of Late Helladic III (Mycenaean) date. The tombs of the necropolis connected
with the town are approached by a dromos, and are cut in the rock. Their
floors are of rectangular shape. There is no sign of luxury in their furnishings.
One oenochoe found in a tomb is of Helladic shape, but with Minoan ornament.
Most of the pottery is of Mycenaean style, some as late as that found at Tell el-
Amarna. The latest burials seem to have taken place in the late Mycenaean
period (Late Helladic III A) ; but some of the objects from the tombs are as
early as Late Helladic I.

ITALY

ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES IN 1921. To The Times Literary
Supplement (London), December 15, 1921, p. 842, and December 22, p. 858,
THOMAS ASHBY contributes his annual report on the progress of archaeological
discovery in Italy. In Rome the destruction of the Palazzo Caffarelli has
brought to light again remains of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maxunus.
Nineteen courses of the substructure are preserved, and are to be attributed to
the original temple of the Tarquins. Excavations are being made in the peri-
style southwest of the so-called House of Livia, which is really the house of the
Hortensii purchased by Augustus. The cemetery of Pamphilus has been found
in the Via Salaria. At Porto the hexagonal harbor basin is being cleared. A
temple with three cellae, resembling that of Apollo at Veii, has been found at
Lanuvium (Civita Lavinia). In a group of small buildings excavated at Men-
tana (ancient Momentum) has been found a portrait head of a Greek, after an
original of the fourth century B.C., and a statuette of the youthful Bacchus, of
Praxitelean type. A bronze statuette of a Roman boy with a top and whip,

102 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

the first known representation of this subject in sculpture, was discovered near
Mentana. At Bologna the widening of streets has led to the uncovering of a
part of the main Roman street of the town. In excavation in the bed of the
Reno a part of the embankment which led to the Roman bridge over the river
was found. Remains of ancient thermae were discovered at Siena, in excava-
tion for the new railway station. Thermae were also found at Tuscania, in the
construction of a road. In the valley of the Gaggera near Selinus further exca-
vations in the temenos of Demeter Malophoros have brought to light a porch
and an adjacent smaller temenos, in which was a temple of unusual plan with
an arched niche in the back wall. Many terra-cottas were found here; and
another large deposit of votive terra-cottas was found in the west angle of the
larger temenos. Most of these represent female figures. They are of four
principal types: (1) Statuettes in Ionic dress, in the form of alabastra; (2)
figures like the Korai of the Acropolis; (3) squat figures like those found by
Orsi at Camarina and Mesma; (4) figures in the style of the fourth century
B.C. At Syracuse a rock-cut cistern was found in the centre of Ortygia; a rock-
cut Siculan tomb was excavated on Epipolae. A wall defending Euryelus on
the northeast was discovered. The fortifications of the Portella del Fusco
have been studied. Other discoveries at Syracuse include an imperial portrait
head of marble, and a limestone caryatid belonging to the restoration of the
theatre by Hiero II. Tombs of the Hellenistic period were found in the Canalic-
chio necropolis.

ASSARO. A Bronze Situla. In Not. Scav. XVII,- 1920, pp. 335-336, P.
ORSI reports the discovery of a large number of Hellenistic tombs at the foot
of the hill of Assaro in Sicily. Among the few finds were a handsome bronze
pail (23 cm. high; 33 cm. with the bail raised), supported on three lion's paws.
The bail is formed of two serpents, whose tails are coiled behind the handles
at the side. These handles are decorated with masks of Sileni with pointed ears
and wavy beards, surmounted by two ivy leaves Over these bronze leaves
are two similar leaves in silver plate, one of which covers the leaf below, while
the other does not. The pail represents excellent work of the Hellenistic age.

BRINDISL Ancient Glass. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 296-297, G.
BENDINELLI reports the discovery of tombs containing glass objects at "Fon-
tana grande," one-half kilometre east of Brindisi.

BUSCEML A Dedicatory Inscription. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp.
327-329, P. ORSI publishes a new Greek inscription from the sacred grottoes
at Buscemi in Sicily (see Not. Scav. 1899, p. 459). The inscription is a dedi-
cation to the Qeal IIaZ5es,either the nymphs or Demeter and Kore, and to "Kwa,
an oriental deity; it dates from the Roman imperial period.

CAMARINA. A Statuette of Athena. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp.
329-330, P. ORSI reports the discovery at Camarina of a bronze statuette of
Athena (19 cm. in height). It is cast solid, except for a cavity in the lower
part, and is hence very heavy. The type is that of the grand Attic style of the
fifth century; the model, either the Athena Promachos of Phidias, or more
probably the Myronian type illustrated by the statue at Frankfurt a. M. and
the funeral relief of the Acropolis Museum.

CORNETO-TARQUINIA. Government Excavations. In Not. Scav.
XVII, 1920, pp. 244-276, G. CULTRERA reports on the first excavations made
by the Italian government in the territory of Corneto; previous explorations

ITALY] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 103

were either private or under the direction of the local authorities. At Madonna
del Pianto two chambered tombs were found. The first belonged to a late pe-
riod and had already been opened. It contained no paintings and yielded only
fragments of pottery and five inscriptions, of which two were Etruscan. The
second, larger and of a better period, contained paintings, which, however, were
badly damaged. This yielded three inscriptions, of which one was Etruscan.
In connection with his report the writer discusses " Questions relative to the
History of Etruscan Painting," finding the division of the Etruscan tombs into
three periods correct, but regarding the date and duration of the periods as
uncertain. He makes a plea for an extensive and systematic exploration of the
necropolis of Tarquinia. He then discusses "Questions relating to the Habita-
tion of ancient Tarquinia." He believes that the arguments against the exist-
ence of an early city on the Piano della Regina are not decisive. He emphasizes
the need of investigation of this point and of an official archaeological institute
at Corneto-Tarquinia.

FLORENCE. A Statue in the Archaic Style. In Dedalo, II, 1921, pp.
230-239 (8 figs.), A. MINTO publishes a statue in the collection of Count Paolo
Guicciardini, Florence, which has escaped the attention of students because,
no doubt, of its unfortunate, distracting restorations. Only the torso is ancient.
The nearest parallel to the work is to be found in the torso of Sant' Alessio,
now in the Conservatori. The Sant' Alessio torso has been justly classed with
the examples of that series of fragmentary korai from the sanctuary of Delos
and attributed to the younger school of sculptors of Chios. But the Guicci-
ardini torso exhibits a more minute, facile technical skill, and is to be consid-
ered a Roman copy of the time of Augustus.

FORANO. An Inscribed Lead Pipe. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 238-
239, R. BARTOCINI reports the discovery of an inscribed lead pipe evidently
belonging to a large villa, the existence of which was already known. The
inscription read Oran(ius) Cralerus. Both names are already known.

FORDOGIANUS, SARDINIA. An Augustan Inscription. In Not. Scav.
XVII, 1920, pp. 347-352, A. TARAMELLI publishes a fragmentary Latin in-
scription of the Augustan period, found near the baths of the "Forum Traiani"
at Fordogianus, Sardinia,. It formed part of a dedication to Augustus by the
civitates barbariae and is assigned by Taramelli to the year 19 B.C.

FRASCATL The Via Tusculana. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 293, B.
PACE reports the discovery of remains of the Via Tusculana at Frascati between
the piazza of the railway station, the stairway leading to the Via del Politiano
Tusculano and the last part of the Via Ponzi towards the balconata.

GIRGENTI. A Greek Inscription. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 338-
339, P. ORSI reports the discovery of a fragmentary Greek inscription at

GRAMMICHELE. Vases and Terra-cottas. In -Not. Scav. XVII, 1920,
pp. 336-337, P. ORSI gives a brief preliminary report of discoveries at
Grammichele in Sicily, in the region called Terravecchia. This was the site,
in the sixth century before our era, of a Siculan town (undoubtedly Echetla),
which became Greek in the fifth century. The place has yielded a large num-
ber of vases and some figurines, now in the Museum at Syracuse. Systematic
excavations yielded forty-six tombs, extending in time to the middle of the fi
century. Among the finds is a large kotylos, on the foot of which is a circular

104 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

inscription of twenty-seven letters, in which D. Comparetti has read a verse
from the Ephialtes of Phrynicus.

LANUVIUM. Miscellaneous Antiquities. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp.
294-296, A. GALIETI reports the discovery of various antiquities, including
brick-stamps and fragmentary inscriptions.

MEGARA HYBLAEA. Excavations. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 331,
P. ORSI gives a brief account of the excavations of 1917 and 1918 at Megara
Hyblaea, to be followed by full details in the Monumenti Antichi. The founda-
tions discovered nearly forty years ago belonged to a Doric hexastyle peripteral
temple 42.25 by 17.55 m. Under the foundations were found traces of a neo-
lithic village of the type Stentinello-Matrensa. Some fine pottery was found,
including a cup decorated with a large red star of nine rays. This must have
been imported from some region as yet undetermined.

MESSINA. A Torso of Praxitelean Type. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp.
339-340, P. ORSI reports discoveries made in the spring of 1916 during the build-
ing of a new city hall at Messina. They include a fine male torso in marble, a
little over life size (the trunk measures 84 cm.) and of Praxitelean type. An
inscribed base was also found with a Latin inscription of the time of the
Antonines.

MINED (MENAE). A Greek Inscription. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p.
337, P. ORSI reports the discovery of a fragmentary Greek inscription at Mineo
(Menae) in Sicilv.

ORIA (LECCE). Three Tombs. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 297-302,
G. BENDINELLI gives an account of the discovery at Oria (Lecce) of three
ancient tombs, containing a considerable number of vases. Two of these
tombs were found near the road leading from the Porta Lama to the Porta
Piazza; the other in the road running from Oria southeast to Torre S. Susanna.
Among the vases was one with a decoration similar to the mosaic familiarly
known as "Pliny's doves." Bendinelli assigns the tombs to the third century
before our era.

PALAZZOLO ACREIDE. A Fourth Century Relief. In Not. Scav. XVII,
1920, pp. 332-333, P. ORSI publishes a high relief in fine calcareous stone,
designed to decorate a large niche. It was found by peasants a little less than
a kilometre from the acropolis of Palazzolo Acreide (Acrae) in Sicily. The
workmanship is fine, probably of the fourth century. The upper part is badly
damaged: there remain the greater part of a draped woman and of a half
nude androgynous figure separated by an altar on which are the omphalos
and a tripod. The figures perhaps represent Apollo and Demeter; the sub-
ject seems to be a new one.

POLA. Buildings near the Amphitheatre. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII,
1915, Beiblatt, cols. 163-176 (8 figs.), A. GNIRS gives an account of the remains
of buildings in the vicinity of the amphitheatre at Pola.

A Guide to the Antiquities. The Austrian Archaeological Institute has
published an illustrated guide to the antiquities of Pola, comprising the history
of the archaeological collections of the city, an outline of the history of Pola
in pre-Roman, Roman, and mediaeval times, and descriptions of the amphi-
theatre, the temple of Augustus and Rome, the theatre at Monte Zaro, the
Porta Aurea, the Porta Ercole, the Porta Gemina, the theatre on the Capitol,
he cathedral, the church of S. Maria di Canetto, and the several collections of

ITALY] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 105

sculptures, inscriptions, and other antiquities. [A. GNIRS, Pola, ein Fiihrer
durch die antiken Baudenkmdler und Sammlungen. Vienna, 1915, A. Holder.
176 pp.; 122 figs. 8vo.]

RAGUSA. A Neolithic Settlement. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 333-
:334. P. ORSI reports the discovery in December, 1916, on Monte Salia, at
Hagusa in Sicily, of the village and necropolis of the neolithic Siculi who worked
the quarries referred to in B. Pal. It. 1898, p. 165. The necropolis presented
some new features; there were but eleven tombs, each containing from fifty to
one hundred skeletons.

RIETL A Latin Inscription. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 239, E. DUPRE
THRESEIDER reports the discovery of a fragmentary Latin inscription at Rieti.

ROME. Discoveries in the Via Alessandro Volta. In Not. Scav. XVII,
1920, p. 281, E. GATTI announces the discovery in the Via Alessandro Volta,
;at the corner of the Via Zabaglia, of an ancient wall and four amphora handles
with inscriptions, one unpublished.

Discoveries near the Via Labicana. In the Via Casilina, about 200 m.
from the Porta Maggiore, four travertine pilasters have come to light, perhaps
iorming part of an aqueduct. Near the corner of the Via Casilina and the
Viale Castrense a portion of the pavement of the Via Labicana was found,
iorming a slight angle with the Via Casilina. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav. XVII, 1920,
p. 282.)

Discoveries in the Via Mondovi. In the Via Mondovi, outside the Porta
S. Giovanni, some ancient walls have been found belonging to a tomb; also two
inscriptions, one of which is on a fragment of an Arretine vase. (E. GATTI,
Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 282-283.)

Discoveries on the Via Nomentana. On the property of Sig. Spadari, 3
km. to the left of the road, there were found a sepulchral precinct and one in-
scription. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 283.)

Discoveries on the Via Ostiense. On the left of the Via Ostiense, 150 m.
beyond the cavalcavia ferroviaria, a piece of the ancient road, running from
east to west for 15 m., was found two metres below the modern street level.
At the lane leading from the Via Ostiense to the fermata ferroviaria omonima,
1.20 m. below the present level, a bit of the same road, running in the same '
direction, was found. It measures 2.40 m. between the crepidines. At the
bridge over the Almo an inscribed cippus was unearthed. (E. GATTI, Not.
Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 283.)

Discoveries near the Via Salaria. Near the villino No. 36 Via Pinciana
there have been found the remains of a columbarium with six inscriptions, one
of which mentions a concinnator a scaena; also an inscribed tile (C.I.L. XV,
811 f.). In making a new street between the Via Po and the Via Tevere the
remains of a number of tombs were found with fifteen inscriptions. Along the
Corso d'ltalia, in front of the cut in the city wall corresponding to the Via
Basilicata, a bit of ancient road has been found, running obliquely to the Corso
d'ltalia, probably belonging to the deverticulum a via Salaria vetere ad portam
Collinam (F.U.R. tav. 3); also the remains of waUs. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav.
XVII, 1920, pp. 284-290.)

Discoveries near the Via Viminale. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 276-
277, E. GATTI reports the discovery of walls and cuniculi between the Vie
Viminale, Agostino Depretis, and Napoli, probably connected with the remains

106 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

unearthed in 1916. There is also a bit of ancient road, running parallel with
the Via Viminale and belonging to the late Empire or early Middle Ages, as
well as remains of private houses, and a fragment of a Christian inscription
dating from the consulship of Mavortius in 527 A.D.

Houses near the Via XX Settembre. In the Via XX Settembre, on the
west side of the former Palazzo Baracchini, E. GATTI reports the discovery of
the remains of private houses, fragments of statuary, architectural members,
and a fragmentary inscription. (Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 277-279.)

A Private House. On the west side of the area included between the Vie
Andrea Doria, Mocenigo and Candia remains of a private house of Roman
times have been found on the slope of Monte Mario to the left of the Via
Trionfale. Leading to it is a deverticulum approaching the road from south-
east to northwest. The house contained a fine mosaic pavement, 50 m. square,
of about the middle of the first century of our era. A dedicatory inscription to
Silvanus was also found. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav. 1920, pp. 290-292.)

A Road near the Via Tiburtina. During excavations in the circular plot
of the Pincetto a Campo Verano an ancient road was brought to light, one metre
below the modern level. It runs northeast and southwest and was a deverti-
culum of the Via Tiburtina. Beneath it was a sepulchral gallery. (E. GATTI,
Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 290.)

Sarcophagi and Vases. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 279-281, E. GATTI
reports the discovery in the Viale Giotto, of the district of S. Saba, of a cham-
ber with three marble sarcophagi, orientated from east to west. One of these
had sculptures covering half of one long side, the other half being left unfin-
ished. There were also found fragments of vases, including Arretine ware with
inscriptions and inscribed handles of amphorae, some of which are unpublished;
also a brick stamp of the greater Domitianic pottery (C.I.L. XV, 165).

Tombs near the Via Portuense. Near the junction of the Via. Portuense
with the Via Magliana some cremation and inhumation tombs have been found
with two inscriptions and a few small objects. (E. GATTI, Not. Scav. XVII,
1920, p. 284.)

A Villa on the Via Latina. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 282, E. GATTI
reports the discovery, on the property of Comm. Maraini on the right of the
Via Appia Nova, of the remains of an ancient building, apparently a villa
rustica. With them were found fragments of painted stucco of good style and
of veneering slabs of colored marble.

SCHIO. A Neolithic Settlement. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 236-237,
A. ALFONSI reports the existence at Schio, on the hill where the castle stands, of
a settlement dating from neolithic times.

SYRACUSE. Recent Discoveries. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 303-327,
P. OBSI describes the discovery of Siculan tombs near the south side of the sea-
wall of Epipolae. They were of an interesting form, but nothing was found
in them. He also gives an account of the exploration of Castello Eurialo and
other sites. At S. Lucia inscriptions and small objects were found, including
fragments of a vase decorated with a representation of the twelfth labor of
Heracles, signed Atticus Naevi. In the necropolis at Grotticelli two fragmen-
tary inscriptions came to light; excavations in the theatre and amphitheatre
yielded inscriptions and small objects; the necropolis at Canalicchio and^the
catacombs of Syracuse were also examined.

Sixth Century Art. In Burl Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 210-216 (pi.; fig.),

SPAIN, ETC.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 107

E. D. VAN BUREN dessribes the results of Professor Orsi's excavations of sixth
century temple remains in Syracuse. The most interesting objects found are
the terra-cotta decorations. They are in a very fragmentary condition, but
give, nevertheless, much new and important information concerning the temple
decoration of this period.

TAORMINA. A Late Roman Mosaic. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 340-
345, P. ORSI reports discoveries made at Taormina in 1917 and 1918. They
include a marble tablet (51 by 34 cm. ) with a Latin inscription, acquired from
a dealer in antiquities. . A few feet from the railway station of Giardini-Taor-
mina, the remains of a building with a mosaic pavement were unearthed. These
had to be destroyed, but a facsimile of the interesting mosaic was made. The
remains are 6 m. by 5.80; in its complete condition the mosaic perhaps meas-
ured 6 m. by 6.50. It represents the Cretan labyrinth, surrounded by a wall
with towers at the corners and gates on two sides; two of the former and one
of the latter had disappeared. The usual representation of Theseus and the
Minotaur in the centre is lacking. One side is decorated with three dolphins.
The workmanship is poor and the design puerile, and the mosaic must be as-
signed to the period beginning with Diocletian.

TERRANOVA DI SICILIA. A Hoard of Gold. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920,
p. 338, P. ORSI reports the discovery at Terranova di Sicilia, by peasants, in
December, 1918, of a hoard of Macedonian aurei and, perhaps, some jewelry.
The collection was scattered, but there have been recovered a number of gold
staters of Philip (359-336) and Alexander (336-323); also a gold earring
decorated with a lion's head. Other hoards had been found previously in the
neighborhood.

TINDARL A Hellenistic Nike. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 345-347,
P. ORSI publishes a fragment of a Nike in Greek marble, from Tindari in Sicily,
belonging to a collection made by Baron della Scala and now dispersed. The
fragment is 89 cm. high and shows the lower part of the figure, which was per-
haps an acroterium. Orsi regards it as a Hellenistic work, inspired by the
sculpture of the second half of the fifth century.

VERONA. Mosaic Pavements. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 235, A.
ALFONSI describes the discovery of a mosaic pavement of a good period under
the Via S. Andrea in Verona. In the Via Mazzini remains of a Roman build-
ing and a mosaic pavement were found. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, p. 236,
A. DA LTSCA reports the discovery of a Roman tomb near S. Stephano at
Verona. It contained only a skeleton.

VICO PISANO. A Silver Hoard. In Not. Scav. XVII, 1920, pp. 240-
243, A. MINTO reports the discovery of a hoard of Roman silver denarii, with
a few quinarii, at Vico Pisano in Etruria. The coins, which were found at a
depth of about 4 m., belong to the last century of the Republic. The earliest
is a denarius of C. Julius Caesar and the latest a denarius struck by Augustus
in honor of C. and L. Caesar. The 202 pieces represent an unusually large
number of types. The existence of a Roman village at this place is known
also from the discovery of tombs.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

ALISEDA. A Treasure of Gold and Silver. In B. Soc. Esp. XXIX, 1921,
pp. 96-124 (8 pis.; 9 figs.), J. R. M^LIDA describes the very important treasure

108 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

found in Aliseda in 1920. It consists of numerous objects of gold and silver
and other metals, but principally of gold. They are Phoenician and Cartha-
ginian work ranging in date from the sixth to the fourth century B.C. Though
many similar finds have previously been made in Spain, this is the most impor-
tant of all both because of its size and because of the excellent quality of the
workmanship displayed in the exquisite jewels. The treasure has been de-
posited in the Museo Arqueol6gico Nacional.

BEIRA-BAIXA. Miscellaneous Antiquities. In Archeologo PortuguZs,
XXIII, 1918, pp. 1-18 (18 figs.), J. L. DE VASCONCELOS describes objects of
various periods found in Beira-Baixa, including some prehistoric antiquities,
Roman pottery, glass and inscriptions, and a Visigothic lamp.

CENICIENTOS. The Rock of Perescrita. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1920,
pp. 103-107, P. PARIS describes a sculptured rock known as the Rock of Per-
escrita, near Cenicientos in the southeast of the province of Madrid. It is of
interest because few monuments of antiquity have been found in this region.
The fields about it are covered with fragments of coarse pottery of Roman date,
though possibly of Iberian manufacture. At the top of the rock is a niche like
an oven. Below this a rectangular frame encloses two representations in re-
lief, of which the lower seems to show a figure on a horse, the upper three
female figures. The latter is, perhaps, a scene of offerings. There is a short
and illegible inscription at one side, which, perhaps, showed to whom the relief
was dedicated.

JAEN. An Iberian Bronze. In B. Soc. Esp. XXIX, 1921, pp. 130-142
(2 pis.; fig.), H. OBERMAIER publishes an Iberian bronze found in the province
of Jacn or of Murcia and belonging to Dr. Aquirre. Its special interest lies in
its subject matter. It represents a sacrificial scene, the only representation of
such an Iberian ceremony that we have. It is, therefore, of importance in
throwing light upon the religious practices of the Iberians.

SIERRA MORENA. Hoard of Roman Denarii. In October, 1920, there
was discovered in the Sierra Morena, province of Jae"n, on the northern con-
fines of Andalusia, a hoard of Roman denarii, wrapped in a bent sheet of lead.
The precise spot of discovery was about two miles northeast from the Cente-
nillo silver-lead mines, which are situated about six miles northwest from the
town of La Carolina. The coins numbered 617 pieces, which made up the en-
tire hoard. The dates range from the earliest issues of Roman silver down to
about 90 B.C., at about which time the burial must have taken place. The
find is described in detail by HORACE SANDARS in Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 179-
186. The burial must have been substantially contemporaneous with that of a
hoard of denarii and ornaments (.described by Messrs. Hill and Sandars in
Num. Chron. 1912, and in J.R.S. I, 1911.

FRANCE

LECTOURE. A Portrait Head. In Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique
du Midi de la France, nouvelle serie, 42, 1913, pp. 135-137 (pi.), E. DELORME
describes a portrait head of the first century which was discovered with a
number of other sculptural fragments at Lectoure (Gascogne). It has a cer-
tain resemblance to portraits of Tiberius, but does not represent him. The
subject has not been identified.

AUSTRIA] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 109

MARIGNAC. A Gallo-Roman Stele. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 154-
158, M. GRAILLOT describes a Gallo-Roman stele found at Maurignac (Haute-
Garonne). The busts of a man and his wife are carved on it in high relief of a
style which is not later than the Flavian era. The man's name is Galus.
That of his wife, Teixsossix, is of Pyrenaean origin.

MAS D' AZIL. Palaeolithic Art. In Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique
du Midi de la France, nouvelle se"rie, 42, 1913, pp. 139-142 (2 pis.), the Abbe
BREUIL and Count H. BEGOTTEN report their discoveries in the lower passages
of the cave of Mas d' Azil. They found fragmentary drawings, in red paint, of
bisons, reindeer, and horses. Count Begouen remarks that prehistoric man
availed himself of accidental resemblances, in the irregularities of the cave
walls, to forms of animals which he wished to depict.

MONTESQUIEU-AVANTES. Palaeolithic Art. In Bulletin de la Societe
Archeologique du Midi de la France, nouvelle serie, 42, 1913, pp. 61-62 (4 pis.),
Count H. BEGOUEN describes some examples of palaeolithic art which he has
discovered in the Caverne du Tuc d'Audoubert, near Montesquieu-Avantes,
Ariege. One gallery of the cave contains drawings of horses, bisons, and a
reindeer, accompanied by marks which probably represent primitive darts.
Another gallery seems to have been a centre of magical ceremonies; a part of
this shows strange designs like those of Gargas and the Spanish caves, complex
interlaces of Aurignac date. Most remarkable of all remains of quaternary
art in this cave is a large group of a male and a female bison, modelled in clay.

PARIS. A Roman Road. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 85-90 (fig.), Dr.
CAPITAN reports that in recent excavations for a gas conduit in Rue St. Jacques,
Paris, some sandstone slabs of a Roman pavement were found. They belong
to the latest repair (in the fourth century) of the road from Lutetia to Genabum.

TOULOUSE. A Roman Aqueduct. J. CHALANDE reports the discovery
at Toulouse of the socle of a pillar of the Roman aqueduct which brought the
water of Ardenne Haute to the city. (Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique du
Midi de la France, nouvelle serie, 43, 1914, pp. 171-172.)

SWITZERLAND

GENEVA. Miscellaneous Antiquities. In Bulletin de VInstitut National
Genevois, XLI, 1914, pp. 331-355 (32 figs.), B. REBER describes antiquities
discovered between the Eglise de la Madeleine and the Place Langemalle at
Geneva in excavations incidental to the construction of new buildings. Some
traces of prehistoric settlement were found, and many fragments of Gallic and
Roman pottery and other small antiquities of Roman date. A fragmentary
inscription commemorates a man named Trebonianus.

AUSTRIA

BREGENZ. A Roman Brick Kiln. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919,
Beiblatt, cols. 49-66 (12 figs.), A HILD describes a Roman brick kiln found at
Bregenz in 1912. Some of the bricks found bear the name CAR I N VS. Forty-
six bronze coins dating between 340 and 380 A.D. were discovered.

EBREICHSDORF. Roman Monuments. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII,
1915, Beiblatt, cols. 219-232 (4 figs.), F. RUZICKA describes four Roman
tombstones and an altar built into the castle at Ebreichsdorf .

110 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

FLAVIA SOLVA. Recent Excavations. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX,
1919, Beiblatt, cols. 135-156 (13 figs.), W. SCHMID reports upon the excavations
at Flavia Solva, near Leibnitz, from 1913 to 1916, with plans of the streets and
buildings. Various objects of minor importance were brought to light, includ-
ing architectural plaster fragments and pieces of wall frescoes.

GRADL. A Prehistoric Site. Discoveries at a prehistoric site near Lan-
genlois-Haindorf in the vicinity of Gradl are described by A. HRODEGH in Mitt.
Anth. Ges. LI, 1921, pp. 40-43 (2 figs.). The objects discovered are assigned
to these periods: the Unjetitz, the Lausitz, the late Hallstatt, and La Tene.

HANKENFELD. A Neolithic Grave. In Mitt. Anth. Ges. LI, 1921, pp.
46-47, J. BAYER reports the discovery at Hankenfeld of a prehistoric grave
with pottery of neolithic date. It seems to be the first neolithic burial to be
found south of the Danube in the East Alpine region.

LOTSCHITZ. Report on Recent Excavations. In Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-
XX, 1919, pp. 107-134 (6 figs.), F. LORGER reports upon his excavation of the
buildings in the Roman camp at Lotschitz in 1916 and 1917. There were found
204 inscribed bricks bearing the words leg(io) II Italica Ampliatus, leg(io] II
Italica Auspicatus, leg(ionis) II Italicae Fabianus, etc.

SALZBURG. A Prehistoric Settlement. In Mitt. Anth. Ges. LI, 1921, pp.
31-39 (4 figs.) M. HELL describes the discovery of a prehistoric settlement on
the Hellbriinner Berg south of Salzburg. The finds were mostly of the late
neolithic and early bronze periods, but show no regular stratification.

STILLFRIED AN DER MARCH. Excavations in 1916. In Jh. Oest.
Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919, Beiblatt, cols. 67-106 (8 figs.), O. MENGHIN describes
the excavations at Stillfried an der March in 1916. Fragments of prehistoric
and Roman pottery were discovered. The site was occupied in neolithic times,
but attained its greatest importance in the early part of the Hallstatt period.
The Roman settlement was most important from the second to the fourth cen-
tury A.D.

SWEDEN

ADELSO. Antiquities. The archaeological investigations on the island of
Adelso in Lake Malar are the subject of a paper by H. RYDH in Fornvannen,
XII, 1917, pp. 90-96 (9 figs.; map). Graves excavated at Hovgarden belong to
the Viking period. Other early graves were opened at Stenby and Stra Dalby.
On the Skanberg is a prehistoric fortification, surrounding the citadel, and hav-
ing on the south side an entrance masked by an outer wall.

GOTEBORG. Rock Drawings. In Fornvdnnen, XII, 1917, pp. 115-126
(7 figs.), G. HALLSTROM describes forty-six drawings on rocks in southern
Goteborg and Bohuslan. Ships are the most common subjects, but animals
and men are also represented.

SKANE. Graves of the Stone Age. In Fornvannen, XII, 1917, pp. 67-
88 (46 figs.), F. HANSEN describes the contents of a number of graves of the
Stone Age which he investigated at Skane and in Langeland (Denmark) . Stone
objects and pottery were discovered.

STORKlGE. A Find of Bronzes. In Fornvannen, XII, 1917, pp. 147-
172, 203-225 (19 figs.) E. HJARNE describes a group of bronzes found near
Storkage and now in the museum of Skellef tea in the province of Wasterbotten,
It includes horseshoe-shaped ring-fibulae with enamel inlays, two bow fibulae.

GREAT BRITAIN] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 HI

a spiral arm ring, parts of neck rings and finger rings. The enamelled fibulae
are the first of this type to be found in Sweden. Similar fibulae have been
found in Finland, the Baltic provinces, and Russia. The other objects.of this
deposit also point to eastern connections. It is to be dated in the first half of
the fourth century A.D., and shows that trade existed between Wasterbotten
and the Baltic countries in this period.

VARML AND. Prehistoric Antiquities. In Fornvannen, XII, 1917, pp.
1-35 (26 figs.), T. J. ARNE describes the exploration of prehistoric sites in Varm-
land in the summers of 1906, 1915, and 1916. A few objects of the Bronze Age
were found. Of the stone tumuli of this period the greater number had been
plundered. At Norby a cemetery with twenty graves of the La Tene period
was excavated. The graves were incineration trenches covered with small
stones. A cemetery at Runneval belongs to the time between the Roman Era
and the period of migrations, about 400 A.D. Nine of the ninety-four graves
here were excavated, and a few small objects of clay, bone, glass, and iron were
found.

WENDEL. The 'Grave of King Ottar. Investigation of a burial mound
at Husby in Wendel seems to confirm the tradition that it is the grave of King
Ottar, who died in the first half of the sixth century. In the mound was a
heap of stones which served as a foundation for the funeral pyre. Human
bones, a gold coin of the emperor Basiliscus (476-477 A.D.), and fragments of
gold, silver, bronze, glass, and pottery were found. The type of burial is like
that of the Old Uppsala graves. (S. LINDQVIST, Fornvannen, XII, 1917, pp.
127-143; 15 figs.)

RUSSIA

PETROGRAD. The Museum of the Hermitage. In R. Arch., fifth series,
XIV, 1912, pp. 165-171 ANDRE JULIEN reports that the Museum of the Her-
mitage has suffered no losses since 1914. There has been a complete reorganiza-
tion, the museum has been extended to include the Winter Palace, many pri-
vate collections have been deposited in the museum, numerous gifts have been
received, some of which are important, and many objects have come into the
museum by confiscation. The staff is well organized and is working faithfully,
not only in the arrangement and care of the museum and its contents, but also
in the preparation of handbooks and learned treatises.

GREAT BRITAIN

AMESBURY. A Stone Axe-hammer. In connection with the discovery
of prehistoric burials at Amesbury, reported by Sir LAWRENCE WEAVER in
The Antiquaries Journal, I, 1921, pp. 125-126, and commented on by R. SMITH,
ibid. pp. 126-130 (4 figs.), a stone axe-hammer of interesting shape was
found. It apparently belongs to the Bronze Age, since its form is imitative of
early copper implements.

CAMBRIDGE. Acquisitions of the Fitzwilliam Museum. Among recent
acquisitions of the Fitzwilliam Museum are: (1) A collection of 150 scarabs;
a horse's head from an Assyrian relief brought from Nineveh by Layard (gift
of Sir Herbert Thompson) ; (2) A small Roman sarcophagus finely decorated
(gift of Lord Carmichael) ; (3) many coins bequeathed by F. W. Hasluck; a gold

112 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922'

coin of the Aulerci Eburovici (gift by Mr. W. Finch); (4) six specimens of
Corean pottery (gift of Mr. W. M. Tapp); (5) a Parisian breviary, written
about 1370 for Louis' d' Evreux, Count of Etampes, and a large miniature of
the Ferrarese school (R. Arch. XIV, 1921, p. 192, from the Annual Report of
the Museum).

FRILFORD. Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon Burials. In The Anti-
quaries Journal, I, 1921, pp. 87-96 (3 figs.), L. H. DUDLEY BUXTON reports the
results of excavation at Frilford of a cemetery site on which investigations were
made by Mr. Akerman and Dr. Rolleston, 1864-1868. Forty Romano-British
graves, cut in oolite, were discovered. Coffin nails and coins were found in
these, but few fragments of pottery. Five Anglo-Saxon graves were opened,
containing some small pins, gilt brooches, beads, and other small objects. None
of the Anglo-Saxon cremations which Dr. Rolleston reports were found, nor
were there any of the unoriented graves which he mentions.

GRIME'S GRAVES. Palaeolithic Engravings. In The Antiquaries Jour-
nal, I, 1921, pp. 83-86 (fig.), A. L. ARMSTRONG reports discoveries at Grime's
Graves, Norfolk, indicating the continuous occupation of this site from palae-
olithic times to the Iron Age. The most important finds were two pieces of
flint crust, on one of which a deer or elk is represented, on the other the head of
a hind. These were discovered in connection with implements of the Le
Moustier period, in a level immediately overlying glacial sand.

LONDON. Accessions to the British Museum Collection of Coins.
Greek coins acquired by the British Museum in 1920 are described in part by
G. F. HILL in Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 161-178 (2 pis.). The total number of
Greek coins acquired was 2,970, as against 2,076 in 1919. Part of these were
from the Earle Fox bequest, and from the collection of coins of the Achaean
League formed by the late Gen. Malcolm G. Clerk. Among the coins de-
scribed are an as of Hatria (wt. 341. 8g.), like Haeberlin I, p. 204, No. 5, but with-
out any visible value-mark on the reverse; a so-called "Marathon" decadrachm
of Athens (eight other specimens known, but one of these probably false) ; and
a unique oriental imitation of an Athenian coin.

Greek Coins from the Dardanelles. E. S. G. Robinson describes in Num.
Chron. 1921, pp. 1-^25 (pi.), thirty-eight Greek coins recently acquired by the
British Museum from a collection formed in the Dardanelles region. They
are mostly of the Roman imperial period, but include several new and a num-
ber of the less well-known varieties. From the occurrence of the very uncom-
mon type of a beardless Asclepius on a copper of Prusias ad Hypium, added
to other considerations, he suggests that didrachms of this type previously
attributed to Arne-Cierium (Thessaly) should be assigned to Cierus-Prusias
(Bithynia).

A Tetradrachm of Aspeisas. A coin, recently acquired by the British
Museum, has the types of the Alexander the Great coinage, but is unique in
displaying on the reverse "the only example in the earlier Alexander series of
a name [ A^TT E I ^ OY] given at full length." Aspeisas is nowhere mentioned in
literature, but an Aspisas is said by Diodorus (XIX, 55) to be a Persian made
satrap of Susiana in place of Seleucus by Antigonus in 316 B.C. Apparently
the satrap was this Aspeisas, and the coin was struck at Susa, 316-312 B.C.
(E. S. G. ROBINSON, Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 37-38; pi.)

NUNEATON. Roman Denarii. Twenty-nine denarii were recently found

No. AFRICA] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 113

in a granite quarry at Nuneaton. They probably formed part rather than the
whole of a hoard. One was of the familiar eagle-galley type of Mark Antony;
the rest ranged in date from Septimius Severus to Julia Mamaea. They are
described in detail by H. MATTINGLY in Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 145-149.

OXFORD. Acquisitions of the Ashmolean Museum in 1920. In R. Arch.,
fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 191 f ., S. R. gives a list of the more important acqui-
sitions of the Ashmolean Museum in 1920. It includes objects of Egyptian (a
funerary vase of about the second century B.C. and many objects from Napata
in Nubia), Asiatic (Hittite cylinder, etc.), Aegean, Greek (chiefly Attic vases),
Italian (terra-cotta heads from Orvieto, Etruscan objects from a tomb near
Chiusi, etc.), prehistoric and British origin, and also some relatively modern
works of art.

NORTHERN AFRICA

CARTHAGE. Punic Graves. In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 95-100,
Pere DELATTRE reports the excavation of a number of Punic graves on the
hill of Juno at Carthage. Both cinerary and inhumation burials were found,
accompanied by pottery, jewelry, and other small objects.

CYRENAICA. Archaeological Notes. In Notiziario Archeologico, I, 1915,
pp. 67-239 (87 figs.), E. GHISLANZONI, after reviewing briefly the physical
characteristics and the history of the Cyrenaica, as well as the history of mod-
ern investigation in this region, describes under several topographical headings
the antiquities which have come to the notice of archaeologists since the
Italian occupation of Tripoli. At Berenice (Benghazi) some mounds near the
ancient Lake Tritonis probably belong to the ruins of the temple of Aphrodite
mentioned by Strabo. Some architectural fragments, and three Roman por-
trait statues have been found in the city. Of the many rock-cut tombs in the
vicinity a common type is approached by a short flight of steps, and shows
niches in the walls for burials. Of the great quantity of pottery and terra-
cottas found in these tombs the greater part is of Roman date, and none is
earlier than the -Ptolemaic period. At Teuchira there are no visible Greek
remains. The conspicuous city walls belong to the period of Justinian. At
Barce there are slight architectural remains. A Panathenaic amphora of the
fourth century B.C. was excavated in this region. At Ptolemais are fine ashlar
walls of one of the city gates, and remains of great covered reservoirs. The
great masses of confused ruins indicate that more destruction was caused by
earthquake than by barbarian invasion. An object of some artistic interest
which has been found here is a fragment of a sarcophagus with a relief, pos-
sibly of Roman date, but of Greek style, representing a combat of Greeks and
Amazons. Two rude inscribed reliefs commemorate gladiators. At Apollonia
there has been considerable destruction of ancient remains since the visit of
Smith and Porcher in 1860. The apse of the principal Christian basilica is
still recognizable. The city was supplied with water by an aqueduct of which
considerable parts are preserved. The best preserved monument of the city is
the theatre. A statuary fragment found here is from a figure of the Tyche of
Apollonia. Its drapery is similar in style to that of the Hera Barberini. At
Cyrene the most conspicuous monuments are the tombs of its necropolis.
Among the sculptures found in the region of the fountain and temple of
Apollo the Aphrodite is already famous. Others are two archaic korai, headless

114. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

(Fig. 1); a torso of Hermes; and a statue of a satyr with the infant Dionysus.
On the south slope of the Wady Bil Gadir, where the American expedition
discovered several draped figures of Roman date, numerous other figures of
similar type have been found, as well as many terra-cottas representing seated
female figures. In the southwestern part of the city are the ruins of two great
reservoirs. A remarkably well-preserved covered reservoir is found at Saf-
Saf, the site of an ancient suburb of Gyrene.

MAHDIA. Marble Candelabra. In R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp.
1-12 (fig.), A. MERLIN and L. POINSSOT describe and discuss several marble
candelabra found in the sea near Mahdia and now in the Bardo Museum. Two

FIGURE 1. ARCHAIC FEMALE FIGURE: GYRENE.

only are in fairly good condition. The most complete are 1.85 m. in height
and are composed of a three-sided base and a shaft made up of superposed
plates separated by baskets of foliage. The leaves and the ornamentation of
the bases indicate that these candelabra are imitations of metal work. Sev-
eral works of similar style are cited. The marble candelabra, as well as their
metal prototypes, are products of the neo-Attic school, and the types of their
ornamentation acanthus, griffin, palmette, lotus, spiral, etc., go back to the
Ionic art of the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.

TIPASA. A Mosaic Inscription .In C. R. Acad. Insc. 1920, pp. 387-391,
E. ALBEBTINI reports the discovery at Tipasa of the remains of an apsidal
structure, the vestibule of which has a mosaic inscription of five hexameter

UNITED STATES] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 115

lines, indicating that the dedicator had adapted a previously existing building
to use as a Christian church, and had decorated it with mosaics. The inscrip-
tion is to be dated about 350 A.D.

TRIPOLI. The Arch of Marcus Aurelius. In Notiziario Archeologico, I,
1915, pp. 15-34 (4 pis.; 8 figs.), G. BONI and L. MARIANI report and illustrate
in detail the recent measures taken by the Italian engineers to free the quadri-
frontal arch of Marcus Aurelius at Tripoli from modem structures and to
consolidate and preserve the ancient monument.

TRIPOLITANA. Archaeological Notes. In Notiziario Archeologico, I,
1915, pp. 37-64 (25 figs.; 2 maps), S. AURIGEMMA sketches the history of the
Tripolitana in ancient times, through the periods of Punic and Roman domina-
tion, and discusses the ancient monuments of the three principal cities of this
district. In the city of Tripoli, there are few monuments extant. The arch
of Marcus Aurelius is the most important. A number of rock-cut tombs north-
west of the city have yielded a variety of small objects of Roman date. A
cemetery at Ain Zara 'illustrates the Christian period of Tripolis. Leptis
Magna, the chief port of this region in ancient times, shows many more monu-
ments. The grandiose ruins northwest of the Wady Ebda belong to the pal-
ace of Septimius Severus, who was a native of Leptis Magna. There are also
remains of a quadrif rental arch, an aqueduct, and a circus on this site.
The mausoleum of Gasr el-Duirat is a model of its kind, and exemplifies pro-
vincial art in all its complex variety. There are considerable remains of the
ancient fortifications designed to protect the port and the coast. At Sabrata,
which was the grain port of antiquity, are imposing monuments: the city wall,
an amphitheatre, and enormous heaps of unidentified ruins. Many ancient
monuments are found at places remote from the principal cities. A Roman
building near the coast at Zliten contains the finest mosaics yet discovered in
Africa. In variety of design and brilliance of color they are equal to the best
work of the imperial period. The composition includes representations of
fishes, of animals, of gladiatorial combats and hunting scenes. In the more
deserted parts of Tripoli, especially on the plateau and in the defiles of the
mountains of Gebel are many monuments which testify to the prosperity of
the country before the Arab invasion.

UNITED STATES

NEW YORK. Egyptian Sculptures. The Metropolitan Museum of Art
reports the acquisition by purchase of a number of important Egyptian sculp-
tures, including a fine representation in diorite of Senusert III as a sphinx, a
group in diorite showing Sahure, a King of the Vth dynasty, accompanied by
the nome-figure of Coptos, and a basalt statuette of the XXVIth dynasty,
representing the priest Harbas holding a figure of Osiris. (B. Metr. Mus. XV,

1920, pp. 128-131; 4 figs.)

An Egyptian Statuette. Of interest for its provenance as well as for its artis-
tic value is a statuette of "the nurse Satsneferu" recently acquired by the
Metropolitan Museum. The statuette was found at Adana, in southeastern
Asia Minor. It is assigned to the Xllth dynasty on epigraphical grounds and
because of the name of its original owner. (H. E. W., B. Metr. Mus. XVI,

1921, pp. 208-210; fig.)

116 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

FIGU.KE 2. HEAD OF
YOUTH: NEW YORK'.

Classical Accessions of the Metropolitan
Museum. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp.
9-14 (6 figs.), G. M. A. R(ICHTER) reports
that the Metropolitan Museum has acquired
an important series of sculptures: (1) a head
of a youth (Fig. 2), in the Attic-Ionic style of
about 500 B.C.; (2) a torso of a young athlete,
to be dated between the Olympia temple
sculptures and the Parthenon; (3) a torso of
a youth, of the later Polyclitan school; (4) a
statuette of a boxer (Fig. 3) made under the
influence of Scopas; (5) a torso of a boy,
Praxitelean; (6) a grave monument with a
farewell scene in low relief, of the fourth cen-
tury B.C.; (7) a small torso of a stooping
Aphrodite, of Roman date; (8) a Hellenistic
statue of an old fisherman. The Museum
has also purchased a number of sculptures
of Roman style, including a sarcophagus-
relief representing the death of Meleager,
and several architectural fragments; also a
series of more than a hundred ancient bronzes,

eighty vases, seventeen terra-cottas, and a

remarkable archaic statuette in amber, repre-
senting a woman carrying a child. Ibid. pp.

32-39 (6 figs.), Miss Richter describes some

of the bronzes mentioned above. The most

important are (1) a statuette of a diadumenos

(Fig. 4), showing the influence of Lysippus;

(2) a realistic statuette of a negro boy; (3) a

Hellenistic statuette of a tragic actor, in a

dramatic posture; (4) an archaic handle in

the form of a youth bent backward; (5) a

statuette of Harpocrates; (6) a statuette of a

bull, of fifth century style. The collection

includes not only other works of art, but a

number of surgical and other instruments.

Ibid. pp. 225-229 (5 figs.), Miss Richter

publishes seven Roman portraits lately ac-
quired by the Metropolitan Museum. They

are good examples from several periods: the

Republican, the Augustan, the second cen-
tury, and the third century, A.D.

A Replica of the Venus Genetrix. In

B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, p. 20, G. M. A.

R(ICHTER) reports that the Metropolitan

Museum exhibits as an anonymous loan an FIGURE 3. STATUETTE *OF

excellent replica of the Venus Genetrix, sup- BOXER: NEW YORK.

UNITED STATES] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921

117

posed by some archaeologists to be a copy of the statue of Aphrodite in the
Gardens by Alcamenes.

Terra-cottas from Crete. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 168-170 (3
figs.), M. E. C. reports that the Metropolitan Museum has received as a loan
from the Archaeological Institute of America a series of terra-cottas of the
seventh century B.C., discovered by Dr. Halbherr in his excavations at Praesos
in Crete (see A.J.A. IX, 1894, pp. 543-544; XI, 1896, p. 579; second series, V,
1901, pp. 281-283, 371-392).

Jewels of the Tang Period. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 17-18 (4
figs.), S. C. B. R. reports that the Metropolitan Museum has acquired a series
of Chinese gold jewels and silver ornaments of the T'ang period.

Pottery Lohans. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 15-16 (fig.), S. C. B. R.
reports the acquisition by the Met-
ropolitan Museum of a Chinese
pottery figure of one of the sixteen
Lohans or disciples of Buddha, from
the caves of the Eight Lohan Moun-
tain near Ichou. The head is not
restored, as are some heads of other
Lohans found on this site. The fig-
ure is of more than life size, and was
built up on an iron frame of which
parts are still visible. Ibid. XVI,
1921, p. 120 (fig.), the purchase of
a second Lohan from the same
series is announced.

A Buddhist Painting. In B. Metr.
Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 124-126 (fig.),
S. C. B. R. describes a Buddhist
painting of Chinese or Corean ori-
gin, recently given to the Metropol-
itan Museum. It shows Buddha
accompanied by disciples and Bod-
hisattvas, musicians and attendants
with banners. The style is related to that of the paintings of Khotan in
Chinese Turkestan.

An Exhibition of Sword Guards. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 142-144
(fig.), B. D(EAN) reports the exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of a col-
lection of a hundred Japanese sword guards, some of which are as early as
the fourteenth century.

NORTHAMPTON. Acquisitions of the Hillyer Art Gallery. Among a
number of recent accessions to the Hillyer Art Gallery of Smith College, re-
ported in a list published under the title "Fifth Special Exhibition, Season of
1920-1921: The New Accessions" are the following antiquities: (1) an Egyp-
tian bronze mirror with an ivory handle; (2) an Attic black figured amphora, on
each side of which, in a "reserved" panel, is represented a quadriga; (3) a
fragment of a terra-cotta relief representing a Victory sacrificing a bull.

FIGURE 4. STATUETTE OF DIADOU-
MENOS: NEW YORK.

118 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

PROVIDENCE. Tang Mirrors. In B. Rhode Island School of Design, IX,
1921, pp. 36-38 (2 figs.), L. E. R(OWE) describes two Chinese bronze mirrors
of the T'ang period which are now in the collection of the Rhode Island School
of Design.

EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE, MEDIAEVAL, AND

RENAISSANCE ART
GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS

CAIRO. Fostat Pottery. In Burl Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 11-18 (11
figs.), W. A. STEWART discusses the recent finds of pottery in that area of Old
Cairo known as Fostat. The pottery covers the period from Early Christian
times to the fifteenth century. Almost all of it shows foreign influence, and
it can be determined that in some cases the pieces were imported from Persia,
while in others they were made by Persian artisans in Cairo.

ITALY

FERRARA. A Ravennate Sarcophagus. A sarcophagus excavated in
Ferrara in 1920 is published by C. RICCI in Ross. d'Arte, VIII, 1921, pp. 253-
260 (12 figs.). Renaissance coats of arms carved on it indicate that it was not
buried so long ago as might have been suspected. But the sarcophagus itself
is clearly an early work. It is shown to belong to a group carved in Ravenna
in the first half of the fifth century, a group retaining classical features through-
out. On the front of the sarcophagus are the figures of six apostles in niches
flanking a central niche containing the enthroned Christ. On each end are two
other apostles in niches, and, to complete the twelve, two sheep on the back
symbolize the last two apostles.

FLORENCE. A Fourteenth Century Processional Cross. An unusually
splendid silver processional cross decorated with enameled paintings, recently
acquired by the Bargello, Florence, is published by C. GAMBA in Dedalo, II,
1921, pp. 219-221 (pi.; 2 figs.). The general design of the cross, as well as the
character of the enameled decorations, indicates the region of Siena as its prov-
enance. Simone Martini is the painter most nearly approached by the author
of the enamels.

Tapestries by Bachiacca. The work of a minor artist, Francesco Bachiacca,
particularly as it is shown in two series of tapestries recently hung in the
UfBzi, is discussed by M. TINTI in Dedalo, I, 1921-, pp. 803-817 (pi.; 12 figs.).
One of the series represents the months, the other grotesques. Both were done
toward the end of the artist's life, in the middle of the sixteenth century.
While Bachiacca was not a first rate artist and while he borrowed freely from
other masters, there is a liveliness and spontaneity about his work (partly due,
no doubt, to the contact with real life into which his Bohemian habits brought
him) which gives them an unmistakable personal note.

MILAN. Antonello da Messina. In L'Arte, XXIV, 1921, pp. 71-73 (pi.;
fig.), A. VENTURI adds a painting and a drawing to the known works of Anton-
ello da Messina. The painting, a portrait of a monk in the collection of Achillito
Chiesa at Milan, belongs to about 1475, when the artist had lost every trace of
Flemish influence. Venetian sfumato and the artist's own indication of volume
are characteristic features of the picture. The drawing (in the Albertina at

CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 119

Vienna, where it is labeled Marescalco) represents the bust of a youth and is
the only authentic drawing by Antonello.

A Relief by Jacopo della Quercia. In Dedalo, II, 1921, pp. 149-153 (pi.;
2 figs.), I. B. SUPINO publishes a hitherto unknown work in the Ojetti collection
which may confidently be attributed to Jacopo della Quercia, in the period hi
which he was working on the door of S. Petronio at Bologna. The relief
came from the villa of Corsano in Val d'Elsa and represents the Madonna and
Child, to whom S. Antonio is presenting a prelate. It was apparently in the
form of a lunette originally, decorating the archivolt of a door. It is one of the
finest examples of the master's work that have come down to us.

RAVENNA. The New Portrait of Dante. In Gaz. B.-A. IV, 1921, pp.
252-254 (3 figs.), P. ANTONY-THOURET publishes an excerpt from a letter writ-
ten by Corrado Ricci in which the latter shows that neither iconography, nor
history, nor traditions confirm the belief that the newly discovered fresco hi
S. Francesco at Ravenna is a portrait of Dante.

The Funerary Church of Dante. The important features of the older
forms of the church of S. Francesco at Ravenna as brought to light in the
recent restorations in honor of the Dante centenary are briefly summarized by
S. MURATORI in Rass. d'Arte, VIII, 1921, pp. 298-314 (15 figs.). The most
interesting, popularly, at least, are the frescoes that have been uncovered,
particularly the supposed portrait of Dante.

RIMINI. Another Portrait of Dante. In a study of the frescoes uncov-
ered a few years ago in the apse of S. Agostino in Rimini F. FILIPPINI in BolL
Arte, I, 1921, pp. 3-20 (21 figs.) gives evidence for the recognition of Dante;
among the characters represented. Through similarity to the work on the-
altarpiece of the Miracles of S. Giuliano, Rimini, the frescoes are attributed ta
the signer of that altarpiece, Bitino da Faenza. It seems likely that they were-
done in the second decade of the fifteenth century at the order of Fra Girolamo-
di Leonardo. Now at that time Fra Leonardo had just come from the Council
of Costanza, where his friend, Fra Giovanni da Sarravalle, had in his commen-
tary on Dante's Divine Comedy filled everyone with enthusiasm for that poet.
What more natural than that in the new decorations at Rimini prominent
place should be given to Dante, watching in company with Petrarch and lords-
of the house of Malatesta the miracle of the resuscitation of Drusiana?

ROME. Two Works by Benozzo Gozzoli. Two examples of Gozzoli's.
work during his sojourn in Rome and Lazio from 1456 to 1458 are published by
R. PAPINI in BolL Arte, I, 1921, pp. 36-38 (3 figs.). One, found six or seven
years ago in SS. Domenico e Sisto, Rome, is probably to be identified as the.
fragmentary central portion of a large composition of the Madonna "with
many saints" referred to by Vasari. The tutorship of the master Fra Angelica
is still evident in it. But wholly in Gozzoli's own individual manner is the
second painting, a head of Christ discovered a short time ago by the author of
the article in the monastery of Sta. Chiara in Piperno. It is probably a frag-
ment of a tabernaple.

An English Mediaeval Embroidery in the Vatican. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX,
1921, pp. 121-128 (3 pis.), A. LINDBLOM publishes an elaborate example of
English embroidery, an opus Anglicanum in the form of a cope, from the reign
of Edward I. It is exhibited in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. The
deep crimson and gold of the work form a more perfect harmony than one may

120 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

find in almost any other extant piece of the thirteenth and fourteenth century,
and the work is equally important for its perfect preservation and its delicate
workmanship.

SYRACUSE. Unpublished Syracusan Paintings. In L'Arte, XXIX, 1921,
pp. 111-115 (3 figs.), E. MAUCERI publishes three fifteenth century paintings
in Syracuse, showing their relationship with other groups of paintings where it
is not possible to discover their authors.

TIVOLL The Deposition of Tivoli. In Dedalo, II, 1921, pp. 79-89 (pi.;
8 figs.), F. HERMANIN writes on the splendid group of wooden statues, compos-
ing the Descent from the Cross, recently restored and regrouped in the cathe-
dral at Tivoli. The work is connected stylistically with other Romanesque
sculptures of the same province but surpasses them in largeness of conception
and liveliness of expression. It belongs to that thirteenth century trend of
art which culminated in the work of Pietro Cavallini.

TRENT. The Sacramentarium of the Church of Trent. The sacramen-
tarium recently returned to the city of Trent from the Palatine library of Vienna
is the subject of an article by G. GEROLA in Dedalo, II, 1921, pp. 221-230 (4
figs.). The decorations of the manuscript pages (British in origin of inspira-
tion) are less interesting than the binding. This was restored in the sixteenth
century, but it still contains on the outside the tenth century ivory figure of a
saint and on the inside fragments of sixth or seventh century figured cloth
(Fig. 5).

VENICE. Andrea del Castagno. A proof of the hitherto hypothetical
sojourn of Andrea del Castagno in Venice is given by G. Fiocco in L'Arte,
XXIV, 1921, pp. 85-89 (2 figs.). A close inspection of the frescoes in the apse
of the church of S. Zaccaria in Venice reveals the hand of Andrea in the style
of the work. Even his signature is found and the date 1442. Francesco da
Faenza is indicated in the inscription as a co-worker; to him may be assigned
the putti and other decorative motives.

FRANCE

ELNE. In Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique du Midi de la France,
nouvelle serie, 42, 1913, pp. 85-88 (pi.), F. GALABERT publishes the inscription
from the tomb of the Abbe Gaubert (d. 1234) of the monastery of Saint-Genis
des-Fontaines, near Elne (Pyrenees-Orientales) . It consists of fourteen lines
in leonine hexameters, with some metrical irregularities.

PARIS. A Medallion of Filippo Strozzi. In Gaz. B.-A. IV, 1921, pp. 203-
210 (pi.; 3 figs.), J. BABELON publishes a medallion with the portrait of Filippo
Strozzi, of which there is a mediocre example in the Cabinet of Medals, Paris.
Evidence is given for the attribution of the work to Benedetto Majano, author
of the Strozzi bust in the Louvre.

Little Known Paintings by Rembrandt. In Gaz. B.-A. Ill, 1921, pp.
213-218 (pi.; 3 figs.), A. BREDIUS publishes three pictures by Rembrandt. A
self portrait painted in about 1630 is in the collection of the Countess Delaborde.
The portrait of a man reading, hitherto known only in copies, belongs to Count
Demandoex Dedons, Marseilles, and is signed and dated 1645.- The third
picture is a little sketch in the author's collection which comes from the Wynn
Ellis sale, where it figured as a study for the Munich painting of the Erection
of the Cross. Its more profound conception, however, and the nature of its
variations from the Munich painting prove that it is a later work.

CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921

121

TOULOUSE. Five Shrines. In Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique du
Midi de la France, nouvelle serie, 42, pp.122-132 (pi.; 5 figs.), A. AURIOL de-
scribes shrines of five saints preserved at the church of Saint-Senin in Toulouse.
All are in the form of a rectangular chest surmounted by a cover shaped like

FIGURE 5. CLOTH BINDING OF SACRAMEN-
TORIUM: SIXTH OR SEVENTH CENTURY:
TRENT.

a steep roof. They are made of walnut wood and covered with plates of sil-
vered copper. All show architectonic ornament, with panels framing figures in
relief. They are dated in the sixteenth century, but have undergone repairs
since that date.

HOLLAND

AMSTERDAM. The Annunciation by Matteo Civitale. In Art in Amer-
ica, IX, 1921, pp. 202-205 (pi.), W. R. VALENTINER publishes a terra-cotta figure
of the Virgin in a private collection in Amsterdam which he believes to be the

122 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

companion piece of the beautiful Angel of the Annunciation by Matteo Civi-
tale in the Metropolitan Museum, New York.

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA

HANOVER. A Painting by Botticelli. In L'Arte, XXIV, 1921, pp. 137-
138 (fig.), A. VENTURI publishes a painting of the Annunciation in the Kestner
Museum, Hanover, which he places among the late works of Botticelli. It
was formerly ascribed to the school of that master.

MUNICH. Three Ivory Reliefs. In Munch. Jb. XII, 1921, pp. 38-45
(4 figs.), R. BERLINER publishes three ivory reliefs representing scenes from
the history of Christ, which were obtained by the Bavarian National Museum
in 1917. They clearly belong to the same series as those numbered 4 to 16
in the second volume of Goldschmidt's Elfenbeinskulpturen. But even these
new additions by no means complete the cycle of subjects which must originally
have been represented by the group. The work is apparently by a German
artist under Byzantine influence and belongs to the Othonian period.

The Madonna with the Rose Bush. In Munch. Jb. XI, 1921, pp. 2-12 (7
figs.), P. M. HALM writes on the stone group of the Madonna standing before a
rose bush in which the Child sits, a work acquired in 1916 by the Bavarian
National Museum. The prominence given to the rose bush is the most in-
teresting feature of the work; the reference is apparently to the prophetic
words of Isaiah (xi, 1 and 2). Comparison with other sculptures dates the
group in the period from 1360 to 1380, and its authorship is to be sought in the
Regensburg school.

VIENNA. A Madonna by Correggio. In L'Arte, XXIV, 1921, p. 172 (fig.),
A. VENTURI publishes a Madonna and Child with St. Johnin the Hofmuseum
of Vienna, which he attributes to Correggio.

ROUMANIA

The Excavations at Curtea of Argesh (Roumania). In R. Arch., fifth series,
XIII, 1821, pp. 1-23 (pi.), G. I. BRATIANU describes discoveries in the church
of St. Nicholas (Domnese) in the ancient capital of Walachia. Under the rel-
atively modern paintings of the interior, a series of five Byzantine frescoes
has been found. Details of costume fix the date of the frescoes in the fourteenth
century. On a column the figure of a warrior is painted, in a costume of
that period. An inscription earlier than the paintings gives the date 1352 for
the death of "the great Voivode Basarab. " Fourteen tombs were found within
the church, the chief of which contained the remains of a man whose costume
resembled that of the painted figure. An elaborate gold fastening of his girdle
has a curious architectural form resembling a castle, in the great central opening
of which is a swan with a woman's head. A trefoil and two fleurs de lis are
seen in three small openings below. The work seems to belong to the school
of Transylvania (Cluj-Kolosvar). Several other interesting works of metal
were found in the tombs. The relief known as the "Satru of Radu Negru,"
legendary founder of the Walach Princedom, was formerly in the church of
St. Nicholas and is now in the National Museum at Bucharest. It is a recum-
bent figure a fashion borrowed from Western Europe. The events of the
history of Roumania in the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are

CHKISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 123

briefly recounted. The great Hungarian and Catholic penetration of Walachia
belongs to the period from about 1340 to 1375. The person buried in the
chief tomb in St. Nicholas was probably the great Voivode Basarab, not the
somewhat later Radu Negru. Excavations are to be continued. (See also
N. Jorga in C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 22-26.)

GREAT BRITAIN

BRISTOL. A Byzantine Psalter. In Burl Mag. XXXVIII, 1921, pp.
119-128 and 282-289 (4 pis.), M. P. PERRY publishes a hitherto unnoticed By-
zantine psalter in the possession of the Western College at Bristol. The manu-
script may be dated in the eleventh century; it belongs to the so-called "Mon-
astic-theological" group. Besides two full-page illuminations, it is illustrated
by a series of even more interesting marginal vignettes, the subject matter and
iconographical significance of which are here discussed.

COVENTRY. A Fifteenth Century Oak Chair. In Burl Mag. XXXIX,
1921, pp. 170-177 (2 pis.; fig.), H. CESCINSKY describes the remnants of a
fine old chair in St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, which is almost unique as a good
example of secular chairs as early as the fifteenth century. Originally the
chair was probably in the form of a triple throne and was inspired from eccle-
siastical sources.

LONDON. A Stucco after Verrocchio. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp.
131-138 (2 pis.), E. MACLAGAN publishes a badly damaged stucco relief recently
acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum, which it seems possible to con-
sider a copy moulded from Verrocchio's now lost bronze representing the head
of Alexander. Even in its fragmentary condition one may see that it is a
much stronger, abler type of work than is the marble relief of "Scipio" in the
Louvre. The latter is undoubtedly a later imitation of either one of the stucco
casts of the bronze or the bronze itself. The Darius, a companion piece to
the Alexander head, probably inspired Leonardo's drawing of the head of a
warrior (in the British Museum).

An Early English Embroidery. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 9-10
(fig.), Mrs. A. CHRISTIE publishes an early fourteenth century embroidered
representation of the Crucifixion recently acquired by the Victoria and Albert
Museum. It probably once formed the front of a burse.

Roman Drinking Glasses. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, p. 9 (fig.), P.
GANZ publishes an ancient glass (from the Engel Gros collection) found in 1883
at Boulogne in the so-called "lower town. " Engraved groups of figures upon
the glass represent scenes from the life of Christ. A similar goblet found at
Cologne is in the Sloane collection of the British Museum. Both belong to
the Christian Roman period, showing the primitive barbaric style of the art
of the Roman legions of North Africa and Syria in the fourth and fifth cen-
turies A.D.

Notes on Durer. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX t 1921, pp. 177-184 (2 pis.), C.
DODGSON publishes a small painted portrait (owned by Mr. S. Wilensky),
which he identifies as the work of Durer. L. Justi finds that the head fits into
Diirer's scheme of proportions. A second attribution to Durer consists of a
leaf of the Netherlands sketch book lately acquired by the British Museum.
It represents still life objects, furniture and jugs.

A Panel of the Crucifixion. In Burl Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 53-54 (pi.),

124 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

T. BORENIUS publishes an important thirteenth century painting of the Cru-
cifixion belonging to Mr. Henry Harris. It is of special interest as showing the
old Byzantine tradition beginning to be affected by contact with the influence
of Giotto.

A Copy of a Rembrandt. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 18-23 (4 figs.),
A. BREDIUS publishes a painting of an elderly man (belonging to the author
of the article) which is such masterly work and so closely similar to paintings
by Rembrandt that it is believed to be a copy by Ferdinand Bol after a lost
Rembrandt.

A Florentine Predella. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, p. 154 (pi.), T.
BORENIUS writes on a hitherto unpublished predella, owned by M. Bernard
d'Hendecourt, which is important because of its large size and fine artistic
quality. The iconography is very unusual. The style suggests as its author
Compagno di Agnolo.

A Portrait by Holbein. A portrait of a man recently discovered in England,
which may be assigned to the early period (about 1517) of Hans Holbein the
younger is published by P. GANZ in Burl. Mag. XXXVIII, 1921, pp. 210-221
(pi.). The portrait was probably painted at Lucerne and very likely repre-
sents Jacob von Hertenstein, the powerful protector of the artist.

An Italian Wooden Statuette. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX, 1921, p. 157 (pi.),
E. MACLAGAN publishes a wooden statuette of the Virgin and Child recently
acquired by Mr. Henry Harris. The work probably belongs to the Sienese
school of the fifteenth century. The French Gothic influence, which is so
evident in it, probably came both directly and indirectly, through the school
of the Pisani.

UNITED STATES

BOSTON. A Catalonian Fresco. A Byzantine fresco recently acquired
by the Museum of Fine Arts is announced in the B. Mus. F. A. XIX, 1921,
p. 59 (fig.). The fresco comes from the apse of the small Romanesque church
of Sta. Maria de Mur in Catalonia.

Twelfth Century Intaglios. In B. Mus. F. A. XIX, 1921, pp. 54-56 (6
figs.), B. I. GILMAN describes an unusually interesting set of engravings re-
cently acquired by the Museum of Fine Arts. .They were made in 1863 from
the copper intaglios that decorate the twelfth century Corona Lucis in the
cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle.

CAMBRIDGE. A Crucifixion by Fra Angelico. In Burl. Mag. XXXIX,
1921, pp. 209-210 (3 pis.), T. BORENIUS publishes a Crucifixion lately acquired
by the Fogg Art Museum. It is an important example of the work of Fra
Angelico, dating, probably, from the middle of the fifteenth century. Its
closest parallel is offered by the Crucifixion in the Louvre. The Dominican
kneeling at the foot of the cross is probably to be identified as Juan de Torque-
mada.

Acquisitions of the Fogg Museum. In Art in America, X, 1921, pp. 43-45
(6 figs.), F. M. PERKINS publishes two paintings recently acquired by the Fogg
Art Museum. The first of these is an Ascension by the artist whom Siren has
christened "Maestro del Bambino Vispo." The correctness of the attribu-
tion is evidenced by a comparison with a painting by that master in the John-
son collection and with some examples of his art recently acquired by the Bos-

CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 125

ton Museum of Fine Arts. The second Fogg Museum painting represents the
Nativity and is by Bicci di Lorenzo.

CHICAGO. Niccold di Pietro Gerini. In Art in America, IX, 1921, pp.
148-155 and 233-240 (4 figs.), R. OFFNER describes two groups of the Madonna
and Child (one in the Martin A. Ryerson collection, Chicago, the other in the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts), which are attributed to Niccold di Pietro Gerini.
He also gives a chronological list of other works attributable to this artist.

NEW YORK. Two Constantinopolitan Paintings. Two paintings of the
Madonna in New York collections (one belonging to Otto Kahn, the other to
Carl Hamilton) form the basis of B. BERENSON'S study in Dedalo, II, 1921, pp.
285-304 (2 pis.; 11 figs.) of mediaeval painting in Constantinople as contrasted
with that of Italy. The author admits that the study falls outside his own field
and that his conclusions rest in some measure upon personal intuitions rather
than upon certain proofs. Nevertheless, he gives a number of reasons. In
the first place, he argues that the work could not have been done elsewhere
than in Constantinople. Siren's attribution of one of the panels to Cavallini
is untenable, and Cimabue, Duccio, and others are out of the question. It
was only in Constantinople that such perfected technique, such splendid color,
such mosaic-like effects were attained in mediaeval painting. The two exam-
ples are clearly by the same master and must belong to the twelfth century.
They come from Spain, where they were probably taken after the conquest of
Constantinople.

A Portrait by Rogier van der Weyden. In Art in America, IX, 1921, p.
188 (fig.), M. J. FRIEDLANDER publishes a hitherto almost unknown portrait
of a man recently acquired by Mr. Michael Dreicer, New York, which is at-
tributed to van der Weyden. As is usual in this artist's work, the head is ex-
pressive of severe, earnest piety.

An Unpublished Painting by Titian. In Art in America, IX, 1921, pp. 223-
225 (pi.), F. M. PERKINS publishes a painting in the Blumenthal collection,
New York, which has long been attributed to Titian. The author concurs
with this attribution but disagrees with the subject usually assigned to the
painting; he believes that it represents Adonis rather than Diana.

A Portrait by Botticelli. In Art in America, X, 1921, pp. 26-30 (fig.), B.
BERENSON publishes a portrait of a young man in the collection of Mr. Carl W.
Hamilton, New York, which he attributes to Botticelli and describes as more
"Botticellian than any other Botticelli in existence " (Fig. 6).

Sculpture by Giovanni Pisano. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 145-146
(3 figs.), J. B. publishes a new accession of the Metropolitan Museum, a pilas-
ter with the symbols of three evangelists. This, along with the two pilasters
with angels blowing trumpets acquired a few years ago, seems to have come
from a pulpit parapet by Giovanni Pisano, probably the famous pulpit made
between 1301 and 1310 for the Duomo of Pisa.

Early Christian Gold Glass. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 170-175 (3
figs.), C. L. A. describes the representative collection of fourteen pieces of
Early Christian gold glass which has come into the possession of the Metropoli-
tan Museum during the last few years. The designs etched in the gold, of
interest iconographically rather than artistically, include profane as well as
religious subjects.

A Tondo by Luca della Robbia. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 224-225

126 AMERICAN JOURNAL OR ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

(fig.), J. B. describes an enameled terra-cotta tondo of Prudence by Luca della
Robbia, which was recently bought by the Metropolitan Museum. This tondo
is among those which Professor M'arquand has suggested may have been
originally designed for the Pazzi Chapel of S. Croce, Florence.

Mediaeval Sculptures. Among the recent additions to the mediaeval col-
lections of the Metropolitan Museum are two examples of French mid-twelfth

FIGURE 6. PORTRAIT OF A YOUNG
MAN: NEW YORK.

(FROM ART IN AMERICA.)

century work, a stone column-statue representing a king of Judah and a capital
with scenes from the Temptation of Christ. In contrast to the naturalism
and liveliness here combined with the earlier Romanesque decorative quality, a
second capital, belonging to the late eleventh century, exhibits that decorative
quality without the naturalism. The exact provenance of none of these sculp-
tures is known. (J. B., B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp 48-52; 3 figs.)

A Painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. A painting of the Harvesters,
lately acquired by the Metropolitan Museum as a work of the school of Bruegel
the Elder is discussed by B. B. in B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 96-103 (5 figs.).
The style of the work leads to the conjucture that it might be the work of
Pieter Bruegel himself, and a thorough cleaning has revealed a signature which
proves the validity of this conjecture. The picture undoubtedly belonged
with a series representing the months, some of which are now in the Kunsthis-
torisches Hof museum, Vienna.

Renaissance Stained Glass. Two windows of Flemish sixteenth century
workmanship recently acquired by the Metropolitan Museum are published
by J. B. in B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 46-47 (2 figs.). The work represents

CHRISTIAN ART] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 127

the transition between the mosaic glass of the Gothic period and the trans-
lucent panes of the High Renaissance.

Mantegna's Risen Christ. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 77-80 (3 figs.),
W. M. I., JR. publishes a print of Mantegna's engraving of the Risen Christ re-
cently acquired by the Metropolitan Museum. The print is entirely different
from others one sees of this plate. Apparently it is the only one that has sur-
vived from the perfect state of the plate; others lack its fine finish.

A Sculpture by Juliot. A characteristic work by Jacques Juliot the Elder
recently acquired by the Metropolitan Museum is published in B. Metr. Mus.
XVI, 1921, pp. 135-136 (fig.). The relief, representing the Dormition of the
Virgin, is to be dated about 1550; it shows the late development of the school
of Troyes in the period of transition from Gothic to Renaissance.

A Triptych by Andrea di Vanni. In Art in America, IX, 1921, pp. 180-188
(pi.), F. M. PERKINS publishes a portable triptych belonging to Ex-Senator
Clark, New York, which is signed by Andrea di Vanni. It is of particular
interest because it is clearly one of the earliest works so far known as unmis-
takably by Vanni, and it is also one of the finest. Its date must fall in the dec-
ade between 1375 and 1385.

A Work by the Master of the Marble Madonnas.. In Art in America, X,
1921, pp. 39-40 (fig.), S. RUBINSTEIN publishes a relief of a Madonna and Child
in the Mortimer Schiff collection, New York, which she attributes, on the basis
of its similarity to works published in an earlier study (see Art in America,
April, 1919, pp. 104-110), to the Master of the Marble Madonnas.

A Painting by Hans Suess. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 133-134, it
is announced that the Metropolitan Museum has purchased a painting of the
Ascension by Hans Suess, better known as Hans Kulmbach, a pupil and assis-
tant of Diirer. The composition resembles that of a woodcut of the subject
in Diirer's Little Passion, 1509-1511.

Italian Laces. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 29-32 (2 figs.) F. M.
describes some of the early Italian laces and altar cloths which have recently
come to the Metropolitan Museum horn the collection of Madame Ida Schiff.

English Furniture. In B. Metr. Mus. XVI, 1921, pp. 146-151 (5 figs.),
M. R. R. describes examples of English oak furniture recently acquired by the
Metropolitan Museum. They range in date from the fourteenth century to
the seventeenth.

PHILADELPHIA. A Pair of Donors by Jan Provost. M. J. Friedlander's
attribution of the portrait of a donor in the Johnson collection to Jan Provost
as opposed to Berenson's attribution of the same to Andrea Solario is substan-
tiated by G. RING'S publication in Art in America, X, 1921, pp. 16-20 (2 figs.)
of the figure of a donatrix in an Italian private collection. The latter painting
is clearly the companion piece of the donor's portrait; the size, general arrange-
ment, and, particularly, the distinctive backgrounds fit together perfectly.
Doubt of the northern origin of the female portrait is impossible, and all the
characteristics of the work of Jan Provost are plainly seen in it. The two
portraits must have originally formed parts of a large altar piece.

PROVIDENCE. A Madonna by Andrea Pisano. In Art in America, IX,
1921, pp. 225-232 (3 figs.), R. VAN MARLE publishes a marble statuette of the
Madonna and Child recently acquired by the Rhode Island School of Design
at Providence. The author attributes it to Andrea Pisano and conjectures
that it was probably executed to stand above Andrea's bronze door of the
Florentine baptistry.

128 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS

RECENT PUBLICATIONS. Pueblo Bonito by George H. Pepper (An-
thropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History, N. Y., XXVII,.
1920, 398 pp.; 12 pis., colored; 155 figs.) is a complete and exhaustive treatise
based on explorations between 1896 and 1899, during which time 198 rooms in
this extensive pueblo, the most important in northwestern New Mexico, were
excavated. Full technical descriptions of the finds are of special importance
in characterizing the culture of the ancient inhabitants. The building stood
five stories high, and contained twice as many rooms as have been excavated.
Its length was 667 feet. The masonry is partly rubble, partly ornamented
mosaic. Every type of pueblo architecture is exhibited, the structure having
grown by accumulation of population. A Golden Breastplate from Cuzco,.
Peru, is by M. H. SAVILLE (Indian Notes and Monographs, 1921, 8 pp.; 2 pis.)..
String Records of the Northwest, by J. D. LEECHMAN and M. R. HAHRINGTON,
ibid. 1921 (64 pp.; 6 pis.; fig.), deals with the custom of keeping biographical 1
records by means of knots tied in strings. The paper is illustrated by speci-
mens from southern British Columbia and from Washington. These records
correspond only roughly to the "quipu" system, well known in South America,
which is based on a numerical, not a chronological principle. Material Cul-
ture of the Menomini, by A. B. SKINNER, ibid. 1921 (478 pp.; 107 pis.; 74 figs.),
is the most comprehensive recent volume on any Algonkian people. Skin-
ner treats the culture of the Menomini inhabiting Wisconsin in systematic
order: Religion, Social Organization, Societies, Housing, Dress, Food and its-
preparation, Means of Transportation, Handicraft, Archaeology and Ethno-
geography . He advances some new speculations on Algonkian ethnical relation-
ships and describes some hitherto unrecorded ethnological features. From
every point of view the work, as the outcome of studies among the Menomini
extending over eleven years, is a standard reference to the culture of the Cen-
tral Algonkian. Other recent publications are ' The Cultural Transformation
of the Copper Eskimo,' by DIAMOND JENNESS, Geographical Review, XI, 1921,
pp. 541-550 (fig.) and Ethnology of the Kwakinth based on data collected by
George Hunt, by FRANZ BOAS, Part 2 (35th Annual Report, Bureau of American
Ethnology, 1913-14). This, the second part, now completes the exhaustive
treatment of Kwakinth archaeo-ethnology. The texts and translations deal
with Social Divisions, Family Histories, Songs, and conclude with addenda.

ABBREVIATIONS] ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS, 1921 . 129

ABBREVIATIONS

Abh.: Abhandlungen. Allg. Ztg.: Miinchener Allgemeine Zeitung. Alt.
Or.: Der alte Orient. Am. Anthr.: American Anthropologist. A.J.A.: Ameri-
can Journal of Archaeology. A. J. Num.: American Journal of Numismatics.

A. J. Sem. Lang.: American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature.
Ami d. Mon.: Ami des Monuments. Ant. Denk.: Antike Denkmaler. Ann.
Arch. Anth.: Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology. Ann. Scuol. It. At.:
Annuario della r. Scuola Archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in
Oriente. Ant. J.: The Antiquaries Journal. Arch. Anz.: Archaologischer
Anzeiger. 'Apx- AeXr. : 'ApxaioXoyinov AeXriov. 'Apx- 'Etf>. : 'ApxeuoXoyt/cT)
'Efontpts. Arch. Rec.: Architectural Record. Arch. Rel: Archiv fur Reli-
gionswissenschaft. Arch. Miss.: Archives de Missions Scientifiques et Litte"-
raires. Arch. Stor. Art.: Archivio Storico dell' Arte. Athen.: Athenaeum (of
London). Ath. Mitt.: Mitteilungen d. d. Archaeol. Instituts, Athen. Abt.

Beitr. Assyr.: Beitrage zur Assyriologie. Ber. Kunsts.: Amtliche Berichte
aus den Preuss. Kunstsammlugen. Berl. Akad.: Preussische Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Berl. Phil. W.: Berliner Philologische Wochen-
schrift. Bibl. Stud.: Biblische Studien. Bibl. World: The Biblical World.

B. Soc. Esp.: Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones. Boll. Arte:
Bollettino d'Arte. Boll. Num.: Bollettino Italiano di Numismatica. Bonn.
Jb.: Bonner Jahrbiicher: Jahrbucher des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im
Rheinlande. B.S.A.: Annual of the British School at Athens. B.S.R.: Papers of
the British School at Rome. B. Arch. C. T.: Bulletin Arche"ologique du Comite
des Travaux hist, et scient. B. Arch. M.: Bulletin Archeol. du Ministere.
B.C.H.: Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique. B. Cleve. Mus.: Bulletin of the
Cleveland Museum^ of Art. B. Inst. Gen.: -^Bulletin de F Institut National
Genevpis. B. Inst. Eg.: Bulletin de 1'Institut Egyptien (Cairo). B. Metr. Mus.:
Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. B. Mus. Brux.:
Bulletin des Musees Royaux des arts de"coratifs et industriels a Bruxelles.
B. Mus. F. A.: Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Boston. B. N. Y. Hist. Soc.:
New York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin. B. Num.: Bulletin de Num-
ismatique. B. R. I. Des.: Bulletin of the Rhode Island School of Design.
B. Soc. Anth.: Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. B. Soc. Midi
Fr.: Bulletin de la Societe Arche"ologique du Midi de la France. B. Com. Rom.:
Bullettino d. Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma. B. Arch. Crist.:
Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana. B. Pal. It.: Bullettino di Paletnologia
Italiana. Burl. Mag.: Burlington Magazine. B. Soc. Ant. Fr.: Bulletin de la
Societe des Antiquaires de France. Byz. Z.: Byzantinische Zeitschrift.

Chron. Arts: Chronique des Arts. Cl. Phil: Classical Philology. Cl. R.:
Classical Review. C. R. Acad. Insc.: Comptes Rendus de 1' Academic des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. C.I. A.: Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum.
C.I.G.: Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. C.I.L.: Corpus Inscriptionum
Latinarum. C.I.S.: Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. Cron. B. A.: Cron-
aca delle Belle Arti.

Eph. Ep. : Ephemeris Epigraphica. Eph. Sem. Ep.: Ephemeris fur Semitische
Epigraphik. Exp. Times: The Expository Times.

Gaz. B.-A.: Gazette des Beaux-Arts. G.D.I.: Sammlung der griechischen
Dialekt-Inschriften.

Ind. Notes: Indian Notes and Monographs. /. G.: Inscriptiones Graecae (for
contents and numbering of volumes, cf. A.J.A. IX, 1905, pp. 96-97). I.G.A.:
Inscriptiones Graecae Antiquissimae, ed. Roehl. I.G. Arg.: Inscriptiones
Graecae Argolidis. /. G. Ins.: Inscriptiones Graecarum Insularum. I.G.
Sept.: Inscriptiones Graeciae Septentrionalis. I.G. Sic. It.: Inscriptiones
Graecae Siciliae et Italiae.

Jb. Arch. I.: Jahrbuch d. d. Archaol. Instituts. Jb. Kl. Alt.: Neue Jahrbii-
cher fur das klassische Altertum, Geschichte und deutsche Litteratur und
fur Padagogik. Jb. Kunsth. Samm.: Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Sam-
mlungen des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses. Jb. Phil. Pad.: Neue Jahrbucher
fur Philologie und Padagogik (Fleckeisen's Jahrbucher). Jb. Preuss. Kunsts.:
Jahrbuch d. Preuss. Kunstsammlungen. Jh. Oest. Arch. I.: Jahreshefte des
oesterreichischen Archaologischen Instituts. J. Asiat.: Journal Asiatique.

130 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

f.A.O.S.: Journal of the American Oriental Society. J. B. ArchaeoL: Jour-
nal of the British Archaeological Association. J. B. Archil.: Journal of the
Royal Institute of British Architects. J. Bibl. Lit.: Journal of Biblical Litera-
ture. J.E.A.: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. J.H.S.: Journal of Hellenic
Studies. J. Int. Arch. Num.: Aiedvr]* 'E0?;/zcpts TTJS iso/juff/jLaTiKrjs dpxaioXoyias,
Journal international d'archeologie numismatique (Athens). J.R.S.: Journal
of Roman Studies.

Kunstchr.: Kunstchronik.

Mb. Num. Ges. Wien.: Monatsblatt der Numismatischen Gesellschaft in
Wien. Mh. f. Kunstw.: Monatshefte fiir Kunstwissenschaft. Mel. Arch.
Hist.: Melanges d' Archeologie et d'Histoire (of French School in Rome) . Mel.
Fac. Or.: Melanges de la Faculte Orientale, Beirut. M. Inst. Gen.: Memoires
de Tlnstitut Genevois. M . Am. Acad. Rome: Memoirs of the American Acad-
emy in Rome. M. Soc. Ant. Fr.: Me"moires de la Societe des Antiquaires de
France. Mitt. Anth. Ges.: Mitteilugen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in
Wien. Mitt. Or. Ges.: Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft. Mitt.
Pal. V.: Mitteilungen und Nachrichten des deutschen Palestina-Vereins. Mitt.
Vordcras. Ges.: Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft. Mon. Ant.:
Monumenti Antichi (of Accad. d. Lincei). Mon. Piot: Monuments et Memoires
pub. par 1' Acad. des Inscriptions, etc. (Fondation Piot.) Mun. Akad.: Bay-
erische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Miinchen. Mun. Jb. Bild. K.: Miinchner
Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst. Mus. J.: The Museum Journal of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania.

N.D. Alt.: Nachrichten iiber deutsche Alter tumskunde. Not. Arch.: Noti-
ziario Archeologico. Not. Scav.: Notizie degli Scavi di Antichita. Num.
Chron.: Numismatic Chronicle. Num. Notes: Numismatic Notes and Mono-
graphs. Num. Z.: Numismatische Zeitschrift. N. Arch. Ven.: Nupvp Archivio
Veneto. N. Bull. Arch. Crist.: Nuovo Bullettino di Archeologia cristiana.

Or. Lit.: Orientalistische Literaturzeitung. Or. Lux: Ex Oriente Lux.

Pal. Ex. Fund: Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
UpaKTiKa.: UpaKTiKa rrjs tv 'A.drjvais dpxcuoXoyiK??* ereupeias. Proc. Soc. Ant.:
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries.

Rass. d'Arte: Rassegna d'Arte. R. Tr. Eg. Assyr.: Recueil de travaux re-
latifs a la philologie et a 1'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes. Rend. Ace.
Lincei: Rendiconti d. r. Accademia dei Lincei. Rep. f. K.: Repertorium fiir
Kunstwissenschaft. R. Assoc. Bare.: Revista de la Associacion artistico-
arqueologico Barcelonesa. R. Arch. Bibl. Mus.: Revista di Archivos Bibliote-
cas, y Museos. R. Arch.: Revue Archeologique. R. Art. Anc. Mod.: Revue
de 1'Art ancien et moderne. R. Art Chret.: Revue de 1'Art Chretien. R.
Beige Num.: Revue Beige de ^Numismatique. R. Bibl.: Revue Biblique In-
ternationale. R.^Ep. Revue Epigrapjiique. R. St. Anc.: Revue des Etudes
Anciennes. R. Et. Gr.: Revue des Etudes Grecques. R. tit. G.: Revue des
Etudes Juives. R. Hist. Rel.: Revue de THistoire des Religions. R. Num.:
Revue Numismatique. R. Or. Lat.: Revue de 1'Orient Latin. R. Sem.: Revue
Semitique. R. Suisse Num.: Revue Suisse de Numismatique. Rh. Mus.:
Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie, Neue Folge. R. Abruzz.: Rivista Abruz-
zesa di Scienze, Lettere ed Arte. R. Ital. Num.: Rivista Italiana Numismatica.
R. Stor. Ant.: Rivista di Storia Antica. R. Stor. Calabr.: Rivista Storica Cal-
abrese. R. Stor. Ital.: Rivista Storica Italiana. Rom.-Germ.Forsch.: Bericht
iiber die Fortschritte der Romisch-Germanischen Forschung. Rom.-Germ.
Kb.: Romisch-Germanisches Korrespondenzblatt. Rom Mitt.: Mitteilungen
d. d. Archaol. Instituts, Rom. Abt. Rom. Quart.: Romische Quartalschrift fiir
christliche Altertumskunde und fiir Kirchengeschichte.

Sachs. Ges.: Sachsische Gesellschaft (Leipsic). Sitzb.: Sitzungsberichte.
S. Bibl. Arch.: Society of Biblical Archaeology, Proceedings.

W. kl. Phil: Wochenschrift fiir klassische Philologie.

Z. D. Pal. V.: Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins. Z. Aeg. Sp. Alt. :
Zeitschrift fiir Aegyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. Z. Alttest. Wiss.:
Zeitschrift fiir Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. Z. Assyr.: Zeitschrift fiir
Assyriologie. Z. Bild. K.: Zeitschrift fiir Bildende Kunst. Z. Ethn.: Zeit-
schrift fur Ethnologic. Z. Morgenl.: Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des
Morgenlands. Z. Morgenl. Ges.: Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenlandschen
Gesellschaft. Z. Mun. Alt.: Zeitschrift des Miinchener Alterthumsvereins.
Z. Num.: Zeitschrift fiir Numismatik.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY,
SECOND SERIES

VOL. XXVI (1922)
PLATE I

TORSO FROM CORINTH.

American
of Classical
at

A GROUP OF ROMAN IMPERIAL PORTRAITS
AT CORINTH

IV. THE FOUR TORSOS

[PLATE I]
A. COLOSSAL SEMI-NUDE MALE TORSO

WITH one possible exception the four mutilated statues to be
discussed in the present article seem to have formed part of the
great imperial group of portraits at Corinth, the more important
members of which have already been considered. All were found
in the same area above and to the south of Pirene, and one only
was discovered beyond the limits of the Roman basilica so often
mentioned. 1 On grounds of style and technique it is plain that
three at least of these statues must have belonged to the group as
originally constituted, while the other may well have done so. I
shall discuss these works in their apparent order of importance in
the group, beginning with a colossal male figure in heroic pose
(PLATE I) . This came to light at a great depth in the northwest
quarter of the basilica, where it rested very little above hard-pan.
It was overlaid by a thick stratum of fragments of early mediaeval
tile and ruined walls of the same period, and had apparently
suffered much the same treatment at the hands of the Byzantine
wreckers as that accorded the Lucius. 2 -It was found lying
slightly tilted on the left shoulder and side.

As already mentioned, the statue is of colossal scale, and is
preserved from the base of the neck nearly to the knees, its total
height being 1.52 m.'; 3 the right arm, shoulder, and whole right
side of the chest is broken away, and the left forearm is also lack-
ing. At the top of the median line of the chest there appears a
roughly worked cup-shaped depression, clearly the bottom of a

1 Cf. A.J.A. XXV, 1921, p. 143, fig. 1.

2 Cf. A.J.A. XXV, 1921, pp. 338 f.

3 Further dimensions: maximum width across front .82 m., from navel to
ground .90m., from navel to bottom of cutting for insertion of head .55 m.

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the \\

Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 2.

132 E. H. SWIFT

hollow socket fashioned to receive the neck-base of a head cut
from a separate block. The upper .portion of the left breast is
also scarred, while the deeply cut folds of the drapery are much
damaged, particularly the heavy vertical mass before the left
leg, the folds crossing the abdomen, and those upon the right
thigh ; many small fragments of the drapery were found near the
statue where they had been scattered and forgotten by the wreck-
ers, thus escaping the mediaeval lime kiln. Although the feet and
lower part of the legs are lacking, there came to light a huge
shattered plinth of Pentelic marble with two colossal bare feet
attached, and the remains of a supporting tree-trunk, all cut from
a single block; this was found in a jumbled mass of debris of the
Roman period at about the same depth and only a few meters
distant from the statue itself. The whole front of the plinth is
broken roughly away, the right foot is shattered nearly to the
instep, while the heel only of the left is preserved. In considera-
tion of the place where it was found, the material, and the size
of the feet, 1 this basis must certainly have supported the great
male figure, although the actual joining of the two cannot be
effected. Upon the upper surface of the plinth, and particularly
beneath the instep of the right foot, there exist traces of a red
painted stucco.

The material from which the great figure is cut, though similar
to that of the other members of the group, is of a considerably
finer texture and better grade; the only trace of a flaw is that
discoverable along the plane of the break through the left
forearm.

The statue is a semi-nude male figure clad only in a richly
draped himation or pallium. From the left shoulder the drapery
passes diagonally downward across the back, is thence brought for-
ward in complicated folds across the right hip and abdomen, and is
. caught up over the extended left forearm whence it falls in heavy
masses along the left leg. The figure stood apparently with its
weight on the right leg and with the left slightly advanced. Many
analogies may be quoted for the pose and general handling of the
drapery, the type being clearly that traditionally assigned to

1 The right foot is more than .37 m. long. Dimensions of the basis itself are:
width across front .86 m., slightly wider than the figure itself, depth from
front to rear .65 m., thickness .135 m., greatest height, from bottom, to top of
tree-trunk, .35m.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 133

Zeus 1 as well as to Aesculapius. 2 Unlike the other members of
the group the work now before us shows distinct traces of weather-
ing, particularly over the right hip and along the drapery of the
thigh and leg on the same side, where the characteristic golden
brown tint of weathered Pentelic marble appears quite plainly.
The reverse of the figure is, as usual, very summarily treated,
yet from indications furnished by the working of the drapery it
seems that the statue was not set squarely against a wall or within
a niche, but was posed with the right side considerably advanced.
The drapery itself in its remarkably skilful arrangement, in the
free and versatile handling of the complicated folds, and in its
masterly surface texture, is by far and away the best to be found
in the entire Corinthian group; indeed, it is safe to say that we
have here a direct harking back to the famous drapery of the Par-
thenon pediments 3 perhaps even a conscious imitation al-
though the archaism is plainly disclosed in the complexity of the
folds, the depth of the undercutting, and the restlessness combined
with a touch of stiffness which is so characteristic of a late and
eclectic art. This impression is heightened by the modelling of
the torso itself, which, though correct and remarkably well done
far better even than that of the Gaius is entirely lacking in
fluidity, and gives the same suggestion of hardness and academic
method peculiar to the Corinthian works already discussed. 4

The technique throughout is much more careful and studied
than in any of the other pieces, and although evidence of drilling
is apparent in the drapery it is in general very skilfully concealed.
The flesh surfaces are smoothly worked and unpolished, but of so
fine and careful a finish that but slight traces of tooling of any
sort can be discovered; it is clear, however, that the technique is
of the same sort as that which appears in the other statues of
the group, whence we may conclude that all the pieces so far con-
sidered are contemporaneous or nearly so.

1 Cf. Reinach, Rep. de la Stat. Grec. et Rom., Zeus in the Louvre, I, p. 158,
pi. 311, No. 683; also Froehner, Notice de la Sculp. Antiq. du Louvre, 32, 5;
Zeus in Dresden, Reinach, op tit. I, p. 188, pi. 401, No. 680; also Hettner,
Antikensammlung zu Dresden, 225.

2 Cf. Aesculapius in Rome, Reinach, op. tit. I, p. 287, pi. 545, No. 1146; ibid.
I, p. 297, pi. 560 A, No. 1160 D; also Matz-Duhn, Antike Bildwerke in Rom, 58.

3 Cf. the drapery of the " Three Fates" in the British Museum, Brunn-
Bruckmann, Denkmdler, pi. 190.

4 Cf., for example, with A.J.A. XXV, 1921, pis. X and XI, also fig. 1,
p. 339.

134 E. H. SWIFT

It is scarcely necessary to point out that in this work we have
another interesting example of eclecticism, an eclecticism, how-
ever, which differs markedly from the usual neo-Attic type; in-
deed, the handling of the drapery is alone sufficient to put this
figure in a class by itself. Although difficult to judge of the bod-
ily proportions from the mutilated trunk, I yet think it probable
that they followed closely those of the Gaius, allowance of course
being made for the fact that we have here to do with a more ma-
ture and powerfully developed form; the groin line, for example,
with the heavy roll of flesh above the hip, in both works receives
a similar treatment, while the actual surface modelling of the
thorax discloses the same system of proportions. 1 In the more
powerful rendering and detailed musculature we may, perhaps,
detect a stronger influence from the old Peloponnesian athletic
type, yet it seems on the whole more plausible to account for this
merely on grounds of the greater importance to the group of the
personage represented. Indeed, the differences to be noted be-
tween this figure and the others of the group are variations of
degree and not of kind, and are to be accounted for by the as-
sumption that we have here the central and most important
figure of the entire assemblage, an assumption strongly seconded
not only by the colossal scale of the work but also by the god-
like, heroic guise under which the subject is represented.

As to the person shown by this portrait and it certainly was a
portrait we have no means of reaching a definite decision; never-
theless it seems to me that it admits of fairly plausible conjecture.
As we have seen, all the evidence points to the fact that this
statue formed part of the great imperial group of portraits erected
in all probability between 1 and 5 A.D., it was found within the
same building as the others, is of similar material and technique,
and belongs to the same school. Other portraits of the group
have been identified as Augustus, Tiberius, Gaius, and Lucius,
none of them preeminent in scale or workmanship, and each two
falling naturally into pairs of companion pieces. If, therefore,
neither Augustus nor Tiberius is indicated as the central and
important figure of this imperial group, who else could be logi-
cally expected to occupy such a position at this particular period
of history and in this particular city? Obviously, none other
than the Divine Julius himself.

' Cf. with A.J.A. XXV, 1921, pi. X, and fig. 1, p. 339.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 135

In support of this conjecture many considerations are to be
adduced other than that of the mere heroic proportions and god-
like type of the figure, the latter serving, of course, to indicate
that the personage represented had departed this life and taken
his place among the immortals. It is well known for example,
that the Corinthians of the first century looked upon Julius Cae-
sar as the founder and especial patron of their city, the great
deified mortal who had restored the city to its old time wealth
and importance after the bitter century of decay which followed
upon the terrible sack and destruction of Mummius. 1 It was in
46 B.C. that Caesar determined to rebuild Corinth and sent
thither a numerous colony consisting of his veterans and freed-
men, 2 whereupon even its name was changed, appearing hence-
forth on coins and inscriptions as COLON I A IVLIA CORINTHVS,
also LAVS IVLI CORINTHVS, and later COLON I A IVLIA CORINTHVS
AVGVSTA. It is quite unthinkable, therefore, that the Divine
Julius should have been omitted from such a group at Corinth,
and even more improbable that the central and important position
therein should have been reserved for other than himself alone.
We are hence justified in wishing to recognize in this fine heroic
statue the remains of a great portrait of Julius Caesar, deified,
and shown forth under the aspect perhaps of Zeus the Thunderer,
or of the Isthmian Poseidon.

In conclusion it is interesting to note that the cup-shaped de-
pression at the base of the neck of the figure (cf. supra, p. 131)
may be considered as proof that another portrait head was sub-
stituted for that of Julius at a later period of the empire when such
piracy of portraiture was common enough. It is extremely im-
probable that, at the early date when the statue was erected, the
figure should have been prepared de novo with the head inset and
of a separate block of marble.

B. SMALLER SEMI-NUDE MALE TORSO

A somewhat smaller male torso of semi-nude heroic type, not
differing greatly from that of the statue just discussed, was found
in the north aisle of the same basilica at a somewhat higher level
(Fig. 1) . When discovered it was resting on its side and imbedded

1 Cf. Strabo, VIII, p. 381; Pausanias, II, 1, 2, and VII, 16, 7; Florus, II, 16;
Velleius Paterculus, I, 13; Cicero, Pro Leg. Man. 5, etc.

2 Cf. Strabo, loc. ait.; Pausanias, loc. cit.; Dio, XLIII, 50; also Pliny, N. H. IV,
4, 5, etc.

136

E. H. SWIFT

FIGURE 1. TORSO FROM CORINTH.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 137

in the lower courses of an early mediaeval wall erected upon the
ruins of the Roman structure. It had not, apparently, been
moved any great distance from the place where it originally fell,
but, together with shattered blocks and fragments of the earlier
building, had been laid hold of by the mediaeval builders because
it happened to be on the spot and ready to hand.

Though by no means colossal, the statue is considerably over
life size, and is preserved from the upper part of the chest to a
point slightly above the knees, its total height being 1.18 m.; 1
the arms, shoulders, and top of torso have been hacked away, as
has the front of the left leg, together with the adjacent drapery.
A cup-like hollow similar to that noted in the larger figure appears
here also, where it doubtless served a similar purpose. The
shoulders and upper part of the chest seem to have been repre-
sented as covered by a chlamys which was probably fastened on
the right shoulder by a brooch; the drapery was thence carried
backward over both shoulders and passed downward over the
buttocks leaving the whole left side, thigh, and upper leg bare;
on the right side, however, a heavy mass of folds is brought around
from the back and carried forward over the right hip and thigh,
the main body of the stuff passing from right to left and down-
ward across the lower part of the abdomen to the left hip, where it
was supported apparently by the left hand. On the right side
the lower folds are draped over the right leg and caught up at the
crotch in a most curious manner. In fact the entire scheme of
drapery is most unusual; it would seem practically impossible to
arrange an actual chlamys in any such fashion upon a standing
figure. 2 The statue is cut from Pentelic marble of the same sort
as that used for ,the other members of the group.

Because of the poor preservation of the work it is difficult to
determine its pose with any degree of accuracy. The weight,
however, seems to have been carried on the left leg, while the
right was probably advanced and flexed at the knee; the left

1 Further dimensions; maximum width at hips .55 m., from navel to ground
.69 m., from navel to bottom of cutting for insertion of neck .43 m.

2 This method of wearing the chlamys is rare even in seated figures, cf .
Tiberius in the Museo Chiaramonti, Amelung, Sculp, des Vat. Mus., I, taf.
60, and Reinach, op. cit. I, p. 568, pi. 925, No. 2352. I have found only one
analogy to this type of drapery in a standing figure, i.e., an imperial figure in
the Museo Torlonia, Reinach, op. cit. II, p. 572, No. 5; Album of the Museo
Torlonia, No. 118, and Visconti, Catalogo del Museo Torlonia.

138 E. H. SWIFT

hand, as already noted, must have supported the drapery at the
thigh, while the right arm seems to have been raised and, per-
haps, supported on a long lance or staff. Whether this restora-
tion be correct or not, the pose indicated was common enough in
the sculpture of the period and is found with slight variation in
many replicas. 1 As in the other members of the group, the rear
of the figure is but roughly blocked out, while the few traces of
weathering still observable also indicate that it stood originally
under cover and against a wall.

The technique is in general similar to that noted in the other
works, although the flesh surfaces are, perhaps, not so smoothly
finished. The modelling is correct and fairly good, but because
of the rough usage suffered by the figure, it produces an impression
of lack of detail combined with the usual hardness and academic
tone. The drapery, though facile, is rather summarily treated;
no considerable undercutting seems to have been attempted, and
the whole effect is quite stiff and neo- Attic. In fact, the tech-
nical and stylistic considerations e.g., groin-line, prominent
muscle above hips, modelling of the rib-muscles beneath the right
breast, etc. (cf. Fig. 1 and PLATE I) all indicate clearly that
this statue is of the same period and school as the other members
of the group; they make it equally plain that the figure was in-
tended to represent a subordinate personage in that the work is
less careful and less detailed, in which respect it finds its closest
analogy in the Lucius.

We can only conjecture as to the person this statue represented.
Although in scale it ranks about with the Augustus and is thus
considerably larger than the Gaius, the workmanship would seem
to indicate, as mentioned above, that the figure was of secondary
importance in the group; furthermore, the heroic pose and scanty
drapery probably show that the portrait was" of a personage
already dead and among the immortals at the time of the erection
of the group. In view of these slight indications it is, perhaps,
presumptuous even to hazard a guess; nevertheless I would sug-
gest that it may well have been a portrait of Agrippa.

C. SMALLER ARMORED TORSO

A mail-clad torso of smaller scale than that just discussed was
discovered in a mediaeval wall a few meters southwest of the

1 Cf. the work already quoted, Reinach, op. cit. II, p. 572, No. 5, also I, p.
560, pi. 912 A, No. 2331 A; I, p. 562, pi. 916, No. 2398 C; I, p. 573, pi. 936, No.
2383, etc.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 139

basilica (Fig. 2). The figure was built carefully into the wall,
back outward, and resting on its right side at a depth of little
more than two meters beneath the surface.

The statue, of good Pentelic marble similar to that used for the
other members of the group, is the smallest of the lot no more
than life size, 1 and is preserved from the neck nearly to the
knees; it stood with the weight on the right leg, the left thrust
forward and slightly bent at the knee. The right arm, now lack-
ing, was raised and attached in a separate piece at the shoulder,
while the left, which is missing from the middle of the upper arm,
seems to have hung naturally at the side. The pose was, per-
haps, that of the allocutio, that traditionally assigned to repre-
sentations of a commander addressing his troops. 2 The figure is
shown as clad in full panoply consisting of a bronze cuirass
moulded to reproduce the forms of the torso beneath, and a kilt
of heavy leathern flaps about the loins; beneath the armor is
worn a sleeveless chiton which must have fallen about to the
knees, while over the left shoulder appears a roll of drapery which
doubtless represented the chlamys or paludamentum; the stuff is
gathered rather closely upon the left shoulder, and seems either
to have fallen thence straight down the back free of the body, or
else to have been wound about the left forearm. 3 An ornamental
sword-belt or cingulum passes twice about the body and is knotted
just above the navel, the free ends being then tucked up in sym-
metrical loops on either side, while above in the middle of the
chest is worked a conventional gorgoneion in low relief. Fringing
the lower rim of the cuirass is an intermediate row of short tas-
selled leathern straps, an ornamental motif which is repeated in
slightly different form about the armholes beneath the epaulets.
The drapery upon the left shoulder is considerably battered, as
are also the gorgon's face, the tassels and loops of the sword-belt,
and the two lion heads the lower turned upside down which
served to make fast to the breastplate the forward end of the right

1 Dimensions: total height 1.10 m., from neck to navel .40 m., from navel to
lower rim of cuirass .145 m., from navel to bottom of kilt .43 m., maximum
width across the shoulders ca. .60 m.

2 Cf . the Augustus of Prima Porta in the Vatican, Amelung, op. cit. II, taf.
2, No. 14; Hadrian in the British Museum, Reinach, op. cit. I, p. 582, pi.
944, No. 2420; also Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie, II, 2, p. 109, No. 14; an
imperial figure in Turin, Reinach, op. cit. I, p. 599, pi. 973, No. 2309, etc.

3 Cf. the references just cited.

140

E. H. SWIFT

FIGURE 2. SMALL ARMORED TORSO: CORINTH.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 141

epaulet. 1 The breasts are prominent and clearly indicated. To
judge from the cutting at the neck, the original portrait head
was probably broken away and another of the inset variety sub-
stituted at a later date, a change similar to that which seems to
have been effected in the case of the semi-nude figures discussed
above.

In style and technique this statue agrees perfectly with the
other members of the group. Although no flesh surfaces are
exposed, the characteristically hard and generalized modelling
appears in the forms of the cuirass, while the drapery is rendered
in the manner with which we are now so familiar. 2 The surfaces
throughout are less smoothly finished than in any of the other
figures, the workmanship less careful, and, as usual, the rear is
but roughly blocked out; almost no traces of weathering are ob-
servable. It is plain, therefore, that the statue stood under
cover and in such a position that the back was not exposed to
view. On the outer edge of the left sleeve of the tunic appear
two puntelli very similar to those found in a corresponding posi-
tion on the Gaius as already described. 3

It is useless to speculate as to the person represented by this
portrait, but judging from the small scale of the figure and its
distinctly inferior finish, we may be sure that it stood for an indi-
vidual of minor importance in the imperial family, perhaps
Agrippa Posthumus.

D. FIGURE CLAD IN ELABORATE ARMOR

The discussion of the great cuirassed figure now before us (Figs.
3 and 4), the final member of the Corinthian group so far known,
has for several reasons been chosen to conclude the series. Al-
though apparently a typical representative of the large and well
known class of statues which figure the panoplied worthies of the

1 For another example of such a detail cf . a bust of Hadrian in the Vatican,
Amelung, op. cit. Tafelband I, taf. 12, No. 81, Textband I, p. 97.

2 Cf ., for example, the drapery on the left shoulder with that in a correspond-
ing position on the Gaius and the Lucius, A.J.A. XXV, 1921, pls\ X and XI;
note the very similar arrangement of folds, the same deep undercutting
worked largely with the drill, and the striking resemblance in texture.

3 Cf. the article on Gaius and Lucius, pp. 343 f. Regarding these puntelli
upon the present work, Dr. C. W. Blegen writes me from Athens ". . .
they appear to me more doubtful (than those of the Gaius). It is of course
possible that they are puntelli, but I should rather interpret them as buttons or
heads of pins, or some sort of decoration at the corners of the sleeve."

142

E. H. SWIFT

I 'M

FIGURE 3. TORSO IN ELABORATE ARMOR: CORINTH.

Roman Empire, it is nevertheless unique *in many respects and
in others differs from the great majority of like works of the per-
iod. It shows further a style and technique which seem in a way
to set it apart from the other members of the group, although
these differences are, perhaps, more apparent than real.

It was discovered within the Roman basilica not far from its
southwest angle at a depth of about three meters and, as in the
case of the smaller cuirassed torso, had been built into a massive
substructure of early mediaeval date composed of rough and

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 143

heavy blocks, all apparently reused material from the ruins of the
earlier building. It reposed on its left side facing into the wall,
and hence upon discovery the back alone was exposed to view.

The figure is of Pentelic marble very like that used for the
Gaius, while in scale it coincides almost exactly with the statues
of the two youths; it is preserved from neck to knees and measures
as it stands about 1.50 m. 1 The weight of the figure is carried on
the left leg, while the right is slightly advanced and bent at the
knee; the right arm, now lacking, was attached in a separate piece
just below the shoulder, and seems to have been bent at the elbow
and extended forward and to the right. It was at any rate quite
clear of the body. The left arm, hanging naturally at the side,
is preserved to the middle of the forearm and is crooked slightly
to support the drapery which here passes across it. The pose and
gesture are of common occurrence in Roman sculpture. 2 The
torso is sheathed in a most elaborate cuirass upon the front of
which is worked in high relief a fairly common motif, that of two
winged victories setting up a trophy, 3 while above is a broad gor-
goneion encircled by two serpents knotted together at the crown. 4
A further and most unusual elaboration is seen in the repetition
of the trophy motif upon the right epaulet where, due to the
limited field, but a single Victory is figured. The kilt which pro-
tects the lower half of the body is also very elaborate, and is
composed of the usual two ranges of leathern straps, the upper
very short and used merely for decorative effect; the individual
straps are richly fringed, and in places were deeply undercut and
rendered most carefully in detail. This motif is as usual re-
peated in slightly different form about the armhole beneath the

1 Dimensions: neck to waist line .49 m.; waist line to bottom of kilt .40+
m.; maximum width of figure ca. .75 m.; height of trophy on breastplate
.345 m. ; height of larger Victories .32m. ; height of Victory on right shoulder
.19 m.; width of gorgoneion .15 m.; width of cutting for the neck .21 m.,
depth .17 m.

2 Cf . Marcus Aurelius in Rome, Reinach, op. ait. I, p. 587, pi. 953, No. 2447,
and Bernoulli, op. tit. II, 2, p. 166, No. 2; Domitian in the Vatican, Bernoulli,
op. tit. II, 2, p. 55, No. 1, taf. XIX; etc.

3 Cf. Trajan in the Louvre, Reinach, op. tit. I, p. 171, pi. 338, No. 2114;
Wroth in J.H.S., 1886, p. 132, No. 46; Mon. Scelti Borghesi, I, 35; Torso at
Agram, J.H.S. 1886, p. 132, No. 45; Arch. Epig. Mitth. aus Oester. Ungarn,
1885, IX, pi. II; Colossal statue in Turin, Bernoulli, op. tit. II, 1, p. 335, No.
20,^Dutschke, Ant. Bildw. in Ober-italien, IV, p. 39, No. 55; etc.

4 Cf. Fig. 4. The gorgoneion is a very common decoration in works of this
type.

144 E. H. SWIFT

right epaulet. Under the armor the usual tunic is worn, appear-
ing only at the shoulders and as a short skirt below the bottom of
the kilt. The paludamentum completes the costume; from a com-
plicated mass of folds resting low upon the left shoulder it passes
diagonally downwards across the back to the right hip, where a
fold spreads widely below the main supporting roll. The latter
then crosses the front of the body just below the row of shorter
straps and is carried up and over the left forearm to a point be-
hind the elbow; thence it seems to have fallen down the left side
at least as far as the bottom of the tunic. 1 As would seem to have
been the case with the three torsos just considered, the original
portrait head was probably broken away and the cavity at the
neck prepared to receive another likeness of considerably later
date; at any rate the cutting at the neck is not original.

Although in general well preserved, the torso is somewhat bat-
tered and worn in detail; numerous fragments of the drapery are
missing, particularly at the left arm, and upon the front of the
kilt two of the straps are broken away entirely and others are
badly chipped. On the breastplate itself the outer wings of the
Victories have suffered considerably, the whole surface is abraded,
and many of the details are blurred. The right leg of the statue
is preserved to just below the knee, while the left, which was
strengthened at the rear by a heavy supporting tree-trunk, the
top of which is still in place, is broken off about .10 m. higher up.
At a considerably later date, however, there came to light in the
northeast section of the basilica at a level not much above hard-
pan the lower part of a left leg which certainly belongs to this
figure. The leg is preserved from the knee down, is supported
against a roughly worked tree-trunk, and stands, upon a plinth
in part preserved, the upper surface of which is covered with a red
painted stucco similar to that noted in the case of the Gaius 2
and the colossal male torso. 3 Although the front of the foot is
broken away, enough is preserved to show that it was clad in a
high military sandal or buskin which extended more than half
way to the knee and was fastened at the top by a broad thong
wound thrice about the leg and tied in front. 4 From the same

1 For a very similar handling of the paludamentum at least across the front
of the body cf. the Augustus of Prima Porta, Reinach, op. cit. II, p. 574, No. 6.

2 Cf . article on Gaius and Lucius, p. 340.

3 Cf. supra, p. 132.

4 Dimensions: from plinth to knee .59 m., tree-trunk .05 m. higher, width
of calf ca. .13 m., height of buskin .27 m.

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 145

section of the basilica in which the statue itself was found and at
about the same level, there came to light a left hand grasping a
sword-hilt. The hand had been broken off just above the wrist,
the tip of the second finger was missing, and the hilt itself was
rather battered; a large seal-ring was represented as worn on the
fourth finger. Judging from the scale, 1 the material, the sword-
hilt, and the place of discovery of this fragment, I think it prob-
able that it belonged originally to the great cuirassed figure. 2
As in the other statues of the Corinthian group, those parts of the
figure which were not intended to be seen were neglected con-
sistently, and hence this statue also must have been placed against
a wall or within a niche.

Before proceeding to a discussion of the style and technique of
this work I wish briefly to call attention to several of its more
striking peculiarities. Of these the most important is the shape
of the cuirass at its lower edge where, instead of being adapted to
the trace of the groin-line and thus extended downward to cover
the abdomen as in the great majority of cases, 3 it is carried
straight across at the waist. This type appears to be primarily
Hellenistic, although it is found occasionally in Roman art where
it seems to have been reserved for officers of high rank; 4 it is
very rare, however, except in the early imperial period. Another
unusual detail is to be observed in the peculiar stepped form given
to the bottom of the epaulet. A final point of great interest is
raised by a consideration of the helmets which are represented as
resting at the base of the trophy erected by the two Victories
(cf. Fig. 4). These helmets, although apparently quite common-
place, are of altogether unique form, at least so far as I am able
to judge at the present moment; they appear entirely unlike the
contemporary Greek and Roman headpieces, and may well be of
a foreign type rarely if ever represented in art. In itself this
question is naturally of slight importance, but when we pause to
consider that in a number of the more elaborately sculptured

1 It measures .25 m. from the tip of the fingers to the break at the wrist.

2 Dr. Blegen, at my request, was kind enough to re-investigate this point
also. Although admitting that the hand is suitable as far as size and workman-
ship are concerned, he doubts that it belongs to the torso, since it would seem
to give an awkward position for the arm and hand holding the sword.

3 As, for example, in a statue of Hadrian in the British Museum, Reinach,
op. cit. I, p. 582, pi. 944, No. 2420.

4 Cf. W. Deonna, Stat. de Terre Cuite dans I'Antiquite, p. 168 f., and fig. 12;
also Reinach, op. cit. II, p. 578, Nos. 2, 3.

146

E. H. SWIFT

. ' ! /\\

FIGURE 4. DESIGN ON BREASTPLATE: TORSO: CORINTH.

cuirasses of the period a perfectly definite historical or personal
allusion is to be detected in the scenes and objects represented, 1
the possibilities latent in this apparently trivial detail are at once
plain. It is my intention, however, to develop this subject in a
subsequent paper dealing with the sculptural representation of
arms and armor in the imperial period.

To consider now our statue as a whole (Fig. 3), one would at
first sight incline to date it much later than the opening years of
the first century A.D., chiefly because of the decidedly coloristic

1 It is well known, for example, that the return of the ensigns of Crassus is
commemorated on the cuirass of the Augustus of Prima Porta; cf. Daremberg
et Saglio, Diet, des Antiq. Grec et Rom., s.v. 'Tropaeum.'

IMPERIAL PORTRAITS AT CORINTH 147

manner in which the drapery is rendered, the deep undercutting
of the flaps of the kilt, and the numerous indications of the use of
the drill to produce lines or spots of shadow not purely plastic.
Upon closer study, however, it seems to me apparent that these
differences, as between, for example, the Gaius and the present
work, are inherent in the subject rather than in the technique,
since the flesh surfaces in each case show exactly the same treat-
ment, the same tooling, similar modelling, and the same general
finish. This conclusion is borne out by the proportions of the
figure itself, and even more strikingly by those of the Victories
upon the breastplate. In the latter the slender neo-Attic pro-
portions are perfectly evident, together with the rather stiff and
mannered drapery, and the very self-conscious air of the figures
themselves. A characteristic trick, and one of which the sculptor
was apparently very fond, is seen in the baring of the outer leg
of each of the Victories. In spite, therefore, of the quite evident
differences exhibited by this work, a more intimate study of its
style and technique places it securely in the same period and
group with the Gaius and Lucius, a conclusion amply corrobo-
rated by its place of discovery and the material of which it is
made.

Here again it is, perhaps, useless to speculate as to the person
originally figured by this portrait, yet to judge from the scale and
the elaboration of the work, he must have been of considerable
importance in the imperial family. In view further of his evident
distinction in a military way, it seems plausible to suggest that he
may well have been the elder Drusus, brother of Tiberius, a man
who won fame as a leader of Roman armies and who died in 9
B.C. while conducting a campaign in Germany.

E. H. SWIFT.

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.

&rcfmeologtcal
3fn*tttute
of America

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE

AN allusion to the employment of structural iron in Greek
architecture would naturally impress us as paradoxical. We are
accustomed, to be sure, to the small iron members which the
Greek stone-masons substituted for mortar as a bonding material
between blocks of stone. Such small members may readily be
classified to form three groups: first, there were iron clamps to
fasten together stones in the same course; second, there were iron
dowels to fasten stones to the course below them; and third, there
were iron braces, primarily to brace stones in position while they
were being doweled, but never afterwards removed. 1 Yet while,
at first thought, we might be tempted to regard Greek structural
iron as consisting solely of dowels and clamps (a few of us might
remember the braces), it is not with these that we are now con-
cerned; I wish to discuss quite another phase of the subject, a
phase more analogous to the modern use of structural steel.

We are accustomed to regard Greek construction as a simple
piling up of stones, their superstructures as a simple piling up of
beams. Such, for instance, is the general conclusion of the
French critic Choisy. Yet, if we pause for consideration, most
of us will remember instances which show a technical knowledge
far in advance of what Choisy's words would imply, a technical
knowledge such as Durm dismissed as " quite impossible, . . .
in the manner of the late Baroque period." For lack of space
I must omit the whole field of masonry construction, with such
delicate problems as those of balancing, of hollowing to diminish
weight, of increasing the thickness at the weakest point. There
are marble flanged beams at Samothrace which might have served
as patterns for steel beams being made today in the rolling mills
of Pennsylvania. I must limit myself rather to a smaller but
more incongruous field, incompatible with our general notions of

1 Concerning dowels and clamps, see Stevens, in Fowler and Wheeler,
Handbook of Greek Archaeology, pp. 104-107; concerning braces, see Orlandos,
'Preliminary Dowels,' A.J.A. XIX, 1915, pp. 175-178.

2 Durm, Baukunst der Griechen (1910), pp. 403, 545.

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the 1 A Q

Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 2.

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE

149

Greek architecture, that of construction in iron. 1 I shall cite
merely a few instances, some new, others already well known,
but so arranging them as to show the degree of Greek attainment
in this direction.

Let me begin with some very simple instances. The acroteria
at the angles of the gables, in the oldest temple of Athena on the
Acropolis, as identified a few years ago by Schrader, 2 are merely
thin slabs of marble, jointed together with mortise and tenon, a
form of construction which, like that of the temple as a whole,
reminds us strongly of carpentry in wood. These board-like
slabs, leopards at the lower corners, a Gorgon on each apex, would
hardly have stood without assistance, and this was supplied in
the form of long iron stay-rods or braces, which sloped from the
back of each figure down to the roof behind.

Another example of reinforcement occurred in the Theban
Treasury at Delphi. The foundations of this structure, con-
structed of a soft limestone,
were laid upon a steep slope
at a point swept by the min-
iature river which poured
down the Sacred Way on
rainy days. Such founda-
tions, though purposely made
very thick (5 ft.), were in
need of reinforcement, and
this was provided by great
iron bars, 41 ft. long on each FlQURE L _ FOUNDATION OF THEBAN
flank, and about 18 J ft. long TREASURY: DELPHI.

at each end of the building,

overlapping at the corners and hooked over each other in such a
way as to provide a firm rectangular frame measuring about
39fX17| ft. in plan. The bars themselves were 3i inches high
and 4 inches wide, the width being the greater because the pur-
pose was to prevent lateral displacement. Of these bars nothing

1 An 'Essai sur- Fexistence d'une architecture metallique antique' was pub-
lished many years ago by Charles Normand (Encyclopedic d' Architecture, 3rd
series, II, 1883, pp. 61-80; cf. R. Arch., 3rd series, VI, 1885, pp. 214-223).
So far as Greek architecture is concerned, however, M. Normand speaks only
of dowels and clamps, and of decorative accessories which lie outside our
province.

2 Schrader, Archaische Marmor-Skulpturen im Akropolis-Museum zu Athen,
pp. 5-1.6; Dickins, Catalogue of the Acropolis Museum, I, Nos. 122, 551-555, 701.

150

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR

now remains except the grooves which formed their beds in the
top course of the foundation, and the weathered traces on the
bottom of the lowest step of the crepidoma, which rested directly
upon the bar and was doweled to it (Fig. I). 1 And there are
indications of a similar system of reinforcement in the second
course of the foundation.

Quite different in purpose, acting rather as beams, were the
well-known examples found in the great temple of Zeus at Acragas,
in Sicily. Here each bay of the architrave, on account of its

FIGURE 2. ENTABLATURE OF OLYMPIEUM: ACRAGAS.

great length, about 26 ft. 7| inches between the centres of
columns, was subdivided into three by vertical joints, one such
joint coming exactly at the centre of the clear span (Fig. 2).
While the intervals between the columns are filled with walls,
the faces of these screen walls, in their upper portions at least, lay
considerably behind the centres of the columns; and early at-
tempts to restore the temple, on paper, did not make very clear

1 It is the fact that the hard limestone superstructure was doweled to the
bar that proves that the bar could not have been of wood, as was thought by
earlier observers (B.C.H. 1910, p. 190; B.C.H. 1911, p. 160; Berl. Phil Woch
1911, col. 1615). For my restoration of iron bars, see B.C.H. 1912, pp.
453-455.

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE 151

the method by which the overhanging portion of the architrave
would have been supported. For the architrave, with its joint
at the centre of the free span, projected 6 ft. 7 inches beyond the
face of the screen wall. It was here that the figures of Atlantes,
25 ft. 2 inches high, hitherto assigned to positions within the
temple, were eventually located by Koldewey and Puchstein. 1
Even with this arrangement, which is undoubtedly the correct
one, the outer face of the architrave remains unsupported. But
along the lower surface of these outer architrave blocks runs a
groove, 4 inches wide and 8J inches high. Durm still regards
this as a rope cutting for use while the blocks were being hoisted, 2
even though Koldewey and Puchstein had already pointed out the
fact that the cuttings did not continue for the entire length of the
stone, but reached only 21J inches beyond the edge of the
abacus, giving a total length of 14J ft. Cockerell had thought
that these cuttings were for beams of hard wood, 3 but Hittorff
recognized traces of iron rust. 4 We have, therefore, a clear case
of an iron beam laid across the interval between the capitals of
the columns, with the stone superstructure built upon it. On
account of the form of construction, this iron beam was neces-
sarily in the exposed soffit of the stone architrave; but it would
have been possible to conceal it by means of stucco. Thirty-
eight of these beams would have been required in the peristyle.
At one point in the Erechtheum at Athens we find a similar
form of construction: the lintel of the subterranean doorway
leading to the crypt under the North Porch, though only 20
inches high and 3 ft. 6 inches wide, carries the entire north wall
of the building across a span of 2 ft. 5 inches. This lintel was
reinforced by inserting in its bottom an iron bar, sealed with lead
while the lintel was still loose and upside down on the ground;
the iron beam, furthermore, is still in place, and, therefore, its
height and length cannot be ascertained. It would have been
far better to have placed the iron in the top of the marble lintel,
not merely because it would thus have been concealed from view
(for in this subterranean doorway we are not concerned with

1 Koldewey and Puchstein, Die Griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und
Sicilien, pp. 158-162.

2 Durm, Baukunst der Griechen (1910), pp. 402-404.

3 Antiquities of Athens, V, ch. I, p. 8 and pi. 5.

4 Hittorff and Zanth, Architecture antique de la Sidle, pp. 310, 566, pi. 89,
fig. 5.

152 WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR

finish), but because of a vital constructive defect. The marble,
more brittle than the iron, naturally cracked before the weight of
the superincumbent wall could be transmitted to the more
flexible iron beam.

Far more scientific is the system adopted in the Propylaea at
Athens. Here the Ionic architrave of the main hall is, in section,
composed of two marble blocks each about 20 inches thick and
2 ft. 9J inches high, set on edge, back to back. Each supports
marble ceiling beams coming not merely above the Ionic columns
but also exactly at the centre of the span (Fig. 3). The total
weight of half of one of these ceiling beams with its load of coffers
was 6| tons. Here again the architect did not trust his marble.
Therefore on the top of the Ionic architrave he cut a groove
nearly 5J inches deep and 3 inches wide, and half the length of
the architrave, just 6 ft.; the groove has a shoulder cut at each
end, about 3J inches long, and rising 1 inch above the bottom
of the groove. In this groove, as was discovered by Mr. Balanos,
the architect in charge of the modern reconstruction, 1 was placed
a solid rectangular iron beam, which transmitted the weight of
the central ceiling beam to the two shoulders 5 ft. 5| inches apart,
where it could be cared for by the capitals of the Ionic columns.
It is to be noted that the length of the iron beam was made as
short as would be consistent with this purpose; by terminating
it at a distance of 3 ft. from each end of the architrave, it was
possible to use a lighter section than would have been the case
had the iron reached from end to end of the marble architrave.
And since, in this interval between the shoulders, the groove was
cut 1 inch deeper than the bottom of the iron beam, the latter,
not being sealed with lead, was perfectly free to deflect under
the weight of the marble ceiling beam. Of these iron beams, of
which sixteen were employed in the hall, only the rusted traces
now appear in the grooves. To ensure the transmission of the
weight directly to the iron beam, two copper plates about 2
inches square were placed on the iron beam and upon these rested
the marble beam; the stains of the copper are still visible on the
bottom of the marble. The central portion of the Ionic archi-
trave, therefore, supported nothing but its own weight.

Since in this case we know all the details of weights and dimen-
sions, it may be of interest to quote the results. That the Greeks

1 Balanos, Actes du seizieme Congres International des Orientalistes, 1912, p.
44; cf. Karo, Arch. Anz. 1912, p. 236.

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE 153

154 WILLIAM BELL DINS MOOR

were timid with regard to stone construction, and erred on the
side of safety, is a fact that has long been apparent. 1 This is
another case in point. If an Ionic architrave of this character
were being erected at the present day, we should not object to a
maximum fibre stress (the tension occurring in the outermost
particles at the bottom of the architrave) amounting to as much
as 120 pounds per square inch of section. Now if Mnesicles, the
architect of the Propylaea, had taken no precautions at all, and
had not inserted the iron beam, the maximum stress in the Ionic
architrave would have been only 103 pounds per square inch, a
stress with which the marble would have been quite able to
cope. 2 But on account of timidity he inserted the iron beam,
and thereby reduced the maximum stress in the marble to 57
pounds per square inch, about half of the modern allowance.
Such was the stress in the marble below the iron beam, but how
about the iron beam itself? Here modern practice would not
justify a greater maximum stress than 12,000 pounds per square
inch; in the Propylaea, however, the actual stress was 17,500
pounds per square inch. In iron, therefore, it would appear that
Mnesicles was far from timid; but his timidity may be attributed
to ignorance. There was, however, no question of collapse; he
used one third rather than one quarter of the breaking strength
of wrought iron.

It was with such marble ceilings that the Greek architects ap-
pear to have experienced the greatest difficulties, which they over-
came, to their own satisfaction at least, by the use of concealed
iron beams. The result, in the case of the Propylaea, was eulo-
gized as follows by Pausanias: "The portal has a roof of white
marble, and for the beauty and size of the blocks it has never yet
been matched." 3 Let us now turn to another example which
Pausanias regarded with almost equal admiration: at Bassae, as
he states, is "the temple of Apollo Epicurius, built of stone, roof
and all; of all the temples in the Peloponnesus, next to the one at
Tegea, this may be placed first for the beauty of the stone and
the symmetry of its proportions." 4 Again emphasis is laid on
the employment of stone throughout, and with reason; for the
temple at Bassae, the first work of Ictinus, dating from about 450

1 Carpenter, The Esthetic Basis of Greek Art, pp. 159, 260.

2 In the marble ceiling beams themselves the maximum fibre stress rose
even to 185 pounds per square inch, considerably more than the limit of present
day practice.

3 Pausanias, I, 22, 4.

4 Pausanias, VIII, 41, 7-8.

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE 155

B.C., marks the beginning of the substitution of marble ceilings
for the wooden ceilings hitherto used in external porticoes.

At Bassae, therefore, the marble ceiling was an experiment and
in its design the timidity of the architect is quite apparent. The
end porticoes, furthermore, are exceptionally deep, two full
intercolumniations ; for the columns and antae of the inner
porches are aligned with the third column on each flank of the
peristyle. As a result, the maximum clear span of the ceiling
beams of the external portico, from the inner face of the entabla-
ture of the facade to the, outer face of that of the pronaos, amounts
to 13 ft. 2i inches. Now the
ceiling beams, of marble, were
assigned a width of 2 ft. 2f
inches and a height of 12f
inches, so that if they had
been solid they would have
weighed 5,460 pounds in the
clear span; they carried,
furthermore, ceiling coffers
weighing (on the outermost
beams) about 220 pounds per
running foot, contributing an
additional load of 2,900
pounds. Under such circum-
stances, the maximum fibre
stress, the tension at the bot-
tom of the ceiling beam, would have amounted to 231 pounds per
square inch, twice as much as we should regard as permissible.
Ictinus, too, was unfavorably impressed by the result, and
attempted to remedy the situation by hollowing the tops of the
ceiling beams, transforming them into mere shells, about 4 inches
thick on each side and only 3i inches thick at the bottom (Fig. 4).
In other words, he removed more than half of the section of
the ceiling beam, reducing its weight, in the clear span, from
5,460 to 2,630 pounds.

What was the exact purpose of this reduction of the weight?
Cockerell, without further reflection, merely remarked that
" these are hollowed, in order to diminish their weight . . .
and secure their duration, which was not the case in those of the
Propylaea." 1 But analysis of the resulting forces shows that by
such a process Ictinus would not have improved the situation in

1 Cockerell, Aegina and Bassae, pp. 51, 54.

FIGURE 4. PERISTYLE CEILING:
TEMPLE AT BASSAE.

156 WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR

the least. The beam is lightened, to be sure, but it is also
weakened to such a degree that the maximum fibre stress is still
227 pounds per square inch, practically identical with what it
was before the so-called precaution was taken. This is not the
way in which a Greek would have worked ; he would rather have
retained the full section of the marble beam, stiffening it by
adding a tall flange or ridge along the top which increased its
height but was invisible from below. We must seek another
explanation of the hollowing of the beam. And such an explana-
tion is suggested by the striking similarity (of course not ap-
parent to Cockerell) between this marble beam section and
modern forms of terra-cotta and stone used for the casing of steel
beams. At Bassae, as in so much of our modern work, we have
apparent marble beams which were in reality mere shells, the
true supports of the ceiling having been iron beams which formed
their core. The purpose of the reduction of the weight, by
omitting more than half of the section of the marble beam, was,
of course, to diminish the load carried by the iron beam, so that
this, in turn, could be made lighter. There must have been
hangers or straps of some sort, in order to secure the marble
casing to the iron beam. And of such iron beams, of simple
rectangular section, about 15 ft. in length, there must have been
eighteen examples at Bassae, or even more if we can follow
Pausanias literally and assume that the ceilings of the inner
porticoes and of the cella were likewise of marble. Of actual
remains of these iron beams, however, we have no traces. 1

Another type of iron beam employed by the Greeks is the canti-
lever, a beam of which one end is firmly imbedded in a wall, while
the other end is unsupported, even though the load may be placed
upon this free end. The load is counterweight ed by the wall in
which the other end is imbedded. The most notable examples
occur in the Parthenon, where in the pediment floors we find,
near the centre, grooves varying in width from 4 \ to 11 inches,
extending from the face of the tympanum almost to the front edge
of the cornice (Fig. 5) . In some cases they are at right angles to
the face of the tympanum, while others are oblique. There are
five of these grooves in each pediment, all grouped near the centre;
and their purpose obviously was to contain iron cantilever beams,
which should support the heavier statues at the middle of the pedi-
ment, and thus take the weight off the overhanging portion of the

1 The broken fragments of the hollowed marble beams should reveal, if care-
fully examined, traces of some method of attachment to the iron.

STRUCTURAL IRON IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE

157

marble cornice. 1 In order to permit them to function in this
manner, the cantilevers were laid directly on the top of the marble
cornice, and ran back under the tympanum, according to the
traces of rust, for 12 or 16 inches; to fit over them, corresponding
cuttings were worked in the bottoms of the tympanum slabs,
which thus straddled and firmly
weighted the inner ends of the beams.
It is from the cuttings in the tym-
panum blocks that we learn the height
of the cantilevers, between 2J and 5
inches. 2 Directly under the face of
the tympanum, the pediment floor is
sharply cut down to a depth of about
2 inches, and for a width correspond-
ing to that of the iron cantilever; here,
therefore, was the point of support of
the cantilever, well inside the face of
the entablature below. About 5
inches outside the face of the tym-
panum, and, therefore, practically
over the face of the entablature below,
is an additional drop of about J inch,
so that the outer end of the cantilever
was free to bend as much as 2J inches
before coming in contact with the

cornice. Probably, however, they were not intended to bend so
much ; for we must assume that the marble statues did not rest
loosely upon the cantilevers, but were grooved to a depth of about
1 inch to prevent lateral displacement; and thus if the cantilever
were deflected even as much as 1 J inches the statue would begin
to throw its weight upon the marble cornice. As it happens, the
statues from the central portions of the pediments are not .suffi-
ciently preserved to reveal their adjustment to the cantilevers.
Nor are the cantilevers themselves preserved; nothing now re-
mains but the cuttings and. the traces of rust. These cantilevers
were concealed from view by the fact that they terminated about

1 These beam cuttings are discussed by Penrose, Athenian Architecture, pp.
46-47, pi. 18; Michaelis, Parthenon, pp. 152, 172, 189, pi. 6-7; Sauer, Antike
Denkmaler, I, pp. 49-51, pi. 58 A-C; Lethaby, Greek Buildings, p. 74.

2 Two additional cuttings in the tympanum blocks of the west pediment,
north of the five grooves, were apparently never used, since there are no traces
of rust and no corresponding grooves in the pediment floor.

FIGURE 5. PEDIMENT FLOOR
OF THE PARTHENON.

158 WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR

2 ft. 9 inches outside the face of the tympanum, and so about 5
inches behind the face of the cornice. But they were not pro-
tected from the elements, if we may judge from the abundant
traces of rust; though possibly they were originally coated with
molten lead.

Another example of cantilever construction is to be found in
a late temple at Acragas, the so-called Temple of Castor and
Pollux. Here the sima above the cornice is of remarkably heavy

proportions; and sinc the material
employed was a coarse limestone,
elaborate precautions were taken lest
the overhanging portion of the cor-
nice be split off (Fig. 6). In the first
place, the entire top of the cornice
itself, from the nosing to a line about
16 inches behind it, was cut down to a
depth of nearly ^ inch. Then, to en-

FIGURE 6.-Co RN ic E OF THE SUre the relief f the COrmCe > slender
TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND lron cantilevers, nearly 2 inches
POLLUX: ACRAGAS. high, widening toward the top, were

dovetailed at intervals into the bot-
tom of the sima, running from back to front, or, in the case of the
angle blocks, diagonally, but always terminating about 3J inches
from the face of the sima in order that they might remain con-
cealed. 1

From these isolated instances it is possible to conclude that the
Greeks did not hesitate, whenever they were doubtful of the
stability of masonry, to employ concealed structural iron very
much as we are doing in modern times. That they had any pre-
cise knowledge of the properties of wrought iron it is difficult to
assume. For in the Propylaea, at least, they strained it beyond
a limit which we should regard as justifiable, and this in order to
relieve marble which was actually quite capable of supporting
the load. It is, to be sure, false construction; it would not be
commended by the purist; but the Greeks were, after all, quite
human, and from the study of their experiments, their failures
and subterfuges, we can learn almost as much as from their
successes.

WILLIAM BELL DINSMOOR.
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,
NEW YORK

1 For this example, see Koldewey and Puchstein, op. cit. p. 179.

glrcfyaeological
Institute
of America

THE ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SACRIFICE OF ISAAC
IN EARLY CHRISTIAN ART

A NAERATIVE with such possibilities for instruction as that of
the Sacrifice of Isaac was not to be neglected by the Church.
Here was an instance of faith rewarded, a proof that souls trusting
in divine mercy should have renewed and continued life, and an
assurance that the course of safety lay in placing themselves in
the hands of God. Ei enim qui fideliter sacrificat dies lucet, nox
nulla est. 1 The transcendent importance of the story, however,
rested in the fact that as set forth in the twenty-second chapter of
Genesis it presented, to the early churchman's symbol-seeking
mind, an almost exact parallel to the passion of Christ. Isaac
ergo Christi passuri est typus. 2

The Church Fathers, Irenaeus, 3 Tertullian, 4 Ephraim, 5 Isidore
of Seville, 6 and others too numerous to cite, occupied themselves
with studying the parallel and enlarging upon it. Like Christ
Isaac was a beloved only son offered as a consummate yet willing
sacrifice by his father. The place of sacrifice in both instances
was upon a hill. Signa Isaac sibi vexit, Christus sibi patibulum
crucis portavit. 7 The thorns of the bush in which the ram was
caught represented the thorns of Christ. No smallest detail
that might contribute to the parallel escaped the eager interpre-
ter. The ram in the bush was Christ on the Cross, Isaac was
Christ in the Eucharist.

The most potent acknowledgment of similarity between the
sacrifices was the introduction of the Sacrifice of Isaac into the
Mass, where there is repeated mention of it. When the priest
extends his hands over the host he prays : Supra quae propitio ac
sereno vultu respicere digneris et accepta habere, sicuti accepta

1 Ambrose, De'Cain et Abel I, cap. VIII.

2 Ambrose, De Abraham I, cap. VIII.

3 Adversus Haereses IV, cap. V.

4 Liber adv. Judaeos, Rome, 1737, cap. X.

* In Genes, Opera I, Liber adv. Judaeos, cap. X, p. 77.

6 Allegoriae n. 20.

7 Ambrose, De Abraham I, cap. VIII.

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the
Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 2.

160

ALISON MOORE SMITH

habere dignatus es munera puerijusti Abel et sacrificium Patriarchae
nostri Abrahae. In the sequence of Corpus Christ! there is
reference to the story. On Holy Saturday the third " prophecy "
read between the lighting of the Paschal Candle and blessing of
the Font is based on the Sacrifice of Isaac.

As is to be expected, a story regarded as of such importance by
the Church had frequent representation in Early Christian art.
It is depicted on Early Christian monuments of all classes; fres-
coes, sarcophagi, mosaics, glasses, gems, and lamps.

The purpose of this article is to list the existing representations
upon these monuments, to isolate the types or schools indicated

FIGURE 1. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: FRESCO IN CATACOMB OF SS. PIETRO E
MARCELLING: ROME.

by the variations of the iconography and incidentally to show the
bearing of the data thus gained on the question of the provenance
of a little monument of prime importance in the history of Early
Christian art, viz. the ivory pyx in Berlin.

The earliest artistic renderings of the scene are found among
Roman catacomb frescoes, which may be regarded as reflecting
the primitive or Hellenistic base upon which Early Christian
representations were constructed.

THE CATACOMB FRESCOES

Not including fragments, examples of the scene in the catacomb
frescoes fall roughly into three divisions. The first of these con-
tains paintings showing the approach to the Sacrifice in which
Abraham leads Isaac, bearing faggots, towards the altar as on a
fresco of the Coemeterium Maius (No. 2); or Isaac approaches
with the bundle of sticks, Abraham having preceded him to the

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART

161

place of offering. An example of the latter version is found in
Priscilla (No. 6).

The second or orant division of the Sacrifice frescoes includes
two paintings. In one of these, in a catacomb under the Vigna
Massimo (No. 10) Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands
near at hand, both figures in orant attitude. They are again
found as orants in a well-preserved S. Callisto
fresco (No. 9); here the ram is shown and
also a bundle of faggots to indicate a scene
of immolation.

These types, not being illustrative of the
sacrifice itself, were not perpetuated though
the detail of Isaac carrying the sticks
appears later as an adjunct to represen-
tations of the scene. The type that sur-
vived was a third one exemplified by a third
century painting (Fig. 1) in SS. Pietro e
Marcellino (No. 14).

The general features of this third division
are that Abraham is shown about to sacri-
fice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels
on the ground beside the altar. Sometimes
Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair. Oc-
casionally the ram is added to the scene and
in the later paintings the Hand of God
-emerges from above.

This as the earliest and at the same time the commonest form
of the scene in Early Christian Art, undoubtedly reflects its orig-
inal visualization and may be called the Hellenistic type. The
strength of tradition which it represents is attested by its occa-
sional emergence in Byzantine iconography, but it is chiefly found,
after its first appearance in the catacombs, on sarcophagi of west-
em type of Rome, Gaul, and Spain, persisting also, as the list of
monuments shows, on objects of widely diversified material and
provenance.

THE HELLENISTIC TYPE

An examination of the story as depicted on these sarcophagi
and other art objects shows but little variety in form. The
Hellenistic tradition of simplicity and lack of realism holds true
throughout. On the Roman sarcophagi Abraham wears either

FIGURE 2. SACRIFICE
OF ISAAC: SARCOPH-
AGUS IN S. AM-
BROGIO: MILAN.

162

ALISON MOORE SMITH

FIGURE 3. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: FRESCO AT EL BAGAWAT.

tunic and pallium or exomis. Usually he is bearded. Holding
the knife in his right hand, with his left he often grasps the head
of Isaac who kneels on the ground or stands beside the lighted
box-shaped altar with hands shackled as Christ's were -in the
apocryphal version of the Crucifixion. 1 Frequently the Hand
of God is introduced, in which case Abraham turns his head to-
wards it as on a Lateran sarcophagus from the Cemetery of
Lucina (No. 59) and the ram is almost invariably present.

For the most part the Gallic sarcophagi render the scene as it
appears on the Roman monuments but with a more unvarying
completeness of detail. Certain differences in form of the scene,
however, are apparent. On the Gallic sarcophagi, more often
than on the Roman. Abraham is beardless. On the former he
always wears short draperies, usually the exomis, except on a

1 Evang. Nicodemi, ed. Tischendorf, p. 282.

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART

163

curious sarcophagus at Mas-d'Aire (No. 45) where he and Isaac
are dressed in short, belted tunics, and in the 'scene upon two
other examples at St. Maximin (Nos. 81 and 82) where he is clad
in long draperies and the general execution suggests the handi-
work of some Eastern workman em-
ployed in a local atelier.

The monuments showing this type
of the Sacrifice of Isaac, are of western
origin with very few exceptions, and
the type itself appears first in the
catacombs of Rome. It may be re-
garded then as the 'western version of
the Hellenistic type and as such to
be distinguished from another, evi-
dently derived from the same proto-
type, but differing persistently in one
detail. This variant of the Hellenistic
type appears, with but two exceptions
(Nos. 101 and 111) solely upon sar-
cophagi which show strong Eastern
influence in style and iconography
and particularly in their preservation
of the old Asiatic architectural deco-
ration of the front (arcades, divided
by columns or trees; alternating
gables and arches; horizontal entab-
latures ; mixtures of all three) . These

have been regarded by Wulff as exported en bloc from some centre
of southeastern Asia Minor. 1 . In any case they are clearly dis-
tinguished by style and their peculiar iconography from the
Western type of sarcophagus with uninterrupted frieze, and are in
some way connected by the same characteristics with Asia Minor. 2

THE ASIATIC-HELLENISTIC TYPE

The Abraham of this type always wears long draperies. He
grasps the knife with his right hand and turns his face towards the
Hand of God emerging from above which is an omnipresent detail

1 Altchristliche und Byz. Kunst, p. 110.

2 I am confirmed in this by C. R. Morey whose study of the Asiatic sar-
cophagi of columnar type in the imperial period, to be published shortly, has
convinced him that the Christian columnar types are continuations of the
various forms of the well-known Sidamara sarcophagi of Asia Minor.

FIGURE 4. ALTAR FROM
ALEXANDRIA.

164

ALISON MOORE SMITH

in this form of the scene. Sometimes his left hand rests upon
Isaac's head. The presence or absence of ram and tree are insig-
nificant variations as in the Hellenistic type. The detail which
differentiates the Asiatic-Hellenistic from the western Hellenistic
representations is that Isaac is always on the altar instead of

standing or kneeling on the ground;
the representation thus follows, with
that preference for literal rendering
usually found in Eastern iconography,
the posuiteum (Isaac) in altar e of Gen.
XXII. In the scene of sacrifice on a
sarcophagus of the "city gate"
variety (Fig. 2) in S. Ambrogio at
Milan (No. 105) and upon two others
in Paris (No. 106) and the Grotte
Vaticane (No. 108) closely resembling
it, Isaac kneels upon an altar of pagan
form decorated with vase and patera.
Other renderings of the scene as upon
a gable- and-arch sarcophagus in the
Lateran (No. 109) and a seven niche
example at Madrid (No. 103), show
him sitting upon the altar. 1

Another transformation of the original Hellenistic type was
effected in Egypt. Following the nomenclature established by
E. B. Smith in his Early Christian Iconography I have called
this the Alexandrian-Coptic type, since its examples are partly
from Alexandria and belong in part to the Coptic art of Upper
Egypt.

THE ALEXANDRIAN-COPTIC TYPE

Of Coptic frescoes at El Bagawat illustrating the story of the
sacrifice only one (Fig. 3), in the Chapel decorated with Biblical
Scenes (No. 112) remains complete. In it Abraham, bearded and
frontal, wears flowing white draperies. He grasps the knife with
his right hand and rests his left upon the head of Isaac who is
clad in a white tunic and stands holding a small box. In the
background is Sara with a similar box and behind Abraham ap-

1 In the -Sacrifice of Isaac upon an Eastern carved gem in the Bibliotheque
Nationale described as of the Early Christian period by Chabouillet in his Cat.
gen. et raisonee des Camees, p. 191. Isaac is lying upon the altar.

FIGURE 5. TERRA-COTTA
ALTAR OF IMPERIAL
PERIOD: ALEXANDRIA.

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART

165

pears the Hand of God. On the ground stands the altar, the
form of which is important as found only in the Alexandrian-
Coptic type and its derivatives. The altar is cup-shaped and
denticulated on its upper edge, corresponding in form to an actual
grave-altar found in Alexandria itself (Fig. 4), and almost iden-
tical with a terra-cotta altar found in a tomb of the imperial
period, also at Alexandria, which is described by Thiersch ('Zwei
Graber der rom; Kaiserzeit in Gabbari Alexandria' in Bull. Soc.
Arch. d'Alexandrie 1900, 3, p. 21), as "ein Altar chen . . . mil
dem fur den Isiskult bezeugten Zackenrand" (Fig. 5). 1 The re-
mains of a similar altar, this
time placed upon a platform
approached by steps, are
found in the scene of sacrifice
as shown on an ivory pyx of
the fifth century in the
Bologna Museum (No. 11(5),
which, in its figures suggests
the fresco (Fig. 6). Abraham,
bearded, faces the left. He
holds the knife in his right
hand and rests his left on the
head of Isaac, undraped here.
At Abraham's right are the

ram and an acacia (?) tree. Very like the scene on this ivory is
that upon another pyx of later date in the Museo delle Terme
(No. 117) though in it Isaac wears a short tunic and the altar,
intended to imitate the Bologna form, takes the shape of a pillar
upon stepped base and terminates in a denticulated capital. The
ram which is below a tree at Abraham's right appears again,
with an angel added to the scene; all these details are curiously
detached like words awaiting combination into a sentence. This
pyx is of rougher workmanship than the Bologna ivory and of
even cruder execution is a bone fragment, from Alexandria, in
the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin (No. 115) which shows
only the figures of Abraham and Isaac. It is, however, so pal-
pably a replica of the examples mentioned that despite incom-
pleteness it must be admitted to this group, adding thus another
indication as to the provenance of the type.

1 This form of altar is also identified as Alexandrian by Rostowzew (Rom.
Mitt. 1911, p. 66), who cites further examples (figs. 33, 37, 38).

FIGURE 6. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: PYX
IN MUSEO Civico: BOLOGNA.

166

ALISON MOORE SMITH

Although these three monuments have a distinct connection
with the El Bagawat fresco the discrepancies suggest that a link
is missing. The link is supplied by another ivory of finer crafts-
manship than those cited, viz. the Berlin pyx (No. 114) which
gives the prototype from which the others were derived (Fig. 7).
In the rendering of the scene of sacrifice on this pyx Abraham,
bearded and in flowing draperies holds the knife in his right

hand while with his
left he grasps the
head of Isaac, un-
draped, who with
hands shackled be-
hind his back and
with legs crossed,
stands in frontal
posture .upon the
steps leading up to
the cup-shaped, and
denticulated altar.
At Abraham's right
are the ram and an
angel while the Hand
of God emerges from
above.

Thus we arrive at

a sequence, the El Bagawat fresco, the Berlin pyx, the Alex-
andrian fragment, the Bologna ivory, and the Terme pyx, com-
pletely illustrating the evolution of the Alexandrian-Coptic type.
In this series of monuments the iconography of the scene main-
tains consistently the characteristic features of the type: the
bearded Abraham in flowing draperies, the frontal Isaac, and the
cup-shaped and denticulated altar. Their similarity to the Coptic
El Bagawat fresco shows the other four monuments to be of
Egyptian origin, as, indeed, is already indicated by the Alex-
andrian provenance of the Berlin fragments. The type of altar
used in the scene of sacrifice upon them confirms the connection
with Alexandria and thereby is furnished the first evidence of
definite character on which the Berlin pyx can be assigned to
that city.

FIGURE 7. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: PYX IN BERLIN.

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART

167

THE PALESTINIAN-COPTIC TYPE

A sixth century miniature of the Etschmiadzin Evangeliary
(No. 118), imitating some model like the scene on the Berlin pyx,
shows a Sacrifice of Isaac of the Alexandrian Coptic type and is
very Coptic in style, but certain added details stamp it as the
work of an Eastern artist of another centre who may have been
imitating an Egyp-
tian model. Isaac
wears a long tunic,
which is a new fea-
ture in the scene, and
stands on the steps
leading up to the
denticulated and
cup-shaped altar.
Abraham is of the
Eastern Hellenistic
type, in long draper-
ies, but wears the
nimbus which is a
common character-
istic of figures in
other scenes of Pales-
tinian-Coptic ico-
nography (Fig. 8). 1
The ram, at Abra-
ham's right, is ren-
dered as usual except FIGURE 8. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: MINIATURE OF
that it wears a collar. THE ETSCHMIADZIN EVANGELIARY.

Thus far the differ-
ences between this representation and those of the Alexan-
drian-Coptic type are minor variations. The Etschmiadzin
scene of sacrifice possesses, however, one added iconographic
feature which never appears in the pure Alexandrian-Coptic type.
This detail, a cypress tree, seems to be of Syro-Palestinian origin,
as it appears again in the Sacrifice of Isaac upon a lamp from
Jerusalem (No. 119) where the scene is otherwise similar to Alex-
andrian-Coptic representations. Abraham, bearded and in long
draperies, with head turned toward the Hand of God emerging

1 E. Baldwin Smith: Early Christian Iconography, Tables IV and V.

168

ALISON MOORE SMITH

from the sky, stands ready to sacrifice Isaac. Isaac is undraped
and, owing probably to the shape of the lamp, kneels upon the
ground. At Abraham's right is the cypress tree and balancing it
on the other side of the scene is an apparent imitation of the
Alexandrian altar standing on the ground, behind which is a
pillar, possessing possibly some local significance.

FIGURE 9. SACRIFICE OF ISAAC: MOSAIC IN S. VITALE: RAVENNA.

THE BYZANTINE TYPE

Representations of the Sacrifice of Isaac reached their greatest
elaboration of detail in Byzantine art, but they are rather com-
binations of details gathered from the Early Christian types which
had preceded them than new forms. This is, perhaps, due to the
infrequency of the scene in the early Byzantine period because the
Crucifixion, which it had symbolized, began to appear upon
monuments at this time.

In a sixth century mosaic, in S. Vitale at Ravenna (No. 121),
the scene is rendered in the Asiatic-Hellenistic manner with
Isaac on the altar (Fig. 9) . The Hand of God appears from above.

'SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART 169

Abraham, bearded and in flowing draperies, is about to sacrifice
Isaac and grasps him by the hair. The ram stands at Abra-
ham's right. In a seventh century miniature of the Vatican
Codex of Cosmas Indicopleustes (No. 123) a nimbed and heavily
draped Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair, as he kneels on the
ground, but the scene here is more detailed than in S. Vitale.
Above and at Abraham's right are the Hand of God and a ray of
light. At his left is the ram tethered to a bush. Adjoining the
scene is Isaac approaching with the faggots, and two servants
with a mule, showing the customary Byzantine attempt to follow
closely, in art, the written description of scenes. On an amulet
in Paris (No. 120) and again in a miniature of the twelfth century
Vatican Octateuch (No. 122) Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair
and the ram is tethered to a bush. These features though they
may be found in other types of the scene are particularly charac-
teristic of the Byzantine iconography of the sacrifice.

Further discussion of the sacrifice as rendered in later periods
does not lie within the province of this study but it is interesting
to observe that a cursory examination of western monuments
down to the fifteenth century seems to show an almost universal
adoption of the Asiatic-Hellenistic Isaac on the altar in represen-
tations of the scene. From the sixth to the eleventh century the
sacrifice was seldom reproduced in art, but during the four cen-
turies following that period it had renewed and widespread popu-
larity in representation, owing no doubt to a revival of interest in
its symbolic connotations.

170 ALISON MOORE SMITH

LIST OF MONUMENTS 1

Catacomb Frescoes
Type I

(1) Rome, Cat. "dei Giordani, " IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 327-22.

(2) Rome, Coemeterium Maius, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 326-17, Tav.
222-1.

(3) Rome, S. Ermete, III Century, Wilpert: Pitt. Tav. 114.

(4) Rome, SS. Marco e Marcelliano, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 326-16,
Tav. 216-2.

(5) Rome, SS. Pietro e Marcellino, III-IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 323-3,
Tav. 73.

(6) Rome, Priscilla, III Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 323-4, Tav. 78-2.

(7) Rome, S. Tecla, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 327-19, Tav. 235.

(8) Rome, Trasone, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 325-11, Tav. 164-2.

Type II

(9) Rome, S. Callisto, Cappella dei Sacrarnenti, II Century, Wilpert: Pitt.
323-2, Tav. 41-2.

(10) Rome, Vigna Massimo, IV Century, G. II, pi. 69-3.

Type III

(11) Rome, Domitilla, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 326, Tav. 201.

(12) Rome, Domitilla, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 325-13, Tav. 196.

(13) Rome, Coemeterium Maius, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 327-18, Tav.
220.

(14) Rome, SS.. Pietro e Marcellino, III Century, G. II, pi. 48-1 (Fig. 1).

(15) Rome, SS. Pietro e Marcellino, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 324-8, Tav.
129.

(16) Rome, SS. Pietro e Marcellino, IV Century, Wilpert : Pitt. Tav. 188-1.

(17) Rome, Priscilla, Cappella Greca, II Century, Wilpert: F., pi. 10.

Fragments

(18) Rome, S. CaUisto, IV Century, De Rossi, III, pi. VIII, 1.

(19) Rome, Domitilla, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt, 326-15, Tav. 201-3.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN LlST OF MONUMENTS

BOCK = Bock: Materiaux pour servir a I'archeologie de I'Egypte chrttienne;
CABROL = Cabrol : Dictionnaire de I'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie', DE
Rossi = De Rossi: Roma Sotteranea cristiana', FuRTWANGLER = Furtwangler:
Antike Gemmen] G. = Garrucci: Storia dell'arte cristiana', GR. = Grousset:
Catalogue des sarcophages chretiens de Rome] KISA = Kisa : Das Glas im Altertum;
KRAUs = Kraus: Geschichte der christlichen Kunst; LE BLANT: A. =LeBlant:
Les sarcophages chretiens antiques de la ville d' Aries', LE BLANT: G. =Le Blant:
Les sarcophages chrStiens de la Gaule', M. = Marucchi: I monumentidel Museo
cristiano Pio-Lateranense', ScA.vi=Scavidi Antichitd dei Lincei', STRZYGOWSKI:
B.=Strzygowski: Byzantinische Denkmaler; STRZYGOWSKI: H. = Strzygowski:
Hellenistische und Koptische Kunst', STUHLFAUTH = Stuhlf auth : Die Altchrist-
liche Elfenbeinplastik-, VENTURI = Venturi : Storia dell'arte Italiana; VOGE =
Vpge: Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, Zweite Auflage, DieElfenbeinbildwerke', WILPERT:
Pitt. = Wilpert: PitturedelleCatacombe Romane', WILPERT: F. = Wilpert: Fractio
Panis', WuLFF = Wulff: Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, Beschreibung III.

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART 171

(20) Rome, Domitilla, IV Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 324-9, Tav. 139-1.

(21) Rome, Generosa, V Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 327-21.

(22) Rome, SS. Pietro e Marcellino, III Century, Wilpert: Pitt. 324-6, Tav.
105-2.

The Hellenistic Type

(23) Aries, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 310-4.

(24) Aries, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 366-3.

(25) Aries, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 378-3.

(26) Aries, Mus., Sarcophagus (frag.), IV-V Century, Le Blant: A., p. 54.

(27) Astorga, Cath., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 314-6.

(28) Athens, Lamp, IV-V Century, Max Bauer: Tonlampen, p. 35.

(29) Bagnols, Astier Coll., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 378-4.

(30) Cairo, Mus., Relief (frag.), IV-V Century, Strzygowski: H., No. 8759,
pi. 163.

(31) Carthage, Lamp, IV Century, Rom. Mitt., 1898, pi. X, 10.

(32) Carthage, Mus. Lavigerie, from Kasrin, Terra-cotta Slab, IV-V Cen-
tury, Mus. de I'Algerie, III, p. 9, pi. II-4.

(33) Catania, Mus. Recupero, Glass, IV-V Century, G. Ill, pi. 171-2.

(34) Civita Castellana, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 319-3.

(35) Clermont, Sarcophagus (frag.), IV-V Century, Le Blant: G.,pl.XVII-3.

(36) Florence, Gherardesca Coll., Glass, IV-V Century, G. Ill, pi. 169-4.

(37) Fordongianus (Sardinia), from, Lamp, IV Century, Scavi, 1903, p.
487, fig. 13.

(38) Gerona, Cath., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 374-3.

(39) Gotha, Mus., Gem, "Early Christian," Furtwangler, II, p. 246, 55.

(40) Grosseto, Mus., Glass (frag.), IV Century, B. Arch. Crist., 1882, pi.
VIII.

(41) Lausanne, Mus., Lamp, V Century, R. Arch., 1875, p. 3.

(42) London, British Mus., from Cologne, Glass Dish, III-V Century, Kisa,
III, p. 893.

(43) Lucq-de-Bearn, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, Le Blant : G., pi. XXVII, 1.

(44) Madrid, Ayuntamiento, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 376-3.

(45) Mas-d'Aire (Landes), Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 301-3.

(46) Mende, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, Le Blant: G., p. 76, No. 93.

(47) Narbonne, Mus., Sarcophagus (frag.), V Century, G. V, pi. 396-7.

(48) Narbonne, Mus., Sarcophagus (frag.), V Century,' G. V, Appendix,
No. 19.

(49) Paris, Basilewsky Coll. from Podgoritsa, Albania, Glass, IV Century,
B. Arch. Crist., 1877, pi. V-VI.

(50) Paris, Bibl. Nat. Ms. Peiresc, Sarcophagus, V Century, G. V, Appendix,
No. 2.

(51) Pisa, Camposanto, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 364-3.

(52) Rome, from Esquiline, Glass (frag.), V Century, B. Arch. Crist.,
1884-85, p. 92.

(53) Rome, from Catacombs, Carved Nut, IV? Century, Cabrol, s.v.
Abraham, col. 116.

(54) Rome, Lead Cup Base, III? Century, B. Arch. Crist., 1879, p. 133
.and pi. XI, 4.

(55) Rome, from, Bronze Ring, IV? Century, G. VI, pi. 478-23.

172 ALISON MOORE SMITH

(56) Rome, Grotte Vaticane, Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, IV Century,
G. V, pi. 322-2.

(57) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 312-1.

(58) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 318-1.

(59) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 358-1.

(60) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 358-3.

(61) Rome, Late'ran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 359-1.

(62) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 364-2.

(63) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 367-1.

(64) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 367-2.

(65) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 367-3.

(66) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 376-4.

(67) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 384-3.

(68) Rome, Lateran, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 402-5.

(69) Rome, from S. Lorenzo, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 360-1.

(70) Rome, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, B. Arch. Crist., 1883, p. 87.

(71) Rome, S. Sotere, Stamp, IV Century, De Rossi: III, p. 346.

(72) Rome, Vatican Mus., Lamp, IV? Century, G. VI, pi. 475-2.

(73) Rome, ?, Bronze Medal, IV-V Century, G. VI, pi. 480-12.

(74) Rome, Bibl. Vat., Glass, IV Century, G. Ill, pi. 172-8.

(75) Rome, from Vatican, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 377-1.

(76) Rome, Via Salaria, Mural Drawings, IV? Century, B. Arch. Crist.,
1865, p. 3.

(77) Rome, Vigna Baseggio, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 310-1.

(78) Rome, Villa Borghese, Sarcophagus, IV Century, Gr., p. 75, No. 82.

(79) S. Canziano, Silver Spoon, IV Century, G. VI, pi. 462-6.

(80) St. Maximin, Church Crypt, Slab, V Century, Le Blant: G., pi. LVIII.

(81) St. Maximin, Sarcophagus, V Century, G. V, pi. 334-3.

(82) St. Maximin, Sarcophagus, V Century, G. V, pi. 352-2.

(83) St. Michel du Touch (formerly at), Sarcophagus, VI Century, Le
Blant: G., p. 127, pi. XLII.

(84) Strassburg, from, Gold Glass, IV? Century, Kraus: p. 482, fig. 359.

(85) Syracuse, from Catacombs, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi.
365-1.

(86) Toledo, S. Domingo, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 369-4.

(87) Toulouse, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 312-3.

(88) Treves, found at, Glass, V Century, B. Arch. Crist., 1873, p. 141.

(89) - , Lamp, V Century, Abela, Malta Illustrata, X, lib. I, 5.

(90) - , Carved Gem, ? Century, G. VI, pi. 492-7.

(91) Aries, Mus. (Isaac not represented), Sarcophagus, V Century, G. V r
pi. 312-2,

Fragments

(92) Ravenna, Mus. Naz., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, Diitschke, Rav.
Studien, p. 44, fig. 22.

(93) Rome, Lateran Mus., Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 400-4.

(94) Rome, Lateran Mus., Sarcophagus, IV Century, M., pi. XX-5.

(95) Rome, Lateran Mus:, Sarcophagus, IV Century, M., pi. VIII, 8.

(96) Rome, Oratorio di S. Sisto, Sarcophagus, IV Century, Gr., p. 102, No.
176.

SACRIFICE OF ISAAC IN CHRISTIAN ART 173

(97) Rome, Cim. di S. Lorenzo, Sarcophagus, IV Century, Gr., p. 99, No.
159.

(98) Rome, Cim. di S. Lorenzo, Sarcophagus, IV Century, Gr., p. 99, No. 161.

The Asiatic-Hellenistic Type

(99) Aix, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV Century (2 half), G. V, pi. 379-2.

(100) Ancona, Cath., Sarcophagus, IV Century (end), G. V, pi. 326-2.

(101) Aries, Mus., Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 366-2.

(102) Aries, formerly at, IV-V Century, Le Blant: A, p. 62, No. LX.

(103) Madrid, Ayuntamiento, Sarcophagus, IV Century (3 quarter), G. V,
pi. 341-3.

(104) Marseille, Mus., Sarcophagus, V Century, Le Blant: G. p. 49, No. 64.

(105) Milan, S. Ambrogio, Sarcophagus, IV Century (Fig. 2), G. V, pi.
328-3.

(106) Paris, Louvre, Sarcophagus, IV-V Century, G. V, pi. 324-3.

(107) Rome, Cim. di Callisto, Sarcophagus (frag.), IV Century, G. V, pi.
396-8.

(108) Rome, Grotte Vaticane, Sarcophagus, IV Century, G. V, pi. 327-4.

(109) Rome, Lateran Mus., Sarcophagus, IV Century (2 half), G. V, pi.
320-1.

(110) Rome, Lateran Mus., Sarcophagus, IV Century (2 quarter), G. V,
pi. 323-4.

(111) Rome, Piazza del Paradiso, 68, Sarcophagus, IV Century, Gr., p. 94,
No. 146.

The Alexandrian-Coptic Type

(112) ElBagawat, Fresco, IV Century (Fig. 3), Bock: p. 27, pi. XIII and
XIV.

(113) El Bagawat, Fresco, IV Century, Bock: p. 23.

(114) Berlin, Mus., Ivory Pyx, IV Century (Fig. 7), Voge: pi. I, 1.

(115) Berlin, Mus., Bone fragment, IV Century,' Wulff : I, no. 428.

(116) Bologna, Mus., Ivory Pyx, V Century (Fig. 6), Stuhlfauth: p. 30, fig. 3.

(117) Rome, Terme, Ivory Pyx, V-VI Century, Venturi: I, p. 534, fig. 4.

The Palestinian-Coptic Type

(118) Etschmiadzin, Miniature, VI Century (Fig. 8), Strzygowski: B. I.,
pi. IV.

(119) Rome, Mus. des Deutschen Camposanto, Lamp, V Century, Rom.
Quart., 1904, p. 21.

The Early Byzantine Type

(120) Paris, Amulet (in dealer's hands), Byz. Z/1893, p. 188.

(121) Ravenna, S. Vitale, Mosaic, VI Century (Fig. 9), G. IV, pi. 261-2.

(122) Rome, Bibl. Vat. (Octateuch), Miniature, XII Century, Byz. Archiv,
II.

(123) Rome, Bibl. Vat., Miniature of Codex of Cosmas Indicopleustes,
VII-VIII Century, G. Ill, pi. 142-1.

ALISON MOOKE SMITH
PRINCETON, N. J.

clrrlmrological
totttute
of America

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA

IN 1918, the University Museum in Philadelphia acquired by
purchase a very interesting and important Attic black-figured
scyphus, the provenance of which is unknown. Its importance
lies in the fact that it is one of only three black-figured vases to
portray the scene, usually interpreted as the combat between
Heracles and Nereus, an interpretation which, in my opinion,
is open to question, for reasons which I hope to develop, in the
course of this paper.

The scene is divided into two parts, each part taking up one
side of the vase. One side A. (Fig. 1) Heracles, at the left, ad-

FlGURE 1. SCYPHUS IN PHILADELPHIA! SlDE A.

vances to right, and seizes his adversary by the neck with his
left hand. Behind him, under the handle of the vase, are his
club and quiver. In his right hand is an axe. His opponent is
represented as an old man, who shrinks and cowers under the
hero's grasp, and seeks to escape to the right. He is bearded, and
dressed in a chlamys, and has a club in his left hand, which he is

American Journal of Archaeology, Second Series. Journal of the
Archaeological Institute of America, Vol. XXVI (1922), No. 2.

174

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA 175

handing to a woman, who is also fleeing to the right. As is usual
in the black-figured technique, her flesh is rendered in white
overcolor, and she wears a long chiton and himation. To her
right, another woman, similarly attired, goes off, looking back,
and holding up her hands in protest. Under the handle that
comes at this point is a ram. In the field is conventional foliage.
On the other side of the vase (Fig. 2) are the spectators who are
watching the struggle. At the right is Athena, looking to the
right. In front of her is a tree, from which springs conventional
foliage. Behind her is lolaus, carrying a bow in his left hand, and

FIGURE 2. SCYPHUS IN PHILADELPHIA: SIDE B.

a club in his right; while at the left is Hermes, walking to the
right, but looking back, and identified by his winged hat and
shoes. In the field are meaningless inscriptions.

In seeking for an interpretation for this vase, we at once think
of the struggle between Heracles and Nereus, which is alleged to
have taken place while the hero was seeking the road to the golden
apples of the Hesperides. Heracles wrestles with him, and,
though the god seeks to elude him by changing his shape fre-
quently, the hero holds on to him, and finally secures the informa-
tion that he seeks. The two women would then be two of the
Nereids.

My purpose in bringing this vase to the attention of scholars is
to try to show that the figure is not that of Nereus at all, but is the

176 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

same figure that occurs in the majority of the Attic black-figured
vases that show Heracles in combat with a marine divinity,
namely, the fish-tailed " Triton," and that both are representa-
tions of "The Old Man of the Sea" (aXtos ytpwv), who is the
original of the myth. His identification with Nereus comes rela-
tively late in Greek literature, and the evidence of the vases and
other works of art shows it to be incorrect.

The only other vases of the black-figured technique to show this
scene in the same way as the scyphus in Philadelphia, that are
known to me, are an amphora in the British Museum, 1 and a
hydria in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. 2 Nor is this
exploit much more frequent in the red-figured technique. Three
examples of the struggle, portrayed in this way, are known to me,
as follows :

Hydria, British Museum El 62. Unpublished, but gives its
name to Mr. J. D. Beazley's "Painter-of the Nereus Hydria. 3 "

Column-crater, Bologna, Necr. Pels. p. 74, No. 196, and fig. 45.

Vase in the form of a double disk; Athens, Collignon-Couve
1202. 4

Besides these three vases, two others in the Louvre should be
included. One, a cylix, No. G155, in fragmentary condition, is
usually attributed to Brygos. 5 Heracles, in this picture, has
seized the trident of the sea-god, and threatens to destroy every-
thing in sight if he does not reveal his secret. The god, at the
right, protests in vain. The second, a "Nolan" amphora, No.
G210, represents Heracles, axe in hand, attacking a house, iden-
tified by Pottier 6 as that of Nereus, though that of Syleus is'also
suggested by him. 7

1 Catalogue, p. 147, No. B225. Unpublished. The following abbreviations
will be used, beside the ordinary ones; A. V., Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder;
V.A., Beazley, Attic Red-figured Vases in American Museums; W.V., Wiener
Vorlegebldtter; Necr. Pels., Catalogo dei Vasi .... delle Necropoli Felsi-
nee, by Pellegrini, published in 1912.

2 Catalogue (De Ridder) pp. 166-68, No. 255. Published, A. V. 112. Ger-
hard (A.V., text, vol. II, p. 98, note 27) also speaks of an "archaic" cylix that
was in the Canino collection at the time that he wrote, that also seems to show
this scene. This may be black-figured, as he does not give its style.

3 V.A ., p. 61 . Hoppin, Handbook of Red-figured Vases, Vol. II, p. 215.

4 Published, Benndorf, Gr. Sicil. Vasenb. pi. XXXII, 4.

5 Published by Kliigmann, Ann. dell' Inst. 1878, pi. E. For a full bibliog-
raphy, see Hoppin, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 137, No. 85.

6 Catalogue des Vases Antiques de Terre Cuite, Vol. Ill, p. 1025. The vase is
unpublished. Pottier sees in this vase a "souvenir de quelque drame satyrique."

7 Gerhard (A. V., text, Vol. II, p. 98, note 27) speaks of a "Nolan" amphora
at that time in the Canino collection, which he claims to be a Heracles and
Nereus vase.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA . 177

On the other hand, the combat between Heracles and the fish-
tailed monster, generally called Triton, and sometimes so in-
scribed on the vases, is very common indeed as a design in the
black-figured period. Only one red-figured vase, however, a cylix
apparently of an early style, now lost, 1 is known, which shows
Heracles and Triton; though reference should here be made to the
famous stamnos in the British Museum, No. E437, signed by
Pamphaeus as potter, where the combat of Heracles and Achelous
is portrayed in a manner distinctly -recalling the " Triton" vases. 2

I had reached this point in studying this subject, in connection
with the scyphus in Philadelphia, when duties of a sterner nature

FIGURE 3. RELIEF FROM Assos IN LOUVRE.

took me away from that city for about a year and a half, and
archaeology became temporarily a side-issue, and of secondary
importance. During my absence, the scyphus was very ably
described and published by Miss Eleanor F. Rambo, who is cor-
rect in assigning it to the end of the black-figured period, at a time
when the red-figured technique had already set in. 3 Her publi-
cation was so thorough and competent that a republication seems
almost an impertinence ; but nevertheless I am taking this liberty,
in order to bring together, coordinate, and unify, as far as it is
possible, the representations of Heracles in combat with sea
divinities. I also hope to show in a later paper, that the Phila-
delphia scyphus can be grouped with a large number of examples,
all by the same hand.

1 Ann. dell' Inst. 1882, pi. K. Formerly in Ciai and Mazetti collections,
Chiusi. The publication is worthless to determine the style of painting.

2 First published, Gerhard, A.V. 115. Full bibliography in Hoppin, op. tit.
Vol. II, pp. 292-93, No. 10*. It should be remembered that Pamphaeus also
signs black-figured vases, and, therefore, is much influenced by the early tech-
nique.

3 Mus. J. X, 1919, pp. 15-19, figs. 6 and 7.

178 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

The combats of Heracles with maritime deities are among the
most puzzling subjects that appear on vases, because, while
there are two sorts of representations, only one myth is known to
literature, which is the one in connection with the apples of the
Hesperides that I have quoted above. 1 Nowhere is Triton
mentioned in connection with Heracles in the Greek literature
that has come down to us; and yet, how is it that Heracles and
Triton appear in combat so often, not only on the black-figured
vases, but also on a relief from Assos (Fig. 3) , 2 and, most impor-

FIGURE 4. HERACLES AND TRITON: OLD TEMPLE OF ATHENA: ATHENS.

tant of all, as one of the pedimental sculptures on the "Old Tem-
ple" of Athena on the Acropolis at Athens (Fig. 4)? 3

At first it would seem logical and sensible to identify " Triton"
as one of the forms into which Nereus, according to Apollodorus,
changed himself, and to maintain that the Triton vases and sculp-
tures show, in reality, Nereus. This must, however, be ruled
out, as in several instances Triton has his name inscribed over his
head, while, in two vases, a black-figured amphora in the British
Museum, 4 and a black-figured hydria in the Louvre, 5 a subsidiary

1 See p. 175. Told by Apollodorus, Bibl. II, 5, 11, where Nereus is mentioned
by name.

2 In the Louvre; first published in Mon. dell' Inst. Ill, pi. 34. For other
publications, see Brunn-Bruckmann, Denkmaler, pis. 411 and 412; Reinach,
Repertoire des Reliefs, I, p. 3; Daremberg-Saglio, Diet, des Antiq. Gr. et Rom.
fig. 3766; and Bacon, Investigations at Assos., pp. 145, 151, fig. 3, and 165.

3 Acropolis Museum Sculptures, No. -36. Waldmann, Gr. Originale, pi. 3,
and elsewhere. The most recent publication is that of Heberdey, Altattische
Porosskulptur (Vienna, 1919), No. II, p. 13 and pi. III.

4 Catalogue, p. 146, No. B223. Published, ibid. p. 21, fig. 29, also J.H.S.
XXVI, 1906, p. 15, fig. 6, and Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals
p. 445, fig. 160. P. Gardner, Principles of Greek Art, p. 241, fig. 80.

5 No. F298. Publ., Album des Vases Antiques du Louvre, Vol. II, pi. 84.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA

179

figure is inscribed with the name Nereus. 1 This makes it possible
to identify as " Nereus" subsidiary figures on at least fifteen
amphorae, fourteen hydriae, one cylix, two olpae, and two lecythi
of the list of " Triton" vases that accompanies this paper. 2 We
must, therefore, regretfully conclude that "Triton" and " Ne-
reus" are two separate personalities in the minds of some of the
vase-painters of the
black-figured style.
This is also, as was to
be expected, true of
the one red-figured
" Triton " vase, where
"Nereus" occurs on
the opposite side
from that on which
the hero and "Tri-
ton" are painted. I
reproduce at this
point a photograph
of a vase in New
York, where both
"Triton" and "Ne-
reus" are shown
(Fig.5). 3

But still the ques-
tion . remains un-
solved, namely, to
what myth these
vases can refer.
Gerhard, 4 with an

eagerness for mythological interpretation characteristic of the
period of scholarship in which he lived, is at some pains to evolve
a solution, quoting a passage from Euripides 5 to prove his point;

1 Three vases where the name of Triton is inscribed are the British Museum
amphora, and hydriae in Berlin (Furtwangler 1906) and the Fitzwilliam Mu-
seum, Cambridge (No. 54).

2 In the list, these vases are indicated by an asterisk placed in front of them.
3 1 am greatly indebted to Miss G. M. A. Richter for her kind permission to

republish this vase, which had already been published in B. Metr. Mus. XI,
1916, p. 254, fig. 3, and Handbook of the Classical Collection, 1917, pp. 78,
79, fig. 47. Its accession number is 16.70.

4 A.F., text, Vol. II, pp. 96 f.

5 Here. Fur. 397 f .

FIGURE 5. HYDRIA: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM:
NEW YORK.

180 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

but this solution, showing though it does, much scholarly knowl-
edge of the literature, seems, nevertheless, far-fetched, and can
apply almost equally well to the "Nereus" legend. Walters 1
recognizes the impasse, and says that the " Triton" myth is un-
known to the literature we possess; Millingen 2 writing a hundred
years ago, in publishing a small vase with the combat of Heracles
and " Triton," speaks of it as the struggle between the hero and
Nereus; and his example is followed by Professor Fox, 3 the latest
writer on the subject, who republishes a lecythus in Syracuse 4
showing Heracles and " Triton" and speaks of the combat as that
between Heracles and Nereus, "the Ancient of the Sea." The
writers in Daremberg-Saglio? frankly take the bit in their teeth,
and, disregarding the evidence offered by the inscriptions on the
vases, declare that in the Heracles cycle, Nereus and Triton are
one and the- same. 6

It seems to me, however, that the solution lies in ignoring for
the moment the names Nereus and Triton, and coming back to
the idea of one original sea divinity, aXtos yepuv, "the Old Man of
the Sea." This is, in some measure, the idea given by the writer
in Daremberg-Saglio, 7 who says that u before recognizing Poseidon,
the maritime peoples of Greece honored under the name of Halios
Geron a marine divinity, of whom Nereus, Proteus, Phorcys,
Glaucus, and Triton are only particular and local forms." He
shows that in the early literature Nereus, Proteus and Phorcys
are referred to by the common term of aXtos Tcpco^. 8 He admits
that Triton is never called by this name in literature, but on the
other hand in the character of Triton, as finally evolved, most

1 History of Ancient Pottery, Vol. II, p. 101.

2 Ancient Unedited Monuments, I, pi. XI, and text.

3 Greek and Roman Mythology, pp. 87, 88.

4 Originally published by P. Orsi, in Mon. Ant. XVII, p. 406, and pi. XXV.
Orsi, it should be noted, calls it the contest between Heracles and aXios ytpuv.

5 s. w. Hercules, Triton.

6 1 regret that in this connection I have been unable to consult the disserta-
tions of Escher, Triton und seine Bekdmpfung durch Herakles, published in
1890, or of Kourouniotis, Herakles mil Halios Geron und Triton, published in
1893. These dissertations have not been in any library to which I have had
access. I, therefore, acknowledge at once that much material collected by
these two scholars has doubtless escaped my notice, and that I may have re-
peated independently some of their conclusions.

7 s. v. Triton, p. 483.

8 Nereus, for example, is called Halios Geron in Homer, II. I, 538, XVIII,
141, XX, 107, XXIV, 562: Odyssey, XXIV, 58: Hes. Theog. 1003, and as late
as Pindar, Pyth. IX, 167.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA

181

of the characteristics of the
original Old Man of the Sea
from whom Nereus and
Proteus develop are pre-
served.

We will now discuss two
works of art where the for-
mula aXtos 7cpa>j> is em-
ployed. The first, a vase
(Fig. 6) will not hold us long.
It is an Attic black-figured
oenochoe, found at Vulci,
and now in Berlin, signed
by Cholchos as maker
(+01/XO* MEPOIE2EN). 1
The principal scene shows
the combat of Heracles and
Cycnus. Cycnus (KVKTO*)
has been overcome, and lies
on the ground. Over his
body strides Heracles
(HEPAKl'E*), about to fight
Ares ([A]PE), who is rush-
ing to avenge his son. Be-
tween them is Zeus, with his
thunderbolt. This figure
has been repainted. Behind
Heracles comes Athena
(A0ENAIA).

At each end is a chariot,
heading away from the com-
bat. That to the right is
drawn by Fear (<t>0[B]0),
that to the left by lolaus
(IOKEO*]). From the right
Apollo ([A]POl/ON) comes
running towards the combat,

1 Furtwangler, No. 1732. Pub-
lished, A.V., 122, 123, W.V. 1889,
pi. I, 2. and Buschor, Gr. Vasenm.
ed. 1913, p. 137, fig. 89.

182 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

while behind him stands Dionysus (AIONV0). To balance
Apollo on the left, Poseidon ([PO]EIAON), trident in hand,
rushes to the support of Heracles. Behind him, corresponding
to the figure of Dionysus at the right, stands a figure of a man,
bearded, and draped in a himation. This figure is inscribed
HAHO* /EPON, &\LOS -yepw.

It is clear in the case of this vase that the "Old Man of the
Sea" is considered to be "Nereus," and can be thought of as
none other than the god who is somewhat later known by that
name. This is important, in view of the manner in which the
vase is painted, which shows it to be relatively early in the Attic
black-figured technique. It shows strong Corinthian and Chal-
cidian influence, particularly the latter. The frieze of animals
below the principal design suggests Chalcis, and strongly re-
sembles those found on the Frangois vase. Furthermore, in the
signature, the formula MEPOIE^EN is also early, rarely appear-
ing as a rule after Execias and Amasis, both of whom employ
it, and never, except in one isolated instance, in the red-figured
technique. 1 We are, therefore, justified in placing this vase in
the middle of the sixth century B.C.

Almost contemporary with this specimen, and, if anything,
somewhat antedating it, is our second work of art, a bronze
plaque, found at Olympia (Fig. 7). 2 Here we have a representa-
tion of Heracles in combat with a fish-tailed monster, correspond-
ing almost exactly to the " Triton" of the somewhat later Attic
black-figured vases. Over the head of Heracles runs the retro-
grade inscription ^^ W , which Furtwangler interprets as
'H]pa4X]r)s. Around the lower right-hand corner runs the fol-
lowing inscription; VAO^jIMOl M' This inscription, also retro-
grade, is read by Furtwangler as aXtos yepuv, and this reading
is usually accepted.

The importance of this plaque is obvious. It shows at once
that the original myth, at the time when the pedimental sculp-
ture of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis was set up,

1 The only instance of this formula that I have been able to find in the red-
figured technique is a signature of Pamphaeus (who, it must be remembered,
is a " transitional " artist, signing both black-figured and red-figured vases)
on a fragment of a stamnos in the British Museum, No. E457, fragment 1
(PAV4>AIOMEP . . . ) See Hoppin, pp. tit. II, p. 294, No. 11*.

2 Curtius and Adler, Olympia, Vol. IV, p. 102, No. 699 and pi. XXXIX (Furt-
wangler). Ausgrabungen von Olympia, IV, pi. XXV B, and p. 19.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA

183

was of a contest between Heracles and a nameless Old Man of
the Sea. Later the fish-tailed monster came to be called Triton,
and Heracles is still represented in combat with him. The sub-
sidiary figure of Nereus is introduced, identified by the inscrip-
tion on the British Museum amphora; and in the later black-
figured vases, and the bulk of the red-figured, " Nereus," so
called, takes the place of Triton. It is well to recall, in this
connection, that on none of the " Heracles and Nereus" vases,

\ )ll li Mj. L.Jl-_ u Jl J \

FIGURE 7. BRONZE PLAQUE FROM OLYMPIA.

is the name of Nereus inscribed; so that he can be thought of,
not as Nereus, but as Halios Geron in another form. Indeed, it
is not till the late writer Apollodorus 1 that the name of Nereus
definitely appears in connection with this myth as the adversary
of Heracles. Therefore it seems better to go back to what was
undoubtedly the original story, and discard the names Nereus
and Triton altogether when referring to Heracles's combat, and
call it the struggle between Heracles and aXios yepuv.

It will then be asked, "B^ow can you explain away the inscrip-
tion Tpircoj/ 2 that sometimes appears over the head of the

1 See p. 178, note 1.

2 See p. 179, note 1.

184 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

figure of the Old Man of the Sea?" This certainly apparently,
offers an obstacle to the adoption of the theory, but it is not as
serious as it would appear. The conception of Triton is very
ancient, the name being mentioned very early in Greek litera-
ture. 1 This would show that for a time the fish-tailed Triton
and the fish-tailed Halios Geron existed side by side, and could
be easily confused, as the inscribed vases would suggest, by the
Attic vase-painters. Furthermore in each case, the form of the
god shows him to be of very early origin, the snaky fish-tail
suggesting the snake-gods worshipped in primitive Greek re-
ligion. 2 Thus we can either make the statement that there are
two of these divinities existing side by side, or that originally
Triton and Halios Geron are one and the same, the former
developing out of the latter more primitive deity. Later in the
evolution of Greek mythology, the honors are divided, and Ne-
reus, Proteus, and Phorcys share with Triton the attributes of
Halios Geron. To the vase-painters of the black-figured tech-
nique, however, the combat of Heracles with the Old Man of the
Sea, came, little by little, to mean Triton, as the inscribed vases
show. At the time of Apollodorus it had shifted to mean Ne-
reus, and, perhaps, we can see in the statement of the mythogra-
pher that the sea-god changed his form many times, an indirect
reference to the various godheads that derive their origin from
the same source; that he became first Nereus, then Triton, and
so on. Those black-figured vases which, like the scyphus in
Philadelphia, are usually thought of as representing the combat
of Heracles and Nereus, are merely manifestations of aXios ykpuv
in another form. When Nereus and Triton appear together
on the same vase, it signifies either that Triton has inherited
that part of the myth of the Old Man of the Sea which describes
him as fighting with Heracles, and is really the Old Man of
the Sea, par excellence, with whom Heracles wrestles; or else,
as I have suggested above, there is a confusion among the vase-
painters, between the two deities, owing to their similar form.
It would, therefore, seem probable that Apollodorus has
erroneously, in this instance, taken Nereus to be Halios Geron,
on the theory that he has inherited so many of the attributes of
that primitive god; and has lost sight of the fact that Nereus is
not the sole heir to the attributes of his predecessor in marine

1 First by Hesiod, Theog. 930 f .

2 See Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, Ch. 1.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA 185

demonology, but that they are divided, and that, in this case,
Triton, as is proved by the Olympia plaque, if not himself a
direct survival of Halios Geron, retains many of his characteris-
tics, and must be regarded as the legatee. However, it is far
wiser and more in keeping with the evidence afforded by the
works of art, to drop such later names as Nereus or Triton, in
connection with Heracles, and retain the title Halios Geron,
"The Old Man of the Sea."

A list of vases portraying the combat of Heracles with the
fish-tailed Old Man of the Sea is herewith given, which is as
complete as I could make it. Vases preceded by an asterisk
have the supplementary figure of " Nereus" represented in the
picture. Previous publications of the different vases will be
given in footnotes, wherever they occur. It will at once appear
from this list how popular a subject this was in the Attic black-
figured technique. 1

AMPHORAE. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

* before a vase means that "Nereus" appears in the picture with "Triton;"
** before a vase indicates that a figure called "Nereus" appears on Side B.

1. Munich, Jahn 161. B. Bacchic.

2. " " 391. B. Chariot scene.

3. " 443. B. Horseman with dog, between two warriors.

4. " " 721. B, Woman and two warriors. 2

5. " " 1261. B. Athena, Hermes, and Dionysus.

* 6. " " 1271. B. Bacchic.

** 7. " 1292. B. Nereus, seated, with seated woman.

8. Wiirzburg, Urlichs 90. B. Battle between two warriors.

* 9. " " 109. B. Ajax and Teucros (?) between two old men.
10. " " 263. B. Heracles and the Nemean Lion.

*11. British Museum, B201. B. Apotheosis of Heracles.

*12. " " B223. B.Bacchic. (HEPAKI/EE* TRITON

NEPEE[V].) 3

*13. British Museum, B224. B. Warrior arming.

1 This list was compiled from references to Heracles vases collected by me in
1913, supplemented by the lists given by Gerhard (A.V., text, Vol. II, pp. 95-96,
footnote 12), Petersen (Ann. dell' Inst. 1882, pp. 75-77), and Studniczka
(Ath. Mitt. XI, 1886, pp. 61 f.). The article by Stephani (C. R. Acad. St.
Peter sbourg, 1867, p. 22) was of no great value to me in listing these vases, as
Stephani' s list is repeated by Petersen.

2 Published, Millingen, Peintures Antiques de Vases Grecs, pi. 32.

3 Published, Catalogue, p. 21, fig. 29. J.H.S. XXVI, 1906, p. 15, fig. 6.
E. N. Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports, p. 445, fig. 160. P. Gardner, Principles
of Greek Art, p. 241, fig. 80.

186 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

*14. Athens, Coll.-Couve, 750. B. Poseidon, Hermes, and draped woman.

15. Athens, Graef, Akropolis-Vasen, 773. Fragments. 1

16. Naples, Heydemann 3419. B. Apollo, Leto (?), Hermes, and Dionysus.

17. Naples SA116. On both sides of vase.

18. Museum of Palermo. B. Unknown to me. 2

JO (( < it (( (I (( 2

20. Petrograd, Stephani 77. B. Bacchic.
**21. Louvre F234. B. Nereus between two Nereids.
**22. Marseilles 1596. B. Nereus and two Nereids. 3
23. Zurich, Bliimner 11. B. Youth on horseback.

*24. Vatican. Helbig, Fiihrer, 3rd ed., I, p. 299, No. 469 (49). B. Same
subject.*

25. Boston, 80. 621 (Robinson 320). B. Bacchic.

26. Boulogne 67. B. Athena and Encelados.

27. Compiegne 978 (formerly Magnoncour 40) . B.Bacchic. ^O^TPATO^

KAl/0*.

28. Museum of Corneto. B. Bacchic. 5

*29. Conservatori Palace, Rome. B. L T nknown to me. 2
**30. Thorwaldsen Museum, Copenhagen. B. Nereus with sceptre, and
Hermes.

31. Noel des Vergers Sale Cat., 113. B. Three Nereids.

32. Forman Sale Cat., 301. B. Combat scene.

33. Sarti Sale Cat., 274. B. Bacchic.

**34. Seen by Gerhard "in the possession of Miss Gordon in London." B.

Nereus between two Nereids. (A.V. II, p. 95, No. k.)
*35. Formerly in collection of Lucien Bonaparte. B. Heracles and the

Nemean Lion. (A.V. loc. cit., No. o.)
*36. Seen by Gerhard "in the trade in Rome." B. Battle scene. (A.V.

loc. cit., No. p.)

37. Formerly in the possession of Basseggio. B. Warriors and women.

(A.V. loc. cit., No. r.)

38. Formerly in the Durand Collection; Cabinet Durand, No. 300. B.

Palaestra scenes. (A.V. loc. cit., No. u.)

39. Seen by Gerhard "in the trade in Rome." B. Three hoplites. (A.V.

loc. cit., No. v.)

40. Castellani, Bull, dell' Inst. 1866, p. 181. B. Hermes between two women.

41. Bull, dell' Inst. 1857, p. 25, No. 22. B. Three nymphs.

42. Formerly in Barone Coll., Naples. Bull. Nap., I, 118. B. Not known

to me.

43. Basseggio, Bull, dell' Inst., 1851, p. 68. B. Same subject. 6
Total of amphorae, 43.

1 Published, Graef, pi. 52.

2 These vases are described from notes taken by me in the museums, where
I could not see the reverse sides.

3 Published, Penon, Catalogue de la coll. Campana, pi. Ill, 1.

4 Published, Mus. Greg. ed. 2, II, pi. XLIII.
6 Published, Ann. dell' Inst., 1882, pi. I.

6 Since writing the above I have seen another amphora showing this sub-
ject, Toronto, C 316. B. Groom with horse and maidens. This vase is in
the style of Execias.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA 187

HYDRIAE. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

44. Louvre F38. Signed by Timagoras. 1 On shoulder, assembly of gods.

TIMAAOPA EPOIE^E . ANAOKIAE* KAK)* AOKEI
TIMAAOPA1.

45. Louvre F5 1. 2 On either side, youths. On shoulder, battle scene.

46. " F52.

47. " F286. 3 On shoulder, chariot scene. Meaningless inscription.
*48. " F298.4 NIKE^irO* KAIX)*. HEPAKUE*, NEPEV*,

A N <t> I T P I T E . On shoulder, chariot scene.

*49. New York 06.1021. 48. 5 On shoulder, Achilles pursuing Troilos.
*50. " " 12.198.3. On shoulder, Theseus and Antiope. ANTIOfEIA

0EEV HERAKl'E*.
*51. " " 16.70. 6 On shoulder, Bacchic.

*52. Petrograd, Stephani 25. On shoulder, Heracles and the Nemean Lion.
*53. 142. On shoulder, battle scene. ONETORIAE*

KAl/0* (probably by Execias).
*54. British Museum B311. On shoulder, animals.
*55. " " B312. 7 On shoulder, Judgment of Paris.

*56. Munich, Jahn 134. On shoulder, Heracles and the Nemean Lion.

57. Munich, Jahn 432. The exploit is on the shoulder; below, chariot

scene.

58. Boston 99.522. Forman Sale Cat., 284, formerly in Campanari and

Rogers collections. On shoulder; grooms and horses.
*59. Boston 01.8058. On shoulder, battle scene. Four KaXos-names.

EVTAP . . . TO* KAK)*, MNE^IUA KAl/E, AM . . 00E

KAl'E +OIRO* KAKD*. Forman Sale Cat., 283.
60. Berlin 1906. 8 On shoulder, Bacchic. HEPAKl/EE (K modern)

^ONOTI^T (T modern) KTE^EO* KAl/0*.

61. Athens, Graef, Akropolis-Vasen 738. 9 Fragmentary.

62. Fitzwilliam Museum 54. 10 On shoulder, warrior attacked by chariots.

H[E]PAKl"E, \AOTlqT, -CWTIO . . (ilowto,) A^O+I/ . . >i

(KaXXtxwpa?)

63. Conservatori Palace, Rome, No. 158. 11 The design is on the shoulder.

64. Art Institute, Chicago. Much restored. Modern inscription KAI/0*

HA0I*.

1 Published, W.V., 1889, pi. V, No. 3.

2 Published, Album des Vases Antiques du Louvre, Vol. II, pi. 67.

3 Published, ibid. pi. 82.

4 Published, -ibid. pi. 84.

5 Published, Canessa Sale Cat., pi. 15, No. 46, and pi. II.

6 Published, B. Metr. Mus. XI, 1916, p. 254, fig. 3; Handbook Classical Col-
lection, 1917, pp. 78, 79, and fig. 47; and Fig. 5 of this paper.

7 Shoulder design published in British Museum, Catalogue of Black-figured
Vases, p. 26, fig. 34.

8 Published, Gerhard, Etr. Camp. Vasenb. pis. XV-XVI, 5 and 6.

9 Published, Graef, pi. 47.

10 Published, Catalogue, p. 29, and pi. XVI.

11 Described from notes taken in the museum. Made no entry of main design.

188 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

*65. Formerly in Fontana Coll. Trieste, No. 17. 1 Signed by Tychios. The
design is on the shoulder; below, Athena in quadriga, with Apollo and
Hermes. On lip, TY + IO* ETOIE^E . . V\. On body,
A0E/VAIA, APOKWO*, *OMq3H.

*66. Formerly in Durand Coll. Cabinet Durand, 302. 2 On shoulder, Apotheo-
sis of Heracles.

67. Paravey Sale Catalogue 13. On shoulder, battle-scene. (Beugnot
Cat., 31.)

*68. De Witte, Cab. Etrusque, 85. On shoulder, combat. (A.V., loc. tit.,

p. 95, No. b.)

69. Formerly in the collection of Lucien Bonaparte. On shoulder, Bacchic.
(A.V., loc. tit., No. f.)

*70. " Campanari'sche Hydria." (A.V., loc. tit., No. h.) The design is on
the shoulder; below, quadriga. 3

71. Hydria formerly in the Pizzuti collection. 4

*72. Canessa Sale Cat., 1903, No. 51. 5
Total, twenty-nine hydriae.

LECYTHI. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

73. Athens, Coll.-Couve 726.

74. " " " 888.

75. Museum of Syracuse; found at Gela. 6

76. " " " " " Megara Hyblaea.

77. Munich, Jahn 1134.

*78. Vienna, Sacken und Kenner, p. 196, No. 77.
*79. Karlsruhe 184. OP . . . K) (6 TTCUS /caX6s;)
Total, seven lecythi.

CYLICES. BLACK-FIGURED.

80. Museum of Corneto, " Kleinmeister " type. Design in interior. 7

+AIPE.KAI riEl EV (twice).

*81. Museum of Taranto, "Kleinmeister" type. Design on both sides of
exterior.

82. Cook Collection, Richmond. 8 Design in interior.

83. Athens, Graef, Akropolis-Vasen, 1554. 9 .

1 Published, W.V. 1889, pi. VI, 1.

2 Published, Gerhard, A.V.lll.

3 It is quite likely that this vase is the same one as the vase in the Conserva-
tori Palace. It is not the vase mentioned in A.Z. 1856, p. 248, as Petersen
thinks. That vase is either the hydria in Cambridge, or the one in Boston,
No. 99.522.

4 Petersen, Ann. deW Inst., 1882, p. 77, No. N.

5 Published in Sale Catalogue, pi. II, No. 4.

6 Published, Mon. Ant. XVII, pi. XXV.

7 Published, Mon. dell' Inst., XI, pi. 41.

8 Published, Burlington Fine Arts Club Catalogue, 1904, No. 14, pis.
LXXXIX, XCII.

9 Published, Graef, pi. 82.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA 189

RED-FIGURED.

*84. Cylix, now lost, formerly in Ciai and Mazetti Collections, Chiusi. 1 This
is the only known red-figured vase to show the contest in this manner.
Total, four black-figured cylices and one red-figured cylix.

SCYPHI. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

85. Athens, Coll.-Couve 816. Design repeated on side B.

86. " , Graef, Akropolis-Vasen, 1322. 2 Fragment.

87. Karlsruhe 198.

88. Museum of Taranto. Design repeated on side B.
Total, four scyphi.

OENOCHOAE. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

89. British Museum B493.

90. " " B494.
Total, two oenochoae.

OLPAE. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

*91. Petrograd, Stephani 38.
*92. Conservator! Palace, Rome.
Total, two olpae.

CELEBE. BLACK-FIGURED.

93. Athens, Graef, Akropolis-Vasen 675. Fragmentary. 3
Total, one celebe.

LOST VASES OF UNKNOWN SHAPE. ALL BLACK-FIGURED.

94. Small vase, published by Millingen. 4 Shape unknown.

95. Dubois, Notice d'une Collection, No. 81. Petersen, Ann. dell' Inst.,

1882, No. F.

DOUBTFUL VASES.

There remain a number of vases which have been assigned to
this subject by various hands, and which, for various reasons
must, in my opinion, be rejected. Some of these would, if
accepted, be very important and helpful in the confirmation of
the theory which it has been the object of this paper to prove.

First of these doubtful vases and most important is a fragmen-
tary pinax found in a bee-hive tomb excavated by the British at

1 Published, Ann. dell' Inst., 1882, pi. K.

2 Published, Graef, pi. 72.

3 Published, ibid. pi. 45.

4 Published, Millingen, Ancient Unedited Monuments, Vol. I, pi. XI.

190 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

Praesos in Crete. 1 Hopkinson, in publishing it, assigns it without
any question to this subject, and is right in using the term aXtos
yepw, rather than Triton in discussing the myth. Here we
have a youth grappling a large fish-tailed creature, of which only
the tail and part of the back are preserved. There is nothing
to prove that the upper parts of the monster were human. There-
fore, I prefer the theory advanced by Professor Elderkin of
Princeton University 2 that this vase-painting does not represent
the combat of Heracles and aXtos yepuv, but rather suggests
Theseus borne up to the surface from the depths of the sea by a
large fish, representing the continuation of the story told by Bac-
chylides, 3 and illustrated by the Theseus-Amphitrite cylix by
Euphronius in the Louvre. 4 Furthermore, as Professor Elderkin
points out, the painting gives no indication of any struggle; the
man grasps the back of the monster, not with any attempt to
wrestle with him, but simply to hang on to him. Professor
Elderkin also declares that enough of the monster is preserved to
show that the upper parts could not have been human, which, if
true, is sufficient to clinch the matter, without trying to seek any
other interpretation. If accepted, this would be the earliest vase-
painting to show the subject, as it antedates by at least half a
century the black-figured vases of this list. Moreover it prob-
ably antedates the plaque from Olympia also.

There are several other works of art which have been assigned
to this subject without sufficient grounds, as it seems to me, of
which I shall merely mention the vases. This is a class of objects
where Triton alone is shown, without Heracles. The first of
these is an amphora in the Louvre, No. F397, in describing which,
Pettier 5 says, "U episode de Triton, d'ou le heros principal, Her-
vide, a disparu par une singuliere omission du peintre, qui a
pourtant conserve au vaincu son attitude desesperee." This
seems to me far-fetched. Triton appears alone on many vase-
paintings, and, if we are to attribute this one to the Heracles
myth, there is no reason why all of the vases where Triton appears

1 Published, B.S.A. X, 1904-05, pp. 148-53, and pi. Ill; Ath. Milt. 1906, p.
391, fig. 2, and elsewhere.

2 In A.J.A. XIV, 1910, pp. 190-92.

3 Bacchylides, XVI, 97f .

4 Furtwangler-Reichhold, Gr. Vasenm. pi. V. For full bibliography, see
Hoppin, op. tit. I, p. 398-9, No. 11.*

5 Catalogue, Vol. Ill, p. 813.

HERACLES AND THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA 191

alone should not be so attributed; and therein, as it would seem
to me, madness lies. For similar reasons, a fragmentary cylix
from the Acropolis at Athens (Graef, Akropolis-Vasen, No. 1575) 1
is suggested as a possible Heracles-Halios Geron vase. There is,
however, more reason for this, in that the cylix is in fragments,
and while Triton appears alone, there is no reason to suppose that
Heracles may not have figured on a missing part. Another vase,
a red-figured cylix in the British Museum, No. E109 2 is sometimes
referred to this subject, and should certainly be rejected, as there
is nothing whatever to make us suppose that the vase-painter had
Heracles in mind at all.

Finally there remains a class of vases that may possibly rep-
resent this subject, but which should probably also be rejected.
Two of these are black-figured and one is red-figured. The first
is a fragment of a large vase, in the Museum of Fine Arts in Bos-
ton, from Naucratis. 3 This is assigned by Mr. Robinson to
Heracles and Triton, without, in my opinion, sufficient grounds.
The second is a small black-figured lecythus in the Historical
Museum in Berne, which I saw and took notes on in the autumn
of 1914. On this vase the drawing is so bad that it is hard to
know just what the designer intended to portray; but Heracles
certainly figures, and it would seem that it must have been in-
tended for the struggle with Halios Geron.

The red-figured specimen is a fragment of a cover for a vase,
in the British Museum, No. E812, fragment 4. 4 Heracles is
identified by the tail and paws of the lion's skin; his legs are bent,
as if struggling or wrestling, and the writer of the catalogue sug-
gests that " Triton" is the adversary. But this seems hardly
probable, in view of the fact that no part of the fish-tailed monster
appears in the fragment. In the vases that show this subject,
Heracles and the Old Man of the Sea are wrestling in such a way
that any fragment that showed any part of the hero would neces-
sarily show some part of his adversary. Furthermore, so many
of the exploits and labors of Heracles take the form of wrestling
and struggling, that this fragment might have portrayed any of a

1 Published, Graef, pi. 82.

2 Published, EL Cer., Ill, 33. Wrongly grouped by Petersen in his list of
vases (Ann. dell' Inst. 1882, No. L).

3 Catalogue, Robinson, No. N 175.

4 Catalogue of Red-figured Vases, p. 384.

192 STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE

great many of his deeds, such as the Cretan Bull, the Erymanthian
Boar, Achelous, the Hydra, and others.

This paper ; then, is the result of my study of the scyphus in
Philadelphia. I have sought to show that the vases showing
Heracles in combat with " Triton" and the vases with the hero
attacking "Nereus" really are portraying the same exploit, the
two forms of adversary to Heracles being two distinct manifesta-
tions of Halios Geron; "Nereus" being Halios Geron as he ap-
pears on the oenochoe of Cholchos, and " Triton" being Halios
Geron as he is represented on the Olympia plaque. There is,
therefore, no particular difficulty regarding this class of vases,
when the true interpretation is reached.

STEPHEN BLEECKER LUCE.

BOSTON, MASS.

1921

July-December

ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS 1

SUMMARIES OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES CHIEFLY IN
CURRENT PUBLICATIONS

SIDNEY N. DEANE, Editor
Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS

The Geographical Method in Prehistorical Study. P. DEFFONTAINES urges
the necessity of applying geography to prehistoric study. Differences of
place, surroundings, climate, flora and fauna, and the like are quite as im-
portant as differences of date, and without careful study of geography the
two are likely to be confused. (R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 171-175.)

Phoenicians, Aegeans, and Hellenes. The races which shared in the
primitive Mediterranean culture are the subject of a recent discussion by
RAYMOND WEILL (Syria, II, 1921, pp. 120-144). The "Phoenicians" of
this period are not the Semitic people of the Syrian coast who bore this name
in classical times; they are the Aegeo-Cretan people who dominated the
islands and coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean, including that Syrian littoral
which afterwards by a gradual limitation of geographical nomenclature, came
to be known as Phoenicia. In Egypt the name Kef to underwent a precisely
similar change of meaning. The Aegean civilization established on the Syrian
coast was not penetrative; it did not change the originally Semitic racial and
linguistic characteristics of the Canaanitish population. But the Poulousati
mentioned in Egyptian documents, the Philistines of the Bible, were an Aegean
people. An examination of the names of the " People of the Sea" mentioned
in inscriptions of Rameses II and his successors shows that most of the nations
mentioned belong to Asia Minor. The Akaiouasha seem also to have been an
Asiatic people, probably Carians. It was these people whose occupation of
Greece is reflected in such myths of Oriental immigration as those associated
with Inachus, Danaus, and Pelops. These Asiatic Achaeans were supplanted
by Hellenic invaders who took over the civilization and traditions, and even
the name, it would seem, of the primitive Carian Achaeans.

Landscape in Ancient Painting. R. PAGENSTECHER (Jb. Kl Alt. XLVII-
XLVIII, 1921, pp. 271-288) outlines the history of landscape painting in
Greece and Rome. In view of the considerable appreciation of nature found

1 The departments of Archaeological News and Discussions and of Bibliography of Archae-
ological Books are conducted by Professor DEANE, Editor-in-charge, assisted by Professor
SAMUEL E. BASSETT, Professor C. N. BROWN, Miss MARY H. BUCKINGHAM, Dr. T. A. BUENQER,
Professor ELMER T. MERRILL, Professor LEWIS B. PATON, Professor JOHN C. ROLFE, Dr.
JOHN SHAPLEY, Professor A. L. WHEELER and the Editors, especially Professor BATES.

No attempt is made to include in this number of the JOURNAL material published after
December 31, 1921.

For an explanation of the abbreviations, see pp. 129-130.

193

194 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

in the Greek poets, even in the tragic drama, the neglect of man's natural
environment in Greek painting is noteworthy. Due in part to the recognized
humanistic tendency of the Greek mind, and to the anthropomorphic reaction
of the Greek imagination to the forces of nature, this limitation is also inherent
in the function of the monumental arts as practised in the classical period.
The subjects of decoration normally chosen for pediment groups and for great
mural paintings require almost exclusively the portrayal of human figures.
Pre-Hellenic art is contrasted with Greek in the extent to which interest in
human subjects is subordinated to that of the world in which they live: its
animal, floral, and marine life. In the Geometric period the characteristic
restriction of early Greek painting to human subjects is already manifest;
and even the landscape elements which, under the influence of oriental models,
appear so often in Ionian art, are usually rejected by Attic painters, whose
concentrated humanism is in its severest form coincident with the period of
the Persian wars. The invention of the red-figure technique in vase painting,
favored the development of this strictly monumental style, excluding land-
scape accessories. A similar tendency is reflected in the mural painting of
Polygnotus. His adoption of the representation of irregularities of ground at
different levels is not due to interest in landscape : it is the solution of a problem
of composition, the covering of wide and high wall spaces with human figures.
More progress in the direction of landscape painting was made in theatre
backgrounds, but Polygnotus did not avail himself of this. With the Pelopon-
nesian War the dominance of Athens in the arts passed, and in Sicily and
Southern Italy there are evidences of a development of painting which gave
more attention to landscape. The scene on the Ficoroni cista is a copy from
some painting of this style, made perhaps at Tarentum. The extension of
Greek acquaintance with the world through the conquests of Alexander, and
the sight of oriental parks and villas planned for the enjoyment of natural
surroundings turned the attention of the Hellenistic Greeks to landscape as a
motive in art. The growth of great cities also had its reaction in a sentimental
enthusiasm for nature which found its literary expression in the idyls of
Theocritus. Monumental painting was in a stage of decline; the small panel
pictures demanded for the decoration of private houses lent themselves to the
expression of the new interest in landscape. In the development of this motive
Alexandria played a leading part. This accounts for the Egyptian subjects-
so often found in Pompeian wall painting. The later styles of Pompeian
decoration aim at an architectural breaking-up of the wall-space, allowing
glimpses of landscape. The panels which originated in the oriental Greek
world are enlarged in the Roman period to pictures in which the human figures
are distinctly subordinate. "Contours and drawing dissolve in colors and
light; the purely corporeal, plastic view is overcome; painting has entered on
its own province." The Roman painter Ludius seems to have been an im-
portant figure in this development of landscape painting. According to
Petronius Alexandrian art is to be credited with the invention of compendiaria,
illusionistic or impressionistic devices which are exemplified in Pompeian work.
Byzantine painting is marked by a complete reaction from this free, impression-
istic style in favor of stiff and severe drawing and contour. Landscape
vanishes, and art returns to a geometric type in harmony with its religious-
purpose and its architectural function.

Misc.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS, 1921 195

The Signum Salamonis. J. L. DE VASCONCELOS has published a detailed
study of the signum Salamonis, the five-pointed or six-pointed star, in the
superstition, folk-lore and art of Eastern and European peoples, ancient and
modern. (0 Archeologo Portugues, XXIII, 1918, pp. 203-316; 240 figs.)

Tattooing in Morocco. J. HERBER discusses the persistence of tattooing
among the Arabo-Berbers of Morocco, perpetuated by local tradition in op-
position to the law of Islam. (R. Hist. ReL LXXXIII, 1921, pp. 69-83.)

The Symbolism of Lizards and Frogs. W. DEONNA maintains that certain
Italian plastic vases showing a saurian devouring a boy are not of genre motive,
but have a mystic significance. The lizard typifies the death which devours
the body. Other animals have a similar r61e in various works of classical
and mediaeval art. Legend also associates the toad or frog with the lizard in
this symbolism of death. On the other hand both lizard and frog have a
celestial a$ well as an infernal meaning, derived from ancient Egyptian religion.
The frog is a symbol of immortality; the lizard of the sun. That the two
sometimes appeared together in ancient art is indirectly attested by Pliny's
story of the architects Sauros and Batrachos. Probably the relief which
Pliny describes as a punning signature of two artists was really of symbolic
meaning. The existence of the artists was an invention parallel to the story
that Phidias portrayed himself on the shield of the Athena Parthenos. (R. fit.
Gr. XXXII, 1919, pp. 132-148; 2 figs.)

Sostratus of Cnidus and the Virtue of Invisible Formulae. W. DEONNA
(R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 175-178) recalls the story (Lucian, TTWS
5ei IffTopLav (rvyypa<i>ii>, 62) that Sostratus, the architect of the Pharos at Alex-
andria, inscribed his dedication on the stone of the building, then covered it
with a coating in which the king's name was inscribed. Such action may,
it is here suggested, have been inspired by the belief in the magic virtue of
hidden writings, etc. Such a belief has existed through the ages. It may
explain the fact that prehistoric paintings in caves are in their darkest recesses.
Many examples of hidden writings, etc., are given.

The Musee Guimet. The first number of a new archaeological publication,
the Bulletin Archeologique du Musee Guimet, Fasc. I (pp. 1-72; 4 pis.; Paris and
Brussels, 1921, Van Oest) is devoted to the Salle Edouard Chavannes of the
Musee Guimet. P. PELLIOT contributes a biographical sketch of Chavannes,
S. LEVI an estimate of his contribution to Indian studies. H. D'ARDENNE
characterizes and compares three leaders of archaeological research in China:
Chavannes, Petrucci, and Segalen, and PAUL VITRY has a separate essay on
Segalen. The results of the expedition conducted by Chavannes in North
China in 1907, of Segalen's expedition in Western China in 1914, and of the
expedition conducted by Segalen and others in the region of Nankin in 1917 are
described by J. LARTIGUE. A list of photographic negatives made by the last
two expeditions is appended. Ibid. Fasc. II, 1921, pp. 1-38 (4 pis.) an account
by P. PELLIOT of his expedition in 1908 to Chinese Turkestan is followed by a
list of the Buddhist sculptures and paintings obtained by this expedition for the
Musee Guimet, written by J. HACKIN. J. HAckiN also describes the pottery
fragments from Yotkan now in the Musee Guimet. These were obtained by
the Mission Scientifique de Haute- Asie (1890-1895) conducted by J. L. Dutreuil
de Rhins. A note by J. B ACOT, explaining the lack of archaeological material in
Tibet, where he travelled in 1907 and 1909, is followed by a detailed description,

196 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

written by J. HACKIN, of five Tibetan Buddhist paintings acquired by M. Bacot
in his travels, and now in the Musee Guimet.

Borneo Shields. NENOZO UTSURIKAWA suggests that the demon design
common on shields of Borneo tribes, although it, perhaps, has historical con-
nection with Hindu-Javanese ornament, has been modified by native imitation
of simian forms. (Am. Anthr. XXIII, 1921, pp. 138-148; 3 figs.)

EGYPT

Egyptian Remains at Byblos. M. MONTET, after calling attention to the im-
portance of Byblos to Egypt as the port through which the Egyptians were
supplied with timber and resin, describes a few hieroglyphic inscriptions which
have been found there and points out the probability that further discoveries of
Egyptian objects would reward excavation on this site. (C. R. ^cad. Insc.
1921, pp. 158-168; 7 figs.)

A Receipt of the XXIId Dynasty. G. MOLLER publishes a receipt for the
payment of a loan, attested by six witnesses, which was discovered on the
backs of leaves 10 and 11 of Hieratic Papyrus 3048 in the Berlin Museum. It
belongs to the XXIId Dynasty and so is the oldest known Egyptian document
of its kind. It indicates that loans were made at the rate of 100 per cent.
(Sitzb. Ber. Akad. 1921, pp. 298-304.)

A Roman Governor at Thebes. J. BAILLET discusses certain inscriptions in
the royal tombs at Thebes which have been attributed to the emperors Lucius
Verus and Marcus Aurelius. A more complete reading of the inscription con-
taining the name Aurelius Antoninus proves that the person named visited the
tomb with his wife Isadora, and hence was a hitherto unknown and relatively
unimportant Aurelius Antoninus. The inscription attributed to Lucius. Verus
is really that of a Roman governor named Lucius Aurelius Catulinus, who
further commemorated his travels in Egypt by inscribing incorrect Greek verses
on the colossus of Memnon and in one of the tombs of Tell-el-Amarna. (C. R.
Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 58-64.)

Hieroglyphic Signs for East and West. G. MOLLER interprets two hiero-
glyphic signs as meaning east and west. As the first seems to refer to the ''cop-
per mountain," i.e. the Sinaitic peninsula, and the second to the "feather-
wearers" or Libyans, it appears that the use of these signs must have originated
in Lower Egypt, in the same latitude with Sinai and Libya. (Sitzb. Ber. Akad.
1921, pp. 168-170.)

A Certificate of Guardianship. E. CUQ republishes and comments on a Latin
diptych which was found at Cairo and given to the University of Oxford by
Professor Sayce. (See The Bodleian Quarterly Record, 1919, pp. 259, 262.) The
document certifies that the prefect of Egypt, Q. Aemilius Saturninus, has ap-
pointed M. Julius Alexander guardian to Mae via Dionysarion, who is a Roman
citizen; it is dated September 23, 198 A.D. and signed by seven citizens. In
certain matters a woman could act legally only through a guardian; and if
none were designated by the Will of her father or other male relative, she could
petition for the appointment of a guardian. This diptych does not give the
whole text of the decree granting a guardian to Maevia, but gives the certified
information necessary for any person entering into any contract with the per-
sons concerned. In the archives of the prefecture of Egypt was kept a brevia-

BABYLONIA, ETC.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS, 1921 197

rium containing summary records of official acts; and it was from this that such
abridged certificates were copied. (C. R. Acad. Insc. 1920, pp. 40-56.)

A Mediaeval Romance Traced to Egypt. JEAN CAP ART suggests that cer-
tain features of the combat of Renart and Isengrin, in the mediaeval romance,
may be traced to the Egyptian myth of the combat of Horus and Seth.
(C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 113-118.)

The False Egyptian Sarcophagus at Tarragona. PIERRE PARIS describes in
detail the now fragmentary pseudo-Egyptian sarcophagus at Tarragona. There
can be no doubt that it is neither Egyptian nor Iberian, but is a modern forgery,
the rather interesting figured decoration of which is intended to picture the com-
ing of Heracles and his followers to Spain. (R. Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921,
pp. 146-157; 6 figs.)

A Bibliography of Papyri. A fourth part of the 'Bulletin Papyrologique'
published by SEYMOUR DE RICCI has appeared, comprising the second part
of a description of papyrological material published 1904-1912. (R. Et. Gr.
XXXIV, 1921, pp. 177-230.)

The Centenary of Champollion. The centenary of the discovery of the read-
ing of Egyptian hieroglyphics is marked by a review of the life and work of
Champollion. (The Times Literary Supplement, London, Feb. 22, 1922, pp.
65-66.)

BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA AND PERSIA

The Elephant hi Ancient Asia. C. W. BISHOP shows that the Asiatic elephant
was common in Syria and Mesopotamia in the period of the XVIIIth Egyptian
dynasty. Elephants and ivory are mentioned in the Babylonian and Assyrian
records down to the time of Shalmaneser III. By the time of Alexander the
elephant had disappeared from Western Asia and was not to be found short of
India. In China the elephant was abundant in prehistoric times, but it had
already disappeared by the time of the earliest contemporary historical records,
about 1000 B.C. The memory of it still lingered in the traditions of the earliest
dynasties that were preserved in the classical literature. The sign for ele-
phant" is one of the few primitive pictographs that lies at the basis of the
Chinese system of writing, and this shows that the animal must have been
familiar to the inventors of the earliest written characters. (J.A.O.S. XLI,
1921, pp. 290-306.)

Babylonian Chronology. A. T. CLAY gathers up all the material that has
been discovered in the course of the last fifteen years that bears upon the old
Babylonian dynasties, and gives a reconstructed list of the twenty-two dynas-
ties before the first dynasty of Babylon with the names of the successive kings
and the years of their reigns that are recorded on the tablets. If we leave out
of account the first two dynasties, where the lengths of the reigns are fabulously
large, and allow an average of only fifteen years for each of the kings of the
succeeding dynasties, we obtain 4000 B.C. as a minimum date for the first
dynasty of Ur. The thirty-four kings of the first two dynasties would carry us
back several centuries earlier. These kings, even Etana, Lugal-Marda, Tam-
muz, and Gilgamesh, were historical early monarchs. "it is not improbable
that even the goddess Ishtar may prove to have been originally some notable
human figure." Back of the recorded dynasties lies a prehistoric period of the
development of civilization in Babylonia that carries us back as far as 6000 B.C.
(J.A.O.S. XLI, 1921, pp. 241-263.)

198 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

The Early Sumerian Religion. J. P. PETERS maintains that the fundamental
fact in the early Sumerian religion was the mystery of sex. Procreation was
creation, and creation was conceived as procreation. The earliest liturgies are
full of descriptions of sexual intercourse between gods and goddesses through
which all things come into being, and vast numbers of phallic emblems have
been discovered in all the mounds of Babylonia. The two most conspicuous
features of nature in Babylonia were the annual inundations of the rivers on
which the fertility of the land depended, and the raised mounds on which the
villages and the mountain-house of the god stood. The former was personified
as a fruitful mother, the latter as a male principle. On the proper union of
these two as man and wife prosperity and security depended, and toward the
consummation of this result the whole early Sumerian liturgy and ritual were
directed. In essence these two divinities were the same in all places, but they
assumed different names in different localities. Thus differentiated they came
to be regarded as separate deities, and were adopted from one place to another,
with a tendency to a specialization of functions, making them in the end separate
gods. This was true especially of the male element of deity, which seemed,
somehow, to lend itself more readily to polytheism than the female, which latter
presented itself much more as a unity, merely called by different names.
Thunder-storms, rain, and sickness were regarded as the work of evil spirits, and
the great father and mother were invoked for protection against these. With
the development of the city the king as the representative of the god came to be
deified and partly identified with the male principle that controlled the in-
undations and brought fertility out of them. Astral cults were not a part of
the earliest Sumerian religion, but are to be regarded as new elements brought
in by the Semitic invaders. (J.A.O.S. XLI, 1921, pp. 131-149.) This paper
is discussed by G. A. BARTON. (Ibid. pp. 150-151.)

The Farnbag Fire. Among the sacred fires of Zoroastrian antiquity three
stand out as specially ancient and sacred: the Farnbag fire, or "fire of the
priests " ; the Gushnasp fire, or "fire of the warriors " ; and the Burzin-Mitro fire,
or "fire of the workers." The oldest and most famous of these is the Farnbag
fire, and its original location is a matter of considerable archaeological and
historical interest. A. V. W. JACKSON investigates the evidence, and comes
to the conclusion that the traditions in regard to the Farnbag fire, or fire of
Jamshld, so far as available, seem to agree as to the fact that it was established
by Jamshld originally in Khvarazm (Khiva), but was removed from there
later, in the time of Zoroaster, to another locality, probably Kariyan in the
Province of Fars. The whole of the old oriental testimony is to this effect
and is borne out by the ruins of the fire-temple still existing at Kariyan and by
modern accounts of the town and its legends. (J.A.O.S. XLI, 1921, pp.
81-106.)

The Excavations of Victor Place. MAURICE PILLET continues the publica-
tion and elucidation of documents relating to the excavations carried on by
Victor Place in Assyria. (R. Arch., fifth series, VI, 1917, pp. 171-196; 2 figs.)
The documents here published relate to the various attempts made to recover
the sculptures which were sunk in the Chatt-el-Arab in May, 1855. Further
documents are published ibid. VII, 1918, pp. 113 ff. and VIII, 1918, pp. 181-
204. The documents contained in the last article comprise the inventories of

SYRIA, ETC.] ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS, 1921 199

the antiquities brought by Place to Europe and the budgets of his excavations
and publications.

A Sassanian Inscription. J. DE MORGAN proposes a reading and interpreta-
tion of a hitherto undeciphered sign which occurs on Sassanid coins, beginning
with the time of Hormisdas IV. The epigraphic reading is ARMN; the word
is kharman, which unites the ideas of wrath, force, power perhaps best ren-
dered "puissance." (C. R. Acad. Insc. 1920, pp. 231-240.)

SYRIA AND PALESTINE

Importance of Research in Syria. J. A. MONTGOMERY calls attention to the
importance of archaeological research in Syria, and to the opportunities for
such study which are opened by the establishment of the American School of
Oriental Research in Jerusualem. (Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 1919, pp. 433-441; 3 pis.)

The Earliest Canaanite Inscriptions. CH. BRUSTON discusses the early
Canaanite inscriptions from the region of Sinai. He gives their meaning and
offers new readings. The name of the goddess Hathor is, he asserts, Semitic,
signifying ' ' abundance . ' ' These are the earliest alphabetic inscriptions known,
dating some 500 years before the rise of the Phoenicians. The dialect is that
of the inhabitants of Goshen (i.e. Hebrews) before the time of Moses. It is
from this primitive alphabet, transmitted through Arameans or Syrians and the
Greek colonies of Asia Minor, rather than from the Phoenician alphabet, that
the Greek alphabet is derived. The order of the letters in the alphabet was
probably arranged so that their names, as pronounced, made a sentence. (R.
Arch., fifth series, XIV, 1921, pp. 49-80; two pages of alphabets and fac-
similes.)

The Meaning of the Word Ariel. The word ariel occurs a number of times in
the Old Testament and in the Mesha Inscription. It seems to have four
distinct meanings, hero, image, altar, and a synonym for Jerusalem. S. FEIGIN
seeks to correlate these by the assumption that the word is derived from Aralu,
the Babylonian name for Hades. Ariel then means the dead, an image of the
dead, an altar for the cult of the dead, and the necropolis of ancient Jerusalem
in which the tombs of the kings were located. This interpretation is supported
by Isa. xxix, 2, where Ariel is used as a synonym for Hades. (J. Bibl. Lit.
XXXIX, 1920, pp. 131-137.)

The Babylonian Temple-Tower and the Altar of Burnt-Offering. W. F.
ALBRIGHT holds that Ariel as a name of Jerusalem is identical with Babylonian
Aralu, the mountain of god, the abode of the dead. The Temple resembled a
Babylonian temple-tower of three stages, and the altar of burnt-offering was a
miniature temple-tower of three stages. (J. Bibl. Lit. XXXIX, 1920, pp.
137-142.)

The Solid Ephod of the Ancient Hebrews. K. BUDDE examines afresh the
evidence in regard to the ephod mentioned in the Books of Judges and Samuel,
which was made of metal, set up, carried by the priests, and used as a medium
for obtaining oracles. He rejects the view of W. R. Arnold in his recent work
Ephod and Ark that the solid ephod is everywhere a Jewish scribal sub-
stitute for "ark," and maintains instead that ephod is a correction of abbir,
"bullock," a designation of the golden bull-images of Yahweh that were used
by ancient Israel. (Z. Alttest. Wiss. XXXIX, 1921, pp. 1-42.)

200 AMERICAN JOURNAL O'F ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

Alleged Palestinian Pyxes. S. RONZEVALLE shows that the little pottery
objects with bits of glass in the centre, which are often found in the tombs of
Palestine, are not pyxes for depositing the Eucharist with the dead, but are
simple mirrors. Some of these disk-shaped objects are held by female figures
of the Astarte type, which precludes the possibility of any Eucharistic connec-
tion; and traces of the lead with which these mirrors were backed have also
been discovered. (Pal. Ex. Fund, LIII, 1921, pp. 172-174; 2 pis.)

The Inscription of Theodotus. L. H. VINCENT gives an elaborate account
of the " Synagogue of the Freedmen" and the inscription of Theodotus dis-
covered by R. Weill in the excavations at Mount Zion during the winter of
1913-14. (R. Bibl. XXX, 1921, pp. 247-277; see AJ.A. XXV, 1921, p.
168.)

The Princeton Expedition to Syria. With the issue of the seventh part of the
section devoted to Southern Syria (Division II, Section A, Part 7, pp. 403-473;
pi. 29; figs. 352-388) Professor HOWARD CROSBY BUTLER completes the publica-
tion of the results attained in the field of ancient architecture by the Princeton
expeditions of 1904-1905 and 1909. The sites described, all of which are in the
Ledja, are the following: Brekeh, Djdiyeh, Rtmet il-Luhf, Tell id-Dibbeh,
Nedjran, Ter il-Asmar, Umm il-'Alak, Beshm, il-'Ahreh, Smed, Mdjedil,
Wakm, Khurebat, Kharsah, Lubben, Djren, Harran, Msekeh, il-UbeT, Sur,
il-'Asim, Djedil, Damit il-'Alya, Der idj-Djuwani, Djisreh, Zubaiyir, Zebfr,
Sha'arah, Mismiyeh, Taff, Sahr, Hamman and Tubbeh. The inscriptions
found on the same sites are published by ENNO LITTMANN and DAVID MAGEE,
JR., in Division III, Section A, Part 7 (pp. 373-488). There are 130 in all.

The Hittite Language. M. BLOOMFIELD (J.A.O.S. XLI, 1921, pp. 195-
209) discusses the Hittite documents from Boghazkeui and the treatise on the
Hittite language recently published by F. Hrozny with a view to the alleged
Indo-European character of the Hittite language. The Indo-European aspects
of "Hittite" have no basis in any known historic colonizations by Indo-Eu-
ropeans of parts of Asia Minor. We should have to assume an Indo-European
settlement many centuries prior to the Aryan, Celtic, Italic, and Hellenic mi-
grations. "Hittite" seems to contain an injection of Indo-European material
in a composite pidgin-Kanesian, but even this is not quite certain. "Hittite"
has scarcely a noun of indisputable Indo-European etymology, except wadar,
said to mean "water." The verbal inflections are at points bewitchingly
Indo-European, at other points they are no less bewitchingly mystifying. Not
a dozen verbs are securely of Indo-European etymology. The pronouns look
Indo-European, but only the indefinite-interrogative is certain. The heaping
of conglutinative particles combined with the conglutinative use of personal
pronouns at the end of nouns is non-Indo-European. Ibid. pp. 210-224, J. D.
PRINCE comes to the conclusion that "Hittite" displays a mixed and, at the
present moment, in many instances untraceable morphology. It is highly
probable that this idiom may have to be classified eventually in a group
by itself, perhaps standing half way between Indo-European and non- Aryan
languages such as Finno-Ugric and Turkic.

A Series of Seleucid Tetradrachms from Tyre. E. T. NEWELL attributes to
the mint of Tyre a series of Seleucid tetradrachms and drachms of the period
200-150 B.C. Hitherto only bronze coins of this date have been definitely
assigned to Tyre. The silver series is homogeneous, and similar in style to the

ASIA MINOR] ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS, 1921 201

later Phoenician tetradrachms of Alexander Bala, known to have been struck
at Tyre. The constant use of the club as a symbol confirms the attribution.
[The First Seleucid Coinage of Tyre, Num. Notes, No. 10; New York, 1921,
American Numismatic Society; 40 pp., 8 pis.; 16 mo.; $1.]

New Seleucid Copper Types. EDGAR ROGERS describes new types on the
copper coinage of the Seleucid monarchs, which will help to fill in "the sketchy
classifications of past days." Prominent in his list are a Demetrius I with a
full-face head of Pallas, and a new coin of Alexander Zebina with an elephant's
head, recalling earlier Syrian issues. (Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 26-36; pi.)

ASIA MINOR

The Aramaeo-Lydian Inscription of Sardis. A. E. COWLEY publishes a new
interpretation of the bilingual inscription from Sardis, differing in many par-
ticulars from Littmann's reading. The Aramaic of the inscription is provincial
and somewhat incorrect; the Lydian writer uses Aramaic "as our diplomats
speak French." (C. R. Acad. Insc. 1921, pp. 7-14.)

The Sun-dials of Pergamon. That the twin sun-dials of Pergamon had
gnomons of equal length (cf. Ath. Mitt. XXXVI, 1911, 251 ff.) is proved by the
independent and purely mathematical studies of J. Drecker. (A. REHM, Ath.
Mitt. XL, 1915, p. 111.)

The Temple of Athena at Priene. A. VON GERKAU argues (against Wilberg,
Ath. Mitt. XXXIX, 1914, pp. 72 ff .) that the frieze was lacking in the Athena
temple at Priene. The Ionic frieze, he thinks, arose in the west under the in-
fluence of the Doric order. (Ath. Mitt. XLIII, 1918, pp. 165-176; 3 figs.)

A Guide to Ephesus. In 1915 the Austrian Archaeological Institute pub-
lished in the small compass of ninety pages a guide to the ruins of Ephesus
written by Dr. J. KEIL. After a description of the site the author sketches the
history of the town from its foundation down to its destruction at the beginning
of the fifteenth century A.D. He then describes the various buildings of
which remains exist, gives illustrations of many of them, and sometimes plans
and reconstructions. He also includes important Turkish remains. There
is an introduction by E. Reisch. [Fuhrer durch Ephesos. Von JOSEPH KEIL.
Vienna, 1915, Holder. 90 pp. ; 46 figs. ; 2 maps.]

An Ephesian Decree. E. WEISS discusses the inscription from Ephesus pub-
lished by R. HEBERPEY, Jh. Oest. Arch. I. 1904, cols. 4 ff. (Ibid. XVIII,
1915, Beiblatt, cols. 285-306.)

Monuments of the Mother Goddess. J. KEIL publishes a relief found at
Ephesus in 1912 representing a seated woman holding a patera in her right hand
and a large drum in her left. In front of her are two seated lions, and on either
side a standing male figure, one youthful and the other of middle age. The
relief came from the sanctuary of the Mother Goddess identified by inscriptions.
Thirteen other monuments of the same character are described. (Jh. Oest.
Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, pp. 66-78; 14 figs.)

A Drachma of Smyrna. A drachma (in the British Museum), having a
seated Homer on the reverse, is now added by J. G. MILNE to his classifica-
tion of Smyrnaean silver coins in Num. Chron. for 1914. It is judged by him
to be earlier as well as artistically finer than the usual Homereia of Smyrna.
He would class it with the first issues of coins of that type, and assign as
an approximate date 180 B.C. (Num. Chron. 1921, pp. 143-144; pi.)

202 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY [VOL. XXVI, 1922

GREECE

ARCHITECTURE

The Doric Temple. The origin of the Doric temple is discussed by
G. RODENWALDT. As being merely the home of the cult statue the Greek
temple could not have arisen in the Geometric period, when no large statues
were made, nor was it a development of the Mycenaean megaron. It came
rather from the continental country house of the seventh century and earlier,
was developed under Egyptian influence, and was originally of stone. The use
of wooden columns in the Heraeum at Olympia was a provincialism. (Ath.
Mitt. XLIV, 1919, pp. 175-184.)

The Development of the Doric Capital. W. WILBERG discusses the develop-
ment of the Doric capital. (Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XIX-XX, 1919, pp. 167-181; 4
figs.)

The Columns of the Olympieum. In a study entitled 'The Age of the Extant
Columns of the Olympieum at Athens/ A. D. FRASER comes to the conclusion
that these columns, which have been attributed by Penrose and others to the
period of Antiochus Epiphanes, are actually of the time of Hadrian. (1) The
workmanship of the columns is not too fine for the Greek style of Hadrian's
period, which was marked by a revival of Hellenism. (2) The lack of exag-
gerated entasis is not alien to the best art of this period. (3) The lines of the
abacus, which Penrose thought characteristically Hellenistic, are almost iden-
tical with those of the Corinthian capital of the Arch of Hadrian at Athens.

(4) The type of the acanthus leaf, which Penrose compared to that of the tholos
at Epidaurus, is no more imitative of that model than are other Hadrianic
capitals. On these four counts, the columns could as well be Hadrianic as
Hellenistic. The question is settled by a detail in the design of the capitals:

(5) The acanthus bloom represented in the centre of each side of the abacus is
supported by a slender stalk rising between the inner volutes. This support-
ing stem is not found on capitals of earlier than Roman date, but is charac-
teristic of Imperial architecture. It is found on the capital of the Ara Pacis,
and on the Arch of Hadrian at Athens. (Art Bulletin, IV, 1921; pp. 5-18,
2 pis.)

SCULPTURE

A Minoan Bronze Statuette in the British Museum. A small and somewhat
roughly cast statuette of almost pure copper, of unknown origin, which has
been in the British Museum for many years, is now seen, from its likeness to the
praying figure from Tylissus in Crete, published in 1912, to be Minoan, and
presumably of the M. M. Ill period. It represents a male votary standing in
the attitude of prayer, with the right hand raised to the forehead, palm up, and
the left arm dropped at the side. The exaggerated hollow of the back and the
costume of boots, kilt and belt are characteristically Minoan, and a snake in
the hair connects the object with the worship of the Cretan snake goddess.
(F. N. PRYCE, J.H.S. XLI, 1921, pp. 86-90; pi.; 3 figs.)

The Gigantomachy in the Pediment of the Old Athena Temple. R. HEBER-
DEY discusses the composition of the gigantomachy in the pediment of the old
temple of Athena on the Acropolis (Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVlII, 1915, pp. 40-56;
7 figs.). H. SCHRADER dissents from some of Heberdey's conclusions (Ibid.

GREEK SCULPTURE] ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS, 1921 203

XIX-XX, 1919, pi. 154-161; 10 figs.). HEBERDEY defends his position (Ibid.
Beiblatt, cols. 329-340), which is further criticised by SCHRADER (Ibid, cols-
341-346).

BERLIN. An Early Bronze Mirror Handle. C. PRASCHNIKER publishes an
archaic bronze statuette which once formed the support for a mirror. It repre-
sents a nude female figure in high head-dress holding castanets in her extended
right hand. The left hand and feet are missing. Above the right shoulder is a
small winged figure. An amulet is attached to a cord running over the right
shoulder and under the left arm. The hair hangs down the back. The figure
was found at Vonitza on the Gulf of Ambracia, and is now in the Berlin mu-
seum. It dates from the second half of the sixth century B.C. (Jh. Oest.
Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, pp. 57-60; 3 figs.)

An Apollo Head in Vienna. There is in the possession of the University of
Vienna a head of Apollo, best known in another replica in Kassel. A. SCHOBER
compares all the copies and discusses their relative nearness to the original.
The earliest copy appears to be an unpublished head in Athens. (Jh. Oest.
Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, pp. 79-93; pi.; 14 figs.)

The Athena Parthenos and the Olympian Zeus of Phidias. F. WINTER argues
from a study of the bases of the two statues in their relation to the temples in
which they stood that the Athena Parthenos of Phidias is earlier than his Zeus
at Olympia. (Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915, pp. 1-16; 4 figs.)

Two Masterpieces of the Youthful Phidias. W. KLEIN argues that the Lem-
nian Athena, correctly recognized by Furtwarigler in the Dresden Athena, did
not stand alone but had a companion figure which represented Hephaestus.
A head in the Museo Barracco, of which a copy is in Petrograd, was con-
nected by Furtwangler with the Lemnia. It is in reality a copy of the head of
the Amazon of Phidias, which is to be reconstructed with the right hand grasp-
ing the spear above, while the left rests lightly on the shaft. The point is
turned upward. The Lemnia, like the Amazon, was an early work of Phidias,
perhaps a memorial of the Persian Wars, and not dedicated by Athenian
clerouchs setting out for Lemnos. The Madrid statuette of Athena may be a
copy of the Promachos. (Jh. Oest. Arch. I. XVIII, 1915