American Literature

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This book should^^turried.on or before the datUSst. marked below.

OLLEGE OUTLINE SERIES

AMERICAN
LITERATURE

BARTSHOLOW V. CRAWFORD

Department 0i English, University of Iowa

ALEXANDER C. KERN

Department of English. University of Iowa

MORRISS NBEDXEMAN

Co-auihor of
A Survey-History of English Literature

New York

BARNES & NOBLE, INC.

THIRD EDITION, 1953J
COPYRIGHT, 1945, 195
BY BARNES & NOBLE, INC

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

PUBLISHER'S FOREWORD

The outlipe-history of American Literature covers the field, we
believe, witlv an eclectic adequacy not attempted by any other
manual. All three authors read in manuscript the work of each of
their colleagues, weighed the criticisms made, and finally rewrote
any part oKparts that needed freshness of point of view, better
balance, and richer interpretation.

As the result of several such years of intensive collaboration, the
authors have achieved their common purpose of helping the student
appreciate better the ideas and the ideals of American literature.

In the opinion of the editor, Bartholow V. Crawford, Alexander
C. Kern, and Morriss H. Needleman have succeeded in:

1. Placing emphasis upon those authors most frequently an-
thologized, because it will be those about whom the student will
seek specific aid. In addition, a large body of significant minor
authors who too frequently have been neglected is also treated, on
the belief that a knowledge of less well-known writings may be
necessary to bring into focus the whole complex literary picture.

2. Devising a book that lends itself to immediate use for further
study. Such editorial aids as cross-references and footnotes have
been utilized at strategic points so as to reduce to a minimum the
necessity of directing students to other books. It is not difficult,
when advisable, to disregard the footnotes ; yetthe footnotes them-
selves, while stimulating the student's interest in specific literary
problems, are a concise, up-to-date bibliography ready to serve as
a point of departure for supplementary readings and explorations.

3. Presenting material that in each case grows out of both the
nature of the subject and the needs of the student. To avoid nar-
rowness of subject matter, the authors present a large body of de-
sirable omnibus material.

4. Bringing the treatment of the subject abreast of modern
research and criticism. This has involved considerable effort and
expense, since additions have had to be made several times while
the work was in page proof. But both the editor and the authors

vi FOREWORD

have felt that every effort must be made to issue a work dis-
tinguished by significant immediacy, quick serviceability, and sound
scholarship.

5. Designing an outline-history of American Literature in a
fashion permitting adjustment to the needs of all students, both
those who purpose to go no further than the first course and those
who plan to go beyond. Those who wish some minimal signposts
may give heed to the works marked by an obelisk (f) ; those who
wish to enrich the minimal requirements may ma*ke the reference
notes the basis of additional work ; and, finally, those who plan to
do graduate work may follow up for themselves the various problems
raised throughout the outline.

6. Relating the literature to life, vitalizing ideas and ideals, and
integrating broad intellectual and philosophical connections. The
textbook itself should avoid undue stress on material apparently
intended to yield entertainment suitable for adolescents rather than
to provoke thinking on an adult level. Indiscriminate mastery of
the material in the outline-history, American Literature, is not the
desideratum. The student is not to work for the memorization of
biographical facts, dates of literary works, or even critical judgments,
except in a naturally subordinate degree. If a choice is offered, the
student, as did the three authors, should favor intellectually stimu-
lating ideas rather than factual matter barren of ideas. Not only is
literature related to life : literature is life itself.

Moreover, while designed primarily for the college undergradu-
ate and the majoring or even the graduate student, it is felt that
the outline-history of American Literature is useful as well for all
who do not have access to adequately equipped libraries or who
may find it convenient to have in succinct form a representative
discussion of American literature.

The publisher will be glad to receive the reader's criticisms and
suggestions for revisions to be incorporated in future editions of
the text.

THE EDITOR

PREFACE

Objectives sought by the authors of the outline-history of
American Literature have been several. They have endeavored to
provide for the undergraduate a compact and clearly outlined
manual which will put at his disposal accurate information with
which he may fill out lecture notes and prepare for tests. For the
more advanced student they have tried to make clear through
chronological arrangement and outline treatment the trend and
sweep of development,, and juxtaposition of authors and works in
a variety of literary fields and against a background of historical
events. Through critical judgments, time-tested rather than per-
sonal, they have suggested the estimate of less familiar works,
while, at the same time, where considered judgment is at variance,
summarizing critical judgments pro and con. To the teacher and
the professional scholar they have made available extensive current
bibliographies.

In the preparation of the outline-history of American Literature
there has, of course, been free consultation among the authors.
Responsibility for Chapters I-IV (except for the article on Herman
Melville, which was contributed by M. H. Needleman), has, how-
ever, fallen to Alexander C. Kern; for Chapters V-VIII, to
Bartholow V. Crawford; and for Chapters IX-XIV (except for
the article on Henry James, which was contributed by B. V. Craw-
ford), to Morriss H. Needleman, who has also undertaken extensive
editorial tasks.

B.V.C.
A.C.K.

M. H. N.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pmgc
EDITOR'S FOREWORD .......... v

PREFACE ............. vii

KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....... xiii

THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1607-1763)

Chapter S

\ \y Renaissance and . Puritan_Influences ..... 1

Historical Background ........ 1

General View of the Literature ...... 1

Southern Writers: Captain John Smith; John and Ann
* Cotton ..........

-

s, a^d History of New England: William
Bradford; Thomas Morton; John Winthrop; Mary Row-
landson .......... 4

Seventeenth Century Theologians: Thomas Shepard; Roger

Williams; John Davenport ...... 5

The Mather Dynasty: Richard Mather; Increase Mather;

Cotton Mather ......... 7

Miscellaneous Prose: Thomas Brattle; Robert Calef; Na-

thaniel Ward; Samuel Sewall ...... 9

Puritan Poetry: Ann Bradstreet; Michael Wigglesworth ;

Edward Taylor ......... 10

Supplementary List of Authors ...... 12

II The Rise of Rationalism and Democracy .... 14

Historical Background ........ 14

General View of the Literature ...... 14

Religious Writing in New England: John Wise; Jonathan

Edwards; Charles Chauncey ...... 14

History and Annals in New England: Sarah Kemble Knight 17
The SouihsiiL Colonies: Alexander Spotswood; William

ByrTof Westover ~ . ....... 18

JThe Middle Colonies: Thomas Godfrey .... 18

"journalism in the Colonies ....... 19

Supplementary List of Authors ...... 19

THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1763-1810)

III The Struggle for Independence: Deism, National Issues, and

the Beginnings of Belles Lettres ...... 22

Historical Background ........ 22

General View of the Literature ...... 23

IX

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

/PfoseoftheEnligh^ Woolman; William Bar-

"^"Trann^tJSMeFwiIso^ Meriwcther Lewis; Hector St.
John de Crevecoeur; Benjamin Franklin; James Otis;
Patrick Henry; John Dickinson; Samuel Adams; Fran-
cis Hopkinson; Thomas Paine; William Smith; Thomas
Jefferson ; Alexander Hamilton ; James Madison ; .George *\
Washington; John Adams; John Marshall . . . I 24y
Poetry: Nathaniel Evans; Philip Freneau; John Trumbull; ^-"^

Timothy D wight; Joel Barlow 37

Drama: Royall Tyler 41

The Novel: William Hill Brown; Charles Brockden Brown;

Hugh Henry Brackenridge 41

Miscellaneous Prose: Noah Webster; Joseph Dennie . . 44
Supplementary List of Authors 45

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD (1810-1865)

IV Early Sentiment and Romance 48

Historical Background 48

General View of the Literature '''49

The Knickerbocker School: Washington Irving; Nathaniel
Parker Willis; Fitz-Greene Halleck; Joseph Rodman
Drake; George Pope Morris; James Kirke Paulding 49
Poetry: William Cullen Bryant; John Pierpont; James Gates
Percival; Richard Henry Dana, Sr.; John Gardiner Cal-
kins Brainard; Thomas Buchanan Read; Richard Henry
Stoddard; Thomas William Parsons; Edgar Allan Poe;
Stephen Collins Foster; Henry Timrod; Paul Hamilton

Hayne 54

Novelists: James Fenimore Cooper; Herman Melville;
Richard Henry Dana, Jr.; John Pendleton Kennedy;

William Gilmore Simms 65

Dramatists: George Henry Boker 74

The West 75

American Humor: Josh Billings; Artemus Ward . . 76
Historians: William Hickling Prescott; John Lothrop Mot-
ley; Francis Parkman 77

Other Writing: Dorothea Dix; Elihu Burritt; John Neal;
Charles Fenno Hoffman; John Godfrey Saxe; Henry
Charles Carey; William Wirt; James Kent; Washington

Allston 79

Supplementary List of Authors 80

'v Transcendentalism: Its Major and Minor Figures . . 85

^Origin of Concept 85 ~

Group Activities 86

Major Figures: William Ellery Channing (1780-1842); Ralph
Waldo Emerson; Henry David Thoreau; Bronson Al-

cott; Margaret Fuller 87

Minor Figures: Theodore Parker; Henry Hedge; Jones
Very; Christopher Pearse Cranch; William Ellery Chan-
ning (1818-1901); Orestes Augustus Brownson; James
Freeman Clarke 104

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Chapter Page

VI The Genteel Tradition of New England: Its Major Figures 107

irjh Longfellow; John Greenleaf Whittier;
Nathaniel Hawthgfjw Oliver Wendell Holmes; James

tll&Ull Lowell . . T"

- _

/alt Whitman:) Prophet of Democracy ....

VIII MlfcCeittEryMinor Figures: Romancers, Essayists, Poets 143
Harriet Beecher Stowe; James T. Fields; George William
Curtis; Bayard Taylor; Louisa May Alcott; Thomas
Bailey Aldrich; Elizabeth Stuart Phelps ... 143

THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Local-Colorists . . 152

Historical Background 152

General View of the Literature 157

The West: Bret Harte; Edward Eggleston; John Hay;

Joaquin Miller; Other Local-Colorists .... 161
The South: Joel Chandler Harris; Lafcadio Hearn; George

W. Cable; James Lane Allen; Other Local-Colorists 172
New England: Sarah Orne Jewett; Mary E. Wilkins Free-
man; Other Local- Colons ts

: Conservatism and

irk Twain;) William Dean Howells;(|Ienry Jame,

T1ir(jarlaiid; Stephen Cfane . ^ . . .V487

Reformers, Historians, and Philosophers .... 209

XI Democracy and the Common Man: Novelists and Short-
Story Writers 214

Ambrose Bierce; Edward Bellamy; Francis Marion Craw-
ford; H. C Bunner 214

Other Novelists and Short-Story Writers .... 224

Revolt in Poetry 231

Dickinsonj^Sidney Lanier; Edward Rowland Sill;
Bliss Carman; Richard Hovey; William

/"aughn Moody 231

Other Lyrists 249

XIII Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism: Essayists, Critics, and
Playwrights 254

John Burroughs; Henry Adams; Gamaliel Bradford . . 254

Other Essayists and Critics 261

Playwrights 264

YESTERDAY AND TODAY

XIV Representative Authors 268

Historical Background . . 268

General View of the Literature 268

Short-Story Writers and Novelists 269

Poets 279

Important Playwrights 285

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Pagt

Essayists, Critics, Educators, and Philosophers . . .288

APPENDIX: SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 296

INDEX 311

KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
USED IN THIS HANDBOOK

NOTE: The dagger-mark or obelisk denotes an author's
more important works.

AB American Bookman

ABC American Book Collector

AC Americana Collector

ACQ American Catholic Quarterly

AGR American Germanic Review

AHR American Historical Review

AIM Annals of Internal Medicine

AJ Appleton's Journal

AL American Literature

AM American Mercury

Americana Americana

AMH Annals of Medical History

AN Alienist and Neurologist

An.R Antipch Review

AP American Parade

A.Pr. American Prefaces

APSR American Political Science Review

AR American Review

Arena Arena

AS American Speech

A.Schol American Scholar

ASR American-Scandinavian Review

Ail Atlantic Monthly

AUP Annales de TUniversite de Paris

BBDI Bulletin of Bibliography and Dramatic Index

BFHA Bulletin of Friends' Historical Association

Blackwood's Blackwood's

ELM Book League Monthly

BMJ British Medical Journal

BMSJ British Medical and Surgical Journal

BNM Book News Monthly

Bookman .'. Bookman

Britannica Britannica; in Verbindung mit dem Seminar

fur englische Sprache und Kultur an der
Hamburgischen Universitat (Also: Britan-
nica ; Herausgegeben vom Seminar fur eng-
lische Sprache und Kultur an der Hansi-
schen Universitat)

BRLC Bibliothque de la Revue de Literature Compared

BS Bibliotheca Sacra

BSP Boston Society Publications

Cath.HR Catholic Historical Review

CCP Colorado College Publications

xm

xiv KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CE College English

Century Century

CH Church History

CHAL Cambridge History of American Literature

Chaut Chautauquan

CHR Canadian Historical Review

CHSP Cambridge Historical Society Publications*

CHSR Clarendon Historical Society Reprints

CJ Classical Journal

CL Canada Lancet

CLR Columbia Law Review

CMHS Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society

Colophon Colophon

Critic Critic

CSM. Christian Science Monitor

Cu.H Current History

CUQ Columbia University Quarterly

CIV Catholic World

C.Weekly Classical Weekly

DAB Dictionary of American Biography

Dial Dial

DR Dalhousie Review

EA Etudes Anglaises

Eco.R Economic Review

EIHC Essex Institute Historical Collections

EJCE English Journal (College Edition)

EL English Leaflet

Eng.R English Review

ER Edinburgh Review

ES. English Studies (Amsterdam)

Ethics Ethics

FM Frontier and Midland

FR Fortnightly Review

Freeman Freeman

Frontier Frontier

FT Frontier Times

GBDP Giessener Beitrage zur deutschen Philologie

GH. Good Housekeeping

GHQ Georgia Historical Quarterly

GMHC General Magazine and Historical Chronicle

GR Germanic Review

Graham's ^ Graham's

Harper's Harper's

HGM. Harvard Graduates' Magazine

HH Hound & Horn

HJ Hibbert Journal

HLB Huntington Library Bulletin

HLQ Huntington Library Quarterly

HM. Harvard Monthly

HMNQ Historical Magazine, and Notes and Queries

HMS Harvard Medical School

HR Homiletic Review

HSNPL Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature

HTR Harvard Theological Review

IHS Iowa Humanistic Studies

1JHP Iowa Journal of History and Politics

KEY ID SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv

1MH Indiana Magazine of History

IMJ Indiana Medical Journal

Ind Independent

IR International Review

JAF. Journal of American Folklore

JAH. Journal of American History

JEGP Journal of English and 'Germanic Philology

JHAM Johns Hopkins Alumni Magazine

JHHB Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin

JHSHPS Johns Hopkins Studies hi History and Political Science

JISHS JournaiLof the Illinois State Historical Society

JMH Journal of Modem History

JMMS Journal of the Michigan Medical Society

JSH Journal of Southern History

KR Kenyan Review

Landmark Landmark

LHJ Ladies' Home Journal

LHQ Louisiana Historical Quarterly

LLT Life and Letters To-Day

LM London Mercury

LMM Lippmcott's Monthly Magazine

LW Literary World (Boston)

Macmittatfs Macmrflan's

MAIL Magazine of American History

MB More Books (Boston Public Library Bulletin)

Med.R Medical Record

MH. Mortal Hygiene

AfJHist Minnesota History

MUM, Maryland Historical Magazine

MHR Missouri Historical Review

MHS - Massachusetts Historical Society

Mi.HM - _ - _... Michigan History Magazine

MLN ....- Modern Language Notes

MLQ. ~ ~ Modern Language Quarterly

MLR ~ Modern Language Review

MM. .._ ~ - Massachusetts Magazine

ModMM Modern History Magazine

ModM ~ ~ . Modern Monthly

Month ~ ^ ~ ~ ^. Month

MP - ~ - Modern Philology

MQ ^ ~ _ Muskal Quarterly

MR ~ ~ -.... Mdthodist Review

MRR Medical Review of Reviews

MVHR Mississippi Valley Historical Review

NAR North American Review

Nation Nation

Nationalist Nationalist

NCR. New-Church Review

NEM. New England Magazine

NEQ New England Quarterly

NQ Notes and Queries

NR New Republic

NSN New Statesman and Nation

NYT New York Times

NYTBR New York Times Book Review

NYTM New York Times Magazine

xvi KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

OHSQ Oregon Historical Society Quarterly

OM Overland Monthly

OSAHQ Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly

Outlook Outlook

PAAS Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society

PBSA Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America

PCSM Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts

Personalist Personalist

PH Pennsylvania History

PHR Pacific Historical Review

PHSA Proceedings of the Huguenot Society of America

PHSD Papers of the Historical Society of Delaware

PIHS Publications of the Ipswich Historical Society

PL Poet-Lore

PMASAL Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science,

Arts and Letters

PMHB Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography

PMHS Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society

PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Association

of America

PNJHS Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society

Poetry Poetry

PQ Philological Quarterly

PR Partisan Review

PS Physician and Surgeon

PSQ Political Science Quarterly

PUB Pacific University Bulletin

PVHS Proceedings of the Vermont Historical Society

PW Publishers' Weekly

Putnam's Putnam's

8Q Queen's Quarterly
R Quarterly Review

QRB Quarterly Review of Biology

RAA Revue Anglo-Americaine

RCR ~ ~ Reformed Church Review

RH Revue Hispanique

RIHSC Rhode Island Historical Society Collections

RIP Rice Institute Pamphlet

RL Religion in Life

RP. Review of Politics

RR .... Review of Reviews

R.Rev Romanic Review

RUL. Rutgers University Library

SAQ South Atlantic Quarterly

SB ^ M Southern Bivouac

Scribner's ~ Scribner's

SF. Social Forces

SHJ Southern History Journal

So.R Southern Review

SP Studies in Philology

SR Sewanee Review

SRL Saturday Review of Literature

SS Science & Society

SSN Scandinavian Studies and Notes

SSR Sociology and Social Research

St.BHJ St. Bartholomew's Hospital Journal

SUAN Syracuse University Alumni News

KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvii

Sunset .................................................................................................................. Sunset

Sw.R ............................................................................................. Southwest Review

TA ........................................................................................................... Theatre Arts

Thought ............................................................................................................ Thought

TLS .......................................................... Times Literary Supplement (London)

TR ......................................................................................................... Texas Review

TRSL ..................................... Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature

TWASAL ................. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters

UBS ......................................................................... University of Buffalo Studies

UCC ................................................................. University of California Chronicle

UCFP ..................................................................... Union College Faculty Papers

UIS .............................................................................. University of Iowa Studies

UISLL ........................................ University of Illinois Studies in Language

and Literature
UKHSB ............................. University of Kansas Humanistic Studies Bulletin

UKSE ............................................... University of Kansas Studies in English

U.Ma.S .............. ................................................... University of Maine Studies

U.Mi.S ................................................................... University of Missouri Studies

UNDQJ ................................... University of North Dakota Quarterly Journal

UNGB .............................................. University of Nebraska Graduate Bulletin

Uni.R .................................................................................. Unitarian Review

UNSLLC ................................. University of Nebraska Studies in Language,

Literature and Criticism
UPB ................................................................ University of Pittsburgh Bulletin

UR ....................................................................... University Record

USCHRS ................................ U.S. Catholic Historical Records and Studies

UTB ........................................... University of Texas Bulletin

UTQ ............................................................ University of Toronto Quarterly

UTSE ...................................... University of Texas Studies in English

U.Wa.PLL .......................... University of Washington Publications in

Language and Literature
UWiSLL .................................... University of Wisconsin Studies in Language

and Literature

Vassar Journal of Undergraduate Studies
VMHB ............................... Virginia Magazine of History and Biography

WMH ......................................... Wisconsin Magazine of History

WR ......................................................... . .............. Westminster Review

WUV ............................ . .......................... Washington University Studies

YR ..................................................................................................... Yale Review

YULG ................................................................... Yale University Library Gazette

THE COLONIAL PERIOD

(1607-

CHAPTER I
RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1603: Accession of James I. 1607: Settlement of Virginia.
1609: Separatists go to Holland. 1620: Settlement of Plymouth
by Separatist Pilgrims. 1630: Settlement of Massachusetts Bay.
1632: Maryland chartered. 1633: Laud in power over all England.
1635: Connecticut founded. 1636: Providence settled. 1649
1660: Commonwealth in England: Puritans in power. 1660: The
Restoration. 1663: Carolina chartered. 1664: New Jersey and
New York established. 16751676: King Philip's War and Ba-
con's Rebellion. 1681: Pennsylvania chartered. 1684: Massachu-
setts charter revoked. 1689: Revolt against Andros. 1689 1697:
King William's War against the French. 1

GENERAL VIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The earliest colonial literature was written by Englishmen who
wrote in English literary forms. Their writing was not good, partly
because it was imitative and partly because it was a side line. The
literature wasjitilitarian. In style it followed English models, but
there was a cultural lag and progress was slower. At the end of
the seventeenth century, the American writer was closer to the
Elizabethans than to Dryden. 2

Literature in the South. Since exploration was a phase of
the Renaissance, the first Southern authors were Elizabethan in
energy, curiosity, and versatility. They were adventurers writing
excitedly of disasters, new scenery, and Indians. Their prose, de-
scribing adventures or history, was vigorous, elaborate, and racy ;
their poetry was doggerel or full of conceits and their models
for both were the fanciful styles of Euphues and the metaphysical

1 For historical background see: C. M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American
History (four volumes, 1934-1938) ; C. P. Nettels. The Roots of American Civilisation
(1938), the best one-volume colonial history, with extensive bibliographies.

2 Most useful of the works on colonial literature are the following: M. C. Tyler, A His-
tory of American Literature during the Colonial Time (rev. ed., two volumes, 1897);
M. C. Tyler, The Literary History of the American Revolution. 1763-1793 (two vol-
umes, 1897). still the best study of its time: V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in
American Thouaht t I (1927). The Cambridge History of American Literature. I
(1917), has excellent essays by authorities. Perry Miller and T. H. Johnson (editors),
The Puritans (1938) supersedes earlier works.

2 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

poets. 8 Lack of printing and wide separation of settlers kept down
both culture and writing.

SOUTHERN WRITERS

CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH, 1579/801631, annalist, ro-
mancer. Accompanied the first expedition to Jamestown (1607) ;
a narrator of force. A 7>tfi" Jfitlthtion^of Such Occur ences and

4ccid*nts nf Nnta ne Un^o J^n^p^^Ttn Virginia . . . f ihUKK

Graphic style. Th^ first- hook in American literature. A Map of
Virginia (1612). A Description of New EnglancT(l6l6) , a glow-
ing account. The General History of Virginia, the Summer Isles,
and New England^ (1623), has the complete story of Smith's
rescue by Pocahontas. 4 The True Travels (1629). 5 Advertise-
ments for the Unexperienced Planters of New-England, or Any-
where (1631), good advice, crisply written^ Excellent description.
Smith commended by such persons as Donne and Wither. He is
Elizabethan in energy, versatility, and style a lesser Ralegh. 8

JOHN and ANN COTTON, authors and colonists, reacted
to Bacon's Rebellion. Their long lost accounts found in the Burwell
Papers contain the elegy "Bacon's Epitaph, Made by his Man,"t
and "Upon the Death of G. B. [General Bacon]." The prose and
perhaps the poems may be ascribed to John Cotton of "Queen's
Creek." 7 Prose style is good, though pedantic. The poem, worthy
of Marvell, is metaphysical in the style of Donne, Jonson, Cowley,
and Henry King, and remarkably smooth and masterly.

THE PURITANS

Colonization was the last phase of the Reformation as well as of
the Renaissance. The Pilgrims and Puritans hoped to set up in
America a commonwealth, ideal according to their essentially Cal-
vinistic theology. 8 The chief points of Puritan theology are :

For discussion of Southern writers see: W. M. Baskervill. Southern Writers: Bio-
graphical and Critical (1897-1903); A Library of Southern Literature, edited by E. A.
Alderman and others (seventeen volumes, 1908-1923) ; M. J. Moses, The Literature
i** South (1910). For historical background see: P. A. Bruce, Economic History
f. V M** * the Seventeenth Century (two volumes, 1896); T. J. Wertenbaker.
Vtr-gtnta under the Stuarts (1914), and The First Americans (1929).
Fuller's Worthies of England points out that Smith is the sole authority for his fabu-
lous adventures. As for the complimentary verses published with the General History.
R. B. Bottmg does not believe them to be by John Donne: see TLS. t March 14. 1936.
p. 224, col. 3.

See Travels and Works of Captain John Smith, edited by A. C. Bradley (1910);
ai J hn Smith U927); S * E * Mo " 80n ' ******* f **' Bay

* ^ a d *****

7 Jo!\ Hubb fl 1 A 17? hn . and ^ ni l Cotton, of 4 Queen's Creek"/ Virginia,*' AL.> !
1939), pp. 179-201, gives all that is known of these writers.

8 SKL feJE?*!?^^^ J^ l hrou fi., th f t^ttses of WilHam

t8, men who modified the original doctrines
"ft **. See Perry Mifier, 77,, --
(1939), Appendix B. and Wm.

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES 3

1. Absolute sovereignty of God.

2. Predestination: An omniscient Deity knows from the begin-
ning who will be saved.

3. Providence : God directly intervenes in the world. Example :
God responsible when mice ate Anglican prayer book but not the
New Testament.

4. Natural depravity : Since Adam's fall all men are born in sin
and deserve damnation.

5. Election : Through God's mercy a few are saved, but by grace
alone, not by their own efforts.

6. Evil is inner: Man needs reform of himself, rather than of
institutions.

7. God is revealed in the Bible.O

These tenets had certain practical effects/ The Puritans sought
to establish a Godly commonwealth developed in the Federal
School of political theory: (1) Because man was naturally bad,
God established government by a covenant, for His own glory.
(2) Rulers as well as subjects had to obey the covenant. (3) QQV-
ernment included all spheres: church-going, amusements, dre$s,
business practices, and prices. No religious freedom was permitted.
(4) Church government in America was based upon
tional system taken over from the Pilgrims. This i
toward democracy in church and state, though the aims of the
Ppritans were far from democraticj

f Despite theological agreement, the Puritans and Pilgrims showed
differences: (1) The Puritans sought to reform the Anglican
Church from within. The Pilgrims were Separatists who withdrew
from the corrupt state church. (2) The Puritans were prosperous,
with a university man for each thirty families. The Pilgrims were
poor and in general less educated.

To insure the success of the Godly state, a highly educated clergy
was developed. jtesult^Harvard College .founded OIL JL&36, and
New England began to foster a culture of its owty In the arts,
content took precedence over form. While music 10 and poetry were
not frowned upon, the main emphasis was on utility, which dictated
the literary types. (JHistory, defense, and promotion of the colony
were common, and much of the religious writing sermons, poems,
diaries, biographies was utilitarian in purpose. Adoption of the
logic and rhetoric of Ramus encouraged a "plain style" 11 in Puritan

9 For the religious background see Perry Miller and T. H. Johnson (editors). The
Puritans (1938), with bibliographies.

10 J. H. Kouwenhoven, "Singing in New England," NEQ., VI (1933), pp. 567-588.

11 S. E. Morison. Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (two parts, 1936). Part I,
pp. 169-193; Perry Miller and T. H. Johnson (editors), The P*ritan* (1938), Intro-
duction, pp. 1-79.

4 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

prose, as opposed to the fanciful style of Euphues or the elaborate
Anglican .prose of Tavlor ? Donne, or Andrew^s^lEuritan poetry
imitated Jhe jnetaphysical conceits of EngHsh_religious^osts JikjL
j^uarles and Herbert. Tfnagrams, puns, and torturecTEgm^were
common. The mo$r popular poems were written in sing-song,
jolting meter which was easy to memorize, if not appropriate to the
subject matter; moral aims completely subdued formA

DESCRIPTION, ANNALS, AND HISTORY OF
NEW ENGLAND

WILLIAM BRADFORD, c. 15881657, Pilgrim, states-
man, annalist. Became a Separatist, and migrated to Leyden in
1609. Was a weaver; read theology. Migrated to New England
(1620) and was governor, except for five years, from 1621 until
his death. Had shrewd discretion and great generosity. Acquainted
with French, Dutch, Latin, and Greek ; studied Hebrew in old age.
Possessed a silver beer bowl, red waistcoat, and violet cloak
items which do jK>t fit modern misconceptions of Puritans.

BradforcL^tevout, conscious of providence, and nobly simple of
character ^was the greatest of early historians. His style, studiously
clear, is based on the Geneva Bible (not the King James), and is
enlivened by humor, irony, and alliteration. 12 But its quality is
dependent primarily upon his greatness of character.

/HlOoryaf the Plymouth Plantation^ (c. 1630 1651 ; first com-
pletely^puBfehed~i-i856) . 1S Bradford's masterpiece. Kindliness
and piety, care in sketching background, make his description of
the sentiments of the disembarking settlers a high mark in eloquence.

THOMAS MORTON, fl. 16221647, adventurer, set up a
colony at Wollaston or Merry Mount. His May-pole dances, de-
bauchery, and sale of fire arms to Indians caused trouble. Was
arrested several times and sent to England. 14 Died in Maine. New
English Canaan (1637; edited by C. F. Adams, 1883) is, in part,
a vigorous statement of Morton's side of the quarrel. Hawthorne
used this career in "The Maypole of Merry-Mount," and Howard
Hanson has written an opera on the same subject with a libretto
by Richard L. Stokes.

JOHN WINTHROP, 15881649, statesman, diarist. Born
in Suffolk of prosperous ancestry. At Cambridge two years, was
justice of the peace, and attorney and squire. Discouraged by loss
of attorneyship and the plight of the Puritans, he led movement

12 E. F. Bradford, "Conscious Art in Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation,"
NEQ.. I (1928), pp. 133-158.

13 Best editions are by W. T. Davis, Original Narratives of Early American History
(1908), and W. C. Ford (two volumes, 1912). For biography sec P. H. Plumb,
William Bradford of Plymouth (1920).

14 Henry Adams, Thrtt Episode* in Mwvchvutt* History, I (1892).

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES 5

to emigrate, was elected governor in 1629, and re-elected almost
constantly. Censured for leniency in 1636, he afterwards acted more
rigorously.

Letters. Written to wife. The correspondence shows great
depth of emotion combined with charm and religious sentiment.

Journal.^* Kept intermittently from 1630 to death. A great
work embodying history, theology, political theory, economics, 17
providences, and daily life. Tfre primary source for the early years
of Massachusetts Bay. Covers ideals, controversies, hardships.
Tfi? classic statement of Puritan political theory appears in 1645.
Winthrop, no believer in democracy,, which as John Cotton said
was not supported by the Bible, distinguished between natural and
civil liberty. Natural liberty, possessed by the unregenerate, is
liberty to do evil as well as good ; it resists authority and degrades
man. Civil liberty, based on God's covenent with man, is liberty
for good. In it obedience to authority exists and has meaning. In
the subjection to civil liberty man is made free, and the magistrate
who does less than his best to maintain his responsibility, should
be censured.

MARY ROWLANDSON, c. 16351678, wife of the minis-
ter at Lancaster, captured by Indians in 1676 and ransomed after
eleven weeks. The Sovereignty & Goodness of God Together . . , ;
Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary
Rowlandson (1682) went through more than thirty editions. Her
idiomatic and sinewy English conveys a good picture of Indian
life, the pathos of her situation, and the contemptuous attitude of
the colonists toward the "noble savage."

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY THEOLOGIANS"

TJTOMAS SHEPARD, 16051649. Son of a grocer. B.A.,
Cambridge (Emmanuel College) in 1624; M.A. in 1627. Came
to America in 1635 and was a leader against the Antinomians.
Interested in education. His style is clear, strong, and good. The
Sincere Convert (1641) ran through twenty editions. 19

ROGER WILLIAMS, c. 16041683, minister, son of a
tailor. Patronized by Sir Edward Coke. Went to Charterhouse;

15 T. H. Twichell, Some Old Puritan Love-Letters (1893); A. M. Earle. Mar gar ft
Winthrop (1895); Winthrop Papers (MHS.. two volumes, 1929-1931), I.

16 The History of New England from 1630 to 1649, edited by James Savage (two volumes,
1825-1826; revised, 1*53); Winthrop's Journal, "History of New England." from
1630 to 1649, edited by J. K. Hoamer (two volumes, 1908).

17 E. A. J. Johnson, "Economic Ideas of John Winthrop," NEQ., Ill (1930). pp. 235-
250; Stanley Gray, "The Political Thought of John Winthrop/' NEQ., Ill (1930),
pp. 681-705.

18 See C. K. Shipton, "The New England Clergy of the 'Glacial Age/ " PCSU.. XXXII
(1937), pp. 24-54.

19 The Autobiography of Tkomas Shepard, edited by Nehemiah Adams (1832); ef. S. .
Morison, Builder, of the Bay Colony (1930), pp. 105-134.

6 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

B.A., Cambridge (1627). Went to Plymouth. Became pastor at
Salem in 1633, where he got into trouble insisting: (1) that the
New England churches separate, (2) that land be bought from the
Indians to validate the charter, (3) that a magistrate refuse to
receive an oath from an unregenerate man (this would have wrecked
the judicial system of the colony), (4) that the civil government
was without authority to punish persons for religious reasons. Such
views would abolish the theocratic pretensions of the state. Ordered
banished in 1635, on Winthrop's advice he fled to Rhode Island in
the winter of 1636 and established a colony. Was a Baptist for a
time ; became and remained a seeker for truth. In 1643 he went to
England, was befriended by Milton, obtained a charter, and advo-
cated religious freedom. Was friendly with the Indians. Later he
engaged in a controversy with the Quakers.

Williams was noble and magnanimous, had great personal charm,
but was emotional and uncompromising. His views on religious
liberty are well ahead of his time ; so in his own day his influence
was small. 20 His literary style is uneven, often verbose, elaborate,
and tiring, but at its best richly eloquent.

Works include: A Key into the Language of America (1643) ;
The Bloody Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience (1644) ;
The Bloody Tenent Yet More Bloody: by Mr. Cotton's Endeavor
to Wash It Whit* in the Blood of the Lamb (1652). 21 The last
two books defend freedom of conscience in a powerful, if diffuse,
style ; the first is a dialogue between Truth and Peace. The second
takes up the nature of persecution, the limits of civil power, and
the rights already granted by parliament, with the conclusion that
persecution for cause of conscience is unchristian. Queries of High-
est Consideration (1644), advocates separation of church and
state. George Fox Digged out of His Burrows (1676), written in
language often violent, is addressed to the Quakers. 22 The Writ-
ings of Roger Williams (six volumes, 1866 1874) also contain
many revealing letters.

JOHN DAVENPORT, 15971670, preacher, B.D., Oxford
(1625), first minister in ultra- Puritan New Haven, Opposed Half-
Way Covenant. Advent to Boston in 1668 split the First Church.
See A Sermon Preach' d at the Election . . . 1669 (1670).

20 J. E. Ernst, "The Political Thought of Roger Williams," VWPLL., VI (1929),
pp. 1-229; and Roger William* (1932); F. B. Wiener, "Roger Williams' Contribution
to Modern Thought/* RIHSC., XXVIII (1935), pp. 1-20; S. H. Brockunier. The
Irrepressible Democrat (1940).

21 H. B. Parks, "Tohn Cotton and Roger Williams Debate Toleration," NEQ., IV (1931),
op. 735-756: Michael Freund, "Roger Williams, Apostle of Complete Religious
Liberty," RIHSC.. XXVI (1933), pp. 101-133: E. F. Hirsch, "John Cotton and
Roger Williams: Their Controversy concerning Religious Liberty," C/f., X (1941),
pp. 38-51.

22 J. M. Ivci, "Roger Williams, Apostle of Religious Bigotry." Tkoupht. VI (1931),
pp. 478-492.

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES 7

THE MATHER DYNASTY

The decline of the Puritan "theocracy" is spanned by the Mather
Dynasty. Lack of persecution, growth of prosperity, and decline
in spirituality made for changes in New England. The Half-Way
Covenant (c. 1662), drafted by Richard Mather, a clear concession
to toleration, permitted children of non-regenerate, though bap-
tized, parents to be baptized. 28 The loss of the Massachusetts Bay
charter eliminated religious qualifications for voting. The Mathers
attempted unsuccessfully to stem the trend.

RICHARD MATHER, 15961669. Pastor at Dorchester.
Able, ambitious. Drew up the Cambridge Platform (1646) and
backed the Half -Way Covenant. 24 Church-Government and Church-
Covenant Discussed (1643). A Platform of Church Discipline^
(1649). Helped edit The Whole Book of Psalms [The Bay Psalm
Book] (1640).

INCREASE MATHER, 16391723, son of Richard. 25 B.A.,
Harvard (1656) ; M.A., Trinity College, Dublin (1658). Preached
in England until 1661, then at Second [North] Church in Boston.
As agent for the colony he obtained a new charter, but his popu-
larity declined. Was President of Harvard (1685 1701), then
forced out of office. Had prodigious learning and industry. One
hundred fifty publications 26 couched in a lucid, forceful, and direct
style. An able writer and administrator.

Writings include: An Essay for the Recording of Illustrious
Providences (1684). On a suggestion from England he collected
examples of providences which he classified scientifically. Gener-
ally known as "Remarkable Providences/' Cases of Conscience
concerning Evil Spirits (1693) claims that two witnesses (not pos-
sessed) are necessary to establish guilt of witch. Several Reasons
Proving that Inoculating or Transplanting the Small Pox Is a
Lawful Practice (1721); Diary (pub. 1900).

COTTON MATHER, 16631728, son of Increase. 27 M.A.,
Harvard (1681). From 1685 on associated with his father's church.
An indefatigable worker; produced five hundred books and pam-
phlets. Was an active philanthropist, a clerical politician, and a
promoter of science. Played some part in the Salem witchcraft
trials, was opposed to thf admission of spectral evidence, but made

23 Perry Miller, "The Half-Way Covenant," NBQ.. VI (1933), pp. 676-715.

24 Williston Walker. Ten New England Leaders (1901).

25 For biographical material see: Cotton Mather, Parent at or (1724); K. B. Murdock.
Increase Mather, the Foremost American Puritan (1925).

26 T. J. Holmes, Increase Mather, a Bibliography of his Works (two volumes, 1931).

27 Samuel Mather, The Life of . . . Cotton Mather (1729); Barrett Wendell. Cotton
Mather, the Puritan Priest (1891. 1926): Ralph and Leslie Boas, Cotton Mather
(1928); K. B. Murdock, "Cotton Mather, Parson. Scholar, Man of Letters," in A. B.
Hart (editor), Commonwealth History of Massachusetts (1927-1930), II, pp. 323-354.

8 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

no open protest. 28 Public revulsion of feeling against the execution
of twenty witches and two dogs helped break the power of the
clergy. Conscious of this fact, Mather wrote the Magnolia to call
the people back to the great days of New England.

His character is difficult to evaluate, for he possessed the usual
Puritan virtues in exaggerated form. Had industry and ambition,
but his vanity was inordinate. Was a mystic and a man of excellent
ability.

His style, quaint and fantastic, tending toward Elizabethan elab-
oration, heavily decorated with quotations and allusions, did not
conform to the "simple style" of the ordinary Puritan divines. 29
He emphasized providences; nevertheless, he was interested in
science, accepted Copernican cosmography, advocated inoculation
despite personal danger, and was elected to the^oyal Society. 80
His openness to scientific advance tende^to modernize his theology.

Magnalia Chris ti Americana; cfrihe Ecclesiastical History of
New-England^ (1702). 81 Greatest wbrk7 rias books on : the settle-
ment of New England, lives of governors and magistrates, lives
of sixty famous divines, history of Harvard College and its famous
graduates, faith and polity of the churches, providences, conflicts
with religious opponents, and the Indians. Though credulous, it
is a deep mine of information, the most famous and most remark-
able book of the time. Monumental in scholarship.

Bonifacius (1710). Reached many editions as Essays to Do
Good. A treatise on organized philanthropy; influenced Franklin.
Shows humanitarian impulse.

The Christum Philosopher; a Collection of the Best Discoveries
m Nature with Religious Improvements (172 1). 82 Attempts to rec-
oncile science and religion. Outlines recent developments. Main-
tains that God's benevolence is manifest in nature and apparent to
man through reason. God can interfere with man's affairs. Cf.
Sentiments on Small Pox Inoculation (1721), favoring the inno-
vation.

ManuJuctio a<t Ministerium (1726). Handbook for preachers.
The chapter on "Poetry and Style" is the best literary criticism of

28 C. W. Upfaam, "Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather," HMNQ. t Second Series.

\cuiiui /, *vrrvtrj oj ing w wcr*cTojT i*o*rj v *'**/( contains many aocumeius.
G. L. Kittredge, Witchcraft in Old and New England (1929). gives the general
setting and examples. Cf. S. E. Morison, The Puritan Pronaos (1936), pp. 248-257.

29 Perry Miller, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century, pp. 331-362.

30 G. L. Kittredge, "Cotton Mather's Election into the Royal Society," PCSM., XIV
(1913), pp. 81-114.

31 Texts: Magnalia (two volumes, 1853-1855); Selection* from Cotton Mather, edited by
K. B. Mwrdock (1926). For Coleridge's use of the Magnalia. see David Davies, "Cole-
ridge's Marginalia in Mather's Magnolia/ 9 HLQ., II (1939), pp. 233-240.

32 For text, see Selections from Cotton Mather, edited by K. B. Murdock (1926). Cf.
Theodore Hornberger, "The Date, the Source, and the Significance of Cotton Mather's
Interest m Science," AL. t VI (1934-1935), pp. 413*420.

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES 9

the colonial period. Praises Richard Blackmore's style; defends
his own as containing substance, not only in thought, but in the
profitable references.

Diary of Cotton Mather.^** A chronicle of his spiritual state
rather than of external events.

MISCELLANEOUS PROSE

THOMAS BRATTLE, 16581713, merchant, son of the
wealthiest man in New England. An able liberal. Helped the
Brattle Street Church, opposed the witch trials, and wrote A Full
and Candid Account of the Delusion Called Witchcraft (published
1798).

ROBERT CALEF, 16481719, merchant, .author of More
Wonders of the Invisible World (1700). Claimed that Cotton
Mather had purposely fomented the witchcraft trials to regain
spiritual control,, a charge which is now, on the whole, dispelled.

NATHANIEL WARD, 15781652, minister's son. 84 B.A.,
Emmanuel College, Cambridge (1600); M.A. (1603). Studied
and practiced law. Became a minister in 1618. Came to America
(1634). Preached (1634 1636) at Ipswich (Indian name, Agga-
wam). Wrote The Body of Liberties (1641), the first law code
of Massachusetts. Returned to England (1646), and became a
minister again.

The Simple Cobbler of Aggawam m America. Willing to Help
'Mend His Native Country, Lamentably Tattered, Both in the
Upper-Leather and Sole, with All the Honest Stitches He Can
Take\ (begun in 1645 ; 1647), by "Theodore de la Guard." Reached
four editions in the first year. 85 Professed to be reflections of a
self-exiled cobbler on religious dissensions. Is really a protest
against toleration, women's fashions, and long hair on men. Looks
forward to Presbyterian uniformity in England. The style is sin-
cere, droll, pungent, vigorous, crotchety; Elizabethan in its puns,
word coinage, learning, racy homeliness, and metaphors. Not
typically Puritan. The most amusing work of the seventeenth
century.

SAMUEL SEWALL, 16521730, jurist, merchant, diarist."
Like the Mathers he covers the transition. Born in England, B.A.,
Harvard (1671). Trained for but did not enter the ministry.

33 Published in PMHS., Seventh Scries, VII (1911), VIII (1912).

34 J. W. Dean, Nathaniel Ward (1868); S. . Morison, Builders of the Bay Colony
(1930), pp. 217-243.

35 The Simple Cobbler of Affgawam in America, edited by L. C. Wroth (1937).

36 N. H. Chamberlain. Samuel Sewall and the World He Lived In (1877) ; J. L. Sibley.
Biographical Sketch** , II (1881), pp. 345-364; H. C. Lodge. Studies in History
(1884); H. W. Lawrence, "Samuel Sewall, Rcvealer of Puritan New England,"
SAQ. f XXXIII (1934), pp. 20-37.

io THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

Married daughter of the wealthy John Hull. Was a judge at the
witchcraft trials, later publicly recanted his error. Member of the
colonial council (16911725). Chief justice of the colony (1718
1728).

Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674 172Pf (First published, 1878
1882). The American Pepys, but not his equal, Sewall is mercan-
tile, conventional, religious, fond of dwelling on death, introspec-
tive, but affectionate and charming. Records daily events, sum-
marizes sermons, attacks the wearing of wigs, and gives details of
his courtship of Madam Winthrop and others. His interest in the
comforts of life, in a less zealous religion, in humanitarianism,
shows the emergence of eighteenth century secularism from the
Reformation.

PURITAN POETRY

General View. Puritan poets were brought up on Horace
and Virgil, read Sidney, Spenser, Quarles, Herbert, Sylvester's
translation of Du Bartas, but were not interested in the fleshly
poets. There was no lack of Puritan poetry, but there was a lack
of genuine inspiration. Their conception of the poet's office em-
phasized content, not form; edification, not beauty. They were
mainly metaphysical poets. When the use of conceits went out of
fashion, their reputation suffered. 87

The Whole Book of Psalms Faithfully Translated into English
Metre (1640), better known as the Bay Psalm Book, by Thomas
Weld, John Eliot, and Richard Mather. Ran to seventy editions ;
revised 1651, 1752. The object was, while adhering closely to the
Hebrew, to put the Psalms into rhyme and meter so that they could
be sung to set tunes. Result is comparable to similar attempts of
Donne and Milton. Often considered a good example of bad poetry.
The first book published in the colonies.

ANN BRADSTREET, c. 16121672, daughter of Thomas
Dudley, later governor of Massachusetts. Married Simon Brad-
street. Emigrated to America (1630), lived near Andover (1644
1672). A sensitive woman transplanted to a wilderness and the
mother of eight children, she nevertheless found time to write
poetry, 88 often metaphysical and based upon a knowledge of Spen-
ser, Sidney, Herbert, Quarles, and Sylvester's translation of Du

37 For a discussion of Puritan poetry sec: M. C. Tyler, History of American Literature
(rev ed., two volumes, 1897), I, PP. 264-292; II, pft 5-63; K. B. Murdock, Handker-

rt*t*\ from fA tt/ cc ( o 1927); Perry Millcr and T ' H ' J<*n* (editors), The Puritan*
pp. 545-552.

38 %JL' !!^ l \4ffi*? r ^' i L a *** Her D T W' (1 5 91 > ; ** Caldwell, An Account of
Anne Bradstreet (1898); S. E. Monson, Builders of the Bay Colony (1930), pp. 320-
340, are gooa biographies.

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES n

Bartas. Often bookish, but at her best when recording her own
feelings and observations. 89

The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650). A later
edition, Several Poems . . . By a Gentlewoman in New-England
(1678), adds "Contemplations/ 1 "The Flesh and the Spirit," and
verses on her family. 40 "The Four Elements, 1 ' "The Four Consti-
tutions," "The Four Seasons," and "The Four Monarchies" are
written in tedious, cramped heroic couplets. They are full of erudi-
tion, which for a woman then was amazing. "The Four Monar-
chies" is based upon the Bible, Plutarch, Usher, and Ralegh's
History of the World. "Contemplations" is her best poem, written
in a seven line stanza with an Alexandrine, showing the influence
of Sidney and Spenser. The descriptions of nature are charming
and are employed, not only for moralization, but for their own
sake, though the introduction of "philomel" shows her close ad-
herence to poetic tradition. Good command of metrics. "To My
Dear and Loving Husband" and some other poems show a tender-
ness and depth of feeling not commonly expressed in the colonial
period. "Upon the Burning of Our House" is a deeply felt expres-
sion of loss, ending with the consolation that her treasures are in
heaven. "Longing for Heaven" has pathos, simplicity, and grace.
"In Honor of ... Queen Elizabeth" shows resentment at the impu-
tation that women are not capable, as does the "Prologue" to The
Tenth Muse. *

MICHAEL WIGGLESWORTH, 16311705, minister, doc-
tor, poet. 41 Born in England. B.A., Harvard (1651); went to
Maiden (1654). A kindly and cheerful man, who studied medicine
to care for his flock. This gentle parson wrote the most terrifying
poem of the colonial period and by far the most popular.

The Day of Doom^t (1662; best edition by K. B. Murdock,
1929). Written in galloping fourteeners with internal rhyme, a
measure suited to popular appeal and easy memorization, but not
to the subject. Describes Christ's descent upon an unsuspecting
world, the terror of the sinners, the resurrection of the dead, and
Christ's judgment. The children who die without committing sins
are also judged, but are allowed by the kind-hearted author (who
here breaks with rigid Calvinism) the easiest room in hell. The
damned are rushed off to torment, and the blessed spend eternity
in bliss. Despite its crude form, this poem has flashes of vitality
and imagination.

39 Marcia Wheelock, "Mistress Anne Bradstreet," VJUS., V (1931), pp. 26-29.

40 The Works of Anne Bradstreet. edited by J. H. Ellis (1867, 1932), is definitive.
bee also The Poems of Anne Bradstreet, Introduction by C. E. Norton (1897).

41 J'-M^' D i5? n ' Sh & ch <$** Li f* of Rev. Michael Wigglesworth. AM. (1863); J. L.

.

12 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

God's Controversy with New-England.'* Pictures the founding
of a New England Canaan through prosperity, decline, threat of
punishment, and the actual chastisement. Deplores the spiritual
decline. Iambic pentameter used.

Meat out of the Eater (1670). In couplets of fourteeners, takes
Christian comfort in sorrow.

EDWARD TAYLOR, c. 16451729, minister, poet. Born
in England. B. A., Harvard (1671). Pastor and physician at West-
field. Most gifted of the Puritan poets. Work was unpublished
at his own request. Four hundred pages of manuscript poetry
found in Yale library (1937). 48 Writing belatedly in the school of
Herbert, Crashaw, and Quarles, Taylor left poems of remarkable
intensity, striking and often sustained imagery, and a certain
American homeliness.

"Huswifery." Smoothest poem, built upon the sustained
image of the stages in manufacturing a robe of glory. Based on
fact that weaving was done in the home. Has deep emotion.

"The Ebb and Flow." God is flint and steel, author the tinder
catching the sparks, which seem to die, but are fanned by God's
spirit. Intense, with figure well maintained; one of the best.

"The Glory of, and the Grace^in the Church Set Out."

Flowers grow in the garden of the church, and are improved by the
minister's art, but Christ makes them thrive. Verse compact almost
to crabbedness.

"Meditation Eight" (1684). Tries to discern in astronomy a
link between heaven and man, but truth and sustenance are in Christ,
the bread of life. First stanza echoes the "flamantia moenia mundi"
of Lucretius; last three extend the extravagant image of Christ
made into bread. Perhaps best of all.

"Meditation Three" (Second Series, 1693). Begins beauti-
fully, then becomes involved. Emphasizes humility.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OP AUTHORS

SOUTHERN WRITERS

GEORGE SANDYI, 15781644, traveler, poet. Ovid's Metamorphosis Englished by
G. S. (1626).

FATHER ANDREW WHITE, 1579 -1656, Catholic cleric, chronicler. A Declaration of
the Lord Baltemorc's Plantation in Mary-land (1633).

42 In PMHS.. XII (187M873) fc pp. 83-93.

43 or ,?&^ ions **Zl?' ** I? h *j "Edward Taylor: a Puritan 'Sacred Poet/ " NEQ. t
?i<Al? 7) * KnlfS" 3 ??.? ? err ? * iiller and T ' H ' Johnson (editors), TA* Puritan*
<}JJ8>, pp. 650-657; Tl^ Poetical Works of Edward Taylor, edited by T. H Johnson

tTT 3 ??^^ al8 4 US 4? Warren ' "Edwar/Taylor'. P^et^ Q^ial^ircSie," KJ?!!
Ill (l"41^, pp. 355-371.

RENAISSANCE AND PURITAN INFLUENCES 13

WILLIAM STRACHEY, /U 606 1618, annalist Wrac^c and Redemption of Sir Thomas

Gates (1625).
GEORGE PERCY, 1580 <r.!632, chronicler. Discourse of the Plantations of the Southern

Colony of Virginia (1607, 1619).

RICHARD RICH, /?. 1609 1610, balladist. Neves from Virginia (1610).
ALEXANDER WHITAKER, 1585 1616/17, rector. Good Newt from Virginia (1613).
JOHN HAMMOND, /7.1635 1656, pamphleteer. Leah and Rachel (1656).
COLONEL HENRY NORWOOD, /U649, chronicler. A Voyage to Virginia (.1649).
GEORGE ALSOP, /U658 1666, poet, adventurer, A Character of the Province ol

Mary-Land (1666).

JOHN GRAVES, Quaker poet A Song of Sion (1662).
EBENEZER COOK [or Cooke], /U708 1730, poet The Sot-Weed Factor (1708),

and perhaps Sot-Weed Redivivus (1730).

NEW ENGLAND WBITEB8

WILLIAM MORRELL, /U623 1625, poet New-England (usually cited as Nova AngUa;

1625).

JOHN JOSSELYN, /7.1638 1675, chronicler. New England's Rarities Discovered (1672).
THOMAS LETCHFORD, annalist. Plain Dealing (1642).
JOHN COTTON, 15841652, theologian. The Bloody Tenent Washed (1647).
THOMAS HOOKER, c.1586 1647, theologian. A Survey of the Sum of Church Disci-

pline (1648).

JOHN WILSON, c.1590 1667, clergyman, poet A Song of Deliverance (1680).
CHARLES CHAUNCEY, 1 592 1672, clergyman. God's Mercy (1655).
EDWARD WINSLOW, 15951655, annalist. Mourt's Relation (1622).
CAPTAIN JOHN UNDERBILL, c.1597 1672, soldier, annalist News from America

(1638).
EDWARD JOHNSON, 1598 1672, chronicler. The Wonder-Wording Providence of Sions

Saviour in New England (1653).
CAPTAIN JOHN MASON, r.1600 1672, soldier. Brief History of the Pequot War (1677,

1736).

JOHN NORTON, 16061663, clergyman. The Heart of N-Engkmd Rent (1659).
DANIEL GOOKIN, c.1612 1687, historian. Historical Account of the Doings and

Sufferings of the Christian Indians in Ne*r England, 1675-77 (1836).
PETER FOLGER, 16171690, non-Puritan poet A Lootpng-Glass for the Times (1676).
THOMAS WHEELER, <r,1620 1686, annalist. Narrative (published, 1827).
WILLIAM HUBBARD, c.1621 1704, historian. Narrative of Troubles with the Indians

(1677).

JONATHAN MITCHELL, c.1624 1668, clergyman. A Ditcourse (1677).
SAMUEL LEE, 1625 1691, clergyman. The Joy of Faith (1687).
SAMUEL DAN FORTH, 16261674, almanac poet.
URIAN OAKES, r.1631 1681, cleric, poet Elegie (1677).
JOHN ROGERS, 16311684, poet. Upon Mrs. Anne Bradstreet (1678).
COLONEL BENJAMIN CHURCH, 16391718, chronicler. King Philip's War (1716).
JASPER DANCKAERTS, 1639 <. 170 3, traveler. Journal (in collaboration; published

1867, 1913).

BENJAMIN TOMPSON, 16421714, poet. New England's Crisis (1676).
JOHN NORTON, 16511716, poet A Funeral Elegy (1678).

CHAPTER II

THE RISE OF RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Migration of Germans and Scots into the Middle and Southern
Colonies. 17021713: Queen Anne's War. 1732; Georgia char-
tered. 1734: Beginning of the Great Awakening. 1740: Massa-
chusetts land bank established. 1744 1748: King George's War.
1755: Deportation of Acadians. 1756 1763: French and Indian
War. 1760: Accession of George III. 17631765: Pontiac's
conspiracy. 1

GENERAL VIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Early eighteenth century American literature shows few signifi-
cant changes from that of the seventeenth. In New England,
especially, the prose style grew simpler, 2 while Pope and the neo-
classicists influenced the poetry. Newtonianism and deism affected
upper-class thought. In the South, a cultivated class was arising
(William and Mary College established, 1693) ; the wealthiest
planters educated their sons in England. The Middle Colonies also
became prominent culturally (King's College, now Columbia, was
established, 1754; the Philadelphia Academy was founded in 1749;
and the Presbyterians began the College of New Jersey, now
Princeton, in 1746).

RELIGIOUS WRITING IN NEW ENGLAND

JOHN WISE, 16521725, clergyman, son of an indentured
servant. 8 B.A., Harvard (1673). Minister in Ipswich from 1682.
Led protest against taxes laid by Andros, was arrested. Attacked
plan for rigid church government; favored use of paper money,
and inoculation. Style is dear, logical, interesting.

1 For historical background see again p. 1, footnote 1. Also Francis Parkman, The
Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851), Mont calm and Wolfe (1884); J. T. Adams, Provincial
Society (1928); Charles and Mary Beard, The Rite of American Civilization (rev. ed.,
1933) ; H. L. Osgood, The American Colonies in the Eighteenth Century (four vol-
umes, 1934).

2 See H. M. Jones, "American Prose Style: 1700-1770," HLB., No. 6 (1934), pp. 115-

3 See: H. M. Dexter, The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as
Seen in Its Literature (1880), pp. 494-507; J. M. Mackaye. "The Founder of Ameri-
can Democracy " ATEM., N. & XXIX (1903). pp. 73-83; *. F. Waters, -John Wise
of Chebacco," PIHS.. No. 26 (1927), pp. 1-23?.

14

RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY 15

The Churches Quarrel Espoused (1710). Attacks the Mathers'
plan for clerical control of churches. Overwhelming in vigor and
semi-Miltonic eloquence.

A Vindication of the Government of New-England Churches^

(1717). A closely reasoned exposition of the Congregational sys-
tem of democratic church government. Showed a new trend by
separating theology and rational argument. Established the law of
nature on reason equally with revelation. Civil governments are set
up by men, for the good of men, not for the glory of God. Men
follow natural laws discernible through reason. In a state of nature,
men are free and equal; in joining a society they give up some
natural rights for the general good. Of three types of society
democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy democracy is first and
best. Wise carried this argument from civil to church government,
used Pufendorf s De Jure Naturae ct Gentium (translated, 1703)
as source. Wise was republished in 1722 to aid the Revolutionary
cause.

JONATHAN EDWARDS, 17031758, clergyman, theolo-
gian, mystic. 4 The greatest American mind of the colonial period.
Son of a preacher at East Windsor, Connecticut. Precocious, edu-
cated at home. Was graduated from Yale (1720). Studied theology
until 1722. Presbyterian minister in New York City (1722
1723). Tutor at Yale (1724 1726). Became colleague of his
grandfather, Solomon Stoddard, in Northampton (1726). Married
Sarah Pierrepont (1727). Conducted religious revivals at North-
ampton (1734 ff.). Felt that sudden conversion, frowned upon by
the Puritans, was a sign of election. In difficulties with his parish
partly because he insisted only the regenerate be given communion.
Resigned parish (1750). Missionary at Stockbridge (1751 1757).
Family poor; sold lace, painted fans, and embroidery. Appointed
president of College of New Jersey. Died as result of smallpox
inoculation.

Edwards was deeply mystical and at the same time a great
logician. Was adept in science, 5 psychology, ana philosophy. This
complexity makes him difficult to treat. He was not a typical Cal-
vinist. He was an idealist in philosophy, and used a logical system
not typical of the Puritans. Read Locke at Yale, and was greatly

S. E. Dwight, The Life of President Edwards (Volume I of the Works, edited by
D wight, 1829); "Jonathan Edwards' Last Will and the Inventory of His Estate,
BS., XXXIII (1876), pp. 438-447; A. V. G. Allen, Jonathan Edwards (1889) is
excellent; H. N. Gardiner (editor), Jonathan Edwards: A Retrospect (1901); A. P.
Stokes, Memorials of Eminent Yale Men, I (1914), pp. 19-29; S. T. Williams (editor),
"Six Letters of Jonathan Edwards to Joseph Bellamy," NEQ.. I (1928), pp. 226-243;
H. B. Parks. Jonathan Edwards, the Fiery Puritan (1930) ; A. C. McGiffert. Jonathan
Edwards (1932); T. H. Johnson, "Jonathan Edwards and the 'Young Folks' Bible."
NEQ., V (1932). pp. 37-54; O. A. Winslow, Jonathan Edwards. 1703-175*; a Biog-
raphy (1940) is best for the facts of his life.

C. H. Faust, "Jonathan Edwards as a Scientist," AL., I (1929-1930), pp. 393-404;
Theodore Hornberger, "The Effect of the New Science upon the Thought of Jonathan
Edwards," AL., IX (1937-1938), pp. 196-207.

16 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

influenced by him. By using part, and attacking part of Locke's
ideas, Edwards became leading defender of Puritanism against
Arminian and deistic attacks. Mystical experiences confirmed his
belief in the absolute sovereignty of God; he spent much of his life
glorifying God and debasing man. His renown as a hell-fire
preacher represents this aspect of his work. He initiated the Great
Awakening, 8 entertained Whitefield, and defending his own course
against Charles Chauncey, he favored good works, not writhings,
as proof of conversion. His importance lies in two divergent direc-
tions : He reinforced Calvinistic theology and philosophy, exerting
a wide influence in Scotland and Holland as well as America. 7
Also, by promoting the Great Awakening, he exerted a liberalizing
political effect, since the uneducated were more likely to have emo-
tional experiences than the rich. The Great Awakening was impor-
tant for fastening a rigorous morality, often called Puritan but
really evangelical, upon the American people. 8 He was also an early
American idealist.

Edwards' style is lucid and compact, patterned on the Tillotson
school, and especially on the Bible. Never ornate, it has few figures,
and no straining for effect. His early work is often emotional and
eloquent, but his later controversial writing is bare logic. Late in
life he read Sir Charles Grandison, and expressed regret at having
paid too little attention to style.

Writings 9 include: Of Insects (1751), brilliant observations on
flying spiders by a boy of eleven. Of Being and Notes on the Mind,
both college essays ; latter shows philosophical idealism, the source
of which has been mooted but is probably not Berkeley but Ed-
wards' own mind working on Locke ; 10 contends that reality is in
the mind of God and is communicated to man by His will. Reso-
lutions (1722 1723) lays out a rigorous spiritual regimen. Narra-
tive of Surprising Conversions (1735; rev. 1736), originally a
letter to Charles Chauncey describing the Northampton revival.
Later version included account of the spiritual wrestlings of
Phoebe Bartlett, a child of four. A Treatise concerning Religious
Affections (sermons of 1742 1743; 1746). His thesis: men are

E. H. Byington, "Jonathan Edwards and the Great Awakening," BS.. LV (1898),
pp. 114-127.

fTntury of tne new c no tana i neoiogy \iy\j/) t pp. H/-IUJ; ju w. xiuey, simcr+can
Philosophy: The Early Schools (1907T; H. W. Schneider, The Puritan Mind (1930),
pp. 102-155; H. G. Town send, Philosophical Ideas in the United States (1934),
pp. 35-62.

8 H. M. Jones, "The European Background," in The Reinterpretation of American Lit-
erature, edited by Norman Foerster (1929).

9 The Works of President Edwards, edited by S. E. Dwight (ten volumes, 1829-1830) ;
Benjamin Franklin and Jonathan Edwards: Selection* from Their Writings, edited by
Carl Van Doren (1920); Jonathan Edwards: Representative Selections, edited by
C. H. Faust and T. H. Johnson (1935), has an excellent critical analysis of Edwards'
thought, pp. xi-cxv (pp. xi-cxlii).

10 For bibliography on the sources of Edwards' ideas see C H. Faust and T. H. Johnson,
op. tit.

RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY 17

governed by passions (an tin-Puritan doctrine derived! from Shaf tes-
bury and Hutcheson), so the best affections should be instilled in
them by conversion which bestows a new spiritual sense. This con-
cept probably an answer to Locke's sensationalism. Sinners in the
Hands of an Angry God (1741), celebrated picture of man sus-
pended over hell. Farewell Sermon (1750), eloquent. The Great
Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended (1758) contends men
act out of self-love and are therefore bad. The Nature of True Vir-
tue (1765), claims that virtue is disinterested benevolence; man,
being motivated by self-love, is incapable of altruism. Influenced
by Hutcheson, Shaftesbury, Cudworth.

Personal Narrative^ (1739). Describes Edwards' conversion
about twenty years before. Radiates serenity and sweetness of his
state after conversion. A most attractive work.

A Careful and Strict Enquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions
of that Freedom of Will Which Is Supposed to Be Essential to
Moral Agency, Virtue and Vice, Reward and Punishment, Praise
and Blame^' (1754). One of the greatest philosophical works writ-
ten in America. Attacked the Arminian believers in freedom of the
will, like Clarke, Taylor, and Chubb. Edwards' analysis is based
on Hobbes, Collins, and Locke, though he may have known the first
two only through their attackers. He contends, with Locke, that
will is subject to the strongest motive. A man can do what he wills,
but he cannot will what he wills. Since a man does an act willingly,
he is responsible to God for it. (Hobbes made those two points.)
Completely tears down the Arminian argument. Note Dr. John-
son's comment on Boswell's statement that Edwards puzzled him :
"All theory is against the freedom of the will, all experience for it."

CHARLES CHAUNCEY, 17051787, Boston minister, a
leading antagonist of Edwards in controversy over the Great
Awakening. 11 Chauncey was urbane, cultivated, socially conserva-
tive ; in religion he pointed towards Unitarianism. Wrote : Enthu-
siasm Described and Caution'd Against (1742), "A Letter from a
Gentleman in Boston, to Mr. George Wishart" (1742), 12 and
Seasonable Thoughts on . . . Religion in N civ-England (1743).

HISTORY AND ANNALS IN NEW ENGLAND

SARAH KEMBLE KNIGHT, 16661727, schoolmistress
of Benjamin Franklin. 13 Took a round trip from Boston to New

11 See C. H. Maxson, The Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies (1920); W. M.
Gewehr. The Great Awakening in Virginia (1930); J. C. Miller, "Religion, Finance,
and Democracy in Massachusetts," tfEQ., VI (1933), pp. 29-58; M. H. Mitchell.
The Great Awakening (1934).

12 In CHSR., Pint Series, No. 7 (1883).

13 A. Titut, "Mtdam Sarth Knight, Her PUr? and Her Time*," BSP., IX (1912),
pp. 99-126,

i8 THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

York alone in 1704 1705. Her Journal, which went through four
editions, gives a sharp, racy account of the people away from civili-
zation, their manners, speech, and habits. An early example of
American humor.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES

ALEXANDER SPOTSWOOD, 1676-1740, governor of
Virginia, did exploring in the Shenandoah valley and made treaties
with the Indians. 14

WILLIAM BYRD OF WESTOVER, 16741744, planter,
author, official. 15 Educated in England by his wealthy family.
Aristocratic, cultivated book collector and amateur scientist. History
of the Dividing Line Run in the Year 1728 Describes the survey of
boundary between Virginia and North Carolina. Contains satirical
sketches of the indolent frontiersmen of Carolina, 16 and excellent
description of nature. Written in urbane, cultivated eighteenth
century style. A Journey to the Land of Eden in the Year 1733
(1841) describes trip to his holdings in Carolina, ironically called
Eden. Contains more clever attacks on Lubberland. A Progress
to the Mines, in the Year 1732 (1841), 17 another account of a trip
written with his usual wit. New writings have recently been dis-
covered. 18

THE MIDDLE COLONIES

The Friends, founded by George Fox, and steadily persecuted
for their religious beliefs, had obtained a haven in Pennsylvania. 19
The principles of Quakerism were: (1) A loving God. (2) The
inner light; i.e., God revealed himself to individuals directly, not
only through the Bible, churches, and nature. (3) Equality before

14 Sec The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood, edited by R. A. Brook (two volumes,
1882-1885); Leonidas Dodson, Alexander Spotswood, Governor of Colonial Virginia,
1710-1722 (1932).

15 R. C. Beatty, William Byrd of Westover (1932); M. H. Woodfin, "William Byrd
and the Royal Society," VMHB., XL (1932), pp. 23-34, 111-123; G. R. Lyle, "William
Byrd, Book Collector," ABC., V (1934), pp. 163-165, 208-209; J. R. Masterson,
"William Byrd in Lubberland,'' AL.. IX (1937-1938), pp. 153-170; L. B. Wright ,"The
*Gentleman*s Library* in Early Virginia: The Literary Interests of the First Carters,"
HLQ., I {1937), pp. 3-61, furnishes background; C. L. Cannon, "William Byrd IT df
Westover," Colophon, N. S., Ill (1938), pp. 291-302; L. B. Wright, "A Shorthand
Diary of William Byrd of Westover," HLQ., II (1939), pp. 489-496; L. B. Wright
and Marion Tinling, "William Byrd of Westover: An American Pcpys," SAQ.,
XXXIX (1940), pp. 259-274.

16 Carl Holliday, The Wit and Humor of Colonial Days (1912), pp. 145-152.

17 All three were published in Westover Manuscripts (1841). Cf. The Writings of

Colonel William Byrd of Westover in Virginia, Esq." edited by J. S. Bassett (1901),
which includes excellent biographical sketch; A Journey to the Land of Eden and
Other Papers, edited by Mark Van Doren (1928); Byrd's History of the Dividing
Line betwixt Virginia and North Carolina, edited by W. K. Boyd (1929), which con-
tains for the first time the "Secret History of the Line."

18 The Secret Diary of William Bvrd. edited by L. B. Wright and Marion Tinling
(194P; Another Secret Diary of William Byrd, edited by M. H. Woodfin (1942).

19 See M. K. Jackson, Outlines of the Literary History of Colonial Pennsylvania (1906);
R. M. Jones, The Quakers in the American Colonies (1911); Luella Wright, The
Literary Life of the Early Friends (1932).

RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY 19

God. Made Quakers democratic. (4) Salvation open to all who
seek it; opposed to predestination. (5) Freedom of the will. (6)
Objection to war, violence, and persecution. (7) Charity and
humanitarianism.

THOMAS GODFREY, 17361763, watchmaker, poet,
dramatist. Son of a philosophical glazier. Became soldier, later
factor in North Carolina, where he died. Juvenile Poems . . . with
The Prince of Parthia, a Tragedy (1765) was edited by Nathaniel
Evans, another poet in William Smith's coterie. 20 Smith wrote an
introduction to the play. Godfrey's poems are conventional, imi-
tating Pope and his school. The Prince of Parthia (c.1759; 1765)
is in blank verse modeled on Shakespeare, Beaumont and Fletcher,
and Rowe. 21 The plot moves rapidly, and the characterization is
not bad. Verse uneven but often good. Staged in 1767, the first
American tragedy performed in the colonies.

JOURNALISM IN THE COLONIES 2 *

The first American newspaper, Public k Occurrences (Boston,
1690), was suppressed after only one issue. The Boston News-
Letter (1704 1776) was the first successful paper. The Boston
Gazette (1719 1741) and James Franklin's liberal New England
Courant (1721 1726) were early papers, and others were estab-
lished in Philadelphia (1719) and New York (1725). Thirty-
seven papers were published in the colonies by 1775.

Magazines were slower in starting. 23 Andrew Bradford's Ameri-
can Magazine, which lasted three issues, appeared at Philadelphia
in 1741. Benjamin Franklin's General Magazine and Historical
Chronicle was first published in the same year and lasted for six
issues. Perhaps the most important from a literary point of view
was the American Magazine (Philadelphia, 1757 1758), edited
by William Smith, who used it to encourage the work of a group
of young writers. Contributions to these early periodicals are more
significant for social history than for literary merit.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF AUTHORS

NORTHERN COLONIES

RICHARD STEERE, poet. The Daniel Catcher (1713).

SAMUEL PENHALLOW, historian. History of the Wars . . . with the Eastern Indian,
(1726).

20 A. F. Gegenheimer, ''Thomas Godfrey: Protege^ of William Smith." PH.. IX (1942
1943), pp. 233-251; X (1943-1944), pp. 26-43.

21 T. C. Pollock, "Rowe's Tamerlane and The Prince of Parthia/ 9 AL. VI (1934-1935)
pp. 158-162.

22 C. A. Duniway, The Development of Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts (1906)

E. C. Cook, Literary Influences in Colonial Newspapers, 1704-1750 (1912) is excellent
W. G. Bleyer, Main Currents in the History of American Journalism (1927); W. S
Hoole, A Check-List and Finding-List of Charleston Periodicals, 1732-1964 (1936)

F. L. Mott, American Journalism (1941).

23 See F. L. Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1741-1850 (1930) ; L. N. Richard
son, A History of Early American Magarines, 1741-1789 (1931).

2O THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1607-1763

SAMUEL WILLARD, 16401707, theologian. A Compleat Body of Divinity (1726).
SOLOMON STODDARD, 1643 1729, minister, theologian. An Answer to Some Cases

of Conscience (1722).

JOHN DUNTON, 16591733. Letters from New England (1867).
JOHN WILLIAMS, 1664 1729, minister. The Redeemed Captive (1707).
ZABDIEL BOYLESTON, 1669 1766, physician. Some Account of Inoculation (1721).
BENJAMIN COLMAN, 1673 1747, clergyman. The Government and Improvement of

Mirth (1707).

PAUL DUDLEY, 1675 1751, scientist.

JOHN BULKLEY, 1679 1731. The Necessity of Religion in Societies (1713).
ROGER WOLCOTT, 1679 1767, poet. Poetical Meditations (1725).
JOHN BARNARD, 1681 1770, clergyman. The Throne Established by Righteousness

(1734).
THOMAS PRINCE, 1687 1758, historian. Chronological History of New England

(17361755).

WILLIAM DOUGLASS, r.1691 1752, historian. Summary (17481753).
EBENEZER TURELL, 1702 1778, biographer.

JOHN ADAMS, r.1705 1740, poet. Poems on Several Occasions (1745).
JOSEPH GREEN, 1706 1780, poet. The Loss of His Cat (1733).
MATHER BYLES, 1707 1788, Tory poet, preacher. Poems on Several Occasions

(1744); The Conflagration (1755).

NATHANIEL AMES, 1708 1764. Astronomical Diary and Almanac (1725 1764).
JOHN SECCOMB, 17081792, poet. "Father Abbey's Will" (1731).
JANE TURELL, 1708 1735, poet. Reliquiae Turellae et Lachrymae Paternae (1735;

reprinted as Memoirs of the Life . . . of Jane Turell, 1741).
JOHN WINTHROP, 1714 1779, scientist.

JONATHAN MAYHEW, 17201766, liberal clergyman. The Snare Brok.cn (1766).
JOHN MAYLEM, 3.1739, poet. Gallic Perfidy (1758); Conquest of Louisberg (1758).

SOUTHERN COLONIES

JOHN LAWSON, </.1711, historian. A New Voyage to Carolina (1709).

JAMES BLAIR, 1655 1743, educator, historian. The Present State of Virginia (1727).

HUGH JONES, r.1670 1760, teacher. The Present State of Virginia (1724).

ROBERT BEVERLEY, c.1673 1722, historian. History and the Present State of Virginia

(1705, 1722).
ALEXANDER GARDEN, 1685 1756, Charleston minister. Six Letters (1740); The

Doctrine of Justification (1742).
JAMES E. OGLETHORPE, 1696 1785, colonizer, annalist. A New and Accurate Account

of . . . South Carolina and Georgia (1733).

WILLIAM DAWSON, 1704 1752, poet. Poems on Several Occasions (1736).
PATRICK TAILFER, fl. c.1740, historian of Georgia. A True and Historical Narrative

. . . of Georgia (1740).
WILLIAM STITH, 17071755, historian. History of the First Discovery and Settlement

of Virginia (1747).

MIDDLE COLONIES

DANIEL DENTON, d. r.1696. A Brief Description of New Yor^ (1670).

DANIEL LEEDS, 1652 1720. Almanacs.

DANIEL COXE, 1673 1739, traveler. A Description of . . . Carolana (1722).

CADWALLADER GOLDEN, 1688 1776. History of the Five Indian Nations (1727).

JONATHAN DICKINSON, 1688 c.1747. Familiar Letters (1745).

WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, 1723 1790,, lawyer, poet. Philosophic Solitude (1747).

SAMUEL DAVIES, 1723 1761. Sermons (three volumei, fifth edition, 1792).

WIU.MM SMITH, 17281793, historian. History of . . . New Y<?r* (1757).

THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
(1763-1810)

CHAPTER III

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE: DEISM,

NATIONAL ISSUES, AND THE BEGINNINGS

OF BELLES LETTRES

> HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

\^Cjeneral View. (1) Increasing tension with England. (2) The
Revolutionary War. (3) Establishment of federal government
and the Constitution. (4) Rise of political parties. (5) The be-
ginnii^gs of American nationalism. (6) Expansion into the Ohio
valleyT

The Revolution (17631783). 1761: James Otis attacks
writs of assistance. 1763: Proclamation of 1763 forbids settlement
in the West. 1764: The Sugar Act and the Currency Act. 1765:
Quartering Act. Stamp Act. Non-importation agreements. 1766:
Repeal of Stamp Act. 1767: Townshend Act. 1770: Repeal of
Townshend Act except its tea duties. Boston Massacre. 1773: East
India Act and Boston Tea Party. 1774: Coercive Acts. Quebec
Act. First Continental Congress adopts Declaration of Rights;
Continental Association. 1775: Battles of Lexington and Concord
(April). Battle of Bunker Hill (June). 1776: Declaration of In-
dependence (July 4). Battle of Trenton. 1777: Burgoyne's sur-
render at Saratoga. 1777 1778: Valley Forge hardships. 1778:
Alliance with France. 1781: Articles of Confederation ratified.
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1783: Peace of Paris rec-
ognizes independence.

The New Nation (1783 1810). 1786: Annapolis Convention.
1787: Constitutional Convention works out a new frame of gov-
ernment. The Ordinance of 1787. Struggle for ratification of
the Federal Constitution. 17871788: The Federalist papers.
17871797: Washington in office. 1792: Hamilton's scheme of
government in operation. 1793: Jefferson resigns from cabinet.
1797: John Adams inaugurated as president. 1798: Alien and
Sedition Acts. 1801 : Jefferson becomes president. 1803: Louisiana
Purchase. 1807: Embargo on shipping. 1809: Repeal of Embargo
Act. Madison becomes president.

\ Political and Social Conditions. The Enlightenment marks
the transition from colonial status to independence and successful
federation. The colonies, squeezed by the mercantile system, took

22

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 23

steps toward resistance. While independence was being won with
foreign aid, an internal revolution against the aristocracy was going
on. This conflict halted when the Constitution again put the con-
servatives in the saddle. Two major political parties emerged:
the Federalists, conservative, pro-English, representing commercial
and financial interests ; the Republicans, liberal, pro-French, repre-
senting the agrarian interests. Jefferson led the latter into office,
but did not permanently destroy Hamilton's eonomic and financial
system. Threats of war with England darkened early nineteenth
century optimism. 1 y

GENERAL VIEW OF THE LITERATURE

[The eighteenth century marked the break in thought between
medieval survivals and modern trendsT)Newtonian science strength-
ened deism and gave birth to the idea of progress.^Natural rights
and democracy went hand in hand. Aesthetic prirrntivism adopted
the idea of the noble savage. Classicism and neoclassicism gave
way before the impact of science and sentimentalising America was
also influenced by the frontier, Quakerism, political conflicts, and
a growing nationalism.(/rhis period was marked by the decline of
Puritan influence, the rise of Philadelphia, Hartford, and finally
New York as literary capitals, and by the appearance of the novel

and drama)

t
The writing was still predominantly utilitarian, and

otten neavy in style. Works resulting from the rationalism of the
age were dominant. Travel literature and scientific works found
a large sale, but most prose was political, turning on issues of the
Revolutionary war and the adoption of the Constitution^ The jour-
nalistic essays have not, in general, survived. ^

Poetry. Through much of this period the previous standards
were in force ; Butler, Dryden, Pope, Pomf ret, and Churchill were
models of satire ; and Goldsmith, Akenside, Young, and Macpher-
son influenced other writers. Satire was popular. Freneau, the best
poet of the period, showed a romantic concreteness of imagery in
his best poems, but the Hartford wits used older models for their
political verse and deadly epics.

Drama. Religious opposition to drama was so stubborn in
America that plays were not legally presented in Philadelphia until

1 For historical, political, and social background sec p. 1, footrote 1. Also S. G. Fisher,
The True History of the Revolution (1902); C. E. Merriam, A History of American
Political Theories (1903); G. O. Trevelyan, The American Revolution (four volumes,
1899-1907); Carl Becker, The History of Political Parties in the Province of New
York (1909) and The Eve of the Revolution (1918); A. M. Schlesinger, The Colonial
Merchants and the American Revolution (1918); R. G. Adams, The Political Ideas of
the American Revolution (1922): C. H. Mcllwain, The American Revolution (1923);
S. . Morison, Sources . . . Illustrating the American Revolution (1923); Allan
Nevins, The American States during and after the Revolution (1924); J. F. Jameson,
The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement (1926); R. G. Gettell.
History of American Political Thought (1928).

24 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

1787, and in Boston until 1791. The Revolution produced a num-
ber of plays on war subjects, but it was not until Tyler's Contrast
(1787) that comedy of manners appeared. From that time there
was a steady production of plays, though their literary quality was
not great.

The Novel. Objections to frivolous or immoral fiction colored
the earliest novels, which were heavily didactic. Many were influ-
enced by Richardson's sentimental code and seduction plots. Brock-
den Brown imitated the Gothic romances and Godwin, while
Brackenridge modeled his work on Cervantes and Swift. Despite
the American scenes, the early novels were derivative in technique.

PROSE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

(_The development of rationalism had a great effect upon religious
and political thought in America. Newtonian rationalism- embodied
the following points : ( 1 ) A universe operating by unchanging laws.
(2) A harmonious system. (3) A benevolent deity. (4) Man
seeking inner harmony corresponding with the cosmos. (5) Prob-
able immortality. This scheme was at first used by Cotton Mather
and others to re-enforce Biblical revelation.

It was an easy step to deism, which accepted Newtonian assump-
tions but gav$ them a different application: (1) A transcendant
God operating by natural law rather than by providential inter-
vention. (2) A benevolent God. (3) God revealed in nature, not
in the Bible. (4) Freedom of the will. (5) Man naturally altruistic.
(6) Men are equal. (7) Evil is result of corrupt institutions, not
of man's natural depravity. (8) Man is perfected by education.
(9) Humanitarian aid to man is the best service of God. (10) Dis-
trust of existing religious systems.

Deism 8 was an aristocratic movement until the Revolution, but
it then made serious inroads upon religion from 1791 to 1810.
Primitivism, the idea that man in the state of nature is superior to
man in civilization, was common. Popularized by Rousseau and
the Abbe Raynal, the view was conditioned in America by contact
with the Indians.* The idea of progress 5 was also prevalent in

2 See: C. S. Duncan, The New Science and English Literature in the Classical Period
(1913); E. A. Burit, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Scientc
(1925); H. M. Jones, America and French Culture (1927); Elie Halevy, The Growth
of Philosophic Radicalism, translated by Mary Morris (1928); Carl Becker. The
Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (1932); Joseph Haroutunian.
Piety versus Moralism; The Passing of the New England Theologv (1932); H. H.
Clark, "An Historical Interpretation of Thomas Fame's Religion/' UCC.. XXXV
(1933), pp. 56-87.

3 G. A. Koch. Republican Religion (1932); A. O. Lovejoy, "The Parallel of Deism and
Classicism/' MP., XXIX (1932), pp. 281-299; H. M. Morais, Deism in Eighteenth
Century America (1934).

4 Albert Keiser, The Indian in American Literature (1933).

5 T. B. Bury. The Idea of Proprest (1932); Lois Whitney. Primitivism and the Idtu of
Proftrrsit in English Popular Literature of the Eiphtccntb Century (1934).

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 25

American thought, and Locke's doctrine of natural rights was of
primary importance in political development. 6 \

Non-Political Prose

JOHN WOOLMAN, 17201772, Quaker diarist 1 Born and
raised on a farm in New Jersey ; became a tailor in order to earn
a modest living. Feeling the call, he traveled through the South,
where he became a sincere opponent of slavery. Later went to
England, where he died of smallpox. He deplored the techniques
used to obtain luxuries, and his humanitarianism put him well
ahead of his time. A simple, noble soul expressed itself in a pure
and limpid style and in heart-felt action. His wide fame is reflected
in Charles Lamb's statement, "Get the writings of John Woolman
by heart." Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes ( 1754 ;
1762). Journal (1774) 8 has richly deserved its thirty-four repub-
lications. A Word of Remembrance and Caution to the Rich^
(1793), republished by the Fabians in 1897, is today the most im-
pressive of his essays.

WILLIAM BARTRAM, 17391823, naturalist, writer, in-
formally educated. 9 Travels through North and South Carolina,
Georgia, East and West Florida (1791), a delightful book, written
in a lush and concretely vivid style, almost makes a religion of na-
ture ; was read by Chateaubriand, and furnished imagery for Cole-
ridge's "Kubla Khan" and Wordsworth's "Ruth." 10

ALEXANDER WILSON, 1766-1813, ornithologist, poet. 11
Came from Scotland (1794). Influenced by William Bartram.
"The Foresters" (1805), a pretentious, protracted poem on a trip
to Niagara Falls. American Ornithology (nine volumes, 1808
1814), clear, accurate, charming, fine plates. Poems; Chiefly in
the Scottish Dialect (1816) is distinguished only by fidelity to
nature.

6 B. F. Wright, American Interpretations of Natural Law: A Study in the History of
Political Thought (1931); R. S. Crane, "Anglican Apologetics and the Idea of
Progress." UP., XXXI (1934), pp. 273-306, 349-382; Merle Curti, "The Great Mr.
Locke: America's Philosopher, 1783-1861." ffLB.. No. 11 (1937). pp. 107-151.

7 E. C. Wilson, "John Woolman: A Social Reformer of the Eighteenth Century,"
Eco.R., XI (1901), pp. 170-189; Ann Sharpless. John Woolman. a Pioneer in Labor
Reform (1920); E. E. Taylor, John Woolman, Craftsman Prophet (1920); F. V.
Morley, The Tailor of Mount Holly: John Woolman (1926); Muriel Kent, "John
Woolman, Mystic and Reformer," ///., XXVI (1928), pp. 302-313; Janet Whitney,
John Woolman, American Quaker (1942).

8 The Journal of John Woolman, with an Introduction bv J. G. Whittier (1871);
The Journal and Essays of John Woolman, edited by A. M. Gummere (1922).

9 N. B. Fagin, William Bartram: Interpreter of the American Landscape (1933);
Ernest Earnest, John and William Bartram, Botanists and Explorers (1940).

10 Joseph Bcdier, ttudes Critiques (1903), pp. 196-294; E. H. Coleridge, "Coleridge,
Wordsworth and the American Botanist William Bartram," TRSL., Second Series,
XXVII (1906), pp. 62-92; Lane Cooper, Methods and Aims in the Study of Literature
(1915), pp. 100-125; Gilbert Chinard, L'Exotisme Americain dans I'Oeuvre de
Chateaubnand (1918); The Travels of William Bartram, edited by Mark Van Doren,
with an Introduction by J. L. Lowes (1940).

11 J. S. Wilson, Alexander Wilson: Poet-Naturalist (1906).

26 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

MERIWETHER LEWIS, 17741809, explorer. A Vir-
ginian who became Jefferson's secretary and leader of the expedi-
tion to the West. History of the Expedition under the Command
of Captains Lewis and Clark (1814). 12

MICHEL-GUILLAUME JEAN DE CR&VECOEUR,
known as, HECTOR ST. JOHN DE CRfeVECOEUR, 1735
1813, author, farmer. 18 Born near Caen of good family; was well
educated. Came to America (1754) ; settled in Orange County,
New York, with an American wife (1769). A Loyalist, he went to
England (1780), returned (1783 or 1784), found his home burned,
his wife dead, and his children gone. Returned to France (1790).

Crevecoeur's writing 14 is that of a philosophical and cultivated
man, a primitivist, Rousseauist, and physiocrat. His delightful
style and delicate nature description add to the charm of his view
that the settler can get close to primitive nature. Letters from an
American Farmer^ (1782) contains twelve letters, partly idyllic
descriptions of various colonies, of farm life, and of animals. He
recognized the force of the frontier in shaping man, and talked
of the forthcoming composite American nationality. The prelimi-
naries of the Revolution shattered his dream. A dedication to the
Abbe Raynal betrayed the author's predeliction to primitivism.
He was also physiocratic, believing that the soil is the source of
wealth and virtue, and he was sensitive to abuses of the slaves
and the Indians. Sketches of Eighteenth Century America 16 con-
tains unpublished material emphasizing his disillusionment when
the Revolution showed that men close to nature were still suscept-
ible to corruption.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 17061790, printer, scientist,
author, editor, organizer, diplomat, statesman. 16 Born in Puritan
Boston, the son of a chandler, he was apprenticed to his brother
James as a printer (1718). Reworking Addison developed his
style; imitating Socrates improved his argument; reading Shaftes-

12 Best edition is Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 18'04-1806.
edited by R. G. Thwaites (eight volumes, 1904-1905).

13 J. P. Mitchell, St. Jean de Crevecoeur (1916); H. C. Rice, "Le Cultivateur Ameri-
cain." Bibliotheque de la Revue de Litterature Comtarte, LXXXVII (1933); F. B.
Sanborn, "Hector St. John, an Old Evasive Planter/' MM., IX (1916), pp. 163-183.

14 See: P. H. Boynton, "A Colonial Farmer's Letters," NR., Ill (1915), pp. 168-170;
T. B. Moore, "Crevecoeur and Thoreau" PMASAL. (1926), pp. 309-333; and "The
Rehabilitation of Crevecoeur," SR. t XXXV (1927), pp. 216-230: H. C. Rice, "Some
Notes on the American Farmer's Letters," Colophon, Part XVIII, No. 3 (1934);
P. A. Shelley, "Crevecoeur's Contribution to Herder's 'Neger-Idyllen,' " JEGP..
XXXVII (1938), pp. 48-69; J. R. Masterson, "The Tale of the Living Fang," AL.,
XI (1939-1940), pp. 67-73.

15 Sketches of Eighteenth Century America, edited by H. L. Bourdin, R. H. Gabriel, and
S. T. Williams (1925)- H. L. Bourdin and S. T. Williams, "The American Farmer
Returns," NAR., CCXXII (1925), pp. 135-140; "Crevecoeur. the Loyalist," Nation,
CXXVI (1925), pp. 328-330; "Crevecoeur on the Susquehanna, 1774-1776," YR.,
XIV (1925), pp. 552-584.

16 Biographies: James Parton, Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (two volumes,
1864); P. L. Ford, The Many Sided Franklin (1899); W. C. Bruce, Benjamin Franklin
Self -Revealed (two volumes, 1917); Bernard Fay, Benjamin Franklin (1929); Carl
Van Doren, Benjamin Franklin (1938).

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 27

bury and Collins made him a doubter; Mather's Essays to Do Good
helped him organize philanthropic institutions. He anonymously
contributed the Dogood papers to the New England Courant. Fled
to Philadelphia (1723) to escape his brother's harshness. Worked
in London (1724 1726), where he wrote A Dissertation on Lib-
erty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725). On his return to
Philadelphia, he set up his own press, and, because of his thrift
and industry, he succeeded. In 1727 he formed the Junto club for
the improvement of the members and their community. With
Breintnall, he wrote the Busy-Body papers for Bradford's Ameri-
can Weekly Mercury. In 1729 he purchased the Pennsylvania
Gazette. He founded the Philadelphia Library Company, the first
subscription library in America (1731); began publishing Poor
Richard's Almanac (1732) ; established the Union Fire Company
(1736); issued the General Magazine and Historical Chronicle,
the second magazine in the colonies (1741) ; invented the Franklin
stove (1742); established the American Philosophical Society
(1744) ; and retired from business (1748).

From this time he was active in public liffll In 1749 he founded
the Philadelphia Academy. He proved the identity of lightning
and electricity by means of his famed kite experiment, and invented
the lightning rod (1752); became deputy-postmaster general of
the colonies (1753) ; proposed the Albany plan of union (1754) ;
aided Braddock in obtaining supplies (1755); and was colonial
agent for Pennsylvania from 1757. In that year appeared The Way
to Wealth, a compilation of prudent principles from the annual
Almanacs. In England (1757 1763 and 1764 1775) as agent for
the colonies, he associated with intellectuals. He mildly opposed the
Stamp Act, supported paper money, and began the Autobiography.
His Rules by Which a Great Empire May be Reduced to a Small
One, a brilliant, humorous, Swiftian attack on colonial policy, ap-
peared in 1773. He helped frame the Declaration of Independence,
and went to France as a commissioner (1776). At the French
court his scientific reputation and rustic simplicity made him a
favorite. Such charming sketches as The Ephemera, The Whistle,
Morals of Chess, Dialogue between Franklin and the Gout appeared
(1778 1780). He helped negotiate the treaty of peace with Eng-
land (1783), wrote On the Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys,
returned to America, and became president of Pennsylvania (1785).
In 1787 'he was president of an antislavery society, and before his
death he also wrote observations on education. Even such an in-
complete list of Franklin's activities indicates not only his energy
and versatility but also the direction of his interests.

In all respects Franklin was the embodiment of the Enlighten-
ment and of the Age of Reason. His practical bent was not only
American, but also a phase of eighteenth century humanitarianism.
Although his energy and organization, his tabulation of charac-
teristics for self-improvement show the influence of Puritanism,

28 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

Franklin was neither introspective nor mystical. His religion fol-
lowed the pattern of scientific deism with emphasis on a benevo-
lent creator manifest in nature, and best served by doing good to
fellow men. Of the immortality of the soul, he was fairly certain.
Franklin was tolerant of organized sects because of the good they
did. At times he doubted freedom of the will, and at others he em-
phasized self-control, but in general he thought that men could be
improved by improvement of their surroundings.

Franklin represented, in his early life, a form of economic in-
dividualism which emphasized thrift, industry, system, sobriety,
and the appearance of diligence as The Way to Wealth The
Autobiography, which runs only to 1759, also tends to confirm
this picture, but it does not tell the whole story. Franklin was an
economic individualist, liberal for his day. He was opposed to the
mercantile system, since he was a colonial ; he thought slavery was
unsound ; 18 he backed the labor theory of value, which he derived
from Sir William Petty ; and he advocated the use of paper money.
He was also interested in the physiocrats, believing that agriculture
was the only real source of wealth, but he was at the same time
interested in colonial manufacturing. He believed in free trade and
laissez-faire, individualistic doctrines growing out of reactions to
mercantilism. These ideas he shared with Adam Smith. 19

In politics, Franklin was liberal, but not radical. He did not
subscribe to the theory of natural goodness, and had a certain dis-
trust of the mob. Yet he opposed the proprietors of Pennsylvania,
objected to many of the acts of the British Government, 20 and ad-
vocated a unicameral legislature. He based his arguments upon
English law rather than upon natural rights. 21

As a writer 22 Franklin represented the ideals of the time. His
reading included Defoe, Bunyan, Swift, Addison, Locke, Collins,
Shaftesbury, Thomson, Cowper, Cotton Mather, Goldsmith, Wal-
ler, Milton, Watts, Plutarch, the classics, and the Bible. His style

17 These individualistic virtues are the essence of capitalism and Puritanism. Max
Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, translated by Talcott
Parsons (1930), uses Franklin as a major example.

18 V. W. Crane, "Benjamin Franklin on Slavery and American Libertiei," PMHB..
LXII (1938), pp. Ml.

19 W. A. Wetzel, "Benjamin Franklin as an Economist," JHSHPS., 13th Series, IX
(1895). pp. 425-476; F. W. Garrison, "Franklin and the Physiocrats," Freeman.
VIII (1923), pp. 154-156; L. J. Carey, Franklin's Economic Views (1928); W. R.
Riddell, "Benjamin Franklin and Colonial Money," PMHB., LIV (1930), pp. 52-64.

20 V. W. Crane, "Benjamin Franklin and the Stamp Act," PCSM., XXXII (1936),
pp. 56-77.

21 S. R. Eiselen, Franklin's Political Theories (1928); cf. V. W. Crane, Benjamin
Franklin, Englishman and American (1936); F. L. Mott and C ~ ~
Benjamin Franklin. Representative Selections (1936), pp. lxxxii-cx.

22 J. B. McMaster, Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters (1887); William MacDonald.
7 The Fame of Franklin," Atl.. XCVI (1905), pp. 450-462; C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
Portraits of the Eighteenth Century, translated by K. P. Worraeley (two volumes,
1905), I, pp. 311-375; P. E. More, Shclbnrne Essays, Fourth Series (1907), pp. 129-
155; Frederic Harrison, Memories and Thoughts (1906), pp> 119-123; S. P. Sherman,
Americans (1922), pp. 28-62; L. M. MacLaurin, Franklin's Vocabulary (1928);
H. S. Canby, Classic Americans (1931), pp. 34-45, has Quaker bias.

. . . ,

Mott and C. E. Jorgenson,

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 29

was simple, concise, clear, direct, and graceful. Grammatically he
was a purist, using few Americanisms. He often employed a Swift-
ian device of straightforward irony, as in An' Edict of the King of
Prussia (1773), in which Prussia claimed England by right of
settlement. All that cool logic, common sense, grace, and wit could
do was done by Franklin, but he showed no lofty flights of imagi-
nation. Though he was a scientist as renowned as Einstein is today,
a statesman, diplomat, and humanitarian, and incidentally a writer,
he would live for his writings alone.

The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin^ (written 1771, 1784,
1788 1789). A permanent classic, including his utilitarian moral
philosophy, instructions on how to succeed, religious views, literary
experiences, and adventures. The style is easy and flowing, and its
literary quality and breadth of view lift it from the class of success
stories. The text had a chequered career from 1789, when a por-
tion was published, to 1868, when a good complete English text
finally appeared. His other more strictly literary productions in-
clude : the Dogood series, which show a heavier wit than his later
works ; the Busy-Body series ; and the delicate and playful essays
put out at Passy.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Clarity, ease, and force of style. 1. Lack of imaginative richness

of expression.

2. Charming fancy, as in the Passy 2. Lack of Addisonian elegance,
papers.

3. Sense of humor. 3. Excessive materialism with lack

4. Gift for sententious, didactic of emphasis on higher values,
aphorism.

5. Sound common sense.

6. Attractive didacticism.

Political Prose**

The.colonies attempted to obtain changes in laws regulating the
colonial system and sought justification of their claims in (1) the

23 See p. 23, footnote 1, for bibliography. Also: Henry Adams, A History of the United
States . . . (1885-1891) sec p, 257, footnote 13; C. A. Beard, Economic Interpretation
of the Constitution (1913) and Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (1915);
W. A. Dunning, A History of Political Theories, III (1920); Claude Bowers, Jefferson
and Hamilton (1925), pro-Jeffersoniau in bias; J. T. Adams, New England in the
Republic (1926); Bernard I 1 ay, The Revolutionary Spirit in France and America
(1927); T. B. McMaster, A History of the People of the United States (nine volumes.
1883-1927); R. B. Morris, "Legalism versus Revolutionary Doctrine in New England."
NEQ., IV (1931), pp. 1&5-215; B. F. Wright, American Interpretations of Natural
Law (1931); J. M. Jacobson. The Development of American Political Thought (1932);
C. F. Mullett, Fundamental Lam and the American Revolution. 1760-1776 (1933);
Claude Bowers, Jefferson in Power (1936).

30 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

English Constitution, and (2) the doctrine of natural rights. 24
Each English move was countered by the Americans, but consistent
argument was not encouraged by the technique of answering spe-
cific measures. The Loyalists, upper-class Americans whose inter-
ests were English, presented a strong logical case for their side,
but appeal by the patriots to mobs resulted in violence to Loyalists
who were forced to flee, abandoning their property. Sentiment for
freedom did not arise until late in the controversy.

The war gained independence, but it did not solve political prob-
lems since England's strong government induced the colonists to
set up a weak system under the Articles of Confederation. Con-
servatives and practical men drafted the Constitution, and wrote
brilliant defenses to secure its adoption. Tension again developed,
as major political parties emerged and carried on a heated contro-
versy throughout the period.

JAMES OTIS, 17251783, political writer, leader. 25 His
Speech against Writs of Assistance (1761) began the opposition to
England. Rights of the British Colonists Asserted and Proved
( 1 764 ) 28 claims that rulers must regard their subjects and that
the colonists, having the rights of Englishmen, cannot be taxed
without consent. This was the basis of early arguments against
England.

PATRICK HENRY, 17361799, orator, patriot. Born on
Virginia frontier. A great spontaneous orator, like Otis. His
speeches have not been preserved verbatim, but have been recon-
structed by William Wirt. 27

JOHN DICKINSON, 17321808, pamphleteer, statesman. 28
Born in Maryland, studied law at the Middle Temple (1753
1757) . Refused to sign the Declaration of Independence, but fought
in the Revolution. Governor of Pennsylvania (1782 1785).
Member of the Constitutional Convention; presented a conserva-
tive plan. Aided in getting ratification of the Constitution in Penn-
sylvania and Maryland. Later governor of Maryland. Though
he advocated conciliation, he is known as 'The Penman of the
Revolution." Late Regulations respecting the British Colonies . . .

24 The natural rights arguments derived mainly from Locke, though the old Federal
school of Puritan theology, which emphasized a compact theory, made it easier for
the clergy to take over the newer ideas. See: C. H. Van Tyne, "The Influence of
the New England Clergy, and of Religious and Sectarian Forces on the American
Revolution,' AHR.. XIX (1913), pp. 44-64; E. F. Humphrey, Nationalism and
Religion in America, 1774-1789 (1924); Alice Baldwin, The New England Clergy
and the American Revolution (1928).

25 "SS^S^^^i^iSSff. %?&& E ' E ' Brcnnan * " Jamcs otis: Rccreant

26 4' (T929) Ullett ' " S mC Political Writin * s o James Otis," UJM.S.. IV, Nos. 3 and

27 WilHam Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (three volumes,

28 ff5w^Y rt ??oo?! clc!ns0 ^,'7 ohn ^ Dickinson LL.D.: The Great Colonial Essayist."
Mo?V ( i 88 &'u pp ' J 22 ?; H; T < ?; * Staw - The U ** and T <* of John Dickinson
te? A ; /?on?V % d 8 r 1St TIw Lf if ^ and Character of John Dickinson," PHSD.. Ill,
No. 30 (1901); C. P. Himei f< 7Jg True John Dickinson (1912); J. H. Powell, "John
Dickinson and the Constitution/' PMHB.. LX (1936), pp. M4.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 31

Considered (1765) attacks the Stamp Act as inexpedient for Eng-
land. Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767 1768), pub-
lished in twelve numbers. Cautious, cultivated, conciliatory. Con-
tended that although regulation of trade was legal, revenue acts
were not, and the Townshend Acts were revenue acts. Dickinson
hoped to obtain modifications of policy to preserve the empire.
"A Song for American Freedom" (1768), known as the "Liberty
'Song/' was popular just before the Revolution. Letters of Fabius
(two series, 1788, 1797). 29

SAMUEL ADAMS, 17221803, agitator, pamphleteer. 80
Harvard, B.A. (1740) ; M.A. (1743). A failure in business. In-
dustrious, resourceful, friendly, a brilliant politician. Drafted
resolutions and instructions. Wrote incessantly under many pseu-
donyms. His work kept colonial resistance alive (1771 1773),
until his organization of the Boston Tea Party. The Writings of
Samuel Adams* 1 contain his well-written, topical pamphlets.

FRANCIS HOPKINSON, 17371791, essayist, poet, musi-
cian, painter, scholar, jurist, gentleman. 82 A Philadelphian, first
graduate of the College of Philadelphia. Signed the Declaration
of Independence. Designed the U. S. flag. 33 An urbane writer,
often imitative of Addison, but also interested in mathematics and
science. A Pretty Story (1774), 8 * a clever satire on British con-
duct ; told as the account of the owner of an Old Farm who gave
the worthless New Farm to one of his sons ; the son developed it
laboriously, only to have the father make demands at the instance
of his wife. Perhaps modeled on Arbuthnot's History of John Bull.
Letter . . . on the Character of the English Nation (1777), another
satire. "The Battle of the Kegs" (1778) was a famed poem of
no great merit. A supporter of the Constitution in later years, he
wrote The New Roof to satirize attacks on that document. Was
a composer; wrote Seven Songs (1788). A cultivated man, not a
dilettante, friend of Franklin 85 and Jefferson, Hopkinson was of
the finest type of the period.

29 Texts: The Political Writings of John Dickinson (1801, 1914); The Writings of
John Dickcnson, 1764-1774, edited by P. L. Ford (c.1894).

30 W. V. Wells, The Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (three volumes, 1865);
R. V. Harlow, Samuel Adams (1923); J. C. Miller, Sam Adams. Pioneer in Propa-
ganda (1936).

31 Edited by H. A. Gushing (four volumes. 1904-1908).

32 9* ** 1b' Sqnneck, Francit Hopkinson, the First American Poet-Composer, and James
Lyon, Patrwt, Preacher, Psalmodist (1905); A. R. Marble, Heralds of American
Literature (1907), pp. 19-58; G. E. Hastings, The Life and Works of Francis HoP-
kinson (1926) and "Francis Hopkinson and the Anti-Federalists," AL., I (1929-1930),

33 G. E. Hastings, "Francis Hopkinson and the American Flag," GMHC., XLII (1939);
pp. 46-63.

34 In The Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional Writings of Francis Hopkinson (three

v c te m ( && E p P Ha 4V^ 2 8 2." Two uncoiiected E " ays by Fran - 5 *'^

35 ?5!iP ixon Si^fE' " Franci * Hopkinson and Benjamin Franklin," AL., XII (1940-
ly^ljt pp. 200-217.

32 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

THOMAS PAINE r 17371809, radical thinker and writer. 8 '
Son of a Quaker staymaker; entered the same trade. Became an
exciseman. Came to America with a letter from Franklin. Helped
edit the Pennsylvania Magazine; or, American Monthly Museum.
Was not at first in favor of independence, but changed his mind
and published Common Sense, the title supplied by Rush, in Jan-
uary, 1776. This pamphlet had tremendous effect in swinging the
public to the thought of independence. Paine joined the army,
where he encountered plenty of discouragement. To strengthen
the morale of the soldiers, he wrote his stirring series, The Crisis
(1775 1783). The first of sixteen numbers began with the chal-
lenge, "These are the times that try men's souls/' He advocated
nationalization of the Western lands, attacked paper money, and
supported the plan to strengthen the powers of the Continental
Congress. 37 In England, Paine met Burke, Fox, Home Tooke.
Replied to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution in The
Rights of Man (1791 1792). He was forced to flee to France
where he had been elected a deputy, but as a moderate he fell into
disfavor, and in prison wrote The Age of Reason (1794 1796),
attacking Christianity. Paine returned to America at Jefferson's
invitation ; was ostracized because of his supposed atheism and his
attack on Washington. He died in poverty.

Primarily a journalist, and one of the greatest, Paine had the
virtues and defects of his craft. He was direct, simple, clear, candid,
bold, witty, appealing to emotion and understanding, fitting lan-
guage to thought, and preserving order. 38 His defects lay in ex-
cessive brashness, lack of restraint in language, and in frequent
superficiality. His writing was by no means so crude as has been
contended. His turbulent career was produced, not by native de-
structiveness, but by the scientifically deistic view that man should
return to a primitive state of harmony with natural law, by elimi-
nating corrupt governments. 89 Not interested in history, Paine
ruthlessly attacked existing governments on the a priori rationalistic
belief that men are good and institutions are bad. He is important
in both political and intellectual history.

Writings include: The Case of the Officers of Excise (1772) ;
Epistle to the People Called Quakers (1776) ; Public Good (1780),
on public lands; Dissertations on Government, the Affairs of the
Bank, and Paper Money (1786) ; Decline and Fall of the English

36 M. D. Conway, The Life of Thomas Paine (two volumes* 1892): Hasketh Pearson,
Tom Paine: Friend of Mankind (1937): H. H. Clark, Thomas Paine: Representative
Selections (1945); W. E." Woodward, Tom Paine: America's Godfather (1945).

37 See especially, Six Neiv Letters of Thomas Paint (1939), edited by H. H. Clark,
with an excellent introduction.

38 H. H. Clark, "Thomas Paine's Theories of Rhetoric," TWASAL.. XXVIII (1933).
pp. 307-339.

39 H. H. Clark, "An Historical Interpretation of Thomas Paine's Religion," UCC.,
XXXV (1933), pp. 56-87, and "Toward a Reinterpretation of Thomas Paine." AL..
V ] 1933-1934), pp. 133-145; V. E. Gibbens, "Tom Paine and the Idea of Progress,'*
PMHB., LXVI (1942), pp. 191-204.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 33

System of Finance (1796) ; Letter to Ceorge Washington (1796) ;
Agrarian Justice (1797); Answer to the Bishop of Llandaff
(1810) ; Miscellaneous Poems (1819).

Common Sense (1776). Cut through legal arguments and ex-
plained the necessity of independence and its utility on economic
grounds. Plain Truth (1776), an anonymous Tory pamphlet,
was a feeble reply to Common Sense.

The Rights of Af<mt (17911792). Clever combination of
propaganda and political theory, attacking royalty and arguing de-
mocracy from the state of nature and the Bible. Denied that Eng-
land had a constitution. Suggested abolition of property, universal
education, old-age pensions. Paine's theory, perhaps derived from
Lord Kames, that only social rights are surrendered to the govern-
ment shows him a capable thinker. 40

The Age of Reason (1794 1796). 41 An attack on Christianity
and a defense of deism written perhaps to wean France from
atheism, or to undermine the buttress of privilege in the established
church. Much execrated, but still influential among small-town
free-thinkers.

WILLIAM SMITH, 17271803, Provost of the College of
Philadelphia, center of a literary circle, the author of The Letters
of Cato (1776), a hostile discussion of Paine's work.

THOMAS JEFFERSON, 17431826, statesman, architect,
educator. 42 Born on Virginia frontier. Graduated from William
and Mary College (1762). He read widely 48 in the classics, English
law, Harrington, Milton, Hobbes, Locke, Voltaire, Helvetius, and
Montesquieu, but not in Rousseau. In 1775 he went to the Conti-
nental Congress and in 1776 drafted the Declaration of Independ-
ence. In the Virginia Legislature, he led successful attacks on
entail, primogeniture, and the established church, and an unsuccess-
ful attack on slavery. Minister to France (1784 1789). Secre-
tary of State under Washington (17891793). President of the
United States (1801 1809). He carried on an extensive corre-

40 C. E. Merriam, "Thomas Paine's Political Theories/' PSQ., XIV (1899), pp. 389-
403; C. E. Persinger, "The Political Philosophy of Thomas Paine," UNGB., Sixth
Series, No. 3 (1901), pp. 54-74; Norman Sykes, "Thomas Paine/* in The Social 6-
Political Ideas of Some Representative Thinkers of the Revolutionary Era, edited by
F. T. C. Hearnshaw (1931), pp. 100-140; Joseph Dorfman, "The Economic Philosophy
of Thomas Paine," PSQ., LIII (1938), pp. 372-386.

41 The Writings of Thomas Paine, edited by M. D. Conway (four volumes. 1894-1896) ;
Selections from the Writings of Thomas Paine, edited by Carl Van Doren (1922);
Selections from the Works of Thomas Paine, edited with Introduction by A. W,
Peach (1928) ; Thomas Paine: Representative Selections, edited by H. H. Clark (1944),
with an excellent introduction.

42 Biographies: H. S. Randall, The Life of Thomas Je&erson (three volumes, 1858);
A. J. Nock, Jefferson (192*); Gilbert Oriiurd, ThomasTeftrson (1929); J. T. Adams.
The Living Jefferson (1936).

43 Oilnert Chinard (editor), The Commonplace Book of Thonws Jefferson (1926) and
The Literary Bible of Thoina* JeffcrsoS (1928).

34 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

spondence, and established the University of Virginia, even drawing
the architectural plans.

More than any American except Franklin, Jefferson embodied
the ideals of his day. He accepted the main tenets of deism : belief
in natural rights, political equality, natural altruism. He was
deeply interested in science, experimental agriculture, 44 architec-
ture, 45 scholarship, and education. 46 Politically he was the father
of the democratic spirit o-f this country. He believed that an edu-
cated electorate would choose officials from among the most capable
men. He thought that the best government was that which gov-
erned least, without aiding any particular class, and he was the
advocate of states rights and laissez-faire. His agrarianism was
sociological. He thought that cities produced depressed groups
which easily could become mobs. The physiocrats seem only to
have re-enforced ideas he had gained previously. 47 His corres-
pondence was of tremendous influence and is still of vital interest.
In literature he liked the classics. 48 He gave up an early interest
in poetry and novels, but wrote an article on prosody. Anglo-
Saxon and the philology of Indian languages interested him. Au-
thors whom he liked included Shakespeare, Milton, Swift, Sterne,
Macpherson, Akcnside, Blair, besides the political philosophers. As
a writer he showed dignity, flexibility, clarity, lyrical ippreciation of
nature, and command of generalization, but was occasionally prolix.
On the whole he followed his theory of putting force before pedantic
correctness.

A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774).
Argues from the British Constitution and also from natural rights.

The Declaration of Independence^ (1776). 49 A loftily eloquent
expression of the American viewpoint. Argues from both natural
right and English law. Jefferson's change of the Whiggish "Life,
liberty, and property" to "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi-
ness" shows his idealism.

Notes on ... Virginia (17811782; 1784). B0 Written in reply

44 See Paul Wilstach, Jefferson and Monticelh (1925).

45 S. F. Kimball, Thomas Jefferson, Architect (1916), discusses this phase of his activity.

46 On education, see: C. F. Arrowood, Thomas Jefferson and Education in a Republic
(1930) jR- J- Honeywell, The Educational Work of Thomas Jefferson (1931); O. W.
Long, Thomas Jefferson and George Ticknor (1933). Consult also Adrienne Kock,
The Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson (1943).

47 Cf. The Correspondence of Jefferson and Du Pont de Nemours, edited by Gilbert
Chinard (1931).

48 See especially Gilbert Chinard (editor), The Literary Bible of Thomas Jefferson
(1928),. Introduction; and C. A. Smith, Southern Literary Studies (c.1933).

49 Carl Becker, The Declaration of Independence (1922); J. P. Boyd, The Declaration
of Independence (1945).

50 Three standard editions of The Writings of Thomas Jefferson are edited by: H. A.
Washington (nine volumes, 1853-1854), still useful; P. L. Ford (ten volumes, 1892-
1894), the fcest text; A. L. Bergh (twenty volumes, 1903), the most inclusive. Cf.
Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson: Representative Selections, edited by F. C.
Prescott (1934); Bernard Mayo, Jefferson Himself (1942): a complete, fifty-volume
edition of Jefferson's writing is projected by Princeton University,

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 35

to a series of questions by the Marquis de Barbe-Marbois. Contains
excellent expressions of Jefferson's principal theories.

ALEXANDER HAMILTON, 17571804, statesman. 61
Born in the West Indies. Arrived in New York (1772) ; entered
King's (Columbia) College (1773). A Full Vindication (1774)
and A Farmer Refuted (1775) were replies to Samuel Seabury.
Joined army in 1775 and became a member of Washington's staff.
Married Elizabeth Schuyler (1780). Gave up Lockean for Hob-
besian principles. A conservative, if not a monarchist, he supported
the Constitution in The Federalist papers. As secretary of the treas-
ury, he made his great reports: Report on Public Credit (1790) ;
Report on a National Bank (1790); Report on Manufactures
(1791). These laid out the basis of the Federalist system and the
economic future of the country. He resigned his office in 1795,
opposed John Adams, and was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr
(1804).

Naturally aristocratic, Hamilton built his scheme of government
on Hobbes's belief that people are motivated by self-interest. No
adherent to a priori principles, he was an historical relativist. The
rich, he felt, must be persuaded to help the new state by receiving
a financial stake in it. Checks and balances were desirable in pro-
tecting this minority. Hamilton's economic vision in foreseeing and
providing for the industrial development of the country surpassed
Jefferson's.

Hamilton's literary ideals as exemplified in his writings include:
calm appeal to reason, dignified language, clarity and brevity, ap-
peal to emotions (especially in his youth), appeal to experience,
coherent orderliness in organization, appeal to the interests of men.
The reading which produced these theories included Hume, Hobbes,
Cudworth, Rousseau, Grotius, Vattel, Pufendorf, Montesquieu,
Junius, Adam Smith, and the classics, especially Aristotle's Politics
and Plutarch. Hamilton is vital to an understanding of America.

The Federalist (17871788). Written by Hamilton, Madison,
and Jay to support the ratification of the Constitution by New
York State, is the greatest American work on political theory.
Minimizing natural rights arguments, the authors show how the
Constitution sets up a republican rather than a democratic gov-
ernment, one which through checks and balances will prevent fac-
tions from oppressing minorities. Appealing to reason, vigorously
written, this document retains its interest and importance.

51 Biographies: J. C. Hamilton, The Life of Alexander Hamilton (two volumes, 1834-
1840) and History of the Republic (six volumes, 1857-1860); H. C. Lodge, Alexander
Hamilton (1883); W. G. Sunmer, Alexander Hamilton (1890): Gertrude Atherton,
The Conquerer (1902), fiction but useful; F. S. Oliver, Alexander Hamilton (1906);
H. J. Ford, Alexander Hamilton (1931). Also useful are: R. I. Warshow, Alexander
Hamilton (1931); J. T. Smertenko, Alexander Hamilton (1932); R. E. Bailey, An
American Colossus (1933); R. G. Tugwell and Joseph Dorfman, "Alexander Hamil-
ton: Nation-Maker," CUQ., XXIX (1937), pp. 209-226; XXX (1938), pp. 59-72;
D. G. Loth, Alexander Hamilton (1939); Bower Aly, Tht Rhetoric of Alexander
Hamilton (1941).

36 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

JAMES MADISON, 17511836, statesman." Educated at
Princeton. Important member of the Constitutional Convention,
where he took notes on the debates. A co-author of The Federalist,^
he wrote "No. X," a classical analysis of interest groups in society. 83

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 17321799, general, states-
man. 54 Primarily a man of action. His voluminous writings im-
proved steadily in style, though always formal and rather heavy.
The Farewell Address** written in consultation with Hamilton,
has become a classic statement of American foreign policy, and a
warning against the danger of factional conflict.

JOHN ADAMS, 17351826, statesman. 56 Harvard, A.B.
(1755). In 1811 he renewed his friendship with Jefferson through
a notable exchange of letters. 07 A Defence of the Constitutions . . .
of the United States of America (1787 1788) and Discourses on
Davila (1790 1791) set forth his aristocratic view of government.
He felt that the rich, the well-born, and the able should rule, and
expressed as great a fear of mobs as of kings. He was charged
with monarchism. He favored the elaborate checks and balances
which were employed in the Constitution. 58 In thought he resembled
Harrington and Hobbes; his writing was solid, logical, well de-
signed in architecture, but frequently too detailed and turgid. 89

JOHN MARSHALL, 17551835, jurist. 60 A Virginia Fed-

52 W. C. Rives, History of the Life and Times of James Madison (three volumes, 1859-
1868); Gaillard Hunt, The Life of James Madison (1902); A. E. Smith, James
Madison: Builder (1937); J. J. Spengler, "The Political Economy of Jefferson,
Madison, and Adams," in American Studies in Honor of William Kenneth Boyd
(1940); Irving Brant, James Madison: The Virginian Revolutionist (1941); A. T.
Prescott, Drafting the Federal Constitution (1941).

53 The Writings of James Madison, edited by Gaillard Hunt (nine volumes, 1900-1910).

54 Biographies include: John Marshall, The Life of George Washington (five volumes,
1804-1807); Washington Irving, Life of George Washington (five volumes, 1855-
1859); G. W. P. Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington (I860):
P. L. Ford, The True George Washington (1896); Rupert Hughes, George Wash-

G. K. Chesterton, "George Washington," PR., CXXXVII; N.S. CXXXI (1932).
pp. 303-310; M. T. Moses "His Excellency, George Washington," TAM., XVI
(1932), pp. 137-146.

55 The Writings of George Washington, edited by P. L. Ford (fourteen volumes, 1889-
1893); also The Diaries of George Washington (four volumes, 1925), edited by J. C.
Fitzpatrick, who is preparing the definitive collection of writings.

56 Biographies: J. T. Morse, John Adams (1885); T. Q. and C. F. Adams, The Life of
John Adams (two volumes, 1871); Gilbert Chinard, Honest John Adams (1933).
Cf. J. T. Adams, The Adams Family (1930).

57 See Correspondence of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson (1812-1$26). edited by
Paul Wtlstach (1925).

58 C. M. Walsh, Political Science of Jnhn Adami (1915): F. N. Thorpe, "The Political
Ideas of John Adams," PMHB., XLIV (1920), pp. 1-46.

59 The Works of John Adams, edited by C. F. Adams (ten volumes, 1850-1856). the
first volume of which also contains a biography. Familiar Letters of John Adams and
//w Wife Abigail Adams, during the Revolution (1876).

60 A. J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall (four volumes, 191 6- 19 19) is a monu-
mental history of this period, Federalist in bias. See also: B. W. Palmer, Marshall
and Tancy: Statesmen of the Law (1939). pp. 43-141, 256-275; Max Lerner. "John
Marshall and the Campaign of History," CLR.. XXXIX (1939). pp. 396-431; B. M.
Zieler, The International Law of John Marshall (1939); B. H. f^vv, Our Couth'-

i; Tool or Tertamcntf (1941), pp. 3-SR,

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 37

eralist. Chief Justice (18011835), Marshall greatly extended
the powers of the national government and in- particular of the
Supreme Court by his decisions, 61 written in clear, vigorous style,
and permanently influenced American historical development. Also
wrote The Life of George Washington (five volumes, 1804 1807).

POETRY"

NATHANIEL EVANS, 17421767, poet, cleric, friend of
Godfrey. 63 His Poems on Several Occasions (1772) were imitative
of Milton, Cowley, Prior, Gray, Collins. The best were called
forth by the French and Indian War. He showed promise, but
died young.

PHILIP FRENEAU, 17521832, poet, editor, seaman. 64
Of a Huguenot family. Graduated from the College of New Jersey
in 1771, with Madison and Brackenridge. With the latter he wrote
a prose romance, Father Bombo's Pilgrimage, and a commence-
ment poem, "The Rising Glory of America." He was the most
"hellishly keen" satirist of the British during the War. Voyage to
the West Indies resulted in his fine poems, "The Beauties of Santa
Cruz" (1776; 1786), "The Jamaica Funeral" (1776; 1786), and
"The House of Night" (1779). Was captured and incarcerated
by the English in a hulk which he excoriated in "The British Prison
Ship" (1781). His satire continued to appear in the Freeman's
Journal until 1784, when he returned to the sea. 65 He edited the
Daily Advertiser (1789 1791), and was aided by Jefferson in
setting up the militantly anti-Federalist paper the National Gazette
(1791 1793). fle He later contributed to the Jersey Chronicle and

61 John Marshall, Complete Constitutional Decisions, edited by J. F. Dillon (1903) ;
cf. E. S. Corwin. John Marshall and tht Constitution (1921).

52 For collections of verse of this period see: Frank Moore, Senas and Ballads of the
American Revolution (1856) and Illustrated Ballad History of the American Revo-
lution (1876); W. B. Otis, American Verse. 1625-1807 (1909); M. A. DeW. Howe.
Yankee Ballads (1930); O. E. Winslow, American Broadside Verse from Imprints of
the 17th and 18th Centuries (1930); Louise Pound, American Ballads and Songs
(1932); L. M. Miner, Our Rude Forefathers: American Political Verse (1783*17t8)
(1937).

63 E. L. Pennington, Nathaniel Evans: A Poet of Colonial America (1935).

64 Studies include: E. F. De Lancey, "Philip Freneau, the Huguenot Patriot Poet of
the Revolution and His Poetry." PHSA.. II (1891), pp. 66-84; M. S. Austin, Philip
Freneau. the Poet of the Revolution (1901); S. E. Forraan, "The Political Activities
of Philip Freneau," JHSHPS., Series XX. No. 9-10 (1902); P. E. More, Shelburne
Essays, Fifth Series (1908), pp. 86-105; F. L. Pattee, Sidelights on American Lit-
erature (1922), pp. 250-292; S. B. Hustvedt, "Philippic Freneau," AS.. IV (1928),
pp. 1-18; F. L. Pattee, "Philip Freneau as Postal Clerk," AL., IV (1932-1933).
pp. 61-62; J. M. Beatty, "Churchill and Freneau," AL.. IV (1932-1933), pp. 270-287;
Frank Smith, "Philip Freneau and The Time-Piece and Literary Companion*' AL..
IV (1932-1933), pp. 270-287; Rica Brenner, Twelve American Poets C1933). pp. 3-22;
V. F. Calverton, "Philip Freneau, Apostle of Freedom," Mod.M. t VII (1933),
pp. 533-546: G. W. Allen, American Prosodv (1935), pp. 1-26; H. H. Clark. Mainr
American Poets (1936), pp. 781-787; P. M. Marsh, "Was Freneau a Fighter?"
PNJHS., LVI (1938), pp. 211-218, and "Philip Freneau and His Circle." PMHB..
LXIII (1939), pp. 37-59. The best biography is L, G. Leary, That Rascal Freneau
(1941).

65 P. M. Marsh, "Philip Freneau'* Personal File of The Freeman's Journal," PNJHS..
LVII (1939), pp. 163-170.

66 P. M. Marsh, "Freneau and Jefferson: The Poet-Editor Speaks for Himself about the
National Gazette Episode/' AL. f VIII (1936-1937), pp. 18^189.

38 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

the Time-Piece (17971799). In this period before 1800 he was
a supporter of the French Revolution. As he grew older, Freneau
took to drinking, lost much of his wealth, and finally died of ex-
posure in a snowstorm.

Freneau was much more than a Revolutionary satirist. His
genuine and original lyrical gift made him the father of American
poetry, and he has also been called the father of American prose. 67
His political satire and his poems of "romantic fancy" stem from
the same source eighteenth century scientific deism. Freneau
believed in a benevolent creator, the natural goodness and equality
of man, the noble savage, the evil of institutions, the idea of prog-
ress through harmony with God's laws, and in the capricious genius
of great men. Widely read in classical and-neoclassical literature,
Freneau is a transitional figure in the approach to Romanticism,
both in diction and in his treatment of the sea, the noble savage,
and nature, 68

He believed that the removal of tyrannical governments would
permit a natural harmony ; he used violent language to further this
Utopian end. Among his best revolutionary satires were "American
Liberty," "A Political Litany," "A Midnight Consultation/' "Amer-
ica Independent," "George the Third's Soliloquy," and "The British
Prison Ship," 69 The same spirit made Freneau a sympathizer with
the French Revolution, a defender of Genet after Jefferson had
given him up, and the author of "On the Anniversary of the Storm-
ing of the Bastile" (1793), "The Republican Genius of Europe"
(1795), and "God Save the Rights of Man" (1795). His fierce
editorial attacks on the Federalists sprang from sincere conviction. 70

Freneau's lyric poetry, though minor, is often haunting in beauty.
Using the contemporary themes of nature, evanescence, interest in
both humanity and solitude, primitivism and the supernatural, he
achieved a real charm, which is at odds with the harsh satire for
which he was best known in his own day. Both types are marred
by a restless, perhaps romantic, lack of discipline and control of
his medium.

Freneau's non-political prose is smooth and pleasant. "The
Philosopher of the Forest" series depicts a man living close to na-
ture, avoiding the evils of pride which are the cause of wars. The
eloquent description shows a knowledge of seventeenth century as
well as Addisonian rhythms. "The Essays of Robert Slender" are

67 XXV*' O 930)' " Wha 3 t Madc Freneau the Father of American Prose?" TWASAL..

68 Sec H. H. Clark's interpretations: Poems of Freneau (1929), Introduction; "The
Literary Influences on Philip Freneau," SP.. XXII (1925), pp. 1-33; "What Made
Freneau the Father of American Poetry?" SP.. XXVI (1929); pp. 1-22.

69 5 v r ?J?ft D /i n d \ e ' " Fr eneau's The British Prison Ship and Historical Accuracy," /.,
5 XVI11 , ( i2? 9 U PP- 228-230; P. M. Marsh and Milton Ellis, "A Broadside of
Freneau's 'The British Prison Ship/" AL. t X (1938-1939), pp. 476-480.

70 mnrff 7 \ Vwi f& f *'* cditcd ** H - H - claj * tt*34), for some of Freneau's
more temperate political writings.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 39

really sketches. "Tomo Cheeki, the Creek Indian in Philadelphia"
uses the Goldsmith device of having a stranger describe ridiculous
customs.

"The Power of Fancy." 71 Is in the good eighteenth century
tradition of versified poetic theory, imitating Joseph Warton, and
showing Freneau's knowledge of Milton. His individualistic and
nationalistic poetic theory^also found expression in "To Sylvius/'
"To an Author," and the essay "Advice to Authors."

"The Beauties of Santa Cruz." Excellent lyric. Its concrete
nature imagery shows him the precursor of a new poetic style. 72

"The House of Night." Related to Blair and the graveyard
school, and modelled on Sackville's Induction, it is a powerful
macabre poem.

"To the Memory of the Brave Americans," or "Eutaw
Springs" (1781). Solemn and enduring- elegy to the Revolu-
tionary heroes.

"To a Wild Honeysuckle" (1786). Perhaps his finest lyric,
is a lament for the mutability of nature, conveying the emotion of
transience delicately and with restraint. The diction as well as the
mood, pensive and poignant, is akin to seventeenth century poets
like Marvell.

"The Indian Burying Ground" (1788). Captures his feeling
for the noble savage, which he obtained partly from Addison and
partly from observation. Both Scott and Thomas Campbell bor-
rowed a line from this poem.

Freneau's sea poems, which emphasize the dangers as much as
the mystery of the deep, include "Hatteras," "The Hurricane," and
the stirring naval poems, "The Memorable Victory of Paul Jones,"
"Captain Barney's Victory," and "The Battle of Lake Erie."

The Connecticut Wits

JOHN TRUMBULL, 17501831, poet, jurist 74 M.A., Yale
(1770) ; remained as tutor and sought introduction of English lit-
erature in curriculum. The Progress of Dulness (1772 1773),

71 The best editions are: The Poems of Philip Freneau, edited by F. L. Pattee (three
volumes, 1902-1907); Unpublished Freneauana, edited by C. F. Hartman (1918);
Poems of Freneau, edited by H. H. Clark (1929).

72 See C. A. Moore, "The Return to Nature in English Poetry of the Eighteenth Cen-
tury," SP., XIV (1917), pp. 243-291. For another precursor to Romanticism, see
Leon Howard, "Thomas Odione: An American predecessor of Wordsworth,'* AL. t X
(1938-1939), pp. 417-436.

73 See: A. M. Marble, Heralds of American Literature (1907); H. A. Beers, The
Connecticut Wits and Other Essays (1920); The Connecticut Wits, edited by V. L.
Parrington (1926), with a hostile introduction; Leon Howard, The Connecticut Wits
(1943).

74 J. H. Trtimbull, The Origin of M'Fingal (1868); Alexander Cowie, John Trumbull.
Connecticut Wit (1936) and "John Trumbull as a Critic of Poetry," NEQ.. XT
(1938), pp. 773-793; K. A. Conley, "A Letter of John Trumbull," NEQ., XI (193*
pp. 372-374; Leon Howard, The Connecticut Wits (1943), pp. 37-78.

40 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

a Hudibrastic satire on education. An Elegy on the Times (1774)
attacked British economic policies. M'Fingal (two cantos, 1775 ;
complete, 1782) was a satire on the Tories in the Revolution.
Based on Hudibras and Churchill's The Ghost, from which he un-
wisely borrowed a Scotch instead of a native protagonist ; it lacked
the bite if not the wit of its prototypes. Trumbull was too genial
to be an influential satirist, but his poem is still highly entertaining.

TIMOTHY DWIGHT, 17521817, author, educator, cleric,
patriot, Calvinist, Federalist. 75 Educated at Yale. Chaplain in the
Revolution: Wrote song, "Columbia" (1784; 1793). The Con-
quest of Canaan (1785) is a dull epic on the wars of Joshua.
Greenfield Hill (1794) is modelled on Denham's Cooper's Hill.
The first book is like Thomson, the second like Goldsmith, but in-
stead of bewailing the deserted village, Dwight praised the changes
in America, the general prosperity, and the leaders of the people.
The poem has some pleasant description.

From 1795 he was president of Yale; revived Calvinism, yet he
was a humanitarian, fostered missions, and set up charitable insti-
tutions. His Theology Explained and Defended (five volumes,
1818 1819) was important. His best work was Travels in New-
England and Neiv-York (four volumes, 1821 1822), a clear-
sighted and unfavorable picture of provincial and frontier condi-
tions. Dwight was an ardent nationalist seeking to set up an
American literature.

JOEL BARLOW, 1754 1812, poet, statesman. 78 Graduated
from Yale (1778) with Noah Webster. Chaplain in Revolution;
a Hartford lawyer. Became a Rousseauistic democrat. Sent to
France as land agent (1788). Met Paine in England. 77 Was
United States consul to Algiers (1795 1805). Died as minister
to France. The Vision of Columbus (1787) was an ambitious
patriotic poem in nine books, subsequently enlarged into The
Columbiad (1807). a long, dull effort to glorify democracy anil
peace, as well as the young nation. Written in heroic couplets.
The Hasty Pudding (1793; 1796), an amusing mock-heroic piece

75 Sec- M. C. Tyler, Three Men of Letters (1895), pp. 69-127; D. D. Addison, The
Cleroy in American Life and Letters (1900), pp. 157-190; M. A. DeW. Howe. Classic
Shades (1928), pp. 3-40, A. W. Gnswold, "Three Puritans on Prosperity," NEQ. t VII
(1934), pp. 475-493, C. E. Cunmgham, Timothy Divight, 1752-1817 (1942); Leon
Howard, The Connecticut Wits (1943), pp. 79-111, 342-401.

76 Studies include. C. I*. Todd, Life and Letters of Joel Barlow (1886); M. C. Tylei,
Three Men of Letters (1895), pp. 129-188; T. A. Zunder, "Six Letters of Joel Barlow
to Oliver Wolcott, NEQ., II (1929), pp. 475-489; V. C. Miller, "Joel Barlow: Revo-
lutionist, London, 1791-92," Britannica, VI (1932); T. A. Zunder, The Early Days
of Joel Barlow . . . 1745-1787 (1934); M. R. Adams, "Joel Barlow, Political Romanti-
cist," AL. t IX (1937-1938), pp. 113-152; Leon Howard, The Vision of Joel Barlorv
(1937) and "Joel Barlow and Napoleon," HLQ,, II (1938), pp. 37-51; M. E. Kcmpton,
"The Tom Barlow Manuscript of the Columbiad," NEQ.. XI (1938). pp. 834-842;
T. A Zunder, "A New Barlow Poem." AL., XI (1939-1940), pp. 206-209; John Dos
Passes, The Ground We Stand On (1941), pp. 256-380; Leon Howard, The Connec-
ticut Wits (1943), pp. 133-165, 271-341.

77 See T. A. Zunder. "Notes on the Friendship of Joel Barlow and Tom Paine/' <!BC ..
VI (1935), pp. 96-99.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 41

celebrating the American dish, cornmeal mush* Advice to the
Privileged Orders (1792 1793) T8 was a brilliant analysis of politi-
cal evils, written by an ardent democrat who thought the French
Revolution would cause a general improvement of governments.

DRAMA"

ROYALL TYLER, 17571826, dramatist, novelist, jurist. 80
Few of his plays have survived. Best known for The Contrast
(acted 1787; published 1790), the first performed American
comedy. It contrasted an American officer, Colonel Manly, with
Dimple, who affects English fashions. Has Jonathan, the prototype
for the stage Yankee. Examples of his closet-type religious drama
are: The Origin of the Feast of Purim, Joseph and His Brethren,
and The Judgement of Solomon. Also wrote The Algerine Captive
(1797), a picaresque novel satirizing education, medical quacks,
slavery, and the treatment of prisoners in Algeria. Wrote poetry
as "Colon" of "Colon and Spondee/' his literary partnership with
Joseph Dennie. Attacked Delia Cruscans. Long poem, The Chest-
nut Tree (1824; 1931) gave a good picture of village life and a
prophecy of the results of the machine age.

THE NOVEL* 1

WILLIAM HILL BROWN, 17651793, wrote The Poiver
of Sympathy (1789, 1937), which has been designated as the first
American novel. 82

78 P. H. Boynton, "Joel Barlow Advises the Privileged Orders," NEQ., XII (1939),
pp. 477-499.

79 William Dunlap, History of the American Theatre (1832); G. O. Seilhamer, A History
of the American Theatre, 1749-1797 (three volumes, 1888-1891); T. A. Brown, History
of the New York Stage, from 1732 to 1901 (three volumes, 1903); Arthur Hornblow,
A history of the Theatre in America (two volumes, 1919); A. H. Unn, A History
of American Drama from the Beginning to the Civil War (1923); M. J. Moses.
The American Dramatist (1925); G. C. D. Odell, Annals of the New York Stage
(1927- ); Oral Coad and Edwin Mims, The American Stage (1929); R. D. James.
Old Drury in Philadelphia: A History of the Philadelphia Stage. 1800-1835 (1932);
T. C. Pollock, A History of the American Theatre in the Eighteenth Century (1933);
F. P. Hill, Amertcan Plays Printed 1714-1830: A Bibliographical Record (1934);
M. J. Moses and J. M. Brown (editors). The American Theatre as Seen by Its Critics.
1752-1934 (1934); C. G. Hartman, The Development of American Social Comedy
from 1787 to 1936 (1939).

Anthologies have been edited by: M. J. Moses, Representative Plays by American
Dramatists (three volumes, 1918-1921) and Representative American Dramas (revised
by J. W. Krutch, 1941); A. G. Halline, American Playt (1935); A. H. Quinn,
Representative American Plays (revised, 1938).

80 See Frederick Tupper "Royall Tyler, Man of Law and Man of Letters,'* PVHS. t I
(1928), pp. 63-101; A. H. Nethercot, "The Dramatic Background of Koyall Tyler's
The Contrast/' AL.. XII (1940-1941), pp, 435-446.

81 L. D. Loshe, The Early American Novel (1907, 1930); Oscar Wegehn, Early American
Fiction, 1774-1830 (1929); Pelham Edgar, The Art of the Novel from 1700 to the
Present Time (1933): G. F. Singer, The Epistolary Novel (1933); A. H. Quinn,
American Fiction (1936); Carl Van Doren, The American Novel (1939); L. H.
Wright. "A Statistical Survey of American Fiction, 1774-1850," HLQ.. II (1939),
pp. 309-318.

82 Milton Ellis, "The Author of the First American Novel: William Hill Brown, AL..
IV (1932-1933), pp. 359-368.

42 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

CHARLES BROCKDEN BROWN, 17711810, novelist,
editor, first professional man of letters in the United States. 83 Of
wealthy Quaker family. Read omnivorously as a boy. Planned
epics on Columbus, Pizarro, and Cortez. Was impressed by Eng-
lish liberals like Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin, and
by Condorcet, Raynal, Helvetius. Wrote novels feverishly from
1798 1801. Edited magazines both before and after.

Brown sought to write truly American novels, but he failed in
technique and treatment, though not in setting. From Godwin he
took a plot idea of having an innocent person hounded by a wealthy
man. He was influenced by the Gothic romance to use horror and
the pre-Byronic hero. Richardsonian influence is seen in seductions,
introspection, and sensibility. His style was unhappily heavy, La-
tinate, stilted. But he did have power, even if the characters were
too often undifferentiated and the circumstances too improbable.

Showed a notable interest in scientific and pseudo-scientific topics
like sleep-walking, ventriloquism, and spontaneous combustion.

Alcutn (1798). First feminist work in America. Argued for
mutuality and against indissoluble marriages. Influenced by Mary
Wollstonecraft.

Wieland^ (179S). 84 Attack on superstition is the theme of this
exciting romance, Theodore thinks God has commanded him to
kill his family, but the voice is that of Carwin, a ventriloquist. The
rational characters have the least trouble, and Wieland comes to
grief more because of fanaticism than the ventriloquist's deceptions,
which serve chiefly to maintain interest despite the many halts
while Clara, the narrator, analyzes her feelings. Has power.

Ormom/(1799). 85 Plot resembles that of Godwin's Caleb Wil-
liams. Constantia Dudley, the poor heroine, is pursued by Ormond,
who is rich but loses his benevolence. She finally kills him when he
assaults her. 86

Arthur Mervyn (1799 1800). Has an inextricably complicated
plot with murder, seduction, a chase of the young country lad, and

83 For studies see: William Dunlap, The Life of Charles Brockden Brown (two volumes,
1815), unsympathetic; H. T. Tuckerman, Mental Portraits (1853), pp. 271-286; W. H.
Prescott, Biographical and Critical Miscellanies (1903), pp. 1-52; M. S. Vilas, Charles
Brockden Brown: A Study of Early American Fiction (1904); John Erskine, Leadinq
American Novelists (1910), pp. 3-49; Carl Van Doren, "Minor Tales of Brockden
Brown/' Nation, C (Jan. 14, 1915), pp. 46-47; D. L. Clark, Charles Brockden Brown
(1923) and "Brockden Brown's First Attempt at Journalism," UTSE., VII (1927),
pp. 155-174; Tremaine McDowell, "Scott on Cooper and Brockden Brown," MLN.,
XLV (1930), pp. 18-20; The Rhapsodist, edited by H. R. Warfel (1943). Cf. H. R.
Warfel's forthcoming biography of Brown (c.1946).

84 Edited by F. L. Pattee (1926), with Introduction. Cf. J. C. Hendrickson, "A Note
on Wieland," AL., VIII (1936-1937), pp. 305-306.

85 Edited by Ernest Marchand (1937).

86 Shelley was influenced by Brown in The Revolt of Islam and in his prose romances.
See M. T. Solve, "Shelley and the Novels of Brown," The Fred Newton Scott Anni-
versary Papers (1929), pp. 141-156; Eleanor Sickela, "Shelley and Charles Brockden
Brown," PMLA., XLV (1930), pp. 1116-1128.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 43

a terrible, realistic picture of the yellow fever epidemic in Phila-
delphia. Its effect is strong but chaotic. Again the theme is the
problem of natural innocence beset by villainy.

Edgar Huntly; or Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799). 8T Con-
tains dangers in the forest, Indian depredations, and crimes com-
mitted in a state of somnambulism. Believing that native material
should be used, Brown introduced the Indian, treating him not as
the noble savage, But as a ruthless fighter when disturbed. As be-
fits romance, his Indians are bad, but easily killed.

Clara Howard (1801) and Jane Talbot (1801). Both in letter
form, they mark recession from Brown's previous sensationalism.
They probe character well, but are less interesting. Mildly femin-
istic, but less so than Alcuin**

Despite Brown's philosophical radicalism, he was no literary
rebel. 89 He edited and wrote most of the Monthly Magazine and
American Review (1799 1800) ; American Review and Literary
Journal (1800 1803) ; Literary Magazine and American Register
(1803 1807) ; and the American Register , or General Repository
(1807 1810). His criticism was fairly conventional, and he found
it expedient to avoid controversial matters in politics.

HUGH HENRY BRACKENRIDGE, 17481816, author,
jurist. 90 Came from Scotland (1753) ; graduated from Princeton
(1772). A chaplain in the army, taught school, edited the United
States Magazine (1779), wrote blank verse dramas: The Battle
of Bunkers Hill (1776) and The Death of General Montgomery
(1777). Went to Pittsburgh as a lawyer (1786). Misfortunes in
politics caused him to begin Modern Chivalry (1792 1815), writ-
ten in installments to satirize political and social conditions on the
frontier. He tried to please both sides during the Whiskey Rebel-
lion, and wrote a justification of his conduct. He collected a volume
of fugitive writings before his death.

Brackenridge was a classicist, a believer in balance. He opposed
both democratic excesses and aristocratic pretensions. He read
widely in the classics and in English literature.

Modern Chivalry (1792 1815). Based on Don Quixote, con-
tains the adventures of Captain Farrago and his ignorant servant
Teague O'Regan. Teague runs for Congress, is elected to the
American Philosophical Society, is tarred and feathered as an ex-
ciseman, sets up a newspaper, etc. With humor that is still appeal-
ing, Brackenridge satirizes all the excesses of his day attacks

87 Edited by D. L. Clark (1928).

88 D. L. Clark. "Brockden Brown and the Rights of Women/' UTB.. No. 2212 (1922).

89 Ernest Marchand, "The Literary Opinions of Charles Brockden Brown," SP. t XXXI
(1934), pp. 541-566.

90 C. M. Newlin, The Lift and Writings of Hugh Henry Brocktnridgc (1932) is
definitive.

44 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

on judges, on property qualifications for voting, on pride in ignor-
ance. A believer in Jeffersonian democracy and education, he rep-
resents a happy balance between aristocracy and mobocracy.

MISCELLANEOUS PROSE

NOAH WEBSTER, 175& 1843, journalist, educator, lexi-
cographer. 91 Graduated from Yale (1778). An ardent nationalist, 92
his first spelling book, A Grammatical Institute of the English
Language (1783), contains in an introduction his declaration of
literary independence. Sketches of American Policy (1785
1786) strongly argued for potent central government. In his lec-
tures (1785 1786) he argued in the interests of American lan-
guage and educational system and attracted the attention of Frank-
lin. Founded the American Magazine (1787 1788) and became
a critic. An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Fed-
eral Constitution (1787) was another argument for a strong and
stable government. Dissertations on the English Language (1789)
advocated American language and institutions to implement the
new government. A Collection of Essays and Fugitiv Writings
(1790) and The Prompter (1791) inculcated Federalistic and na-
tionalistic ideals. Founded and edited the American Minerva
(17931803). In 1802 he began to work for an American copy-
right. Worked on An American Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage from 1800 1828, meanwhile issuing a Compendious Dic-
tionary (1806), and helping to found Amherst College. His
Spelling Book sold one hundred million copies.

JOSEPH DENNIE, 17681812, essayist, editor. 98 Born in
Boston, father a merchant. Graduated from Harvard (1790), but
disliked it. Admitted to the bar in New Hampshire. Wrote "Colon
and Spondee" papers with Royall Tyler; "Farrago" essays (1792),
combining Goldsmith's vivacity and Addison's sweetness; 9 * "The
Eagle" (17931794) partly reprinted in The Tablet (1795);
"Lay Preacher," a pro-Federalist series for the New Hampshire
Journal: or the Farmer's Weekly Museum. He edited this journal
(17951799), and later the Port Folio (18011812), as "Oliver
Oldschool, Esq." This was the chief American literary magazine
till 1815. Printed ms. poems of Campbell, Moore, Hunt, "Monk"

91 E. E. F. Ford, Notes on the Life of Noah Webster (1912); H. R. Warfcl. Noah
Webster, Schoolmaster to America (1936) is excellent; E. C. Shoemaker, Noah Web-
ster. Pioneer of Learning (1936).

92 On Webster's nationalism, see H. H. Clark, "Nationalism in American Literature,"
UTQ., II (1933), pp. 492-519: also R. W. Bolwell. "Concerning the Study of National-
ism in American Literature,'' AL., X (1938-1939). pp. 405-416.

93 See W. W. Clapp, Joseph Dennie (1880); H. M. Ellis. "Joseph Dennie and His
Circle," TUSE., No. 3 (1915), pp. i-vii, 9-285; L. G. Pedder (editor), "The Letters
of Joseph Dennie, 1768-1812," U\Ma.S. t XXXVIII, Second Series, No. 36 (1936);
Bernard Smith, Forces in American Criticism (1939), pp. 19-21.

94 Cf. E. C. Coleman, The Influence of the Addisonian Essay in America before 1810
(1936).

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 45

Lewis, and selections of Wordsworth and Coleridge, showing
Dennie's interest in romanticism. Though he published approval
of Tom Moore and the romantic poets, he loved the classics, and
was a political conservative.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OP AUTHORS

FBOSE WBITKR8

SAMUEL JOHNSON, 16961772, philosopher. Elementa Philosophic* (1752),
JOHN BARTRAM, 1699 1777, naturalist. Observations in His Travels (1751); Descrip-
tion of East Florida (1769).
STEPHEN HOPKINS, 1707 1785, governor, patriot. Rights of Colonies Examined

(1765).
RICHARD BLAND, 1710 1776, patriot. An Enquiry into the Rights of the British

Colonies (1766).

JONATHAN CARVER, 17101780. Travels (1778).
ANTHONY BENEZET, 1713 1748, humanitarian. A Historical Account of Guinea

(1771).
DANIEL DULANY, 1722 1797, lawyer. Considerations on the Propriety of Imposing

Taxes (1765).
JOHN WITHERSPOON, 1723 1794, scholar. The Worfc of John Wither spoon (nine

volumes, 1804 1805).

SAMUEL SEABURY, 17291796, loyalist. The Westchester Farmer (17741775).
JOSEPH GALLOWAY, 1731 1803, loyalist. A Candid Examination (1775).
ANN HULTON, loyalist. Letters of a Loyalist Lady (1927).

ETHAN ALLEN, 1738 1789, soldier, deist. Reason the Only Oracle of Man (1784).
JONATHAN BOUCHER, r.1738 1804, loyalist. Reminiscences of an American Loyalist

(1925).

DANIEL LEONARD, 1740 1829, loyalist. Massachusettensis Letters (1774 1775).
JAMES WILSON, 17421798, jurist. Selected Political Essays of James Wilton (1930).
BENJAMIN RUSH, 1745 1813, physician. Essays (1798).
FISHER AMES, 17581808, politician. Worlds (1809; enlarged, 1854).

POSTS

GEORGE COCKXNCS, /U758 1802, poet. War (1758); The Conquest of Canada

(1766).

JONATHAN ODELL, 17371818, loyalist. The Old Year and the New (1779).
NATHAN MILES, 1741 1828, poet. The American Hero (1775).
THOMAS COOMBE, 1747 1822, loyalist. The Peasant of Auburn; or, The Emigrant

(1783).

LEMUEL HOPKINS, 17501801, poet. The Cuillotina (1796).
JOSEPH STANSBURY, /U776 1780, loyalist. Lords of the Main (1780).
DAVID HUMPHREYS, 1752 1818, poet. On the Happiness of America (1780).
ANN ELIZA BLEEKER, 17521783. The Posthumous Works (1793).
PHILLIS WHEATLEY, r.1753 1784, Negro poet. Poems (1773).
SARAH WENTWORTH MORTON, 17591846. Ouabi (1790).
RICHARD ALSOP, 1761 1815, poet. The Charms of Fancy (1788); The Echo (with

Theodore D wight, 1807).

JOHN WILLIAMS, 1761 1818, satirist. Hamtitoniad (1804).
JOSEPH BROWN LADD, 1764 1786. Poems of Arouet (1786).

46 THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD: 1763-1810

SAMUEL Low, .1765, poet, dramatist Poems (1800); The Politician Outwitted

(1789).

THOMAS GREEN FESSENDEN, 1771 1837, poeL Democracy Unveiled (1805).
WILLIAM CLIFFTON, 17721799. The Group (1796); Poems (1800).
ROBERT TREAT PAINE, 17731811, poet. Work (1812).
PAUL ALLEN, 17751826, poet. Original Poems (1801); Noah (1821).
JOHN SHAW, 1778 1809, poet. Poems (1810).

DRAMATISTS

MERCY OTIS WARREN, 1728 1814, dramatist. The Adulateur (1773); The Group

(1775).

JOHN LEACOCK, dramatist. The Fall of British Tyranny (1776).
MAJOR ROBERT ROGERS, 17311795, dramatist, Indian fighter. Ponteach (1766).
COLONEL THOMAS FORREST, </.1828, dramatist. The Disappointment (1767, 1796).
WILLIAM DUNLAP, 1766 1839, dramatist, biographer, painter. Ribbemont (acted,

1796); Andre (1798).

PETER MARKOE, c.1752 1792, dramatist, poet. The Reconciliation (1790).
JOHN D. BURK, 17751808, dramatist. Bunker Hill (1797); Bethlem Gabor (1&07).
JAMES NELSON BARKER, 1784 1858, dramatist. Superstition (1824).
JOSEPH HUTTON, 17871828, dramatist. The Orphan of Prague (1808).

NOVELISTS

ENOS HITCHCOCK, 1745 1803. Memoirs of the Bloomsgrove Family (1790).

EBENEZER BRADFORD, 1746 1801. The Art of Courting (1795).

JAMES BUTLER, r.1755 1842. Fortune's Football (17971798).

HANNAH W. FOSTER, 17591840. The Coquette (1797).

SARAH SAYWARD BARRELL KEATING WOOD, 1759 1855. Julia and the Illuminated

Baron (1800).
ISAAC MITCHELL, 1759 1812. The Asylum; or, Alonzo and Melissa (serial, 1804;

two volumes, 1811).

SUSANNA HASWELL ROWSON, 1762 1824. Charlotte, a Tale of Truth (1791).
TABITHA TENNEY, 1762 1837. Female Quixotism (two volumes, 1801).
CAROLINE MATILDA WARREN, r.1787 1844. The Gamesters (1805).

MISCELLANEOUS PROSE

LINDLEY MURRAY, 1745 1826, educator. English Grammar (1795).
JUDITH SARGENT MURRAY, 1751 1820, essayist, dramatist. The Gleaner (three vol-
umes, 1798), poems and essays; The Medium (1795), drama.
ANNE McVicxAR GRANT, 1755 1838, author. Memoirs of an American Lady (1808).

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD

(1810-1865)

CHAPTER IV

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

General View. (1) The War of 1812 freed the United States
from danger of foreign domination, and attention was turned to
internal expansion. The West was settled rapidly, internal im-
provements were demanded, and "manifest destiny" became obvious
to the people. (2) The common man came into his own under
Jackson. (3) The industrial revolution transformed the North-
east and combined with a reform epoch to set the North and South
against each other on the issue of slavery. (4) The Civil War set-
tled the question of secession and started the country on a new
path.

The Romantic Period (18101865). 18121815: The War of
1812. 18171825: Monroe's era of good feeling. 1820: The Mis-
souri Compromise. 1823: The Monroe Doctrine. 1825: Erie Canal
completed. 1827: First railroad completed, Quincy, Massachusetts.
1829 1837: Jacksonian democracy. 1832: South Carolina Nulli-
fication Ordinance. 1834: McCormick invents reaper. 1837 1841:
Van Buren administration. 1837: Financial panic. 1841 1845:
Tyler administration. 1844: Telegraph line. 1845: Annexation of
Texas. 18451849: Polk administration. 18451847: Irish im-
migration. 1846 1848: Mexican War. 1848: German immigra-
tion. 18491853: Taylor and Fillmore in office. 1849: Gold rush
to California. 1850: Compromise of 1850. Enforcement of Fugi-
tive Slave law enrages the North. 1853: Railroad complete from
New York to Chicago. 18531857: Pierce's administration. 1854:
Kansas-Nebraska bill results in another contest over slavery.
1857 1861: Buchanan in office. 1857: Dred Scott decision. Panic
and depression in North. 1858: First successful marine cable to
Europe. 1859: John Brown's raid. 1860: Election of Lincoln.
Secession begins. 1863: Emancipation Proclamation. Battle of
Gettysburg. 1865: Lee's surrender. Assassination of Lincoln. 1

1 For historical background see: J. F. Rhodes, A History of the United States. 18SO-
1877 (eight volumes, 1899-1919); J. R. Commons et a/.. Historv of Labor in the
United States (two volumes, 1918); W. E, Dodd. The Cotton Kingdom (1919). a
very good little book; Claude Bowers. The Party Battles of the Jackson Period (1922) ;
Merle Curti, The American Peace Crusade, 1815-1860 (1929); C. R. Fish, The Rise
of the Common Man. 1830-1850 (1929); U. B. Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old
South (1929): E. D. Branch, The Sentimental Years, 1836-1860 (1934); A. C. Cole,
The Irrepressible Conflict (1934); Sources of Culture in the Middle West, edited by
D. R. Fox (1934).

48

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 49

GENERAL VIEW OP THE LITERATURE

Literature finally emerged. Whereas seventeenth century writing
had been primarily religious and eighteenth century writing pri-
marily political, nineteenth century writing was belletristic, cen-
tered in art. Romanticism was the dominant strain, with emphasis
on individualism, emotionalism, use of the past in historical novels
and extravagant romances, and new emphasis on nature. But
American conditions were such that the form of the movement
was disguised. The fact that the United States had already achieved
a democracy, and that the presence of the frontier kept working
conditions good, prevented the political radicalism of the European
romantics. American natural beauty was celebrated when interest
in nature arose, and the American past, as well as foreign settings,
was used in romance. A set of national ideals was developed by
men like Emerson and Whitman. American society was agrarian,
which produced both idyllic pictures of rural life and humorous
treatments of rusticity. But as a young country, the United States
had a sense of inferiority, a "colonial complex" which led to literary
nationalism and an emphasis on refinement and decorum. 2 Sec-
tional differences remained or developed as a result of the large
size of the country. Then, too, the absence of international copy-
right and the presence of many periodicals, annuals, and gift books
affected writing, the former by putting English authors into com-
petition with American, the latter by chaining the writers to the
sentimental tastes of the middle classes. Finally evangelical religion
in its deprecation of carnal sins, kept moral conduct within strict
bounds, and in its distrust of frivolous writing imposed an aggres-
sive didacticism upon literature to demonstrate its utility. 8

THE KNICKERBOCKER SCHOOL

WASHINGTON IRVING, 17831859, author, essayist,
story writer, historian, biographer. 4 Born of prosperous merchant

2 See V. F. Calverton, The Liberation of American Literature (1932).

3 See Paul Kaufman in The Reintcrprctation of American Literature, edited by N. F.
Foerster (1928), pp. 114-138, for a good chanter on Romanticism. Merle Curti, The
C,roivth of American Tlwnqht (1943) is excellent on intellectual trends.

4 Biographies: P. M. Irving, Life and Letters of Washington Irvina (four volumes,
1862-1864; three volumes, 1869); C. D. Warner, Washington Irving (1881); R. H.
Stoddard, Life of Washington Irvina (1883); G. S. Hellman. Washington Irving.
Esquire (1925); S. T. Williams, Washington Irving (two volumes, 1935), the best
critical biography.

Letters and Journals include: Letters of Henry Brevoort to Irving and Letters
from Irving to Henry Brevoort. edited hy G. S. Hellman (1918); Journals of Wash-
ington Irving, edited by W. P. Trent and G. S. Hellman (three volumes, 1919); for
ot k$r items, cditc <2 ^ y S ' T * Williams, see his Washington Irvina. Of especial interest
is The Journal of Emily Foster, edited by S. T. Williams and L. B. Beach (1938),
finally proving that Irving did propose to her and was rejected.

Writinps: The standard edition is The Works of Washington Irving (twenty-one
volumes, 1860-1861). The best volume of selection! is Washington Irving, edited with
bibliographies and a critical introduction by H. A. Pochmann (1934).

Bibliographies: W. R. Langfeld and P. C. Blackburn. Washington Irving: A Bib-
twraphy (1933). Cf. W. R. Langfeld (editor). Thf Poems of Washington Irving

(193 Z*\ JS? nmd from B ' iiUH * f N *> Y ** P****c Library, XXXIV (1930),
Pf>. 7o3-779.

50 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

stock. Was frail in health. Read for law instead of attending college.
On first trip to Europe (1804), went frequently to the theatre.
Began desultory law practice on his return, though he soon devoted
more time to literature than to law. Was popular in society both
here and abroad (his tour in 1821 was the beginning of his social
triumph in England). Traveled often on Continent, especially
in Germany and Spain. Remained a bachelor, and was indolent by
his own admission. He lived a leisurely life as a recognized man
of letters. Appointed attache to American legation at Madrid
(1826). Became Secretary of the Legation to the Court of St.
James (1829). Minister to Spain (18421845).

Irving, a far cry from the ethical ideal of the Puritans, was a
man of sentiment, pleased by the amenities of upper-class life,
which made him a cultural Federalist and inclined him toward
antiquarian research. Beginning as a neoclassicist, he became a
romantic as a result of contact with German Gothicism 5 and Scott.
He lives today because of his blend of sensibility and humor, and
because of his charming and carefully wrought style. He was a
slow worker, for he lacked a creative imagination, and in addition
he was a perfectionist. His outlook was genial (he did not share
the Federalists' distrust of human nature), and by virtue of his
charm, he had tremendous influence as the literary ambassador of
America to Europe. The characteristics he contributed to the form
of the short story include: (1) definiteness of locality, (2) absence
of didacticism, (3) unity of atmosphere and time, (4) humor,
(5) vivid characterization, and (6) finished style. 6 Such qualities
as these keep him alive despite his lack of deep insight into human
nature, lofty ideas, or moral earnestness. 7

Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle (18021803; 1824). Juvenilia.

Salmagundi; or, The Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot
Langstaff, & Others (18071808). By Washington and William
Irving and James Kirke Paulding, a serial miscellany of essays and
poems comprising Addisonian memoirs of the Cockloft family, and
satirical letters from a Turkish exile in New York, after the model
of Goldsmith and Montesquieu. 8

5 See H. A. Pochmann, "Irving's German Sources in The Sketch Book" SP.. XXVII
(1930), pp. 477-507, and "Irving's German Tour and Its Influence on his Tales,
PMLA., XLV (1930), pp. 1150-1187.

6 F. L, Pattee, The Development of the American Short Story (1933), pp. 1-26.

. . ,

Irving," Blackivood's, VI (1820), pp. 554-561: C. D. Warner, W. C. Bryant, and

owen, "Washington Irving's Place

7 J. G. Lockhart, "On the Writings of Charles Brockden Brown and Washington
Irvin

. Putnam, Studies o Irvin (1880 E. w. ,

., 171-183; W. M. Payne, Leading

American Essayists (1910), pp. 40-143; H. W. Boynton, "Irving," in American
Writers on American Literature, edited by John Macy (1931), pp. 58-71; H. S. Canby,
Classic Americans (1931), pp. 67-96; I. T. Richards. "John Neal's Gleanings in

Irving," Blackivood's, VI (1820), pp. 554-561: C.
G. P. Putnam, Studies of Irving (1880); E. w. Bo
in American Literature/' SR., XIV (1906), pp. 1

Irvingiana." AL., VITI (1935-1936), pp. 170-179; "A Master of the Obsolete: Wash-
ington Irving in the Shadows," TLS.. No. 1781 (1936), p. 229.

8 H. W. Mabte, The Writers of Knickerbocker New York (1912); Stockton Ax son,
"Washington Irving and the Knickerbocker Group," RJP. t XX (1933). pp. 178-195.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 51

A History of New York ...by Diedrich Knickerbocker^ ( 1809) .
Begun as a parody, continues as a burlesque, 10 with fact and fiction
mingled in an "American manner." His kindly satire of the Dutch
offended their descendants. Diedrich was of this line, an eccentric
bachelor with diverting idiosyncrasies. Book IV satirized Thomas
Jefferson as Governor Kieft. The style is classic eighteenth cen-
tury English with echoes of everything imaginable. 11

The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Genf.f (1819 1820).
An immediately popular collection of sketches, short stories, and
essays, containing the immortal "Rip Van Winkle," "The Legend
of Sleepy Hollow," "The Spectre Bridegroom," "Stratford on
Avon," and "Westminster Abbey."

Brace bridge Halt (1822). Charming, but more dated than The
Sketch Book. "The Stout Gentleman" is one of its best tales.

Tales of a Traveller (1824). Contains a number of Gothic
stories of which "Adventure of the German Student" and "The
Devil and Tom Walker" are the most effective. Criticized as in-
ferior to its predecessors.

A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus

(1828). Though now superseded, reveals Irving's diligence. Based
chiefly on the work of Navarrete.

A Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829). A semi-fiction-
ized history.

The Alhambra\ (1832). Contains delightful sketches and stories
founded on Irving's experiences in the old palace and on oral
tradition. Many of the romantic tales are based on legends of
buried Moorish treasure, and emphasize the cupidity of churchmen.
Irving discovered a romantic past with castles and a departed glory
which America lacked. Notable are "The Rose of the Alhambra,"t
"Legend of the Arabian Astrologer,"! and "Legend of Two Dis-
crete Statues."!

The Crayon Miscellany (1835). Series of three volumes. In-
troduces the new element of the American West in A Tour on the
Prairies^ based on Irving's own experiences.

Astoria (1836). The first biography of an American business
magnate (J. J. Astor), written at a time when interest in the West
was increasing.

9 The first edition was reprinted with a critical introduction by S. T. Williams and Tre-
maine McDowell (1927).

10 C. G. Laird, "Tragedy and Irony in Knickerbocker's History," AL.. XII (1940-
1941), pp. 158-172, shows that the work becomes more serious as it progresses.

11 See Edwin Greenlaw, '^Washington Jrving's ^Comedy of Politics,". TR., I (1916),

History
Ex pur gal

THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Adventures of Captain Bonneritle (1837). 12 No longer looked
to as a source for Indian customs. Irving's Western books were
less popular than his previous sketches.

The Life of Oliver Goldsmith (1840; revised, 1846). Perhaps
because of Irving's sympathies with the inconsistencies of his sub-
ject, this is the most successful of his biographies. Mahomet and
His Successors (1850). Wotfert's Roost (1855) contains assorted
sketches written long before. Life of Washington (five volumes,
1855 1859). A labor of love, which Irving found difficulty in
completing. It was based on careful research, though facilitated by
the publication of The Writings of Washington, edited by Jared
Sparks.

SUGGESTED MERITS

1. Irving himself thought that his
style was his most important char-
acteristic. It is smooth, euphonious,
lucid, and, while carefully wrought.
it is easy, natural, and charming.

2. Humor of several sorts: Satire
in Salmagundi and Knickerbocker is
usually kindly, at times sharp. Ge-
niality is more characteristic, as in
Rip Van Winkle. Even his Gothic
horror stories end with a comic
turn.

3. Sentiment often blended with
humor. Frequently expressed as
nostalgia for a romantic past, as
in England and Spain. Explains
his early idealization of Indians.

4. Skill in short story and sketch
based on careful handling of details
which round out the slender plot.

SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Diction tends to be a mosaic
of old expressions and thus to lack
originality.

2. Lacks emotional depth or in-
tensity; of course he did not try
to achieve either.

3. Sentimentality occasionally ex-
cessive. See "The Pride of the
Village." At home in the past, not
in the reality of the present. Books
on the West are clear, for example,
but lack charm of earlier work.

4. Inventive power slight,
plots are usually borrowed.

His

5. Conscientious as a historian and
biographer, though most at home
in freer forms.

5. Needed basis of a previous work
as structural frame for his history
and biography.

6. Literary ambassador to Europe.
Irving's geniality, tolerance, humor,
liking for tradition, and elegance
of style made him popular with
literary leaders and the reading
public of Europe, thus aiding the
acceptance of later American au-
thors.

6. Sought perhaps too much to
please. His work shows changing
taste of time, but carefully avoids
controversial issues.

12 Title of the first edition U: The Rocky Mountains: or, Scenes. Incidents, and Ad-
ventures . . . of Captain B. L. E. Bottncville. Sec J, A. Russell, "Irving. Recorder
of Indian Life, ' JAN.. XXV (1931), pp. 185-195.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 53

NATHANIEL PARKER WILLIS, 1806-1867, poet, drarn^
atist, New York editor. 18 Maine born, educated at Andover and
Yale ; became known as beau and writer of Scriptural poetry. As
editor (1829 1831) of the American Monthly Magazine and its
successor the New-York Mirror he acquired prominence. Pencil-
lings by the Way (1835), Loiterings of Travel (1839), Letters
from Under a Bridge (1840) had a popularity today difficult of
explanation. So too his poetry: Melanie and Other Poems (1835),
The Lady Jane and Other Poems (1844), The Poems, Sacred , Pas-
sionate, and Humorous (third edition, 1844), and his novel Paul
Fane (1857). Most likely to endure are his plays Bianca Visconti
(played, 1837) and Tortesa the Usurer (1839). Both plays show:
1. free treatment of history; 2. diffuse and badly articulated plot;
3. wordy and high-flown style. Association with G. P. Morris on
the New Mirror (18431844), New-York Mirror (18441845),
and with the Home Journal (1846 1867) is important in journal-
ism. His contemporary popularity shows the false standards of
his day.

FITZ-GREENE HALLECK, 1790 1867. 14 Born at Guil-
ford, Connecticut. Son of a Tory. Went to New York at the age
of twenty-one. Worked in banks, but educated himself and wrote
as a side line. Had a charming personality and wit. Campbell his
ideal, but influenced also by Scott and Byron. Wrote the "Croaker
Papers" with J. R. Drake for the Evening Post and National Ad-
vertiser (1819); he called these satirical poems "harmless pleas-
antries luckily suited to the hour of their appearance." Almvick
Castle, with Other Poems (1827) tries to unite Byron's satiric
realism with Scott's romance. The Poetical Works of Fits-Greene
Halleck (1847). "Fanny" (1819) is a clumsy imitation of "Beppo."
"Marco Bozzaris" is somewhat better. Excellent is the elegy, "On
the Death of Joseph Rodman Drake."

JOSEPH RODMAN DRAKE, 1795 18?0, poet. 15 Father
died and rest of family went to New Orleans. He remained in
New York state and studied medicine. Died of tuberculosis. Friend
of Halleck with whom he wrote "Croaker Papers" (1819). The
Culprit Fay, and Other Poems* (1835). Title poem was written
in three days ; is charming but imperfect. Drake was a spontaneous
poet interested in using the American scene. He showed promise.

GEORGE POPE MORRIS, 18021864, poet, journalist.
Co-founded New-York Mirror (1823), important as vehicle for

13 TG. Paston], "Willis's Writings," NAR.. XLIIT (1836), pp. 384-412; H. A. Beers.
Nathaniel Parker Willis (1885); T. G. Wilson, Bryant and'His Friends (1886);
Granville Hicks, "A Literary Swell," AM., XVI (1929), pp. 361-369.

lr See N. F. Adkins, Fitg-Grsene Halleck: An Early Knickerbocker Wit and Poet
O930\ for a general discussion of the Knickerbocker school; cf. H. W. Mabie.
The Writers of Knickerbocker New York (1912).

15 See F. L. PJeadwell, The life and Works of Josfph Xodmo* Drake (1935).

54 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

the Knickerbocker school. Author of "Woodman, Spare that Tree"
and "Near the Lake." Also wrote Briar Cliff (1826), a drama of
the Revolution, and a volume of humorous prose.

JAMES KIRKE PAULDING, 177& 1860, poet, novelist,
friend of Irving with whom he wrote Salmagundi series. 16 Impor-
tant in politics and literature (18071850). Chief Dutch inter-
preter of New York Dutch. The Diverting History of John Bull
and Brother Jonathan (1812), allegorical anti-English satire in
the wave of nationalism. 17 The Lay of the Scottish Fiddle (1813),
a poetic parody of Scott. The Backwoodsman (1818), a poem.
Westward Ho! (1832), a tale. 18 The Old Continental (1846),
often considered better than The Spy. The Bucktails (1847),
satirical play.

POETRY

Northern Poets

WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT, 17941878, poet, editor. 19
Born at Cummington, Massachusetts ; grew up on a farm as a Fed-
eralist, a Calvinist, and a classicist ; he gradually changed his beliefs
until he ended as a Democrat, a Unitarian, and a romanticist. 20
His satire, The Embargo; or, Sketches of the Times, was published
in Boston (1808). Studied for college (18091810), partly with
Rev. Moses Hallock. Entered Williams College as a sophomore
(1810), and spent one year there. "Thanatopsis" written (1811).
Wrote Byronic poetry, studied law, and was a practicing attorney
in Plainfielcl (18151816), and in Great Barrington (1816
1825). Left for New York City where he helped edit the New
York Review and the United States Review. Later he obtained a
position on the New York Evening Post of which he was an editor
(18291878). The rest of his life was as steady as Poe's was
unstable. He wrote countless reviews, did editorial work on the

16 W. T. Paulding, Literary Life of James Kirke Pauldina (1867); A. L. Herold, James
Kirke Pauldinq, Versatile American (1926); N. F. Adkins, "James Kirke Paulding's
Lion of the West," AL.. HI (1931-1932), pp. 249-258.

17 See K K. Brown, "The National Idea in American Criticism/' DR., XIV (1934),
pp. 133-147; also, J. C. McClosky, "The Campaign of Periodical* after the War of
1812 for National American Literature/' PMLA.. L (1935), pp. 262-273.

18 N. F. Adkins, "A Study of James K. Paulding's Westward Ho>" AC.. Ill (1927),
pp. 221-229.

19 Julia Hatfield, The Bryant Homestead Book (1870), gossipy and not reliable: G. W.
Curtis, The Life, Character, and Writings of William Cullen Bryant (1879); Parke
Godwin, A Biography of William Cull en Bryant (two volumes, 1883), the standard
biography: T G. Wilson, Br\>ant and His Friends (1886), pp. 11-127 and passim; John
Bipclow, William Cnllen Bryant (1890); W. A. Bradley, William Cnllen Bryant
(1905), better on poetry than on the life; Tremaine McDowell, "The Ancestry of
William Cullen Drj-ant, Americana, XXII (1928), pp. 408-420; also "Cullen Bryant
at Williams College," NRO., I (1928), pp. 443-466. "The Juvenile Verse of William
Cnllen Bryant," SP.. XXVI (1929), pp. 96-116, "William Cullen Bryant and Yale."
NRO . HI (1910). pp. 706-716; "Cullen Bryant Prepares for College/* SAQ., XXX
(1931), pp. 125-133.

20 See Tremaine McDowell, William Cullen Bryant; Representative Selections (1935).
p. xv /.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 55

paper, issued poems, took six trips to Europe, and died wealthy.
His chief volumes of verse were : The Fountain and Other Poems
(1842) ; The White-Footed Deer and Other Poems (1844) ; Thirty
Poems (1864); Hymns (1864); The Iliad of Homer (1870);
The Odyssey of Homer (18711872).

In politics, Bryant discarded his early conservatism which had
induced him to support the New England threat of secession in
1812. Reading Ricardo, Smith, and Say led him to a belief in free
trade. On the Post he was a steady liberal, advocating penal re-
forms, freedom of speech, the rights of labor, currency and banking
reforms, and the abolition of slavery. He became a Free-Soiler and
a "black Republican" ; during the War he felt that Lincoln moved
too slowly, though he came to appreciate him.

In religion, Bryant abandoned Calvinism for deism and Unitari-
anism, but retained a slight tinge of Puritanism all his life. Volney
was still popular at Williams when Bryant was there, 21 and he
became something of a deist and stoic as "Thanatopsis" attests.
Later he embraced Unitarianism. He was not entirely clear in his
thoughts on nature. He occasionally saw it as an emanation of
God ("A Foiest Hymn"), but he was not a pantheist. Nature
was at times evil, as in storms, and he felt it only as a secondary
manifestation of God. In general his relation to nature was joyous,
even when it reminded him of the transcience of life, for he appre-
ciated a certain amount of flux, and thought that creation was ever
renewed in the cycle of change which gave things an impersonal
immortality.

His romanticism, which is demonstrated in his attitude toward
nature, developed early. 22 He was influenced by the transitional
English figures Blair, White, Cowper, Thomson, and Alison ; 23

21 Tremaine McDowell, "Cullen Bryant at Williams College," NEQ., I (1928). pp. 443-
466.

22 Materials for criticism include: John Wilson, Essays Critical and Imaginative (1856),
II, pp. 191-223, sane Scottish view; J. V. Cheyney, That Dome in Air (1895), pp. 127-
143; Harriett Monroe, "Acre Perennius," Poetry, VI (1915), pp. 197-200, and
"Bryant and the New Poetry/' Dial, LIX (Oct. 14, 1915), p. 314 /., strongly opposed;
J. L. Hervey, "Bryant and The New Poetry/ " Dial, LIX (Aug. 15. 1915), pp. 92-93,
favorable; A. H. Strong, American Poets and Their Theology (1916), pp. 3-48; E. J.
Bailey, Religious Thought in the Greater American Poets (1922), pp. 10-32; Allan
Nevins, The Evening Post O922), shows Bryant's political^ liberalism; Norman Foer-

Poetes d
in death;

Cullen Bryam, a neimerpretatton, ' /c/i/i., jvi {iy$+) t pp. ^va-auj; wimam ^uucw
Bryant and Communism," Mod.M., VIII (1934), pp. 353-359; "Bryant and the
United States Review," NEQ.. VII (1934), pp. 687-701; "William Cullen Bryant and
Fanny Wright," AL. t VI (1934-1935), pp. 427-432; "Bryant the Poet of Humor,"
Americana, XXIX (1935), pp. 364-374; G. W. Allen, American Prosody (1935).
pp. 27-55; C. I. Glicksherg, "New Contributions in Prose by William Cullen Bryant,
Americana, XXX (1936), pp. 573-592, also "Bryant and Whittier/' EIHC., LXXIT
(1936), pp. 111-116, and ''Bryant and the Sedgwick Family." Amemcana. XXXI
(1937), pp. 626-638; H. L. Drew, "Unpublished Letters of William Cullen Bryant,"
NEQ. t X (1937), pp. 346-355: Tremaine McDowell, William Cullen Bryant (1935),
gives in its critical introduction, pp. xiii-beviii, the best materials so far for a critical
estimate, also "Bryant's Practice in Composition and Revision," PMLA. t LII (1937),
pp. 474-S02; C. I. Glicksberg, "Bryant on Emerson the Lecturer/' NEQ.. XII (1939),
pp. 530-534.

23 W. P. TTndimi. "ArrfcihaM A1!*An and William r11* -Rrvatit At YTT MO4A.

56 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

he imitated Byron for a time ; and by 1812 he was a permanent ad-
mirer of Wordsworth, from whom he derived more in technique
than in thought. He is remembered as the celebrator of the wilder
aspects of nature the storms and rugged hills, as well as the
flowers and birds.

Bryant was skillful in the use of verse forms; in his own day he
was considered an innovator. He wrote stately and sonorous blank
verse, adopted the Spenserian stanza, showed great mastery of the
octosyllabic couplet, and worked out a number of other stanza
forms. The influence of Wordsworth on his diction is obvious.
Aside from the use of a variety of forms, his work did not show
progress. He wrote as well at the end of his life as ever, but with-
out entirely fulfilling his early promise, and he could never sustain
a long poem. Since the American climate was not congenial to the
professional poet, Bryant turned to journalism to make a living,
though it could be wished that he had been as willing to starve for
his art as Poe. If not one of the great, he was at least the first
American to attain an international reputation as a poet.

For years Bryant was an important critic, delivering lectures on
poetry and writing reviews, many of them only recently identified. 24
His literary theories can be outlined as follows: (1) Appeal to
feeling, imagination, and understanding. (2) Opposition to neo-
classical, second-hand, bookish imitation. (3) Use of imaginative
synthesis. (4) Attack on metaphysical subtleties. (5) Need for
selection to attain elevation and suggest! veness. (6) Use of nature
as a means of bodying forth ideas. (7) Flexibility and freedom in
metrics. (8) Concern with timeless elements. (9) Emphasis on
ethical beauty. 28

"Thanatopsis"t (1817 version enlarged in 1821). The main
body was written in 1811, but the beginning which makes nature
the speaker, and the conclusion were added in 1821. A sonorous,
deistic, stoical meditation on death. 26

"The Yellow Violet" (1814). Uses American not English
nature. Though not orthodox, Bryant is accused of over-moralizing.
If so, he was in the Burns and Wordsworth tradition.

"Inscription for the Entrance to a Wood" (1815). Blank-
verse, sensuous description of nature, claiming that the forest is
consolation for those who find men evil.

"I Cannot Forget with What Fervid Devotion." A lament
on the fact that urban life shatters the dream engendered by walks
in the woods.

24 Tremaine McDowell, William Cullcn Bryant (1935), pp. 359-362, lists over fifty.

25 See The Prose Writings oi William Cult en Brvant. edited hy Parlce Godwin (two
volumes, 1884); and Treraaine McDowell. William C*llen Bryant (1935),

26 See Carl Van Doren, "The Growth of 'ThanatopMV " AV*0, CI (Oct. 7, 1915),
pp. 4 32*4 3 J.

EARLY SENTIMENT ANU ROMANCK 57

"To a Waterfowl"! (1815; 1818). Often considered Bryant's
masterpiece. Has sure command of metrics. The flight of the bird
gives the poet an idea of a protecting power.

"Green River" (1820). In four foot couplets. Theme: the
healing powers of nature.

"Oh Fairest of the Rural Maids." Written to Frances Fair-
child, later Bryant's wife.

"A Winter Piece." A cheerful description of a snow-covered
New England landscape.

"Monument Mountain." Retells an Indian legend of a girl
who, because of an unhappy love, cast herself off a cliff.

"A Forest Hymn"f (1825). A stately and dignified celebra-
tion of nature's sanative effect on man. God is the creator, but
there are also some pantheistic hints here. Poe praised its rhythmi-
cal beauty.

"To the Fringed Gentian" (1829; 1832). A charming lyric
with a moral turn. Gives evidence of Bryant's close association with
nature, the result of botanizing expeditions begun in his youth.

"Song of Marion's Men," "The Battle-Field," "Our Coun-
try's Call," and "Death of Lincoln." Reveal his patriotism.

"The Fountain" (1839). Works out the theme of permanence
in flux. The fountain continues to flow even though the surround-
ings change.

"A Lifetime" and "The Flood of Years" (1876). Written in
a retrospective mood. The latter is a contemplation of the past
which overwhelmed countless people, and of the future in which
they will be made happy once more.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Lofty nobility and eloquence of 1. Lack of that concentration
style. which marks the greatest poets.

2. Technical mastery of many 2. Narrow range of subject matter,
verse forms.

3. Dignified treatment of expan- 3. Dullness. Many readers find
sive subjects such as the beauties Bryant lacking in emotional and
of nature and the fate of man. intellectual fire. 27

4. A classical emphasis upon ex- 4. Excessive moralizing, as at the
actness and correctness of form end of "To a Waterfowl" and 'To
which produced, in spite of his a Fringed Gentian."

general romanticism, a uniform ex-
cellence.^

5. A courageous stoicism as ex-
pressed in "Thanatopsis," chang-
ing to the long-range optimism of
"The Flood of Years."

27 E. C. Stedman, Poets of America (1885), pp. 62-94.

28 H. H. Clark, Major American Poets (1936), pp. 788-797.

58 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

JOHN PIERPONT, 17851866, poet, Unitarian clergyman,
reformer. 80 An accomplished prosodist and humorist ; had a vigor-
ous mind. The Portrait (1812) and Airs of Palestine (1816)
established him as a poet. Anti-Slavery Poems (1843). Famous:
"Warren's Address to the American Soldiers."

JAMES GATES PERCIVAL, 17851856, poet, geologist
of Connecticut. 30 B.A., Yale (1815). Poems (1821) contained the
Spenserian "Prometheus." -Clio I and II (1822), not good lyrics.
Prometheus Part II with Other Poems (1822), Clio III (1827),
The Dream of a Day, and Other Poems (1843). Was the ranking
poet until Bryant's Poems (1832). Turned to geology in later life.

RICHARD HENRY DANA, Sr., 17871879, poet, essayist.
Born in Cambridge of distinguished ancestry. Harvard (1804
1807). The Buccaneer and Other Poems (1827), its title-poem
praised by Blackwood's as powerful and original. Influenced by
Crabbe, Wordsworth, Coleridge. Wrote in simple, direct style, not
fashionably florid. Edited North American Review.

JOHN GARDINER CALKINS BRAINARD, 17961828,
poet. Edited Connecticut Mirror in Hartford (1822). Poems
(1825) and Literary Remains (1832) 81 contain popular pieces like
"On the Connecticut River," "The Black Fox of Salmon River,"
and "The Sea Bird's Song." Used ballad form ; possessed delicacy
and humor.

THOMAS BUCHANAN READ, 18221872, painter,
poet. 82 Wrote "Sheridan's Ride" (1865), one poem likely to es-
cape oblivion. "Drifting," "The Attack," "The Maid Who Binds
Her Warrior's Sash" are other poems not without merit. Read's
cfnly venture in prose was Paul Redding: A Tale of the Brandy-
wine (1845). The Female Poets of America (1849) is an anthology
with brief introductory notices. His complete poetical works were
published in 1883.

RICHARD HENRY STODDARD, 18251903, poet, critic,
editor, 88 Self-educated, worked in factories, was an iron-moulder.
Received customs house position (1853) through Hawthorne.

29 See sketch in S. A. Eliot, Heralds of a Liberal Faith (1910), II; J. T. Winterich.
"Savonarola of Hollis Street/' Colophon. Part Twenty, No. 4 (1935).

30 W. H. Pearson, "James Gates Percival," WMH., VIII (1925). pp. 131-145; A. B.
Benson, "James Gates Percival, Student of German Culture,'* NEQ. t II (1929),
pp. 603-624.

31 Edited by J. G. Whittier, with Introduction (1832).

32 See If. C. Town send et a/., A Mtmoir of T. Buchanan Read (1889) ; R. H. Stoddard,
Recollections Personal and Literary (1903); C. L. Moore, ?'A Neglected American
Poet." Dial, LVI (1914), pp. 7-9; A. E. Smith, "Letters of Thomas Buchanan Read,"
OSAHQ., XLVI (1937), pp. 68-80.

33 See J. B. Gilder in Authors at Home, edited by J. L. and J. B. Gilder (1889). pp. 293-
312; H. C. Vedder, American Writers of Today (1894), pp. 275-287; E. C. Stedman,
Genius and Other Essays (1911), pp. 141-153, 166-173; W. P. Fenn, "Richard Henry
Stoddard's Chinese Poems," AL.. XI (1939-1940), pp. 417-438.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 59

Reviewer for New York World (18601870). Literary editor of
Mail and Express (18801903). Poetry not great. Ear bad,
imagination limited and imitative. "The Dead Master" addressed
to Bryant and "Abraham Lincoln: An Horatian Ode" have real
power. Used Oriental themes. Bridged the generations of Bryant
and Taylor. Criticism good considering its journalistic nature.
Poems (1852) ; Songs of Summer (1857) ; The Book of the East
and Other Poems (1871) ; The Poems of Richard Henry Stoddard
(1880) ; The Lion's Cub: With Other Verse (1890) ; Under the
Evening Lamp (1892); Recollections Personal and Literary
(1903).

THOMAS WILLIAM PARSONS, 18191892." A Boston
dentist whose real interest lay in scholarship and religion. Trans-
lated Dante's Inferno^ ten cantos of which appeared in 1843, to
be followed by the remaining seventeen in 1865, almost simul-
taneously with Longfellow's translation of the Divine Comedy.
In 1893, his Inferno and Purgatorio\ were published together,
while his original poems appeared in a separate volume. Enshrined
as "The Poet" in Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn, Parsons
himself wrote The Old House at Sudbury (1870). A collection
of his letters has recently been published. 88

4

Southern Poets

EDGAR ALLAN POE, 180 1849, poet, short-story writer,
critic." Born in Boston; parents were actors. In 1811 he was
taken into the home of John Allan of Richmond, but not legally
adopted; thus his future was insecure. Educated in England
(18151820). Attended University of Virginia (1826), but soon
left after a quarrel with Allan over gambling debts. He left foster
home (1827), published Tamerlane and Other Poems in Boston,
and joined the army. After Mrs. Allan's death (1829) he resigned
and obtained an appointment to West Point in 1830. Fearing that
he would lose right to property if Allan remarried and hoping to
prevent the step, Poe refused to obey orders and was expelled from

34 T. B. Aldrich, "A Portrait of Thomas William Parsons," Century, XLVIII; N.S..
XXVI (1894), p. 323 /.; M. S. Porter, "Thomas William Parsons, with Unpublished
Poems by Dr. Parsons, and Letters by Dr. Holmes/' Century, LXII; N.S.. XL (1901),
pp. 934-938; Austin Warren, "T. W. Parsons, Poet and Translator of Dante,* MB. t
XIII (1938), pp. 287-303.

35 Letters by T. W. Parsons, edited by ZolUn Haraszti (1940).

36 Biographies include: J. H. Ingram, Edgar Alton Pot (two volumes, 1880); J. A.
Harrison. Life and Letter* of Edgar Allan Poe (two volumes, 1903). one of the best;
G. E. Woodberry. The Life of Edgar Allan Poe (two volumes, 1909), best literary
life; J. W. Robertson, Edgar Allan Poe; a Psychopathic Study (1921); Edgar Allan
Pot Letters till Now Unpublished, in the Valentine Mnsenm. edited by M. N. Stanard
(1925); J. W. Krutch, Edgar Allan Poe (1926), Freudian; M. E. Phillips, Edaar
Allan Poe (two volumes, 1926). original material, poorly arranged: Hervey Allen,
Israfel (two volumes, 1926), vivid, perhaps too romantic; Una Pope-Hennery. Edgar
4$VJZ& 5 1934 ? ensible; J. H. fiirss, "Poe in Fordham: A Reminiscence?' NO-
CLXXIII (1937), p. 440: H. . Spivey, 'Toe and Lewis Gaylord Clark/ 1 PMLA..
LIV (1939), pp. U 24- 11 32; A. H. Quinn, Edgar Alia* Poe (two volumes, 1942),
contains new material and is temperate la tone.

60 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

West Point. Thereafter he was permanently estranged from his
foster father. From 1831 to 1833 he probably lived with his aunt,
Maria Clemm, in Baltimore. "MS. Found in a Bottle" won the
Baltimore Saturday Visitor's one hundred dollar prize (1833).
Through John Pendleton Kennedy, he obtained a position on the
Southern Literary Messenger (1835), and began his editorial
career. He married Virginia Clemm, his thirteen-year-old cousin,
in 1836, and lost his position (1837), possibly because of alcoholism.
After a financially barren year in New York, he went to Philadel-
phia where he helped edit Burton's Gentleman's Magazine (1839
1840) and Graham's Magazine (1841 1842). Tales of the Gro-
tesque and Arabesque appeared (1840). In 1844 he moved to
New York to work on the Evening Mirror. The Raven and Other
Poems and Tales appeared (1845). Godey's Lady's Book pub-
lished his scries on "The Literati" of New York (1846). The next
year his wife died after a long illness in extreme poverty. He sought
refuge in other women, especially Mrs. Whitman and Mrs. Shelton.
Some of his best poems and some of his most successful lectures
are the product of his last year before he died in Baltimore, perhaps
intoxicated or perhaps drugged and robbed.

Despite such unhappy circumstances, Poe distinguished himself
in three fields criticism, short story, and poetry. It is difficult
to estimate Poe's works because they are hard to separate from the
man, who is not any too well known. Unfortunately, Poe left his
papers to Griswold, who disliked him and defamed him thoroughly.
Thus the truth about Poe is still not easy to get at, 87 especially since
most of the search has been for abnormalities. It is, after all, his
work that counts, and more light can still be thrown upon his

37 The nature of Foe criticism is significant. Beginning with Rufus Griswold, the first
defaming biographer and critic, too much attention has been given to attack and defense,
to debunking and equally dangerous romanticizing. At the other pole are the hundreds
of short articles dealing with sources for particular poems. These may be found listed
in the bibliographies appearing in each issue of AL. Among the significant estimates
and worth-while discoveries are: Charles Baudelaire, "Edgar Poe, Sa Vie et Ses
Oeuvres/' in Histotres Extraordinaire* par Edgar Pot (1856; translated by H. C.
Curwin, 1872); L. E. Gates. Studies and Appreciations (1900), pp. 110*128; Gustav
Gruener, "Notes on the Influence of E. T. A. Hoffmann upon Edgar Allan Poe/'
PMLA., XIX (1904), pp. 1-25; W. C. Brownell, American Prose Masters (1909).
pp. 207-267, very unfavorable; C. A. Smith, Edgar Allan Poe, H'ow to Know Him (1921) ;

F. L. Pattee, Sidelights on American Literature (1922), pp. 327-342; Margaret Alterton,
Origins of Poe's Critical Theory (1925), the basis for an intellectual defense of Poe;
Killis Campbell, "Poe's Reading/' UTSE.. V (1925), pp. 166-196; Floyd Stovall.
"The Women of Poe's Poems and Tales," UTSE., V (1925). pp. 197-209; Napier
Wilt, "Poe's Attitude toward His Tales, a New Document/' MP.. XXV (1927),
pp. 101-105, shows Poe's tales based on study of current magazines; Norman Foerster,
American Criticism (1928), pp. 1-51, important; S. F. Damon, Thomas Holley Chivers.
Friend of Poe (1930); W. L Werner, "Poe's Theories and Practice in Poetic Tech-
nique/' AL.. II (1930-1931), pp. 157-165; L. C. Bell, Poe and Chivers (1931). reply
to Damon; H. S. Canby, Classic Americans (1931). pp. 263-307; Killis Campbell,
The Mind of Poe and Other Studies (1933). sane and sound, the best single book for
Poe criticism; W. F. Taylor, "Tsrafel in Motley: A Study of Poe'a Humor/' SR.,
XLTI (1934), pp. 330-340; Ernest Marchand, "Poe as Social Critic," AL., VI (1934-
193S), pp. 28-43: D. K. Jackson, Poe and the Southern Literary Messenger (1934);

G, W. Allen, American Prosody (1935), pp. 56-90: Edgar Allan Poe: Representative
Selections, edited by Margaret Alterton and Hardin Craig (1935), with critical intro-

n^ bibliography, andjiotes, is jmgprtant; R.JL. Hudson, J'Poe and Disraeli," AL.,

\ PP. 138*
, 754-779.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 61

writing. The nature of Poe's genius further complicates the prob-
lem, for he worked brilliantly in a narrow field. Those who seek
Shakespeare's breadth or even Hawthorne's depth of ethical prob-
ing will find Poe wanting. But he will be remembered as a skillful
poet, as the most important critic of his generation, and as the
father of the American short story and detective story,

CRITICISM

In his lifetime Poe was most renowned as a critic, 88 for he was
a vigorous reviewer who spared no names. His criticism is still
important because he made use of principles in judging a work.
He developed a Newtonian conception of the oneness of the uni-
verse (see Eureka), and he may have tried to make art fit into
this scheme, 39 Beauty, not truth, he claimed, was the end of art;
his poetic principle was aspiration for supernal beauty. A poem:

(1) should not be didactic, (2) should be short, (3) should be a
rhythmical creation of beauty, (4) should make the ideal beautiful,
and elevate the soul, (5) should be melancholic in its beauty, and
(6) should have a beautiful woman as its best subject. His equally
clear precepts governing the short story (see Hawthorne and the
Story-Teller's Art) are that it should: (1) have totality of effect,

(2) begin with the first sentence, (3) aim at truth, (4) be short,
(5) have no loose ends. All these principles were exemplified in his
own work, 40 perhaps too well, since the theory fits Poe and very few
others. It hardly deals with ethics.

POETRY"

Poe was a skillful metrist, and a careful reviser who achieved
the effects he aimed at. His subjects show a similarity, and at times
he is too much interested in sound alone. He has had special influ-
ence on Baudelaire.

"Al Aaraaf" (1829). A difficult poem emphasizing as a de-
sirable objective the elevation of the soul through contemplation
of the beautiful. Has a melody characteristic of his subsequent
work; defective structure, obscuring style.

"To Helen"f (1831). Expresses his grief at the death of
Mrs. Jane Stanard. It is one of his finest poems, showing unusual
restraint and compression. 41 *

38 See J. B. Moore, Selections from Poe's Literary Criticism (1926>J also A. I. Cooke.
"The Popular Conception of Edgar Allan Poe from 1850 to 1890," UTSB.. No. 4226
(1942). pp. 14S-170.

39 See Margaret Alterton, Origins of Poe'$ Critical Theory (1925).

40 This theory was influenced by Newtonianism, Coleridge, Shelley, and Byron. See
Floyd Stovall, "An Interpretation of Poe's *A1 Aaraaf/ >? UTSE.. IX (1929>, pt>. 106-
J33, his "Poe's Debt to Coleridge," UTSB., X (1MO), pp. 70-127, and hi* *Poe M
Poet of Ideas," UTSB.. XI (1931), pp. 56-62.

41 Killis Campbell, The Poems of Edgar Allan Poe (1917), it the best edition.
41a W. C. Brown, "The English Professor's Dilemma/' CE.. V (1944), pp. 379-385.

62 THE ROMANTIC PEEIOD: 1810-1865

"Israfel"t (1831). On the ideal poet. One of the best ex-
amples of his liquid diction and rhythmical perfection,

"The City in the Sea" (1831). 4 * Perhaps a city of sin or a
city of the dead. Is a marvel of tone. Has some echoes of Shelley.

"The Haunted Palace"t (1839). Was used in Th* Fall of the
House of Usher and was intended to symbolize a disordered mind.
It has been often praised.

"The Raven"f (1845). Most famous of Fee's poems. Chivers
claimed that Poe plagiarized it. The raven probably came from
Dickens' Barnaby Rudge and some effects from Mrs. Browning's
"Lady Geraldine's Courtship." Poe wrote an essay, "The Phil-
osophy of Composition,"! purporting to describe his technique in
writing this poem. The familiar theme of mourning for the death
of a beautiful lover is skillfully applied.

"Utahjine"t (1847). Written on the death of his wife, but
generalized into indefiniteness by the dialogue of his soul, in which
he tries to console himself, but meets only the finality of the tomb.

"The Bells'* (1849). A neat exercise in onomatopoeia, whose
first version was only eighteen lines long.

"Eldorado" (1849). Expresses the never-ending quest for
happiness, or, as some would have it, an unattainable ideal.

"Annabel Lee"f (1849). On the favorite theme of death,
with the feeling so well generalized that it is unimportant whether
his own wife or another was meant.

SHORT STORIES

Poe's tales have no less vogue than his poetry. This is deserved
because of his unexampled skill in narration. He conceived the
short story like the poem as a unit, every portion of it contributing
to the final effect. Naturally he improved technically as he wrote
more. He always lavished care on his work even when it did not
thereby become more saleable. The stories may be divided into:
(1) tales of terror, (2) tales of beauty in color and rhythm, (3)
tales of ratiocination.

The tale of terror, a hangover from Gothicism/* was adopted
by Poe partly because it would sell, but doubtless also because it
fitted his temperament, "The Descent into the Maelstrom" de-
scribes the adventures of a fisherman who escapes the whirlpool.
"Ligeia" 48 ' is again on his favorite theme, the death of a beautiful

42 Louis* Pound. "On Poe't The City lit the Sea/ " AZ... VI O934-I935), pp. 22-27.

43 SStJWiS!?- " 1 HJ S ,S h!c k"* 1 * * American Literature before 1835," JBGP..

AA1V (1923/1 pp. 7Ji-V3.

43a R, P. Batler, "The Interpretation of Tageia,' " CE. t V (1944), pp. 363-372,

&ARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 63

woman, who this time triumphs over the grave and returns. For
continuous building of atmosphere this tale is not surpassed. "MS.
Found in a Bottle/' which won him a prize 1 had power but not the
fine form of his later tales. "The Cask of Amontillado" neatly,
describes a gruesome revenge. "Berenice, "The Fall of the House
of Usher/' "The Tell-Tale Heart/' and "The Black Cat" all belong
in this category, but all of them also deal with diseased minds. This
use of psychological abnormality to heighten, the effect of terror
is one of Poe's favorite devices.

His tales of beauty or prose-poems include: "Shadow/* "Elea-
nora/' "The Domain of Arnheim," and even "The Masque of the
Red Death," which is grotesque and terrible but depends for its
effect upon the writing.

The tales of ratiocination show Poe exercising his sharp, logical
mind. No great cryptographer, 44 he was nevertheless able to work
out fine stories like "The Gold Bug/'f one of the least terrifying
and most popular, a tale of buried treasure. Even more lastingly
important, for better or worse, were such detective stories as "The
Murders in the Rue Morgue," "The Mystery of Marie Roget,"
and "The Purloined Letter." These established the technique of
the modern detective tale.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. In poetry Poe is a master ere- 1. To many, Poe's metrical effects
ator of moods through skillful use seem crude, his vocabulary meagre
of internal and external rhyme, and repetitious, his rhymes obyi-
regular rhythm, carefully chosen ous. (Emerson called Poe the "jin-
spund, onomatopoeia, and sugges- gle man.") These critics feel he
tively vague description. His in flu- subordinated sense to sound, and
ertce through the French symbol- that his intentional vagueness is
ists is still felt on American often less successful than sharp,
poetry* 411 clear imagery.**

2. Poe's short stories are praised for 2. Detractors point out Poe's forte
their concision, unity of effect, and is not humane but abnormal psy-
tension. They generally evoke grip- chology, that he does not under-
ping excitement through brilliantly stand normal people, that his range
imagined events and carefully is consequently narrow, and that
wrought style. his style is labored and artificial. 47

3. Poe's criticism has been highly 3. Poe's criticism was often un-
regarded because he judged by a duly censorious, nor was his taste
coherent set of aesthetic and tech* unerring,

nical standards. He was not limited
by American nationalism to patri-
otic praise of American authors.

44 W. F, Friedman, "Ed*ar Allan Poe, Cry,,.

280; C. S. Brignam. ''Edgar Allan Poe VMUUUUUM w f
enger," PAAS., LI I (1942), pp. 45-125; W. K. Wtmsatt,
about Cryptography/' PMLA., LVIII (1943), pp. 754-779.

45 Oscar Cargill, Intellectual America (1940), pp. 176-180, and

46 See Yvor Winters, Mantel C*rte (1938), pp. 93-122; dearth Brooks and R. P.
Warren, Understanding Poetry (1938), p. 358 ff.

47 See W. C. Browne!!, American Prose Masters (1909), pp. 207-257.

64 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

STEPHEN COLLINS FOSTER, 18261864, composer."
Songs include: "Susanna" (c. 1848) ; "Old Uncle Ned" (c. 184S),
also "Uncle Ned" (r. 1848) ; "Away Down South." (c. 1848) ;
"Nellie Was a Lady" (c. 1849) ; "Nellie Ely" (c. 1849) ; "Gwine
to Run All Night ; or, De Camptown Races" (c. 1850) ; "Old Folks
at Home" (c. 1851); "My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night"
(c. 1853) ; "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" (c. 1854) ; "Come
Where My Love Lies Dreaming" (r. 1855) ; "Old Black Joe"
(c. 1860) ; "Beautiful Dreamer" (c. 1864).

HENRY TIMROD, 182S 1867, poet of South Carolina. 49
Was a tutor on plantations and a member of Simms's coterie during
vacations. Became the laureate of the Confederacy. His writing
improved when he had something to say. "A Cry to Arms" (1862)
and "Carolina" (1862) are representative of stronger note. The
War ruined him financially, but did not make him morbid. Mag-
nolia Cemetery "Ode" dates from this period, one of his best poems.
To be noted are "Ethnogenesis" (1861) and "The Cotton Boll"
(1861), two odes. Poems of Henry Timrod (memorial edition,
1899) shows him to be one of the best Southern poets. Good
lyricist. Poetry carefully polished, clear, quotable, but lacking in
profundity. His critical theory was that the source of poetry could
not be reduced to beauty alone. Power and truth were also im-
portant. His faults are too strong a didactic vein, too much sweet-
ness, and a slavish imitation of English romantic poets.

PAUL HAMILTON HAYNE, 18301886, poet of promi-
nent Charleston family. 60 Read for law. After the War he lived
in a shack and wrote for a living. Poems (1855). Sonnets and
Other Poems (1857). Avolio, a Legend of the Island of Cos
(1860). Legends and Lyrics^ (1872). Poems of Paul Hamilton

48 R. P. Nevin, "Stephen C. Foster and Negro Minstrelsy," Ail, XX (1867), pp. 608-
616; W. W. Whittlesey and O. G. Sonneck, Catalan* of First Editions of Stephen
Collins Foster (1915); H. V. Milhgan, Stephen Collins Foster (1920); J. T. Howard.
Stephen Foster, America's Troubador (1934); J. G. Bowman, "A Singer to Pioneers.'*
Atl., CLVI (1935), pp. 83-88; R. W. Walters, Stephen Foster (1936); E. N. C.
Barnes, Near Immortals (1940), pp. 3-14; Alexander Woollcott, Long. Long Ago
(1943). pp. 183-185.

49 The Poems of Henry Timrod, edited by P. H. Hayne (1873), with good biography;
Poems of Henry Timrod (1899): Henry Timrod. r *The Character and Scope of the
Sonnet," Outlook, LXXVII (1904). pp. 706-709, also * 4 A Theory of Poetry," Atl..
XCVI (1905). pp. 313-326; G. A. Wauchope. Henry Timrod. Man and Poet (1915);
H. T. Thompson, Henrv Timrod (1928). G. P. Voigt, "Timrod's Essays in Literary
Criticism," AL., VI (1934-1935), pp. 163-167; E. W. Parks. "Timrod's College
Days," AL.. VIII (1936-1937), pp. 294-296; Lewis Patton, "An Unpublished Poem
by Henry Timrod," AL.. X (1938-1939), p. 222 /.; G. P. Voigt. "Timrod in the
Light of Newly Revealed Letters," SAQ.. XXXVII (1938). pp. 263-269; The Un-
collected Poems of Henry Timrod. edited by G. A. Cardwell. Jr. (1942); The Essays
of Henry Timrod. edited by E. W. Parks (1942).

50 M. J. Preston, "Paul Hamilton Hayne," SB., II (1886), PD. 222-229; T. W. Htggin-
son, "Paul Hamilton Hayne." Chant., VII U887). pp. 228-232; W. H. Hayne.
"Paul H. Hayne's Methods of Composition," LMM.. L (1892), pp. 793-796; Maurice
Thompson, "the Last Literary Cavalier," Critic. XXXVIII (1901), pp. 352-354; C. R.
Anderson. "Charles Gayarre and Paul Hayse: The Last Literary Cavaliers." Ameri-
can Studies in Honor of William Kenneth Boyd (1940), pp. 221-281; D. M. Me-
Keithan. "A Correspondence Journal of Paul Hamilton Htyne/' GHQ.. XXVI (1942).
pp. 249-272.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 65

Hayne (1882), completed edition. The Broken Battalions (1885),
a Confederate memorial. Was good at the sonnet, but on the whole
uneven, without talent of the higher order. A friend of Whittier.

One-Poem Men

FRANCIS SCOTT KEY, 17791843, "The Star-Spangled
Banner"t (1814).' 1 SAMUEL FRANCIS SMITH, 1808
1895, "America"! (1832).

NOVELISTS

The novel grew luxuriantly in the middle period. After Cooper
had shown the way, themes from American history and tales of the
Indians were commonly used. Meanwhile the didactic novel con-
tinued in popularity and the sentimental story, most frequently
written by women, produced a wave of tears which reached its crest
in the fifties. 81 " The South began to use its past culture and history
in romance. 52 Hawthorne showed what could be done in probing
the souls of his characters in novels, the more remarkable in the
light of what had preceded them in American fiction, and Melville
went his curious and unappreciated way.

Major Novelists

JAMES FENIMORE COOPER, 178 1851, novelist, so-
cial critic. 68 Born in Burlington, New Jersey, of prosperous parents.
Moved to Cooperstown (1790). Studied with an anti-Puritan,
Tory tutor (1790). At Yale (18031806); dismissed but per-
mitted to graduate. A sailor and naval officer (1806 1811).
Married Susan DeLancey, of Loyalist family (1811); and she
kept him off the sea. Moved to Cooperstown (1814) as squire.

51 Victor Wey bright, Spangled Banner: The Story of Francis Scott Key (1935); E. S.
Delaplaine, Francis Scott Key: Life and Times (1937).

Sla See H. R. Brown. The Sentimental Novel in America. 1799-1860 (1940). Senti-
mental women novelists include Lydia Maria Child, Susan Bogert Warner, Emma
Southworth, Maria Susanna Cummins.

52 Sre J. G. Johnson, Southern Fiction prior to I860: An Attempt at a First-Hand Bib-
liography (1909); W. S. Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South (1935).

53 Biographies: T. R. Lounsbury, James Fenimore Cooper (1882); R. E. Spiller, Feni>
more Cooper, Critic of His Times (1931), emphasizes social thought: H. W. Boynton,
James Fenimore Cooper (1931). Cf. Correspondence of James Fenimore Cooper.
edited by T. F. Cooper (two volumes, 1922).

For bibliography see R. E, Spiller and P. C. Blackburn, A Descriptive Bibliography
of the Writings of James Fenimore Cooper (1934).

Criticism includes: W. G. Sirams, Views and Reviews (1845), pp. 210-238; I. E.
Cooke, "Cooper's Indians ." .*/.. Xlf (1874), pp. 264-267; D. L. Mautsby, "Fenimore
Cooper and Mark Twain/' Dial, XXII (1897), pp. 107-109; W. C. Brownell. Ameri-
can Prose Masters (1909), pp. 3-60; John Erskine, Leading American Novelists
(1910), pp. 51-129; E. E. Hale, "American Scenery in Cooper's Novels." .$"*?., XVIII
(1910), pp. 317-332; J. DeL. Ferguson, American Literature in Spain (1916). pp. 32-
54; Joseph Conrad, Nrtes on Life and Letters (1921), pp. 5.1-57; E. E. Leisy. Th*
American Historical Novel (on American Themes) before I960; The Earlv Nwel*
* ' ^Xf'f*??* !? footer O923); A History of Cooperstown, edited bv S. M. Shaw
*<* W. R. Littrll H929); R. E. SpHler, "Cooper*! Defense of Slmve-Ownm* Amer-
ica." AHR XXXV 0930). pp 575-582; Gregory Paine, "Cooper a*4 T& North
Amtncan Rev*cw t SP.. XXVIII (J931), pp. 267-277.

66 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

In 1817 the family estate was divided, and Cooper returned to
Westchester county. Invested in a whaling venture (1819). Dis-
gusted by a novel he was reading aloud (apparently he had covered
Jane Austen and Mrs. Opie), 54 he said he could do better himself,
whereupon he accepted his wife's challenge and wrote Precaution
(1820), a poor but not unsuccessful novel of English manners.
The next year he published The Spy, which established his repu-
tation. Moved to New York and became the center of the Bread
and Cheese Club. 55 House at Cooperstown burned (1823). Took
his family to Europe (1826) for their education; met Scott and
Lafayette (18261827); visited in France, Switzerland, Italy,
Germany, England until 1833, attempting meanwhile to explain
Americans to Europe. Somewhat disillusioned on his return, he
proceeded to justify his views to Americans. Purchased Otsego
Hall at Cooperstown (1834). In 1837 a controversy developed
with the people of Cooperstown over the use of Three Mile Point,
which he owned ; the quarrel was continued by the New York City
Whig papers (1838). 58 Hi? History of the Navy (1839) caused
criticism of his interpretation of the Battle of Lake Erie ; Cooper
sued his attackers for libel and won most of the cases. He became
for a time engrossed in social criticism, and wrote less successfully.
Near the end of his career he wrote Satanstoefi one of his best
novels. Upside Down, or Philosophy in Petticoats, his only attempt
at drama, was played in New York (1850). A few months before
his death, he joined the Episcopal church (1851).

Cooper's reputation has risen of late, ( 1 ) because a study of his
social criticism shows his penetrating mind, 87 (2) because of his
epic treatment of the frontier in the Leather- Stocking Tales, and
(3) because he began the realistic sea story. As the son of a judge,
Cooper was a patrician from birth. He believed that all classes
should be regulated, and that the aristocracy had duties as well as
privileges. He was a member of the Democratic party, despite his
Federalist and Quaker background. 58 He believed in class distinc-
tions, in squirearchy, in the soil; he hated the middle class which
was gaining power on Wall Street, squatters, and New Englanclers.
He was no rationalist in religion, advocated humility and tolerance,
but was impatient with Puritan extremism. In art, Cooper, like
Wordsworth, preferred plain and simple diction, though he failed
to put his theory into practice. This may partly explain his popu-
larity in translation.

54 G. E. Hastings, "How Cooper Became a Novelist/' AL. t XII (1940-1941), pp. 20-51.

55 See: N. F. Adkins, "James Fenimore Cooper and the Bread and Cheese Club/' MLN*.
XLVII (1932), pp. 71-79; A. H. Marckwardt, "The Chronology and Personnel of the
Bread and Cheese Club," AL., VI (1934-1935), pp. 389-399.

56 See: E. R. Outland, "The 'Effingham' Libels on Cooper," U.lVi.SLL., No. 28 (1929);
Dorothy Waples, Tk* Whig Myth of /MUM Ftmmorr C<x**r (1938),

57 James Fcnimori Cooper: Rcprtitntativ* Stltctio**, edited by R. E. Spttler (1936),
contains his chief social views and has an excellent introduction and bibliography.

5* H. S. Canby, Classic Amtrican* (1931), pp. 97-142.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 67

SOCIAL CRITICISM

When Cooper arrived in Europe, he found prevalent misconcep-
tions of the America he loved. These he began to correct in Notions
of the Americans (1828) in semi-novel epistolary form. He thought
the United States was like his aristocratic ideal, and offended both
English and Americans by his work. The Bravo (1831), The
Heidentnauer (1832), and The Headsman (1833) followed to
show the defects of feudal society and dependence on hereditary
aristocracy. A Letter to His Countrymen (1834) outlined his be-
lief in the Constitution, in checks and balances, in popular freedom,
and in recognition of the worth of leaders. Tone was hot-headed.
Five volumes of travel : Sketches of Switzerland (two parts, 1836),
Gleanings in Europe: France (1837), Gleanings in Europe: Eng-
land (1837), and Gleanings in Europe: Italy (1838) all make the
same point: that America should not imitate European customs.
The American Democrat^ (1838) was a complete statement of his
social ideal of equality of rights, not of condition ; and while not
"a complete repudiation of democracy/' as H. L. Mencken points
out, "it went into the defects and dangers of democracy with
acrid realism." 50 A landed class is thus compatible with democracy.
His novel The Monikins (1835) attacks Europe for corruptions,
and America for vulgarity and materialism. Homeward Bound
(1838) and its sequel Home as Found (1838) contrast American
reality with American ideals, the latter taking up the development
of Cooperstown. Afloat and Ashore (1844) and Miles Wallingjord
(1844), good novels, deal with impressment of seamen and also
take up questions of Social classes. The "Littlepage Manuscripts' 1
social trilogy works out Cooper's theory of the protection of prop-
erty over three generations. Satanstoe (1845), the best of the
three tales, treats colonial New York brilliantly. The Chainbearer
(1845) is less good, and The Redskins (18451846), attacking
the anti-rent party's protest against the patroon system, is dull. 01
The Crater (1847), a failure, shows Cooper's turn toward religion,
as do The Oak Openings (1848), an underrated novel of bee-
hunters in the Old Northwest, and The Sea Lions (1849).

THE LEATHER-STOCKING TALES

Cooper's fame as a novelist will rest on the five works of the
Leather-Stocking series, not written in the order of the story,
which give a broad and noble picture of the woodsman and the
Indian. Here there is a feeling for nature which Balzac commended,
a sweep of narrative, and a development of character which give
Cooper rank as a novelist. Formative factors for the character of
Natty were: (1) Youthful memory of a real character. (2) The

59 Tht American Democrat, with an Introduction by H. L. Mencken (1931), pp. ad-j

60 Edited with critical introduction by R. E. Spiller and J. D. Coppock (1937).

61 See also Tk* Lakt Gn, edited by R. E. SpiUer (1932), pp. 7-23.

68 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Daniel Boone legend. (3) The idea of the natural man (Rousseau-
istic primitivism). (4) An idealistic conception of American man-
hood. Taken in narrative order :

The Deerslayer^ (1841). 6 * One of the best. Written last, it
shows conscious art in rounding out the character of Natty Bumppo,
who acquires the name Deerslayer, is made ill when he shoots his
first man, refuses the advances of Judith Hutter, because of his
self-respect. Hetty Hutter, a subnormal girl, is also well done.

The Last of the Mohicans^ (1826). Has the best executed plot
of the series. Has noble Indians in Uncas and Chingachgook, 6 *
a fine chase story, good minor characters in Cora, Adam, Heyward.
The feeling for nature and the excitement of the action are remark-
able, but less so than the nostalgia of the Indians who have to leave
their home.

The Pathfinder^ (1840). Partly a water story. Natty, in love
with Mabel Dunham, wisely gives her up for his real love, the
forest. Cooper anticipated Howells in breaking the romantic cliche.

The Pioneers^ (1823). First written of the series, created the
novel of the frontier. Though Leather-Stocking and Chingachgook
do not have the breadth they later attain, and though there is too
much conversation, there is good technique, and one of Cooper's
better heroines. Old Leather-Stocking, arrested for shooting out
of season, saves people from a panther and a forest fire.

The Prairie^ (1827). Ennobles the aged Hawkeye who has gone
to the upper Missouri to flee civilization. Has force like Hardy's
Egdon Heath. Hawkeye rescues a bride from some kidnapping
squatters. His death as he stands up facing the setting sun and
calling "Here !" was imitated by Thackeray in The Newcomes.

SEA STORIES

The Pi/off (1823). As a seaman Cooper was dissatisfied with
Scott's The Pirate and decided to do better. Wrote The Pilot and
other romances, not emphasizing the mystery of the sea so much as
the details of seamanship. The love stories are weak, but the humor ^
is good, the unnamed hero (John Paul Jones) is well done, and
Long Tom Coffin is an excellent character. Cooper's mastery of
sailing technique gives veracity and atmosphere, even when the
reader does not understand the technical terminology. Red Rover
(1827) is a tale of adventure with the gentlemanly Captain Heideg-
ger giving up piracy to aid the Americans. The Water Witch
(1830) has privateering, propaganda for American ships, and satire
on the commercial classes in Alderman Breverout. The Two Ad
mirat$ (1842) is one of his greatest sea stories, depicting whole
fleets in action. Wing-enJ-Wing (1842), a favorite of Cooper, is

62 Edited with introduction by Gregory Paine (1927).

63 See Gregory Paine. "The Indians of the Leather-Stocking Tales. 1 * SP., XXIII (1926).
pp. 16*39.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 69

a Mediterranean story with an excellent character, Bolt, the im-
pressed seaman from New Hampshire.

HISTORICAL NOVELS

The Sfy^ (1821). Cooper's first success, it started a whole suc-
cession of novels on the Revolution, none of them matching the
original. Cooper's wife came of a Loyalist family which enabled
him to show impartiality. Harvey Birch, the self-sacrificing patriot,
is one of his best characters. 64 Betty Flanagan is a well-drawn comic,
and the picture of society is good. Fearing the work would fail,
Cooper wrote and paged the last chapter; then led up to it from
the middle.

Lionel Lincoln (1825). Despite good descriptions of Lexington
and Bunker Hill, was a failure. Meant as the first of a series of
thirteen, with one hero for each colony, it was also the last.

The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish (1829). Partly historical on Goffe
and King Philip's War, partly on the Indian.

Wyandotte (1843). Describing an Indian attack on the Wyo-
ming Valley, is as moderately successful as The Wept of Wish-ton-
Wish. Wyandotte shows both the virtues and vices of the Indian
affected by whites.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Cooper achieved success in 1. Kept re-using same* 5 devices
maintaining suspense through use to the point of monotony. Action
of the chase type of plot. He is, often improbable. Wrote too rap-
at his bust, a master of rapid action. idly to be critical.

Really originated the sea story
with use of technical mastery of
sailing terms, at which he has
hardly been surpassed.

2. Description often gives feeling 2. Description often excessively
of the majestic expanse of the wii- lengthy and dull.

derness.

3. Large variety of vigorous char- 3. Characters external. Heroines
acters from all races and classes. clinging and fainting. Comic crea-
Good at comic and low types, tions boring*

Heroines courageous and active.
One great epic character in Natty.

4. Rapid narrative style which im- 4. Dialogue atrociously stilted,
proved with writing experience. 06 Style crude, with eighteenth cen-
tury formality.

5. Vigorous and unified social 5. Social views unpopular because
criticism of both Europe and Amer- aristocratic.

ican democracy.

64 See Tremasne McDowell, "The Identity of Harvey Birch," AL. t II (1930-1931),
pp. 111-120.

65 ?l 7? atk T 1M6 "Feniraore Cooper's Literary Offenses," in How *o Till a .

66 Yvor Winters, Matitc's Citrjg (1938), pp. 25-30.

TO THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

HERMAN MELVILLE, 1819^-1891, poet, novelist; "the
literary discoverer of the South Seas." 67 Bom at No. 6 Pearl
Street, New York City. Moved to Albany (1830), where he at-
tended Albany Academy (18301834). Father died (1832),
leaving the family almost destitute. Clerk (1834 1836). Shipped
as a cabin boy on a merchantman bound for Liverpool (1837), a
voyage described in Redburn. Taught at Greenbush, New York,
and Pittsfield, Massachusetts (1837 1841). After nineteen months
on the whaler Acushnet, which he had boarded at New Bedford
bound for the South Seas (1841), he jumped ship at Nukuhiva,
the Marquesas Islands (1842), described in Typee and Mardi.
Escaped a month later from the friendly cannibals in the Taipi
valley. Seaman on the man-of-war United States at Honolulu
(1843), 68 mirrored in White-Jacket. Discharged (1844). Married
Elizabeth Shaw, daughter of Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of Bos-
ton (1847). Settled in New York City. Occasional reviewer for
the Literary World (18471850). On trip to England (1849), he
visited several places including Paris and Coblentz. Moved to
"Arrowhead/ 1 a farm fiear Pittsfield, Massachusetts (18501863),
where he became a friend of Hawthorne. Plates of his books de-
stroyed in the Harper fire (1853) ; not reprinted, his books were
gradually forgotten by public. To the Holy Land via Constanti-
nople and Liverpool (1856). 69 Returned to America (1857).
Sailed to San Francisco on the clippership Meteor, whose captain
was his brother (1860). Failed to obtain an appointment in the
United States Consular Service (1861). Moved to New York City
(1863). Customs Inspector (18661885), Died at 104 East 26th
Street, New York City (1891). 70

PROSE
Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846). Realistic-romantic

67 The first Melville biography is the rare account written in 1891 by J. E. A. Smith
for the Evenina Journal. Pittsfield, Massachusetts.

Consult R. M. Weaver, Herman Melville. Mariner and Mystic (1921); Meade
Minningerode, Some Personal Letters of Herman Melville and a Bibliography (1922);
John Freeman, Herman Melville (1926): thereby becoming the first American to be
included in the English Men of Letters Series: "I," says John Freeman, "hope Amer-
ica will pardon the inclusion of an American writer among English men of letters";
Lewis Mumford, Herman Melville (1929); Willard Thorp, Herman Melville (1938);
C. R. Anderson, Melville in the South Seas (1939); F. O. Matthiessen, America*
Renaissance (1941), pp. 371-514; William Bras well, Melville's Religions Thought
(1945).

68 R. S. Forsythe, "Herman Melville in Honolulu," NEQ., VIII (1935), pp. 99-105.

69 See his Journal up the Straits (from October 11, 1856 May 5, 1857), edited by
Raymond Weaver (1935). Because written in a poor handwriting that defied decipher-
ing, the Journal was not included in the Constable (definitive) edition of Melville's
works.

70 His financial circumstances have been exaggerated in different directions: see William
Charvmt. "Melville's Income," AL. t XV (1943-1944), pp. 251-261.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 71

yarn based on experiences when he deserted the Acushnet is also
of value for its description of a primitive culture. 11

Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847).
With Typee, forms a continuous fictional account of Melville's
derring-do in the Society Islands (1842). Good dialogue, sharp
ear for dialect, skilful character drawing.

MarJhAnJA Voyage Thither (1849). Satirical, chaotic alle-
gory 72 interspersed with amorphic lyrics and rhapsodic passages:
while it lacks the humanizing qualities of Moby-Dick, it fits among
his better intellectual achievements. Several sources.

Redburn: His First Voyage (1849). Potboiling novel founded
on experiences during his first voyage (1837).

White-Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-Warj (1850).
Loosely-knit novel compounded of autobiography and fiction, ener-
gized by powerful situations and astringent character-portrayals,
and weighted down by propaganda: e.g., the Neversink is the
frigate United States; 79 Jack Chase is the actual name of the cap-
tain of the man-of-war on which Melville served ; the purpose is
to reform naval abuses. 74

Moby "Dick; or, The Whale\ (1851). Realistic narrative of
whaling is swept along by powerful currents of commonplace de-
tails and melodramatic events, familiar style and heightened over-
tones, sprawling patches and epic rhythms, hundreds of digressions
and prose apostrophes and sustained metaphors, documented cet-
ology and transcendental subtleties: currents propelled by Ahab's
overwhelming monomania: the will of man pitted against infinite

71 It is true that Barrett Wendell stated: "Herman Melville, with his books about the
South Seas, which Robert Louts Stevenson is said to have declared the best ever
written, and with his novels of maritime adventure, began a career of literary promise,
which never came to fruition," But it is not true that from the beginning both Ameri-
can and English critics were predominantly hostile to Melville. Barrett Wendell,
A Literary History of America (1900), p. 229; Charles Anderson, "Contemporary
American Opinions of Typee and Omoo/' AL. t IX (1937-1938), pp. l-25j Charles
Anderson, "Melville's English Debut, 1 ' AL., XI (1939-1940), pp. 23-28.

72 See M. R. Davis, "The Flower Symbolism in Mardi," MLQ., II (1941), pp. 625-638;
David Jaffe, "Some Sources of Melville's Mardi/* AL. t IX (1937-1938), pp. 56-69.

73 Journal of a Cruise to the Pacific Ocean, 1842-1844, in the Frigate "United Stotts/*
edited by C. R. Anderson (1937).

74 According to Admiral Samuel R. Franklin, U.S.N., the book had more influence in
abolishing flogging in the Navy than anything else. Consult Livingston Hunt, "Her-
man Melville as a Naval Historian/' HCM., XXXIX (1930-1931), pp. 22-30.

Fundamentally a sociologist, Melville often presented an inspiring vision of de-
mocracy: H. W. Wells. "An Unobtrusive Democrat: Herman Melville," SAQ.. XLIII
(1944), pp. 46-51.

72 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

evil in the universe (the whale) , T * Directly influenced by the final
tragic voyage of the Essex.

Pierre; or, The Ambiguities^ (1852). Self -revealing, clinical,
somber, symbolic tragedy, 77 more carefully plotted than written.
Latter part is less artificial than earlier, and revelatory of human
insight. Some critics consider it an excellent book ; others dispute
the statement.

Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile (1855). Historical ro-
mance livened by some adventures has its source in the Life and
Remarkable Adventures of Israel R. Potter (1824). 78

The Piazza Tales ( 1856). Collection of short stories and sketches,
some of which demonstrate the essence of Melville's loveliness and
superb technical achievement: teste, "Renito Cereno,"t based in
part on the Journal of Amasa Delano (1816), 70 has a well-poised
and well-sustained plot, without Melville's lavish allusions and or-
nate metaphors ; "Bartleby the Scrivener/' an allegorical tale of a
Wall Street clerk who creates emotional tension with his "I would
prefer not to" ; "The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles,"t composed
of seven sketches 80 of the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific and
three people who temporarily inhabit them: excellent descriptive
power and mythopoetic creativeness. "The Lightning-Rod Man"
has been interpreted as being an attack upon organized religion,
"a declaration of independence of the orthodox creeds." 81

75 As Willard Thorpe and C. R. Anderson have individually stated, practically every
reader indulges in a personal interpretation oi the theme or symbolical meaning of
Moby-Dick, which is more of an epic than a novel. Various critics emphasize that
Moby-Dick (1) is a "definite account of the short-lived whaling industry, (2) repre-
sents man's eternal struggle against nature, (3) epitomizes the romantic generation's
"pursuit of death," (4) is a parable on the mystery of evil and the accidental malice
of the universe, (5) represents through every one of its characters such abstractions
as Fate and Revenge, (6) presents the heroic struggle between man and moral evil.
(7) reveals the spiritual disillusionment of its author, (8) exposes the universal
struggle of man's dual ego. Present opinion is weighted in the direction of Clifton
Fadiman's appraisal in Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (1943), p. ix (pp. v-ix-) : "It has
towering faults of taste, it is otten wilful and obscure, but it will remain, I think,
America's unarguable contribution to world-literature, so many -levelled is it, so wide-
ranging in that nether world which is the tortured, defiant, but secretly terror-stricken
soul of man, alone and appalled by his alone-ness.

For an explanation that seeks the essential greatness of Moby-Dick in terms of
Ahab's monomania and its apparent defect rather than in hazy symbols and under-the-
surface analogies, see H. A. Myers, "Captain Ahab's Discovery: The Tragic Meaning
of Mobv-Dirk." NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 15-34. Consult, too: Lincoln Colcord, "Notes on
Moby Dick/' Freeman. V (1922), p. 584 /. (pp. 559-562, 585-587): D. H. Lawrence,
Studies in American Classic Literature (1923), pp. 214-240; W. S. GlHn, The Meaning
oi Moby-Difk (1938>, rm. 24-37, 183-190; Rene* Galland, "Herman MMville ct 'Moby
Dick,"* RAA., V (1927-1928), pp. 1-9. See also page 70, footnote 67.

76 Narratives of the Wreck of the Whale-Ship Essex (Golden Cockerel Press, London,
1935).

77 E. L. G. Watson, "Melville's Pierre," NEQ., Ill (1930). pp. 195-234; Pierre; or
The Ambiguities, edited by Robert Forsythe (1930), pp. ix-xi, xix-xxxviii.

78 R. P. McCuteheon, "The Technique of Melville's Israel Potter/' SAQ., XXVII
(1928), p. 1*2 (pp. 161-174).

79 H. H. Sctidder, "Melville's Benito Cereno and Captain Delano's Voyages," PMLA.,
XLTII (1928), pp. 502-532.

80 Rms-11 Thomas, "Melville's Use of Some Sources in The Encantafas." At., ITT
(1931-1932), pn, 43?-4S6. The first to recognize the suoreme artistry of "Benito
Cereno" and "The Encatta<ls" wat Michael Sadleir in 1922, and since then most
critics, including Raymond Weaver, Have voiced the same opinion.

81 B. D. Kimpet, "Two Notes on Herman Mlvifle, w AL.. XVI (1944-1945), pr. 29-32.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 73

The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade (1857). Unfinished, in-
ept, satirical treatise, tedious as narrative and abortive as philos-
ophy. As in the case of Pierre, there are two camps of opinion as
respects its worth.

Billy Budd (written c. 1889; published 1924). Symbolic novel-
ette of a handsome sailor whose hanging passes into legendry, grew
out of his experiences in 1843 1844 and his reading in 1888. 82

POETRY 8 *

(1) Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866), ineffectual if
direct poems about the Civil War, supplemented by a prose plea
for a decent attitude toward Southern Reconstruction. (2) Clarel
(1876), 84 an excellent religious narrative poem in two volumes
inspired by his "Pilgrimage in the Holy Land/' (3) John Marr
and Other Sailors (1888), sea poems better than his previous
attempts. (4) Timoleon, etc. (1891), about twoscore poems in-
spired by his travels in Greece and Italy (1856).

INDIVIDUAL POEMS

"Sheridan at Cedar Creek/ 1 "Shiloh," "Art/ 1 "Chattanooga,"
"On the Slain at Chickamauga," "The 'Temeraire/ " "The Enviable
Isles/' "Immolated/' "Monody/' "Formerly a Slave/' "To Ned/'
"Epilogue to Clarel."

Minor Novelists

RICHARD HENRY DANA, Jr., 18151882, author, law-
yer. 85 A trip as a sailor (1834 1836) resulted in Two Years
Before the Masff (1840), a classic, since a sensitive man was de-
scribing his adventures in an exciting fashion. Has directness, ro-
mantic charm, humanitarian aim of stopping the practice of flogging.

JOHN PENDLETON KENNEDY, 17951870, author,
statesman. 86 Swallow Barn\ (1832) 87 gives idyllic but accurate
picture of plantation life in Virginia. Horse-Shoe Robinson

82 E. L. G. Watson, "Melville's Testament of Acceptance/' NEQ., VI (1933). pp. 319-
327; C. R. Anderson, "The Genesis of Billy Budd/' AL*> Xtt (1940-1941), pp. 328-
346.

83 John Freeman, Herman Melville (1926), pp. 155-169; Willard Thorp, Herman Melville
(1938), pp. Ixxxtv-xcvi (pp. xi-cxxix): Selected Poems of Herman Melville, edited by
William Plomer (1943), pp. 6-8.

84 H. W. Wells, "Herman Melville's Clarel." CE., IV (1942-1943), pp. 478-483.

85 C. F. Adams, Richard Henry Dana (two volumes, 1890-1891); T. D. Hart, "The
Other Writings of Richard Henry Dana, Jr.," Colophon, Part 19, No. 6 (1934), and
"The Education of Richard Henry Dana, Jr./' NEQ., IX (1936), pp. 3-25; ). S.
Johnson, On Richard Henrv Dana and Two Year* Before the Mast (1936); G. W.
Smalley, Anglo-American Memories (1911), pp. 36-44.

86 H. T. Tucket-man, The Life of John Pendleton Kennedy (1871); E. M. Gwathmey.
John Pendleton Kennedy (1931).

87 Edited by J. B. Hubbell (1929), with introduction.

74 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD; 1610-1865

(1835),** on battle of King's Mountain, vividly written. Also wrote
Quodlibet . . . (1840), a Whig satire on politics.

WILLIAM GILMORE SIMMS, 18061870, South Caro-
lina poet, critic, editor, and novelist. 80 Spent youth in poverty.
Became drug clerk. Admitted to the bar (1827). Published verse
in 1825 and 1827. Became journalist in 1828. Married into planter
class, but was not accepted by the best people. Home burned during
Civil War, so he had to write for a living, and composed too rapidly
to maintain his standards. This was also true of Cooper, whose work
Simms's resembles. Edited Southern Quarterly Review and Rus-
set's Magazine. Wrote criticism, Views and Reviews (1845).
Wrote novels of the Revolutionary War in South Carolina. The
Yemasseef (1835), 90 perhaps his best novel with a fine picture of
the Indians when debauched by the white man. Simms's Indians
are less idealized than Cooper's. The Partisan (1835), first of a
series on the Revolution including Mellichampe (1836) ; The Scout
(1841 ; reissued 1854) ; Woodcraft (1854) ; The Forayers (1855) ;
Eutaw ( 1856) , The plots in these novels are similar : a partisan and
a loyalist are in love with the same woman. Simms is good at de-
scribing warfare and nature. The aristocratic characters are unreal,
while rowdies like Porgy are more convincing. Wrote other novels
about the Southern border, in Alabama, Richard Hurdis ( 1838) ;
Mississippi, Border Beagles ( 1840) ; and Kentucky, Beauchampe
(1842). Charlemont (1856) is probably his most sensational tale.

DRAMATISTS

American drama was still characterized by quantity rather than
quality. Most plays were written for entertainment and had few
literary pretensions. The serious plays were set in the romantic
past, while comedies of manners concentrated on the stage Yankee.
American history, the Indian, and Italy were popular subjects.
Boker was the only dramatist of consequence.

GEORGE HENRY BOKER, 18231890, dramatist, sonnet-
sequence writer. 91 Graduated from Princeton, 1842. Calaynos
(1848), a blank verse tragedy laid in medieval Spain. Based on
fear of Moorish taint. The Betrothal (1850), a charming comedy.
Leonor de Guzman (1853) has good characterization in the con-
trast between Leonor, the mistress, and Queen Maria after the
King's death. The Widoufs Marriage (1852; 1856), an unpro-

88 Edited by E. E. Leisy (1937), with critical introduction.

89 W. P. Trent, William Gilmort Simms (1892) it the standard biography. See alto
J, W. Htffham, "The Changing Loyalties of William Gilmore Simmt/ JSH. t IX
(1943), pp. 210-223.

90 See The Ym*ssct> edited by Alexander Cowie (1937), with critical introduction.

91 SceT. W.Krutch

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 75

duced comedy. Francesco da Riminft (written 1853; played 1855;
published 1856) M used the situation outlined by Dante but switched
the emphasis to Paolo's deformed brother, Lanciotto. Has been
called the best verse drama in English produced in the nineteenth
century. The characters are alive, especially the malevolent jester
Pepe, whose relation to his master is excellently portrayed. Plays
and Poems (two volumes, 1856). Nydia: A Tragic Ptoy" and
Glaucus are based on the destruction of Pompeii. Two other
plays 94 are The Bankrupt (1940) and The World a Mask (1940).
Poems of the War (1864). Sonnets: A Sequence on Profane
Love, edited by E. S. Bradley (1929) M help explain why Boker
achieved greater intensity in Francesca da Rimini than in his other
plays. Sonnets include : "My heart is sad today ; I know not why" ;
"O weary watches of the dismal night !" " '6 for my sake do you
with fortune chide* " ; "Love sat at ease upon Time's bony knee."
An excellent dramatist, Boker is also one of our best sonneteers.

THE WEST"

The seaboard states had the new West introduced to them by a
series of descriptions and tales. TIMOTHY FLINT'S Recollec-
tions of the Last Ten Years (1826) 9r opened up the Mississippi
valley. He wrote many novels. Francis Berrian, or the Mexican
Patriot (1826) is typical of the romantic pattern, showing early
illusions changing to disillusionment, with consolation in nature.
ALEXANDER ROSS (17831856) is the sole first-hand author-
ity for early Oregon history in Fur Hunters of the Far West (two
volumes, 1855) and other books. PETER CARTWRIGHT's un-
varnished Autobiography (1857) gives another picture of early
settlers. He was a Methodist preacher not afraid to beat up the
rowdies who disturbed his meetings, and his account is boastful
but vigorous. 98

92 C. J. Mctcalf, "An Old Romantic Triangle, Francesca da Rimini in Three Dramas/'
SR., XXIX (1921). pp. 45-58. Cf. A. H. Quinn, A History of the American Drama
from the Beginning to the Civil War (1923), pp. 337-364.

93 Edited by . S. Bradley (1929).

94 Included in Claucuj and Other Plays, edited by [E.] Sculley Bradley (1940).

95 E. S. Bradley, "A Newly Discovered American Sonnet Sequence/' PMLA., XL
(1925), pp. 910-920,

96 R. L. Rusk. The Literature of the Early Middle Wester* Frontier (two volumes,
1925); D. A. Dondorc, The Prairie and the Making of Middle America (1926); C. B.
Spotts, "The Development of Fiction on the Missouri Frontier (1 WO- 1860)." MHR..
XXVIII (1933-1934), pp. 195-205, 275-286; XXIX (1934-1935), pp. 17-26, 100-108.
186-194, 279-294; D. K. Fox, Sourcet of Culture in the Middle Weft (1934); R. C.
Buley, "Glimpse, of Pioneer Mid- West Social and Cultural History." MVHR.. XXIII
(1937), pp. 481-510.

97 Edited by C. H. Grattan (1932).

98 H. H. Grant, Peter Cartwright; Pioneer (1931).

j6 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

AMERICAN HUMOR"

The native brand of humor, depending partly on exaggeration
and violent contrast, developed slowly, and the comic types emerged
only gradually. The stage Yankee appeared by 1787; foppish
English characters were satirized after the War of 1812. But not
until SEBA SMITH'S Life and Writings of Major Jack Downing
(1833) did the Down East Yankee really take form, with the
knowing rustic laughing at city sophistication. "Downing" set the
type of cracker-barrel philosopher employed by Lowell and many
others.

The Southwestern school of frontier humor emphasized the
wildly, if imaginatively, exaggerated yarn. 100 Western humorists
furnish marvellous material for social history, since their elaborated
stories grow out of typical frontier backgrounds which are invari-
ably included in the stories. They are direct ancestors of Mark
Twain.

The Civil War brought politics back into humor on both sides
of the border. DAVID ROSS LOCKE, 18331888, as editor
of the Toledo Blade, invented Petroleum V. Nasby, a copperhead
preacher, ignorant, corrupt, a bad speller, who always ruined the
proslavery case. The writing, which Lincoln enjoyed, was malicious
in its humor. The Nasby Papers (1864); Divers Opinions of
Yours Trooly, Petr oleum V. Nasby (1865; 7th edition by 1866).

HENRY WHEELER SHAW, 18181885, humorist known
as JOSH BILLINGS. 101 Born in Massachusetts. Wrote at
Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Successful when he adopted bad spelling.
Poor at characterization and narrative ; excellent at homely aphor-
ism. Josh Billings, His Sayings (1865) and Josh Billings, Farmers
Allmino* (annual, 18701880) include his best work.

CHARLES FARRAR BROWNE, 18341867, "ARTE-
MUS WARD," humorist. 102 Maine born, a compositor and
printer. Gained recognition while employed on the Cleveland
Plain Dealer as a writer of humorous sketches. From this he pro-
ceeded, as did Clemens after him, to win fame as a humorous lec-
turer; popular, first in America, and finally in England, where he
died. In print a humorous impression of illiteracy and provincial-

99 For material on American humor see: J. R. Tandy, Cracherbox Philosophers tn Ameri-
can Humor and Satire (1925); Constance Rourke, American Humer (1931); Walter
Blair and F. J. Meine, Mike Fink, King of Mississippi Keelboatmen (1933); Walter
Blair, Native American Humor (1937), with excellent bibliography; . S. Bradley,
"Our Native Humor," NAR.. CCXLII (1937), pp. 351-362; P. D/Jordan, "Humor
of the Backwoods. 1820-1840,*' MVHR., XXV (1938), pp. 25-28; T. D. Clark, The
Rampapinff Frontier (1939); Walter Blair, Horse Sense in American Humor (1942).

100 Ring-Tailed Roarers, edited by V. L. O. Chittick (1941). David Crockett, A Narra-
tive of the Life of David Crockett (1834), and Augustus B. Longstreet, Georgia
Scenes (1835, 1840) are representative of Southern frontier humor.

102 Cyril Clemens, Josh B Minos. Yankee Humorist (1932).

102 E. P. Kingston, The Genial Showman (1870); D. C. Seitz, Artem** Ward: A Bioa-
raphy and Bibliography (1919).

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 77

ism was achieved through the device of dialectical misspelling.
Artemus Ward, His Works Complete (1875); Complete Works
(1890).

HISTORIANS

WILLIAM HICKLING PRESCOTT, 17961859, his-
torian. loa Of good family. Schooled at Harvard. Suffered an acci-
dental loss of one eye and serious injury to the other. Nevertheless,
he deliberately entered upon a career as a historian, grounding him-
self in English literature and general backgrounds. Choice of Spain
came about partly through the influence of Ticknor. History
of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic^ (three vol-
umes; published 1837 but dated 1838), enthusiastically received
and widely translated. A History of the Conquest of Mexico*!
(three volumes, 1843) ; History of the Conquest of Peru^ (two
volumes, 1847) ; History of the Reign of Philip the Second, King
of Spain (three volumes, 1855 1859) ; History of the Reign of
Charles V (1857). 104 Biographical and Critical Miscellanies (1845),
reviews and historical articles, includes a brief "Life of Charles
Brockden Brown" (1834). 105

Prescott is still fairly well regarded by professional students.
Fresh material lias qualified acceptance of conclusions in the
Mexico; the Peru has been less affected. But he is weak on social
and economic phases which he tried to cover.

JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, 18141877, historian, dip-
lomat, novelist. 106 Of cultured family. A.B., Harvard (1831).
Studied in Germany. Stimulated by Prescott's work; turned to
writing history. Minister to Austria (1861 1867). Minister to
England (1869 1870). Wrote two novels: Morton's Hope (two
volumes, 1839) ; Mcrry-M ount (two volumes, 1849). His histories,
which were widely popular, include : The Rise of the Dutch Re-
public (three volumes, 1856) ; History of the United Netherlands
(18601867) ; The Life and Death of John of Barneveld (two
volumes, 1875). His work exemplified his theories: 107 that history
revolved around great men, that it should be well written, and that

103 Thomas Powell, Living Authors of America (1850), pp. 169-188; George TJcknor,
Life of William Hickling Prescott (1864); Rollo Ogden, William Hicklina Prescott
(1904); H. T. Peck, William Hickling Prescott (1905); J. S. Bassett, The Middle
Group of American Historians (1917), pp. 211-223; William Charvat and Michael
Kraus, William Hickling Prescott: Representative Selections (1943), pp. xi-cxlii;
B. D. Wolfe, "Prescott's Pageant of Aztec and Conquistador," NYTBR., October 17,
1943, pp. 9, 32.

104 William Hicklinp Ptesrott: Representative Selection*, edited by Michael Kraut and
William Charvat (1943), gives an excellent introduction and convenient excerpts.

105 Cf. H. H. Clark, "Literary Criticism in the North American Review, 1815-1835,"
TWASAL.. XXi (1940), pp. 299-350.

106 O. W. Holmes, John Lothrop Motley, a Memoir (1879); E. P. Whipple. Recollections
of Eminent Men (1887), PP. 155-203; G. W. Curtii, Cotretpondence of John Lrthrop
Motley (two volumes, 1889) ; J. S. Bassett. The Middle Group of American Historian*
(1917); O. W. Long, Literary Pioneers (1935), pp. 199-224.

107 John Lothrop Motley: Representative Selections, edited by C. P. Higby and B. T.
Schant* (1939), has excellent analysis.

78 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

it should embody the idea of the growth of mental f reedom. He
was anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic. He wrote in the tradition of
great literary historians, with careful accuracy, and fluently elab-
orate style.

FRANCIS PARKMAN, 18231893, historian. 108 Boston
born; educated at Harvard (A.B. 1844; LL.B. 1846), and by
travel. The Oregon Traift (1849). The Conspiracy of Pontiatf
(1851). With Pioneers of France in the New World (1865)
Parkman undertook his great series of historical works. Other
volumes are The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth
Century (1867) ; The Discovery of the Great West (first published
1869; revised 1879 as La Salle and the Discovery of the Great
West, following publication of important documents hitherto un-
available) ; The Old Regime in Canada (1874) ; Count Frontenac
and New France under Louis XIV (1877) ; Montcalm and Wolfe
(1884) ; A Half -Century oj Conflict (1892).

Along with unusual powers as a historian Parkman disclosed
significant limitations. He was conservative. With Holmes, he
preferred a settled society dominated by those of inherited means,
culture, and intelligence. He feared extension of the suffrage, was
lukewarm to anti-slavery agitation, vigorously opposed woman's
suffrage. Yet he stood strongly against anything approaching polit-
ical, intellectual, and spiritual despotism. Consequently, his sym-
pathies were with the English rather than the French. His agnos-
tic tendency also lessened his sympathy for the Catholic Church.
Parkman's attitude toward the Indian was realistic, not sentimental.
To him the Indian was no "noble savage," as Rousseauism had
conceived him, but merely savage. In his field of American history
Parkman remains supreme. His first-hand acquaintance with the
life of the Indians added vividness to passages based on carefully
gained documentary material, which he used with exemplary ac-
curacy. Subsequent investigation has resulted in no serious cor-
rection of his writings. His emphasis was not economic or socio-
logical. 109 His tone is at once romantic and scientific, and notably
vivid. 110 His fascinating series is often called the best piece of his-
tory ever written in America.

108 Biography and criticism: G. W. Cooke, "Francis Parkman/' NBM., N.S.. I (1889),
pp. 248-262; O. B. Frothingham, "Memoir of Francis Parkman," PMHS., Second
Series. VIII (1894), pp. 520-562; John Fiske. A Century of Science and Other Essays
(1899), pp. 194-264; C. H. Farntam, A Life of Francis Parkman (1900): G. M.
Gould, Biografhic Clinics (1904). II, pp. 131-202; E. G. Bourne, Essays in Historical
Criticism (1913), pp. 277-287; Bliss Perry. "Some Personal Qualities^ of Parkman/'
YR., XIII (1924), pp. 443-448; Joseph Schafer, "Francis Parkman, 1823-1923,"
MVHR.. X (1924), pp 351-364; Albert Reiser, the Indian in American Literature
(1933), pp. 126. 142-143, 294-295, 299; W. L. Schramm, Francis Parkman; Repre-
sentative Selections (1938), pp. xiii-cxliv; Mason Wade, Francis Parkman (1942).

109 Cf. his only novel, Vastell Morton (1856), as noted in W. L. Schramm, Francis
Parkman: Representative Selections (1938), p. xcli.

110 Allan Kevins, "Prescott, Motley' Parkman ." in American Writers on American Lfe-
srature, edited by John Macy (1931), p. 239.

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 79

OTHER WRITING

Statesmen of Literary Note

In the golden age of public speaking DANIEL WEBSTER,
1782 1852, was famous as an orator of rhetorical excellence,
though his fame has subsequently declined; HENRY CLAY,
17771852, as a debatori JOHN C. CALHOUN, 17821850,
as a brilliant logician; ABRAHAM LINCOLN, 111 18091865,
as the simple and profound exponent of great truths. Lincoln's
speech on departing from Springfield, the Gettysburg Address, and
the Second Inaugural Address are immortal for their combination
of human understanding, deep insight, fundamental sincerity, ele-
mental soundness, abiding faith, and boundless compassion.

Miscellaneous Writing

DOROTHEA [LYNDE] DIX, 18021887, reformer, au-
thor of moral tales and gift books like The Pearl (1829), 112 Memo-
rial to the Legislature of Massachusetts (1843) is a plain account
of her discoveries in prisons and institutions. It produced immediate
reforms.

ELIHU BURRITT, 18101879, blacksmith, editor, ran the
Christian Citizen (1844 1851), a peace newspaper, and Olive
Leaves (1850), a pro- working-class paper. Active in any inter-
national peace movement. 115

Journalists, Editors, Publishers

JOHN NEAL, 17931876, editor, critic, novelist, poet.
"Battle of Niagara" (1818), poem. Otho (1819), verse tragedy.
Logan (1822), Indian novel. Seventy Sixj (1823), historical ro-
mance. Wrote on "American Writers" for Blackwood's (1824
1825) ; m gave ten pages to Irving; eight to himself ; four to Brock-
den Brown; and one-half page to Cooper. The Down-Rasters
(1833), later novel. Important as a critic and editor.

111 Useful works on Lincoln include: William Herndon and J. W. Wcik, Herndon's
Lincoln (two volumes. 1896); J. G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln (ten
volumes, 1890); Lord Charnwood, Abraham Lincoln (1916): N. W. Stephenson,
Lincoln (1922), the best one-volume life: A. J. Beveridge, Abraham Lincoln. 1S09-
1859 (two volumes, 1928), sound; R. P. Easier, "Abraham Lincoln Artist," NAR.,
CCXLV (1938), pp. 144*153, and "Abraham Lincoln's Rhetoric," AL. t XI (1939-
1940), pp. 167-182; Carl Sandburg, Lincoln (four volumes, 1940); The Lift and
Writings of Abraham Lincoln, edited by P. Van D. Stern, with an Introduction by
Allan Nevins (1940).

112 Francis Tiffany, Lift of Dorothea Lynde Dix (1890) ; H. E. Marshall, Dorothea Dix,
Forgotten Samaritan (1937).

113 M. E. Curti. The American Peace Crusade: 1*15*1960 (1929); and The Lianud
Blacksmith: The Letters and Journals of Elihu Burritt (1937).

114 See American Writers, edited by F. L. Pattec (1937), Cf. William Charvat, Th*
Origins of American Critical Thought, 1810-1935 (1936), fot a discussion of early
critical work.

80 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

CHARLES PENNO HOFFMAN, 18061884, editor, poet,
novelist. 115 Greyslaer: A Romance of the Mohawk (1839), based
on the Beauchamp murder, had four editions in one year. The
Vigil of Faith and Other Poems (1842) went through four edi-
tions in three years. The Echo (1844), Love's Calendar, Lays of
the Hudson, and Other Poems (1847) were light, delicate, musical,
lilting.

JOHN GODFREY SAXE, 18161887, contributed to Jour-
nals. Progress: A Satirical Poem (1846) is typical of his poetry.
He was a better humorist than versifier. See : The Fly-ing Dutch-
man (1862), Clever Stories of Many Nations (1865).

HENRY CHARLES CAREY, 17931879, publisher, econ-
omist. Paid Carlyle and Scott for American issues of their work.
He became laissez-faire in sympathy, but in 1844 returned to pro-
tection without adopting the pessimism of the classical economists.
The Harmony of Interests, Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Com-
mercial (1851). Best economic thought of his day.

WILLIAM WIRT, 17721834, wrote essays, The Letters
of a British Spy, (1803) ; The Rainbow ( 1804) ; The Old Bachelor
(1812). The Letters went through twelve editions. Sketches of
the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (1817) was laudatory
and ornate.

JAMES KENT, 17631847, Chancellor of New York State. 110
His Commentaries on American Law (four volumes, 1826 1830)
was a great guide to the law of equity, and had fourteen editions.

WASHINGTON ALLSTON, 17791843, painter, poet,
critic. Lectures on Art, and Poems (1850). The Sylphs of the
Seasons, with Other Poems (1813). Monaldi (1841) is a short
novel patterned after Mrs. Radcliffe. His verse was praised by
Coleridge.

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF AUTHORS

POETRY

Northern Poets

JAMES MCHENRY, 1785 1845, poet, novelist. Walt ham (1823), poems; O'Halfaran
(1824), novel.

EMMA HART WILLARD, 1787 1870, educator, poet. "Rocked in the Cradle of the
Deep."

LVDIA HUNTLEY SicoURNEY, 1791 1865, poet, journalist. Poems Religious and

Elegiac (1841).

MARIA GOWEN BROOKS, r.I794 1845. ]udlth, Esther, and Other Poems (1820).
CAULO* WILCOX, 17941827. Remains (1828).
GEORGE HILL, 17961871. Ruins of Athens (1831).

115 H. P. Barnes, Ckarlts Fenno Hoffmen (1930).

116 J. T. Horton, /am*i Kent; A Study in Conservatism, 1763-194? (1939).

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 81

GRENVILLE MELLEN, 17991841. The MartySt Triumph (1833).

WILLIAM WILSON, 18011860. Poems (1869).

ALBERT GORTOV GREENE, 1802 1868. The Militia Muster.

Ruput DAWES, 18031859. Geraldine (1839).

EMMA CATHERINE MANLEY EMBURY, 18061863. Guido (1828); Poems (1869).

WILLIS GAYLORD CLARK, 18081841. Literary Remains (1844).

LEWIS GAYLORD CLARK, 1808 1873, editor, poet. Knicl(- Knacks from an Editor's

Table (1852).
CHARLES TIMOTHY BROOKS, 1813 1883, poet, translator. William Tell (1837).

THOMAS DUNN ENGLISH 18191902, poet, dramatist. "Ben Bolt" (1843); The

Mormons (1858), drama.

JULIA WARD HOWE, 18191910. "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" (1862).
WILLIAM WETMORE STORY, 18191895, poet, sculptor. Graffiti d'ltalia (1868).

ALICE GARY, 1820 1871, and PHOEBE GARY, 1824 1871. The Poems of Alice and

Phoebe Gary (1849).
GEORGE FREDERICK ROOT, 1820 1895, composer, poet. "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp,

the Boys Arc Marching."

HENRY HOWARD BROWKELL, 18201872. Lines of Battle (1912).
M\RIA WHITE LOWELL, 18211853. Poems (1855).
WILLIAM ALLEV BUTLER, 18251902. Nothing to Wear (1857).
FRANCIS MILES FINCH, 18271907. 'The Blue and the Gray" (1867).
CHARLES GRAHAM HALPINE, 18291868. "Sambas Right to Be Kilt."
HENRY CLAY WORK, 18321884. "Marching through Georgia" (1865).
WALTER KITTREDGE, 18341905. "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground" (1864)

Southern Poets

CLEMENT CLARKE MOORE, 17791863. " Twas the Night before Christmas" (1823).
WILLIAM JOHN GRAYSON, 17881863. The Hireling and the Slave (1854).
RICHARD HENRY WILDE, 17891847. "My Life Is Like the Summer Rose."
MIRABEAU BUONAPARTE LAMAR, 17981859. "The Daughter of Mcndoza."
GEORGE DENNISON PRENTICE, 1802 1870. The Poems of George D. Prentice (1876,

1883).

EDWARD CooTt PINCKNEY, 1802 1828. "A Health."

THOMAS HOLLEY CHIVERS, 1809 1858, physician, poet. Eonchs of Ruby (1851).
ALEXANDER BEAUFORT MEEK, 1814 1865. "Red Eagle"; "Baiaklava."
PHILIP PfcNDLEroN COOKK, 1816 1850. froissart Ballads and Other Poems (1847).
WILLKM WILBERFORCE LORD, 18191907. Christ tn Hades (1851).
AMELIA BALL COPPUCK WELBY, 1819 1852. Poems (1845).
MARGARET J. PRESTON, 1820 1897. Beechenbroo^ (1865); Old Song and New

(1870).

THEODORE O'HARA, 1820 1867. "The Bivouac of the Dead."
FRANCIS ORRAY TICKNOR, 18221874. "Little Giffen" (1867).
JAMES MATTHEWS LEGARE, 18231859. Orta-Vndu and Other Poems (1K4X;
ETHEL LYNN BEERS, 18271879. "The Picket-Guard" (1861).
JAMES BAKRON HOPE, 18291887. A Wreath of Virginia Bay Leaves (1895).
ABRAM JOSEPH RYAN, 1838 1886. "The Conquered Banner*' (1865).
JAMES RYDER RANDALL, 18391908. "Maryland, My Maryland" (1861).

82 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

NOVELISTS

Norther* NorelUt*

REBECCA RUSH, /7.1812. Kelroy. a Novel (1812).

WILLIAM AUSTIN, 17781841. "Peter Rugg, the Missing Man" (1824).

SUSAN RIDLEY SEDGWICK, 17891867. The Young Emigrants (1830).

CATHARINE MARIA SEDCWICK, 17891867. The Unwoodt (1835).

DANIEL PIERCE THOMPSON, 1795 1868. The Green Mountain Boys (1839).

NICHOLAS MARCELLUS HENTZ, 1797 1856. Tadeustynd, the Last King of the Lenape

(1825).

WILLIAM WARE, 17971852. Zenobia (1837); Aurelian (1838); Julian (1841).
JOSEPH C. HART, 17981855. Miriam Coffin; or, The Whale-Fisherman (1834).
RALPH INGERSOLL LOCKWOOD, 1798 1858. The Insurgents (two volumes, 1835).
LYDIA MARIA CHILD, 18021880. Hobomo^ (1824).

JACOB ABBOTT, 1803 1879. The Rotto series. RoUo Learning to Read (1835).
CHARLES F. BRICCS, 18041877. Adventures of Harry Franco (1839).
FREDERICK WILLIAM THOMAS, 1806 1866. Clinton Bradshaw (1835).
THEODORE SEDGWICK FAY, 18071898. Hobo&n, a Romance (1843).
WILLIAM STARBUCK MAYO, 18111895. Kaloolah (1849); The Berber (1850).
PETER HAMILTON MYERS, 18121878. The First of the Knickerbockers (1848).
SYLVESTER JUDD, 18131853. Margaret (1845); Richard Edney (1850).
ROBERT TRAILL SPENCE LOWELL, 1816 1891. The New Priest in Conception Bay

(1858).

CHARLES WILKINS WEBBER, 18191856. Old Hic\s t the Guide (1848).
HENRY AUGUSTUS WISE, 1819 1869. Los Gringos (1849).
SUSAN BOGERT WARNER, 18191885. The Wide. Wide World (1850).
EMMA D. E. N. SOUTHWORTH, 18191899. The Hidden Hand (1859).
CAROLINE CHESEBROUCH, 18251873. The Foe in the Household (1871).
MARIA S. CUMMINS, 18271866. The Lamplighter (1854).
THEODORE WINTHROP, 18281861. Cecil Dreeme (1861); John Brent (1862).

Southern NovelUU

GEORGE TUCKER, 17751861. A Voyage to the Moon (1827).
NATHANIEL BEVERLEY TUCKER, 17841851. The Partisan Leader (1836).
HENRY JUNIUS Norr, 17971837. Novellettes of a Traveller (two volumes, 1834).
WILLIAM ALEXANDER CARRUTHERS, c.1800 c.1846. The Cavaliers of Virginia (1834

1835).
JOHN ESTEN COOKE, 18301886. The Virginia Comedians (1854); Henry St. John,

Gentleman (1859); Surry of Eagle's Nest (1866).

DRAMATISTS

GEORGE WASHINGTON PARKE CUSTIS, 1781 1857. Pocahontas; or, The Settlers of

Virginia (1830).
SAMUEL WOODWORTH, 17841842. The Forest Rose (1825); The Widow's Son

(1825).
MORDECAI MANUEL NOAH, 17851851. Marion; or, The Hero of Lake George (1821);

The Grecian Captive (1822).

DAVID PAUL BROWN, 17951872. Sertorius; or, The Roman Patriot (1830).
JAMBS LAWSON, 17991880. Giordano (1832).

CAROLINE LEE WHITING HENTZ, 18001856. The Planter's Northern Bride (1840).
ROBERT MONTGOMERY Brno, 18061854. The Gladiator (1831); The Broker of

Bogota (1834).

EARLY SENTIMENT AND ROMANCE 83

JOSEPH STEVENS JONES, 18091877. The Carpenter of Rouen (1840); Moll Pitcher
(1855).

ROBERT TAYLOR CONRAD, 18101858. Jack Cade (1835, 1841).

ANNA CORA MOWATT [RITCHIE], 18191870. Fashion; or, Ufe in New York (1845;

1850).
MM. SIDNEY FRANCES BATEMAN, 1823 1881. Self (1856); GerMine; or, Love's

Victory (1859).
CLIFTON W. TAYLEURE. Horseshoe Robinson (1856), based on J. P. Kennedy's novel.

MINOR WESTERN WRITERS

JAMES HALL, 17931868. Legends of the West (1832).

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, 1793 1864. Indian Tribes of the United States (six vol*

umes, 18511857).
CAROLINE MATILDA STANSBURY KIRKLAND, 1801 1864. A New Home Who'll

Follow? (1839, 1874).
WILLIAM JOSEPH SNELLING, 1804 1848. Tales of the Northwest (1830, 1936).

HUMORISTS

DAVY (DAVID) CROCKETT, 17861836. A Narrative of the Ufe of David Crockett

(1834).
ASA GREEVE, 1789 c.1837. The Life and Adventures of Dr. Dodimus Duckworth

(1833).

AUGUSTUS B. LONGSTREET, 1790 1870. Georgia Scenes (1835, 1840).
THOMAS CHANDLER HALIBURTON, 17961865. Sam Slick (1837, 1838, 1840).
WILLIAM TAPPAN THOMPSON, 1812 1882. Major Jones's Courtship (1843).
BENJAMIN P. SHILLABER, 1814 1890. Life and Sayings of Mrs. Partington (1854).
THOMAS BANGS THORPE, 18151878. "The Big Bear of Arkansas*' (1841).
JOHNSON JONES HOOPER, 1815 1862. Some Adventures of Captain Simon Suggs

(1845).
JOSEPH GLOVER BALDWIN, 1815 1864. Flush Times of Alabama and Mississippi

(1853).

MRS. FRANCES WHICHER. Widow Bedott Papers (1856).
FREDERICK S. COZZENS, 1818 1869. The Sparrowgrass Papers (1856).
GEORGE HORATIO DERBY, 1823 1861. Phoenixlana (1855); The Squibob Paper/

(1865).

CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, 18241903. Hans Breitmann's Ballads (collected 1914).
CHARLES HENRY SMITH, 1826 1903. Bill Arp, So Called, a Side Show of the South"

em Side of the War (1866).

MORTIMER NEAL THOMSON, 18311875. Doestic^s; What He Says (1855).
ROBERT HENRY NEWELL, 18361901. The Orpheus C. Kerr Papers (three volumes,

18621865).

JOURNALISTS

MASON LOCKE WEEMS, 1759 1825, biographer. Ufe . . . of George Washington

(r.1800).

MATHEW CAREY, 17601839, editor, economist. The Porcupiniad (1799).
SARAH JOSEPHA B. HALE, 17881879. Edited Godey's Lady's Book (18371877).
SAMUEL GRISWOLD GOODRICH, 17931860. Edited The Token (1827 1842).
HUGH S. LEGARE, 17971843. Established Southern Review (1828).
ROBERT CHARLES SANDS, 1799 1843, journalist, author. Tales of dauber-Spa (1832).

84 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

WILLIAM Cox, 1851. Crayon Sketches (collected, 1833).

WILLIAM LECCETT, 18011839. Leisure Hours at Sea (1825).

EPEI SARGENT, 1813 1880, Journalist, author, fleetwood (1845).

RUFUI WILMOT GRFSWOLD, 1815 1857. The Poets and Poetry of America (1842).

CORNELIUS MATHEWS, 18171889. Co-founder of Arcturus (1840).

EDWARD Z. C. JUDSON, 1823 1886, "NED BUNTLINB." Began the dime novel.

OLIVER BELL BUNCE, 1828 1890. A Bachelor's Story (1859).

MISCELLANEOUS AUTHORS

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON, 1785 1851, naturalist. The Birds of America (four volumes,

18271838).

ELIZA LESLIE, 17871858. Pencil Sketches (three scries, 1833, 1835, 1837).
GEORGE TICXNOR, 1791 1871, scholar. History of Spanish literature (1849).
CHARLES ROBERT LESLIE, 1794 1859. A Handbook for Young Painters (1855).
HORACE MANN, 1796 1859, educator. Lectures on Education (1845).
WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON, 1805 1879, reformer. Edited The Liberator (1831

1865).
HORACE GREELEY, 1811 1872, journalist, reformer. Edited the New York Tribune

(18411872).
DELIA S. BACON, 18111859. Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded

(1857).

HENRY THEODORE TUCKERMAN, 1813 1871, critic. Thoughts on the Poets (1846).
EMILY. C. TuDsoNJ1791 18711 "FANNY FORESTER," journalist. Trippings in Author-

EMILYC.
r lanT

(1846).

CHAPTER VI

THE GENTEEL TRADITION OF NEW ENGLAND:
ITS MAJOR FIGURES

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW, 18071882,
poet. 1 Born in Portland, Maine, into a well-to-do, prominent, and
cultivated family of Puritan antecedents. Prepared mostly at pri-
vate schools, he attended Bowdoin College (1821 1825), where
he had as classmates Hawthorne and Franklin Pierce, made a good
record, read spottily in English poetry there is no indication in
his letters that he knew the leading Romantic poets and showed
an early fondness for Indian lore. Elected to the chair of Modern
Languages at Bowdoin, he spent three years (1826 1829) in
France, Spain,* Italy, 8 and Germany. Until his appointment (1834)
to the chair of Modern Languages at Harvard, he was busy with
teaching, translating, preparation of texts for classes, publishing
only some essays and the Irvingesque Outre-Mer (1833 1834).
On his second European trip (1835 1836), his wife, Mary
Storer Potter, a Portland girl whom he had known from childhood
and married in 1831, died at Rotterdam. Fame came in 1839 when
he followed the mediocre prose romance, Hyperion, with his first
collection of, verse, Voices of the Night. His third foreign visit
(1842) preceded his marriage (1843) to the lovely and well-con-
nected Frances Elizabeth Appleton of Boston. Until his resigna-
tion of his professorship (1854) the chief events were the suc-
cessive appearance of uniformly successful volumes of poems:
Ballads and Other Poems (1841) ; The Spanish Student (1843) ;
Poems (1845) ; The Belfry of Bruges and Other Poems (published
December, 1845; dated 1846). Evangeline (1847); The Seaside
and the Fireside (1850). In 1855 he published The Song of Hia-
watha; in 1858 The Courtship of Miles Standish and Other Poems.
Despite the tragic death (1861) of Mrs. Longfellow, he did not
cease writing. 4

1 For detailed bibliography, see pages 107-113.

2 I. L. Whitman, Longfellow and Spain (1927).

3 Emilto Goggio, ''Italian Influences on Longfellow's Works." R.Rev.. XVI (1925).
pp. 208-222.

4 Tales of a Wayside Inn (1863, 1872, and in Aftermath, 1873): Household Poem*
(1865); Flowcr-de-Luce (1866; dated 1867). Chnttns (1872); Three Book* of Song
(1872); The Hanging of the Crane (1874): The Matquc of Pandora, and Other
Poem* (1875); Keramo* and Other Poem* (1*78); The White Ctar and Other Poem*
-"- " ' - ' - - Taylor (1879); Ultima Thute (1880):

, the year ofjris deathjand Michael

appeared 1865-1867.

0878); From My Arm-Chair (1879); Bayard T
In the Harbor (Vltima Thule, Part II, 1882),
Anoelo (1883). His great translation of Dante'*

107

io8 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Longfellow's prose is consistently undistinguished. Hyperion
(1839), aside from thinly veiled allusions to his own romantic
situation, 5 is stilted sentimentalism of the German school, then
widely copied. His essays contributed to the North American Re-
view (18371838), too, are forgotten.

The popularity of Longfellow the poet was, however, enormous.
By 1857 the aggregate sales of these top-frequent volumes of verse
were more than 300,000 copies ; e and in London 10,000 copies of
The Courtship of Miles Standish were sold the first day. 7 When,
in 1868, accompanied by six of his immediate family, he went
abroad, his experiences resembled those of a triumphal tour. In
England, following great honors on the Continent, he met every
prominent literary and public man, received honorary degrees at
Oxford and Cambridge, and had an audience with the Queen.
Such popularity, to no small degree arising from his charming
personality, could not be expected to last. But of more importance
than declining sales since his death is the change in critical attitude.
While Longfellow was alive, the criticisms of Poe, Simms, and
Margaret Fuller, concentrating on his imitativeness (which Poe
magnified into plagiarism), found little^ support among competent
critics. 8 Today criticism is predominately unfavorable. The very
qualities which made him popular are today the basis of attack.

(1) Longfellow's themes were unquestionably familiar and close
to people's hearts; today they are termed trite. (2) His ideas are
never surprising, difficult to grasp, or daring; as such they are
pronounced superficial and commonplace. (3) His treatment of
love between the sexes is marked by (a) the presentation of sin-
cere, enduring love, as in Evangeline, Hiawatha, Miles Standish,
The Hanging of the Crane; (b) the avoidance of any acknowledg-
ment of the facts of bodily charm or physical passion ; (c) the lack
of any strongly lyrical impulse, as shown in love poems directed
to individuals and the like. These characteristics were to a large
degree those of his age and as such made him acceptable in every
family circle. It need not be pointed out that today they are out
of line with trends in poetry as well as prose. (4) His didactic,
moralistic observations, welcome to his generation, constituting him
"a good influence," help to explain his tremendous vogue in the
schools. Here, as a conspicuous instance of a tendency, Longfellow
suffers the modern condemnation visited on an entire age. (5) His
clearness, simplicity, tunefulness, and regularity of style, metrical

5 Lawrence Thompson, Young Longfellow (1938).

6 H. S. Gorman, A Victorian American: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1926). p. 279.

7 W. C. B[ronson], "Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth," DAB. t XI (1933), pp. 382-387,
By 1900 thirty-three different translations had been made into German, including
eight of Evangflin*. and five of Hiawatha. Clarence Gohdes, "Longfellow and His
Authorized British Publishers," PMLA., LXV (1940), pp. 1165-1179;

8 Some correspondence of Lowejl indicates that his private estimate may not have been
one of unqualified admiration.

9 Consult, for example, Alfred Kreymborg, Our Singing Strength (1927), pp. 97-115.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 109

and stanzaic form, made him quotable and easily memorized. 10
During the vogue of free verse, now subsiding, he suffered for
his regularity and conventionality. (6) His preoccupation with
European legendary and folk material and with the work of well-
known writers needed no defense in a day when America had less
culture than today and knew all too little of any other. This led,
however, to much translation and downright imitation charged up
today as lack of proper originality and national spirit. (7) Long-
fellow's employment of Nature in his verse is pleasant, but inci-
dental and superficial; agreeable to the taste of his age without
being significant of any consciously held opinion. Like Keats, he
finds pleasure in Nature, but his reaction is not similarly ecstatic,
nor marked by like sensuous richness. There is nothing to suggest
a consciousness of Nature as a beneficent presence bringing subtle
influence to bear through ecstatic moments such as Wordsworth
mentions in "Tintern Abbey." Nor is there conspicuous technical
facility in the use of botanical and other physical detail, as with
Bryant or Tennyson. Though charming scenes and descriptive
phrases of accuracy and beauty .can easily be assembled from his
works, Longfellow is only casually and incidentally a nature poet.
(8) Burdened with his share of poignant personal losses, Long-
fellow nevertheless lived a sheltered life. Public issues seldom at-
tracted his attention. Aside from a small group of antislavery
poems (Poems on Slavery, 1842) written at the insistence of his
abolitionist friend, Sumner, he took no part in the movement. Not
completely uninterested as was his archcritic Poe, u he did not
voice the convictions he confided to his Journals. For this he has
been criticized, perhaps with justice. Taken in the aggregate, these
qualities, good and bad, characterize the age almost as much as
the man.

Beyond this, however, it has been maintained 12 that Longfellow
possessed neither great intellectual power nor great creative origi-
nality. He made no profound observations upon life, wrote nothing
calculated to task the comprehension of any reasonably mature
mind, and tended unquestionably to lean on the work of others. 18
Another critic 14 has spoken of Longfellow's shallowness of poetic
feeling. Interpreted as absence of a consuming urge toward ex-
pression, this complaint finds support in the fact that for a decade
following his first European tour, in what should have been his
most productive years, he wrote almost nothing but prose. He was,
to be sure, busy teaching, translating, establishing himself at Bow-

10 When he was a royal guest in 1868, Queen Victoria discovered to her surprise that

many of the palace servants knew his poems by heart.
H Cf. Paul Kaufman in Norman Foerster, The Reinterpretation of American Literature

(1928), p. 127 (pp. 114-138).

12 V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought. II (1927). pp. 439-441.

13 L. R. Thompson, "Longfellow's Original Sin of Imitation," Colophon, N.S. I (1935),
pp. 97-106.

14 Van Wyck Brooks, The Flowering of New England 1815-1865 (1936)* p. $08 ff.

i jo THE ROMANTIC PEJUOD: 18101865

doin. Yet, at the age for love poetry, no lyrics are addressed to the
childhood sweetheart he married. His interest in Indians, exhibited
in college, later to flower in Hiawatha, lies quite in abeyance. The
poetic urge was not strong.

To Longfellow's credit it may be maintained : (1) that he treated
a few native themes effectively and memorably. Evangeline, Hia-
watha, and The Courtship of Miles Standish are three of the four
best-known long poems {Snow-Bound the other) in American
literature, all dealing, as it happens, with solidly American themes ;
(2) that Longfellow did invaluable service to the culture of his
native land through his foreign borrowings, even though often
from second-rate authors; 1 * (3) that he bids fair to retain his
leadership as a popular American poet for years to come, whatever
the coolness of the critics; (4) that in two fields disregarded by
the public his great Dante translation and his sonnets, including
the Petrarchan sequence of six in the "Divina Commedia" he
has done first-rate work, as good as has yet been done in America.

Capias de Mmrique (1833). First published work. Is a care-
ful translation from the Spanish of Don Jorge Manrique of what
the poet terms "the most beautiful moral poem of that language,"
and Percy H. Boynton (Literature and American Life, p. 545)
"a transparently veiled Spanish homily on the vanity of human
wishes."

"A Psalm of Life"t (anonymously in Knickerbocker Maga-
zine, 1838). Designed as self-encouragement in a period of gloom
following the death of his first wife. 16 Didactic.

"The Wreck of the Hesperus"! (1840). Composed Decem-
ber 30, 1839, and published a few days later in the New World, it
was based on an actual disaster on the reef of Norman's Woe near
Gloucester but a few days before. Definitely an imitation of authen-
tic popular ballads such as "Sir Patrick Spens" (see lines 13-20),
the style is less literary than that of "The Skeleton in Armor"

15 O. W. Long, Early American Explorer* of European Culture (1935) treats George
Ticknor, Edward Everett, J. G. Cogswell, George Bancroft, Longfellow, J. L. Motley;
"their intellectual experiences in Germany, and their part in the advancement of
American culture in later life." Moreover, Longfellow's catholic sympathies are evi-
dent from his many poems on Oriental themes: Arthur Christy in bis "Introduction"
to The Leap of Roushan Beg (1931).

16 C. L. Johnson, "Three Notes on Longfellow," HSNPL., XIV (1932), pp. 249-271;
F. L. Pattee, The First Century of American Literature. 1770-1870 (1935), p. 524 /.,
says: " . . . had first been made public in a lecture to his Harvard class on Goethe
doubtless to illustrate the spirit of Wilhelm Meister. . . . Life is no longer a dream
(as in the Sorrows of Werther) but a place for work"; William Charvat, ' 7 Let us then
be up and doing," Enfffoh Journal. XXVIII (1939). pp. 374-383.

17 In its dialogue not unlike Goethe's "Erlkdnig " t to music by Schubert Cf. Henry
Beston, "The Real Wreck of the Hesperus/' Bookman. LXI (1925), pp. 304-306;

"' ' ~ ...........

. . , ., e ee

SSN. t XVII (1942), p. 74 ff. (pp. 70*3).

THE GENTEEL TRADITION m

The Spanish Student (18401842; published 1842 in Graham's
Magazine). Longfellow's first venture in drama, it afforded no
encouragement to the author to continue in the field. In 1844 Poe
charged that it contained passages plagiarized from "The Raven."

Evangeline^ (18451847 ; 1847) . Based on a story told to Long-
fellow by a Boston clergyman who had it from a parishioner.
Hawthorne, who brought the visitor to Longfellow, had been asked
to write the story but had declined. Whittier abandoned a like
project. 1 * Unacquainted by contact with any of the regions de-
scribed, 20 Longfellow read T. C. Haliburton's An Historical and
Statistical Account of Nova Scotia (1829), books on the Missis-
sippi and the great plains, visited a "diorama" of the Mississippi
region currently on exhibition in Boston, and, reportedly, inter-
viewed a Harvard student from Louisiana. Resemblances in treat-
ment between Evangeline and Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea
have aroused comment, including the hexameter verse in which
Longfellow's success was so outstanding. Events recorded, less
brutal and more defensible than indicated, occupied years 1763
1855, involved 6,000 persons. Was originally to have been named
"Gabrielle." 21

The Building of the Shlp^ (1850). Outstanding (1) as one of
Longfellow's few vigorous poems devoted to national issues; (2)
because of the timeliness of its admonitions in a year when the
Fugitive Slave Bill was being signed, the Free Soil Party being
formed, and Webster's Seventh of March speech delivered ; (3) be-
cause of Longfellow's familiarity as a Maine man with the process
of ship-building, including technical terminology; (4) because of
the superb peroration. 22 In structure, resemblance has been noted
to Schiller's Song of the Bell. 29

The Song of Hiawatha^ (1855). 24 Reflects a lifelong interest in

18 L. R. Thompson, "Longfellow Sells The Spanish Student/' AL. t VI (1934-1935),
pp. 141-150.

19 J. W. Bowker, Jr.. and J. A. Russell, "The Background of Longfellow's Evangeline,"
QQ., XXXIX (1932), pp. 489-494.

20 Other than the Philadelphia setting of the final scene which he had visited immediately
before sailing on his first trip to Europe.

21 For additional information see Archibald MacMechan, "Evangeline and the Real
Acadians," Ail., XCIX (1907). pp. 202-213; M. G. Hill, "Some of Longfellow's
Sources for the Second Part of Evangeline " PMLA., XXXI (1916), pp. 161-180;
Clifford Millard, "The Acadians in Virginia," VMHB., XL (1932). pp. 241-258;
J. B. Brcbner, "The Brown Mss. and Longfellow," CHR.. XVII (1936). pp. 172-178.

23 "Ein Ungeres Gedicht The Building of the Ship, steht in seinem Aufbau Schillers
Clock* nahe " J. T. Hatfield, Four Lectures (1936), p. 51 (pp. 43-55).

24 Stith Thompson. "The Indian Legend of Hiawatha," PMLA., XXXVII (1922),
pp. 128-140; H. S. Gorman, A Victorian American: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
(1926), p. 275; T. A. Russell, "Longfellow: Interpreter of the Historical and the
Romantic Indian/' JAM.. XXII (1928), p|>. 327-347; W. L. Schrarara, "Hiawatha
and Its Predecessors," PQ. t XI (1932), pp. 321-343; Dorothy Werner. The Idea of
Union in American Vene (1932), p. 49; P. H. Boynton, Literature and American Life
(1936). p. 548; F. L. Pattee. The Feminine Fifties (1940). p. 167 f.

Parodies of Hiawatha include W. N, Lettsom, The Song of Fhggawaya (1856),

ii2 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Indians. In college Longfellow read Heckewelder*s Account of
the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations of
Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States and absorbed the kindly
Moravian's romantic attitude. At eighteen he wrote "The Burial
of the Minnisink" (1825). Had often encountered Indians as a
boy, had seen Black Hawk in Boston in 1837, and conversed with
an Ojibway chief in 1849. But chief dependence was on H. R.
Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of the United States.
Like Schoolcraft, Longfellow confuses the Iroquois Hiawatha with
the less admirable Ojibway Manabozho. He also introduces incon-
gruous sentimentalism in the love story and employs names from
far separated tribes. Setting of the poem is on the south shore of
Lake Superior. The meter, unrhymed trochaic tetrameter, was
frankly borrowed from the Kalevala, a Finnish epic. Two sections
have been used by the Negro composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor
for tuneful choral compositions, "Hiawatha's Wedding Feast"
and "The Death of Minnehaha."

The Courtship of Miles Standuh^ (1858). Based on careful
reading of Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation and several
other authoritative works, it deals with ancestral figures; hence,
perhaps, its kindly treatment of a Pilgrim romance. Less senti-
mental than Evangeline.

"My Lost Youth"t (1855; 1858). Exquisite tribute to his
romance-tinged youth of ships and sturdy seafaring folk. The fa-
mous refrain is a precise translation of Herder (Stimmen der
V biker in Liedern), who got it from Johannes Scheffer of Upsala's
Lapponia (1673, Latin), who had translated it from a Lapp
original. 25

Tales of a Wayside Inn\ (Part I, 1863; Second Day, 1872;
Third Part, in Aftermath, 1873). Series of narrative poems writ-
ten in the pattern of the Decameron, was to have been called "Sud-
bury Tales" after the Howe Tavern at Sudbury, Massachusetts,
its setting. It included the previously written "Paul Revere's
Ride,"t "The Legend of Rabbi Ben Levi," and "The Saga of King
Olaf ," Also included are "King Robert of Sicily" and "The Birds
of Killingworth."

The Divine Comedy (1867). Produced with the assistance of
C. E. Norton, J. R. Lowell, and W. D. Howells, who passed upon
the translation line by line. The device was perhaps suggested,
says Van Wyck Brooks (The Flowering of New England, p. 331),
by the gathering in Dresden at which Ticknor heard Tieck read
aloud his translation of Dante into German.

[Anonymous], Kwait Qng.We~Ong.Wt1 Oushct. Halloo! An Indian I Winter! (1856).
Lewis Carroll, "Hiawatha's Photographing" (1857). J. W. Ward, The Song of Higher
Water (1868). C. B. M. Heywood. *Hiawatha at dattJbridge," LJf.. XXVn (1932-
1933), pp. 6-30, and Owen Rutter, Tradatha (reviled, 1935).
25 J. T. Hatfield, "Longfellow's 'Lapland Song/ " PMLA., XLV (1930), pp. 1188-1192.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 113

Chrbtus: A Afys/eryt (1872). One of Longfellow's most am-
bitious projects, but one of his most labored and unsuccessful
Three parts : I "The Divine Tragedy," the Gospel story, pub-
lished separately the year previous ; and introducing a miracle play,
'The Nativity"; II "The Golden Legend"! (1851) made up of
nine episodes like a miracle cycle, and telling "a typical mediaeval
tale of a sick Prince, aided by Lucifer, and then saved by a pure
maiden"; III "The New England Tragedies" (1868) treating
colonial episodes in dramatic form and made up of the five-act
plays, "John Endicott" and "Giles Corey of the Salem Farms."
Apparently influenced by Der Arme Heinrich especially in second
part.

The Hanging of the Crane (published 1874, but, according to
T. B. Aldrich whose new home suggested the idea, conceived early
in 1867). Tenderness of such passages as that numbered III paral-
lels the poet's sonnet "Nature." An interesting musical parallel may
he noted in John* Alden Carpenter's orchestral sketch, "Adventures
in a Perambulator."

"Morituri Salutamus"t (1875). Read by the poet at the fifti-
eth anniversary exercises of his college class, that summer at
Brunswick, Maine. The comparison with Tennyson's "Ulysses"
(1842) and Browning's "Rabbi Ben Ezra" (1864) is obvious. Note
the quality of versified oratory, conspicuous in the close-knit pro-
gressive thought. Rhymed pentameter.

"Three Friends of Mine" (1875). Touchingly records the
loss of C. C. Felton, one of Longfellow's oldest Cambridge friends ;
Louis Agassiz, a member of the Saturday Club and also celebrated
in Lowell's "Agassiz"; and Charles Sumner, Longfellow's closest
friend. Allusions to the meanderings of the Charles River, and to
Mount Auburn Cemetery give the poem a local flavor.

Sonnets. Longfellow's success with the sonnet form is out-
standing. 27 "Mezzo Cammin" (1842; 1886) is autobiographical,
written at the age of 35 ; The six Divine Comedy sonnetsf (1864
1867; 1867) were used, the first two to preface the "Inferno," the
next two the "Purgatorio," and the final two the "Paradiso." Thr
.sonnets translated from Michael Angelo were originally designed
to be included in Michael Angelo: A Fragment, left incomplete at
the poet's death.

JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER, 18071892, poet. 28
Born near Amesbury, Massachusetts, of a family settled in Amer-
ica in 1638 ; Quaker for some generations. His permanent handi-

26 I. T. K rum pel man, ''Longfellow's 'Golden Legend* and the 'Arme Heinrich* Theme
in Modern German Literature," JEGP.. XXV (1926), pp. 13M92,

27 P. E. More* Shtlb** Essays. Fifth Series (1908), pp. 132-157.

28 For full bibliography, see pages 291-292.

ii4 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

caps were several: ill health resulting from exposure and over-
exertion ; partial deafness ; color blindness ; 29 a meagre education ;
and, from various factors including poverty and family responsi-
bilities, a resulting narrow and provincial experience. Early contact
with W. L. Garrison developed a native dislike of slavery into
aggressive opposition; 80 diverted him at least partially from the
field of practical politics in which he had 'ambition and natural skill.
Too fluent a pen, and too ready a medium in the various papers he
edited ; 81 produced quantities of forgotten verse and prose, much
of it only recently collected. The prolific, varied, and ill-controlled
nature of his creative impulse may be suggested by the fact that the
list of individual volumes published during his lifetime numbers
no fewer than forty. 82 Of his best verse 83 little is controversial, much
religious, rural, and regional. Despite his earnestness, Whittier's
personal kindliness kept him free of wartime hates. His old age
was sunny and marked by nation-wide tributes.

IMPORTANT PROSE PIECE

Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal^ (1848). Semi-fictional
romance is an admirable picture of colonial times, perhaps Whit-
tier's best piece of creative prose. 84

IMPORTANT POEM

Snow-Bound^ (1865; 1866). Occupies a unique place in Ameri-
can poetry as an accurate but charming regional and period picture,
counterpart of Burns's "Cotter's Saturday Night/ 1 The house men-
tioned, Whittier's birthplace, still stands, but the barn described is
not that first erected on the site. The uncle referred to died from
a blow by a tree he was felling. The aunt, who had lost her be-
trothed years before, had seen a ghostly visitor the night of his

29 Desmond Powell, "Whittier," AL. t IX (1937-1938), pp. 335-342.

30 Cf. "To William Lloyd Garrison" (1831) in which he acknowledges his debt.

31 Bertha-Monica Stearns, "John Greenlcaf Whittier, Editor," NEQ., XIII (1940),
pp. 280-304.

32 Legends of New-England (1831); Moll Pitcher (1832); Justice and Expediency
(1833); The Song of the Vermonters (1833); Mogg Me a one (1836); Poems Written
during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States, between the Years
1830 and 1*38 (1837); Narrative of James Williams (1838); Poems (1838); Lays of
My Home (1843); Ballads and Other Poems (1844); The Stranger in Lowell (1845);
Voices of Freedom (1846); The Supernaturalism of New England (1847); Poems
(1849); Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal (1849); Old Portraits and Modem
Sketches (1850); Songs of Labor and Other Poems (1850); The Chapel of the Hermits
H853); Literary Recreations and Miscellanies (1854); The Panorama (1856); Poetical
Works (1857); The Sycamores (1857); Home Ballads (I860): In War Time and
Other Poems (1864); National Lyrics (1865); Snow-Bound (1866); The Tent on the
Beach (1867); Among the Hills (1869); Miriam and Other Poems (1871); Th*
Pennsylvania Pilgrim (1872); H axel-Blossoms (1875); Mabel Martin (1876); Cen-
tennial Hymn (1876); The Vision of Echard (1878); The Kina's Missive (1881);
The Bay of Seven Islands (1883); Saint Gregory's Guest (1886); At Sundown
(1890); The Demon Lady (1894).

33 W. T. Scott, "Poetry in America: A New Consideration of Whittier'i Verse/' NEQ..
VII (1934), pp. 258-275.

34 C. B, Williams, Margaret Smith's Journal (Ph.D., Chicago, 1933) ; also, G. R. Car-
penter, John Greenteaf Whitticr (1903), p. 245; V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in
American Thought. II (1927), p. 363 /.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 115

death much as did the maiden in Burger's "Lenore." The sister
whose death is mentioned with such tenderness had died the year
preceding the writing of the poem. 85 Its persisting popularity has
resulted in part from the halo of memory which the author has
thrown over scenes familiar to hosts of New Englanders scattered
over America ; but also from its touching genuineness and the ex-
quisite beauty of the conclusion. 88

SHORTER POEMS

SLAVERY. "Massachusetts to Virginia"f (1843), occasioned by
the arrest in Massachusetts of George Latimer, alleged fugitive
slave, is a powerful poem (notably 11. 69-84) illustrating the influ-
ence of an intrinsically unimportant incident in crystallizing waver-
ing public opinion. Cf. also "A Sabbath Scene" (1850). "Randolph
of Roanoke" (1847) 37 pays tribute to a proud Virginian who,
dying, freed his slaves rather than risk their passing into unkind
hands. "Ichabod"f (1850), occasioned by Webster's Seventh of
March speech, "in support of the 'Compromise* and the Fugitive
Slave Law" (Whittier) , should be balanced by the later and kindlier
poem, "The Lost Occasion" (1880). "Brown of Ossawatomie"
(1859) and "Barbara Frietchie"t (1863) 38 are ballads with a
dubious factual basis. "Laus Deo!"t (1865) celebrated that year's
ratification of the Constitutional amendment abolishing slavery.
Another excellent antislavery poem is "The Farewell of a Virginia
Slave Mother" (1838).

COLONIAL. "Cassandra Southwick" (1843) recounts persecu-
tion (1658) of a rebel against the established church. "The Garri-
son of Cape Ann" (1857) retells an incident from Cotton Mather's
Magnolia designed to illustrate the triumph of godliness over the
supernatural forces of darkness. "The Wreck of Rivermouth"
(1864) narrates a disaster at sea predicted by a witch; the "Father
Bachiler" of the poem may be a reminiscence of a Stephen Bachiler
in Whittier's own ancestry. Whittier's interest in colonial themes
and times turns often in the direction of witchcraft. 30 Among such
poems are "The Weird Gathering 1 ' (1831), "Moll Pitcher 11 !
(1832), "Mabel Martin" (1857), "The Prophecy of Samuel Sew-
all" (1859), "The Witch of Wenham" (1877), and "Calef in
Boston" (1849). "The Palatine" (1867) recounts the reappearance

35 N. L. Sayles, "A Note on Whittier's Sn<nv-Bound," AL. VI (1934-1935), p. 336 /.;
H. L. Drew, "The Schoolmaster in Snou,-Bound," AL. t IX (1937-1938), p. 243 /.

36 "The portraits given are drawn with affectionate care against a background of con-
summate fidelity. Here is the simple, vivid rendering of a Flemish canvas. Here is
simplicity and elemental poetry." G. S. Bryan, "Foreword," p. 5 (pp. 3-5), in Snow-
Bound (1930).

37 M. H. Coleman. VWhittier on John Randolph of Roanoke," NEQ., VIII (1935),
pp. 551-555.

38 D. M, Quynn and W. R. Quynn, Barbara Frittschie (1942).

39 G. H. Orians, "New England Witchcraft in Fiction," AL., II (1930*1931), p. 54 if.
(pp. 54-71).

n6 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

of a blazing ship, lured to disaster a century before by false lights
placed by "wreckers." Cf. Clemence Dane's play, Granite (1926),
and Daphne du Maurier's Jamaica Inn (1937), dealing with those
of Cornwall. 'The Sisters" (1858) is a stirring ballad of two sisters
loving the same man, betrothed to one, but so much better loved by
the other that she knows by telepathy the moment of his death at sea.
"Abraham Davenport" (1866) repeats a colonial incident. Quieter
pictures are "The Shoemakers" (1845) and "The Huskers" (1847).
"Skipper Ireson's Ride"t (1828, 1857; 1857) , 40 one of the poet's
best ballads, with a rich dialect, deals with a Marblehead occurrence
of almost his own day. "Amy Wentworth" (1862), commending
a marriage of wealth with poverty, perhaps expresses a personal
attitude.

PERSONAL. Treasured pictures of boyhood years appear in "In
School-Days" (1870) and "The Barefoot Boy"t (1855). 41 "My
Playmate" (1860) alludes to a distant relative, Mary Emerson
Smith, married in 1832, with whom he was once passionately in
love, even to willingness to marry her "out of meeting." "Memo-
ries" (1832, 1841; 1843) either refers to Mary or recalls his close
friendship with Lucy Hooper, who died in 1841. 42 "Telling the
Bees"f (1858), one of his loveliest poems, preserves an old-country
folk custom transplanted to rural New England. Presenting a
mature view, more poised and philosophical, are "Benedicite"
(1851), "Among the Hills" (1868), and "The Waiting" (1862).
"Proem"f (1847; 1849) and "Response" (1878), the latter read
at 'a dinner given for him on his seventieth birthday, are excellent
self-criticism and deserve close study. Marked, too, with a strongly
personal flavor are the poems in which he acknowledges his essen-
tially provincial devotion to the immediate region of his birth. Such
a poem is "The Last Walk in Autumn" (1857). "Our River"
(1861) and the rather Byronic "The Merrimack" (1841) deal with
the same stream. "Hampton Beach" (1843) and "Sunset on the
Bearcamp" (1876) are Wordsworthian in their love of nature.
"Summer by the Lakeside" (1853) introduces a note of religious
faith.

RELIGIOUS. Whittier's interest in Oriental literature has recently
been emphasized. 48 Outstanding is the definitely Transcendental
"The Over-Heart" (1859), close in thought to Emerson's "The
Over-Soul." "Miriam" (1871) has a background of comparative
religions, with some paraphrased Oriental philosophy at the end.
Similar is the material included in "Oriental Maxims'* (1881).

40 E. E. Ericwm, " 'John Hort' and 'Skipper Ireson,' " NEQ. t X (1937). p. 531 /.

41 N, F. Adlcins, "Whittier's 'The Barefoot Boy.'" NQ.. CLXV (1933). p. 78 /.

42 Albert Mordell, "Whittier and Lucy Hooper." NEQ. t VII (1934). pp. 316-325.

43 Arthur Christy, "Orientalism in New England: Whittier/' AL., I (1929-1930),
pp. 372-392; "*The Orientalism of Whittier," AL., V (1933-1934), pp. 247-257.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 117

Others in the group are "The Two Rabbi [n]s" (1868), "Rabbi Ish-
mael" (1881), "The Khan's Devil" (1879), and "Requital" (1885).
Definitely Quaker are "The Meeting" (1868) and "First-Day
Thoughts" (1853). "My Psalm" (1859) shows mature adjustment
to things as they are. "The Preacher" (1859) is a fair and under-
standing character sketch of George Whitefield, the great English
evangelist of the mid-eighteenth century, buried in the Federal
Street Church, Ncwburyport, close to Whittier's birthplace. White-
field accomplished great good but gave tacit approval to the slave
trade by soliciting its profits for the support of his own work,
"The Eternal Goodness" (1865) and "Our Master" (1866) are
hymns now often heard in the services of other sects.

MISCELLANEOUS. Included among the poems must be the popu-
lar but hastily written "Maud Muller"f (1854); the narratives,
"The Pipes at Lucknow" (1858) and "The Angels of Buena
Vista" (1847) ; and his tributes to personalities, notably "Kossuth"
(1851), "Burns" (1854), and "Our Autocrat" (1879).

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE, 18041864, short-story
writer, novelist. 44 Born in Salem, Massachusetts, Hawthorne in-
herited from seafaring ancestors, then named Hathorne, a familiar-
ity with nautical affairs and a capacity for business. The first is spar-
ingly revealed in the opening of The House of the Seven Gables,
the second helped him through his official duties at Boston, Salem,
and Liverpool ; inspired the opening chapter of The Scarlet Letter,
and occasioned the volume Our Old Home. Two years of boyhood
inactivity resulting from an injury, and long visits over several
years to the Maine Woods, doubtless strengthened, even before col-
lege days, an ingrained fondness for solitude. At Bowdoin, where
he had as friends Longfellow, Franklin Pierce, and Horatio Bridge,
he won, it is true, a certain reputation for conviviality as well as
literary talent ; but when, following graduation (1825), he returned
to Salem, it was to a retirement unbroken, except for the anony-
mous appearance of Fansliawe (1828), until the publication oi
Twice-Told Talcs in 1837.

Products of college days and those immediately following arc
Seven Tales of My Native Land (1825, unpublished) and Fan-
ishawe (1828), which he called in and destroyed. 45 Other stories,
including "The Gray Champion," appeared in The Token, the
Salem Gazette, and the New England Magazine. The second series
of Tivicc-Told Tales (1842) was followed in 1846 by Mosses from
an Old Manse, a collection different only as respects the greater
length and imaginative range of the stories included. Hawthorne
had in the meantime (18391840) occupied the position of meas-
urer in the Boston Custom House; published (1841) Grandfather**

44 For full bibliography, see pages 292-293.

45 G. H. Orians, "Scott and Hawthorne's JFtaufcmw," NEQ.. XI (1938) , pp. 388-394

n8 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 18101865

Chair, first of several successful volumes of stories for children ;
resided (1841) for a few months at Brook Farm; married Sophia
Peabody (1842) and moved to the "Old Manse," Concord. In
1846 he returned to Salem as governor of the port. The change
was important, not only because it was here that he completed The
Scarlet Letter (1850), but because it contributed descriptive detail
to The House of the Seven Gables (1851). Deprived of his post
(1849), he resided for a time at Lenox in western Massachusetts,
at West Newton, and at "Wayside," Concord, which he purchased
as a home. As a reward for writing a campaign life of his class-
mate Franklin Pierce, then candidate for president, he was ap-
pointed U.S. consul (1853 1856) in Liverpool, England. Resi-
dence in Rome (18581859) provided inspiration and setting for
The Marble Faun (1860). Following return (1860) to Wayside,
Hawthorne struggled against declining health, publishing recollec-
tions of his English experiences in Our Old Home (1863), and at-
tempting other projects which he left uncompleted when he died
(1864) while driving through New Hampshire with Pierce.

plawthorne was thirty-three when his first important work, the
first (1837) edition of Twice-Told Tales, was published: forty-six
when fame found him with the printing of The Scarlet Letter. By
that date Poe was dead and Cooper about to $ie J and there was no
fictional artist in America to dispute his sway. Nor did any rival
appear subsequently, though absence from the country, declining
creative powers, and the public preoccupation with great national
issues lessened his popularity.

With respect to his technical attainments, critics are in substantial
agreement. More than with most, his style was a natural gift,
recognized even in college. It was, however, perfected by years of
conscious effort before any of his finished work became widely
known. His vocabulary is superbly adequate without the offensive
repetition of pet words encountered in Poe. The contribution of
verbal art to the mass effect of his outstanding scenes is not to be
denied. Less can be said for his achievement in other directions.
Though the creator of a few memorable characters, Hawthorne
cannot be called a master of characterization. Pearl, a shadowy
copy of his own daughter Una, convinces many critics that Haw-
thorne could not draw children. Still less was he a plot maker.
The Scarlet Letter, an expanded short story, is a series of tableau-
like scenes^vjTA^ Blithedale Romance is marred by mechanical
manipulation of characters of an obvious sort. The House of the
Seven Gables shows bad distribution of space. (His superlative,
and indeed his unique, achievement lies in the dignity of his themes,
in the creation of effects, in the perfect adaptation of every detail
to the production of a single impression.^

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 119

SHORT STORIES

Among his best tales are "The Great Stone Face" (1851),
"Wakefield" (1835), "The Gray Champion"! (1837), "Dr. Hei-
degger's Experiment"! (1837), "Drowne's Wooden Image"
(1846), "The Birthmark"! (1846), "Rappaccini's Daughter"!
(1846), "The Celpstial Railroad"! (1846), and "The Ambitious
Guest"! (1842). \Speaking generally, the themes of his stories
fall into the following classifications : (1) incapacity to mingle with
men ; (2) hidden sin ; (3) the scientific impulse run riot ; 46 (4) pure
fantasy; (5) episodes from colonial history. This variety of themes
and materials results 47 from fairly extensive vacation trips to the
Berkshires, White Mountains, Connecticut, Niagara Falls, on which
he had a much better time than has been assumed on the basis of the
emasculated journals published by his wife. 48 Hawthorne was not
blind to a pretty face nor unresponsive to a salty masculine joke.

On the other hand it would be foolish to deny the preponderant
element of history and tradition. Not only has investigation shown
that he was a voluminous, though casual, reader of colonial litera-
ture, 49 but that upon occasion he leaned heavily upon particular
sources} G. Harrison Orians 50 and Miss F. N. Cherry 51 have traced
"Young Goodman Brown"! (1846) to a Cervantes story, "El
Coloquio de los Perros." Arlin Turner 52 traces it to Cotton Ma-
ther's Wonders of the Invisible World. "The Gray Champion,"
which had its basis in a historic Indian attack just 100 years before
the beginning of the American Revolution, retells an incident
which G, H. Orians says 58 had appeared in a series of historical
works beginning with Governor Thomas Hutchinson's History of
Massachusetts (1765). Randall Stewart shows 54 that "The Birth-
mark" (1846) drew heavily upon a passage in Combe's Physiology
cited in the notebooks. Similar investigations have been directed
at "Lady Eleanore's Mantle"! (1837), 55 "Dr. Heidegger's Experi-
ment" (1837),* 6 "The Maypole of Merry-Mount"! (1837), 5T

46 Hawthorne's best tales, says F. L. Pattce (in The Development of the American
Short Story [1923], pp. 91-115), are "sermons, each with a test to which its author
rigidly adheres. ...

47 Carl Van Doren, The American Novel (1940), p. 61.

48 Randall Stewart, The American Notebooks of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1932).

49 [Anonymous], "Books Read by Nathaniel Hawthorne. 1828-1859," EIHC., LXVIII
(1932), pp. 65-87; also, G. P. Lathrop, A Study of Hawthorne (1876).

50 "New England Witchcraft in Fiction," AL., II (1930-1931), pp. 54-71.

51 "The Sources of Hawthorne's 'Young Goodman Brown/" AL.. V (1933-1934),
pp. 342-348.

52 "Hawthorne's Literary Borrowings," PMLA.. LI (1936), pp. 543-562.

53 "The Angel of Hadley in Fiction," AL., IV (1932-1933), pp. 257-269.

54 The American Notebooks of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1932), XXV.

55 F. N. Cherry, "A Note on the Source of Hawthorne's 'Lady Eleanore's Mantle.' "
AL. t VI (1934-1935), pp. 437-439.

56 Louise Hastings, "An Origin for 'Dr. Heidegger's Experiment/ " AL.. IX (1937-
1938), pp. 403-410: A. L. Cooke, "Some Evidences of Hawthorne's Indebtedness to
Swift/' UTSE., (1938), p. 143 ff. (pp. 140-162).

57 G. H. Orians, "Hawthorne and 'The Maypole of Merry-Mount/ " MLN. t LHI
(1938). pp. 159-167; D. F. Connors, "Thomas Morton of Merry ilount: His First
Arrival in New England/' AL.. XI (1939-1940). pp. 160-166.

120 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

"Roger Malvin's Buriai"t (1846), M "Fancy's Show Box" (1837),"
"Howe's Masquerade"! (1837). 60 Proper names throughout his
stories and novels have been traced by Arlin Turner to Mather
and Sewall, including Goodman Brown, Dr. Dolliver, Judge Pyn-
cheon, Majihew Maule, and Ethan Brand.

NOVELS

Vhe Scarlet Letter? (1850). Doubtless inspired by the narrative
^djohn Winthrop's journal of the punishment of one Mary Latham,
Jt was the outgrowth of an earlier short story, "Endicott and the
Red Cross" (1837), in which an embroidered A is mentioned.
The Scarlet Letter illustrates the precise nature of Hawthorne's
interest in the past. Instead of the continuous narrative of the his-
torian, it consists of a series of vivid scenes from which the anti-
quarian data he could so easily have supplied have been rigorously
excluded. Emphatically not a love story, it is concerned with con-
science and the effects of concealed sin rather than with sin itself.
Interrelations of the characters are secondary to the struggle of
each character with his own conscience. Hawthorne does not pro-
nounce judgment, yet none escapes punishment of one kind or
another. Considering the date of writing and the rigid morality of
the author, the treatment of sex sin, and in particular of an erring
woman, is remarkably sympathetic and charitable ; indeed, Chilling-
worth the husband, who commits no offense against public morals,
is punished for violating a principle sacred to Hawthorne in tyran-
nizing over another personality. Sin is thus broadly interpreted;
but in the conception of the inevitability of punishment the book is
essentially Puritam

The House of the Seven Gables^ (1851). With a Salem setting,
makes use of family history in the form of a curse traditionally
hurled at the author's witch-hanging great-grandfather, stresses
descriptive elements, introduces in Judge Pyncheon a character
avowedly modeled upon the Reverend Charles W. Upham, a politi-
cian whom Hawthorne thought responsible for his removal from
his post at the Salem Custom House. Evils of heredity and in-
breeding are stressed in the Judge, Hepzibah, and Clifford, who are
contrasted with the normal, if not highly developed, natures of
Phoebe and Holgrave. Gothic touch appears in the description of
the portrait seeming about to leave its frame, and concealing a
secret compartment.

The BlitheJale Romance^ (1852). Hawthorne made use of
Brook Farm as a setting "merely to establish a theatre, a little ro-

58 G. H. Orians, "The Source of Hawthorne's 'Roger Malvin's Burial,' " AL.. X
(1938-1939), pp. 313-318.

59 N. F. Dotibleday, "The Theme of Hawthorne's 'Fancy's Show Box,' " AL.. X (1938
. 1939), pp. 341-343.

60 H. E. Thorner, "Hawthorne, Poe, and a Literary Ghost," NEQ. t VII (1934), pp. 146

154.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 121

moved from the highway of ordinary travel, where the creatures
of his brain may play their phantasmagorical antics without ex-
posing them to too clear a comparison with the actual events of
real lives." fll Though not consciously misleading, this seems to
most scholars an understatement. Hollingsworth may be Theodore
Parker ; more plausibly, Coverdale may be the author. Aside from
her beauty, which scarcely fits, Zenobia has striking points of re-
semblance to Margaret Fuller; the unfavorable portrait seemingly
resulted fYom a dislike of long standing. Some attempt has also
been made to identify the original as Fanny Kemble, the actress,
whom Hawthorne knew at Lenox. Massachusetts, in 1851. 02

Termed by Henry James "the lightest, the brightest, the liveliest"
of Hawthorne's books, The BHthcdalc Romance suffers from lack
of any absorbing theme, and from a badly articulated plot. Cover-
dale, the narrator, a prejudiced participant in the action, cannot
reveal what goes on in the minds of others. In some novels unim-
portant, this technique is here a serious obstacle. The satire upon
Hollingsworth exhibits a disbelief in philanthropists, paralleling
that expressed by Thoreau near the end of the first chapter of
W aid en.

The Marble Fating (1860). Last and longest novel, published
in England as Transformation, is really misnamed, since a faun-
like human being, not the marble faun of Praxiteles, is its central
character. The ravages of guilt in his nature in Miriam, who
permitted the crime to be committed ; and in Hilda, who had knowl-
edge of what was done constitute the real theme. Symbolism like
that of the Scarlet Letter reappears in the adroit hinting at animal-
like ears on the head of Donatello. Partly because of the writer's
inexperience, partly because such material had then reader interest,
extensive indeed disproportionate use is made of the artistic
background. Conspicuous is his Protestant bias against religious
paintings and the Catholic Church, his provincial prejudice against
the nudity of classical sculpture.

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES, 1809^-1894, essayist,
poet, 68 novelist. Of fine English and Dutch colonial ancestry, closely
connected with half a dozen of the best Boston families, the son of
a prominent and scholarly Cambridge clergyman, and bearing the
name of his maternal grandfather, the Hon. Oliver Wendell,
Holmes had justifiable bases for his pride in family. From Phillips

61 Quoted in Carl Van Doren, The American Novel (1940), p. 75.

62 Cf. Van Wyck Brooks, The Flowering of New England 1*15-1*65 (1936), pp. 382-
383, 431; Oscar CargilL "Nemesis and Nathaniel Hawthorne," PMLA.. LII (1937).
P. 849 (pp. 848-861); W. P. Randel, "Hawthorne, Channing, and Margaret Fuller,"
AL., X (1938.1939), pp. 472-476; Austin Warren. "Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, and
Nemesis/ " PMLA., LIV (1939), p. 615 (pp. 615-618).

63 For full bibliography, see pages 293-294.

122 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Andover he went to Harvard (1825) ; graduating (1829) in a
class for which he wrote close to forty reunion poems. After a
trial year in the Harvard Law School he studied medicine, first
in Boston, then (18331835) in Paris, taking his M.D. (1836)
at Harvard. In 1837 and 1838 he won Boylston prizes for three
medical essays. From 1838 1840 he was Professor of Anatomy
at Dartmouth. In 1847, following private practice and teaching,
he became Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Harvard,
dropping the latter branch in 1871, and retiring, emeritus, in 1882.
The essay "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever," read before
the Boston Society for Medical Improvement and published (1843)
in the New England Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery,
aroused controversy, but caused important reforms in hospital pro-
cedure. 04 Holmes had an important part in founding (1857) the
Atlantic Monthly, contributing to its first number an instalment
of the Autocrat. The Lowell Institute Lectures on The English
Poets of the Nineteenth Century were delivered in 1853. Holmes
visited Europe in 1886, receiving honorary degrees from both Eng-
lish universities. He died in 1894. Dates of his chief works are as
follows: Old Ironsides (1830); Poems (1836); Boylston Prise
Dissertations (1838); Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions
(1842) ; The Contagiousness oj Puerperal Fever\ (1843) ; Poems
(1846) ; Urania: A Rhymed Lesson (1846) ; Poems (1849) ; The
Autocrat of the Breakjast Table (1858); The Professor at the
Breakfast Table (1860); Elsie Venner (1861); Songs in Many
Keys (1862); Soundings from the Atlantic (1864); Humorous
Poems (1865); The Guardian Angel (1867); The Poet at the
Breakfast-Table (1872); Songs of Many Seasons (1875); John
Lothrop Motley: A Memoir (1879) ; The Iron Gate, and Other
Poems (1880) ; Medical Essays 18421882 (1883) ; Pages jrom
an Old Volume of Life (1883); A Mortal Antipathy (1885);
Ralph Waldo Emerson, American Men of Letters (1885); Our
Hundred Days in Europe (1887) ; Before the Curfew and Other
Poems (1887) ; Over the Teacups (1891).

64 The career of Holmes as & medical man, too often neglected, is of importance (1) be-
cause it was his major interest to which literature was secondary; (2) because it
brought professional fame, unrealized in literary circles. His Boylston prize essays
(1836, 1837) were entitled: "Facts and Traditions respecting the Existence of In*
digenous Intermittent Fever in New England," "The Nature and Treatment of
Neuralgia/* and "The Utility and Importance of Direct Exploration in Medical
Practice." For relation of his essay on Puerperal Fever to the subsequent work of
Semmelweis, see S. I. Hayakawa and H. M. /ones: Oliver Wendell Holmes: Repre-
sentative Selections (1939), p. xxxii. For further discussion, see W. S. Walsh,
Literary Life (1882), II, pp. 135-149: J. G. Whitter, The Writings of John Greenleaf
Whittier (seven volumes, 1888), Vlf, pp. 374-382; also, The Prose Works of John
Greenleaf Whittier (three volumes, 1892), III, pp. 374-382; D. W. Cheever, ''Oliver
Wendell Holmes, the Anatomist " HGM.. II (1894-1895). pp. 154-159; J. H. M.
Knox, Jr., "The Medical Life of Oliver Wendell Holmes.' 1 JHHB. t XVIII (1907),
pp. 45-51; W. B. Jennings, "Oliver Wendell Holmes," MRR. t XV (1909), pp. 107-
114; Stewart Lewis, "A True Story of Oliver Wendell Holmes," IND., LXVII
(1909), p. 1313; H,. R. Viets, "Oliver Wendell Holmes, Physician," A.Schol., Ill
(1934), pp. S-ll.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 123

ESSAYS AND NOVELS

The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table^ (18311832; 1858) ."
Formally launched in the first number of the Atlantic (1857), had
its actual beginning in two papers published in the New England
Magazine (November, 1831 ; February, 1832). Lacking the charm
of the later continuation, these first papers still had the characteris-
tic mixture of prose and verse. For the general pattern Holmes
may have found a suggestion in the Sir Roger de Coverley papers
of Addison. The device of a conversational framework was pecu-
liarly adapted to the needs of one of the most brilliant conversa-
tionalists of the age. It provided a natural atmosphere and made
easy the shift from one topic to another. The incidental interest
which developed in the table itself was fed by an increasing em-
phasis on the story element as the Professor** the Poet, and Over
the Teacups followed the Autocrat. The grouping of diverse per-
sonalities always some rough blurter of startling truths, always
a sweet feminine figure, etc. kept alive the elements of surprise
and variety. Revealed against this background is the fascinating
mind of the Autocrat, quick to surround any idea or thing with
suggestions of the greatest variety and interest supplied out of
his wide reading and practical experience. These suggestions, too,
have often the element of contrast, so common but unrealized a
factor in life.

Elsie Venner* ( 1861 ) , 67 The Guardian Angeft ( 1867) , A Mortal
Antipathy (1885). Holmes's "medicated" novels are alike in
faults of construction, in the use of inconsistently happy endings,
in the weighting of the narrative in order to show that what men
do is often determined for them by outside causes or forces. This,
Holmes's comment on the orthodox theology of his day, he states
even more vigorously in his essay (1870), "Mechanism in Thought
and Morals" (1883). However, despite their faults, his novels
have interest, and are among the first in American literature to
utilize a scientific approach. 68

POETRY

PUBLIC AFFAIRS. When scarcely out of college, Holmes attained
fame with his ringing poem "Old Ironsides"! (1830), which pre-

65 J. T. Winterich, "Romantic Stories of Books: Th* Autocrat of the Breakfast-TaW*."
PW., CXIX (1931), pp. 317-321; Robert Withington, "A Note on the Autocrat, III
and IV" MLN., XLVI (1931), p. 293. "A whole submerged continent of contem-
porary life and thought is revealed by the reefs and islets of allusion in The Autocrat.
. . . That Holmes' book remains lively and entertaining reading . . . ji evidence that
he was much more than the fltneur which some modern critics hold him to be'':
DeLancey Ferguson, "The Unfamiliar Autocrat/' Colophon. N.S. I, No. 3 (1936),
p. 396 (pp. 388-396).

66 C. K. Shorter, Introduction to The Profttsor at the Brtakfast Tablt (1928).

67 [Anonymous], a review of "Elsie Venner," AtL, VII (1861). Pp. 509-511; J. M.
Ludlow, " 'Elsie Venner' and 'Silai Marner,' " Macmillan'*. IV (1861), pp. 305-309.

68 C. P. Obcrndorf, TA* Psychiatric Novtlt of OKvtr Wind til Holm,* (1943).

124 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

served this historic frigate Constitution down to our own day. 1 *
This interest in public affairs continued through mature years but
never reached enthusiasm. His themes were at times merely remi-
niscent, as in "Lexington" (1849) and "A Ballad of the Boston
Tea-Party" (1873), and in the delightful "Grandmother's Story
of Bunker-Hill Battle" (1875). "The Statesman's Secret"
(c. 1850; 1862) parallels Whittier's "Ichabod" in criticism of Web-
ster, laying the emphasis on his ambition; but his "Birthday of
Daniel Webster" (18551856; 1862) shows a disposition to for-
get at death all that was unworthy. As the Civil conflict neared we
find the emphasis laid on the idea of Union imperilled. 70 The titles,
"Brother Jonathan's Lament for Sister Caroline"! (1861), "Voy-
age of the Good Ship Union" (1862), "Union and Liberty" (1861),
indicate this. Loftier in tone is the "Prologue to 'Songs in Many
Keys'" (1862). It may be remarked here that, perhaps because
he felt the medium ill adapted to such discussion, political questions
were resolutely excluded from the familiar essays.

MEDICAL. Holmes 's life work as a physician suffered at the be-
ginning from report that he had written a volume of verse. In
"The Stethoscope Song" (1849) he had even turned his humor
upon a young physician. Recollections of student days in Paris are
touched with pathos in "La Grisette" (1863), but in general his
profession and his poetry are kept well separated.

HUMOROUS. The comic approach has given us much of Holmes's
most treasured verse. Early in point of time are "The Ballad of
the Oysterman"f (1830), a satire on the romantic ballads of the
day, and the rather self-conscious "Height of the Ridiculous"
(1830). "To an Insect" (1831) should be compared with Freneau's
"To a Caty-Did" which it curiously resembles. "Latter-Day Warn-
ings" (1857) 71 and "Contentment"t (1858) are alike in the device
of crowding details of varied and contrasting character into humor-
ous juxtaposition. "The Deacon's Masterpiece"! (1858) deals
delightfully with the poet's own grandfather, David Holmes, cap-
tain in the French and Indian War, and surgeon in the Revolution,
who built the "One-Hoss Shay." The shay constitutes for Holmes
a symbol of the dry, logical perfection of Calvinism. 72 "How the
Old Horse Won the Bet" (1876) reminds us of Holmes's lifelong
enthusiasm for fast horses. Two of Holmes's family reminiscences,
"My Aunf't (1831) and "Dorothy Q."f (1871), illustrate a blend-
ing of kindly humor with pathos which seems characteristic. Such

69 Holmes regarded the writing of poetry as an occupation in which very ordinary people
could attain reasonable success; this idea may have arisen from his own early and spec-
tacular achievement and his continued composition of verse in advanced old age.

70 Robert Withington, "The Patriotism of the Autocrat," HGM., XXXVI (1927-1928).
pp. 523-532; D. L. Werner, Tht Idea of Union in American Verst 1776-1976 (1932).

71 Forrest Wilson, Crusader in Crinolint (1941). p. 215 /.; I. V. Brown. "The Millerites
and the Boston Press," NBQ.. XVI (1943), pp. 592-614.

72 But see J. T. Morse's answer to W. S. Merrill's query: "Centenary of the Autocrat/'
CW., C5CXXIV (1931-1932), p. 586 (pp. 581-586).

THE UEKTEEL TRADITION 125

are the elements, in perfect balance, in "The Last Leaf't (1831).
Not less touching than his later poems, "The Voiceless" (1858) and
"Under the Violets" (1859), it treats its central figure, Major
Thomas Melville, of Boston Tea Party fame, with a whimsicality
which lightens without disspelling the charming note of regret.

OCCASIONAL. Of vers de societF* Holmes wrote a great deal.
Much of it was drawn forth by special occasions. Such were the
reunions of his college class. 74 Of the close to twoscore poems the
best are: "The Boys"t (1859), "All Here" (1867), "Bill and
Joe"t (1868), and the last, "After the Curfew" (1889; 1890).
Similar in purpose, though with some added dignity, is his richly
descriptive "At the Saturday Club" (1884). Of verse called forth
by more miscellaneous and more public occasions examples are:
"Poetry: A Metrical Essay" (1836), "Bryant's Seventieth Birth-
day" (1864), "For the Burns Centennial Celebration" (1862),
"For Whittier's Seventieth Birthday" (1877; 1880), "The Iron
Gate" (1879; 1880 for his own Seventieth Birthday Breakfast,
given by the Atlantic in 1879 and pieces concluding his Lowell
Institute lectures: "After a Lecture on Wordsworth" (1862) and
"After a Lecture on Shelley" (1862).

RELIGIOUS. While Holmes vigorously rebelled against the ortho-
dox Calvinistic faith of his father, and attacks it in both his essays
and his novels, 76 he makes much less use in his verse of strictly re-
ligious or broadly philosophical ideas than do Emerson, Whittier,
or even Longfellow. Like Whittier, however, in their simple faith
are his occasional hymns: "A Hymn of Trust" (1859), "A Sun-
Day Hynin"f (1859), and "Parting Hymn" (1861). "The Living
Temple"! (1858), too, is illustrative of his devout attitude as a
practicing scientist. "The Chambered Nautilus"! (1858) stands
in a unique position among Holmes's poems. Written in a moment
of creative enthusiasm, rare with Holmes, it nevertheless deserves
close study because of its compact but beautiful statement of what
has recently been termed a humanistic point of view. 76

73 "Light verse is to poetry what the familiar essay is to prose": W. F. Taylor, A History
of American Letters (1936), p. 208.

7' Samuel May, "Dr. Holmes with His Classmates," HGM., Ill (1894). pp. 159*162.

' 5 Actually, his social, political, and literary views were conservative; his religious and
philosophical viewi, radical: H. H. Clark, "Dr. Holmes: A Re-Interpretation," NBQ..
XII (1939). pp. 19-34.

76 "... Like all humanism, self-dependent and individualistic, the soul trusts to its own
powers." S. I. Hajakawa and H. M. Jones, Oliver Wendell Holmes: Representative
Selections (1939), p. Iv. For further discussion see N. F. Adkins. " 'The Chambered
Nautilus': Its Scientific and Poetic Backgrounds," AL.. IX (1937-1938), pp. 458*465.
On his place as a religious poet see M. J. Savage, "The Religion of Holmes** Poems,"
Arena, XI (1894), pp. 41-54; F. S. Town send, "The Religion of Oliver Wendell
Holmes." MR.. XCI (1909). pp. 605-611; E. S. Turner, "The Autocrat's Theology:
Unpublished Letters of Holmes," Putnam's, VI (1909), pp. 662-667; A. H. Strong,
American Poets and Their Theology (1916), pp. 321*367; E. J. Bailey. Religions
Thought in the Greater American Poets (1922), pp, 137-157: W, V. Gavhran. r 'The
Doctor Looks at Religion: Dr. Holmes and the Church," CW.> CXXXVII (1933),
pp. 53-59; Van Wyck Brooks, "Dr. Holmes: Forerunner of the Moderns," SRL.,
XIV (June 27. 1936), pp. 3-4, 13-15 (an expansion of which appears in his The
Flowering of New England 1815-1965 [1936]).

126 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

MISCELLANEOUS. "At Dartmouth" (1839; 1940) has autobio-
graphical interest and anticipates the Autocrat. 711 "To My Read-
ers" (1862) is of importance because of its frank discussion of the
difficulties and even the defeats accompanying creative composition.
"Nearing the Snow-Line" (1870) is a notable success among
Holmes's infrequent experiments with the sonnet. "The Girdle of
Friendship" (1884) employs a conceit with conscious art. "Too
Young for Love" (1890) and "La Maison d'Or" (1890) have a
Landor-like compression and finish.

GENERAL ESTIMATE AS A POET

MERITS: (1) Technical mastery within self-imposed limits; met-
rical correctness; accuracy and grace of diction. (2) Balance of
the serious and the comic, and perfection of tone in occasional verse.
(3) Broadly humorous treatment of a variety of themes; revealing
shrewd knowledge of human foibles, and enriched by skillful use
of contemporary allusions and plays on words.

DEFECTS: (1) Metrical traditionalism and monotonous regu-
larity. (2) Refusal to attempt any project of size ; poetry definitely
a side line. (3) Absence of deep thought, religious or philosophical,
of "high seriousness," of "criticism of life." (4) Neoclassic tendency
to expend effort on trivial subjects. (Cf. sonorous lines near end
of "To an Insect.") (5) Substitution of rhetoric for poetry, es-
pecially in poems dealing with public affairs. (Cf. "The Statesman's
Secret")

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL, 18191891, poet, essayist,
diplomat. 78 Eminent Cambridge family. Prepared at the Cam-
bridge Latin School, he graduated at Harvard in 1838. There he
had edited Harvardiana, and had read Carlyle, the Romantic poets,
and the first beginnings of Victorian poetry, but did not at once
discover his special fitness for an academic career. Two years of
study gave him (1840) a Harvard law degree, and he attempted
practice but without satisfaction. Following publication (1841)
of his first volume of verse, A Year's Life, he (with Robert Car-
ter) launched (1843) the Pioneer, which survived through Janu-
ary, February, and March only. In 1844 he married Maria White,
whose strongly abolitionist 70 and Transcendental influence is trace-
able in Lowell from their first acquaintance in 1840. That year he
published Poems (1844), and the year following his Conversations
on Some of the Old Poets (1845), a considerable part of which
had already been printed in Nathan Kale's Boston Miscellany.

77 At Dartmouth, with an Introduction bj E. M. Tilton (1940).

78 For full bibliography, see page 294.

79 Lowell's own grandfather, John Lowell, was responsible for introducing into the Mas-
sachusetts Bill of Rights a sentence taken from that of Virginia, "All men are created
free and equal/* thus setting free every slave in Massachusetts.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 127

Shortly after his marriage Lowell was for a time in Philadelphia,
where he wrote editorials for the Pennsylvania Freeman , of which
Whittier had for a time been editor. 80 Published Poems, Second
Series (1847; dated 1848). The year 1848 was notable also for
appearance of The Vision of Sir Launfal, A Fable for Critics, and
The Biglow Papers (First Series). For fifteen months beginning
in 1851 he was with his invalid wife in Europe, but the hopes for
her recovery failed with her death in 1853. In 1855, the year of
the Lowell Institute lectures on the English Poets (published
1897), Lowell became Smith Professor of Modern Languages at
Harvard, a post held until 1886. From June, 1855, to August,
1856, he studied in Germany and Italy, taking up his duties in
1857, 81 the year of his marriage to Frances Dunlap, Simultaneously
he assumed editorship of the newly founded Atlantic Monthly
(18571861). Retiring, he entered (1862) into a similar but
less onerous relationship with the North American Review, of
which he was joint editor (1864 1872). From 1877 until trans-
ferred to London (1880 1885) 82 he was minister to Spain. In
both posts his urbanity, his eloquence, and his political astuteness
made him conspicuously successful. 88 Following his wife's death
in 1885 he returned to America. Literary and public duties, notably
the address on the 250th anniversary of the founding of Harvard
University (November, 1886) and the Lowell Institute lectures
on the Old English Dramatists (1887; 1892) occupied his flagging
powers. Death came in 1891. Chief works not already noted:
Fireside Travels (1864) ; Ode Recited at the Commemoration of
the Living and Dead Soldiers of Harvard University (1865);
Under the Willows and Other Poems (1869); The Cathedral
(1870); Among My Books (1870; Second Series, 1876); My
Study Windows (1871); Three Memorial Poems (1877); De-
mocracy and Other Addresses (1887) ; Political Essays (1888) ;
Heartsease and Rue (1888) ; Latest Literary Essays and Addresses
(1891) ; Last Poems (1895) ; Early Prose Writings (1902) ; Four
Poems (1906) ; The Round Table (1913) ; The Function of the
Poet and Other Essays (1920).

80 These, along with editorials printed in the National Anti-Slavery Standard, were
printed as The Anti-Slavery Paper* of Jamtt Rnssell Lowell (two volumes, 1902).
For comment on Lowell's radical prose, see V. L. Pamngton, Main Currents in Ameri-
can Thought, II (1927), p. 464 /.

81 Barrett Wendell, Stelligeri and Other Essay* concerning America (1893), pp. 205-217;
C. W. Eliot, "James Russell Lowell as a Professor," HGM.. XXVII (1919). pp. 492-
497; W. R. Thayer, "James Russell Lowell as a Teacher," Scribner r s t LXVIII (1920),
pp. 473-480.

82 Beckles Willson, American Ambassadors to England (1T95-1928) [1928), pp. 374-
388 (pp. 374*397).

83 G. W. Smalley, "Mr. Lowell in England," Harper's, XCII (1895-1896) , pp. 788-801;
F. S. A. Lowndes, "The Literary Associations of the American Embassy," FR.,
LXXXIII; N.S. LXXIII (1905). pp. 1031-1043.

128 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

MAJOR WORKS

Biglow Paper$ 9 First Series^ (1848). Nine numbers published
separately, beginning June 17, 1846, in the Boston Courier; last
four in Natiotwl Anti-Slavery Standard. Purpose: opposition to
the war with Mexico and the annexation of Texas. 84 Despite ul-
terior purpose, character interest attached to Ezekiel and Hosea
Biglow, father and son, and the Reverend Homer Wilbur this
last a private joke of Lowell's on his father's family pride. Hosea
humorously exposes editorial and political pretense. The Yankee
dialect excited controversy. 85 Second Series (1867). Consists of
"The Courtin'," an amusing narrative in dialect verse, and eleven
satirical numbers. More serious in tone; attacks slavery; urges
strengthening of Union. First number written in poignant grief
over death of three dear nephews ; second number, thinly disguised
attack on English attitude by author. Following papers expose con-
temporary politics, voice need for a great leader, praise Emancipa-
tion Proclamation. 88 Though he wearied of the misspellings and
of the serial appearance, Lowell maintained his effectiveness.** 7

Of historic importance as an outstanding instance of poetic, re-
gional, comic satire, 88 the Papers are generally regarded as Lowell's
most original, perhaps most enduring, work.

A Fable for Critics^ (1848). Published anonymously, but at once
generally credited to Lowell. Metrical resemblances in measure
and comic rhyme to Pope's Dunciad, to Leigh Hunt's The Feast of
the Poets; to Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers and,
near the beginning, The Vision of Judgment. In turn influenced
Amy Lowell's A Critical Fable (1922). Same device of comic
rhyme employed (1857) in his own "The Origin of Didactic

84 For author's statement see letter to Thomas Hughes in H. E. Scudder, Complete
Poetical Works, Cambridge Edition, p. 166. For discussion of Lowell's primacy in the
employment of poetic satire and the effectiveness of the Papers, see Ferris Greenslet,
James Russell Lowell (1905 >, p. 85; E. M. Chapman, "The Biglow Papers Fifty
Years After." YR., VI (1916), pp. 120-134; J. T. Winterich, "Romantic Stories of
Books: The Biglow Papers," PW. t CXIX (1931), pp. 1605-1610.

85 Lowell avowed his own exactness. C. H. Grandgent, eminent linguist, "From Franklin
to Lowell; A Century, of New England Pronunciation," PMLA., XIV, N.S. VII
(1899), pp. 207-239, in general supports the genuineness of the dialect. So also
Henry James, Essavs in London and Elsewhere (1893). Cf., however. J, H. Gilmore,
"The Biglow Papers/' Chant., XXIII, N.S. XIV (1896), pp. 19-23; G. R. Carpenter,
John Greenleaf Whlttier (1903), p. 227. More recently, see L. H. Chrisman, "Per-
manent Values in The Biglow Papers" in John Ruskin, Preacher, and Other Essavs
(1921), pp. 163-176; J. A. Heil, "Die Volkssprache im Nordosten der Vereinigten
Staaten von Amerika dargestellt auf Grund der Biglow Papers von James Russell
Lowell," Ciesscner Beit rage jttir Erforschunff der Sprache und Kultur England* unJ
Nordamerikas. Ill, No. 2 (1927), pp. 205-311; A. G. Ktennedy], (a review of J. A.
HeiPs work on Lowell's Biglow Papers), AS.. Ill (1927-1928), p. 462 /.; Marie Kill
heffer, "A Comparison of the Dialect of 'The Bifflow Papers' with the Dialect of
Four Yankee Plays,'' AS.. Ill (1927-1928), pp. 222-236; R. B. Nye, "Lowell and
American Speech/' >O., xVlII (1939), pp. 249-256; Harold Blodgett, "Robert Traill
Spence Lowell," NEQ.. XVI (1943), p. 585 (pp. 578-591).

86 For an analysis of the eighth number (Second Series), see F. D. Smith, "Mr. Wilbur's
Posthumous Macaronics/' UNDQJ., X (1920), pp. 436-443.

87 P. H. Boynton, Literature and American Life (1936), p. 555.

88 J. F. Jameson, "Lowell and Public Affairs." */?.. IV (1891), pp. 287*291; Jeanette
Tandy, "The Biglow Papers," in Crackerbox Philosophers in American Humor and
Satire (1925), pp. 43-64.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 129

Poetry." Criticisms reckoned today opinionated but shrewd and
vigorous ; keen in distinguishing first-rate from second-rate ability.
Comment on Bryant regretted by Lowell as unduly severe; Mar-
garet Fuller roughly handled, perhaps because of sharp criticisms
of his verse contained in her Papers on Literature and Art, Part II
(1846), p. 132; criticisms of Cooper and Poe, severe but just The
charge of imitativeness brought against unnamed disciples of Emer-
son is generally thought to refer to Thoreau and Ellery Channing. 8 *

The Vision of Sir Laun\al\ (1848). Plot of verse parable based
on Malory. Chiefly notable as an illustration of the duality of
Lowell's nature: (1) mystical; 00 (2) didactic; with its emphasis
on sympathy and brotherly love. Prized also for its passages of
nature description and its rare emphasis on narrative. 91 Chief
meter is iambic tetrameter; varied cadences and subtle effects
achieved by shifting meters.

Letters. Among the best in our literature. Spontaneous,
natural, spirited.

OTHER PROSE

POLITICAL. Numerous youthful contributions to the Courier,
the Pennsylvania Freeman, and the National Anti-Slavery Standard
are marked by earnestness, vigor, opposition to slavery, but primary
concern for the preservation of the Union; regarded by extreme
abolitionists as too moderate. Attitude maintained in Civil War
essays in Atlantic Monthly and North American Review; early ap-
preciation of the greatness of Lincoln; less readiness to concede
sincerity of Johnson. 82

Democracy (1886). Address delivered in October, 1884, at Bir-
mingham, England. Belongs to a difficult time for him and for
America. It may be regarded as a defense of Democracy as a form
of government, with special reference to the American experiment.

CRITICAL. "Cambridge Thirty Years Aero" (1853) and "A
Moosehead Journal" (1853), both of pleasantly narrative quality,
were contributed to Putnam's Monthly, launched (1853) by G. W.
Curtis and Parke Godwin. "Keats" appeared in 1854. Otherwise,
almost all the best essays were written following 1865 and collected

89 For discussion of veiled allusion to Thoreau, and comments occasioned, fee B. V.
Crawford, Henry David Thoreau: Representative Selections (1934). p. xi /. See also
E. J. Nichols, 'Identification of Characters in Lowell's 'A Fable for Critics,' " Al~.
IV (1932-1933), pp. 191-194.

90 Cf. Lowell's own admission, "one half of me clear mystic/' Ferris Greenslet, James
Russell Lowell (1905), p. 82.

91 Cf. L. A. Sloan, Lowest "Tke Vision of Sir Launfal." a Stndy and Interpretation
(1913).

92 J. F. Jameson, "Lowell and Public Affairs," RR.. IV (1891). pp. 287-291; Edward
Grubb, "The Socialism of James Russell Lowell," NEM.. N.S. VI U892), pp. 676-678;
W. G. Jenkins, "Lowell's Criteria of Political Values/' NEQ.. VII (1934), pp. 11$*

130 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

in the volumes, Among My Books (1870, 1876) M and My Study
Windows (1871). "Gray" has the late date of 1886. Of the better
known essays two are devoted to famous New England associates
the valuable and richly reminiscent "Emerson the Lecturer"
(1868), and the sparkling but dangerously prejudiced "Thoreau"
(1865).* "Carlyle" (1866), one of Lowell's most brilliantly writ-
ten essays, is devoted to a man for whom he exhibits a sympathy
much cooled from the enthusiasm of youth. Telling phrases are
still quoted, and the essay reads well even today. "Wordsworth"
(1854) has many of the same virtues of style. Emphasis is laid
on the shocking inequality of Wordsworth and on his colossal
egotism. Pointed out is something now generally realized, the small
benefit derived by Wordsworth from his 1798 trip to Germany.
Two essays, "On a Certain Condescension in Foreigners" (1869)
and "A Good Word for Winter" (1869), are among the best famil-
iar essays written in America, marked in both instances by the ap-
parent aimlessness, the informality, and the allusiveness expected
in the form. "Witchcraft" (1868) in its treatment of a New Eng-
land theme is filled with a wealth of illustrative material suggestive
of a modern scientific worker. 95 "Rousseau and the Sentimental-
ists" (1867), one of Lowell's most admired critical essays, suggests
by the second half of the title its chief object, Lowell finding in
sentimentalism an unmistakable strain of exhibitionism. "Shakes-
peare Once More" (1868) says much that is now familiar, but that
was far less so when written. The attitude toward the First Folio
is in keeping with modern scholarship. The treatment of Hamlet
shows rare understanding. Two assertions of dubious soundness
are: (1) that the style of no modern author reminds one of him
(Lowell must have forgotten The Cenci and Virginius), and
(2) that the style of Shakespeare "never curdles into mannerism."
"Chaucer" (1870), "Dryden" (1868), "Pope" (1871), "Milton"
(1876) oft are extensive, scholarly, historically sound, genuinely ap-
preciative essays of the sort which has given most satisfaction to
critical readers.

OTHER VERSE

YOUTHFUL. Representative of the two strongest influences on
his youthful writing are (1) his early sonnets, "My Love, I have
no fear that thou shouldst die" (1841$ 1844), "Our love is not
a fading earthly flower" (1842; 1844), "Beloved, in the noisy city
here" (1842; 1844), full of Shakespearean echoes in conceit and

93 Ray Palmer, "James Russell Lowell and Modern Literary Criticism/' JR., IV (1877),
pp. 264-281.

94 For comment see Austin Warren, "Lowell on Thoreau/' 57>.. XXVII (1930), pp. 442-
461; B. V. Crawford, Henry David Thorca*: Representative Selections (1934), pp. xi-
xiv, liv-lvi.

95 Cf. G. L. KittredRe, Witchcraft in Old and New England (1929).

96 R. C. Pettigrew, "Lowell's Criticism of Milton/' AL., Ill (1931-1932), pp. 457*464.

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 131

phrase; "The Shepherd of King Admetus" (1842), "A Legend of
Brittany" (1843; 1844), "Rhoecus" (1844), "To the Dandelion''
(1854) Keatsian in theme and treatment.' 7 Examples of his
love of Nature are: "An Indian-Summer Reverie" (1846; 1847),
which presents a detailed, localized picture of his Cambridge en*
vironment, and "The First Snow-Fall" (1849), which adds a
poignant personal note. 08 "An Incident in a Railroad Car" (1842),
while expressing that admiration for Burns which Lowell shared
with Whittier (cf. '"At the Burns Centennial," 1859), stresses also,
more generally, a growing realization of the powers of verse and
its capacity for service.

ABOLITIONIST, Lowell's enthusiasm for Abolitionism, intensi-
fied by association with Maria White, bears fruit in "Prometheus"
(1843; termed "radical" by Lowell himself), "A Glance behind
the Curtain" (1843), "Stanzas on Freedom" (1843; 1844), "Wen-
dell Phillips" (1843; 1844), "Great truths are portions of the soul
of man" (1841; 1842). In 1845 appeared "The Present Crisis"
(wr, 1844), one of Lowell's most quoted and rhetorically effective
poems. "On the Capture of Certain Fugitive Slaves near Wash-
ington" (1845) also approximates versified oratory more nearly
than pure poetry. "To W. L. Garrison" (1849) expresses a quali-
fied admiration for its subject. "The Washers of the Shroud"
(1861)" strikes a tone of tolerance and gentleness. 100 "Masaccio"
(1855) draws a lesson from a French chapel. Much of his most
powerful comment was, of course, reserved for the Biglow Papers
and for the Odes.

RELIGIOUS. Little of Lowell's verse deserves a specifically re-
ligious classification. "Bibliolatres" (1849) presents a broad con-
ception, free from Bible worship or credal narrowness. References
in poems of personal grief such as "On the Death of a Friend's
Child" (1844) and others of a more intimate character have nothing
unconventional or noticeably ardent. His mystical strain shows in
"The Vision of Sir Launfal" (1848) mingled with that love of the
mediaeval exemplified even much later in "The Cathedral"! (1869;
1870) . 101

97 For indication of critical reception of 1844 volume, see Zoltan Harasrti. "Letters by
T. W. Parsons," MB., XIII (1938), p. 348 /. (pp. 343-367). Lowell is accused by a
writer in the Boston Transcript of dangerously radical tendencies, of " 'great faults
in nearly everything/" of a style burdened with "'obsolete, quaint, odd, fantastic
words, and of words coined for the occasion' "; while Parsons himself found m Lowell
" *a too ready faculty of imitation/ "

98 Most representative of later nature poems are: "Pictures from Applcdore" (1851,
1855; 1868), "Under the Willows" (1868), and portions of "The Cathedral" (1870),
the last two both showing Wordsworthian influence. Cf. Norman Foerster, Nature in
American Literature (1923), pp. 143-175.

99 Source of the title and initial idea is indicated by Louise Pound. "Lowell's 'Breton
Legend/ " AL., XII (1940-1941), pp. 348-350.

100 W. G. Jenkins, "Lowell's Criteria of Political Values/' NEQ., VII (1934), pp. 115-

101 M. J. Savage, "The Religion of Lowell's Poems/' Arena, IX (1893-1894), pp. 70S-
722; H. E. Scudder. James Russell Lowell. U (1901). p. 311; A. H. Strong. Ameri-
can Poets and Their Theology (1916), pp. 267-317; L. M. Shea, LowtiT* Religion*
Ontlook (1926), pp. 100-113.

132 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

PERSONAL. Some of Lowell's simplest and most genuine poetic
expression is found in a small group of poems of personal grief.
Such are: 'The Changeling" (1847) and "The First Snow-Fall"
(1849), occasioned by the loss of his first child, his daughter
Blanche, and the birth of a second daughter ; "Auf Wiedersehen 1"
(1854), "The Windharp" (1854), and "Ode to Happiness"
(c. 1854 ; 1861) reflecting sorrow over the death of his wife in 1853
and marking a turn toward traditionalism; "After the Burial"
(1868), lamenting the death of his second daughter Rose; "In the
Twilight" (1868), characterized by a strong strain of Celtic mys-
ticism; "Nightwatches" (1877), an exquisite sonnet, recording the
bereavement suffered in the death of a woman friend of his de-
clining years. Greatest of all these poems of personal grief was,
of course, "Agassiz" (1874), written in Italy upon receipt of the
news of his friend's death. Composed swiftly and passionately, it
still shows awareness of the conventions of elegiac verse, and finds
space for portraits of the Saturday Club as Agassiz knew it. 102

OCCASIONAL. While Holmes was outstanding as the poet of so-
cial gatherings and reunions, Lowell excelled in voicing sentiments
of formal public gatherings. "On Board the 76" (1865) was
written for Bryant's seventieth birthday, and pays tribute to his
services to the cause of freedom. Similar birthday poems were
addressed "To Whittier on His Seventy-fifth Birthday" (1882;
1888), and "To Holmes on His Seventy-fifth Birthday" (1884).
The poem "To Charles Eliot Norton" (1868) is more informal.
Most admired in Lowell's day were the odes : "Ode Recited at the
Harvard Commemoration"! (1865), "Ode Read at the One Hun-
dredth Anniversary of the Fight at Concord Bridge" (1875),
"Under the Old Elm Read at Cambridge on the Hundredth
Anniversary of Washington's Taking Command of the American
Army" (1875), "An Ode for the Fourth of July, 1876" (1876).
Of these, the "Commemoration Ode" is most valued, but chiefly
because of the Lincoln strophe added afterwards in the Atlantic
printing for September, 1865. Actually, it was comparatively in-
effective as delivered, the real sensation having been the prayer
by Phillips Brooks.

MISCELLANEOUS. "The Pioneer" (1847), far from a great poem,
may profitably be compared with Whitman's splendid lyric, "Pio-
neers! O Pioneers!" (1865), "Columbus" (1844; 1848), a much
underrated dramatic monologue, is one of but a few poems dealing
with the discoverer of America, and contains some imaginative and
eloquent lines. "Death of Queen Mercedes" (1878) is an admired
sonnet. "Auspex" (1879) is an exquisite bit, notable for effective
use of a short line.

102 For discussion of circumstances surrounding the writing of the poem, see H. E.

* " * '^ '-' ~ ' Loewenberg, "The Contro-

, VIII (1935), pp. 232-257.

cur discussion 01 circumstances surrounding me writing __ -_. _.

Scudder, Jomes Resell L<m>ell, II (1901), p. 176; B. J. Loewenberg, "The Contro-
versy over Evolution in New England, 1859-1873," NBQ., ""'

THE GENTEEL TRADITION 133

GENERAL ESTIMATE

As A POET. Merits: (1) wit and humor; (2) technical mastery
of (a) ode, (b) sonnet, (c) humorous technical devices such as
double rhymes and puns; (3) vigor and earnestness in contro-
versial verse; (4) appreciation of Nature, colored with mystical
sensitiveness; (5) mastery of rural dialect; (6) acquaintance with
literary tradition ; (7) richness of allusion. Defects: 103 (1) cheapen-
ing through puns, wordplay, etc.; (2) poetry of controversy often
mere versified oratory; (3) an excess of didacticism; (4) despite
technical facility, a lack of sensuous charm; (5) erudition at best
often limiting audience, and frequently bordering on pedantry;
(6) nature poetry marked by emotional sensitivity without phil-
osophical or strongly scientific basis; (7) poetry generally imi-
tative. 104

As A CRITIC. The tendency among recent critics is to concede to
Lowell: (1) historical importance ("the first American with a real
historical perspective"), (2) impressive erudition resulting from
exceptionally wide reading, (3) sound taste involving threefold
evaluation on the basis of historical perspective, organic unity, and
elegance of expression together with emphasis upon pleasure to
the reader as a proper objective and measure. Charges against him :
(1) lack of organization and considered purpose resulting in (a)
digressions, (b) substitution of strings of quoted "beauties" for
searching analysis; (2) intellectual softness and indolence, making
him most at home in the past where reputations are fixed and no
difficult decisions are involved; (3) instability as to critical position,
illustrated (a) in his attack upon sentimentalism in the "Rousseau"
wherein he is really "describing his own symptoms," 105 (b) in his
wavering between the Classic and the Romantic, with a compromise
fondness for Dante and Shakespeare; and in his admiration for
Dryden and Pope without willingness to accept "decorum" as an
ideal; (4) his blunders and unfairness in the judgment of contem-
poraries, notably Thoreau and Whitman. 106

103 C. H. Grattan, "Lowell," AM., II (1924), pp. 63-69; V. L. Parrington, Main
Currents in American Thought, II (1927). pp. 63-69; Alfred Kreymborg, Our Sing-
ing Strength (1929), pp. 116-133; Rica Brenner, Twelve American Poets before 1900
(1933), pp. 199-228.

104 F. L. Pattee, "A Call for a Literary Historian," in Norman Foerster (editor),
The Reinterprete ion of American Literature (1928), p. 20; Van Wyck Brooks,
The Flowering of New England lB15-lSf65 (1936), p. 319.

105 Norman Foerster, American Criticism (1928), p. 150.

106 Cf. Van Wyck Brooks, The Flowering of New England 1815-1965 (1936). p. 520.
For general comment on Lowell as critic, see Ray Palmer, "James Russell Lowell
and Modern Literary Criticism," IK., IV (1877), pp. 264-281; E. S. Parsons.
"Lowell's Conception of Poetry," CCP.. Language Series II (1908), pp. 67-84;
Gustav PoJlak, International Perspective in Criticism (1914), pp. 58-83; J. J* Reilly.
James Russell Loivell -...- -------- - -

,
Literature/' .

(1928). pp. Iji-iJUi n. n. v* ia i ft 1/uwcii .nuinJiirian, iiauuitaiiai, ur nwnau-

ist." $P. t XXVII (1930), pp. 411-441; Austin Warren. "Lowell on Thoreau." SP..
XXVII (1930). pp. 442-461: J. P. Pritchard, "Lowell's Debt to Horace** Ars
Poftira." AL.. Ill (1931-1932), np. 259-276: G. E. DeMille, Literary Criticism in
America (1931), op. 49-85; J. P. Pritchard, "Aristotle's Poetics and Certain American
Literary Critics," C.Wnkly, XXVII (1934), pp. 89-93 (pp. 81-85, 89-93, 97-99);
P. H. Boynton, Literature and American Life (1936), p. 559.

CHAPTER VII

WALT WHITMAN:
PROPHET OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY

WALT[ER] WHITMAN, 18191892, prose writer, poet. 1
Born in West Hills, Long Island, into humbler Quaker branch of
colonial family, moving (1823) to Brooklyn. Began work as office
boy and printer's devil (1831). Connected in various editorial ca-
pacities with newspapers in and about New York until late *50's,
interrupting work at least twice to teach school, and (1848) to go
to New Orleans. (Leaves of Grass (1855), privately printed, with
type set by the author. To nurse his brother George, wounded in
battle, Walt went (1862) to Virginia and drifted into volunteer
service as a nurse in the Washington hospitals. The war over, he
obtained (1865) a clerical position first in the Department of the
Interior, and, when dismissed on the charge that Leaves of Grass
was an immoral volume, in the Attorney General's office. There
he was employed until stricken by paralysis in 1873, the effect be-
ing intensified by the death of his mother. Gradual recovery began
with visits (beginning 1876) to Timber Creek, near Camden, New
Jersey. Trips to the Rockies (1879), Canada (1880), and Boston
(1881) preceded purchase (1884) of property in Camden where
he resided until his death.^

POETRY AND PROSE BEFORE "LEAVES OF GRASS"

Work before 1855 sporadically fictional, 2 largely journalistic,
much of it political' in basic interest. 8 Creative writing divided by

1 Whitman's separate publications include: Franklin Evans; or The Inebriate (1842):
Leaves of Crawt (1855, 1856, 1860t, 18671, 1371, 1872, 1881t, 1888, 1891). Walt
Whitman's Drum-Taps (1865), Sequel to Drum-Taps (1865), Democratic Vistas^
(1871), Memoranda during the War (1875), Two Rivulets, including Democratic
Vistas, Centennial Songs, and Passage to Indial (1876), Specimen Days and Collect!
(1882), Specimen Days in America (1887), November Boughsl (1888), Leaves of
Grass with Sands at Seventy and A Backward Glance o'er Travel' d Roads (1889),
Complete Prose Works (1892), Autobiooraphia, or the Storv of a Life (1892),
Calamus: A Series of Letters Written during the Years 1868-18M (1897). The
Wound Dresser: A Series of Letters Written from the Hospitals in Washington
dnrinfj the War of the Rebellion (1898), "Walt Whitman at Home." By Himself
(1898), Notes and Fragments (1899), Walt Whitman's Diary in Canada (1904).
An American Primer (1904). Lafayette in Brooklyn (1905), Memories of President
Lincoln and Other Lyrics of the War (1906). For additional writings, see bibliography,
pages 295-297.

2 To these years belongs his fictional experiment, Franklin Evans; or The Inebriate;
A Tale of the Times, published November, 1842, in the New World.

3 Floyd Stovall, Walt Whitman: Representative Selections (1934). p. xviii ff. t analyzes
its character* stresses his early adherence to Democracy as represented by Jefferson
and Jackson: his coolness to abolitionism balanced by dislike of slavery; simultaneous
devotion to States Rights and Union; friendliness to humanitarian reforms. Cf. Cleve-
land Rod src rs and John Black (editors). The Gathering of the Forces (1920), re-
printing material from the Brooklyn Daily F.afjle (1846-1847): C. I. GHcksberar,
"Walt Whitman the Journalist," Americana, XXX (1936), pp. 474-490: Emory Hollo-
way and Ralph Adimari (editors), "New York Dissected" by Walt Whitman (1936).

134

WALT WHITMAN 135

Campbell into two groups: 4 (1) that contributed to newspapers
1838 1844, uniformly imitative and conventional; 8 (2) 1844
1854, showing progress toward Leaves of Grass, and in general a
transitional stage. Influences responsible for maturing his genius
largely conjectural;* possibly personal experience; perhaps read-
ings in Greek and Elizebethan classics, in the Bible, Goethe, Rous-
seau, Coleridge, Carlyle, 7 Ossian* Influence of Emerson, acknowl-
edged by Whitman, took also the form of personal encouragement
following appearance of First Edition Leaves of Grass. 9 Whitman's
possible indebtedness to George Sand has been recently urged. 10

CLEAVES OF GRASS"

Leaves of Gra$s\ (1855). With twelve poems appeared the
"Preface," not reprinted with later editions, 11 stressing need of an
American literature which (1) is independent, self-sufficient; (2)
reflects our national heritage of (a) environment, (b) history,
(c) mingled racial elements. Like Carlyle, 12 Whitman makes of
his ideal poet a seer, and adds that as the poet of Democracy he
must be one of the people, strong physically, representative and
typical. Like Wordsworth in the Preface to the Lyrical^ Ballads,
he defends the highly individual style in which his imagined poet
(strikingly resembling a self-portrait) is to point out the essential
and lasting in a world of the trifling and transitory. 18 Actually the

4 Killis Campbell, "The Evolution of Whitman as Artist," AL. t VI (1934-1935).
pp. 254-263.

5 Characterized by Floyd Stovall (*&&.. xxi), who would place the dividing line at 1847.
as "crudely amateurish, emotionally hollow, and leaden with homiletic pessimism."

6 For i " ~ *

Wil

G.

O9%) i J:V pp! W: fi6-iyn FV'lE" Smith, *" Whitman's Debt to Carlyle's ' Sartor Resarius,"
MLQ., Ill (1942), pp. 51-65.

7 Gregory Paine, "The Literary Relations of Whitman and Carlyle with Especial Ref-
erence to Their Contrasting Views on Democracy," SP.. XXXVT (1939), pp. 550-563;
F. M. Smith, "Whitman's Poet-Prophet and Carlyle's Hero," PMLA., LLV (1940),
pp. 1146-1164.

8 Cf. F. T. Carpenter, "The Vogue of Ossian in America- A Study in Taste." XL.. II
(1930-1931), p. 413 (pp. 405-417); Newton Arvin, Whitman (1938), p. 182 /.

9 Cf. T. B. Moore, "The Master of Whitman," SP.. XXTTI (1926), pp. 77-89; C. L. F.
Gohdes, "Whitman and Emerson," SR.. XXXVII (1929), pp. 79-93.

10 Cf. Esther Shephard, Walt Whitman's Pose (1938); Newton Arvin, Whitman (1938),
p. 178 /. Whitman had read Consttelo and the sequel* The Countess of Rndotstadt,
repeatedly, the prized feature of Consuelo being its emphasis on the moral side of art.

11 The essays prefaced to As a Strong Bird on Pinions Free (1872), Two Rivulets
(1876), and November Boughs (1888) also throw light on Whitman's purpose in
writing Leaves of Grass.

12 Newton Arvin, Whitman (1938), j>. 182 f. % points out the reluctance with which
Whitman came later to disagree with Carlyle's view of Democracy.

13 Cf. F. N. Scott, "A Note on Walt Whitman's Prosody." IEGP.. VII (1907-1908),
pp. 134-153: P. M. Jones, "Influence of Walt Whitman on the Origin of the 'Vers
Libre/" MLR^ XI (1916). pp. 186-194; John Erskine, "A Note on Whitman's
Prosody." SP., XX (1923). pp. 336-344; Amy Lowell, "Walt Whitman and the New
Poetry," YR.. XVI (1927), pp. 502-519; Lois Ware, "Poetic Conventions in Leaves
of Grass." SP., XXVI (1929), pp. 47-57; A. N. Wiley, "Reiterative Devices in
Leaves of Grass." AL.. I (1929-1930), pp. 161-170; Leon Howard. "Watt Whitman
pnd the American Language," AS., V (1930). pp. 441-451; G. W. Allen, American
Prosody (1935), pp. 217-243; M. N. Posey, Whitman's Debt to the Bible with Special
Reference to the Orinins of Hit Rhythms (Ph.D., Texas, 1938): Sculley Bradley,
"The Fundamental Metrical Principle in Whitman's Poetry," AL.. X (1938-1939),
pp. 437-459.

136 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

style of the Preface itself is something between prose and poetry,
and in the miscellaneousness of its materials, its disjointed construc-
tions and rhapsodic passages, 14 not greatly differing from some of
the poems which follow. ^Second Edition (1856) enlarged to thirty-
two poems by additions; often objectionable. Other important edi-
tions: Third, much enlarged (I860) ; Fourth (1867) ; and Seventh
(1881). The revisions in later editions, much more extensive than
generally realized, reduce indelicacy and other violations of taste,
break up inordinately long lines, introduce increasingly iambic
movement. 15

WHITMAN'S PURPOSE EXPRESSED IN VERSE

"Song of Myself "f (1855). First, longest, most character-
istic, and most important, because in the nature of an announce-
ment of Whitman's program. Chief characteristics: (1) absence
of organization; (2) exceptional diversity and vividness of ma-
terials made possible by a knowledge of widely-separated regions,
and a multitude of occupations; (3) arrangement in characteristic
lists with parallel phrasing; (4) liberality in admission of details
and phrases generally thought vulgar or indecent; (5) exquisite
lyric passages; (6) insistent note of grandiose egoism. 10

"Song of the Answerer" (1855). Adds to his life purpose as
a poet that of bringing about the unification of America.

"Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking"! (1859). Probably
autobiographical. Exquisitely phrased, delicately and symbolically
conceived, represents in the lament of the bird for its dead mate
the reward which compensates human love-loss in the creative
impulse of the artist. 17

Among later poems throwing light on his conception of his role
as a poet are: "Whoever You Are Holding Me Now in Hand"
(1860), in which Whitman sees himself propagating a new religion
of love, or comradeship, and supported by admiring followers:
"Starting from Paumanok" (1860), emphasizing again the need
of comradeship as the binder in the social organism ; "Passage to
India"f (1868; 1871), which envisages a time when the poet he
dreams of shall assemble a new Trinity : God, Nature, and Maift
"To Thee Old Cause" (1871), tying his book ("my book and the

14 The Transcendental aspects of Whitman's verse, indicated in part by the admitted im

(1932), pp. 79-85; W. F. TayJor, A History of American Letters (1936). p. 227 ff.

15 For additional information see Killis Campbell, "The Evolution of Whitman a>
Arti'st." AL. f VI (1934-1935), pp. 254-263.

16 C. F. Strauch, "The Structure of Walt Whitman's 'Song of Myself/ " EJCE., XXVIJ
(1938), pp. 597-607.

17 <For the basis of the poem in a real incident see Emory Holloway, Whitman: An Inter-
pretation in Narrative (1926), p. 162.

WALT WHITMAN 137

war are one") to the world-shaking effects of the civil conflict;
"The Mystic Trumpeter" (1872) which proclaims the role of his
ideal poet as exponent of a new universal freedom. 18

WHITMAN AND THE WAR

Whitman's attitude in respect to the issues of the war underwent
important changes in the years preceding and in the years of the
Civil War. From an attitude of toleration of slavery 18 and a lack
of respect or liking for Negroes, he advanced ( 1848) to an advo-
cacy of free soil, 20 and, with passing of the Fugitive Slave Act, to
feel rage 21 that Northern white men should be turned into slave-
catchers. Entire absence of hatred for the South, 22 dislike of aboli-
tionism and abolitionists, feeling that there were other things
the labor problem for instance as bad as slavery, and a Quakerish
dislike for war 23 kept him out of the war, and his poetry from
violent partisanship. Experience as a nurse, however, roused his
humane impulses; the personality of Lincoln inspired admiration
and affection.

Varying aspects of these complex attitudes are reflected in his
poems. "Come Up from the Fields, Father" (1865) is a touch-
ing picture of the arrival of bad news such as the poet himself had
presumably often dispatched. It is one of the poet's few attempts
at character creation and dramatic presentation of a scene. "The
Wound-Dresser" (1865) describes realistically his hospital ac-
tivities. "Over the Carnage Rose Prophetic a Voice" (1860; 1865)
stresses the need of Comradeship and reconciliation. So, too, "Turn
O Libertad" (1865), 24 "Reconciliation" (18651866), "Thick-
Sprinkled Bunting" (1865), "Years of the Modern" (1865), and
a number of others of the same year. In the South ("To the
Leaven'd Soil They Trod/' 18651866) he hoped to find an audi-
ence for his songs. From the past his glance turns forward as in
'tfThou Mother with Thy Equal Brood" (1872).
[ Grief over the death of Lincoln is given immortal expression in
two great poems. "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd"t
(1865) emphasizes the unity resulting from a common grief.
"O Captain! My Captain!"! (1865) has attracted attention aside

18 M, W. Guthrie, Modern Poet*P*ophets (1897). pp. 244-332; F. B. Guramere, Democ-
racy and Poetry (1911), pp. 96-148: W, L. Werner. "Whitman's 'The Mystic Trum-
peter* as Autobiography." AL. t VII (1935-1936). pp. 455-45S.

19 Newton Arvin. Whitman (1938), p. 24. shows that the poet had given the Mexican
War hearty support; that his grandparents (p. 31) owned slave*. Ct. also C. J.
Furness, "Walt Whitman's Politics," AM.. XVI (1929), pp. 459-466.

20 Newton Arvin, Whitman (1938), p. 44.

21 Newton Arvin, ibid., (1938), p. 54.

22 Newton Arvin, ibid., (1938), p. 62.

23 . L. Masters, Whitman (1937), p. 273.

24 T. O. Mabbott, "Walt Whitman's Use of 'Libertad,' " NQ.. CLXXIV (1938), p. 367 /.

138 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

from its intrinsic merits because of its metrical regularity. The
poet valued the poem less than did the public. 2 *}

EXPANDING AMERICA

The optimistic tone of Whitman's war poetry finds support in
his grandiose conception of the future of America. The attitude
voiced briefly in 'Turn O Libertad" and "Thick-Sprinkled Bunt-
ing" is given a more memorable and extensive development in
"Pioneers! O Pioneers !"tX 1865). 2e "Passage to India"! (1868)
ties this view to three specific achievements in world unification :
completion of the Suez Canal, the Atlantic Cable, and the Union
Pacific Railroad. "To a Locomotive in Winter" (1876) shows that,
like Thoreau, Whitman found stimulus to his imagination in this
mechanical agent of commerce. Important beyond any other single
force in insuring this glorious future for America is the concept
of comradeship. 27 Because of his emphasis upon Democracy, equali-
tarianism, and world peace there has been some tendency to regard
his thinking as socialistic. 28 He has, however, been credited with
first revealing the organic unity of American life, 29 and with in-
corporating in his writings so much of America that "he is almost
a literature." 80 The group of nine poems, "Calamus"t (1860),
are so entitled because the plant of this name symbolizes with its
close-knit blades the mutual support gained from comradeship. 81

25 E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937), p. 129. More than a dozen musical compositions
are based on "O Captain! My Captain 1" For a bibliography of 183 publications^ and
manuscripts comprising 244 compositions based on his poems, see Leaves of Music by
Walt Whitman (from the collection of B. C. Landauer; privately printed, 1937).
For artistic and educational readings of almost a score of poems from Walt Whitman's
Leaves of Grass, hear Ralph Bellamy's recordings in Musical Masterpiece Album
M-955 (four twelve-inch Victor records, c. 1944; $4.50). Ralph Bellamy's dramatic
underscoring has been praised by Dorothy Parker, Clifton Fadiman, and William
Rose Benet.

26 Cf. Willa Gather's O Pioneers! (1913). For ^discussion of Whitman's relation to the

American Literature, pp. 23-38, 39-61; also F. J. Turner, "The bigmncance ot tue
Frontier in American History" (address before American Historical Association, 1893)
in F. J. Turner, The Frontier in American History (1920).

27 Cf. H. S. Canby, Classic Americans (1932), pp. 313-318, 321-329. 349; H. A. Myers,
"Whitman's Conception of the Spiritual Democracy 1855-1856," AL.. VI (1934-1935),
pp. 239-253: Floyd Stovall, Walt Whitman (1934), p. xlvii; H. S. Canby, Waft Whit-
man: An American (1943), p. 65.

28 Cf. V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought. Ill (1930), pp. 69-86.
In a paper, "Vital Contradictions in Leaves of Grass," read before the American
Literature group of the Modern Language Association on December 29. 1937, Newton
Arvin said: "He [Whitman] envisioned, therefore, a classless, unified society of
equals and free men, posited on the moral potentialities of human beings. To me it
seems disingenuous to deny that this program, if translated into our own generation,
is essentially the program of socialism." In discussion following, H. R. Warfel re-
plied that whitman's insistence upon individualism invalidated such an assertion.
Certainly, as Arvin himself points out (.Whitman, 1938, pp. 241-245), Whitman had
no interest in the Fourier movement for co-operation, was never a trades-unionist,
and shows no horror over child and sweatshop labor.

29 Van Wyck Brooks, quoted in Norman Foerster, Toward Standards (1930), p. 113.

30 "Whitman absorbed so much of the America about him. that he it more than a single
writer: he is almost a literature." Lewis Mumford, The Golden Day (1926), quoted
in Norman Focrster, Toward Standards, p. 123.

31 Cf. W. S. Kennedy, Reminiscences of Walt Whitman (1896), p. 134. The relation
-of this manly love to "the passion of Woman-love" which be develops in "Children of
Adam" is well stated in Haniel Long. Walt Whitman and the Springs of Courage
(1938), p. 90.

WALT WHITMAN 139

Outstanding among the "Calamus" group are the following (all
written or first published in 1860) : "In Paths Untrodden," "Who-
ever You Are Holding Me Now in Hand," "For You O Democ-
racy," "Recorders Ages Hence," "Behold this Swarthy Face,"
"I Hear It Was Charged against Me." Outside the "Calamus,"
however, appears the longer and more complex "Starting from
Paumanok" (1860; 1881).

Sensational by reason of their frank treatment of sex were the
poems included in "Children of Adatn"t (I860, 1867). Intended
by Whitman 82 to be "the same to the passion of woman love as the
Calamus-Leaves are to adhesiveness, manly love," they exploited
physical passion in the face of every civilized taboo and brought a
storm of protest. Whitman's wish to banish prudery was honorable;
Emerson, Thoreau, and Alcott thought his intention commend-
able; 88 the language employed, however, made prudery seem a
virtue. Lanier, too, who had greeted Whitman's first poetry with
enthusiasm, was repelled by these more extreme pieces. 84 Holmes,
Whittier, Lowell took an even stronger stand, and the magazines
were quite uniformly unfriendly. 85 Outstanding pieces: "I Sing
the Body Electric," "Out of the Rolling Ocean the Crowd," "Once
I Pass'd through a Populous City,"f "I Heard You Solemn-Sweet
Pipes of the Organ." These last poems, tantalizing in their indefi-
niteness, allude perhaps to real individuals. 86 So, too, "The City
Dead-House" (1867) which, despite its grim theme, expresses that
absorbing interest in the city's multifarious life which produced
"City of Orgies" (1860) where, with a fine egoism, he proclaims
himself her laureate : "Mannahatta" ("I was asking . . . , " 1860) ;
and the noble "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" (1856).

But the country attracted him also. "Song of Myself't (1855)
and "Song of the Broad- Axe"t (1856) amaze one with their

32 See manuscript note, quoted in Haniel Long, ibid., p. 90.

33 On Emerson's reaction see E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937), pp. 100, 203. For
Thoreau's feeling see V. C, White, "Thoreau's Opinion of Whitman," ffBQ.. VIII
(1935), pp. 262-264. and Walden Edition, H, p. 243; VI, pp. 291, 295 /. For an
interpretation of Whitman's intention, see Arthur Rickett, The Vagabond m Litera-
ture, (1906), p. 183 (pp. 169-250).

34 Cf. Haniel Long, IV alt Whitman and the Springs of Courage (1938), p. 28.

35 Cf. Portia Baker, "Walt Whitman and The Atlantic Monthly," AL.. VI (1934-1935),
pp. 283-301 ; also her "Walt Whitman's Relations with Some New York Magazines/ 1
AL.. VII (1935-1936). pp. 274-301; E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937), p. 191 f. On
Lowell's attitude, see Haniel Long, ibid., p. 30; on Whitticr's, see Russell Blanken-
ship, American Literature (1931), p. 349. For an interpretation of the general reac-
tion, see V. F. Calverton, The Liberation of American Literature (1932). p. 294.
On the more favorable English reaction and the reasons therefor, see Emory Rolloway,
Whitman: An Interpretation in Narrative (1926), p. 258: W. S. Monroe, "Swin-
burne's Recantation of Walt Whitman " KAA.. Vltt (1930-1931), pp. 347-351; W. B.
Cairns. "Swinburne's Opinion of Whitman/ AL.. Ill (1931-1932), pp. 125-136;
Harold Blodgett, Walt Whitman in England (1934); C. L. Gohdes and P. F. Baum,
Letters of William Michael Rossetti concerning Whitman. Blake, and Shelley, to Anne
Gilchrist and Her Son (1934). For an interpretation of Whitman's Attitude; see
Norman Foerster, The Reinterpretation of American Literature (1928), p. 35 /.

36 On the rarity of his treatment of individuals, see Bliss Perry, Walt Whitman (1906),
p. 293; E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937), p. 305.

140 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

knowledge of occupations and their extraordinary geographical
range. Among the multiplicity of elements in 'There Was a Child
Went Forth" (1855) shown entering into one individual's life,
as many are of nature as of man. In "A Song of the Rolling Earth"
(1856) the earth becomes a great mother, ministering to her child
for whom everything is designed. Part of her ministration is in
opportunity for reflection. "On the Beach at Night Alone" (1856)
leaves with Whitman the idea of a "vast similitude" which spans
the Universe. "On the Beach at Night" (1871) shows him in the
heavens something "more immortal even than the stars." "With
Husky-Haughty Lips, O Sea!" (1883; 18881889) finds the sea
itself the comforter. "To Think of Time" (1855) stresses the
brevity of the individual life in the endless span of Time. In "A
Noiseless Patient Spider" (c. 1862, 1868; 1871) he finds a symbol
of the place of the soul in the Universe. In "Passage to India"
(1871) Whitman approaches more closely than elsewhere to the
thought of an encompassing power, while adhering to his favorite
concept of the Comrade or Elder Brother. 87 More specifically, in
"Chanting the Square Deific" (1865 1866) he names as the four
points of the square: (1) Jehovah (Natural Law) ; Christ (Love) ;
Satan (Free, Individual Will) ; and Santa Spirita (General Soul). 88

PROSE WORKS'*

Democratic Fi5f<ttf (1871). Feeling as he did increasingly with
advancing years, the urgent problems confronting Democracy, in
particular the ignorance, heedlessness, and susceptibility to dema-
goguery of the masses, the critical danger to Democracy from
Poverty, the inadequacy of the parties and politics in general as
remedies (necessary though they be), he turned to the possibilities
of a great national literature as an educative agency. 40

Specimen Days and Collect^ (1882). A more miscellaneous
work, including a considerable body of material, Memoranda during
the War, which he had published seven years before, and notes
which he was accumulating for a poem while convalescing in the
charming surroundings at Timber Creek.

37 In his earlier poem, "To Him That Was Crucified" (I860), he had spoken of Christ
as his co-worker and equal. For comment on his purpose in writing "Passage to

India." see his Preface to Leaves of Grass and Two Rivulets as quoted in Floyd
Stovall. Walt Whitman (1934), p. 537 $. Cf. also A. H. Strong, American Potts
and Their Theology (1916), np. 421-470; E. J. Bailey, Religious Thought in the
Greater American Poets (1922), pp. 183-228.

Cf. Floyd Stovall, ibid., p. 410; also Introduction, pp. xxxvii-xlii, Cf. also Bliss Perry,
Walt Whitman: His Life and Work (1906), p. 265 ;E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937),
p. 266; G. L. Sixbey, "'Chanting The Square Deific' A Study in Whitman^
Religion/' AL., IX (1937-1938), pp. 171-195.

iund, "Introduction" to Specimen Days, Democratic Vistas, and Other
especially p. xxix f. (pp. ix-Hii); Lionel Trilling, "Sermon on a Text
L." Nation. CLV (1945), p. 215 /. (pp. 215-216, 218, 220).

39 See Louise Pound,
Prose (1935), <
from Whitman,

40 Emory Holloway, "Whitman as Critic of America," SP.. XX (1923), pp. 345-369.

WALT WHITMAN 141

GENERAL ESTIMATE

As A CRITIC. Long disregarded, Whitman's criticism has of late
attracted increasing attention. With little formal education, and
unsystematic about his reading, Whitman was nevertheless "better
equipped than Poe, probably in quantity, quite certainly in qual-
ity." 41 He knew well the Bible and Greek literature, admired
Shakespeare, 48 Coleridge, Goethe, Carlyle, Scott, Dickens, and
Eliot; cordially disliked Milton, Johnson, Thackeray. His judg-
ments of American contemporaries such as his admiration for
Bryant and Emerson are fragmentary and sometimes explainable
on personal grounds, yet shrewd and telling. 48 More important are
his contributions to critical theory. Though moderated with ad-
vancing years, his demand was for a new literature springing from
Democracy, for a style growing from within rather than imposed
from without. Power he regarded as more important than form.
Truly great poetry he believed must spring from a great national
spirit. His deep interest in science and his industry in accumulating
scientific information parallel his essentially eugenic attitude toward
sex. Opposed strongly to certain elements in both Romanticism
and Realism, he still had a foot in each camp. 44

[As A POET. Merits: (1) A poetic medium, unique and at times
exquisite, founded upon theories sincerely held and courageously
maintained in the face of enormous opposition. (2) A lyric gift
of the first order, expressing itself upon occasion with poignant
tenderness and great verbal felicity. (3) Capacity for employment
of conventional verse patterns. (Cf. "Pioneers! O Pioneers!/'
"O Captain! My Captain!" [1865]). (4) Deep-seated passion for
Democracy, social and industrial as well as political. (5) Familiar-
ity with the America of his day unmatched in its geographical, so-
cial, and occupational range and in the precision of its detail.
(6) Unprecedented interest in urban life and employment of urban
themes and details. (7) Knowledge of and sincere affection for
rural nature. (8) Bold assertion of the loveliness of the human
body, male and female ; of the beauty and propriety of all its func-
tions; of the enormous importance of the vital relationships of the
sexes; of the need for elimination of all prudery in exchange for

41 Norman Foerster, American Criticism (1928), p. 170 (pp. 157-222); M. O. Johnson,
"Walt Whitman as a Critic of Literature," UNSLLC., No. 16 (1938). pp. 1-73.

42 Louise Pound, "Walt Whitman and the daisies," Sw.R. t X (1925), pp. 75-83; R. C.
Harrison, "Walt Whitman and Shakespeare," PMLA.. XLIV (1929). pp. 1201-1238;
C. J. Furncsa, "Walt Whitman's Estimate of Shakespeare/' HSNPL., XIV (1932),
pp. 1-33; H. B. Reed, "The Heraclitan Obsession of Walt Whitman," Ptrsonali*.
XV (1934), pp. 125-138.

43 For quoted comments, see E. L. Masters, Whitman (1937), pp. 247-260.

44 For a full discussion, consult Norman Foerster, America* Criticism (1928), pp. 157-
222.

142 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

a new complete frankness. Faults: (1) Inability to "explore and
depict a human soul" (Masters, 305), i.e., to create character.
(2) Employment of a style not to be classified as either prose or
verse. (3) Monotonous and planless listing of miscellaneous de-
tails. 45 (4) A mistaken assumption that banishment of foolish
taboos justifies substitution for the higher, more spiritual, and more
deeply affectionate sex relationships of an exclusively physical

45 But, it in also claimed, there is an inextricable tie between Whitman'! catalogue

' * ' - , "Whitman*! Catalogue

"Enumerative Style and
pp. 171-204.

But, it i* also claimed, there is an inextricable tie between Wl
method and his basic theories and practices: M attic Swayne, "Wh
Rhetoric/' VTSE (1941), pp. 162- 178: D. W. Schumann, "Enum
Its Significance in Whitman, Rilke, Werfel," ULQ. t III (1942),

CHAPTER VIII

MID-CENTURY MINOR FIGURES: ROMANCERS,
ESSAYISTS, POETS

HARRIET [ELIZABETH] BEECHER STOWE, 1811
1896, novelist, humanitarian. 1 One of the nine children of the dis-
tinguished Lyman Beecher ("Dr. Gushing of her last serial,
Pogannc People, 1878), Mrs. Stowe had six brothers, five of whom
became clergymen, and one, Henry Ward, a pulpit orator of fame.
Removal of the family in 1832 to Cincinnati, where Lyman Beecher
became head of Lane Theological Seminary, brought to Harriet,
who had known Negroes only as respected servants in her father's
home, her first contacts with slavery. Once at least she visited a
plantation where the slaves were happy and the master kind. She
saw slaves sold, and her brother had made a river voyage to New
Orleans; on the other hand, she was, like her father, a moderate
abolitionist, hoping to bring about an improvement in conditions
through mutual understanding. Under the stimulating encourage-
ment of Professor Calvin E. Stowe, to whom she was married in
1836, she became increasingly active as a writer. "Immediate
Emancipation/' a story published in the New York Evangelist,
January 2, 1845, utilized the idea of being "sold down the river/' 2
Removal to Brunswick, Maine (1850), where Professor Stowe had
accepted a professorship at Bowdoin College, brought Mrs. Stowe
under strong pressure to assist the abolitionist cause with her pen.
For a time in the 70's Mrs. Stowe did platform readings from her
works. Her residence, for some years at Hartford, Connecticut,
was at length removed to Florida, where she died.*

Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the low/yf (published seri-
ally June 5, 1851, to April 1, 1852, in the National Era, and in
book form, 1852). Sales were enormous; returns substantial
(though the dramatic rights and the English sales of one and one-
half million copies brought Mrs. Stowe nothing) ; the resulting
fame of the author as great in England as America, and widespread
over the Continent. 4

1 For bibliography, see page 297.

2 For sources of other details later incorporated in Unclt Tom's Cabin see Catherine
GilbertBon, Harriet Beecher Stowe (1937), pp. 110 ff,

3 High points of her life form the basis of Harriet, a play by Florence Ryerson and
Cofin Clements, produced at the Henry Miller Theater, New York City, March 3,
1943, with Helen Hayes in the title role.

4 Van Wyck Brooks, Tke Flowering of New England 1915-1965 (1936), p. 420.

143

144 ' Ht ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

Uncle Tom's Cabin is characterized favorably by: (a) excep-
tional effectiveness, arising in part from the circumstances of its
appearance, and amply demonstrated by its phenomenal sale and
translation into thirty-seven languages ; partly from the undeniable
power of its emotional appeal; (b) sincerity of purpose, as indi-
cated by the intense emotion of the author during its composition,
and other recorded biographical evidence; (c) an aim friendly and
pacific; conciliatory rather than radical; 5 (d) a reasonably sound
basis in personal experience and acquaintance, though of insufficient
extent for conclusions so sweeping, or to withstand attacks so
searing. 6 On the negative side are to be noted: (a) a strain of
sentimentalism deriving from a line of feminine fiction writers on
this side of the water and from Dickens' Tiny Tim, Little Nell,
and Little Dorrit on the other; (b) the utilization of character
types such as the melodrama villain, the sentimental heroine ; (c) in-
accuracies of detail arising from unfamiliarity with Southern man-
ners ; crudities of style arising from haste. As Pattee has shown/
the death of Uncle Tom was the first episode written, and, like that
of Little Eva, caused its author as much sorrow in the writing as
experienced by^a multitude of subsequent readers. Of the various
dramatic versions which lax laws permitted without advantage to
the author, that of George L. Aikin, first seen at Troy, September,
1852, established itself as most successful, and, despite alterations-
in the handling of the villain, and the introduction of bloodhounds,
as perhaps the best.

A Kty to Uncle Tom'$ Cabin (1853). Hostile criticism 8 of Un-
cle Tom's Cabin and denial of the authenticity of sensational inci-
dents contained therein led to Mrs. Stowe's reply in A Key to
Uncle Tom's Cabin, which defended the characters as not over-
drawn, discussed legal aspects of slavery, printed testimony from
the lips of former slaves, attacked the clergy for its equivocal
attitude.

Dred, A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp^ (1856). Partly as a
result of the attacks on Uncle Tom's Cabin, had a sounder docu-
mentary basis 9 than its predecessor; but, despite a heavy sale on
both sides of the Atlantic, never rivalled it in popularity.

The Minister's Wooing^ (1859). This romance set in 18th cen-
tury Puritan New England pleased many, including Lowell, who

5 F. L. Pattee, The Feminine Fifties (1940), p. 131, shows that rage against the book
was slow in rising in the South, that the first protests came from ardent abolitionists
like Garrison, exasperated at its moderation.

6 Cf. Catherine Gilbertson. p. 154; Forrest Wilson, Cr**ad*r in CtinoKn* (1941).

7 Cf. F. L. Pattee, ibid., p. 74.

8 Fourteen or more pro-slavery novels appeared Immediately in reply. Cf. J. R. Tandy,
"Pro- Slavery Prcma*anda in American Fiction of the Fifties/ 1 SAQ.. XXI (1922).

9 I. H. Nelson, "A Note on the Genesis of Mrs. Stowe's Drtd." VKSB.. VI. No. 4
(1940), pp. 59-64.

MINOR ROMANCERS, ESSAYISTS, POETS 145

had been repelled by the propaganda of her earlier best sellers.
Except for a lack of compelling interest, the book is without serious
fault.

The Pearl of On>$ Island^ (1862). Has salty sea-coast char-
acters and atmosphere, with occasional sentimental scenes to please
those readers who had wept over little Eva.

Oldtown folks\ (1869). Deals with the same times as The Min-
ister's Wooing and had its setting in Old Natick (South Natick),
Massachusetts, where Professor Stowe was born.

JAMES TfHOMAS] FIELDS, 18171881, editor, lecturer,
minor poet. Partner at twenty-one in the firm known successively
as Ticknor, Reed, and Fields; Ticknor and Fields; and Fields,
Osgood, and Co., he became in 1861 Lowell's successor as editor
of the Atlantic Monthly, retiring in 1870.

His poetry, in general undistinguished, was contained in the vol-
umes: Povms (1849), A Few Verses for a Few Friends^ (1858),
and Ballads and Other Verses (1881), which last contained verses
from earlier volumes. Literary taste, coupled with sympathy, in-
tegrity, and business acumen, made him a prized intimate of many
literary men, and gave value to his volumes: Yesterdays with
Authors^ (1872), Hawthorne (1876), In and Out of Doors with
Charles Dickens (1876), Underbrush (1877).

GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS, 18241892, essayist, ora-
tor, editor. 10 Born in Rhode Island ; a pupil for a time at the Brook
Farm school, where he acquired an admiration for Emerson
strengthened during later residence at Concord. Foreign travel
(1846 1850) provided material for Nile Notes of a Howadji
(1851), The Howadji in Syria (1852), and Lotus Eating (1852).
Potiphar Papers^ (1853) which satirized New York social life, is,
like Prue and 7f (18561857), imitative of Irving's Salmagundi
vein. At the same time he exerted a strong influence upon public
affairs through such orations as "The Duty of the American
Scholar to Politics and the Times" (1856), which pressed home
the sin of slavery. Politically independent, he supported Cleveland
as a friend of Civil Service reform, against Blaine, whom he re-
garded as corrupt. He also supported the cause of Woman's Suf-
frage and urged improved relations between Capital and Labor, 11
Editorship of Harper's Weekly (1863 1892), of the department
"The Easy Chair" in Harper's Magazine and, subsequently, of the
magazine itself, gave opportunity for further advancing these ends.

10 For bibliography, see page 297.

11 Cf. Orations and Addreutt of Gtorgt William Cnrtit, edited by C. E. Norton (thret
volume*, 1894). ,

146 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810*1865

BAYARD TAYLOR, 18251878, lecturer, diplomat, trans-
lator, novelist, dramatist, poet, historian. 12 Born in Pennsylvania
of Quaker stock ; largely self-educated. His first volume of poems
Ximena, or the Battle of the Sierra Morena (1844), was followec
by two years' wandering in Europe on which he based Views A-fooi
(1846) which made him known to the public. Eldorado^ (1850)
and A Book of Romances, Lyrics, and Songs (1851) record hi<
impressions of California, which he visited during the Gold Rush
Oriental travel (1851 1854), including Admiral Perry's voyag<
to Japan, bore fruit in Poems of the Orient (1854), in which th<
"Bedouin Song" appeared, and Poems of Home and Travel (1855)
Helped by N. P. Willis and Horace Greeley to employment in Nev
York, he was for the first years of the Civil War a journalist ai
Washington; then (1862 1863) secretary to the Legation at St
Petersburg. Short stories contributed to the Atlantic in the earl}
*60's, collected in Tales from Home, deal effectively with th<
Quaker surroundings of his boyhood ("Friend Eli's Daughter")
less effectively with spiritualism ("The Confessions of a Medium/
"The Haunted Shanty"). Chief novels : Hannah Thurston (1863)
a regionalistic study of life in Ptolemy, a New York village, in <
day when interest in co-operative enterprises was giving way t(
more urgent issues leading to the Civil War ; John Godfrey's For
tunes (1864), an autobiographical record of literary experiences ii
New York City; The Story of Kennett (1866), a vividly realisti<
picture of life in his native town. Once regarded as the most dis
tinguished poet of his generation, and commissioned to write "Thi
National Ode, July 4, 1776," he is remembered today for hi:
"Bedouin Song"t and for his fine translation of Fattstf (1870-
1871) in the original metres; otherwise as an imitator of greatei
men. His familiarity with the German language led to his appoint
ment (1870) as nonresident professor of German literature a
Cornell University, and in 1878 as minister to Germany.

LOUISA MAY ALCOTT, 18321888, author of juvenili
fiction, 18 and second daughter of Bronson and Abigail (May) Al
cott, was born in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Residence in Bostoi
(18341840), and at Hosmer Cottage, Concord (18411842;
was followed by the Fruit lands experiment (1843), in which sb
was an involuntary, and as she has indicated in "Transcendenta
Wild Oats," 14 at times a critical participant. The years (1845-
1848) of residence at "Hillside," Concord, to which the family re
turned after an unhappy interval at Walpole, Massachusetts, pro
vided the setting for much of the narrative of Little Women^ ( 1868
1869). The fever episode, however, and the activities of Mrs

12 For bibliography, see page 297.

13 For bibliography, see pages 297-298.

14 First printed in the Independent, December 8, 2873; reprinted in Silver Pitchers : an
Independence a Centennial Love Story (1876).

MINOR ROMANCERS, ESSAYISTS, POETS 147

March (Louisa's mother) as a social worker, belong to a half
dozen years when the Alcotts were moving from house to house,
and Louisa was for considerable periods alone in Boston. From
her middle teens Louisa and her older sister had collaborated on
melodramatic tales such as they read in the weekly papers, and on
hair-raising dramas which were performed at home by the four
sisters. 15 Beginning with the sale (1852) of her first story, Louisa
found an increasing public, and in 1860, after the family had re-
established a residence at Concord, made her first entrance into the
Atlantic. Hospital Sketches (1863), based upon her experiences
at Washington as an untrained army nurse, 16 disclosed powers
hitherto unrealized, and won her wide recognition. Five years later,
in response to the suggestion of her publisher, who wished a book
for girls, she produced Little Women. The enormous popularity of
the work, a fact of the first importance to Miss Alcott, and a clear
indication that she had at last found her right theme and audience,
must not lead to the assumption that literature for children was a
novelty* Juvenile reading had a long history. Catechisms, religious
and secular, gave rise in the dissenting faiths to dialogue story
manuals like Defoe's The Family Instructor (1715) and Religious
Courtship (1722), which circulated in enormous numbers. 17 Sugar-
coated instruction forms the basis also of the works of Hannah
More and of Thomas Day's intolerably priggish and didactic Sand-
ford and Merton (1783 1789). From this incubus Miss Alcott
largely escaped, Resolutely escewing religious instruction, she kept
didacticism at a minimum. Popularity was at the same time stimu-
lated by her general avoidance of any allusion to the political crisis
which had so recently divided the country. The fame attained by
Little Women and its successors is not primarily the result of either
structural or stylistic excellence, but of a reality of portraiture
seldom matched up to this point in American literature. This is
partly true because, as a recent biographer has pointed out, 18 most
of the principals are real persons in the family and Concord circle.
As she passed, of necessity, in later novels to more imaginative
plots, positive identifications become rarer, and there is a more
sentimental tone. However, her influence is as much in the direction
of realism as romance, and particularly as regards her populariza-
tion of genuinely American settings and types.

THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH, 18361907, poet, short-
story writer, editor, 19 was New Hampshire born, but broadened in
experience, if not in social attitudes, by some years of residence in

15 M. B. Stem. "Louisa Alcott, Trouper/' NEQ.. XVI (1943), pp. 175-197.

16 M. B. Stern, "Louisa M. Alcott: Civil War Nurse," Americana, XXXVII (1943),
pp. 296-325.

17 Cf. B. V. Crawford, "Teaching by Dialogue," PQ. t III (1924), pp. 23-31.

18 Rathe rine Anthony, Louisa May Alcott (1938), p. 162 /.

19 For bibliography, see page 298,

148 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD: 1810-1865

New Orleans. Forced by the death of his father to forego a col-
lege education, he came to New York to work as a clerk. His first
volume of poems, The Bells (1855), came out in his nineteenth
year, as luck would have it the same year as Leaves of Grass. To
any discriminating critic the comparison of the two volumes must
have been well calculated to reveal the imitative quality of Aldrich's
talent. From occasional contributor to magazines he advanced to
assistant editor of the Home Journal, then edited by N. P. Willis.
In 1865 he moved to Boston where for nine years he edited Every
Saturday (1866 1874), a Ticknor and Fields publication. It was
thus an easy transfer to their Atlantic Monthly when, in 1881,
Howells resigned the editorship. Under Aldrich's direction (1881
1890) the magazine won foreign praise as "the best edited maga-
zine in the English language."

Without doing anything really well, Aldrich was a respectable
craftsman in several fields. As a poet he showed himself a master
of form, excelling in slight, delicate verse of the moment. 20 His
surprise epistolary novelette, Marjorie Daw^f (1873), was long
reckoned one of the classics of American fiction. The Stilhvater
Tragedy ( 1880) has its place in the development of the American
detective story. Most enduring is, perhaps, The Story of a Bad
Boy^ (1870), an excellent semi-autobiographical narrative. Aid-
rich was, however, chiefly important by reason of the conservative,
genteel quality illustrated in his works and enforced through edi-
torial influence.

ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS [WARD], 18441911,
writer of popular religious stories. 21 Boston born. Following ex-
ample of her literary mother, whose given and maiden names she
adopted instead of Mary Gray, she began as a writer of tales.
Though most were of the "Sunday-school" variety, and exhibit a
persistent leaning toward the sentimental and the melodramatic,
some like " Tenty Scran" (Atlantic, November, I860) 22 show
remarkable emotional insight for her age, or, like "The Tenth of
January" (Atlantic, March, 1868) exhibit social consciousness in
the then neglected field of industrial life. The Gates Ajarf (1868)
which, with its sequels Beyond the Gates (1883), The Gates Be-
tween (1887), and Within the Gates (1901) had a huge sale on
both sides of the Atlantic, seeks to comfort those bereaved in the
Civil War by assembling in long pages of conversation those pas-
sages from the Bible best calculated to offer assurance of immortal-
ity and eventual happiness. Illustrative of her genuine interest in

20 E. W. Bowen, "Thomas Bailey Aldrich, a Decade After," MR., LCIX (J917>,
p. 386 ff, (pp. 379-390); Alfred Noyes, Pageant of Letters (1940), pp. 246-260.

21 M. A. Bennett. BHtabtth Stuart Phtlp* (1939).

22 A. H. Quinn. American Fiction (1936, p. 193). points out that, while "'Tenty
Scran" U credited to Mrs. Ward in the Atlantic Monthly Index, it is not certainly
hers. A passage in Chatters from a Lift (p. 78) seems to support designation of
"AVhat T>iH She Sre With?" {Athntic. J86&) * tHf first piece rontrihwtr<T.

MINOR ROMANCERS, ESSAYISTS, POETS 149

the cause of the working woman, especially those employed in the
mills, are her novels, Hedged In (1870) and The Silent Partner
(1871), based on facts derived from government reports. Doctor
Zay (1882) turns to the professional woman. Of her shorter
works the best known is 'The Madonna of the Tubs" (1887),
though "Jack the Fisherman" (1887) and "A Singular Life
(1895) are both excellent stories. Tributes to her father are con-
tained in Austin P helps (1891) and Chapters from a Life (1896).

THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM
(1865-1914)

CHAPTER IX
THE LOCAL-COLORISTS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

General View. (1) Handicapped by postbellum problems
and threatened by chaos, the South rebuilt slowly, accelerating its
industrial development so that, at the turn of the century, it had
become an industrial region. In the North, industrial expansion
was rapid. (2) For some forty years after the Civil War, railway
construction aided by local, State, and Federal grants of money,
credit, and land was pushed westward, thereby opening up that
region to settlement. Playing a significant role in the development
of the West and Northwest were the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,
which had given distinguished service in the Civil War, the Union
Pacific, which by connecting with the Central Pacific in 1869 be-
came the first transcontinental railroad, the Northern Pacific, begun
in 1870 and completed in 1883, and the Southern Pacific, formed
in 1884. (3) Such inventions as the Hoe press and the self-binding
reaper, air brakes and Pullman cars, the incandescent light and the
motion picture, the typewriter, the telephone, the electric street
railways, and the airplane revolutionized transportation and indus-
try. (4) Industrial capital not only increased tremendously in
amount and political power, but the national wealth was becoming
concentrated in the hands of a few. From 1896 to 1912. "Big
Business" attempted to control the government; and by 1910 two
hundred of 200,000 non-banking corporations possessed at least
forty per cent of all corporate assets. (5) The urban social struc-
ture was transformed. From the farm to the city went many people,
and became wage earners. This new distribution of the population
was further enlarged by millions of immigrants from the United
Kingdom, Ireland* and various sections of Europe. The drift of
the rural population to the cities, foreign immigration, and the
industrial revolution compelled large numbers into a proletariat.
(6) By 1870 there were as many as thirty national labor unions.
Strikes against employers were often accompanied by violence.
Political and social unrest was regimenting society into the opposing
classes of labor and capital. (7) There grew up enormous cor-
porations in transportation and industry, and these in turn com-
bined into trusts. Two outstanding monopolists were J. D. Rocke-
feller and Andrew Carnegie. (8) The new type of public official or

152

THK

statesman no longer was a Henry Clay or a Daniel Webster or a
J. C. Calhoun. Men like Roscoe Conkling, A. P. Gorman, M. S.
Quay, and J. G. Blaine wished the natural resources of the country
transferred to private ownership, believed in providing public aid
for private enterprises, but rebelled against any State or Federal
interference with such private property. (9) The power of judicial
review under the Fourteenth Amendment began to be applied to
all State legislation affecting private property, and to social and
remedial legislation. (10) Transformed by the Civil War into the
majority party, the Republicans, except for four years, stayed hi
control until 1889. (11) Since the two major parties concerned
themselves primarily with the tariff, minor parties took up social
and economic problems: among these bodies were the Greenback
Party, the People's or Populist Party, the 16-to-l Silver Men, the
Socialist-Labor Party, the Socialist Party. (12) Most important
was the Campaign of 1896, the most prominent issue being the gold
standard, and the most famous statement of the free silver policy
being the "Cross of Gold" speech made by W. J. Bryan. (13) Be-
tween 1865 and 1895 new centers of learning appeared, hasten-
ing the end of intellectual provincialism: Cornell (1865), Smith
(1871), Johns Hopkins (1876), Bryn Mawr (1880), Tuskegee
Normal and Industrial Institute (1881), Stanford (1885), Uni-
versity of Chicago (1890). Moreover, under the stimulus of the
Morrill Agricultural College Act of 1862, the land-grant colleges
and universities grew rapidly ; and it has been estimated that among
those benefiting from its provisions and those of the second Morrill
Act of 1890 are twenty-six state universities and in the South seven-
teen schools exclusively for Negroes. (14) The Panama Canal was
informally opened to commerce in 1914. (15) Triumph of private
enterprise. (16) The history of the United States from 1865 to
1914 may be divided into two parts: the period of Reconstruction,
and the growth of the United States as a world power: see im-
mediately below.

Reconstruction

Andrew Johnson Administration (1865 1869). 1865: Thirty-
Ninth Congress, refusing to admit the Southern congressmen, ap-
point a joint committee to consider Reconstruction. Thirteenth
Amendment. 1866: Civil Rights Bill First permanent transatlantic
cable opened. 1867: Reconstruction Act. Alaska Purchase. Na-
tional Ku KIux Klan, Granger movement. 1868: Impeachment
and acquittal of President Johnson. Omnibus Act. Fourteenth
Amendment,

Ulysses S. Grant Administration (18691873; 18731877).
1869: Transcontinental railroad transportation opened. Knights of
I-abor organized. "Black Friday'' scandal. 1870: Standard Oil

154 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Company chartered. Greenbacks as legal tender declared unconsti-
tutional for debts contracted prior to 1862. Fifteenth Amendment.
Enforcement Act. Readmission of Georgia; Reconstruction is
completed. 1871: Tweed Ring in New York City is overthrown.
Federal control of federal elections. Indians become national
wards. Ku-Klux Act. Legal-tender greenbacks declared uncon-
stitutional. Treaty of Washington signed with Great Britain.
Chicago fire. 1872: Credit Mobilier scandal. Creation of Yellow-
stone National Park. General Amnesty Act. Boston fire. 1873:
Coinage Act, later called the "Crime of 73." Slaughterhouse cases.
Panic: periodic overexpansion of industrial capitalism produces
a series of economic crises (18731879; 18931897). 1874:
Remington typewriter placed on market. Inflation Bill. Founding
of Women's Christian Temperance Union. 1875: Resumption
Act. Peak of Granger movement. Greenback Party organized.
Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty, 1876: Telephone patented by A. G.
Bell. Centennial Exposition. Massacre of Custer's force. Twenty-
third Presidential election. 1877: Invention of the phonograph.
Electoral Count Law.

Rutherford B. Hayes Administration (18771881). With-
drawal of Federal troops from South Carolina and Louisiana ends
the Reconstruction Period and creates the Democratic "Solid
South."

Social, Political, and Economic Development: The United States
Becomes a World Power

Hayes Administration (continued). 1877: Railroad and coal
strikes throughout East. 1878: Electric arc light invented. Re-
sumption of specie payment. 1880: Chinese Exclusion Treaty is
signed with China.

James A. Garfield Administration (1881 1881), J. A. Gar-
field is assassinated four months after he becomes President.

Chester A. Arthur Administration (18811885). 1881 : Vice-
President C. A. Arthur becomes the twenty-first President. Form-
ing of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of
the United States and Canada, which in 1886 became the American
Federation of Labor. Star-route postal frauds exposed. 1882:
Antipolygamy Act. Chinese Exclusion Act becomes effective.
Knights of Columbus. 1883: Civil Service Reform Act. Tariff and
Internal Revenue Act. Beginning of the new steel navy. New
York-Brooklyn suspension bridge opened. Letter postage reduced
from three cents a half ounce (1851) to two cents a half ounce.
1884: Federal Bureau of Labor authorized.

Grover Cleveland Administration (18851889). 1885: Letter
postage redijced to two cents an ounce. 1886: Presidential Succes-

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs . 155

sion Act. General strike on the Gould railway system promoted by
Knights of Labor. Anarchist riot in Haymarket Square, Chicago.
First Mergenthaler Linotype used. 1887: Mexican War Pension
Act. Electoral Count Act. Interstate Commerce Act. Indian Al-
lotment Law. 1888: Second Chinese Exclusion Act. 1889: Bank-
ruptcy of the French Panama Canal Company. Department of
Agriculture becomes an executive department.

Benjamin Harrison Administration (1889 1893). Okla-
homa, part of the Indian Territory, opened to settlement. Break-
ing of the Conemaugh Dam floods Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Pan-
American Congress. Australian ballot system adopted in majority
of states. 1890: Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Silver Purchase Act.
McKinley Tariff Act. 1891: International Copyright Law. Forest
Reserve Act. Beginning of Populist Party. 1892: Populist Party
is first minor party to cast electoral votes. Many strikes and much
violence in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Wyoming, and Idaho.
Federal troops used to restore order in the West. 1893: Edison
develops the moving-picture apparatus.

Grover Cleveland Administration (Second Term, 1893
1897). World Columbian Exposition. Gold panic. 1894:
"Coxey's Army*' demonstrates in Washington. Strike of the Amer-
ican Railway Union : Federal troops employed as protection. Wil-
son-Gorman Tariff. 1895: Automobile comes into practical use.
Gold reserve is reduced. Bureau of Immigration created. Income
tax law declared unconstitutional. Cleveland applies the "Monroe
Doctrine" to controversy between Great Britain and Venezuela.
1896: Rural free delivery begins. President issues proclamation
warning Americans not to violate the neutrality laws by aiding the
insurrection in Cuba.

William McKinley Administration (18971901). 1897:
Dingley Tariff Act. 1898: Greater New York Charter becomes
effective. U.S.S. Maine blown up. Spanish-American War. Guam
seized. Uniform Bankruptcy Law. Annexation of Hawaii. Treaty
of Peace : Spain relinquishes Cuba, cedes Puerto Rico and Guam,
and sells the Philippine Islands to United States for $20,000,000,
1899: Philippine Insurrection. First Hague Conference. Open-
Door Policy for China. United States receives Tutuila Island as a
naval station. 1900: Gold Standard Act. Appointment of Philip-
pine Civil Commission. Galveston tornado. Free silver and im-
perialism are the issues of the twenty-ninth Presidential Election.
1901: Billion-dollar U. S. Steel Corporation organized. Platt
Amendment. Pan-American Exposition. Wall Street Panic. Steel
strike of 150,000 workers. First wireless telegram received. Presi-
dent McKinley shot.

Theodore Roosevelt Administration (19011905; 1905
1909). Theodore Roosevelt takes oath as the twenty-fifth

156 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

President. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. 1902: Strike of anthracite
coal miners. Newlands Reclamation Act. Isthmian Canal Act.
Philippine Government Act. Signing of Reciprocity Act with
Canada. 1903: Expedition Act. Department of Commerce and
Labor authorized. Elkins Act. Immigration Act. Treaty with
Cuba. Transpacific cable opened between the United States and the
Philippines. Recognition of Panama's independence. Panama Canal
Treaty. 1904: Baltimore fire. Louisiana Purchase Exposition.
Labor troubles in Colorado, Chicago, and Massachusetts. 1905:
Protocol is signed with Santo Domingo. Lewis and Clark Exposi-
tion. Russo-Japanese Treaty of Peace signed at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire. Industrial Workers of the World organized. Arm-
strong Commission investigates life insurance companies. 1906:
San Francisco earthquake and fire. Hepburn Act. Federal Food
and Drug Act, and Meat Inspection Act. Third Pan-American
Congress. Exclusion of Japanese from San Francisco public
schools. R. E. Peary reports that he came within about two hun-
dred miles of the North Pole. Roosevelt is awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize. 1907: J. D. Rockefeller gives $32,000,000 to the Gen-
eral Education Board. Mrs. Russell Sage endows with $10,000.000
the "Sage Foundation." Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition.
Second Hague Conference. Stock panic in New York. Around-
the-world voyage of the American fleet begins ; fleet returns four-
teen months later in 1909. 1908: "Gentlemen's Agreement" with
Japan. Wright brothers demonstrate the successful flying machine.
Exclusion of Japanese children from San Francisco public schools
is rescinded. East River subway tunnel in New York opened. Dan-
bury Hatters' Case. Opening of Hudson Tunnel between Hoboken
and New York. Employers' Liability Act. Conference of State
Governors at the White House for the conservation of natural re-
sources. Two-cent letter postage with Great Britain goes into effect.
China decides to devote the Boxer Fund money to the education of
Chinese pupils in the United States. 1909: North Atlantic Coast
Fisheries Treaty. President's salary raised to $75,000 a year.

William H. Taft Administration (19091913). Peary reaches
the North Pole. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition. Sixteenth
Amendment. Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. National Conservation
Congress meets. Hudson-Fulton Celebration. 1910: International
Waterways Treaty signed with Great Britain. Jury verdict in the
Danbury Hatters' Case is against the boycotting union ; and the de-
cision is not nullified until the Clayton Act of 1914. Mann-Elkins
Act. Postal Savings Bank Act. Theodore Roosevelt outlines the
"New Nationalism." Hague Tribunal decision in the North At-
lantic Fisheries Arbitration. 1911: Andrew Carnegie gives $10,-
000,000 more to the Carnegie Institute ; and ten months later an-
nounces a gift of $25,000,000 to establish and maintain the Car-

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs 157

negie Corporation for the Promotion of Education. National Pro-
gressive Republican League organized. Supreme Court sustains
the decree dissolving the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey
and orders the dissolution of the American Tobacco Company.
Abrogation of the treaty between Russia and the United States.
1912: Two-month strike of textile workers at Lawrence, Massa-
chusetts. Mississippi Valley floods. Esch Match Act. Steamship
Titanic sunk by ice on maiden trip. Formation of Progressive
Party under Theodore Roosevelt. Act for operating the Panama
Canal. Act authorizing experimental parcel post. Various strikes
in co-operation with the Industrial Workers of the World. 1913:
Parcel-post system instituted. Sixteenth Amendment. Webb Liq-
uor Shipment Act.

Woodrow Wilson Administration (19131917; 19171921).
Department of Labor created. Complete wireless message sent from
Arlington, Maryland, to Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. W. J.
Bryan, Secretary of State, presents a world-peace plan. California
anti-alien landownership act. President Wilson publicly denounces
lobbying at Washington. Seventeenth Amendment. Woman-suf-
frage law in Illinois. "Advancement-of-Peace" treaty is signed
with San Salvador, the first under Secretary Bryan's plan. World's
largest power dam dedicated. President Wilson proclaims strict
neutrality as respects Mexican revolution. Serious strike in Colo-
rado mines. Underwood Tariff Act. Owen-Glass Federal Reserve
Act. 1914: Goethals is made Civil Governor of the Canal Zone.
Lifting of war-materials embargo from the United States into
Mexico. Treaty with Colombia. Federal troops ordered to the
Colorado strike district. Cape Cod Canal. President Wilson pro-
claims a Mother's Day. Outbreak of war in Europe forces stock
exchanges to close. Neutrality proclamation. Treaty with Nica-
ragua. Panama Canal formally opened. Federal Trade Commission
Act. Clayton Anti-Trust Act. Panama Canal temporarily closed.
Federal Reserve Bank System goes into effect. United States pro-
tests British seizures and detention of American cargoes destined
to neutral European ports. 1

GENERAL VIEW OF THE LITERATURE

With the exception of the work of Whitman and Lanier, and of
Emily Dickinson, who from about the turn of the century until
about 1915 was forgotten, the poetry of the post-Civil War period
struck a distinctly minor note. On the other hand, the informal or
personal essay continued to be popular and genteel; a native
drama, characterized by a de-emphasis on foreign models and by

1 For a concise outline of historic events after 1914, consult J. A. Krout, New Outline-
History of the United States since 1965 (1949).

158 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

a tendency to original themes, emerged in the plays of Bronson
Howard, Clyde Fitch, Augustus Thomas, and W. V. Moody ; and
the American short story, as the result of the efforts of Bret Harte,
Brander Matthews, H. C. Banner, Ambrose Bierce, Stephen Crane,
Henry James, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Hamlin Garland, and
many others, became a distinct literary form. Finally, from the Civil
until the World War of 1914, every decade the gilded 70's, the
local-color '80's, the fin-de-sidcle '90's, and the strenuous 1900's
is reflected in various types of fiction : novels of entertainment, of
romance and of history, of realism and social criticism; and in
different kinds of nonfiction : nature essays, literary criticism, his-
torical works, political, scientific, religious, and philosophical writ-
ings. With the industrialization of the United States came the
twilight of romanticism and the dawn of realism ; with the triumph
of the machine, American literature became for the first time
national rather than sectional in points of view.

Influence of the Frontier. "The Significance of the Frontier
in American History" was stated in classic form by F. J. Turner
(1861 1932) in a paper so titled when read before the American
Historical Association in 1893. 1 His hypothesis, accepted with its
implications as being an important part of the whole truth, is that
the Frontier has been the one great determinant of American civili-

1 The general Turner philosophy, the chief points of which he had first presented in
"The Problems of American History/' published in the student periodical, The ACQ\S.
November 4, 1892, dominated the writing and interpretation of American History for
four decades after its presentation. Previous to his analysis, emphasis had been put
upon the germ theory of politics; but Turner, instead of believing that American
institutions were only a continuation of European beginnings, emphasized the en-
forced adaptations of Europeans to their new environment. His is an economic in-
terpretation of history, with heavy underlining of the frontier as the essential forma-
tive factor in the development of the American people. While attacks on his theory
have been made by J. L. McDougall, G. W. Pierson, B. F. Wright, C. A. Beard,
and L. M Hacker, others like D. L. Irvine, M. L. Hansen, J. D. Hicks, D. R. Fox,
and F. L. Paxson continue to proclaim the validity of the Turner hypothesis. Prob-
ably no one would quarrel with D. R. Fox's statement that F. J. Turner's is "the
most famous and influential paper in American historiography," and with Max Far-
rand's assertion that F. J. Turner "was probably the strongest single influence of
his generation upon historical scholarship in America." Consult F. J. Turner,
(1) The Frontier in American History (collected essays, 1920), (2) The Significance
of Sections in American History (1932), (3) The United States: 1830-1850 (post-
humously, 1935), (4) The Earlier Writings of Frederick Jackson Turner, compiled
by E. E. Edwards, with an Introduction by Fulmer Mood (1938); and also Carl
Becker in American Masters of Social Science edited by H. W. Odum (1927), pp.
271-318: The Section and Frontier in American History: the Methodological Con-
cepts of Frederick Jackson Turner, edited by S. A. Rice (1931); Joseph Schafer.
"Turner's Frontier Philosophy/' WMH., XVI (19324933), pp. 451-469; F. L. Paxson,
"A Generation of the Frontier Hypothesis: 1893-1932," Pa.HR., II (1933), pp. 34-
51; Curtis Nettels. "Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Deal/' WMH.. XVII
(1933-1934), pp. 257-265; E. E. Edwards, References on the Significance of the
Frontier in American History (U.S. Dept. Agric., Bibliographic Collections, No. 25.
1935; second edition, 1939); Avery Craven. "The 'Turner Theories' and the South."
SHJ., V (1939). pp. 291-314; C. A. Beard in Books That Changed Our Minds, edited
by Malcolm Cowiey & Bernard Smith (1939), pp. 59-71; D. D. Irvine, Beyond Frederick
Jackson Turner (American Military Institute, 1940) ; G. W. Pierson, "The Frontier and
Frontiersmen of Turner's Essays." PMHB., LXIV (1940). pp. 449-478; Murray
Kane, "Some Considerations on the Frontier Concept of Frederick Jackson Turner,"
MVHR. t XXVII (1940-1941), pp. 379-400; Avery Craven, "Frederick Jackson Turner,
Historian," WMH. f XXV (1941-1942), pp. 408-424; G. W. Pierson, "The Frontier
and American Institutions: A Criticism of the Turner Theory " NEQ..XV (1942),
pp. 224-255; G. W. Pierson. "American Historians and the Frontier Hypothesis in
1941 (I)," WMH., XXVI 6942-1943), pp. 36-60. Read also, page 159, footnote 2.

THE LOCAL-COLOWSTS 159

zation : he declared, in 1893, that the era of expansion had ended
and that "the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the
first period of American history." 2 The physical frontier may have
had an influence on almost every American author, including not
only the local-colorists of the latter part of the nineteenth century,
but also previous writers like Crevecoeur (p. 26), William Byrd
(p. 18), Timothy Flint (p. 75), C. S. Kirkland (p. 83), Irving
(p. 49), Cooper (p. 65), W. G. Simms (p. 74), A. B. Longstreet
(p. 83), and Davy Crockett (p. 83), and later ones like Frank
Norris (p. 228), E. W. Howe (p. 206), O. E. Rolvaag (p. 270),
Jack London (p. 229), E. L. Masters (p. 274), Sinclair Lewis
(p. 271), and Willa Gather (p. 270). The frontier influenced such
forms as the ballad and the tall tale (pp. 160-161) ; it had its own
idols at various times, among whom are W. H. Bonny* ("Billy the
Kid") of New Mexico, J. B, Hickok ("Wild Bill Hickok") of
Kansas, Mike Fink of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, Paul Bun-
yan of the Great Lakes region and the Pacific Northwest, Simon
Kenton of Kentucky and Ohio, Samuel Houston of Texas, James
Bridger of the Great Plains. 8

Local-Color Movement. Local-color writings are a sifted
mixture of romanticism and realism, probably influenced by the
works of Washington Irving, by the frontier tradition of tall tales,
and by the English and French romantic traditions of Sir Walter
Scott, Maria Edgeworth, Bulwer-Lytton, Victor Hugo, Prosper
Merimee, and Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. Local-color fiction is
concerned with the commonplace scenes and surface characteristics

2 "Up to our own day American history has been in a large degree the history of the
colonization of the Great West. The existence of an area of free land, its continuous
recession, and the advance of American settlement westward explain American de-
velopment. ... Thus American development has exhibited not merely advance alotyr
a single line, but a return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier
line .... In this advance, the frontier is the 'outer edge ot the wave the meeting
point between savagery and civilization . ..." As the colonist, "European in dress,
industries, tools, modes of travel, and thought," transforms the wilderness, he is in
turn mastered by it. "At first, the frontier was the Atlantic coast"; and it was
simultaneously the frontier of Europe. "Moving westward, . . . the advance of the
frontier has meant steady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady
growth of independence on_American lines." The various kinds of frontiers have had

" promoted

advance
-*.-.. "growth

ui iiauuiiaiiaid aiiu me cvuiuium ui nmcrican political institutions J (4) its

"nationalizing tendency . . . transformed the democracy of Jefferson into the national
republicanism of Monroe and the democracy of Andrew Jackson"; and, most im-
portant, (5) it has promoted "democracy here and in Europe."

"From the conditions of frontier life came intellectual traits of profound impor-
tance. . . . The result is that to the frontier the American intellect owes its striking
characteristics. That coarseness and strength combined with acuteness and acquisitive-
ness; that practical, inventive turn of mind,, quick to find expedients; that masterful
grasp of material things, lacking in the artistic but powerful to effect great ends:
that restless, nervous energy; that dominant individualism, working for good and
for evil, and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with freedom these
Ire traits of the frontier, or traits called out elsewhere because of the existence of
the frontier/' All the foregoing quotations are from P. J. Turner's essay, "The
Significance of the Frontier/'

3 A serviceable bibliography is available in P. H. Boynton, Littratnrt and American
Lift (1936), pp. 660-663.

160 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

of a particular locality, and is characterized by accurate use of dia-
lects and speech peculiarities, by careful presentation of character
types, of sectional occupations and interests, of codes of conduct.
Although such humorists as G. H. Derby ("John Phoenix"), C. H.
Smith ("Bill Arp, So Called"), D. R. Locke ("Petroleum V.
Nasby"), C. F. Browne ("Artemus Ward"), and H. W. Shaw
("Josh Billings") preceded Bret Harte (p. 161), yet the latter's
"Luck of Roaring Camp" may be regarded as the first postbellum
local-color story. Such preoccupation with locality was later reborn
in a not too dissimilar movement known today as Regionalism.

Ballads and Folk Songs. Of recent years a vast heritage of
ballad material has been discovered. Some are remnants of English
and Scottish ballads; 4 others are play party" singing games, whop-
pers, Negro hollers and blues, spirituals and work-tunes, chanteys
of the sea, songs of the cowboy, the lumberjack, the Indian fighter,
the hobo: among railroad workers, "Casey Jones" is a favorite;
among Kentucky and Tennessee mountaineers, "The Roving Gam-
bler"; among the Negroes, "John Henry," "The Gospel Train."
"The Ram of Darby," "Trouble, Trouble," and "Swing Low, Sweet
Chariot" ; among hoboes, "Hallelujah, I'm a Bum" and "The Gila
Monster Route"; among lumberjacks, "The Jam on Gerry's Rock"
and "Louie Sands and Jim McGee" ; among the Westerners of the
plains, "The Buffalo Skinners" ; among the cowboys, "Git Along,
Little Dogies," "The Lone Prairie," and "The Old Chisholm
Trail" ; among chanteymen, "Blow the Man Down" and "A Yankee
Ship Came down the River" ; and among anthracite miners, "The
Avondale Mine Disaster," "The Lick Branch Explosion," and "The
Sliding Scale." From such ballads is expected no exquisite choice
of words, no perfection of form, no loftiness of theme. But they
do reflect the life of isolated communities, and especially that of
the everyday American. Moreover, cycles or groups of ballads have
grown up around such figures as Jesse James (who is also the hero
of some dime novels and numerous folk tales), Frankie and Johpny,
John Henry, and Casey Jones.

Other ballads are : "The Jealous Lover of Lone Green Valley,"
"John Done Saw That Number," "Water-Boy," "A Plantation
Serenade," "Satan's a Liah," "All God's Chillun Got Wings,"
"You Turn for Sugar an' Tea," "De Blues Ain' Nothin'," and "Go
Down, Ol' Hannah."

Tall Tales. Narrated with mock solemnity, these frontier
anecdotes, so steeped in violent exaggeration or so characterized

4 For a terse summary of the origin, theories of ballad making, definition, clastAca-
tion. characteristic^ and metrical form of ballads, tee W. B. OtU and M. H. Needle*
"*"? ^ A*#"<** ?f J?'wA L*ttrat*r* (1938), pp. 100-102. Commit, also.
Reed Smith, "The Traditional Ballad in America, 1933," AF. t XLVII (1934), pp.

and ?> J( erencM * v fe y P- H. Boynton, Literature end American Life
pp.

THE LocAL-CoLORisTs 161

by it that they developed into extravaganzas or even folk legends,
were told about such characters as Paul Bunyan, Davy Crockett,
and Mike Fink. 3 In the writing market there were also literary ex-
amples: A. B. Longstreet's Georgia Scenes (1835) ; T. B. Thorjje's
Tom Owen: The Bee-Hunter, The Big Bear of Arkansas (1841).
Mysteries of the Backwoods (1846), and The Hive of "The Bee-
Hunter" (1845) ; W. T. Thompson's Major Jones's Courtship
(1843), Major Jones's Chronicles of Pineville (1843), and Major
Jones's Sketches of Travel (1848) ; A. S. Stephens's High Life in
New York (1843) ; the Odd Leaves of a Louisiana "Swamp Doc-
tor" (1843) by the pseudonymous "Madison Tensas, M.D."; S. F.
Smith's Sol Smith's Theatrical Apprenticeship (1845) and Theat-
rical Journey-Work (1854) ; J. J. Hooper's Some Adventures of
Captain Simon Suggs (1846) and The Widow Rugby's Husband
(1851) ; J. S. Robb's Streaks of Squatter Life (1847) and Far-
West Scenes (1847); J. M. Field's The Drama in Pokerviltc
(1847); and C. W. Harris's Sut Lovingood Yarns (1867).
Finally, the works of Mark Twain abound in such tales.

THE LOCAL-COLORISTS: THE WEST

[FRANCIS] BRETT HARTE, generally known as BRET
HARTE, 1836 1902, writer of novels, humorous verse, and
short stories.* 1 Born in Albany, New York, the son of Henry Harte.
a teacher of languages, and Elizabeth Ostrander. Lived at Provi-
dence, Rhode Island, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at Lowell,
Massachusetts* at Brooklyn, New York, and in New York City.
Father died (1845). Mother remarried and moved to California,
where Bret joined her (c. 1853). Occupied himself variously as
druggist's clerk, teacher, and miner. Settled in San Francisco
(1860). Married Anna Griswold (1862). Meanwhile, was con-
tributing to the Golden Era and the Northern Californian. Was
made Secretary of the California Mint (1863). Published The
Lost Galleon and Other Tales (1867), a first collection of poems
j>ossessing a measure of originality, humor, and range, as well as
occasional bits of local slang. Editor of the newly-begun Overland
Monthly (1868 1871 ), in which he published his best short stories
subsequently included in The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other
Sketches, the 1870 volume that brought him, first, fame, and then

5 B. A. Botkin, editor, A Treasury of American Folklore (1944)* with a Foreword by
Carl Sandburg.

6 H. W. Roynton, Bret Harte (1103); T. E. Pembertoii, Tke Life of Bret Harte (1903);
H. C. Merwin, The Life of Bret Harte (1911); E. W. Bowrn, 'Trtncis Bret Harte,"
$R. t XXIV (1916), pp. 287-302; F. L. Pattce, The Development of the American
Short Story (1923), pp. 220-244; The Letters of Bret Harte, edited by G. B. Hart*
(1926); G. R. Stewart, Jr. "The Bret Harte Legend," UCC.. XXX (1928), pp. 338
350; G. R. Stewart, Bret Harte: Argonaut and Exile (1931); Bret Harte. ed'ted b>
Joseph Gaer, California Literary Research Project. Mimeograph No. 10 (1935);
Calendar of the Francis Bret Harte Letters in the William Andrews Clarke Memorial
Library (Southern California Historical Records Survey Protect, 1942); B. A Booth,
d Tetter* of Bret Harte," AL. t XVT (1O44-1<>4$), pp. 1.1M42.

162 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

a contract from the Atlantic Monthly for $10,000 for his year's
output. Triumphal trip East (1871) ; but subsequent work did not
fulfill the promise of earlier writings. Declined the post of First
Secretary of the American Legation at the Court of Russia. Leav-
ing his family behind, he accepted the U. S. Consulship at Crefeld,
Rhenish Prussia (1878). Consul at Glasgow, Scotland (1880
1885), Spent his last years chiefly in London, where he died of
cancer of the throat.

POETRY

Representative verse includes "The Mountain Heart's-Ease,"
"What the Bullet Sang/' "The Angelus," "Mrs. Judge Jenkins/'
"The Society upon the Stanislaus," "Songs without Sense/' "The
Aged Stranger," and "John Burns at Gettysburg."

"Relieving Guard." Sincere, emotional tribute to the memory
of his friend Starr King.

"The Reveille/' Not without lyrical feeling.

"Dickens in Camp."f Verses of spirited reverence and impas-
sioned spontaneity, born several hours subsequent to the news
reaching San Francisco that Dickens had died.

"Plain Language from Truthful James"f (1870). More famil-
iarly known under the pirated name of "The Heathen Chinee/' it
is a clever, moralizing, daintily satiric comic ballad of the boomer-
anging duplicity of Truthful James and Bill Nye in the euchre
game with Ah Sin. 7 Expressed in the form of Swinburne's impos-
ing threnody in Atalanta in Calydon. Others of his ballads that
helped inaugurate local-color in American literature are "Dow's
Flat/' "Chiquita," "Jim," "In the Tunnel," "Penelope/' and "The
Stage Driver's Story/'

STORIES AND SKETCHES

Condensed Novels and Other Papers (1867). Part I includes
stories in excellent imitation of Cooper, Dumas, Bulwer-Lytton,
Victor Hugo, Charles Lever, Dickens, and others. Part II is com-
posed of a dozen "Civic Sketches," including the Hawthornean
"From a Balcony." Part III, written chiefly after the manner of
Washington Irving, has beautiful legends and tales, among which
are the "Legend of Monte del Diablo/'f the "Adventure of Padre
Vicentio," and, perhaps most significant, "A Night at Wingdam/'t
a Dickensian sketch not over-moistened by dripping sentimentality.

The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches^ (1870).
Memorable are "Miggles," "Brown of Calaveras," "M'liss," and
the three discussed immediately below.

7 T i '?. * J$K 8tafce to H'w that Bret Harte nad the usual, intolerant California opinion
of the Chinese: see, for example, W. P. Fenn, Ak Sin and His Brethren in American
***" (1933), pp. 45-71; M. L. Xleim, "The Chinese as Portrayed in the Works
of Bret Harte: A Study of Race Relations/' SSR., XXV (1940.1941), pp. 441-450,

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs 163

"The Luck of Roaring Camp."t Somewhat unconventional in
language, theme, treatment, and morals, 8 the story was decried by
the religious press of California but well received in the East.
Compactness of structure; melodramatic denouement. Motif, how-
ever, not wholly uncharacteristic of contemporaneous writers.

"The Outcasts of Poker Flat."f Unforgettable characters : the
gambler John Oakhurst, the drunken sluice-robber "Uncle Billy/'
the two prostitutes called "the Duchess" ancf "Mother Shipton,"
and the eloping Tom Simson and Piney.

"Tennessee's Partner."! Illustrative of frontier "lynch-law"
justice and the bonds of masculine friendship. Scenes have an ad-
mirable fidelity. Note use of literary English and camp jargon.
Mawkish last paragraph.

Mrs. Skaggs's Husbands and Other Sketches (1873). Includes
the popular "The Iliad of Sandy Bar," with its clever, explanatory
genesis of the feud between York and Scott and the latter's
pathetic-humorous last words.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. If not the founder of the school 1. His tales are fabricated out of

of local-color, inclusive of the pro- a few repetitive themes and pat

vincialisms and the dialectal pecu- motifs, in part as characteristic

Harities, he at least spiced such of his earlier writings as they seem

stones and sketches with dramatic to be more obviously of his later

incidents and picturesque scenes, ones. 9 Depreciated is the indiffer-

and gave the type wider currency. 10 ence to verisimilitude; challenged

Writings have a documentary im- is the accuracy of his pictures of

portance; they pioneered in the the miners, and the melodramatic

new manner, they influenced abid- paradoxes of his incongruous situ-

ingly the development of the short ations, 11 Has been charged with

story, they gave a set to the literary the invention of a meretricious clia-

treatment of pioneer life in the lect and has even been discredited

West His sheaf of perhaps a half- for loosing "a sea of local color."

8 For Harte's own account of the circumstances under which the story was first pub-
lished, see his "The Rise of the Short Story," CM., LXXX, N.S. VII (1899), pp. 1-8.

9 R. R. Walterhouse has made a comprehensive survey of the stock material in the
Western local-color story. Of some eight hundred examples of nineteenth-century
Western fiction discussed, about eightscore are by Bret Harte. Consult R. R. Walter-
house, Bret Harte, Joaquin Miller, and the Western Local Color Story: A Study in
the Origins of Popular Fiction (Ph.D., Chicago, 1939).

10 Granvillc Hicks is among those who emphasize that, while not possibly the founder
of American regionalism, Bret Harte was the first to gain wide popularity following
the Civil War. His short stories illuminative of sectional differences gradually were
displaced, only to be revived again in such books as Ellen Glasgow's Barren Ground
(1925), T. S. Stribling's Tecftallow (1926), Julia Peterkin's Scarlet Sister Mary
(1928), G. H. Carroll's As the Earth Turns (1933), and Glenway Wescott's The
Apple of the Eye (1934). See Harry Hart wick, The Foreground of American Fiction
(1934), p. 146 /.; Granville Hicks, The Great Tradition (1935), p. 38.

11 "Bret Harte was the most successful purveyor of these meretricious sentimentalities,
turning coast pioneers into good copy for distant romantic readers: dealing with mining
camps in which no one ever worked; mines that men fought for, found, and gambled
with; miners who behaved like opera choruses; women freezing in snowdrifts with
never a mention of the cold; Mother Shipton comfortably starving to death in ten days
and departing life with an epigram; M'hss, shaggy as a Shetland colt and sleek-souled
AS Little Eva. Almost all the Western tales, and all of hundreds of others about the
West, were built, like sham folklore, from combinations of a few pat themes and
motifs that were soon as outworn as the tritest poetic diction. They rang the change*

164

THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

dozen stories and of about an equal
number of poems have a secure
place in American literature.

2. Possesses a sense of moral con-
trasts. Sincere if unflattering pre-
sentation of clerical characters. i:l
Repudiates the idea of total deprav-
ity, the idea that the minority is of
the elect and the majority of the
damned. Accepts the thesis that
out of evil good may emerge. 14

3. Could apprehend character,
drawing individualistic if composite
types with a few competent strokes.
Rememberable are Oakhurst,
M'liss, Jack Hamlin, Yuba Bill,
Colonel Starbottle, Tennessee's
Partner, Miggles.

4. Superior in the invention of
striking situations and episodes,
and in the handling of setting. Had
wit, humor of understatement, hard
sanity. Grew to distrust sacchar-
inity, and expressed his satire in
humorous dialect rhymes and prose
parodies.

5. Workmanship and style neater
and more skillful than the literary
craftsmanship of many of his con-
temporaries.

Out of a vast body of writings, 1 *
no inventive longer plot remains,
and too few short pieces.

2. The West criticized the im-
moral character of the stories, their
vulgarity, obscenity, and tough
realism. Others objected to his in-
dictment of Puritanism. One of
his artifices, states R. R. Walter-
house, is the "use of a paradoxical
moral order"; furthermore, his im-
plicit attitude toward religious in-
stitutions is similarly implicit in
the work? of many other contem-
poraneous authors.

3. His perceptive but unanalytical
mind could not imagine or create
a single enduring character. Ec-
centricities of figures, theatricality
of villains, elemental meretricious-
ness of heroines. Characterization
static despite a succession of oppor-
tunistic incidents.

4. Like his characters, his situa-
tions are stock. Cardboard plots
dependent upon bizarre details and
deficient in the elements of realism
and truth to soul. Stagey romanti-
cism and sentimental proclivities. 15

5. Diction conventional, sentences
show lapses in construction, details
are too Dickensian. Stories not
only weak but at times incoherent.

on the miraculous reforms unconsciously achieved by women and babies, the redeeming
grace of loyalty between 'pardners,' the dramatic effect of recognition scenes between
long-separated lovers. And they were ridden with type characters, the last man in the
deserted camp, the learned recluse, the adopted Indian child or the white child adopted
by Indians, the woman disguised as a man, the gallant gambler. Even the Plautine
miles glories**, the cowardly braggart, was translated into the idiom of the mining
camp." P. H. Boynton, Literature and American Life (1936), p. 648 /.

12 Here is a partial list of his publications, the more representative of which are daggered:
Poems (1871), East and West Poems (1871), M'liss: An Idyl of Red Mountains
(novelette, 1873), Two Men of Sandy Barf (play, 1876), Gabriel Conroyl (novel,
1876). Thankful Blossom (1877), The Story of a Mine (1878), Drift from Two Shores
(1878). The Twins of Table Mountain (1879), Jeff Bngg's Love Story* (novelette.
1880), Ah Si*t (pity in collaboration with Mark Twain. 1877), An Heiress of Red
Dofft (1878), Fhp. and Found at Biasing Star (1882), On the Frontier (1884),
Snow-Bound at Eagle's (1885), A Phyllis of the Sierras (1888), A Waif of the Plains
(1890). A Sappho of Green Springs^ (1891), Colonel Starbottle^ Client) (1892),
Barker** Luck (1896), Stories in Light and Shadow^ (1898), Openings in the Old
Trait (1902).

U In Tales of the Argonauts (1875) he presents a gentle picture of Padre Junipero.
For the influence upon Harte and his treatment of a vanishing regime of Spanish
characters, art, architecture, and miscellanea, consult Carlos Vasquez-Ariona, "Spanish
and Spaaish-American Influences on Bret Harte," RH., LXXVI (1929), pp. 573-621.

14 L. L. Hatard, "Eden to Eldorado," UCC. t XXXV (1933), pp. 107-121.

15 Hit stock routine includes the same backdrop and the same characters; the purpose
is to present mining camp life; the motive is to demonstrate the inherent goodness
buried within rough exteriors. One artifice, a* R. R. Waherfion<- h*s tinted out,
)9 to pervert the *tanHrdirH themes and to conclude with fin O. Henry ending.

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs 165

EDWARD EGGLESTON, 18371902, short-story writer,
historian, novelist. Born in Vevay, Indiana. Strict Methodist up-
bringing and an education chiefly confined to country elementary
schools were later reflected in his writings. At nineteen, upon his
return from Minnesota, to which he had gone a year earlier for
restoration of health, he became a Methodist circuit rider in In-
diana, by which his health was further impaired. For almost a
decade he preached in various prairie towns in Minnesota. In 1866,
he began editing Sunday-school magazines in Chicago, notably the
Little Corporal, a paper later incorporated into St. Nicholas. Joined
the editorial staff of the New York Independent. He was founder
and for five years pastor in Brooklyn, New York, of a Church of
Christian Endeavor (1874 1879), from which he retired to devote
himself to writing and historical research.

Relatively unimportant are his short stories, juvenile fiction, and
history texts. What are valuable are his candid novelized tran-
scripts of Indiana life that, in the very teeth of 'melodramatic inci-
dents and unfinished, crude plots, frequently mawkish writing and
Sunday-school sentiment, emerge as tales simple in plot and homely
of circumstances, with the characterization Dickens-like in clarity
and with background, atmosphere, manners, and dialects realized
with such fidelity that they document Indiana pioneering as realis-
tically as historical studies in social conditions. His realism is both
an outgrowth of his belief that novels are pernicious things which
must be purified by or impregnated with ultimate morality and his-
torical materials to which other elements are to be subordinated,
and of H. A. Taine's doctrine that stress must be placed upon well-
selected facts and environmental influences, that an individual may
be explained by the human-culture, outer-environmental formula
of race, milieu, and the moment. It has often been observed that
his function was historical rather than literary: he added the
archetypal figure of the circuit rider, he made prominent the middle
border states, he left a folkbook classic of the primitive settlements
in the Ohio region.

NOVELS**

(1) The End of the World (1872). Wooden, stagey Indiana
love story concerned with the 1843 1844 delusions of the Miller-
ites or Second Adventists, and more realistic than The Hoosier
Schoolmaster. (2) The Mystery of Metropolisville (1873). As
melodramatic a story of a frontier real-estate boom as The End of
the World is of the Millerites. (3) The Circuit Rider (1874).
Despite its somewhat raggedy-edged style, is, in its account of
Morton Goodwin, a Methodist itinerant preacher in southern Ohio,
easily more skillfully constructed and more realistic than the more

16 J. T. Flanagan, "The Novell of Kdwarrt E*Klfton ( " CB., V (1944), pp. 250-254.

i66 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

famous Schoolmaster. (4) The Hoosier Schoolboy (1883). In
part an outgrowth of his earlier Hoosier Schoolmaster, indicts rural
school conditions. (5) The Graysons (1887). Historical tale set
in Illinois is perhaps as well-constructed as anything Eggleston
wrote, involving Abraham Lincoln's appearance in a trial where
he obtains an acquittal (Chapter XXVII) by the device of proving
that the chief witness could not have seen the shooting, due to an
absence of moonlight. (6) The Faith Doctor^ (1891). A social
satire that is descriptive of the faith-healing beliefs of Christian
Scientists. Scenes laid in New York. Smooth style.

The Hoosier Schoolmaster^ (1871). Most fafnous book is a pic-
ture of life in backwoods Indiana about 1850, founded upon the
experiences of his brother, G. C. Eggleston. Compensating for its
Dickensian but over-pious sentimentalism, its impossible villain, its
types or caricatures, and its melodramatic climax to a plot that ex-
ists primarily for the description of the manners and sentiments of
those early days are its realistic depiction of ordinary Hoosiers,
its capturing of their plain language, its quite lively, concisely-put
substance, and its valuable record of such matters as frontier law-
lessness, revival preaching, and back-country conditions. 17

JRoxyf (1878). Interesting realistic Indiana tale of a triangle:
despite community conventions, Roxy Adams, a genuine pioneer
type, offers to accept the unborn child of her husband Mark Bon-
amy and Nancy Kirtley, who belongs to the shiftless "poor white"
class. Fluent style, analytical characterization.

HISTORIES"'

The Beginners of a Nation (1896) and The Transit of Civiliza-
tion (1901). Two learned, pleasant volumes in his pioneering cul-
tural history of American life. Account cut short at the year 1700.

JOHN [MILTON] HAY, 18381905, author, statesman. 18
Born at Salem, Indiana. Grew up in Pike County, Illinois. Was
graduated from Brown University, Rhode Island (1858). Several
years later was admitted to the Illinois bar. Assistant private sec-
retary to President Lincoln. For five years after the President's
assassination served in the legations at Paris (1865 1867), Vienna
(18671868), and Madrid (18681870). Staff-member of the

17 ''Slight as it appears, this story has in it so much of humor as well as of direct observa-
tion, that it still persists in print after more than fifty years. ... He is our pioneer
midwest novelist, the first of a long line of writers of western and village life."
Hamlin Garland, The Westward March of American Settlement (1927), pp. 30, 31.

17a J. A. Rawley, "Edward Eggleston: Historian/' 1MH., XL (1944), pp. 345-352
(pp. 341-352).

18 J. B. Bishop, John Hay (1906); Lorenzo Sears, John Hay (1914); The Life and
Letters of John Hay. edited by W. R, Thayer (two volumes in one, 1929) ; Tyler
Dennett, John Hay (1933).

THE LOCAL-COLONISTS 167

New York Tribune (18701875). Married Clara Stone, the
daughter of the wealthy Cleveland banker Amasa Stone. Assistant
Secretary of State (18791881) in the administration of Presi-
dent Hayes. United States Ambassador to Great Britain (1897).
Secretary of State under McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt
(18981905).

Miscellaneous writings include Jim Bludso of the Prairie Bell>
and Little Breeches (1871), Robert Burns (1888), Poems (1890),
In Praise of Omar (1898), Addresses of John Hay (1906), Let-
ters from John Hay and Extracts from His Diary 19 (1908).

POETRY

Verses include "The White Flag" and "A Woman's Love," two
love poems; "Liberty," a blank-verse lyric with three quotable
lines; "The Stirrup-Cup," simple in its mysticism; "In a Grave-
yard," "Remorse," and "Through the Long Days," reminiscent of
the graveyard tradition in English poetry.

The Pike County Ballads and Other Pieces^ (1871). Dialect
poems or comic ballads about the Illinois frontier, often described
as carrying on the tradition of localism and lingo 20 which had suc-
ceeded in Lowell's Biglow Papers, was flourishing in the jocular
work of Bret Harte, and for a decade or more vastly stimulated
popular interest in this type of literature. Most frequently quoted
are "Jim Bludso" and "Little Breeches." The other pieces are
"Banty Tim," said to be a forerunner of Kipling's "Gunga Din,"
and "The Mystery of Gilgil," "Golyer," "The Pledge at Spunky
Point." Picturesque, crude virility; racy, terse; more genuinely
mirroring the feelings of Western life than the ballads of Harte.
If not the inaugurator of local-color (Harte is generally recognized
as first in the field), Hay is among the early practitioners.

PROSE

Castilian Days (1871). Collection of seventeen sketches on the
civilization of Spain its pastimes, holidays, and customs, its
landscape, art, and history, especially its inextricable connection
with the Church. Twenty-five years later this travel book of essays

19 Hay is an unusually good letter- writer. An excellent introduction to his skill in
illuminating the social and political atmosphere of Washington during the Civil War
is Lincoln and the Civil War in the Diaries and Letters of John Hay, edited by
Tyler Dennett (1939).

20 The Pike County folk of his poems were called pristinely vulgar, and as coarse as
their language indicated. John Hay himself expressed a wish that the people would
forget the half-dozen ballads, even requesting E. C. Stedman not to anthologize
"Little Breeches." stating "how odious the very name of that hopeless little fluke is
to yours faithfully." On the other hand, A. C. Ward has asserted that nearly "the
whole philosophy of Pike County is embraced in the first verses of Little Breeches" :
moreover, though the Pike County Ballads "seem feeble slush to twentieth-century
intellectualists, they are nearer to universal experience than bloodless highbrowism
is likely to get/' In the words of the son, C. H. Hay, "half a century has shown
that these rough-hewn models of Western types are destined to outlive all hit other
poetical efforts*"

168 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

was still being described as "the bitterest and most infamous attack
upon the Catholic Church," and as "obscene."* 1 Economy of ex-
pression, grace of style, graphic observation.

The Bread-Winners (anonymously, 1883). Early novel of in-
dustrial unrest, fomenting the belief that labor unions are led by
unconscionable leaders and polemizing in defense of property and
vested rights. Plot slight, characters trivial. From its very pub-
lication it has been coupled with Democracy by Henry Adams
(p. 256), generally to the advantage of the latter. 22

Abraham Lincoln: A History (in collaboration with J. G. Nico-
lay, ten volumes, 1890). Vivid, monumental, authoritative one-
and-a-half -million- word biography of Lincoln, superseded only by
Carl Sandburg's six volumes (see p. 275).

[CINCINNATUS HINER (or HEINE)] MILLER, known
better as "JOAQUIN"" MILLER, c. 1837 24 1913, gold seeker,
lawyer, Indian fighter, judge, newspaper editor, poet, novelist.
dramatist. 25 Born in Liberty, Union County, Indiana. Taught to
read and write by his father Rulings, a Quaker teacher. Family
migrated West ( 1852) , settling on a farm in Oregon ( 1852 1856) .
Set out for California and the gold fields (c. 1856). While he was
living with the Digger Indians (1857), a daughter of his was bom
to a squaw. For at least three months (1857 1858), attended
Columbia College at Eugene, Oregon. 26 Broke jail at Shasta City,
to which he had been sentenced for stealing a horse (1859). With
Isaac Mossman, established a pony express between Idaho and

21 Yet Elihu Root could say of John Hay: "The principles of Christian ethics controlled
his judgments and his practice .... The scope of his human sympathy was universal.
He could write both the Pike County ballads and Castilian Days." The Dedication
of the John Hay Library, November 10, 1910 (1911), Address by Elihu Root, p. 41
(pp. 39-62).

22 V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought, III (1930), pp. 173-179;
Granvil'e Hicks, The Great Tradition (1933), pp. 79. 81; Tyler Dennett, John Hay
(1933), pp. 110-112. 165 /.; P. H. Boynton, Literature and American Life (1936),
pp. 740-742. Easily as significant in the development of proletarian fiction, it may
be noted, are "Life in the Iron Mills" (1861) and John Andross (1874), both written
by Rebecca H. Davis: Parnntrton, op. cit. t p. 60 /.; W. F. Taylor, The Economic
Novel in America (1942), p. 79.

23 The name "Joaquin," which he assumed, came from an article he bad published in
defense of Joaquin Murietta, a Mexican brigand. See. for cxamp'e, Hamlin Garland.
"The Poet of the Sierras." Sunset. XXX (1913), p % 766 /. (pp. 765-770).

24 Misstatements in almost every account of Miller's life are in large measure the result
of his own commitments. Concerning the date of his birth, for examp'e, Harr Wagner,
M. S Peterson, and George Sterling set the year 1841, 1839, and 1835 respectively,
but those seem irreconcilable with the date furnHhed by J. J. MiMer, My Father.
C. H. Joaquin Miller, Poet (1941), p. 8 /. Probably closer to 1837 than to 1841 is
the date of his birth: consult J. S. Richards, "Joaquin Miner's California Diary*
FM. t XVI (1935), pp. 35-40: and California Diary Beginning in 1855 & Ending in
1857, edited by J. S. Richards (1936).

?5 F. L. Pattee, A History of American Literature since 1870 (1915), pp. 99-115; The
Poetical Works oi Joaquin Miller, edited by S. P. Sherman (1923) ; George Sterling.
"Joaqwn Miller/* AM.. VI (1926), pp. 220-229; Harr Wagner, Joaquin Milter and
His Other Self (1929): M. S. Peterson, Jtwruin Milter. Literary Frontiersman
(19.17): Arlin Turner, "Joaqub Miller ia New Orleans,*' LHQ., XXII (1939),
pp. 216-225.

26 Joseph Srhafer, "An Historical Survey of Public Education in Eugene, Oregon,"
OH SO., II (1901>. p. 56 (pp. 55-77); R. A. Gettman, "A Note on Columbia College/*

THE LocAL-CoLORisTs 169

Oregon (1861). Returned to Eugene (1862). Married Minnie
Theresa Dyer ("Minnie Myrtle") in 1862, who bore him three
children, left him in 1867, obtained a legal separation in 1869, and
died in 1882. Edited the anti-Union Democratic Register (1863).
For leading a punitive expedition against the Indians, he was re-
warded with a judgeship (1866 1869). Published Specimens
(1868) and Joaquin et al (1869). Drifted to San Francisco
(1870), where he joined the California literary society which in-
cluded Bret Harte, C. W. Stoddard, and Ina Coolbrith. Left for
New York. Sailed to England. Pacific Poems (1871) and Songs
of the Sierras (1871). Back to America. From South America he
went to England (1872) for a three-year stay, publishing Life
amongst the Modocs (1873) and Songs of the Sunlands (1873).
To America (1875). In Italy and on the Continent (18761878).
Songs oj Italy (1878). In America (18781886). Married Abigail
Leland (1883), to whom a daughter was born. Memorie and Rime
(1884). Purchased a permanent estate, "The Mights/' at Oakland,
California (1886). Songs of the Mexican Seas (1887). Songs of
the Soul (1896). Represented the Hearst and other newspapers in
the Klondike (1897). Probably was present as a newspaper cor-
respondent in Pekin during the Boxer Rebellion (1900). Chants
for the Boer (1900). As ft Was in the Beginning (1903). Publi-
cation of his complete works (19091910). Died at "The Rights"
(1913).

EARLY PERIOD

Specimens (1868). Personal, melodramatic, somewhat untamed
narrative verse in iambic tetrameter.

Songs of the Sierras^ (1871). Byronic accents won him instant
acclaim in England. New subject matter and romantic style, yet
with some restraint in expression. Compare with its prose counter-
part, Life amongst the Modocs.

MIDDLE PERIOD

(1) Songs of the Sunlands (1873). With its echoes of Swin-
burne, Mrs. Browning, and the Rossettis, the earliest reflection of
his travels contributes little to his permanence as a poet. (2) Life
amongst the Modocs (1873). Sentimental pfose work, pseudo-
autobiographical in its core and not too happy in its narrative
manipulation. (3) The One Fair Woman (1876). Romantic novel.
(4) First Fam'lies of the Sierras (1875). Prose tale of the Forty-
Niners. (5) The Baroness of New York (1877). Protracted ro-
mantic melody in verse. (6) Songs of Italy (1878). Influenced by
Browning. (7) Shadows of Shasta (1881). Inept prose work, a
bit rememberable for its impulsive defense of the Indian. (8) The
Destruction of Gotham (1886). Novel of class conflict in New
York City. (9) The Danites in th$ Sierras (1882). Romantic,

170 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

exaggerated, anti-Mormon drama of frontier life. (10) In Classic
Shades (1890). Less imitative than Songs of Italy, are poems on
American themes.

FINAL PERIOD

The Building of the City Beautiful (1892). Prose romance or-
namented by verses lifted from a contemplated "Life of Christ."
Pleads for the Utopian ideal of peace, equality, tolerance, and
brotherhood.

Songs of the Soutf (1896). Contains some of his best poems
including "The Passing of Tennyson' 1 and "Columbus."

A Song of Creation^ (1899), Able stanzas, more than usually
poetic in spirit and practical in philosophy. Dramatic nature-por-
trayals of his journeys from California to Alaska, the Far East,
Hawaii, and the return to his native land.

Overland in a Covered Wagon\ (1930). Excellent literary story
of pioneer life in the Middle West, and the westward exodus to
Oregon afid California. Is the "introduction" written for the com-
plete edition of his poems. 27

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Several of his poems possess 1. No firm narrative power in
a swinging, even an impetuous, poetry. Diction conventional, style
power, imaginatively sustained in journalistic, quality theatrical, bom-
their flights. Master of the iambic bast tumbling, versification crude,
tetrameter form. Indebted to European models and

forms, especially to those of Byron
and Swinburne.

2. As stated by M. S. Peterson, 2. A besetting sin is the over-
nature for him is essentially drama, luxuriant descriptive passages. Too
A lover of landscape, Miller shows often, nature for Joaquin Miller is
natural scenes in action. 28 melodrama.

3. As a romantic troubadour, 2 * he 3. Overindulges in primitivism or
sang of primitive strength: his fern- the return-to-nature doctrine. His
mine characters are not only Ama- night-pieces or night-settings re-
zoman-maned but also romantically V eal the sentimental naturalism of
inclined. As a humanitarian, he a defunct Byronism. Almost all of
espoused such oppressed people as his work is conventional, bookish,
V C ,^ S - Palestine ' the Mexicans falsely exclamatory, and diluted
in California, the American Indian, both in form and concentration,
the Southern Confederacy. His Stigmatized as a poor imitator of
myth-making power contributed to the hackneyed Bret-Harte formu-
the poetic legends and culture of las of Far Western fiction.*' Never
the West. thinks out a subject.

27 Overland in a Covertd Wagon, edited by S. G. Firman (1930).

28 J2/rf gui 'i IW wjwwir ** Modocfl. Jpaquin Miller depreciates the civilized order
and describe! i an Indian Eden. For bis Whitmanesque priimtivism, see M. S. Peterson,
"Joaquin Miller, an Introductory Sketch," RAA. t VlII (1930-1931), pp. 114.121.

29 In thought and phrase Joaquin Miller may have anticipated the poem "Trees" by
Joyce Kilmer: B. B. Beebe, "More Letters of Joaquin Miller/' Frontier, XII (1932),
p. 47 /. (pp. 223-228)*

30 5* S^* 1 ^ 01 /?** rf */ r g l **'/&<'! Maifr^and tk* W*s**n Local Color Story:
A Study in th* Ong\ns of Popular Fiction (Ph.T>., Chicago, 1939), pp. 3, 67.

THE LocAL-CoLORisxs 171

OTHER LOCAL-CO LORISTS: THE WEST

JOSEPH KIRKLAND, 18301894, who based his unromantic stories of the
Middle West upon his own experiences, as did his mother, Caroline* Stansbury
Kirkland (p. 83). Zury, the Meanest Man in Spring County^ (1887) and its sequel
The McVeys (1888) are a realistic account of Zury (Usury) Prouder, who eventually
marries Ann Sparrow McVey, mother of his twins. The Captain of Company K
(1891), the anonymous prize story of the Detroit Free Press , treats the siege of Fort
Donelson and the Battle of Shiloh unheroically and spasmodically from the point of
view of a soldier. Here, as elsewhere, punning, moralizing, and sentimentality are
obvious; but as in the preceding 1887 and 1888 volumes, there is the same fidelity
to picturesque idiom and rustic people, the same earthiness of character-depiction.

HELEN [MARIA] HUNT JACKSON, 18311885, whom R. W. Emer-
son (p. 286) thought at least the best woman-poet on the continent, but who {oday
is judged by her novels rather than by her poems. Mercy PhUbricf(s Choice (1876),
a novelized study of Emily Dickinson (p. 231), was described by T. W. Higginson
(p. 261) as having power, but being "too painful." Hetty's Strange History (1877),
a story of retribution, is not especially immoral from today's point of view; A Cen-
tury of Dishonor]- (1881) is a sound, comprehensive account of the American Indian
and governmental mistreatment of him; Ramonai (1884) is a romance that indicts
the Americans who wipe out Indian villages and seize Spanish and Indian land.
Among her poems are "Thought," "Burnt Ships," "Resurgam," and "Gondolieds."
She also wrote Bathmendi: A Persian Tale (1867), Verses (1870), Saxe Holm's
Stories (Series I, 1874; II, 1878), Letters from a Cat: Published by Her Mistress
(1879), The Training of Children (1882), Report on the Conditions and Needs of
the Mission Indians (1883), Sonnets and Lyrics (1886), Father Junipero and the
Mission Indians (1902), Glimpses of California and the Missions (1902).

[JAMES] MAURICE THOMPSON, 18441901, known for his Hoosier
Mosaics^ (1875), a collection of vigorous dialect sketches, and for Alice of Old
Vincennes\ (1900), a best-selling historical romance of the Northwest Territory and
George Rogers Clark's 1779 campaign. In addition to nature studies in By-Ways
and Bird Notes (1885) and My Winter Garden (1900), in addition to poetry volumes
called Songs of Fair Weather (1883) and Poems (1892), he wrote such other roman-
tic regional novels as A Tallahassee Girl (1881), His Second Campaign^ (1883),
At Love's Extremes (1885), A Banker of Bankersville (1886), and The King of Honey
Island (1892).

ALICE FRENCH, 1850 1934, novelist, short-story writer, who, though
Massachusetts-born and long resident in Iowa, wrote about the villages of Arkansas
under the pseudonym Octave Thanet, showed an interest in such labor problems as
co-operatives versus labor unions, and, though a conventional writer, helped found
local-color fiction in America. Her short Stories of a Western Town (1893), A Cap-
tured Dream and Other Stories (1897), and Stories That End Well (1911) are better
known than such novels as Knitters in the Sun (1887), Expiation (1890), The Mis-
sionary Sheriff (1897), The Heart of Toil (1898), Man of the Hour (1905), and
A Step on the Stair (1913).

E[DGAR] W[ATSON] HOWE, 18531937, editor-proprietor whose The
Story of a Country Town (1883) anticipated Main Street by Sinclair Lewis (p. 271)
and Winesburg, Ohio by Sherwood Anderson (p. 270), Howe's is a powerful, bitter,
melodramatic, naturalistic tale of the smugness and cruelty of the Middle Western
farm villages of Fairview and Twin-Mounds. Forgotten are A Moonlight Boy
(1886), The Confessions of John Whitloek. (1891), and The Anthology of Another
Town (1920). His autobiography is found in Plain People (1929); his aphoristic
paragraphing, in Country Town Sayings (1911), The Blessing of Business (1918),
Ventures in Common Sense (1919), and The Indignations of E. W. Howe (1925).

172 THE TRIUMPH o* REALISM: 1865-1914

THE LOCAL-COLORISTS: THE SOUTH

JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS, 18481908, essayist, poet,
humorist, tale-teller, journalist, creator of "Uncle Remus/' 31 Native
of Eatonton, in middle Georgia. Married Essie (Esther, Esthel)
LaRose (1873), who bore him nine children. Worked on various
newspapers, beginning with J. A. Turner's Countryman and end-
ing with the Atlanta Constitution (1876 1900), where his series
of sketches and verses revolving about the antebellum figure of
Uncle Remus made him internationally 82 famous : his authentic re-
production of the dialect of a Gullah A fro- American Negro, his
humorous, happy, lovable creation of Uncle Remus, his animal
stories with plantation life as a background make his papers a
unique contribution to Negro folklore.* 8 Another phase of his
local-color work portrays the Georgia "cracker" or "poor white" :
Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White*! (1884) ; Sister
Jane: Her Friends and Acquaintances (1896) ; Gabriel Tolliver:
A Story of Reconstruction (1902) ; Free Joe and Other Georgian
Sketches (1887); Tales of the Home Folks in Peace and War
(1898) ; The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (1902),
A frequent statement is that what T. N. Page did for Virginia and
G. W. Cable did for Louisiana, J. C. Harris did for Georgia. Part
of the nine lines on his tombstone reads : "And while I am trying
hard to speak the right word, I seem to hear a voice lifted above
the rest, saying : 'You have made some of us happy.' "

UNCLE REMUS SERIES

Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings^ (1880) ; The Taf-Baby
and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1880) ; Nights with Uncle
Remust (1892) ; Uncle Remits and His Friends^ (1892) ; Told by
Uncle Remus (1905); Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1906);
Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910) ; Uncle Remus Returns
(1918).

[PATRICIO] LAFCADIO [TESSIMA CARLOS]
HEARN, 18501904, journalist, translator, essayist, lecturer,

31 I. C. Harris, The Lift and Letters of Jot I Chandler //ami (1918) and Jot I Chandler
Hams. Editor and Essayist (1931).

32 The Tar-Baby story, for example, has been translated even into Bengali and African
dialects. Consult J. C. Harris's introductions to Uncle Remus: bongs and Say-
ings. Nights with Uncle Remus > and Uncle Remus and His Friends.

33 F. M. Warren, "'Uncle Remu*' and 'The Roman de Renard t f " MLN..V (1890),
pp. 257-270; R. S. Baker, "Joel Chandler Harris/' Outlook, LXXVTII (1904),
pp. 595-603; H. A. Toulmin, Jr., Social Historians (1911). pp. 133-164: E. W* Bowen,
''Joel Chandler Harris, A Faithful Interpreter of the Negro/' RCR., Series 4, XXIII
<1919>. M). 357-369; T. E. Ferguson, "Joel Chand T er Harris," TR., VI (1920-1921).
pp. 214-221; H. W. Mahie, Commemorative Tributes to Richard Watson Gilder. Joel
Chandler Harris, Edward Everett Hale. Carl Schnrt, Winslow Homer (1922), pp. 3-6;
C. A. Smith, in A Short History of American Literature, edited by W. F. Trent, John
Erskine, S. P. Sherman, and Cart Van Doren (1922), pp. 301*310.

THE LocAL-CoLowsrs

f olk-lorist, philosopher. 84 Born on the Ionian Island of Santa Maura
(Leucadia or Lefcadia). Son of C. B. Hearn, a British surgeon-
major, and Rosa Tessima (or Rosa Cerigote) Hearn, a Greek.
When his parents separated, Patrick, as he was known to his
friends, came under the care of Mrs. Sarah Brenane, a pious
Catholic great-aunt. While at St. Cuthbert's College in Yorkshire,
as a result of an accident at play, he lost the sight of his left eye,
and this caused his right eye to become enlarged. Because the lad
voiced pantheistic opinions, he was dismissed. After a two-year
stay in a school near Rouen, France, the boy ran off to Paris. Im-
poverished in London. Finally, emigrated to America (1869).
Starved for two years in New York. To Cincinnati, which had
been his original destination when sent off to America by Mrs.
Brenane. Taught by Harry Watkin 85 how to set type and read
proof. His vivid account of the "Tan Yard Case" (1874) made
him well-known on the Enquirer, for which he worked (1872
1875). Founded the short-lived Ye Giglampz, a weekly. Dismissed
from the Enquirer as a result of his entanglement with Althea
Foley, a mulatto woman. 86 Reporter for the Commercial (1875
1877), which sent him to New Orleans (1877 1879). 8T Wrote a
series of ghostly newspaper sketches, now generally known under
the title of "Fantastics." Assistant editor of the Item (1878
1881). Within a score of days his five-cent restaurant, "The Hard
Times," closed up. On the New Orleans Times-Democrat ( 1881
1887), 88 where his chief work was to make translations from the
French and to editorialize on literary topics. 80 Left New Orleans
for New York, where he stayed for a time with H. E. Krehbiel,
whose wife disliked Hearn's habits. Twice commissioned to Mar-
tinique by Harper's (1887). Armed with an ambiguous contract
and probably influenced by a reading of Percival Lowell's The
Soul of the Far East, he left New York for Japan ( 1890) . 40 Taught

Jean Temple, Blue Ghost (1931); Kazuo Koizumi, Father and I (193S); K. P. Kirk-
wood. Unfamiliar Lafcadio Heam (1936).

35 Letters from the Raven, edited by Milton Bronner (1907), presents Hearn's corres-
pondence with Harry Watkin.

36 The Japanese Letters of Lafcadio Hearn, edited by Elizabeth Bisland (1910), pp.
vii-ix; Oscar Lewis, Hearn and Hit Biographers (1930), pp. 45-76.

37 Sketches, editorials, and essays that Lafcadio Hearn wrote for the Cincinnati and
New Orleans newspapers in his American days are available in several compilations
edited separately by C. W. Hutson. Ichiro Nishizaki, and Albert Mordell. Other com-
pilers are Ferris Greenslet, Ryuji Tanabe. Sanki Ichikawa. and Iwao Inagakt.

38 It is said that on orders from Page Baker, editor-in-chief of the Times-Democrat, no
one was permitted to change even a comma in work submitted by Hearn, who was
nicknamed "Old Semicolon" because of his attempts to reform American punctuation.

39 Notorious and severe is Hearn's attack upon Whitman's Leaves of Grass on July 30,
1S82. In another editorial he described W. D. Ho wells ts "one who carries what he
calls 'realism* to the unreal excess of suppressing in his own work all emotion, all
enthusiasm, all veritably natural feeling." Writings that are deficient in high color
and strong drama did not seem to appeal to Hearn,

40 E. L. Tinker. Lafcadio Hearn's American Days (1924), p. 326 ff.; Jean Temple,
Blue Ghost (f931), p. 110 jf.

174 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

in the middle school of Matsue (1890). Married Setsu Koizumi
(1891), a twenty-two-year-old Japanese of a distinguished Samurai
family, who bore him three sons and a daughter. Became a Japan*
ese citizen, and assumed the name of Koizumi ("Little Spring")
Yakumo. Taught at a government college at Kumamoto. Dismissed
(1902) from the faculty of the Imperial University of Tokio,
where for almost a decade he had occupied the chair of English
literature. Appointed to a Professorship at Waseda University
(1904). Died of a heart attack in Tokio (1904). Lectures posthu-
mously published from verbatim trascripts. 41 Posthumously hon-
ored by an Imperial Japanese decoration.

Much of his writing is journalistic and facile; yet a sustained
feeling for flavored words, a dexterity of style, and an acute obser-
vation make him a master of description. Excellently interpreta-
tive and stimulating are his lectures on criticism, which illuminate
genuine literary experience and put emphasis upon the emotional
content of literature. 42

He is credited with best interpreting the Orient to the Occidental
mind ; but there remains a controversy regarding the verity of his
pictures about Japan. He seems to close his eye to unpleasant
realistic facts about that country; and to open it only upon its
beauty and poetry, its wisdom and mysticism. Always a romanti-
cist, yet he doubted the Christian creed, and finally embraced the
Buddhist faith ; always a mystic, yet he depended upon the teach-
ings of Herbert Spencer, even interpreting Japan in that philoso-
pher's terms. However, he may still be recommended as a fairly
reliable guide to the better spirit of that country.

AMERICAN WRITINGS

(1) One of Cleopatra's Nights (1882), his first book, a volume
of stories translated from Gautier; (2) La Cuisine Creole (1885),
a collection of culinary recipes ; (3) Combo Zhtbes (1885), a slight
dictionary of Negro-French or Creole proverbs; (4) Some Chi-
nese Ghosts^ (1887), a group of well-finished Oriental sketches
collected from Harper's; (5) Two Years in the French West In-
dies (1890), finished sketches resulting from his experiences in
Martinique.

Strange Leaves from Strange Literature^ (1884). Testifying to
his predilection for the exotic, tells of Oriental love and hate, venge-

41 A number of students succeeded in taking down not only passages but also complete
talks as Lafcadio Hearn lectured to them slowly and simply so that the English could
be understood more readily. Such transcriptions have been edited notedly by John
Erskine, as well as by such former students of Hearn as Iwao Inagaki 0928) and
Shigetsugu Kishi (1941).

Literature (two volumes, 1915). first sell
ersity of Tokio; Appreciations of Poetry <

re (1917) all three edited bv Tohn EraL_.._, _._. ..

and Other Pot** (1922),

42 Interpretations of Literature (two volumes, 1915), first selection from Hearn's lec-
tures at the University of Tokio; Appreciation* of Poetry (1916), second selection;
Life and Literature (1917) all three edited by John Brainne. See also Talks to
Writer* (1920), Books and Habit* (1921), and Pre-Ropko*K*t <

rr rrtvr* \J^*V/ f aWKftmt* fM9V9*f ^

likewise edited by John Erskine.

THE LOCAL-COLORIST$ 175

ancc and death, in fantastic stories stemming out of such sources
as the Anvari-Soheili, the Baital-Pachisi, the Talmud, and the
Kalevala.

Chita: A Memory of Last Island^ (1889). Narrative tale, slight
in plot but unified by excellent descriptions, was inspired by a tidal
wave he saw (1884) while at Grand Isle in the Gulf of the
Mississippi.

Youma: The Story of a West-Indian 5/tfvef (1890). Martyr
tale of a da, the foster-mother and nurse of Mayotte, was founded
on fact.

Karma (1890). Thoughtful study of self-revelation. Inferior
to Youma.

JAPANESE WRITINGS

Included are: Out of the East (1895), Kokoro (1896), Glean-
ings in Buddha-Fields (1897), Exotics and Retrospectives (1898),
In Ghostly Japan (1899), Shadowings (1900), A Japanese Mis-
cellany (1901), Kottd (1902), Japan: An Attempt at Interpreta-
tion (1904), Kwaidan (1904), The Romance of the Milky Way
(1905). Best-known is Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan\ (tvto vol-
umes, 1894), a pleasant introduction to its characters and feudal
customs ; worth the knowing is Japanese FaAry

GEORGE WASHINGTON] CABLE, 18441925, de-
pictor of the Creole civilization. Native of New Orleans. 44 Father
was a Virginian ; mother came of New England ancestry. Enlisted
on the Confederate side in the Fourth Mississippi Cavalry (1861
1865). After the war, was successively a surveyor, a contributor
for about eighteen months of the column "Drop Shot" in the New
Orleans Daily Picayune*" and a clerk in a cotton agent's office. His
attitude on the Negro question proved offensive to his neighbors, 48

43 "That Hearn was such a perfectionist, such a discerning and impassioned collector of
these little jewels of folklore, that he lavished such care in comprehending completely
the spiritual and historical background from which they sprang, explains why his
beautifully misty tales . . . rhythmically delicate as the weo ot the golden-spider
are no mere grey translations, but are rather the rainbow reincarnation of the very
spirit of those ancient Japanese who first gave substance to the shadow of their ances-
tral fears by putting into words these spectral myths." E. L. Tinker in his "Prologue"
to Japanese Fairy Tales (1936), p. 10 (pp. 3-10).

44 E. W. Bowen, "George Washington Cable: An Appreciation," SAQ., XVIII (1919),
pp. 145-155; JL L. C. Bikle, George W. Cable: His Life and Letters (1928); E. L.
Tinker, "A Prologue," in Old Creole Days by G. W. Cable, together with The Scenes
of Cable's Romances by Lafcadio Hearn (The Heritage Press, 1943), pp. vii-xviii.

45 Always a religious man, G. W. Cable showed his Sunday-school bias even in his earliest
contributions: E. L. Tinker, "Cable and the Creoles," AL., V (1933-1934), p. 314 /.
(pp. 313-326) ; Arlin Turner, "George Washington Cable's Literary Apprenticeship,"
LHQ., XXIV (1941), p. 186 (pp. 168-186).

46 ''Cable's inherent variance with the South and her people showed itself throughout
his life: First, in his presentation, of the Creoles; second, in his attitude towards
slavery and the negro question; and. third and fourth, of lesser importance, in his
attitude toward the Civil War, and m connection with prison and asylum reform in
the SotitK" Margaret Bloom "George W. Cable," Bookm**, LXXIII (1931), p. 401 /.
(pp. 401*403). See also E. L Tinker, "Cable and the Creoles/' AL., V (1953-1934),
pp. 313, 318 /. (pp. 313-326).

176 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

and was a factor in his removing to Northampton, Massachusetts
( 1884), where he lived until his death.

Representative writings include (1) The Creoles of Louisiana
(1884), a collection of historical sketches; (2) The Silent South
(1885), a slight volume that, striving to improve the conditions of
the Negro, cast a lance against such evils as the convict-lease sys-
tem, prisons, and asylums; (3) John March, Southerner (1894),
problem novel of the Reconstruction anticipating the work of Ellen
Glasgow and others; (4) The Negro Question (1890), centering
about the same problem as his 1885 book; (5) Strong Hearts
(1899), a collection of stories; and (6) The Cavalier (1901), a
tale of the Civil War. Other works are Strange True Stories of
Louisiana (1889), The Busy Man's Bible (1891), Bylow Hill
(1902), Kincaid's Battery (1908), "Posson Jonc'" and Ptrc
Raphael (1909), The Amateur Garden (1914), Gideon's Band
(1914), The Flower of the Chapdelaines (1918), and The Lovers
of Louisiana (1918). 47

SHORT STORIES

Old Creole D*ysf (1879). Seven idealized, exotic stories of
nineteenth-century New Orleans are adequate representations of
quaint Creole life. Its de-emphasis on plot or incident and the ac-
curacy of the reproduced Creole lingo have been challenged; but
not the engagingly-etched characters and their deft dialect, the
colorful situations and the romantic background of Creole life. In
rt 'Tite Poulette," Cable attacks the tragedies resulting from mis-
cegenation; in "Jean-ah Poquelin," he demonstrates how a com-
munity misjudges a former slave-trader; in "Posson Jone',' 1 he
portrays, to use his own descriptive words, "an ardent and control-
ling mutual affection springing into life wholly apart from the pas-
sion of sex" ; and in "Madame Delicieuse" and "Cafe des Exiles,"
he is again vivid and interesting.

Madame Delphine\ (1881). Long short story or novelette in-
corporated into later editions of Old Creole Days. Cumulatively
overwhelming is the characterization of Madame Delphine. Note
the descriptive chapter allotted to each character.

47 Ordinary and negligible are most of his romances. Not only did he lack the creative
type of mind but his pedagogic excesses slaughtered whatever creative ability he may
have possessed. Such is the theory of E. L. Tinker, who nevertheless describes G. W.
Cable as "the legitimate father of the literary movement which is producing such
splendid fruit in the South today/'

To the excessively appreciative R. U. Johnson, Cable "was a man of Puritan instincts
who could interpret the Cavalier as no author has done. He portrayed women as
understanctingly and as sympathetically as Tolstoy. He knew the Creoles by heart, and
gives us all the sparkling facets of their attractive character." His style is composed
of many qualities: grace, force, range, suggestiveness, imagination, large and uncon-
ventional vocabulary, shimmering humor, easy movement, contrast, tenderness, surprise
and dramatic progression to an adequate climax. Thus his style has intense person-

ing*

of J

Art* and Tetters, 1927), pp. 1-6.

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs 177

NOVELS

The Grmdhsme*: A Story of Create Li/ef (1880). With the
New Orleans of 1803 suffusing its romantic background, this highly
picturesque novel appeals by reason of its felicitous plot (out of
the fertility of which is born a forest of episodes), sculpturesque
character-creations, dramatic happenings, genial humor, and spark-
ling execution. Its organization could be less diffuse and more
proportioned and balanced.

Dr. Scrier (1885). Rambling, shapeless, plotless, moralistic, its
saving interest may lie in the characterization of the Doctor and
the Richlings. Attacks the corruption of New Orleans.

Bonarenture (1888). Idyl composed of three slight sketches or
stories is grraced, stylistically, by good descriptions and, narratively,
by a lovable Creole among the Acadian descendents on the bayous
of Louisiana. Again he is unable to sustain a long plot.

JAMES LANE ALLEN, 18491925, short-storv writer,
novelist. 48 Born in Fayette County, near Lexington, Kentucky.
Was graduated from the University of Kentyckv, now known as
Transylvania College (1872). M.A. (1877). Lack of funds forced
him to leave Johns Hopkins University, where he had hoped to
study comparative philology. Professor of Latin at Bethany Col-
lege, West Virginia (1882 1884V To New York (1884), where
he settled permanently in 1893, Died in the Roosevelt Hospital.

Characteristic of his writiners is an understrain of sadness. His
large output reveals an artificial, ornate stvle, unreal characteriza-
tion, and deficient plot construction. Publications include (1) The
Blue-Crass Reqion of Kentucky and Other Kentuckv Articles
( 1892V a collection contributed to Harper's and the Century; (2)
The Heroine in Bronse, or a Portrait of a Girl (1912), a love story
of an honorable hero, a book that is for one moment rhetorically
graceful and for the next moment dialogistically strained, but con-
sistently shallow; (3) The Last Christmas Tree: An Idyl of 7iw-
mortalitv (1914), a prose poem printed six years earlier in a maga-
zine; (4) The Sword of Youth (1915), k novelette of the Civil
War; (5) A Cathedral Singer (1916) ; (6) The Kentuckv War-
bler (1918), inept but noble in purpose; (7) The Emblems of Fi-
delity: A Comedy in Letters (1919), by no means devoid of humor ;
(8) ~The Alabaster Box (1923), a collection of stories; and (9)
The Landmark (1925), a posthumous group of short tales.

48 L. W. Payne, Jr., "The Stories of Tames Lane Alien," SRQ., VIII (1900), pp. 45-55;
H. A. Ttmlmin, Jr., ***** Hfetorfeft* (191 1>, pp. 10M29; J. W. Townsefd* Jmrnt*
L*** Allen (1928); G. C. Knight, Jamtt Lnnt Allen and Th* GntetlTrvKtio*

(1^5).

178 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Flute and Violin and Other Kentucky Tales and Romances}

(1891). Six carefully-constructed, poetic tales, but coated with a
florid style and a priggish point of view. Includes "Flute and Vio-
lin," quietly pathetic ; "Two Gentlemen of Kentucky" ; "King Solo-
mon of Kentucky,"! based upon facts and strong in human interest ;
and "Posthumous Fame; or a Legend of the Beautiful," which
shows the influence of Hawthorne as much as "The White Cowl"
and "Sister Dolorosa," two tales criticized by the religious press.
For "John Gray," see The Choir Invisible (p. 178, below).

A Kentucky Cardinal: A Story^ (1894). Entire theme of this
pleasant novelette is infused with restrained feeling, sparkling
vitality, deep sympathy, and poeticized out-of-door descriptions.
With this idyl compare "A Passion in the Desert" by Balzac and
Le Secret du precepteur by Victor Cherbuliez.

Aftermath (1896). Idyllic sequel to A Kentucky Cardinal is
inferior in descriptive gems, lightness of jest, and engaging quality.

Summer in Arcady: A Tale of Nature (1896). Original title of
Butterflies: a Tale of Nature refers to a boy-girl bundling in the
lush Kentucky grass. Frank account of seduction and love was
protested by critics who avoided considerations of such merits as
humorous touches, passionate if verbal strength, and natural, al-
most vitalized conversation.

The Choir Invisible^ (1897). Historical romance, an expanded
version of his earlier John Gray: A Kentucky Tale of the Olden
Time (1893), relates the love of John for the already-married Jes-
sica. Engaging nature-pictures. Slender plot thinned out even
further by a tendency to stiffness of dialogue and an excess of
sweetness. Title derived from George Eliot's poem beginning "Oh
may I join the choir invisible."

The Reign of Law\ (1900; English title, The Increasing Pur-
pose). Like Summer in Arcady, is a graphic love tale of humble
farm folk in the Kentucky hemp fields, and like its predecessor
aroused a storm of comment. 49 Masculinity of its theme maintained
by 'maturing workmanship, realistic settings, lifelike characters.
Partly autobiographical. Includes "The Song of the Hemp,"
probably his best lyric.

The Mettle of the Pasture (1903). Old-fashionedly puritanical,
protractedly dull, reekingly sentimental work dealing with the fol-
lies and tragedies of a Southern town's aristocrats.

49 Among his critics was President McGarvey of the College of the Bible in the Univer-
sity of Texas, whose strictures appeared in the Lexington Leader on October 8, 1900.
That *the hero of the story "was made up largely from his own experiences" and thai
the book's chief purpose "is to degrade Christianity" are among the assertions made.
To these J. L. Allen replied. See Mr. Jamts Lane All**'* Novel, the Reign of Law: A
Controversy and Some Opinion* concerning It (New York, 1900).

THE LocAL-CoLORisrs 179

The Bride of the Mistletoe (1909). First of his planned Christ-
mas trilogy, 60 the queer sketch seems to have phallic worship for
its background. Influenced by Maeterlinck.

The Doctor's Christmas Eve (1910). Sequel to The Bride of
the Mistletoe is more conventional, but as depressing as its 1909
predecessor is weird. Discouraged by the reception of both, Allen
suspended the trilogy.

OTHER LOCAL-COLORISTS: THE SOUTH

CONSTANCE FENIMORE WOOLSON, 18401894, perhaps our ear*
licst realist, in the modern sense. Wrote Two Women: 1862 (1877), her only long
poem. Two collections of short stories have been commented upon by Henry James
(p. 211) for their minuteness of observation and tenderness of feeling: Castle No-
where: Lake Country Sketches (1875), nine stories concerned chiefly with die early
French inhabitants near the Great Lakes; and Rodman the Keeper: Southern Sketches
(1880), ten of the tales having previously been published in outstanding Northern
magazines, is appreciative of both Southern and Northern characters: the stories are
now exotic and fragrant, now poignant and woeful. Previously she had issued The
Old Stone House (under pseudonym of Anne March, 1873), a Dickensian novel for
children; posthumously, The Front 'Yard and Other Italian Stories (1895) and
Dorothy and Other Italian Stories (1896), two collections interesting for their charac-
ter studies of Americans in Italy, where she had lived during her last fifteen years.
Excellent talcs: "Jcanette," "The Old Agency," "The Lady of Little Fishing,'*
"Solomon," and "Wilhelmina" (in Castle Notvhere)\ "Sister St. Luke," "Felipe,"
"The South Devil," "Rodman the Keeper," "Old Gardiston," and "In the Cotton
Country" (in Rodman the Keeper) ; "The Front Yard" and "The Street of the
Hyacinth" (in The Front Yard); "Dorothy" and "A Transplanted Boy" (in Dorothy).

Although stronger as a writer of short fiction, while in Italy she also wrote five
novels first published serially in Harper's, in four of which fresh picturings of the
South are dominant and in all of which the settings are American. Anne\ (1882),
superior in its early chapters which have the Madcinac region of the Great Lakes
as a setting, plotted more complicatedly as the episodic story is moved to an eastern
part of the country and the marital difficulties increase. For the Majorf (1883), a
novelette of a wife's self-sacrifice in the small American town of Far Edgerly, is
centered on a Black Mountain plantation of the Ca retinas. East Angels^ (1886),
slight in plot but a well-written study of a group of characters on a Florida estate
near Gracias-a-Dios. In East Angels geographic factors have diminished importance,
as they have in her next two novels. Jupiter Lights (1889), an improbable, slightly
morbid study of marital life principally in the South, although both the Lake Superior
region and Italy itself also are part of the location. Horace Chase (1884), a didactic
study with its chief settings in Asheville, North Carolina, and St. Augustine, Florida,
yet less melodramatic than Anne and Jupiter Lights and as well constructed as
East Angels.

HENRY WOODFIN GRADY, 18501889, Georgia journalist who achieved
national fame as an orator by "The New South," a speech delivered in New York
City at a banquet of the New England Society on December 21, 1886, and who
retained his laurels by "The Race Problem in the South," delivered at the annual
banquet of the Boston Merchants' Association in December, 1889. Trenchant pen
and silver tongue pleaded against tenant farming, advanced forward-looking views
on penology, urged fairer treatment of the Negro, recognizing that the South could
advance only as the Negro advanced with it Consult The New South and Other
Addresses (1904) and The Complete Orations and Speeches of Henry W* Grady
(1910).

50 W. A. Bradley. "Tame* Lane Allen's The Doctor's Christmas Eve/ " Bookman.

~ - 1 "' 2; G. C. Knight, "Allen's Christmas Trilogy and Itt

1928-1929), pp. 411-415.

W. A. Bradley. "James Lane A
XXXII (191<M$11), pp. 640-642;
Meaning/' Bookman, LXVIII (19

i8o THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

MARY NOAILLES MURFRBB, 18501922, who* tale* of the Cumber-
land folk are on the whole real, as are the flashes of humor, eloquent scenes, lifelike
Tennesseean mountaineers, and human appeal, and as are the charges that her works
are ridden with didactic attitudes, conversational asides, too many descriptions, type
characters, sameness of plots, and poorly sustained themes. Under the pen name
R. E. Dembry she wrote tenuous society essays; under the pseudonym Charles Egbert
Craddock, derived from the name of a minor character in her early incomplete
Allegheny Winds and Wafers, she published her local-color fiction.

Among her juvenile volumes arc Down the Ravine (1885), an agreeable, moralistic
novel, and The Young Mountaineers (1897), a collection of wholesome mountain
tales. SHORT STORIES: In the Tennessee Mountains^ (1884), eight local color-
stories previously published under her pseudonym C. E. Craddock in the Atlantic
Monthly, remembered especially for "Drifting Down Lost Creek," "A Playin* of
Old Sledge at the Scttlemtnt," and "Elcctioneerin* on Big Injun Mounting/' Its high
level of excellence was not reached by any succeeding volume: The Phantoms of the
foot-Bridge (1895), The Young Mountaineers (1897), The Bushwhackers (1899),
The Frontiersmen (1904), and The Raid of the Guerrilla (1912), although "The
Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain," leading tale in a collection with that title, is one
of her best novelettes even if its ending lacks inevitability. NOVELS: Where the
Battle Was Fought (1884), a flabbily- plotted novel of Reconstruction in her native
Tennessee town of Murfrecsboro. The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains^
(1885), a readable, strongly religious novelette, poor in unity but more skilfully
organized than her 1884 work. In the ''Stranger People's" Country^ (1891), possibly
her most artistic work. The Story of Old Fort Lottdon (1899), despite a few good
episodes and an accurate reproduction of the Fort in the 1760's, is on the whole a
poor historical novel. A Spectre of Power (1903), another popular documented work
with a standardized, competently-done plot. The Storm Centre (1905), a Civil War
novel, faithful in its setting, false in its sentimentality, with its court-martial de-
scription influenced by Military Law and the Practice of Courts-Martial (1862).
The Amulet (1906), where the setting for her final historical novel is Fort Prince
-George in 1763.

KATE [O'FLAHERTY] CHOPIN, 1851 1904, interpreter of Creole and
Cajun life. NOVELS: At Fault (1890), tragic domestic drama set in the Cane
River region of Louisiana, is a story of character development and disintegration that
unfortunately does not fulfill the stylistic and structural promise of the Erst half.
The Awakening (1899), wherein the heroine Edna drowns herself, stirred up a tem-
pest of criticism by its morbidity of theme and eroticism of motivation. SHORT-
STORY COLLECTIONS: Bayou Folk (1894), twenty-three simple, delicate, graceful
stories and sketches of the Acadians and Creoles of the Louisiana bayous. Includes
"For Marse Chouchoute," a dramatic tale of loyalty and sacrifice; "Dcsiree's Baby,'*
a great story; and "Ma'am Pelagre," a kind sketch of a woman's character. A Night
in Acadic (1897), twenty-one tales of the bayou country. Stories again show her
deftness with the patois of the people, their feelings and motives. Representative is
"Ozfeme's Holiday," humorous in its pathos. POETRY: Simple, not without merit.
"If It Might Be," "I Opened All the Portals Wide," "Love Everlasting," "You and
I," "Good Night," "A Fancy," "Life."

IRWIN RUSSELL, 18531879, whose dialect verses are among the fmt
to appreciate the Negro character. Both T. N. Page, in his Befo' de War (1888),
and J. C. Harris, in his introduction to Russell's Christmas-Night in the Quarters and
Other Poems (1917; an enlarged issue of Russell's Poems, published in 1888), have
acknowledged their obligations to their predecessor, whose masterpiece is "Christmas-
Night in the Quarters," a not too carefully constructed Negro-operetta influenced by
Robert Burns, and presenting interesting plantation pictures. When Irwin Russell
died, he was only twenty-six years old. (For J. C. Harris and T. N. Page, see
pp. 172 and 180.)

THOMAS NELSON PAGE, 18531922, distinguished as a leading South-
ern genre writer of regionalism. Robert E. Let: The Sotttherner (1908) and Robert

THE LocAL-CotxtftisTs 181

E. Let: Man and Soldier (1911) have only a slight academic interest; Among the
Camps (1891) and Pastime Stories (1894) are forgotten juvenile works, and only
the autobiographical elements keep Two Liule Confederates (1888) alive; "Uncle
Gabc's White Polks 1 * (1877) is a sympathetic poem in the Negro vernacular, almost
the only one remembered from such volumes as Bffo' de War (in collaboration,
1888) and The Coast of Bohemia (1906). Els&t and Other Stories (1891), The
Burial of the Guns (1894), and Bred in the Bone (1904) are short-story collections
not so well known as In Ole Virginia (1887), six local-color stories notable for their
inclusion of "Marse Chan/' straightforwardly narrating in Negro dialect a Civil War
tale inspired by a letter found in the pocket of a dead private. 'Tolly*' (in the same
volume) and "Men Lady" are each a notable story of the reconciliation of prejudices.
Among his novels are On Newfound River (1891), Red Rock (1898), The Old
Gentleman of the Black Stock (1897), Gordon Keith (1903), and John Marvel,
Assistant (1909); among his nonfiction, The Old South (1892), social and historical
essays, Social Life in Old Virginia (1897), The Old Dominion (1908), Dante and
His Influence (1922), and, notably, The Negro: The Southerner's Problem (1904)
and Italy and the World War (1920), declared by R, U. Johnson to be an astonishing
tour de force of narrative.

GRACE ELIZABETH KING, 18531932. Wrote several historical vol-
umes including: Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sicur de Bienville (1893), a competent
account of the founder of New Orleans. De Soto and His Men in the Land of
Florida (1898), a tinged tale of the sixteenth-century expedition. Stories from
Louisiana History (1905), for juveniles. Mount Vernon on the Potomac (1929), an
account of George Washington's home and grave, and of the patriotic association
formed to preserve that landmark. Memories of a Southern Woman of Letters (1932),
a posthumous sheaf of garrulous, enthusiastic reminiscences.

More important arc: New Orleans: The Place and the People^ (1898), a tender,
understanding, colorful, even imaginative chronicle of the foundation and develop-
ment of the city. Creole Families of New Orleans (1921), forty delightful, tactful,
and accurate chapters, based on genealogical records, concerned with the oldest
families of the city, and the social life and customs of early Louisiana days, particularly
in its account of the Pontalba family.

Most important are her short stories and novels, such as: Monsieur Motte^ (1888)
a New Princeton Review romance of a family plantation restored to the orphaned
Marie Modeste through the efforts of Marcelite, a faithful ex-slave. Tales of a Time
and Place]- (1892), five somewhat impressionistic short stories of New Orleans re-
printed from Harper's, and Balcony Stories^ (1893), fourteen tales about the Creole
Louisianans reprinted from Century, the simplicity, tragedy, and poetry of whose
lives are accentuated by quirks of speech, eccentricities of temperament, and quaint-
ness of humor. The Pleasant Ways of St. Uedard\ (1907; 1916), a somewhat dis-
cursive but sincere, unvarnished depiction of the struggle of an impoverished New
Orleans family for readjustment during post-Civil War days. La Dame de Ste*
Hermine (1924), a naturally-told historical romance of the settlement of New
Orleans by Bienville in the first quarter of the eighteenth century.

JOHN [WILLIAM] FOX, Jr., c. 18621919, whose novels and novelettes
made the mountaineers of the Cumberlands widely known. He never broke away
from the romantic formulas of stereotyped heroines and villains, cloying sentimental-
ism, and somewhat ornate landscape descriptions; yet he wrote easily and pleasantly
and accurately of the life and customs of the Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia
mountaineers. NOVELS AND NOVELETTES: A Mountain Europa (1894), A
Cumberland Vendetta (1895), Hell for Sartain (1897), The Kentuckfant (1898),
Crittenden (1900), The Heart of the Hills (1913), Engine Dale: Pioneer (1920);
but his most popular were The tittle Shepherd of Kingdom Come (1902) and The
Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1908).

ifc THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

THE LOCAL-COLORISTS: NEW ENGLAND

SARAH ORNE JEWETT, 1849^-1909, creator of "the
Sarah Orne Jewett country." 51 .Born in South Berwick, Maine,
Daughter of Dr. Theodore Jewett, who took her with him on his
country calls. Friend of Annie Adams Fields. First woman
awarded a Litt.D. by Bowdoin College (1901).

Her publications are The Story of the Normans (1877), Play-
Days: A Book of Stones for Children (1878), Betty Leicester
(1889), Betty Leicester's Christmas (1894), Letters (1911),
Verses (1916), and several volumes of short-stories collected in
Old Friends and New (1879), Country By-Ways (1881), The
Mate of the Daylight and Friends Ashore (1883), A White Heron
(1886), The King of Folly Island, and Other People (1888),
Strangers and Wayfarers (1890), A Native of Winby, and Other
Tales^ (1893), The Life of Nancy (1895), and The Queen's Twin,
and Other Stories (1899).

NOVELS

(1) A Country Doctor (1884), in which she describes her
father's character, reveals her as a short-story writer rather than
as a novelist. (2) A Marsh Island (1885) relates the love of a
wealthy painter Dick Dale and Doris Owen, a New England
farmer's daughter. (3) The Tory Lover (1901), deviating from
her usual forte, is a historical novel dealing with John Paul Jones
and the men he recruited from Berwick and concerned with the
troubled choice of raising the colors of a new country or of holding
aloft those of England.

SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS

Deephayen\ (1877). Bundle of thirteen local-color sketches
loosely tied by the colorless device of regarding Deephaven, a
Maine seaport town like Berwick, through the eyes of Helen Denis
and Kate Lancaster, two summer visitors from Boston. Pervading
the accurate, realistic transcriptions of the fading environment she
knew so thoroughly is a poetic atmosphere that romanticizes the
quiet, everyday incidents and scenes in deteriorating towns or in
idyllic villages. Heightening the totality of effect is the utter sim-
plicity and extraordinary fidelity to significant detail.

Tata of New England^ (1890). Group of eight stories selected
from previous writings includes some of her best : "A Lost Lover,"
from Old Friends and New; "Her Only Son,"t from The Mate of

51 C. M..Thompaon, "The Art of MUs Jewett/ 1 Atl. XCIV (1904), pp. 485-497;
of Sarah Or** ttwH, edited or Annie pfeVU, 6911); E. M. Oiaptnan, "T
England of Sarah Orne JewettX YR., Ill (19li-1914) t _pp. 157-172; M. H. Sh
"Sarah Orne Jewett/ 1 SR.. XXX (1922), p. 20-26: F. O. Matthiewen, San
Jcw*tt (1929); Willa Gather, Not Vndif forty (1936), pp. 76-95.

r/i Lttttr*
"The New

3-1914), pp. 157-172; M. H. Shackford,
20-26: F. O. MatthteMen, Sarah Or**

THE LocAiXx>Lowsrs 183

the Daylight and Friends Ashore; "Miss Tempy's Watchers/'!
"Law Lane/' and "The Courting of Sister Wisby," all three from
The King of Folly Island, and Other People; "A White Heron,"t
"The Dulham Ladfes,"t and "Marsh Rosemary," from A White
Heron. (Note that two other excellent stories, not included in this
collection, might conceivably be incorporated into a selection of her
best: "The Flight of Betsy Lane," from A Native of Winby, and
Other Tales and "The Hiltons' Holiday/' from The Life of
Nancy.)

The Country of the Pointed First (1896). Chapters are rather
a series of local-color character sketches very much like those of
Deephaven: portraits and anecdotes unfolded by a summer visitor
to Dunnet, Maine, are all sewn by a thin thread of plot stitched in
with a delightful humor, a quiet satire, and a delicate pathos that
make this volume and Deephaven perhaps her most distinguished
work. As in the latter, again portrays a seaport town during the
era when New England, drained of its inhabitants who had gone
adventuring past the Mississippi, was now made up of deserted
farms and dwindling settlements in which only the old people
remained.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. A detached spectator, she por- 1. A romantic, she refused to ac-
trays the social conditions preva- cept for picturization the headachy,
lent in the dying Maine settle- the coarse, and the squalid truths
ments. Mature understanding, in- in her New England. Successful
dividual insight, and realism tine- with pathetic incidents, she failed
tured with a genial optimism char- when confronted with tragedy. She
acterize her stories. The country- is never the master of anything
side she created will endure. beyond a tiny realm. She has left

no winged message or lofty vision.

2. Stories dependent on setting 2. Absence of plot development,
and on character molded by en- Even her novels are merely a ser-
vironment. Gift of presenting peo- ies of sketches threaded thinly by
pie through mild scenes and simple plot. Action desultory, scenes sel-
situations. dom dramatic.

3. Her women, in their struggle 3. Missed the opportunity of a
to farm the stony New England memorable portrayal of Yankee
land and in their determination men bustling in the growing Yan-
never to yield to spiritual defeat, kee towns. Too fragmentary is her
represent all Yankees, masculine insight into people. Recognize that
as well as feminine. her vision is confined, that her

genius is distinctly feminine.

4. At her best, she writes with effortless simplicity and limpid precision.
Her style reminds us of both Hawthorne and the earlier Howells. How-
ever, not since Hawthorne, declares Van Wyck Brooks, had anyone
"pictured this New England world with such exquisite freshness of
feeling." 82

52 Vmn Wycfc Brooks, N*w England: Indian Summer, 1S65-191S (1940), p. 333.

184 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

MARY E[LEANOR] WILKINS FREEMAN, 18521930.
playwright, poet, novelist, short-story writer. Lived most of the
time in Randolph, Massachusetts, her birthplace. Educated for one
year at Mount Holyoke Seminary (1870). MoVed to Brattleboro,
Vermont (1873). Father died (1883). Upon her marriage to
Dr. C M, Freeman (1902), she moved to Metuchen, New Jersey.
Death of husband (1923). Awarded the William Dean Howells
medal for fiction (1925). Elected a member of the National
Institute of Arts and Letters (1926). Wrote a play, two volumes
of verse, a dozen novels, and about 245 short stories.

SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS

A Humble Romance and Other Stories^ (1887). About two
dozen grim tales, mirroring New England typical characters and
their sodden, joyless consciences. Includes "A Humble Romance,"
"Old Lady Pingree," ''Cinnamon Roses/' "An Independent
Thinker," "The Bar Light-House," "A Mistaken Charity/'

A New England Nun and Other Stories^ (1891). Twenty-
four gnarly character studies, chiefly about provincial New Eng-
land women, are representative of Victorian sweetishness and are
again influenced by the local-color movement. Louisa Ellis is the
"New England Nun" ; "Sister Liddy" exists only in the imagina-
tion of Polly Moss and in the minds of her fellow paupers. Well-
known, too, are "Christmas Jenny" and "Life Everlastin'."

Edgewater People (1918). Collection approximates the high,
significant level of her earlier volumes.

The Wind in the Rose Bush (1903). Several convincing ghost-
stories, effective in their supernaturalism. Example : "The South-
west Chamber/'

NOVELS

Pembroke^ (1894). Easily breakable into a succession of short
stories. Excellent as a study until marred by a happy ending.

The Hearts Highway (1900). Virginia of about 1682 is its
historical background. Fails to recapture the swashbuckling ro-
mance of the seventeenth century as well as h6r stark tales do
that of rural Yankee life.

The Portion of Labor (1901). Sprawling social work not
over-meaningful in its treatment of such industrial problems as
wage-cuts and strikes. Protracted, repetitious, platitudinous, 58 yet
revelatory of an insight into the character of Robert Lloyd and
Ellen Brewster.

53 The ponton of labor, states the toil- worn Andrew Brewtter, is primarily "the growth
in character of the laborer/*

THE LOCAL-CQLQRISTS 185

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Unflinching delineation of the 1. Her New England characters
drab-colored, austere Yankee lives are angular and exaggerated.
of the I850's, 1860's, and 1870*8. Dickensian caricature. People, at
Convincing stories of the repressed well as events, are seen through
spinster, the forbearing martyr, the feminine eyes. Deficient in her
worn-out farmer. depiction of a developing soul.

2. Uncompromising revelation of 2. Yielded to the temptation of
the bleak, declining New England the happy ending. 5 * Frequently
regime. sentimental.

3. BaUacian realism poignant 3. Morbid objectivity inexorable
with a breathless intensity. in its depressing effects. Realism

conventional.

4. Master of the short effort dom- 4. Small power of construction
inated by one character, whenever the unit of measure is

long.

5. Earlier style appropriately 5. Style of later period self-con-
severe and staccato, unbedecked scious and ornamented. Even her
by transitions. Faithful rendition earlier stones have a crudeness.
of the Yankee cadences of speech.

OTHER LOCAL-COLORISTS: NEW ENGLAND

EDWARD EVERETT HALE, 18221909, Unitarian clergyman, author
of Utopian romances, historical memorials, biographical studies, and an American
pioneer in preaching the need of a kind of League of Nations. Most significant
literary contributions were the scholarly France in France (two volumes, 1887
1888) and the famous talc called "The Man Without a Country'* (1863), suggested
by a speech made by Vallandigham. Despite the obvious haste of its writing, this
story of Philip Nolan has a reality of detail and a power of pathos that make readers
forget it was written to influence the election of 1863 and remember only that a
man can not set himself apart from the claims of society. "Unless duly authenticated
as fiction/' says H. W. Mabie, "it will some day be read as history.'* Kansas ami
Nebraska (1854), an unoriginal but influential record in favor of settling both those
states with antislavery people; //, Yes, and Perhaps (1868), a collection that includes
his best-known tale and, among others, "My Double and How He Undid Me," a
wholly fantastic conception written to assert the rights of the individual in a society;
Sybaris and Other Homes (1869), a Utopian disguise for a tract on social hygiene;
Ten Times One It Ten (1871), a novelette which acquired world- wide influence by
inspiring "Ten Times One" and "Lend-a-Hand" clubs; In His Name (1874), a quasi-
historical religious account of Lyons and the twelfth-century Waldcnses, a simple,
touching, even clever story with a motif as homilctical as the 1871 novelette; Philip
Nolan's Friends (1877), a romantic story of the real Nolan; A New England Boy-
hood (1893) and Memories of a Hundred Years (1902), entertaining autobiographical
works, the earlier of which has been designated as "the only noteworthy book about
Boston boyhood."

54 ;It may be well to add here . . . that the notorious happy ending is bad not because
it is happy, but precisely because it is not. A happy ending to a human story pro-
foundly rooted in both character and fate, were it attainable in such t world * the
present, would be of an inestimable precipusness. The meretricious happy ending of
the conventional short story . . . has no relation to such an one. It is, rather, a feebly
pr ??i t , ill l ory J V**F*i n ?** <***v & * * *>p to the slightly neurotic and wholly
muddle-headed who ask of art as of life not reality but feigning, not catharsis but
conformation in immaturity, not euro but drug." tudwig Lewisohn, Rxfresiion in
Am*r\c+ (1932), p. 286; see, also, p. 291.

186 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

MARY [HARTWELL] CATHERWOOD, 18471902, whose The Ro-
mance of Dollar J (1888), the first of a series of historical romances concerned with
French Canada, the Lakes, and the Mississippi Valley, was declared by Francis
Parkman (p. 78) to be a pioneering departure in American fiction. Within six
years after "The Hospital Nurse*' (1864), her first published story, she became
known as a steady contributor to juvenile publications, one of her best books for
children being Heroes of the Middle West: The French (1898). At various times
she lived in different parts of Illinois (Milford, Danville, Fairfield, Chicago), and
many of her writings are concerned with that state. Her short stories are excellent
examples of local-color fiction; her novels have a place in the history of literary
development. Works include The Story of Tonty (1890), The Lady of Fort St. John
(1891), Old Kasfafta (1893), The White Itlander (1893), The Spirit of an Illinois
Town, and The Little Renault (1897), Spanish Peggy; A Story of Young Illinois
(1899), and Lazarre (1901), a best seller. The Chase of Saint-Castin (1894) is a
collection of seven short stories of the French in the New World, six of which had
appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. Unfinished is the historical novel, For Tippecanoe
(1902), and still in manuscript is The Queen Bee, inspired by the assassination of
William McKinley.

CHAPTER X

THE GILDED AGE:
CONSERVATISM AND ICONOCLASM

SAMUEL LANGHORNE CLEMENS, known as MARK
TWAIN, 1835 1910, printer, river pilot, miner, journalist,
travel writer, lecturer, publisher, capitalist, novelist, humanitarian. 1
Born in Florida, Missouri, the son of John Marshall Clemens,
a Virginian, and Jane Lampton, a Kentucky belle. Settled in
Hannibal, Missouri (1839). Death of father (1847). Appren-
ticed (1848 1853) to his brother Orion, who edited the Missouri
Courier. Journeyman printer in St. Louis, New York, Phila-
delphia, and Muscatine (1853 1854). Again worked with his
brother Orion, in Keokuk, Iowa (1855). Job printer in Cin-
cinnati (1856 1857). Plan in 1856 to make a quick fortune in
South America was aborted by his meeting with Horace Bixby,
pilot. Became a pilot's apprentice on the Mississippi, and later a
licensed pilot (18571861). After a few weeks of officering a not
too well organized Confederate militia, 2 he went to Nevada as un-

W. D. Howells, My Mark Twain (1910); A. B. Paine, (1) Mark Twain: A S
(three volumes, 1912); (2) Mark Twain's Letters (two volumes, 1917); (3)

. . , . .

on American Literature, edited by John Macy (1931), pp. 274-284; Bernard DeVoto,
Mark Twain's America (1932); M. M. Brashear, Mark Twain, Son of Missouri
(1934); Edward Wagenknecht, Mark Twain: The Man and His Work (1935); Bernard
DeVoto, Mark Twain at Work (1942); DeLancey Ferguson, Mark Twain: Man and
Legend (1943).

MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS: Mark Twain's Sketches, New and Old (1875);
A True Story, and the Recent Carnival of Crime (1877); Punch, Brothers, Punch!
and Other Sketches (1878); Conversation, as It Was by the Social Fireside, in the
Time of the Tudors (1880); The Stolen White Elephant Etc. (1882); Merry Tales
(1892); The American Claimant (1892); The 1,000,000 Bank-Note and Other Stories
(1893); Pudd'nhead Wilson's Calendar for 1894 (1893); Tom Sawyer Abroad (1894);
Those Extraordinary Twins (1894); Tom Sawyer, Detective (1896); How to Tell a
Story and Other Essays (1897); English as She Is Taught (1900); To the Person
Sitting in Darkness (1901); Edmund Burke on Croker and Tammany (1901);
A Double-Barrelled Detective Story (1902); My Debut <w a Literary Person with
Other Essays (1903); "A Dog's Tal*" (1903); Extracts from Adam's Diary (1904);
Kt*g t Leopold's Soliloquy (1905); Eve's Diary (1906); The $30,000 Bequest and Other
Stones (1906); Christian Science (1907); A Horse's Tale (1907); Is Shakespeare
Deadf .(1909): Extract from Captain Storm/ield's Visit to Heaven (1909); Queen
Vytopa's Jubilee (1909); Mark Twain's Letter to the California Pioneers (1911);
The Cunous Republic of Gondour and Other Whimsical Sketches (1919) ; Mark Twain.
Able Yachtsman >l***rvyws Himself on Why Lipton Failed to Lift the Cup (1920);
L Ishnds r^^\ ; f H ^ f ^l he ^^ f (1923 >! Th* Quaker City Holy
wSt^F**?** 1 !!* P '?/A 927); Tk * Adventure* of Thomas Jefferson

~f 1 2 * ) '"iS? w P $*** WWl Washington in 186?, a collection of news-

written m 1868 and edited by Cyril Clemens (1943).

*' S447$ h ' ' M * rk TWaIn **** *** Camptign That *W <** XII (1940-1941),

187

i88 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

remunerated secretary to Orion (1861), secretary to Governor
J. W. Nye of Nevada Territory. Unsuccessful as a miner. Re-
jx>rter on the Enterprise in Virginia City, Nevada (1862 1863),
where he adopted the pseudonym Mark Twain. 8 Met Artemus
Ward. To San Francisco (1864), where he wrote for the Golden
Era, the Alta California, and especially the Morning Call. Met
Bret Harte. Lectured in San Francisco about the Sandwich
Islands (Hawaii), to which he had been sent by the Sacramento
Union to write travel sketches. 4 Commissioned by that paper to
make a world tour, Mark Twain, upon reaching New York by
way of the Nicaragua Isthmus, lectured at Cooper Union (1867),
and then joined the Quaker City steamship excursion to the
Mediterranean and Palestine. Returned to America in November
of same year. A month or so later, met Olivia Langdon (1867) ;
engaged (1869) ; married (1870). 5 Became an editor of the Buf-
falo Express (c. 18691870). Langdon Clemens born (1870);
died (1872). Settled in Hartford, Connecticut (c. 18711891).
Olivia Susan Clemens born (1871); died (1896). First journey
to England (1872); second (1873 1874). Clara Clemens born
(1874). To Bermuda (1877). Two European tours (18781879;
18911893). Jane Lampton Clemens born (1880) ; died (1909).
Became a partner in the publishing firm of Charles L. Webster
Company, which reaped enormous profits from its sales of Grant's
Memoirs and Mark Twain's own writings, but eventually failed
(1893) and left Clemens bankrupt (1894). By the end of January,
1898, he had repaid the enormous debt by means of a world lecture
tour (1895, 1896). Returned to America (1900). Litt.D. (Yale,
1901; University of Missouri, 1902; Oxford, 1907). To Europe
(1903). Death of Mrs. Clemens (1904). Mark Twain died of
angina pectoris at Redding, Connecticut (1910), survived only by
his daughter Clara.

3 The old river phrase is a Mississippi leadsmen's call signifying two fathoms, or twelve
feet That S. L. Clemens had adopted the pen name before the death of Captain
Isaiah Sellers is revealed by the latter's logbook. See G. H. Brownell, "Mark Twain-
iana," ABC.. Ill (1933), pp. 207-212.

4 For an introduction to Mark Twain's metropolitan journalism from his appearance in
San Francisco until his departure in 1866 for New York, see The Washoe Giant tn
San Francisco, edited by Franklin Walker (1938). As for his Letters from the Sand-
wick Islands of 1866, they have been rated by F. L. Pattee as a mishmash of idyllic
impressionism and satire, mordant criticism, and laughing-out-loud slapstick.

5 Van Wyck Brooks has built up the psychoanalytical thesis of Mark Twain as a natural
artist and rebellious pioneer frustrated by the bourgeois environment in which he found
himself, by the puritanical and materialistic respectability represented in his youth
by his motner Jane, and in his manhood by his wife Olivia. To Bernard DeVoto, such
an interpretation of Mark Twain as the victim of his surroundings is absurd; in his
opinion, the potential creativeness of Mark Twain, the early frontier raconteur and
Untrammeled pioneer, developed naturally and inevitably in his later writings. For
a discussion ot the two contradictory interpretations, read Van Wyck Brooks, The
Ordtal of Mark Twain (1920); Bernard DeVoto, Mark Twain's America (1932),
especially pp. 224-239; Doris and Samuel Webster, "Whitewashing Jane Ocmens,"
Bookman, LXI (1925), pp. 531-535; F. L. Pattee, Mark Twain: Represntafre S'lec-
ttons (1935), pp. xxvi-xxx, xxxvi f. (pp. xi-lxiii); DeLancey Ferguson, "The Case
for Mark Twain's W fe," UTQ. t IX (1&9-1940), pp. 9-21. ft may be germane, too,

io//? d Sin ^fi r ^y 1 !' VT * 1 *' Liars ' and Mr - fceVoto." SRL-. XXVII (April 15,

" "

io ' ' ' - . -. ,

1944), pp. 9-12; and J. D. Adams, "Sneaking of Books," NYTBR., April 30, 1944,
p. 2, coin. 2-4.

THE GILDED AGE 189

S. L. Clemens has been praised for his simplicity and informality
of phrase, bold and incongruous similes, flavored colloquialisms,
cadence of speech, and brilliant fragments or episodes, as well as
for his cumulative jocosities, irresistible drollery, lifelike delinea-
tion of character, convincing narrative, universal appeal,* and
philosophical insight. Yet he is as often tedious and structureless
as not.

Possessing neither a wide background of economic fact and
theory nor a comprehensive knowledge of scientific or philosophi-
cal methods, he could not voice any profound social criticism; but
he had a genuine contempt for all pretense and hypocrisy, and ex-
posed to humorous view the tyrannies of chivalry, of slavery, and of
religion. 7 Probably hamstrung in some measure by genteel sur-
roundings and, in later years, by a deterministic pessimism and an
inferiority complex, 8 he seems to have succumbed to compromise
and appeasement, to have become a member in good standing of
the Gilded Age which he himself helped describe. Briefly, he was
more of a petit-bourgeois "debunker" than a creator ; he is memor-
able, as Kipling said, "in his indirect influence as a protesting force
in an age of iron philistinism." Mark Twain is the greatest Ameri-
can voice of the West of his day. 9

6 Original Mark Twain writing have been located tn three dozen different eastern
magazines; his works have been translated into a dozen ta^uw/ Archibald Hender-
son; "The International Fame of Mark Twain," AMtf., CXCII (1910) pp. 805-815;
E. H. Hemm.nghaus, Mark Twatn m Germany (1939) ; F. S. Hellman List of Wrt*-
nigs bv Mark Twain Translated into Certain Foreign Languages O9J9). Moreover.
many personages are Mark Twain enthusiasts; the 1939 letterhead of the International
Mark Twain Society lists, for example, Benito Mussolini as Honorary President.

7 H. H. Waggoner disagrees with M. M. Brashear's thesis that the distinctive features
of Mark Twain's philosophy spring directly from his reading of the literature of the
eighteenth century, from the reading of Thomas Paine, and, possibly, Hobbes, Locke.
and Hume.

8 In a letter to Mrs. Mary Hallock Foote, Mark Twain confessed: "I'm not the declin-
ing sort. I would take charge ot the constellations if I were asked to do it. All you
need in this life is ignorance and confidence; then success is sure/'

9 Despite hts inconsistency and desuitoriness as a social critic, Mark Twain made an
important contribution to the public store of sheet -happiness: in the words of F. L.
Pattee (Mark Twain: Representative Selections. 1935, p. hi [pp. xi-Uiu)), he "made
the common people laugh. Who in ail the history of literature has done mpre>

In The Economic Novel in America (1942, p. 146 /.) W. F. Taylor puts it vividly:
"He expressed them ['the traditions of democracy, in which the interests of the whole
citizenry should be preserved') r dramatized them, saHed them with his incomparable
humor, and helped to store them up in the consciousness of millions of readers. . . .
Men read imaginative literature tor individual objects, not social; they read for
psychological fulfillment, not for the acquiring of ideas about the State or the Machine.
They read that they may have life, and have it more abundantly. They read Mark
Twain because he offers them, abundantly and intensely, the heightened sense of life
they crave. They continue to read him because he offers that heightened sense of life
not merely as temporary excitement, but as an er during nourishment for a thousand
deepseated capacities for experience which, amid the monotony of civilized living, too
easily go undernourished. By his touch are awakened potentialities stored in men's
deepest nerve centers by generation after generation of experience: the sense of
broad incongruity whose voice is bluff laughter; the sensitiveness to superstition that
lingers in the subrational part of all our natures; the perennial craving for some
picaresque escape from responsibility; the enjoyment of those images of sky and river
and wooded shoreline amid which the race has lived for count 'ess generations. The
work of Mark Twain is great and permanent work because through it, an universally
powerful creative mind ministers to these central and enduring psychological needs
of the race. The social criticism of Mark Twain is of enduring significance, not alone
because it is in such close accord with our main American tradition, but aso because
it has been, almost as if by accident, drawn along in the current of an achievement
far greater than itself."

igo THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

TALL TALES

Of the many burlesque and extravagant stories that appear in
such volumes as Innocents Abroad, Roughing It, and A Tramp
Abroad, there is probably no single tale as widely known as

The Celebrated Jumping frog of Calareras County (1865).
Folk-tale sketch 10 of Jim Smiley and his pet bratachian given
wider fame by this more comic version. Printed accidentally, it
made Mark Twain nationally famous.

TRAVEL BOOKS 10 *

The Innocents Abroad; or, The New Pilgrims' Progress (1869).
Autobiographical account of Mark Twain's steamship tour to Eu-
rope and the Holy Land is based on letters sent two years earlier
to the San Francisco Alta California^ and the New York Herald
and Tribune. Its pilgrims are real persons ; e.g., Dan is Dan Slote,
Doctor is Dr. A. R. Jackson, and Charley is Charles A. Langdon,
whose sister became Mrs. Clemens. Pokes irreverent fun at Old
World sights and peculiarities, shrines and manners; but elegant
and reverent at times. Stylistic skill better than in previous writing ;
good descriptive passages.

Roughing /ft (1872). Without so much of the charm of Inno-
cents Abroad, but with its characteristic exaggeration, this "record
of several years of variegated vagabondizing" is drawn from his
journey from St. Louis to Carson City, his adventures in Nevada,
and the Sandwich Islands. Episodic presentation glamorizes the
Old Far West with all its pioneers and desperadoes and their
virility and lustiness. 12

A Tramp Abroad (1880). Travel narrative of a walking trip
(1878) with J. H. Twichell through Germany, Italy, and Switzer-
land, Very much as they do in Innocents Abroad, satire and humor
enliven the description of European society, folklore, and history.
His undistinguished drawings might well be omitted to make room
for more of the serious passages. Uneven, often dull.

30 Although unoriginal with Mark Twain, this gambling yarn has been praised by J. R.
Lowel' as the finest piece of American humor and by W. D. Howells as Mark Twain's
most stupendous invention. The Jumping Frog story has been traced to the Sierra
mining camps of the early Gold Rush days; two versions preceding that of Mark
Twain appeared in the Sonora Herald of Tune 11, 1853, and in the San Andreas
Independent of December 11, 1858. Consult Oscar Lewis, The Origin of the Cele-
brated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (1931). As for the possible influence of
literary humorists upon Mark Twain, see G. C. Bellamy, "Mark Twain's Indebted-
ness to John Phoenix," AL.. XIII (1941-1942), pp. 29-43.

lOa T. D. Adams, "Speaking of Books," NYTBR. (June 17, 1945), p. 2; NYTBR.
(June 24, 1945), p, 2.

11 Between the day he left San Francisco and that on which his excursion steamer
sailed from New York, Mark Twain wrote twenty-six weekly letters covering that
half-year period; and those missives, which preceded the European letters of 1867, are
now available- Mark Twain's Travels with Mr. Brawn, edited by Franklin Walker
and G. E. Dane (1940).

12 It is to be noted that Roughing It, as well as some other volumes by Mark Twain,
relied measureably upon stock elements in Far Western literature: R, R. Walterhouse,
Bret Hart*, Joaguin Miller, and the Western Local Color Story; A Study in the
Origins of Popular Fiction (Ph.D., Chicago, 1939).

THE GILDED AGE 191

Life on the Mississippi^ (1883). Autobiographical narrative of
Mississippi River life on the steamers plying between St, Louis
and New Orleans. First half, transfigured by nostalgic memory
and poetic perception, is a series of sketches invested with gusto
and continuity; latter part of volume, written about eight years
later, while specific, realistic, and not without its graphic passages,
and whilf excelling in anecdotes and reminiscences, lacks the verve
and Twainian unity of the earlier chapters.

Following the Equator (1897). Materials, chiefly about Aus-
tralasia and India, resulted from his world lecture tour. Satirical
discussions on imperialistic morality engendered by Cecil Rhodes,
the Jameson Raid, and the Boer War. Reveals a forced Mark
Twain, and especially anticipates his subsequent pessimistic work.

PERSONALIZED FICTION

The Gilded Age; A Tale of To-day (1873), In collaboration
with C. D. Warner, novel satirizes the ruthless individualism and
speculative exploitation of public resources during the period of
the Reconstruction. As formless a work as the speculative fever
and unbridled enterprise of the post-Civil War boom years it de-
scribes. Best character: Colonel Beriah Sellers, an American
Micawber modelled primarily on Mark Twain's uncle, James
Lampton.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer^ (1876). Despite such limi-
tations as incongruous humor, episodic construction, and emotional
anachronisms, it is a masterpiece by virtue of permanent common-
places about nostalgic boyhood experience, by virtue of an assimi-
lative process that makes out of its narrative, unity of tone, realism,
and characters a body of engaging mythology, and by virtue of a
divergence from the traditional patterns of juvenile fiction. 13 Auto-
biographical elements; for example, John Briggs became Joe
Harper, and Tom Blankenship was the original Huck Finn. 14

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finnf (1884). Sequel to Tom
Sawyer, and more profound, is excellent in its character-delinea-
tion and nature description, the latter of which acts as a kind of

13 Walter Blair, "On the Structure of Tom Sawyer/' MP., XXXVII (1940-1941).
pp. 75-88.

14 Sequela include not only Huckleberry Finn but also Tom Sawyer Abroad (1894) and
Tom Sawyer, Detective (1896). If there are any literary influence* upon the writings
of Mark Twain, aside from those upon his earlier work, no conclusive evidence has
been presented. One distinguished scholar sees in Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Ftn*
the influence of Cervantes: O. H. Moore, "Mark Twain and Don Quixote," PM.LA.,
XXXVII (1922), pp. 324-346. Several have observed that the plot ot lorn Sawyer,
Detective, has its source not in a Swedish criminal trial, as Mark Twain stated, but
elsewhere: see J. C. Bay, "Tom Sawyer, Detective: The Origin of the Plot/' txw
Offered to Herbert Putnam, edited by W. W. Bishop and Andrew Keogh (1929), pp. 80-
88; A. B. Benson, "Mark Twain's Contacts with Scandinavia/' SSN. t XIV (1937),
pp. 159-167.

jQ2 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

soothing interlude to the salty adventures. 15 Stylistic vigor 16 a=>
appropriate as its picaresque structure; as in Tom Sawyer, the
merits transcend the weaknesses.

The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson^ (1894). David Wilson's
"tragic" avocation solves the murder of the Judge. Best pictures
are Roxy and her half-breed son Tom. Rich in maxims.

HISTORICAL ROMANCES

The Prince and the Pauper (1882). Carefully constructed his-
torical romance abundantly veined by humorous situations
cloaks an attack upon the economic and social evils inherent in the
English monarchical system during the reign of the boy King,
Edward VI.

A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889). Is an im-
passioned satire upon the cruelty and oppression, aristocracy and
feudalism of Arthurian England. Burlesques the idealistic side of
chivalry presented by the Morte d* Arthur and the Idylls of the
King.

Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc by the Sieur Louis de
Conte^ (1896). Excellent workmanship and delicacy of both feel-
ing and expression heighten the total effect of this romanticizecl-
realistic historical biography. 17 Particularly in his account of her
trial and martyrdom does he indict a religious system.

QUESTIONING THEMES

The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg (1900). Short story of
how greed rots away the soul of an entire town. Unsparing analy-
sis of man's frailty under the pressure of money-temptation.

What Is Man? (written, 1893 ; rewritten, 1898; privately printed,
1906). Platonic dialogue in form but not in philosophical thought

15 In the autumn of 1884 an engraving in the volume was so altered that it became im-
properly suggestive. Later, on the ground that Huckleberry Finn would endanger
the morals ot the young, the Library Committee at Concord, Massachusetts, excluded
the book, whereby it became a cause celebre. The latter action was recognized by
Mark Twain as "a rattling tip-top puff" which would "sell 25,000 copies for us sure.
A. L. Voge'beck, "The Publication and Reception of Huckleberry Finn in America,"
AL., XI (1939-1940). pp. 260-272; Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, edited by Bernard
DeVoto (1942), p. liv (pp. ix-lxxvi).

16 He demonstrates, for example, especial competence in representing the nuances of
Jim's pronunciation: J. N. Tidwell, "Mark Twain's Representation of Negro Speech,"
AS., XVII (1942), pp. 174-176.

17 When it is recalled that not even in the serious Joan of Arc does the discursive and
burlesquing spirit entirely desert Mark Twain, then one can expect that kind of tone
with more casual themes: for example, in Slovenly Peter (Dcr Struwtvelpeter) the
final lines are:

"The dog's his heir, and this estate
That dog inherits, and will ate.*"

"*My child, never use an expression like that. It is utterly unprincipled and out-
rageous to say ate when you mean eat. and you must never do it except when crowded
for a rhyme. As you grow up you will find that poetry is a sandy road to travel, and
the only wav to pull through at all is to lay your grammar down and take hold with
fioth hands."

THE GILDED AGE 193

between a Young Man and a pessimistic Old Man. 18 Mark Twain's
''Dover Beach."

The Mysterious Stranger (1916). Swiftian, allegorical romance
interpretable either as a challenge to God's reality or as a presen-
tation of the problem of evil. 19 Influenced by Zolaesque determinism
and naturalism. Recalls Voltaire's story of the Hermit in Zadig. 20

WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS, 18371920, poet, drama-
tist, essayist, critic, editor, novelist. 21 Born in Martin's Ferry, Ohio,
the son of William Cooper Howells, printer-journalist and aboli-
tionist. Moved to Hamilton, (1840), to Dayton (1848). to Colum-
bus (1851), to Ashtabula 22 (1852), and to Jefferson, Ohio: had
very little formal education. Compositor and reporter for the Ohio
State Journal (1856 1860), and while in that capacity wrote The
Campaign Life of Abraham Lincoln (1860), a document which
helped elect the Republican candidate and which brought Howells
an appointment as United States Consul in Venice (1860 1865).
Married Elinor Gertrude Mead (1862), of Brattleboro, Vermont,
who bore him one son and two daughters. Returned to America
(1865), associating himself for about a year with the New York
Tribune, the Times, and the Nation (1865 1866). Assistant edi-
tor (18661872) and then editor-in-chief (18721881) of the
Atlantic Monthly, from which he resigned. Began serializing his
stories in the Century Magazine. Settled in New York (1885). A
New York traction strike, the Haymarket Riot, and the reading of
Tolstoy and Henry George gave body to his socialistic leanings.
Conducted the "Editor's Study" in Harper's Monthly (1886
1891). Brief editorship of the Cosmopolitan. Rebuilt and filled
the "Editor's Easy Chair" in Harper's (19001920). First presi-
dent of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (19091920).
For his work in fiction Howells was awarded the gold medal of
the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1915). Received hon-
orary degrees from Yale, Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and
Oxford.

PLAYS

His plays vary in merit. They include : "Self-Sacrifice : A Farce
Tragedy" and "The Night before Christmas : A Morality," both of

18 Bernard DeVoto, Mark Tivain at Work (1942), p. 116 ff. (pp. 105-130).

19 9' N ;*?5^ er ' " Thc Tra d y of Mark Twain." CW. t CIV O916-1917). p. 7J6
(pp. 731-737).

20 ?' &' G * Cowper, "T* 16 Hc rn "t Story a* Used br Voltaire and Mark Twain "
In Honor of the Ninetieth Birthday of Charles Frederick Johnson (1928), pp. 313-337.

J1 w!2?8 de /ialS?*?l t & K y>t.P'* n u KP l * tt * r *< m *'>i D - G - C 00 **' William Dean

"

H - <*** " wit -

194 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

which are between the covers of The Daughter of the Storage
(1916) ; at least four comedies, Out of the Question (1877), A
Cotmterfeit Presentment (1877), A Previous Engagement (1897),
and An Indian Giver (1900) ; and a score of farces: The Parlor
Car (1871), The Sleeping Car (1883), The Register (1884), The
Elevator (1885), The Garroters (1886), A Sea-Change; or Love's
Stowaway: A Lyricated Farce (1888), The Mouse-Trap, and
Other Farces (1889), The Sleeping Car and Other Farces (1890),
A Letter of Introduction (1892), The Unexpected Guests (1893),
Evening Dress (1893), A Likely Story (1894), Five 'Clock Tea
(1894), Room Fortv-Five (1900), The Smoking Car (1900), and
Parting Friends (1911).

POETRY 2 *

The Poets and Poetry of the West (1860), which contains a half
dozen poems by Howells; Poems (1869, 1885, 1901) ; Stops of
Various Quills (1895) ; The Mother and the Father (1909) ; and

Poems of Two Friend* (1860). First book, issued in conjunc-
tion with J. J. Piatt (p. 249).

No Love Lost: A Romance of Travel (1869). Hexametric novel
or poem savors of Browning in conception and of Longfellow in
meter.

BOOKS OF TRAVEL

Three Villages (1884) ; Tuscan Cities (1886) ; A Little Siviss
Sojourn (1892); The Seen and Unseen at Str at ford-on- Avon
(1914); Hither and Thither in Germany (1920). A revisit to
Europe also was recorded in London Films (1905), Certain De-
lightful English Towns; ivith Glimpses of the Pleasant Country
Between (1906); Roman Holidays and Others (1908); Seven
English Cities (1909); and Familiar Spanish Travels (1913).
Perhaps best-known is

Venetian Life (1866). Collection of a series of letters which had
appeared first in the Boston Advertiser and which captured the
flavor of Italian life, as did Italian Journeys (1867), the charmingly
written sketches that followed.

SKETCHES AND STORIES

A Day's Pleasure, and Other Sketches (1876) ; A Fearful Re-
sponsibility, and Other Stories (three tales, 1881); Christmas
Every Day, and Other Stories Told for Children (1893) ; A Part-
ing and a Meeting (1896); Doorstep Acquaintance, and Other
Sketches (1900) ; A Pair of Patient Lovers (five short stories,

23 O. W. Firkins, Wtititm Dnn Howells (1924), "Playa and Poems," pp. 234-261.

THE GILDED AGE 195

1901) ; The Flight of Pony Baker: A Boy's Town Story (1902) ;
Questionable Shapes (three stories of the occult, 1903) and Be-
tween the Dark and the Daylight; Romances (1907), both volumes
being concerned in general with the supernatural; The Daughter
of the Storage, and Other Things in Prose and Verse (1916). Of
this group, two merit separate attention :

Suburban Sketches (1871). Collection of delightful, realistic
miniatures of scenes and characters of Cambridge's horse-car era.

A Fearful Responsibility (1881). Novelette of an American in-
valid professor in Italy.

LITERARY CRITICISM

Modern Italian Poets (1887); Literature and Life (1902);
Imaginary Interviews (1910) ; and

Criticism and fiction (1891). Best statement of his literary
credo, including his antagonism to contemporaneous romantic fic-
tion, and his advocacy of realism, decency, and democracy in
American novels.

My Literary Passions (1895). Hodgepodge of interesting com-
ments on many writers, including praise of Tolstoy, is composed
of what are platitudes and dogmatisms today, but were realistic
correctives in his own period.

Literary Friends and Acquaint ances (1900). First-hand reccfl-
lections about such personalities as Lowell, Longfellow, and
Holmes. Many anecdotes.

Heroines of Fiction^ (two volumes, 1901). Leading idea that
the excellence of a novelist is best indicated by his portrayal of
women boomerangs in the general criticism that Howells' own
heroines are not too well delineated.

My Mark TVtfinf (1910). Possibly over-appreciative but of gen-
uine value. Biography declared by Carl Van Doren as "incom-
parably the finest of all the interpretations of Howells's great
friend."

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL WORKS

Impressions and Experiences (1896), Years of My Youth (un-
finished, 1916). Consult also My Literary Passions (p. 195), Lit-
erary Friends and Acquaintances (p. 195), New Leaf Mills
(p. 198), as well as

A Boy's Towtif (1890). Simple, lucid, delightful, penetrating
book of memories about Hamilton, Ohio. Written in the third
person.

My Year in a Log Cabin (1893). Eagerly reminiscent record
of his year on the Little Miami River.

196 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

NOVELS DEALING WITH THE MARCHES"

Their Wedding Journey (1871). His first novel, this slowly-
advancing narrative of the honeymooning Basil and Isabel March
to Niagara, the St. Lawrence, Montreal, and Quebec, is more of a
travel book or travelogue held together by a slender plot, studied
details and manners, delicacy of sentiment, kaleidoscopic descrip-
tion, and the two well-drawn, leading characters.

A Hazard of New Fortunes^ ( 1890) . Best work in everyday
realism and all but painful idealism. Is a sympathetic approach to
the sociological problems of industrial conflict or revolt. Dialectic-
speaking Basil denounces economic insecurity. Competent illus-
tration of how competitive capitalism affects the development of
different sets of virile characters. Keen observation, mellow wis-
dom, careful workmanship, excellent analysis of thought and emo-
tion; his most complicated novel, it is also his longest, and its
leisurely development of plot becomes somewhat tiring.

An Open-Eyed Conspiracy (1897). Slight novel, with Saratoga
as its scene, is somewhat more pleasant because of the conversation
of the Marches.

Their Silver Wedding Journey (1899). Longest travel book
about Basil and Isabel March, novelized by a coquettish love story,
chronicles their sightseeing in Europe, principally Hamburg, Leip-
zig, Carlsbad, Weimar, and Berlin.

ECONOMIC NOVELS 25

The Minister** Charge; or, The Apprenticeship of Lemuel Barker

(1887). Presents an uninspiring picture of weaklings, of religious
conditions, and of the dramatic theme that we are our brothers'
keepers. Alive are the comical proletariat figures of Statira Dud-
ley and 'Manda Grier.

24 The practice of connecting no fc^er than two bhort stories ("A Circle in tne Water"
and "A Pair of Patient Lovers") and six novels by the repetition of the characters of
Basil and Isabel March leads to the conclusion that in their persons "Howells has
incarnated bis idea of the normal mate and female of our species/' The two advance
more in years) and in vitality with their creator than "in bis deepening wisdom,"
affecting us "variously according to our moods," and representing "pretty faithfully
the dull average of humanity. At rare and idealistic moments, ... we spurn them
contemptuously as libels on our kind; and then ... we welcome them as at least a
shade more wise than most. They are in general less constant in their effect, more
complete and subtle, than the bookish characters we know, and always a trifle below
the level we expect people with their advantages to attain." No one gainsays that,
after the manner of both Balzac and Trollope, Howells introduces living personalities
again and again; but it is better not to consider him either the Balzac or Trollope of
America. Sec J, F. Muirhead. "W. D. Howells: The American Trollope," Landmark,
II (1920). pp. 53-56; D. G. Cooke, William Dean Howells (1923), p. 156 ff.\ O. \V
Firkins, William Dean Howells (1924), p. 74 /.

25 W. F. Taylor, "On the Origin of Howells' Interest in Economic Reform," AL. t II
(1930-1931), pp. 3-14; J. W. Getzels, "William Dean Howells and Socialism," SS.,
II (1938), pp. 514-517; W. F. Taylor. The Economic Novel in America (1942),
pp. 214-281 ; George Arms, "The Literary Background of Howclls's Social Criticism,"
AL., XIV (1942-1943), pp. 260-276.

THE GILDED AGE 197

Annie Kilburne (1888). Laboriously-developed plot unfolds
without solving a complex social problem when the thirty-one-year-
old Annie returns from Rome and attempts to find her place in a
New England town composed of three elements, the older, sub-
stantial inhabitants, to which she herself belongs, the "summer
people/' and the working class. Well-drawn characterization con-
tributes measurably to Howells's indictment of false charity in the
economic setup.

A Hazard of New Fortunes.^' (See p. 196.)

The Quality of Mercy (1892). Dramatic psychological chronicle
wherein not only is the absconding embezzler, Northwick, made
responsible for the crime, but also strict social conventions, small-
town narrowness in brief, the social order itself. Loose plot;
limited, somber study of moral corruption and crime, both of which
are the results of the economic structure.

The World of Chance (1893). Not merely a record of New
York literary life, as illustrated by the actions of Shelley Ray,
author of A Modern Romeo; not merely a love story of Shelley
and Peace Denton; but also, via the character of Ansel Denton, a
careful consideration of life's insecurity in an industrial world.

A Traveler from Altruria (1894). Utopian romance, which is
more delightful than its anemic epistolary sequel, Through the Eye
of the Needle. A Traveler from Altruria, his most controversial
work, is in reality a keen satire of industrial America. Dialogue is
brilliant and witty though unexciting ; characters are abstractions ;
potpourri of social and economic ideas eclecticized from several
tracts on ideal commonwealths. (Compare with Bellamy's Look-
ing Backward, p. 218.)

Through the Eye of the Needle (1907). Sequel to A Traveler
from Altruria, and inferior to it, describes that idealistic country
by means of letters written by Mrs. Homos.

OTHER NOVELS

(1) Private Theatricals (Atlantic, 18751876), or Mrs. Farrell
(book form, 1921). Rosabel Farrell, an engaging young widow,
is one of his most dynamic characters. (2) Dr. Brcen's Practice
(1881). Anti-feminine picture of a woman physician in particular
and a satire of the medical profession in general. (3) // Woman's
Reason (1883). 2 * 11 Sparkling, subtle study, says A. H. Quinn, nf
feminine nature, of class feeling, and of Bostonian social values.
(4) The Shadow of a Dream (1890). Novelette of considerable

2Sa George Arms, "A Novel and Two Letters," RUL., VHT (December, 19-U), i>p. 9-13.

198 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

suspense. (5) An Imperative Duty (1893). Weak is the solution
to the argumentative statement but tenuous treatment of the prob-
lem of miscegenation. (6) The Coast of Bohemia (1893). Typical
people make this story of a young woman art student at New York
a pleasant transcript of manners. (7) The Day of the Wedding
(1896). Flimsy, formless novelette. (8) Ragged Lady (1899).
Resumed are the international theme and the love-and-conscience
problems. (9) The Vacation of the Kelwyns (c. 1900; posthu-
mously, 1920). Novel with the scene laid in a New Hampshire
community during a summer is meritorious only because of its fair
character-delineation. (10) Letters Home (1903). Unimportant
epistolary narrative. (11) Miss Bellard's Inspiration (1905).
Slight novelette. (12) New Leaf Mills (1913). Semi-autobio-
graphic chronicle of the Ohio Valley mill community of his youth.

A Chance Acquaintance (1873). Tells no exciting love story,
yet is a good study of the American Pride-and-Prejudice caste
spirit. Plot slight, but delicately shaped ; dialogue natural ; sketches
along the St. Lawrence and at Quebec are crisply pleasant. Com-
pare this travelogue with Their Wedding Journey (p. 196).

A Foregone Conclusion (1875). Showy, protracted ending
can not obscure the integrated descriptive elements, distinct char-
acterization, and artistic plotting. Its personalities have a steadily-
growing idyllic kind of reality.

The Lady of the Aroostook (1879). Sparkling romance in a
realistic setting of some small town figures among whom is a young
New England teacher as the solitary woman passenger on the
merchant ship, Aroostook. While H. T. Peck exaggerated in call-
ing it the most perfect American story, it is recognizable as a flash-
ing example of Howells' comedy of manners.

The Undiscovered Country (1880). Study in religious sectar-
ianism presents sordid spiritualism and spiritual Shakerism. Af-
fection between Ford and Egeria, daughter of Dr. Boynton, has
been called the apotheosis of the Howells love story.

A Modern Instance^ (1881). Problem novel dramatizes a story
of young love, an unfortunate marriage, growing distrust, a wife's
desertion, and eventual divorce. Stern realism, masterly delineation
of ordinary people, excellent portrayal of literary and journalistic
Boston. Generally regarded as a study in the deterioration of
character, while that of The Rise of Silas Lapham is one in the
development of character; Halleck's anticlimactic discovery lacks
inevitability. His most tragic novel, one that, characteristically
Howellsian, just misses reaching a decision about fundamental life-
and-character realities.

THE GILDED AGE 199

The Rise of Silas Laphamj (1885). Vital characterization of a
self-made Vermonter who lost his money but discovered his soul.
Cool, felicitous style; excellent construction; human kindliness.
So well presented is its theme of moral regeneration that the novel
is generally considered his masterpiece.

Indian Summer^ (1886). Against a picturesque Florentine set-
ting appear two portraits, one of the loves of a man of forty, the
other of the romance of a middle-aged woman. Features the out-
standing elements of the love romance, the conscience story, and
the international novel. Badinage amusing, repartee brilliant, dia-
logue masterly, narration gay and stimulating.

April Hopes (1888). Despite the tragic elements of the young
love affair between Dan Mavering and Alice Pasner, an almost
spiritually-minded heroine, this is a book brightened by sketches
of Boston's upper set. Pleasant social satire.

The Landlord at Lion's Head\ (1897). Realistic spiritual study
of Jeff Durgin makes the work one of his most creative.

The Kentons^ (1902). Slight, downy, yet flawless chronicle of
an Ohio family who hurry abroad in order to cure their daughter
Ellen of a disapproved love affair. Boyne Kenton has been re-
garded as anticipating a character in Booth Tarkington's Seven-
teen (1916).

The Son of Royal Langbrith (1904). Dramatic statement of a
moral problem: Should James Langbrith's tendency to father-
worship be destroyed? Dr. Anther's death sets into motion the
unfolding to James of Royal Langbrith's true character.

The Leather-wood God (1916). Plot interest centers around a
frontier evangelist who is regarded as a god by a small Ohio com-
munity of Howells' young manhood. Humor, insight.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. With Whitman, is probably the 1. In no way are his parlor dia-

most influential writer since the logues related to the dramatic one*

Civil War. From about 1891 to act play that is independent of

1915, he dominated the intellectual mere repartee and treats of deeper

scene. emotion. 26

As a critic, he encouraged many His literary criticism lacks dis-

writers, including Mark Twain (p. passionate judgment, lacks the

187), Henry James (p. 200), Ham- truly critical mind He judges from

lin Garland (p. 204), Stephen Crane a P non Iaw J . he 1S defeated by an-

(p. 207), Paul Laurence Dunbar cestral finicality,

(p. 252), Frank Norris (p. 228), Puritan ancestry 27 makes him

E. D. Howe (p. 206), and Booth avoid such depths of human ex-

26 M. J. Moses, The American Dramatists (1925), p. 394 /.

27 H. G. Belcher. "Howells's Opinions on the Religious Conflicts of His Age as Ex-
hibited in Magazine Articles/ AL. f XV (1943-1944), pp. 262-278.

200

THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Tarkington (p. 269) ; as a writer of
sparkling farce-comedy, 28 he ex-
celled his contemporaries in build-
ing up a slight incident and in
enlarging surface-character.

His works, spanning two litera-
tures, championed reality 29 in fic-
tion and in many ways mirror in
epitome the spiritual and intellec-
tual temper of his era. His very
provincialism is what makes him
a supreme exponent of the com-
monplaces of the bourgeois spirit
at the close of the nineteenth cen-
tury. 80

Truth is his only passion; and
his transcripts of American life are
strengthened by a selective realism,
by a theoretical detachment, and by
the crusading understanding that
the novel must be an instrument
for waging war on the injustices
of modern civilization and for so-
cializing the economic structure.

2. He does succeed in telling a
reasonably realistic story in a style
that has suavity, simple clarity,
adroit talk, uniformly excellent dia-
logue, savory humor, supple grace,
felicitous exposition, and solid
workmanship. Well -drawn por-
trayals of the scheming, the tact-
ful, and the witty women.

perience as hatred aud sexual love.
Correct are his portraits of Amer-
ican city and country life, and able
are his analyses of native Ameri-
cans; but, rather than a great in-
terpreter, he is merely an observ-
ant reporter. His method is realis-
tic, but the result is sentimental

Denatured is his realism because
it does not dig deep enough; it
falls short of reality because he is
no protagonist of the very doctrine
he preaches.

Tersely, the Howellsian mending -
wall attitudes have neighborliness;
but they never enter upon adjacent
grounds to grapple wholeheartedly
with serious problems. In classic
fashion, and oft-repeated, O. W.
Firkins has phrased this defi-
ciency. 31

2. Mattering least is his plot,
which often has a Baedeker ap-
proach and a somewhat sprawling
formlessness. His men lack virility,
his women are cute and superficial;
his entire approach is passionl ss.
The human element is always in-
truding upon his landscape descrip-
tion. There is an excess of con-
versation; there are his tendencies
to expand trivialities and protract
conclusions. Style is that of a pains-
taking craftsman rather than of a
genuine artist.

SNRY JAMES, 18431916, critic, novelist. 32 Fortunate
in an inheritance of moderate wealth and a home environment of
intelligence and intellectual interests; educated by private tutors,

Quinn, A History of the American Drama front the Civil \\sar to the Present
(1937, 1943), pp. 66-81.

28 A. H. ,
Day (1

29 Present-day critics emphasize that Ho we! Is wrote with social conscience and that he
saw the possibilities of the American scene. Read G. E. DeMiHe, "The Infallible
Dean." SR. t XXXVI (1928). pp. 148-156; V. L. Parrington. Main Currents in Amer-
ican Thought. Ill (1930), pp. 241-253; Herbert Edwards, ''Howells and the Contro-
versy over Realism in American Literature," AL. t III (1931-1932), pp. 239-248
V. F. Calverton. The Liberation of American Literature (1932), pp. 375-381; Alfred
Kazin, On Native Grounds (1942), pp. 3-50.

30 C. H. Grattan, "Howells: Ten Years After," AM., XX (1930), pp. 42-50.

Jl in Williav* Dean Howells (1924), p. 65, O. W. Firkins states that "adulter> ih nevct
pictured; seduction never; divorce once and sparingly ('A Modern Instance'); mar
riage discordant to the point of cleavage, only once and in the same novel with the
divorce; crime only once with any fu'lness ('The Quality of Mercy'); politics never;
reMgion passingly and superficially; science only in crepuscular psychology; mechanics,
athletics, bodily exploits or collisions, very rarely."

32 For full bibliography, sec pages 298-290,

THE GILDED AGE 201

by study at Harvard, and by foreign travel, James was exception
ally well equipped for his career as a professional literary man.
Long resident abroad, and deficient in knowledge of any but the
Eastern fringe of his native land, James was through his mature
years only technically American; and even this distinction dis-
appeared when, just before his death, he became a British citizen.
Friendships with E. L. Godkin, C. E. Norton, and W. D. Howells
launched him in the middle *60's as a contributor to the New York
Nation, the North American Review, and the Atlantic, but his
departure shortly afterwards for Europe marked a substantial
abandonment of American residence. In France, in the middle
70's, he came to know Flaubert, de Goncourt, Daudet, Maupassant,
and Zola; but none influenced him as had his countryman Haw-
thorne, and as did their predecessor Balzac, and the Russian Tur-
genev, then resident in Paris. The remainder of his life, except for
an occasional visit to America, he spent in Italy and England. The
significance of this virtual expatriation in respect to his place in
American literature was threefold: it operated to encourage use
of European settings, characters, social standards, and points of
view strange to Americans; it gave him, understandably, a view
of such of his countrymen as appear in his novels through critical
Continental eyes ; it made him an unpopular personality to Ameri-
can readers, and put him increasingly out of touch with the rising
industrialism of America. 88

33 Writings by Henry James not cited or discussed on pages 200-204 are. NOVELS'
Watch and Ward (1878); The Outcry (1911). NOVELETTES AND SHORT
STORIES: A Passionate Pilgrim and Other Tales (1875); The Madonna of the Future
and Other Tales (two volumes, including "Madame de Mauves" and "The Diary of
a Man of Fifty," 1879); An International Episode (1879); Four Meetings (1879); A
Bundle of Letters (1880); The Pension Beaurepas (1881); The Point of View (1883);
The Siege of London (1883); Tales of Three Cities (1884); The Author of Beltraffio
(1885); Stories Revived (three volumes, 1885); A London Life; The Patagonia; The
Liar, Mrs. Temperley (two volumes, 1889); A Lesson of the Master; The Marriages;
The Pupil; Brooksmith; The Solution; Sir Edmund Orme (1892); The Real Thing, and
Other Tales (1893); Picture and Text (1893); The Private Life, The Wheel of Time.
Lord Beaupre, The Visits, Collaboration, Owen Wingrave (1893); Terminations, The
Death of the Lion, The Coxon Fund, The Middle Years, The Altar of the Dead
(1895); Embarrassments (1896); In the Cage (1898); The Two Magics: The Turn
of the Screw. Covering End 1898); The Soft Side (including "The Real Right
Thing" and ''Miss Gunton of Poughkecpsie," 1900); The Better Sort (1903); Julia.
Bride (1909); The Finer Grain (1910); Garbielle de Bergerac (Atlantic Monthly,
1869; book, 1918); A Landscape Painter (four stones, 1919); Travelling Companions
(seven stories, 1919); Master Eustace (five stones, 1920). DRAMAS: Theatricals
("Tenants" and "Disengaged," 1894) ; Theatricals ("The Album" and "The Repro-
bate," 1895). ESSAYS AND BIOGRAPHIES: Transatlantic Sketches (1875);
French Poets and Novelists (1878); Hawthorne (1879); Foreign Parts (1883);
Portraits of Places (188J): A Little Tour in France (1885); Four Meetings (1885);
The Art of Fiction (1885); Partial Portraits (1888); Essays in London and Else-
where (1893); William Wetmore Story and His Friends (1903); The Question of
Our Speech; The Lesson of Balgac (two lectures, 1905); English Hours (1905);
The American Scene (1907); Views and Reviews (1908); Italian Hours (1909);
A Small Boy and Others (1913); Notes on Novelists (1914); Notes of a Son and
Brother (1914); England at War: An Essay (1915); The Question of the Mind
(1915); The Middle Years (1917); Within the Rim. and Other Essays (1918).
Additional material is available in Notes and Reviews (edited by Pierre de Chaignon
la Rose. 1921); Henrv James: Letters to A. C. Benson and Aufjuste Monod (edited
bv E. F. Benson, 1930) ; Letters oi Henry James to Walter Berry (edited by Mildred
Howells, 1928); The Letters of Henry Jamesi (edited in two volumes by Percy
Lubbock, 1920>; Theatre and Friendship: Some Henry James Letters: With a Com-
mefitarv (by Eliraheth Robins, 1932>; Stories of Writers and Artists (edited with
an E^av bv F. O. Matthiesnen, 1944).

202 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

NOVELS

Group I : From RODERICK HUDSON (1875) to THE BOSTONIANS
(1886). The essential provincialism of Boston (as James saw it)
is presented in The Europeans (1878) and The Bostonians (1886) ;
of New York, in Washington Square (1881). The woman's suf-
frage movement received none too friendly notice in The Bos-
tonians wherein the ardent but fading Olive Chancellor is con-
trasted with her younger and more attractive disciple, Verena
Tarrant.

Other volumes are The American^ (1877), Confidence (novel-
ette, 1880), and

Roderick Hudson^ (1876). Study of an American sculptor in
whom opportunities afforded by residence abroad disclosed defi-
ciencies of artistic capacity and personal integrity. Christina Light
reappears in The Princess Casamassima.

The Portrait of a Lady\ (1881). In many ways one of James's
noblest works, has as its central figure an American woman, Isabel
^Archer, well characterized in the title. Resident in Europe and
surrounded by an interesting and varied group of characters, she
is placed in situations of the most trying sort. Startling and in a
way refreshing is the presence of an American newspaper woman,
Henrietta Stackpole.

Group II: From THE PRINCESS CASAMASSIMA (1886) to THE
SACRED FOUNT (1901). Second group includes The Reverberator
(novelette, 1888), The Aspern Papers (novelette, 1888), The
Other House (novel, 1896), The Sacred Fount (novelette, 1901),
and

The Princess Casamassima (1886). Unusual and, generally
speaking, unsuccessful venture into the realm of political and
social reform.

The Tragic Muse (1890). Set in England, shows its central
character, Nick Dormer, facing a choice between the claims of
politics and art, and rejecting the former for the latter.

What Maisie Knew^ (1897). In its picture of fast London so-
ciety through which the innocent and uncomprehending Maisie
walks miraculously unscathed, is better than its successor, The
Awkward Age (1899), but nevertheless one of James's more un-
pleasant books.

The Spoils of Poynton (printed as The Old Thing, 1896; pres-
ent title, 1897). Illustrates the dependent position of woman un-
der English marriage laws.

THE GILDED AGE 203

Group III: THE WINGS OF THE DOVE (1902) and after. The
Ivory Tower (1917) and The Sense of the Past (1917) are in-
complete novels, posthumously published. Three masterpieces :

The Wings of the Dovef (1902). Heroine is Milly Theale,
avowedly modelled upon his cousin Mary Temple. Poignant ap-
peal of situation.

The Ambassadors^ (1903). One of his best constructed novels.
Lambert Strether, an American, has the intelligence to discover
in P^ris what he has missed in America. James has thus at last
outlived embarrassment over the folks from home.

The Golden BoWf (1904). Shows Maggie Verver, an Ameri-
can girl, in the difficult position of discovering that Prince Amerigo,
the Italian nobleman she has married, has previously been intimate
with Charlotte Stant, the woman who is now Maggie's stepmother.
Situation is worked out, of course as always in James with-
out recourse to law.

SHORT STORIES

James had both a liking and a genius for the short-story form ;
but his tendency to elaboration led frequently to an expansion of
short-story themes to the dimensions of the novelette. Daisy Miller^
(1879), which contrasts with devastating effect the manners of
what James thought a typical American girl to those of a settled
and correct Continental society, had the closest approach to popu-
larity of anything James ever wrote. Outstanding also are: The
Turn of the Screw^ (1898), A Passionate Pilgrim (1871), An In-
ternational Episode (1879), The Liar\ (1889), The Lesson of the
Master^ (1892).

GENERAL ESTIMATE

James's critical essays, while devoted to a variety of topics, in-
clude significant statements regarding the art of fiction and the
related art of painting with which he was almost equally familiar.
His lofty view of the profession of authorship was equalled only
by his devotion to its technical aspects. His emphasis upon form
was French. He delighted in the well-made novel, adhered closely
to a plan, left no loose ends. Interest in the analysis of character,
and of that mixture of impulsive response and ratiocination which
furnishes the background for conversation, slows up action. Style,
too, sometimes dangerously absorbs attention. In his best work
he transcends these difficulties.

Other deficiencies are more deeply seated. His orderly, sheltered,
celibate, monotonously blameless life had denied him enriching ex-
periences. His almost complete ignorance of business ; still worse,
his lack of any understanding of the perpetual and ruthless strug-

204 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

gle for mere existence which absorbs the attention of a large part
uf the human race; his chilliness in the treatment of the sex pas-
sion; these are qualifications of his claim to supreme rank as a
fiction writer. Within his limits he was a noble artist, but his
narrow reputation constitutes a fair ultimate judgment of his work.

HAMLIN [HANNIBAL] GARLAND, 186O-1940, short-
slory writer, novelist, autobiographer, social historian. 34 Born on
a farm near West Salem, Wisconsin. Family emigrated to Winne-
sheik County, Iowa (1869). Entered Cedar Valley Seminary, at
Osage, Iowa (1876), from which he was graduated four years
later (1881). Tramped through Eastern states. Worked as a car-
]>enter in Illinois and Massachusetts (1882). Staked a claim in
McPherson County, North Dakota (1883), sold it (1884), and
returned to Boston to qualify himself for teaching. First a pupil,
and later (1885) an instructor, in the Boston School of Oratory.
Taught and lectured in and about Boston (1885 1889). Visits
to Dakota, Iowa, and Wisconsin (1887) provided material for his
Mississippi Valley stories. Fourth visit (1889) to his parents at
Ordway, Brown County, Dakota Territory, to which they had
moved in 1881. Sent on tour by B. O. Flower, socially minded
editor of the Arena, to investigate labor and farm conditions
(1891). Wintered in New York (1892). Settled in Chicago
(1893). Purchased house in West Salem, Wisconsin, for 'his
parents (1893). Summered in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona
(1894, 1895, 1896). Studied the Sioux Indians in North and
South Dakota (1897). Wintered in Washington (1897). Six-
months' overland trip (1898) into Yukon Valley led to The Trail
of the Gold Seekers (1899) and The Long Trail (1907). Visited
England (1899). Married Zulime Taft (1899), who bore him two
daughters, Mary Isabel (1904, Wisconsin) and Constance (1907,
Chicago). Established family in New York (1915). Elected to
the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1918). Won Pulitzer
Prize for the best biography of the year with A Daughter of the
Middle Border (1921). Took family to England (1922). Hon-
orary degree of Litt.D, conferred by the University of Wisconsin
(1926). Won the Roosevelt Memorial Association Medal (1931).
Moved from New York City to McLaughlin Park, Los Angeles
(1932). Honorary degree from Northwestern University (1933).
Died of a cerebral hemorrhage.

A strong didactic or propagandistic purpose directs most of his
writings. In pursuit of his literary credo of Veritism, he endeavors
to be objective in his realism, reproducing colloquial speech faith-

34 E. W. Bowcn, "Hamlin Garland, the Middle- West Short-Story Writer," SRQ., XXVII
(1919). pp. 411-422; R. R. Raw, "Hamlin Garland, the Romanticist." SK., XXXVI
(1928), op, 202-210; Hamlin Garland Memorial, by the Federal Writers' Project of
the Works Progress Administration in South Dakota (South Dakota Writers' League.
1939); Claude Simpson, "Hamlin Garland's Decline/' Sw.K.. XXVI (1940-1941).
PP. 223-234.

THE GILDED AGE 205

fully, presenting real-life situations, and possessing genuine depth
of feeling; but he is frequently prolix and even tedious, his writ-
ings, especially his early work, are crude potboilers, and his social
and political attitudes have in them a strong theatrical element.
By his very emphasis on only the grinding monotony of Western
farm life, his books show a reaction against romanticism and a
retention of it. It was he "who became known as the type-symbol
of the pioneer in American literature, the dirt farmer who for a
time moved westward with his emigrant family but eventually
chose to become a back-trailer and created the literary Middle
Border/' 85

EARLY PERIOD: REALISM (18871894)

Propagandistic are three novels published in 1892 : ( 1 ) A Mem-
ber of the Third House, concerned with the corrupting legislative
influence of the railroads; (2) A Spoil of Office, which exposes
political rottenness, pictures the growth of the Grange and the
Farmer's Alliance, and speaks out in favor of the Populist Party ;
and (3) Jason Edwards: An Average Man, wherein the Single
Tax theories of Henry George receive attention. Less ephemeral,
too, are (4) A Little Norsk (1892), a novelette of a Dakota farm
girl whose disheartening marriage individualizes even more sharply
the two farmer-characters who years earlier had rescued her ; and
(5) Boy Life on the Prairie (1899), idyllic in its freshness and
vigor, much of it included in the later A Son of the Middle Border.

Main-Travelled Roadsi (1891). Half-dozen Mississippi Valley
sketches; five more stories added to later editions. Presentation
of farm life in the Middle West cudgels the atrophying influence
and the spiritual limitations of rural life. Includes "Under the
Lion's Paw/'f through which artistic story of a mortgaged farmer
emerges a message openly in favor of land reform; "The Return
of the Private,"! keyed against the superficiality of romance by a
tale of a fevered soldier who finds at home not a royal welcome
but the stern enmeshing dullness of the "daily running fight with
nature" and the struggle against the persistent "injustice of his
fellow-men"; "Up the Coolly," an allegorical approach to the
farmer and the successful citified brother, to the lower and the upper
strata of human society; and "A Branch Road," in which a young
woman aged prematurely by parents, by a mistreating husband,
and by a narrow farm life, is forced to overlook conventional
morality.

Crumbling Idols (1894). Little book of essay pleads a bit
vaporously for "veritism," or an honest realism founded on ob-

35 J. T. Flanagan, "Himltn Garland, Occasional Minneaotan," M.Hi*t. t XXII (1941).
p. 157 (pp. 157.168); W. F. Taylor, Th* Economic Not* I m America (1942). pp. 148-

206 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

servation ; but the veritist or realist must also be an idealist, writing
of what is and suggesting what is to be: by picturing the ugliness
and warfare, he conjures up the converse picture of beauty and
peace. Theory derived in part from Eugene Vernon's Esthetics
and Max Nordau's Conventional Lies; also, from Eggleston's
Hoosier Schoolmaster, Ed Howe's Story of a Country Town, and
Joseph Kirkiand's Zury.

MIDDLE PERIOD: ROMANCE (18951916)

(1) The Captain of the Gray-Horse Troop (1902) champions
the Sioux Indians who are being exploited by white settlers; (2)
Hesper (1903), far from strong in its realistic dealings with the
labor war among the independent miner, the union miner, and the
capitalistic operator in the Cripple Creek gold mines ; (3) Cavanagh,
Forest Ranger (1910), weak novel gaining its value from the
delineation of that phase of our national life where a Federal con-
servation program meets the resistance of cattle barons ; (4) Other
Main-Travelled Roads (1910), short stories selected from two
earlier books, (5) Prairie Folks (1893) and (6) Wayside Court-
ships (1897); and

Rose of Dutcher's Coolly (1895). Transitional novel, strong in
its realities, romantic in its conclusion. Later chapters belie the
promise of the earlier ones. Part-reflection of his Chicago experi-
ences ; charming descriptive bits.

FINAL PERIOD: AUTOBIOGRAPHY (1917-1940)

A Son of the Middle Border^ (serialized, 1914; book, 1917).
Bittersweet autobiographical narrative documents not only his
struggle and growth and success until 1893 but also the history of
pioneer days on the Western frontier. 86 Stylistic infelicities. Self-
written account complemented by A Daughter of the Middle
Border (1921), concerned with his later years, especially his mar-
riage; Trail-Makers of the Middle Border (1926); 87 and Back-
Trailers from the Middle Border (1928), as semifktional as the
preceding two.

Roadside Meetings (1930). Account of his literary friendships,
followed by the longish, garrulous, and more or less inconsequen-

36 "Our material pioneering is done." opines Hamlin Garland as he re-sketches "the
thrust of the pioneer and the steady expansion of the nation's plowed lands." He is
glad that he "was born early enough to catch the dying echoes of their songs, to bask

m the failing light of their fires/' Hamlin Garland, "The Westward March of
Settlement." FT., XII (1934-1935), pp. 499-505, a reprint of pp. 11-27 and p. 34 of
the 1927 Reading -with a Purpose pamphlet given in footnote 37.
In his own words. A Son of the Middle Border and ita introductory volume, Trail-
Makers of the Middle Border, taken together, "present the homely everyday history
of a group of migrating families from 1840 to 1895, a most momentous half century
of western social development. They are as true to the home-life of the prairie and
the plains as my memory will permit." Hamlin Garland, The Westward March of
American Settlement (Reading with a Purpose series, 1927), p. 33.

THE GILDED AGE 2<X

tial recollections in Companions on the Trail (1931), My Friendly
Contemporaries (1932), and Afternoon Neighbors (1934).

STEPHEN CRANE, 18711900, journalist, short-story
writer, novelist. 88 Born in Newark, New Jersey. Attended Claver-
ack College, a military academy three miles east of Hudson, New
York (c. 18871890). Entered Lafayette College (18901891)
Transferred to Syracuse University (1891), where he spent less
time in the classroom than on the baseball field. 89 Reporter for the
Herald and the Tribune. To Cuba (1896), where his more than
two-day struggle subsequent to the sinking of the steamer Commo-
dore inspired "The Open Boat/' Experiences as correspondent
during the Greco-Turkish War resulted in Active Service (1899),
a loose, wooden-charactered, journalistic novel. 40 Much better re-
porting in Wounds in the Rain (1900), an outgrowth of his
Spanish-American activities in Cuba : includes two fine Civil War
stories, "The Price of the Harness" and "An Episode of War/'
From England 41 he went to Germany, where at Badenweiler he died
from tuberculosis. 42 Buried at Elizabeth, New Jersey.

Volumes include Whilomville Stories (1900), excellent in its
discernment of child psychology, from playfulness to brutality
(representative are "Lynx-Hunting," "Shame," and "The Carriage-
Lamps") ; Great Battles of the World (1901), an indifferent his-
torical study; Last Words (1902), a compilation of early stories
and sketches; The O'Ruddy (1903), an experimental satiric ro-
mance completed by Robert Barr.

NOVELETTE AND NOVEL
Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893). Naturalistic, impression-

38 Thomas Beer, Stephen Crane, with an introduction by Joseph Conrad (1923); The
Work of Stephen Crane, edited by Wilson Follett, (1925) : Volume II. Introduction
by R. H. Davis, pp. ix-xx (pp. ix-xxiv) ; D. H. Dickason, "Stephen Crane and the
Philistine," AL., XV (1943-1944), pp. 279-287.

39 Fresh material dealing with Crane's preparatory school and college attendance, cover-
ing the years 1888 to 1892, is presented by L. U. Pratt. "The Formal Education of
Stephen Crane," AL., X (1938-1939). pp. 460-471, in an endeavor to modify certain
accepted views of Crane; e.g., that he could not himself dri 1 ! well at the military
school. Supplement material with Harvey Wickham, "Stephen Crane at College."
/W., VII (1926), pp. 291-297; M, J. French, "Stephen Crane, Ball Player," SUAN .
XV (JanuaVy, 1934), p. 3/.; Claude Jones, "Stephen Crane at Syracuse," AL., VII

40 Intended as potboilers were such books as Active Service and The O'Ruddy. "Sup-
pose, supposes Sherwood Anderson correctly, "he did put a pretty little patent-
leather finish on some of his later tales. Take him for what he was his importance."

41 "There was no tumult in the high world of letters English because Stephen Crane had
rented a villa named Rayensbrook at Oxted in Surrey and proposed to make a stay.
He was even snubbed with a vengeance." The foregoing statement by Thomas Beer
in Stephen Crane (1923), p. 161 ff., is refuted by P. M. Ford, Mtphtier than the
Sword (1938), p. 46 ff. (pp. 38-58).

42 Many legends about Stephen Crane made the rounds, ranging from the allegation that
he was the natural son of Grover Cleveland to that which had him murdered by an
actress m Chicago. Of more significance in his life was the part played by his wife,
Cora Howorth Stewart Taylor, who also suffered the abuse heaped upon him. Thomas
Beer, Stephen Crane (1923), "Appendix," p. 243 ff. (pp. 243-248); Mrs. Joseph
Conrad, "Recollections of Stephen Crane," Bookman, LXIII (1926), pp. 134-137;
Carl Bohnenberger and N. M. Hill (editors), "The Letters of Joseph Conrad to
Stephen and Cora Crane," Bookman, LXIX (1929), pp. 225-235, 367*374.

208 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

istic novelette printed at author's expense under the pseudonym
''Johnston Smith" has been placed by Wilson Follett as "a corner-
stone of American fictional history." Reportorial, episodic analy-
sis of environmental victimization; influenced by Zola's L'Assom-
moir. Note that characters are types, and that the conversation
strives for realism by its grim, repetitive vacuity. Should be com-
pared with Crane's George's Mother (1896).

The Red Badge of Courage^ (1895). Novel of the Civil War,
lyrical and intense in its objective, developmental dissection of a
raw recruit's soul 48 under gunfire. Vivid, direct, impersonal ; bristles
with a particularized idiom, burning perception, poetic prose-
images. Indebted to talks with General J. B. Van Petten of
Claverack College and other veterans, 44 to the Century's "Battles
and Leaders of the Civil War," and to W. F. Hinman's Corporal
Si Klegg and His "Pard" (1887). 45 Uncertain is the indebtedness
to Zola's La Debacle and to Tolstoy's War and Peace and
Sevastopol.

SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS

The Little Regiment 9 and Other Episodes of the American Civil

War (1887; issued in England as Pictures of the War, 1916).
Half-dozen short-stories including "A Mystery of Heroism." de-
scribed by Carl Van Doren as "pure, concentrated Crane" ; "Three
Miraculous Soldiers," easily of tantamount rank with the perhaps
better-known "A Grey Sleeve"; and "The Little Regiment,"t
perfect in a surface contempt that conceals the inarticulate love
of two brothers even at the very moment when each is voicing what
is not meant.

The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure (1898). Among
the eight stories are "An Illusion in Red and White," as ironically
grim as "The Monster"; "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky," a
lifelike, risible tale admired by Willa Gather; "Horses One
Dash," of autobiographical value as are "The Third Violet" and
"The Open Boat" 4 " ; and the title-story ,f its frequently-praised first

43 Critical opinion comments frequently that Henry Fleming becomes almost an abstrac-
tion. That is similarly an operative factor in Maggie oi which the first version calls
the characters simply "the girl," "the girPa mother," and "the girl's brother." In
The Red Badge of Courage Henry so loses a 1 ! identity that Joseph Conrad once mis-
stated that the hero is not given a personal name. Wilson Follett, "The Second
Twenty-Eight Years," Bookman, LXVIII (1928-1929), pp. 532-537.

For another and possibly a better account of a recruit s sensations in battle, read
J. W. DeForrest, "The First Time under Fire," Harper's, XXIX (1864). pp. 475-
482.

44 L. U. Pratt, "A Possible Source of The Red Badge of Courage/' AL.> XI (1939-
1940), pp. MO.

45 H. T. Webster, "William F. Hinman's Corporal Si Klegg and Stephen Crane's The
Red Badge of Courage," AL.. XI (1939-1940), pp. 285-293.

46 Crane loved horses and the sea. "And hit passage on this earth was like that of a
horseman riding swiftly in the dawn of a day fated to be short and without sumhine."
Joseph Conrad, "Stephen Crane," Bookman, L (1919-1920), P. 531 (pp. 529*531).
Elsewhere, Harvey Wickham cautions that Crane was not the pliable, soft fellow
"created by the sentimentalizing imagination of Conrad's declining years." See also
Amy Lowell's opinion, page 209, footnote 48,

1HE CilLDKD AGE 209

sentence 47 opening up a circumstantial, objective, tense narrative
of an open boat manned by three shipwrecked men and Crane:
the cadences of his prose rise and fall with the waves of grim
humor and graphic details.

The Monster and Other Stories (1899). At least three of its
seven tales are meritorious: 'The Monster,"t where a Negro,
while rescuing a boy, suffers facial disfigurement: a horror tale
focused within the capricious lens of a cruel, intolerant community,
and snapped with painful realism and trenchant sympathy; "The
Blue Hotel/'f a superlative story, praised by H. L. Mencken for
its austere economy, brilliant dramatic effect, Conradian dignity,
and epic sweep, and possibly Crane's only story which deliberately
moralizes; and 'The Third Violet," chiefly valuable, according to
Wilson Follett, as an autobiographical transcript concerned with a
hopeless love affair of 1891 and a short period in 1893: but it is
more than that as in "The Little Regiment/' inscrutable motives
compel lies to issue out of each character in this romantic novelette
of a young artist.

POETRY COLLECTIONS 48

The Black Riders and Other Lines (1895). Volume of staccato,
unrimed poems merciless in their epigrammatized piercing beneath
smug surfaces into the futile angularity of our hearts and souls ;
e.g., attacks religion. Its so-called free-verse form possibly influ-
enced by the Bible and by Emily Dickinson; anticipatory of the
Imagists. Representative: "God fashioned the ship of the world
carefully"; "Should the wide world roll away"; "A man went be-
fore a strange God."

War Is Kind and Other Lines (1899). Title poem, as well as
several others, is as good as anything he ever wrote; on the whole,
however, collection is not an improvement upon The Black Rider
volume. Representative: *'A newspaper is a collection of half-
injustices"; "Wayfarer"; "A man said to the universe."

REFORMERS, HISTORIANS, AND PHILOSOPHERS

HENRY GEORGE, 1839 1897, pioneer in American political economy;
ranked by John Dewey as America's greatest social philosopher. Henry George'*
system of economics (he himself disliked the phrase "Single Tax,** and used it
perhaps only once in Progress and Poverty) has been attacked as fallacious and hU
doctrines as untenable (Arthur Crump, 1884; E. H. Johnson, 1910 see also below);
his is "one of the most extreme doctrines of Communism,** stated the Duke of Argyll

17 "None of them knew the colour of the sky" is as famous as "The red sun was pasted
in the sky like a wafer/' the Utter of which appears in Th* Red Badae of Courage.

IS Despite her declarations that his poetry U static and even more adolescent than his
prose, Amy Lowell concludes: "He died too soon. . . . He ranks in America some-
what as Chatterton ranks in England, A boy, spiritually killed by neglect. A marvel-
lous boy, potentially a grniue, historically an important link in the chain of American
poetry/' The Work of Stephen Crane, edited by Wilson Follett (1925): Volume VI,
Introduction by Amy Lowell, p. xxix (pp. ix-xxjx).

2io THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

in 1884 (although Karl Marx regarded Progress and Poverty as "simply an attempt
to rescue the rule of capitalism in fact, to rear it anew upon a firmer basis than
its present one. This cloven hoof, together with the donkey's ears, peeps unmistakably
out of the declamation by Henry George"). J. F. Muirhead concludes that the practi-
cal statesman will not confiscate private property on land, but will simply confiscate
rent or appropriate rent by taxation, and abolish all taxation except that on land
values; John Dcwey, in a radio address (193-?), stated: "I do not claim that George's
remedy is a panacea that will cure by itself all our ailments. But I do claim that
we cannot get rid of our basic troubles without it." Despite the infusion of error
which his theory may contain, he will undoubtedly be remembered, as Arthur Birnie
said, for his belief in social justice, his fidelity to a social ideal. More than six
million copies of his books in English alone have been circulated, as well as trans-
lations in many languages.

For more information, consult D. C. Pcddcr, Henry George and His Gospel (1908),
A. N. Nichols, The Single Tax Movement in the United States (1916), C. B. Fille-
brown, Henry George and the Economists (1916), R. A. Sawyer, Henry George and
the Single Tax (a Catalogue of the Collection in the New York Public Library,
1926), Henry George, Jr., The Life of Henry George (1930), L. F. Post, The Prophet
of San Francisco (1930), G. R. Geiger, The Philosophy of Henry George (1933),
J. F. Muirhead, Land and Unemployment (1935; introduction by Garnet Smith),
Ernest Tcilhac, Pioneers of American Thought in the Nineteenth Century (translated
by E. A. J. Johnson, 1936), A. J. Nock, Henry George (1939), Arthur Birnie, Single-
Tax George (1939), and [L. F. Post], "The Single Tax," in The Encyclopedia
Americana. XXV (1941), pp. 34-39.

THREE IMPORTANT VOLUMES

Our Land and Land Policy, National and State (1871). Only forty-eight
pages, yet his first thorough attempt to set forth a solution to the problem of
"advancing poverty with advancing wealth." Advocated the abolition of land
monopoly by transferring all taxes from labor and its products into one tax on the
value of land, thereby solving the problem of absorbing the "unearned increment."
Proposal, made in the fifth section of pamphlet, later became known as the single
tax theory, more fully developed in

Progress and Poverty An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial De-
pressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth^ (1878). Logical,
comprehensive, scientific inquiry into the fundamental cause of industrial upsets
and involuntary poverty explains why tycoons and paupers multiply together, and
wherein lies the remedy to that man-made condition. Attacks the doctrine of Malthus,
and the "wages-fund" theory; advances the "unearned increment'* theory, that the
land value of every community is enough to pay all its necessary public expenses.
Was attacked and condemned by Thomas Huxley, Goldwm Smith, Leo XIII, Frederic
Harrison, John Bright, and Joseph Chamberlain. Examples of the Single Tax princi-
ples in application are found in such places as Canada, Brazil, Argentine, South
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. Order of 200,000-word
exposition could be improved; much of its matter irrelevant. On the whole, exposi-
tion clear, message attractive, thinking original and compelling, sincerity fervent.
This volume is the political bible of thousands.

Protection or free Trade (1885). An examination of the tariff question as it
affects the interests of labor; also, a persuasive attack upon free-trade fallacies. As
stated by D. C. Peddcr, the ultimate " 'robber' " of the working man's earnings is
Private Property in Land," and, as emphasized by G. R. Geiger, unrestricted laisscz-
fairt meant the abolition not only of tariffs but of all taxes, and demanded, in the
words of Henry George, "the treatment of the land as the common property in
usufruct of the whole people."

JOHN FISKE, 1842 1901, musician, Harvard lecturer, American history pro-
fessor at Washington University in St. Louis, letter-writer, popularizcr of American
history, philosopher. Value lies not in originality as an investigator, thinker, or

THE GILDED AGE 211

scholar, but in interpretation of the work of others; in facts well presented, style
lucidly attractive and almost magnetic, in characterization and in history dramatically
and philosophically presented. PHILOSOPHY: Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1874),
declared even twenty-five years later to be the best single interpretation of Herbert
Spencer, clearing away that thinker's alleged confusions and adding propositions,
including Fiske's important contribution to the theory of evolution that regarding
the prolonged period of human infancy when compared with the shorter infancy of
the lower animals. The Destiny of Man (1884), first and best of a scries, is an un-
folding of " 'the growing predominance of the psychical life,' " (thereby encouraging
a belief in Immortality), and is usually coupled with The Idea of God (1885), which
stressed the historic differences between the old and the new Theism: both works,
according to Fiske, contain the outline of a theory of religion to be elaborated upon
latei. Through Nature to God (1899), a plea for the junction of scientific and of
religious thought, with an emphasis on the universal roots of love and selfishness.
Life Everlasting (1901), a small posthumous book. HISTORY: The Critical Period
of American History, 1783-1789 (1888), his best interpretative work, and The
Beginnings of New England (1889), which, like the 1888 volume, employs the
Comtean ideas of sociological evolution as applied to American history. His best
scholarly contribution is The Discovery of Amenca (1892). Outdated is Civil Gov-
ernment in the United States (1890); of value as a military history is The American
Revolution (1891), much better organized than New France and New England
(posthumously, 1902). Fiskc wrote more than a dozen other works, including
Essays: Historical and Literary (two posthumous volumes, 1902), estimates of such
lives as Thomas Hutchinson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and Daniel
Webster.

WILLIAM JAMES, 18421910, psychologist, philosopher. Early philosoph-
ical thinking fought against Hegeliamsm and attempted to reconcile the British
empirical tradition, to which he adhered, with religion; middle period evaluated
moral, social, and religious questions; final period, his most productive, attempting
the achievement of a systematic philosophy, denied the existence of consciousness and
thereby began such movements as neo-realism and behaviorism. Irwm Edman and
H. W. Schneider declare as Kantian the background of his philosophy; R. B. Perry
believes that in its most general aspect the philosophy of William James is dedicated
to the doctrine of empiricism. As John Dewey puts it, William James's power of
literary expression has enriched philosophic literature. Just if commonplace is the
saying that of the pair of extraordinary brothers, the novelist Henry James (p. 200)
wrote like a psychologist, while the psychologist William wrote like a novelist.
Many of the latter's most popular books originally appeared as lectures before semi-
popular audiences.

VOLUMES

The Principles of Psychology^: (two volumes, 1890). Preface defines his "posi-
tivistic" method. Endeavors throughout work to prove that conscious experience is
connected from the start, and sets the foundations of his theory of experience.
Stream-of-thought conception docs for consciousness what his empiricism strives to
do for the field of experience. Sources include the works of Wundt, Helmholtz,
Fechner, James Ward, and Carl Stumpf. Deft in factual observation and psychologi-
cal introspection; successful convergence of empiricistic and idealistic elements.
Curiously, by virtue of citations from other psychologists, this is practically his only
work that is technical in style.

Psychology: Briefer Course (1892). Preface of this abridgment of his two-
volumed Principles avows that approximately two-fifths is either new or re-done,
while the rest is " 'scissors and paste/ "

The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897).
Doctrines influenced by Renouvier. Lead-article states thesis: "Our passional nature
not only lawfully may, but must, decide an option between propositions, whenever
it is a genuine option that cannot by its nature be decided on intellectual grounds."

212 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (1898).
Harvard University Ingersoll Lecture of 1897 examines the objection that thought
is a brain function, and defends the possibility of immortality.

Talks to Teacher $ on Psychology: and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals

(1899). Popular volume consists partly of addresses before women's colleges and in
the main of public lectures to teachers.

The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature t

(1902). Consolidates his spiritual resources, favors an empirical approach to religion.
Signalized, declares John Dewcy, "the function of his psychological method in a
definite philosophic attitude"; challenges, says J. M, Moore, the entire European and
"Platonic" tradition; is, declare Irwin Edman and H. W. Schneider, "one of the
most significant applications of his psychology of belief." Keen introspection, felici-
tous style.

Pragmatism: A New Way for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907).
Lowell Institute and Columbia University lectures, the preface to which differentiates
between "pragmatism" and "radical empiricism." Note that the conception of prag-
matism as a method may have begun with William James about two decades earlier
rather than with the publication of Psychology in 1890, as is generally believed.

A Pluralistic Universe (1909). Lectures given at Manchester College, Oxford.

The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to "Pragmatism" (1909). Significant for a
preface that defines "radical empiricism," explains James's relation to Schiller and
Dewey, and summarizes the subject of pragmatism.

On Some of Life's Ideals (1912). ''On a certain Blindness in Human Beings"
and "What Makes Life Significant?" are two essays among others in this popular
volume collected from previous works.

ESSAYS*

Letter on the Philippine Tangle (1899). Anti-imperialistic statement.

"Address on Philippine Question" (1903). Calls upon American liberals to
.stand firm as the party of conscience against imperialism.

"The Ph.D. Octopus" (1903). Laments the emphasis on the doctor's degree
as developmental of artificial standards.

"The Energies of Men" (1907). Deals, says Perry, "with the human reserves
brought into play in emergencies."

"The Moral Equivalent of War" (1910). Favors conscription of youth for
manual work as a substitute for war in order to develop discipline and other martial
virtues.

KDITED VOTAJMKK

Some Problems of Philosophy (edited by H. M. Kallen, 1911). Introductory
textbook in philosophy prepared by the editor from an unfinished manuscript.

Essays in Radical Empiricism (edited by R. B. Perry, 1912). Systematic en-
deavor to set forth the doctrine of radical empiricism, a term that may perhaps sym-
bolize the real message of James. Theme is often that of modified dualism. Eighth
essay, written in French, is a summary of James's attitude toward the epistcmological
problem.

Collected Essays and Reviews (edited by R. B. Perry, 1920). Includes: 'The
Psychological Theory of Extension" (1889), a compact reply to G. C. Robertson con-
cerning James's position as regards space perception. "Plea for Psychology as a
Natural Science" (1892) urges the explanation of "mental states" in terms of physi-
cal, organic, and physiological conditions. "The Physical Basis of Emotion" (1894),
a reassertion of the James-Lange theory of emotions and a reply to criticisms by
yuch men as Wundt and Lehmann,

THE GILDED AGE 213

The Letter $ of William Jame$ (edited by Henry James, two volumes, 1920).
Vivid, lucid, racy; wealth of illustration, variety of interest.

JACOB AUGUST RIIS, 18491914, Danish-born "police reporter, reformer,
useful citizen*'; "knight in the slums." Used flashlight and camera, lantern slides
and newspaper columns and reports to committees to attack Mulberry Bend tenement
conditions, excoriate social malpractice, expose municipal corruption, and work for
constructive reform. Most popular are How the Other Half Lives (1890), self-
explained by its title, and The Making of an American (1901), an appealing auto-
biography. Other books: The Children of the Poor (1892); Out of Mulberry Street
(1898); A Ten Years' War (1900); The Battle with the Slum (1902); Children of
the Tenements (1903); Is there a Santa Clans? (1904). Also wrote Theodore
Roosevelt: The Citizen (1904): it was T. R. who for years had assisted Jacob Riis.

WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN, 18601925, orator, advocate of rcc

silver, thrice an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency, Secretary of State during
Wilson's administration, militant defender of Fundamentalism: regarded by one group
as "an opportunist Galahad" (C. W. Thompson's characterization) and by another
as the "Great Commoner" (it was Bryan who founded The Commoner, a newspaper,
at Lincoln, Nebraska, in 1901). President F. D. Roosevelt has quoted Bryan's state-
ment: "I respect the aristocracy of learning. I deplore the plutocracy of wealth but
I thank God for the democracy of the heart"; and the President has added that it was
sincerity "which served him [Bryan] so well in his lifelong* fight against sham
and privilege and wrong." Concerning Bryan's attitude about the hypothesis of evo-
lution, H. E. Fosdick has labeled it "sincere but appalling obscurantism."

Fame came with Brvan's "Cross of Gold" speech at the 1896 Democratic national
convention at Chicago; his oration was fired by lucidity of language and contagion
of faith. A thick volume but thin production reporting his travels and speeches
during his campaign is The Ptrst Battle (1896); disfigured, according to E. L. Mas-
ters, by a biographical sketch by Mrs. Bryan, whose writing lacks quality and taste.
Bryan's James Sprunt Lectures were published in In Hit Image (1922), where the
bases for arguments, as outlined by T. V. Smith, are three large assumptions:
"(1) a distrust of human nature ubcrhaupt, (2) an undisguised emphasis upon hu-
man feelings as over against reflection, and (3) an extravagant optimism based upon
factors confessedly outside of human control." Other publications: Under Other
Flags (1904), A Tale of Two Conventions (1912), Famous Figures of the Old Testa-
ment (1923), Chnst and His Companions of the New Testament (1925). In 1925
appeared The Memoirs of William Jennings Bryan, "By Himself and His Wife, Mary
Baird Bryan."

JANE ADDAMS, 1865 1935, reformer, humanistic liberal, sociologist. Founder
in Chicago of Hull House (1889), the first social settlement of America; provider of
the first public playground in Chicago (1894). Branded a Pacifist in 1917; given
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. "If the under dog was always right," Floyd Dell
quotes Miss Addams as saying, "one might quite easily try to defend him. The
trouble is that very often he is but obscurely right, sometimes only partially right,
and often quite wrong, but perhaps he is never so altogether wrong and pig-headed
and utterly reprehensible as he is represented by those who add the possession of
prejudice to the other almost insuperable difficulties in understanding him."

Among hrr works: Democracy and Social Ethics\ (1902) is in fundamental agree-
ment with Tolstoy's point that the brotherhood of man must depart from mere lip
talk and arrive at the very heart of facts. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets^
(1909) reflects her sympathy with childhood. Twenty Years at Hull Houfc\ (1910)
was followed two decades later by The Second Twenty Yean at Hull Housed (1930),
which is an epitome of her generous, heroic work directed toward "a complete mobili-
zation of the human spirit." The Long Road of Woman's Memory (1916) is a
gem rcpublishcd in The Excellent Becomes the Permanent^ (1932), memorial ad-
dresses. She also wrote Newer Ideds of Peace (1907), A New Conscience and an
Ancient Evil (1912), and Peace and Bread in Time of War (1922; reprinted 1945).

CHAPTER XI

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN:

NOVELISTS AND SHORT-STORY

WRITERS

AMBROSE [GWINETT] BIERCE, 1842 c. 1914, jour-
nalist, critic, poet, short-story writer; 1 once overrated as "the one
commanding figure in America in our time/' 2 Born in Horse Cave,
Meigs County, Ohio. Attended the Kentucky Military Institute.
Enlisted (1861) in Company C of the Ninth Indiana Volunteers
and served throughout the Civil War. 3 Brevetted Major for dis-
tinguished service. To San Francisco, where he contributed to the
Argonaut and edited the News-Letter. Married Mary Ellen Day
(1871), who bore him two boys (Day, 1872; Leigh, 1874) and
one daughter (Helen, 1876) : the older son was murdered as a re-
sult of a love affair, the younger died of pneumonia. In England
(1872 1876), where he was a staff-member of Fun, where he
contributed to Hood's Comic Almanac, and where he published
under the pseudonym Dod Grile three compilations of biting, sar-
donic sketches in The Fiend's Delight (1872), Nuggets and Dust
Panned Out in California (1872), and Cobwebs from an Empty
Skull (1874) titles indicative of his taste for the macabre. Re-
turned to San Francisco (1876), where his column "Prattle/' 4
which had originated as "The Town Crier" in the News-Letter
(1869), was continued in the Argonaut (1877 1879) and in the
Wasp* (1881 1886), and finally found its way into Hearst's
Examiner (1887 1899), established him as literary dictator of

1 The Letters of Ambrose Bierce, edited by B. C. Pope, with a memoir by George Ster-
ling (1922); Twenty-One Letters of Ambrose Bierce, edited by Samuel Loveman
(1922); Carey McWilliams, Ambrose Bierce (1929); Walter Neale, Life of Ambrose
Bierce (1929); Vincent Starrett, Ambrose Bierce (1929); J. S.. Goldstein, "Edwin
Markham, Ambrose Bierce, and The Man With a Hoe/' MLN., LVIII (1943),
pp. 165-175.

2 Percival Pollard, Their Day in Court (1909), p. 238: revelatory of contemporaneous
opinion.

3 Several of his war stories have been traced to actual occurrences. Chief source about
Bierce himself is the Rolls of his regiment: Napier Wilt, "Ambrose Bierce and the
Civil War," AL., I (1929-1930), pp. 260-285.

4 Selections from Prattle, with a foreword by J. H. Jackson, and compiled by C. D. Hall
(The California Literary Pamphlets: Number Three, 1936).

5 Franklin Walker, The Wickedest Man in San Francisco (1941).

214

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN 215

the Pacific coast. 6 To Washington as Hearst correspondent 7 for
the New York American (1897). Contributed to Hearst's Cos-
mopolitan (1905 1909). Disappeared into Mexico (1913), where
probably a year later he died. 8

SHORT-STORY VOLUMES

Tales of Soldiers and Civilians^ (1891) ; retitled In the Midst
of Li/ef 9 (1892). Twenty-six grim horror tales. Examples: (1)
"A Horseman in the Sky," a vignette admirably constructed; as
brilliant as "A Son of the Gods,' 1 but attaining its conclusion by
the trick of somewhat remote coincidence. (2) "An Occurrence at
Owl Creek Bridge/' a psychological tour de force ingeniously de-
tailing the spectacular introspective escape of a Confederate spy
in the illusory interval between the adjusting of the noose and the
fall to the end of the rope. (3) "Chickamauga," stark in its realism,
of a deaf-mute child almost gamboling through a shell-torn battle-
field loaded with decaying bodies until the youngster comes upon
his burned-down house and his mother's bullet-stricken body.
(4) "A Son of the Gods," in which, sans conversation and sans
characterization, human emotions propel men to die the very
death the reconnoitering rider sacrifices himself to save them from :
as magnetic a study as "A Horseman in the Sky," and even sur-
passing the latter in artistry. (5) "One of the Missing," where the
menacing stare of an empty gun barrel which kills Jerome Searing
presents an opportunity to demonstrate such Biercean characteris-
tics as the evocation of stark horror, a bizarre plot told with simple
clarity, veridical description, devastating emotional tension, austere
verbal leashing, and accurate psychology. Should be compared with
the apotheosis of military fortitude as represented in "A Son of
the Gods." In a way, the story and its atavistic terror are remin-

On page 6 of his introduction to George Sterling's The Testimony of the Suns (1927),
Oscar Lewis has described Bierce as "our Rhadamanthus of letters, from whose de-
cision there was no appeal. With a scratch of his pen he made or broke reputations,
literary or otherwise."
The New York Journal, on February 4, 1901, printed four lines by Bierce:

"The bullet that pierced Goebel's breast

Cannot be found in all the West;

Good reason; it is speeding here

To stretch McKinley on his bier,"

which, it is said, may have inspired the assassination of McKinley.
The disappearance of "Bitter Bierce" renewed the stories about his name, including
those of marital incompatibility and the deaths of his two sons, and the legends that
he indulged in dismantling holy crosses and exhuming corpses. Of his actions or fate
after bis departure to Mexico, no authentic trace is available. For an account of the
various stories about his dramatic disappearance, see Carey McWilliaras, "The Mys-
tery of Ambrose Bierce," AM. t XXII (1931), pp. 330-337.

Each of the ten stories about soldiers in the first edition ends with the death of "the
young, the beautiful, and the brave," In the Midrt of Life added some stories and
omitted others*

216 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865*1914

iscent of "The Man and the Snake." Possibly influenced by Poe. 10
(6) "The Eyes of the Panther," an excellent terror tale of an ani-
mal's influence on a girl's life.

Can Such Things Be?j (1893). Twenty-four stories, one of tlu
most notable being 'The Death of Halpern Frayser," in which the
morbidity of the poem beginning "Enthralled by some mysterious
spell, I stood" contributes to the verisimilitude and unalloyed at-
mosphere of an intricately-developed tale.

POETRY COLLECTIONS*'

Black Beetles in Amber (1892) and Shapes of Clay (1903).
The first is a volume of epigrams in verse, bitter in strength, ob-
viously influenced by Horace, Juvenal, Dryden, Pope, and other
satirists; the second is another collection of satirical verse launched
at individuals. On the whole, his poetry is trivial and conventional.

Representative Poems : "An Invocation/' 12 anticipatory here
and there of Kipling's "Recessional"; "Another Way," "Re-
minded," "Geotheos," "The Passing Show/' " Presentment," "A
Word to the Wise," "Death of Grant."

OTHER WORKS

The Monk and the Hangman's Daughter ( 1892) . Unusual psy-
chological document of sustained horror skillfully adapted from
a German medieval romance. Simple, direct, almost flawless style.
Final version 13 differs in two or three ways from Der Monck voti
Berchtesgaden of Richard Voss, but is on the whole a literal or a
closely-paraphrased translation.

10 That Bierce was familiar with Poe is evident, for example, from the chess-player in
"Muxon s Master," a dramatic, even poweriu 1 , story; bui the two should not receive
the same classification. Where Poc's supernaturalism is unlicensed and a tour de
force, Bierce's is restrained, and resembles more the manner of Fits-James O'Brren
(p. ) than that of Poe: compare, as a case in point. "The Damned Thing" with
O'Brien's "What Was It ? " Bierce's horror tales are in the Gothic tradition, with tonal
echoes of "Monk" Lewis and Mary Shelley, of Maturin, Ingemann, and Hoffman.

No further proof is needed of Bierce's knowledge of Poe, but it is well to recall
the Poe Hoax^of 1899, when with Herman Scheffauer and Carroll Carrington. Bierce
conceived the plan of printing Scheffauer's "The Sea of Serenity" in the Examiner
as a poem by Edgar Allan Poe.

1 1 Antagonism to emotional utterance and impatience with sentimental reform account,
it is said, for Bierce's failure as a poet. I think it quite likely that his hatred of
romantic and sentimental poets may be traced to the revulsion which he must have
experienced in later years toward this idy/lic love affair (with his first love, Fatima
Wright] and the poems and letters in which it was commemorated," is the theory of
Carey McWilliams, "Ambrose Bierce and His First Love," Bookman. LXXV (1932),
p. 259 (pp. 254-259).

12 A judicious editorial evaluating the poem appeared in the San Francisco Examiner
of July 5, 1888; and is reprinted in full in An Invocation, with a critical introduction
by George Sterling, and an explanation by Oscar Lewis (1928), pp. 9-13.

13 Vincent Starrett declares the novelette to be the joint production of Bierce and G.
Ad^Iphe Danriger. Bierce attributes the first English version to Adoloh DeCastro
and therein lies a tale For the nature and extent of the collaboration, read Adolnh
DeCastro. "Ambrose Bierce as He ReaMy Was," AP.. XTV (October. 1926>, p. ^8 ff.
(pp. 28-44^; Adolph ^Castro, Portrait oi Ambro** Bieret M929>. rm. 275-279,
pp. 310-317; Carev McWilUams, Ambrose Bierrf (1929), pp. 215-218; Frank Mon-
aghan, "Ambrose Birrce and the Authorship of Tkt Monk and tfte Hangman's Daugh-
ter, jr., FT ri9in.i9in. PP. .117-349.

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN

217

Fantastic Fables (1899). Aesopian collection applied to contem-
poraneous economics and politics. Occasionally humorous, most
frequently cynical.

The Cynic's Word Book (1906) ; retitled The Devil's Dictionary

(1911). Collection of definitions, incisively astute, caustically
skeptical, and blisteringly ironic, addressed to those "who prefer
dry wines to sweet, sense to sentiment, wit to humor, and clean
English to slang," reflecting Bierce's nineteenth-century aversions
to labor unions, democracy, and socialism. 14

Antepenultimata (1909). Essays critical of our civilization.
Volume includes Ashes of the Beacon and The Shadow on the
Dial (1909).

SUGGESTED MERITS

1. Permanence rests on fewer
than a dozen stories; best are
founded on Civil War experiences.
Veridical approach and circumstan-
tial details create an atmosphere of
all-enveloping malignity and a phil-
osophy of ironic despair. Life-like
sketches.

2. Concerned less with terror than
with a mocking revelation of hu-
man weakness, ironic fright, and a
divination of atavistic, cosmic fear.
Master of the macabre tale.

3. Surprise endings justifiable in
some stories.

4. Intellectualized humor, com-
prised of extreme overstatement
and extreme understatement, fur-
nishes emotional relief.

5. At his best, acridity of phrase,
delicate sense of the shades of
meaning, verbal vigor and restraint,
a chiselled chastity and economy
of style. 15 Huge bulk of satirical
writing, often provocative.

SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Limitation of theme and mood.
Of more than threescore short
stories, only two or three deal with
a subject other than death. Im-
plausible, abnormal situations.
Pathological types rather than
emergent characters. Gothicism.

2. Ghoulish horror heaped upon
horror produces a revulsion of feel-
ing. Too many melodramatic ele-
ments. Over-used exclamation -
mark attitude.

3. Trick plots, snap denouements.

4. Facetiously, laboriously humor-
ous. Unbecoming jocularity; e.g.,
in "The Damned Thing" and in
"A Watcher by the Dead. 11

5. Ninety-five per cent of all his
writings is journalistic, of which
the larger bulk is polemical in na-
ture and trite. Fluency overflows
into claptrap work. Neither origi-
nal nor profound. No sustained
effort in the field of satire.

14 Bierce displayed an eruptive contempt for the masses: he ridiculed the trial-by-jury
system, attacked labor methods and unionization, and rejected Utopias and communism,

15 No prodigality of adjectives and adverbs bloats his sentences; no wayward saffron
imagery bedizens his verse. In his Wr\te It Right (1909) T Bierce gives a blacklist
of literary faults or Don't 3 for writers; but even a Prescriptive Grammarian n~ds.
When George Sterling queries whether or not the word "throbs used only four stanzas
earlier should be retained, Bierce answers: "Yes, sure." See eighth stanza on page 3
of the "Facsimile of the Original Manuscript" in George Sterling's The Testimony
of the Suns, introduction by Oscar -Lewis, with a memoir of Ambrose Bierce by A. M.
Bender (1927). The "Facsimile" has notes by George Sterling in black ink and com-
ments by Ambrose Bierce in red.

218 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

EDWARD BELLAMY, 18501898, short-story writer,
novelist. 10 Native of Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. One year at
Union College. To Europe (1868), Admitted to the bar in Hamp-
den County, Massachusetts. Staff-member of the New York Eve-
ning Post (1871). Editorial writer and book reviewer for the
Springfield Union (1872 1876). Connected with the Berkshire
Courier. Married Emma Sanderson. Birth of Paul (1884); of
Marion (1886). 17 Founded the Springfield Daily News (1880) ;
and the New Nation (1891). Lecturing, traveling, and writing on
behalf of Nationalism 18 contributed to the development of tuber-
culosis. After returning from Colorado, to which he had gone for
relief, he died at Chicopee Falls.

Writings include Six to One: A Nantucket Idyl (1878), a novel
resulting from a voyage to Hawaii; Miss Ludington's Sister
(1884), a romance as psychic as Dr. Heidenhoff's Process; The
Blindman's World and Other Stories (1898) ; 19 and

The Duke of Stockbridge (serialized, 1879; book form, 1900).
Proletarian-historical novel describes with accuracy the struggle
between debtor- farmers and their creditors, the background being
the Shays's Rebellion (1786 1787). 20

Dr. HeiJenhofl's Process (1880). Psychological account praised
by W. D. Howells as "one of the finest feats in the region of ro-
mance which I had known." 21

Looking Backward, or 2000 1887^ (1888). Utopian romance
is the vade mecum of Nationalism. Originally, planned as "a mere
literary fantasy, a fairy tale of social felicity" ; ultimately, "became

16 A. E. Morgan, Edward Bellamy (1944).

17 Bellamy confesses that he kept postponing the examination of society's economic
problem until the birth of his children "gave the problem of life a new and more
solemn meaning." Thus, "it was in the fall or winter of 1886 that I sat down to rny
desk with the definite purpose of trying to reason out a method of economic organiza-
tion by which the republic might guarantee the livelihood and material welfare of its
citizens on a basis of equality correspondng to and supplementing their political
equality. There was no doubt in my mind that the proposed study should be in the
form of a story." [The story became Looking Backward.} Edward Bellamy, "How
I Wrote 'Looking Backward/ " LHJ., II (April, 1894), p. 2. It has been noted that
Symxonia, probably by J. C. Symmes, anticipated "such instrumental Utopias of the
late nineteenth century as Bellamy's Looking Backward"'. J. O. Bailey, "An Early
American Utopian Fiction," AL.. XIV (1942-1943), p. 293 (pp. 285-293).

18 The first of the four characteristics of the Nationalist spirit and of the men and women
engaged in it is unselfishness. The second "is a tolerant and charitable attitude
toward the critical and the indifferent toward our opponents." Patriotism is third.
Finally, the Nationalist movement "must contain as a condition of success ... its
present spirit of conservatism as to methods, combined with uncompromising fidelity
to ends." Edward Bellamy, "Looking Forward/' Nationalist, II (1889), pp. 1-4.

19 Van Wyck Brooks, New England: Indian Summer, 1865-1915 (1940), pp. 384-388.

20 Occurring during the final quarter of the nineteenth century was an awakening inter-
est in social reform: in England, among others, were William Morris and Arnold
Toynbee; in Russia, Leon Tolstoy and Peter Kropotkin; in Germany, Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels; and, in America, Jane Ad dams.

21 In the prefatory sketch to The Blindman's World and Other Stories (1898), p. v
(pp. v-xiii). Therein, too, Howells declares that only by Hawthorne is Bellamy's
romantic imagination surpassed (p. xiii).

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN 219

the vehicle of a definite scheme of industrial reorganization/' 22
Provocative in its efforts to outline an American form of socialism
achieved by gradual and orderly democratic steps. 23 Influenced the
economic novels of W. D. Howells. 24

Equality (1897). Sequel to Looking Backward is a kind of eco-
nomic treatise with a filamentous plot. 25

FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD, 18541909, short-
story writer, playwright, literary critic, cosmopolitan novelist. 20
Born at Bagni di Lucca in northern Italy, the son of Thomas Craw-
ford, an eminent sculptor. Educated at St. Paul's School, Concord,
New Hampshire (18661869) ; at Cambridge, England (1870
1871) ; at Karlsruhe and at Heidelberg, Germany (18711873) ;
and at Rome. His study of Sanskrit in India, where he was con-
verted to Catholicism and where for almost two years he was editor
of the Indian Herald at Allahabad, was only one indication of his
bent for language-mastery, for he ultimately knew fifteen or more
tongues, including French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish,
Bohemian, Turkish, Russian, as well as Latin and Greek. To
America (1881), where he entered Harvard University, con-

22 Edward Bellamy, "How I Came to Write 'Looking Backward/ " Nationalist, I (1899),
pp. 1-4. See also, page 218, footnote 17.

23 The system advocated in Looking Backward is a modified form of socialism, to which
Bellamy gave the name Nationalism in order to avoid any potential tie-up to Marxism.
Fundamental principles of the plan of action included the nationalization of industries,
the attainment of both economic and political equality, the gradual acquisition by
peaceful methods of the means of production and distribution, and the appeal to every
class of society. Economic modifications are predicated upon education and under-
standing. Consult W. F, Phillips, "Edward Bellamy Prophet of Nationalism,"
WR., CL (1898). pp, 498-504; A. B. Forbes, "The Literary Quest for Utopia. 1880-
1900," SF., VI (1927-1928), pp. 182-184 (pp. 179-189); J. H. Franklin, "Edward
Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement," NEQ., XI, (1938), pp. 747-751 (pp. 739-
772); R. L. Shurter, "The Writing of Looking Backward," SAQ.. XXXVIII (1939),
pp. 255-261. In this connection, see also Edward Bellamy, " 'Looking Backward'
Again," NAR., CL (1890) pp. 351-363, an answer to the criticisms made by General
F. A. Walker in the February Atlantic; Mrs. J. B. Shipley, The True Author of
Looking Backward (1890), a pamphlet demonstrating the resemblance of Edward
Bellamy's ideas to those of August Bebel; and G. A. Sanders, Reality. Or Law and
Order vs. Anarchy and Socialism (1898), a reply to Looking Backward and Equality;
W. F. Taylor, The Economic Novel in America (1942), pp. 184-213; C. A. Madison,
"Edward Bellamy, Social Dreamer," NEQ., XV (1942). pp. 444-466; Elizabeth Sadler,
"One Book's Influence: Edward Bellamy's 'Looking Backward,' " NEQ., XVII (1944),
pp. 530-555.

24 W. F. Taylor, "On the Origin of Howells' Interest in Economic Reform," AL., II
(1930-1931), pp. 3-14.

25 Equality, says J. H. Franklin, "was an effort to develop many of the ideas suggested
in Looking Backward and to answer questions that had been raised since 1888";
unlike Looking Backward, which "had enough plot to carry the reader rather pleasantly
through the intricate economics of the future," states R. L. Shurter, "Equality is
. . . devoted to filling in the gaps in the social structure described in Looking Back-
ward/' W. D. Howells rated Equality as Bellamy's most inartistic work, concluding:
"I felt that it was not enough to clothe the dry bones of its sociology with paner
garments out of 'Looking Backward.'" Loc. cit. Franklin, p. 771; Shurter, p. 261;
Howells, p. xt.

26 F. T. Cooper, Some American Story Tellers (1911), pp. 1-26; Hugh Walpole, "The
Stories of Francis Marion Crawford," YR.. XII (1923), pp 674-691; M. H. Elliott,
My Cousin P. Marion Crawford (1934); Grace Chapman, "Francis Marion Crawford."
Z.M., XXX (1934), pp. 244-253; A. H. Quinn, American Fiction (1936), pp. &5-403.

220 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

tributed to the Critic and the New York World, and finally, at the
suggestion of his uncle, Samuel Ward, wrote the fame-bringing
Mr. Isaacs (1882). Went abroad, wintered at Constantinople, where
he was soon married, and at last settled permanently (c. 1884)
at Sorrento, on the Bay of Naples, where, except for occasional
visits to America, he spent the rest of his life largely in a villa
overlooking the Isles of the Sirens.

Of his more than twoscore novels the best are customarily said
to be his fifteen studies of Italian life, especially the Saracinesca
cycle about one Roman family out of which emerge real portraits
of such men as Saracinesca, Sant' Ilario, Giacinto, Spicca, and
Orsino.

STORIES OF CONTEMPORARY LIFE

(1) An American Politician (1884), superficial political novel
(2) The Three Fates (1892), faultily-constructed, repetitive, cyni-
cal, partly-autobiographical tale. (3) Katherine Lauderdale (1894),
as protracted as its sequel, The Ralstons (1895), but less melo-
dramatic.

Mr. Isaacs^' (1882). Story of British India, informed with the
exotic quality of an imagination as mystical as its atmosphere,
moves forward in a steady current of dramatic narration unim-
peded by lengthened conversations and philosophic discussions.
Style could be more even, construction could be less crude ; but
these possible imperfections are buried beneath an Oriental color-
ing that appealed to readers in a decade that was responding to
local-color fiction, beneath a new, strange environment that antici-
pated by several years the bold work of Kipling, and beneath a
fertile yarn told with sentiment and surging narrative flow.

GERMAN NOVELS

(1) Dr. Claudius'^ (1883), interesting plot, good dialogue,
clearly-drawn characters, fair construction, and well-bred tone;
also autobiographical. 27 (2) Greifenstein (1889), sentimental ro-
mance. (3) A Cigarette-Maker's Romance^ (1890), displays ex-
cellent sense of good melodrama, faithful tone, and perfect form. 28

HISTORICAL ROMANCES

(1) Zoroaster (1885), tragic tale; deft depiction of Jewish and
Persian characters. (2) Khaled (1891), effective supernaturalism,

27 A, B. Benson, "Marion Crawford's Dr. Claudius," SSN. t XII (1932-1933), pp. 77-85.

28 [Anonymous], "The Novels of Mr. Marion Crawford," BR. t CCIV (1906), pp. 63-72
(pp. 61-80).

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN

especially dramatic in its concluding part (3) ViaCrticis^ (1898),
realistic portrait-paintings of historical characters; story rapid in
movement but rather conventional; background artificial. (4) In
the Palace of the King^ (1900), adroitly-managed romance; while
swifter of movement than Via Crucis and more unified in spite of
complicated plot, is below the latter's level. (5) Marietta^ (1901),
competent in its characterization of Zorzi. (6) Arethusa (1907),
gracious love story. (7) Stradella (1909), improbable tale.

ITALIAN NOVELS

(1) A Roman Singer (1884), pleasant story, simple in style and
thin in plot, partly biographized by Crawford's own strivings at
opera singing. (2) To Leeward (1884), melodramatic tale. (3)
Marsio's Crucifix^ (1887), primarily a unified character study;
not completely free from melodrama and sentimentality. (4) Sara-
cinesca^ (1887), a love story set among high Italian society of
1865. Is the first of a series of novels treating of several genera-
tions of a patrician Italian family. (5) Sant' Ilario^ (1889), second
member of trilogy is more involved in plot than Saracinesca.
(6) Don Orsino^ (1892), third book in the Saracinesca series is
an interesting story of a genuine sacrifice. (7) Children of the
King (1892), village tragedy, with such adequately-realized per-
sons as Sebastino and Ruggiero. (8) Pietro Ghisleri (1893),
elaborate, involved, yet persuasive plot. (9) Casa Braccio (1895),
realistic and emotional in earlier part, and memorably common-
place in second part. (10) Taquisara (1896), a story of attempted
defraudation. (11) The Heart of Rome (1903), competently real-
istic characterizations of Sabina Conti. (9) Corleone (1896), an
inferior sequel in the Saracinesca series. (10) The White Sister
(1909), an appealing story.

OTHER WRITINGS

The Novel: What It Jkf (1893). Monograph is a genuine con-
tribution to the literature of criticism. Evaluates the novel as "a
marketable commodity," the first object of which "is to amuse and
interest the reader." States that in "art of all kinds the moral les-
son is a mistake" ; regards the purpose-novel as "a violation of the
social contract." The novel should deal largely with love. "What
am I, a novel-writer, trying to do? I am trying to make little pocket-
theatres out of words." 29 His own works exemplify these theories.

Wandering Ghosts (1911). Collection of seven ocean ghost-
tales, the creepiest of which is "The Upper Berth."!

29 F. M. Crawford, Tht Novel: Wh*t It Is (1893). pp. 8, 11. 18. 19. 57,

222 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. His forty-five novels testify to 1. Neither an original nor even
a sane cosmopolitan knowledge of an interesting philosophy of life is
history, architecture, politics, and present in his intellectually-novel-
life. He is a conservative historian ized world. Never are his ideas or
of a glamorous past set in back- conclusions brilliant, daring, or un-
grounds selected from the world usual; always they are deficient in
over and, in many cases, variegated any kind of social message. As
by personal observation. F. M. Chapman says, he "has become the
Crawford is "the historian of a historian of a dead past."

dead past"

2. In moving actions lies his forte, 2. All the devices of melodrama
to which are coupled a deft and an are utilized by his plots, which on
astonishing narrative power and occasion are slight in development,
unremitting zest. His novels are merely journaliza-
tions.

3. Excellent characterization of 3. Crawford's heroes are a bit too
honest gentlemen and idealistic noble and his women too wooden.
women. Like his settings, his char- Lacking concreteness, his charac-
acters are frequently outgrowths terizations are somewhat general
of personal knowledge. and indistinct.

4. Style is easy and flowing, lucid 4. Style is shallow and without
and bright, spiced by energy and .distinction. Specifically in the his-
gusto. Convincing dialogue. 'torical novels is his dialogue dull.

H[ENRY] C[UYLER] BUNNER, 18551896, novelist,
short-story writer, master of vers de societe^ Born at Oswego,
New York. Editor of (1878 1896) and chief contributor to Puck.
Died at Nutley, New Jersey.

As a novelist, he will not be remembered ; as a short-story writer,
he pioneered with sketches of New York life, foreshadowing the
work of O. Henry (p. 268) and contributing much towards the
perfection of short-story mechanics; as a poet, he is painstaking
and charming, spontaneous and hearty, and adept and fecund in
difficult French verse forms.

NOVELS

(1) A Woman of Honor (1883). Immature work founded on
his unacted drama Faith, regarded by the author himself as artifi-
cial or even theatrical. (2) The Midge (1886). Admirably indi-
vidualized are the New York bachelor-doctor and his orphan waif
in this charming novelettish story, the locale of which is the French
quarter of the City. (3) The Story of a New York House ( 1887) .
From their mansion in Greenwich Village to impoverished extinc-
tion go three generations of the Dolphs. Structurally inferior to

30

Sl W ^ Wclls V I fe nry> Ct y lcr Bunner," SR. f V (1897), pp. 17-32; Brander Matthews,
The Historical Novel and Other Essays (1901), pp. 165-189; Brander Matthews,
Recreations of an Anthologist (1904). pp. 186-208; G. E. Jensen, The Life and Let-
ters of Henry Cuyler Banner (1939).

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN 223

The Midge, but stylistically superior. (4) The Runaway Browns
(1892). Anemic and characterless, but fairly clever and not un-
pleasant tale of the adventures of Paul and Adele, a young puppet-
like couple who ultimately discover the bluebird of happiness at
their own drab hearth.

SHORT STORIES

"A Letter and a Paragraph," a vigorous and pathetic tale that
appeared in In Partnership (1884), written in collaboration with
Brander Matthews ; "Zadoc Pine," the lead-tale in Zadoc Pine and
Other Stories (1891), described by B. W. Wells as "full of the
healthiest naturalistic inspiration and the most proudly confident
Americanism" ; "Square-Five Fathom," which deserves wider
recognition; "Natural Selection: A Romance of Chelsea Village
and East Hampton Town," anathema to those who believe in a
classless society. The volume More "Short Sixes" (1894) was a
carefully finished group of stories that succeeded the more
vitalized

"Short Sixes" (1891). Tales totaling a baker's dozen have been
admired for their deft cleverness and piquant individuality, their
effective character sketches and telling situations, their native fer-
tility and interpretative artistry. Avowedly influenced by the conies
of Maupassant. Best-known are "Colonel Brereton's Aunty,"
^The Two Churches of 'Quawket," "Zenobia's Infidelity," "The
Tenor," which is ankle-deep in tragedy rather than in broad fun,
and "The Love-Letters of Smith," basically no more funny than
"A Letter and a Paragraph," even though the undi seeming may
laugh at the "shattering of an ideal" in the latter, and at the episto-
lary wooing of the "little seamstress" in the former.

"Made in Trance": Trench Tales Told with a United States Twist

(1893). Collection of ten of Maupassant's stories* 1 that captures
the spirit and the form of the French originals without being a
literal translation; if the stories fail, it is not attributable to any
deficiency in construction or competent compactness or humorous
touch, but in ephemerality. Yet this volume and Love in Old
Cloathes and Other Stories (1896), which contains seven stories,
in some ways represent his best work as a prose artist.

Jersey Street and Jersey Lane (1896). Tales and essays possess
a strength ripened by a mellow maturity of perception and delicacy.

31 His debt to Guy de Maupassant is clear, yet Bunner's stories are usually so Ameri-
canized that they are more like his than those of the Frenchman. Compare, for ex-
ample, the treatment of "Father Dominick's Convert" with its French counterpart,
the "Confession de Theodule Sabot."

Furthermore, giving play to "a spirit of tricksy humor that Maupassant would
have appreciated, the most French of all these ten tales 'with a United States twist'
is not derived from the French but is Bunner's own invention a fact no reviewer
of the volume ever knew enough to find out." Brander Matthews, The Historical
Novel and Other Essays (1901), p. 179 (pp. 165-189).

224 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

POETRY

Airs from Arcady and Elsewhere (1884) is composed of about
tifty graceful, unenergized poems ; Rowen: "Second-Crop" Songs
(1892), another volume of verses, is stylistically somewhat firmer
of touch ; The Poems of H. C. Bunner (1896) is his final collection.
His flowing style is clever and polished ; his verses are wholesome
in their humor and kindly in their satire.

REPRESENTATIVE POEMS

"Behold the Deeds" (1878), a chant-royal voiced by Adolphc
Culpepper Ferguson, whose landlady's simple expedient keeps him
within his room on Saturday nights ; "Atlantic City," an agreeable
explanation of his displeasure with that city; "Holiday Home"
and "Robin's Song," two lilting lyrics; "The Appeal to Harold,"
the vigor and the originality of which have been commented upon ;
"Yes" and "Candor," a couple of humorous love poems; "To Her,"
a happy lyric; "Da Capo," revelatory of the irony of love as
"Strong as Death" is of love and death ; "A Pitcher of Mignon-
ette," a triolet; "The Chaperon" and "She Was a Beauty," two
of his better-known kindly, familiar poems ; and "Shake, Mulleary
and Go-ethe," approved by Alfred Kreymborg.

OTHER NOVELISTS AND SHORT-STORY WRITERS

JOHN WILLIAM DE FOREST, 18261906, realistic writer. Best fic-
tional work, Miss Ravenel's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty^ (1865; 1867),
a study of the Civil War, excellent in its characterization of Mrs. Larue, Lieutenant-
Colonel John Carter, and Lillic Ravenel, surely among the earliest realistic heroines
in American fiction. Excellent non-fictional book, History of the Indians of Connecti-
cut (1851), not yet superseded as a source for information about that state's tribes.
Other novels: Witching Times (1857), Seacltff (1859), Overland (1871), Kate Beau-
mont (1872), Irene the Missionary (1879), the locale of each being respectively
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Mexico and California, South Carolina, and Syria.
The Wetherel Affair (1873), a mystery novel; Honest John Vane (1875) and
Playing the Mischief (1875), political stories; The Bloody Chasm (1881) and A
Lover's Revolt (1898), the former a Civil War romance, the latter a Revolutionary
War novel; Oriental Acquaintance (1856) and European Acquaintance (1858), ac-
counts of his years abroad in England, Germany, Italy, and the Near East (1846
1848, 18501855).

FITZ-JAMES O'BRIEN, c. 18281862, Irish-born journalist, poet, play-
wright, and story writer. Arrived in New York in 1852. A Gentleman from Ireland
(1854) kept the stage for forty years. Ballads of Ireland (1856) and The Poems and
Stones of Fits-fames O'Bnen (edited by William Winter, 1881) make available
verses, for the most part jingling and commonplace, and short stories, at their best
crisply written and rococo, yet also stilted Iv conversational and fatuously sentimental.
Obligations to Hoffman arc evident in "The Wondersmith/'t in which Herr Hippe
is burned to death because wooden puppets become inhabited by souls escaping when
the stopper has accidentally fallen out of the imprisoning bottle; his debt to Poe
is apparent in "The Lost Room,'* ghoctly with its visitants, gloom v in its setting,
weird in its music. Other stories of the uncanny are "Mother of Pearl." where a
hashish -eating woman murders her child and tries to knife her sleeping spouse;
"The Bohemian," with mesmerism as its subject; "A Terrible Night,'* where a
dreamer swings an axe on his best friend; "What Was It?,"t the story of a dangerous,

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN 225

invisible presence; and "The Diamond Lens,"t where the inventor goes mad after
his atomic, sylph-like inamorata dies soon after the evaporation of the water-drop in
which she is enclosed.

LEW [IS] WALLACE, 18271905, soldier, lawyer, diplomat, painter, poet,
novelist; described by A. J. Beveridge as "dreamer of beautiful dreams for better
things for his fellow-men; and wieldcr of a sword and pen which helped those dreams
come true." NOVELS: The Fair God (1873), a historical work that brought recog-
nition; Ben Hur: A Tale of the Chnst\ (1880; dramatized 1899), a romantic best seller
that has been translated into European and Oriental languages, and transcribed in
braille; The Prince of India (1893), founded on the story of the Wandering Jew.
Commodus (1877), a play, later became part of The Wooing of Matfatoon (1898),
a protracted poem. Last page of his two-volume Lew Wallace: An Autobiography
(1906) is signed S. E. W.; the work m some measure is probably that of his wife,
Susan Elston Wallace.

S[ILAS] WEIR MITCHELL, 18291914, nerve specialist, medical writer,
poet, novelist. Psychological analysis plays an important role in such novels as In War
Time (1885), Roland Blake (1886), Characteristics (1892), Dr. North and His
Friends (1900), Circumstance (1901), Constance Trescot (1905), John Sherwood:
Iron Master (1911), and West ways (1913). The French Revolution is the background
of picaresque The Adventures of Francois (1898); post -Revolutionary Philadelphia,
of The Red City (1907); colonial Philadelphia, of his greatest historical novel, Hugh
Wynne: Free Quaker^ (1897). Other volumes: The Hill of Stories and Other Poems
(1883), Cup of Youth and Other Poems (1889), and Philip Vernon: A Tale in Prose
and Verse (1895). Most rewarding poems are "Lines to Deserted Study" (1856)
and "Ode on a Lycian Tomb" (1899).

FRANK R. [or FRANCIS RICHARD] STOCKTON, 18341902,
novelist, short story writer. CHIEF BOOKS: Rudder Grange (1879), humorous novel
followed by such sequels as The Rudder Grangers Abroad (1891), Pomona's Travels
(1894), and John Gayther's Garden (1902), contains an entertaining portrayal of a
phase of American life, written in a droll vein. The Lady or the Tiger and Other
Stories (1884), its title piece becoming sensationally popular; its continuation, "The
Discourager of Hesitancy," is less well known. The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and
Mrs. Aleshine (1886), an almost thrilling fantasy or novelette, simple in plot; its
sequel is The Dusantes (1888). Other writings arc: The Late Mrs. Null (1886), an
ingeniously-plotted, amusing novel; The Great War Syndicate (1889), an excellent
tale; Ardis Claverden (1890), a pretentious work; The Adventures of Captain Horn
(1895), where two rcmemberablc characters arc Mrs. Horn and Mrs. Cliff; Mrs.
Cliff's Yacht (1896), which is soon hot upon the traillcss sea in pursuit of pirates;
The Great Stone of Sardis (1898), a droll novelette of the dominating Mrs. Black;
Personally Conducted (1889), a formal travel book; Kate Bonnet (1902), a strongly-
told, satirical romance of a pirate's daughter, now related in a restrained, now in a
swashbuckling manner. CHILDREN'S BOOKS: Ting-a-ling (1870), Roundabout
Rambles in Lands of Fact and Fancy (1872), Tales Out of School (1875), A lolly
Fellowship (1880), The Story of Viteau (1884). SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS:
The Floating Prince and Other Tales (1881), A Christmas Wreck (1886), The Bee-
Man of Orn and Other Fanciful Tales (1887), The Queen's Museum (1887), Amos
Killbright: His Adscitttious Experiences, with Other Stories (1888), The Clocks
of Rondaine (1892), The Watchmaker's Wife (1893), Fanciful Tale* O894), A
Chosen Few (1895), A Story -Teller's Pack (1897), Afield and Afloat (1900), The Magic
Egg (1907). INDIVIDUAL SHORT STORIES: "Our Story," "The Queen's Museum,"
"The Griffin and the Minor Canon," "The Transferred Ghost," "The Philopcna,"
"Amos Killbriflht," "Lost Dryad/' "The Spectral Mortgage," "The Rcmarkablr
Wreck of the Thomas Hyke."

ALBION WINEGAR TOURG&E, 18381905, Ohio-born writer, utilized
his experiences as a Union officer, carpetbagger, editor, jurist, and diplomat to attack
race prejudice, champion Negro rights, and propagandize political beliefs about post-
war Reconstruction through realistically-depicted if tractlike novels; and was variously

226 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

followed in treatment of the era by C. F. Woolson (p. 179), T. N. Page (180),
G. W. Cable (p. 175), J. C. Hams (p. 172), G. E. King (p. 181), and Ellen Glasgow
(p. 270). 'Toinette (1874), repubhshed as A Royal Gentleman (1881), a study of
the love of a Southern attorney for his octoroon slave; covers the period 1858 1867;
makes the point that the Southerner regards 'Toinette as chattel. Figs and Thistles
(1879), semi-autobiographical, and possibly a disguised account of J, A. Garficld.
A Fool's Errand^ (1879), semi -autobiographic novel recording his doctrinal beliefs
about the post-war South and his growing disillusionment with the methods of
Reconstruction. Bricks without Straw (1880), another story of reconstruction: mar-
riage to Molhe Ainslie, a New England schoolteacher, converts Hesden Le Mayne,
a Southerner, to a Yankee point of view about social and economic betterment of
Negroes. ]ohn Eax and Mamelon (1882), local-color novelettes of the reconstruction
era in the South. Pactolus Prime (1890), less persuasive than 'Toinette as a study
of the relationship between the Negro and the White. An Appeal to Caesar (1884),
a political tract written to influence Republican policies as respects an educational
system in the South. The Continent (18821884), a weekly literary magazine which
showed his dislike of the Ku Klux Klan, as did his Eighty-nine (1888), "a prognos-
tication of the year to come,"

EDWARD NOYES WESTCOTT, 18461898, successful Syracuse banker.
David Harum, A Story of American Life (1898), a posthumously published novel
described by blurbs of the day as having a slight but clearly defined plot, as being
a gold mine of pregnant philosophy, as presenting a character realistically wrought
out, and as winning affection by its humanity. The Teller (1901) includes a short
story, his letters, and an account of his life.

RICHARD HARDING DAVIS, 18641916, journalist, playwright, ro-
mancer. Most famous are Gallegher and Other Stories (1891), Van Bibber and Others
(1892), and Ranson's Folly (1902). Among his two dozen plays are The Orator of
Zephata City (1899), The Dictator (1904; 1906), "Miss Civilization" (1905; 1906),
The Galloper (1909), and The Zone Police (1914). Books of travel and correspond-
ence include The West from a Car-Window (1892), About Paris (1895), Three
Gringos in Venezuela and Central America (1896), Cuba in War Time (1897),
With Both Armies in South Africa (1900), With the French in France and Salonika
(1916). Soldiers of Fortune (1897) and The Bar Sinister (1903) are representative
novels.

FRANCES [ELIZA] HODGSON BURNETT, 18491924, Anglo-
American novelist. That Lass o' Lowrte's^ (1877), a novel of the coal mines in the
'Tit" district of Yorkshire, and Little Lord Fauntleroy (1886), popular among 1 children,
arc her most famous. Esmeraida (1881), a novel dramatized by William Gillette;
Sara Crewe> or What Happened at Miss Minchin's (1888), a dramatization of an early
book; Edithas Burglar (1888), Augustus Thomas' dramatization of her story;
A Lady of Quality (1896), later dramatized; The Making of a Marchioness (1901),
a small book; The Shuttle (1907), the basis of which is an international marriage,
was finished after much difficulty; A Fair Barbarian (1881), which puts a Western girl
into an English town; The Secret Garden (1911), often regarded as a Christian Science
book as is The Dawn of a To-morrow; White People (1917), which she herself de-
scribed as "a strange story perhaps, but it says things which will perhaps make love
seem near, even when, to mortal sense, it is far away.'*

HAROLD FREDERIC, 18561898, whose general theme and general group
of characters are repeated in every novel except such romantic works about Eng-
lish life as March Hares (1896), Gloria Mundi (1898), The Market Place (1898),
and, primarily, The Damnation of Theron Ware} (1896), an unevenly-written novel
understanding in its delineation of an unsophisticated Methodist preacher and critical
of an Evangelical sect. Semi-autobiographical is the superficially realistic Scth's
Brother's Wife (1887); anticipatory of The Damnation of Theron Ware is The
Lawton Girl (1887); sympathetic with Abolitionism is The Copperhead (1894);
historical are In the Valley (1890), which is concerned with the Revolutionary War,
and Marscna and Other Stories of the Wartime (1895), concerned with the Civil

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN 227

War. Among his outdated writings arc The Young Emperor: William II of Germany
(1891), The New Exodus (1892), Mrs. Grundy (1896), and The Return of the
O'Mahoney (1898).

HENRY BLAKE FULLER, 18571929, who with mild irony and gentle
humor wrote novels of Italy and of his native Chicago. POETRY: The New Flag
(1899), vulgar diatribes against such public figures as McKinlcy, Theodore Roosevelt,
and Lodge; Lines Long and Short (1917), brief biographies in free verse. DRAMA:
The Puppet-Booth (1896), a series of short, deft, aphoristic, pictorial, symbolic, and
dramatic sketches, is a return to his earlier romantic mood of 1891 and 1892; The
Fan (1925) and The Coffee House (1925), both translated from Goldoni. SHORT
STORIES: From the Other Side (1898), four tales with a transatlantic setting; The
Last Refuge (1900), a whimsical fable of the City of Happiness, is a return to his
idealistic manner; Under the Skylights (1901), three satires upon the cultural pre-
tensions of his native city, including in "The Downfall of Abner Joyce* a picture of
Hamlin Garland; Waldo Trench and Others (1908), like the 1898 volume, concerned
with Europeans and Americans travelling abroad, chiefly in Italy. NOVELS: The
Chevalier of Pensieri-Vani (1890), a masterpiece of episodes quaint of incident, deli-
cate of structure, and high in irony, was followed by The Chatelaine of La Trinitt
(1892), akin in form and structure, similarly flavored by a romantic mood and an
ageless satire: both, it is said, influenced Thornton Wilder's The Cabala (1926).
The Chff-Dwellers (1893), a realistic novel of bourgeois strivings and high society.
With the Procession (1895), another indictment of social and economic Chicago life.
On the Stairs (1918), a sardonic picture of a self-made American drawn to exemplify
Fuller's made-to-order theory of novel -compounding 1 . Bertram Cope's Year (1919),
a delicate and an unprogressive handling of a perilous theme, a one-year association
of a University of Chicago instructor and a hermaphroditic young man. Gardens of
This World (1929), a poised, romantic continuation of his earlier novels. Not on
the Screen (1930), an acid satire of the self-made Embert Howcll and of the hack-
neyed formulas of motion pictures.

CHARLES MONROE SHELDON, 1857 , pastor, editor, novelist.
Of his three-dozen books, it is In His Steps (serial, 1896 1897; book form, 1897),
which has been published in a score of languages and which sold over twenty-two
million copies (many of these arc said to have been distributed free by religious
organizations). It is the story of a modern minister who acts out the thesis, "What
Would Jesus Do ? " Only the Bible and Shakespeare have had a wider distribution.

PAUL LEICESTER FORD, 18651902, novelist, historian, bibliographer.
HISTORY: The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (ten volumes, 18921894); The True
George Washington (1896). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Websteriana (1882); Some Materials
for a Bibliography of the Official Publications of the Continental Congress (1888).
NOVELS: The Honorable Peter Stirling (1894), generally recognized as a portrait
of Grover Cleveland; The Story of an Untold Love (1897), unsatisfactory in its char-
acterization of women; Janice Meredith (1899), a novel of New Jersey life that
reaches into Revolutionary Philadelphia as well as into Virginia and New York, and
authentic in its colonial atmosphere, but also sentimental.

DAVID GRAHAM PHILLIPS, 1867 1911, playwright, essayist, reformer,
journalist. His twenty-three novels, frequently motivated by sex elements in order
to enhance reader-interest, are documentations of the commercial, political, and
social relations at the turn of the century, their purposes being 1 an exposure of evils
and the indoctrination of "an ideology compounded of democracy, nationalism, and
socialism" (J. C. McCloskey).

The Great God Success (1901), which modified Joseph Pulitzer's liking for Phillips,
is a bold presentation of the man-woman relationship and of the business frauds of
modern Croesuses. The Golden Fleece (1903), through its theme of a fortune-hunting
earl lashed out at European democracy. The Master-Rogue (1903), the autobiography
of a great financier. The Cost (1904), nucleated by die effect of a secret marriage,
deals a bit melodramatically with business chicanery and political intrigue. The Plum
Tree^ (1905), a well-sustained study of a political boss, Tfo Social Secretary (1905),

228 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

deals with romance and snobbery in Washington, just as The Delude (1905) does
with those same elements and also with Wall Street manipulation in New York.
Light-Fingered Gentry^ (1907), about insurance scandals. The Second Generation^
(1907), about the successful Hiram Ranger, whose story focuses the conflict between
the evils of wealth and the virtues of toil. The Fashionable Adventures of Joshua
Craig (1909), whose portrait of Margaret Severance helped cause the murder of
Phillips, blends a bit of national corruption with a larger portion of love. Old Wives
for New (1908), meritorious in its description, characterization, and perhaps in its
theme that the loss of a husband's love coincides with the loss of a woman's beauty.
The Hungry Hearth (1909), a convincingly- and dramatically-told romance, much
better done than White Magic (1910). The Husband's Story (1910), about feminine
social ambitions as related by Godfrey Loring. The Price She Paid (1912), resem-
bling Susan Lenox in its tale of a woman's struggle for independence. Susan Lenox;
Her Fall and Rise\ (1908; 1917), his greatest novel, an epic of slum life, political
corruption, and a courtesan's struggle for independence.

Also published: The Reign of Guilt (1905), muckraking articles; The Worth of
a Woman (1908), one-act play about a woman who will not use her pregnancy to
force a man into marriage.

[BENJAMIN] FRANK [LIN] NORRIS, 18701902, born in Chicago,
settled in San Francisco (1884), studied art in London and Pans (1887 1889),
attended the University of California (1890 1894), where his writings were regarded
as lacking "syntactical perfection," went to Harvard (1894 1895), acted as a
reporter in South Africa (1895 1896), remained for two years a staff member of
the Wave, a genuine force in San Francisco journalism, was a correspondent during
the Spanish-American War, and became connected with Doubleday, Page, and Com-
pany, which he persuaded to publish Dreiser's Sister Came (p. 269). His many
limitations as a technical novelist and as a social philosopher unable to conceal his
merits: he is sincere, vigorous, daring; he is a hater of special privilege; tersely,
beneath his self-conscious, credible, novelistic world of realism is a heart of roman-
ticism. NOVELS: Moran of the Lady Lftty (1898), a Stevensonian-Kiplmgesquc sea
romance of adventure off the coast of California, its splashmess of writing and reck-
lessness of plausibility amply redeemed by a stress on detail and a moderate power
of movemenj illustrative of the Norris to come. McTeague\ (1899), the first publi-
cation of which was criticized for the accident that happens to Owgooste, an event
deleted from subsequent editions, is astonishingly authentic in its study of an ani-
malistic San Francisco dentist, of human greed and environmental sordidness, although
C. H. Grattan rates its ending as incongruous and melodramtic. Blix (1900), a
partly autobiographic story of his wooing of Jeannette Black, whom he married, pic-
tures clearly and buoyantly the San Francisco of the late nineties as well as his own
experiences. A Man's Woman (1900), popular, highly-keyed novel of Arctic explora-
tion obviously influenced by Zola: often quoted is the author's own description of it
as "a kind of theatrical sort with a lot of niggling analysis to try to justify the
violent action of the first few chapters." The Octopus\ (1901), the first of his
"Epic of the Wheat" trilogy (followed by The Pit, where the product was marketed,
and The Wolf, where the wheat was eaten the latter of which was never written),
is, despite some disjointedness and a melodramatic anticlimax, a well-organized, mul-
tiple drama, the principal action being the struggle between the wheat growers and
the Southern Pacific Railroad for the fertile San Joaquin Valley: frank in its sexual
imagery, its massive allegory is concerned with the economic forces operative in a
segment of American life. The Pit (1903), decidedly thinner in its theme and even
in its realism than The Octopus, is a romance of the business struggle in the Chicago
grain market. The Wolf, left unwritten, was to present a European famine relieved
by the importation and consumption of American wheat: the preceding two volumes
had dealt respectively with the production and the distribution. Vandover and the
Brute\ (1894 1895; posthumously, 1914), novel with a San Francisco background,
noted by P. H. Bixler as possessing a starkly realistic yet essentially juvenile theme, is
a Zolaistic portrayal of degeneration, even if not too progressively motivated: the
dominant theme, states W. F. Taylor, is "the outbreak of destructive passion even

DEMOCRACY AND THE COMMON MAN

within the pale of civilized society" (cf. with Norris' Lauth, a two-part tale of the
brute instinct to kill that bursts out of the supposedly civilized student Lauth).

MISCELLANEOUS: Yvernelk (1891), a jingling narrative poem in three cantos,
written while at the University of California, as were such other adventures in verse
as "Brunhilde" (1890) and "Crepusculum" (1892); A Deal in Wheat, and Other
Stories of the New and Old World (1903), collected from Everybody's, Century,
Collier's Weekly, New York Herald, and elsewhere; The Responsibilities of the
Novelist (1903), a statement of his artistic credo, and other literary essays: e'.g., "The
Novel with a 'Purpose* " discusses methods and principles he followed in writing The
Octopus: to Norris, the noblest form of the novel is the sociological type; The joyous
Miracle (1906), a novelette; The Third Circle (1909), stories collected from the
Wave, Argonaut, Smart Set, and other publications; Fran% Norris of The Wave
(1931), short fiction.

JACK [or JOHN GRIFFITH] LONDON, 18761916, sociological es-
sayist, short-story writer, novelist.

From 1900 on Jack London wrote three plays, entitled Scotn of Woman (1906),
Theft (1910), and The Acorn Planter (1916); several general books, such as Revo-
lution (1910), a baker's dozen of sociological and other essays, and The Cruise of
the Snarly, sixteen articles on the South Sea; and about forty novels and short-story
collections. Often lacking are evenness and quality of writing; usually his novels
are a string of short stones that tie up a single talc.

NOVELS: A Daughter of the Snows (1902), an episodic novel revealing his
inability to picture "any woman above the working class" and "his conception
of the supremacy ot the Anglo-Saxon race." The Call of the Wild\ (1903), capital
episodic talc of the dog Buck affirms London's belief in adaptation as the only means
of survival and his emphasis on atavism. This novel, influenced by E. R. Young's
My Dogs in the Northland, has freshness ot romance and realism of atmosphere.
The Sea-Wolf (1904), successful in its opening chapters but weak toward the end
of the book, perhaps even marred by the introduction of Maude Brcwster, this novel
makes an attack on the Nictzschean superman idea by telling of the literary-minded
Humphrey Van Weyden who falls into the power of a sea-captain, Wolf Larsen, the
incarnation of Nietzsche's primitive, ruthless blond beast. The Game (1905), a well-
conceived, tragically-ending picture of the trade of prizefighting, influenced Gene
Tunney temporarily to abandon his career. Compare The Game with The Abysmal
Brute (1913), another brief prize-fight novel. Before Adam (1906), influenced con-
siderably by Stanley Waterloo's The Story of Ab, is a dramatization of evolution and
the life of prehistoric people. White Fang (1906), a dog-book tract that may belong
with the "nature-faking" against which Theodore Roosevelt campaigned. The Iron
Heel\ (1908), the only American book listed by Bukharin iu his full bibliography
on communism, is a remarkable prophecy of a fascist revolution in 1932 and re-
affirms his faith in an ultimate cquahtarian golden age. Martin "Eden\ (1909), semi-
autobiographical novel popularly, perhaps mistakenly, regarded as an indictment of
individualism, of the Nictzschean superman idea. Burning Daylight (1910), an
idealistic success story episodically brilliant; socialistic ideas in the latter half of book
are propaganda, but made an integral part of the novel. Smofo Bcllew (1912),
Christopher Bellew's adventures in the Klondike. John Barleycorn^ (1913), simple*
moving autobiographical novel is a tract against alcoholic drink. The Valley of the
Afoowt (1913), a propagandizing novel, parts of which are excellent; it contains, in
the opinion of Irving Stone, the greatest thinking and writing of Jack London. The
Star Rover\ (1915), an underrated novel. Jerry of the Islands (posthumous, 1917),
5 pleasant story of an Irish setter pup's adventures in the New Hebrides.

SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS: The Son of the Wolf\ (1900), eight of its
nine stories having appeared in the Overland Monthly; The God of His Fathers^
(1901), eleven Klondike stories, better than the earlier volume; Children of the
/Vr//t (1902), a series of ten Alaskan-Indian talcs; Tales of the Fith Patrol (1905),

230 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

adventure stories abundant in action and incident; Love of Life and Other Stories
(1907), among which arc some of his best Alaskan tales; The Strength of the Strong
(1914), which includes "South of the Slot," a convincing proletarian story which
had appeared five years earlier in the Saturday Evening Post; and On the Makaloa
Mat (posthumous, 1919), seven tales.

OTHER WORKS: The Kempton-Wacc Letters (1903), a series of philosophical
letters on love from Herbert Wace (Jack London) to Dane Kcmpton (Anna Strunsky,
a seventeen-year-old Russian Jewess). She is the proponent of the romantic, and he
of the realistic, love attitudes. The War of the Classes (1905), a collection of socialis-
tic essays influenced, as in People of the Abyss, by his experiences as a vagabond.
The Road (1907), a narrative of his hobo experiences, usable as a source book on
tramp life. The People of the Abyss (1913), Jack London's own favorite, is a fresh,
vigorous, and sincere work about the underprivileged East-enders of London.

CHAPTER XII
CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY

EMILY [ELIZABETH] DICKINSON, 18301886, poet. 1
Daughter of Edward Dickinson, a prominent lawyer of Amherst,
Massachusetts, and for twoscore years treasurer of Amherst Col-
lege. Educated at Amherst Academy. Beginning of friendship
with Susan Gilbert (1846), the "Sister Sue" who in 1856 married
her brother Austin and to whom went much of her poetry and
prose. Went to South Hadley Female Seminary, now Mount
Holyoke College (1847 1848), where she rebelled against the
observance of Christmas as a fast day. 2 While at Washington,
D. C., with her father, who had become a member of Congress,
she is said to have experienced a brief and shadowy love affair
with a married Philadelphian minister (1854). 8 Her circle of
friends included B. F. Newton, a law student in her father's office ;
the Reverend Charles Wadsworth of Philadelphia, whom she met
in 1854; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, who visited her at
Amherst in 1870 after exchanges of letters covering eight years ;
Dr. J. G. Holland, at that time one of the most successful men
of letters in the United States; and Helen Hunt Jackson, who
is said to have modeled the heroine of Mercy Philbrick's Choice
(1876) upon the character of Emily, as did Susan Glaspell in her
1931 Pulitzer Prize play, Alison's House (p. 279). Emily seldom
left her home after she was twenty-six years old, and, following
her father's death (1874), became the town's recluse. 4 Died of

1 T. W. Higginson, "Emily Dickinson's Letters," Atl., LXVIII (1891). pp. 444-456;
Letters of Emily Dickinson, edited by M. L. Todd (two volumes, 1894; new and
enlarged one-volume edition, 1931); The Life and Letters of Emily Dickinson, edited
by M. D. Bianchi (1924). Mrs. Blanch: does not acknowledge that the source for
her text is Mrs. Todd's 1894 edition: see M. U. Schappes, "Errors in Mrs. Bianchi's
Edition of Emily Dickinson's Letters," AL., IV U932-1933), pp. 369-384.

Genevieve Taggard, The Life and Mind of Emily Dickinson (1930); M. D. Bianchi,
Emilv Dickinson Face to Face (1932); G. F. Whicher, This Was a Poet (1938);
M. T. Bingham, Ancestors' Brocades (1945).

2 S. R. McLean, "Emily Dickinson at Mount Holyoke," NEQ., VII (1934), pp. 25-42.

3 Many have endeavored to pry under this experience in the hope of a clue to Emily's re-
nunciation of "the world, the flesh, and publication"; but perhaps no investigator has
succeeded in identifying the man who may have inspired her love poems, who may have
played a decisive part in shaping her life after she was twenty-four years old. Among
those suggested as her lover are George Gould, Charles Wadsworth, B. F. Newton,

and E. B. Hunt. Perhaps identification is impossible because there was none. F. J.
Pohl, "The Emily Dickinson Controversy," SR., XLI (1933), pp. 467-482; G. F.
Whicher, This Was a Poet (1938), p. vili, p. 320.

4 Emily may not have been the recluse pictured by most critics; for years she was "in
surprisingly close relation with the plain people of her time," and she may have "had
her feet more firmly set in bourgeois soil than we have lately been led to believe."
Consult MacGregor Jenkins, Emily Dickinson, Friend and Neighbor (1930); Margaret
Bloom. "Emily Dickinson and Dr. Holland," UCC,. XXXV (1932-1933), pp. 96-103;
Van Wyck Brooks, New England: Indian Summer. 1*65.1915 (1940). pp. 316-329.

231

232 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Bright's disease. .

Except for an early verse valentine, only two of her poems,
neither of which was offered by her for publication, were printed
during her lifetime. 6 Her request that all her manuscripts and cor-
respondence be destroyed was not followed. Some posthumous
volumes including about 925 poems are: Poems'\ (1890), Poems:
Second Scries^ (1891), Poems: Third Series^ (1896), 6 The Single
Hound (1914), Further Poems (1929), Poems: Centenary Edition
(1930), Unpublished Poems (1936) and Bolts of M elodtf (1945).

Her editors usually classify her poems under the headings "Life,"
"Nature," "Love," "Time and Eternity," "The Single Hound,"
and "Further Poems." 7

LETTERS

{While, on the whole, her poems are more revealing than her
letters, yet the latter possess a significant complementing intimacy :
the poems reveal her mind and soul, whereas the letters record
her external life, including her capacity for friendship. Infrequent
reference to natural loveliness. Compacted idiom sometimes ob-
scure; sense of humor keen. Mystic in faith, yet skeptical of re-
ligious formulas. 8

INDIVIDUAL POEMS

"A bird came down the walk"; "After great pain a formal feel-
ing" ; "Because I could not stop for death" ; "Elysium is as far
as to"; "The heart asks pleasure first"; "I died for beauty, but
was scarce" ; "Jheard^Jjv buzzwhgnldied" ; "I never saw a
moor"; "I like to see it laplTi^Tmles^^l^^ no time to hate"
"I dreaded that first robin so"; "I'll tell you how the sun rose"
"I taste a liquor never brewed" ; "If you were coming in the fall"
"My life closed twice before its close"; "The soul selects her own
society"; "This quiet Dust was Gentlemen and Ladies"; "Alter?
When the hills do" ; "Bring me the sunset in a cup" ; "Hope is a
subtle glutton"; "Much madness is divinest sense"; "I started
early, took my dog" ; "There is no frigate like a book."

The "Valentine Extravaganza" was printed in the Spring field Republican of February
26, 1852, as was "A narrow fellow in the grass," entitled "The Snake," on February
14, 1866. "Success," the third poem, was published by Helen Hunt Jackson in
A Masque of Poets (1878).

Contrary to the popular impression, her poems were the subject of discussion when
published; not until 1900 and for the following fifteen years did she fall into obscurity.
See A. M. Wells, "Early Criticism of Emily Dickinson," AL., I (1929-1930), pp. 243-
259; A. L. Hampson, "Foreword" in M. D. Bianchi's Emily Dickinson Face to Face
(1932), pp. ix-xx.

This arrangement by the editors of her poems has little if any significance in relation
to Emily's mind. Not only were many of the titles supnlied by the editors, but. foi
examp'e, M. L. Todd also had to choose from a list of alternative words wh'ch Emil\
often left with her manuscript. There have been demands for better editing; and
there has been a ne-d for determining the sequence of her poems, for that would
illuminate our knowledge of Emily's growth as a roet. Fr a listing nf about one-
fifth of the poems thnt have been nrinted, with their possible chronological Hate, see
CT. F. Wh : rh<T. "A Chrono f ogical Ooupin* of Some of Emily Dickinson's Poems,"
Colophon. Part Sixteen. No. 2 O934), ninth and following pages (unnumbered).
Paul Kurth, "Emily Dickinson in Her Letters," 7*tio*flfit, IV (1929), pp 430-439.

CONVENTION AND RJSVOLT IN POETRY 233

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. 1 Eccentric vision enriched by a 1. Lack of a consistent alertness

variety of imagery and an exotic to science and humamtamimm,

quality of imagination. 8 to worldly struggles and social

quests. 10

2. Gnomic compactness of ex- 2. Excessive concision results in
pression compels mental vigilance, cryptic, symbolic epigrammatism,
while spontaneity of woras am- puzzling by its incoherent v^rsicies,
mates connotative meanings. Con- battling in its verbal and metaphy-
cerned more with thougnt and sical obscurantism, and lacking in
mood than with technique. 11 both finished expression and

subtlety.

3. Faithful, introspective intimacy 3. Although some nature poems
with her mental experiences is are of deft delicacy and. distinctive
illuminated by tlashes> 01, so to insight, most are superficial, and
speaK, dissimilar resemblances and hmued to tho nature of a New
unexpected conclusions. Studied England garden. As Yvor Winters
carelessness and deceptive monot- phrases it, beautiiul lines and pas-
ony untold an ongmaiuy 01 m^ignt sages are wasted in the desert of
and a subtlety ol mood. Prodigal crudities. Her music is staccato
of the metaphor, her characteristic and singsong; 12 her conceits are
figure. exaggerated.

4. Hopeless rhymes, slipshod 4. Truncated lines, sterile rhymes,
lapses, anacoluthic meters, and and dislocated syntax are not to be
abandonment even of assonance 18 accounted for as the deliberately

9 Conrad Aiken has declared her poetry "perhaps the finest by a woman in the English
language," ana Martin Armstrong nas quarreled only with the "perhaps"; Ludwig
Lcwtsutin has rated her among the tew great woman poets of all literature, bhe has
been labeled "a New England Nun," *'a modern bappho," and "the flower ot American
Transcendentalism." To Harry liansen, Emily is the greatest woman poet of America;
and to Yvor Winters she may be "one ot the greatest lyric poets of all time."

In 19 ID P. L. fattee said ol Erm.y: "Her poems are disappointing. Critics have
echoed Higgmson, until Emily Dickinson has figured, otten at length,, in all the later
histories and anthologies, but it is becoming clear that she was overrated. To compare
her eccentric tragments with Blake's elhn wi.dness is ridiculous. They are mere
conceits, vague jottings ol a brooding mind; they are crudely wrought, and, like their
author's letters, whicn were given to the public later, they are colorless and for the
most part lifeless. They reveal little either of Emily Dickinson or of human life
genera ly. They should have been allowed to perish as their author intended."

Yet a tew years later F. L. Pattee revised his opinion: Emily's poems, he stated,
"are startlingly, even crudely, original. . . * Some of them remind one of the work
of Blake. They are the record of the inner life of an abnormally sensitive soul,
fragments, lyrical ejacu'ations, childish conceits, little orphic sayings often illogical
and meaningless, lines and couplets at times that are like glimpses of another world,
spasmodic cries, always brief, always bearing upon the deepest things that life knows,
love, death, nature, time, eternity.*'

The prevailing criticism s*ms weighted in the direction of A. L. Hampson's ap-
praisal: "The translation of quite ordinary everyday experiences into moments of
startling beauty, the lightning and humorous acceptance of everything from bees and
birds, and flowers, to death, to loneliness and to light, all streaming through her
mind into the scheme of the world, give one a fresh sense of life. The unerring aim
of her words pins her quick understanding quivering to the page. Her words and
concerns may range from a Whim, capitalized, to a profound realization of the
meaning and effect of experience common to us all."

The foregoing statements are quoted from F. L. Pattee, A History of American
Literature since 1&70 (1915), p. 340 f. t P. L. Pattee, Century Readings for a Course
in American Literature (1926), p. 700; A. L. Hampson. Emily Dickinson: A Bibti-
ocrraphy (1930). p. 6. See a'so D. G. Van Der Vat, "Emily Dickinson (1830-1886),"
ES., XXI (1939). pp. 241-260.

10 Edward Sapir. "Emily Dickinson, a Primitive." Poetry. XXVI (1925) pp. 97-105.

11 G. W. Allen, American Prosody (1935), pp. 307-320.

12 A number of her poems have been set to music.

23 Taking issue with M. D. Bianchi's declaration that Emily, when she chose, Abandoned
"even assonance, writing in metre alone, like a Greek, R. P. Blackmur avert that
it is better to say that Emily wrote like an Italian "with recurring pairs of stressed
syllables."

234 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

are deliberate, have a definite chosen devices of a master crafts-
charm, and possess beauties within man. 16 Narrow range apparent in
the comprehension of the poetic her preferred employment of octo-
soul. 14 Only about one in twelve syllabic quatrains or couplets, of
poems is written in irregular meter. the iambic or trochaic meter, of
Excellent utilization of the subjunc- the four-stress line. Overuses the
tive mood. 18 subjunctive mood.

5. Notable are the Emersonian 5 Religious emancipation and

concept of compensation ^ the spiritua f free dom have a place; but

Puritan asceticism, and the Puritan one bred in the Calvinist tradition

theme of renunciation. Her poetry can not condone the irreverence

is predominantly mystical and psy- man if es ted by her questionings of

chological, rather than irreligious. the theological traditions of Pur-

Humanitananism subordinated to itanism
individual responsibility, physical
love to divine, 18

6. Sense of action obtained by 6. If meriting praise for exacti-
activized verbs and masculinized tude of observation, quickness of
phrases, yet without detriment to intellect, and slyness of humor,
the delicate grace and womanliness then also requiring depreciation for
of her mind and nature. 1 ' A pre- clumsiness of style, poverty of
cursor of the Imagist school. 20 language, and slipshodness of tech-

nique. Not consciously a progeni-
tor of free verse.^

SIDNEY LANIER, 18421881, musician/ critic, poet. 21
Born in Macon, Georgia. Entered Oglethorpe College (1856) at
Midway, Georgia, the college now located near Atlanta. After
graduation (1860), was appointed a tutor (1860 1861). Enlisted
in the Confederate Army with the Macon Volunteers (1861).
Was captured while signal officer on the blockade-runner Annie,

14 Her utterances, declares T. W. Higginson, have "an uneven vigor sometimes exas-
perating, seemingly wayward, but really unsought and inevitable." At her perversi-
ties and lapses and tyrannies Conrad Aiken first sighs and then realizes their
positive charm. Somehow, say critics, such irregularities as the carelessness of meter
and anacoluthon are too excellent to be ascribed to spontaneous self-expression. Most
explicit is the claim that, with the exception of the nonsense verse written for hrr
brother's children, all instances of irregular rhymes have artistic significance* Susan
Miles, "The Irregularities of Emily Dickinson/ LM. t XIII (1925-1926), pp. 145-158.

15 G, B. Sherrer, "A Study of Unusual Verb Constructions in the Poems of Emily
Dickinson," AL., VII (1935-1936), pp. 37-46.

16 Yvor Winters, Maule's Curse (1938), pp. 149-165.

17 F. O. Matthies[s]en, " 'Midsummer in the Mind/ " SRL. t XIII, No. 12 (January 18,
1936), p. 12.

18 The Life and Letters of Emily Dickinson, edited by M. D. Bianchi (1924), pp. 88-105;
Katherme Bregy, "Emily Dickinson: A New England Anchoress." CW., CXX (1924-
1925), pp. 344-354; Q K. Trueblood, "Emily Dickinson," Dial, LXXX (1926),
pp. 301-311. R. W. Brown, Lonely Americans (1929), pp. 235-257; Desmond Powell,
''Emily Dickinson," CCP.. General Series No. 200, Study Series No. 19 (1934).
pp. 1-12; D. G. Van Der Vat, "Emily Dickinson, (1830-1886)," ES., XXI (1939),
pp. 241-260; R. P. Blackmur, The Expense of Greatness (1940), 106-138.

19 W. H. Finch, "The Poetry of Emily Dickinson/' RL. t II (1933). p. 199 (pp. 194-
202).

20 Amy Lowell, Po*try and Poets (1930), pp. 88-108.

21 H. M. Tones in American Poetry, edited by P. H. Boynton (1918), pp. 670-675;
Gamaliel Bradford, American Portraits (1922), pp. 58-83; S. T. Williams in Ameri-
can Writers on American Literature, edited by John Macy (1931), pp. 327-341; A. H.
Starke, Sidney Lanier (1933); Lincoln Lorenz, The Life of Sidney Lanier (1935);
Richard Webb and E. R. Coulston, Sidney Lanier (1941).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 235

and was incarcerated at the Federal prison at Point Lookout,
Maryland (1864), from which he was released after four months
(1865). Conditions in the Union prison had developed a latent
tuberculosis, 22 against which he struggled the rest of his brief
life shackled by poverty and discouragement; most of his life he
described as having been "merely not dying." Married Mary Day,
of Macon (1867), to whom were born four sons: Charles Day,
1865; Sidney, 1870; Henry Wysham, 1874; and Robert, 1880.
Taught in a country academy at Prattville, Alabama (1867 1868).
Severe hemorrhage (1868) forced his return to Macon, where he
practised law in his father's office (1869 1872). Another break-
down sent him off to recuperate at Austin, Texas (1872) , 23 at which
town he was recognized as an artistic flutist. Returned to Macon
(1873). Flutist in Peabody Symphony Orchestra at Baltimore
(1873). Played at New York for Dr. Leopold Damrosch (1874).
Wrote the words for a cantata to be sung at the Centennial Exhibi-
tion (1876). Published Sketches of India (1876), Florida (1876),
and, most important, Poems (1877). Lectured at Peabody Insti-
tute (1878). Published The Boy's Froissart (1878). Appointed
by President Oilman as Lecturer in English at the Johns Hopkins
University (1879). 24 Published The Boy's King Arthur (1881),
The Boy's Mabinogion (1881), and The Boy's Percy (1882). Died
of consumption at Lynn, North Carolina. Buried in Greenmount
Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland. Over his grave is a Georgian
boulder upon which is a bronze tablet bearing a line-inscription
from "Sunrise" :

I-AM-LIT-BY-THE-SUN

POETRY

(1) "Nirvana" (1868; 1868), an early poem epithalamic in
intent and personal in its approach toward sectional and national
problems. (2) "Acknowledgment" (18741875; 1876), four
Shakespearean sonnets, of which the best is in : "If I do ask, How
God can dumbness keep." (3) "The Mocking Bird," a sonnet on
the mystery in the workings of nature : one of several poems de-
clared by H. A. Beers to be "the most characteristically Southern
poetry . . . written in America." 25 (4) "Song of the Chattahoochee"
(c. 1877; 1883), popular work, quiet in simplicity, competent in
rhythmic schemes, mainly in iambics, and Tennysonian in music
and color: often criticized are the unpoetic lines (11. 44 ff.) linking
Duty with forces of gravity. (5) "Night and Day" (1866; 1884),

22 To the question, "Where would you like to live?" Lanier answered: "Somewhere
where lungs are not necessary to Life." T. S. Short, "Sidney Lanier, 'Familiar Citi-
zen of the Town,' " MHM., XXXV (1940), p. 135, Question 23 (pp. 121-146).

23 J. S. Mayfield, Sidney Lanier m Texas (1932).

24 J. S. Short, "Sidney Lanier at Johns Hopkins," JHAM., V (1916-1917), pp. 7-24.

25 H. A. Beers, A Short History of American Literature (1906), p. 212.

236 THE TRIUMPH o* REALISM: 1865-1914

an early jingling poem inspired by Shakespeare and as favorably
reminiscent of him as is "The Marsh-Song At Sunset."

A second group may be made of his religious promptings : ( 1 )
"How Love Looked for Hell/' a pre-Raphaelite poem wherein
Love, guided by Mind and Sense, who have "become psychological
knights rather than mere abstractions," 26 fails in its quest for Hell,
for wherever Love went Hell could not be. (2) "The Stirrup-Cup"
(1877; 1877), based on Highlander custom, Elizabethan and flaw-
less in its courageous challenge. (3) "The Crystal" (1880; 1880),
somewhat tainted by elaborate images and poetical devices, but
withal a beautiful, confessional tribute to "Jesus, good Para-
gon"; 27 (4) ;'A Ballad of Trees and the Master" (1880; 1880),
concerned with the hour that Jesus spent in the garden on the
Mount of Olives just before his crucifixion: instinct with the sim-
plicity of medieval worship and demonstrating that Lanier can, as
in "The Revenge of Hamish," be simple and easy and terse, even
if the thought could be clearer. 28 (5) "Remonstrance" (187&
1879; 1883), a denouncement of conventional religious creeds and
Church intolerance.

Among his poems that illustrate Lanier's concern with the eco-
nomic plight of people are: (1) "The Jacquerie" (1868), an unfin-
ished, long work, chiefly in blank verse, not wholly lacking in dig-
nity despite a joyous note by which it is dominated : superb are the
lyric, "May the maiden," as beautiful in its way as Lanier's "Eve-
ning Song" (1876; 1877), and the song, "The hound was cuffed,
the hound was kicked." (2) "The Raven Days" (1868; 1868), a
gloomy, fairly graphic picture of the "dark Raven days" of Re-
construction. (3) "Thar's More in the Man than Thar Is in the
Land" (c. 1869; 1884), a realistic dialect poem likewise concerned
with the plight of the South after the Civil War, but minimizing
environmental influences upon success or failure and exaggerating
the lift-oneself-by-the-bootstrap view.

"Corn"t (1874; 1875). Long, uneven poem, composed chiefly
of pentameter lines, original in conception and execution and Amer-
ican in theme. Latter half (11. 111-200) is an agrarian attack 29 on
the cotton-trade, "on games of Buy-and-Sell," with the farmer
waking too late after being victimized by "squandering scamps
and quacks."

26 Philip Graham, "Lanier and Science," AL.. IV (1932-1933), p. 290 (pp. 288-292).

27 "The Crystal" is the greatest Lanier poem because "it combines the most of critical
judgment with the clearest confession of his faith in Christ": A. H. Strong. American
Poets and Their Theology (1916), p. 407 (pp. 371-418).

28 Its triple rhyme precludes a somewhat genera) conclusion that such rhyme is unsuitable
in serious verse: G. R. Stewart, Jr., The Technique of English Verse (1930), p. 17U.

29 R. P. Warren, "The Blind Poet: Sidney Lanier," AR,. II (1933-1934), pp. 27-45;
Aubrey Starke, "The Agrarians Deny a Leader/' ibid.. U (1933-1934), pp. 534-553;
J. C. Ransom, "Hearts and Heads," ibid.. II (f933-19j4). pp. 554-571: /.A. Shack-
ford, "Sidney Lanier at Southerner," SR., XLVIII (1940), pp. 153-173. 348-355.
480-493.

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 237

"The Symphony"! (1875; 1875). Arraignment, in complex
versification and varied cadences, of Trade and its evils is impor-
tant as a revelation of his philosophy. 80 Each instrument violins,
flute, clarinet, horn, hautboy is personified ; each participates in
the allegory of life, discussing industrialistic claws and the social
questions of the day. Oft-quoted is the last line: "Music is Love
in search of a word," which may be the symbolic key to the poem's
message.

"Psalm of the West"t (1876; 1876). Of a united nation this
Centennial Ode sings : it could be less vague, less prolix, and less
forced and more clearly expressed. Both the opening and the
prettified parable of the tournament between the heart and the
head have been praised ; but if any part redeems the whole, it is
the series of eight Miltonic sonnets on Columbus. Note its dozen-
and-a-half metrical forms.

"The Revenge of Hamish"t (1878; 1878). Objectivity, terse-
ness, and the absence of conceits all heighten this heroic border
tale or ballad, successful both in its narrative and its experiment
with the lagaoedic dactylic meter. Plot possibly derived from an
episode in William Black's novel, Macleod of Dare (Chapter in)
and Charles Mackaye's Madeline's Child.

"Hymns of the Marshes,"! Only four of six projected hymns
were completed: "Sunrise" (1880; 1882), "Individuality" (1878
1879; 1882), "Marsh- Song At Sunset" (187& 1880; 1882),
and "The Marshes of Glynn" (1878; 1879). Some long, sweeping,
suspended, noble movements vitiated by melodic conceits, an oc-
casionally obtrusive background, and "the reductio ad absur t dum"
of the tendency to "nympholeptic longing." 81 However, the full
day's record of a moving spiritual experience, simple and mature
and profound, of a vision of the greatness of God, is socialized by
an opulent rhythmic background and by sensitized religious sym-
pathies, by a tandem of moods symphonizing with the rising and
setting sun flooding the marshes and inextricably connected to the
everyday struggles. As analyzed by G. W. Allen, "The Marshes
of Glynn" is in anapestic measure, employing initial truncation
and the shifting both of accents and of the number of syllables in
the line from one to seventeen.

PROSE WORKS

In addition to the popular editions of such old favorites as Frois-
sart, King Arthur, Percy, and the Mabinpgion (see preceding ma-
terial), Lanier also published Tiger-Lilies, a Novel (1867), an

30 G. B. Oxnam. "Sidney Lanier: A Prophet of the Social Awakening." MR., XCIX
(1917), pp. 86-90.

31 Norman Foerster, Nature in American Lsf*ra**r* (1923), p. 232 (pp. 221-273).

238 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

immature, somewhat luxuriant work about his experiences in the
Civil War; Music and Poetry (1898) ; and Retrospects and Pros-
pects: Descriptive and Historical Essays (1899).

The Science of English Fersef (1880). Basic conception is that
poetry is essentially a form of music, is essentially the rhythm of
language: music and verse, theorizes Lanier, are obedient to and
governed by identical laws of composition, in rhyme, rhythm,
vowel assonance, alliterations, and phrasings. At odds with the
fundamental system which bases English verse upon accent or
stress-measurement, he conceives of melody as dependent upon
time-measurement, conceives of melody as the product of rhythm,
tone, and color. His assertion is that syllables of spoken words
have definite time-relations grouped by the habituated speaking
voice ; it is possible to vary meter, to stress alliteration, and to de-
velop onomatopoeia until the poetic mold becomes a synthesis of
the forms of poetry interpreted in terms of music. 82

The English Novel and the Principle of Its Development ( 1883) .
Like his posthumous Shakspere and His Forerunners (two vol-
umes, 1902), this volume is less an original discussion than an
elaboration of recognized facts and older critical opinions. Both
volumes "show the same fresh interest in old problems, the same
atmosphere of discovery in well-mapped fields/' 33

32 What of the professional reception of Lanier's prosodic theories? J. P. Dabney, The

supr -_ , _ __ .,__ _ .-_.-

about Hamlet and Other Essays (1904), p. 109 /. (pp. 107-113), Lamer is absolutely
right in his broad position on the subject of verse-rhythm; and according to T. S.
Omond, English Metrtsts in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1907), p. IBS
(pp. 177-186), The Science of English Verse is valuable for principles rather than
conclusions but George Saintsbury, A History of English Prosody, III (1910),
p. 493 /., refuses to accept Lanier on any terms, for which he is in turn cudgeled by
Harriet Monroe, Poets 6- Their Art (1926), p. 268 /. (pp. 268-284), for not taking
sides "in 'the battle of Accent versus Quantity/ " Since Lanier's work, she declares,
"there is no longer any excuse for persistence in the old error" that English verse is
"accentual" while the rhythm of classic verse is "quantitative**: "English verse is as
quantitative as Greek verse." On the other hand, Henry Lanz, The Physical Basis of
Rime (1931), p. 178 /., while believing erroneous Lanier's conviction "that English
verse has for its basts not accent but strict musical quantity,'* acknowledges that
in Music and Poetry (1898) Lanier "was on the right track with regard to the nature
of the relation between musical sounds and human words." In like vein, J. C. Ander-
sen, The Laws of Verse (1928), p. 179 /., regards as untenable Lanier's prosodic
theory, and also as dangerous the insistence on the musical regularity of poetry, the
representation of "the rhythm of poetry by musical notation, or indeed by any system
of symbols." More recently W. L. Schramm, "Approaches to a Science of English
Verse," UIS , No. 46 (1935), p. 5, avers that his monograph points "the way toward
the science of verse Lanier could have written if he had lived in a day when the forces
of sound had been harnessed and measured." It is important to remember that Lanier
neither started any school of poetry nor has had many avowed imitators.

Consult also Edwin Mims, Sidney Lanier (1905), pp. 352-359; Bliss Perry, A
Study of Poetry (1920), p. 171 f.; H. C. Thorpe, "Sidney Lanier: A Poet for Musi-
cians," MuQ., XI (1925), pp. 373-382; A. H. Starke, Sidney Lanier (1933), p. 333 ff.;
Aubrey Starke, "Lanier's Appreciation of Whitman," A.SchoL, II (1933), p. 406 /.
(pp. 398-408). For additional references, see footnote 13.

33 F. W. Cady laments that "a thesis so obvious has usurped the attention of a writer
upon thet novel," for it "does not appear to need the patient elaboration which it
receives." What a pity, concurs Gamaliel Bradford, "to see such a splendid inte'li-
Rcnce wearing itself out for futile results." F. W. Cady, "Sidney Lanier," SAQ.,
XITI (1914\ t). 158 (pp. 156-173); Gamaliel Bradford, American Portraits (1922),
p. 70 (pp. 61-83).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 239

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Gift of melody, of rhythms that 1. Both his bookishness 84 and
march and flow and of cadences mechanical theory of verse thin out
that linger. Versatility in conven- spontaneity of utterance. Because
tional meters. 88 of exquisite music, the message

suffers dilution.

2. Voicing the suffering that arises 2. Seeping into the poems are a
out of the conflict between the old consumptive sentimentality and a
and the new economic-social struc- hectic moral goodness that artifi-
tures, ( he indicts the malign inhu- cializes his diction and feminizes
inanities of modern commercial- his imagery.

ism. 8fl

3. Deep, religious nature unob- 3. Workmanship does 'not always
trusively permeates his writings. conceal his moralizing tendencies. 88
High ethics of conception, provoc- Deficient in originality of thought,
ativeness of thought, nobility of

spirit. 87

4. Excellent work is rooted in the 4. Not completely free from the
Georgia soil, and flowers into South- faults of his day, even his best
ern themes; yet he is distinctly poetry is crippled by hounded con-
American in subject. Spontaneous ceits, by strained metaphors, by
evocations of beauty. Between the opulent diffuseness, by gaudy pre-
Civil War and the turn of the cen- ciosity, and by manneristic ges-
tury, no Southern poet is more tures.

outstanding.

EDWARD ROWLAND SILL, 18411887, educator, es-
sayist, poet. 39 Born in Windsor, Connecticut. Orphaned when
about twelve years old, yet he was educated at Phillips Exeter
Academy and at the Western Reserve College preparatory school.
Was graduated from Yale (1861), where he was an editor of the
Yale Literary Magazine. Spent five years in California, which he
had reached by way of Cape Horn, and where he held odd jobs in
a post office, on a ranch, and in a bank, and where he read law
and studied medicine. Returning East (1866), he soon quit study-

34 Philip Graham, "Lanier's Reading," UTSE., No. 11 (University of Texas Bulletin,
No. 3133: September 1, 1931).

35 G. W. Allen, American Prosody (1935), pp. 277-301 (pp. 277-306).

36 N. B. Fagin, "Sidney Lanier: Poet of the South," JHAM., XX (1931-1932), pp. 231-
241; Philip Graham, "Lanier and Science," AL. t IV (1932-1933), pp. 288-292.

37 M. S. Kaufman. "Sidney Lanier, Poet Laureate of the South," MR., LXXXII (1900),
pp. 94-107; H. N. Snyder, Sidney Lanier (1906); E. B. Pollard, "The Spiritual Mes-
sage of Sidney Lamer," ///?., LXXIV (1917), pp. 91-95; T. A. Doyle [Sister], "The
Indomitable Courage of Sidney Lanier," CW., CLVI (1942-1943), pp. 293-301.

38 His devotion to the Ruskin theory that morality is the criterion of artistic worth
led him to attack writings wholly lacking or deficient in moral purity. To Lanier the
ideal is George Eliot, while Richardson and Zola are diseased; yet meriting recall is
Lanier's opinion that Whitman's Leaves of Grass was worth a million of Atalanta in
Calydon. (However, Lanier was offended by the subsequent editions.)

39 W. B. Parker, Edward Rowland Sill (1915); E. L. Baker, "Edward Rowland Sill,"
OM., LXXXIII (1925), pp. 154-155, 175-176, Alfred Kreymbor*, Our Singing
Strength (1929), pp. 183-192 (pp. 172-192); Newton Arvin, ''The Failure of E. R.
Sill," Bookman, LXXII (1930-1931), pp. 581-589; Around the Horn, by E. R. Sill,
edited with an Introduction by S. T. Williams and B. D. Simison (1944). In prepara-
tion by S. T. Williams is a collection of E. R. Sill's correspondence: SRL., XXVII
(January 8, 1944), p. 13.

240 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

ing at the Harvard Divinity School, taking a teaching position in
Brooklyn and working as literary critic on the New York Evening
Mail. Married Elizabeth Newberry Sill, a first cousin. After being
principal of the high school and superintendent of the elementary
grades at Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (18681871), and after teaching
high school English at Oakland, California (18711874), he ac-
cepted the chair of English literature at the University of California
(1874 1883). Resigned on account of ill health (1883). Spent
his last years at Cuyahoga Falls, contributing either anonymously
to the Atlantic and other publications, or under the pseudonym
Andrew Hedbrooke. Died unexpectedly after a minor operation
in a Cleveland hospital.

Both in scope and style E. R. Sill was a minor poet, yet none
of his contemporaries wrote so many beautifully-sustained lyrics.
His two most widely quoted are "Opportunity" and "The Fool's
Prayer/ 1 but these may not be his best. Recurring are the moods
of optimism and despair, especially of negation; even his trifling
essays on literary and educational topics, though charmingly treated,
manifest a congenital discontent. Deficient in power or depth his
poetry is, as in creative imagination or passion, but it is musical
and impregnated by simplicity and spontaneity, playful humor and
Yankee understatement, frank didacticism, classic delicacy, and a
questioning skepticism.

WORKS

The Hermitage and Other Poemsf (1868), The Venus of Milo
and Other Poems^ (1883), Poems^ (1887), Hermione and Other
Poems (1899), The Prose of Edward Rowland Sill (1900), The
Poems of Edward Rowland Sill (1902).

INDIVIDUAL POEMS

"A Memory," "Opportunity." "Roland," "Five Lives," 'The
Fool's Prayer," "Christmas in California," "Momentous Words,"
"The Departure of the Pilot," "A Prayer for Peace," "The Agile
Sonneteer," "Tranquillity," "Life," "Morning," "A Tropical Morn-
ing at Sea," "Tempted," "On Second Thought."

JOHN B[ANNISTER] TABB, 18451909, poet-priest. 40
Born in Amelia County, Virginia. A weak optic nerve interfered
with a normal childhood, disqualified him for service with the Con-

40 M. S. Pine [pseudonym of Sister Mary Pauline Finn], John Bannisttr Tabb (1915);
T. B. Jacobi, "The Large Phi'osophy in the Little Poems of Father Tabb," ACQ.,
XL (1915), pp. 33-47; J. B. Kelly. "The Poetry of a Priest," CW '., CTII (1916),
pp. 228-233: Katherine Br^gny, "Of Father Tabb/' CW.. CXlV (1921-1922), no. 308-
318; J. M. Tabb. Father Tabb (1921); F. A. Litz, Father Tabb (Ph.D., Johns Hopkins,
1924): G. N. Shuster, "Father Tabb and the Romantic Tradition." Month, CXLIV
(1924), pp. 516-525: The Poetry of Father Tabb. edited by F. A. Litz (1928); Aubrey
Starke, r 'Father John Tabb: A Checklist," ABC., VI (1935), pp. 101-104; Gordon
Blair, Father Tabb (1940).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 241

federate army, and a year before his death caused total blindness.
While returning from Bermuda as a Confederate blockade-runner
on the Siren, he was captured by the Federal ship Keystone State
and imprisoned for seven months at Point Lookout, Maryland,
where he formed a firm friendship with a fellow-prisoner, Sidney
Lanier (p. 234), 41 who probably was an influence upon his style
and whom he later celebrated in several poems. Went to Baltimore
to study music, a lifetime passion. Was received into the Catholic
Church (1872). Was graduated from St. Charles' College, Ellicot
City, Maryland (1875), which he had entered three years pre-
viously in order to study for the priesthood. Taught at the St.
Peter's Boys' School, Richmond (18751877). Ordained priest
in the Baltimore cathedral (1884). Taught Latin, Greek, and Eng-
lish grammar in St. Charles' College (18781909). Buried in
Hollywood cemetery, Richmond.

Father Tabb is said to be the best American representative
echoing the seventeenth-century English metaphysical poets and is
recognized as a forerunner of the itnagistic school : he is as religious
a poet as Richard Crashaw and as sanely devotional as George
Herbert, yet also as lucid and varied in theme as Robert Herrick
and as vigorously pictorial as Emily Dickinson. Among his nega-
tive characteristics are an unbridled tendency to punning, a wilful-
ness if elfishness of phrasing, and an intricacy of conceits ; among
his most positive virtues are a delicate, compressed utterance, a
superb cameo-chiseling, and a mystical reflectiveness. Apparent
spontaneity and metrical skill are the result of careful workman-
ship. His poetry is primarily religious in feeling; his sympathy is
as intuitive as his insight is metaphysical ; yet his symbols are often
of the simplest and most natural. In the works of Nature, which
is most consistently the background of his brief musical lyrics and
quatrains, Father Tabb sees the reflection of the Omnipotent Being.
He is a minor poet, but a true one.

WORKS

Poems (1882), An Octavo to Mary (1893), Poems (1894),
Bone Rules; or Skeleton of English Grammar (1897), 42 Lyrics
(1897), Child Verse: Poems Grave and Gay (1899), Two Lyrics
(1902), Later Lyrics (1902), The Rosary in Rhyme (1904), Later
Poems (1910).

41 For a number of mutual letters from J. B. Tabb and Sidney Lanier, see Gordon
Blair, Father Tabb (J940), pp. 40-54, 55-65.

42 Bon* Rules, his most important prose work, inaugurated, says Katherine Bregny.
a new fashion in textbooks. Among sentences to be corrected were:

"Lay still," his mother often said,
When Washington had went to bed.
But little Georgie would reply:
"J set up, but I can not lie/ 1
Compare with page 192, footnote 17.

242 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

REPRESENTATIVE POEMS

(1) RELIGIOUS: 'The Recompense" (1891), "Communion 11
(1892), "Son of Mary" (1892), "Blossom" (1892), "Father
Damien" (1892), "Evolution" (1894), "The Incarnation" (1894),
"Resurrection" (1894), "A Lenten Thought" (1894), "Out of
Bounds" (1894), "Magdalen" (1894), "Faith" (1895), "Inspira-
tion" (1895), "Fiut Lux" (1910). (2) ABOUT His BLINDNESS:
"A Sunset Song" (1908), "Going Blind" (1908), "Loss" (1909),
"The Image-Maker" (1909), "Waves" (1909), "Blind," beginning
"Again as in the desert way" (1909). (3) ABOUT LANIER: "Love's
Hybla" (1892), "At Lanier's Grave" (1892), "Cloistered" (1893),
"To Sidney Lanier" (1894), "My Star" (1894), "In Touch"
(1909), "On the Forthcoming Volume of Lanier's Poems."
(4) MISCELLANEOUS POEMS: "Killdee" (1886), "Transition"
(1887), "To the Wood-Robin" (1889), "The Sunbeam" (1892),
"Fern Song" (1894), "Golden-Rod" (1894), "At the Year's End"
(1897), "An April Bloom" (1897), "The Rain-Pool" (1902).

[WILLIAM] BLISS CARMAN, 18611929, so-called
Poet-Laureate of Canada who lived the greater part of his life in
the United States. 43 Born in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
Educated at Collegiate Institute, Fredericton (1872 1878), at the
University of New Brunswick (18791881 ; AJB., 1884), at Edin-
burgh (18821883), and at Harvard (18861888). To New
York (c. 1889), where he became an office-editor of the Inde-
pendent (18901893). Edited the Chap Book. Received the
Lome Pierce Medal from the Royal Society of Canada (1929).
Summered in the Catskills with the M. L. King family. Died of
cerebral hemorrhage at the home of Dr. Thomas Tunney, New
Canaan, Connecticut, at whose home he had lived for several years.
Buried in Forest Hill Cemetery in his native province of New
Brunswick.

CHIEF VOLUMES OF POETRY

(1) Loiv Tide on Grand Pre\ (1893), an intensely unified
work. (2) Songs of Vagabondia (1894), More Songs from Vaga-
bondia (1896), and Last Songs from Vagabondia (1901), three
collections, written jointly with Richard Hovey (see page 244).
Reminiscent of Stevenson in their joy and somewhat factitious in
their Bohemianism, include joyous love lyrics, jolly verses, irre-
sponsible tavern-songs, and some more serious endeavors, but
none of them anemic. (3) Behind the Arras: A Book of the Un-
seen (1895), strong in unity, deep in mysticism: most notable are

43 Later Poems, with an Appreciation by R. H. Hathaway, (1922), pp. vii-xxii; Odell
Shcpard, Bliss Carman (1923); R. H. Hathaway, "The Poetry of Bliss Carman,"
SR., XXXIII (1925), pp. 469-483; James Cappon, Bliss Carman (1930), Part I,
pp. 1-253; C. G. D. Roberts, "Bliss Carman," DR., IX (1929-1930), pp. 409-417;
X (1930), pp. 1-9; W. I. Morse, Bliss Carman (1941).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 243

"Behind the Gamut/' described by James Cappon as "a metaphysic
in verse/* and "Behind the Arras/' especially successful in the
earlier part. (4) From the Green Book of the Bards {Pipes of
Pan, No. II, 1903), wherein his personality is as manifest as in
Low Tide on Grand Pre. (5) Songs of the Sea-Children (Pipes
of Pan, No. Ill, 1904), a beautiful, impressive book filled with
love poems, and with verses as physical and masculine in their
abandon as those in Ballads of Lost Haven' (1897}. (6) From the
Book of Valentines (Pipes of Pan, No. V, 1905), includes the
excellent piece called "The Great Release." (7) Sappho: One
Hundred Lyrics (1911) is on the whole a continuation of Songs
of the Sea-Children. (8) Daughters of Dawn (1913) and (91
Earth Deities (1914), written in conjunction with Mary Perry
King, are effective poem-dances. (10) Far Horizons (1925) differs
from April Airs (1916) and Wild Garden (1929) in that its sub-
ject is the Canadian West.

MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES OF POETRY AND PROSE

Among his other works are St. Kavin (1894), A Seamark
(1895), At Michaelmas (1895), The Girl in the Poster (1897),
By Aurclian War (1898), The Vengeance of Noel Brassard
(1899), Winter Holiday (1899), Christmas Eve at St. Kaviris
(1901), From the Book of Myths (Pipes of Pan, No. I, 1902),
Ode for the Coronation (1902), Songs from a Northern Garden
(Pipes of Pan, No. IV, 1904), The Rough Rider and Other Poems
(1909), The Gate of Peace (1909), and Echoes from Vagabondia
(1912).

A certain simplicity and elegance mark the several volumes
of essays on the conduct and vision of life* While his prose has a
measure of thought-value, "often illuminated with a naive clear-
sightedness/' 44 yet it never announces any surprising departures
from modern thought. His essays are available in The Kinship of
Nature (1904), The Friendship of Art (1904), The Poetry of Life
(1905), and The Making of Personality (1907).

REPRESENTATIVE POEMS

"A Vagabond Song/' "A Captain of the Press Gang," "The
Gravedigger," "Hem and Haw," "Daisies," 'The Sailing of the
Fleets," "A Rover's Song," "A Spring Feeling," "An Autumn
Garden," "The Joys of the Road," "A Sea Child," "The Deserted
Pasture," "Hack and Hew," " 'Lord of My Heart's Elation/ "
"Marian Drury," "Song, 'Love, by that loosened hair/ "

44 Julian Hawthorne, Bliss Carman: 1861-1929 (1929), reprinted from The San Francisco
Chronicle of June 16, 1929.

244 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Strong intellectual tendencies, 1. Neither the accents of origi-
the quality of which is in sympa- nality nor of depth appear in the
thy with American thought and great mass of his work, which is
democracy. distinctly inferior.

2. His philosophy is veined by 2. Unconcerned with the press-
transcendental reverie and ample ing social problems of the day.
humanity. Not only mystical but sometimes

esoteric.

3. He is a lyricist of nature, char- 3. Wanderlustful philosophy is
acteristically Canadian. but "hobohemianism" and self-con-
scious boisterousness.

4. Piquant turns of fancy, genial 4. Lapses into flabby didacticism,
carelessness of style, artistic mas- wearisome repetition, poetic com-
tery of verse technique, its flowing monplace, hair-trigger versifying,
rhythms and classic forms. Later music is facile but thin

and diluted,

RICHARD HOVEY, 18641900, art student, student at
the General Theological Seminary in New York, actor, journalist,
lecturer in Alcott's Concord school of philosophy, Professor of
English at Barnard College, poet, and dramatist. Born in Normal,
Illinois, the son of the President of State Normal University, for-
merly a major-general in the United States Army. Spent his boy-
hood in Washington, D. C. Editor of the Dartmouth and the Aegis
at Dartmouth, from which he was graduated in 1885. In Europe, he
came to know Maurice Maeterlinck, whose Pelleas and Melisande
and seven other plays he translated. Married Mrs. Henrietta Rus-
sell (1893). Died suddenly in New York. Of him critics generally
say that his too-early death cut short years of experimentation
which gave promise of a poetic career of high distinction. 45

The Laurel: An Ode (1889). Title-poem is addressed to Mary
Day Lanier, and reveals an indebtedness to the musical influence
of Sidney Lanier. Although the flavor of Whitman and of other
poets is in this collection, Louis Untermeyer states that the book
"gave promise of that extraordinary facility which often brought
Hovey perilously close to mere technique."

Songs from Vagabondia (1894), More Songs from Vagabondia
(1896), and Last Songs from Vagabondia (1901). All three vol-
umes were written in partnership with the Canadian-born poet
Bliss Carman (see page 242), and in revolt against the tradition of
complacency and inanity of the period, and its bankruptcy of out-
of-door ideas. For five years the people responded to their vaga-
bond call for freedom from the artificial life, captivated by their
compelling exuberance and continuous abandon, their happy-go-

45 Henry Leffert, Richard Hovcy (M.A., New York University, 1027).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 245

lucky, impetuous stanzas, their lyric singing of gipsy-like comrade-
>hip and masculine joy, their persistent optimism and complete
ivholesomeness.

Along the Trail (1898). Incorporates the early verses of the
volumes that had appeared in 1880, 1889, 1891, and 1893.

To the End of the Trail (1908). Representative collection of
bis later and maturer lyrics edited by Mrs. Hovey.

REPRESENTATIVE POEMS

"At the Crossroads," prevailingly anapestic and illustrative of
liis poetry of good fellowship; "Spring: An Ode," a rapturous cry
with its interludial "Stein Song" sung in numerous colleges ; "Sea-
ward," a worthy elegy on the death of T. W. Parsons ; "Three of a
Kind," telling of the joys on a hike during autumnal days ; "Un-
manifest Destiny," his most famous lyric, the patriotism or chauv-
inism of which should he compared with that of "The Battle of
the Kegs" l?y Francis Hopkinson (page 31), "The Battle-Field" by
W. C. Bryant (page 57), and "Laus Deo!" by J. G. Whittier (page
115). Additional poems are "After Business Hours," "The Sea
Gypsy," "Love in the Winds," "Comrades," "Men of Dartmouth,"
"A Dream of Sappho," "Contemporaries," "To Rudyard Kipling,"
"Among the Hills," "The Wander-Lovers," "Barney McGee,"
"The Word of the Lord from Havana," and "Accident in Art."

Launcelot and Guenevere: A Poem in Five Dramas (five vol-
umes, 1907). General title of a comprehensive, uncompleted cycle
of three poetic trilogies, each to be composed of a masque and two
dramas. Taking the old Malory story, Hovey removes the Tenny-
sonian sentimentality, minimizes the glamorous trappings of a
bygone age and its comedy of manners, poeticizes and sometimes
theatricalizes the incidents, substitutes the noble, tragic love of
Launcelot and Guenevere for the ideal purity of King Arthur, and
plannedly weights the tale with its inward significance and the psy-
:hological problems born out of it and involved in "a harmonody of
ethics."

Of this ambitious cycle of poetic masques and dramas based on
the Morte d' Arthur, only five were published: (1) The Quest of
Merlin (1891), a lyrical masque, noble in conception, but some-
what immature in execution and lacking in human interest. (2)
The Marriage of Guenevere (18911895 ; 1895), a tragedy excel-
lent in its characterization of Guenevere 46 and showing a gain over
The Quest of Merlin in marked beauty and power. (3) The Birth
of Galahbd (1898), a romantic drama, which measurably sustains

46 The Guenevere of Tennyson sins and conies to repentance and remorse; the Guenerere
of Morris appeals to our tender heart and asks human sympathy: and the Guenevere
of Hovey loves, never sins, never repents: The Holy Graal and Other
edited by Mr* Richard Hovey (1907). p. 14 (pp. 11-20).

246 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

the atmosphere created and puts blood into the anemic knights
(4) Taliesin: A Masque^ (1900), masterly in the utilization of
at least thirty meters, best in workmanship, in restrained and in-
tensive power, and in spiritual mood. (5) The Holy Graal and
Other Fragments (1907), parts of the unfinished dramas which
indicate the scope and purport of the projected cycle, and, in
Bliss Carman's words, "its essential profundity, seriousness, and
wisdom."

WILLIAM VAUGHN MOODY, 18691910, poet, drama-
tist. 47 Born in Spencer, Indiana. Sixth child of Francis B. Moody
and Henrietta E. Story. Attended the Pritchett Institute of De-
sign at Louisville, Kentucky. Taught at a district school near New
Albany, Indiana, to which his family had moved in 1870. Prepared
for two years at Riverview Academy, a military school at Pough-
keepsie, New York. Worked his way through Harvard (1889
1893). Travelled abroad, tutoring a wealthy pupil (18921893).
A.B., Harvard (1893). Harvard Graduate School (18931895).
Went abroad (1894). Instructor of English at the University of
Chicago (1895), becoming an assistant professor by the time he
left (1901). Poems (1901). Nominally connected with the col-
lege until 1907. In collaboration with R. M. Lovett, published the
successful A History of English Literature (1902), Made four
trips into the Far West (1901, 1904, 1906, 1909) and three more
to England and Europe (1902, 1907, 1909). Litt.D., Yale Univer-
sity (1908). Harriet Converse Brainerd, 48 whom he had met in
1905, obtained a divorce in order to marry Moody (1909). Died
(1910).

DRAMATIC TRILOGY IN VERSE

The Fire Bringer (1904). Theme, conjecturally influenced by
Leopardi's History of the Human Race, utilizes the old Greek myth
of Prometheus to explain the supremacy of good over evil, and the
essential unity of God and the world. 49 General stiffness and heavi-
ness of expression masked by picturesque diction and poetic image
of as high an order as its blank verse. Dominant figure is Prome-
theus. Best-known lyrics: "Of wounds and sore defeat," and "I
stood within the heart of God."

47 The Poems and Plays of William Vaughn, Moody (two volumes, 1912), with an "Intro-
duction" by 7. M. Manly, pp, vii-xw; W. M. Payne, "William Vau-ghn Moody,"
fa book review] Dial, LIII (1912), pp. 484-486; C. M. Lewis, "William Vaughn
Moody," YR., N. S. II (1912-1913), pp. 688-703; Paul Shorey, "The Poetry of
Wilham Vauphn Moody," UR.. N. S. XIII (1927), pp. 172-200; N. F. Adkins,
"The Poetic Philosophy of William Vaughn Moody*" TR t , IX (1924), pp. 97-112;
Selected Poems of William Vaughn Moody, edited by R. M. Lovett (1931), pp. ix-

xcii.

48 Letters to Harriet, edited by Percy MacKaye, (1935), "II. Harriet Converse Tilden
(Moody)," pp. 435-438; also, "Introduction," pp. 5-13 (pp. 3-71).

49 M. H. Shackford, "Moody's TH* Fire Bringer for To-Day," SRQ., XXVI (1918),
pp. 407-416.

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 247

The Masque of Judgment (1900). Most complicated of his
three closet dramas advancing the general theme of the inseparable-
ness of God and man. Most important figure is Raphael. Psycho-
logic power.

The Death of Eve (1912). Purpose was to detail how man-
kind searches for reconciliation with God. Only the first act is
complete, yet this dynamic blank-verse fragment is a key to the
meaning of the trilogy. More plainly-styled and orderly than
its preceding members ; psychological characterization, excellent
dramaturgy. Perhaps familiar with La Vision d'Eve of Leon
Dierx. 50

PROSE PLAYS

The Great Divide (1909) ; originally called A Sabine Woman
(1906). Amateurish work, brocaded with theatricalism, is con-
cerned with the conflict between the cultures of the East and
West. Blank verse with occasional lyrics. Spectacular success on
Broadway.

The Faith Healer (1909). Potboiler of a revivalist who self-
questions the clash between the material and the spiritual.

POETRY COLLECTIONS AND LETTERS

Gloucester Moors and Other Poems (1901). Includes: (1)
"Gloucester Moors," which gives beautiful, humanitarian utterance
to a preoccupation with the problem of the economic underdog;
(2) "Good Friday Night," a simple, well-imaged, finished narra-
tive poem based upon an Eastertide procession at Sorrento, Italy;
it is as arresting and profound as "Second Coming" (1905), an
emotional, partly-narrative poem which also grew out of a personal
experience; 51 (3) "Road-Hymn for the Start," possibly only a
surface-covered poem of vagabondage; (4) "An Ode in Time of
Hesitation/ 152 as eloquent in form as in thought: an intelligent
patriotism that does not subscribe to the Stephen Decatur toast of
"my country, right or wrong"; (5) "The Quarry," suggested by
the partition of China, is an appeal in behalf of helpless nations;
(6) "On a Soldier Fallen in the Philippines," another penetrating
thrust against imperialistic aims; (7) "Until the Troubling of the

50 C. M. Lewis, "William Vaughn Moody/' YR. t N. S. II (1912-1913), p. 695 ff.
(pp. 688-703).

51 Moody's "study of life of Jesus in the New Testament was one that absorbed him
constantly, and he has left a record of this absorption in two poems Good Friday
Night and Second Coming," Harriet C. Moody in a letter to Mrs. G. N. Veeder
in 1921: G. N. Vecder, Concemitiff William Vavyhn Moody (1941), p. 9.

52 F. J. and Adaline Glasheen, "Moody's 'An Ode in Time of Hesitation/ " CE. t V
(1943-1944), pp. 121-129.

248 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Waters/' a spiritual study; (8) "Jetsam," in blank verse; (9)
"The Brute," whose personification as machinery conjures up a
prophetic vision of economic relief and social changes, is Whitman -
esque in its strength, Ruskinian in its approach to the machine's
destructiveness of beauty, and happy-ended in its conclusion that
the lost beauty will be restored and good will emerge; (10) "The
Menagerie," reminiscent in manner of older poets, over-familiar
in style, ironic in humor, and grotesque in realism, is concerned
with the theory of evolution and its implications ; ( 1 1 ) "The Golden
Journey," original and thrilling; (12) "Heart's Wild- Flower," a
lyric of exquisite phrasing and melody; (13) "On the River,"
another good piece; (14) "Song-Flower and Poppy," a two-part
poem that attempts a synthesis of things religious and things
worldly; (15) "The Daguerreotype," a thoughtful tribute to his
mother, masculine in its directness, poignant in utterance and clair-
voyant despite some strange strayings of fancy and vision.

Second Coming, and Later Poems (1912). 5S Among the better
poems are: (1) "Old Pourquoi" (1904), with its strain of sheer
grotesquery and imaginative strength; (2) "I Am the Woman."
a melodic outburst veined with compacted imagery; (3) "The
Moon-Moth," whose totality of meaning may be debatable but not
its highly sensuous lyricism and daring imagery; (4) "The Foun-
tain," another application, according to N. F. Adkins, of his thesis
of body-and-spirit unity. For "Second Coming," see "Good Friday
Night," p. 247.

LETTERS"

Revelatory of his poetic mind meticulous phrasing, sensitive
image-making faculty, mischievous touches of humor, spiritual pas-
sion. Florid. His Letters to Harriet (19011909) sketch the
Broadway of his time.

SUGGESTED MERITS SUGGESTED DEFECTS

1. Modern spirit who confronted I. Substance, ideas, and feelings
expedient actions and questioned entangled by ornate threads of re-
the fternal in America's soul. Re- flection and over-luxuriance of enio-
vered and championed womanhood, tion. Obscurity; vague idealism.

2. More a poet than a philosopher. 2. Turgidity and opulence of
Adequacy of expression, concrete- work, especially true of early verse,
ness of image, eloquence of verse. A transitional figure: his phrase-
Favorite forms are the drama and ology and style are academic and
the ode; yet his genius is primarily forced, echoing or akin to the older
lyrkal. " English poets.

53 See TJit Poems and Plays of William Vaughn Moody, edited by J. M. Manly (two
volumes. 1912).

54 Some Letters of William Vavohn Moody, edited by G. D. Mason (1912); Letters to
Hornet, edited hy Percy MacKaye (1935)* pp. 3-71, pp. 381-411.

CONVENTION AND JVtVULT IN rUtlKY

OTHER LYRISTS

RICHARD HENRY STODDARD, 1825 1903, poet, critic, editor. AUTO-
BIOGRAPHY: Recollections Personal and Literary (1903). POETRY: Songs of
Summer (1857), The King's Bell (1863), Abraham Lincoln: An Horatian Ode
(1865), Poems (1851, 1880), The Lion's Cub (1890). In a letter dated March 7,
1897, William Sharp called Stoddard "the foremost living lyric poet of America";
but if Stoddard is remembered it is not as a writer of original verse: although his
work has melody, imagery, even charm, it is predominantly artificial, imitative, and
sentimental. His score of Oriental poems, three-fourths of which appear in The Book
of the East (1871), has gained recognition as the first considerable collection of
adaptations of Chinese poetry in our literature: the translations were an excellent source
of the Chinese part of Longfellow's Poems of Place (p. 249).

JOHN JAMES PIATT, 18351917, journalist, poet; recently called (by
Clare Dowlcr, 1936) a "representative figure of a momentous period.'* Verses arc
neither memorable nor profound; subject matter not unoriginal but the verses do
express the spirit of the frontier. VOLUMES: Poems of Two Friends (with W. D.
Howells, 1860); Poems in Sunshine and firelight (1866); Western Windows and
Other Poems (1868, 1872. 1877); The Pioneer's Chimney and Other Poems (1871);
Landmarks and Other Poems (1872); Poems of House and Home (1878); The Union
of American Poetry and Art (anthology, 1879 1880); Odes in Ohio and Other
Poems (1897); and Pencilled Fly-Leaves: A Boo% of Essays in Town and Country
(1880). REPRESENTATIVE POEMS: 4 'The Western Pioneer, "Taking the Night
Train," "Passengers,** "Walking to the Station,'* "Snow Falling," "Sonnet In
1862," "Torch -Light in Fall-Time," "The Morning Street/' and "At Kilcolman
Castle.*'

WILL CARLETON, 1845 1912, short-story writer, scenario-writer, versi-
sifier, lecturer. Of his twelve collections of poetry, including City Ballads (1885),
City Legends (1889), and City Festivals (1892), his best is Farm Ballads* (1873).
Range as limited as his imagination, but his genuine sentiment and quaint humor
popularized country domestic life. "Betsy and I Are Out" is a homely ballad so
successful that it encouraged the penning of "Out of the Old House Nancy," "Over
the Hill to the Poor House," "Gone With a Handsomer Man," and "Over the Hill
from the Poor House.*' Other verses are "Cover Them Over,'* a dirge in memory of
Civil War heroes; "The New Church Organ,** a humorous ballad; and that famous
brace, "Betsy and I Arc Out" and "How Betsy and I Made Up."

EMMA LAZARUS, 18491887, New York poet whose sonnet beginning
"Give me your tired, your poor" is carved on the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty,
and who has been labeled (by Philip Cowen, 1929) as "the one poet of first rank
American Jewry has yet produced." Poems and Translations (1867), a serious, even
melancholy, volume. Admetus and Other Poems (1871), dedicated to Emerson, is
concerned primarily with classic themes. Alidc (1874), an historical prose romance
based on an episode between Goethe and Frederika Brion. The Spagnoletto (1876),
a colorful tragedy in verse dealing with Italian life of the seventeenth century.
Poems and Ballads of Heine (1881), an excellent translation. Songs of a Semite^
(1882), made known best by "The Dance to Death,'* a moving poetic drama partly
based upon factual scenes of Jewish life in Germany during the Middle Ages. By the
Waters of Babylon (1887), a prose poem presenting pictures of Jews throughout the
centuries. "Russian Christianity vs. American Judaism" (1882), a reply to an attack
upon the Jews made by Madame Ragozin; "An Epistle from Joshua Ibn Vives," a
poem founded on an incident of Spanish-Jewish life in the fifteenth century; "An
Epistle to the Jews," a scries of stimulating essays that resulted eventually in the
founding of the Hebrew Technical Institute; "The Banner of the Jew,*' "The New
Ezckicl," and "The Crowing of the Red Cock,'* three representative poems available
in The Poems of Emma Lazarus (two volumes, 1889). Sec, also, Emma Lazarus:
Selections from Her Poetry and Prose, edited, with an Introduction, by M. V. Schappes
(1944), pp. 7-20, 103-105.

250 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY, 18491916, homespun rhymer, the
"Hoosicr Poet" to whose memory a hospital was erected by popular subscription at
a cost exceeding two million dollars. Verse -contributions to the Indianapolis Journal
contain much of the substance of his poetry. Pen names included "The Bad Haroun,"
"Old E. Z. Mark," "Doc Marigold," and especially "Bcnj. F. Johnson," under which
nom de plume Rilcy once interviewed himself. The Lockerbie Book, (edited by H. H.
Rowland, 1911) is a 611-page memorial to the fact that Riley also wrote non-
dialect verse, one touched with his characteristic quaint quality; but his genius was
for the homely Hoosier vernacular. REPRESENTATIVE NON-DIALECT POEMS:
"Bereaved," "The Poet of the Future," "The Name of Old Glory," "The Boy
Patriot," "The Soldier," "The Brook-Song," "The Circus-Day Parade," "The Man
in the Moon," "A Life-Lesson." REPRESENT ATIVE DIALECT POEMS: "That-Air
Young-Un, M "The Old Swimmin'-Holc," "NothuV to Say," "Kingry's Mill,"
"Griggsby's Station," "Down Around the River," "The Old Man and Jim," "Knee-
Deep in June," "Little Orphant Annie," "The Raggedy Man," "Granny," "When
the Frost is on the Punkin." REPRESENTATIVE READINGS: "The Old Soldier's
Story," "The Peanut Story" or "Object Lesson." REPRESENTATIVE VOLUMES
(often of mingled verse and prose): The Old Sunmmin'-Hole and 'Lcven More Poems
(1883), Ajterwhtles (1887), Pipes o'Pan at Zekesbury (1888), Rhymes of Childhood
(1890), Green Fields and Running Broods (1892), Poems Here at Home (1893),
Book of Joyous Children (1902).

EUGENE FIELD, 1850 1895, columnist, journalist, humorist, poet. Best
remembered for his "Sharps and Flats*' department in the Chicago Daily News,
for his bold renderings of Horace (Field called his house "Sabine Farm"), and for
two sentimental poems, "Dutch Lullaby" (better known as "Wynken, Blynken, and
Nod") and "Little Boy Blue," the latter said by C. H. Dennis to have its germ in
"Christmas Treasures." Of his compact volume, Culture's Garland (1887), Field
said: "I am not ashamed of this little book, but like the boy with the measles, I am
sorry for it in spots." Verse collections include 4 Little Book of Western Versed
(1889), Echoes from a Sabine Farm (in collaboration, 1891), Second Book of Verse
(1892), Love Songs of Childhood (1894). PROSE VOLUMES: A Little Book of
Profitable Taletf (1893), The Holy-Cross and Other Tales (1893), The Love Affairs
of a Bibliomaniac (1896).

EDWIN [CHARLES] MARKHAM, 18521940, who achieved national
popularity when his "The Man with the Hoc" appeared in the San Francisco
Examiner of December 20, 1899. That poem, inspired by Millet's painting, has been
described by Mark Sullivan as the "most extraordinary phenomenon of the 'Mauve
Decade,' " and elsewhere as "the battle cry of the next thousand years"; but the
poem is more a rhetorical protest than a true picture. In addition to The Man with
the Hoe and Other Poems (1899), he published a number of other volumes, including
Lincoln and Other Poems (1901), the title-poem of which is a great utterance; and
Children in Bondage (in collaboration 1914), which attempts "A Complete and
Careful Presentation of the Anxious Problem of Child Labor its Causes, its Crimes,
and its Cure" (Chapters II XI and XIV being Markham's). He has recorded many
of his poems on phonograph records.

Edwin Markham, states William Rose Benet, "has always been a dogmatic poet,
but with a great liberality of spirit and an accomplished knowledge of versification.
. . . His lyrics, sonnets, and epigtams are interesting though many of them slide off
the mind. . . . Elsewhere I must admit that, while I admire the energy of this poet
and his idealism! I find much that dates considerably in language and manner of
expression. The craftsmanship is not adept enough, the moral too obvious."

FRANK DEMPSTER SHERMAN, 18601916, mathematician, Colum-
bia professor of architecture and graphics, genealogist, versifier. Facile poems are
compact, inevitable, even exquisite; subjects of his vers de societe arc often archaic.
His light verses for children were frequently signed "Felix Carmen." Madrigals and
Catches (1887), a debonair first book; New Waggings of Old Tales by Two Wags
(the other being 1 J. K. Ban^s; 1888); Lyrics jor a Lute (1890); Little-Folk Lyrics
(1892); Lyrics of Joy (1904); A Southern Flight (with Clinton Scollard, 1905).

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 251

INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Moonrisc," "An Avowal," "Behind Her Fan," "At Mid-
night," "The Rose's Cup," "A Greeting for Spring," "Confession," "Engaged,"
"Her Guitar," "Her China Cup," "Breath of Song," "A Tear Bottle," "Life,"
"Awake, Awake," "Dies Ultima."

CLINTON SCOLLARD, 1860 1932, university professor, historical novelist,
poet who used French verse-forms, imitated Bliss Carman and Richard Hovcy's songs
of the open road (p. 242), and almost invariably wrote derivatively. Published or
edited at least threescore books, including Pictures in Song (1884), Giovio and
Giulia (metrical romance, 1892), Lawton (ode, 1900), Count Falcon of the Eyrie
(novel, 1903), Songs of a Syrian Lover (1912), The Singing Heart (lyrics and other
poems, selected by his wife, Jessie B. Rittenhouse, 1934).

LOUISE IMOGEN GUINEY, 18611920, essayist, poet. By her own
admission her prose was disciplined by such writers as Sir Thomas Browne, Jeremy
Taylor, Edmund Burke, Lamb, Hazlitt, Newman, and Stevenson; her poetry, by
Sidney, Spenser, the Caroline lyricists, Shelley, Wordsworth, and Matthew Arnold.
Sometimes abstruse is her humor, often scholarly arc her writings. In her work,
states J. B. Rittenhouse, three notes predominate the valorous, the Celtic, and the
mystical.

Blessed Edmund Campion (1908), a monograph on the heroic Jesuit, resulted from
her deep Catholic sympathies; but she never completed an anthology of Recusant
Poets from the time of Surrey to that of Pope. In addition to her published piece
of hagiography she issued volumes of essays: Goose Quill Papers (1885), noted for
deliberate archaism, quaint pictures, delicate but scholarly humor. 'Monsieur Henn'
(1892), deft sketch of the Vendean war and of its hero, Henn de la Rochcjaquelin.
A Little English Gallery (1894), portraits of Farquhar, Vaughan, Lady Danvcrs, and
others. Patrins (1897), a delectable series -of fancies. POETRY: Songs at the Start
(1884), her earliest book; The White Saul end Other Poems (1887); A Roadside
Harp (1893); The Martyr's Idyl and Shorter Poems (1900); and Happy Ending
(1909; revised 1927), her own collection, as she said, of "the less faulty half" of all
her published poetry. POEMS: "Tarpeia," "On Some Old Music," "Last Faun,"
"The White Sail," "The Knight Errant," "Vigii-at-Arms," "To a Dog's Memory,"
v The Yew Tree," "Athassel Abbey," "Song of the Lilac," "Trystc Noel," "A Friend's
Song for Simoisius," "Borderlands," "The Squall," "Deo Optimo Maximo," "The
Outdoor Litany," "By the Trundle Bed," "Nocturne," "Bead Mortui," "The Inner
Fate," "St. Francis Endcth His Sermon," "The Wild Ride," "Astraea," "Winter
Boughs," "Summum Bonum," "The Colour-Bearer."

JOHN KENDRICK BANGS, 18621922, humorist. Wrote at least sixty
books, including such volumes of verse as Cobwebs from a Library Corner (1899),
Songs of Cheer (1910), Echoes of Cheer (1912), and The Foothills of Parnassus
(1914); such juvenile writings as Tiddledywin^ Tales (1891) followed successively
by The Tiddledy wind's Poetry Book (1892), In Camp with a Tin Soldier (1892),
Half-Hours with Jimmieboy (1893), and The Mantel-Piece Minstrels (1896); and
such miscellany as The Idiot (1895), a series of papers, Mr. Bonaparte of Corsica
(1895), a burlesque biography made funnier by the H. W. McVickar illustrations,
A Rebellious Heroine (1896), a well-done satirical novelette of deterministic writers,
The Bicycler/ (1896), a collection of four related farces satirizing contemporaneous
fads, Paste Jewels (1897), seven episodic tales of a married couple's servant problem,
and Ghosts I Have Met and Some Others (1898). Best-known is A House-Boat on
the Styx\ (1896), Hadean in its humor, genial in its presentation of diverse personages
and their Associated Shades, lucky in its illustrations by Peter Newell. The endeavors
of the Associated Shades under the leadership of Sherlock Holmes to retake their
club house is told in the sequel, The Pursuit of the House-Boat^ (1897), a best seller,
better than its predecessor yet less popular. Another Styxian chronicle is The
Enchanted Typewriter (1899).

MADISON [JULIUS] CAWEIN, 18651914, who, between the pub-
lication of Blooms of the Berry (1887) and The Cup of Comus (1915), issued at
least thirty-four books, including the five- volume compilation of Poems (1907).

252 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Over-facile and prolific pen makes Nature its theme; limns rural scenes consummately.
Representative among his fifteen hundred or more poems: "The Twilight Moth,"
"A Flower of the Field, 1 * "Prayer for Old Age/* "The Rain-Crow," "Evening on the
Farm," "Dirge: What Shall Her Silence Keep?," "At the End of the Road," 'To a
Wind-Flowcr," "Wood-Words," "Under Arcturus," "Ghosts," "The Feud," "A
Threnody," "Proem" to Myth and Romance, "Requcscat," "The Man Hunt," "The
Wind in the Pines," "A Voice in the Wind," "Here Is the Place Where Loveliness
Keeps House," "Unrequited," "Deserted," "In the Shadow of the Beeches."

GEORGE STERLING, 1869 1926, playwright, poet. Verse forms tradi-
tional, allusions classical, romanticism exotic: alienated the radical thinker; imagery
either lush or condensed, philosophic creed depressing and fatalistic: alienated the
ordinary reader. Yet wrote good sonnets and simple lyrics. The Testimony of the
Suns (1903), his first excellent long work; A Wine of Wizardry (1907), sheer in
imagery, and extravagantly praised by Ambrose Bierce (p. 214) as one of the
greatest American poems; IMith (1919), symbolic drama of the poetic soul in its
search for beauty; Robinton Jeffers: The Man and the Artist (1926), a prose appre-
ciation; and Sonnets to Craig (1928), of which few of the approximately one hundred
arc memorable. INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Autumn in Carmel," "Illusion," "The
Day," "To a Girl Dancing," "Three Sonnets by the Night Sea," "Man," "At the
Grave of Serra," "Three Sonnets on Oblivion," "The Black Vulture," "Beyond the
Breakers," "Omnia Exeunt in Mysterium," "The Voice of ihe Dove," "Willy Pitcher,"
"Ode on the Ccntenaiy of the Birth of Robert Browning," "Night in Heaven."

THOMAS AUGUSTINE DALY, 1871 , journalist, poet. Best known
for his dialect verse, available in Canzont (1906), which ran to about fifty thousand
copies, Carmina (1909), Madngalt (1912), UcAront Ballads (1919), McAroni Med-
leys (1931). PROSE: Herself and the Household (1924), The House of Dooner
(with Christopher Morley, 1928). REPRESENTATIVE POEMS: "To a Thrush,"
"The Living-Room," "The Blossomy Barrow," "Ballade of Summer's Passing," "To
a Tenant," "Song for April," "Waiting for the Train," "What the Flag Sings,"
"A Song for September."

PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR, 18721906, novelist, short-story writer,
poet. Pathos and unforced humor characterize his short stories, but, unlike his
novels, his short stories perhaps distort social history; and those two qualities are
endearing in his poetry, too. His earlier verses express the aspirations and the folk
temperament of the Negro worker, while his later ones, often written in literary
English, reflect, as in his novels, a growing attachment to his befriending white ac-
quaintances. Perhaps therein is a clue to his failure to mirror a race soul while
blending successfully the emotional whimsies, sentiments, and forces anchored within
his people.

NOVELS: The Uncalled (1898), in which Dunbar and his wife are hero and
heroine, is nevertheless concerned more with white than with Negro characters.
Despite some excellent passages and fair plotting, it adds nothing to his reputation.
It was dramatized for the radio by Meredith Page and broadcast in 1937. The Love
of Landry (1900), a mid-Victorian romance with Colorado as its setting. Its charac-
ters arc not closely associated with Negro life. The Fanatics (1901), an artificial
novel of a social-political problem generated by the Civil War in a little Ohio town.
The Sport of the Gods^ (1902), where the main participants are Negroes. The Un-
called and The Love of Landry are both amateurish; but in the former, Dunbar de-
nounced the hypocrisy of orthodox religion. In The Fanatics and in The Sport of the
Gods, he demonstrates a sympathy; but in the latter he debunks southern gentility.
At no time, however, do his novels, chiefly in the "plantation tradition," show more
than promise.

STORIES AND SKETCHES: Of his six-dozen generally mediocre stories published
in four separate volumes, some memorable ones are: "Anner 'Lizer's Stumblin*
Block," "A Family Feud," and "The Trial Sermons on Bull-Skin" (all three from
Fol^s from Dixie ^ 1898, twelve stories), "The Last Fiddling of Mordaunt's Jim"
(from In Old Plantation Days, 1903, twenty-five stories), and "The Lynching of

CONVENTION AND REVOLT IN POETRY 253

Jube Benson" (from The Heart of Happy Hollow, 1904, sixteen storks). Twenty
short stories also appeared in The Strength of Gideon (1900).

POETRY: (1) Oa^s and Ivy (1893), influenced by Irwin Russell and J. W. Riley.
Romantic echoes appear in later volumes as well. (2) Majors and Minors (1895),
not so good as his first volume, yet called by Benjamin Brawlcy "the most notable
collection of poems ever issued by a Negro in the United States.* 1 (3) Lyrics o/
Lowly tijc\ (1896), chiefly a selection of the better poems in the two preceding
collections. Other volumes; Lyrics of Hearths*dc\ (1899), Poems of Cabin and Field
(1899), Candk'LJghtin' Time (1901), Lyrics of Love and Laughter* (1903), JJT
Gal (1904), Lyncs of Sunshine and ShadouA (1905), Howdy Honey Howdy (1905),
Joggin' Erlong (1906), Chrismus Is A Comin' (1907), Lyrics of Lowly Life (1908),
Spcal(in' o' Christmas (1914), The Complete Poems of Paul Laurence Dunbar (1913,
1938).

INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Poet and His Song," "Ere Sleep Comes Down to
Soothe the Weary Eyes," "Fulfilment," "We Wear the Mask," "When Malindy
Sings," "Life," "The Corn-Stalk Fiddle," "The Spcllin'-Bce," u When de Co'n
Pone's Hot," "On the Sea Wall," "Love's Apotheosis," "Love/' "At Candlc-Lightin*
Time," "Whistling Sam," "Encouragement," "When Dcy 'Listed Colored Soldiers,"
"Ode to Ethiopia," "The Haunted Oak."

CHAPTER XIII

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM:

ESSAYISTS, CRITICS, AND

PLAYWRIGHTS

JOHN BURROUGHS, 18371921, teacher, poet, literary
critic, essayist, naturalist. 1 Born on a farm just north of Roxbury,
New York, Intermittent formal schooling included about a term
each at Ashland Collegiate Institute and Cooperstown Seminary.
Teacher in Illinois. Married Ursula North (1857). Taught at
East Orange, New Jersey (1859). Contributed to the Atlantic
Monthly (1860) and to the New York Leader (1861). Clerk in
the Treasury Department at Washington (1864 1873), where he
met Whitman. 2 U. S. Bank Examiner (18731884). Settled
down (1884) on a farm at West Park on the Hudson, where nature
lovers pilgrimaged to his cabin "Slabsides" and his house "Riverby."
Honorary degrees from Colgate, Yale, and the University of
Georgia. Recipient of the gold medal of the Academy of Arts and
Letters (1916). Died in Ohio (1921), on his way home from a
short visit to southern California, where a chest abscess had devel-
oped and had been operated upon unsuccessfully. Laid to rest on
his boyhood farm. Unveiled exactly a year later (1922) on the
Boyhood Rock near Woodchuck Lodge at Roxbury-in-the-Catskills
was a bronze tablet, its two-line epigraph being a quotation from
his most famous poem, "Waiting" :

I STAND AMID THE ETERNAL WAYS
AND WHAT IS MINE SHALL KNOW MY FACE

Whether consciously or not, the early effusions of John Bur-
roughs were characterized by the defects of the Johnsonian style ;
later, the unsigned essay "Expression 1 * which appeared in the
Atlantic (1860) was so dressed up with a few surface Emersonian
mannerisms that it was mistaken for the idiom of that American

Clara Barrus, John Burroughs. Boy and Man (1920); John Burroughs, My Boyhood,
With a Conclusion by His Son Julian Burroughs (1922); Clifton Johnson, John
Burroughs Talks (1922); Norman Foerster, Nature in American Literature (1923),
pp. 264-305; W. S. Kennedy, The Real John Burroughs (1924); Clara Barrus, The
Life and Letters of John Burroughs (two volumes, 1925); Clara Barrus, The Heart
of Burroughs' Journals (1928); C. H. Osborne. The Religion of John Burroughs
(1930).

Clara Barrus, "Whitman and Burroughs as Comrades," YR. t XV (1925-1926),
pp. s|9-81.

254

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 255

philosopher. 8 John Burroughs first began to find himself in "From
the Back Country/' a series of unfinished but fresh articles in the
New York Leader (1861) ; and, twenty years later, in Pepacton
(1881), finally mastered the craft of nature writing.

The charm of Uncle John of Woodchuck is a personal emanation
felt only in a leisurely reading of his nature essays, which are an
excellent medium for his chatty and mellow style, delightful
humor, familiar dignity, and simple architecture. It is in his objec-
tive materials that he succeeds best, in his concern with the outward
life of nature primarily because of his power of sympathetic
rather than original observation. His few books on literary criticism
merit a bit more attention; his later volumes on human topics,
contemporary science, and philosophical problems make no pro-
found contribution except as they reveal a belief in evolution, a
reverent if creedless faith, and a Bergsonian mysticism. The Sage
of Slabsides is basically a see-er and not a seer ; 4 with John Muir,
he developed in America a literary genre, the nature essay. Only
Emerson and Thoreau are better. 6

WORKS

Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet and Person (1867), the first
biographical-critical study of the Good Gray Poet, later expanded
into Walt Whitman: A Study (1896); 6 Wake-Robin (1871),
Winter Sunshine (1875), Birds and Poets (1877), Locusts and
Wild Honey (1879), Pepacton (1881), Fresh Fields (1884), Signs
and Seasons (1886) , Indoor Studies (1889), Riverby (1894), The
Light of Day (1900), Literary Values (1902), The Life of Audu-
bon (1902), Far and Near (1904), Ways of Nature (1905), Bird
and Bough (poems, 1906), Camping and Tramping with Roose-
velt (1907), Leaf and Tendril (1908), Time and Change (1912),
The Summit of the Years (1913), The Breath of Life (1915),
Under the Apple Trees (1916), Field and Study (1919), Accept-
ing the Universe (1920), Under the Maples (1921), The Last
Harvest (1922).

HENRY [BROOKS] ADAMS, 18381918, historian, a
pioneer of the seminar method of study ; called, overratedly, "the

3 Frequently John Burroughs declared that Emerson was his spiritual father; for ex-
ample: "In taking this line from Emerson for the title of an essay on Henri Bergson,
I would indicate at once the aspect of his philosophy that most appeals to me." John
Burroughs, "A Prophet of the Soul," Atl., CXIII (1914), p. 120 (pp. 120432).

4 D, L. Sharp, The Seer of Slabsides (1921), p. 3.

5 J. H. DeLoach, Rambles with John Burroughs (1912), pp. 93-107; Bliss Perry, "John
Burroughs as a Man of Letters," HGM., XXX (1921-1922), pp. 328-333.

6 It is generally recognized that a large part of Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet and
Person was written by Walt Whitman himself: consult F. P. Hier, Jr., "The End
of a Literary Mystery, 11 XAf., I (1924), pp. 471-478.

256 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

Aristotle of America." 7 Instead of studying Civil Law at Berlin
(1858), spent most of his time upon trips, once as far down as
Italy. Returned to the United States (1860). Secretary to his
father, Charles Francis Adams, at the American Embassy in Lon-
don (18611868). Back to Washington, D. C (1868). Through
the influence of his father, became a teacher of medieval history at
Harvard (18701877), and edited The North American Review.
Married Marian Hooper, of Boston and Beverly Farms, Massa-
chusetts (1872). To Europe (18721873). By taking cyanide of
potassium, Marian committed suicide (1885). 8 Summered in Nor-
mandy (1895). Visit to Paris Exposition (1900), where the huge
dynamo affected his speculative mind.

Democracy An American Novel (anonymously, 1880). Rather
incompetent novelizing, but significant for its understanding if
satirical documentation of social and political Washington, cor-
rupted by irresponsible ambition. Its major political theme is treated
more fully in The Education of Henry Adams. 9 Originals of the
main characters include Rutherford B. Hayes, nineteenth President
of the United States ("Old Granite"), James G. Blaine (Senator
Silas P. Ratcliffe), Mrs. Bigelow Lawrence, Miss Fanny Chap-
man, James Lowndes, and Emily Beale. (See, also, Hay's Bread-
Winners, p. 168; Mark Twain's The Gilded Age, p. 191.)

John Randolph (1882). Historical work. Light touch and inter-
pretative spirit possibly outbalanced by inexpert judgment. 10 In-
ferior to his The Life of Albert Gallatin (1879) and The Writing*
of Albert Gallatin (1879).

Esther A Novel (pseudonymously, 1884). By 'Trances Snow
Compton." Measures a woman's mental recognition of religious
faith against a spiritual conflict. As in Democracy, concerned with
political faith, so in Esther, concerned with religious faith, the
chief character is a feminine soul in search of truth anticipatory
of the symbolism of the Virgin of Chart res ; yet the central con-
flict of both trivial novels is alike. By modelling Esther Dudley

7 Henry Adams, The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, with an "Intioductory
Note" by Brooks Adams (1919), pp. v-xiu, A Cycle of Adams Letters 18*61-186$.
edited by W. C. Ford, (two volumes. 1920). T. T. Adams, Henry Adams (1933),
R. V. Shumate, "'The Political Philosophy of Henry Adams," APSR.. XXVI1T
(1934), pp. 599-610; Edgar Johnson, "Henry Adams: The Last Liberal," SS.. I
(1936-1937), pp. 362-377; M. I. Baym, "Wil'iam Tames and Henry Adams," NEO*.
X (1937), pp. 717-742; R. P. Blackmur "Henry Adams: Three Late Moments," K.R..
II (1940), pp. 7-29; Oscar Cargill, "The Mediaeva'ism of Henry Adams," in Essay*
and Studies in Honor of Carleton Brown (1940), pp. 296-329.

8 Katharine Simonds, "The Tragedy of Mrs. Henry Adams," NEQ. f IX (1936),
pp. 564-582.

9 Although he had liberal opinions, Henry Adams probably thought none too highly
of hot polloi. White Walt Whitman regarded society as evolutive of a genuine
democracy, Henry Adams, after striving to achieve a logical analogy between deter-
m nism and creativeness. between unity (the cult of the Virgin) and multiplicity
(the worship of the Dynamo), arrived at a "mystical pantheism with the lve of the
Virgin as force, and Chartres Cathedral as society." W. H. Jordy, "Henry Adams
and Walt Whitman," SAQ.. L (1941), pp. 132-M5.

10 For a criticism of Adams's treatment of John Randolph, consult the twoscore refer-
ences in W. C. Bruce, John Randolph of Roanokt (two volumes, 1922).

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 257

partly 11 upon the character of Marian Adams, the author gives
an insight into his own spiritual biography. Stephen Hazard is in
some ways Henry Adams. Fair realism, persuasive talk, consider-
ate irony, intellectualized action, excellent understanding of femi-
nine emotions. 12

History of the United States during the Administrations of
Jefferson and Madison (1885 1891 ). 13 Political and diplomatic
history large in bulk, and generally praised for its charming style,
gift of narration and characterization, masterly research, philo-
sophical reflection. 14 Except for the early chapters, perhaps not fully
appreciative of basic economic and social phenomena.

Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres^ (privately printed, 1904; pub-
lished 1913). Critical work subtitled "A Study of Thirteenth-
Century Unity" fuses medieval theology, philosophy, and mysti-
cism, medieval sociology and economics, medieval art, romance,
and literature into a dynamic worship of a world distant from the
chaos of his own times and presided over by the Virgin Mother of
Jesus. 15 In this contrasting study of the architectural structures
raised in the martial eleventh and halcyon thirteenth centuries,
where the religious theme of Esther receives profouncler expres-
sion, the mellow humor and intricate learning, the unique insight
and escapist promptings build up a prose-poem tribute to the Vir-
gin, apotheosis of womankind.

A Letter to American Teac'i*-s of History (1910). By adopting
Lord Kelvin's second law of thermodynamics 16 (the law of the dis-
sipation of energy), Adams tilts a lance against evolution as a doc-
trine of ultimate perfectibility. Dynamic theory urges recognition

11 By no means completely, for his marriage to the charming Marian was happy: Kathar-
ine Simonds, "The Tragedy of Mrs. Henry Adams." NbQ.. IX <19J6). pp. 564o82.

12 Marian Adams, who lost her father several months after Esther appeared, may have
obtained from it a suicide hint- the heroine, after losing her invalid father, feels
impelled "to get out of life itself rather than suffer such . . . misery of helplessness."
Also playing its tragic part was, possibly, twelve years of childlessness.

13 Published as follows: History of the United States of America during the Second
Administration of Thomas Jefferson (1885). History of the United States of America
durng the First Administration of James Madison 1809-1&13 (1888), History of the
United States of America durina the First Administration of Thomas Jefferson (two
volumes, 1889), History of the United States of America during the Second Admin-
istration of Thomas Jefferson (two vo'umes, 1890). History of the United States of
America during the First Administration of James Madison (two volumes, 1890),
History O f the United States of America during the Second Administration of James
Madison (three volumes, 1891).

14 "Written strictly in accord with scientific principles, the nine-volume work still stands
as one of the outstanding achievements of American hist' rioffranhy and a monument
to the scientific theory of history." James Stone. "Henry Adams's Philosophy of
History," NEQ.. XIV (1914) o. 540 (pp. 538-548). See alo W. C. F^rd. -Henry

p - 674 /; Yvor Winter8 ' T

15 SH 1 * 1 *? 1 B^JX^d.^he Education of Henry Adams," MH.. IV (1920), pp. 232-
242 V&* L T Creek i I 1 ?'. Meditevtlism of Henry Adams." S/tO. t XXTV np^t.
301?3<J9 J * f HcniT Adami '" M<mth ' CLXX < 1937 >

16 It is becoming apparent that it was Brooks Adams who helped make a philosopher
out of Henrv. Previously it had been frenerally believed that Henry influenced the
thought in The Law of Civilisation and Decay (1895). written by his brother Brooks
See C. A. Beard's introduction to The Law of Civilisation and Dtcav (1943), PpV?53 :
nnd also H. E. Barnes, "Brooks Adams on World Utopia," CuH., VI (1944) pp 1-6

258 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

of the principle that, instead of evolving toward a state of perfec-
tion, human thought or society is a substance or an organism sub-
ject to the law of degradation, and hence destined for senescence
and decay. Doctrine, applied to history, is generally characterized
as futilitarian.

The Education of Henry Adams\ (privately printed, 1907;
posthumously, 1918). Pioneering attempt to effect a continuity
between European medievalism and American modernism, and to
achieve a synthesis of all human knowledge. Subtitled "A Study
of Twentieth-Century Multiplicity/* this partial, but nevertheless, in-
tellectual autobiography 17 chronicles the evolution or devolution
from unity in the adoration of Our Lady of Chartres to chaos
or "multiplicity," valiantly groping to expound the dualism by
utilizing philosophy, physics, and mathematics, by resorting to such
theories as the law of phase and the second law of thermodynamics,
and by endeavoring to achieve an historical reconciliation between
the Virgin of the thirteenth century and the Dynamo of the
twentieth. 18 Odyssey of introspective maladjustment despite con-
sistent efforts to comprehend the world about him. Later chapters
(especially xxv, xxxm, xxxiv) are an exercised discussion of his
dynamic theory of history 19 (see A Letter to American Teachers
of History) : his ultimate conclusion is that Chaos is the law of
nature, while Order is the dream of man. 20 Arterializing its vig-
orous scepticism and alert humor, its absorptive knowledge, rich
expressiveness, and extraordinary substance are veins of desperate
pessimism, of disintegrative pathos, and of philosophic anarchism. 21

17 Noted for its frank admissions, yet his reportoriat autobiography has its reticences;
excluded are, for example, twenty years of his life, including the years of his marriage.
To the Freudian the absence of the sexual theory as an explanation of life may be one
reason for his will to power.

18 Eugene O'Neill's melodramatic Dynamo (1929), wherein it becomes a divine symbol,
is perhaps a travesty or satire of the mind of Henry Adams.

19 To Adams's theory many serious demurrers have been raised. Meriting study is the
doctrine that laws governing the material woild may influence the destiny of man.
Consult G. H. Sabine, "Henry Adams and the Writing of History/' UCC., XXVI
(1924), pp. 31-46; R. A. Hume, "Henry Adams's Quest for Certainty," in Stanford
Studies m Language and Literature, edited by Hardin Craig (1941). pp. 361*373.

20 "According to his theory of history, . . . the teacher was at best helpless, and, in the
immediate future, silence next to good-temper was the mark of sense. After mid*
summer, 1914^ the rule, was made absolute."

The foregoing quotation from the "Editor's Preface" signed by Henry Cabot Lodge
in The Education of Henry Adam* (1918) has special significance if it was written,
at J. T. Adams states, by Henry Adams.

21 Henry's apologia for being 'a failure is a deceptive pose, cautions Brooks Adams as
he reminds us that, by ordinary standards, his brother Henry succeeded as a writer,
a teacher, and an historian. Granted that Henry's life is not wholly the American
tragedy he desires us to believe, yet his restless journey ings do point up for him the
meaninglessness and futility of life. A more appropriate name tor The Education of
Henry Adams might be "Why Education Failed to Educate Henry Adams," an aptly-
titled article by W. D. Sheldon, SR. t XXVIII (1920), pp. 54-65; while H. S. Canby,
The Education of Henry Adamf (1942), p. xii (pp. ix-xiii), states that the "full title
of his book . . . might run something like this: 'How I Educated Myself in the
Nature of the Nineteenth Century; and Learning what it was Like in Reference to
Me, went on and tried to Discover where it was Going: Made some bri'liant Guesses,
but could see no Final Solution hopeful for Man: and so Resolved that my twe of
Education had led only to a Demonstration of the Extent of Human Ignorance.' " See
also Girl Becker. "The Education of Henry Adams," AHR.. XXIV (1918-1919).
pp. 422-434.

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 259

The Prayer to the Virgin of Chartres (c. 1904; published 1920).
Poem important chiefly for the light it throws upon his spiritual
history. 22 Meditate, for example, upon "Ourselves we worship and
we have no Son."

Letters. Reveal him once again the master of that ironic note and
detached intellectuality prominent in The Education of Henry
Adams.

GAMALIEL BRADFORD, 18631932, called by John
Macy "the supreme," but not necessarily the best biographer of our
time. Born in Boston at Bowdoin and Allston Streets. Of direct
descent in the eighth generation from Governor William Bradford
of Plymouth Colony (see p. 4). To Europe for a year (1878).
Forced by ill health to withdraw from Harvard, which he had
entered in 1882. Married Helen Hubbard Ford (1886). Summered
in continental Europe (1887). All his life he suffered seriously
from illness, almost always working at a typewriter rigged up in-
geniously near his bed, where he did most of his secretaryless
writing. A financial competence inherited from his mother freed
him from financial worry. Died at his home in Wellesley Hills,
Massachusetts, from an inherited disease. 28

Gamaliel Bradford developed in his own way a method 24 of writ-
ing brief "portraits" or "psychographs" 25 of historical figures of

22 Mabel LaFarge, "Henry Adams: A Niece's Memoirs," YR., IX (1920), p. 284 f.
(pp. 271-285); Ferner Nuhn, "Henry Adams and the Hand of the Fathers." A.Pr*.
V (1940), pp. 51-56.

23 His mother, Clara Crowninshicld Kinsman Bradford, died from consumption at the
age of twenty-nine, only five years after her marriage, attaining even then a greater
age than any others in the large family of which she was a member. Consult C. K.
Bolton, "Gamaliel Bradford: A Memoir," MHS., LXV (1940), pp. 81-91.

24 "Arrived today at the first reading of Paine's Works t and instantly perceive what I
had not quite fathomed before, the secret of his greatness, such as he is. The man
is a writer. I should say that this is apt to be my method of getting at a subject.
I take first the outside sources, the secondary matter, the hearsay and gossip of those
less likely to know, and then get to the heart, the essential biographies, and the man's
own words. Perhaps this is a mistake. I may get prejudices from the unreHab'e
source? that I do not afterwards eradicate. But I somehow feel as if this were the
more natural form of approach, what one would adopt in real life, and so far it
seems to work reasonably well, besides that in some cases my method is quite
different." The Journal of Gamaliel Bradford. 1883-1932, edited by Van Wyck Brooks
(1933); dated June 11, 1922, p. 306.

25 To Bradford the word "portrait" is unsatisfactory, for a painter "takes a man only
at one special moment of his life and [the portrait] may therefore be quite untrue
to the larger lives of his character," whereas a psychographer "endeavors to grasp
as many particular moments as he can and to give has reader not one but the enduring
sum total" of the "vast complex of influences that have gone to building up that
face and figure." Psychography is not bound to "the chronological pattern of narrative
biography" (John Macy) that is an integral part of portrait-writing; nor is psy-
chography "bound to present an elaborate sequence of dates, events, and circumstances,
of which some are vital to the analysts of the individual subject, but many are merely
required to make the narrative complete" (Gamaliel Bradford).

What, positively, is this new style of biography? "Out of the perpetual flow of
actions and circumstances that constitutes a man's whole life," psychography "seeks
to extract what is essential, what is permanent and so vitally characteristic" it
"is the condensed, essential, artistic presentation of character," which is quite distinct
from individuality, and "is the sum of qualities or of generalized habits of action."
A psychograph "seeks to extricate from the fleeting, shitting, many-colored tissues of
a man's long life, those habits of action, usually known as qualities of character,"
which are the slow, almost unalterable product of inheritance and training. Its art
is "to disentangle these habits from the immaterial, inessential matter of oiography,
to illustrate them by touches of speech and action that are significant, and by those

260 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

varied eras and countries, and produced no fewer than one hundred
fourteen such character studies of men and women, 28 of whom at
least half are American. Neither inventing nor standing alone in
this kind of fluid, creative biography, yet his personal application
of "soul-writing" made him prominent. Paired off with his breadth
of sympathy 27 and scholarly detachment are adequate craftsmanship
and a historian's zeal, all best sustained in his miniatures rather
than in such life-size, full-length psychographs as those devoted to
Pepys, Darwin, Moody, and even Lee.

His indefatigable activity as a writer produced two thousand
poems, eight novels, of which only three were published, fifteen
plays, of which only one was printed but not a single one produced,
and numerous other works. 28

AMERICAN CHARACTER STUDIES

(1) Types of American Characters (1895), concerned with the
pessimist, the idealist, the epicurean, the philanthropist, the man
of letters, the American out-of-doors, and the scholar, this series
of essays is a pale and abstract foreshadow of his later psycho-
graphic portraits. (2) Lee the American^ (1912), generally ap-
plauded as the work whereby he comes into his own as psycho-
grapher. 29 (3) Damaged Souls^f (1923), easily his best-known

only. . . . " Consult Edward Wagenknecht, "Gamaliel Bradford," BLM. t II, No. 4

ffff^^\ .. _ oj. /" u_i n ~r i A _A I. -* ~j f_..i_ /tm^\ ~ 5 / * \I D

"(i929)i
LXXV
SAQ.,
(1933). p. 14 /. (pp. 9-18).

26 A complete alphabetical list of all appears in Dale Warren, "Gamaliel Bradford:
A Personal Sketch," SAO., XXXIII (1933), pp. 15-18 (pp. 9-18). Consult also
L. H. Hough, "A Magnificent and Meticulous Dilettante," RL. t II (1933), pp. 271-
284.

27 Hia deep interest in other people's lives made it possible for him to enter sympatheti-
cally into the lives of Darwin, a gentleman scholar; of Lee, a gent eman warrior;
of repys, a likeable rogue; and of Moody, a robust gospeler.

28 Published volumes of poetry are A Pageant of Life (1904), early poems; A Prophet
of Joy (1920). a long narrative poem; and Shadow Verses (1920), a group ot poems.
Unmade in Heaven (1917), in four acts, is his only printed play. The novels are
The Private Tutor (1904). Between Two Masters (1906). and Matthew Porter (1908).
In addition to Lee the American (1912), the Civil War also provided material for
Confederate Portraits (1914), A Portrait of General George Gordon Mcade (1915).
Union Portraits (1916). Further studies of Americans appear in Types of American
Characters (1895), American Portraits, 1975-1900 (1922), Damaged Souls (1923),
D. L. Moody: A Worker in Souls (1927), As God Made Them (1929). Other works
include The Sout of Samuel Pepys (1924), The Haunted Biographer (1927), Early
Days in Wellesley (1929), Daughters of Eve (1930), The Quick and the Dead (1931),
Biooraphy and tht Human Heart (1932). Saints and Sinners (1932), and Portraits
and Personalities, edited by M. A. Bessey (1933).

29 But it was not until H. L. Mencken's appreciative review of American Portraits
appeared in the New York Evening Post Literary Review of April 8, 1922, that Brad-
ford s popularity began. However, it is not amiss to question in a measure H. L.
Mencken's statement that "This Bradford is the man who invented the formula of
Lytton Strachey's 'Queen Victoria,* " for Bradford himself admitted that even the
word psycnoKranh" is not his own invention: see "Appendix" to Lfe the American
(1912), pp. 269-283. and "Psychoirraphy" in A Naturalist of Souls (1917), pp. 3-25.
Datrd Annl 11, 1922. Bradford's letter of gratefulness to H. L. Mencken is available
in TUf Letter$ of Gamaliel Bradford. 191$-1931> edited by Van Wyck Brooks (1934),
p. 105 /.

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 261

book." (4) D. L. Moody: A Worker in Souls (1927), a fairly
satisfactory discussion of the average evangelistic attitudes toward
religion.

TRANSATLANTIC CHARACTER STUDIES

(1) A Naturalist of Souls (1917) deals wholly with people
across the Atlantic; (2) Bare Souls (1924), concerned in part with
transatlantic figures; (3) Darwin (1926), a sympathetic portrayal
of the negative-nihilistic approach to religion.

WOMEN CHARACTER STUDIES

(1) Devoted to Europeans, chiefly French and of the eighteenth
century, is Portraits of Women (1916) ; (2) to wives, reformers,
and educators, Portraits of American Women (1916) ; (3) to those
whose husbands are eminent, Wives (1925) ; (4) to the daily life
of Elizabethan women and the women of Elizabethan literature, the
posthumous Elizabethan Women (1936)*

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

(1) The Journal of Gamaliel Bradford, 1883-1932 (1933), 81 a
description of his inner life, of his resolute fifty-year battle against
sickness and infirmity; (2) The Letters of Gamaliel Bradford,
1918-1931 (1934), a description of his social life; and

Life and It (192S). Beautiful spiritual autobiography, reverent
but frank in its discussion of the problems of religion. Originally
planned as Christ and I (out of eight chapters the last four are :
"Christ and I," "Christ and Not-I," "Christ and More than L"
"Christ and I and God"), it is memorable for a penetrating con-
sideration of Jesus and the New Testament.

OTHER ESSAYISTS AND CRITICS

THOMAS WENTWORTH H IGGIN SON, 1823 19 11, clergyman, nov-
elist, historian, essayist, biographer. AUTOBIOGRAPHY; (1) Army Ufe in a Blac%
Regiment (1870), describes his war experiences, including his adventures as colonel
of the first Negro regiment of freed slaves. (2) Cheerful Yesterdays (1898), about
his contemporaries written indoors during a two-year illness. (3) Mai bone (1869),
his only romance, in which his wife is the novel's Aunt lane, MISCELLANEOUS:
Oldport Days (1873),. essays descriptive of the Newport of his day; History of the
United States for Young People (1874), well done; The Monarch^ Dreams (1886),

30- As Van Wyck Brooks haa noted, Bradford had an all-American mind, one identical
with that of Amy LowcH and Robert Frost, of John Dewey and S. E. Mori son, and
one that made instinctive efforts to attach itself "whole-heartedly to the life of the
country, , . . to nationalize itself*' at a critical moment in our history, Bradford's
study of Robert E. Lee is an instance of this; hut Tew frequently noted is his Datnaatd
Souls,, where a prominent aim is to reveal the human and more attractive elements in
such . characters as Benedict Arnold, Aaron Burr, and John Brown. Abused and
damaged their souls may be, but not damned.

31 The Journal, edited by Van Wyck Brooks., represents only about one-seventh of the
length of the mantmcript, which total* t-,400,000 word*.

262 THE TRIUMPH OF REALISM: 1865-1914

imaginative talc; An Afternoon Landscape (1888), first volume of verse; Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow (1902) and John Creenleaf Whittier (1902), both in the American
Men of Letters Series.

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER, 18291900, surveyor, lawyer, essayist,
novelist, editor of the American Men of Letters Series. ESSAYS: My Summer in a
Garden (1870; title-page dated 1871), a series of humorous, mellow nature-essays.
Backlog Studies (1873), graceful social and literary discussions. As We Were Saying
(1891) and At We Go (1893), two little books possessing his characteristically urbane
wit, mellow grace, and, perhaps, basic shallowness. The Relation of Literature t<*
tifet (1896), contains "his deepest and most earnest convictions." TRAVEL
SKETCHES: My Winter on the Nile (1876) and In the Levant (1877), a graphic
record of a visit to the Orient during 1875 and 1876; Our Italy (1891), an account
of Southern California. TRILOGY OF NOVELS: A Little Journey in the World
(1889), how Rodney Henderson accumulates a great fortune in the stock market;
The Golden House (1894), how the great fortune is fraudulently misused; and
That Fortune (1899), how Rodney's money, accumulated by ruthless methods, is
lost. For The Gilded Age, written in collaboration with Mark Twain, see page 191.
BIOGRAPHIES: Captain John Smith (1881); Washington Irving (1881).

JOHN MUIR, 18381914, Scottish-American explorer, naturalist, teacher.
Nature-philosophy is theistic, yet he is an evolutionist. Unaffected, descriptive style
is exemplified in his Letters to a Friend (1915) as well as in his other writings. The
Story of My Boyhood and Youth (1913) is exactly that, telling of Scotland, America,
and the University of Wisconsin. In Our National Par^t (1901) appears some of
his best work. His and his gallant dog's narrow escape during 1 a glacier storm is
recounted in Stic^een (1909). Also wrote My First Summer in the Sierra (1911),
The Yosemtte] (1912), Travels in Alaska (a series of explorations made during the
summers of 1879, 1880, 1881; published 1915), Steep Trails (1918), and The Moun-
tains of California^ (1894), especially noteworthy, illustrated by Muir himself, and
famous for its discussions of "The Water-Ouzel," "A Wind-Storm in the Forests,"
"The River Floods," and "The Douglas Squirrel.'*

RICHARD WATSON GILDER, 18441909, editor, poet, man-of-affairs.
To Brander Matthews, his essays arc tender, mellow, and flavored; to Ferris Grccnslct,
his letters have vivacity, sincerity, and abiding charm; to H. W. Mabie, his poetry
possesses vitality and charm, reveals a delicate touch invigorated by sensitive imagi-
nation, conviction, and thought but on the whole his productions are not especially
memorable. Of his nine principal volumes of poetry the best is his first, The New Day
(1875), a cycle of love sonnets. Prose includes Lincoln the Leader; and Lincoln's
Genius for Expression (1909) and Grover Cleveland: A Record of Friendship (1910).

W[ILLIAM] C[RARY] BROWNELL, 18511928, perhaps the most
discerning literary critic of his day. French Traits: An Essay in Comparative Criticism
(1889), a straight-thinking, sympathetic, penetrating study of American as well as
French life. French Art (1892), charming expository criticism. Victorian Prose
Masters (1901), dispassionate, occasionally recondite, but never less than admirable
in its judgments, apparently influenced by Matthew Arnold. American Prose Masters^
(1909), more spontaneous and original than the 1901 volume: perhaps this 1909
collection of critical estimates identifies him with the New Humanists. Criticism
(1914), a little volume, as stimulating in its rhythm and restraint as all his works.
Standards (1917), seven well- written short papers, broad of perception and austere
of taste. The Genius of Style (1924), which favors discipline and centrality of taste
as against impulse and sentimentality. Other volumes are: Democratic Distinction
in America (1927); The Spirit of Society (1927); William Crary Brownell (an An-
thology of His Writings together with Biographical Notes and Impressions of the
Later Years, by Gertrude Hall Brownell, 1933).

HENRY VAN DYKE, 18521933, minister, professor of English at Prince-
ton, ambassador, poet, critic, short-story writer, essayist. The Reality of Religion
(1884) was the first of a series of theological books, followed by The Story of the

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 263

Psalms (1887), Sermons to Young Men (1893), The Christ Child in Art (1894), and
The Poetry of the Psalms (1900), Originally preached as a Christmas sermon, The
Story of the Other Wise Man\ (1896) was subsequently published in short-story form,
as was his The First Christmas Tree (1897); both have been translated into several
Oriental and numerous European languages. Essays in Application (1905) is a vol-
ume of literary criticism not so well known as The Poetry of Tennyson (1889), a
sympathetic study. Popular were the essays in such collections as Little Riversi
(1895) and Fisherman's Luck, (1899), and his short fiction in The Ruling Passion^-
(1901), his first book of stories, The Blue Flower (1902), a translation from the
German of Novalis, and The Unknown Quantity (1912), inspired by the death of a
favorite daughter. Published also were The Builders, and Other Poems (1897), The
Toiling of Felix, and Other Poems (1900), Music and Other Poems (1904), The
Spirit of America (a translation of his Sorbonne lecture, 1908 1909; 1910),
The Grand Canyon and Other Poems (1914), Companionable Booths (1923), and
Chosen Poems (1933). REPRESENTATIVE POEMS: "The Arrow,*' "Four Things,"
"America for Me," "Love and Light," "Joy and Duty," "Work," "Might and Right*"

GEORGE EDWARD WOODBERRY, 1855 1930, professor, poet, biog-
rapher, critic, editor. His interpretations of Poe, Shelley, Milton, and Hawthorne
have understanding and urbanity, if not too much color and warmth. Popular are
"The Secret" and "O, Inexpressible as Sweet," two lyrics; "At Gibraltar," two son-
nets; and "The North Shore Watch," a beautiful threnody. Volumes include:
A History of Wood-Engraving (1883), Edgar Allan Poe (1885; enlarged 1909),
The North Watch Shore and Other Poems (1890), Studies in Letters and Life (1890),
The Complete Poetical Worfy of Percy Bysshe Shelley^ (1892), Heart of Man (1899),
Makers of Literature (1900), Nathaniel Hawthorne^ (1902), America in Literature
(1903), The Torch (1905), Swinburne (1905), The Appreciation of Literature
(1907), Ralph Waldo Emerson (1907), The Inspiration of Poetry (1910), The Flight
and Other Poems (1914), North Africa and the Desert (1917), Ideal Passion: Sonnets
(1917), The Roomer (1920), Selected Letters (with an introduction by Walter DC La
Marc, 1933), Selected Poems (1933).

ELBERT HUBBARD, 18561915, "go-getting" essayist; "Ad Man Super-
bus, Salesman Maximus" (to quote Burton Bigelow, 1931). Edited the Philistine
18951915) and the Fra (19081917), magazines. Best known is "A Message
to Garcia," a "small homily" that has reached a sale of forty million copies. Perhaps
his masterpiece is Little Journeys, a series of one hundred and seventy essays about
his little pilgrimages to the homes of great men; begun in 1894, these little journeys
continued for fourteen years.

SAMUEL McCHORD CROTHERS, 18571927, minister, essayist. The
Gentle Reader (1903) introduced him widely to the American public; and his familiar,
mellow essays, often synonymous with sermons, have flashes of spiritual insight: his
writings, Bliss Perry once described, "mount to Paradise by the stairway of surprise,"
while his Ralph Waldo Emerson: How to Know Him (1921), J. F. Newton states,
is "the best book ever written in interpretation" of the American philosopher.
Volumes include: Members of One Body (1894), The Pardoner's Wallet (1905),
The Endless Life (1905), By the Christmas Fire (1908), Among Friends (1910),
Humanly Speaking (1912), The Pleasures of an Absentee Landlord (1916), The
Dame School of Experience (1919), and The Cheerful Giver (1923).

ERNEST [or EVAN] THOMPSON SETON or ERNEST SETON
THOMPSON, 1860 , English-born artist, naturalist, author. Illustrates his
own books. Wild Animals 1 Have Known (1898), his most famous, has had a great
influence in stirring up an interest in nature. Lives of Game Animals (four volumes,
1925 1928), said to be perhaps the best work in its field, won the Daniel Giraud
Elliott medal. D. C. Peattie, however, has described Seton's Great Historic Animals
(1937) as mawkish in style and lacking in sincerity; Seton, says the critic, is nature-
faking. His Lives of Game Animals, a preliminary of which appeared in 1909 as
Life Histories of Northern Animals, is excellent, concedes D. C. Peattie; but even in
that book, generally said to be a foremost work on American mammals, Seton shows

204 iHE TRIUMPH o* KEALISM: 1005-1914

a tendency "toward a false humanizing of animals." In addition to Trail of on Artist*
Naturalist (1940), an autobiography, Seton has published A Ust of the Mammals of
Manitoba (1886), Biography of a Grizzly (1900), Lives of the Hunted (1901),
Woodciajt and Indian Lore (1912), Btography of an Arctic Fox (1937), and Buffalo
Wind (1938).

FINLEY PETER DUNNE, 18671936, journalist, editor, satirist-creator
of "Mr. Dooley," an Irish saloonkeeper who in penetrating brogue voiced opinions
of events and leaders, of selfishness and injustice. "Anger, and a warm sympathy for
the underprivileged," says Franklin P. Adams, "underlay almost all the 'Dooley'
sketches .... Most of them, on the surface, are dated; . . . ." Mr. Dooley in Peace
iind War (1898), instantly-successful essays clipped from the Evening Journal and
the Post Mi. Dooley in the Hearts of His Countrymen (1898), the dedication to which
was called "in questionable taste" by the Dial. Mr. Dooley' s Philosophy (1900),
which opened with a review of Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Observations of Mr. Dooley
(1906), praised by W. P. Trent, W. D. Howells, and H. W. Boynton. Mr. Dooley
Says (1910), which contains the famous political satire on the Payne-Aldrich tariff.
For Mr. Dooley at his best, see Mr. Dooley at His Best (edited by Elmer Ellis, 1938).

PLAYWRIGHTS

AUGUSTUS THOMAS, 18571934, who wrote at least threescore popular
plays, including a series of earthy comedies. Adapted F. H. Burnett's Edit ha' s Burglar
(one-act play, 1883), later expanded into The Burglar (four-act play, 1889); wrote
Mrs. LeffingweWs Boots (1905), a farce. Alabama (1891), In Mizzoura (1893),
Anzona\ (1899), Colorado (1902), and Rio Grande (1916) are "state'* comedies,
their background thoroughly American; The Witching Hour (1907), The Harvest
Moon (1909), and As A Man Things (1911) arc psychopathic studies. Perhaps his
best known is The Copperhead (1918), a Civil War play.

DAVID BELASCO, 18591931, actor, producer of more than three hundred
plays, realistic playwright. When twelve years old, wrote a play, ]im Black^l or t the
Regulator's Revenge. In collaboration with J. A. Herne, wrote Hearts of Oa^ (1879),
a realistic adaptation of an English melodrama, The Manner's Compass, by H. J.
Leslie; with Henry C. De Millc, John Delmer's Daughters; or, Duty (1883), an
unsuccessful domestic comedy; The Wife (1887), with a better stage history; Lord
Chumley (1888), a domestic drama; and also The Charity Ball (1889) and Men and
Women (1890). La Belle Russe (1881), frank in its exposition of feminine wicked-
ness and excellent in craftsmanship; The Stranglcrs of Pans (1881), a "shocker"
founded on Adolphe Belot's French novel, Les Etrangleurs de Pans; The Girl I
Left Behind Me (with Franklin Fyles, 1893), a melodrama of suspense. The Heart
of Maryland^ (1895), a Civil War drama inspired by the poem, "Curfew Shall Not
Ring To-night!" and famous for its bell-clapper scene; Naughty Anthony (1899), a
farce; Madame Butterfly^ (1900), a delicate, poignant, one-act dramatization of a
story by f. L, Long, and made into an opera by Puccini (1906); The Darling of the
Gods (with J. L. Long, 1902), romantic tragedy; The Girl of the Golden West (1905),
which became the libretto of an Italian opera by Puccini (1910); The Return of
Peter Gtimm (1911; 1920), where the spiritual interest is plausible and charming';
and Van Der Decken (1915), the theme of which is "The Flying Dutchman."

CLYDE [WILLIAM] FITCH, 18651909, at least thirty of whose sixty
farces, society dramas, historical plays, and problem plays were original, dealt with
American subjects, and reflected American social life, while the others were adapta-
tions or dramatizations of other pieces. Beau Brummeft (1890), written for Richard
Mansfield, was his first triumph; The Moth and the Flame (1898) showed the French
influence in theatrical effect; The Stubbornness of Geraldine (1902) was successful
partly because of m unusual pitching-stcamcr stage-set; Captain Jtnfa of the Horse
Marines (1901), a pleasing farce; The Climbers^ (1901), while its comedy is deficient
in creative power, is a faithful representation of contemporaneous manners; The Girl
wirh the Green Eycrf (l l >02), a serious study of the pathologically jealous Jinny

NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM 265

Tillmans Her Own Way (1903) and Her Great Match (1905), constructed expressly
for Mixinc Elliott, as the earlier simply-plotted, theatrically-effective Barbara Frittchie
(1899) was for Julia Marlowe, and Nathan Hale (1899) was for Nat Goodwin;
The Truth\ (1906), its every character distinct, and containing, in the opinion of
W. L. Phelps, incomparably the best last act Fitch ever wrote; and The City* (1909),
among his most virile studies. One of the daring plays of its time is Sappho (1900),
a dramatization of Alphonse Daudet's romance: William Winter anathematized it as
"dark, dull and stupid," dirty in character and pernicious in quality, a "reeking com-
post of filth and folly that the crude and frivolous Clyde Fitch has dug out of it
[the novel] with which to mire the stage.'*

JOSEPHINE PRESTON PEABODY, 18741922, poet, dramatist.
POETRY VOLUMES: The Wayfarers* (1898), her first book of light lyric verse;
The Singing Leaves (1903); The Boof( of the Little Past* (1908); The Singing
Man* (1911); Collected Poems (1927). PLAYS: Fortune and Men's Eyes (1900),
a one-act drama about Shakespeare and founded on that poet's sonnets; Marlowe
(1901), five-act poetic drama; The Wings (1905), one-act play introducing Cerdic
and King Aelfric of seventh -century Northumbria; The Piper (1909; 1910), four-act
drama whose charm veneered some structural defects: this depiction of the struggle
between Christianity and the power of the Devil was awarded the first prize in the
Stratford-on-Avon competition, and was produced in America as well as in England;
The Wolf of Gubbio (1913), a three-act drama about St. Francis of Assisi, Brother
Leo, and Brother Juniper, depicting the conflict between love and greed as effectively
as The Piper does between Christianity and the Devil; The Portrait of Mrs. W. (1922),
biographical prose play about Mary Wollstonccraft and William Godwin, with such
other figures as Sou they, Mrs. Siddons, young Shelley, and Mrs. Symcs. INDIVIDUAL
POEMS: "The Source,'* "I Shall Arise," "Stay at Home/ 1 "The House of the Road,"
"Alms," "Alison's Mother to the Brook," "Woman- Vigil," "Cradle Song," "To a
Dog."

YESTERDAY AND TODAY

CHAPTER XIV
REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1914: Beginning of First World War. 1917: Entrance of United
States in First World War. 1918: The Armistice. 1919: The
Treaty of Versailles. 1919: Ratification of Prohibition Amendment.
1920: Formation of League of Nations. 1920: Woman Suffrage
Amendment. 1921: Restriction of Immigration. 1927: Lindbergh's
Non-Stop Flight to Paris. 1929: Depression and Panic. 1930:
Hawley-Smoot Tariff. 1933: Creation of AAA and NRA. 1935:
Social Security Act. 1935: National Labor Relations Act. 1938:
Wages and Hours Act. 1940: National Conscription Act. 1941:
Lend-Lease Bill. 1941 ' Pearl Harbor. 1945: Release of Atomic
Energy. 1945: Surrender of Germany and Japan. 1945: San Fran-
cisco Conference. 1945: First Truman Administration. 1947 : Taft-
Hartley Act. 1947: Truman Doctrine. 1949: North Atlantic Pact.
1949: Second Truman Administration.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE LITERATURE^

After the First World War, American literature reflected the
swiftly changing economic, cultural, and social conditions. An era
of prosperity followed a brief period of postwar disillusionment. Then
came nationalistic isolationism, social conservatism, and popular
interest in anything big, exciting, spectacular, from crime waves to
violent industrial strikes. This relatively prosperous era of super-
ficial values, however, saw the development of the largest number of
gifted writers in any decade of the twentieth century : for example,
Sinclair Lewis, whose realistic novels of social analysis satirized
American life ; Willa Cather, with her conservative, sincere, dignified
portraiture of individual American characters ; F. Scott Fitzgerald,
who drew sharp pictures of rebellious, maladjusted personalities;
William Faulkner, dissector of the psychological peculiarities and
disintegrating characters of individuals and families; Thornton
Wilder, clarifier of modern mores by reference to the past ; Ernest
Hemingway, realistic, skeptical, objective, deliberately tough in atti-
tude ; John Dos Passos, staccato critic of the capitalistic way of life ;
and many others.

1 For the most comprehensive and reliable survey and bio-bibliography of today's writers,
consult F. B. Millett, Contemporary American Authors (1940). Useful is S. J. Kunitz
and Howard Havcraft. Ttvcnttrth Cstttttrv Authnr* (\QA?\

consult r. a. Mineit, contemporary American stntnors vi-
and Howard Haycraft, Twentieth Century Authors (1942).

268

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 269

The decade 1930 to 1939 witnessed a complete reversal in the
social climate and creative scene : deep economic depression, rapid
social reform, disillusion, pessimism. Proletarian literature rose and
then declined. American authors sought deeper, serious, lasting val-
ues. Eloquent works of protest were created by Sinclair Lewis, John
Steinbeck, Dos Passes, James T. Farrell, Waldo Frank, Erskine
Caldwell, Maxwell Anderson, Elmer Rice, Clifford Odets, and Sidney
Kingsley.

Looking backward over the first half of this century one sees that
American literature acquired distinctive character in several direc-
tions: (a) in romantic works about social realities, such as big busi-
ness, racketeering and crime, and culture on a mass scale; (b) in
realistic, technically skillful portrayals of individuals and gVoups;
(c) in experimental works stressing frank vignettes about the Ameri-
can scene, without much attention to form. The two world wars
brought into sharpest relief the widespread tension arising from a
mixture of optimism and fear, loneliness and "one-worldness" ; the
writers seemed to be searching for something more fundamental than
scientific or material progress and its concomitant commercializa-
tion of culture. During the Second World War, Hemingway, Stein-
beck, and journalists such as John Hersey and Ernie Pyle contrib-
uted excellent graphic reporting on the feelings and experiences of
the common soldier at the front. The postwar years have seen the
continuance of uncertainty and tension, at home and abroad, stimu-
lating an intensified search for deeper values and basic ideals for
the guidance of American life.

SHORT-STORY WRITERS AND NOVELISTS

Gertrude [Franklin Horn] Atherton, 18571948, short-story writer, novelist.
NOVELS 2 : The Doomswoman (1892), The Ca/tformans (1898), The Conqueror^
(1902), Rezdnov (1906), fulta France and Her Times (1912), The Ststers-m-Latv
(1921), Blacf( Oxenl (1923), The Immortal Marriage (1927), The Sophisticates

2 To conserve space, the classifications of authors have been made as flexible as they arc
broad. Often, severer grouping is possible, and, for certain purposes, may be desir-
able. For example, the writings of Stewart Edward White can be separated as follows:
FICTION OF THE FAR WEST: The Claim Jumpers (1901), The Westerners (1901).
Biased Trail Stones (1904), Arizona Nights (1907), The Ktilers (1920), The Long Rifle
(1932). FICTION OF THE FAR NORTH: Conjuror's House (1903), The Silent Places

Trail Stones (1904). FICTION OF CALIFORNIA: Gold (1913), The Gray Dawn
(1915), The Rose Dawn (1920), On Tiptoe (1922), Ranchero (1933), Folded Hills (1934).
FICTION OF AFRICA: The Leopard Woman (1916), Simba (1918). Back of Beyond
(1927). FICTION OF MYSTERY: The Mystery (in collaboration, 1907), The Sign at
Six (1912). THE OUT-OF-DOORS AND ADVENTURE: The Mountains (1904), The
Pass (1906), Camp and Trail (1907), The Cabtn (1911), The Land of Footprints (1912),
African Camp/ires (1913), The Rediscovered Country (1915), Lions in the Path (1926).
JUVENILE: The Magic Forest (1903), The Adventures of Bobby Orde (1911). HIS-
TORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS: The Fortytfiners (1918), Daniel
Boone: Wilderness Scout (1922), Credo (1925), Why Be a Mud Turtle (1928), Dog
Days (1930), Old California: In Picture and Story (1937), Betty Book (1937). Across
the Unknown (in collaboration, 1939), The Unobstructed Universe (1940), The Road I
Know (1942), The Stars Are Still There (1946), Job of Living (1948).

270 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

(1931), The House of Lee (1940), Horn of Life (1942). AUTOBIOGRAPHY:
Adventures of a Novelist (1932). HISTORY: Golden Gate Country^ (1945).
BIOGRAPHY: My San Francisco: A Wayward Biography^ (1946).

Owen Wister, 1860 1938, humorist, poet, biographer, short-story writer,
novelist. BIOGRAPHY: Ulysses S. Grant (1900), The Seven Ages of Washington
(1907), Roosevelt (1930). SHORT STORIES: Ltn McLean (1897), The ]immyjohn
Boss (1900), Philosophy 4\ (1903), When West Was West (1928). NOVELS: The
Virginian \ (1902), Lady Baltimore (1906).

Edith [Newbold Jones] Wharton, 1862 1937, short-story writer, novelist.
POEMS: Artemis to Actaeon (1909), Twelve Poems (1926). AUTOBIOGRAPHY:
A Backward Glance (1934). LITERARY CRITICISM: The Writing of Fiction (1925).
TRAVEL: Italian Backgrounds (1905), A Motor-Flight through France (1908), In
Morocco (1920). SHORT STORIES: The Gt eater Inclination (1899), Crucial In-
stances (1901), The Descent of Man (1904), The Hermit and the Wild Woman
(1908), Ya/^ of Men and Ghosts (1910), Xingrt (1916), Here and Beyond (1926),
Certain People (1930), Human Native (1933), The World Over (1936), Ghosts
(1937). NOVELS: The Touchstone (1900), The Valley of Decision (two volumes,
1902), Sanctuary (1903), The House of Mtrth\ (1905), The Fruit of the Tree (1907),
Madame de Treymes (1907), Ethan Frome\ (1911), The Reef (1912), The Custom
of the Country (1913), Summer (1917), The Marne (1918), The Age of Innocence^
(1920), The Glimpses of the Moon (1922), A Son at the Front (1923), False Dawn
(1924), New year's Day (1924), The Old Maid (1924), The Spart^ (1924), The
Mother's Recompense (1925), Twilight Sleep (1927), The Children (1928), Hudson
River Bracketed (1929), The Gods Arrive (1932), The Buccaneers (unfinished, 1938).
MISCELLANEOUS: The Decoration of Houses (in collaboration, 1904), Fighting
France, from Dun^erque to Belfort (1915).

William Sydney Porter, better known by his pseudonym O. Henry, 1867
1910, short-story writer. SHORT STORIES: Cabbages and Kings (1904), The Four
Millw^ (1906), The Trimmed Lamp (1907), Heart of the West (1907), The Voice
of the City] (1908), The Gentle Graftet (1908), Roads of Destiny (1909), Options]
(1909), Strictly Business (1910), Whirligigs (1910). POSTHUMOUSLY PUB-
LISHED- Sixes and Sevens (1911), The Gift of the Wise Men (1911), Rolling Stones
(1912), Waif* and Shays (1917), O. Henryana (poetry and short stories, 1920),
Letters to Lithopolis from O. Henry to Mabel Wagnalls (1922), Postscripts (1923),
O. Henry Encore (1939). DRAMATIZATIONS: Lo (with F. P. Adams, 1909),
The World and the Door (c. 1909), Alias Jimmy Valentine (dramatization of "A Re-
trieved Reformation" by Paul Armstrong, 1910), The Third Ingredient (by Catherine
Robertson, 1912), The Double-Dyed Deceiver (1913), Roads of Destiny (1918), The
Memento (photoplay, 1920), Cabbages and Kings (photoplay, 1922), A Caballero's
Way (photoplay, 1929). INDIVIDUAL STORIES: "A Municipal Report," "The
Church with an Overshot Wheel," "The Memento," "The Gift of the Magi," "The
Last Leaf," "The Furnished Room," "The Guardian of the Accolade," "Thimble,
Thimble," "A Retrieved Reformation," "An Unfinished Story," "The Skylight
Room," "A Lickpenny Lover," "The Double-Dyed Deceiver," "A Service of Love,"
"Mammon and the Archer," "The Pendulum," "The Enchanted Kiss," "The Third
Ingredient," "The Ransom of Red Chief," "The Shamrock and the Palm," "Let Me
Feel Your Pulse," "Two Renegades."

Robert Herrick, 18681938, editor, novelist, educator. SHORT STORIES:
Literary Love-Letters (1896), The Master of the lnn\ (1908). NOVELS: The Man
Who Wins (1897), The Gospel of Freedom (1898), The Web of Life (1900), The
Real World (1901), The Common Lot (1904), The Memoirs of an American Citizen}
(1905), Together (1908), A Life for a Life (1910), The Healer (1911), His Great
Adventure (1913), One Woman's Life (1913), Claris Field^ (1914), Homely
Ulla (1923), Waste (1924), Chimes (1926), The End of Desire (1932), Sometime
(1933).

[Newton] Booth Tarkington, 1869 1946, illustrator, humorist, literary
critic, essayist, playwright, short-story writer, novelist. REMINISCENCES: The World
Does Move (1928). LETTERS: Your Amiable Uncle: Letters to His Nephews (1949).

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 271

PLAYS: Monsieur Beaucaite (in collaboration with E. G. Sutherland, 1901), "Cameo
Kirby" (c. 1907), The Man from Home\ (in collaboration with H. L. Wilson, 1908),
The Gibson Upright (in collaboration, 1919), Clarence (1921), Mister Antonio (1935).
NOVELS: The Gentlemen ftom Indiana}' (1899), Monsieur Beaucaire\ (1900), The
Conquest of Canaan (1905), Pentod^ (1914), Pernod and Sam (1916), Seventeen
(1916), Alice Adams} (1921), Gentle Julia (1922), Women (1925), Growth (a trilogy,
1927: The Magnificent Ambetsons, 1918; The Turmoil. 1915; National Avenue [The
Uidlandcr, 1923]), The Plutocrat (1927), Penrod ]ashber (1929), Presenting Lily
Mars (1933), Little Qrvie (1934), Kate Fenmgate (1943), Image of Josephine (1945),
Show Piece (unfinished, 1947).

Winston Churchill, 1871 1947, short-story writer, playwright, novelist.
PLAY: Dr. Jonathan (1919). RELIGION: The Unthaiteied Way (1940). NOVELS:
The Celebrity (1898), Ruhaid Carvel] (1899), The Crisis} (1901), The Crossing}
(1904), Comston (1906), Mr. Crewe's Caieer (1908), A Modern Chronicle (1910),
The Inside of the Cup} (1913), A Far Country (1915), The Dwelling-Place of Light
(1917).

Theodore [Herman Albert] Dreiser, 1871 1945, poet, playwright, essay-
ist, novelist. POETRY: Moods, Cadenced and Declaimed (1926). PLAYS: Plays of
the Natural and the Supeinatwal (1916), The Hand of the Potter (1918). DESCRIP-
TION AND TRAVEL: The Color of a Gteat City (1923), My City (1929).
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY: Hey Rub-a-Dub (1920), Dreiser
Loot^s at Russia (1928), Tnigic America (c. 1931), The Living Thoughts of Thoreau
(edited, 1939), Concerning Dives and Lazarus (1940), America Is Worth Saving
(1941). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: A Traveler at forty (1913), A Hoosier Holiday
(1916), A Book about Myself (1922), Dawn (1931). SHORT STORIES: Free (1918),
Twelve Men (1919), Chains (1927), A Gallety of Women (two volumes, 1929).
NOVELS. Sister Came (1900), Jennie Gethatdt] (1911), The Financier (1912),
The Titan (1914), The "Gemu*"\ (1915), An American Tragedy] (two volumes
1925), The Bulwark (1946), The Stoic (1947).

Stewart Edward White, 1873 1946, psychical researcher, writer of juvenile
works, historian, journahzer of dog stories, short-story writer, novelist. NOVELS:
The Claim Jumpers (1901), The Westerners (1901), The Blazed Trail} (1902),
The Rules of the Game (1910), The Story of Califotma (trilogy, 1927 Gold, 1913;
The Gray Dawn, 1915, The Rose Dawn, 1920), The Long Rifle (1932), Ranchero
(1933), Wild Geese Calling (1940) TRAVEL- The Pass (1906), The Land of
Footprints (1912), African Camp Fires (1913), Lions in the Path (1926). SPIRIT-
UALISM: The Unobstructed Unwetse (1940), The Road I Know (1942), The Stars
Are Still Theie] (1946), ]ob of Living (1948). MISCELLANEOUS: The Cabin (the
strenuous life, 1911), The Fotty-Nincts (history, 1918), Daniel Boone (biography,
1922). (See also page 269, footnote 2.)

Zona Gale, 1874 1938, poet, short-story writer, novelist. PLAYS: Miss Lulu
Bett\ (1921), Mister Pitt (1924, 1925). POEMS: The Secret Way (1921). REMI-
NISCENCES: When I Was a Little Gnl (1913), Pottage, Wisconsin, and Other
Essays (1928). SHORT STORIES- Fnendship Village (1908), Neighbothood Stories
(1908), Peace in Fnendship Village (1919), Yellow Gentians and Blue (1927),
Bridal Pond (1930), Old-Fashioned Tales (1933). NOVELS: Romance Island (1906),
Bitth (1918), Miss Lulu Bett\ (1920), Faint Perfume (1923), Preface to a Life
(1926), Boigia (1929), Papa La Flew (1933). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Sky-
Goer," "North Star."

Ellen [Anderson Gholson] Glasgow, 18741945, novelist. ESSAYS: A
Certain Mea>wc\ (1943). POETRY: The Freeman and Other Poems (1902). SHORT
STORIES: The Shadowy Third (1923). NOVELS: The Descendant (1897), The
Voice of the People (1900), The Battle-Ground (1902), The Deliverance (1904),
The Wheel of Life (1906), The Ancient Law (1908), The Romance of a Plain Man
(1909), The Miller of Old Chunh (1911), Virginia (1913), Life and Gabriella
(1916), The Builders (1919), One Man in His Time (1922), Barren Ground\ (1925),
The Romantic Comedians! (1926), They Stooped to Folly (1929), The Sheltered
Life (1932), Vein of bon (1935), In This Our Ufe\ (1941).

272 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Gertrude Stein, 1874 1946, experimentalist, short-story writer. AUTOBIOG-
RAPHY: The Autobiography of Alice B. Tobias} (1933). SHORT STORIES: Three
Lives: Stones of the Good Anna, Melanctha, and the Gentle Lena\ (1909). OTHER
WRITINGS: Four Saints in Three Acts\ (opera, 1934), The World . . . Is Round
(children's book, 1939), Pans France (impressions, 1940), What Are Masterpieces
(lectures, 1940), Ida (novel, 1941), Wars / Have Seen\ (1945), Brewsie and Willirt
(1946), Four in Amenca (essays, 1947), First Reader and Three Plays}' (1948), Last
Operas and Plays (edited by Carl Van Vetchen, 1949).

O[le] E[dvart] Rolvaag, 1876 1931, Norwegian-American novelist. TRANS-
LATED FROM THE NORWEGIAN: Giants in the Earth\ (1927), Peder Victorious^
(1929), Pure Gold (1930), Their Fathers' God\ (1931), The Boat of Longing (1933).

Sherwood Anderson, 1876 1941, essayist, playwright, short-story writer,
novelist. SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS: Wtnesburg, Ohio\ (1919), The Triumph
of the Egg (1921), Horses and Men (1923), Death in the Woods (1933). NOVELS:
Windy McPherson's Son (1916), Marching Men (1917), Poor White\ (1920), Many
Marriages (1923), Dark Laughter^ (1925), Beyond Desire (1932), Kit Brandon
(1936). ESSAYS AND STUDIES: The Modern Writer (1925), Sherwood Anderson's
Notebook (1926), Hello Towns! (1928), Nearer the Grass Roots (1929), Perhaps
Women (1931), Puzzled America (1935), A Writer's Conception of Realism (1939),
Home Town (1940). POETRY: Mid-American Chants (1918), A New Testament
(1927). PLAYS: Wineshurg and Others (1937), Above Suspicion (1941). AUTO-
BIOGRAPHY: A Story-Teller's Story* (1924), Tar: A Midwest Childhood (1926),
Sherwood Anderson's Mcmonrt (1942). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Evening Song,"
"Chicago," "The Lame One," "American Spring Song," "Song of Industrial America/'
MISCELLANY: Sherwood Anderson Reader (selections edited by Paul Rosenfeld, 1947).

Willa [Sibert] Gather, 18761947, poet, short-story writer, essayist. POETRY:
April Twilight (1903). ESSAYS: Not tinder Forty (1936), Our Writing- Critical
Studies on Writing as an Artf (essays and letters, with a foreword by Stephen Tennant,
1949). SHORT STORIES: The Troll Garden (1905), Youth and the Bright Medusa
(1920), Obscure Destinies (1932), The Old Beauty and Others (1948). NOVELS:
Alexander's Bridge (1912), O Pioneets^ (1913), The Song of the Lark (1915), My
Antonia\ (1918), One of Ours (1922), A Lost Lady\ (1923), The Professor's House
(1925), My Mortal Enemy (1926), Death Comes for the Archbishop\ (1927), Sha-
dows on the Roct( (1931), Lucy Gayheart (1935), Sapphira and The Slave Girl (1940).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Palatine," "In Media Vita," "Spanish Johnny," "In Rose
Time," "Poppies in Ludlow Castle."

Upton [Beall] Sinclair, 1878 , writer of children's books, of studies in
health, in telepathy, in religion, of plays and short stones, of political and social
studies, of novels. AUTOBIOGRAPHY: American Outpost (1932). STUDIES: The
Profits of Religion (1918), The .Brass Checltf (1919), The Goose-Step: A Study of
American Education (1923), The Goslings (1924), Mammonarrt (1925), /, Governor
of California, and How I Ended Poverty A True Story of the Future (1933),
Upton Sinclair Presents William Fox ( 1933), Personal Jesus; Portrait and Interpretation
(1952). NOVELS: King Midas (1901), The journal of Arthur Stirling (1903),
Manassas (1904), The Jungle^ (1906), The Metropolis (1908), King Coal (1917),
Jintmie Higgtns (1919), 100%, the Story of a Patriot (1920), Oill (1927), Boston^
(two volumes, 1928), Mountain City (1930), Roman Holiday (1931), The Flivver
King (1937), World's End (1940), Between Two Worlds (1941), Dragon's Teethi
(1942) .Dragon Harvest (1945), World to Win (1946), Presidential Mission (1947),
One Clear Call (1948), O Shepherd, Spea^l (1949), Another Pamela (1950), The
Enemy Had It Too (1950), The Return of Lanny Budd (1953).

[James] Branch Cabell, 1879 , poet, short-story writer, critic, essayist,
novelist. HISTORY: The St. ]ohns\ (in collaboration, 1943). POETRY: from the
Hidden Way (1916), Sonnets from Antan (1929). SHORT STORIES: The Line of
Love (1905), Gallantry (1907), Chivalry (1909), The Certain Hour (1916), The
Music from Behind the Moon (1926), The White Robe (1928). LITERARY CRITI-
CISM: Joseph Hergesheimer (1921), The Lineage of Uchfield (1922), Some of Us

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 273

(1930), Preface to the Past (1936). ESSAYS: Beyond Lift (1919), Straws and Prayer-
Books (1924), Special Delivery (1933), Ladies and Gentlemen (1934), Let Me Lie
(1947). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: These Restless Heads (1932). NOVELS: The Eagle's
Shadow (1904), The Cords of Vanity (1909), The Soul of Mehcent (1913: its later
edition is called Domnei, 1920), The Rivet in Grandfather's Nec!( (1915), The Cream
of the Jest (1917), I urgent (1919), Figures of Ear/At (1921), The High Place (1923),
The Silver Stallion (1926), Something about Eve (1927), The Way of Ecben (1929),
Smirt (1934), Smith (1935), Smire (1937), The King Was in His Counting-House
(1938), Hamlet Had an Uncle (1940), The First Gentleman of America (1942),
There Were Two Pirates* (1946), Devil's Own Dear Son (1949J, Quiet, Please
(1952).

Ernest Poole, 18801950, novelist. SHORT STORIES: The Little Dark Man
(1925). STUDIES: "The Dark People" (1918), The Village (1918), Nurses on
Horseback (1932), Great White Hills of New Hampshire* (1946). AUTOBI-
OGRAPHY: The Bridge (1940). BIOGRAPHY: Giants Gone (1943). NOVELS:
The Voice of the Street (1906), The Harbor* (1915), His Family (1917), His Second
Wife (1918), Blind (1920), Beggars' Gold (1921), Millions (1922), Danger (1923),
The Avalanche (1924), The Hunter's Moon (1925), With Eastern Eyes (1926), Silent
Storms (1927), The Car of Croesus (1930), The Destroyer (1931), Great Winds
(1933), One of Us (1934), Nancy Flyer: A Stagecoach Epic\ (1949).

Joseph Hergesheimer, 1880 , novelist. AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL: The
Presbyterian Child (1923), From an Old House (1925). SHORT STORIES: The
Happy End (1919), Quiet Cities (1928). NOVELS: The Lay Anthony (1914),
Mountain Blood (1915), The Three Blacf{ Pennys* (1917), Gold and Iron (three
novelettes, 1918), ]ava Head* (1919), Linda Condon (1919), The Bright Shawl
(1922), Cytherea (1922), Bahsand (1924), Tampico (1926), Swords and Roses
(1929), The Party Dress (1930), The Limestone Tree (1931), The Foolscap Rose
(1934). MISCELLANEOUS: San Cristobal dc la Habuna (sketches, 1920), Sheridan
(biography, 1931).

Julia [Mood] Peterkin, 1880 , novelist. NOVELS: Blac% April (1927),
Scarlet Sister Mary* (1928), Bnght Sfyn (1932). SHORT STORIES: Green Thurs-
day (1924). NEGRO STUDY: Roll, Jotdan, Roll (in collaboration with Dons Ulmann,
1933).

Carl Van Vechten, 1880 , music critic, novelist. NOVELS: Peter Whiffle*
(1922), The Blind Bow-Boy (1923), The Tattooed Countess (1924), Nigger Heaven
(1926), Spider Boy (1928), Parties (1930). MISCELLANEOUS: The Tiger in the
House (on cats, 1920), Excavations (on music, 1926), Sacred and Profane Memories
(autobiographical essays, 1932).

[Harry] Sinclair Lewis, 18851951, critic, playwright, novelist. SHORT
STORIES: Selected Short Stories (1935). PLAYS: Dodsworth (dramatized by
Sidney Howard, 1934), ] ay hawser (in collaboration with Lloyd Lewis, 1935), // Can't
Happen Here (in collaboration with J. C. Moffit, 1936), Arrowsmith (dramatized by
Orson Welles, 1939). NOVELS: Our Mr. Wren (1914), The Trail of the Haw\
(1915), The Innocents (1917), The Job (1917), Main Street* (1920), Babbitt*
(1922), An-otvsmith* (1925), Elmer Gantry (1927), The Man Who Knew Coolidge
(1928), Dodsworth* (1929), Ann Vicars (1933), Work of Art (1934), // Can't
Happen Here (1935), The Prodigal Parents (1938), Bethel Mernday (1940), Gideon
Planish (1943), Cass Timberlane (1945), Kingsblood Royal\ (1947), God-Seeker
(1949), Our Mr. Wrenn (1951), World So Wide (1951).

Elizabeth Madox Roberts, 1886 1941, short-story writer, poet, novelist.
SHORT STORIES: The Haunted Mirror (1932) Not by Strange Gods (1941).
POEMS: In the Great Steep's Garden (1915), Under the Tree (1922), Song in the
Meadow (1940). NOVELS: The Time of Mart (1926), My Heart and My Flesh*

274 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

(1927), lingling in the Wind (1928), The Great Meadow (1930), A Buried Treasure
(1931), He Sent Forth a Raven (1935), Black, Is My Truelove's Hair (1938).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "A Ballet Song of Mary," "Child Asleep," "Water Noises,"
"The Sky," "The Pilaster," "Woodcock of the Ivory Beak," "Shells in Rocks."

Wilbur Daniel Steele, 1886 , short-story writer, novelist. PLAYS: The
Terrible Woman (1925), Post Road (in collaboration, 1935), How Beautiful with
Shoes (in collaboration, 1935). NOVELS: Storm (1914), Isles of the Blest (1924),
Taboo (1925), Meat (1928), Sound of Rowlocks (1938), That Ctrl from Memphis}
(1945). SHORT STORIES: Land's End (1918), The Shame Dance (1923), Urfyy
Island! (1926), The Man Who Saw through Heaven (1927), Tower of Sand (1929),
Best Stories (collection, 1946), Full Cargo (short stories, 1951).

Mary Ellen Chase, 1887 , textbook writer, essayist, novelist. NOVELS:
Uplands (1927), Mary Peters} (1934), Silas Crockett} (1935), Dawn in Lyonesse
(1938), Windswept} (1941). MISCELLANEOUS: The Girl from the Big Horn
Country (juvenile literature, 1916), The Golden Asse and Other Essays (1929), Con-
structive Theme Writing for College Freshmen (1929), A Goodly Heritage (auto-
biography, 1932), The Bible and the Common Reader} (1944), Jonathan Fisher} (a
biography, 1948), Plum Tree} (tale, 1949), Recipe for a Magic Childhood (1951),
Readings From the Bible (1952).

Floyd Dell, 1887 , dramatist, essayist, novelist. BIOGRAPHY: Upton
Sinclair (1927). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Homecoming (1933). PLAYS: The Angel
Intrudes (1918), Little Accident (1928). STUDIES: Were YOM Ever a Child? (1919),
Intellectual Vagabondage (1926), The Outline of Marriage (1926-1927), Love in
the Machine Age (1930). NOVELS: Moon-Calf} (1920), The Bnary-Bush (1921),
Janet March (1923), Runaway (1923), An Old Man's Folly (1926), An Unmarried
Father (1927), Love without Money (1931), Diana Stair (1932).

Edna Ferber, 1887 , short-story writer, playwright, novelist. SHORT
STORIES: Buttered Side Down (1912), They Brought Their Women (1933), One
Basket I- (1947). PLAYS: $1200 a year (with Newman Levy, 1920), The Eldest
(1925). See also George S. Kaufman, page 284. NOVELS: Dawn O'Hara t the
Girl Who Laughed (1911), So Big\ (1924), Show Boat} (1926), Cimarron (1930),
Saratoga Truntf (1941), Great Son (1945), The Gtant} (1952).

James Boyd, 18881947, novelist. PLAY: One More Free Man (1941).
NOVELS: Drums} (1925), Marching On (1927), Long Hunt (1930), Roll River
(1935), Bitter Creek (1939). POETRY: Eighteen Poems (1944).

Christopher [Darlington] Morley, 1890 , columnist, humorist, essay-
ist, poet, novelist. ESSAYS: Shandygaff (1918), History of an Autumn (1938).
POETRY: The Rocking Horse (1919), Chimncysmokc (1921), Parson's Pleasure
(1923), Mandarin in Manhattan (1933), Middle Kingdom- Poems, 1929-1944}
(1944), Spirit Level and Other Poems (1946), Old Mandarin} (1947). NOVELS:
Parnassus on Wheels (1917), The Haunted Bookshop (1919), Where the Blue Begins
(1922), Thunder on the Left (1925), Human Being (1932), Swiss Family Manhattan
(1932), The Trojan Horse (1937), Kitty Foyle (1939), Murder with a Difference}
(three crime novels, 1946), Man Who Made Friends with Himself} (1949). REMIN-
ISCENCES: John Mistletoe (1931), Thorojare (1942). SHORT STORIES: Tales from
a Rolltop Desk, (1921). TRAVEL: Hasta la Vista (1935). OMNIBUS VOLUME:
Morley's Variety (1944). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "In an Auction Room," "Parsons'
Pleasure," "Of a Child That Had Fever," "The Dogwood Tree," "At a Window Sill,"
"Two Sonnets to Themselves."

Conrad Richter, 1890 , novelist. NOVELS: The Sea of Grass (1937),
Trilogy: The Trees (1940), The Fields (1946), The Town (1950, Pulitzer Prize).

Pearl Sfydenstricker] Buck, 1892 , translator, pamphleteer, biographer,

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 275

short-story writer, novelist, winner of Nobel Prize for Literature for 1938. NOVELS:
The Good Earth* (1931: trilogy, I), Sons (1932: trilogy, II), A House Divided
(1935: trilogy, III), Dragon Seed* (1942), The Promise* (sequel, 1943), Pavilion
of Women (1946), Peony (1948), Kinjolk* (1949), God's Men (1951), Hidden
Flower (1952). MISCELLANEOUS: Of Men and Women* (social conditions, 1941),
Today and Forever (stories of China, 1941), American Unity and Asia* (speeches
and articles, 1942), Chinese Children Next Door* (for children, 1942), Water-Buffalo
Children* (stories of her childhood, 1943), What America Means to Me* (speeches
and essays, 1943), China in Black, and White* (compiled album of woodcuts, 1945),
Y Lan, Flying Boy of China* (1945), Talk about Russia with Masha Scott* (1945),
Tell the People: Talks with James Venn about the Mass Education Movement (1945),
How It Happens: Talk about the German People, 1914-1933, with Erna Von Pustan
(1947), The Big Wave* (for children, 1948), American Argument* (1949)).

Ruth Suckow, 1892 , short-story writer, novelist. SHORT STORIES: Iowa
Interiors* (1926), Children and Older People (1931), Some Others and Myself
(1952). NOVELS: Country People (1924), The Odyssey of a Nice Girl (1925),
The Bonney Family (1928), Cora (1929), The Kramer Girls (1930), The folks*
(1934). OMNIBUS VOLUME: Carry-Over (novels and short stories, 1936), New
Hope (1941).

J[ohn] P[hilip] Marquand, 1893 .novelist. NOVELS: The Late George
Apley* (1937, Pulitzer Prize award), H.M. Pulham Esquire) (1941), So Little Time
(1943), Point of No Return (1949), Melville Goodwin, U.S.A. (1951).

Evelyn [D.] Scott, 1893 , poet, novelist. PLAY: Love (1920). SHORT
STORIES: Ideals (1927). POEMS: Precipitations (1920), The Winter Alone (1930),
AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Escapade (1923), Background in Tennessee (1937). NOVELS:
The Nauotv House (1921), Nauissus (1922), The Golden Door (1925), Migrations
(1927), The Wai>e\ (1929), Elite Rum (pseudonymously, 1930), A Calendar of Sin
(two volumes, 1931), Eva Guy (1933), Breathe upon These Slam (1934), Bread
and a Susotd (1937), Shadow of the Hawl{ (1941).

Rachel [Lyman] Field, 18941942, illustrator, adapter, biographer, poet,
writer of children's books and verses, novelist. ADAPTATIONS AND ARRANGE-
MENTS: The White Cat and Other Old French Fairy Tales by Mme. La Comtesse
D'Auloy (1928), People from Dickens (1935). BIOGRAPHY: God's Pocket (1934).
CHILDREN'S VERSES: The Pointed People (1924), Christmas Time\ (1941). PLAY:
Rise Up, }enme Smith] (1918). STORY OF CHRISTMAS EVE: All Through the
Night} (1940). NOVELS: Time Out of Mind (1935), All This, and Heaven Toot
(1938), And Now Tomorrow] (1942).

Robert [Gruntal] Nathan, 1894 , poet, novelist. POETRY: Youth Grows
Old (1922), A Cedar Box (1929), A Winter Tide (1940), Dunkirk: A Ballad (1942),
Morning in lowa\ (1944), Darkening Meadows (1945). NOVELS: Peter Kindred
(1919), Autumn (1921), The Puppet Muster (1923), Jonah (1925), One More Spring}
(1933), Road of Ages\ (1935), The Barley Fields* (1938: an omnibus volume of the
previously published The Fiddler in Barley, 1926; The Woodcutter's House, 1927;
The Bishop's Wife. 1928; There Is Another Heaven, 1929; The Orchid, 1931),
Journey of Tapwla (1938), Winter in April (1938), Portrait of Jennie (1940), They
Went On Together} (1941), Journal for Josephine} (1943), But Gently Day (1943),
Mr. Whittle and the Morning Stat~\ (1947), Long After Summer} (1948), Rivet
Journey (1949), Adventures of Tapiola (1950), Married Look, (1950), Innocent Evt
(1951).

Katharine Anne Porter, 1894 , short-story writer, novelist, critic. NOV-
ELS: Pale Horse, Pale Rider (three short novels: Old Mortality, Noon Wine, anc
title story, 1939). SHORT STORIES: Hacienda (1934), Flowering Judas and Othe\
Stories (1935).

YESTERDAY AND TODAY

F[rancis] Scott [Key] Fitzgerald, 1896 1940, short-story writer, novelist,
PLAY: The Vegetable; or, From President to Postman (1923). SHORT STORIES:
Flappers and Philosophers (1920), Tales of the Jazz Age (1922), All the Sad Young
Men (1926), Taps at Rei'eille (1935). NOVELS: This Side of Paradise* (1920),
The Beautiful and Damned (1922), The Great Gatsby* (1925), Tender Is the Night
(1934). MISCELLANY: Portable F. Scott Fitzgerald (1945).

Louis Bromfield, 1896 , playwright, novelist. ECONOMIC POLICY: A
Few Brass Tat^s (1946). FARM LIFE: Pleasant Valley* (1945), Malabar Farm*
(1948). PLAYS: The House of Women (1927). Times Have Changed (1935), De
Luxe (1935). SHORT STORIES: Awake and Rehearse (1929), // Taf^es All Kinds
(1939), Kenny (1947). NOVELS: The Gieen Bay Tree} (1924), Possession (1925),
Early Antnmn\ (1926), A Good Woman (1927), The Strange Case of Miss Annie
Spragg (1928), Twenty-Four Hows (1930), The Farm* (1933), The Rains Came
(1937), Night in Bombay (1940), Until the Day Break (1942), Mrs. Parl(ington*
(1943), What Became of Anna Bolton*> (1944), Colorado (1947), Malabar Farm
(1948), Out of the Earth (1950), Mr. Smith (1951).

John [Roderigo] Dos Passos, 1896 , poet, playwright, novelist.
POETRY: A Pushcart at the Curb (1922). TRAVEL BOOKS: Rostnante to the Road
Again (1922), Orient Express (1927), In All Conntnes (1934), Journeys between
Wars (1938), State of the Nation (1944). PERSONAL NARRATIVE: Tour of Duty
(1946). PLAYS: The Garbage Man ("The Moon is a Gong," 1926), Airways, Inc.
(1928), Fortune Heights (1933). SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY: The Ground We Stand
On* (1941). NOVELS: One Man's Initiation-- 1917 (1920), Three Soldiers*
(1921), Streets of Ntght (1923), Manhattan Transfer I (1925), The 42nd Parallel
(1930), 1919 (1932), The Big Money (1936), V.S.A.* (trilogy of the foregoing
1930, 1932 and 1936 novels 1937), Adventwts of a Young Man (1939), Number
One (1943), First Encounter (1945), Grand Design (1949), Prospect Before Us
(1950), Chosen Country (1951).

Thornton [Niven] Wilder, 1897 , playwright, novelist. PLAYS: The
Angel That Troubled the Waters (1928), The Long Christmas Dinner (1931), Our
Town* (1938), The Sfan of Our Teeth (1942). NOVELS: The Cabala (1926),
The Bridge of San Lms Rey1 (1927), The Woman of Andros (1930), Heaven's My
Destination (1935), Ides of March* (1948).

William [Harrison] Faulkner (or Falkner) 1897 - , poet, novelist,
winner of Nobel Prize for Literature for 1949. SHORT STORIES: These 13 (1931),
Miss Zilphia Gant (1932), Doctor Martino (1934), Go Down, Moses (1942).
POEMS: The Marble Faun (1924), Salmagundi (essays and poems, 1932), A Green
Bough (1933). NOVELS: Soldiers' Pay (1926), Mosquitoes (1927), Sartoris (1929),
The Sound and the Fury* (1929), As I Lay Dying* (1930), Sanctuary (1931),
Light in August (1932), Pylon (1935), Absalom, Absalom! (1936), The Un-
vanquished (1938), The Wild Palms (1939), The Hamlet (1940), Intruder in the
Dust* (1948), Requiem for a Nun (1951). MISCELLANY: Portable Fauttncr*
(1946).

Ernest [Miller] Hemingway, 1898 , short-story writer, novelist.
SHORT STORIES: Men without Women* (1927), Winner Take Nothing (1933).
NOVELS: The Sun Also Rises (1926), The Torrents of Spring (1926), A Farewell
to Arms* (1929), To Have and Have Not (1937), For Whom the Bell Tolls* (1940),
Across the River and into the Trees (1950), The Old Man and the Sea* (1952).
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923), In Our Time
(1924), Death in the Afternoon (about bullfighting, 1932), Green Hillf of Africa
(about big-game hunting and other matters, 1935), The Fifth Column and the First
Forty-Nine Stories ("The Fifth Column" is a play; 1938), Men at War (a short-story
collection edited by Hemingway, 1942). OMNIBUS VOLUME; The.VHing Portable

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 277

Library: Hemingway (1944). (His best known short stories include The Killers, The
Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber, and The Snows of Kilimanjaro.)

Vincent Sheean, 1899 , political writer, novelist, biographer. POLITICAL
STUDIES: An American among the Rtfft (1926), The New Persia (1927), Personal
History* (1935), Not Peace But a Sword* (1939). NOVELS: God and Magog
(\929),Sanfelice (1936). BIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES: Lead, Kindly Light (Gandhi,
1949), Indigo Bunting (Edna St. Vincent Millay, 1951). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Rage
of the Soul (1952).

Glenway Wescott, 1901 , short-story writer, novelist. POEMS: The
Bitterns (1920), Natives of Rock (1925). ESSAYS: Fear and Trembling (1932).
BELLES-LETTRES: A Calendar of Saints for Unbelievers (in collaboration, 1932).
LIBRETTO: The Dream of Audubon (1940). SHORT STORIES: Lt& a Lover
(1926), Good-Bye, Wisconsin (1928), The Babe's Bed (1930). NOVELS: The Apple
of the Eye (1924), The Grandmothers] (1927), Apartment in Athens* (1945).

Thomas [Clayton] Wolfe, 19001938, short-story writer, novelist. AUTOBI-
OGRAPHICAL SKETCH: The Story of a Novel (1936). NOVELS: Look. Homeward.
Angel* (1929), Of Time and the River (1935), The Web and the Rock (1939), You
Can't Go Home Again (sequel to 1939 volume, 1940). OTHER WRITINGS: The
Hills Beyond (collection of shorter works, 1941), Letters to His Mother, Julia Elizabeth
Wolfe (edited by John S. Terry, 1943), Portable Thomas Wolfe (1946), Mannerhouse
(play written c. 1926; published 1946).

Oliver [Hazard Perry] LaFarge, 1901 , editor, short-story writer,
novelist, ethnologist. NOVELS: Laughing Boy* (1929), The Enemy Gods (1937),
Copper Potl (1912). STUDIES: Tribes and Temples (in collaboration, two volumes,
1926-1927), The Year Bearer's People (in collaboration, 1931), The Changing Indian*
(symposium of essays edited by Oliver LaFarge, 1942), Santa Eulalta: The Religion
of a Cuchumdtan Indian Town* (1947). MISCELLANY: All the Young Men (short
stories, 1935), As Long as the Grass Shall Grow (1940), Raw Material* (autobio-
graphical reminiscences, 1945), Eagle in the Egg (an account of air transportation,
1949).

John [Ernst] Steinbeck, 1902 , short-story writer, novelist. SHORT
STORIES: Nothing So Monstrous (1936), The Long Valley (1938). NOVELS: Tor-
tilla Flat* (1935), Of Mice and Men* (1937), The Grapes of Wrath (1939), Cannery
Row* (1945), Wayward Bus (1947), East of Eden* (1952). OTHER WRITINGS:
The Forgotten Village* (social life and customs, 1941), Sea of Cortez* (in collabora-
tion with Edward F. Ricketts. 1941), Bombs Away: The Story of a Bomber Town*
(1942), Portable Steinbeck (1943), Russian journal (1948), Burning Bright (play,
1950).

Philip Wylie, 1902 , journalist, editor, novelist. NOVELS: Heavy Laden
(1928), Generation of Vipers* (1942), Night Unto Night (1944), Opus 21* (1949),
The Disappearance* ( 1951 ) .

Erskine [Preston] Caldwell, 1903 , cntic, short-story writer, novelist,
SHORT STORIES: Kneel to the Rising Sun and Other Stones* (1935), Georgia Boy*
(1943), Stories (1944), American Earth, (collection, 1950), Episodes in Palmetto
(1950), Kneel to the Rising Sun and Other Stories (1951), The Courting of Susie
Brown (1952). NOVELS: Tobacco Road* (1932), God's Little Acre (1933),
Trouble in July (1940), All Night Long (1942), Tragic Ground (1944), House in
the Uplands (1946), Sure Hand of God (1947), This Very Earth (1948), Place
Galled Estherville (1949), MISCELLANY: Say Is This the U.S.A. (in collaboration
with Margaret Bourke- White, 1941), Call It Experience (the years of learning how
to write, 1951).

278 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

James Gould Cozzens, 1903 , novelist. NOVELS: Confusion (1924),
Michael Scarlett (1925), Cock. Pit (1928), The Son of Perdition (1929), S.S. San
Pedro} (1931), The Last Adam (1933), Castaway (1934), Men and Brethren (1936),
As^ Me Tomorrow (1940), The Just and the Unjust* (1942), Guard of Honor (1948).

George Orwell [Eric Blair], 1903-1950, novelist, essayist. NOVELS: Home to
Catalonia* (1938), Animal Farm* (1946), 1984* (1949). ESSAYS: Shooting an
Elephant, and Other Essays (1950).

James T[homas] Farrell, 1904 , critic, short-story writer, novelist.
SHORT STORIES: The Short Stones of James T. Farrell, with an Introduction by
Robert M. Lovett (1937), includes three previous volumes: Calico Shoes (1934),
Guillotine Party (1935), Can All This Grandeur Perish? (1937); $1.000 a Week,
(1942), To Whom It May Concern (1944). NOVELS: Studs Lomgan* (1935); a
trilogy: Young Lonigan (1932), The Young Manhood of Studs Lomgan (1934),
Judgment Day (1935); Tommy Gallagher's Crusade (1939), Ellen Rogers (1941),
My Days of 'Anger (1943), the fourth book in the saga of Danny O'Neill, the pre-
vious ones being A World I Never Made (1936), No Star Is Lost (1938), and Father
and Son (1940), The Road Between (1949), This Man and This Woman (1951),
Yet Other Waters (1952). OTHER WRITINGS: A Note on Literary Criticism (1936),
League of Frightened Philistines* (essays,' lectures, and addresses, 1945), When
Boyhood Dreams Come True (short stones, sketches, essays, and a play, 1946),
Literature and Morality (essays, 1947), Frontier and James Whitcomb Riley (1951).

Christopher Isherwood, 1904 , short story writer, novelist, translator,
playwright. PLAYS: (in collaboration with W. H. Auden) The Dog Beneath the
Sl(in (1935), The Ascent of F. 6. (1936), On the Frontier (1938). SHORT
STORIES: The Berlin Stories* (1946). NOVELS: The Memorial (1932), Lions in
Shadows (1938), Prater Violet* (1945), The World in the Evening (1952).

John [Henry] O'Hara, 1905 , short-story writer, novelist SHORT
STORIES: The Doctor's Son and Other Stories (1935), Files on Parade (1939), Pipe
Night* (1945), Hellbox (1947). NOVELS: Appointment in Samarra (1934), Butter-
field 8 (1935), Hope of Heaven (1938), Pal Joey (1940), Rage to Live (1949),
Farmers Hotel ( 195 1 ) .

Robert Penn Warren, 1905 , editor, biographer, poet, short-story writer,
novelist. POEMS: Thirty-Six Poems (1935), Eleven Poems on the Same Theme*
(1942), Selected Poems* (1944). SHORT STORIES: Circus in the Attick (1948)
NOVELS: Night Rider (1939), At Heaven's Gate (1943), All the King's Men*
(1946), World Enough and Time (1950).

Mrc Sar0yan ', 1 *g- ' n VcllSt ' P la > wri 8ht, short-story writer.

NOVELS: Human Comedy (1943), Adventures of Wesley Jackson (1946) PLAYS-

, ?'<\<?& { . \ indud ? My Heart '* in thc Hl shhnds (1939), The Time of Your
Life (1939), and Love's Old Sweet Song (1941), Get Away, Old Man (1944), Jim
Dandy: Fat Man in a Famine \ (1947), Three Plays: Don't Go Away Mad f Sam Ego's
House, A Decent Birth (1949). SHORT STORIES: The Danng Young Man on the
Flying Trapeze and Other Stories* (1934), Dear Baby* (1944), Saroyan Special*
( 1949) , The Assyrian and Other Stories ( 1950) , Ttacy's Tiger ( 1951 ) , Rock Wagram
(1951). OTHER WRITINGS: Fables (1942), Bicycle Rider in Beverly Hills (auto-
biography, 1952).

Walter van Tilburg Clark, 1909 , teacher, novelist. NOVELS: Thc
Ox-Bow Incident* (1940), The City of Trembling Leaves (1945), The Track of the
Cat\ (1949), The Watchful Gods (1950).

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 279

Frederic Prokosch, 1909 , poet, novelist. POEMS: The Assassins (1936),
The Carnival (1938), Death at Sea* (1941), Chosen Poems* (1947). NOVELS: The
Asiatics* (1935), The Seven Who Fled* (1937), Night of the Poor (1939), The Skies
of Europe (1941), Conspirators (1943), Age of Thunder (1945), Idols of the Cave
(1946), Storm and Echo (1948), Nine Days to Mutylla (1953).

Howard Fast, 1914 , war correspondent, short-story writer, novelist.
NOVELS: Two Valleys (1932), Citizen Tom fame* (1943), Freedom Road*
(1944), The American (biography of John Peter Altgeld, 1946), Spartacus (1952).

John Hersey, 1914 , novelist. NOVELS: A Bell for Adano* (1944,
Pulitzer Prize winner), Hiroshima* (1946), The Wall* (1950).

Carson McCullers, 1917 , novelist, short-story writer. NOVELS: The
Heart Is a Lonely Hunter* (1940), Refections in a Golden Eye (1941), The Member
of the Wedding* (1946). SHORT STORIES: The Ballad of the Sad Cafe (1951).

Truman Capote, 1924 , novelist and short-story writer. SHORT STORIES:
A Tree of Night and Other Short Stories (1950). NOVELS: Other Voices, Other
Rooms* (1948), The Grass Harp (1951).

POETS

Lizette Woodworth Reese, 18561935, poet. FICTIONAL FRAGMENT:
Worleys (1936). REMINISCENCES: A Victorian Village (1929), The York Road
(1931). POETRY: A Branch of May (1887), A Handful of Lavender (1891), A
Quiet Road (1896), A Wayside Lute (1909), Spicewood (1920), Wild Cherry
(1923), Selected Poems* (1926), Little Henrietta (1927), White April (1930),
Pastures (1933), The Old House in the Country (1936). INDIVIDUAL POEMS:
"Tears," "Women," "A Puritan Lady," "A Flower of Mullein," "Old Saul," "Song-
Book," "The House of the Silent Years," "Betrayed," "A Girl's Mood," "Trust,"
"Telling the Bees," "In Time of Grief," "The Common Lot."

Edwin Arlington Robinson, 18691935, poet. BIOGRAPHICAL: Selected
Letters (1940), Vntnangulated Stars: Letters to Harry de Forest Smith, 1890-1905
(1947). PLAYS: Van Zorn (1914), The Porcupine (1915). POETRY: The Torrent
and The Night Before* (1896), The Children of the Night (1897), Captain Craig
(1902), The Town down the River (1910), The Man against the Sky (1916), Merlin
(1917), Lancelot (1920), The Three Taverns (1920), Avon's Harvest (1921), Roman
Bartholow (1923), The Man Who Died Twice* (1924), Dionysus in Doubt (1925),
Tristram* (1927), Sonnets, 1889-1927 (1928), Calender's House (1929), The Glory
of the Nightingales (1930), Matthias at the Door (1931), Nicodemus (1932), Talifer
(1933), Amaranth (1934), King Jasper (1935), Collected Poems* (1937). INDI-
VIDUAL POEMS: "Mr. Flood's Party," "Miniver Cheevy," "Flammonde," "For a
Dead Lady," "The Sheaves," "Eros Turannos," "Richard Cory," "The Master,"
"Luke Havergal," "The House on the Hill," "The Gift of God," "The Man against
the Sky," "Ben Jonson Entertains a Man from Stratford," "Veteran Sirens," "The
Poor Relation," "Firelight," "The Field of Glory," "Calverly," "John Evereldown,"
"The Mill," "George Crabbe," "Bewick Finzer," "The Dark Hills."

Edgar Lee Masters, 1869-1950, novelist, poet. BIOGRAPHY: Vachel Lindsay*
(1935), Whitman (1937), Mark Twain (1938). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Across Spoon
Rwer (1936). VERSE PLAYS: Maximilian (1902), Lee (1926), Jack Kelso (1928),
Godbey (1931). NOVELS: Mitch Miller (1920), Children of the Market Place
(1922), Skceters Kirby (1923), Mirage (1924), The Tide of Time (1937). POETRY:
A Book of Verses (1898), Spoon River Anthology* (1915), The Great Valley (1916),
Songs and Satires (1916), Toward the Gulf (1918), Starved Rock (1919), Domesday

280 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Boot( (1920), The Open Sea (1921), The New Spoon River (1924), The Fate of the
July (1929), Lichee Nuts (1930), The Serpent in the Wilderness (1933), Invisible
Landscapes (1935), Poems of People (1936), The New World (1937), Illinois Poems
(1941), Along the Illinois (1942). MISCELLANEOUS: The Tale of Chicago
(history, 1933), The Living Thoughts of Emerson (edited, 1940), The Sangamon
(river-history, 1942). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "My Light with Yours," "Ann Rut-
ledge," "Lucinda Matlock," "Petit, the Poet," "Editor Whedon," "Morgan Oakley,"
"By the Waters of Babylon," "Ship-Shoe Lovey," "Hare Drummer," "Howard*
Lamson," "The Loom," "A Curious Boy," "The Seven Cities of America," "Widows."
"Week-End by the Sea."

Amy [Lawrence] Lowell, 18741925, critic, poet. BIOGRAPHY: John Keats*
(two volumes, 1925). LITERARY CRITICISM: Six French Poets (1915), Tendencies
in Modern American Poetry* (1917). POEMS; A Dome of Many-Colored Glass
(1912), Sword Blades and Poppy Seed* (1914), Men, Women, and Ghosts (1916),
Can Grande's Castle (1918), Pictures of the Floating World (1919), Fir-Flower
Tablets (in collaboration with Florence Ayscough, 1921), Legends (1921), A Critical
Fable (1922), What's o'clock. (1925), East Wind (1926), Ballads for Sale (1927).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Patterns," "Lilacs," "Apology," "Madonna of the Evening
Flowers," "Solitaire," "Meeting-House Hill," "A Gift," "A Decade," "The City of
Falling Leaves," "Four Sides to a House," "The Dinner Party," "Little Ivory Fingers
Pulled with String," "Venus Transiens," "A Rhyme out of Motley," "A Lady,"
"Evelyn Ray," "Night Clouds."

Robert [Lee] Frost, 1875 , poet. PLAYS: A Way Out (1929), Snow
(1941). POETRY: A Boy's Will (1913), North of Boston*' (1914), Mountain
Interval* (1916), New Hampshire* (1923), Selected Poems (1923), West-Running
Brook (1928), Collected Poems (1930), A Further Range* (1936), Collected Poems*
(1939), A Witness Tree* (1942), Come In (selected by Louis Untermeyer, 1943),
Masque of Reason* (1945), Masque of Mercy] (1947), Steeple Bush* (1947), Com-
plete Poems* (1949). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy
Evening," "An Old Man's Winter Night," "Birches," "Mending Wall," "The Road
Not Taken," "The Death of the Hired Man," "After Apple-Picking," "Home Burial,"
"Fire and Ice," "The Sound of the Trees," "The Runaway," "My November Guest,"
"The Fear," "To Earthward," "Spring Pools," "The Aim Was Song," "Two Tramps
in Mud Time," "Our Singing Strength," "For Once, Then Something," "Acquainted
with the Night," "To Edward Thomas," "Not to Keep," "The Hill Wife," "Good-Bye
and Keep Cold," "The Onset," "The Oven Bird," "Come In," "Departmental,"
"Happiness Makes Up in Height," "Revelation," "The Wood-Pile," "Mowing,"
"Reluctance," "The Code," "A Servant to Servants," "Putting in the Seed,"
"A Time to Talk," "The Cow in Apple Time," "Brown's Descent," "Hard Not to Be
King/'

William Ellery [Channing] Leonard, 18761945, playwright, translator, es-.
sayist, poet. TRANSLATIONS: The Fragments of Empedocles (1908), T. Lucretius
Carus. Of the Nature of Things (1916). STUDIES: The Poet of Galilee (1909)
AUTOBIOGRAPHY: The Locomotwe-God* (1927). POJEMS: Sonnets and Poems
(1906), The Vaunt of Man (1912), The Lynching Bee (1920), Two Lives* (1922)
Tutankhamen and After (1924), This Midland City (1930), Man against Time: An
Heroic Drama* (1945). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Indian Summer," "The Image of
Delight," "To the Victor," "The Pied Piper," "Tom Mooncy," and sonnets from Two
Lives: "O how came I that loved stars, moon, and flame," "This afternoon on Willow-
Walk alone," "Thrice summer and autumn passed into the west," "We act in crises
not as one who dons," "The Cosmic Rhythms have old right of way."

Carl [August] Sandburg, 1878 , poet. CHILDREN'S BOOKS: Roota-
baga Stories (1922), Rootabaga Pigeons (1923), Abe Lincoln Grows Up (1928),
Early Moon (poems, 1930), Potato Face (1930). BIOGRAPHY: Abraham Lincoln:
The Prairie Years* (two volumes, 1926), Steichen, the Photographer (1929), Mary
Lincoln, Wife and Widow (in collaboration with P. M. Angle, 1932), Abraham

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 281

Lincoln: The War Yearsf (four volumes, 1939), Lincoln Collector (Oliver Barrett,
1950), HISTORY: Storm over the Land (1942). POETRY: Chicago Poems (1916),
CornkuskcK (1918), SIUQ& and Steel (1920), Slabs of the Sunburnt West (1922),
Selected Poemrt (1928), Good Morning, America (1928), The People, Yt (1936),
Complete Poems* (1951, Puiizer Prize). HISTORICAL NOVEL: Remembrance Roctf
(1948). MISCELLANEOUS: The Chicago Race Riots (social study, 1919), The
American Songbag (editor, 1927), Home Front Memo (miscellany, 1943). AUTO-
BIOGRAPHY: Always the Young Strangers* (1953). INDIVIDUAL POEMS:
"Chicago," "Grass," "Four Preludes on Playthings of the Winds," "Prayers of Steel,"
"Nocturne in a Deserted Brickyard," "Cool Tombs," "Psalm of Those Who Go Forth
before Daylight," "Losers," "Old Timers," "Under the Harvest Moon," "Caboose
Thoughts," "The Man with the Broken Fingers," "The People Will Live On," (from
The People f Yes), "Prairie," "Broken-Face Gargoyles," "At a Window," "Joy,"
"Three Spring Notations on Bipeds," "Buttons," "Plunger," "Wilderness," "To a
Contemporary Bunk-Shooter," "Take a Letter to Dmitri Shostakovich," "The Fircborn
Are at Home in Fire,"

[Nicholas] Vachel Lindsay, 18791931, poet. AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Adven-
tures while Preaching the Gospel of Beauty (1914), A Handy Guide for Beggars
(1916). POETRY: The Tree of Laughing Bells (1905), Rhymes to Be Traded for
Bread (1912), General William Booth Enters into Heaven\ (1913), The Congo!
(1914), The Chinese Nightingale* (1917), The Daniel Jazz (1920), The Golden
Whales of California (1920), Collected Poems (1923), Going-to-the-Sttn (1923),
The Candle in the Cabin (1926), Going-to-the-Stars (1926), Johnny Apple feed
(1928), Every Soul Is a Circus (1929). MISCELLANEOUS: The Golden Book of
Springfield (1920), The Litany of Washington Street (1929), Letters of Nicholas
Vachel Lindsay to A. Joseph Armstrong (edited by A. J Armstrong, 1940). INDI-
VIDUAL POEMS: "General William Booth Enters into Heaven," "The Eagle That Is
Forgotten," "Abraham Lincoln Walks at Midnight," "The Leaden-Eyed," "The Chinese
Nightingale," "The Congo," "A Negro Sermon: Simon Legree," "Aladdin and the
Jinn," "A Net to Snare the Moonlight," "The Ghosts of the Buffaloes." "John
Brown," "The Daniel Jazz," "Nancy Hanks, Mother of Abraham Lincoln," "On the
Building of Springfield," "Prologue to 'Rhymes to Be Traded for Bread, 1 " "In Praise
of Johnny Appleseed," "The Flower of Mending," "Where Is the Real Non-Resistant?"

Wallace Stevens, 1879 , poet. POETRY: Harmonium (1923), Ideas of
Order (1935), Owl's Clover (1936), The Man with the Blue Guitar (1937), Parts
of a World^ (1942), Notes toward a Supreme Fiction* (1943), Transport to Summer
(1947), Man with the Blue Guitar (1952). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Peter Quince
at the Clavier," "The Worms at Heaven's Gate," "The Emperor of Ice-Cream," "Le
Monocle de Mon Oncle," "Sea Surface Full of Clouds," "Domination of Black,"
"Anecdote of the Jar," "The Paltry Nude Starts on a Spring Voyage," "Tattoo," "The
Snow Man," "To the One of Fictive Music," "Cortege for Rosenbloom," "Homunculus
et la Belle Etoile," "Tea at the Palaz of Hoon," "Bouquet of Belle Scavoir," "Asides
on the Oboe," "The Pleasures of Merely Circulating," "Six Discordant Songs."
MISCELLANY: Necessary Angel; Essays in Reality and the Imagination (1951),

William Cartel Williams, 1883 , physician, poet, translator. POETRY:
Collected Poems (1951). AUTOBIOGRAPHY (1951). SHORT STORIES: Make
Light of It (collected stories, 1950).

Sara Teasdale, 18841933, poet. POETRY: Sonnets to Duse (1907), Helen of
Troy (1911), Rivers to the Sea (1915), Love Songs (1917), Flame and Shadow
(1920), Dark of the Moon (1926), Stars To-Night (1930), Strange Victory (1933),
Collected Poems* (1937). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "I Shall Not Care," "Arcturus,"
"Let It" Be Forgotten," "Spring Night," "The Answer," "The Long Hill," "Debt,"
"Over the Hill," "Barter," "Winter Night Song," "There Will Come Soft Rains,"
"Blue Squalls," "Come," "Song for Colin," "Night Song at Amalfi," "The Look,"
"Spring in War Time," "Effigy of a Nun," "The Flight," "On the Sussex Dowm."

282 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Elinor [Hoyt] Wylie, 18851928, poet, novelist. NOVELS: Jennifer Lorn
(1923), The Venetian Glass Nephew (1925), The Orphan Angel (1926), Mr. Hodge
& Mr. Hazard (1928), POETRY: Incidental Numbers (1912), Nets to Catch the
Wind (1921), Black Armour (1923), Angels and Earthly Creatures^ (1928), Trivial
Breath (1928), Last Poems (1943). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Eagle and the
Mole," "Let No Charitable Hope," "Hymn to Earth," "Velvet Shoes," "Escape,"
"Castilian," "O Virtuous Light," "Birthday Sonnet," "Prophecy," "Atavism,"
"Peregrine," and Bonnets from One Person: "The Little Beauty That I Was Al-
lowed ," "I Hereby Swear That to Uphold Your House," "Before I Die, Let Me
Be Happy Here," "Upon Your Heart, Which Is the Heart of All."

Ezra [Loomis] Pound, 1885 , translator, editor, essayist, poet, Nazi
propagandist. ESSAYS, STUDIES, AND LITERARY CRITICISM: The Sptrtt of
Romance (1910), Pavanncs and Divisions (1918), Instigations (1920), Indiscretions
(1923), Antheil and the Tteattse on Harmony (1924), ABC of Reading (1934),
Make It New (1934), Polite Essays (1937), Culture (1938). POETRY: A Lume
Spento (1908), Exultations} (1909), Personae\ (1909), Provenqa (1910), Canzoni
(1911), Ripostes (1912), Lustra (1916), Quia Pauper Amavi (1919), Umbra (1920),
A Draft of XVI Cantos (1925), Selected Poems (1928), A Draft of XXX Cantos^
(1930), Eleven New Cantos, XXXl-XLl (1934), Cantos^ (1948), Pisan Cantos^
(1948), Collected Poems (1950). MISCELLANEOUS: Sonnets and Ballads of Guido
Cavalcanti (translation, 1912), Gaudier-Brzesfa (biography, 1916), Certain Noble
Plays of Japan (edited, 1916), 'Noh,' or Accomplishment (in collaboration with
Ernest Fcnollosa, 1916). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Ballad of the Goodly Fere," "The
River-Merchant's Wife: A Letter," "Dance Figure," "A Virginal," "The Return,*'
"Envoi (1919)," "Further Instructions," "Exile's Letter," "The Garden," "Canto XIII:
'Kung Walked,' " "Francesca/* "Immortality," "The Tree," "The Spring," "Ortus,"
"The Study in Aesthetics."

John Hall Wheelock, 1886 , poet. POETRY: Verses by Two Under-
graduates (in collaboration with Van Wyck Brooks, 1905 see p. 289), The Human
Fantasy (1911), The Beloved Adventure (1912), Love and Liberation (1913), Dust
and Light (1919), The Black Panther (1922), The Bright Doom (1927), Poems,
1911-1936] (1936). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Fish-Hawk," "Sunday Evening
in the Common," "Nirvana," "This Quiet Dust," "All My Love for My Sweet,"
"The Thunder-Shower," "Pitiless Beauty," "Prayer to the Sun," "The Dear Mystery,"
"The Black Panther," "Autumn," "Along the Beaches," "Love and Liberation,"
"The Undiscovered Country."

John Gould Fletcher, 1886 , translator, essayist, poet. HISTORY: Ar^an-
sas\ (1947). TRANSLATIONS: Elie Faurc's The Dance over Fire and Water (1926),
J. J. Rousseau's The Reveries of a Solitary (1927). BIOGRAPHY: Paul Gauguin; His
Life and Heart (1921), John Smith Also Pocahontas (1928). AUTOBIOGRAPHY:
Ufe Is My Song (1937). STUDIES: The Crisis of the Film (1929), The Two
Frontiers (1930). POETRY: Irradiations (1915), Goblins and Pagodas (1916),
Japanese Prints (1918), Breafcrt and Granite (1921), Parables (1925), Branches of
Adam (1926), The Black Roc^ (1928), XXIV Elegies (1935), The Epic of Arkansas
(1936), Selected Poems^ (1938), South Star (1941), Burning Mountain-^ (1946).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Blue Symphony," "Mexican Quarter," "The Stevedores,"
"Vision," "Lincoln," "Heat," "White Symphony," "Down the Mississippi," "Em-
barkation," "The Swan," "The Groundswell."

[John] Robinson Jeffers, 1887 , poet. POETRY: Flagons and Apples
(1912), California (1916), Tamar (1924), Roan Stallion, Tamar, and Other
Poems] (1925), The Women at Point Sur (1927), Cawdor (1928), Dear Judas
(1929), Descent to the Dead (1931), Thurso's Landing (1932), Give Your Heart to
the Hawks (1933), Solstice (1935), Such Counsels You Gave to Me (1937), The
Selected Poetry of Robinson Jefferst (1938), Be Angry at the Sun (1941), The
Double Axe and Other Poems (1948). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Shine, Perishing
Republic," "To the Stone-Cutters," "Night," "Hurt Hawks," "Age in Prospect,"
"Promise of Peace," "Meditation on Saviors," "Fog," "The Door," "Fire on the Hills,"

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 283

"I Shall Laugh Purely," "Post Mortem," "The Tower beyond Tragedy," "Salmon-
Fishing," "Prescription of Painful Ends," "The Tree Toad," "Pelicans," "Tor House,"
"May June, 1940."

John Crowe Ransom, 1888 , editor, critic, poet. LITERARY CRITI-
CISM: The World's Body (1938), The New Criticism (1941). POETRY: Poems
about God (1919), Chills and Fever\ (1924), Grace after Meat (1924), Two Gentle-
men in Bonds (1927), Selected Poems^ (1945). MISCELLANEOUS: God without
Thunder (a defense of orthodoxy, 1930), /'// Take My Stand (an agrarian anthology,
1930), Topics for Freshman Writing (1935), A College Primer of Writing (1943).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Here Lies a Lady," "Piazza Piece," "Captain Carpenter,"
"Two in August," "Antique Harvesters," "Janet Walking," "Blue Girls," "Amphibi-
ous Crocodile," "Number Five," "In Process of a Noble Alliance," "April Treason,"
"Necrological," "Sangar."

Tfhomas] S [teams] Eliot, 1888 , American-born poet who became a
British subject in 1927; winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. CRITICISM:
Ezra Pound: His Metric and Poetry (1917), The Sacred Woodi (1920), Homage to
John Dry den (1924), Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca (1927), For Lancelot
Andrews^ ,(1928), Tradition and Experiment in Present-Day Literature (1929),
Selected Essays, 1917-1932+ (1932), John Dryden: The Poet, the Dramatist, the Cntic
(1932), The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1933), After Strange Gods\
(1934), Elizabethan Essays (1934), The Idea of a Christian Society (1940), Music
of Poetry (1942), A Choice of Kipling's Verse (editor, 1943), Notes Toward the
Definition of Culture* (1949). PAGEANT: The Rock, (1934). PLAYS: Murder in
the Cathedral (1935), The Family Reunion (1939), The Cocktail Party (1950).
POETRY: Prufrock and Other Observations (1917), Poems* (1919), The Waste
Land* (1922), Ash-Wednesday* (1930), Collected Poems, 1900-1935* (1936),
East Cot(cr (1940), Burnt Norton (1941), The Dry Salvages (1941), Little Gidding
(1942), Four Quartets* (1943). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Sweeny Among the Night-
ingales," "Portrait of a Lady," "Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "Gerontion," "La
Figlia che Piange," "Whispers of Immortality," "A Song for Simeon," "The Hippo-
potamus," "Morning at the Window," "Ash-Wednesday: I, II," "The Hollow Men,"
"Marina," "Journey of the Magi," "Rhapsody on a Windy Night."

Conrad [Potter] Aiken, 1889 , editor, critic, poet, novelist, short-story
writer. SHORT-STORY COLLECTIONS: Bring! Bring' (1925), Costumes by Eros!
(1928). NOVELS- Bine Voyage (1927), Great Circle (1933), King Coffin (1935),
Conversation (1939). EDITOR: Modern American Poets (1922), Selected Poems of
Emily Dickinson (1924), Amencan Poetry, 1671-1928 (1929). LITERARY CRITI-
CISM: Scepticisms^ (1919). POETRY: Earth Triumphant (1914), The Jig of Forslin
(1916), Turns and Movies (1916), Nocturne of Remembered Spring (1917), The
Charnel Rose (1918), The House of Dust (1920), Punch: The Immortal Liar (1921),
Pnapus and the Pool (1922), The Pilgrimage of Festus (1923), Selected Poemsi
(1929), John Deth (1930), Preludes for Memnon (1931), Landscape West of Eden
(1934), Time in the Rock (1936), And in the Human Heart (1940), Brownstone
Eclogues (1942), The Soldier (1944), The Kid (1947), Divine Pilgrim (1949),
Skylight 0rf (1949). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "This Is the Shape of the Leaf,"
"And in the Hanging Gardens," "When Trout Swim down Great Ormond Street,"
"Morning Song of Senhn," "Music I Heard with You," "Prelude VI: 'Rimbaud and
Verlame,' " "Portrait of One Dead," "The Wedding," "Sound of Breaking," "The
Room," "Tetdestai," "There Is Nothing Moving Here." AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Uthant
(1952).

Edna St. Vincent Millay, 1892-1950, poet. HUMOR: Distressing Dialogues
(pseudonymously, 1924). PLAYS: Ana da Capo (1920), The Lamp and the Bell
(1921), Two Slatterns and a King (1921), The Kings Henchman\ (in collaboration
with Deems Taylor, 1926-1927), The Princess Marries the Page (1932). POEMS:
Renascence (1917), A Few Figs from Thistles (1920), Second April (1921), The
Ballad of the Harp-Weaver (1922), The Harp-W ,av,r and Other Poemtf (1923),

284

YESTERDAY AND TODAY

The Bucf( in the Snow (T928), fatal Interview* (1931), Wine from These Grapes
(1934), Huntsman. What Quarry? (1939), Make Bright the Arrow (1940), Collected
Sonnets (1941), Murder of Lidice (1942), Collected Lyrics (1943). INDIVIDUAL
POEMS: "Euclid Alone Has Looked on Beauty Bare," "Dirge Without Music,"
"Renascence," "God's World," "The Poet and His Book," "Moriturus," "Oh, Sleep
Forever in the Latmian Cave," "Thou Art Not Lovelier than Lilacs," "Afternoon
on a Hill," "I Shall Go Back," "Elaine," "Elegy before Death," "Passer Mortuis,"
"Afternoon on a Hill," "What Lips My Lips Have Kissed," "Rccuerdo," "Say What
You Will," "Autumn Chant," "What's This of Death," "On Hearing a Symphony
of Beethoven," "Justice Denied in Massachusetts," "There Arc No Islands, Any More."

Archibald MacLeish, 1892 , social writer, poet. PLAY: Destroyers^
(1942). SATIRE: Infernal Machine* (with Robert dc San Marzano, 1947).
STUDIES: The Irresponsible! (1940), The American Cause (1941), A Time to Speak
(prose collection, 1941), Amencan Opinion and the War (1942), A Time to Actf
(selected addresses, 1943). PLAYS: Nobodaddy (1926), Panic (1935), The De-
stroyers (1942). VERSE DRAMAS: The Fall of the City (1937), Air Raid (1938).
POETRY: The Happy Marriage (1924), The Pot of Earth (1925), Streets in the
Moon (1926), The Hamlet of A. MacLeish (1928), New Found Land (1930), Con-
quistador^ (1932), Frescoes for Mr. Rockefeller's City (1933), Poems, 1924-1933+
(1933), Public Speech (1936), Land of the Free (1938), America Was Promises
(1939), Actfive, and Other Poems* (1948). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "You, Andrew
Marvel," "The End of the World," "Ars Poetica," "The Too-Late Born, "Immortal
Autumn," "Bernil Diaz' Preface to His Book," "Burying Ground by the Ties," "L'an
Trcntiesmc de Mon Eage," "Memorial Rain," "Land of the Free," "Speech to Those
Who Say Comrade," "The Western Sky," "Speech to a Crowd," "Epistle to Be Left
in the Earth," "The Fall of the City," "The Spanish Dead," "The Reconcilation."

Dorothy [Rothschild] Parker, 1893 , short-story writer, poet. SHORT
STORIES: Laments for the Uving (1930), After Such Pleasures (1933), Here Lies
(collected stories, 1939). POETRY: Enough Rope (1926), Sunset Gun (1928),
Death and Taxes (1931). COLLECTED POEMS: Not So Deep as a Well (1936).
OMNIBUS VOLUME: The Viking Portable Library: Dorothy Parser (stories and
poems, 1944). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Somebody's Song," "Inventory," "Bohemia,"
"Fighting Words," "Resume," "Biographies."

E[dward] E[stlin] Gumming*, 1894 , poet, essayist. POETRY: Tulips
and Chimneys (volume of poems, 1922), Collected Poems (1938). ESSAYS AND
JOURNALS: The Enormous Room (Life and Letters Series, 1930), Anthropos The
Future of Art (1945), Santa Clous: A Morality (1946), ElM! (journal of a trip to
Russia, 1948).

Stephen Vincent Benlt, 1898 1943, translator, editor, playwright, novelist,
poet. HISTORY: America* (1945). RADIO SCRIPTS: We Stand United* (1945).
SHORT STORIES: Tales before Midmght (1939). PLAYS: The Headless Horseman
(1937), The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939), Freedom's a Hard-Bought Thing
(c. 1941). NOVELS: The Beginning of Wisdom (1921), Young People's Pride
(1922), Jean Huguenot (1923), Spanish Bayonet (1926), POETRY: Five Men and
Pompey (1915), Young Adventure (1918) Heavens and Earth (1920), The Ballad
of William Sycamore, 1790-1880 (1923), King David (1923), Tiger Joy (1925),
John Brown's Body* (1928), Ballads and Poems, 1915-1930 (1931), Nightmare at
Noon (1940), They Burned the Boo^s (1942), Western Star (unfinished, 1943).
COLLECTIONS: Selected Worlds* (two volumes, 1942), The Last Circlet (1946).
INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "The Ballad of William Sycamore," "The Mountain Whip-
poorwill," "The Hidcr's Song," "The Guns," "Litany for Dictatorships," "Rain
after a Vaudeville Show," "Listen to the People" (dramatic radio-script poem),
"Song about Children."

Malcolm Cowley, 1898 , translator, editor, poet, critic. POETRY: Blue
Juniata (1929), Dry Season (1941). REMINISCENCES: Exile's Return* (1934).

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 285

EDITOR: After the Genteel Tradition: American Writers since 1910 (1937), Books
That Changed Our Minds (in collaboration with Bernard Smith, 1939). INDIVIDUAL
POEMS: "The Urn," "The Hill above the Mine," "Blue Juniata," "For St. Bartholo-
mew's Eve/' "The Farm Died," "William Wilson," "Towers of Song," "Winter:
Two Sonnets."

[Harold] Hart Crane, 18991932, poet. POETRY: White Buildings (1926).
The Bridge (1930), Collected Poems* (1933). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "To Brooklyn
Bridge," "Praise for an Urn," "For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen," "The
River" (from The Bridge), "Royal Palm," "Repose of Rivers," "Voyages: II," "Cutty
Sark," "The Hurricane," "Lachrymae Christac."

Le'onie [Fuller] Adams, 1899 , translator, poet. POETRY: Those Not
Elect (1925), High Falcon (1929), This Measure (1933). INDIVIDUAL POEMS:
"Country Summer," "The Mount," "Send Forth the High Falcon," "The River in
the Meadows," "April Mortality," "Never Enough of Living," "Bell Tower,"
"Lullaby," "Death and the Lady," "Ghostly Tree," "Those Not Elect."

[James] Langston Hughes, 1902 , short-story writer, novelist, poet.
CHILDREN'S BOOK: Popo and Fiftna: Children of Haiti (m collaboration with
Arna Bontemps, 1932). SHORT STORIES: The Ways of White Folkt (1934),
Laughing to Keep from Crying (1952). NOVEL: Not without Laughter (1930).
POEMS: The Weary Blues* (1926), Fine Clothes to the Jew (1927), The Big Sea*
(1940), Shakespeare in Harlem* (1942), Fields of Wonder (1947), One-Way Ticket
(1949), Montage of a Dream Deferred (1951). MISCELLANEOUS: Anthology:
Poetry of the Negro, 1746-1949 (in collaboration with Arna Wendell, 1949), Simple
Speaks His Mind (a collection of stones and incidents, 1950).

George Dillon, 1906 , translator, poet. POETRY: Boy in the Wind (1927),
The Flowering Stone* (1931). INDIVIDUAL POEMS: "Boy in the Wind," "Memory
of Lake Superior," "The Noise of Leaves," "April's Amazing Meaning," "Compli-
ment to Manners," "The Hours of the Day," "Women without Fear," "The Hard
Lovers," "The Dead Elm on the Hilltop."

W[ystan] H[ugh] Auden, 1907 , poet, essayist, playwright. POEMS:
The Age of Anxiety (collection, Pulitzer Prize, 1947). TRAVEL: Journey to a War
(in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood, 1939). ESSAYS: Some Notes on Grimm
and Anderson (1952). PLAYS: (See section on Christopher Ishcrwood.)

Peter Viereck, 1916 , poet. POETRY: Terror and Decorum (collection,
Pulitzer Prize, 1948), Stride Through the Mask (1950).

IMPORTANT PLAYWRIGHTS

Percy [Wallace] MacKaye, 1875 , translator, essayist, poet, playwright.
BIOGRAPHY: Epoch (two volumes, 1927). FOLK TALES: Tall Tales of the
Kentucky Mountains (1926). OPERA: Rip Van Winkle (in collaboration, 1919).
MASQUES: Sanctuary: A Bird Masque (1914), Caliban by the Yellow Sands (1916),
The Evergreen Tree (1917). PLAYS: The Canterbury Pilgrims (1903), Jeanne d'Arc
(1906), Sappho and Phaon (1907), Mater (1908), The Scarecrow^ (1908), Anti-
Matrimony (1910), To-Morrow (1912), Yankee Fantasies (1912), Washington: The
Man Who Made Us (1920), TAi> Fine-Prettv World (1924), Kentucky Mountain
Fantasies (1928). POETRY: Discoveries and Inventions; Victories of the American
Spirit (1950), My Lady Dear, Arise (songs and sonnets, 1951). MISCELLANEOUS:
Mystery of Hamlet (1950), Poog's Pasture (autobiography, 1951), Poog and the
Caboose Man (1952).

Rachel Crothers, 1878 , director, playwright. PLAYS: The Three of Usi

286 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

(1906; 1916), A Man's World* (1909; 1915), He and She (1911), Ourselves (1912;
1913), young Wisdom (1913; 1914), Old Lady 31* (1916; c, 1923), Nice People*
(1920), "Everyday" (1921), Mother Carey's Chickens* (in collaboration with K. D.
Wiggm, 1917; 1925), Mary the Third (1923), Expressing Willie* (1924), A Lady's
Virtue (1925), Let Us Be Gay (1929), "As Husbands Go"t (1931), When Ladies
Meet* (1932), Susan and God* (1938).

Susan Glaspell, 18821948, novelist, playwright. SHORT STORIES: Lifted
Masf(s (1912). BIOGRAPHY: The Road to the Temple* (1926). NOVELS: The
Glory of the Conquered (1909), The Visiomng (1911), Fidelity (1915), Brook Evans
(1928), Fugitive's Return (1929), Ambrose Holt and Family (1931), The Morning
Is Near Us (1940), Norma Ashe (1942), fudd Rantyn's Daughter* (1945). INDI-
VIDUAL PLAYS AND PERFORMANCE YEAR: Suppressed Desires (1914), Trifles*
(1916), Close the Book (1917), Woman's Honor (1918), Ttc\less Time (1918),
Bernice (1919), Inheritors (1921), The Verge (1921), Allison's House* (1930).

Maxwell Anderson, 1888 , editor, essayist, poet, playwright. POEMS:
Vou Who Have Dreams (1925). ESSAYS: The Essence of Tragedy and Other Foot-
notes and Papers (1939), Off Broadway^ (1947). PLAYS: Sea Wife (mimeographed,
1926), Both Your Houses (1933), Candle in the Wind (1941), Journey to Jerusalem
(1941), Eve of St. Mark (1942), Joan of Lorraine* (1947), Anne of the Thousand
Days* (1948), COLLECTIONS: Three American Plays (in collaboration with
Lawrence Stalling, 1926), includes What Price Glory* (1924); Eleven Verse Plays
(1940), includes Elizaheth the Queen} (1930), Night Over Taos (1932), Mary of
Scotland (1933), Valley Forge (1934), Winterseti (1935), The Wingless Victory
(1936), High Tor\ (1937), The Masque of Kings (1936), The Feast of Ortolans
(1938), Second Overture (1938), Key Lai go ( 1939) , Lost in the Stars (dramatization
of Alan Paton's novel, Cry, the Beloved Country, 1950), Barefoot in Athens (1951).
VERSES SET TO MUSIC (in collaboration with Kurt Weill): It Never Was Any-
where You (1938), September Song (1938).

Eugene [Gladstone] O'Neill, 1888 , dramatist. PLAYS: Beyond the
Horizon\ (1920), Chns Chnstopherson (1920: subsequently rewritten as Anna
Chnsti), The Straw (1921), Gold (1921: originally the one-act play, Where the
Cross Is Made, 1918), The Emperot Jones^ (1920; 1921), Anna Christie^ (1921),
The First Man (1922), The Hairy Ape (1922), All God's Chilian Got Wings (1924),
Welded (1924), Desirf^miterjfc-TmsT$VZ4\ 1925), The Fountain (1925; 1926),
The Gteat God Brown (1926), Marco Millions (1927), Lazarus Laughed (1927),
Strange Interlude] (1928), Dynamo (1929), Mourning Becomes Electra\ (trilogy,
1931), Ah Wildernes^ (1933), Days without End (1934), Iceman Cometh\ (1946).
ONE-ACT PLAYS: Recklessness (1914), The Web (1914), Warnings (1914), Thirst
(1914), Fog (1914), Before Breakfast (1916), Bound East for Cardiff (1916), In the
Zone (1917; 1919), The Long Voyage Home (1917), The Sniper (1917), The Moon
of the Caribhees (1918; 1919), The Rope (1918; 1919), The Dreamy Kid (1919;
192Q), Exorcism (1920).

George S. Kaufman, 1889 , journalist, director, playwright. PLAYS: In
collaboration with Marc Connelly: Dulcy] (1921), To the Ladies (1923), Beggar on
Horseback, (1924), Merton of the Movies (1925). With Moss Hart: Once in a
Lifetime (1930), Metnly We Roll Along (1934), You Can't Take It with Yowt
(1936), I'd Rather Be Right (1937), The American Way (1939), The Man Who
Came to Dinner (1939), George Washington Slept Here (1940). With Edna Ferbcr:
Mimck (1924), The Royal Family\ (1928), Dinner at Eight (1932), Stage Doorf
(1936), The Land Is Bright (1941). With Morrie Ryskmd: Of Thee I Sing\ (1932),
Let 'Em Eat Cal(e (1933). With Ring Lardner: June Moon (1930). With Alexander
Wooltcott: The Dail{ Tower (1934). With Katharine Dayton: First Lady (1935).
With Lcuccn MacGrath: Small Hours (19$1).

Sidney [Coe] Howard, 18911939, short-story writer, translator, moving-
picture script writer, sociologist, playwright. PLAYS: They Knew What They Wanted^
C1925), The Silver Cord\ (1927), The Ghost of Yankee Doodle (1938).

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 287

Elmer [L.] Rice, 1892 , novelist, playwright. NOVELS: A Voyage to
Pwtlta (1930), Imperial City (1937). PLAYS: The Adding Machine* (1923), Street
Scene* (1929), Counsellor-at-Law (1931), Two on an Inland* (1940), Flight to the
West (1941), A New Life* (1944), Grand Tour (1952).

S[amuel] N[athaniel] Behrraan, 1893 , adapter, playwright. PLAYS:
Bedside Manners (1924), The Second Man} (1927), Brief Moment (1934), Biography*
(1933), Rain ftom Heaven\ (1934), End of Summer (1936), No Time for Comedy
(1939), The Talley Man (1941), The Pirate! (1943), Dunnigan's Daughter* (1946).
OTHER WRITINGS: Amphitryon 38 (by Jean Giraudoux, from the French, 1938),
"Anna Karemna" (moving picture script, with dialogue adaptation by S. N. Behrman),
]acobowsky and the Colonel (original play by Franz V. Werfel; American play based
on same by S. N. Behrman, 1944; Joseph Dtween (a biography, 1949); Jane (a play
based on a story by W. Somerset Maugham, 1952).

Ben Hecht, <r. 1893 , essayist, short-story writer, novelist, playwright,
SHORT STORIES AND SKETCHES: A Thousand and One Afternoons in Chicago
(1922), Tales of Chicago Streets (1924), Broken Necfc (1926), The Champion from
Far Away (1931), A Book, of Miracles (1939), Collected Stones (1945), The Cat That
Jumped out of the Stoiy (1947). NOVELS: Eri!( Dorn* (1921), Fantazins Mallare
(1922), Gargoyles (1922), The Florentine Dagger (1923), Htimpty Diimpty (1924),
The Kingdom of Evil (1924), Count Bruga (1926), A Jew in Love (1931), / Hate
Actors' (1944). INDIVIDUAL PLAYS: The Master Poisoner (in collaboration with
Maxwell Bodenhcim, 1918), The Front Page* (in collaboration with Charles Mac-
Arthur, 1928), The Wonder Hat (in collaboration with Kenneth Goodman, 1933),
Twentieth Century (in collaboration with Charles MacArthur, 1933), The Great Magoo
(in collaboration with Gene Fowler, 1933), To Quito and Back, (1937), Ladies and
Gentlemen (in collaboration with Charles MacArthur, 1941), Fun to be Free (patriotic
pageant, 1941). SOCIOLOGY: A Guide for the Bedevilled* (1944).

Paul [Eliot] Green. 18941947, compiler, critic, playwright. NOVEL: The
Laughing Pioneer (1932). SHORT STORIES: Wide Fields (1928), Salvation on a
Smng, and Other Tales of the South* (1946). ESSAYS: Hawthorn Tree (1944).
INDIVIDUAL PLAYS: Your Fiery Furnace (1923), The Lord's Will (1925), In
Abraham's Bosom* (1926), The Field God (1927), In the Valley (1928), The House
of Connelly* (1931), Tread the Green Grass (1931), Roll Sweet Chariot (1935),
Hymn to the Rising Sun* (1936), Johnny Johnson (in collaboration, 1937), The Lost
Colony (1937), The Critical Year (1939), Franklin and the King (1939), The High-
land Call (1941), Common Glory: A Symphonic Drama of American History* (1948).

Philip Barry, 18961949, dramatist. PLAYS: You and I* (1923; 1925), In a
Garden (1925; 1926), White Wings (1926; 1927), Coc^ Robin (in collaboration,
1928; 1929), Holiday* (1928; 1929), Hotel Universe* (1930), Tomorrow and To-
morrow (1931), The Animal Kingdom (1932), The Joyous Season (1934), Bright
Star (1935), Here Come the Clowns (1938: novelized the same year into War in
Heaven), The Philadelphia Story (1939), Liberty Jones (1941), Without Love (1943).

Robert [Emmett] Sherwood. 1896 , editor, essayist, novelist, play-
wright. PLAYS: The Road to Rome (1927), Reunion in Vienna* (1932), Idiot's
Delight* (1936), Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1939), There Shall Be No Night* (1940).
POLITICS: Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History* (1948).

Lillian Hellman, 1905 , playwright. PLAYS: The Children's Hour\
(1934), Days to Come (1936), The Little Foxes* (1939), Watch on the Rhine*
(1941), The Searching Wind* (1944), Another Part of the Forest (1946), Mont-
serrat (1949), The Autumn Garden (1951).

Sidney Kingsley, 1906 , playwright. Men in White (1933), Dead End*
(1936), Patriots* (1943), Detective Story* (1949), Darkness a* Noon* (1951).

288 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Clifford Odets, 1906 , playwright. PLAYS: Awake and Sing\ (1935),
Waiting tor Lefty\ (1935), Till the Day I Die\ (1935), Golden Boy\ (1937), Night
Music (1940), Clash by Night (1942), Country Ctrl (1951).

Mary Coylc Chase, 1907 , playwright. PLAYS: Now You've Done It
(1937), Too Much Business (1938), Harvey\ (1944, Pulitzer Prize winner),
Bernardtne (1952), Mrs. McThintf (1952).

Tennessee Williams [Thomas Lanier] 1914 , playwright, novelist.
PLAYS: Battle of Angels (1940), The Glass Menagerie* (1944), You Touched Me
(1946), A' Streetcar Named Desirei (1947, Pulitzer Prize winner), Summer and
Smofc (1948), The Rose Tattoo (1950), / Rue in Flames. Cned the Phoenix (1951).
NOVELS: The Roman Spnng of Mrs: Stone (1950).

Arthur Miller, 1915 , playwright, novelist. PLAYS: The Man Who Had
All the Luck (1944), Situation Normal (1944), All My So/iff (1947), Death of a
Salesman^ (1949), An Enemy of the People (adaptation of Ibsen's play, 1951), The
Crucible (1953). NOVELS: Focus (1945).

ESSAYISTS, CRITICS, EDUCATORS, AND
PHILOSOPHERS

Agnes Repplxer, 1858 , editor, critic, essayist. ESSAYS: Books and Men
(1888), Point of View (1891), Essays in Miniature (1892), Essays in Idleness (1893),
In the Dozy Hours (1894), Compromises (1904), Americans and Others (1912),
Counter-Currents (1916), Under Dispute (1924), To Think of Tea! (1932), In
Pursuit of Laughter (1936), Eight Decades^ (1937). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: In Our
Convent Days (1905), "A Happy Half-Century" in A Happy Half -Century and
Other Essays (1908). MISCELLANEOUS: Philadelphia: The Place and the People
(history, 1898), The Fireside Sphinx (about cats,, 1912), Pere Marquette, Priest,
Pioneer, and Adventurer (biography, 1929), Mere Mane of the Ursulines (biography,
1931), [unipero Serra (biography, 1933).

John Dewey, 1859-1952 , educator, philosopher. PSYCHOLOGY: Psychology^
(1887), How We Thinly (1909), Human Nature and Conduct (1922). LOGIC:
Studies in Logical Theory (1903), Essay in Experimental Logic (1916), Logic: The
Theory of Inquiry (1938). ETHICS: Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics (1891),
Ethics (in collaboration with J. H. Tufts, 1908). POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PHIL-
OSOPHY: The Influence of Darwin in Philosophy and Other Essays (1910), Recon-
struction in Philosophy (1920), Experience and Nature\ (1925), The Quest for
Certainty (1929), Impressions of Soviet Russia and the Revolutionary World > Mexico
China Turkey (1929), Individualism: Old and New (1930), Philosophy and
Civilization (1931), Art as Experienced (1934), Liberalism and Social Action (1935),
Intelligence in the Modern World: John Dewey's Philosophy (edited by Joseph
Ratner, 1939), Freedom and Culture (1939), Problems of Men\ (1946). EDUCA-
TION: The School and Society^: (1899), The Child and the Curriculum^ (1902),
Moral Principles in Education^ (1909), Interest and Effort in Education^ (1913),
Democracy and Education (1916), Experience and Education^ (1938), The Living
Thoughts of Thomas Jefferson (edited, 1940), The Bertrand Russell Case (in collabora-
tion with H. M. Kallen, 1942), Essays for Conference on Education and Philosophy
(1950). BIOGRAPHY: David Dubinsky; a Pictorial Biography (1952).

George Santayana, 1863-1952 , poet, educator, philosophical writer. VERSE
PLAY: Lucifer; a Theological Tragedy (1899). NOVEL: The Last Puritan^ (1935).
MEMOIRS: Persons and Places^ (1944), Middle Span\ (1945). POETRY: Sonnets
and Other Verses (1894), A Hermit of Carmel and Other Poems (1901), Poems
(1922). STUDIES: The Sense of Beauty (1896), Interpretations of Poetry and Religion
(1900), The Life of Reason; or The Phases of Human Progress^ (five volumes: I

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 289

Introduction and Reason in Common Sense, 1905; II Reason in Society, 1905; III
Reason in Religion, 1905; IV Reason in An, 1905; V Reason in Science, 1906),
Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe (1910), Winds of Doctrine
(1913), Egotism in German Philosophy (1916; the 1940 edition adds a New Preface,
and a postscript: "The Nature of Egotism and the Moral Conflicts That Disturb the
World"), Philosophical Opinion in ^America (1918), Character & Opinion in the
United States (1920), Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies (1922), Scepticism
and Animal Faith* (1923), Dialogues in Limbo (1925), Platonism and the Spiritual
Life* (1927), The Genteel Tradition at Bay (1931), Some Turns of Thought in Modern
Philosophy (1933), Obiter Scripta (edited by Justus Buchlcr and Benjamin Schwartz,
1936), The Philosophy of Santayana* (edited by Irwin Edman, 1936), The Philosophy
of George Santayana* (edited by P. A, Schlipp, 1940), The Realms of Being* (four
volumes: I The Realm of Essence, 1927; II The Realm of Matter, 1930; HI The
Realm of Truth, 1938; IV The Realm of Spirit, 1940), Realms of Being (one-volume
edition, 1942), Idea of Christ in the Gospels, or, God in Man* (1946), Knowing
and the Known (in collaboration with A. F. Bentley, (1949), Dominations and
Powers: Refections on Liberty, Society, and Government (1951). INDIVIDUAL
POEMS: ODES: "My Heart Rebels against My Generation," "Gathering the Echoes
of Forgotten Wisdom," "Of Thee the Northman by His Bleached Wisdom." SONNETS:
"O World, Thou Choose&t Not the Part," "Slow and Reluctant Was the Long Descent,"
"I Would I Might Forget that I Am," "Have Patience: It Is Fit that in This Wise,"
"Sweet Are the Days when We Wander with No Hope," " "Us Love That Moveth the
Celestial Spheres," "As in the Midst of Battle There Is Room," "As When the Sceptre
Dangles from the Hand," "After Grey Vigils, Sunshine in the Heart," "O World, Thou
Choosest Not the Better Part"; and such pieces as "Gabriel," "Easter Hymn," "Good
Friday Hymn/' "On the Death of a Metaphysician," "The Rustic at the Play," "On a
Piece of Tapestry."

Paul Elmer More, 1864 1937, translator, editor, essayist, critic, scholar. BIOG-
RAPHY: Benjamin Franklin (1900). AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Pages from an Oxford
Diary (1937). PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES: Platonism (1917), The Religion of
Plato (1921), Hellenistic Philosophies (1923), The Christ of the Mew Testament
(1924), The Catholic Faith (1931). CRITICAL ESSAYS: Shelburne Essays (eleven
volumes: First Series, 1904; Second, 1905; Third, 1905; Fourth, 1906; Fifth, 1908;
Sixth, 1909; Seventh, 1910; Eighth,t 1913; Ninth, 1915; Tenth, 1919; Eleventh,
1921), The Demon of the Absolute* (1928), Selected Shelburne Essays* (1935).

Irving Babbitt, 18651933, editor, translator, critic, scholar. ESSAYS AND
STUDIES: Literature and the American College (1908), The New Laokpdn* (1910),
The Masters of Modern French Criticism (1912), Rousseau and Romanticism* (1919),
Democracy and Leadership (1924), On Being Creative (1932), Spanish Character
(1940).

George Ade, 1866 1944, columnist, syndicate-writer, novelist, playwright, fabu-
list. FABLES: Fables in Slang* (1899), More Fables* (1900), Forty Modern Fables*
(1901), The Girl Proposition (1902), People You Knew* (1903), Breaking into
Society (1904), True Bills (1904), / Knew Htm When (1910), Knocking the
Neighbors (1912), Ade's Fables (1914), Hand-Made Fables* (1920), Thirty Fables
in Slang (1933). SHORT STORIES AND NOVELS: Artie (1896), Pink Marsh
(1897), Doc' Home (1899), Circus Days (1903), In Babel (1903), The Slim Princess
(1907), Bang! Bang! (1928), Stones of the Streets and the Towns (1941). PLAYS
AND PRODUCTION YEAR: Ki-Ram or The Sultan of Sulu (1902), Peggy from
Paris (1903), The Napoleon (1903) The County Chairman* (1903), The College
Widow* (1904), Our New Minister (1904), The Shogun (1904), The Bad Samaritan
(1905), Just out of College (1905), Marse Covington (1906), Artie (1907), Father
and the Boys (1907), The Fair Co-Ed (1908), The Old Town (1909), Nettie (1914),
The Mayor and the Manicure (printed, 1923). MISCELLANEOUS: In Pastures New
(humorous travel sketches, 1906), Verses and Jingles (1911), Single Blessedness and
Other Observations (essays, 1922), The Old-Time Saloon (essays, 1931), One After*
noon with Mark. Twain (1939), The Permanent Ade: [The] Living Writings of
George Ade* (edited by Fred C. Kelly, 1947).

290 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Charles Afustin] Beard, 1874 1948, editor, historian, political science, edu-
cator. POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL STUDIES: An Introduction to the English
Historians (1906), The Development of Modern Europe (in collaboration with J. H.
Robinson, two volumes, 1907-1908), American Government and Politics (1910),
American City Government (1912), The Supreme Court and the Constitution (1912),
An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution^ (1913), Economic Origins of Jeffer-
soman Democracy} (1915), The Economic Basis of Politics (1922), The Rise of
American Civilization] (in collaboration with Mary R. Beard, two volumes, 1927),
The American Leviathan (in collaboration with William Beard, 1930), A Charter for
the Social Sciences (1932), The Idea of National Interest (in colaboration with
G. H. E. Smith, 1934), The Open Door at Home (in collaboration with G. H. E.
Smith, 1934), America in Midpassage (in collaboration with Mary R. Beard: volume
III of The Rise of American Civilization, 1930), A Balance Sheet of American History
(1940), The Old Deal and the New Deal (1940), A Foreign Policy for America
(1940), American Spirit (in collaboration with M. R. Beard, 1942), The Republic
(1943), A Basic History of the United States (with M. R. Beard, 1944), The Economic
Basis of Politics (1945), American Foreign Policy in the Making: 1932-1940+ (1946),
President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War 1941+ (1948).

[Charles] William Beebe, 1877 , scientist, explorer. STUDIES: Two-
Bird Lovers in Mexico (1905), The Log of the Sun (1906), Our Search of a Wilder-
ness (1910), Tropical Wild Life in British Guiana (1917), Jungle ?eace\ (1918),
Pheasants: Their Lives and Homes (1926), Galapagos: Wot Id's End (1924), Jungle
Days (1925), The Arcturus Adventure (1926), Pheasant Jungles (1927), Beneath
Tropic Seas (1928), Nonsuch: Land of Water (1932), Half Mile Down (1934).
Book of Bays (1942), High Junglrf (1949). EDITOR: The Book of Naturalists (1944).

James Truslow Adams, 1878 1949, pamphleteer, editor, biographer, historian.
HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES: Notes on the Families of Truslow,
Horler, and Horley from English Records (1920), The Founding of New England
(1921), The Epic of Ameiica\ (1931), History of the United States (five volumes,
19331937), The Living Jefferson (1936), Empire on the Seven Seas: The British
Empire (1940), The American: The Making of a New Man (1943), Frontiers of
American Culture^ (1944), Big Business in a Democracy (1945). EDITED AND
COMPILED WORKS: Hamiltoman Principles: Extracts from the Writings of Alexan-
der Hamilton (1928), Jeffcrsoman Principles: Extracts from the Writings of Thomas
Jefferson (1928), Atlas of American History] (1943), Album of American History
(four volumes, 1944-1948).

Harry Seidel Canby, 1878 , textbook writer, editor, critic. TEXTBOOK:
Handbook of English Usage (in collaboration with J. B. Opdycke, 1942), Book, of the
Short Story^t (revised edition, in collaboration with Robeson Bailey, 1948). BIOG-
RAPHY: Thorcau\ (1939), Walt Whitman (1943). INFORMAL RIVER-HISTORY:
Tiie Brandywine (1941). REMINISCENCES: The Age of Confidence^ (1934), Alma
Mater: The Gothic Age of the American College (1936), Family History^ (1945),
American Memoir^ (1947). STUDIES: The Short Story (1902), The Short Story in
English (1909), A Study of the Short Story (1913), Everyday Americans (1920),
Definitions (First Series, 1922; Second, 1924), American Estimates (1929), Classic
Americans^ (1931), Turn West, Turn East; Mark Twain and Henry James (1951).

Dorothy Canneld [Dorothea Frances Canfield Fisher], 1879 ,
editor, translator, playwright, short -story writer, novelist, educator. TRANSLATION:
Life of Christ by Giovanni Papini (1923). CHILDREN'S BOOK: Made-to-Order
Stories (1925). SHORT STORIES: The Real Motive (1916), Fables for Parents
(1937), Tell Me a Story '(collection, 1950). NOVELS: The Squirrel-Cage (1912),
The Bent Twig^ (1915), The Brimming Cup\ (1921), Seasoned Timber (1939),
ESSAYS AND STUDIES IN LITERATURE AND IN EDUCATION: Corneille and
Racine in England (1904), A Montessori Mother (1912), The French School at
Middlcburv (c. 1923), Our ^oung Fotkrt (1943). TALES FOR CHARACTER

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 291

EDUCATION: Nothing Ever Happens, and How It Does^ (with Sarah N. Clcghorn,
1940), American Portraits^ (drawings and biographical sketches, 1947). MISCEL-
LANY: Fair World for All; the Meaning of the Declaration of Human Rights (1952).

H[enry] L[ouis] Mencken, 1880 , journalist, editor, essayist, critic.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Days of H. L. Mencken (1947), omnibus volume including
Happy Days (1940), Newspaper Days (1941), and Heathen Days (1943). AMERI-
CAN USAGE AND VOCABULARY: The American Language* (1919; supplements,
1945, 1948). STUDIES: George Bernard Shaw (1905), The Philosophy of Friedrich
Nietzsche (1908), A Book of Prefaces^ (1917), In Defense of Women (1918), Preju-
dices^ (Six Series: 1919, 1920, 1922, 1924, 1926, 1927), The American Credo (in
collaboration with G. J. Nathan, 1920), Notes on Democracy (1926), James Branch
Cabell\ (1927), Selected Prejudices^ (1927), Treatise on the Gods (1930), Treatise
on Right and Wrong (1934). MISCELLANEOUS: Ventures into Verse (1903), A
Book of Burlesques (1916), Europe after 8:15 (in collaboration, 1914), Making a
President (1932), and, in collaboration with G. J. Nathan, the two plays, The Artist
(1912), and Heliogabalus (1920), Christmas 5/oryt (1946), Chrestomathy\ (1949).
COMPILATION: New Dictionary of Quotations on Historical Principles (1942).

Stuart P[ratt] Sherman, 1881 -1926, editor, critic, educator. CRITICISM: On
Contemporary Literature} (1917), Matthew Arnold: How to Know Him^ (1917),
Americans (1922), The Genius of America (1923), My Dear Cornelia (1924), Points
of View\ (1924), Critical Woodcuts (1926), The Main Stream (1927), The Emotional
Discovery of America and Other Essays (1932). BIOGRAPHICAL: Life and Letters
of Stuart P. Sherman (edited by Jacob Zeitlin and Homer Woodbridge, two volumes,
1929). COLLABORATING EDITOR: The Cambridge History of American Literature
(four volumes, 1917-1921).

Ludwig Lewisohn, 1882 , short-story writer, playwright, novelist, editor,
translator, critic. AUTOBIOGRAPHY: Up Stream: An American Chronicle^ (1922),
Mid-Channel: An American Chronicle (1929). NOVELS: The Broken Snare (1908),
For Ever Wilt Thou Love (1939), Renegade J \ (1942), Breathe Upon These (1944),
Case of Mr, Crump (1947, but originally published in Paris in 1926), Anniversary^
(1947). LITERARY CRITICISM: Expression in America (1937; published also in
1937 under the title The Story of American Literature). EDITOR: Among the Na-
tions: Three Tales and a Play about Jews (1948), Goethe: The Story of a Man (two
volumes, 1949), Unambo (translation of the novel of war in Israel, 1952).

Max [Forrester] Eastman, 1883 , poet, translator, political writer, critic.
POETRY: Lot's Wife (1942), TRANSLATOR: The History of the Russian Revolu-
tion (translated from the Russian of Leon Trotsky, three volumes, 1932-1933).
POLITICAL STUDIES: Marx, Lenin and The Science of Revolution (1926), Marxism:
Is It Science? (1940), Stalin's Russia and the Crisis in Socialism (1940). AUTO-
BIOGRAPHY: Enjoyment of Living (1948). STUDIES: Enjoyment of Poetry^
(1913), The Literary Mind: Its Place in an Age of Science (1931), Art and the Life
of Action (1934), Artists in Uniform^ (1934), Enjoyment of Laughter* (1936),
Heroes I Have Known (1942) , Enjoyment of Poetry (1951). INDIVIDUAL POEMS:
"At the Aquarium," "To a Tawny Thrush."

Ringtgold] W[ilmer] Lardner, 18851933, columnist, sports writer, humor-
ist, short-story writer. HUMOR: Treat 'Em Rough (1918), What of It? (1925),
The Story of a Wonder Man (1937), First and Last (1934). SHORT STORIES:
Gulhble's Travels (1917), How to Write Short Stories^ (1924), The Love Nestf
(1926), Round Up (1929). NOVELS: You Know Me Al (1916), The Big Town
(1921). MISCELLANEOUS: Bib Ballads (rhymes, 1915), June Moon (play in col-
laboration with G. S. Kaufman, 1930), Portable Ring Lardnert (1946).

Louis Untermeyer, 1885 , novelist, parodist, biographer, translator, poet,
critic, editor. BIOGRAPHY: Hetnnch Heine: Paradox and Poet\ (1937). SELECTED
WORK: Selected Poems and Parodies of Louis Untermeyer (1935). EDITOR: Modern
American Poetry (1919), Modern British Poetry (1920), Modern American and
British Poetry (1922), American Poetry from the Beginning to Whitman^ (1931),

292 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

The Book of Living Verse: English and American Poetry from the Thirteenth Century
to the Present Day (1932), The Albatross Book of Modern Living Verse: English and
American Poetry of the Later Nineteenth and of the Twentieth Centuries (1933), The
New Modern American & British Poetry (1939), Stars to Steer By* (1941), Treasury
of Great Poems (1942), Treasury of Laughter* (1946), An Anthology of the New
England Poets from Colonial Times to the Present Day* (1948), Best Humor Annual
(in collaboration with R. E. Shikcn, 1951, 1952), Early American Poets (1952),
Magic Circle; Stories and People in Poetry (1952).

Carl [Clinton] Van Dorcn, 1885-1950 , novelist, short-story writer, biographer,
historian, critic, editor. AUTOBIpGRAPHY: Three Worlds* (1936). BIOGRAPHY:
Benjamin Franklin* (three volumes, 1938). LITERARY CRITICISM: Contemporary
American Novelists, 1900-1920 (1922). EDITOR: Tales by Washington Irving (1918),
A Short History of American Literature (based upon the Cambridge History of Ameri-
can Literature, 1922), The Borzoi Reader (1936), The American Novel, 1789-1939
(1940), Letters and Papers of Benjamin Franklin and Richard Jackson, 1753-1785*
(1947). HISTORY: Secret History of the American Revolution (1941), Meeting in
January: The Story of a Crisis Now for the First Time Fully Told . . .* (1943),
Great Rehearsal: The Story of the Making and Ratifying of the Constitution of the
United States* (1948).

Van Wvck Brooks, 1886 , poet, translator, essayist, critic. BIOGRAPHY:
The Ordeal of Mart^ Twain* (1920), The. Pilgrimage of Henry James* (1925), The
Life of Emerson (1932). STUDIES: The Wine of the Puritans (1908), America's
Coming-of-Age* (1915), Letters and Leadership (1918), Emerson and Others (1927),
Sketches in Criticism (1932), The Flowering of New England, 1815-1865* (1936),
New England: Indian Summer] (1940), On Literature Today* (1941), Opinions of
Oliver Allston (1941), The World of Washington Irving (1944), The Times of Mel-
ville and Whitman ( 1947) ,A Chilmartt Misccllany*( l9W),The Confident? ears (1952)

Norman Foerstcr, 1887 , editor, compiler, textbook writer, critic. TEXT-
BOOKS: Sentences and Thinking (in collaboration, 1919), Writing and Thinking
(in collaboration, 1931). EDITOR: American Poetry and Prose: A Book, of Readings,
1607-1916 (1925), The Reinterpretation of American Literature (1928), Humanities
after the War] (1944). CRITICISM: Nature in American Literature: Studies in the
Modern View of Nature (1923), Toward Standards: A Study of the Present Critical
Movement in American Letters* (1930), The Future of the Liberal College (1938),
Humanities and the Common Man: The Democratic Role of the State Universities
(1946).

Robert [Charles] Benchley, 1889 1945, dramatic critic, humorist. HUMOR-
OUS ESSAYS: Of All Things* (1921), The Early Worm (1927), 20,000 Leagues
under the Sea; or, David Copperfield (1928), The Treasurer's Report* (1930), No
Poems; or, Around the World Backwards and Sideways (1932), My Ten Years in a
Quandary, and How They Grew (1936), After 1903 What? (1938), Inside Bench-
ley (1942), Benchley Beside Himself (1943), Benchley or else'* (1947),

Chips Off the Old Benchley (1949).

Waldo [David] Frank, 1889 , editor, translator, biographer, novelist
lecturer. ESSAYS AND STUDIES: The Art of the Vieux Colombier (1918), The
Re-Discovery of America: An Introduction to a Philosophy of American Life* (1929)
Chart for Rough Water: Our Role in a New World* (1940). HISTORY ANE
TRAVEL: Virgin Spain (1926; revision, 1942), South American journey* (1943)
NOVELS: City Bloc{* (1922), Chatty Face (1924), Summer Never Ends (1941)
Island in the Atlantic* (1946), Invaders (1948). BIOGRAPHY: Birth of a Worh
(Bohvar, 1951).

Walter Lippmann, 1889 , columnist, editor, political writer. ETHICS
A Preface to Morals} (1929). POLITICAL AND SOCIAL STUDIES: A Preface /<
Politics* (1913), Drift and Mastery (1914), The Stakes of Diplomacy (1915), TA
Political Scene (1919), Liberty and the News (1920), Public Opinion (1922), Thi

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS 293

Phantom Public (1925), The Method of Freedom (1934), An Inquiry into the Prin-
ciples of the Good Society (1937), Some Notes on War and Peace (1940), U. S.
Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic (1943), V. S. War Aims (1944), Inquiry
into the Principles of the Good Society (1944), Cold War: A Study in U. S. Foreign
Policy (1947).

Lewis Mumford, 1895 , editor, critic. EDITOR: The American Caravan
(1927). BIOGRAPHY: Herman Melville (1929). STUDIES: The Story of Utopias
(1922), Sticks and Stones (1924), The Golden Day! (1926), The Brown Decades
(1931), Technics and Civilization* (1934), The Culture of Cities (1938), Faith for
Living (1940), The South in Architecture! (1941), Social Foundations of Post-War
Building (1943), New World Theme (in collaboration, 1943), The Condition of Man*
(1944), City Development: Studies in Disintegration and Renewal* (1945), Values
for Survival (1946), Green Memories: The Story of Geddes Mumford* (1947),
Conduct of Life (1951), Art and Technics (1952).

Edmund Wilson, 1895 , poet, novelist, editor, essayist, critic. MUSICAL
COMEDY: The Evil Eye (book by Edmund Wilson, Jr., 1915-1916). POEMS: Poets,
Farewell! (1929). NOVEL: / Thought of Daisy (1929). PLAYS AND DIALOGUES:
Discordant Encounters (1926), This Room and This Gin and These Sandwiches
(1937), Little Blue Light (1950). EDITOR: Shock of Recognition (collection of
American writings, 1943). SKETCHES AND TRAVELS: Travels in Two Democ-
racies (1936), Europe without Baedeker (1947). CRITICISM: Axel's Castle: A
Study in the Imaginative Literature of 18/0-1930* (1931), The Triple Thinker: Ten
Essays on Literature (1938), The Wound and the Bow (1941), The Boys in the
Back Room; Notes on California Novelists (1941), Triple Thinkers: Twelve Essays
on Literary Subjects! (1949), Classics and Commercials (1950), Shores of Light
(literary chronicle, 1952). OTHER WRITINGS: The dmencan Jitters: A Year of
the Slump (social and economic conditions, 1932), A Study in the Writing and Acting
of History (1940), Note-Booths of Night (verses and prose pieces, 1942), Memoirs
of Hecate County! (1946).

Bernard [Augustine] DcVoto, 1897 , editor, textbook writer, novelist,
essayist, historian. TEXTBOOK: The Writers' Handbook (in collaboration, 1927).
NOVELS: The Crooked Mile (1924), The Chariot of Fire (1926), The House of
Sun-Goes-Down (1928), We Accept with Pleasure (1934), Advance Agent* (1942),
Woman in the Picture (1944), Mountain Time! (1947). ESSAYS AND STUDIES:
Mark Twain's America! (1932), Minority Report (1940), Mark Twain at Work!
(1942), "Year of Decision, 1846! (1943), Literary Fallacy (1944), Across the Wide
Missouri! (1947).

John Gunther, 1901 , journalist, author, political writer. STUDIES: Inside
Europe (1936), Inside Asia (1939), Inside Latin America (1941), Inside the U.S.A.
(1947), Roosevelt in Retrospect (1950), The Riddle of MacArthur (1951), Caesar of
the Pacific (1951).

Granville Hicks, 1901 , editor, poet, biographer, novelist, critic. SOCIAL
STUDIES: John Reed: The Making of a Revolutionary (in collaboration with John
Stuart, 1936), / Lif(e America . . . (1938), Small Town (about an American small-
town life as the author has lived it, 1946). NOVELS: Only One Storm! (1942),
Behold Trouble (1944), There Was a Man in Our Town (1952). LITERARY
CRITICISM: The Great Tradition: An Interpretation of American Literature since the
Civil War! (1933).

Jacques Barzun, 1907 , educator, writer. STUDIES: The French Race:
Theories of Its Origin (1932), Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (1937), Of
Human Freedom (1939), Darwin, Marx, Wagner (1941), Romanticism and the
Modern Ego (1943), Teacher in America (1945), Berlioz and the Romantic Century
(1950).

294 YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Thomas Merton, 1915 , philosopher, poet, biographer. AUTOBIOG-
RAPHY: The Seven Storey Mountain (1948). PHILOSOPHICAL AND RELIGIOUS
STUDIES: The Waters of Siloe (1949), Seeds of Contemplation (1949), Ascent to
Truth (1951), The Sign of Jonas (1953). BIOGRAPHY: Exile Ends in Glory The
Life of a Trappistine, Mother M. Berchmans (1948). POETRY: The Tears of the
Blind (collection, 1949), Figures for an Apocalypse (1947).

APPENDIX

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES

WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING, 17801842 (pp. 87-88)

WORKS: Tht Works of William E. Channing (six volumes, 1841-1843).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Chadwick, J. W., William Ellery Channing, Min-
ister of Religion (1903) ; Channing, W. H., Memoir of William Ellery Channinff (three
volumes, 1848); Eliot, C. W., Four American Leaders (1906); Ladu, A. I., ''Channing
and Transcendentalism," AL.. XI (1939-1940). pp. 129-137; Spillcr. R. E.. "A Cas for
Channing/' NEQ. t III (1930), pp. 55-81.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON (pp. 88-98)

WORKS: The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Centenary Edition, edited by

E. W. Emerson (twelve volumes, 1903-1932); The Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
edited by E. W. Emerson and W* E. Forbes (ten volumes, 1909-1914); The Letters of
Ralph Waldo Emerson, edited by R. L. Rusk (six volumes, 1939) ; The Correspondence
of Thomas Carlyle and Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1934-1872, edited by C. E. Norton (two
volumes, revised ed.. 1888) ; "The Emerson-Thoreau Correspondence," edited by F. B.
Sanborn, Atl. t LXIX (1892), pp. 577-596, 736-753; Emerson-Clough Letters, edited by
H. F. Lowry and R. L. Rusk (1934J; Uncollected Lectures by Ralph Waldo Emerson:
Reports of Lectures on American Life and Natural Religion, reprinted from the Com-
monwealth, edited by Clarence Gohdes (1932); The Uncollected Writings, Essavs. Ad-
dresses, Poems, Reviews and Letters by Ralph Waldo Emerson, edited by C. C. Bigelow
(1912); Young Emerson Speaks: Unpublished Discourses on Many Subjects by Ralph
Waldo Emerson, edited by A. C. McGiffert, Jr. (1938); Ralph Waldo Emerson: Repre-
sentative Selections, with Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes, edited by F. I. Carpenter
(JL934); The Heart of Emerson's Journals, edited by Bliss Perry (1926); Ralph Waldo
Emerson's Reading . . . Together with Some Unpublished Letters, by K. W. Cameron
(1941); G. S, Huboell, A Concordance to the Poems of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1932);
H. A. Pochmann. "The Emerson Canon," UTQ., XII (1943), pp. 476-484.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carpenter. F. I. (ed.), Ralph Waldo Emerson. Representative
Selections, with Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes (1934); Cooke, G. W., Bibliography
of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1908).

BIOGRAPHY: Brooks, Van Wyck, The Life of Emerson (1932); The Flowering of
New England 1815-1865 (1936), consult Index, p. 542; Cabot, J. E., A Memoir of Ralph
Waldo Emerson (two volumes, 1887) ; Emerson, E. W., Emerson in Concord (1889) ; Firkins,
O. W., Ralph Waldo Emerson (1915); Garnett, Richard, Lift of Ralph Waldo Emerson
(1888); Gay, R. M., Emerson: A Study of the Poet as Seer (1928); Hastings, Louise,
"Emerson in Cincinnati," NEQ., XI (1938), pp. 443-469; Hoeltje, H. H., "Ralph Waldo
Emerson in Iowa." JJHP., XXV (1927), pp. 236-276; "Emerson's Venture in Western
Land," AL., II (1930-1931), pp. 438-440: "Ralph Waldo Emerson in Minnesota,"
MMist., XI (1930), pp. 145-159; ^'Emerson in Virginia," NEQ., V, (1932), pp. 753-768;
"Emerson, Citizen of Concord," AL., XI (1939-1940), pp. 367-378; The Sheltering Tree:
A Story of the Friendship of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Amos Branson Alcott (1943);
Holmes, O. W., Ralph Waldo Emerson (1885): Meeks, L. H., "The Lyceum in the Early
West," 1MH.. XXIX (1933). pp. 87-95; Michaud, Regis, Emerson: The Enraptured
Yankee (1930); Nye, R. B., ''Emerson in Michigan and the Northwest," Mi.HM.. XXVI
(1942), pp. 159-172; Russell, Phillips, Emerson: The Wisest American (1929); Sanborn.

F. B,, The Personality of Emerson (1903); Scudder, Townsend, The Lonely Way farina
Man (1936); Townsend Scudder, III, ''Emerson's British Lecture Tour, 1847-1848,"
AL.. VII (1935-1936), pp. 15-36, 166-180; Stewart. Randall. "The Concord Group," SR..
XLIV (1936), pp. 434-446; Thompson, F. T.. ''Emerson and Carlyle," SP.. XXIV
(1927), pp. 438-453; Warfel, H. R., "Margaret Fuller and Ralph Waldo Emerson,"
PMLA., L (1935), pp. 576-595; Woodberry, G. E., Ralph Waldo Emerson (1907);
Woodbury, C. J., Talks with Ralph Waldo Emerson (1890); Wright. L. M., "Culture
through Lectures," IJHP.. XXXVIII (1940), pp. 115-162.

Pochmann, H. A., "Emerson and the St. Louis Hegelians," AGR., X (1944), pp. 14-17.

CRITICISM: Abbott, J. P., Emerson and The Conduct of Life (Ph.D., Iowa, 1939);
Adams, J. T., "Emerson Re-read," Atl.. CXLVI (1930), pp. 484-492; Allein G. W.,
American Prosody (1935), pp. 91-126; Arnold, Matthew, Discourses in America (1885),
pp. 138-207; Beach, > W., '^Emerson and Evolution," UTQ., Ill (1933-1934), pp. 474-
"7; Benton, Joel, Emerson as a Poet (1883); Brittin, N. A., "Emerson and the U

, ., , ., ,

497; Benton, Joel, Emerson as a Poet (1883); Brittin, N. A., "Emerson and the Meta-
physical Poets/' AL., VIII (1936-1937), pp. 1-21; Brooks, Van Wyck, America's Cominff-
of-Age (1915), pp. 70-85; Bmtrson and Others (1927), pp. 3-105; Brownell, W. C. f

296

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 297

American Prose Masters (1909), pp. 131-204; Burke, Kenneth, "Acceptance and Rejec-
tion." So.R. t H (1936-1937), pp. 600-632; Calverton, V. F., The Liberation of America*
Literature (1932), p. 248; Canby, H. S., Classic Americans (1931), pp. 143-183; Cannon,

... , , , C "_ * V* y ^ V / VV* **? * JSWWMI

d'Emerson," ^t/P., IV (1929), pp. 302-318; "Le Romantisme d'Emerson." RAA, f VII
(1929), pp. 1-18; "Thoreau et Emerson," ibid., VII (1929), pp. 213-230; Charvat, William,
Emerson and Catholicism (Ph.D., Iowa, 1940); "American Romanticism and the Depres-
sion of 1837," SS., II (1937-1938), p. 80 (pp. 67-82); Christy, Arthur, The Orient in
American Transcendentalism (1932), pp. 61-185; Clark, H. H., "Emerson and Science."
PQ., X (1931), pp. 225-260; Commager, H. S., "Tempest in a Boston Tea Cup," NEQ.,
VI (1933), pp. 651-675; Crothers, S. M., Ralph Waldo Emerson: How to Know Him
(1921); D ilia way, Newton, Prophet of America: Emerson and the Problems of To-day

(1936), pp. 30-45; [Flewelling, R. T.], "Emerson and the Middle Border," Persoi
XVI (1935), pp. 295-309; "Emerson and Adolescent America," ibid.. XX (1939), pp,
352; Foster, C. H., Emerson's Theory of Poetry (1939); Gilman, Margaret, "Baud

Personalist,
-p), pp. 343-

tijti, fwaici, \*. *., *s7rsrov7 4 nwry vj fwtrjf \*.j+t?i t NJIHUCU4, jLu.*B*^b, JtSaudelairct
and Emerson," R.Rev. t XXIV (1943), pp. 211-222; Glicksberg, C. L, "Bryant on Emerson
the Lecturer." NEQ., XII (1939), pp. 530-534; Gohdes, Clarence, "Some Remarks on
Emerson's Divinity School Address, AL., I (1929-1930), pp. 27-31; Gray, H. D.,
Emerson: a Statement of New England Transcendentalism as Expressed in the Philoso-
phy of Its Chief Exponent, Stantord Publications, University Series, No. 29 (1917,);
Harrison, J. S., The Teachers of Emerson (1910); Hartwig, G. H., "Emerson on His-
torical Christianity, HJ., XXXVII (1938-1939), pp. 405-412; Hazard, Lucy, The Frontier
in American Literature (1927), p. 150 jf.; Hazhtt, Henry, "Emerson" in Macy, John
(ed.), American Writers on American Literature (1931), pp. 81-96; Hotson, Clarence,
"The Christian Critics and Mr. Emerson," NEQ., XI (1938), pp. 29-47; Huggard,
W. A., "Emerson and the Problem of War and Peace," UIS.. V (No. 5, 1938); James,
Henry, Partial Portraits (1888), pp. 1-33; Jorgenson, C. E., "Emerson's Paradise under
the Shadow of Swords," PQ. t XI (1932), pp. 274-292; Kern, A. C., "Emerson and
Economics," NEQ., XIII (1940), pp. 678-696; Kreymborg, Alfred. Our Singing Strength
(1929), pp. 67-83; Ladu, A. I., "Emerson: Whig or Democrat,' 5 NEQ., XIII (1940),
pp. 434-437 (pp. 419-441); Lowell, J. R., My Study Windows (1871), pp. 375-384;
MacMechan, Archibald (ed.), Carlyle on Heroes and Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in
History (1901), p. 344; McQniston, Raymer, "The Relation of Ralph Waldo Emerson
to Public Affairs," UKHS..III, No. 1 (1923); Macy, John,, The Spirit of American
Literature (1913), pp. 45-76: Marchand, Ernest, "Emerson and the Frontier," AL., Ill
(1931-1932), pp. 149-174; Matthiessen, F. p., American Renaissance (1941), pp. jJ-75;
Regis

"Emerson on Wordsworth," PMLA., XLI. N.S. XXXIV (1926), pp. 179-192; "Thoreau
Rejects Emerson" AL., IV (1932-1933). pp. 241-256; More, P. E., Shelburne Essays.
First Series (1904), pp. 71-84; ibid., Eleventh Series (1921), pp. 69-94; "Emerson, 1 '
CHAL., I (1917), pp. 349-362; Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in American Thought,
11 (1927), pp. 386-399; Perry, Bliss, Emerson Today t (1931); .Pritchard. J. P., Return
to the Fountains: Some Classical Sources of American Criticism (1942), pp. 44-60;
Sandeen, E. E., Emerson as an American (Ph.D., Iowa, 1940); Santayana, G. E., in
Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1900), pp. 217-233; Silver, Mildred, "Emerson
and the Idea of Progress" AL., XII (1940-1941), p. 7 ff. (pp. 1-19); Silver, R. G.,
"Ellery Channing's Collaboration with Emerson," AL., VII (1935-1936), pp. 84-86;
Smith, Bernard, Forces in American Criticism (1939), p. 91 ff., (pp. 66-133); Spencer,

B. T., "A National Literature, 1837-1855," AL., VIII (1936-1937), pp. 125-159; Strauch,

C. F., "The Background for Emerson's 'Boston Hymn/" AL., XIV (1942-1943),
pp. 36-47; Thompson, F. T., "Emerson's Indebtedness to Coleridge," SP.. XXIII (1926),
pp. 55-76; "Emerson and Carlyle." ibid., XXIV (1927), pp. 438-453; "Emerson's Theory
and Practice of Poetry, 1 * PMLA.. XLIII (1928), pp. 1170-1184; Thwinj?, C. F., "The
American Scholar: Emerson's Phi Beta Kappa Address (1837)." HI., XXXVI (1937-
1938), pp. 119-131; Tolles, F. B., "Emerson and Quakerism/' AL., X (1938-1939),
pp. 142-165; Ustick, W. L., "Emerson's Debt to Montaigne," WUV., IX, Fourth Series,
No. 2 (1922), pp. 245-262; Vance, W. S., "Carlyle in America before Sartor Resartus,"
AL., VII (1935-1

gan, 1915);
288; Winters,
taigne (1941).

Davis, M. R., "Emerson's 'Reason* and the Scottish Philosophers,*' NEQ., XVII
(1944), pp. 209-228; Huggard, W. A., "Emerson's Philosophy of War and Peace," PQ.,
XII (1943), pp. 370-375; Turpie, M. C.. "A Quaker Source for Emerson's Sermon on
the Lord's Supper,"* NEQ., XVli (1944^, pp. 95-101.

HENRY DAVID THOREAU (pp. 98-101)

WORKS: Collected Works. Manuscript and Walden Editions; alike except for manu-
script insertions (twenty volumes, 1906). To this have been added: "The Service,"

298 APPENDIX

edited by F. B. Sanborn (1902); |'Sir Walter Raleigh," edited by Henrv A. Metcalf

Seven Brahman's," a translation from the Harivansa of Langlois, edited by Arthur
Christy (1932); Collected Poems, edited by Carl Bode (1943).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allen. F. H., Bibliography of Henry David Thoreau (1908);
Crawford, B. V., Henry David Thoreau: Representative Selections (1934); pp. hx-lxix;
Harding, Walter, "A Bibliography of Thoreau in Poetry, Fiction, and Drama, BBDI..
XVIII (May-August, 1943), pp. 15-18; Taylor, W. F., History of American Letters
(1936), pp. 159-167; Wade. J. S., "A Contribution to a Bibliography from 1909 to 1936
of Henry David Thoreau,'* Journal of the New York Entomological Society, XLVIII
(1939), pp. 163-203; White, W.. A Henry David Thoreau Bibliography, 1908-1937;
(printed in the Bulletin of Bibliography, XVI. [1938], pp. 90-92, 111-113, 131-132;
XVI [1939], pp. 163, 181-182, 199-202); published separately (1939). For detailed
current bibliography, refer to the Thoreau Society Bulletin, Box 762, Chapel Hill, N. C.
(Raymond Adams).

ffi

BIOGRAPHY: Adams, Raymond, "Thoreau at Harvard," NEQ., XIII (1940),
. 24-33; Atkinson, J. B., Henry Thoreau, the Cosmic Yankee (1927); Bazalgette, Leon,

Idealist," Americana, XXX (1936), pp. 89-118, 286-323; Canby, H. S., Thoreau (1939);
Channing, W. E., Thoreau: The Poet-Naturalist (1873): revised and enlarged by F. B.
Sanborn (1902); Christy, Arthur, "A Thoreau Fact-Book," Colophon, Part 16, No. 9
(1934); Emerson, E. W., Henry Thoreau as Remembered by a Young Friend (1917);
Flanagan, T. T., "Thoreau in Minnesota," M.Hist., XVI (1935), pp. 35-46; Hatch,
B. L., in Papers in Honor of Andrew Keogh (1938), pp. 317-324; Hoeltje, H. H.,
"Thoreau in Concord Church and Town Records," NEQ., XII (1939), pp, 349-359;
McGill, F. T., "Thoreau and College Discipline," NEQ.. XV (1942), pp. 349-353;
Sanborn, F. B., The Life of Henry David Thoreau (1917); Straker, R. L., "Thoreau's
Journey to Minnesota/' NEQ., XIV (1941), pp. 549-555; Van Doren, Mark. Henry
David Thoreau: A Critical Study (1916).

CRITICISM: Adams, Raymond, "Thoreau's Literary Apprenticeship," SP., XXIX
(1932), pp. 617-629; Benson, A. B., "Scandinavian Influences in the Writings of
Thoreau, SSN., XVI (1941), pp. 201-211, 241-256; Brooks, Van Wyck. The Flowering
of New England 1^15-1865 (1936), pp. 286-302, 359-373, 422-442; Burroughs, John,
Indoor Studies (1889), pp. 1-42; Literary Values (1902), pp. 217-223; "A Critical Glance
into Thoreau," Ail.. CXXIII (1919), pp. 777-786; The Last Harvest (1922), pp. 103-171;
Canby, H. S,, "Henry David Thoreau," in Classic Americans (1931); Introduction,
Henry David Thoreau. Works (1937); "Two Women," NAR., CCXLVIII (1939-1940),
pp. 18-32; "Thoreau in Search of a Public," A.Schol., VIII (1939), pp. 431-444;
Carpenter. F. I., Emerson and Asia (1930); Christy, Arthur, The Orient in American
Transcendentalism (1932); Cook, R. L., The Concord Saunterer (1940). including a
discussion of "The Nature Mysticism of Thoreau" and "Original Letters by Thoreau";
Crawford, B. V., Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes to Henry David Thoreau:
Representative Selections (1934); Deevy, E. S., Jr., "A Re-examination of Thoreau's
'Walden,'" QRB., XVII (1942), pp. 1-11; Dreiser, Theodore, The Living Thoughts of
Thoreau (1939); Emerson, R. W., "Thoreau." Atl., X (1862), pp. 239-249; Walden
Edition, Thoreau, Vol. I; Foerster, Norman, "The Intellectual Heritage of Thoreau,"
TR.. II (1917), pp. 192-212; "Thoreau as Artist," SR., XXIX (1921), pp. 2-13; Nature
in American Literature (1923), pp. 69-142; Gohdes, Clarence, "Henry Thoreau, Bachelor
of Arts," C/., XIII (1928), pp. 323-336; Johnston, Edgar, A Treasury of Biography
(1941), p. 274 /.; Keiser, Albert, The Indian in American Literature (1933), pp. 209-
232; Lee, Harry, More Ray to Dawn (1941); Lorch, F. W., "Thoreau and the Organic
Principle in Poetry," PMLA.. LIII (1938). pp. 286-302; Lowell J. R., A Fable for
Critics (1848); My Study Windows (1871), pp. 193-209; Mackaye, Tames, Thoreau,
Philosopher of Freedom (1930), pp. vii-xvi; MacMechan, Archibald, CHAL., II (1927),
pp. 1-15; Mad ; son. C. A., "Henry David Thoreau: Transcendental Individualist," Ethics.
LIV (1944), pp. 110-123; Manning, C. A., "Thoreau and Tolstoy," NEQ., XVI (1943),
pp. 234-243; Matthiessen. F. O., American Renaissance (1941). pp. 76-119, 153-157,
162-175; Moore, J. B., "Thoreau Rejects Emerson" AL., IV (1932-1933), pp. 241-256;
More, P. E., "A Hermit's Notes on Thoreau," Shelburne Essays, First Series (1904),
pp. 1-21; "Thoreau and German Romanticism," ibid.. Fifth Series (1908), pp. 106-131;
Mumford. Lewis, The Golden Day: A Study in American Literature and Culture (1934),
pp. 108-120; Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in American Thought II (1927), pp. 400-
413; Pritchard, J. M., Return to the Fountains: Some Classical Sources of American
Criticism (1942), pp. 61-77; Raysor, T. M., "The Love Story of Thoreau," SP., XXIII
(1926), pp. 457-463; Seldes, Gilbert, "Thoreau" in Macy. John (ed.), American Writers
on American Literature (1936), pp. 164-176; Shepard, Odell, Preface to The Heart of
Thoreau's Journals (1927); Introduction to Henry David Thoreau: A Week on the Con-
cord and Merrimack Rivers (1921); Sherman, S. P., Main Stream (1926), pp. 37-47;
Stevenson, R. L., Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1892), pp. 129-171; Stewart,
Randall, "The Concord Group," SR., XLIV (1936), pp. 434-446; Taylor, W. F., A His-
tory of American Letters (1936), pp. 158-167; Templeman, W. D., "Thoreau, Moralist
of the Picturesque," PMLA., XLVII (1932), pp. 864-889; Walcutt, C. C., "Thoreau
in the Twentieth Century," SAQ., XXXIX (1940), pp. 168-184: Warren, Austin.
"Lowell on Thoreau," SP., XXVII (1930), pp. 442-461; White, Vioia C., The ConcorJt
Saunterer: Including a Discussion of the Nature Mysticism of Thoreau and a Check List
of Thoreau Items in the Abcrnethy Library of Middlebury College (1940); Wood, J. P.,
"English and American Criticism of Thoreau," NEQ., VI (1933), pp. 733-746.

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 299

Hinkley, . B., "Thoreau and Bestoti, two observers of Cape Cod," NEQ. t IV (1931).
pp. 216-229; Peattie, D. C., "Is Thoreau a Modern?" NAR., CCXLV (1938), pp. 159-
169: Wells, H. W., "An Evaluation of Thoreau's Poetry," AL., XVI (1944-1945),
pp. 99-109.

[AMOS] BRONSON ALCOTT (pp. 101-102)

WORKS: Observations on the Principles and Methods of Infant Instruction (1830);
Conversations on the Gospels Held in Mr. Alcott's School Unfolding the Doctrine and
Discipline of Human Culture (1836, 1837); Tablets (1868); Concord Days (1872);
Table Talk (1877); New Connecticut (1881); Sonnets and Canzonets (1882); Ralph
Waldo Emerson: an Estimate of his Character and Genius: in Prose and Verse (1865,
1882); Journals, selected and edited by Odell Shepard (1938).

BIOGRAPHY: B[ates], E. S., "Alcott, Amos Bronson," DAB., I (1928), pp. 139-
141; Hoeltje, H. H., The Sheltering Tree (1943); Morrow, H. W,, The Father of Little
Women (1927); Sanborn, F. B. t and Harris, W. T., A. Bronson Alcott, His Life and
Phthfophy (1893); Shepard, Odell, Pedlar's Progress (1937).

CRITICISM: Blankenship, Russell, American Literature (1931), pp. 312-315; Car-
penter, F. I., "Bronson Alcott: Genteel Transcendentalist," NEQ., XIII (1940). Pp. 34-
48; Christy, Arthur. The Orient in American Transcendentalism (1932); Edgell, D. P.,
"Bronson Alcott's 'Gentility,'" NEQ., XIII (1940), pp. 699-705; "Bronson Alcott's
'Autobiographical Index,'" NEQ., XIV (1941), pp. 704-715; Gohdes, Clarence, "Al-
cott's 'Conversation' on the Transcendental Club and The Dial/ 1 AL. t III (1931-1932),
pp. 14-27; Gross, H. B., Jr., "Notes on Pedlar's Progress/' AL.. X (1938-1939), pp. 216-
222; Haefner, G. E., A Critical Estimate of the Educational Theories and Practices of
Amos Bronson Alcott (Ph.D., Columbia, 1937); Higginson, T. W. f Carlyle's Lauah and
Other Surprises (1909), pp. 75-91; Contemporaries (1899), pp. 22-33; Hoeltje, H. H..
"Some Iowa Lectures and Conversations of Amos Bronson Alcott," IJHP, t XXIX
(1931), pp. 375-401; McCuskey, Dorothy, Bronson Alcott, Teacher (1940); Sears, C. E.,
Bronson Alcott's Fruitlands (1915); Shepard, Odell, "Sunken Treasure," SRL.. XVI
(Mar. 27, 1937), p. 15 /.; Stewart, Randall. "The Concord Group," SR.. XLIV (1936),
pp. 434-446; Warren, Austin, "The Orphic Sage: Bronson Alcott," AL. t III (1931-
1932), pp. 3-13; "The Concord School of Philosophy," NEQ., II (.1929), pp. 199-233;
Welle-k, Rene, "The Minor Transcendentalists and German Philosophy," NEQ., XV
(1942), pp. 656-666; Willis, F. L. H., Alcott Memoirs (1915).

SARAH MARGARET FULLER (pp. 102-103)

WORKS: Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe a translation from the German
of Eckermann (1839); Correspondence of Fraulcin Gunderode and Bettina von Arnim.
translated in collaboration with Minna Wesselhoeft (1842); Summer on the Lakes, in
1943 (1844): Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844); Papers on Literature and Art
(1846); At Home and Abroad, or, Things and Thoughts in America and Europe, edited
by her brother (1856); Life Without, and Life Within; or Reviews, Narratives, Essays
and Poems, edited by A. B. Fuller (1859); Love-Letters of Margaret Fuller 1945-1846.
with an introduction by Julia Ward Howe (1903); The Writings of Margaret Fuller,
selected and edited by Mason Wade (1941). In addition to Summer on the Lakes and
Woman in the Nineteenth Century, includes thirteen of her Critical Essays, her letters
relative to the Roman Revolution, twenty-five new letters, and selected passages from
the Memoirs.

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Anthony, Katharine, Margaret Fuller (1920);
Atnthony], Klathenne], "Fullei. Sarah Margaret," DAB., VII (1931), pp. 63-66;
Barbour, F. M., "Margaret Fuller and the British Reviewers," NEQ., IX (1936),
pp. 618-625; Bell, Margaret, Margaret Fuller (1930); Black, Ladbroke. Some Queer
People (1931), pp. 55-74; Blankenship, Russell, American Literature (1931), pp. 319-322;

f evyv \L?+)ij t i->p. *-/T, j^*auivcuaui|s, JLVUSS^II. a.mvrn,un J^icrrai>wrc V.I^OA/, \>y. *i u'^ftft ,

Bradford, Gamaliel, Portraits of American Women (1919), pp. 131-163; Braun, F. A.,
Margaret Fuller and Goethe (1910); Burton, Roland, Margaret Fuller as Literary Critic
(Ph.D , Iowa, 1941); Carpenter. R. V., "Margaret Fuller In Northern Illinois," JlSHS..
II (1910), pp. 7-27; Derby, J. B., Margaret Fuller: A Biographical Study (Ph.D., Yale,
1932); Emerson, R. W., Channing, W. H.. and Clarke, J. F. (eds.), Memoirs of Margaret
Fuller Ossoli (two volumes,, 1852); Fuller, F. T., <r Hawthorne and Margaret Fuller
Ossoli," LW.. XVI (1885), pp. 11-15: Hess, M. W., "Conversations in Boston, 1839."
CW.. CXLIX (1939). pp. 309-317; Higginson, T. W., Margaret Fuller Ossoli (1884);
McMaster, H. N., "Margaret Fuller as a Literary Critic," UBS., VII (1928); Madison,
C. M., "Margaret Fuller: Transcendental Rebel," An.R., II (1942), pp. 422-438;
Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in American Thought, II (1927), pp. 426-434;
Rostenberg. Leona, "Marparet Fuller's Roman Diary," JMH., XII (1940), pp. 209-220;
Stern, M. B., "Margaret Fuller's Schooldays in Cambridge," NEQ., XIII (1940), pp, 207-
222; "Margaret Fuller's Stay in Providence 1837-1838" Americana, XXXIV (1940),
pp. 353-369; "Margaret Fuller and The Dial," SAO., XL (1941), pp. 11-21; "Margaret
Fuller's Summer in the West (1843)," Mi.HM., XXV (1941), pp. 300-330; The Life of
Margaret Fuller (1942); Stewart, Randall, "The Concord Group," SR.. XLIV (1936),
pp. 434-446; Wade, Mason, Margaret Fuller (1940), which contains good bibliography;
Warfel, H. R., "Margaret Fuller and Ralph Waldo Emerson," PMLA., L (1935),
pp. 576-594; Wellek, Rene\ "The Minor Transcendentalists and German Philosophy,"
NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 677-679 (pp. 652-680).

300 APPENDIX

THEODORE PARKER (p. 104)

WORKS: Works, edited by F. C. Cobbe (fourteen volumes, 1863-1870); Centenary
Edition (fifteen volumes, 1907-1911). Chief individual works: A Discourse of Matters
Pertaining to Religion (1842); A Letter to the People of the United States Touching the
Matter of Slavery (1848); Transcendentalism: A Lecture (1876).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Blankenship, Russell, American Literature (1931),
pp. 315-319: Chadwick, J. W., Theodore Parker, Preacher and Reformer (1900);
Cthristie), F. A.* "Parker. Theodore," DAB., XIV (1934), pp. 238-241; Commager,
H. S.. "The Dilemma of Theodore Parker," NEQ.. VI (1933>, pp. 257-277; "Tempest
in. a Boston Tea Cup," ibid. (1933), pp. 651-675; "Theodore Parker, Intellectual Gour-
mand." A.SchoL, III (1934), pp. 257-265; Theodore Parker (1936); Frothingham, O. B.,
Theodore Parker (1874); Higginson. T. W. t Contemporaries (1899), pp. 34-59; Ladu,
A. I., "The Political Ideas o? Theodore Parker," SP.. XXXVIII (1941), pp. 106-123;
Mead, E. D., Emerson and Theodore Parker (1910); Parrington, V. L., Main Currents
in American Thought. II (1927). pp. 414-425; Weiss, Tohn, Life and Correspondence of
Theodore Parker (two volumes. 1864): Wellek, Rene. "The Minor Transcendentalists and
German Philosophy," NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 669-679 (pp. 652-680).

JONES VERY (p. 104)

Twenty-seven of Very's sonnets were printed by James Freeman Clarke in the Western
Messenger t March, April, 1839. Essays and Poems (1839), edited by Emerson, contained
three essays, nine lyrics, and fifty -six sonnets.

WORKS: Poems and Essays, with a sketch by J, F. Clarke, and preface by C. A.
Bartol (1886).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Baker, Carlos, "Emerson and Jones Very." NEQ.,
VII (1934), pp. 90-99; Bartlett, W. L, "Early Years of Jones Very Emerson's 'Brave
Saint/" EIHS., LXXIII (1937), pp. 1-23; "Jones Very The Harvard Years," ibid..
LXXIV (1938), pp. 213-238; Jones Verv: Emerson's "Brave Saint" (1942); Bradford,
GamalM, Biofirafihv and the Human W'art (1932), pp. 385-212: ProuHfoot, B. W.,
Jones Very: A Bibliographical Study (Ph.D., Chicago, 1918); Winters, Yvor, Maule's
Curse (1938), pp. 125-146; 219-232.

WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING, 18181901 (p. 105)

WORKS: Poems of Sixty-Five Years bv Ellery Channing, edited by F. B. Sanborn
(1902): "A Concord Note-fcook," Critic. XLVII, (1905), pp. 76-81, 121-128. 267-272;
Thoreau, the Poet-Naturalist (1873. 1902).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Emerson, R. W., "Walks with Ellery Channing,"
Att.. XC (1902), pp. 27-34; Sanborn, F. B., "The Maintenance of a Poet," Atl., LXXXVI
(1900). pp. 819-82S; Silver, R. G., "Ellery Channing's Collaboration with Emerson,"
AL., VII (1935-1936), pp. 84-86.

ORESTES AUGUSTUS BROWNSON (pp. 105-106)

WORKS: Complete Works, edited by H. F. Brownson (1882-1887).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Brownson, H. F., Orestes A. Brownson's Early
Life, Middle Life, Latter Life (three volumes, 1898-1900); Conroy, P. B., "The Role of
the American Constitution in the Political Philosophy of Orestes A. Brownson," Cath.HR.,
XXV (1939), pp. 271-286; Cook, T, T., and Leavelle, A. B., "Orestes A. Brownson's
The American Republic," RP., IV (1942), pp. 77-90, 173-193; Corrigan, Sister M. F. f
Some Social Principles of Orestes A. Brownson (1939); Frese, J. R., S.J., "Brownson
on Know Nothingism," USCHRS.. XXVII (1937), pp. 52-73; Maynard, Theodore.
Orestes Brownson (1943); Michel, V. G., The Critical Principles of Orestes A. Brownson

408; Rowland, J. P., "Brownson and the American Republic Today," CW., CLIl (1940-
1941), pp. 537-541; Ryan. Thomas, "Brownson Speaks of England," ibid., pp. 426-429;
Schlesinger, A. M., Jr., "Orestes Brownson: An American Marxist before Marx," SR..
XLVII (1939), pp. 317-323; Orestes A. Brownson (1939); Wellek, Rene\ "The Minor
Transcendentalists and German Philosophy," NEQ.. XV (1942), pp. 669-679; Whalen,
Dor an. Granite for God's House; The Life of Orestes Brownson (1914).

LeBreton, D. R., "Orestes Brownson's Visit to New Orleans in 1855," AL. t XVI
(1944-1945), pp. 110-114.

HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (pp. 107-113)

WORKS: Complete Works, Riverside Edition (eleven volumes, 1886). To thin the

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 301

1932), pp. 136-148; "The Longfellow Freiligrath Correspondence." PAfLA. t XLVIII

"

, p. - e. . t

(1933). pp. 1223-1293; Richards, I. T., "Longfellow in England: Unpublished Extract*
from Hi Journal," PMLA.. LI (1936). pp. 1123-1140; Thompson, Ralph. "Additions to
Longfellow Bibliography including a New Prose Tale," AL., Ill (1931-1932), pp. 303-308.

BIOGRAPHY': Btronson], W. C. "Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth," DAB,. XI
(2933), pp. 382-387; Carpenter, G. R., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1901); Dana.
H. W. L.. "Chronicles of the Craigie House: The Coming of Longfellow," CHS A., XXV
(1939), pp. 19-60; Gorman, H. S., A Victorian American. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
(1926); Higginson, T. W., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1902); Old Cambridge (1899),
pp. 111-144: Kennedy, W. S. v Henry W, Longfellow (1882); Longfellow, Samuel, Life
of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (three volumes, 1891); Norton, C. E., Henry Wadsworth

uujwi/r*/i i*tmyjv*nfw viuicrc vviuuics, 10747, J.IUILUU. \*. c.., nrnry wr aa*wtrr*f

gfellow: A Sketch of His Life U907); Robertson, E. S., Life of Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow (1887); Rossetti, W. M., Lives of Famous Poets (1878), pp. 338-391;
Thompson, Lawrance, Young Longfellow (1938); Underwood, F. H., Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow (1882).

Gohdes, Clarence, American Literature in Nineteenth-Century England (1944), pp. 99-
126*

Literature and American Life (1936): Bradford, Gamaliel, Biography and the Human
Heart (1932), pp. 3/-62; Brooks, Van Wyck, The Flowering of New England, 115-1865
(1936), pp. 147-171, 303-308. 443-450, 508-512, passim. Also, New England: Indian
Summer (1940). pp. 25-27; Chamberlin, W. A., ' r Longellow's Attitude toward Goethe,"
MP., XVI (1918), pp. 57-76; Clausen, Julius, "Longfellow and Scandinavia," ASR..

XVI (1928), pp. 732-740: Elliott, G. R.. The Cycle of Modern Poetry (1929), pp. 64-82;
Gavigan, W. V., "Long/ellow and Catholicism" CW.> CXXXVIir (1933), pp. 42-50;
Goggio, Emilio, "Italian Influences on Longfellow's Works," R.Rev., XVI (1925).
pp. 208-222: Gohdes, Clarence, "Longfellow and His Authorized British Publishers,"
PMLA., LV (1940), pp. 1165-1179; Hatfield, J. T., New Light on Longfellow with
Special Reference to His Relations to Germany (1933) ; Howells, W. D., Literary Friends
and Acquaintances (1900), pp. 71, 178-211; "The Art of Longfellow," NAR., CLXXXIV
(1907), pp. 472-485; Jones, H. M.. "The Longfellow Nobody Knows," Outlook. CXLIX
(1928), pp. 577-579, 586; "Longfellow" in Macy. John (ed.). American Writers on
American Literature (1931), pp. 105-124; Kaufman, Paul, in Foerster, Norman, Re-
interpretation of American Literature (1928) .pp. 114-138; Keiser, Albert) The Indian in
American Literature (1933), pp. 189-208; Krey.mborg, Alfred, Our Singing Strength
(1929), pp. 97-115; Long, W. O., Literary Pioneers: Early American Explorers of
European Culture (1935), pp. 159-198; More, P. E., Shelburne Essays, Fifth Series
(1908), pp. 132-157; Osborne, C. S. and Osborne, Stellanova, School era ft Longfellow
Hiawatha (19*42); Parrington, V. L., Main Currents of American Thought, II (1927),
p*p 439-441; Pattee, F. L., The First Century of American Literature, 1770-1870 (1935),
pp. 515-536; The Feminine Fifties (1940), pp. 167-176; Side-Lights on American Lit-
erature (1922), pp. 210-249; Perry, Bliss, Park-Street Papers (1908), pp. 107-140;
Poe, E. A., The Literati; Some Honest Opinions . . . (1850), pp. 292-334, 334-362.
363-374; Thompson, L. R., "Longfellow's Original Sin of Imitation," Colophon, N.S. I
(1935). pp. 97-106; Trent, W. P., Longfellow and Other Essays (1910), pp. 3-35;
"Longfellow," CHAL., II (1927), pp. 32-41; Whitman, I. L., Longfellow and Spain
(1927).

JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER (pp. 113-117)

WORKS: The Writings of John Greenleaf Whittier (seven volumes, 1888-1889);
Scudder, H. E. (ed.). The Complete Poetical Works of John Greenleaf Whittier (1894).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Currier, T. F., A Bibliography of John Greenleaf Whittier (1937).

BIOGRAPHY: Bennett, Whitman, Whittier, Bard of Freedom (1941); Carpenter,
G. R., John Greenleaf Whittier (1903); Currier, T. F., Elisabeth Lloyd and the Whit tiers
(1939); Higginson, T. W., John Greenleaf Whittier (1902): Kennedy, W. S., John
Greenleaf Whittier: His Life. Genius, and Writings (1882, 1895); Lewis, G. K., John
Greenleaf Whittier; His Life and Work (1913): Linton, W.J., Life of John Greenleaf
Whittier (1893); kordell, Albert, Quaker Militant; John Greenleaf Whittier (1933);
Perry. Bliss, John Greenleaf Whittier; A Sketch of His Life, with Selected Poems
(1907); Pickaid, S. T., Life and Letters of John Greenleaf Whittier (two volumes,

\J7V/f /, A IVAAJIU, v7. A., JL>I / tr writ* JUtsttKTa VI J vivn \jiffntvuj rw rcr \VTVU WIVMVO,

1894); Whittier as a Politician (1900); Whittier-Land (1904): Pollard. J. A., "Whittier's
Early Years 1807-1336," (Ph.D., Yale, 1937); Shack ford. M. H., "Whittier and Some
Cousins." NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 467-496; Snvder, E. D., "Whittier's Letters to Ann

Elizabeth Wendell," BFHA., XXIX " " " ~

Greenleaf '

John Greet ..
(1900), pp. 302-323.

is." NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 467-496; Snvder, E. D., "Whittier's Letters to Ann
eth Wendell," BFHA., XXIX (1940), pp. 69-92; Stearns, Bertha-Monica, "John
leaf Whittier, Editor," NEQ.. XIII (1940), pp. 280-304; Underwood, F. H.,
Sreenlcaf Whittier: A Biography (1884); Woodberry, G. E., Makers of Literature

Relation to German Life and Thought (1915); Foerster, Norman, Nature in America*
Literature (1923). pp. 20-36; Gosse, Edmund, Portraits and Sketches (1912), pp. 137-147
Griswold, M. J., ''American Quaker History in the Works of Whittier. Hawthorne, ami
Longfellow," Americana. XXXIV (1940), pp. 220-263; Howe, W. D., "Whittier" In

Macy
Krey
of the
Series
(1927)
A Stud

302 APPENDIX

cy, John (ed.), American Writers on American Literature (1931), pp. 125-134;
jymborg, Alfred. Our Singing Strength (1929), pp. 84-96; Lowell, J. R., The Function
&e Poet and Other Essays (1920), pp. 127-140; More, P. E.. Shelburne Essays, Third
ies (1907), pp. 28-53; Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in American Thought, II
27), pp. 361-370; Perry, Bliss, Park-Street Papers (1908), pp. 173*201; Pray, F. M.,
A Study of Whittier*s Apprenticeship as a Poet (Ph.D., Pennsylvania State College,
1930); Strong, A. H., American Poets and Their Theology (1916), pp. 107-158; Taylor,
E. E., John Greenleaf Whittier; Poet, Reformer, Mystic (1913); Woodbcrry, G. E.,
Makers of Literature (1900). pp. 302-323.

Adkins, N. F., "Two Uncollected Prose Sketches of Whittier," NEQ., VI (1933),
pp. 364-371; Currier, T. F., "Whittier and the New England Weekly Review" NEQ.,
VI (1933), pp. 589-597.

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (pp. 117-121)

WORKS (collected and edited): Lathrop, G. P., (ed.), The Complete Works of
Nathaniel Hawthorne (twelve volumes, 1883); The Writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne
(twenty-two volumes, 1900); Passages from the American Notebooks (1868); Passages
from the English Notebooks (1870); Passages from the French and Italian Notebooks
(1871); The American Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Randall Stewart
(1932); The English Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Randall Stewart
(1941); Pickard, S. T. (ed.), Hawthorne's First Diary (1897); Love Letters of Na-
thaniel Hawthorne 1839-41 and lS'41-63 (two volumes, 1907); Arvin, Newton (ed.),
The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals (1929); or Letters of Hawthorne to William D.
Ticknor, 1851-1&64 (two volumes. 1910); Stewart, Randall (ed.), "Hawthorne and
Politics: Unpublished Letters to William B. Pike," NEQ., V (1932), pp. 237-263; "Haw-
thorne's Contributions to The Salem Advertiser," AL., V (1933-1934), pp. 327-341;
"Two Uncollected Reviews by Hawthorne/' NEQ., IX (1936), pp. 504-509; Blodgett.
Harold, "Hawthorne as Poetry Critic: Six Unpublished Letters to Lewis Mansfield,'
AL., XII (1940-1941), pp. 173-184; Turner, Arlin, Hawthorne as Editor: Selections
from His Writings in the American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge
(1941).

WORKS (individual): Fanshaive (1828); Twice-Told Tales (1837, 1842); Grand-
father's Chair (1841); Famous Old People (1841); Liberty Tree (1841); Biographical
Stories for Children (1842); The Celestial Railroad (1843); Mosses from an Old Manse
(1846); The Scarlet Letter (1850); The House of the Seven Gables (1851); A Wonder-
Book for Girls and Boys (1851); The Snow Ima'ge, and Other Twice-Told Tales (1852);
The Blithedale Romance (1852); The Life of Franklin Pierce (1852); Tanglewood Tales
(1853); A Rill from the Town Pump (1857); The Marble Faun (I860): Our Old Home
(1863); Septimius Felton (1872); The Dolliver Romance (1876); Dr. Grimshawe's
Secret (1883); Sketches and Studies (1883).

BIOGRAPHY: Arvin, Newton, Hawthorne (1929); Bridge, Horatio, Personal Recol-
lections of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1893); Brownell, W. C., American Prose Masters
(1909), pp. 63-130; Conway, M. D., Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne (1890); Gates, L. E.,
Studies and Appreciations (1900), pp. 92-109; Gorman, H. S., Hawthorne: A Study in
Solitude (1927); Hawthorne, Julian, Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Wife (two volumes,
1884); Hawthorne, Manning, "Hawthorne and 'The Man of God.'" Colophon, N.S. II
(1937), pp. 262-282; "Hawthorne's Early Years," EIHC.. LXXIV (1938), pp. 1-21;
"Nathaniel Hawthorne Prepares for College," NEQ., XI (1938), pp. 66-88; ''Parental
and Family Influences on Hawthorne," EIHC., LXXVI (1940), pp. 1-13; "Nathaniel
Hawthorne at Bowdoin." NEQ., XIII (1940), pp. 246-279; "The Friendship between
Hawthorne and Longfellow," EL., XXXIX (1940), pp. 25-30; James, Henry, Hawthorne
(1879); Lathrop, G. P., A Study of Hawthorne (1876); Mather Jackson, E. A.. Nathaniel
Hawthorne: A Modest Man (1940); Metzdorf, R. F., "Hawthorne's Suit against Ripley
and Dana," AL.. XII (1940-1941). pp. 235-241; Miller, H. P., "Hawthorne Surveys His
Contemporaries,' 1 AL , XII (1940-1941), pp. 228-235; Morris, Lloyd, The Rebellious
Puritan: Portrait of Mr. Hawthotne (1927); Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in Ameri-
can Thought, II (1927), pp. 442-450; Stewart, Randall, The American Notebooks by
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1932); "Hawthorne's Speeches at Civic Banquets," AL., VII
(1935-1936), pp. 415-423; "The Concord Group," SR., XLIV (1936), pp. 434-446;
Warren, Austin, Hawthorne (1934); Woodberry, G. E., Nathaniel Hawthorne (1902).

Hall, L. S., Hawthorne: Critic of Society (1944).

CRITICISM: Astrov, Vladimir, "Hawthorne and Dostoevski as Explorers of the
Human Conscience," NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 296-319; Blair, Walter, "Color, Light, and
Shadow in Hawthorne's Fiction," NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 74-94; Bromfield, Louis,
"Hawthorne" in Macy, John (ed.), American Writers on American Literature (1931),
pp. 97-104: Brooks, Van Wyck, America's Coming-of-Age (1915), pp. 64-70: "Retreat
from Utopia," SRL., XIII (Feb. 22, 1936), pp. 3-4, 14, 16, 18; Brown, E. K., "Haw-
thorne, Melville, and 'Ethan Brand/" AL., Ill (1931-1932), pp. 72-75; Canby, H. S.,
Classic Americans (1931), pp. 226-262; Carpenter, F. I., "Puritans Preferred Blondes:
The Heroines of Melville and Hawthorne," NEQ., IX (1936), pp. 253-272; "Scarlet A
Minus," CE., V (1944), pp. 173-180; Chandler, E. L., A Study of the Sources of the
Tales and Romances Written by Nathaniel Hawthorne before 1953, Smith College Studies
in Modern Languages, VII, No. 4 (1926); Dony. Francoise, "Romantisme et Puritanisme
chez Hawthorne, 4 propos de la 'Lettre Pourpre,' *' EA., IV (1940), pp. 15-30; Doubleday,
N. F., "Hawthorne and Literary Nationalism," AL., XII (1940-1941). pp. 447-453;
"Hawthorne's Criticism of New England Life," CB., II (1941), pp. 639-653; "Haw-
thome's Satirical Allegory," CB., Ill (1942), pp. 325-337; Erskine, John, Leading

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 33

American Novelists (1910), pp. 179-273; Faust, Bertha, Hawthorn*'* Contemporaneous
Reputation (1939); Foster, C. H., "Hawthorne's Literary Theory," PMLA., LVII
(1942), pp. 241-254; Griswold, M. J.. "American Quaker History in the Works of Whit-
tier, Hawthorne and Longfellow," Americana, XXXIV (1940), pp. 220-263; Hawthorne,
Julian, "The Salem of Hawthorne." Century, XXVIII, N.S. VI (1884), pp. 3-17;
tHowells, W. D.], "Nathaniel Hawthorne," Atl., V (1860), pp. 614-622; Lawrence,
D. H., "Studies in Classical American Literature," Eng.R., XXVIII (1919). pp. 404-417;
Matthiessen, F. O., American Renaissance (1941), pp. 179-368: Michaud, Regis, The
American Novel To-day (1928), pp. 25-46; Miller, H. P., "Hawthorne Surveys His
Contemporaries/' AL., XII (1940-1941), pp. 228-235; More, P. ., Shelburne Essays,
First Series (1904), pp. 22-70; ibid.. Second Series (1905), pp. 173-187; Orians, G. H..
"New England Witchcraft in Fiction," AL. t II (1930-1931), op. 54-71; "Scott and
Hawthorne's Fanshawe," NEQ.. XI (1938), pp. 388-394; "The Sources and Themes of
Hawthorne's The Gentle Boy/" ibid., XIV (1941), pp. 664-678; Perry, Bliss. The
Amateur Spirit (1904), pp. 119-139; Poe, E. A., "Twice Told Tales reviewed," Graham's,
XX (1842), pp. 254, 298-300; "Tale- Writing: Nathaniel Hawthorne," Godey's Lady\
Book, XXXV (1847), pp. 252-256 (the foregoing reviews will be found quoted in whole
or in part in various anthologies); Rahv, Philip, "The Dark Lady of Salem," PR., VIII
(1941). pp. 362-381; Reed, A. L., "Self -Portraiture in the Work of Nathaniel Haw-
thorne/' SP., XXIII (1926), pp. 40-54; Schneider^ H. W., The Puritan Mind (1930),
>lie, Houi ' '" "'* " "*

1945), pp. 26-28; Thorp, Willard, "Did Melville Review The Scarlet Letter/' AL., XIV
(1942-1943), pp. 302-305; Trollope, Anthony, "The Genius of Nathaniel Hawthorne."
NAR., CXXIX (1879), pp. 205-222; Turner, Arlin, "Autobiographical Elements in

Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance," UTSE., XV (1935). pp. 39-63: "A Note on
Hawthorne's Revisions," MLN., LI (1936). pp. 426-429; ''Hawthorne's Methods of
Using His Source Materials/' Studies for William A. Read (1940). pp. 301-312; "Haw-
thorne's Literary Borrowings," PMLA., LI (1936), pp. 543-562; "Hawthorne and
Reform," NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 700-714; Van Doren, Carl, The American Novel (1939),
pp. 58-83; Waples, Dorothy, "Suggestions for Interpreting The Marble Faun," AL.,
XIII (1941-1942), pp. 224-239; Warren, Austin, "Hawthorne's Reading/' NEQ., VIII
(1935), pp. 480-497; Winters, Yvor, Manle's Curse (1938), pp. 3-22; Wright, Nathalia,
"Hawthorne ami the Praslin Murder," NEQ.. XVI (1942), pp. 5-14.

Burn ham, P, E., "Hawthorne's Fanshawe and Bowdoin College," EIHC., LXXX
(1944), pp. 131-138; Chandler, E. L., "Hawthorne's Spectator/' NEQ., IV (1931),

*\. Y iJi \ i 7t-r- 1 7T J 7 , VV. &J-JJ, xa uugci tui u, .tii. i . , iia w nnji nc vivaaipa MISUUI cjaicni,

NEQ., VI (1933), pp. 445-469; Pearson, N. H., "A Sketch by Hawthorne." NEQ., VI
(1933), pp. 136-144.

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (pp. 121-126)

WORKS: Works, Riverside Edition (thirteen volumes, 1891); The Writings of Oliver
Wendell Holmes, Standard Library Edition (thirteen volumes, 1892), virtually identical
save for the inclusion of the Morse Life and Letters; Scudder, H. E., The Complete
Poetical Works of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Cambridge Edition (1895); Turner, E. S.,
"The 'Autocrat's* Theology: Unpublished Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes," Putnam's.
VI C1909V pp. 662-667; Clark, H. H., Maior American Poets (1936), bibliography,
pp. 882-886; Hayakawa, S. I., and Tones, H. M., Oliver Wendell Holmes; Representative
Selections, with Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes (1939); Ives, G. B.. A Bibliog-
raphy of Oliver Wendell Holmes, (1907).

BIOGRAPHY: Eliot. C. W., "Oliver Wendell Holmes," HGM., XXXI (1923),
pp, 457-465; Emerson, E. W., The Early Years of the Saturday Club, 1855-1970 (1918).
Fields, Annie, Authors and Friends (1898), op. 107-157: Higginson, T. W., Cheerful
Yesterdays (1901): consult Index, p. 370; Contemporaries (1899), pp. 168-191; Old
Cambridge (1900), pp. 75-108; Howe, M. A. DeW., Holmes of the Breakfast-Table
(1939); Howells. W. D., Literary Friends and Acquaintance (1900), pp. 146-177, origi-
nally in Harpers, December, 1896; Jerrold, Walter. Oliver Wendell Holmes (1893);
Morse, J. T., Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes (two volumes. 1896); Ticknor,

pp.. 107-131.

Wyck, The Flowering of New England, 1915-1865 (1936), pp. 343-358; Burroughs, J<
Literary Values and Other Papers (1904): see Index, p. 261; Chesterton. G. K.. In

.ntro-

- vcr fuyeTs \iyv**/ . see JLIIUCX, p. 40 j , VoiicBicrttm. v*. rv., intro-
duction to The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1904); Clark, H. H., Major American
Poets (1936), pp. 886-892; "Oliver Wendell Holmes, a Reinterpretation," NEQ., XII
(1939), pp. 19-34; Curtis, G. W., Literary and Social Essays (1895), pp. 205-236;
Fuller, H. DeW., "Holmes" in Macy, John (ed.), American Writers on American Lit-
erature (1931), pp. 153-163; Grattan, C. H., "Oliver Wendell Holmes," AM.. IV (1925),
pp. 37-41; Hayakawa, S. 1, "Holmes's Lowell Institute Lectures," AL., VlII (1936-
1937), pp. 281-290; Howe, M. A. DeW.. American Bookmen (1902). pp. 265-286;

3<M APPENDIX

Knickerbocker, W. S., "His Own Boswell: A Note on the Poetry of Oliver Wendell
Holmes," SR., XL1 (1933), pp. 454-456; Kreymborg, Alfred, Our Singina Strength
(1929), pp. 134-150; Lang, Andrew, Adventures Amonq Books (1905), pp. 81-96; Lerner,
Max, The Mind and Faith of Justice Holmes (1943) ; Macy, John, The Spirit of American
Literature (1913), pp. 155-171; Matthews, Brander, CHAL., II (1918), pp. 224-240; Oben-
dorf, C. P., The Psychiatric Novels of Oliver Wendell Holmes (1943); Parrmgtpn, V. L.,
Main Currents in American Thought, II (1927), pp. 451-459; Pritchard T. P., Return
to the Fountains: Some Classical Sources of American Criticism (1942), pp. 90-98;
Savage, M. J., "The Religion of Holmes's Poems," Arena. XI (1894) pp. 41-54; Strong,
A. H., American Poets and Their Theology (1916), pp. 319-367; Taylor, W. F., A His-
tory of American Letters (1936); Trent, W. P., and Erskme, John, Great American
Writers (1912), pp. 149-158; Wendell, Barrett, A Literarv History of America (1911),
pp. 407-425: Werner, D. L., The Idea of Union in American Verse 1776-1876 i (1932):
Williams, M. L. f The Impact of Science upon Religion in the "Authentic Brahmin"
(Ph.D., Michigan, 1938); Withington, Robert, "The Patriotism of the Autocrat," HGM.,
XXXVI (1927-1928), pp. 523-532.

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL (pp. 126-133)

WORKS: The Complete Writings of James Russell Lowell (sixteen volumes, 1904),
includes Norton, C. E. (ed.). Letters of James Russell Lowell (two volumes, 1894; en-
larged 1904) and Scudder, H. E., James Russell Lowell (two volumes, 1901); Scudder,
H. E. (ed.), The Complete Poetical Works of James Russell Lowell (1897); Howe,
M. A. DeW.. New Letters of James Russeli Lvwell (1932); Gilder, J. B. (ed.), Impres-
sions of Spain (1899).

BIOGRAPHY: Brown, E. E., Life of James Russell Lowell (1877); Dole, N. H.,
biographical sketch in The Early Poems of James Russell Lowell (1892); Eliot, C. W.,
"Tames Russell Lowell as a Professor,'* HGM., XXVII (1918-1919), pp. 482-491;
Golann, Ethel, "A Lowell Autobiography," NEQ., VII (1934), pp. 356-364; Greenslet,
Ferris, James Russell Lowell (1905); Hale, E. E,, James Russell Lowell and His Friends
(1899); Hale, E. E., Jr., James Russell Lowell (1^99); Higpmson. T. W., Book and
Heart (1897), pp. 47-54; Old Cambridge (1899), pp. 147-196; Howelis, W. D., Literary
Friends and Acquaintance (1900), pp. 212-250; Lowell, A. L., Memoir of James Russell
Lowell (1896); Sanborn, F. B., "The Home and Haunts of Lowell," NEM., N.S. V
(1891), pp. 275-302; Smalley, G. W., "Mr. Lowell in England," Harper's, XCII (1895-
1896). pp. 788-801; Stead, W. T., Character Sketches (1891); Stearns, F. P., Cambridge
Sketches (1905), pp. 83-112; Thayer, W. R., Letters of John Holmes to James Russell
Lowell and Others (1917); "James KusselJ Lowell as a Teacher," Scribner's, LXVIII
(1920), pp. 473-480; Underwood, F. H., James Russell Lowell: A Biographical Sketch
(1882); The Poet and the Man. Recollections and Appreciations of James Russell Lowell
(1893); Wendell, Barrett, Stelligeri and Other Essays (1893), pp. 205-217.

CRITICISM: Allen, G. W., American Prosody (1935), pp. 244-276; Altick, R. D..
"Was Lowell an Historical Critic?," AL., XIV (1942-1943), pp. 250-259; Bailey, E. J.,
Religious Thought in the Greater American Poets (1922), pp. 158-182; Bail, H. V.,
"James Russell Lowell's Ode Recited at the Commemoration of the Living and Dead
Soldiers of Harvard University, July 21, 1865," PBSA., XXXVII (1943), pp. 169-202;
Beatty, R. C,, James Russell Lowell (1942); Boynton, P. H., Literature and American
Life (1936): consult Index, p. 914; Brooks, Van Wyck, America's Coming-of-Age (1915),

ming-of-Ag
. 311-322,

, , ,

. 92-105; The Flowering of New England 1815-W5 (1936). pp. 311-322, 515-525;
Brownell, W. C., American Prose Masters (1909), pp. 271-335; Chadwick, J. W., "James
Russeli Lowell," Uni.R.. XXXVI (1891), pp. 436-455; Clark, H. H., "Lowell's Criticism
of Romantic Literature, PMLA.. XL1, N.S. XXXIV (1926), pp. 209-228; "Lowell
Humanitarian, Nationalist, or Humanist?," SP., XXVII (1930), pp.411-441; Curtis,
G. W., James Russell Lowell: An Address (1892); DeMille, G. E., Literary Criticism
in America (1931), pp. 49-85; Duncan, E. H., "Lowell's 'Battle of the Kettle and Pot,' "
AL., XV (1943-1944), pp. 127-138; Foerster, Norman, American Criticism (1928),
Pp. 111-156; Nature in American Literature (1923), pp. 143-175; Hudson, W. H.,
Lowell and His Poetry (1914); James, Henry, Essays in London and Elsewhere (1893),
pp. 44-80; Jenkins, W. G., "Lowell's Criteria of Political Values," NEQ. t VII (1934),
pp. 115-141; Kreymborg, Alfred, Our Singing Strength (1929), pp. 116-133; Lovett,
R. M., "Lowell" in Macy, John (ed.), American Writers on American Literature (1931),
pp. 177-189; Macy, John, The Spirit of American Literature (1913), pp. 189-209; Mima.
Edwin, "Lowell as a Citizen," SAQ, t I (1902). pp.27-40; Palmer, Ray, "Tames Russell
Lowell and Modern Literary Criticism," JR., IV (1877), pp. 264-281; Parnngton, V. L.,
Afotn Currents in American Thought, II (1927), pp. 460-472; Parsons, E. S., "Lowell's
Conception of Poetry," CCP. t Language Series 11, No. 20 (1908), pp. 67-84; Pattee,

F. L., "A Call for a Literary Historian," in Foerster, Norman, The Reinterpretation of
American Literature (1928), p. 20; Perry, Bliss, "James Russell Lowell," HGM., XXVII
(1918-1919), pp. 482-491; Pollak, Gustav, International Perspective in Criticism (1914),
pp. 58-83; Pritchard, J. P., Return to the Fountains: Some Classical Sources of American
Criticism (1942), pp. 99-118; Reilly, J. J., James Russell Lowell as a Critic (1915^;
Robertson. J. M., "Lowell as Critic," NAR., CCIX (1919), pp. 246-262; Savage, M. J.,
"The Religion of Lowell's Poems/' Arena, IX (1893-1894), pp. 705-722; Shea, L. M.,
Lowell's Religious Outlook (1926) ; Strong, A. H., American Poets and Their Theology
(1916), pp. 267-31*; Thorndike, A. H., CHAL.. II (1927), pp. 245-257; Woodberry,

G. E., Makers of Literature (1900), pp. 324-349.

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 35

WALT WHITMAN (pp. 134-142)

WORKS: The Compute Writing of Walt Whitman, edited by R. M. Bucke, T. B.
Harned, and H. L. Traubcl, with bibliographical and critical contributions by O. L. Triggs
(ten volumes, 1902); Letters Written by Walt Whitman to His Mother . edited by T. B.
Uarned (1902); Walt Whitman's Diary in Canada, edited by W. S. Kennedy (1904);
The Letters of Anne Gilchrist and Walt Whitman, edited with an introduction by T. B.
Harned (1918); The Gathering of the Forces, edited by Cleveland Rodgers and John
Black (two volumes, 1920); The Uncollected Poetry and Prose of Walt Whitman, edited
with an introduction by Emory Holloway (two volumes. 1921); The Half-Breed and
Other Stones by Walt Whitman, edited by T. O. Mabbott (1927); Walt Whitman's
Workshop, edited with an introduction by C. J. Furness (1928); / Sit and Look Out,
edited by Emory Holloway and Vernohan Schwartz (1932); Walt Whitman and the
Civil War: A Collection of Original Articles and Manuscripts, edited by C. I. Glicksberg
(1933); New York Dissected, by Walt Whitman, edited with an introduction by Emory
Holloway and Ralph Adimari (1936); R. M. Bucke (ed.). Calamus (Letters of Walt
Whitman to Peter Doyle, 1897) ; Emory Holloway, "Some New Whitman Letters," AM.,
XVI ( "

(1935-
1937), .

1938), p. 458; S. T. Williams, "The Adrian Van Linderen Collection of Walt Whitman,"
YULd., XV (1941), pp. 49-53.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allen, G. W,, "Walt Whitman Bibliography 1918-1934," BBDL.
XV (1934), pp. 84-88, 106-109; "Walt Whitman Bibliography 1935-1942," BBDL. XVII
(1943), p. 209 /.; American Art Association, Catalogue of Manuscripts, Autograph Let-
ters, etc., of Walt Whitman (1936); Holloway, Emory, CHAL., II (1927), pp. 5ol-581;
Index to Early American Periodical Literature, 1728-1870, No. S Walt Whitman (1941);
McCain, Rea (comp.), "Walt Whitman in Italy: A Bibliography," BBDL. XVII
(1941), pp. 66-67, 92-93; Monroe, W. S., "Recent Walt Whitman Literature in America,"
RAA.. VIII (1930-1931), pp. 138-141; Shay, Frank, The Bibliography of Walt Whitman
(1920); Stovall, Floyd, Walt Whitman: Representative Selections, with Introduction,
Bibliography, and Notes (1934), pp. hii-lx; Triggs, O. L., in The Complete Writings of
Walt Whitman. X (1902), pp. 139-233; Wells, Carolyn, and Goldsmith, A. F., A Concise
Bibliography of the Works of Walt Whitman (1922).

BIOGRAPHY: Arvin, Newton, Whitman (1938); Bailey, John, Walt Whitman
(1926); Barrus, Clara, Whitman and Burroughs, Comrades (1931); Barton, W. E..
Abraham Lincoln and Walt Whitman (1928); Baxter, Sylvester, "Walt Whitman in
Boston," NEM., N.S. VI (1892), pp. 714-721; Bazalgette, Leon, Walt Whitman: The
Man and His Work (1920); Bradley, Sculley, "Walt Whitman on Timber Creek," AL.,
V (1933-1934), pp. 235-246; Brinton, D. G.: Traubel, H. L., "A Visit to West Hills/'
in W alt Whitman Fellowship Papers, 1894-1999; No. 10. December, 1894; Bucke, R. M.,
Walt Whitman (1883); "Memories of Walt Whitman," Whitman Fellowship Papers

. . ..

tman to Peter Doyle, 1897) ; Emory Holloway, "Some New Whitman Letters," AM.,

(1929), pp. 183-188; R. G. Silver, "Seven Letters of Walt Whitman," AL. f VII

5-1936), pp. 76-81: "Thirty-One Letters of Walt Whitman," ibid.. VIII (1936-

), pp. 417-438; "Whitman's Earliest Signed Prose: A Correction," AL., IX (1937-

" "

hxperienccs (two volumes, 1904); Deutsch, Babette, Wait Whitman: Builder for America

E. P., Anne Gilchrist and Walt Whitman (1900); Holloway, Emory, Whitman: An
Interpretation in Narrative (1926); "Whitman on the War's Finale," Colophon, I (1930);
"Whitman as His Own Press- Agent," AM., XVIII (1929), pp. 482-488; "Whitman as
Journalist," SRL., VIII (1932). pp. 677, 679-680; "Walt Whitman's Visit to the
Shakers," Colophon, XIII (1930); Josenbson, Matthew, Portrait of the Artist as an
American (1930), pp. 139-198; Keller, E. L., Walt Whitman in Mickle Street (1921);
Kennedy, W. S., The Fight of a Book for the World (1926); Reminiscences of Walt
Whitman (1896); Masters, E. L., Whitman (1937); Molmoff, Katherine, Some Notes
on Whitman's Family (1941); Morris, H. S., Walt Whitman: A Brief Biography with
Reminiscences (1929); O'Connor, W. D., The Good Gray Poet (1866); Perry, Bliss,
Walt Whitman: Hit Life and Work (1906); Rogers. Cameron, The Magnificent Idler
(1926); Sixbey, G. L. t ''Whitman's War Years" (Ph.D., Yale, 1941); Traubel, Horace,
With Walt Whitman in Camden (three volumes, 1906-1914); Trowbridge, J. T., "Reminis-
cences of Walt Whitman," Atl., LXXXIX (1902), pp. 163-175; Wecter. Dixon. "Walt
Whitman as Civil Servant," PMLA.. LVIII (1943), pp. 1094-1109; Wmwar, Frances,
American Giant: Walt Whitman and His Times (1941).

301; "Walt Whitman and The Atlantic Monthly," ibid., Vt (1934-1935), pp. 283-301;
Baldensperger, Fernand. "Walt Whitman and France," CUQ., XXI (1919), pp. 298-309:
Blankenship, Russell, American Literature (1931), pp. 348-367; Blodgett, Harold, Walt
Whitman in England (1934); Born. Helena, Whitman's Ideal Democracy (1902); Boyd.
Ernest, Literary Blasphemies (1927), pp. 186-212: Bradford, Gamaliel, Biography and
the Human Heart (1932), pp. 65-93: Bradley, Sculley, "The Fundamental Metrical Prin-
ciple in Whitman's Poetry/' AL.. X (1938-1939), pp. 437-459; "Walt Whitman and the
Postwar World," SAO.. XLII (1943); pp. 220-224; Brenner, Rica. Twelve American
Poets before 1900 (1933), pp. 229-266; Brooks, Van Wyck, America's Coming-of-Age

306

APPENDIX

(1915), pp. 109-129; Sketches in Criticism (1932), pp. 178-189; Burke, Kenneth, "Ac-
ceptance and Rejection," So.R., II (1936-1937), pp. 600-632; Burroughs, John, Whitman,

Campbell. Killis, "The Evolution of Whitman as Artist," AL., VI (1934-1935), pp. 254-
263; Canby, H. S., Classic Americans (1932), pp. 308-351; Carpenter, F. L, "Immortality
from India." AL., I (1929-1930), p. 240 /., (pp. 233-242); *'The Vogue of Ossian m
America," ibid., II (1930-1931), pp. 413-417 (pp. 405-417); Cestre. CLharles], "Walt
Whitman, L'lnadapteV' RAA., VII (1929-1930), pp. 385-408; "Walt Whitman: Lc
Mystique, Le Lynque." VII (1929-1930), pp. 482-504; "Walt Whitman, Le Poete "
RAA., VIII (1930-1931), pp. 19-41; Chapman. J. J., Emerson and Other Essays (1898),
pp. 111-128; Cooke, A. L., "Whitman's Indebtedness to the Scientific Thought of His
Day," UTSE., No. 14 (1934), pp. 89-115; "Whitman's Background in the Industrial
Movements of His Time," ibid.. No. 15 (1935), pp. 76-91; Daggett, G. H., Whitman's
Poetic Theory (Ph.D., North Carolina, 1941); DeSelincourt, Basil, Walt Whitman: A
Critical Study (1914); Dowden, Ernest, Studies in Literature 1789-1977 (1892), pp. 468-
523: Ellis, Havelock. The New Spirit (1892). pp. 89-132; Erskine. John, "A Note on
Whitman's Prosody,' 1 SP., XX (1923), pp. 336-344; Falk, R. P., ''Walt Whitman and
German Thought," JEGP., XL (1941), pp. 315-330; Foerster, Norman, American Criti-
cism (1928), pp. 157-222; Nature in American Literature (1923), pp. 176-220; The
Reinterpretation of American Literature (1928), pp. 23-28; Frank, Waldo, The New
America (1922), pp. 220-240; Furness, C.J., "Walt Whitman's Politics," AM., XVT
(1929), pp. 459-466: "Walt Whitman's Estimate of Shakespeare," HSNPL., XIV
(1932), pp. 1-33; Gohdes, Clarence, and Baum. P. F., Letters of W. M. Rossetti con-
cerning Whitman, Blake, and Shelley (1934); Gohdes, C. L. F.. ''A Note on Whitman's
Use of the Bible as a Model," MLQ.. II (1941), pp. 105-108; "Whitman and Emerson,"
SR.. XXXVIII (1929), pp. 79-93; tfoodale, David, "Some of Walt Whitman's Borrow-
ings," AL., X (1938-1939), pp. 202-213; Gosse, Edmund, Leaves and Fruit (1927),
pp. 205-211; Gummere, F. JB., Democracy and Poetry (1911), pp. 96-148; Harrison,

as Untie of America," SP., XX (1923), pp. 345-369; "Notes from a Whitman Student's
Scrapbook," A.Schol., II (1933), pp. 269-278; "Whitman's Embryonic Verse," Sw.R.,
X (1925), pp. 28-40; Howard, Leon. "Walt Whitman and the American Language," AS.,
V (1930), pp. 441-451; "For a Critique of Whitman's Transcendentalism," MLN.,
XLVII (1932), pp. 79-85; Howe, M. A. DeW., American Bookmen (1902), pp. 222-241;
Huneker, James, Ivory Apes and Peacocks (1915), pp. 22-31; Hungerford, Edward,
"Walt Whitman and His Chart of Bumps," AL., II (1930-1931), pp. 350-384; James,
Henry, Views and Reviews (1908), pp. 101-110; Johnson. M. O., "Walt Whitman as a
Critic of Literature," UNSLLC.. No. 16 (1938), pp. 1-73; Jones, P. M., "Influence of
Walt Whitman on the Origin of the *Vers Libre/" MLR., XI (1916), pp. 186-194;
Tordy, W. H,, "Henry Adams and Walt Whitman," SAQ., XL (1941), pp. 132-145;
Kreymborg, Alfred, Our Singing Strength (1929), pp. 206-230; Lafourcade, Georges,
"Swinburne and Walt Whitman," MLR., XXII (1927), pp. 84-86; Law- Robertson,
Harry, "Walt Whitman in Deutschland" GBDP., XLII (1935); Long, Haniel, Walt
Whitman and the Springs of Courage (1938); Lowell, Amy, "Walt Whitman and the
New Poetry" YR., XVI (1926-1927), pp. 502-519; Poetry and Poets (1930); Lucas,
F. L., Authors Dead and Living (1926); Macphail, Andrew, Essays in Puritanism
(1905), pp. 223-273; Macy, John, The Spirit of American Literature (1913), pp. 210-
247; The Critical Game (1922), pp. 203-211; Mathews, J. C., "Walt Whitman's Reading
of Dante." UTSE., No. 3926 (1939), pp. 177-179; Matthiessen, F. O., American Renais-
sance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman (1941), pp. 517-625;
Mercer, D. F., Leaves of Grass and the Bhagavad Gita (Ph.D., California, 1933);
Monroe, Harriet, Poets & Their Art (1926), pp. 179-184; Monroe, W. S., "Swinburne's
Recantation of Walt Whitman," RAA., VIII (1930-1931), pp. 347-351; Moore, J. B.,
"The Master of Whitman," SP.. XXIII (1926). pp. 77-89; More, P. E., Shelburnc
Essays. Fourth Series (1907), pp. 180-211; Mumtord, Lewis, The Golden Day (1926).
pp. 121-138; Myers, H. A., "Whitman's Consistency," AL., VIII (1936-1937), pp. 243-
257; "Whitman's Conception of the Spiritual Democracy, 1855-1856," AL.. VI (I"'

Relations of Whitman and Carlyle with Especial Reference to their Contrasting Views
on Democracy " SP., XXXVI (1939), pp. 550-563; Parrmgton, V. L., Main Currents
in American Thought. Ill (1930), pp. 69-86; Parsons, O. W., "Whitman the Non-
Hegelian," PMLA., LVIII (1943), pp. 1073-1093; Pattee, F. L., A History of American
Literature since 1S70 (1915), pp. 163-185; The Feminine Fifties (1940), pp. 37-49;
Pound, Louise, "Walt Whitman and the Classics," Sw.R., X (1925), pp. 75-83; "Walt
Whitman and Italian Music," AJd. t VI (1925). pp. 58-63; "Walt Whitman and the
French Language," AS., I (1926), pp. 421-430; "Walt Whitman's Neologisms," AM.,
IV (1925), pp. 199-201; Pucciani. O. F.. The Literary Reputation of Walt Whitman in
France (Dissertation, Harvard, 1943); Rascoe, Burton, Titans of Literature (1932),
pp. 391-394; Reed, H. B., "The Heraclttan Obsession of Walt Whitman," Personalist,
XV (1934), pp. 125-138; Rickett, Arthur, The Vagabond in Literature (1906), pp. 16-
205; Riethraucller, R. H., Watt Whitman and the Germans (1906); Santayana, George,
Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1900). pp. 166-216; Scott, F. N., "A Note on
Walt Whitman's Prosody," JEGP., VII (1907-1908), pp. 134-153; Shephard, Esther,
Walt Whitman'* Pose (1938); SherWn, S. P.. American* (1922), pp. 153-185; Sixbey.
G. L., "'Chanting The Square Deific' A Study in Whitman's Religion," AL., IX
(1937-1938), pp. 171-195; Smith, F. M., "Whitman's Poet-Prophet and Carlyle's Hero,"
PMLA. t LV C1940), pp. 1146-1164; "Whitman's Debt to Carlyle's Sartor Resartus,"

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 37

MLQ, t III (1942), pp. 51-65, Stedman, E. C., Poets of America (1885), pp. 349-395;
Stevenson, R. L., Familiar Studies of Men and Books (seventh edition, 1892). pp. 91-
127; Stovall, Floyd, Walt Whitman: Representative Selections (1934); Strachey, J. St. L.,
American Soundings (1926), pp. 233-245; Strong, A. H., American Poets and Their
Theology (1916). pp. 421-470; Swinburne, A. C., Complete Works, edited ' *"
Edmund, and Wise, T. J., XVI (1926), pp. 377-444; Symondi. J. A., W alt
A Study (1893); Taylor, W. F., A Htstory of American Letters (1936), pi

tive Devices in Leaves of Grass." AL., I (1929-1930), pp. 16M70; White, V. C.,
"Thoreau's Opinion of Whitman/ 1 NEQ. t VIII (1935), pp. 262-264.

HARRIET [ELIZABETH] BEECHER STOWE (pp. 143-145)

WORKS: Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852); A Key to Uncle Tom'* Cabin (1853); Dred:
A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856); The Minister's Wooing (1859); The Pearl
of Orr's Island (1862); Oldtown Folks (1869); Poganuc People (1878).

BIOGRAPHY: Beecher, C. (ed.), Autobiography, Correspondence, Etc.. of Lyman
Beecher (two volumes, 1864-1865); Crow, M. F., Harriet Beecher Stowe (19135; Fields,
Annie (ed.), Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe (1897); Gilbert son. Catherine,
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1937); MacArthur, R. A. t The Story of Harriet Beecher Stowe
(1922); Rourke, C. M., Trumpets of Jubilee (1927), pp. 89-148; Stowe, C. E., Life of
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1889); Stowe, C. E., and L. B v Harriet Beecher Stowe (1911);

j. LJ.) aim i. JD. vcua.^, snttnurs <M nume \ioo7j, yy. u A ./-> , rraiu, .KM j. J. *, \*r

from a Life (1896), pp. 131-140; Wilson, Forrest, Crusader in Crinoline (1941).

the Works of Harriet B. Stowe
rits of American Women (1919),
in America, 1789-1WO (.1940),
ts (1910). pp. 275-323; Guerry,
5-344: Klmgberg, F. J., "Harriet

Heecber Stowe and social Ketorm in Jinglana," AtiJt., XLIII (1938), pp. 542-552:
McDowell, Tremaine, "The Use of Negro Dialect by Harriet Beecher Stowe," AS.. VI
(1930-1931), pp. 322-326; Maclean, G. E., "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in Germany (1910);
Maxfield, E. K., "'Goody Goody' Literature and Mrs. Stowe," AS., IV (1928-1929),
pp. 189-202; Parrington, V. L., Main Currents in American Thought. II (1927), pp. 371-
378; Pattee, F. L., The Feminine Fifties (1940), pp. 130-145; Phelps, W. L., Howells,
James, Bryant, and Other Essays (1924), pp. 181-206; Purcell, J. M., "Mrs. Stowe's
Vocabulary," AS., XIII (1938), p. 230 /., Sanborn, F. B., "Mrs. Stowe and Her Uncle
Tom," BS., LXV1II (1907), pp. 674-683; Shoup, F. A., "Uncle Tom's Cabin Forty
Years After," SR., II (1893-1894). pp.. 88-104; Tandy. J. R., "Pro-Slavery Propaganda
in American Fiction of the Fifties,*' SAQ., XXI (192$), pp. 41-50, 170-178.

GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS (p. 145)

Adams, E. L "George W. Curtis and his Friends," MB., XIV (1939), pp. 291-303,
353-366; Cary, Edward, George William Curtis (1894); Chadwick, J. W., "Recollections
of George William Curtis," Harper's, LXXXVI (1892-1893), pp. 469-476; George
William Curtis (1893); Chamberlain, H. H., George William Curtis and His Antecedents
(1893); Godwin, Parke, George William Curtis, A Commemorative Address . . . (1893);
Hale, E. E., "Curtis, Whittfer, and Longfellow" in Five Prophets of Today (1892).

BAYARD TAYLOR (p. 146)

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Beatty, R. C., "A Mind Divided," AR.. Ill
(1934), pp. 77-95; Bayard Taylor: Laureate of the Gilded Age (1936) reviewed by
Sculley Bradley, AL.. VIII (1936-1937), pp. 474-477; Flanagan, J. T., "Bayard Taylor's
Minnesota Visits," M.Hist., XIX (1938), pp. 399-418; Hansen-Taylqir, Marie, and
Scudder. H. E., Life and Letters of Bayard Tavlor (two volumes, 1884); Hellman, G. S.,

AL., V (1933), pp. 123-132; "Bayard Taylor's Unpublished Letters to His Sister Annie,"
AL.. VII (1935-1936), pp. 47-55.

LOUISA M. ALCOTT (pp. 146-147)

WORKS: Flower Fables, or Fairy Tales (1855); Hospital Sketches (1863); Moods
(1865; rewritten 1882); Little Women (1868, 1869); Camp and Fireside Stories (1869);
An Old-Fashioned Girl (1870); Little Men (1871); Aunt Jo's Scrap Baa (1872-1882);
Work, A Story of Experience (1873); Eight Cousins (1875); Rose in Bloom (1876);
Silver Pitchers (1876); A Modem Mephfstopheles (1877); Under the Lilacs (1878);
Jack and Jill (1880); Proverb Stories (1882); Spinning-Wheel Stories (1884); Lulu's

38 APPENDIX

Library (1886-1889); Jo's Boys, and How They Turned Out (1886); A Garland for Girls
(1888); Comic Tragedies Written by "Jo" and (t Meg" and Acted by the f( Little Women"
(1893).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gulliver, Lucile, Louisa May Alcott: A Bibliography, with Ap-
preciation by Cornelia Meigs (1932); Stern, M. B., "Louisa May Alcott's Contributions
to Periodicals, 1868-1888," MB. (1943), pp. 411-420.

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Alcott, J. S. P., "The 'Little Women' of Long
Ago," GH., LVI (1913), pp. 182-189; Anthony, Katharine, Louisa May Alcott U938) ;
Bradford, Gamaliel, Portraits of American Women (1919), pp. 165-194; Brown, M. H.,

Gerould, K. F., "Miss Alcott's New England, 1 ' Atl., CVIII (1911). pp. 180-186; Go
Clara, The Alcotts as I Knew Them (1909); Higginson, T. W., Short Studies of A

8), pp. 164-170; Sanborn, F. JB., Ke 'collections of Seventy Years (.1*09 K "Kemmis-
* of Louisa M. Alcott," Ind., LXXII (1912), pp. 469-502; Sears, C. E., Bronson
Alcott's Fruitlands (1915); Shepard, Odell, Pedlar's Progress (1937); Spofford. H. P.,
"Louisa May Alcott/' Chant., IX (1888-1889), pp. 160-162; Stearns, F. P., Sketches from
Concord and Appledore 0895), pp. 69-88; Talbot, Marion, "Glimpses of the Real
Louisa May Alcott," NEQ., XI (1938), pp. 731-738; Ticknor, Caroline, May Alcott:
A Memoir (1929); Whitman. Alfred, "Miss Alcott's Letters to Her 'Laurie, " LHJ..
XVIII (1901), No. 11, p. 4; Willis, F. L. H., Alcott Memoirs (1915); Wmtench, J. T.,
"Romantic Stories of Books: Little Women," PW., CXX (1931), pp. 607-611.

Stern, M. B., "Louisa M. Alcott: Civil War Nurse," Americana. XXXVII (1943),
pp. 296-325; "Louisa Alcott, Trouper," NEQ., XVI (1943), pp. 175-197; [Strunsky,
Simeon], "Topics of the Times," NYT. t December 14, 1944.

THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH (pp. 147-148)

CHIEF WORKS: The Story of a Bad Boy (1870); Marjorie Daw, and Other People
(1873); The Stillwater Tragedy (1880); From Ponkapog to Pesth (1883); Two Bites at
a Cherry, with Other Talcs (1894); Ponkapog Paters (1903); Works of Thomas Ba\ley
Aldrich (eight volumes, 1896); The Poems of Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1897).

BIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM: Aldrich, Mrs. T. B., Crowding Memories (1920);
Cowie, Alexander, "Indian Summer Novelist," NEQ., XV (1942), pp. 608-621; Greenslet,
Ferris, The Life of Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1908); Grattan, C. H., "Thomas Bailey
Aldrich," AM.. V (1925), pp. 41-45; More, P. E., Shelburne Essays, Seventh Series
(1910), pp. 138-152; Peiry, Bliss, Park-Street Papers (1908), pp. 143-170; Vedder,
H. C., American Writers of Today (1894), pp. 104-123.

HENRY JAMES (pp. 200-204)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Phillips, Le Roy, A Bibliography of Henry James (1930);
Richardson, L. N. (ed.), Henry James: Representative Selections, with Introduction,
Bibliography, arid Notes (1941); Taylor, W. F., A History of American Letters (1936),
pp. 556-559.

BIOGRAPHY: Benson, A, C., Memories and Friends (1924), pp. 214-228; Bosanquet,
Theodora, Henry James at Work (1924); JBrooks, Van \Vyck, The Pilgrimage of Henry
James (1925); "Henry James of Boston" SRL. t XXII (July 15, 1940), pp. 3-4, 16-J7;
Burr, A. R., (edj, Alice James: Her Brothers (1934); Colvin, Sidney, Memories and
Notes of Persons and Places (1921); Gosse, Edmund, Aspects and Impressions 11922),

E. 17-53; Grattan, C. H., The Three Jameses (1932): James, Henry, Jr. (od ), Letters
William James (1920): Letters of Charles Eliot Norton (1913); Letter* of Robert
mis Stevenson (1899); MacKenzie, Compton, "Henry James," LLT., XXXIX (1943),
pp. 147-155; Warren, Austin, The Elder Henry James (1934).

CRITICISM: Arvin, Newton, "Henry James and the Almighty Dollar," ////., VII
(1934), pp. 434-443: Barzun, Jacques, "James the Melodramatist," KR.. V U94S),
pp. 508-521; Beach, J. W.. The Method of Henry James (1918); The Twentieth-Century
Novel (1932), pp. 177-228; Blackraur, R. P., Art of tht Novel: Critical Prefaces, by
Henry James (1934), pp. viiooucix; "In the Country of the Blue," KR., V (1943),
pp. -595-617; Boyd, Ernest, Literary Blasphemies (1927), pp. 213-226: Bradford, Gamaliel,
American Portraits (1922), pp. 171-196; Brewster, Dorothy, and Burrell, Angus, Dead
Reckonings in Fiction (1924), pp. 19-41; Brooks, Van Wyck, The Pilgrimage of Henry
James (1925); "Henry James of Boston," SRL., XXII (July 15, 1940), pp. 3-4. 16-17;
Brownell, W. C., American Prose Masters (1909), pp. 339-400; Canby, H. S., Definitions:
Essays in Contemporary Criticism, First Series (1922), pp. 278-281; Cantwell, Robert,
"A Little Reality/' Hff.. VII (1934). pp. 494-505: Caryi E, L., The Novels of Henry
James (1905); Cestre, Charles, "La France dans rOeuvre de Henry James." RAA. t X
(1932). pp. 1-13, 112-122; Conrad, Joseph, "Henry James: An Appreciation," NAR..
CLXXX (1905), pp. 102-108; CCHI (1916). pp. 585-591: DeMffle, G. E., Literary
Criticism in America (1931), pp. 158-181; Edel, Leon, "The Exile of Henry James/'

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHIES 309

'I'SBf? re oA tZ? ry J ame *> Ma J * nd A *"r (1927); Elton, Oliver, Modern Studies
}$' Pp -, 2 n 4 c 5 ^ 4; /, e , rgus ? n ' J rances ' "Ja^"*' 8 Wca of Dramatic Form," KR.. V
oi 94 i 5 ',, pp ' 4 ,??*, 507; ESK^SsP' J*^ 11 Wilson ' 5om Mod** Novelists (1918), pp. 75-
98; Follett, W son, "The Simplicity of Henry Tames," AR.> I (1923), pp. 315-325;
Forbes, E. L., "Dramatic Lustrum: A Study of the Effect of Henry James r s Theatrical
Experience on His Later Novels," NEQ., XI (1938). pp. 108-120: Ford (Hueffer),
lord, Madox, Henry James; A Critical Study (1913); Portraits from Life (1937).
pp. 1-20; "Techniques," So.R., I (1935-1936), pp. 20-35; Garland/ Hamlm, Roadside
Meetings (1930), pp. 454-465: fcosse, Edmund, "ftenry James " LM. I (1920), pp, 673-

684 ^} I o^ (1 %o ) Ji^ p ' 9 ; 41 V fia i5 ke "vF rancis #"*ww: ^ Book of Criticism (1918),
pp. 74-82, 268-273: Hale, E. E., "The Impressionism of Henry James," UCFP. II
(1931). pp. 3-17; Hartwick, Harry, The Foreground of American Fiction (1934), pp. 341-
368; Hernck, Robert, "A Visit to Henry James" in The Manly Anniversary Studies in
Language and Literature (1923), pp. 229-242; "Henry James" in Macy, John (ed,),
American Writers on American Fiction (1931), pp. 298-316; Hicks, Granville, The Great
Tradition (1933), pp. 100, 105-124; Howells. W. D., "Mr. Henry James's Later Work,"
NAR. t CLXXVI (1903), pp. 125-137; ibid., CCII1 (1916) pp. 572-584; Hughes. H. L.,

Henry James/'
and Other Essays

.,, .>p. 70-138, 268-288; Kelley, C. P., "The Early Development of
\SLL., XV, Nos. 1-2 (1930); Lowell, J. R., The Function of the Poet
v,**, ^o.u.x,, (1920), pp. 105-114; Lubbock. Percy, "Henry James," QR. t CCXXVI
(1916). pp. 60-74; The Craft of Fiction (1921), pp. 145 ff., 156 ff. t 172 ff., 189 #.;
MacKenzie, Compton, "Henry James," LLT., XXXIX (1943), pp. 147-155: Macy,
John, The Spirit of American Literature (1913), pp. 324-339; Matthews, Brander,
"Hemy James and the Theater," Bookman, LI (1920), pp. 389-395; Matthiessen, F. O. t

James tfryant, and Other Essays (1924), pp. 123-155; Porter, K. A., "The Days Before,'
KR., V (1943), pp. 481-494; Pound, Ezra, Instigations (1920), pp. 106-167; Rahv,
Philip, "The Heiress of All the Ages," PR., X (1943). pp. 227-247; Randell, W. R.,
"The Art of Mr. Henry James," FR.. CV, N.S. XCIX (1916), pp. 620-632; "Henry
James as Humanist," ibid., CXVI, N.S. CX (1921), pp. 458-469; Read, Herbert, The
Sense of Glory (1929), pp. 205-228; Roberts, Morley, Henrv James's Criticism (1929);
Russell, John, "Henry James and the Leaning Tower," 'NSN., N.S. XXV (1943),
p. 254 /.; Scott, Dixon, Men of Letters (1923), pp. 78-110; Seldes, G. V., '^Henry
James: An Appreciation," HM. t LIII (1911), pp. 92-100; Sherman, Stuart, On Contem-
porary Literature (1917). pp. 226-255; The Emotioiial Discovery of America (1932),
Pp. 35-47; Spender, Stephen, "The School of Experience in the Early Novels," ////..
VII (1934), pp. 417-433; "A Modern Writer in Search of a Moral Subject," LM., XXXf
(1934), pp. 128-133; The Destruction Element- A Study of Modern Writers and Beliefs
(1935), pp. 11-110; Swinnerton, Frank, The Georgian 'Scene (1934), pp. 19-39; Under-
wood, J. C., Literature and Insurgency (1914), pn. 41-86; Van Doren. Carl. The Am*ri.
can Novel (1940), pp. 163-189; Vivas, Eliseo, "Henry and William James: Two Notes,"
KR., V (1943), pp. 580-594; Warren, Austin, "Myth and Dialectic in the Later Novels,"
t&d ;; pp 551-568; West, Rebecca, Henry James (1916); Wharton, Edith, "Henry Tames
in His Letters," QR.. CCXXXTV (1920), pn, 188-202; A Backward Glance (1934),
pp. 169-196; Wilson, Edmund, The Triple Thinkers: Ten Essays on Literature (1938),
PP- 122-164: Winters, Yvor, "Henry James and the Relation of Morals to Manners,"
AR.. TX (1937). pr>. 482-503; Maule's Curse (1938), pp. 169-216,

Matthiessen, F. O.. Henrv fames- The Major Phase (1944); "The Painter's Sponge
and Varnish Bottle: Henry James's Revision of The Portrait of a Ladv," AB. t I (1944),
Flhrl 9 ' 68 ' r ieorpre Stevens, "The Return of Henry James," SRL,, XXVIII (March 3,
1945), pp. 7-8, 30, 32-33.

INDEX

The aim of this Index is to cover all substantial references to authors,
titles, and the like. No attempt is made to direct the reader to every subject
or to every proper name mentioned in the handbook. Note, especially, the
omission in this Index of the hundreds of titles in the final chapter (pages 268-
294).

Abbot. Jacob. 82

Abolitionist, The, 88

"Abraham Davenport," 116

Abraham Lincoln: A History, 168

Abraham Lincoln: An ft oration Ode, 59

Account of the History. Manners, and Cus-
toms of the Indian Nations . . . , 112

"Acknowledgment// 235

Acorn Planter, The, 229

Active Service, 207

Adams.. Henry [Brook*]. 255-259

Adams, James Truwlow, 290

Adams, John (c. 1705-1740), 20

Adams, John (1735-1826), 36

Adami*, JLeonle Fuller, 285

Adam*, Samuel, 31

Addoms, Jane. 213

"Address on Philippine Question." 212

Ade, George, 289

Admctits and Other Poems. 249

"Adventure of Padre Vicentio," 162

"Adventure of the German Student," 51

"Adventures in a Perambulator " 113

Adventures of Captain Bonnewlle, 52

Adventures of Captain Horn, The, 225

Adventures of Francois, The, 225

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The,
191

Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The, 191

Advertisements for the . . . Planters of
New-England, or Anywhere, 2

"Advice to Authors," 39

Advice to the Privileged Orders, 41

Aeneid, 105

Afloat and Ashore, 67

"After a Lecture on Shelley," 125

'After a Lecture on Wordsworth," 125

"After the Burial" 132

"After the Curfew," 125

Alhambra, The. 51

Alice of Old Vincennes, 171

Alide, 249

Alison's House, 231

"All Here," 125

"Allegash and East Branch, The," 99

Allegheny Winds and Waters, 180

Allen. Ethan. 45

Allen, James Lane, 177-179

Alien, Paul, 46

AlUton. Washington. 80

Alnwick Casile, with Other Poems, 53

Along the Trail, 245

Aleop, George, 13

Alsop, Richard, 45

Ambassadors, The, 203

"Ambitious Guest, The," 119

"America," 65

"America Independent," 38

American, The, 202

American Democrat, The, 67

American Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage, An, 44

American Humor (Early Sentiment and
Romance, 1810-1865), 76-78

"American Liberty," 38

American Magazine, 19

American Ornithology, 25

American Politician, An, 220

American Primer, An, 134 footnote

American Prose Masters, 262

American Revolution, The, 211

American Scholar, The, 89, 91, 92, 97

"American Writers," 79

Ames, Fisher, 45

Ames, Nathaniel, 20

Among My Books, 127, 130

IIICW, AJ

Aftermath (T. L. Allen), 178

Aftermath (H. W. Longfellow), 112

Afternoon Landscape, An, 262

Afternoon Neighbors. 207

"Agassiz " 132

Apt of Reason, The, 32, 33

Ah Sin, 162

Ah, Sin (drama), 164 footnote

Aiken, Conrad [Potter], 233 footnote, 283

Airs from Arcady and Elsewhere. 224

Airs of Palestine, 58

"Al Aaraaf," 61

Alabama, 264

Alabaster Box, The, 177

Alcott, [Amos] Bronson, 95, 101, 102.

Aloott. Louis* May, 146-147. 297-298

Atcuin, 42

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 113, 147-148,

298
Algerine Captive, The, 41

Among the Camps,
"Among the Hills, 1

181

1 116

Amulet, The, 180

'Amy Wentworth." 116

Anderson, Maxwell, 286

Anderson. Sherwood, 171, 272

"Angels of Buena Vista, The," 117

"Annabel Lee," 62

Anne, 179

"Anner 'Ltzer's Stumblin' Block." 252

Annie Kilbume, 197

Antepenultimata, 217

Anthology of Another Town, The, 171

Anti-Slavery Papers of James* Russell

Lowell, Th*. 127 footnote
Anti-Slavery Poems, 58
Atpeal to Caesar. An. 226
"Appeal t<J Harofd, The," 224
Appreciations of Poetry, 174 footnote
April Airs, 243
April Hopes, 199
Ardis Claverdtn, 225

3 I2

INDEX

Arethusa, 221

Arigona, 264

Army Life in a Black Regiment, 261

Arp, BUI (pseud.). 83, 160

"Art" (Emerson's Essays), 93

"Art" (Emerson's Society and Solitude), 97

Artetnus Ward (pseud.), 76-77. 160

Artemus Ward, His Works Complete, 77

Arthur, Chester A. f 154

Arthur Mervyn, 42

As a Man Thinks, 264

As a Strong Bird on Pinions Free, 135

footnote

As It Was in the Beginning, 169
As Wt Co, 262
As We Were Saying, 262
Ashes of the Beacon, 217
Aspern Papers, The, 210
Astoria, 51

Asylum; or t A I on to and Melissa, The, 46
"At Dartmouth." 126
At Fault, 180
"At Gibraltar/' 263
At Love's Extremes, 171
"At the Burns Centennial," 131
"At the Crossroads," 245
"At the Saturday Club," 125
Atherton* Gertrude [Franklin Horn],

269-270

"Atlantic City," 224
"Atlantides. The," 101
"Attack, The," 58
Auden W[ystanl H[u*h], 285
Audubon, John James, 84
"Auf Wiedersehenl," 132
"Auspex," 132
Austin, William, 82
Austin Phelps, 149
Autobiography (Peter Cartwright), 75
Autobiography (Benjamin Franklin), 27,

28 29

Autobiography, or the Story of a Life, 134
Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, The,

27, 28, 29
Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table, The, 122,

123

"Avondale Mine Disaster, The," 160
Awakening, The, 180
"Away Down South," 64
Awkward Age, The, 201

Babbitt, Irving, 289

"Bacchus," 98 .

Back-Trailers from the Middle Border, 206

Backwoodsman, The, 54

Bacon, Delia 8., 84

"Bacon's Epitaph, Made by His Man/' 2

Balcony Stories, 181

Baldwin. Joseph Glover. 83

Ballad, 159, 160

"Ballad of the Boston Tea-Party. A," 124

"Ballad of the Oysterman, The/' 124

"Ballad of Trees and the Master, A," 236

Ballads, 159, 160

Ballads and Other Poems, 107

Ballads and Other Verses, 145

Ballads of Ireland, 224

Ballads of Lost Haven, 243

Ban**. John Kendrlck. 250. 251

Banker of Banker sville, A, 111

Bankrupt, The, 75

"Banner of the Jew, The." 249

"Banty Tim." 167

"Bar Light- House, The/' 184

Bar Sinister, The, 226

"Barbara Frietchie," 115, 265

Bare Souls, 261

"Barefoot Boy, The," 116

Barker, James Nelson, 46

Barlow, Joel. 40-41

Barnard. John. 20

Baronet* of New York, The. 169

Burry, Philip. 287

Bartleby, the Scnvcncr, 72

Bartrum, John, 45

Bartram, William. 25

Barxun, Jacques, 293

Bateman. Mrs. Sidney Frances. 83

"Battle-Field, The," 57, 245

Battle of Bunkers Hilt, The, 43

"Battle of Lake Erie, The," 39

"Battle of Niagara," 79

"Battle of the Kegs, The," 31, 245

Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War, 73

Bay Psalm Book, The, 7, 10

Bayou Folk, 180

Beard, Charles A[ut*tln], 290

Beau Brummel, 264

Beauchampe, 74

"Beauties of Santa Cruz, The/' 37. 39

"Beautiful Dreamer," 64

"Beauty," 97

"Bedouin Song." 146

Beebe, [Charles] Williams, 290

Beers, Kthel Lynn, 81

Befo' de War, 180, 181

Before Adam, 229

Before the Curfew and Other Poems, 122

Beginners of a Nation, The, 166

Beginnings of New England, The, 211

"Behavior," 97

Behind the Arras: A Book of the Unseen,

Behind the Gamut, 243

"Behold the Deeds," 224

"BehoM this Swarthy Face/' 139

Behrman, Sfamuel] N[athuniel], 287

Belattco, David, 264

Belfry of Bruges and Other Poems t 107

Bellamy, Edward, 218-219

Bells, The (T. B. Aldrich), 148

"Bells, The'* (E. A. Poe), 62

"Beloved, in the noisy city here," 130

Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, 225

Benchley, Robert [Charles], 292

"Benedicite," 116

Benet, Stephen Vincent, 284

Benezet, Anthony, 45

"Benito Cereno," 72

BenJ. F. Johnson (pseud.). 250

"Berenice," 63

Bertram Cope's Year, 227

Betrothal, The, 74

"Betsy and I Are Out/i 249

Between the Dark and the Daylight, 195

Beverley. Robert, 20

Beyond the Gates, 148

Bianca Visconti, 53

"Bibliolatres/' 131

Bicyclers, The, 251

Blerce. Ambrose CGwinett], 214-217.

252: merits and defects. 217; other

works, 216-217; poetry collections, 216;

short-story volumes, 215-216
"Big Bear of Arkansas, The," 83
Bifflow Papers, The, 127, 128, 131
"Bill and Joe," 125
Bill Arp So Called (pseud.). 83, 160
Bill Arp, So Called, A Side Show of the

Southern Side of the War, 83
Billings. Josh (pseud.), 76, 160
Billy Budd.fZ
"Billy the Kid/' 159

Biographical and Critical Miscellanies, 77
Bird, Robert Montgomery. 82
"Birds of Killtngworth, The, 112
Birth of Galahad, The, 245
"Birthday of Daniel Webster," 124
"Birthmark, The," 119
Black Beetles in Amber, 216
"Black Cat, The," 63

INDEX

3*3

"Black Fox of Salmon River/' 58
Black Riders and Other Lines, The, 209
Blair, James, 20
Bland. Richard, 45
Bleaker, Ann Blisa, 45
Blessed Edmund Campion, 251
Blessing of Business, The, 171
Blitidman's World and Other Stories, The,

218
Ulithedale Romance, The, 103, 118, 120,

121

Blix, 228

Bloody Chasm, The, 224
Bloody Tenent of Persecution for Cause

of Conscience, The, 6
Bloody Tenent Yet More Bloody . . . , The,

6

"Blow the Man Down," 160
Blue Flower, The, 263
"Blue Hotel, The," 209
Blue-Crass Region of Kentucky and Other

Kentucky Articles, The, 177
Body of Liberties. The, 9
"Bohemian, The," 224
Bolts of Melody, 232
Boker, Geor*e Henry, 74-75
Bonaventure, 177
Bone Rules, 241
Bonifacius, 8
Bonny, W. H., 159

Book of Romances, Lyrics, and Songs, J46
Book of the East, The, 249
"Books," 97
Border Beagles, 74
Boston Gazette, 19
"Boston Hymn," 98
Boston News-Letter, 19
Boston Quarterly Review, 105
Bostonians, The, 201
Boucher, Jonathan. 45
Boy Life on the Prairie, 205
Boyd, James, 274

Boylston^riMe Dissertations, 122

Doynton, P. H., 164 footnote

"Boys, The," 125

Boy's Froissart, The, 235

Boy's King Arthur, The, 235

Boy's Mabinogion, The, 235

Boy's Percy, The, 235

Boy's Town, A, 195

Bracebridge Hall. 51

Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 24, 43-44

Bradford, Andrew, 19

Bradford, Bbeneser, 46

Bradford, Gamaliel, 259-261; American
character studies, 260-261 ; autobiography,
261: "psychographs," 259-260; trans- At-
lantte character studies, 261; women
character studies, 261

Bradford, William, 4

Bradstreet, Ann. 10-11

"Brahma," 97

Brainard. John Gardiner Calkins. 58

"Branch *oad, A," 205

Brattle. Thomas. 9

Bravo, The, 67

Bread-Winners, The, 168

Bred in the Bone, 181

"Breeze's Invitation, The," 101

Briar Cliff. 54

Bricks without Straw, 226

"Bride Comes to Yellow Sky, The/' 208

Bride of the Mistletoe, The, 179

Bridsjer James* 159

Broken Battalions, The, 65
firomfield, L.ouitt, 276

Brook Farm, 87, 105

Brooks, CharleH Timothy, 81

Brooks, Maria Gowen, 80

Brooks, Van Wyck, 292

"Brother Jonathan's Lament for Sister
Caroline/' 124

"Brother where dost thou dwell," 101

Brown, Charles Brockden. 24, 42-43

Brown, David Paul, 82

Brown, William Hill, 41

"Brown of Ossawatomie," 115

Browne. Charles Farrar, 76-77, 160

Brownell, Henry Howard, 81

Brownell, W[lUlam] C[rary], 262

Brownson. Orestes Augustus, 105-106, 290

"Brunhilde/ 1 229

"Brute, The," 248

Bryan, William Jennings, 213

Bryant, William Cullen, 54-57

"Bryant's Seventieth Birthday/' 125

Buccaneer and Other Poems, The, 58

Buck, Pearl S[ydenstricker], 274-275

Bucktails, The, 54

"Buffalo Skinners, The," 160

Building of the City Beautiful, The, 170

Building of the Ship, The, 111

Bulkley, John, 20

Bunce, Oliver Bell, 84

Bunker Hill, 46

Runner. H[enry] C[uyler], 222-224; nov-
els, 222-223; representative poems, 234;
short stories, 223-224

Bunyan, Paul, 159

Burglar, The, 264

Burial of the Guns, The, 181

llurk, John.D., 46

Burnett,Frances [Kliaa] Hodgson. 226,264

Burning Daylight, 229

"Burns," 117

"Burnt Ships," 171

Bnrritt, Ellhn. 79

Burroughs. John. 254-255

Burwell Papers, 2

Bushwhackers, The, 180

Busy-Body papers, 27, 29

Butler, James, 46

Butler. William Allen. 81

Butterflies: a Tale of Nature, 178

By the Waters of Babylon, 249

Byles. Mather, 20

Byrd. William, of Westover. 18

By-Ways and Bird Notes, 171

Cabell, [James] Branch. 272 273

Cable, Geor*e Washington. 175-177;
novels, 177; short stories. 176

"Cafe des Exiles/' 176

Calamus: A Series of Letters . , ., 134
footnote, 138

galaynos, 74
uldwell, Ersklne {Frefton], 277
Calef, Hubert, 9
"Calef in Boston," 115
Calhoun. John C., 79
Call of fhe Wild, the, 229
Calvinism, 2-3

"Cambridge Thirty Years Ago," 129
Campaign Life of Abraham Lincoln, The, 193
Can Such Things Bet, 216
Canby, Henry Seidel, 290
"Candor," 224
Cuntteld, Dorothy, 290-291
Canxoni, 252
Capote, Truman, 279
"Captain Barney's Victory," 39
Captain finks of the Horse Marine*, 264
Captain of Company K, The, 171
Captain of the Gray-Horse Troop, The, 206
Captured Dream and Other Stories, The, 171
Cartful and Strict Enquiry into ike Modem
Prevailing Notions of . . . Freedom of
Will .... ^. 17

3*4

INDEX

Carey, Henry Charles. SO

Carey, Mathew, 83

Cartoton. Will, 249

"Carlyle/' 130

Carman, [William] Biles, 242-244; chief
volumes of poetry, 242-243; merit* and
defects, 244; miscellaneous volumes of

poetry and prose, 243
"daroliTi " -

arolina," 64

Carpenter, John Alden, 113
"Carriage-Lamps, The," 207
Carruthers, William Alexander. 82
Cartwrijrht, Peter, 75
Carver, Jonathan, 45
Cary, Alice. 81
Cary. Phoebe, 81
Casa Braccio, 221
Cases of Conscience concerning Evil

Spirits, 7

"Casey Yones," 160
"Cask of Amontillado, The," 63
"Cassandra Southwiclc," 115
Castilian Days, 167
Costing Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs.

Aleshine, The, 225

Castle Nowhere: Lake Country Sketch* t,17 9
"Cathedral, The" (J. R. Lowell), 131
Cathedral, The (J. R. Lowell), 127
Cathedral Singer, A, 177
Gather. Wllla ISIbert], 138 footnote. 272
Catherwood, Mary [Hart well], 186
Cavaher, The, 176
Cavanagh, Forest Ranger, 206
Caweln. Madison [Julius]. 251-252
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras

County, The, 190
"Celestial Railroad, The," 119
Century of Dishonor, A, 171
Chainbearer, The f 67
"Chambered Nautilus, The," 125
Chance Acquaintance. A. 198
"Changeling, The," 132
Channln*, William Ellery (1780-1842),

87-88, T29, 286
Channlnjr, William Ellery (1818-1901),

105, 290

"Chanting the Square Deific," 140
Chant for the Boer, 169
"Chaperon, The," 224
Chapters from a Life, 148 footnote, 149
"Character," 96
Characteristics, 225
Charity Ball, The, 264
Charlemont, 74

Charles Egbert Craddoek (pseud.). 180
Chase, Mary Coyle, 288
Chase, Mary Ellen, 274
Chase of Saint-Castin, The, Ibb
Chitelaine of La Trinite, The, 227
"Chaucer." 130

Chauncey, Charles (1592-1672), 13
Chauneey, Charles (1705-1787), 17
Cheerful Yesterdays, 261
Chetebronjrh. Caroline. 82
Chestnut Tree, The, 41
"Chesuncook," 99

Chevalier of Pensieri-Vani, The, 227
"Chtcamauga " 215
Child. Lydla Maria, 82
Children tn Bondage. 250
"Children of Adam/' 138 footnote, 139
Children of the Forest, 229
Children of the King, 221
"Chiquita," 162
Chita: A Memory of Last Island, 175

81

Christian Philosopher . . . , The, 8
Christmas Every Day, and Other Stones

Told for Children, 194
"Christmas Jenny," 184
"Christmas-Night in the Quarters," 180
Christmas-Night in the Quarters and Other

Poems, 180

"Christmas Treasures," 250
Christ us: A Mystery, 113
Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada, A, SI
Church, (Colonel) Benjamin, 13
Church-Government and Church-Covenant

Discussed, 7

Churches Quarrel Espoused, The, 15
Churchill. Winston, 271
Cigarette-Maker' f Romance, A, 220
"Cinnamon Roses," 184
"Circle in the Water, A," 196 footnote
"Circles " 93
Circuit Rider, The, 165
Circumstance, 225
City, The, 265

"City Dead-House, The," 139
"City in the Sea. The," 62
"City of Orgies,'* 139
"Civic Sketches," 162
"Civil Disobedience," 99
Civil Government in the United States, 211
"Civilization," 97
Clara Howard, 43
Ctarel. 73

Clark, Lewis Gaylord, 81
Clark, Walter van Tilburg, 278
Clark, Willis Gaylord, 81
Clarke. James Freeman. 106
Clay, Henry. 79
Clemens, Samuel Langhorne, 76, 187-

193; merits and defects, 189; personal*

ized fiction, 191-192; questioning themes,

192-193; tall tales, 190; travel books, 190-

191

Clements. Colin, 143 footnote
Cleveland, Grover, 154-155
Clever Stories of Many Nations, 80
Cliff -Dwellers, The, 227
William. 46

.

Clio I and II, 58
Clio III. 58

Coast of Bohemia, The, 181, 198
Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 214
Cockinjrs, Oeorre, 45
Coffee House, The, 227
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel, 112
Collected Essays and Reviews, 212
Collection of Essays and Fugitiv Writings,

A, 44

Colman, Benjamin, 20
Colon (peud.)741, 44
"Colon and Spondee" papers. 41, 44
"Colonel Brereton's Aunty, f/ 223
Colonel Starbottle's Client, 164 footnote
Colonial Period, The (1607-1763), 1-20;

Renaissance and Puritan Influences, 1-

13; Rise of Rationalism and Democracy,

14-20

Colorado, 264
Columbia*, The, 40
"Columbus" (T. R. Lowell)* 32
"Columbus" rjoaquin" Miller), 170
"Come Up from the Fields. Father," 137
"Come Where My Love Lies Dreaming,"

Commentaries on American Law, 80
Commodut. 225
Common Sense, 32, 33
Companions on the Trail, 207
Compendious Dictionary, 44
"Compensation," 94

Condensed Novels and Other Papers, 162
Conduct of Life, The, 90, 96

INDEX

315

"Confessions of a Medium. The," 146
Confessions of John Whit loch, The, 171
Confidence, 201

Confidence-Man: His Masquerade, The, 73
Connecticut Wits. The, 39-41
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's

Court, A. 192

Conquest of Canaan, The, 40
Conrad. Robert Taylor, 83
"Conscience is instinct bred in the house/'

101

"Considerations by the Way/ 1 97
Conspiracy of Pontiac, The, 78
Constance Trescott, 225
" Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever, The/'

122

"Contemplations," 11
"Contentment," 124
Continent, The, 226
Contrast, The, 41
"Conversations," 101, 103
Conversations on Some of the Old Poets, 126
Conversations on the Gospels Held in Mr.

Alcott's School . . . , 101
Convert: or Leaves from My Experience,

The, 106

Cook, Ebenecer, 13
Cooke, Ebenecer, 13
Cooke, John Eaten, 82
Cooke, PhUlp Pendleton, 81
Coombe, Thomas. 45
Cooper. James Fenimore. 65-69, 74, 129;

historical novels, 69; Leather- Stocking

Tales, 67-68; merits and defects, 66, 69;

sea stories, 68-69; social criticism, 67
Cot las de Manrique, 110
Copperhead, The, 226, 264
Coquette, The, 46
Corleone, 221
"Corn/; 236
Cost, *The, 227
Cotton, Ann, 2
Cotton, John (1584-1652). 13
Cotton. John, of Queen's Creek, 2
"Cotton Boll, The." 64
Count Falcon of the Eyrie, 251
Counterfeit Presentment, A, 194
Country Doctor, A. 182
Country of the Pointed Firs, The, 183
Country Town Sayings, 171
"Courage," 97

"Courting of Sister Wisby, The," 183
Courtship of Miles Standish, The, 108, 110,

Courtship of Miles Standish and Other

Poems. The, 107
"Cover Them Over," 249
Cow ley, Malcolm, 284-285
Cox, William, 84
Coxe, Daniel, 20
Cozzens, Frederick 8., 83
Cozzeng, Jam*** Gould, 278
Craddock, Charle* Egbert (pseud.), 180
C ranch, Christopher I'earse, 104-105
Crane, [Harold] Hart, 285
Crane. Stephen, 207-209; novelette and

novel, 207-208; poetry collections, 209;

short-story collections, 208-209
Ctater, The, 67
Crawford, Franc In Marlon. 219-222;

German novels, 220; historical romances.

220-221; Italian novels, 221; merits and

defects, 222; other writings, 221-222;

stories of contemporary life, 220
Crayon Miscellany, The, 51
Creole Families of New Orleans, 181
Creoles of Louisiana, The, 176
"Crepusculum," 229
Crevecoeur, Hector St. John de (pseud.).

Crevecoeur. Mlchel-Gulllaume Jeaa de.

26

Crisis. The. 32

Critical Fable, A, 128

Critical Period of American History, The,

Criticism and Fiction, 19S

Critique of Pure Reason, 85

"Cioaker Papers," 53

Crockett. Davjr (David]. 76 footnote, 83

"Cross o/ Gold* 5 Speech, il3

"Crossing Brooklyn Ferry/' 139

Crothers, Rachel, 285-286

Crothers, Samuel McChord, 263

"Crowing of the Red Cock, TTie," 249

Cruise of the Snarh, The, 229

Crumbling Idols. 205

"Cry to Arms, A," 64

"Crystal, The," 236

Culprit Fay, and Other Poems, The, 53

"Culture," 97

Culture's Garland, 250

Cummin**, [dward] E[tlln], 284

Cummins. Maria 8., 82

"Curfew Shall Not Ring To-night," 264

Curtis, George William. 129. 145, 297

Custls, George- Washington Parke. 82

Cynic's Word Book, The, 217

"Da Capo," 224

"Daguerreotype, The," 248

Daisy Miller, 198, 203

Daly, Thomas Augustine. 252

Damaged Souls, 260, 261

Damnation of Theron Ware, The, 266

"Damned Thing, The," 216, 217

Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., 73

Dana, Richard Henry, 8r.. 58

"Dance, to Death, The/' 249

Danckaerts, Jasper, 13

Dane, Clemence, 116

Dan forth. Samuel, 13

Danites in the Sierras, The f 169

Darling "of the Gods, The, 264

Darwin, 261

Daughter of the Middle Border, A, 204,206

Daughter of the Snows, A. 229

Daughter of the Storage, The, 194

Daughter of the Storage, and Other Things

in Prose and Verse, The, 195
Daughters of Dawn, 243
Davenport, John, 6
David Harum, A Story of American Life,

226

Davies, Samuel, 20
I>avis, Rebecca H., 168 footnote
Davis. Richard Harding, 226
Dawes, Rnfue. 81
Dawn of a To-morrow, The, 226
Dawson, William. 20
Day, Thomas, 147
Day of Doom. The, 11
Day of the Wedding, The, 198
"Days," 97

Pay's Pleasure, and Other Sketches, A, 194
"Deacon's Masterpiece, The," 124
"Dead Master, The." 59
Deal in Wheat, and Other Stories of the

New and Old World, A t 229
Death of Eve, The. 247
Death of General Montgomery. The, 43
"Death of Halpern Frayser, The," 216
"Death of Lincoln," 57
"Death of Minnehaha, The," 112
"Death of Queen Mercedes," 132
Declaration of Independence, 27, 30, 31.

33. 34
Decline and Fall of the English System of

Finance, 32-33
Decphaven, 182, 183
Dcerslayer. The, 68
Defence of the Constitution of the United

States of America, 36
Defoe, Daniel, 147

316

INDEX

De Forest, John William, 224

Dtisra, 24, 34, 38

Dell, Fiord, 274

Deluge. The, 228

Dembry. B. C. (pseud.), 180

Democracy (J. R. Xowellj, 129

Democracy An American Novel, 256

Democracy and Other Addresses, 127

Democracy and Social Ethics. 213

Democratic Vistas, 134 footnote, 140

Dennie. Joseph, 44-45

Den ton, Daniel, 20

Der Struwwelpeter, 192 footnote

Derby, George Horatio, 83, 160

Description of New England, A, 2

"Dcsiree's Baby," 180

De Soto and His Men in the Land of

Florida, 181

Destiny of Man, The, 211
Destruction of Gotham, The, 169
"Devil and Tom Walker. The," 51
Devil's Dictionary, The, 217 , ^
De Voto, Bernard [Augustine], 293
Dewey, John, 209, 210, 288 .

WIMl, 6U7, 41U, OQ -

Dial, the, 87, 89, 94, \Q2. 103, 105

* ftween Franklin and the Gout,

27

Dialogue between _ . _ _.

"Diamond Lens, The," 225

Diary (Increase Mather), 7

Dwry of Cotton Mather, 9

Diary of Samuel Sewell, 1674-1729, 10

"Dickens in Camp," 162

Dickinson. Emily [Elisabeth], 171, 231-
233; individual poems. 232; letters, 232;
merits and defects, 233

Dickinson, John. 30-31

Dickinson, Jonathan, 20

Dillon, George, 285

"Discourager of Hesitancy, The," 225

Discourses on Davila, 36

Discovery of America, The. 211

Discovery of the Great West, The, 78

Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity f . . . ,
A, 27

Dissertations on the English Language, 44

Divers Opinions of Yours Trooly, Petro-
leum V. Nasby, 76

Diverting History of John Bull and Brother
Jonathan, The, 54

Divina Commedia, 107 footnote, 110

Divine Comedy. The, 59, 112, 113

"Divine Tragedy, The," 113

Divinity School Address, 89, 91

Dix, Dorothea [Lynde], 79

D. L. Moody: A Worker in Souls, 261

Dr. Breen's Practice, 197

Dr. Claudius. 220

"Dr. Heidegger's Experiment," 119

Dr. Heidenhoff's Process, 218

Dr. North and His Friends, 225

Dr. Sevier, 177

Doctor Zay, 149

Doctor's Christmas Eve, The, 179

Pod Orlle (pseud.), 214

Dogood papers, 27, 29 __.,.

"Domain of Arnheim, The," 63

"Domestic Life," 97

Lon Orsino, 221

Doorstep Acquaintance, and Other Sketches,
194

"Dorothy," 179

Dorothy and Other Italian Stories, 179

"Dorothy Q.," 124

Dos Pauses, John [Boderijo], 276

"Douglas Squirrel, The," 262

Donsjlass, William, 20

Down the Ravine, 180

Down-Eastere, The, 79

4 Downfall of Abner Joyce, The," 227

"Dow's Flat," 162

Drake, Joseph Rodman, 53

Drama, 23, *1, 74. 82-83, 264-265-

Drama in Pokerville, The, 161
Dramatists (Early Sentiment and Ro-
mance), 82-83
Dramatists (Romantic Period, 1810-1865),

Dramatists (1865-1914). 264-265
Dramatists (since 1914), 283-285
Dreams of a Day, and Other Poems, Th*, 58
Dred. A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp. 144
Dreiser. Theodore [Herman Albert],

228. 271
"Drifting," 58

"Drifting down Lost Creek," 180
"Drop Shot," 175
"Drowne's Wooden Image," 119
"Dryden," 130
Dudley. Paul. 20
Duke of Stockbridge, The, 218
Dulany. Daniel, 45
"Dulham Ladies, The," 183
Du Maurier, Daphne, 116
Dnnbar, Paul Laurence, 252-253; novels,

252; poetry, 253; stories and sketches,

252-253

Dunlap, William, 46
Dunne, Finley Peter, 264
Dunton, John. 20
Dusantes, The, 225
"Dutch Lullaby," 250
Duty of the American Scholar to Politics

and the Times, The, 145
Dwljrht, Theodore. 45
Pwight, Timothy, 40
"Each and All," 97
Eagle, The, 44
Early Prose Writings, 127
Earth Deities, 243
E*st Angels, 179

Eastman, Max [Forrester], 291
"Easy Chair, The," 145
"Ebb and Flow, The," 12
Echo, The (Richard Alsop and Theodore

D wight), 45

Echo, The (C. F. Hoffman), 80
Edga* Huntly; or Memoirs of a Sleep-

Walker, 43

Edgewater People, 184
Edict of the King of Prussia, An, 29
Editha's Burglar, 226, 264
"Editor's Easy Chair," 193
"Editor's Study," 193
Education of Henry Adams. The, 258, 259
Edwards, Jonathan, 15-17
Erjrleston, Edwaed. 165-166, 206
EwMy-nine, 226
"Eldorado" (E. A. Poe), 62
Eldorado (Bayard Taylor), 146
"Eleanora," 63
"Electioneerin* on Big Injun Mounting,"

Elegy on the Times, An, 40

Elevator, The t 194

Eliot, John, 10

Eliot, T[homas] 8 [teams], 283

Elizabethan Women, 261

"Eloquence," 97

Ettit Venner, 122, 123

Elsket and Other Stories, 181

Embargo; or, Sketches of the Times, The,

Emblems of Fidelity: A Comedy in Letters,
The, 17?

Embury, Emma Catherine Manley, 81

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 85. 85-98, 129,
171, 286-287; essays and addresses, 90-
97; merits and defects, 92, 98; poetry,
97-98; supplementary bibliography, 286-
287

"Emerson the Lecturer," 130

"Encantadas. or Enchanted Isles, The," 72

Enchanted Typewriter, The, 251

End of the World, The, 165

INDEX

"Kndicott and the Red Cross." 120
"Energies of Men, The/' 21$
Bnffltsh. Thomas Dunn. SI

Enalish Novel and the Principle of Itt

Development, Tke, 238
English Pott* of the Nineteenth Century,

The, 122

Enlightenment, Prose of the, 24-25
"Enthralled by some mysterious spell I

stood." 216
Enthusiasm Described and Caution' d

Against* 17
Ephemera; The, 27
"Epic of the Wheat 1 ' trilogy. 228
"Episode of War, An/' 207
"Epistle from Joshua Ibn Vives, An/' 249
"Epistle to the Jews, An," 249
Equality, 219
Esmeralda, 226
Essay for the Recording of Illustrious

Providences. An, 7
Essays (R. W. Emerson). 89, 92, 95
Essays: Historical and Literary, 211
Essays in Application, 263
Essays in Radical Empiricism, 212
"Essays of Robert Slender, The/' 38
Essays to Do Good, 8
Esther A Novel, 256
"Eternal Goodness. The/' 117
"Ethnogenesis/' 64
"Eureka," 61

European Acquaintance, 224
Europeans, The, 201, 224

"lather Dominick's Convert/' 223 footnote
"Father of American poetry/' 138
"Father of American prose/ 38
~ " William (Harrison], 276
- Henry Hedge). 104
' - * r),14i

Tamer 01
Faulkner.

Faust arf.
Faust (Bay

iayard Taylor),

111

Eutaw, 74

"Eutaw Springs/' 39

Evangeline, 107, 108, 110,

Kvans. Nathaniel. 37

Evening Dress, 194

"Evening Song," 236

Examination into the Leading Principles of
the Federal Constitution, An, 44

Excellent Becomes the Permanent, The, 213

"Excursion to Canada," 99

"Experience/' 95, 97

Expiation, 171

"Expression," 254

"Eyes of the Panther, The," 216

"Fable," 97

Fable for Critics. A, 127, 128

"Facts and Traditions respecting ... In-
termittent Fever in New England," 122
footnote

Fair Barbarian, A, 226

Fair God, The, 225

Faith Doctor, The, 166

Faith Healer, The, 247

Falkner. William [Harrison!. 276

"Fall of the House of Usher, The," 62, 63

"Family Feud, A," 252

Family Instructor, The, 147

Fan, The, 227

Fanatics. The. 252

Fancy's Show Box, 120

"Fanny/* 53

Fanny Forester (pseud.), 84

FanJhawe, 117

Fantastic Fables, 217

"Fantastics," 173

Far Horigons, 243

Far-West Scenes, 161

Farewell Address, 36

"Farewell of a Virginia SlaveMother.The/'l 1 5

Farewell Sermon, 17

Farm Ballads, 249

Farmer Refuted, A, 35

"Farming/' 97

Farrago, 44

Farrell, James T[homasJ, 278

Fashionable Adventures of Joshua Craig,
The. 228

Fast, Howard, 279

"Fate," 96

Father Bombo'* Pilgrimage, 37

Federalist, The, 35, 36

"Felipe," 179

Felix Carmen (pseud.), 250

Female Poets of America, The, 58

Ferber, Edna, 274

Fessenden, Thomas Green, 46

Few Verses for a Few Friends, A, 145

Field, Eucene, 250

Field, Rachel, 275

Fields, James TThomas], 145, 161

Fiend's Delight, The, 214

Figs and Thistles, 226

Finch. Francis Miles. 81

Fink, Mike, 159

Fire B ringer, The, 246

Fireside Travels, 127

Firkins, O. W., 200 footnote

Fust Battle, The, 213

First Christmas Tree. The, 263

"First-Day Thoughts/' 117

First Fam'lies of the Sierras, 169

"First Snow-Fall. The," 131, 132

Fisherman's Luch f 263

Fiske, John. 210-211

Fitch, Clyde [William], 264-265

Fitzgerald. Ff rands] Scott [Key]. 276

Five O'Clock Tea, 194

"Flesh and the Spirit, The." 11

Fletcher. John Gould. 2*2,

"Flight of Betsy Lane, The, 183

Flight of Pony Baker: A Boy's Town Story,

The, 195

Flint. Timothy. 75
"Flood of Years, The," 57
Florida, 235
"Flute and Violin." 178
Flute and Violin and Other Kentucky Tales

and Romances, 178
Fly-ing Dutchman, The, 80
Fberater, Norman, 292
Folger. Peter, 13
Folk Songs, 160
Folks from Dixie, 252
Following the Equator, 191
Fool's Erwnd, A. 226
"Fool's Prayer, The," 240
"For Marse Chouchoute/' 180
"For the Burns Centennial Celebration," 125

For the Major, 179

For Tippecanoe, 186

"For Whittier's Seventieth Birthday," 125

"For You O Democracy," 139

Foraycrs, The, 74

Ford, Paul Leicester, 227

Foregone Conclusion, A, 198

"Forerunners," 97

"Forest Hymn, A," 55, 57

"Foresters, The," 2$

Forrest, (Colonel) Thomas, 46

Fortune and Men's Eyes, 265

Foster. Hannah W*. 46

Foster, Stephen Collins, 64

"Fountain, The" (W. C. Bryant), 57

"Fountain, The" (W. V. Moody), 248

Fountain and Other Poems, The (W. C.
Bryant), 55

"Four Constitutions, The." 11

"Four Elements, The," 11

"Four Monarchies, The," 11

Four Poems, 127

"Four Seasons, The," 11

Fourier ism, 103

Fox. fWilllaml John. Jr.. 181

INDEX

Fiance in Franc*, 185

Frances Snow Com pton (pseud.) , 256

Francesca da Rimini. 75

Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot, 75

Frank, Waldo [David], 292

Frankie and Johnny, 160

Franklin, Benjamin, 19, 26-29

I'ranklin Evans; or The Inebriate. 13*
footnote

Fiank N orris of the Wave, 229

Frederic. Harold, 226-227

Ftee Joe and Other Georgian Sketches, 172

Freeman. Mary E[leanor] Wilklns. 184-
185; merits and defects, 185; novels,
184-185; short-story collections, 184

French, Alice. 171

French Art, 262

F tench Traits: An Essay in Comparative
Criticism, 262

Frenean, Philip. 23, 37-39, 124

"Friend Eli's Daughter," 146

"Friendship," 93

Friendship of Art, The, 243

"From a Balcony." 162

from the Book of Valentines, 243

From the Green Book of the Bards, 243

From the Other Side, 227

"Front Yard, The," 179

Front Yard and Other Italian Stories, The t
179

Frontier, influence of the. 158

Frontiersmen, The, 180

Frost, Robert [Lee], 280

Fruitlands, 102. 146

Full and Candtd Account of the Delusion
Called Witchcraft, A, 9

Full Vindication, A, 35

Fuller, Henry Blake. 227

Fuller, F Sarah] Margaret, 102-103. 105,
129, 289

Function of the Poet and Other Essays,
The. 127

Fur Hunters of the Far West, 75

Further Poems, 232

Gabriel Conroy, 164 footnote

Gabriel Tolliver: Story of Reconstruction, 172

Gale. Zona. 271

Gallegher and Other Stories, 226

Galloway. Joseph, 45

Game, The, 229

Game with the Abysmal Brute, The, 229

Garden, Alexander, 20

Gardens of This World, 227

Garfield, James A., 154

Garland, Hantlin [Hannibal], 204-207;
early period: realism, 205-206; final pe-
riod: autobiography, 206-207; general es-
timate, 204-205; middle period: romance,
206

Garrison, William IJoyd, 84, 114

"Garrison of Cape Ann, The," 115

Garroters, The, 194

Gates Ajar, The. 148

Gates Between, The, 148

General History of Virginia, the Summer
Isles, and New England, The, 2

General Magazine and Historical Chronicle,
19, 27

General View of American Literature:
Early Sentiment and Romance, 49, 65;
Renaissance and Puritan Influences, 1-2,
10; Rise of Rationalism and Democracy,
14-20; Romantic Period, 74; Struggle for
Independence, 23-25: Transcendentalism',
85-87; Triumph of Realism, 157-161
Genius of Style, The, 262

Gentleman from Ireland, A, 224

Georjre. Henry. 209-2 10
George Fox Diao'd out of His Burrows, 6
"George the Third's Soliloquy," 38
George's Mother, 208

Ceorgia Scenes, 76 footnote, 83, 161

German Influence on Transcendentalism, 85

Gettysburg Address, 79, 104

"Gifts," 96

"Gila Monster Route, The," 160

Gilded Age. The: Conservatism and Icono-

clasm (Chap- X), 187-213
Gilded Age: A Tale of To-Day, The, 191,

262

Gilder, Richard Watson. 262
"Giles Corey of the Salem Farms," 113
Giovio and Giulia, 251
"Girdle of Friendship, The," 126
Girl I Left Behind Me, The, 264
Girl of the Golden West, The, 264
Girl ivith the Green Eyes, The, 264
"Git Along, Little Dogies," 160
"Give All to Love," 93 footnote, 97
"Give me your tired, your poor," 249
"Glance behind the Curtain, A," 131
Glasgow, Ellen [Anderson Oholson],

G la H pell, Huttan, 231, 286

Clan ens, 75

Gleanings in Europe; England, 67

Gleanings in Europe: France, 67

Gleanings in Europe: Italy, 67

Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, 175

Gloria Mundi, 226

"Glory of, and the Grace in the Church
Set Out, The," 12

"Gloucester Moors," 247

Gloucester Moors and Other Poems, 247

Gcdey's Lady's Book, 83

Godfrey, Thomas, 19

God of His Fathers, The, 229

"God Save the Rights of Man," 38

God's Controversy with New-England, 12

Godwin. Parker. 129

"Gold Bug, The,' 1 63

Golden Bowl, The, 203

GoMen Fleece, The, 227

Golden House, The, 262

"Golden Journey. The," 248

"Golden Legend, The/' 113

"Golyer," 167

Combo Zhebes, 174

"Gondolieds," 171

"Good Friday Night," 247

"Good Night," 180

"Good Word for Winter. A," 130

Goodrich, Samuel Griswold, 83

Gookln. Daniel, 13

Gcose Quill Papers, 251

"Gospel Train, The," 160

Grady. Henry Woodfln, 179

Grammatical Institute of the English Lan-
guage, The, 44

Grandfather's Chair, 117-118

Grandissimes: A Story of Creole Life, The,

"Gfandmother's Story of Bunker-Hill Bat-
tle," 124

Gianite, 116

Grant. Anne McVlckar. 46

Grant, Ulysses S., 153-154, 188

Grave*. John, 13

"Cray, 130

"Gray Champion, The," 117, 119

Gray son, William John, 81

Gray sons, The, 166

Great Battles of the World. 207

Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin
Defended. The, 17

Great Divide, The, 247

"Great God, I ask thee for no meaner
pelf," 101

Great God Success. The, 227

Great Historic Animals. 263

Great Release, The, 243

"Great Stone Face, The." 119

Great Stone of Sardis, The, 225

INDEX

Great truths are portion! of the tool of
man," 131

Great 'War Syndic**. The, 225
Greelej, Horace. 84
Green, Joseph. 20
Green. Paul [Bllot], 287
"Green River/* 57
Greene, Albert Gorton. 81

*

Greifenstein, 220

,

"Grey Sleeve, A," 208
Greyslaer: A Romance of the Mohawk, 80
Ciriawold. Bui Hi .Sarirent. 84
Guardian Angel, The, 122, 123
Gulney, Loulne Imogen, 251
Gunther, John, 293
"Gwine to Run All Night; or, De Camp*

town Races," 64
Hale. Edward Everett, 185
Half-Way Covenant, The, 7
Halibnrton, Thomas Chandler, 83
Hall. Jamea. 83
Hall, Sarah Joaepha B. t 83
Halleok. Fits-Greene. 53
"Hallelujah, I'm a Bum/' 160
Halpine, Charles Graham, 81
"Hamatreya," 97
Hamilton, Alexander. 35
Hammond, John. 13
"Hampton Beach/' 116
Hanging of the Crane, The, 108, 113
Hannah Thurston, 146
Happy Ending, 251
"Hard Times, The," 173
Harmony of Interest*, Agricultural, Manu-

facturing, and Commercial, 80
Harriet, 143 footnote
Harris. C. W., 161
Harris, Joel Chandler. 172, 180
Harrison, Benjamin, 155
Hart, Joseph O.. 82
Harte. Bret, 161-164; see Harte. I Fran-

cis} Brett
Harte, [Francis] Brett, 161-164, 167;

merits and defects, 163-164; poetry, 162;

stories and sketches, 162-163
Harvest Moon, The, 264
Hasty Puddina, The, 40
"Hatteras," 39
"Haunted Palace, The/' 62
"Haunted Shanty, The," 146
Hawthorne. Nathaniel, 103, 105, 117-

121, 145, 292-293; merits and defects,

118: romantic novels, 120-121; short

stones, 119-120

"Hawthorne and the Story-Teller's Art/' 60
Hay, John [Milton], 166-168; poetry,

167; prose, 166-168
Hayes, Rutherford B., 154
Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 64-65
Haiard of New Fortunes, A, 196, 197
Headsman, The. 67
Hearn, [Patricia] Lafeadlo [Tesslma

Carlos], 172-175; American writings,

174-175: Japanese writings, 175; merits

and defects, 174

Heart of Happv Hollow, The, 253
Heart ol Maryland, The, 2B4
Heart of Rome, The, 221
Heart of Toil, The, 171
Heart's Highway, 'The, 184
Hearts of Oak, 264
"Heart's Wild-Flower," 248
Heartsease and Rue. 127
"Heathen Chinee. The/' 162
Hecht, Ben, 287

. .04

Heideumaucr. The. 67

"Height of tbe Ridiculous," 124

Hellman, JLdllian, 287

Hemingway, Ernest [Miller], 276-277

Henry, Patrick, 30

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 262

Henta. Caroline Lee Whiting, 82

Ilenta, Nicholas Marcellna. 82

Her Great Match. 265

"Her Only Son/* 182

Her Own Way, 265

Herreahelmer. Joseph. 273

Heroes o( the Middle West: The French, 186

Heroine t Bronte, or a Portrait of a Girl,

Heroines of Fiction, 195
"Heroism/' 93

Herrick, Robert, 270

Mersey, John; 279

Hespcr, 206

Hetty's Strange History, 171

Htawatha, 108, 110, 111-112

"Hiawatha's Wedding Feast," 112

Ilickok, J. B., 159
Hicks, Granville, 293

104

Hlgglnson, Thomas Went worth, 171,
26T-262

High Life in New York, 161

"Highland Light, The," 99

Hill. George. 80

"Hilton's Holiday, The/' 183

His Second Campaign, 171

Historians, 77, 209-213

Historical Background: Colonial Period
(1607-1763), 1. 14; Revolutionary Pe-
riod (1763-1810), 22-23, 29*30; Romantic
Period (1810-1865). 48; Triumph oi
Realism (1865-1914). 152-157

"History," 93

History and Annals in New England (Ra-
tionalism and Democracy), 17-18

History of English Literature, A, 246

History of Massachusetts, 119

History of New York . . . by Diedrich
Knickerbocker, A i 51, 52

history of the Dividing Line Run in the
Year 1728. 18

History of the Expedition . . . of Captain
Lewis and Clark. 26

History of the Indians of Connecticut, 224

History of the Indian Tribes of the United
States, 112

History of the Life and Voyages of Chris-
topher Columbus, A, 51

History of the Navy, 66

History of the Plymouth Plantation, 4

History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Is-
abella, the Catholic. 77

History of the United Netherlands, 77

History, of the United States during the
Administrations of Jefferson and Madi-
son, 257

History of the United States for Young
People, 261

Hitchcock. Enoi, 46

Hive of ^he Bee-Hunter," The, 161

Hoffman, Char IAS Fenno, 80

"Holiday Home/' 224

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 78, 121-126,
293-294: essays and novels, 123; gen-
eral estimate as a poet. 126; poetry. 123-
126; supplementary bibliography,293- 294

Holy Graal and the Other Fragments, 246

Home as Found, 67

Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions. 122

Homeward Bound, 67

Honest John Vane, 224

Honorable Peter Stirling, The, 227

Hooker, Thomas, 13

Hooper, Johnson Jones, 83, 161

Hoosier Mosaics, 171

"Hoosier Poet/' 250

320

INDEX

Hoosier Schoolboy, The, 166

Hoosier Schoolmaster, the, 165, 166, 206

Hope, James Barren, 81

Hopkins, Lemuel, 45

Hopkins, Stephen, 45

Hopklnson, Farncls. 31

Horace Chase, 179

"Horseman in the Sky. A " 215

"Horses One Dash/ 208

Horse-Shoe Robinson, 73

Horseshoe Robinson (drama), 83

"Hospital Nurse, The," 186

Hospital Sketches, 147

"Hound was cuffed, the hound was kicked,
The" 236

"House of Night, The," 37-39

House of the Seven Gobies, The, 117. 1\B, 120

House-Boat on the Styx, 251

Houston. Samuel, 159

Hovey, Richard, 242. 244-246

"How Betsy and I Made Up." 249

"How Love Looked for Hell/' 236

"How the Old Horse Won the Bet/' 124

How the Other Half Lives, 213

Howadji in Syria. The, 145

Howard, Sidney [Coe], 286

Howe, ECdfrarJ W[atonJ, 171, 206

Howe. Julia Ward, 81

Howells, William Dean, 68, 193-200:
autobiographical works, 195; books of
travel, 194; economic novels, 196-197;
literary criticism, 195; merits and de-
fects, 199-200; novels dealing with the
Marches, 196; other novels, 197-199;
plays, 193-194; poetry, 194; sketches
and stories, 194-195

Howe's Masquerade, 120

Hubbard, Elbert, 263

Ilubbard, William, 13

Huckleberry Finn, Adventures of, 191

Hugh Wynne; Free Quaker, 225

Hup; he i* [Jnmes] LangHton. 285

Hulton, Ann, 45

Human Immortality: Two Supposed Ob-
jections to the Doctrine, 212

".Humble Romance, A," 184

Humble Romance and Other Stories, A, 184

Humorous Poems, 122

Humphreys, David, 45

Hungry Heart. The, 228

"Hurricane, The," 39

Husband's Story, The, 228

"Huskers, The/' 116

"Huswifery," 12

Hotehlnson, Thomas, 119

Hut ton. Joseph, 46

"Hymn/' 97

"Hymn of Trust, A," 125

Hymns, 55

"Hymns of the Marshes," 237

Hyperion, 107, 108

"I am the Woman," 248

"I Cannot Forget with What Fervid De-
votion," 56

"I Hear It Was Charged against Me," 139

"I Heard You Solemn Sweet Pipes of the
Organ," 139

"I Opened All the Portals Wide," 180

"I Sing the Body Electric," 139

"Ichabod." 115. 124

Idea of Cod, The, 211

Idiot. The, 251

"If It Might Be." 180

If. Yes. and Perhaps, 185

Iliad of Homer, The, 55

Iliad of Sandy Bar, The, 163

"Illusion in Red and White, An," 208

"Illusions," 97

"I'm guided in the darkest night," 101

Imaginary Interviews, 195

Imperative Duty, An, 197

Impression* and Experiences, 195

"In a Graveyard," 167

In and Out of Doors with Charles Dickens,

In Classic Shades, 170

In His Image, 213

In His Name, 185

In His Steps, 227

"In Honor of . . . Queen Elisabeth," 11

In Miseoura, 264

In Old Plantation Days, 252

In Ole Virginia, 181

In Partnership, 223

"In Paths Untrodden," 139

"In School-Days" 116

"In the Cotton Country," 179

In the Levant, 262

In the Midst of Life, 215

In the Palace of the King, 221

In the "Strange People's* Country, 180

In the Tennessee Mountains, 180

"In the Tunnel," 162

"In the Twilight," 132

In the Valley, 226

In War Time, 225

"Incident in a Railroad Car, An," 131

Increasing Purpose, The, 178

"Independent Thinker, An," 184

"Indian Burying Ground, The," 39

Indian Giver, An, 194

Indian Summer, 199

"Indian-Summer Reverie." 131

Indian Tribes of the United States, 83

Indignations of . W. Howe, 171

"Individuality/' 237

"Inferno," (H. W. Longfellow), 113

"Inferno," (T. W. Parsons). 59

Innocents Abroad; or The New Pilgrim's

Progress, The, 190

"Inscription for the Entrance to a Wood," 56
"Inspiration," 101
"Intellect," 93

International Episode, An, 203
Interpretations of Literature, 174 footnote
Irene the Missionary, 224
"Iron Gate, The," 125
Iron Gate, and Other Poems, The, 122
Iron Heel. The. 229
Irving, Waahinffton, 49-52, 145
Igherwood, Christopher, 278
Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, 72
"Israfcl " 62
Italian Journey, 194
Italy and the World War, 181
Iiory Tower, The, 203

"Jack the Fisherman," 149

Jackson, Helen [Maria] Hani, 171, 231

"Jacquerie, The," 236

"Jam on Gerry's Rocks. The," 160

"Jamaica Funeral, The/ 1 37

Jamaica Inn, 116

James, Henry, 198, 200-204, 298-299;

general estimate, 203-204; novels, 202-

203: short stories, 203; supplementary

bibliography, 298-299
James, Jesse, 160
James, William. 211-213; edited volumes.

212-213; essays, 212; volumes, 211-212
Jane Talbot, 43
Janice Meredith, 227
Jason Edwards: An Average Man, 205
Jtan Baptiste Le Moyne, Sifur de Bien*

ville, 181
"Jeanette," 179

"Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair," 64
Jeff Brigp's Love Story, 164 footnote
Jeffers. [John] Robinson, 282-283
Jefferson. Thomas, 33-35
Jerry of the Islands, 229
Jeisey Street and Jersey Lane, 223
Jesse James, 160

INDEX

"Jetsam," 248

Jewett, Sarah Orne, 182-183; merits and

defects, 183; novels, 182; short-story

collections, 182-183
"Jim," 162
J\m Black; or, the Regulator's

"Jim Bludso" 167

Joaquin et a/., 169

John Andross, 168 footnote

John Barleycorn, 229

John Delmer's Daughters; or, Duty, 264

John Ea* and Mamelon, 226

"John Endicott," 113

John Gayther** Garden, 225

John Godfrey's Fortunes, 146

"TMin rir*v' f 17ft

ale of the Olden

122

JohnGreenleaf Whit tier, 262

"John Henry/' 160

John Lothrop Motley: A Memoir,

John March, Southerner, 176

John Marr and Other Sailors, 73

John Phoenix (pseud.), 160

Jchn Randolph. 256

John Sherwood: Iron Master, 225

Johnson. Edward, 13

Johnson, R. U., 176 footnote

Johnson. Samuel, 45

Johnston Smith (pseud.). 208

Jones, Hugh, 20

Jones, Joseph Stevens, 83

Joseph and His Brethren, 41

Josh Billings (pseud.), 76, 160

Josh Billings, Farmers Allmina*, 76

Josh Billings, His Sayings, 76

Josselyn, John. 13

Journal (S. K. Knight), 18

Journal (John Winthrop), 5

Journal (John Woolman), 25

Journal of Gamaliel Bradford, The, 259

footnote , 261

Journalism, 19, 79-80, 83-84
Journals (R. W. Emerson), 93 footnote
Journey to the Land of Eden in the Year

1733, A, 18

Joyous Miracle, The, 229
Jadd, Sylvester, 82
Judgement of Solomon, The, 41
Jndson, Edward Z. C.. 84
Jndson, Emily C., 84
Jupiter Lights, 179 . .

Juvenile Poems . . . wtth The Pnnce of

Parthia. a Tragedy, 19

Kansas and Nebraska, 185

Kant, Immanuel, 85

Karma. 175

Kate Beaumont, 224

Kate Bonnet, 225

Katherine Lauderdale t 220

Kaufman, George S., 286

"Keats," 12

Kempton-Wace Letters, The, 230

Kennedy, John Pendleton, 73-74

Kent, James, 80

Ken ton, Simon, 159

Kentons, The, 199

Kentucky Cardinal: A Story, A, 178

Kentucky Warbler, The, 177

Key. Frauds Scott, 64

Key into the Language of America, A, 6

Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin, A, 144

Kkaltd, 220

"Khan's Devil, The/* 117

Kin*, Grace Elisabeth. 181

M*a of Folly Island, and Other People,

The, 183

King of Honey Island, The, 171
"King Robert of Sicily," 112
"King Solomon of Kentucky/* 178
KlngMley, Sidney, 28?

Kinship of Nature, The, 243
Klrkland, Caroline Matilda Stansbnry

Klrkland, Joseph, 171, 206
Ktttredte. Walter, 81

Knickerbocker School, The, 49-54

Knight, Sarah Kembie, 17*18

Knitters in the Sun, 171

KobboltoMO. 105

'Kossuth/' 117

"Ktaadn and the Maine Woods/' 99

I A Bell* Russe. 264

La Cuisine Creole, 174

La Dame de Ste. Hermine, 181

Ln Fttrge, Oliver i Hazard] Perry, 277

"La Gnsette" 124

La Maison d'Or, 126

Ladd, Joseph Brown, 45

"Lady Eleanore's Mantle/' 119

Lady Jane and Other Poems, The, 53

"Lady of Little Fishing, The/' 179

Lady of Quality. A, 22l

Lady of the Aroostook, The, 198

Lady or the Tiger and Other Stories, The t

225

Lafayette in Brooklyn, 134 footnote

Jamar, Mirabeaa Buonaparte, 81

Landlord at Lion's Head, The, 199

Landmark, The, 177

Lanier, Sidney, 234-239, 242; merits and
defects, 239; poetry, 235-237; prose
works, 237-238

Gardner, Ringfgold] W[ilmer], 291

La Salic and the Discovery of the Great
West 78

Last Christmas Tree: An Idyl of Immor-
tality, The, 177

"Last Fiddling; of Mordaunt's Jim," 252

"Last Leaf. Ae," 125

Last of the Huagermuggert, The, 105

Last of the Mohicans, The. 68

Last Poems (J. R. Lowell), 127

Last Refuge, The, 227

Last Songs from Vagabondia, 242, 244

"Last Walk in Autumn, The," 116

Last Words, 207

Late Mrs. Null, The, 225

Late Regulations respecting the British Col-
onies . . . Considered, 30-31

"Latest Form of Infidelity, The/' 92

Latest Literary Essays and Addresses (J.
R. Lowell). 127

"Latter-Day Warnings/' 124

Launcelot and Guenevere: A Poem in Five
Dramas. 245

Laurtl: An Ode, The, 244

"Laus Deo I," 115, 245

Lauth, 229

"Law Lane," 183

lAwson, James, 82

Lawson, John, 20

Lawton, 251

Lawton Girl, The, 226

Lay of the Scottish Fiddle, The, 54

"liy Preacher," 44

Lasarre. 186

Ijwarns, Kmma, 249

Leacoch, John. 46

Leatherwood bod, The, 199

Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal, 114

Leaves of Grass, 134, 134 footnote, 135,
148. 173 footnote

Leaves of Grass with Sands at Seventy
and A Backward Glance o'er Travel* d
Roads, 134 footnote

Lectures on Art, and Poems, 80

Lee, Samuel, 13

Lee the American, 260, 261

Leeds, Daniel, 20

Legare, Hngh S., 83

I*fre, James Matthews, 81

INDEX

"legend of Brittany, A," 131
"Legend of Monte del Diablo/' 160
" Legend of Rabbi Ben Levi, The," 112
"Legend of Sleepy Hollow. The/' 51
"Legend of the Arabian Astrologer." 51
"Legend of Two Discrete Statues, 51
Le*ett, William, 84
Leland, Charles Godfrey, 83
Leonard, Dun lei, 45
Leonard. William Cillery Channlng,

280

Leonor Je Gvtmon, 74
Leslie, Charles Bobert, 84
Leslie, Eliia, 84
Lesson of the Master, The, 203
Letahford, Thomas, 13
"Letter and a Paragraph, A," 223
"Letter from a Gentleman in Boston, to

Mr. George Wishart, A." 17
Letter of Introduction, A, 194
Letter . . . ON the Character of the English

Nation, 31

Letter on Jhe Philippine Tangle, 212
Letter to American Teacher* of History,

A, 257, 258

Letter to Hit Countrymen, A, 67
Letters (Henry Adams), 259

232

Hers from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, 31
" s from an American Farmer, 26
's from Under a Bridge, 53

Letters Home, 198

Letters of a British Spy, The, 80

Letters of Cato f The, 33

Litters of Fabius, 31

Letters of Gamaliel Bradford, 1918-1931,
The, 260 footnote, 261

Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle, 50

Letters of William James, The, 213

Letters to a Friend, 262

Letters to Harriet, 248

Lew Wallace: An Autobiography, 225

Lewis. Merlwether, 26

Lewis. Sinclair, 171, 273

LewUohn, Ludwlg*. 185 footnote, 291

"Lexington," 124

Liar, The. 203

"Liberty/' 167

"Liberty Song." 31

"Lick Branch Explosion, The/' 160

"Life." 180

Lift amongst the Modocs, 169, 170 foot-
Life and Adventures of Dr. Dodimus Duck-

Life^and Death of John of Bameveld, The,

Life and 1, 261

Life and Sayings of Mrs. Partington, 83

Life and Writings of Major Jack Down-

"U& EveriastinY' (M. E. W. Freeman),

184

Life Everlasting (John Fiske), 211
Life Histories of Northern Animals, 263
"Life in the Iron Mills." 168 footnote
Life of Albert Gallatin, The, 256
"Life of Charles Brockden Brown/' 77
"Life of Christ," 170
Life of George Washington, The, 37
Life of Nancy, The, 183
Life of Olive* Goldsmith, The, 52
Life of Washington. 52
Life on the Mississippi, 191
'.Lifetime, A/.' 57^ ^

~~ ~ arian bird/' 101
k " 72

Likely Story, A, 194

Lilitk, 252

Lincoln, Abraham. 79

Lincoln and Other Poems, 250

LfmlNtiy, [Nicholas] Vachel. 281

Lines Long and Short, 227

Lionel Lincoln. 69

Llnpmann, Walter, 292-293

Literary Friends and Acquaintance t, 195

Literary Remains, 58

"Literati. The."- 60

Literature and Life, 195

"Little Boy Blue/' 250

"Little Breeches, 167

Little English Gallery, A, 251

Little Journey in the World, A, 262

Little Journeys, 263

Little Lord Fauntleroy, 226

Little Norsk, A, 205

"Little Regiment, The." 209

Little Regiment and Other Episodes of the

American Civil War, The, 208
Little Rivers, 263
Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come, The,

Little Swiss Sojourn, A, 194
Little Women, 146. 147
"Littlepage Manuscripts," 67
Lives of Game Animals, 263
"Living Temple, The," 125
Livingston, William. 20
Local-Color Movement, 159
Local-Colorists, The (Chapter IX), 152-

186; New England, 182-186; The South.

172-181; The West, 16M71
Locke, David Boss, 76. 160
Lockerbie Book, The, 250
Lockwood, Ralph Ingersoll, 82
Logan, 79

Loiterings of Travel, 53
London. Jack tor John Griffith]. 229-

230; novels, 229; other works, 230;

short- story collections, 229-230
"Lone Prairie, The," 160
Long Road of Woman's Memory, The, 213
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 107-

113, 249, 290-291; merits and defects.

108-110; sonnets, 113; supplementary bib-
liography, 290-291
"Longing for Heaven," 11
Lonystreet, Augustas B.. 76 footnote,

83, 161

Looking Backward, or 2000-1887, 218, 219
Lord, William Wllberforee, 81
Lord Chumley, 264

Lost Galleon and Other Tales, The, 161
"Lot Lover. A," 182
"Lost Occasion, The." 115
Lost Room, The, 224
Lotus Eating, 145

"Louie Sands and Jim McGee." 160
"Love," 93

"Love Everlasting," 180
Love in Old Cloathes and Other Stories,

223

"Love-Letters of Smith, The," 223
Love of Landry. The. 252
Love of Life and Other Stories, 230
Lover's Revolt, A t 224
Love's Calendar, Lays of the Hudson, and

Other Poems, 80
Low. Samuel. 46
"Low in the eastern sky." 101
Low Tide on Grand Pre, 242, 243
Lowell, Amy [Lawrence], 128, 280
Lowell, James Russell, 76. 91 footnote.

126-133) 294; general estimate as a poet

and as a critic, 133; major works. 128-

129; other prose, 129-130; other verse,

130-131
Lowell, Maria White, 81

INDEX

3*3

Lowell. Percival, 173
Lowell, Robert Traill Spenee. 82
"Luck of Roaring Camp, The/* 160. 163
Luck of Rowing Camp and Other Sketches,

"Lyncning of Jube Benson, The," 252-253
"Lynx.Hunting," 207
Lyrics of Lowly Lift. 253

"Ma'am Pelage" 180

"Mabel Martin/' 115

M'Fiugot, 40

McCulleri*, Carson, 279

Me Henry, James, 80

MacKaye, Percy [Wallace], 285

McKlnley, William, 155, 215 footnote

MacLelah, Archibald, 284

McTeague, 228

i&cVeys, The, 171

Madame Butterfly, 264

"Madame Delicieuse," 176

Madame Delphine, 176

"Made in France": French Tales Told with

a United States Twist, 223
Madison, James. 36
Madison Tens**, M.D. (pseud.). 161
"Madonna of the Tubs, The/' 149
Madrigals and Catches, 250

Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, 207
Magnolia Christi Americana: or The

EC-

VtfltIMM* VrO /1 7TT t, t7t , VT M rt9 Jrflr-

clesiastical History of New-England t 8,1 1 5
Magnolia Cemetery "Ode/* 64
Mahomet and His Successors, 52
Maid Who Binds Her Warrior's Sash, The,

Main Street, 171, 272

Main-Travelled Roads, 205

Maine Woods, The, 99

Major Jones's Chronicles of Pineville, 161

Major Jones's Courtship, 83, 161

Major Jones's Sketches of Travel, 161

Majors and Minors, 253

Making of a Marchioness, The, 226

Making of an American, The. 213

Making of a Statesman and Other Stories,

Making of Personality, The, 243

Malbone, 261

"Man and the Snake, The/' 215

Man of- the Hour, 171

Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg, The, 192

"Man with the Hoe, The/' 250

Man with the Hoe and Other Poems, The, 250

"Man without a Country, The/' 185

Mann, Horace, 84

"Mannahatta" ("I was asking ..."). 139

"Manners/' 96

Man's Woman. A. 228

Manuductio ad Ministerium, 8-9

Map of Virginia. A, 2

Marble Faun, The, 118, 121

March, Anne (pseud.), 179

March Hares, 226

Marchioness Ossoll: see Fuller, [Sarah]
Margaret, 102-103

"Marco Bozxaris/' 53

Mardi: And a Voyage Thither, 71

Marietta. 221

Mariner's Compass. The, 264

Mariorie Daw, 148

Market Place. The, 226

Markham, Edwin [Charles], 250

Murkoe, Peter, 46

Hark Twain (pseud.), 187-193: see
Clement, 8. I*

Marlowe, 265

Maryland, J[ohn] P[hillp], 275

M*rr\age of Guenevere t The, 245

"Marse Chan/' 181

Mar$ena and Other Stories of the War-
time. 226

Marsh Island, A, 182

"Marsh Rosemary," 183

"Marsh-Song At Sunset/' 236, 237

Marshall, John, 36-37

"Marshes of Glynn, The/' 237

Martin Eden, 229

Marx, Karl, 210

Mary Gray (pseud.), 148

Marrio'* Crucifix, 221

Mason, (Captain) John, 13

Masque of judgment, The, 247

'Masque of the Red Death, The," 63

"Massaccio," 131

"Massachusetts to Virginia," 115

Master-Rogue, The, 227

Blasters, Edgar Lee, 279-280

Mate of the Daylight and Friends Ashore,
The, 182-183

Mather, Cotton, 7-9, 115, 119

Mather, Increase, 7

Mather, Richard, 7, 10

Mather Dynasty, The, 7-9

Mathews. Cornelius, 84

"Maud Muller," 117

"May the Maiden," 236

"May-Day/ 1 97

May -Day and Other Pieces, 90

Mayhew, Jonathan, 20

Maylem. John, 20

Mayo, William Starbuck, 82

"Maypole of Merry-Mount, The," 4, 119

Meaning of Truth: A. Sequel to "Prag-
matism/' The, 212

Meat out of the Eater. 12

Mechanism in Thought and Morals, 123

Medical Essays 1842-1882, 122

"Meditation Eight/' 12

"Meditation Three," 12

Meek, Alexander Beaufort, 81

"Meeting, The," 117

"Meh Lady." 181

Melanie and Other Poems, 53

Mellen, Grenville, 81

Mellichampe, 74.

Melville, Herman, 70-73; poetry, 73;
prose, 70-73

Member of the Third House, A, 205

Memoirs. 188

Memoirs of William Jennings Bryan, The,
213

"Memorable Victory of Paul Jones .The/' 39

Memoranda during the War t 134 footnote,
140

Memorial to the Legislature of Massachu-
setts, 79

Memorie and Rime, 169

"Memories," 116

Memories of a Hundred Years, 185

Memories of a Southern Woman of Let-
ters, 181

Memories of President Lincoln, and Other

Lyrics of the War, 134 footnote
Men and Women, 264
"Menagerie, The," 248

Mencken, Htenry] L Louis J, 291

Mercy Phitbrick's Choice, 111, 231

"Merrimack, The," 116

Merry-Mount, 77

Merton, Thomas. 294

"Message to Garcia, A " 263

Mettle of the Pasture, the, 178

"Mezzo Cammin," 113

Michael Angelo: A Fragment, 113

Mlchel-GnUlaameJeanDeCreyecoeiir, 26

Midge, The, 222-223

"Midnight Consultation, A," 38

Miles, Nathan, 45

Miles Standish. Courtship of, 108

Milts WaMngford, 67

Mlllay, Edna St. Vincent, 283-284

Miller, Arthur, 288

324

INDEX

Mrs. Leffingwetfs Boots. 264 My Study frindow*. 127, 130

Mrs. Skaggs's Husbands and Other My Summer in a Garden, 262

My Winter Garden, 171
My Winter on the Nile. 262
My Year in a Log Cabin, 195

Miller, Ciaelnnatus Hier Cor Heine],
168-170: see Bfffler, "J*aia

Miller, "Joa*iB," 168-170; early period,
169; final period, 170; merits and de-
fects, 170: middle period, 169-170

"Milton," lio

Minao and Other Sketches in Black and

Ufttrnff | *f%

Ministers Charge; or,The Apprenticeship
of Lemuel Barker jTh* t 196 f

Minister's Wooing, The, 144, 145

"Miriam" 116

Mies Bellard's Inspiration. 198

Jfui Ludington'* Sitter, 218

M u/ Ravenefs Conversation from Seces-
sion to Loyalty. 224

"Miss Tempy's Watchers/' 183

Missionary Sheriff. The, 171

"Mistaken Charity, A," 184

Mr. Bonaparte of Corsica, 251

"Mr. Dooley/' 264

Mr. Dooley at Hit Beit. 264

Mr. Dooley in Peace and War, 264

Mr. Dooley in the Hearts of His Country-
men, 264

Mr. Dooley Says, 264

Mr. Dooley's Philosophy, 264

Mr. Isaacs, 220

Mrs. Clifi>s Yacht, 225

Mrs. Farrell, 197
s. Lemngwelfs
s. Shaggs's
Sketches, 163

Mitchell, Isaac, 46

Mitchell, Jonathan, 13

Mitchell 8(ilM] Weir. 225

M'liss: An Idyl of Red Mountain. 164
footnote

Moby-Dick- or. The Whale, 71

"Mocking bird, The," 235

Modern Chivalry, 43

Modern Instance, A, 198

Modern Italian Poets, 195

"Moll Pitcher," 115

Monaldi, 80

Monarch of Dreams, The, 261

Monikins, The, 67

Monk and the Hangman's Daughter, The,
216

^Monsieur Henri/ 251

Monsieur Motte. 181

"Monster, The/ 208. 209

Monster and Other Stories, The, 209

Mont'Saint-Michel and Chartres, 257

"Monument Mountain," 57

Moody, William Van*hn. 246*248; dra-
matic trilogy in verse, 246-247; letters,
248; merits and defects. 248: poetry
collections and letters, 247-248; prose
plays, 247

"Moon-koth, The/' 248

Moonlight Boy, A, 171

Moore, Clement Clarke, 81

Moosehead Journal, A, 129

"Moral Equivalent of War, The," 212

Morals of Chess, 27

Moran of the Lady Letty, 228

More, Hannah, 147

More, Paul Elmer, 289

More "Short Sixes," 223

More Songs from Vagabondia, 242. 244

More Wonders of the Invisible World, 9

"Morituri Salutamus," 113

Morley, Christopher [Darlington], 274

Horrell. William, 13

Morris, George Pope, 53-54

Mortal Antipathy, A, 121. 123

Morton, Sarah Wentworth, 45

Morton, Thomas, 4

Morton's Hope, 77

Mosses from an Old Manse, 117

Moth and the Flame, The, 264

Mother and the Father, The. 194

"Mother of Pearl," 224

Motley. John I**hrop,77-78

"Mount Vernon on the Potomac/' 181

Mountains of California, The. 262

Mouse-Trap, and Other Farces, The, 194

Mowatt [Bltchiel, Anna Cora, 83

"Moxon's Master/* 216

"MS. Found in a Bottle/' 60, 63

Muir, John, 262

Mumford, Lewis, 293

"Murders in the Rue Morgue, The," 63

Murfree, Mary Noaillea, 180

Murray, Judith Sr*ent 46

Hurray, Llndler, 46

"Musketaquid," 97

"My Aunt/ 1 124

"My Double and How He Undid Me,"

My Friendly Contemporaries, 207

My Literary Passions, 195

"My Lost Youth." 112

"My Love, I have no fear that thou

shouldst die," 130
My Mark Twain, 195
"My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night,"

"My Playmate," 116
"My Psalm " 1 17

,

Myers, Peter Hamilton, 82
Mysteries of the Backwoods, 161
Mysterious Stranger, The. 193
"Mystery of Gilgil, The/' 167
"Mystery of Heroism, A." 208
"Mystery of Marie Roget, The," 63
Mystery of Metropolisville. The, 165
Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain, The,

180
Mystic Trumpeter, The, 137

Narrative of Surprising Conversions, 16

"Narrow fellow in the grass, A/' 232 foot-
note

Nasby, Petroleum V. (pseud.), 76, 160

Nasby Papers, The, 76

Nathan, Bobert Ornntal. 275

Nathan Hate, 265

"National Oie, July 4, 1776, The," 146

Native of Wimby, and Other Tales, A, 183

"Nativity, The/Ml 3

"Natural Selection: A Romance of Chelsea
Village . . . /' 223

Naturalist of Souls, A, 261

Nature (R. W. Emerson), 85, 89, 90

"Nature" (R. W. Emerson). 95

"Nature" (H. W. Longfellow), 113

"Nature and Treatment of Neuralgia,
The," 122 footnote

Nature of True Virtue, The, 17

Naughty Anthony, 264

N*al, John, 79

"Near the Lake/' 54

"Nearing the Snow- Line," 126

Negro Question, 7>*, 176

" ro:TheSot " ' "
lie Bly," .

"Nellie Was a Lady," 64

Negro: The^So^herner^ Problem, The, 181
"Nellie Bly," 64

"New Church Organ, The," 249

New Day. The. 262

New England Boyhood, A, 185

Kew England C our ant. 19

"New England Nun, A." 184

New England Nun and Other Stories, A,

"New England Reformers." 95

INDEX

325

"New England Tragedies, The," 113

New EngUsk Canaan, 4

"New E*ekiel. The," 249

New Flay t The, 227

New Franc* and New England, 211

New Ltaf Mills. 195, 198

New Orleans: Tkf Place and tk* People,
181

New Roof. Tkf. 31

"New South, The." 179

New South and Other Addresses, 179

New Views of Christianity, Society, and
the Church. 105

New Voyage to Carolina* A t 20

New Wagging* of Old tales, 250

Newell, Robert Henry, 83

Newtonian rationalism, 24

Nicolay, J. G., 168

"Night and Day," 235

"Night at Wingdam, The," 162

"Night before Christmas: A Morality,
The," 193

Night in Acadif, A, 180

N'tphts with Uncle Remus, 172

"Night watches," 132

Nile Notes of a Howad/i, 145

"Nirvana," 235

No Love Lost: A Romance of Travel, 194

Noah, Mordecsvl Manuel, 82

"Noiseless Patient Spider, A," 140

"Nominalist and Realist," 96

Norris, [Benjamin] Frank[Un], 228-229

"North Shore Watch, The," 263

Northern Colonies (Rationalism and De-
mocracy), 19*20

Northern Novelists (Early Sentiment and
Romance), 82

Northern Poets (Early Sentiment and Ro-
mance), 54-59, 80-81

Norton Andrews, 92

Norton, John, 13

Norwood, (Colonel) Henry, 13

Not on the Screen, 227

Notes and Fragments, 134 footnote

Notes on the Mind, 16

Notes on ... Virginia, 34

Xotes on Walt Whitman as Poet and Per-
son, 255

Notions of the Americans. 67

Nott, Henry Juntos, 82

Novel, The (Revolutionary Period), 24, 41-

Novel: What It Is, The, 221

"Novel with a 'Purpose', The," 229

Novelists (1865-1914), 214-230

November Boughs, 134 footnote, 135 foot-
note

Nuggets and Dust Panned Out in Cali-
fornia. 214

Nydia: A Tragic Play, 75

"O Captain! My Captain!," 137, 141

O. Henry (pseud.), 268

"O. Inexpressible as Sweet," 263

Oak Openings, The, 67

Oftlceg, Urian, 13

Oaks and Ivy, 253

O'Brien, Fits-James, 216 footnote, 224-

Observations of Mr. Dooley, 264
"Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge, An/*

Octopus, The, 228, 229
Odd Leaves of a Louisiana "Swamp Doc-
tor, The, 161
"Ode for the Fourth of. July, 1876, An,"

;;Ode Inscribed to W. H. Channing " 98
J Ode Time of Hesitation, An," $47
"Ode Read at the One Hundredth Anni-

versary of the Flight at Concord Bridge," 132

Ode Recited at the Commemoration of the
Living and Dead Soldiers . . . , 127

"Ode Recited at the Harvard Commemora-
tion," 132

"Ode to Happiness," 132 -s

Odetl JoiutttuMft 45

Odets', Clifford, 2S

Odyssey of Horn**, T*e t 55

Of Befng, 16

Of Insects, 16

Osrlethorpe, James E., 20

"Oh Fairest of the Rural Maids," 57

O'Hara, John [Henry J7 278

O'Hara, Theodore* 81

"Old Age," 97

"Old Agency. The/' 179

Old Bachelor. The, 80

"Old Black Joe/' 64

"Old Chisholm Trail, The," 160

Old Continental, The. 54

Old Creole Days. 176

"Old Folks at Home." 64

Old Friends and New, 182

"Old Gardiston " 179

Old House at Sudbury, The, 59

Old Ironsides, 122

"Old Ironsides," 123

"Old Lady Pingree." 184

"Old Pourquoi," 248

Old South, The, 181

Old Stone House, The, 179

Old Thing. The. 201

"Old Uncle Ned." 64

Old Wives for New, 228

Oldport Days, 261

Oldtown Folks, 145

Oliver Oldschoel, Esq. (pseud.), 44

Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the
South Seas. 71

"On a Certain Blindness in Human Be-
ings/' 212

"On a Certain Condescension in Foreign-
ers," 130

"On a Soldier Fallen in the Philippines/' 247

"On Board the '76," 132

On Some of Life's Ideals, 212

"On the Anniversary of the Storming of
the Baatile," 38

"On the Beach at Night," 140

"On the Beach at Night Alone." 140

"On the Capture of Certain Fugitive
Slaves near Washington." 131

On the Causes and Cure of Smoky Chim-
neys, 27

"On the Connecticut River," 58

"On the Death of a Friend's Child/' 131

"On the Death of Joseph Rodman Drake,"

On the Makaloa Mat, 230

"On the River," 248

On the Stairs, 227

"On the Uses of Great Men," 96

"Once I Pass'd through a Populous City/'

139

One Fair Woman. The, 169
"One-Hoss Shay/' 124
One of Cleopatra's Nights. 174
"One of the Missing/ 215
O'Neill. Eugene [Gladstone], 286
"Open Boat, The* 207. 208
Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure,

Oten-byed Conspiracy, 196

"Opportunity," 240

Oregon Trail, Th*, 78

Oriental Acquaintance, 224

Oriental Contribution to Transcendental*

ism, 86

"Oriental Maxims." 116
"Origin of Didactic Poetry, The." 128-129
Origin of the Feast of Purim, The, 41

326

INDEX

Ormond 42

Orpheus C. Kerr Papers. The, 83

"Orphic Sayings," 102

Orwellr George [Blair, Brie], 278
OssollT Margaret t see Fuller [Sarah]

Margaret, 102-103
Other House, The. 201
Other Main-Travelled Roads, 206
Otis, James, 30
"Our Autocrat," 117
"Our Country's Call," 57
Our Hundred Days in Europe, 122
Our Italy. 262
Our Land and Land Policy, National and

State, 210
"Our love is not a fading earthly flower,"

130

"Our Master/' 117
Our National Parks, 262
Cur Old Home, 117, 118
"Our River," 116

"Outcasts of Poker Flat, The," 163
Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 211
"Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking,"

136

Out of the Question, 194
"Out of the Rolling Ocean the Crowd," 139
Outre-Mer, 107
"Over-Heart, The." 116
"Ovcr-Soul, The/ 1 86, 92, 94, 116
"Over the Carnage Rose Prophetic a

Voice," 137

Over the Teacups, 122, 123
Overland, 224

Overland in a Covered Wagon, 170
"Ozemc's Holiday," 180

Pacific Poems, 169

Pactolus Prime, 226

Page, Thomas Nelson, 180*181

Pageant of Life, A, 260 footnote

Pages from an Old Volume of Life, 122

Taine, Robert Treat, 46

Paine, Thomas, 32-33

'Pair of Patient Lovers, A," 194, 196

footnote

Pair of Patient Lovers, A, 194
"Palatine, The," 115
Papers on Literature and Art, 129
Paquita, 170 footnote
"Faradiso," 113

Parker, Dorothy [Rothschild], 284
Parker, Theodore, 104, 290
Farkman, Francis, 78
Parlor Car, The, 194
Parsons, Thomas William, 59
Parting and a Meeting, A, 194
Parting Friends, 194
"Parting Hymn," 125
Partisan, The, 74
"Passage to India," 136, 138, 140
"Passing of Tennyson, The," 170
Passionate Pilgrim, A, 203
Paste Jewels, 251
Pastime Stories, 181
Pathfinder, The, 68
fatrins. 251
Paul Fane, 53
Paul Redding: A Tale of the Brandywine,

"Paul Revere's Ride," 112
Paulding, James Kirke, 54
Peabody, Elizabeth, 101. 103
Prabody, Josephine Preston, 265

Pearl, The, 79

Pearl of On>s Island. The, 145

Pclltas and Melisande, 244

Pembroke, 184

Pencilings by the Way, 53

"Penelope," 162
Penhollow, Samuel, 19

"Penman of the Revolution, The," 30

Pennsylvania Magasjine; or American
Monthly Museum, 32

People of the Abyss, The, 230

Perelval. James Gates, 58

Percy, George, 13

Personal Narrative, 17

Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc by
the Sieur Louis de Conte, 192

Personally Conducted, 225

Peterkln, Julia [Mood], 273

Petroleum V. Nasby (pseud.). 76, 160

Phantoms of the Foot-bridge, The, 180

"Ph.D. Octopus, The," 212

Phelps. Elisabeth Stuart, 148-149

Philip Nolan's Friends, 185

Phillips, David Graham, 227-228

Philosophers (The Gilded Age), 209-213

"Philosophy of Composition, The," 62

Phoenixiana, 83

"Physical Basis of Emotion, The," 212

Platt, John James, 194, 249

PiaM*a Tales, The, 72

"Pictures from Appledore," 131

Pictures of the War, 208

Plerpont, John, 58

Pierre; or, The Ambiguities, 72

Pittro Ghisleri, 221

Pike County Ballads and Other Pieces,
The, 167

Pilot, The, 68

I'inckney, Edward Coote, 81

Pioneer, 126

"Pioneer, The," 132

Pioneers, The, 68

"Pioneers! O Pioneers I/' 138, 138 foot*
note, 141

Piper, The, 265

"Pipes at Lucknow, The," 117

PU, The, 228

"Pitcher of Mignonette, A," 224

M Plain Language from Truthful James,"
162

Plain People, 171

Plain Truth, 33

Platform of Church Discipline, A, 7

"Flavin 1 of Old Sledge at the Settlemint,
A/' 180

Playing the Mischief, 224

Plays and Poems (G. H. Boker), 75

"Plea for Captain John Brown, A," 99

"Plea for Psychology as a Natural Sci-
ence," 212

Pleasant Ways of St. Medard. The, 181

"Pledge at Spunky Point, The/' 167

Plum Tree, The, 227

Pluralistic Universe, A, 212

Poe, Bdrar Allan, 59-6& 129, 216 foot-
note; criticism, 61; merits and defects,
60-61, 63; poetry, 61-62; short stories,
62-63

Poe Hoax, 216

Poems T. G. C. Brainard), 58
M. [J.] Cawein), 251
W. E. Charming), 105
R. W. Emerson), 90

Poems
Poems
Poems
Poems
Poems
Pcems
Poems
Poems
Pt/ems
Poems
Poems
Poems
Poems
Poems

T. Fields), 145

;mily Dickinson), 232
O. W. Holmes), 122
W, D. Howells), 194
Sidney Lanier). 235
H. W. Longfellow), 107
T. R. Lowell), 126
W._V._Moodyj, 246

180
Thompson), 171

Poems nd Ballads of Heine. 249

INDEX

327

Poems and Stories of FitM-Jomes O'Brien.

The, 224

Poems and Translations, 249
Poems: Centenary Edition, 232
Poems; Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, 25
Poems of H. C. Bunner. The, 224
Poems of Henry Timrod, 64
Poems of Home and Travel, 146
Poems of Paul Hamilton Hayne, 64-65
Poems of Place, 249
Poems of the Orient, 146
Poems, of the War, 75
Poems of Two Friends, 194
Poems on Several Occasions, 37
Foems on Slavery, 109
Poems, Sacred, Passionate, and Humorous,

Poems': Second Scries (Emily Dickinson),

232

Poems: Second Series (I, R. Lowell). 127
Pcems: Third Series (Emily Dickinson),

232

"Poet, The," (R. W. Emerson), 95
Poet at the Breakfast-Table, 122, 123
Poetical Works of Fits-Greene Halleck,

The, 53

"Poetry: A Metrical Essay." 125
Poetry of Life, The, 243
Poetry of Tennyson. The, 263
Poets and Poetry of the West, The, 194
Poffanuc People, 143
Political Essays, 127
"Political Litany, A," 38
Political Prose (Revolutionary Period), 29- 37
"Politics," 96
"Polly," 181
Pomona's Travels, 225
Poole, Ernest, 273
Poor Richard's Almanac, 27

Porter, Katherine Anne, 275
Porter, William- Sidney, 270

Portion of Labor, The, 184

Portrait, The, 58

Portrait of a Lady, The. 201

Portrait of American Women, 261

Portrait of Mrs. W., The, 265

Portraits of Women, 261

"Posson Jone' " 176

"Posthumous Fame; or a Legend of the

Beautiful," 178
Potiphar Papers, 145
Pound, Ezra [Loomls], 282
"Power," 96

"Power of Fancy. The/' 39
Power of Sympathy, The, 41

,
Pragmatism: A New Way for Some Old

Ways of Thinkin 212
Prairie, The, 68

Prairie Folks, 206

"Prattle." 214

Prayer to the Virgin of Chartres, The, 259

"Preacher, The/' 117

Prentice, Oeorare Dennison, 81

Preacott, William Htcklin*, 77

"Present Crisis, The," 131

Present State of Virginia, The (James

Blair), 20
Present State of Virginia, The (Hugh

Jones), 20

Preston, Margaret J., 81
Pretty Story, A, 31
Previous Engagement, A, 194
"Price of the Harness, The," 207
F rice She Paid, The, 228
Pride of the Village, The, 52
Piimttivism, 24
Prince, Thomas, 20
Prince and the Pauper. The, 192
Prince of India, The, 225
Prince of Parthia, The, 19

Princess Casamassima, The, 201

Principle* of Psychology, The, 211

Private Theatrical*, 197

"Problem. The," 97

'Problems of American History, The," 158

"Proem," 116

Professor at the Breakfast Table, The, 122,

123

Progress and Poverty, 209, 210
Progress: A Satirical Poem. 80
Progress of Dulness, The, 39
Progress to the Mines, in the Year 1732, A. 18
Prokoach, Frederic. 279
Prologue to "Songs in Many Keys/' 124
Prometheus (1. R. Lowell), 131
"Prometheus'' (J. G, Percival), 58
Prometheus Part II with Other Poems. 58
Prompter, The, 44

"Prophecy of Samuel Sewall, The," 115
Prophet of Joy, A, 260 footnote
Ptophet of the Great Smoky Mountains,

The, 180

Piose Writers of Germany, 104
Protection or Free Trade, 210
"Prudence," 93
Prue and I. 145
"Psalm of Life. A," 110
"Psalm of the West," 237
Psychographs, 259
"Psychological Theory of Extension, The,"

212

Psychology: Briefer Course, 211, 212
Publick Occurrences, 19
Puppet-Booth, The, 227
"Purgatorio" (H. W. Longfellow), 113
Purgatorio (T. W. Parsons). 59
Puritan Poetry (Renaissance and Puritan

Influences), 10-12
Puritan theology, 2-3
Puritans, The (Renaissance and Puritan

Influences), 2-4
"Purloined Letter. The," 63
Pursuit of the House-Boat, The, 251

Quakerism, principles of, 18

Quality of Mercy, The, 197

^Quarry, The." 247

Queen Bee, The. 186

Queries of Highest Consideration, 6

Quest of Merlin, The, 245

Questionable Shapes, 195

"Rabbi Ishmael," 117

"Race Problem in the South, The/' 179

Ragged Lady, 198

Raid of the Guerrilla, The, 180

Rainbow, The, 80

Ralph Waldo Emerson (O. W. Holmes) ,

Ralph Waldo Emerson (G. E. Woodbury),

263

Ratstons. The, 220
"Ram of Darby. The," 160
Ramona, 17, 171
Randall, Jarne* Ryder, 81
"Randolph of Roanoke." 115
Ransom, John Crowe, 283
Ranson's Folly, 226
"Rappaccim's Daughter." 119
Rationalism, development of, 24
"Raven, The." 62
Raven and Other Poems, The, 60
"Raven Days, The," 236
Read, Thomas Buchanan, 58
Reality of Religion, The, 262
Rebellious Heroine, A, 251
Recollection of the Last Ten Years. 75
"Reconciliation," 137
Reconstruction Period. 153-154
Record of a School, The, 101
"Recorders Ages Hence," 139
Red Badge of Courage, The, 208

3*8

INDEX

Rid City. Th*. 225

Red Rover. 68

Redburu: hi* First Voyage, 70. 71

Reformers, (The Gilded Age), 209-213

Register. The t 194

Aw* of Guilt, The, 228

/?> of Law, The, 178

Relation of Literature to Lift, Tke, 262

"Relieving Guard/' 162

Rtligio** Courtship. 147 ^ 4

Religious Writing in New England (Rise

of Rationalism and Democracy), 14-17
"Remarkable Providences/' 7
Remarks OH American Literature, 88, 91

footnote

"Remonstrance," 236
"Remorse," 167

Renaissance and Puritan Influences, M3
Report on a National Bank, 35
Report on Manufacture*, 35
Report on Public Credit, 35
Reppller, Agnes, 288
Representative Men, 90, 96
"Republican Genius of Europe, The," 38
"Requital," 117
Resolution^ 16

RespoZsibtiitks* of the Novelist, The, 229

"Resurgam/* 171

Return of Peter Grimm, The, 264

"Return of the Private, The," 205

"Reveille. The " 162

"Revenge of Hamish, The," 236, 237

Reverberator, The, 201

Resolution*; The (1763-1783), 22

Revolutionary Period, The(1763-1810), 21-46

"Rhodora, The," 97

"Rhoecus," 131

Rice, Elmer [L.I. 287

Rich, Richard, 13

Rlchter, Conrad, 274

Right* of th* ' British Colonists Asserted and

RighZ'% Man, The. 32, 33
Rlls, Jacob August. 213
Rlley, James Whit comb, 250

. 52

a,
Aw* of the Dutch R*P*Wc.J*". 77
"Rise of the Short Story, The," 163 footnote
"Rising Glory of America, The/' 37
[Ritchie], Anna Cora Mowatt, 83
River Floods, The, 262
"River swelleth more and more, The," 100-

101

Road, The, 230

"Road-Hymn for the Start," 247
Roadside Meetings, 206

B. Lie} 6 Man and Soldier 180-181

.
JB.

iier, 1 80
, 273-274

.

Huberts, Elizabeth
"Robin's Song," 224
Robinson, Edwin Arlington. 279
Robinson teffers: The Man and th* Artist,

Rocky Mountains: or, Scents, . Incidents,
and Atotnlwn* . . . of Captain B. L. B.
Bonneville. The, ^2 footnote
Roderick Hudson, 201 ^
"Rodman -the Keeper," 179 ^

Sfctetot.

Rogers, (Major) Robert, 46

Roland Blake, 225

Rtflvaag, Orfe] B[dvart], 272

Roman Singer, A, 221

Romantic Period, The (1810-1865), 47-149

Room Forty-Five, 194

Roosevelt. Theodore, 155-156

Root, George Frederick, 81

Rose of Butcher's Coolly, 206

"Rose of the Alhambra, The," 51

Roes, Alexander, 75

Roughing It, 190

Round Table, The, 127

"Rousseau," 133

"Rousseau and the Sentimentalists," 130

"Roving Gambler, The." 160

Rowea: " Second-Crop'* Songs, 224

Rowlandson, Mary, 5

KowBon Susanna H., 46

Roxy. 166

Royal Gentleman, A, 226

Rudder Grange, 225

Rudder Grangers Abroad, The, 225

Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be
Reduced to a Small One, 27

Ruling Passion, The, 263

Runaway Browns, The, 223

Rash, Benjamin, 45

Rush, Rebecca, 82

Russell, Irwln, 180

"Russian Christianity vs. American Juda-
ism," 249

Ryan, Abram Joseph, 81

Rverson, Florence, 143 footnote

"Sabbath Scene, A," 115

Sacred Fount, The, 201

'Saga of King Olaf, The." 112

Salmagundi: or The Whim-Whams
50. 52

Sandburg:, Carl [AugUdt], 168, 280-281

Sandford and Merton. 147

Rands, Robert Charles, 83

Sandys, George, 12

Sant' llario. 221

Santayana, George, 288-289

Sappho (Clyde Fitch), 265

Sappho of Green Springs, A, 164 footnote

Sappho: One Hundred Lyrics (Bliss Car-
man), 243

Sara Crewe, or What Happened at Miss
Minchin's, 226

Saracinesca. 221

Hnrgent, Epes, 84

Saroyan, William, 278

Satanstoe, 66, 67

Saxe, John Godfrey, 80

Scarlet Letter, The, 117, 118, 120, 121

Sehoolcraft, Henry R., 83. 112

Science of English Verse, The, 231

Scollard, Clinton, 251

Scorn of Woman, 229

Scott, Evelyn [D.J, 275

Scout, The, 74

Sea-Change: or Love's Stowaway . . , A, 194

Sea Lions, The, 67

"Sea-Shore " 97

Sea-Wolf, *The, 229

S^bury, Samuel, 35, 45

238

Malvin's Burial, 120
Roer, John, 13

and the Fireside, The, 107

Seasonable Thoughts on . . .'Religion in

New-Enoland, 17
"Seaward/' 245
Seccomb, John, 20
"Second Coming," 247. 248
Second Generation, The, 228
Second Twenty Years at Hull House, Th*,

"Secret, The," 263
Secret Garden, The, 226

INDEX

329

Bedfwiek, Catharine Maria, 82

Sedffwiek, Susan Ridley, 82

Seen and Unseen of Strot ford-on- Avon,

The 194

5f/tttoi PMMM (R. W. Emerson). 90
"Sclf-Reliance," 92, 93, 94
"Self-Sacrifice: A Farce-Tragedy," 193
S>iw */ d* Porf, The, 203
5>n*tWf*f* <m 5mo// Pox Inoculation, 8
Sequel to Drum-Taps. 134 footnote
Sermon Preach'd at the Election. .1669, A. 6
Sermons (Samuel Davis), 20
Seton, Erneat [or Evan] Thompson,

263-264

Tfl/X%/ My Native Land, 117
fy Six, 79

Several Poems . . . By a Gentlewoman in
New-England, 11

Several Reasons Proving that Inoculating
Is a Lawful Practice, 7

Bewail, Samuel, 9-10

"Shadow," 63

Shadow of a Dream, The, 197

Shadow on the Dial, The, 217

Shadows of Shasta. 169

Shadow Verses, 260 footnote

"Shake, Mulleary and Go-ethe," 224

"Shakespeare Once More," 130

"Shame/' 207

Shapes of Clay, 216

"Sharps and Flats," 250

Shaw, Henry Wheeler, 76, 160

Hhaw. John, 46

Sheean, Vincent, 277

Sheldon, Charles Monroe, 227

"Shepherd of King Admetus, The," 131

Shepsvrd, Thomas, 5

"Sheridan's Ride," 58

Sherman, Frank Dempster, 250-251

Sherman, Stuart P[ratt], 291

Sherwood, Robert [Emmettl, 287

"She Was a Beauty/' 224

Shlllaher, Benjamin P., 83

"Shoemakers, The," 116

"Short Sixes," 223

Short Story, 50, 61, 158

Short-Story Writers (1865-1914), 214-230

Shuttle The, 226

"Significance of the Frontier in American
History, The," 158, 159

Slfrourney, Lydia Hnntley, 80

Stlent Partner, The, 149

Silent South. The, 176

Mil, Edward Rowland, 239-240

Silver Pitchers: and Independence, a Cen-
tennial Love Story, 146 footnote

Slttims, William Gllmore, 74

Simple Cobbler of Aggawam . . . , The. 9

Sincere Convert, The, 5

Sinclair, Upton [Beall], 272

Singing Heart, The, 251

Sister Carrie, 228

f an Angry God, 17

"Sister Dolorosa," 178

Sister Jane: Her Friends and Acquaint*
ances, 172

"Sister Liddy," 184

"Sister St. Luke." 179

Sisters, The, 116

Si* to One: A Nantucket Idyl, 218

"Skeleton in Armor, The," 110

Sketch Booh of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., 51

Sketches of American Policy, 44

Sketches of Eighteenth Century ^America, 26

Sketches of India, 235

Sketch** of Switgerland, 67

Sketches of the Life and Character of Pat-
rich Henry, 80

"Skipper Ireson's Ride," 116

Slavery, 88

"Slavery in Massachusetts." 99

Sleeping Car and Other Farces, The, 194

"Sliding Scale, The," 160

Slovenly Peter. 192 footnote

"Sluggish smoke curls up from some deep
den" The," 101

Smith, Charles Henry, 83, 160

Smith, (Captain) John, 2

Smith, Samuel Francis, 65

Smith, Seba* 76

Smith, SoKomon Franklin], 161

Smith, William (1727-1803), 19, 33

Smith, William (1728-1793), 20

Smoke Bellew, 229

Smoking Car, The, 194

"Snake, The," 232 footnote

Snelllng, William Joseph, 83

Snow-Bound, 110, 114

"Snow- Storm, The," 97

Social Secretary, The, 227

"Society and Solitude," 97

Society and Solitude, 90, 97

Sol Smith's Theatrical Apprenticeship, 161

Soldiers of Fortune, 226

Some Adventures of Captain Simon Suggs,
83, 161

Some Chinese Ghosts. 174

Some Considerations on the Keeping of Ne-
groes, 25 '

Some Problems of Philosophy, 212

Son of Royal Langbrith, The, 199

"Son of the Gods, A " 215

Son of the Middle border, A, 205, 206,
206 footnote

Son of the Wolf. The, 229

"Song-Flower and Poppy," 248

"Song for American Freedom, A," 31

Song of Creation, A, 170

Song of Hiawatha, the, 107, 111

"Song of Marion's Men," 57

"Song of Myself," 136, 139

"Song of the Answerer," 136

"Song of the Broad-Axe." 139

"Song of the Chattahoocbee," 235

"Song of the Hemp, The," 178

"Song of the Rolling Earth, A," 140

Songs at the Start, 251

Songs from Vagabondia, 244

Songs in Many Keys, 122

Songs of a Semite, 249

Songs of Fair Weather, 171

Songs of Italy, 169, 170

Songs of Many Seasons, 122

Songs of the Mexican Seas, 169

Son^j of the Sea-Children, 243

Songs of the Sierras, 169

Songs of the Soul, 169, 170

Songs of the Sunlands, 169

Songs of Vagabondia. 242

Sonnets (H. W. Longfellow), 113

Sonnets: A Sequence on Profane Love, 75

Sonnets to Craig, 252

Soul of the Far East. The. 173

Soundings from the Atlantic, 122

"South Devil, The " 179

"South of the Slot;' 230

Southern Colonies, The (Rationalism and
Democracy), 18, 20

Southern Novelists (Early Sentiment and
Romance), 82

Southern Poets (Early Sentiment and Ro-
mance), 59-65, 81-82

Southern Writers (Colonial Period), 2

"Southwest Chamber, The," 184

Southworth, Emma D. E. N., 82

Sovereignty & Goodness of God Together,
The, 5

Spagnoletto, The, 249

Spanish Student, The, 107, 111

330

INDEX

Sparks, Jarfd, 52

Sparrowgrass Papers, The, 83

Specimen Days and Collect, 134 footnote, 140

Specimen Days in America, 134 footnote

Specimens, 169

"Spectre Bridegroom, The," 51

Spectre of Power, A, 180

Speech against Writs of Assistance, 30

Spelling Book, 44

"Sphinx. The," 97

St*rit of America, The, 263

Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, The,

Spirit-Rapper: An Autobiography, The, 106

"Spiritual Laws," 94

Spoil of Office, A, 205

Spoils of Poynton, The, 201

Sport of the Gods, The, 252

Spots wood, Alexander, 18

"Spring: An Ode," 245

Spy, Tne, 54, 66. 69

"Square-Five Fathom," 223

Squib ob Papers, The, 83

"Stage Driver's Story, The," 162

Standards, 262

Stansbnry, Joseph, 45

* Stanzas on Freedom," 131

Star Rover, The, 229

"Star- Spangled Banner, The," 65

"Starting from Paumanok," 136, 139

Statesmen of Literary Note, 79

"Statesman's Secret, The," 124, 126

Steele. Wilbur Daniel, 272

Bteere, Richard, IV

Stein, Gertrude. 272

"Stein Song," 245

Steinbeck, John [Ernnt], 277

Step on the Stair, A, 171

Stephens, A. S., 161

Sterling, George, 217 footnote, 252

"Stethoscope Song, The." 124

Stevens, Wallace, 281

Stickcen, 262

Stillwater Tragedy, The. 148

"Stirrup-Cup, The" (John Hay), 167

"Stirrup-Cup, The" (Sidney Lanier), 236

Stith, William, 20

Stockton, Frank B. [or Francis Rich-
ard], 225

Stoddard, Richard Henry, 58-59, 249

Stoddard, Solomon, 20

Stops of Various Quills, 194

Stories from Louisiana History, 181

Stories in Light and Shadow. 164 footnote'

Stories of a Western Town, 171

Stories That End Well, 171

Storm Centre, The, 180

Story, William Wetmore, 81

"tory of a Bad Boy, The, 148
'tory of a Country Town, TKe, 171, 206
Story of a New York House, The/' 222

Story of an Untold Love, The. 227

Story of Kennett, The, 146

Story of My Boyhood and Youth, The, 262

Story of Old Fort Loudon. The, 180

Story of the Other Wise Man, The, 263

"Stout Gentleman, The." 51

Siowe. Harriet [Elisabeth] Beecher,
143-145, 297

Strsvchey, William, 13

S
S

Stradflla. 221

Strange Leaves from Strange Literature, 174

Strangle** of Paris, The, 264

"Stratford on Avon," 51 tt -^ t ...-,. -. -

Streaks of Squatter Life. 161 JTJanmtppiw,", 54, 55. 56

"Street of the Hyacinth, The," 179 Thar s More in the Man than Thar Is in

"Study of Thirteenth-Century Unity, A/'

Suburban Sketches. 195

* Success" (Emily Dickinson), 232 footnote

"Success" (R. W. Emerson), 97

Snckow, Ruth, 275

Summary View of the Rights of British

America, A, 34

"Summer by the Lakeside," 116
Summer in Arcady: A Tale of Nature, 178
Summer km the Lake*. 103
"Sun-Day Hymn, A/' 125
"Sunrise," 237

"Sunset on the Bearcamp," 116
Susan Lenox: Her Fall and Rise, 228
"Susanna," 64
Sut Lovingood Yarns, 161
Swallow Barn, 73
"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," 160
Sword of Youth. The. 177
Sybaris and Other Homes, 185
Sylphs of the Seasons, with Other Poems,

80

'"Sympathy," 101
"Symphony, The," 237
"Symposium, The," 87

Tabb, John B[ann liter], 240-242

Tablet, The, 44

Taft, William H., 156-157

Tailfier, Patrick, 20

Tame. H. A., 165

Tales from Home, 146

Tales of a Time and Place, 181

Tales of a Traveller, 51

Tales of a Wayside Inn, 59, 112

Tales of New England, 182

Tales of Soldiers and Civilians, 215

Tales of the Fish Patrol, 229

Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque, 60

Tales of the Home Folks in Peace and

War, 172

Tales of the Times. A, 134 footnote
Taliesin: A Masque, 246
Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to

Students on Some of Life's Ideal*, 212
Tall Tales, 159. 160-161
Tallahassee Girl, A, 171
Tamerlane and Other Poem*, 59
"Tan Yard Case," 173
Taquisara, 221
Tar-Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle

Remus, The. 172

Tarklnrton, [Newton] Booth, 270-271
Tayleure, Clifton W., 83
Taylor, Bayard, 146, 297
Taylor. Edtfard. 12
Taylor, W. F., 189, footnote
Teaadale, Sara, 281
"Tell-Tale Heart, The," 63
Teller, The, 226
^'Telling the Bees," 116
Ten Great Religions. 106
Ten Times One Is Ten, 185
"Tennessee's Partner," 163
Tenney, Tabltha, 46
"Tenor. The " 223
Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America,

"Tentfe of January, The/ 1 148
'"Tcnty Scran," 148
"Terminus." 97
Terrible Night. A. 224
Testimony of the Suns, The, 217 footnote,
252

Strength of Gideon, The, 253
trength of the Strong, The, 230
"Strong as Death," 224
Strong Hearts, 176
Stubbornness of Geraldine, The, 264

the Land," 236
That Fortune, 262
That Lass o" Lowrie's, 226
Theatrical Journey,Work, 161
Theft, 229

INDEX

Their Silver Wedding Journey, 196

Their Wedding Journey, 196, 198

Theodore de la Guard (pseud.), 9

Tlteodore Roosevelt: The Cititen, 213

Theology Explained and Defended, 40

"There Was a Child Went Forth." 140

"Thick-Sprinkled Bunting" 137. 138

Thine Eyes Still Shined/' 93 footnote, 97

Third Circle, The, 229

Third Violet, The," 208, 209

Thirty Poems, 55

Thomas, Augustas, 264

Thomas, Fredrick William, 82

Thompson, Daniel Pierce, 82

Thompson. Ernest Seton, 263-264

Thompson, [James] Mauriee, 171

Thompson. William Tappan, 83, 161

Thomson, Mortimer Meal, 83

Thoreau, Henry David, 94, 95, 98-101,
129, 133, 287-289; prose, 99-100; poetry,
100-101 ; supplementary bibliography, 287-
289

"Thoreau" (J. R. Lowell), 130

Thoreau: The Poet-Naturalist, 105

Thorpe, Thomas Bangs, 83, 161

"Thou Mother with Thy Equal Brood,"
137

Thought," 171

Three Fates, The, 220

"Three Friends of Mine," 113

Three Memorial Poems, 127

"Three Miraculous Soldiers," 208

"Three of a Kind," 245

"Threnody," 97

Through Nature to God, 211

Through the Eye of the Needle, 197

"Through the Long Days," 167

Ticknor, Francis Orray, 81

Ticknor, George, 84

Timoleon, etc., W

Timrod, Henry. '64

Tinker, E. L., 175 footnote

" Tite Poulette," 176

"Titmouse, The," 97

"To a Caty-Did," 124

"To a Locomotive in Winter," 138

"To a Waterfowl," 57

"To a Wild Honeysuckle," 39

"To an Author," 39

"To an Insect," 124, 126

'To Charles Eliot Norton," 132

"To Ellen at the South," 93 footnote, 97

"To Helen," 61

"To Her," 224

"To Him That Was Crucified," 140 foot-
note

'To Holmes on His Seventy-Fifth Birth-
day," 132

To Leeward, 221

'To Mv Dear and Loving Husband," 11

"To My Readers," 126

"To Sylvius," 39

"To the Dandelion," 131

*To the Fringed Gentian," 57

"To the Humble-Bee," 97

"To the Leaven'd Soil They Trod," 137

'To the Memory of the Brave Americans,"
39

"To Thee Old Cause." 136

"To Think of Time," 140

"To Whittier on His Seventy-fifth Birth-
day," 132

"To W. L. Garrison," 131

'Toinette, 226

Told by Uncle Remus, 172

Tom Owen: The Bee-Hunter . . . , 161

Tom Sawyer, Adventures of, 191
Tom Sawyer Abroad, 191 footnote
Tom Sawver, Detective, 191 footnote

"Tomo Cheekt, the Creek Indian in Phila-
delphia," 39

Tompson, Benjamin, 13

"Too Young for Love," 126

Tortesa the Usurer, 53

Tory Lover, The, 182

Tour on the Prairies, A, SI

Tour*e>, Albion Winegar, 225, 226

"Town Crier, The," 214

Tragedy of t>udd'nhead Wilson, The. 192

Tragic Muse, The, 201

Trail-Makers of the Middle Border, 206,
206 footnote

Trail of an Artist-Naturalist, 264

Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The, 181

Tramp Abroad, A, 190

Transcendental Club. 86. 89. 104

"Transcendental Wild Oats, 1 ' 146

Transcendentalism: Brook Farm, 87; group
activities, 86-87; major and minor fig-
ures, 85-106; origin of concept, 85. 86;
The Dial, 87

Transformation, 121

Tfansit of Civilisation, The, 166

"Transplanted Boy, A," 179

Traveler from Altruria, A, 197

Travels in Alaska, 262

Travels in New-England and New-York, 40

Travels through North and South Carolina,
Georgia, East and West Florida. 25

Treatise concerning Religious Affections,
A f 16

"Trial Sermons on Bull-Skin, The," 252

"Trouble, Trouble." 160

True Relation of Such Occurences and Ac-
cidents of Note as Have Happened in
Virginia . . . , A, 2

Trumbull. John, 39-40

Truth. The, 265

Tucker, George, 82

Tucker, Nathaniel Beverley, 82

Tuckrrman, Henry Theodore, 84

lurrell, Ebenecer, 20

Turrell, Jane, 20

Turn O Libertad," 137, 138

Turn of the Screw, The, 203

Turner, Frederick J., 158-159

Twain, Mark (pseud'.), 187-193: see
Clemens, 8. I*.

Twenty Years at Hull House, 213

Twice-Told Tales, 117, 118

Two Admirals. The. 68

"Two Churches of 'Quawket, The." 223

"Two Gentlemen of Kentucky," 178

Two Little Confederates, 181

7 wo Men of Sandv Bar, 164 footnote

"Two Rabbi [n] s, The," 117

Two Rivulets including Democratic Vistas,
Centennial Songs, and Passage to India,
134 footnote, 135 footnote

Two Women: 1S62, 179

Two Years Before the Mast, 73

Two Years in the French West Indies, 174

Tyler, Rovall, 24, 41

Typce: A Peep at Polynesian Life, 70

Types of American Characters, 260

"Ulalume," 62

Uncalled, The, 252

"Uncle Gabe 1 * White Folks," 181

"Uncle Ned," 64

"Uncle Remus," 172

Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit, 172

Uncle Remus and His Friends, 172

Uncle Remus and the Little Boy, 172

Ifncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings, 172

Uncle Remus Returns, 172

I ncle Remus Series, 172

Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Lift among the

Lowly, 143-144

"Under the Lion's Paw," 205
"Under the Old Elm," 132
Under the Skylights, 227

33*

INDEX

"Under the Violets," 125

"Under the Willows/' 131

Under the Willow and Other Poems, 127

Underbrush, 145

Inderhill, (Captain) John, 13

Undiscovered Country. The, 198

Unexpected Guests, The, 194

"Union and Liberty/' 124

"Unitarian Christianity Most Favorable to
Piety/' 88

United States Democratic Review, 105

Unknown Quantity, The, 263

Unmade in Heaven, 260 footnote

"Unmanifest Destiny." 245

Unpublished Poems, 232

Untermeyer, Louln. 291-292

"Until the Troubling of the Waters." 247-248

"Up the Coolly/'. 205

"Upon the Burning of Our House/' 11

"Upon the Death of G. B. [General Ba-
con]/' 2

Upside Down, or Philosophy in Petticoats, 66

Urania: A Rhymed Lesson, 122

"Uriel/' 97

"Utility and Importance of Direct Explora-
tion in Medical Practice, The/' 122 footnote

'Vacation of the Kelwyns, The, 198
"Valentine Extravaganza/' 232 footnote
Valley of the Moon, The, 229
Van Bibber and Others, 226
Van Der Decken, 264
\an l>oren, Carl [Clinton], 292
handover and the Brute, 228
Ton Vechten, Carl, 273
Varieties of Religions Experience: A Study

in Human Nature, The, 212
Vassell Morton, 78 footnote
Venetian Life. 194
Ventures in Common Sense, 171
Very, Jones. 104, 290
Via Crucis. 221
Victorian Prose Masters. 262
Vlereck, Peter. 285
Views A-foot, 146
Views and Reviews, 73
Vigil of Faith and Other Poems, 80
Vindication of the Government of New

England Churches, A, 15
Vision of Columbus, The, 40
"Vision of Sir Launfal, The," 131
Vision of Sir Launfal, The, 127, 129, 131
"Voiceless, The." 125
Voices of the Night, 107
"Voluntaries," 98
"Voyage of the Good Ship Union/' 124

"Waiting/* 254

"Waiting. The/' 116

Wake field, 119

Wold en; or, Life in the Woods, 99

traldo Trench and Others, 227

Wallace, LewCU], 225

Walt Whitman: A Study, 255

"Walt Whitman at Home." By Himself,
134 footnote

Walt Whitman: Prophet of American De-
mocracy (Chapter VII), 134-142

Walt Whitman's Diary in tanada, 134 foot-
note

Walt Whitman's Drum-Taps, 134 footnote

Wandering Ghosts, 221

War Is Kind and Other Lines, 209

War of the Classes, The, 230

Hard, Artemus (pseud.), 76-77, 160

Ward, Klliabeth Stuart Phlps v 148-149

Ward, Nathaniel, 9

Ware, William, 82

Warner, Charles Dudley, 262

Warner, 8uan Bogert, 82

Warren, Caroline Matilda, 46

Warren, Mercy Otis, 46

Warren, Robert Penn, 278

"Warren's Acfdress to the American Sol-
diers," 58

"Washers of the Shroud, The," 131

Washington, George. 36

Washington Square, 201

Hatcher by the Dead, A, 217

"Water-Ouzel, The," 262

Water Witch. The. 68

Way to Wealth, The, 27, 28

Wayfarers, The. 265

Ways of the Spirit and Other Essays, 104

Wayside Courtship, 206

'Wealth," 97

Webber, Charles WUkias, 82

Webster, Daniel. 79

Webster, Noah, 44

Week on the Concord and Merrimach
Rivers, A, 99, 100

Wems, Mason Locke, 83

"Weird Gathering, The," 115

Welby, Amelia Ball Coppnck, 81

Weld, Thomas, 10

"Weflfleet Oysterman, The," 99

"Wendell Phillips." 131

Wept of Wish-ton-Wish, The, 69

Wescott, Glenwajr, 277

West, The (Early Sentiment and Romance) ,7

Westcott, Edward Nojres, 226

Western Writers (Early Sentiment and
Romance), 83

"Westminster Abbey/' 51

Westward Ho I, 54

Westward March of American Settlement,
The, 206 footnote

Westways, 225

Wetherel Affair, The, 224

TV barton, Edith [Newbold Jones], 270

"What Did She See With?/' 148

What Is ManT, 192

What Maisie Knew, 201

"What Makes Life Significant?/' 212

"What Was It?/' 216 footnote, 224

"Whate'er we leave to God, God does," 101

Wheatley, Phillls, 45

Wheeler, Thomas, 13

Wheelock, John Hall, 282

"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard
Bloom'd," 137

"When Winter fringes every bough," 101

Where the Battle Was Fought, 180

Whicher, Mrs. Frances, 83

lyhilomville Stories, 207

Whistle, The, 27

Whltaker, Alexander, 13

White, (Father) Andrew, 12

White, Stewart Edward, 269 footnote,
271

"White Cowl, The," 178

White Fang, 229

"White Flag, The/' 167

White-Footed Deer and Other Poems, The,
55

"White Heron, A," 183

White Heron, A, 183

White- Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-
War, 70, 71

White Magic. 228

White People, 226

White Sister, The, 221

Whitefield, 6eorge, 117

Whitman, Waltfer], 132, 133, 134-142,
173 footnote, 256, 295-297; expanding
America, 138-140; general estimate as a
critic and as a poet, 141-142; Leaves of
Grass, 134, 135*136; poetry and prose
before Leaves of Crass, 134-135; prose
works, 140: supplementary bibliography,
295-297; Whitman and the War. 137-
138; Whitman's purpose expressed in
verse, 136

INDEX

333

Whlttler, John Greenleaf, 113-117, 124,
291*292; important poem, 114-115; im-
portant prose piece, 114; shorter poems,

''Whoever You Are Holding Me Now in
Hand" 136, 139

Whole Book of Psalms Faithfully Trans-
lattd into English Metre, The. 7, 10

Widow Rugby's Husband, The, 161

Widow's Marriage, The, 74

WitlandL 42

Wit*. The. 264

Wifffflesworth, Michael, 11-12

Wilcox, Carlos, 80

Wild Animals I Have Known, 263

Wild Bill Hickok, 159

Wild Garden, 243

Wilde, Richard Henry, 81

Wilder, Thornton [Nlven], 276

"Wilhelmina," 179

Wlllard, Emma Hart, 80

Willard, Samuel, 20

William Crary Brownell, 262

Williams, John (1664-1729), 20

Williams, John (1761-1818), 45

Williams, Borer, 5-6

William M, Tennennee (Lanler, Thomat),
288

William*, William Carlos, 281

WilllH, Nathaniel Parker, 53

W T llHon, Alexander, 25

WINon, Edmund, 293

Wilson, James, 45

Wilson, John, 13

Wilson, William, 81

Wilson, Woodrow, 157

Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popu-
lar Philosophy, The, 211

Wind in the Rose Bush, The, 184

"Wind Storm in the Forests, A," 262

"Windharp. The,' 1 132

Wine of Wizardry, A, 252

Winesburg. Ohio, 171

Wing-and-Wing, 68

Wings, The, 265

Wings of the Dove, The t 203

Winslow, Edward, 13

"Winter Piece, A," 57

Wlnthrop, John (1588-1649), 4-5

Wlnthrop, John (1714-1779), 20

Wlnthrop. Theodore, 82

Wlrt, William, 80

Wise, Henry Augustus, 82

Wise, John, 14-15

Wister, Owen, 270

Witch of Wenham, The, 115

"Witchcraft," 130

Witching Hour. The. 264

Witching Times, 224

"With Husky-Haughty Lips, O Sea!/' 140

With the Procession, 227

Wltherspoon, John, 45

"Within the circuit of this plodding life,"
100

Within the Gates, 148

Wwes t 261

Wolcott, Borer, 20

Wolf. The, 228

Wolf of Cnbbio, The, 265

Wolfe, Thomas [Clayton], 277

Wolf eri's Roost, 52

Woman in the Nineteenth Century, 103

Woman of Honor, A. 222

"Woman's Love, A/ 167

Woman's Reason. A. 197

Wonders of the fnt+sible World. 119

"Wondersmith, The," 224

Wood, Sarah Sayward Barrell Keattn*,

Woodberry, George Edward, 263

Woodcraft, 74

"Woodman, Spare that Tree," 54

"Woodnotes 1.^97

"Woodnotes it," 97

Woodworth, ftunael. 82

"Woof of the sun, ethereal gauxe," 101

Wooing of Malkatoon, The, 225

Woolmaa, John, 25

Woolson, Constance Fen tm ore, 179

Word of Remembrance and Caution to the

Rich, A, 25
"Wordsworth," 130
Work, Henry Clay, 81
"Works and Days? 97
World a Mask. The. 75
World of Chance, The, 197
"Worship," 97

"Worth of a Woman, The," 228
"Wound-Dresser, The," 137
Wounds in the Rain t 207
"Wreck of Riverraouth, The," 115
"Wreck of the Hesperus, The," 110
Write It Right. 217 footnote
Writings of Alkert Callatin, The f 256
Writings of Roger Williams, The, 6
Writings of Samuel Adams. The, 31
Writings of Washington, The, 52
Wyandotte, 69
Wylle, Elinor [Hoyt], 282
Wylle. Philip, 277
"Wynken, Blynken, and Nod," 250

Ximtna, or the Battle of the Sierra M arena.
146

Ye Gig lamp i f 173

Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and

Reform Papers, A, 99
"Yankee Ship Came down the River, A,"

160

Year's Life. A. 126
Years of My froutk, 195
"Years of the Modem." 137
"Yellow Violet, The,'' 56
Yemassee, The, 74
"Yes," 224

Yesterdays with Authors, 145
"You and I," 180
Youma: The Story of a West-Indian Slave.

"Young Goodman Brown," 119
Young Mountaineers, The, 180
tvernelle, 229

"Zadoc Pine," 223
Zadoc Pine and Other Stories, 223
"Zenobia's Infidelity," 223
Zoroaster, 220

Zury, the Meanest Man in Spring County,
1/1, 206