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* THE AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

‘PART! I: THE POTATO

He aS
> © BERTHOLD. LAUFER “|

“LATE CURATOR, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Rat. Sea A vi PREPARED FOR PUBLICATION
; BY”
C. MARTIN WILBUR
CURATOR, CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

OTHE LIBRARY OF THE
AUG 2251938

Of ONIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

~ NATURAL,
HI aay

"ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES.
“FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
ren § “VOLUME 28, NUMBER 1
. JULY. 28, 1938

PUBLICATION 18 |

neo! Pua C:
Oe hy es

Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Volume 28, Frontispiece

DR. BERTHOLD LAUFER, 1874-1934

THE AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

PART I: THE POTATO

BERTHOLD LAUFER

LATE CURATOR, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

PREPARED FOR PUBLICATION
BY

C. MARTIN WILBUR
CURATOR, CHINESE ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

THE LIBRARY OF THE
AUG 22 1938

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME 28, NUMBER 1
JULY 28, 1938

PUBLICATION 418

rh,

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS

ra SN ey,

CONTENTS
ne ie SUPREME or ce ees te eo Sok Ube a) a
ININD 5 PPA) os PeesOU ak pis buy ieee: hd gas tee Jes eae E. Woke gine ata Sb Poented adr fates
CSOT RN Os ie 8 Se atte, iy Ae 6, BE Lat wet ehuae Eee ba a ede oe kay WP A a
MERIAL COPtRIN OLE FOURUG (oso oes 3 oe hs oe, Dea ya ole eee ane
Early History of the Potato in South America .........4....
SPREAD OF THE POTATO
SPUR RUNES he FN OS ore Ae ee Ne re aie ten iS hehe atiey te Piohhiain tem av Pd contig
ET REINO ii este ee ges. ey EE ey en we ee eS LS
Seman ReGly, ONG CONntiar IGHTODG? 65. sc: ao, oss Sands ws Ke a
UN EIPTED INE pc 5. 8h. ec atoual ry get ess ee el ae WN ace Cee Lae ie Se etn ine
PINs oF, Sg co tA Mh Sclida! 714 9G ae aes te Gh nee Nays yk RP
Germany, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe ..........2.2.4.-.
SNS Seep ga eee ee ea yer se hacia Oey ie ae am SA aie eee
ORIEN AME ECON Oren oguset eevee ual tar gad Ss en oie ee en vy oe es CERES Ce UR ee O
UNREAD AMA RONEN SRDS RD 8s oe i ay on ee Sp Ra ake, ete ele Se
Persia, the Near East, and the Caucasus... .......4...+4+.2.468-6
aa er sue ta ae A Neate ae co A yA ar Et ay Aes Mebue isting
oom: susie. Siam, and mdosChine 5.05 6: ek hid Sn A be ww 8
eealayan and Oceanic: Regions... 06 6 sb 8-55) Gee oe ewww 8
mapas i, Nomenciature of the: Potate. 5... 6.5. + 8 god Glocatacs
Appendix II. World Statistics of the Potato. ..........4...
OLED 1 aaa era Ren Mera Ua 5 peace Hab oe as a Ske ee
NS ON Ee Pe a RT aL TE OP tS REPS BETS ORT OY

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FRONTISPIECE
Dr. BERTHOLD LAUFER, 1874-1934

TEXT FIGURES

1. Distribution of potato varieties cultivated by South American Indians.

NEY, ops. wpe ib ee: ay Se mama wile ny WS wee,

2. Potato-form vessels from Chimbote, Peru, now in Field Museum of

Natural History. a and c collected by W. E. Safford in 1892; b, a
ES NES ED tee a ae ee a ee ae oe

8. Wood engraving of potato plant and tubers. (From Rariorum plantarum

EE, COMER gata! Vile. wt hee: cee OE ee ees

4. Potato plant showing branch with blossoms and tubers. (Reproduction

of water-color sent to Clusius by Philippe de Sivry in 1589. After
Roze. Courtesy of the John Crerar Library). ..........

5. eg holding spray of potato plant. (From 1597 edition of his

; or, General historie of plantes. Courtesy of the Newberry

6. Sketch of potato plant. (From the Chih wu ming shih t’u k’ao by Wu Ch’i-

chiin, who gave the best Chinese botanical description of the potato).

PAGE

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FOREWORD

After the death of Dr. Berthold Laufer in September, 1934,'! a
few unfinished manuscripts and thousands of miscellaneous notes
were found in his office. These manuscripts can be grouped under
four headings: domesticated animals, Tibet, games, and the world
diffusion of native American cultivated plants. Only a few scat-
tered notes on jade were found. Most of this material probably
can never be published. However, about seven or eight of the
manuscripts, all dealing with cultivated plants, are so nearly com-
plete that it may be a relatively easy task to publish them.

Study of those cultivated plants and domesticated animals
which made civilization possible was one of the primary interests
of Dr. Laufer. In particular, that complex of economic plants
which spread all over the globe from America captured his imagi-
nation, since he was a profound student of the cultural history of the
world. For more than thirty years he collected materials on this
vast subject. He presented the problem in general outline in 1929
in his brilliant article, ““The American Plant Migration’ (Laufer,
1929). It should be emphasized that he approached the whole ques-
tion as an aspect of world history, as a dynamic in civilization, not
from the viewpoint of a botanist.

It appears that Dr. Laufer had projected a series of monographs
to discuss individual American cultivated plants and the history of
their diffusion. Together these monographs would have composed
several volumes. Death terminated this plan.

Fortunately, a number of sections of his proposed volumes on the
American plant migration are nearly complete; the present mono-
graph is one of these.

The plan for the present volume, of which this is the first part,
is to publish such of the work as appears, from internal evidence, to
be nearly finished. This can only approximate—it cannot duplicate
—the work as it might have been done by Dr. Laufer.

I do not know why Dr. Laufer failed to publish the results of
these long researches. Possibly he felt that more work on these
subjects needed to be done; possibly he was too pressed with adminis-
trative duties. The latter cause was probably the important one.
Perhaps by publishing this manuscript, and others to come, an injustice
is committed to Dr. Laufer’s ability and his passion for perfection.

1For obituary and complete bibliography, see American Anthropologist,
n.s., vol. 38, 1936, pp. 101-111.

8 FOREWORD

But whatever prevented prior publication (and granting that he
would not consider this series finished), I feel that it is better to
publish these imperfect notes than to shelve them and thereby allow
them to benefit no one.

In 1936 Mr. C. Martin Wilbur was appointed Curator of Chinese
Archaeology and Ethnology at Field Museum. His first task was to
sort and classify Dr. Laufer’s notes and manuscripts. Every effort
was made to see that no copy might be overlooked.

After many weeks of work, Curator Wilbur submitted to me a
memorandum concerning the status of these documents and stated
that he was ready to prepare for publication the one most nearly
complete: The Potato.

Mr. Wilbur undertook this gratuitous assignment with buoyancy
and patience. He has conscientiously followed the form and content
of Dr. Laufer’s manuscript; he has spent nearly five months supplying
a complete bibliography, checking all quotations, changing the system
of notes and references to conform to present usage in this Depart-
ment, translating certain passages from the Chinese, and writing
from rough notes the chapter on the Malayan and Oceanic regions.

There has been little attempt to amplify the information or to
scrutinize critically all the texts cited and the problems raised.
All references and quotations, however, were checked against the
original works when these were available. If various regions are
disproportionately treated, it is because Dr. Laufer handled them so.
Except for the bibliography, and the chapter treating the Malayan
and Oceanic regions, all matter supplied by Mr. Wilbur has been
printed within brackets and preceded by an asterisk.

Generous assistance was rendered by Dr. L. C. Goodrich of
Columbia University, Dr. A. W. Hummel and Dr. Shio Sakanishi
of the Library of Congress, and Mr. Eugene V. Prostov, University
of Iowa. Dr. James R. Ware of Harvard University kindly supplied
from the font of the Harvard—Yenching Institute certain missing
Chinese and Japanese type. There is no complete record of the
many scholars who assisted Dr. Laufer through three decades in
assembling and interpreting his material. It is hoped that publica-
tion of this work, in which many details of their aid are anonymously
assembled, will gratify them.

Perhaps this brief explanation will answer some natural inquiries
concerning the condition of Dr. Laufer’s manuscripts.

June 1, 1937 PAUL S. MARTIN
Chief Curator, Department of Anthropology

THE AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION
PART I: THE POTATO

INTRODUCTION

_ The potato forms one of the most interesting chapters in the

annals of mankind. It has had many various fortunes in its long

career and world-wide distribution; but from the beginning to

the present it has remained a democratic plant—in opposition to the

pineapple, which started its career as an aristocrat, a favorite of

_ kings, but which (thanks to the efforts of the canning industry) is

now democratized. First misjudged, despised, and ostracized in

_ Europe—even persecuted on account of its nightshade affinity,

and maliciously slandered for its alleged poisonous properties—the

- potato remained for a long time the sustenance of the poor only.

_ Yet during the last century and a half it has conquered all classes of

_ society in both Europe and North America. It is now a fundamental

of the white man’s civilization; like bread, it is a prime necessity and

_ mainstay of his daily life, an indispensable article in his home.

4 In one respect it was lucky: its American ancestry has never

_ been called into question. As yet no one has tried to prove its

_ African or Chinese origin. In Africa it is of no importance to the
_ natives; in China as well as in Japan it holds an inferior position.
' The same holds good for the Near East, the Malay Archipelago,
~ Melanesia, and Polynesia with the sole exception of New Zealand,
_ where it has been able to transform the economic life of the Maori.
_ Spain and Portugal remained sadly inactive in propagating the
- plant. Spain merely served as a stepping-stone and a way of transit
from Peru to Italy. The Spaniards, although the first discoverers
of the useful tuber, were slow in recognizing its nutritive value and
_ woke up to the knowledge of its importance at a later time than
_ any other European nation; all they did was confined to the trans-
_ plantation of the tuber to the Philippines. The Portuguese may
_ have brought it to India, but whatever importance it may have
gained there is due to British initiative and energy. It followed
the British as well as the Hollanders into their colonies. Clusius
and Parmentier are the two brilliant names standing out in the
history of science as students and propagators of the plant in Europe.
Be An illustration of Peruvian potato varieties inserted *{fig. 10,
_ p. 96], in the March number of the Journal of Heredity of 1925,

10 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

is accompanied by this legend: “The potato is the most valuable of
the gifts that the ancient Peruvians made to the agriculture of the
world. One year’s potato crop amounts to from four to six billion
bushels, which represents in money value probably far more than
the treasure taken from Peru at the time of the conquest. In spite
of this, the potato is not an unmixed blessing, for by making possible
a greatly increased population in northern Europe it is to be regarded
as one of the contributing causes of the World War.”’ Poor potato!
It was not enough to brand it with the stigma of lacking Biblical
authority, causing leprosy, spreading poison and disease, and ruining
the soil; now it must also bear responsibility for a war. True it is
that the potato is somewhat revolutionary in character, inasmuch as
it has engineered an economic revolution in human and animal
nutrition and to a remarkable degree has lessened the dangers
ensuing from famines. In this manner it has largely contributed to
the saving and preservation of human lives, perhaps even to the
increase of population; yet the role of a life-saver is by no means
ignominious. The factors which tend to increase the population of a
country cannot be laid at the door of this or that plant, but are
complex and organically interrelated: improved conditions of
housing and sanitation, the progress of medicine and hygiene,
superior standards of living, amelioration of wages and labor con-
ditions, rapidity of progress in commerce, industries, and agriculture,
number of marriages, etc., are all contributing or concomitant
factors. If it is true that overpopulation has a tendency to cause
wars, it is certainly not fair to blame a war on just one of the numerous
causes which go to make for overpopulation.

A French naturalist, Abbé Armand David (vol. 1, p. 181) has
observed that maize and potatoes, both novel to China, have allowed
the Chinese to live in the gorges of the high mountains; he is disposed
to think that what takes place in China may occur in many other
mountainous regions of the temperate and subtropical zones, and
he concludes that, consequently, in ancient times our earth was
never populated so densely as it has been since the acquisition of
these two alimentary resources.

The variability of the potato is stupendous. The varieties have
increased by leaps and bounds. Culture, so to speak, creates new
varieties almost daily. While about a thousand are known at
present, sixty were known in France in 1815, 493 in 1855, and 528 in
1862. The degree of variability has doubtless increased with the
intensity of culture, which simultaneously improved quality. The

INTRODUCTION 11

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general aversion to the potato in the time of its initial cultivation
in Europe may have been due partially to inferior or undeveloped
specimens, partially to lack of understanding of its cultivation and
preparation. The superior quality of our present potatoes is the
outcome of long-continued selection and improved methods of
‘eultivation. There can be no doubt that several varieties existed
in the Inca empire as the result of the achievements of Peruvian
agriculture. This is still demonstrated by the many varieties grown
by the natives of Peru, illustrations of which are given by O. F.
Cook (1925, pp. 96, 109). The tubers show a wide range of variety
as to shape, size, color, and texture; some varieties are deep purple
under the skin, and others purple throughout. The natives of the
tableland districts plant many varieties together, but know the
‘names and qualities of the different kinds. In general, the color
varies from pale gray to yellow, red, violet, and even black; the
size, from that of a nut to that of a small melon.

No less admirable is the adaptability of the plant to climate,
altitudes, and soils. It lives at an elevation of 12,000 and even
14,000 feet,’ yet also flourishes in coastal areas. It thrives in sandy
soil and at elevations where cereals do not grow. The tubers can
be preserved easily and for a long time.

1 The cultivation of potatoes is carried to an altitude of more than 14,000 feet

_ on the southern slope of the valley in the district between Santa Rosa and Araranca
(Cook, 1920, p. 489).

BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF THE POTATO

The distribution of the tuber-bearing species of Solanwm, accord-
ing to J. G. Baker (pp. 489-503), is as follows:

Chile: Solanum tuberosum, S. etuberosum, S. fernandezianum, S.
Maglia, S. collinum.

Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina: Solanum Commersonit.

Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia: Solanwm tuberosum,
S. immite, S. colombianum, S. Valenzuelae.

Mexico: Solanum verrucosum, S. suaveolens, S. stoloniferum, S.
utile, S. demissum, S. squamulosum, S. cardiophyllum, S.
oxycarpum.

Southwest United States: Solanum Fendleri, S. Jamesii.!

All tuber-bearing species of Solanum occur in America, and this
fact alone is sufficient to suggest that Solanum tuberosum is an Amer-
ican cultivation. Solanum tuberosum is the only one of these species
that has been brought into cultivation and is known exclusively in
the cultivated state.

In regard to the descent of our cultivated potato, Henry Phillips
(vol. 2, p. 91) already by 1822 entertained sensible views when he

1 *(Kugene V. Prostov of the University of Iowa has generously contributed
supplementary data which summarize the conclusions of modern Russians on the
botanical origin of the potato in South America. This information, of very recent
date, conflicts in certain respects with Dr. Laufer’s earlier conclusions (see foot-
notes, pp. 13, 14).

A totally new revision of the systematic botany of potatoes was published
by S. M. Bukasov of the Leningrad Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 1923,
and included a guide to the description of varieties, based on characters such as
dissection of the leaf (Crowther, p. 272). This was subsequently proved valid by
the cytological analysis of South American varieties collected by the Russian
expeditions of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1925-32. Vavilov
(p. 55) enumerates the following varieties as indigenous to their localities (cf. Fig. 1).
I. Basic endemic domesticated varieties of the highland regions (punas and
sierras) of the South American center of origin of cultivated plants:
Solanum andigenum Juz. et Buk., the most widespread potato of
the area between Bolivia and Central America. 48 chromosomes.
Solanum cuencanum and S. Kesselbrenneri: Ecuador. S. Ajanhuiri
and S. pauciflorum: Bolivia. S. stenotomum: Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador.
S. goniocalyx: Peru. S. Rybinii and S. bayacense: Colombia. 24 chromo-
somes (J. & B.
Solanum J uzepeoukii Buk. and S. tenuifilamentum: Peru and Bolivia.
S. mamilliferum: Peru. S. Chocclo: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador. S. riobam-
bense: Ecuador. 36 chromosomes (J. & B.).
Solanum curtilobum: Peru and Bolivia. 60 chromosomes (J. & B.).
II. Endemic varieties of the ripe oe subtropical and tropical regions of
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (ecologically known as ceja, yunga, montafia):
Solanum phureja Juz. et Buk.: Bolivia. 24 chromosomes.
III. Chiloe Island, center of origin:
Solanum tuberosum. 48 chromosomes.]

:
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BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF THE POTATO 13

_ observed: ‘“‘We conclude that all the varieties of the potatoe which
_ we now enjoy, have originated from one kind, and that they have in
_ a great measure changed their nature by cultivation. From the seed,
there is a great chance of procuring a new variety; but that produced

from the eyes of the root seldom changes from the kind planted.”’

This opinion is confirmed by the intensive research of Wittmack,
whose more important results may be summed up as follows *[pp.

_ 604-605]: The potato is derived from only a single species, Solanum

tuberosum, the home of which is in the Andes of South and Central
America. S. tuberosum is a good species which since its introduction
has scarcely changed at all in its flowery parts. It is divided into
several subspecies which, however, vary merely in unessential charac-
teristics—for instance, S. immite, Mandoni, verrucosum, utile, Fendleri,
ete. Also S. etwberosum hort. Edinburg (non Lindley) belongs to
this group. If these subspecies are to be regarded as species for the
sake of convenience of nomenclature, S. tuberosum itself is a total
species (Gesamtart). Crossings with S. Maglia seem to have occurred
only to a small extent. S. Maglia represents a species of its own
whose habitat is on the coasts of Chile and Peru. It has probably
not been cultivated by .the aborigines. Solanwm Commersonii,
which is found along the eastern littoral of temperate South America,

_ throughout Argentina, as well as in Mexico and Arizona (S. Jamesit),

bears no relation to our potatoes hitherto cultivated. According to

_ Wittmack, it is not necessary to explain S. tuberosum, as has been

done, as being developed from accidental or volitional crossings of
different species. The ancient inhabitants of Chile and Peru did
not cultivate a bitter tuber until it changed into an edible food
plant, but they selected a species of Solanum which had edible
tubers. Heckel’s hypothesis *[pp. 117 ff.] that it was Solanum
Commersonii and S. Maglia which were first introduced into Europe,
is not valid: the first descriptions and illustrations of the potato in
European literature—those by Clusius and Gerard—plainly refer
to Solanum tuberosum and nought else. Heckel specialized on
Solanum Commersonii, and, with the bias of the specialist, soon saw
his pet species everywhere—in Hariot’s openauk of Virginia and in
Gerard’s potatoes of Virginia—which is a very deplorable error.'

1*(The most recent students of the potato, N. I. Vavilov (p. 58) and S. M.
Bukasov, agree with Wittmack as to the undivided parenthood of S. tuberosum:
“The ordinary potato, Solanum tuberosum, was first borrowed by the Europeans
from the Chiloean Indians. S. tuberosum is very near morphologically to S. andi-
genum, both varieties having 48 chromosomes, but the former, with its ability
to bear long periods of daylight, is particularly well adapted to the European
conditions. Most of the Peruvian, Bolivian, and Ecuadorian varieties of potato,

14 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

According to W. E. Safford (1925, pp. 229-280), ‘‘Numerous
species of tuber-bearing Solanums have been collected in various
parts of America both north and south of the equator, but Solanum
tuberosum itself has never been found in its wild state. Evidence as
to the place of its origin points to the central Andean region where
conditions of soil and climate are such that a number of plants of
other families have developed tubers of a similar nature.” Dr.
Safford refers *[p. 225] to the efforts of G. Bitter, W. F. Wight,
and P. A. Rydberg to determine the origin of the potato. Bitter
says: ““‘We do not even know whether it proceeded from a single
species which has greatly varied under cultivation or whether it
resulted from hybridization of several allied species. That certain
characters of our cultivated potatoes should be attributed to selec-
tion of the best tuber-bearing varieties through a long period of

while of great interest to the plant breeders, require short summer days for normal
development of tubers, and do not succeed in forming tubers under ordinary
European conditions.”

According to Bukasov (1933, p. 426), S. tuberosum, characterized by its
high fertility, and by its vulnerability to the phytophthora, is also raised on the
coast of Chile, and on the low plains between the hill chains of Araucania, by the
Araucano Indians. It was exported from here to Europe three hundred years ago.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, when an epidemic of phytophthora threat-
ened to destroy potato culture in Europe, and it was discovered that the European
potato hybrids, evolved on the basis of the original two or three sorts, were not
able to cope with the contingency, the American plant breeder Goodrich decided
to infuse new blood into the potato species, and secured several new varieties of
potatoes from Chile. Hundreds of new varieties resulted from this infusion.]

1*(Many domesticated varieties of tuber-producing Solanum, other than
S. tuberosum, were discovered by the expeditions to South America dispatched by
the Institute of Plant Industry of the U.S. 8S. R. Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
1925-32. According to Vavilov (p. 58) practically untouched reserves of cultivated
plants and wild and cultivated potatoes particularly, were discovered in the high-
land areas of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. These regions are rich in endemic
varieties of potatoes and of other cultivated tubers, known only in this part of
the world. The cultivated endemic varieties of plants, as well as of animals such
as llamas and alpacas, are concentrated mainly in the puna, highland plains situated
at altitudes ranging from 3,500 to 4,300 meters above sea level. This culture is
not artificially irrigated. It is still possible to follow the transition between
the cultivated and the wild plants. There is no doubt that both the agriculture;
and the animal husbandry in South America had their beginning in the puna.
The localization of the endemic plant and animal varieties here is amazingly sharp.

The coastal regions of Peru, which had not been well populated until the time
of the Inca civilization, sharply differ ecologically from the highlands. The
desert-like character of the area requires artificial irrigation. Like the agriculture
of Egypt, the remarkable agriculture of the Incas was doubtlessly not indigenous.
Both the Egyptian and the Incan cultures were based on artificial irrigation.
Until the arrival of the agriculturist, the coastal area of Peru did not have any
of the wild prototypes of domesticated forms and did not have either corn or cotton.
Most of the plants here were borrowed from Central America and partly from the’
eastern slopes of the Cordilleras.

According to Bukasov (1933, p. 17) the area of potato cultivation in South
America extends north from 40° south latitude almost to the Tropic of Cancer
across the Equator—a matter of sixty degrees of latitude—and from the coastal

VENEZUELA ©
7

--e--"

Fic. 1. Distribution of potato varieties cultivated by South American
Indians. (After Bukasov.)

16 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

cultivation in situations differing from one another in soil and
climate, there can be no doubt. New varieties are constantly appear-
ing, produced by horticulturists through a process of cross-
pollination and selection, in the same manner as many other cultivated
plants.” *[Safford, 1925, p. 226.] Experiments are now being made
by investigators in cross-pollinating distinct wild species with one
another and with the cultivated potato, which may result in
types resembling the original form of the ancestor or ancestors of
the potato.

Solanum Commersonii was discovered in 1767 by Philibert
Commerson (1729-73; P. Oliver, 1909), companion of Bougainville
on his voyage around the world (1762-69), at the mouth of the
La Plata near Montevideo, and was named for him by Dunal. The
species was three times introduced into France. It has also been

zone of the Pacific, at sea level, almost to the snow line, at an altitude of 4,100
meters above sea level. Frosts are constant at the extremely mountainous area;
yet the varieties of potatoes cultivated there are not affected by frost. Other
varieties of potatoes are cultivated in the torrid mountain valleys side by side
with cotton. The annual precipitation in the area of potato cultivation varies
from abundant, more than 2,000 mm., to scanty, 200 mm., necessitating artificial
irrigation.

Of particular interest is the fact that the artificial irrigation of potato fields
in certain localities has been practiced since time immemorial.

This variety of climatic conditions. in regions widely separated by some of
the most arid deserts and salt plains, tropical forests, inaccessible mountain ranges,
and broad valleys on unnavigable rapid rivers, tended to create the conditions
which led to the development of many widely differing and very original types
of cultivated potato: frost-resisting, fast-sprouting, early, and exceptionally late
(requiring short days to form tubers), and many other varieties.

Bukasov (1933, pp. 38-41) enumerates the following cultivated varieties of
potatoes which have attracted the attention of Soviet plant breeders:

Solanum andigenum is the most widely spread domesticated potato growing
in the Andes. Its many varieties grow at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 4,100
meters above sea level, in the mountainous section of Argentina, in Bolivia, Peru,
Ecuador, and Colombia, reaching as far north as Guatemala and Mexico. This is an
exceptionally fecund variety easily crossed with S. tuberosum. It is widely grown
in the experimental stations throughout Russia.

S. curtilobum (china malco) is another cultivated potato grown by the
Indians of Peru and Bolivia. It is characterized by resistance to cold and by
high starch content.

S. Juzepcezukii and S. Ajanhuiri, cultivated frost-resisting mountain varieties
of Peru and Bolivia, used in the making of chufio.

S. Rybinii, S. bayacense, both domesticated mountain potatoes of Colombia;
S. Kesselbrenneri, S. Chuga (chaucha chuga), and S. phureja from Ecuador are all
early varieties. The hybrids of S. Rybinii are now commercially grown in the
extreme north of European Russia, in Murmansk. S. phureja grows in warm
mountain valleys, at lower altitudes than the rest of the mountain potatoes.

Many new wild varieties of potato were collected by Bukasov and Iwzepozuk.
According to Bukasov (1933, pp. 26-28, 33-35) wild potatoes grow throughout
the southern half of South America below the tropics, from the Pacific to the
Atlantic, in the mountains and in subtropical valleys. In North America, they

BOTANICAL ORIGIN OF THE POTATO 17

cultivated i in Germany, without attracting much notice (Wittmack,
_p. 570). In southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina it is widely
diffused. This geographical fact goes to show also that the cultivated
potato cannot be derived from this species, for the ancient culture-
zone of the potato is along the west coast of South America, not in

its eastern part.

_ Solanwm Maglia was thus named by Schlechtendahl, maglia
being the Italian spelling for Spanish malla, which itself is an Indian
name for this wild tuber-bearing species. This is the species found
; by Darwin in 1835 in the islands of the Chonos Archipelago, southern
Chile, where it occurred in abundance near the beach, and was for a
long time taken for a wild form of Solanum tuberosum (Safford, 1925,
P. 225). Solanum Maglia was first cultivated in London in 1822

F “grow throughout Mexico, reaching into the southwest of the United States. More
varieties of wild potato are known in Mexico than in any of the South American
countries rich in potatoes. .

‘ More than a hundred varieties of of wild potato are known, thriving under a
great variety of conditions. As weeds, they 7 in the potato and corn fields,
_hear Indian huts, at the roadsides, on the t heaps and in pastures. The wild
4 pen gh Aa in shady forests, on torrid rainless ocean shores, and in the mountains

itude of almost 5, 000 meters, the snow line, where it withstands great
ote. The properties of different varieties of the wild potato differ accordingly,
and many of them may be of great economic value.

The basic differences between the wild and the primitive domesticated varieties
of South America are explained by Bukasov (1936, p. 86) as due to the very
‘process through which the potato was adopted by the primitive culture. In the
course of selection the varieties adopted for cultivation were chosen with a view to

the yield of — crop as much as to its quality. The varieties so chosen were
chara by larger tubers and more compact nests. The rejected varieties
were characterized by smaller tubers, rarely larger than a walnut, with long
pedicels, sometimes a meter in length.

Wild potatoes, described by Bukasov gl pp. 28-35), vary greatly in
outward appearance. Some of them resemble tomato plants. Others look like
poock weed (Rumex crispus, etc.).

: Solanum Vavilovii from Peru grows in arid, droughty hills, where short-lived
; vegetation thrives on moisture from mists, and potatoes are not raised.

S. demissum is a wild —_ of the Mexican highlands, growing at an altitude
ot 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level, sometimes as a weed in corn patches. It
has very small tubers, but because of ‘its frost-resisting properties, it has been
‘studied by Russian and German Liege breeders. The plant is lower than the
ordinary potato, and is distinguished by abundant flowers.

S. Antipoviczii is another wild potato from the mountains of Mexico. It
_has been studied by Russian plant-breeders because of its oy patio penton roper-
_ The plant is as tall as the ordinary potato, has sparse leaves, small flowers,
and small tubers on very long pedicels.

3 S. acaule is the wild potato of the mountains of Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina.
It thrives at altitudes from 4,000 to 5,000 meters, reaching almost to the snow line,
and withstands the frosts of -8° C. It grows in the scant mountain pastures,
_and in the crevices of stone fences. This potato has no stem, its leaves lying flat
oad the ground and protecting its berries. Its tubers are very small and widely
It has attracted much attention in Russia, where it is expected to be
Fesetul x" evolving a hardy domesticated variety for cold regions. Its cultivated
_ hybrid , S. Juzepezukii, is used for the manufacturing of chufto.]

.
E

18 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

(Sabine, p. 254, and plate IX). It never obtained any importance in
Europe, and A. Sutton reported in 1908 to the Linnean Society that
the crossings of S. Maglia with S. tuberosum had almost all failed,
especially as the flowers of S. Maglia fall off easily. This fact proves
sufficiently that this species had no share in the cultivation of S.
tuberosum. S. Maglia is restricted to the littoral, whereas the home
of S. tuberosum is in the mountains. S. Maglia commonly grows
wild in Chile, where it forms the chief article of food among the
Araucanos. In modern times they have also cultivated S. tuberosum
(Latcham, pp. 340-341). De Humboldt’s theory (pp. 400-401) that
S. Maglia is the mother plant of the cultivated potato disseminated
from Chile to Peru and as far as the highlands of Bogoté, is errone-
ous. Peru probably is the home of the cultivated potato.

EARLY HISTORY OF THE POTATO IN SOUTH AMERICA

At the time of the Spanish conquest of America the cultivation
of Solanum tuberosum was strictly limited to the Andean region of
South America. It was not cultivated and not found anywhere at
that time in the Antilles, in Mexico or Central America, in North
America, or in the central and eastern portions of South America.
All statements to the contrary are erroneous, being prompted by
misunderstandings and confusions with other species like the batata
or sweet potato,! A pios tuberosa, and wild-growing species of Solanum.
The subsequent propagation of S. tuberosum from its original home
on the west coast of South America to other parts of the continent

is not due to Indian agency, but to the activity of the white man.
It is notable also that while other cultivated plants of South America
spread rapidly northward after the conquest, the potato moved at
a comparatively slow pace.

The first documentary evidence for the existence of Solanum
tuberosum is presented by the account of Pedro Cieza de Leén, who
in 1538 encountered it in the upper Cauca Valley between Popayan

and Pasto, in what is now Colombia. Subsequently he found it at
Quito, the present capital of Ecuador. In his journal, entitled
_Chronica del Peru, he describes what the aborigines call papas as
“a kind of earth-nut, which, after it has been boiled, is as tender as a
cooked chestnut, but it has no more skin than a truffle, and it grows
under the earth in the same way.” *{Markham, 1864, p. 143.]
In writing of the elevated Collao region in Peru, he speaks of it
thus: This country of the Collao was once very populous, and was
covered with large villages round which the Indians had their fields,
where they raised crops for food. ‘Their principal sustenance is
papas, which as I have already stated in this history are like turmas
de tierra. These they dry in the sun and keep from one harvest to
the other. And they call this papa after it is dried, chuno [chutiu];
and among them it is esteemed and held precious: for they have no
ditches like many others in this kingdom to irrigate their fields; and
_if there is a dearth of natural water to make their crops grow they
suffer from lack of food and work, unless they are provided with this
sustenance of dried papas. And many Spaniards have become rich
and returned to Spain prosperous only from carrying chuno to sell
1The potato is not indicated among the vegetable products of the coast

of Honduras or involved in the terms ages and battatas of Peter Martyr, as asserted
by G. Ord (p. 157); this is the sweet potato.

20 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

to the mines of Potosi.” (Safford, 1925, p. 179; cf. also Markham,
1864, pp. 360-361.)

Markham annotates that ‘frozen potatoes are still the ordinary
food of the natives of the Collao. They dam up square shallow pools
by the sides of streams, and fill them with potatoes during the cold
season of June and July. The frost soon converts them into chufius,
which are insipid and tasteless.”” Cieza’s account refers to the
Chibcha, the ancient inhabitants of Colombia, of whom also Oviedo
(Liber X XVI, cap. 23) says that they subsisted principally on maize
and potatoes, called in their language yoma.

José de Acosta, who was in South America from 1571 to 1576,
describes papas in the old English translation thus (Markham, 1880, p.
233): ““These rootes are like to ground nuttes, they are small rootes,
which cast out many leaves. They gather this Papas, and dry it well
in the Sunne, then beating it they make that which they call Chuiu,
which keeps many daies, and serves for bread. In this realme there
is great trafficke of Chufiu, the which they carry to the mines of
Potosi; they likewise eat of these Papas boyled or roasted.” W. E.
Safford (1925, pp. 179-180) gives a fuller version, translated from the
Spanish text: ‘‘ ‘In the elevated region of the Sierra of Peru and the
provinces which they call the Collao, composing the greater part
of that kingdom, where the climate is so cold and dry that it will not
permit the cultivation of wheat or maize, the Indians use another
kind of roots which they call pappas, a kind of turmas de tierra that
send up scant foliage (echan arriba una poquilla hoja). These pappas
they collect and leave in the sun to dry well, and breaking them they
make what they call chunyo which will keep for food in that form
many days and serves them for bread; and of this chunyo there is
great commerce in that kingdom with the mines of Potosi. Pappas
are also eaten fresh either boiled or roasted; and from one of the
mildest varieties which also grows in warm situations they make a —
certain ragout or cazuela which they call locro. Indeed, these roots
are the only wealth of that land, and when the season is favorable
for the crop they [the Indians] are glad; for many years the roots
are spoiled and frozen in the ground, so great is the cold and bad
climate of that region.’

“In preparing chunyo, potatoes were subjected to freezing as well
as drying. The process is described in detail by Padre Bernabé Cobo
[vol. 1, p. 8361], who writes as follows: ‘The tubers are gathered at the
beginning of the cold season, in May or June, spread on the ground
and exposed, for a period of twelve or fifteen days, to the sun during

PoTATO: SOUTH AMERICA 21

_ the day and the frost at night. At the end of this time they are
- somewhat shriveled, but still watery. In order to get rid of the
_ water they are then trampled upon and then left for fifteen or
_ twenty days longer to the action of the sun and frost, at length
_ becoming as dry and light as a cork, very dense and hard, and so

_ reduced in bulk that from four or five fanegas of fresh tubers there

results only one fanega of chunyo.’ Cobo adds that chunyo, thus

_ prepared, will remain unspoiled for many years and that the Indians
_ of the Collao provinces eat no other kind of bread. A choicer and
more highly prized quality is prepared by soaking the tubers in
_ water for about two months, after their preliminary drying. They
are then taken out and dried in the sun once more. This quality
_ of chunyo, which is chalky white within, is called moray. From it a
kind of flour, finer than wheat flour, is prepared by the Spanish
_ women, who use it for starch, biscuit, and sweetmeats of all kinds,
like those confections usually made with sugar and almonds.”

G. Benzoni (p. 249) writes that the natives of Peru have a sort

- of root like truffles, but possessing very little flavor.

Size, shape, and color of potatoes depend much on the compo-

- sition and fertility of the soil, and upon weather, climate, care, ete.

This was well known to the Inca. According to the Jesuit P. Moraa,
the Inca Urko, a member of the royal family, a famed engineer and
architect, to whom the construction of the fortress of Cuzco is also
ascribed, had the best potato soil carried from Quito to Cuzco and
made into the hill Al’pa suntu (‘‘Earth-Hill’’) east of the fortress,
and there the potatoes were grown for the ruling Inca (von Tschudi,
p. 112).

In the worship of the ancient Peruvians the papa played a cer-

tain, though inferior, role. At times the female fortune-tellers
_ placed heaps of potatoes before them and took the tubers up by

pairs; if none was left, they predicted a favorable year; if one was
left, however, the year was unlucky. The Kol’a styled this mode

‘ of divination piu irute (““potato-counting’”’). (Ibid., p. 113.)

In a Peruvian prayer addressed to the Creator, it is said: ““Thou

_ who givest life to all things, and hast made men that they may live,

and eat, and multiply. Multiply also the fruits of the earth, the

_ papas and maize (papa-sara) that thou hast made, that men may not
_ suffer from hunger and misery. Preserve the fruits of the earth from

_ frost, and keep us in peace and safety.” (C.de Molina, in Markham,
1872, p. 30.)

22 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

There were two ways of preserving potatoes: (1) They were peeled
and then exposed to the cold for several nights and dried in the sun
during the day. This process was repeated as many times as neces-
sary; thus prepared, the tubers were stored in a dry place and kept
for years. (2) Another method was to freeze the potatoes for several
nights and to dry them in the sun during the day. Then they were
pressed with the feet and again exposed to the sun and frost; when
dry and without moisture, they were preserved. In this state they
were shriveled and small, of gray black color, and, when boiled,
made a slimy pap of bad taste (von Tschudi, pp. 113-114).

In the higher elevations of Peru, where maize does not thrive,
living was rendered possible only by the potato. In Cuzco, potato-
farming is carried on throughout the country from 12,000 feet above
sea level upwards to nearly 15,000 feet (Hardy, p. 1).

The accounts of the Spanish authors did not fail to attract
attention among the scholars of Europe. Girolamo Cardano (1501-
76) summed up the subject as follows: “In Colla or the country of
Peru, the papa is a genus of tuber, utilized like a kind of bread and
generated in the soil; thus nature everywhere cares wisely for all
necessaries. The papas are dried and then called ciwno. Some people
found means to profit from transporting only this article into the
province Potosi. They say that this root bears an herb similar to that
of the Argemone. They are shaped like chestnuts, but have a more
agreeable taste: they are eaten cooked or made into meal. They are
likewise found among other peoples of this Chersonesos, as well as
among the inhabitants of the province of Quito.’! Cardano is the
first Italian author and the first in Europe who speaks of the potato
on the basis of Spanish accounts, without knowing the plant, which
had not yet been introduced into Italy at the time he wrote (1557).

Fortunately there is also archaeological evidence testifying to
the great antiquity of the potato in Peru. This evidence comes
to us in a twofold form—plant remains and reproductions of the
tuber in ancient pottery. Dried potatoes were discovered by Dr.
Safford in 1887 in graves at Arica, on the coast of northern Chile,
together with arrow points and llama-drivers’ slings from the
elevated plateau about Lake Titicaca (Safford, 1925, p. 178).

‘In Colla autem regione Peru, papa est tuberis genus, quo pro pane utuntur,
gigniturque in terra: ita natura providit sapienter ubique: siccantur, vocanturque
ciuno: factique quidam sunt divites hac sola merce, quam in provinciam Potossi,
deducebant. Fert tamen, ut dicunt, radix haec herbam argemone similem: forma
est castaneae, sed suavior gustu, editur ue cocta, vel, ut dixi, in farinam redacta.

Invenitur etiam apud alias gentes eiusdem Chersonessi, velut apud accolas pro-
vinciae Quiti. *[Cardano, p. 16.]

psoyes “a “A Aq paqoa[[oo 9 pus D

“£10}SIFJ [BANJVN JO WINnasny pel] Ul Mou ‘nJeg

‘popny Butyystym BQ 'ZERT Ul
‘ajOquIIyD WO] S[aSSeA WIOJ-0}¥30g °Z “DIY

24 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Two Peruvian pottery vessels in the shape of a potato are illus-
trated by E. Seler (plate 28, Nos. 1,2). Dr. Safford has reproduced
a vase in the collections of Field Museum from a grave at Chimbote
on the coast of northern Peru, found by him in 1892 and shaped in
the form of two joined potatoes in their natural colors; a black
vase from a Chimbote grave in the form of a conventionalized
potato; and a whistling hwaca of black ware in the form of twin
conventionalized potatoes (1925, pp. 176, 177; also 1917). Dr.
Safford observes that these vases were most abundant in graves
near Chimbote and Chepen, northern Peru, and that they were
interred with the dead in pre-Columbian times *[1925, p. 178].
(Cf. Fig. 2.)

Potatoes were also cultivated by the aborigines of southern
Chile at an early date. There they were encountered as a food
staple of the Indians in 1578 by Sir Francis Drake, according to
Safford (1925, p. 180), who observes that their occurrence at sea
level in this part of South America is not singular; for, as all students
of plant distribution know, many species characteristic of the Andean
vegetation thrive at altitudes lower and lower as they extend south-
ward, reaching sea level in the region of the Chonos Archipelago
and the Straits of Magellan. Within less than a decade after Drake’s
visit, potato tubers had become-a regular food on Spanish ships.
On March 16, 1587, Thomas Cavendish, stopping at St. Mary
Island near Concepcién in southern Chile, found “Cades full of
Potato Rootes, which were very good to eate, ready made up in
the Store-houses for the Spaniards, against they should come for
their tribute.”’ (Purchas, vol. 2, p. 157.) In my opinion, the center
of potato cultivation is to be sought in ancient Peru, and from
there the potato spread northward into the territory of Ecuador
and Colombia as well as southward into Chile.

The statement has frequently been advanced that the potato
occurs spontaneously in Chile, and that there also its cultivation
was initiated.!_ From there the cultivated form is supposed to have

1J have carefully read the article of A. C. Pinochet, who makes a passionate
plea on behalf of Chile exclusively, at the expense of Peru. Pinochet gives a great
deal of information on the occurrence of wild papas in Chile, without botanical
identifications, however (and there is no doubt that several species are here in
question), but this has no bearing on the problem of the cultivation of Solanum
tuberosum. Mexico, for instance, harbors eight wild tuber-bearing species of
Solanum, compared with five of Chile, but no one, for this reason, seeks for
the cradle of S. tuberosum in Mexico. No evidence is presented by Pinochet for
the antiquity of potato cultivation in Chile, while the evidence in favor of Peru is
suppressed. A popular tradition is cited to the effect that the potatoes of Peru

POTATO: SOUTH AMERICA 25

; its extension. Dr. R. Lenz of Santiago has
~ announced (p. 561) that in the second part of his work, which has
_ not yet appeared, he hopes to demonstrate clearly that the Indians
_ of Chile were skilful agriculturists long before the conquest of the
Inea and that by no means do they owe to this invasion the first
_ steps to civilization, as almost all Chilean writers believe. This
_ does not mean that the Peruvians did not independently discover
_ the utility of the papa which grows wild everywhere along the
$ Pacific coast. There is no doubt that in no other territory than
_ Chile was the cultivation of the papa in pre-Columbian times more
extensive and intensive, and it is more than probable that from
_ Chile this tuber has conquered the world. Dr. Lenz is an accom-
plished scholar who has spent a lifetime in Chile and whose opinions
command respect; it will certainly be interesting to study his
promised account. For the present I would say that the essential
point is to know that what the ancient Chileans cultivated was
really Solanum tuberosum. The fundamental question is one of
species. The term papa was extended by the Spaniards to all tuber-
bearing species of Solanum, and is therefore an unreliable, nay,
misleading criterion in an investigation of this character.

According to M. Uhle (pp. 302-303) potato culture was practiced
in Venezuela in prehistoric times, but the evidence adduced by him
‘is not convincing; his reference to Solanum Fendleri, a wild-growing
species which occurs in Venezuela, proves nothing at all. The
potato was doubtless introduced into that country by the Spaniards
from Peru or Colombia and thrives well only in the higher altitudes,
best of all in the tierra templada and fria. In the beginning of

and Bolivia were brought by the Peruvians into their country, after they had
learned the process of cultivation from the aborigines of Chile during the rule of
the Incas and had taught these in return the cultivation of maize; from that time
there was in Peru the papa called chaucha, well known in Arauco and Chiloe.
Chaucha is a Quechua word denoting a precocious kind of potato; papa likewise
is a word of Quechua origin and was doubtless carried from Peru into Chile.
Pinochet is a Chilean patriot who glories in the idea that his country is the home
of this tuber which is “the finest conquest made by Europe in the New World”;
but patriotism is not a safe guide in historical investigations. C. Pickering (p. 660)
ascribes Solanum tuberosum to southern Chile, where it grows wild and is collected
_ for food by the natives; carried thence, it becomes an object of cultivation in
northern Chile and Peru in the time of the Incas. Sturtevant (p. 545) follows
Pickering. De Candolle (p. 53) states that the potato is wild in Chile in a form
which is still seen in our cultivated plants, and he doubts that its natural home
extends to Peru and New Granada. All previous assertions as to wild forms of
S. tuberosum, however, are doubtful, and its real ancestor still remains to be traced.

OS NES Et ey Se ii, Sk le a op

Edt EP eS ot ESE a Fe

PR SPE AS AN py, St

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a ae

26 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

the nineteenth century, German and Dutch seed potatoes were
introduced into Venezuela (Biirger, p. 148).

The potato (Portuguese batata ingleza) is cultivated on a large
scale in all southern states of Brazil and in Minas Geraes, which
furnishes the largest quantity, but not sufficient for the general con-
sumption of the country (Corréa, p. 4).

THE POTATO IN THE WEST INDIES
How and when the potato spread into the West Indies is

| unknown. It was known in Jamaica to W. Hughes (pp. 12-15) in
the latter part of the seventeenth century, and his definition, that
“The Indians, as also some of the Blacks and Spaniards, do call

them Papus, but we English call them Potatoes,’’ leaves no doubt

_ that he visualizes Solanum tuberosum.

Potatoes, then, were largely planted and consumed by the

English colonists of Jamaica in the seventeenth century. Says

Hughes *[p. 14] on this subject, “They are common and ordinary

_ meat, used for daily food amongst all Planters; neither are they
_ the worse for being common: for I suppose it to be one of the best,

most wholesome, and delicious Roots in the world, especially in

_ those parts, which do much exceed Spanish Potatoes that we have
brought into England: they are easie of digestion, agreeing well
_ with all bodies, especially with our hot stomacks when we come
_ there, who may at first eat of them moderately, four or five times
a day, without hurt, (as also of some kinde of meat or flesh:) they

breed very good nour: shment; they corroborate or strengthen exceed-
ingly; they chear the heart, and are provocative of bodily lust.”

Hughes also states *[p. 13] that potatoes “grow in many places
in America, as in all the Caribbee Islands that I have been in;
namely, Barbados, Antego, Mevis or Nevis, S. Christophers; as also
Hispaniola, Jamaica, &c, where they are planted in most Planta-
tions for daily food; the small ones, or pieces, being reserv’d in
digging them up, and replanted for encrease.”’

In 1789, P. Browne (p. 175) stated that great quantities of
the Irish potato were annually imported into Jamaica from Lan-
caster and Ireland, and that the plant was often cultivated in the
cooler mountains of the island, but did not thrive so well as many
other European vegetables, though frequently raised with such
success as to have been sold in large quantities in the public markets.
This importation from England and Ireland does not signify, how-

ever, that the potato was then introduced into Jamaica for the

first time, as Safford (1925, p. 218) is inclined to assume. The
indigenous cultivation is emphasized by Browne and was established-

_ long before his time.

ee oe

INTRODUCTION OF THE POTATO INTO NORTH AMERICA

The first volume of the Transactions of the Horticultural Society
of London, published in 1812, contains an interesting article by
Sir Joseph Banks under the title, An attempt to ascertain the time
when the potatoe (Solanum tuberosum) was first introduced into the
United Kingdom, the essential part of which is herewith reproduced.
Later writers on the subject have usually drawn on this essay, so
that it is a matter of justice to place on record the earliest English
investigation of the question, which in its general outlines is fairly
correct, but which also contains fundamental errors still to be found
in modern books.

“The Potatoe now in use (Solanum tuberosum) was brought to
England by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, under
the authority of his patent, granted by Queen Elizabeth, ‘for dis-
covering and planting new countries, not possessed by christians,’
which passed the great seal in 1584. Some of Sir Walter’s ships
sailed in the same year; others, on board one of which was Thomas
Herriot,! afterwards known as a mathematician, in 1585; the
whole however returned, and probably brought with them the
Potatoe, on the 27th July, 1586.

“This Mr. Thomas Herriot,, who was probably sent out to
examine the country, and report to his employers the nature and
produce of its soil, wrote an account of it, which is printed in De
Bry’s collection of Voyages, Vol. I. In this account, under the
article of roots, p. 17, he describes a plant called Openawk: “These
roots,’ says he, ‘are round, some as large as a walnut, others much
larger; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as if fixed
on ropes; they are good food, either boiled or roasted.”

“Gerard, in his Herball, published 1597, gives a figure of the
potatoe, under the name of potatoe of Virginia; and tells us that
he received the roots from Virginia, otherwise called Norembega.

“The manuscript minutes of the Royal Society, December 13,
1693, tell us that Sir Robert Southwell, then President, informed
the Fellows, at a meeting, that his grandfather brought potatoes
into Ireland, who first had them from Sir Walter Raleigh. -

“This evidence proves, not unsatisfactorily, that the potatoe
was first brought into England, either in the year 1586, or very

1*(Cited by Dr. Laufer as Hariot; other spellings are Harriot and Harriott.]}

2 As will be seen from the following investigation, Hariot’s openauk is a wild
root, and bears no relation to the potato.

Potato: NORTH AMERICA 29

goon after, and sent from thence to Ireland, without delay, by

Sir Robert Southwell’s ancestor, where it was cherished and culti-

vated for food before the good people of England knew its value;

for Gerard, who had this plant in his garden, in 1597, recommends
the roots to be eaten as a delicate dish, not as a common food.

“Tt appears, however, that it first came into Europe, at an
earlier period, and by a different channel; for Clusius, who at that

_ time resided at Vienna, first received the potatoe in 1598 [read 1588),
_ from the governor of Mons, in Hainault, who had procured it the

year before from one of the attendants of the Pope’s legate, under

_ the name of Taratoufli; and learned from him, that in Italy, where

it was then in use, no one certainly knew whether it originally
came from Spain, or from America.

“Peter Cieca,! in his Chronicle, printed in 1553, tells us, Chap.

XL, p. 49, that the inhabitants of Quito, and its vicinity, have,

besides Mays, a tuberous root, which they eat, and call Papas;
this Clusius guesses to be the plant he received from Flanders, and
this conjecture has been confirmed by the accounts of travellers,
who have since that period visited the country.

“From these details we may fairly infer, that potatoes were
first brought into Europe from the mountainous parts of South
America, in the neighborhood of Quito; and, as the Spaniards were
the sole possessors of that country, there is little doubt of their
having been first carried into Spain, but as it would take some

_ time to introduce them into use in that country, and afterwards

_ to make the Italians so well acquainted with them as to give them

a name, there is every reason to believe they had been several
years in Europe, before they were sent to Clusius.

“The name of the root, in South America, is Papas, and in

- Virginia, it was called Openawk;? the name of potatoe was there-

fore evidently applied to it on account of its similarity in appearance

_ to the Battata, or sweet potatoe; and our potatoe appears to have
_ been distinguished from that root by the appellative of potatoe
of Virginia, till the year 1640, if not longer.”

For a long time the belief was entertained by botanists, even by

_ H. Phillips and A. de Candolle *{p. 46], and as shown above, by
_ J. Banks, that the openauk, described by Hariot among the roots
_ of Virginia, was to represent our potato, that Hariot had brought

1 Pedro Cieza; other spellings are Cieca, Chieca, Chicca, Ciecha.
2 This is erroneous (see pp. 32 ff.).

30 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

his openauk-potato to England, and that hence it was received by
John Gerard, the first English botanist, who raised the potato and
described and illustrated it. This hypothesis is fundamentally
wrong; openauk is not (nor can it be) the potato; Hariot does not
claim that he ever took that plant to England, neither does Gerard
mention Hariot’s name or the openauk in connection with the
potato. MHariot’s original work bears the title, A briefe and true
report of the new found land of Virginia of the commodities and of
the nature and manners of the naturall inhabitants, and was pri-
vately issued in London, early in 1588. In the second part, which
treats of suche commodities as Virginia is knowne to yeelde for victuall
and sustenance of mans life, usually fed upon by naturall inhabitants:
as also by us during the time of our aboad, he describes three roots
as follows:

“Openauk are a kind of roots of round forme, some of the bignes
of walnuts, some far greater, which are found in moist and marish
grounds growing many together one by another in ropes, or as
though they were fastened with a string. Being boiled or sodden
they are very good meate.

“Okeepenauk are also of round shape, found in dry grounds:
some are of the bignes of a mans head. They are to be eaten as
they are taken out of the ground, for by reason of their drinesse
they will neither roste nor seeth. Their taste is not so good as
of the former rootes, notwithstanding for want of bread and some-
times for varietie the inhabitants use to eate them with fish or
flesh, and in my judgement they doe as well as the household bread
made of rice heere in England.

“ Kaishucpenauk a white kind of roots about the bignes of hen
egs and nere of that forme: their tast was not so good to our seeming
as of the other, and therefore their place and manner of growing
not so much cared for by us: the inhabitants notwithstanding used
to boile and eate many.”

The botanists who have utilized this text (even A. de Candolle)
have merely taken into consideration the first of these roots, called
openauk, but it is perfectly clear that from the viewpoint of the
Virginian aborigines three different, but related kinds of root
are distinguished; for even one who is not familiar with American
languages must be impressed by the fact that the three Virginian
names recorded by Hariot have the element -penauk in common,
and that this term is modified by the prefixes o-, oki-, and kaiSuk-,

PoTATO: NORTH AMERICA 31

respectively.'!. C. Bauhin (1620, p. 89; *{1671, p. 90]) identified

- Hariot’s openauk with Solanum tuberosum, and some modern bota-

nists (Roze, p. 64) have unfortunately followed him.

Bauhin’s conclusion was doubtless suggested by Clusius (1601,
p. 80) who, speaking of the potatoes called papas, adds that the
roots styled by the Virginians openawk do not seem to be very
different from those (quibus non valde absimiles videntur eae
radices, quas Virginienses Openawk nominant).?

Every one must indeed be struck by the statement that the

root is said to grow in moist and swampy soils, which certainly

does not hold good for Solanum tuberosum. Hence E. Heckel (pp. 109-
110) has inferred that the question is of “Solanum commersoni
Dunal, qui, seul, est de station aquatique ou semi-aquatique, et,

- dont les stolons trés longs, comme du reste dans beaucoup d’autres

espéces sauvages tubériféres, sont bien, comme les _ tubercules,
conformes a ceux que j’ai obtenus moi-méme pendant cing années
d’essais.”” It is therefore probable, Heckel concludes *[p. 112], that
even before the discovery of America pirates or perhaps commercial

_ navigators had brought the papas amargas (the Spanish name of

this species) and their wild varieties from South to North America,

where it spread in the interior and notably in Virginia.? There

is not the slightest foundation for this speculation, and it conflicts
with the actual facts concerning the introduction of the potato into
Virginia, which will be recited below.

Neither Clusius nor De Candolle, nor Roze, nor Heckel, nor
Trumbull, however, have perused Hariot’s account with open eyes
or in a critical spirit. Before speaking of roots, Hariot concludes

1B. D. Jackson (p. 179) states that -penauk means ‘“‘tuber,’’ and remarks:

“The vocabularies of the Algonkian languages, drawn up about the time of Hariot’s
visit, are not full enough to help us much; but in a Swedish narrative [which,

is not stated by him] we meet with the word Hoppenaes, which may be the same

word differently transliterated as Hariot’s Openauk, and the meaning given is

_ Turnips, Onions, and the like.”

;

2 This identification was first called into doubt by G. Ord (p. 162).

3 There is a curious error on the part of Heckel *[p. 109, footnote 2]. He thinks
that the indigenous name of the species was Norembega, which, according to him
indicates that the plant was cultivated in Virginia for some time, since it had

_ received from the natives a name different from that given by the white colonists.

pats aes yer a ET

Norembega is not the name of this or any other plant, but a designation of Virginia.

4 This is because incomplete, secondhand quotations were relied upon; the
original text was not consulted. Thus De Candolle (p. 46) depends as to Hariot on
the brief paper of Sir Joseph Banks, and jumps at the conclusion: ‘‘There is no
doubt that it [openauk] was the potato.” In other points also De Candolle’s study
of the potato is rather mediocre, and not on the same high level as other chapters
of his book. Phillips (vol. 2, p. 80) likewise regarded openauk as the potato.

82 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

the preceding chapter: “And these are all the commodities for
sustenance of life that I know and can remember they use to husband:
all else that followe are found growing naturally or wilde.” The
three roots, consequently, belong to these wild plants. Solanum
tuberosum never occurred wild and nowhere occurs wild in the
United States. If, however, the potato, as is conjectured, was ©
brought from South America to Virginia, it could have thrived
there only as a cultivated plant; hence none of Hariot’s roots can
represent the potato.

Hariot’s openauk has been conclusively identified as Apios
tuberosa (or Glycine apios L.), first by G. Ord (p. 162) and secondly
by I. H. Trumbull (in Gray, vol. 2, p. 202). Others think of Heli-
anthus giganteus (Wittmack, p. 566). The second of Hariot’s wild
roots is regarded by Trumbull as Lycoperdon solidum or Pachyma
cocos. The third, he thinks, may be ‘Virginia potatoes,’’ which,
in my opinion, for the reasons stated, is out of the question. He
says that the meaning of the Virginian name is “‘sun-tubers,”’ with-
out adding, however, a word of explanation as to how he arrives
at this etymology.

My friend, Dr. Frank G. Speck, Professor of Anthropology at the
University of Pennsylvania, has been kind enough to send me the
following information on Hariot’s three plant names:

“The three words are undoubtedly derived from panik (animate
plural form, plural endings -k, -ik, -wk), an Algonkian root denoting
a round object found in the ground. While the native languages
of Virginia have been lost beyond recall for probably a century,
we have at least cognate data from the Algonkian dialects of New
England which have been found to be of great service in general
in elucidating the Virginia ethnological terms and especially place
names. So turning to Penobscot we encounter the following:

“For Virginia openauk there is Penobscot pandk, ‘artichoke’ and
‘ground-nut’ (Apios tuberosa), also pondpsk, literally ‘stone,’ because
the tuberous roots are found in the earth like stones.

“Virginia okeepenauk is evidently oki (‘ground,’ ‘dirt,’ ‘earth’;
oki, aki, atst are universal Algonkian roots) and penauk.

‘Virginia kaishucpenauk. Trumbull’s translation ‘sun-tubers’ is a
guess, probably based upon the Algonkian root for ‘sun’ (Wabanaki
gizos, Delaware gischuch [Brinton, 1888], New Jersey Delaware
kiisku). Kaishuc may correspond to the Nanticoke kawscup and
koshcup (‘stone,’ ‘rock’) [Brinton, 1893, pp. 331-332]. This brings
‘rock-tuber’ in range as a suggestion. ~

:
4
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3
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em

Potato: NORTH AMERICA 33

“A.C. Parker (pp. 104-107) gives Iroquois names of artichoke
and ground-nut and refers to Kalm, Travels, etc., who mentions
hapniss as ground-nuts, and to Jesuit Relations, 1634, p. 36. Most
strikingly in support of your contention is Parker’s reference to a
mistaking of the ground-nut for potato in the naming of a now
extinct Iroquois clan, the Sconescheronon or Potato People (p. 106,
p quoting Paris Document of 1666).

“C. C. Willoughby (1906, p. 181) also gives information on

_ the artichoke and refers to Champlain as having seen the plant
_ cultivated by the Indians of Nauset (Massachusetts) Harbor in
- 1605 and Gloucester in 1606. C. C. Willoughby (1907, p. 85)
has likewise notes on ground-nuts and tuckahoe (Pachyma cocos?),
_ which is worth considering as a possible intention in the three kinds
_ of -penauk. I might add that tuckahoe seems to me to be a corruption
_ of ptikwi,‘ round’ (cf. Mohegan tukwuni'-g, ‘bread,’ meaning rounded
_ baked loaves). W. R. Gerard (pp. 109-110) gives a review of the
_ objects; tuckahoe and its etymology is given value the same as mine.
_ He makes the term cover the ground-nut (Aptos tuberosa) previously
_ referred to, and also Peltandra alba, which was dried in the sun or
_ by fire. Does this suggest anything bearing upon ‘sun tuber’?
_ Bread was made of all these substances (Penobscot abdn,' Nanticoke
_ apan,? New Jersey Delaware apoon). He translates okipen,’ as I
do, by ‘earth tuber’ and refers it to tuckahoe.

“The term for ‘potato’ proper appears among the eastern Algon-

_ kian, without exception, in the form of an English loan-word.
_ Thus we have Wabanaki aptcédezal (plural inanimate -al) and variant
in the constituent dialects, Micmac tepatét (probably from the
_ French). The nearest we can come to the Virginia region with our
_ modern Algonkian vocabularies is the instance of the Nanticoke,
eeameriy of Maryland, now on the Six Nations Reserve, Ontario,

_ where I obtained the following synonyms for potato, poté*tos:an and
p dat: ds’ u, both English loans. Probably the white potato was not
a native in their economy, or they would have had a name for it.”

Additional information on these food plants of the Indian tribes

_ of eastern North America is given by Dr. Speck (p. 70) and W. E.
Safford (1925, pp. 116-121), who has two illustrations of Glycine

: apios; also Gilmore (p. 94).

1 “Some possibility exists that this may be a loan-word from the French le pain.”
2 “From Nanticoke vocabulary collected by me at Six Nations Reserve, Canada,

_ in 1914.”

3 “Apparently singular form of okipenauk.”

84 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

The principal reason, however, why Hariot’s openauk cannot
be the potato, must be recognized in the fact that in his time the
South American potato did not exist in Virginia, and, as will be
demonstrated, was introduced into Virginia as late as 1621. In
fact, no account of Virginia written prior to that date makes any
mention of the potato. John Brereton (Purchas, vol. 18, p. 314)
wrote in a letter from Virginia in 1602: ‘‘Also, in every Iland, and
almost every part of every Iland, are great store of Ground-nuts
fortie together on a string, some of them as bigge as Hennes egges;
they growe not two inches under ground: the which Nuts wee
found to bee as good as Potatoes.’”’ Likewise Gabriel Archer, who,
in the company of Bartholomew Gosnold, visited the northern part
of Virginia in 1602, alludes only to ground-nuts (Apios tuberosa);
and these only are mentioned again by George Waymouth on his
visit to Virginia in 1605 (Purchas, vols. 18, p. 308; 19, p. 358 *[?]).
John Smith, in The generall historie of Virginia . . ., London, 1624
(p. 10 *{1907 ed., vol. 1, p. 20]) reports: ‘““Ground-nuts, Tiswaw we
call China roots; they grow in clusters, and bring forth a bryer
stalke, but the leafe is far unlike, which will climbe up to the top
of the highest tree: the use knowne is to cut it in small peeces, then
stampe & straine it with water, and boyled makes a gelly good to eate.”’

It was hitherto unknown, at least to those who have discussed
the history of the potato, when and how it was transmitted to
North America. De Candolle *[p. 47] merely indulges in speculations
to the effect that some inhabitants of Virginia, perhaps English
colonists, received tubers from Spanish or other travelers, traders,
or adventurers, during the ninety years which had elapsed since
the discovery of America. Roze, Wittmack, Brushfield, and others,
to whom we owe monographs on the subject, are equally vague.
In search of information I first delved into the early history of
Virginia, but with no success. Finally, after a long quest, I chanced
to peruse the old Histerye of the Bermudaes, and was at last rewarded
by finding the desired information.

In 1613 the good ship Elizabeth brought potatoes from England
to the Bermudas. The historye of the Bermudaes, ascribed to Captain
John Smith (1580-1631), reports this event as follows (Lefroy,

._ ‘The historye of the Bermudaes is attributed by its editor, J. H. Lefroy, on
inward evidence to Captain John Smith (1580-1631), the historian of Virginia.
This attribution has been challenged by E. D. Morgan (in Markham, 1892),
who ascribes the work to Nathaniel Butler, governor of Bermuda (1619-22)
and afterwards governor of Providence Island (1638-41). The question is of
9 Rar a for the present work; personally I incline toward the opinion
re) Toy.

Potato: NORTH AMERICA 85

p. 30): “In her wer first brought into thes partes certaine potatoe
rootes sent from England, the which being planted and flourishinge
very well, wer by negligence almost lost; at last, by a lucky hand,
again reuiued from two cast awaye rootes; they have since encreased
into infinite store, and serue at the present for a maine releife to
the inhabitants.’”!

It was from the Bermudas that the potato was further trans-
mitted to Virginia. On the 2nd of December, 1621, Captain Nathan-
iel Butler, governor of the Bermudas, sent from “St. Georges,
in the Sommer Ilands,” to the governor of Virginia (Francis Wyatt)
two large cedar chests, “wherein wer fitted all such kindes and
sortes of the country plants and fruicts, as Virginia at that time and
yntill then had not, as figgs, pomegranates, oranges, lemans, plan-
tanes, sugar canes, potatoe, and cassada rootes, papaes [papaya],
red-pepper, the pritle peare [prickly pear], and the like.” (Ibid.,
p. 277.) In the following year, a Virginian barcke took from the
Bermudas twenty thousand waight of potatoes at the least (cbid.,
p. 285). All this is on record in The historye of the Bermudaes.
In the chapter “Virginian Affaires since the yeere 1620 till this
present 1624,” published by Purchas (vol. 19, p. 147), the same
event is alluded to as follows:

“A small ship comming in December last [1621] from the Summer-
Ilands, to Virginia, brought thither from thence these Plants, viz.
Vines of all sorts, Orange and Leman trees, Sugar Canes, Cassado
Roots (that make bread), Pines [pineapples], Plantans, Potatoes,
and sundry other Indian fruits and plants, not formerly seene in
Virginia, which begin to prosper very well.”

The fact that potatoes were actually planted in Virginia at
the very moment of the first introduction is confirmed by letters
sent from Virginia in 1621 and published by Purchas (vol. 19,
p. 151); it is intimated there that “‘... in December last they had
planted and cultivated in Virginia. . . Potatoes, and sundry other
Indian fruits and Plants not formerly seene in Virginia, which at the
time of their said Letters began to prosper very well.’’

1 Compare also page 3, where “many other proffitable rootes, as an infinite
quantitie of white, d, and orange-couloured potatoes” are listed amon the
plants introduced into Virginia. Lefroy (p. 30, footnote 2) annotates, ‘““These
potatoe roots, sent from England, can only have been the common potatoe
(Solanum tuberosum), introduced towards the end of the previous century, and not
yet even known in Holland.”

2The sweet potato is out of the question in the above accounts, for it was
already introduced into Virginia at a much earlier date, as we know from Strachey
(p. 31), according to whom “potatoes [that is, sweet potatoes] were introduced

36 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

The potato, accordingly, entered this country, not, as surmised
by De Candolle, through an alleged band of Spanish adventurers,
but in a perfectly respectable manner—from England by way of
Bermuda. It is a prank of fortune, of course, that the potato,
originally a denizen of Peru and Chile, appears as a naturalized
Englishman in the United States. This result is bound to modify
to a certain extent the entire early history of the potato, as it has
hitherto been conceived.!

It is now perfectly clear that the potato could not have been
known to Hariot and that Hariot could not have introduced it into
England. It was one of the plants which “at that time and until
then [1621] Virginia had not.” As justly pointed out by Dr. Speck,
the word for the potato among the eastern Algonkians invariably
appears in the form of a loan-word. I may add Choctaw Ilish ahe;
that is, “Irish batata” (ahe=age, ‘batata’ or ‘sweet potato’).

While not a single report or letter from Virginia up to 1621
makes mention of the potato, it is frequently referred to after that
date. Thus it is stated in A perfect description of Virginia (1649)
(in Gray, vol. 2, p. 202) that the English planters have ‘‘roots of
several kindes, Potatoes, Sparagus, Carrets, ... and Hartichokes.”
Thomas Jefferson (p. 69) writes, ““We cultivate also potatoes, both
the long and the round.”

into Virginia from the West Indies.”” This event must have taken place toward
the end of the sixteenth century. In consequence, the sweet potato was then
called in Virginia the ‘“‘West Indie potatoe.” E. W. (Virginia, London, 1650,
p. 42) writes, ‘““The West Indie Potatoe (by much more delicate and large then
what wee have heere growing) besides that it is a food excellently delicious and
strongly nourishing, fixes himselfe wherever planted with such an irradicable
fertility that being set it eternally grows: of this an extraordinary pleasing and
strong drinke may bee composed.”

1 At the meeting of Section H of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science held in Chicago, 1920, I read a paper on “‘The American Plant
Migration” in which I gave an abstract of the history of the potato *[later pub-
lished: Laufer, 1929]. This story was widely circulated through the Associated
Press, and I received numerous letters from all parts of the country with interesting
comments. Mr. E. A. M. Callan, Director of Agriculture at Paget East, Bermuda,
wrote under February 4, 1921, as follows: ‘‘According to an item which yt
this week in our local newspaper, you have credited this little British Colony
with presenting the potato to the United States. Like all others interested in the
potato, I had always accepted De Candolle’s statements with respect to its intro-
duction into America, and though I was aware that the Colonists here aided those
in the sister Colony of Virginia by gifts of food, and saved that Colony from
extinction by starvation, I did not know until reading your article that the
‘potatoe’ was included. If at any time I had read of the contents of the two
large cedar chests, it is probable that I assumed the potatoes from Bermuda were
not the first to arrive in Virginia. I am now glad to be enlightened by you. You
may be interested to know that Bermuda still continues to send potatoes to the
oe States, for our principal export is the potato, and New York is our sole
market,”

eae Bs ee ee ee ee

POTATO: Nort AMERICA 37

P. Kalm (vol. 2, p. 89), who visited Albany in 1749, says that
potatoes are generally planted there. When traveling in Canada,
he observed that neither the common nor the sweet potato was
planted in Canada. ‘“‘When the French here are asked why they do
not plant potatoes, they answer that they cannot find any relish to
them, and they laugh at the English who are so fond of them.”
(Ibid., p. 275.)

Safford (1925, p. 223) has discovered a very interesting story
according to which in 1719 a colony of Scotch-Irish immigrants,
who established a settlement at Londonderry, Rockingham County,
New Hampshire, brought with them potatoes and flax. This, how-
ever, was not the first introduction of the potato into North America,
but merely a subsequent local introduction into a certain territory.
This has happened in the history of the potato a hundred times, as
will be seen in the consideration of the subject in Europe, China,
and India, where numerous names of potato introducers are known
locally in the same country; the historian must grasp this situation
clearly and not confound such incidental local plantations with the
first spontaneous movement. At the outset the record of a plant
introduction does not signify in itself that it was the first that took
place, as many plants were introduced several times into the same
locality; nor does the record of an introduction go to prove that the
plant in question did not previously exist in the country under
consideration; proof for this fact must also be established.!

Several Indian tribes of North America have to some extent
adopted potato culture; for instance, the Gosiute of Utah (Chamber-
lin, p. 382).

1 The account cited by Dr. Safford is found in a work by C. A. Hazlett (p. 506)
and runs as follows:

“The first crops raised by the ing eg were potatoes and flax. They had
brought their seed and spinning wheels from Ireland and were the first to cultivate
the potato and manufacture Taos in New England. They appear to have cul-
tivated land in common the summer after their arrival, as there is a tract known
by the name of the ‘Common Field,’ containing about two and one-half acres
and situated a few miles west of the dwelling house of Mr. Jonathan Cate in Derry.
It was undoubtedly a clearing, and may have been an abandoned peor ground
of the Indians, who were gradually retiring to deeper shades of the wilderness in
the wilds of Canada.

“A more detailed description, with perhaps a flavor of romance, is given by
Parker in his History of Londonderry *[pp. 48-49]. Describing the arrival of the
settlers of this town he says:

“*They introduced the culture of the potato which they brought with them
from Ireland. Until their arrival, this valuable vegetable, now regarded as one
of the necessities of life, if not wholly unknown, was not cultivated in New England.
To them belongs the credit of its introduction to general use. Although oe ge
prized by this company of settlers, it was for a long time but little regard

38 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

The Tewa know the potato under the name papa, which they
derived from the Spaniards (Robbins, Harrington, and Freire-
Marreco, p. 118).

The tuber used by the Navaho as one of the chief articles of
winter diet is derived from Solanum Fendleri A. Gray, a wild species
growing abundantly in northern New Mexico. These tubers are
quite small, one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, of a
good taste and somewhat like a boiled chestnut (Sturtevant, p. 540).

F. H. Cushing (pp. 226-227) has described this diminutive wild
potato as a nutritious food formerly used by the Zufi, which
required masterly care in its preparation. It grew in all bottom-
lands favored to any extent with moisture. These potatoes were
poisonous in the raw state or whole, but were rendered harmless by
the removal of the skin. As they were never larger than nutmegs,
this had to be accomplished by a preliminary boiling with ashes.
Afterward the potatoes were again stewed and eaten with the water
they had been boiled in, usually with the addition of wild onions
as a relish.

H. H. Smith (p. 72, and plate 32) describes and figures a peculiar
potato cultivated by the Menomini, of a deep purple hue, growing
differently in the hill from our “‘Irish potato, standing upon end, or
being vertically dependent. The Menomini grower said that his
grandfather grew this same kind of potato and that as far as he
knew, the Menomini had always grown it.’”’ In my opinion, there
is nothing extraordinary about this kind, which: could easily be
identified by a potato specialist with one of the numerous varieties
of our own growth.

C. Pickering (p. 662) mentions the potato as forming the com-
mencement of agriculture among the Chinook.

For the following information in regard to the introduction
of the potato on northern Puget Sound, I am indebted to Erna
Gunther, of the University of Washington, Seattle:

their English neighbors: a barrel or two being considered a supply for a family.
But its value as food for man and for beast became at length more generally known,
and who can now estimate the full advantage of its cultivation to this country?
The following well-authenticated fact will show how little known to the community
at large the potato must have been. A few of the settlers had passed the winter
previous to their establishment here, in Andover, Mass. On taking their departure
from one of the families, with whom they had resided, they left a few potatoes
for seed. The potatoes were accordingly planted, came up and flourished well;
blossomed and produced balls, which the family supposed were the fruit to be
eaten. They cooked the balls in various ways, but could not make them palatable,
and pronounced them unfit for food. The next spring, while ploughing their garden,
the plough passed through where the potatoes had grown, and turned out some of
great size, by which means they discovered their mistake.’ ”

) a» ee BD ieee

POTATO: NORTH AMERICA 39

“Information given by Mrs. Lulu Blackinton, a Samish woman,
now living on Guemes Island, Washington. She is now (1924)

_ seventy-one years old. Mrs. Blackinton’s paternal grandmother’s

sister was married to a man in Sumass, British Columbia. The
people there had gotten potatoes from the Hudson’s Bay Company.
They gave some to Mrs. Blackinton’s father, who planted them near
Edison, Washington, where he lived. When the first crop was
harvested, he gave a potlatch at which he distributed the potatoes
among the guests and served them at the feast. Mrs. Blackinton
stated that this occurred when she was a very small child, ‘before
I could talk.’ The Samish word for potato is espoloz.”’

THE POTATO IN SPAIN, ITALY, AND CENTRAL EUROPE

There were two introductions of the potato into Europe—an
earlier one from South America to Spain and Italy, and a later one
from an unknown source to England. Also, there were two varieties
of the species, the earlier having reddish tubers, and the later having
yellowish tubers. Let us first examine the former movement.

E. Roze (p. 61) states that the Spaniards, although they noticed
the potato as one of the great resources of Peru as early as 1533,
at the time of the conquest by Pizarro, were not tempted by the
advantages which the tuber might have had for Spain, and that
there is no document mentioning the introduction of the potato into
Spain. If it was brought there (and this was doubtless the case),
Roze argues, this must be ascribed to a lucky chance, perhaps
resulting from the remains of provisions carried on a Spanish vessel.
This chance introduction is hardly convincing, and this opinion is
also contradicted by E. Heckel (p. 115). This author has found a
text in the Historia del nuovo mundo by P. Bernabé Cobo, written
in 1653, in which reference is made to the papas as one of the best
provisions of the Indians in the province of Los Yauyos. ‘They are
truffles,” the author of this document, Diego Davile Bricegno,
remarks, in 1586, ‘‘and if they were cultivated in our Spain in the
same manner as here, they would be a great expedient in years of
famine.”’! This document, however, cannot claim the importance
which Heckel is inclined to attribute to it. It contains a purely
hypothetical statement and merely demonstrates that there were
Spaniards who had formed some ideas about the potato, but the
question of transmission to Spain is not touched. The fact remains
that thus far there is not a single Spanish document available by
which this event is illustrated. Dr. Safford (1925, p. 181) remarks
justly: “The exact date of its introduction into Europe is not known.
It was, however, undoubtedly carried thither from Peru as a curious
food of the New World, possibly by the same Spaniards who, ac-
cording to Cieza, returned to Spain after having grown rich by
carrying chunyo to the mines of Potosi.’”’ The dates for the intro-
duction into Spain, variously given as 1580 or 1535-85 (Watt, 1898,.
vol. 6, p. 266) are mere guesswork.

1 Heckel, in fact, is not the first, as he believes, who called attention to this
text. It was cited as far back as 1891 by J. J. von Tschudi (p. 117), who spells

the name Diego DAvila Brizefio. He was Corregidor of Yauyos in 1586, and the
above citation appears in his description of that province.

Pr, ‘ee yee

PoTaTo: SPAIN, ITALY, AND CENTRAL EUROPE 41

The fact of the introduction into Spain may retrospectively be
inferred from the appearance of the South American potato in Italy
and central Europe. As to Italy, we have the testimony of Magaz-
zini de Vallombrosa, who, in his book, Dell’Agricoltura toscana,
printed in 1623 after his death, attributes to the barefooted
Carmelites the introduction of potatoes into Tuscany from Spain,
and speaks of their method of cultivation, so that they appear to
have been cultivated at Vallombrosa for a certain time (Roze, p. 103).
This account, of course, is vague. Another, indirect testimony comes
to us from Clusius (Charles de |’Ecluse), the famous botanist from
Artois (1526-1609), the author who, in his Rariorum plantarum
historia (Antwerp, 1601, pp. Ixxix—lxxx), has given, under the
name Papas Peruanorum, the first scientific description of the
plant. Two tubers with a fruit of this plant (as he himself states)
were conveyed to him in 1588 by Philippe de Sivry, Seigneur of
Walhain (Waldheim) and Prefect of Mons in Hainaut (Belgium), who
asserted that he had received them in 1587, under the name tara-
touffli, from one of the persons who had accompanied the papal legate
into Belgium; thus they had come from Italy. The legate ate these
tubers, prepared like chestnuts or carrots, in order to gain strength,
as he was of delicate health. The Italian provenience is also shown
by the fact that Clusius avails himself, as designation for the potato,
of the Italian word taratouwffli,) which soon resulted in French car-
toufle and German tartuffel and subsequently kartoffel. The potato,
accordingly, must have been known in Italy during the later part
of the sixteenth century, and may have been introduced into Spain
about 1570 or somewhat earlier. I arrive at this date through a
negative consideration: Clusius visited Spain in 1564 for a study of
the Iberian flora, and his Rariorwm aliquot stirpium per Hispanias
obseruatarum historia appeared at Antwerp, 1576. The potato is
not mentioned in that work.

The lack of specific accounts is not surprising. We are inclined
to regard the potato as an important crop, as it holds so prominent
a place in our agriculture and daily life; but it was little esteemed on
its first arrival in Europe, even held under suspicion, and rather was
a curious object of inquiry than one of practical utility. Its economic
importance is a recent event, dating only from the latter part of the
eighteenth century. What appears important to us was of hardly

1In C. Bauhin’s Phytopinax (1596): tartuffoli. Bauhin says that this is the
name given to truffles in Italy, and that potatoes are eaten there like truffles.

42 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

any significance to the people of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.!

Clusius characterizes the potato as a novel plant which had
been known in Europe only a few years.2 He adds: ‘‘Whence
it has first come to Italy is not known; it is certain, however, that
it must have been received either from Spain or from America. It
is surprising that the knowledge of this plant reached us so late,

ARACHIDNA THEOPH. forte; Papas Peruanorum. Cap. x11.
Arachid. T heoph. forte, Papas, radix.

Fic. 3. Wood engraving of potato plant and tubers. (From Rariorwm
plantarum historia. Clusius, 1601.)

because, as it is said, it is so common and frequent in some places of
Italy that its tubers boiled with mutton are eaten like turnips and
carrots, and that they are even fed to swine. It is still more sur-

_ 1 In the beginning of the eighteenth century the potato was not yet cultivated
in Spain; at present it is cultivated throughout that country up to an altitude of
6,000 feet (Willkomm and Lange, vol. 2, p. 525).

2 Although he sagaciously recognized its American origin, he nevertheless
fell victim to the tendency of his time to seek for a connection with the ancient
world. He endeavors to show that the potato is identical with the arachidna of
Theophrastus; but this plant is now identified as Lathyrus amphicarpus Dorth.

POTATO: SPAIN, ITALY, AND CENTRAL EUROPE 43

_ prising that the plant was unknown to the school of Padua.! At
present it has become rather common in most of the gardens of
Germany, since it is so fertile.’ He had no doubt that his Papas
Peruanorum was identical with the papas described by Cieza,
Zarate, and Gomara. For the rest, Clusius did not entertain a very
high opinion of the potato as a food plant; while admitting that it
is no less nourishing than chestnuts and carrots, he regarded it as
crude, rough, and flatulent.*

Clusius’ botanical description of the plant is classical, and
is justly praised as a descriptio optima by Willkomm and Lange
(vol. 38, p. 525). It is illustrated by two wood engravings *{1601,
p. lxxix], which Clusius had executed from life—one representing
the plant with flowers and fruit and entitled “Arachidna Theoph.
forté [perhaps]; Papas Peruanorum’’; the other showing the roots
and tubers and entitled ‘‘Arachid. Theoph. forté, Papas, radix.”

(Cf. Fig. 3.) It is this woodcut which has been adopted by Thomas
Johnson in the second edition (1633) of Gerard’s Herball *[p. 927]
to replace Gerard’s own figure in the first edition of 1597. On the
eleventh page of his preface, Johnson explains that he made use of
the woodcuts in the works of Dodonaeus, Lobel, and Clusius—all
printed by Plantin in Antwerp. Clusius *{1601, p. Ixxx] mentions
two other illustrations—one transmitted to him in 1589 by Philippe
de Sivry and representing the colored design of a branch with
blossom and tubers; the other sent him by Garet, a druggist of

1 This is not surprising at all. The learned usually lag behind the times and
are the last to note a newly introduced plant. The farmers and the rest of the
Pte know and esteem it much earlier. The propagation of maize furnishes the

t example thereof. Clusius’ information—that the potato was widely grown
in Italy in his time—is therefore perfectly correct. It means very little that
Targioni, as quoted by De Candolle (p. 48), has not been able to discover any
proof to confirm Clusius’ statement, except Magazzini’s reference (1623).

2The main points of historical interest in Clusius’ text are as follows
*[1601, pp. lxxx—Ixxxi]: ‘“‘Primam hujus stirpis cognitionem acceptam fero N. V.
Philippo de Sivry Dn. de Walhain & Praefecto urbi Montium in Hannonia Belgicae,
qui ejus bina tubera cum fructu, Viennam Austriae ad me mittebat sub initium
anni M.D.XXCVIII, sequente autem anno rami ejus cum flore picturam. Is a
familiari quodam Legati Pontificis in Belgio se accepisse scribebat anno _praece-
dente, Taratouffli nomine. Mittebat deinde ad me Iacobus Garetus junior, integrae
stirpis iconem Francofurtum. .

“Unde primum nacti sint Itali, ignorant: certum autem est, vel ex Hispanijs,
vel ex Americf habuisse. ... Nunc verd plerisque Germaniae hortis satis vulgaris
est facta, quandoquidem aded foecunda est. . His castanearum aut pastinacae
in modum paratis, vescebatur, ut intelligo, ‘Legatus, ad firmandas vires, quia
erat valde imbecilla valetudine: non minus autem alere puto quam castaneas &
pastinacas, flatulentas tamen esse, propterea, ad proritandam Venerem, nonnullos
uti. Ego elixas, deinde, epidermide verius quam cute purgatus, facilimé enim
eedit, & inter binas lances, naporum aut raporum pinguiore vervecis jusculo
maceratas degustaba: & sané non minis sapidas & palato gratas deprehendebam,
ipsis napis. Crudas verd, nimis asperas & flatulentas esse aestimo.”

raratouflt - wy, end

-eplun Wu L6-loneary
ae | SBB 3 J
Papas Peruanum Petn Gece

Fic. 4. Potato plant showing branch with blossoms and tubers. (Reproduc-
tion of water-color sent to Clusius by Philippe de Sivry in 1589. After Roze.
Courtesy of the John Crerar Library.)

eer!

Potato: SPAIN, ITALY, AND CENTRAL EUROPE 45

a6 (see p. 48). The former is still preserved in the Musée
-Plantin-Moretus of Antwerp in which the archives of the old printing-
| _ house of Plantin of the sixteenth century are housed. This water-
color bears the following legend in Clusius’ own hand: “Taratoufli
a Philipp de Sivry acceptum Viennae 26 Januarii 1588. Papas
- Peruiinum Petri Ciecae.”” This was inscribed by him at Francfort
in 1589, when he received the figure; the year under the picture
_refers to the date when he obtained the two tubers and a fruit from
Philippe de Sivry (ef. Fig. 4). A colored reproduction of this design
| is given in the work of E. Roze *{opposite p. 16], and after his plate
in a somewhat reduced halftone by L. Wittmack (plate VIIn).
According to this author, the figures of Clusius still agree in all
| essential features with the potato of the present time.

Tr a ee ee
~ .

THE POTATO IN GREAT BRITAIN

The first hint of the potato being grown in Britain is in the
catalogue of John Gerard’s garden in Holborn, printed in 1596—the
earliest known catalogue of any garden. In this list the name
“‘Papus Hyspanorum”’ is applied to the potato. An enlarged edition
of this catalogue appeared in 1599. The fundamental document
relating to the introduction of the plant into England is presented
by John Gerard’s The herball; or, General historie of plantes, first
published in London and printed by John Morton, 1597. In Chapter
335, pp. 781-782, a description of the potato is given under the
heading “Of Potatoes of Virginia,’’ accompanied by an illustration
of the plant, entitled “Battata Virginiana sive Virginianorum &
Pappus. Potatoes of Virginia.””’ The term batata properly applies
to the sweet potato only, styled by Gerard in the preceding chapter
“Sisarum Peruvianum, sive Batata Hispanorum.”

The designation “potato of Virginia’? was employed in England
at least up to the year 1640, and then gradually gave way to the
plain “‘potato,”’ which hitherto had been applied to the sweet potato.

It is clearly brought out by Gerard’s illustration and description
of the plant that he really speaks of Solanum tuberosum. He states:
“Tt groweth naturally in America! where it was first discovered, as
reporteth C. Clusius, since which time I have received rootes hereof
from Virginia, otherwise called Norembega, which growe and prosper
in my garden, as in their owne native countrie.’”?

He describes the ‘“‘root’”’ of the potato as ‘‘thicke, fat, and tuber-
ous; not much differing either in shape, colour or taste from the
common Potatoes [that is, the sweet potato], saving that the rootes
hereof are not so great nor long; some of them are as round as a ball,
some ovall or egge fashion; some longer, and others shorter: which
knobbie rootes are fastened unto the stalkes with an infinite number
of threddie strings.’’® In regard to nomenclature he observes: ‘“The

1In the language of the period this means “‘South America.”

2 First edition, p. 787; second edition, 1633, p. 927. The texts in the two
editions are identical, save for unimportant deviations in spelling. Two additional
notes of Johnson which do not affect Gerard’s notice are given on page 52, below.

3’ Roze (p. 67) comments on Gerard’s description thus: ‘‘Cette description,
bien que fort détaillée, laisse 4 désirer en ce qui concerne les tubercules. I] est
difficile, dans le comparaison qui est faite des Pommes de terre avec les Batates,
de comprendre bien nettement ce que voulait dire Gerarde. D’un autre cdté,
ce qu’il dit de Clusius au sujet de la découverte des Papas, ne peut s’expliquer que
par des relations qu’il avait dd, avant 1597, entretenir avec ce savant botaniste.”
The information certainly emanates from Clusius; but, as will be seen, indirectly,
through the medium of John Garet of London.

POTATO: GREAT BRITAIN 47

Indians do call this plant Papus [2nd ed., Pappus] (meaning the
- rootes) by which name also the common Potatoes are called in those

Indian countries. We have the name proper unto it, mentioned in
the title. Bicause it hath not onely the shape and proportion of
Potatoes, but also the pleasant taste and vertues of the same, we
may call it in English Potatoes of America, or Virginia.”

Gerard, accordingly, makes no reference whatever to the openauk
of Hariot (nor does he allude to or repeat his description), but
employs the correct Peruvian name pappus, which he had learned

from Clusius (papas). Gerard’s identification had accordingly
_ been confirmed by Clusius.

With reference to the utilization, Gerard remarks (p. 782),

“The temperature and vertues are referred unto the common

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Potatoes; being likewise a foode, as also a meate for pleasure, equall
in goodnesse and wholesomnesse unto the same, being either rosted
in the embers, or boiled and eaten with oile, vineger and pepper,
or dressed any other way by the hand of some cunning in cookerie.”’

There can thus be no doubt that within the brief span of a decade
(1586-96) the potato became well known in England. Facing page 1
of the first edition (1597) of Gerard’s monumental work, there is
a portrait engraved by Payne, representing Gerard with a spray of
the potato plant with flowers and berries in his left hand, as a re-
minder of the importance which he attributed to this novel plant,
or, as said by Jackson, thereby testifying to his pride in its pos-
session and his estimation of it as the most remarkable in his
collection (cf. Fig. 5).

The principal testimony, accordingly, around which the history
of the potato in England pivots, is Gerard’s, while Hariot’s name
must be eliminated from consideration in the history of the subject.
It was not Hariot who brought the potato to England: he lays no
claim to this honor, nor does Gerard or any one else assign it to him.
Gerard’s record proves two events: first, that prior to the intro-
duction into England the potato was known to Clusius, that is, on
the European continent; and second, that, independently of the
earlier introduction into Spain, it reached England from “Virginia,”
or rather North America. *[On this point see pp. 52 ff.]

The reference to Clusius proves that information from that
quarter had been imparted to the English herbalist; but Clusius’
work which contains his notice of the potato appeared only in 1601,
several years after Gerard’s Herball. There is no evidence for
assuming that Gerard ever was in correspondence with Clusius;

48 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Gerard had few foreign friends, and Clusius was not one of them.
Clusius does not even make any reference to Gerard’s contribution,
although he must have had cognizance of it; but he alludes to a
figure of the entire plant which “subsequently [that is, after 1588] —
Jacobus Garetus junior had sent him to Francfort.” *[1601, p. —
Ixxx.] James Garet was a druggist and citizen of London, an ©
old friend of Clusius from as far back at least as 1581, when Clusius
spent six months in England on his third and last visit there. It is —
deplorable that Garet’s sketch of the potato is lost—at least, has —
not yet been rediscovered; it would doubtless form an important —
piece of evidence for the English side of the history of the potato.
In my estimation, it would prove to be very similar to, if not identical
with, the woodcut inserted in Gerard’s first edition of 1597; in all
probability, Garet even was the author of this sketch, for he was an
intimate acquaintance of Gerard, who cites him nine times, while
he is quoted eleven times in Clusius’ Historia and fifteen times in
his Exoticorum. Garet, accordingly, as justly concluded by B. D.
Jackson (p. 161), was the link between Gerard and Clusius. It does
not require a stretch of the imagination to piece together the threads
of the lost correspondence. It was after 1588 that Garet sent
Clusius from London his figure of the plant, which had been raised
in his own or Gerard’s garden, asking for his opinion of the exotic
newcomer. The sketch was clear enough to enable Clusius to
recognize it as his Papas Peruanorum, and in this sense he replied
to Garet, who on his part conveyed the information to Gerard; thus it
entered into Gerard’s Herball, and he was upright enough to give
credit to Clusius. It is out of the question, as has been intimated
by some, that Gerard received his potato solely and directly from
Clusius. This is utterly impossible, as above all demonstrated by
the evidence of Garet’s sketch. Moreover, what Clusius describes
is the variety with red-skinned tubers, while Gerard’s cultivation is
one of the yellow-skinned variety. A superficial comparison of the —
two illustrations demonstrates sufficiently that they represent —
distinct varieties, which originated from different quarters. Hence ~
the veracity of Gerard’s historical account, in its general outlines, —
cannot be questioned.

Garet’s sketch furnishes prima facie evidence for the fact that
the potato was known in England after 1588 or between 1588 and
1601. A negative piece of evidence for the terminus a quo is given
by the fact that Clusius on his visit to London in the beginning of
the year 1581 (see above), when he bought fresh sweet potatoes

Fic. 5. John Gerard holding spray of potato plant. (From 1597 edition
of his Herball; or, General historie of plantes. Courtesy of the Newberry Library.)

50 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

there, did not see or hear of the common potato in England, nor did
he then receive specimens of it from Drake, with whom he was on
intimate terms. Hence I am inclined to think that in 1581 the
potato had not yet arrived in England; but it surely must have been
known there between 1586 and 1590. The latter is the terminus ad
quem, as in that year the last English vessels returned from Virginia.

W.S. M(itchell) has subjected Gerard’s account of the potato
to an unduly severe and harsh criticism, which on a few points may
be approved, but which in its bilious acrimony and hostility over-
shoots the mark, and is entirely negative as to its result. True
criticism must be constructive, not destructive. Mitchell *[p. 553]
finds considerable fault with Gerard’s illustration; according to
him, “... we cannot trace the source of that figure; we cannot say
where the plant grew which is there represented; least of all are we
in a position to say it is a figure of Heriot’s Openauk. [This remark
is baseless, since the figure is not intended as such, and Gerard does
not even allude to Hariot and his openawk.| It is the earliest extant
figure of a potato known . . . but beyond recognizing the interest
attaching to it on this account and the skill evinced, it cannot be
regarded as of any importance. It cannot be used as any evidence for
proving anything.” He finally suggests that Gerard must have
received the illustration from the Continent,! and concludes *[p. 585]:
“There is no proof of potatoes having been brought from Virginia
beyond Gerard’s own statement. There is the probability he some-
how had two sets of roots mixed or confounded the one with the
other.”” L. Wittmack (p. 567) has already made a convincing plea
in favor of Gerard and versus Mitchell; and Wittmack is not a lay-
man, but a critical scholar, who for many years has cultivated and
studied Solanwms and potatoes in particular (not to speak here of
his excellent work in other fields), and who is well familiar with the
early accounts. According to Wittmack, Gerard’s figure does not
merit the condemnation meted out to it by Mitchell; he clearly
recognizes in it the essential properties of the potato plant; the
tubers are evidently much reduced, but it will not do to infer from
this illustration that their actual dimensions were minute; they are
correctly described in Gerard’s text. Whatever defects may be
attached to the figure, it does represent, as Mitchell himself admits,
Solanum tuberosum, and was drawn in England from a live specimen
raised by Gerard; and whatever flaws may be picked in the nomen-
clature and description, it refers beyond cavil to the same species,

1 This supposition is absurd and is refuted by my remarks above.

POTATO: GREAT BRITAIN 51

with which therefore Gerard and his contemporaries were acquainted.
W. M. Rowland (p. 566), in response to Mitchell’s onslaught, justly
calls attention to the frontispiece representing the old herbalist
with a flower in his hand which certainly is a potato blossom, and
remarks: “I think, therefore, the old man knew what he was saying
about the Potato, and took interest enough in it to be painted with
a flower of it in his hand.’”!

B. D. Jackson (pp. 161-162) has ventured the following criti-
cism: Gerard ‘‘must have had some knowledge of the plant before
it came into his hands, but Gerard was not famous for his straight-
forwardness. His garbled account of Dr. Priest’s translation of the
Pemptades of Dodoens, which was the foundation of his Herball,
is curiously like a falsehood... . It is therefore not impossible that
he set himself to mystify the readers of his Herball as to the source
whence he derived his Potatos. On the other hand, it may be chari-
tably allowed that he was careless in many points, and did not
trouble himself in matters of detail, or precision of fact. Whichever
way it is to be accounted for, he certainly succeeded in leading
successive generations to suppose that he had his plants by way of
Virginia.”’ But if this allegation was so utterly false, why did his
contemporaries not contradict him? The British public of those
days assuredly was not so credulous. There was Johnson, who in
1633 brought out a revised and enlarged edition of the Herball, and
who by no means was blind to Gerard’s shortcomings, as expressly
remarked in his preface. He had the opportunity of making any
corrections, alterations, or additions in Gerard’s text. All he did,
however, is limited to replacing Gerard’s figure by that of Clusius (as
he evidently regarded the latter as preferable) and to the two follow-
ing additional notes:

‘The supercritical Mr. Mitchell, like most of his kind, is himself very un-
critical in the treatment of the subject: to him the openauk is the potato, and not
a wild root; he consequently did not read Hariot’s account with open eyes. He
spills a great deal of ink over the alleged mystery as to how Gerard got hold of the
South American name papas, which never occurred in Virginia or North America.
This information, as has been shown, he had simply received through the mediation
of Garet from Clusius, whom he expressly quotes. True it is that Gerard is our
only witness who testifies that the potato has reached England from Virginia.
This, of course, is somewhat unfortunate, and I myself should like to see a more
circumstantial report from the pen of one of the returning colonists; but we are
accustomed to this dearth of news in the history of cultivated plants, and I for
my part can see no reason why Gerard’s astasernaet should be discounted. The
general course of English colonial enterprise at that memorable epoch reveals
plainly the fact that the potato arrived in England from some point on the coast
of North America; whether it was cultivated there at that time is another question.

Mitchell flatly rejects any traditions, but he fails to inform us as to how and when
the transmission was effected.

52 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

“Clusius questions whether it be not the Arachidna of Theo-
phrastus. Bauhine hath referred it to the Nightshades, and calleth
it Solanum tuberosum Esculentum, and largely figures and describes
it in his Prodromus, pag. 89.’ *[16338, p. 927.]

“Bauhine saith, That he heard that the use of these roots [mis-
printed toots] was forbidden in Bourgondy (where they call them
Indian Artichokes) for that they were persuaded the too frequent
use of them caused the leprosie.”’ *[ p. 928.]

There is no criticism of Gerard, whose original text he has
reproduced word for word, save some slight modifications of spelling.
Johnson, therefore, can have had no other thought than that Gerard’s
account of the potato was correct and that it was an epoch-making
document.

The crucial question, of course, remains as to the source from
which Gerard received the tubers, and whether his assertion that it
came from Virginia is to the point. Documentary evidence for the
decision of this question is lacking, so that the door is wide open for
speculation. The label “Virginia” has been vehemently contested by
several writers; among these, as mentioned, by Mitchell and Jackson,
who are joined by Wittmack. It is perfectly true that Solanum
tuberosum is not a native of Virginia, that it was never cultivated
by the pre-Columbian aborigines there, and that there is not a
particle of evidence for its existence in Virginia at the times here
under consideration. It was introduced there, as well as to other
parts of North America, at a far later date. Those who have
taken Gerard’s statement at its surface value are naturally carried
away to lofty speculations; thus, A. de Candolle (p. 47), when he
observes: “‘It seems to me most likely that some inhabitants of
Virginia—perhaps English colonists—received tubers from Spanish
or other travellers, traders or adventurers, during the ninety years
which had elapsed since the discovery of America. Evidently, dating
from the conquest of Peru and Chili, in 1585 to 1585, many vessels
could have carried tubers of the potato as provisions, and Sir Walter
Raleigh, making war on the Spaniards as a privateer, may have
pillaged some vessel which contained them. This is the less improb-
able, since the Spaniards had introduced the plant into Europe
before 1585.’”’ All this is possible, but there is not the slightest proof
that this account is correct. Jackson (p. 180) surmises that “the
original stock came from some captured town or ship.... Drake...
sacked Carthagena, at a time when the cultivation of the Potato
had long before reached as far north as New Grenada.”

———-_ '-

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PoTATO: GREAT BRITAIN 53

Whatever may have been the actual home of the potato tubers
which arrived in England between 1586 and 1590, there is no doubt
in my mind that they were received by Gerard with the specific
label and positive information ‘from Virginia!” Gerard did not
attempt or intend to ‘“‘mystify his readers,” as suggested by Jackson,
but simply restated what he had been told. It goes without saying
that specimens wrongly labeled as to locality have many hundreds
of times reached botanists, zoologists, mineralogists, and ethnog-
raphers. This, in fact, happens in our museums every day without
provoking a commotion in our breasts, and why get excited over a
wrong label of the sixteenth century? Gerard’s account conveys the
strong impression that he is thorough and serious about the subject,
which had endeared itself to him, that he attributes to it much
importance, and that his statements are not jotted down in a light-
minded spirit. Aside from the appearance of the name “‘Virginia’’
in the nomenclature, he refers to it in the descriptive text, which
begins, “Virginia Potatoes hath many hollowe flexible branches’’;
again, ‘“‘since which time I have received rootes hereof from Virginia,
otherwise called Norembega,’’ and ‘‘we may call it in English
Potatoes of America, or Virginia.” Gerard had a clear conception
of Virginia, as clear at least as any one could have at that time, and
was familiar with the events that had taken place there, as shown by
the following passage of his work (1597, p. 752): “There groweth in
that part of Virginia, or Norembega, where our English men dwelled
(intending there to erect a Colony) a kind of Asclepias, or Swallow
woort, which the Savages call Wisanck.” Again, “It groweth, as
before is rehearsed, in the countries of Norembega, and now called
Virginia by the H. sir Walter Raleigh, who hath bestowed great
summes of monie in the discoverie thereof, where are dwelling at
this present English men, if neither untimely death by murdering,
or pestilence, corrupt aire, bloodie flixes, or some other mortall
sicknes hath not destroied them.’”’ In regard to the “prickly Indian
Fig tree” (Opuntia ficus indica), he writes (1597, p. 1830): “This
plant groweth in all the tract of the east and west Indies, and also
in the countrey Norembega, now called Virginia, from whence it
hath beene brought into Italy, Spaine, England, and other countries.”
With reference to maize he observes (1597, p. 77), “. . . out of America
and the Ilands adioyning from the east and west Indies, and Virginia
or Norembega, where they use to sowe or set it, and to make bread
of it....” By the term “America” Gerard understands South
America, as shown by his “Potatoes of America or Virginia’”’ (the

54 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

definition “‘America’”’ being suggested by the Papas Peruanorum of
Clusius), and still more clearly by his reference to tobacco, where he
says: “It was first brought into Europe out of the provinces of
America, which is called the west Indies, in which is the province or
countrey of Peru.”’ (1597, p. 286.)

Gerard certainly did not receive the potato from Raleigh or
Drake; otherwise he would have so stated. He must have received
it, however, from some unknown pilgrim who crossed the ocean in
1584 under a patent granted by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Walter
Raleigh.

Tradition has it, further, that Sir Walter Raleigh himself had the
tubers planted on his estate of Youghall near Cork in the south of
Ireland, and soon after carried them into Lancashire. The story
goes that he gave them to his gardener as a desirable fruit from
America, and ordered them to be planted in his kitchen garden. In
August the plants flowered, and in September produced fruit; but
the berries were so different from what the gardener expected that
in a fit of ill humor he carried the potato-apples to his master, ex-
claiming, “Is this the fine fruit from America you praised so highly?”
Sir Walter either was, or pretended to be, ignorant of the matter;
and desired the gardener, since that was the case, to dig up the weed
and throw it away. The gardener, however, soon returned with a
good parcel of potatoes. This, of course, is merely an anecdote
without historical value.

I am in sympathy with those who incline toward the opinion
that the introduction into England may belong to the merits of Sir
Francis Drake, who had invaded those countries where the potato

1H. Phillips (vol. 2, p. 81), who cites Appendix to the Report of the Committee
of the Board of Agriculture, on the Culture of the Potatoe (cf. G. W. Johnson,
p. 8). Safford (1925, pp. 217-218) states that the value of the potato as a food
staple was first recognized in Ireland, where conditions of soil and climate were
peculiarly favorable for its propagation. The tradition that Walter Raleigh
planted the tubers on his estate of Youghall near Cork in southern Ireland may
be relegated to the realm of fable. While it is not known by whom and when the
potato was introduced into Ireland, it was cultivated there as a field crop before
1668, a year of dearth in Great Britain and Ireland. In March of that year the
attention of the Royal Society was called to it as a crop of national importance
by Mr. Buckland, from Somersetshire. H. Phillips (vol. 2, p. 80) remarks:
‘Some writers state that the potato was introduced into Ireland as early as 1566.
If this was the case, it evidently must have been the batata, procured either from
Spain or Italy, as we have no account of the Virginia potato having been known
in Europe at that period. It was certainly used as food by the Irish long before
its utility was generally known in England; and we are informed that it was
accidentally thrown on - shore nf a vessel wrecked on the coast called North
Meols, in Lancashire; a place and soil even now famous for producing this vegetable
in great perfection.” his story is difficult to credit.

———

Pee eS mn

PoTATO: GREAT BRITAIN 55

is both wild and cultivated. Unfortunately this impression cannot
be substantiated by documentary evidence.

J. Fiske (vol. 2, p. 313) confounds potatoes and sweet potatoes, as
do so many others, in expressing his view as follows: “As Humboldt
says, potatoes were common all over the West Indies before 1580,
and had even found their way into the gardens of Spain and Italy.
In 1586 Lane’s party of Raleigh’s people, a hundred or more in
number, had been staying for a year upon Roanoke Island, where
they had hoped to found a colony. They were short of food, when
all at once Sir Francis Drake arrived from the West Indies and
brought them a supply of provisions, with which they prudently
decided to go home to England. Evidently their potatoes, which
were planted on an estate of Raleigh’s in Ireland, did not come from
‘Virginia,’ but from the West Indies.”

L. Wittmack (p. 569) presents the conclusion: “It is certain that
the potato arrived in England about 1586 or a little later; how,
remains uncertain, hardly from Virginia. It seems to me most
probable that Drake brought it along and handed it on to Raleigh.”

The question as to who introduced the potato into England and
Ireland can be answered by the sober historian only with the confes-
sion of ignorance. The story was never recorded, or if so, the record
has been lost; neither Parkinson nor Bacon nor any other contem-
porary has a word about the introduction. This, after all, is not
surprising, for no special importance was attached to the newcomer;
its arrival was of no general interest, and it did not attract public
attention. To us the question appears important because the
potato occupies so prominent a place in our present economic life,
but this place it has held for hardly two hundred years. All that
has been said about John Hawkins, Thomas Hariot, Raleigh, and
Drake as introducers is the merest speculation unsupported by any
evidence, or partially rests on a confusion with the sweet potato.’

John Parkinson (p. 516) distinguishes clearly between the sweet
potato, the potato of Virginia, and the potato of Canada ( Helian-
thus tuberosus). In regard to the last-named he says: “We in England,

1'T. N. Brushfield (especially p. 178) pleads for Hariot as being the importer
of the potato into England and sharing with Raleigh in the merit of its introduction,
while to the latter alone is due the honor of promoting its cultivation and of adding
to the standard articles of food in England. The author, however, notes that
“the printed work of Hariot omits all notice of the ordinary potato, but we have
to bear in mind it was confined to a description of the native products alone.”
The legend that Hawkins brought potatoes from Santa Fé in Bogota to Ireland
in 1565 is already found in Putsche, Versuch einer Monographie der ote ey

enn 1819), as cited in Dictionnaire universel d’ histoire naturelle ... (vo
p.

56 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

from some ignorant and idle head, have called them Artichokes of
Ierusalem, only because the roote, being boyled, is in taste like the
bottome of an Artichoke head: but they may most fitly be called,
Potatos of Canada, because their rootes are in form, colour and
taste, like unto the Potatos of Virginia, but greater, and the French
brought them first from Canada into these parts.’’ These tubers,
he remarks, had so increased, and were so commonly grown in London
that even the most vulgar began to despise them, whereas on their
first arrival they were dainties for a queen. With reference to the
common potatoes he remarks that some foolishly call them “apples
of youth.”’ He gives a good description of the plant, saying that
the roots are nearly of the same taste as sweet potatoes, but not
altogether so pleasant. Both were prepared in the same way: ““The
Virginia Potato’s being dressed after all these waies before specified,
maketh almost as delicate meate as the former.”

Francis Bacon, in his Sylva sylvarum or Natural history, written
soon after Gerard’s Herball, calls them potado-roots, and writes:
“It is said, that if potado-roots be set in a pot filled with earth,
and then the pot with earth be set likewise within the ground some
two or three inches, the roots will grow greater than ordinary. The
cause may be, for that having earth enough within the pot to nourish
them, and then being stopped by the bottom of the pot from putting
strings downward, they must needs grow greater in breadth and
thickness. And it may be, that all seeds or roots, potted and so
set into the earth, will prosper the better.” (V, 743, vol. 2, p.
491; cf. also I, 47, vol. 2, p. 360.)

Early in the seventeenth century the potato was planted in the
gardens of the nobility as a curious exotic, and appears to have been
esteemed a great delicacy in the time of James the First, for in the
year 1619 it is noticed among the different articles provided for the
Queen’s household. The quantity supplied was extremely small,
and the price high, being at that time one shilling per pound (Phillips,
vol. 2, pp. 85-86); according to others, even two shillings (Weir,
p. 882).

While the potato was thus well known in England in the latter
part of the sixteenth and in the first half of the seventeenth century,
it was still very far from being popular or in general use. It was
merely a garden product and treated as a vegetable. It first met
with the same lukewarm or even indifferent reception as in France.

The old prejudice against the potato is well characterized by A.
Findlay (p. 2): “Notwithstanding its many claims on popular

PoTATO: GREAT BRITAIN 57

attention, it met the common fate of nearly all that is good—if

that good runs counter to the strong conservative instinct of the

average Briton. Vulgar and learned prejudice metaphorically rose
in arms against it; the layman wrote against it; the priest thundered

at it from the pulpit as a dangerous thing of a dangerous race—a

thing to be avoided by saint and sinner alike; and it is not until 219

years (1805) from the date of its introduction into Britain that we

find Dr. Buchan, in the 19th edition of his ‘Domestic Medicine,’
speaking of the potato as being only grown in Ireland and the north
of England to any extent, and strongly urging its claims on all
classes as a food-producing plant, as a means of preventing arecurrence
of famine in the land.” And H. Phillips (vol. 2, p. 86) expresses his
opinion thus: “It was long, before potatoes were brought into general
use; for by some they were reckoned not good for food, others deemed
them poisonous. The lower classes, to whom this vegetable is now
the greatest blessing that the soil produces—forming flour without
a mill, and bread without an oven—and at all seasons of the year an
agreeable and wholesome dish, unaided by expensive or injurious
condiments—were the last to become acquainted with this valuable
root. So difficult is it to overcome prejudices in ignorant minds!
Many persons were prejudiced against the potatoe, on account of its
being a species of Solanum, or Nightshade, alleging it was narcotic.”

In 1662 (according to others, 1663) Buckland from Somerset,
in a letter addressed to the Royal Society, recommended the plant-
ing of the potato in all parts of the Kingdom as a crop of national
importance and as a means of checking famines; but despite the
recommendation of the Society and numerous appeals to the public,
the cultivation was very slow.

In 1675 J. W. Gent (p. 155) wrote: “Potatoes are very usual in
Foreign parts, and are planted in several places of this Country to
a very good advantage; they are easily encreased, by cutting the
Roots in several pieces, each piece growing as well as the whole
Root; they require a good fat Garden-mould, but will grow indif-

ferently well in any: they are commonly eaten either Buttered, or

in Milk. I do not hear that it hath been as yet essayed, whether
they may not be propagated in great quantities for food for Swine,
or other Cattle.

“Jerusalem Artichoaks are near of the nature of the Potatoes,
but not so good nor so wholesome; but may probably be propagated
in great quantities, and prove good food for Swine: They are either
planted of the Roots, or of Seeds.’

58 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

In 1687 Worlidge suggested that potatoes might be useful for
swine or cattle. In 1699 Houghton reports that they were then very
common in Lancashire, being introduced there from Ireland, and
they began to spread over England. One reason that the tuber
remained so long in disrepute was the defective mode of its culture;
another, ignorance of the proper method of cooking it. In Scotland
progress was retarded by religious prejudice; it was pretended
that potatoes are not spoken of in the Bible. They were not cultivated
in Scotland until 1683. In 1728, Thomas Prentice, a day laborer,
first planted potatoes in open fields at Kilsyth with such success
that his example was generally followed. According to others, the
potato was not known in the Highlands and Isles before 1748 (Roze,
p. 75; G. W. Johnson, pp. 12 ff.). It is supposed that many persons
in the Highlands would have perished for want in the year 1783, had
it not been for this tuber (Phillips, vol. 2, p. 90).

Bradley, in his book New improvements of planting and gardening
*(pt. 8, p. 132], says, after describing parsnips, carrots, onions, etc.:
“Potatoes and Jerusalem-Artichokes, are Roots of less note than any
I have yet mentioned; but as they are not without their Admirers,
so I shall not pass by the Method of their Culture in silence. The
Potatoe rather loves a sandy than a strong Soil, tho’ I have seen
them do well in both; but have observ’d, that the Roots knot much
better, and are sweeter tasted in the Sand.’’ H. Phillips (vol. 2,
p. 88), who cites this text, remarks on this occasion: “This shows us
that, though the culture of the potatoe was perfectly understood in
the beginning of the last century, the root, nevertheless, was not
appreciated according to its merits.”

John Laurence (p. 368) writes: “Potatoes are generally thought
an insipid Root; but when they are cultivated in a good mixt Soil,
they are not without their Admirers: The smaller Roots or Knots
are commonly preserved for a succeeding Crop, which in March
are set about eight Inches apart. About Michaelmas is the Time
when they are first begun to be used, and they are commonly taken
out of the Ground only as Occasion serves during the Winter.”

During the eighteenth century England set an example to
Europe and made a rapid advance in the propagation of the plant.
Ever since, she has always occupied the first place in Europe in
matters of potato culture, and the improvement of the potato has
been the object of great care and attention. In 1822 H. Phillips (vol.
2, p. 89) could say: ‘‘The consumption of potatoes . . . on the Con-
tinent is but small, when compared to that of England and Ireland.’’

THE POTATO IN FRANCE

The introduction of the potato into France is independent of
that into England. The first French writer who mentions and
describes the potato is Olivier de Serres, seigneur du Pradel (1539-
1619), in his celebrated work, Theatre d’agriculture et mesnage des
champs (pp. 513-514) *[1802, vol. 3, pp. 173-174], first published
in 1600.! He states that both plant and fruit are termed cartoufle
(this name appears three times in his text and as chapter heading
on the right margin) because the fruit resembles a truffle, and that
it has come from Switzerland to Dauphiné only a short while ago.
By whom it was introduced is not known. His description, which
shows that he was quite familiar with the method of planting pota-
toes and preparing them for food, is in the first edition as follows:

“Cest arbuste, dit cartoufle, porte fruict de mesme nom, sem-
blable a truffes, et par d’aucuns ainsi appellé. I] est venu de Suisse,
en Dauphiné, despuis peu de temps en ¢a. La plante n’en dure
qu’une annee, dont en faut venir au refaire chacune saison. Par
semence l’on s’en engence, c’est a dire, par le fruict mesme, le mettant
en terre au commencement du Printemps, aprés les grandes froidures,
la Lune estant en decours, quatre doigts profound, desire bonne terre,
bien fumee, plus legere que pesante: l’air moderé. Veut estre semé
au large, comme de trois en trois, ou de quatre en quatre pieds de
distance l’un de |’autre, pour donner place a ses branches de s’ac-
croistre et de les provigner. De chacun cartoufle sort un tige, faisant
plusieurs branches, s’ellevans iusques a cing ou six pieds, si elles n’en
sont retenus par provigner. Mais pour le bien du fruit, l’on provigne
le tige avec toutes ses branches, dés qu’elles ont attaint la hauteur
d’un couplé de pieds; d’icelles en laissant ressortir 4 l’air, quelques
doigts, pour 1a continuer leur iect: et iceluy reprovigner, a toutes
les fois qu’il s’en rend capable, continuant cela iusques au mois
d’Aoust: auquel temps les iettons cessent de croistre en fleurissans,
faisans des fleurs blanches, toutesfois, de nulle valeur. Le fruit naist
quand et les iettons, 4 la fourcheure des noeufs, ainsi que glands de
chesne. II s’engrossit et meurit dans terre, d’ow |’on le retire en
ressortant les branches provignees, sur la fin du mois de Septembre,

1 During the author’s lifetime there appeared eight editions of this classical work
which occupies a prominent place in the history of French prose. In the interval
from 1629 to 1661 four editions were published at Geneva, and five at Rouen;
another at Lyons in 1675. A new edition in two volumes was issued in Paris,
1804-1805. His biographer, H. Vaschalde, says of him (p. 108), “Son style a cette

belle rudesse du vieux Caton, la franchise et l’honnéteté d’un patriarche de
Chanaam et la noble éloquence des péres de |’Eglise.”

60 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

lors estant parvenu en parfaite maturité. L’on le conservé tout
l’Hyver parmi du sablon delié en cave temperee; moyennant que ce
soit hors du pouvoir des rats, car ils sont si friands de telle viande,
qu’y pouvans attaindre, la mangent toute dans peu de temps.
Aucuns ne prennent la peine de provigner ceste plante, ains la laissent
croistre et fructifier 4 volonté, cueillans le fruit en sa saison: mais
le fruit ne se prepare si bien 4a l’air, que dans terre, en cela se con-
formant aux vraies truffes, ausquelles les cartoufles ressemblent en
figure; non si bien en couleur, qu’elles ont plus claire que les truffes:
l’escorce non rabouteuse, ains lisse et deliee. Voila en quoy tels
fruits different l’un de l’autre. Quant au goust, le cuisinier les
appareille de telle sorte, que peu de diversité y recognoit-on de l’un
a l’autre.”’ *[Also quoted in Roze, pp. 117-118.]

Parmentier *[in a note in the 1805 edition of Olivier de Serres’
Theatre d’agriculture . . .] has supposed that Olivier’s cartoufle does
not refer to Solanwm tuberosum, but should represent the topinam-
bour (Helianthus tuberosus). E. Roze (pp. 117 ff.) has justly com-
bated this error and demonstrated that the potato solely is in
question, adding that the topinambour was discussed in Europe as late
as 1616. The latter species was introduced into France by Lescarbot
between 1613 and 1617, and consequently could not have been
known to Olivier, at least not at-the time when the first edition of
his work was issued in 1600. For the rest, his description of the
plant is so lucid that it cannot apply to anything but the potato. A
particularly interesting feature is that Olivier describes the flowers
as white and on this point agrees with Clusius;! hence Olivier’s
supply may have come from the same source, and at any rate points
to Italy by way of Switzerland, as is also demonstrated by his
nomenclature.

In the Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles (vol. 32, p. 524) it is
stated that potato cultivation was propagated in different parts of
France at different times, from the end of the sixteenth century in
Franche-Comté, Lorraine, Burgundy, and Lyonnais; in Alsace
between 1714 and 1724. According to the Dictionnaire wniversel
d’ histoire naturelle ... (vol. 8, p. 347), in 1616 potatoes are said to
have been served at the table of the king of France, but I have no
means of verifying this statement; the chances are that this rests
on a confusion with the topinambour.

1 Cf. De Candolle’s observation *[p. 51]: ‘““The potato described by these two
travellers had white flowers, as is seen in some cultivated European varieties, and

like the plant formerly reared by l’Ecluse. We may assume that this is the natural
color of the species, or at least one of the most common in its wild state.”

POTATO: FRANCE 61

The botanist C. Bauhin introduced the potato into Franche-

- Comté and Burgundy in the beginning of the seventeenth century.!
From this point onward documents fail us, and we are ignorant

of the manner in which the potato was propagated in France

during the seventeenth and the greater part of the eighteenth

century. During this period, it became no more popular in France
than in other countries of Europe. This state of affairs is vividly
illustrated by Bauhin (1671, p. 90), when he observes: “In our

_ country the tubers of the potato are sometimes roasted in the embers

like truffles; then they are peeled and eaten with pepper. Others
roast them, clean and slice them, stew them in a fat pepper-sauce,
and eat them asa restorative. Others again, regard them as excellent

for persons in a weakened condition and recommend them as a

salubrious food. They are no less nutritious than chestnuts and
carrots, but they are flatulent [after Clusius]. I have been told that
the people of Burgundy have at present abandoned the use of these

_ tubers, because they persuaded themselves that eating them will
_ cause leprosy, and they call them artichokes of the Indies.”

Solanum tuberosum is an interesting plant from a botanical view-

_ point, and, thanks to the descriptive work of Clusius and Bauhin,
it could not fail to attract the learned, but the people at large took
no deep interest in it. General botanical works of the seventeenth
century do not even mention it; thus, for instance, the Histoire des

plantes de VEurope, et des plus usitées qui viennent d’ Asie, d’ Afrique,
et d’Amerique published in two volumes by Jean-Baptiste de Ville

_ in Lyons, 1689, a copy of which is in my possession.

Toward the middle of the seventeenth century, the potato was
propagated in the Vosges, according to popular tradition, by the
Swedes during their invasion in the Thirty Years’ War. In 1665
the potato made its first appearance in Paris. In 1749 Champiers
wrote: “In general opinion, this is the worst of all vegetables; yet
the people who form the largest portion of humanity subsist on it.’’
Legrand d’Aussy (vol. 1, p. 144) comments on this passage thus:

“Tt is true that the plant treated by this author with so great a

contempt is designated by him topinambour, but he understands
by topinambour what is called pomme de terre. For the rest, if we
should claim that the true potato is what he terms truffle, of which
he distinguishes two species, a red and a white one, this author’s
testimony would not be more favorable. In respect to this fruit he

1 The potato is described and illustrated in his Prodromos theatri botanici .. .

_ (1671, pp. 89-90). =

62 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

remarks, ‘It is not unknown in Paris; but it is true that it is left to
the small people and that people of a certain social status think it
beneath their dignity to see them on their tables.’”’ The work
L’ecole du jardin potager, published in 1749 by De Combles, contains
an interesting article on the potato under the heading La truffe,
from which it appears that its cultivation had since made progress,
but that it still was very far from being generally appreciated *[from
Roze, p. 128]. At that time it was not only the vulgar and the
country people, but also the well-to-do in the towns of most provinces
who fed on potatoes, and many people had a passion for them.! The
common people ate them cooked in ashes with a bit of salt, and in
the mountains they were made into bread. In the provinces adjoin-
ing the Rhone particularly, consumption was considerable. How-
ever (the author continues) it is insipid of taste and very indigestible,
but it has a certain flavor pleasing to those who like it. What ob-
jection is to be raised to this? And when one is accustomed to a thing,
it will lose many of its drawbacks. It is a certain fact that this fruit
is nourishing and that by force of habit it does not inconvenience
those who have been habituated to it from childhood; for the rest,
it is of great economic importance for the people at large, and these
advantages may offset its defects.

Duhamel du Monceau, in his T'raité de la culture des terres (vol. 5),
exhorts his countrymen not to neglect potato cultivation; for,
aside from its utility for all kinds of animals, it offers great resources
in years of dearth for the nourishment of men. His allusion to the
consumption in England, Scotland, and Ireland shows that France
was behind these countries in consuming potatoes.

Turgot (1727-81) attempted to propagate the potato in the
departments of Limousin and Angoumois, but public prejudice proved
an unsurmountable obstacle to this innovation. *[Roze, p. 160.]

A passage in the Encyclopédie, published in 1765 under the
editorship of Diderot and d’Alembert, is curious enough to be placed °
on record. It runs as follows *[cited also in Roze, pp. 142-143]:
“Pomme de terre, Topinambour, Batate, Truffe blanche, Truffle
rouge.—This plant which was brought to us from Virginia? is culti-
vated in many countries of Europe, notably in several provinces of

1 Ce n’est pas seulement le bas peuple et les gens de campagne qui en vivent;
dans la plupart de nos provinces, ce sont les personnes méme les plus aisées des
villes; et je puis avancer de plus, par la connoissance que j’en ai, que beaucoup

de gens l’aiment par passion. Je mets a part si c’est affection bien placée, ou
dépravation de godt; il a ses partisans, cela me suffit. *[From Roze, pp. 128—129.]

2 This was the erroneous opinion generally entertained at that time.

POTATO: FRANCE 63

the Kingdom, as Lorraine, Alsace, le Lyonnais, le Vivarais, le Dau-
phiné, etc. The people of these territories, particularly the peasants,
make the root of this plant their most common food during a good
portion of the year. They cook it in water, in an oven, or in embers,
and prepare of it several coarse or rustic ragouts. People a little
well-to-do prepare it with butter, eat it together with meat, or make
it into baked slices, etc. However it may be prepared, this root is
insipid and mealy. It cannot be classed among the agreeable food-
stuffs, but it furnishes abundant and rather wholesome nutrition to
men who are content to be nourished. The potato is justly regarded
as flatulent, but what are winds for the vigorous organs of peasants
and laborers?”’

The year 1770 was the turning-point in the history of the potato
in France; a terrible famine then prevailed, and potatoes proved of
great help to the people. Hence the Academy of Besancon, in 1771,
put up for competition the following problem: “Indiquer les végé-
taux qui pourraient suppléer en tems de disette a ceux que |’on
emploie communément a la nourriture des hommes et quelle en devrait
étre la préparation?’ Seven memoirs were submitted to the Academy,
all being unanimous on the point that the culture of the potato was
already old in the province of Franche-Comté. The author of the
memoir to which the Academy awarded the prize was Antoine-
Augustin Parmentier (1737-1813), a prominent agriculturist and
chemist, who subsequently won laurels by promoting potato culture
throughout France, and in whose honor the name parmentiére for
the potato temporarily held sway.' His Examen chymique des
pommes de terre appeared in 1773, his Maniére de faire le pain de
pommes de terre sans mélange de farines in 1779, his Mémoire sur les
semis des pommes de terre in 1786, and his Traité sur la culture et
les usages des pommes de terre, de la patate et du topinambour in 1789.
In his Eloge historique de Parmentier, Cuvier tells that at a certain
time of the Revolution it was proposed to appoint Parmentier to
some municipal post; one of the voters opposed this plan furiously
and exclaimed, ‘He will make us eat nothing but potatoes, he it is
who invented them!’ (Il ne nous fera menger que des pommes de
terre, c’est lui qui les a inventées!) *[Cited in Roze, p. 163.]

When a prisoner of war in Germany during the Seven Years’
War, Parmentier had been fed on potatoes and then conceived the idea
of recommending them to his own countrymen. On his return to

1 The mémoire couronné of Parmentier was republished in a new form under the

title Recherches sur les végétaux nourrissans qui, dans tous les temps de disette, peuvent

remplacer les aliments ordinaires (Paris, 1781).

64 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

France he sought the protection of Louis XVI, who granted him

7 ——

permission to plant his favorites in a plot of land known as Les

Sablons (“Sandy Plain’’) notorious for its sterility. This experiment
proved a great success.

The story of his life has, of course, been embellished with many

anecdotes. That he presented the king with a bouquet of potato ©

flowers which the king graciously accepted and put in his buttonhole
and that the lords and ladies quickly imitated this example, is
no more than a good historiette. It is likewise an anecdote
that his potato fields were guarded during the day only, that when
the guards were withdrawn at night people pilfered the tubers, and

that this was exactly what good Parmentier had intended and inter- |

preted as a novel success. Shortly afterwards he feasted the celeb-
rities of his time at a banquet, and Franklin and Lavoisier were just
in time to be present. All dishes on this occasion were prepared
from potatoes of the Sandy Plain; even the liquors served were
extracted from them. Parmentier’s greatest merit is that he shattered
the insane prejudices against the potato as a human food. This he
accomplished not with fulminant speeches, but through patient and
painstaking work in the laboratory, proving by means of chemical
analyses that the tuber does not contain any poisonous or injurious
substances.

At the celebration of his centenary in 1888, a statue of Parmentier
was unveiled at Neuilly-sur-Seine. Parmentier was a truly great
man of noble character, and a warm-hearted philanthropist. A. F.
de Silvestre says of him: ‘‘Peu d’hommes ont été assez heureux pour
rendre a leur pays des services aussi importants. Un ardent amour
‘pour l’humanité était le génie qui inspirait Parmentier; dés qu’il
voyait du bien a faire ou des services a rendre, il s’animait, les
moyens d’exécution se présentaient en foule a son esprit et ne lui
laissaient plus pour ainsi dire de repos; il sacrifiait tout pour satis-
faire cette passion; il interrompait les études qu’il aimait le mieux
pour s’employer en faveur des infortunés.”’

I do not agree with the modern efforts of his countrymen, Clos
and Heckel, to belittle his merits. It may very well be that, as stated
by Clos, the potato was grown in northern France prior to the middle
of the seventeenth century (Velay, 1735; Nancy, 1764; Lyonnais, 1771;
Haute Garonne, 1776; Dauphiné, 1787) but this does not alter the
fact that Parmentier recognized its value as a famine food and
pushed its cultivation far ahead. Heckel *[p. 114, footnote 1] even goes
so far as to say: ‘“‘Clusius was a modest scholar, a silent worker,

POTATO: FRANCE 65

_ whereas Parmentier, who carried out the work of Clusius, was a
courtier of the court of Louis XVI, and, thanks to his artifices,

understood to dominate public opinion and to curry favor with the
public.” This comparison is lame and unfair. Clusius assuredly
was a fine scholar and a great botanist, and it remains for all time
his indisputable merit that he propagated the potato in central
Europe and gave a powerful incentive to further research through
his lucid description; but he did not recognize its great economic
importance, which, after all, was impossible in those days when the
potato had just arrived in Europe. For nearly two centuries its
cultivation remained in an experimental stage; it was grown almost
everywhere without being appreciated. It remained for Parmentier
to devise scientific methods of cultivation and preparation; he was
not a fanatic, but a serious and indefatigable research worker who
wrote a long series of valuable books on agronomic and economic

questions. It takes more than a “courtier” to accomplish what

he did.

During the nineteenth century potato culture in France gained
a larger extension from year to year. Compared with a cultivated
area of 4,500 hectares in 1789, in 1892 there were 1,512,136 hectares
grown with potatoes. The annual harvest in France now amounts
to 136,000,000 centners, representing a value of 600 million francs.

THE POTATO IN GERMANY, SCANDINAVIA,
AND. EASTERN EUROPE

The potato entered Germany from Italy and was chiefly propa-
gated by the activity of the botanist Clusius, who states that in his
time it had become rather common in most gardens of Germany,
since it is so fertile *[1601, p. Ixxx]. As Clusius received the first
tubers from Philippe de Sivry in 1588, when he was in Vienna, this
date may be regarded as that of the first introduction of the potato
into Germany and Austria. In the last decade of the sixteenth
century it was accordingly known there as a garden plant. The fact
that the Germans erected in 1853 in Offenburg, Baden, a monument
to Sir Francis Drake as “introducer of the potato into Europe in the
year of our Lord 1580,” figured by Safford (1925, fig. 6, p. 123), isa
double absurdity: first, there is no documentary evidence for Francis
Drake’s having introduced the potato into England; second, there is
no historical connection between the introduction of the potato into
England and into Germany. The potato was not introduced into
Germany from England, but from Italy; and if any one deserves a
monument with reference to this event, it is Clusius.

In the same manner as in England, the potato was first grown
in gardens of Germany as a curious exotic plant, and the tubers were
not utilized as an article of food. The botanists—above all, Caspar
Bauhin (1560-1624), Professor of Anatomy and Botany at Basel,
who, as mentioned, conferred upon it the name Solanwm tuberosum—
were well acquainted with the plant. P. Ammann (p. 124) calls it
Solanum esculentum tuberosum and still retains the name taratuffli
inaugurated by Clusius.

P. Lauremberg of Rostock (p. 186) speaks of potatoes under the
names Adenes Virginianit and Halicacabus glandifer, saying that he
calls them Virginian because Virginia is their native country(!),
although subsequently they were imported from Peru in large
quantity, so that they might also be termed Peruviant.

The development of potato culture in Germany is largely bound
up with famines, wars, and Prussian militarism. The misery of the
Thirty Years’ War contributed much to the advance of potato
plantations. Frederick William, the Great Elector, is said to have
ordered potatoes to be planted in the Berlin Lustgarten in 1651.
About the same time they were raised in Baden, Franken, Bruns-
wick, and Westphalia; in Saxony about 1680 in the villages around
the Kapellenberg, in the southernmost part of the kingdom

Rion

Se ee ee ee ee

;

Potato: GERMANY, SCANDINAVIA, AND EASTERN EUROPE 67

| (E. Johnson). As everywhere, many insignificant places have their
- own local history as to the first introduction of the useful tuber, but

these purely local and geographically limited affairs are devoid of

- general interest. Thus, in 1920, when I stopped for a few days at
_ Braunlage in the Upper Harz Mountains, I was shown among other

local curiosities an iron tablet inserted into a huge monolith and
known as ‘“Kartoffel Denkmal.” The inscription on the tablet,
erected in 1885 by “late posterity” (posterity is usually late in
acknowledging good deeds), glorifies as the founder of potato culture
in the Upper Harz, Johann Georg von Langen, headmaster of the
hunt (Oberjagermeister), born at Oberstedt in the county of Henne-
berg in 1699 and deceased at Jagersborg near Copenhagen, Denmark,
in 1776. In Old Bavaria, potato culture was inaugurated in 1701, in
Baden and around Bamberg in about 1716, in the Upper Palatinate
in 1724, and around Nuremberg about 1730 (K. von Guttenberg).

Frederick the Great (1740-86) took coercive measures in propa-
gating potato culture in Pomerania and Silesia. In 1744 he had seed
potatoes distributed gratuitously and compelled the peasants to
cultivate them. It was a truly militaristic procedure backed up by
royal decrees and dragoons to enforce them. During the Seven
Years’ War (1756-63) and the famine of 1770, the advantages of
the new crop became apparent. Up to that date potatoes had
been used almost exclusively as cattle forage in many parts of
Germany. However, only from 1780 was the cultivation carried on
on a large scale, and only during the nineteenth century did the
potato become a popular and indispensable article of food. In 1913
almost three and a half million hectares, that is, nearly one-eighth
of the total cultivated area of Germany, was planted with potatoes
and yielded over fifty-four million tons of tubers.

The potato was introduced into Norway as late as the middle
of the eighteenth century, probably from England or Scotland.
The first who, according to documentary evidence, engaged in potato
culture was a probst named Atke. The story goes that in 1758 he
brought along potatoes (presumably from Laerdalen at the end of
the Sognefjord, where he previously functioned as a parson) and
planted these in the garden of his parsonage, Ullensvang at Har-
danger. In the same year he made a present of about a “hatful” of
potatoes to his friend, the preacher P. H. Hertzberg, in the southern
part of Bergen Stift. This gift presumably laid the foundation for
the further dissemination of the plant in the western and southern
portions of the country. Hertzberg endeavored to extend

68 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

potato culture generally in his parish so successfully that, according
to official data, an annual average of 9,531 tons of potatoes was for-
warded during the period 1798-1802 to Bergen from the Vogtei
Sondhordland, where he lived.

As late as 1770 the potato reached Throndhjem. In southern
and eastern Norway the cultivation progressed very slowly, and
in the beginning of the nineteenth century, as Schiibeler was assured
by trustworthy men, potatoes were raised in but small quantities,
if at all, in those parts of the country.

During the last six years of the union with Denmark (1808-14),
Norway was entangled in the war against England, when the impor-
tation of cereals stopped; this event may have contributed to the
promotion of potato culture in the whole country. In 1816-17
potatoes began to be used for the production of alcohol. The
potato advances farther to the north than barley (70° N. lat.). It
is advantageously grown in Finmarken, in places where even barley
does not thrive. (After Schiibeler, pp. 90-91.)

The potato was introduced into Sweden in 1725 by Jonas
Alstrémer. Its cultivation became general after the promulgation
of a royal edict in 1764.

The Slavic nations, as is shown by their terminology (p. 104),
received the potato from Germany in the latter part of the
eighteenth century. The form kartofel in Russian and Polish
can be but a recent loan, as it was not common in Germany until the
middle of the eighteenth century. The Russian government en-
couraged potato culture by distributing awards to the peasants.

In Montenegro the potato (krtola) was introduced by the Wladika
Peter Petrovich I (1781-1830). (Wittmann, who refers to Wiener
landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, 1916, p. 250.)

In Greece potato culture was promoted when Prince Otto of
Bavaria was elected king of the country in 1833.

THE POTATO IN CHINA

Unlike the growing of maize or tobacco, potato culture is not a
universal phenomenon. The Asiatic world has not yet cast its vote
in favor of the potato, but treats it indifferently or even disdainfully.
The assertion of Sanders (p. 2) that “‘in China they [potatoes] are
cultivated, but not extensively, owing to the slow progress which
everything new makes in that country’”’ misses the mark. This
allegation conflicts with the fact that the Chinese have unhesitat-
ingly adopted many other American plants during the last centuries
(not to speak of the numerous plants received from different quarters
in far earlier epochs) and with the still more significant fact that the
Chinese are not the sole objectors to the potato, but are joined in
their attitude by the Japanese, the natives of the Philippines, the
peoples of India, and the Arabs.

The problem, accordingly, is deeper and calls for serious attention.
Obviously, all these nations of Asia are not merely obsessed by a
prejudice, but must have reacted on this point for identical reasons,
without any consciously concerted action on their part. These
reasons, then, can only be sought in the system of nutrition
that prevails among these peoples, in which the potato has no place
or is not a vital necessity.

In a vein similar to Sanders, Sir J. F. Davis (vol. 2, pp. 8331-332)
wrote, two generations earlier: ‘‘Under all the circumstances, it is
very surprising that the potato should have made so little progress
as an article of cultivation and food since its first introduction at
Canton. Nothing indeed could more convincingly demonstrate the
strength of Chinese prejudices than their indifference to that, as
well as to other European vegetables, as cabbages, peas,'! &c., which,
with the potato, have been cultivated at Macao for half a century.
The rice-fields near that place are, during winter, converted to the
growth of kitchen vegetables, including potatoes; but these are
mainly for the supply of the European and native Portuguese
population. Even the shipping near Canton is supplied with pota-
toes from Macao, where they are sufficiently abundant and cheap;
but at the former place their use is not extensive enough to have
reduced their price. It is probable that from climate, soil, or other

1 This is erroneous. Brassica and Pisum sativum have been cultivated in China

for a long time (cf. Laufer, 1919, pp. 305-307). The Chinese are great cabbage-
eaters.

70 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

causes, joined to the ancient prejudice in its favor, rice will long
continue to be preferred as an object of cultivation.’

Potatoes are now grown in China a little almost everywhere,
but the cultivation is neither intense nor ubiquitous.2 They are
relished chiefly by the indigent mountain-dwellers. In Szechwan
and Yiinnan they are cultivated and consumed chiefly by the
aboriginal tribes. Major H. R. Davies (p. 233) justly says: “It is
usually only among hill tribes that one is occasionally able to get
this vegetable. The Chinese do not seem to appreciate it, though
it grows well in the few places where it is cultivated.”

The potato is-not mentioned by any early European writer on
the botany of China. The earliest allusion to it is made by the
Hollander John Struys, who visited Formosa in 1650 and mentions
the potato among the products of the island (Campbell, p. 254).
There is a casual reference to it in a letter of James Cunningham
written in 1700 or 1701 with respect to the Island of Chusan (in
Chinese Ting-hai *[3¢#]) in the Chusan Archipelago *[lying off
the city of Ningpo in Chekiang] (Bretschneider, 1880, p. 40). It
is not pointed out in the Pén ts’ao kang mu A FHA of the end of
the sixteenth century, or, as far as I know, in the Pén-Ts’ao literature
subsequently published, perhaps for the reason that the foreign
potato was never employed in the materia medica.*

The history of the potato in China is fundamentally different
from that of the batata. The potato, so to speak, was forced upon
China, and arrived much against the will and wish of the people,

1I do not see how the Chinese can be blamed for preferring rice to potatoes—

so do I. This is not based on prejudice, but on sane economic reasoning and an
instinctive feeling for food values. Compare the two in the following table:

Albuminoids Fuel value

in grams Fat Carbohydrates in calories
RICE Ae oe ees 67.2 9.0 661.9 3,073
Potato sere ee 2.3 0.2 24.1 110

*The statement by Ratzel (vol. 2, p. 669) that maize and potatoes are now
grown all over the empire and form an important staple food of the people in the
mountainous regions is not quite to the point. Maize, which occupies a wholly
different place in Chinese economy, cannot be treated on the same level as the
potato. Potatoes, in fact, do not appeal to the Chinese, but, on the contrary,
are much despised by the majority of the people, being but seldom eaten, since
there are many substitutes like various species of Dioscorea and batatas. In the
proximity of the treaty ports, potatoes are raised for the use of foreigners.

3F. P. Smith (p. 178) asserts that the Pén ts’ao speaks of a tuber under the
name t’u yii +3, “which is in all probability the common foreign potato, then
not well known.’”’ However, the ?’u yii of the Pén ts’ao kang mu (for this is the
Pén ts’ao meant by him) refers exclusively to the indigenous Dioscorea; the very
name signifies ‘“‘native taro.”” The potato, in fact, is not mentioned in that work,
any a than other American plants which were introduced in the War-li
peri

POTATO: CHINA Tt

who looked upon it without enthusiasm. ‘“‘It offers food only for the
poor; the rich think it is a disgrace to eat it.’’ (Richthofen, vol. 2,
p. 174.) It has never affected their agricultural economy deeply,
and, unlike maize or the sweet potato, it offers no continuous and
logical history. Its history is not national, .but purely local; it is
split into a series of incoherent efforts of sporadic and isolated
character. For this reason no absolute date can be fixed for its
introduction.!

*(The earliest Chinese reference to the potato so far discovered
appears in the Gazetteer of Sung-ch’i hsien #S¥R¥¥R (Fukien) in
an edition of 1700.2. The description there given of ma ling shu
is as follows (ch. 6, p. 2a): ‘‘Horse’s-bell yam: a vegetable which
grows near trees and must be dug up. In appearance it is some-
what like a bell, and there are both little and big ones. It is dark
and round, and of a bitter-sweet taste.”

Since John Struys found the potato growing in Formosa in 1650,
coastal Fukien would be the natural region for its introduction on
the Chinese mainland. It is somewhat puzzling, however, that the
potato should be first noted in Sung-ch’i hsien, which is not on the
seacoast, but in the extreme north and west of the province near the
southwestern border of Chekiang. That James Campbell simul-
taneously observed the potato just off the coast of Chekiang near
Ningpo suggests that it may have been growing in several scattered
areas in the two provinces by 1700.]

The first and best botanical description of the potato in Chinese
literature is contained in the Chih wu ming shih t’u k’ao tity % Bilal &
(ch. 6, p. 33) published in 1848 *[read: preface dated 1848; published
1866] by Wu Ch’i-chiin *[32 1)8]. It is accompanied by a tolerably
good sketch of the plant (reproduced in Fig. 6). It is described un-
der the name Yang yii /57 (“taro of Yang’’), which, however, is

1 *(Likewise, a great confusion between the potato and the sweet potato
existed in the minds of early Chinese writers on the subject. The earlier intro-
duction of the sweet potato, together with its wider acceptance, led to the applica-
tion of sweet-potato terminology to the potato. This confusion in terminology
cannot be solved arbitrarily: see further notes and the discussion of the potato
in Japan, especially page 82.]

2*(This information is kindly pil ct by Dr. L. C. Goodrich of Columbia
University, who investigated the problem while in China during 1937. Wan
Kuo-ting 5 ed ‘# of Nanking, the leading student of Chinese agricultural history,
is his authority for the statement that this is the earliest reference to the Irish

potato in Chinese literature. Dr. Goodrich found the text in a 1928 reprint of
the 1700 edition in the Municipal Library of Foochow, and made a transcript

of the passage as follows: Hj Sp Batik EPRI ZB ADAM ie $
FE hn BPR PS HP)

f 7 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

not explained by the author (see below, p. 74); as a colloquial name
he gives shan yao tan (‘‘mountain medicinal-herb egg’). In regard
to its distribution he says that it occurs in Kweichou and Yiinnan
and that in Shansi it is raised as a field crop; the people living in
the Chung-nan Mountains #1] near Hsi-an fu, Shensi, plant it,
and the well-to-do among them annually harvest several hundred
catties.. The leaves are described as being of various shapes, large
or small, distant or close, long or round. The tubers are compared
with those of Ipomoea batatas (fan shu) and in taste resemble taro,
but are sweeter; also they resemble Dioscorea, but are more insipid.
Above all, the Chinese botanist has clearly recognized the economic
importance of the tubers, which he regards as a storage crop of the
poor in staving-off famine and rescuing them in times of dearth;
potatoes are useful in soups and broths, may be baked and roasted,
and offer many advantages.!

In the Gazetteers published during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, the foreign potato is occasionally and sporadically men-
tioned. According to the Gazetteer of Tung-a iff (in the pre-
fecture of T’aian *[3#%], Shantung province), ‘‘the potato in two
varieties, a red and white one, has come on foreign vessels. In the
seventeenth year of the period Ch’ien Lung [1752] every district
of the empire received an imperial exhortation to plant potatoes
on high hills and in sandy soil. Their cultivation is very easy,
and they furnish a good means of subsistence.’”’ (Ch. 2, p. 32b.)?

In the subprefecture Ting-yiian *[%€3] in the prefecture of
Han-chung *[j#+], Shensi Province, according to the local chronicle,
“there are four varieties of potato—red, white, yellow, and black.
It thrives in the high mountains; it is fond of dry places, but dreads
water. It may be taken with rice or used as a vegetable.” (Ting
yuan ving chth, ch. 8, p. 1b.)

BE BaF RAS ZR ES BEEK OP BE Fe VIE KA ARS AAP
Asa LE BRIS Hee UN ARR BE SK en PG SC Fe SE He SBD HBG FE RB Se
FY RZ ft BK HF ARR IE SE BRK AU = TT ED Ae TTR ST I SEAS ek HER
He Bs 7 Vii AES AS BS Ts at AG a DL TES WT 8 TH A RR
AE Te BE AE FE 1 DG AZ SH eS ACHE 66 BB AS LS PAL
TS BBN AZ

? 5 ey AL A PO A EH ee CH A
Yb Ae HH De AEA A DAE PR ZAP (RFE *[The use of the term “fan shu”

x, which merely means “foreign tuber,’ makes this citation suspect, since

it is one of the most common names for the sweet potato. However, the term
may have been used for both plants, and cannot be ruled out completely.]

* FRAPS LA BP PP tL SE EER EAR SPT

Nowe > ja

tt Se

Fic. 6. Sketch of potato plant. (From the Chih wu ming shih t’u k’ao by
Wu Ch’i-chiin, who gave the best Chinese botanical description of the potato.)

74 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Some Chinese Gazetteers speak also of potato flour; for instance,
that of Chu-shan hsien *[{7 ||) #%]in the prefecture of Yiin-yang *[B{ 5],
Hupei (Chu: shan hsien chih, ch. 6, p. 1b); and that of Ning-shan
t’ing *[ #7 KEE) in the prefecture of Hsi-an *[74 4], Shensi.

It is interesting to note that in some cases the old editions of
the Gazetteers make no reference to the potato, but that it looms
up in the new editions. This fact is mentioned expressly, for instance,
in the new Gazetteer of the district P’ing-li 484i] (in the prefecture
Hsing-an *{$44], in the southern part of Shensi Province), published
in 1897, which says (ch. 9, p. 1) that the old Gazetteer did not
contain any reference to the potato, and then cites an oral tradition
to the effect that “‘a certain Marquis Yang #$4%, when engaged in an
attempt to exterminate brigands, induced his soldiers to collect
potatoes for distribution among the poor inhabitants of the high
mountains, who then commenced to plant this tuber, popularly
called Yang #% yi [‘taro of Yang’]. Others, however, maintain
that during the period Ch’ien Lung (1786-95) Yang, while holding
office in Kuangtung, brought potatoes back from abroad, where he
had purchased them, but that nothing is known as to who he was.’’!

The Gazetteer of Hsiao-i t’ing *[#3¢§4] in the prefecture of
Hsi-an, Shensi Province, contains this information under the heading
yang yii (“foreign taro’’): “According to an oral tradition this
species was brought along from the western ocean [i.e. Europe] by
his Excellency Yang in the time of the Chia Ch’ing era (1796-1820).
The people living in the high mountains make this plant their
principal food.” (Hsiao i ting chth, ch. 3, p. 8b.)? Here, accord-
ingly, we meet the same tradition as in the Gazetteer of P’ing-li,
save that the lifetime of the alleged Yang is dated at a later period.

In my opinion, this Mr. Yang, about whom nothing is known,
is a fictitious person, invented by the rustic population of Shensi in
order to account for the why and whence of the foreign plant. It
is quite obvious that the name Yang is based on or elicited by the word
yang 4 (“ocean,” “oversea,” “foreign’’), both having the identical
tone (even the writing [% occurs).? The fact, however, remains that

1*(The text for this citation is not found among Dr. Laufer’s notes, nor is
the original work available in Chicago.]

> PETE fe a Be BS KA 0 a a es RE
3A. Tafel (vol. 1, p. 92) reproduces a story which he asserts he heard in

Lan-chou, Hsi-ning, and Kuei-hua. During a war of the Mohammedans in
Turkistan the Chinese General Yang (he apparently means Yang Yii-ch’un

#53, 1760-1838, viceroy of Shen-Kan *{[§ {]) was hard pressed. He and his
soldiers were held in the mountains without food. His men rebelled and threatened

POTATO: CHINA 15

in certain localities of Shensi potatoes were grown and consumed
by the poor mountaineers as early as the eighteenth century.

They are also cultivated in the mountains near Peking.! “In
Shantung, potatoes have been successfully introduced of late in
many places through the influence of foreigners.’ (Burt, p. 382.)
Excellent qualities are said to be raised in Manchuria (Hosie, p. 195),
where the crops are ubiquitous; on the largest scale they occur
north and west of the Sungari (Pozdnieev, p. 439). At Kuei-te in
Kansu, Rockhill (1894, p. 90) reports that good potatoes sell for six
or seven cash a pound. He also notes potatoes among the principal
crops in the valley of Tai-chou in Shansi (1895, p. 765).

A. Henry (p. 281) mentions Solanum tuberosum under the name
yang ¥€ yii as cultivated in the mountainous districts of Szechwan.
In the Min Valley of Szechwan they are met with at intervals for
non-Chinese consumption (Jack, p. 87).

Among the Miao-tse we even meet veritable potato-addicts.
E. H. Parker (pp. 287-288) gives a humorous illustration thereof
in the example of an intelligent old lady, who had a fine cat, a fine
female servant, and a fine dog; and neither she, her dog, nor her
cat ever ate anything but potatoes; no meat, no rice, no vegetables,
no tea—potatoes and water for woman and beast all the year round.
The Tibetan tribes inhabiting western and northwestern Szechwan
are all acquainted with the potato and cultivate it to some extent.
The plant is expressly mentioned in almost all Gazetteers of these
districts, written by Chinese officials; most of those still in manuscript
are kept in the Yamens.? In these Gazetteers the potato is called ==
(instead of #£) 4#. The Sui ching t’'un chih #45 HH *[in Sinkiang?],
printed in four volumes in 1825 and prefaced by Wang Ch’iian -%&

to slay him unless they could get something to eat. In this predicament he
noticed how his horse scratched up some tubers from under the soil. He urged
his soldiers to taste these, and they were found eatable. They were potatoes,
which were hence called Yang yii. There is no doubt that the details of the
tradition have not been understood correctly by Tafel. Moreover he regards
this yarn as historical, for he identifies his alleged Yang with Yang who conquered
Kashgaria in the beginning of the nineteenth century. At any rate, Tafel’s
version shows again that the whole story and this personage Yang are a figment.
Tafel’s own view is that potatoes were introduced into northern China by Catholic
fathers about forty years ago. ‘‘The refusal of acknowledging the merits of
foreigners is a typical quality of the Chinese,’ he concludes his sermon. This
is a rather sweeping generalization. And what are the merits of the “foreigners”
in regard to the potato? The ‘foreigners’ simply owe this cultivation to the
South American Indians, and most of them hardly ever remember this fact.

1 Bretschneider (1876, p. 18). A. Favier (p. 379) writes that thirty years
ago only the yellow variety existed, but that, since then, the missionaries have intro-
duced the good varieties of Europe, which were welcomed as more productive.

2Of several of these I had occasion to take copies during my travels (1909).

76 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

and Li Han-yiian 2£}9C, adds a new name, chan #§ yii,! which
I have not traced in any other text. The word chan denotes a
sparrow hawk with a light grayish plumage, and perhaps the color
of the plumage is compared with that of the potato skin; but this
is merely an opinion.

“Trish potatoes are much grown in Se-ch’wan, and are of excellent
quality, free from insects and blight. When or how they were
introduced into Western China is unknown; but on Mount Omei,
eleven thousand one hundred feet above the sea, the priests raise
excellent potatoes by the American method, keeping them free from
weeds and in regular hills. The potato is now the chief winter
vegetable used on this sacred mountain.” (Hart, p. 55.)

“Our priest was very industrious with the hoe and sickle. Every
day after prayers he put on his large bamboo hat, short coat, and
heavy boots, and strolled down to his potato patch. He owned a
farm-house in the hollow at the foot of the first slope, and around
it had an acre of Irish potatoes in full bloom, seeming as much at
home as in Erin itself. They were planted in rows and hills, just
as in New England, and seemed to be the staple vegetable on top
of the mountain; there were turnips, spinach, and a few cabbages
near the temple, which were placed at our disposal, but the main
dependence seemed to be upon potatoes.”’ (Ibid., p. 246.)

E. H. Wilson (vol. 2, p. 58) writes: “In the mountainous districts
[of Szechwan] the sweet potato is displaced by the Irish potato,
or ‘Yang-yii’ (Solanum tuberosum), which, like maize, is another
plant of American origin that has become a most important crop.
It was introduced by the Roman Catholic priests at the time of a
great famine some forty odd years ago. Its culture has spread

1 This is derived from a work I pu fang wu liieh chi Heth Ay Meee. *[Dr.
Laufer does not cite the text of the Sui ching t’un chih. The I pu fang wu liieh
chi, from which the term chan yii is taken, is a Sung work by Sung Ch’'i #jils
(A.D. 998-1061). Dr. A.W. Hummel, Chief of the Division of Orientalia, Library
of Congress, has kindly supplied the text of the J pu fang wu liieh chi dealing with
chan yi: RRA — BF UES BR fees EE BY FA Soe (HE) Bg EA PRG FS ie
Efe He Tr BS PAE Eh (BUSA «= This reads: “There are several kinds
of taro; chan yii is the most valuable. People store it up in the fields; it can be
used the entire year round.”” The commentary states: “There are many kinds of taro
in Szechwan of which chan yii is the most delicious. In the vernacular it is called ch’ih
chan t’ou yii [‘red sparrow-hawk head taro’). Its shape is long and round; but the
seeds are not very prolific.’”’ The term chan yii is accordingly much older than the
introduction of the potato to China. It may, however, have been borrowed from
the Sung work by the author of the Sui ching t’un chih to describe the exotic potato;
again, some eral different plant may be under consideration. This point

Spence Oca determined without the original text consulted by Dr.
er. ;

POTATO: CHINA 77

enormously, and though it is despised by the rice-eating Chinese
of the plains it has become a staple article of food with the high-
land peasantry. In the valleys it is cultivated as a late winter crop,
_in the mountains as a summer crop. Its culture is unfortunately
but little understood; it is always grown too thickly, and seldom
if ever properly earthed up. Both red- and white-skinned varieties
are grown, but the flavour is usually very poor. The potatoes
cultivated by the Buddhist priests on Mount Omei are justly cele-
brated, but the best I ever ate in China were grown by Sifan tribes-
folk around Sung-p’an.”

The Lolo of Szechwan and Yiinnan are acquainted with the
potato and style it ts’¢ dlaima (‘European taro’’) (Vial, p. 264).
In the A-hi dialect of the Lolo language the potato is called ya-yi,
which is derived from Chinese yang ¥F yii (Liétard, p. 556). In
the whole territory inhabited by the Lolo the potato is perfectly
acclimatized, and is grown in all mountains of the Chien-ch’ang;
it is also planted there by the Chinese (Legendre, p. 342). E.
Rocher (vol. 2, p. 11) emphasizes the abundance of potatoes in the
province of Yiinnan, while J. Anderson (p. 93) observes: “Potatoes
appear to be largely cultivated in Western Yunan, and many fields
were devoted to them about Momien, where they are reared and
planted out in the same way as in England. They were quite as
good as English potatoes, and in great vogue among the Chinese,
and 3% lbs. are sold for four pence. The leaf is slightly smaller
than the home plant, and the tubers have a thin red skin. They
had nearly finished flowering by the beginning of June. Nothing
could be learned regarding the history of their introduction.’! Red
and white potatoes are cultivated at Amoy (Brown, p. 735).

From the preceding notes it will be seen that the opinion pre-
valent among European writers with respect to the introduction
of the potato is that the event is of recent date and is due to Catholic

_ ! This is by no means surprising. On page 321 the author comments that “the
existence of celery here is almost quite as remarkable as that of the potato. Both
plants have been in all likelihood introduced by the Chinese trading up the Irawady
via Bhamo, but where and when they were obtained, and how the cultivation was
learned, are subjects for conjecture, as the inhabitants could give me no informa-
tion.” The former owner of ay Ae of Anderson’s work aga on the margin
here, “French missionaries of Se-ch’wan and Yiin-nan.” This supposition would
seem permissible, and it may be that many missionaries from both Europe and
America have introduced potatoes to their stations; but such individual and
sporadic efforts could hardly account for the wide dispersion of the plant, especially
among the remote and secluded mountain tribes hardly ever visited by mission-
aries. It is erroneous to believe, however, that potatoes were originally and
exclusively introduced into China by French missionaries (H. R. Davies, p. 233),
or by the Jesuits of the eighteenth century, as conjectured by F. von Moellendorft

78 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

missionaries;! and the chronological definition “forty years ago,”’
like a rubber stamp, runs through several books. The statement
itself is not to be questioned, and in some localities the potato may
very well have been introduced by missionaries, and even only
forty years ago. I am perfectly willing to go so far as to concede
that almost every missionary in China has at a time introduced his
own potatoes; this is not at all astounding and has been done by mis-
sionaries in the South Sea islands, Africa, and the world over.
This recent activity, however, does not explain the entire history
of the potato in China, nor does it render justice to its early appear-
ance in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The potatoes,
for instance, which John Struys in 1650 records for Formosa (Camp-
bell, p. 254), assuredly cannot be attributed to missionary effort.
Here again we may have to look to Chinese initiative directed
toward the Philippines, as in the case of the batata and the tobacco
plant. Although details are lacking, this view appears altogether
sensible. For the rest, both Chinese records and nomenclature of
the plant stamp it as a foreign introduction, and a certain ‘“‘bar-
barous” odor remains attached to it.

Another theory has been propounded to the effect that the
potato may have been introduced or reintroduced by the Hol-
landers (F. P. Smith, p. 178; J. Dyer Ball, p. 585; S. Couling,
p. 456). This notion is merely derived from the designation Ho-
lan shu (“‘Holland Dioscorea’’), but is not supported by any docu-
ment. It is possible, of course, that the Hollanders brought the
potato to Formosa, but the Chinese records relative to the island
are reticent as to this introduction, nor do the Dutch documents
concerning the Dutch settlement on Formosa contain any reference —
to this effect. *{Dr. L. C. Goodrich of Columbia University sub-
stantiates this view in a letter which reads as follows: “Dr. J. J. L. —
Duyvendak has written that he knows no work which makes the ©
Dutch responsible for the introduction of the potato into China, ~
asserted by E. Bretschneider (1871, p. 224). In fact he and his —
colleague, the professor of botany at Leyden, think it quite out of ©
(p. 18), or, as it is expressed by A. Tafel (vol. 1, p. 92) in 1914, that they were —
imported into northern China by Catholic fathers about forty years ago. As
regards Yiinnan, it may be that, as intimated by Anderson, importations have —
taken place from Burma; but, on the other hand, the fact that the Kachin of —
Burma denote the potato as yang yi, which is borrowed from Chinese yang yi, ©

would rather lead me to believe that it entered Upper Burma from China. In ~
regard to celery, see Laufer, 1919, page 402. .

1 The Abbé Armand David (vol. 1, p. 181) points out the recent introduction
of the potato, but is silent as to missionary activity. j

4
,

POTATO: CHINA 79

the question.’’] It will be noticed below that the theory of a Dutch

; importation looms up among Japanese scholars likewise, but here

again it is based solely on the name Jagatara-imo, which means
_ “Batavia tuber.”

A peculiar theory has been advanced by J. Edkins (p. 22),

3 who argues that potatoes came to China, like maize, over the central
_ Asian route; they “‘are spreading in highland China with unexampled
rapidity, just as they did in Ireland at a time when the people of

that island grew in a few decades from two or three millions to

eight millions, and the relief of emigration was required to reduce
_ the too great pressure on the means of subsistence.” It is not
very probable that potatoes reached China by way of central
_ Asia; there, as well as in Persia and India, they are of recent date,
and Edkins’ speculative thought lacks any foundation.

It is not very likely that G. A. Stuart’s opinion (p. 413) that the

- potato “was known and eaten by the people of the Liang dynasty,”
_ which ruled from A.D. 502 to 556, will find many adherents. This
assertion is prompted by a confusion with a species of Dioscorea.

ee ne

THE POTATO IN JAPAN AND KOREA

In Japan potatoes are at present cultivated chiefly in Hokkaido
and in the mountainous districts to the north and northwest of
Tokyo. From the eighteenth century we have a brief notice by
Thunberg: “‘Les jardins japonais produisent un grand nombre de
légumes et de plantes potagéres de l’Europe; les patates qui crois-
saient ici sur la pente des montagnes, et dans les environs des villages,
sont une des racines dont cette nation fait le plus de cas. Ona
également essayé a cultiver les pommes de terre, mais elles n’y ont
pas réussi.’””' (1794, pp. 318-319; cf. also 1796, vol. 4, p. 55.) Thus,
according to Thunberg, attempts were made in Japan to cultivate
the potato, but these experiments were unsuccessful.’

Dr. T. Tanaka has kindly sent me the following valuable infor-
mation on the early history of the potato in Japan: “Our knowledge
of the history of the introduction of the common potato (Solanum
tuberosum) into Japan is very scanty. S. Tanaka (p. 154) and
T. It6 (1911, p. 487) trace the date of it to the Keich6 period (1596-
1615). It6’s conclusion, as well as that of a great many others,
is based on the supposition that the name Jagatara-imo (‘Batavia
tuber’) is suggestive of a Dutch importation of the plant. He says,
‘As Formosa was occupied by Holland in 1598, and the Dutch ships
first set out to trade with Japan in the year 1609, the importation
must have taken place not much later than that period.’ If, how-
ever, this really is the case, his definition of the Keichd period
should necessarily be restricted to the years 1609-15. It is hardly
justifiable to assign this obscure event to such a definite period
without falling back upon any reliable record. C. Takano, in
his celebrated treatise on buckwheat and common potato (Ni but-
su ké —4%, issued in 1836), also advances a similar opinion resulting
from the prevailing common names jagatara-imo and appura, the
latter, as he thinks, being the abbreviation of the Dutch name
aardappel.

1 Thunberg was professor of botany at the University of Upsala.

2 *(A much earlier Western writer, Captain Richard Cocks, who was chief
of the English Factory at Hirado in Japan from 1618 to 1621, wrote in his diary
on June 19, 1615: “I took a garden this day and planted it with potatoes brought
from the Loo Choos, a thing not yet planted in Japan.”’ (M. Paske-Smith, p. 58.)
Dr. Laufer, however, considered that this referred to the sweet potato, which at
that time was called the potato. See page 103. Fuller data on Cocks will appear
in the monograph on the sweet potato.]

POTATO: JAPAN AND KOREA 81

“It is a rather curious fact that in early times the plant was
mostly cultivated in the mountainous parts of Japan, as shown by
Takano in the passage, “They say the plant has long been known
in Kai province.’ Further, in Shinano, Hida, and Kdézuke, the plant
is variously called Késhi-imo (‘Kai potato’), Zenkdji-imo (‘Potato
of the Zenk6 Temple,’ in Shinano), ete. (Ito, 1911, p. 487.) Itis not
very well known from Nagasaki as a food-plant, and hardly used
otherwise than ‘for distillery and for making miso (soy-bean mash).’
(K6no, ch. 5, pp. 9-10.)

“Aside from the opinion as to the so-called Dutch importa-
tion, we have but one earlier date given by Shirai (p. 24), who
states that ‘Nankin-imo fq ki7= was introduced into Nagasaki in
the fourth year of the period Tenshd *{iJE] [1576] of the same
Emperor (Ogimachi)’; and to this plant-name he refers bareisho
i598 in his Index of plant-names (p. 1). However, he does not
quote his source of information for this passage.

“We do not know at all who first applied the Chinese name
bareisho (ma ling shu) to Jagatara-imo, and which is the first Japanese
work that mentions the common potato. We know only two kinds
of potato before the Meiji era, which is a rather weak foundation for
supposing that there should have been more than one introduction.'

“The common potato is now an important crop of Hokkaid6d
Island (Hokkaid6 Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. No. 7,
passim).”’

It will thus be seen that, in the same manner as the Chinese,
so also the Japanese do not possess any positive or specific record
as to the introduction of the potato, but that they generally regard
it as a foreign intruder and designate it by names which plainly
betray an origin from abroad.

*(Dr. Shio Sakanishi, of the Division of Orientalia, Library of
Congress, has very generously contributed the following notes on
the potato in Japan, which amplify Dr. Laufer’s remarks.

“The potato (Solanum tuberosum) was first introduced to Japan,
according to Fujimaki, during the Keiché period (1596-1614) by
the Dutch traders from Jacatra, the present Java. Hence it was
called in Nagasaki Jagatara imo WENRie # (‘Jacatra potato’) or Oranda
imo #n#j3#% (‘Holland potato’). The Japanese did not seem to have

1 The statement of Iwasaki Tsunemasa (ch. 2, p. 10b) confirms the existence
of a variety with “pale pes skin,” which differs from the “white” variety con-
sidered by Makino (p. 244) as the only form known before the Meiji era. Sato

(p. 78) also distinguishes these two forms in a very clear passage, where he says:
“There are two kinds, white and pale pink.”

82 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

cared for its taste particularly, but thought the plant attractive.
‘Its pale purple flower with yellow center, fleshy chrysanthemum-
like leaves, and the fragrant plant’ together with its newness caught
their fancy and it was cultivated as a garden plant [zbid.|. In fact
even today the potato and its flowers to the Japanese are not such
prosaic things as an average Westerner thinks. For example,
there is an anthology in the classical form of Japanese poetry entitled
Bareisho no hana !h #5348 O4E (‘Flowers of potato’).

“During the Tenwa era (1680-1683) after a succession of flood and
famine, the Japanese found, according to T. Ito [1908], that the po-
te.to made good cattle feed, and since it would thrive in a colder climate
and less fertile soil than the sweet potato, they began to cultivate
it assiduously. Kai, Hida, Shinano and other mountainous northern
provinces benefited by this new discovery. Especially in Chichibu
District, Musashi Province, a magistrate by the name of Kawahara
Shédayti i] Jit AK taught and encouraged the peasants to cultivate
it; hence in this locality the potato was known as the Shéday&@ imo.
Kaibara Ikken Fi Ja@#F (1630-1714) in his Yamato honzo KfnA Ke
[‘Japanese herbals’] (bk. 5) and his Saifu 4&## [“‘Garden vegetables’ ]!
made an attempt to distinguish between the sweet and the newly
introduced Irish potato. The former (sic) he called Ryukyu imo
Hie ERA since he believed it was brought over from the Ryukyu
Islands to Japan in the early part of the 17th century. The latter
(sic) he called kansho +f 3#, the modern term for the sweet potato.
Strange as it may seem, Kaibara Ikken was completely confused
about these two types of potato. Hence he called the sweet potato
Ryukyu imo, and the Irish potato he called by the term we now
use for the sweet potato. Ono Ranzan /)¥ffgj jl) (1729-1810), in
his critical notes of Kaibara Ikken’s work entitled Yamato honzo
hi-sei K#NAFEALIE,? pointed out his error, stating that what he
tried to differentiate was not the sweet and Irish potato, but rather
the yellow and red varieties of the sweet potato. In fact the early
herbalists confused the two, and Ono Ranzan himself, as it was
later shown, was not infallible in this respect.

“In the meantime the Russians who came down to Matsumae
#is py or the present Hokkaido, known popularly in the 18th century
as Ezo #8, introduced the potato during the Kansei period
(1789-1800). Hence it was called Ezo imo (Iwasaki, bk. 2). From
Hokkaido it migrated to the northern mainland. By the beginning

1 Probably written before 1706, but published in 1714.
2 Date not known. Yamato honzo, 1932, vol..1, pp. 167-168.

POTATO: JAPAN AND KOREA 83

of the 19th century, therefore, the potato was widely known and
cultivated in Japan.

“In 1813 Otsuki Gentaku AMX (1756-1827), famous Dutch
translator and physician, questioned Ono Ranzan’s identification of
bareisha as the Chinese nomenclature for the potato and asked the
head of the Herbal Bureau of the Edo government, Kurimoto
Tanshi 324 F+M (1756-1834). After careful consideration Kuri-
moto Tanshfi replied that the ké imo #4 in the Hua ching 4EB5
probably corresponded to the Chinese term for the potato (Shirai,
1934 ed., p. 202). I mention this episode, because after this date the
Chinese characters for the potato, definitely decided upon, were
the following three: f5 3 4.

“The first extended treatise on the potato appeared in 1836,
Ni butsu k6 —%y#% by Takano Chéei ey BFS H (1804-1850), famous
economist and social reformer. He writes that in some Japanese
localities, the potato is called ‘apfel’ and ‘erd apfel.’ He was very
enthusiastic about the cultivation of the potato. ‘From a single
plant one hundred to one hundred and fifty potatoes can be gathered
in Holland, but in this country the average is forty to fifty, the
maximum being sixty to seventy.’ He writes as if by its extensive
cultivation all the social ills of the empire could be cured in no
time.’’]

Koreans have long known the potato, and in a few mountain
sections it forms the staple article of diet. They are of good quality,
and are largely eaten by foreign residents in the peninsula (Hulbert,
p. 17).

Mrs. Bishop states (vol. 2, p. 8) that the potato is largely culti-
vated, and is now with the Koreans an article of ordinary diet.
Excellent potatoes are grown on the mountain slopes at an altitude
exceeding 3,000 feet (cbid., p. 141). J. Ross (p. 308) says, however,
that the people of Korea have no potatoes or carrots, while A. G.
Lubentsov asserts that the potato is seldom encountered and little
propagated in Korea. On the other hand P. Klautke, a recent
author, reports (p. 49) that potato fields are encountered in Korea
near every village and in the vicinity of every farm.

THE POTATO IN CENTRAL ASIA AND SIBERIA

In some measure, the introduction of the potato into the Hima-
layan region and farther northward may be connected with the
administration of Warren Hastings, Governor of British India.
When he sent George Bogle on the memorable mission to Bhttan
and Tibet in 1774, he instructed his emissary to plant some potatoes
at every halting place, in order that a valuable new product might
be introduced into Bhitan. Indeed, there is a passage in Bogle’s
diary to the effect, “I planted ten potatoes” (somewhere in Bhutan)
(Markham, 1876, p. 19). R. Saunders, the surgeon attached to
Turner’s embassy in 1783, reports, however: “Mr. Bogle left potatoes,
cabbage, and lettuce plants, all of which we found neglected and
dispersed.”” (Turner, p. 395.)

According to L. A. Waddell (p. 351) the chief dish of the Tibetans
is a stew of meat and potatoes, turnips, cabbage, and other vege-
tables, with, as a relish, some dried cheese (Chura), and on festive
occasions a nibble at brown sugar, which is never used for tea. The
same author holds (p. 422) that the excellent potatoes which are
grown in most of the gardens near the capital, Lhasa, are probably
the product of those which Warren Hastings with benevolent fore-
sight instructed the Bogle Mission of 1774 to plant at every camp
where it halted. While there is no reason to doubt that Bogle’s
activity may have given an incentive to the planting of potatoes in '
some parts of Tibet, it is, on the other hand, a bit of exaggeration to
trace the entire cultivation carried on through such an immense
country to the initiative of a single individual and to underrate the
extent of Chinese influence on Tibetan agriculture. From Kansu,
Szechwan, and Yiinnan, Chinese officials, soldiers, and traders have
constantly advanced into Tibet during the last centuries. There
are, further, many Tibetan tribes settled on the actual territory of
these three Chinese provinces, and all of these cultivate potatoes. The
potato is listed in the Dictionary of four languages *[Ssti t’c ch’ing
wen chien pati 3C3z?], published by order of the emperor *[during
the reign period] Ch’ien Lung (1736-95), its Tibetan name being
given in the form p‘an-3u, a transcription of Chinese fan shw.'
Chinese books on Tibet, written toward the end of the eighteenth
century, mention the potato among the crops of eastern and central

1 Tibetan lacks the spirant f and substitutes for it labial explosives. *[The
use of the term fan shu is not, however, conclusive.]

Potato: CENTRAL ASIA AND SIBERIA 85

Tibet (Rockhill, 1891, pp. 271, 275).! The Tibetan term rgya-gro
has been explained as “the potato introduced from India’’ (Das,
1902, p. 249), but rgya may as well refer to China, as it simply means
“country,”’ India being rgya-gar (“the white country’’), China being
rgya-nag (“the black country’”’), while in combination these color
attributes are omitted.

“Potatoes are well known throughout eastern and central Tibet;
in the former they are called droma or liseu, and in the latter coun-
try shu-ko. Their use is confined to the poorer classes.”’ (Rockhill,
1891, p. 275.)?. According to G. Sandberg (p. 329) potatoes are of
two sorts—sho-ko, white; and to-ma [=gro-ma], small, sweet, red
ones—and are largely planted near Lhasa, though on the Chinese
borders all potatoes are a commoner vegetable. Chandra Das
reports (1887, p. 47) that at Tag-ts‘an Pum-pa potatoes of the
finest quality, some even weighing half a pound each, were brought
to him; and on inquiry as to how it was that potatoes were so plenti-
ful and good there, while those of inferior quality could seldom be
had elsewhere, he received the reply that potatoes had been known
there from time immemorial.

Potatoes are grown in Nepal during the spring (Lévi, vol. 1,
p. 303). J. D. Hooker (vol. 1, p. 259) found in eastern Nepal a
kind of red potatoes as large as walnuts.

Into Kashmir potatoes were first introduced by Baron Hiigel,
and some were sent by him to Ladakh, where G. T. Vigne (vol. 2,
p. 460) saw them growing. Again, they were planted there by Dr.
Falconer. H. Ramsay (p. 124) states that potatoes were introduced
into Ladakh some twelve years ago (1878) by Mr. Johnson, who was
then Wazeer of Ladakh, and that they do fairly well.

The Lepcha of Sikkim, at the time of the introduction of the
potato into Darjeeling, which was ceded to the British in 1835,
applied to it their native word, buk, which is a general designation
for the whole genus Dioscorea, according to Mainwaring (p. 259).
In distinction from yam they style the potato more specifically
p‘i-lin-mo buk (‘‘Frank”’ or “English yam’’). A small potato is styled
by them also a-t‘et, which literally means thick, of proper con-
sistency; said of milk when sufficiently boiled, or of muddy water
(ibid., p. 155). J. D. Hooker observes (vol. 1, p. 158): ““The potato
thrives extremely well as a summer crop, at 7,000 feet, in Sikkim,

1 *(Two footnotes to translation of Wei ts’ang t’u chih 4 ipl Ek, but the
sources of information are only hinted at by Rockhill, p. 20.]

2 The word shu-ko is written Zu-kog or Zu-gog. See also F. Grenard (p. 252).

86 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

though I think the root (from the Dorjiling stock) cultivated as a
winter crop in the plains, is superior both in size and flavour.” J.C.
White states in the Gazetteer of Sikkim (p. 76) that there are two
kinds of potatoes cultivated in Sikkim. In other Himalayan regions
potatoes were known at an earlier date. The great Himalayan
explorer, Alexander Gerard, who traveled between 1817 and 1829
reports (p. 65): “The people have begun to cultivate the potato, which
is very productive, but not near so common as it ought to be, con-
sidering that my brother Patrick, at different times, distributed
more than two thousand pounds weight of this valuable vegetable,
to be planted throughout Busehur.”’

Potatoes are grown in Mongolia, according to the Meng ku chih
published by Yao Ming-hui (ch. 3, p. 41), who avails himself of
the term ma ling shu. Rockhill (1894, p. 36) found potatoes in
some places of southern Mongolia, and F. von Richthofen (vol. 2,
pp. 123, 186) reports the potatoes of Kalgan and southern Mongolia
better than those of Europe.

In Russian Turkestan the cultivation of the potato is restricted
to the area occupied by the Russian colonists (Machatschek, p. 149).
According to an official publication of the Russian Department of
Agriculture, Industries of Russia- (vol. 3, p. 460), the potato was
quite unknown in Russian Turkestan and the Trans-Caspian Province
before the Russians settled there. However, according to some
authorities it has been grown in the few places by the Tartar resi-
dents of Tashkend. At the present time, it is to be found occasionally
on the grounds of Russian settlers, but almost exclusively in kitchen
gardens.

In Siberia, potatoes are cultivated everywhere, and were no
doubt propagated by the Russians. Aside from the common kind
there is a red variety which in several regions of eastern Siberia is
designated by the name “‘Chinese,”’ because it is regarded as being
of Chinese origin; this, however, is doubted by some authors (Jarilow,
p. 279). Several aboriginal tribes also have been accustomed to the
planting of potatoes; thus, the Yakut in the district Olyokminsk,
where they lead an almost sedentary life, obtained during the three
years from 1888 to 1890, thirty thousand pud of potatoes (Sieroshev-
skil, vol. 1, p. 294). In the district of Yenisei potatoes are grown
as far north as Imbatsk (Castrén, p. 228). In more recent times
potatoes are also grown in eastern Siberia from imported American
seed (Hosie, p. 111).

POTATO: CENTRAL ASIA AND SIBERIA 87

At the time of the Russian colonization of Sakhalin, the Ainu,
settled in the southern part of the island, began to grow potatoes
after Russian example. The story goes that some Ainu who planted
a tuber received from a Russian settler went to the orchard the
following day to find out whether a fresh tuber had grown; they
uprooted the plant and ate the tuber (Sakhalinskil Kalendar, p. 74).

THE POTATO IN PERSIA, THE NEAR EAST,
AND THE CAUCASUS

Sir John Malcolm (1769-1833) introduced the potato into
Persia, and he himself states (vol. 2, p. 514): “I took great pains to
introduce the potatoe into Persia; and the soil, in many parts, proved
very favorable to that vegetable.”’ It is therefore known as “Mal-
colm’s plum” (dli-yi Malkam). Malcolm was “minister pleni-
potentiary to the Court of Persia from the supreme government of
India,” in 1800 and again in 1808 and 1810. The potato is also called
in Persian sib-t zamini, sib-i zir-i zamin (‘earth apple’).

The potato is almost unknown to the Arabs, who style it kalkas
firenji (‘Colocasia of the Franks or foreigners’’). In Syria they were
cultivated *[1844] only in Svedie near Seleucia, where they had been
introduced by a British consul, Mr. Barker (Berggren, col. 641).

Formerly potatoes were imported into Constantinople from
Malta or Odessa until the Turkish Government, in 1872, stimulated
potato culture in the Akova (‘‘White Plain’’) near Adabazar, ac-
cording to von der Goltz (p. 387). From 1869 potatoes were culti-
tivated in the plain of Erzerum. Cherkessians are said to have
introduced them into Anatolia in recent times; Germans, into
Angora. On the whole, declares K. Kannenberg (p. 141), potatoes
are but little cultivated in Asia Minor, on a large scale only near
Adabazar and Sabandja.

A colony of Suabians who emigrated from Wiirttemberg about
1818 and finally settled in the Trans-Caucasian provinces, appears to
have introduced the potato into the Caucasus. Baron von Haxt-
hausen (pp. 54-55), who visited the German colony at Tiflis in
1844, found it in a very flourishing state and observed that the
supply of the products of the field and garden—vegetables, fruit,
and poultry—was in German hands. ‘The Georgians are an idle
race,” he says, “fond as they are, for example, of potatoes, they buy,
beg, or steal them from the German colonists, but it has never
occurred to them to cultivate these vegetables themselves.”’

The cultivation of potatoes is fairly extended in the Kuban
Province and generally in the northern Caucasus, but in the Trans-
Caucasus they are little grown, chiefly in the kitchen gardens of
Russian colonists. Within a recent period, however, the cultivation
of potatoes has been considerably extended in many places, and now
forms a field crop (Russia: Department of Agriculture, Industries of
Russia, vol. 8, p. 480). G. Merzbacher (vol. 1, p. 318) asserts that
the potato is seldom cultivated in the Caucasus.

THE POTATO IN AFRICA

Nowhere in tropical regions has the potato obtained any eco-
nomic importance, and in Africa it is grown but to a limited extent.
It naturally has followed the white man into his colonies, and is
successfully cultivated in Portuguese Angola, particularly in the
highlands of Ambaca and in the territory of Mossamedes and
Huilla (De Ficalho, p. 232). According to Proyart, who wrote in
1776, potatoes more savory than our own were planted by the
Negroes of Lower Guinea under the names bala and putu (in
Ehrmann, vol. 13, p. 170).

In the same manner as the Malayans designate the potato as the
Dutch, European, or Bengal yam, the Negroes conceive it as ‘‘the
white man’s yam’’; thus, in Mpongwe (Congo group) it is termed
mongotanga (“‘white man’s yam’’), in Swahili viazi ya kisungu
(“European root’). Around the Christian missions small potato
plantations have grown up, and in some localities the Negroes have
adopted the cultivation for the purpose of selling potatoes to Euro-
peans. They thrive only in the higher mountains (Stuhlmann,
p. 264). In the mountains of Réunion, it is said, potatoes grow
almost wild and are thence exported to Mauritius (Oliver, 1890,
vol. 2, p. 207).

Potatoes are now among the principal food crops grown by the
settlers of the Kenya Colony in British East Africa, and are becom-
ing very popular with the natives. They grow vigorously in the
highlands, especially around Limoru; and on virgin land (cleared
forest) a yield of nine tons an acre can be obtained (Handbook of
Kenya Colony ..., p. 418).

In Abyssinia and the Galla countries the potato appears recently
to have become naturalized. In Egypt it thrives well even in the
southern part, but is cultivated on a large scale solely for the benefit
of Europeans. In Algeria, according to Schweinfurth (p. 517),
potatoes are cultivated as a winter crop for purposes of exportation.

THE POTATO IN INDIA, BURMA, SIAM, AND INDO-CHINA

According to S. R. Dalgado (p. 24) the potato was introduced
into India by the English in times posterior to the introduction of
the sweet potato, as the potato is still termed by the Portuguese of
India batata de Surrate or ingleza. It is cultivated by the Portu-
guese of Goa, but does not thrive there well (D. G. Dalgado, p. 1338).

In 1822, H. Phillips wrote (vol. 2, p. 94): “Potatoes were scarcely
known in the East Indies thirty years ago; but they are now produced
to such abundance that the natives in some places make considerable
use of them. Bombay is supplied chiefly with this excellent root
from Guzerat.

“Potatoes were first introduced into India from the Cape of
Good Hope, and have, for many years past, been cultivated with
great success in the Bengal provinces; and, lately, of an excellent
quality, in several situations in the Mysore country; particularly at
Bangalore and Nundydroog. They are not so large as the potatoes
of Europe and America; but not inferior in mealiness and taste to
any in the world: the round kind is chiefly cultivated. For many
years the Hindoos would not eat potatoes, but, latterly, they appear
to have got over all their prejudices in this respect, and like them as
much as they do the white yam, which they resemble greatly in
taste.” Thus wrote W. Ainslie (vol. 1, p. 329) in 1826.

Watt (18938, p. 266) gives his opinion as follows:

“The date of the introduction of the potato into India seems un-
known, and very few facts can be gathered to give grounds for even
an approximate date. ‘It must, at any rate, have been widely
cultivated in India before the beginning of the eighteenth century,
since Roxburgh, who wrote at the end of that period, says that it
was in his time cultivated largely during the cold weather and pro-
duced abundant tubers, and that this cultivation must have been
going on for some considerable time.... The probability is that the
cultivation of the potato was introduced into India from Spain,
whether directly or indirectly it is impossible to say, some time be-
tween the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the eighteenth
centuries.”” An introduction from Spain is rather improbable; the
end of the sixteenth century is too early a date. It is quite certain
that in the eighteenth century potatoes were known in India, as
Warren Hastings was much interested in their propagation (see
p. 84). *{In this connection Dr. L. C. Goodrich supplies the ©
following note: “A basket of potatoes, weighing about a dozen

Potato: INDIA, BURMA, SIAM, AND INDO-CHINA 91

pounds, was occasionally sent, as opportunity offered, by Warren
Hastings [1772-1785 in India] to the Governor of Bombay, and was
considered an acceptable present. On reception, the members of the
council were invited to dine with the Governor to partake of the
rare vegetable.”’ (G. W. Johnson, p. 19, in William Stuart, p. 381.)]

Subsequently Watt stated (1908, p. 1028) that the first mention of
the potato in connection with India appears in Terry’s account
of the banquet at Ajmir given by Asaph Chan to Sir Thomas Roe
in 1615; but this is plainly the batata. John Fryer, whose travels
in the East extended from 1672 to 1681, mentions potatoes twice
(vol. 1, p. 263; vol. 2, p. 76): first, among the vegetables grown in
the gardens of Surat (his addition of yams shows that he does not
confound them with another species) ; second, as “‘the usual banquet’’
of the people of Karnatak (Canatick). Watt concludes: “It would
thus appear that within a remarkably short interval after the dis-
covery of the potato in America, it had been conveyed to India and
was apparently at once taken up by the better-class Muhammadans as
a desirable addition to the ordinary articles of diet.’”’ At first pota-
toes were eaten by the Mohammedans and Europeans only, but for
some years past they have come into universal use. As an article
of food, potatoes are now valued by all classes, especially among the
Hindus on days of fast when they are forbidden the use of grain, but
are said by them to have a tendency to cause indigestion. As a
curiosity it may be mentioned that, according to W. Crooke (p. 103),
it was a gang of Chinese convicts who started the thriving cultivation
of potatoes and other vegetables at the hill-station of Mahabaleshwar.

In southern India potato culture is restricted mainly to the
Nilgiri Mountains in the Madras Presidency. In the northern part
of the country it is found both in the plains and in the adjoining
mountains. As a rule, the cultivation is limited to the environment
of large cities to supply the demands of the British, but it is grad-
ually spreading to smaller places also. In the plain of Hindostan it
is planted from the middle of September till the middle of November,
- and is harvested from the middle of January to the middle of March.
In the United Provinces the cultivation was started by the gardeners
around Farukhabad, who subsequently brought it to the vicinity of -
Cawnpore. In the district of Farukhabad the cultivation is inten-
sive; three harvests are obtained annually, with the rotation: maize,
potatoes, tobacco. The potato is usually grown after Aus paddy,
jute, or maize, but it often forms the only crop of the year. In the

92 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

district of Baghelkand, in parts of Bihar, and in the Khasi hills, two
crops of potatoes are taken from the same land in one year. Con-
ditions are more favorable in the mountains than in the Ganges
Valley, and the mountain products are generally superior to those
of the plains. In the United Provinces the mountainous country of
Naini Tal is the most important source of supply. There the
cultivation has become more general since about 1840. In the plain
of Gujarat the tubers are planted in October and lifted in March, but
_in consequence of the heat remain comparatively small. It is diffi-
cult to preserve the tubers during the rainy season; in the district
of Surat, therefore, tubers imported from Italy are frequently used
and thrive particularly well.

The northern district of Poona is most important for potato
culture; in 1888-89 seven thousand acres in the taluka Khed were
occupied by potatoes. There are two harvests annually: the tubers
planted in July grow during the rainy season, and are lifted in Sep-
tember; again, with the aid of artificial irrigation, they plant in
December (in higher altitudes in October) and harvest in February
or March, respectively. This cultivation is very remunerative, as
the produce finds its way to the Poona and Bombay markets.

Statistics of potato cultivation exist only for the Presidency of
Bombay from former years: in 1888-89 there were 11,700 acres given
over to potatoes (Englebrecht, pp. 47-48; Mukerji, pp. 289-294).

The following example of high-mountain cultivation may be of
interest to students of native American agriculture in comparison
with that of the Indians: ‘“The steep ascent on the northern shoulder
of Mahasu, from 8,000 feet, and even lower, to above 9,000 feet, is
the great seat of the potato cultivation in the neighbourhood of
Simla. The steepest slopes seem to be preferred for this purpose, if
they have only a sufficiency of soil, which is very light, loose, and
stony. The undergrowth of shrubs is cleared away entirely on the
spot where potatoes are planted, but the pine forest is only partially
thinned, the tall straight trunks allowing free circulation of air
below, while the thick branches above afford the amount of shade
requisite for the crop. The potatoes are planted in rows in May;
and, early in June, when the plants have attained a height of a few
- inches, the soil is earthed up round their stems in low ridges. The
rains commence in the latter part of June, and during their con-
tinuance nothing is done to the crop, beyond keeping it clear of
weeds. The steepness of the slope seems to afford a sufficient drain-
age to prevent any injury from the great rainfall and constant

Potato: INDIA, BURMA, SIAM, AND INDO-CHINA 93

_ humidity. The growth of the plants is exceedingly luxuriant, the
foliage being tall and bushy. By the middle of October, or after

the close of the rains, the potatoes are dug and ready for market,
supplying not only the station of Simla, but being despatched in
great quantities to the plains of India, where the potato is only
cultivated as a winter crop, and where, therefore, during the cold
months, none are otherwise procurable.”” (T. Thomson, p. 34.)

According to J. D. Hooker (vol. 2, p. 277) potatoes were intro-
duced among the Khasi in Assam about twenty years ago (that is,
about 1830) by a Mr. Inglis, and they have increased so rapidly that
the Caleutta market is now supplied by their produce. E. A. Gait
(p. 346) states that potatoes were introduced in the Khasi hills by
David Scott. It is quite possible and natural that several intro-
ductions have taken place through different individuals and into
different spots of this territory. Major P. R. T. Gurdon (pp. 42-43)
thus describes the process of cultivation among the Khasi: “Potatoes
are raised on all classes of land, except hali, or wet paddy land.
When the land has been properly levelled and hoed, drains are dug
about the field. A cultivator (generally a female), with a basket of
seed potatoes on her back and with a small hoe in her right hand,
digs holes and with the left hand drops two seed potatoes into each
hole. The holes are about 6 in. in diameter, 6 in. deep, and from 6
to 9 in. apart from one another. Another woman, with a load of

- manure in a basket on her back, throws a little manure over the

seed in the hole,. and then covers both up with earth. After the
plants have attained the height of about 6 in., they are earthed up.
When the leaves turn yellow, it is a sign that the potatoes are ripe.”

In regard to Burma, F. Mason (p. 133) stated, in 1851: ““The
potato is of easy culture but the tubers are very small, and it is not
an object of cultivation, though with a little attention, it might
possibly be made one.”’ He gives no Burmese name. Potatoes are
grown by the Kakhyen of Upper Burma in the hills; they are
described by G. W. Strettell (p. 120) as small, but capital eating.

In British Burma potato cultivation has been considered since

1882. Seed potatoes were procured from England and Scotland, but

the trial did not give good results at first. In 1883 an out-turn of
nineteenfold in the Karen hills was the highest. The people of

_ several villages in the Karen hills planted the tubers with more or

less success (Watt, 1893, p. 272).

In regard to Siam, Pallegoix (vol. 1, p. 126) remarks: “The
mountains and forests harbor several sorts of pommes de terre which

94 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

are of great utility in times of famine. There is, in particular, one,
called kloi, very remarkable for its extreme whiteness; but it is
poisonous, and before eating, it must be sliced, soaked in water, and
then dried in the sun.”” The term pommes de terre is evidently em-
ployed in a loose manner, and seems to relate to indigenous species
of tuberous plants, probably Dioscorea. Prince Dilock of Siam
observes (p. 167) that quite recently attempts have been made to
cultivate potatoes, but, though they thrived well, these experiments
were soon abandoned, because the natives did not esteem potatoes.
Small quantities were imported, but for the exclusive use of Euro-
peans resident in Siam. Accordingly the Siamese show the same
attitude toward the potato as the Chinese.

In Tonking, potatoes (pommes de terre) were mentioned by De
La Bissachére in 1807 (Maybon, p. 154). Ch. Crevost and Ch.
Lemarié write (vol. 1, p. 185) that the potato does not thrive well
in the climate of Indo-China and that the French colony is obliged
to import from abroad almost the entire quantity consumed by
Europeans. Yet it has been proved that in suitable soil its cultiva-
tion is possible in Tonking during the winter. It is encountered
more and more in the French orchards and even with Annamese or
Chinese gardeners, who specialize in the small, new potato. In
certain spots, notably in the sandy soils near the ocean, field cul-
tivation begins to extend. The products of Doson enjoy a well-
deserved reputation. At the suggestion of the agents of the Direction
des Services Agricoles et Commerciaux, the cultivation is success-
fully practiced in the interstices of the mulberry plantations. From
a practical handbook for the gardeners of Indo-China it appears
that the potato is planted there in October or November and that its
cultivation is now quite popular (Lan, p. 49).

_ The potato was introduced a few years ago among the Miao of
Tranninh in Tonking by Barthélémy, and thanks to his efforts the
French of Xiéng-khwang and vicinity are now supplied with potatoes,
but it seems that they are not yet introduced into other territories
of Tonking inhabited by Miao (Savina, p. 215).

THE POTATO IN MALAYAN AND OCEANIC REGIONS!

As regards the Philippines, the potato appears first to be men-
tioned by the famous Jesuit naturalist, George Joseph Camel
(Camell, Camelli, Kamel), who resided there toward the end of the
seventeenth century. He describes it under the Peruvian name
papa, as follows (p. 39, No. 22): “Papas, folia habet septem aut

- novem, uno in pediculo, radicem et atro-rubentem, interne candi-
dam, aut flavescentem, gummosam, et friabilem, ex qua farinam

potui Chunno parando conficiunt, haec ex Chabraeo [Chabrée].
Papas, C. Bauhinus Solani tuberosi titulo eleganter describit, et
depingit. An idem ac Hettig?” This query refers to his No. 20,
where we read, ‘“‘Hettig, Aestum Plinii, foliis est malvaceis, radice
candida, et flava.”” The word pdpas is still used on the Islands for
the potato, as is also patétas (Merrill, 1903, pp. 94, 185).

The potato is now cultivated generally, especially in the moun-
tainous regions of the Archipelago, according to Merrill (1904, p. 35),
but the tubers are usually very small and of an inferior quality. They

_ are grown in Cebu Island (in the west-central part of the Archipel-

ago), says Foreman (p. 356), but are rarely any larger than walnuts.

_ He adds that with very special care a larger size has been raised in

Negros Island (in the same vicinity), and that potatoes of excellent

_ flavor and of a pinkish color are cultivated in the district of Benguet.

In the Straits Settlements the potato is commonly called abi

| Benggala, since most of those used in the Straits come from Bengal
- (Swettenham, vol. 1, p. 93; vol. 2, p. 158).

For the Dutch East Indies there are several notes of interest.
The Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch-Indié (vol. 1, p. 1) states that the
Hollanders probably brought the potato to the Dutch Indies, but
that possibly the Chinese introduced it. From what has been said

above about the Chinese attitude toward it, this supposition does

not appear very probable. The Batak inhabiting the high Karo
plateau of Sumatra are said to raise very good potatoes, using a more

- rational method than the Javanese (ibid.). Regarding the latter

country, Crawfurd (vol. 1, pp. 375-876) described in 1820 the intro-
duction and method of cultivation of potatoes as follows: “The
Dutch of very late years have introduced the American potatoe
(Solanum tuberosum) into Java. Such is the supineness of the
European colonists, and their imperfect occupation of these coun-

1 *(This ray had not been completed by Dr. Laufer before his death.
The notes have n organized in their present form by C.M.W.]

96 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

tries, that the event cannot be dated farther back than thirty years.
In Malay, the potatoe is called Ubi Europa, or the European yam,
and in Javanese Kdntang Holanda, or the Dutch Kdntang, names
which sufficiently describe its origin. The potatoe reared in Java
is of good size and excellent quality, being, I think, more delicately
flavoured than those raised in Europe, and much superior to those
cultivated in any part of Hindustan. They grow abundantly with-
out dressings, and almost indiscriminately at every season of the
year, so that the care of storing them is unnecessary, and the fresh
root is ready for the table at every season. During the British
possession of the island, the culture was greatly extended from the
increased demand for them, and within the last few years the natives
of the mountains and of the valleys near them have begun to use
them as an article of diet. But as the production of this root is
confined to the high lands, and the quantity of food yielded by them
from a given quantity of land and labour is much smaller than
afforded by other tuberous roots, as the yam, the arwm, and, above
all, the sweet potatoe or Batates, it is evident they can never become
in these climates, an article of general consumption.”’

A. R. Wallace, who visited the Portuguese portion of Timor in
1861, says (p. 146) that “potatoes are grown higher up in the moun-
tains in abundance, and are very good.”

In the mountainous parts of the Celebes potatoes thrive well,
according to Graafland (vol. 2, p. lxi). There is a tale current in
the Moluccas that the first potatoes planted in Buru, the western
of the two main islands, came from a brig which had been cast
adrift on its south shore. The Alfur of Buru call the potato manga- -
breke, with reference to this story, the name meaning literally “eating
from the brig.’’ (Wilken, vol. 1, p. 98; Martin, p. 357.) The pota-
toes of Buru are small but of rather good taste.

While the other inhabitants of the mountains of New Guinea as
a rule subsist on the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), the Papuans
living in the Arfak Mountains in West New Guinea plant potatoes
on a large scale and use them as their chief article of food (Encyclo-
paedie van Nederlandsch-Indié, vol. 1, p. 1). The Germans are
said by Zéller (p. 191) to have introduced potatoes into the former
German territory of Kaiser-Wilhelm-Land.

In the Fiji group, on the east coast of Viti Levu, B. Seemann
(p. 806) reported in 1862 that he found potatoes grown at Mataisuva.
He describes them as “‘tolerably good.”’

Potato: MALAYAN AND OCEANIC REGIONS 97

Information regarding the introduction of the potato into New
Zealand is relatively complete due to the excellent studies of Elsdon
Best (pp. 148-153) and G. M. Thomson (pp. 448-451); and these
data should throw a valuable light upon the probable history of
potato cultivation in other incompletely reported Oceanic regions.
The following is an abstract of the information found in these two
works. To the Maoris the potato was the most welcome of all
introduced foods and was even more useful than the pig. After its
adoption by a few coastal tribes it spread rapidly into the interior,
where it was particularly valuable in mountainous and cold regions,
and where it at once considerably improved the native diet. Forests,
_ which had formerly been strictly conserved as an important source
of food supply, became of secondary value. Small areas were
destroyed year by year in making potato gardens.

Many early explorers started potato patches at the points where
they touched, and duly noted this enterprise in their journals. It
is said that the first potatoes were left by De Surville in 1769, though
no specific mention appears in the journals of L’Horne or Monneron.
Three years later Marion planted potatoes in the far north and took
pains to explain to the natives the value of this and other plants.
S. J. Roux, lieutenant on Marion du Fresne’s vessel Le Mascarin,
_ wrote in the journal of that expedition: ‘“‘As the natives are extremely
intelligent, we were able to make them understand that the plan-
tations we had made on Marion Island of wheat, maize, potatoes,
and various kinds of nuts, might be very useful to them. All these
_ plants had grown very well, although it was winter.” (Best, p. 149.)
In the account of Cook’s first voyage to New Zealand nothing is
said concerning the potato, but in Forster’s description of the
second voyage there is the following description of the planting
done at Queen Charlotte Sound (on the northeast end of South
Island) in 1773: ‘Captain Cook, who was determined to omit nothing
which might tend to the preservation of European garden plants in
this country, prepared the soil, sowed seeds, and transplanted the
young plants in four or five different parts of this Sound.... He
chiefly endeavoured to raise such vegetables as have useful and
nutritive roots, and among them particularly potatoes, of which he
had been able to preserve but few in a state of vegetation. He had
likewise sown corn of several sorts, beans, kidney beans, and peas,
and devoted the later part of his stay in great measure to these
occupations.” (Ibid.)

98 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

It cannot be affirmed positively that the potatoes planted by
Cook were preserved and propagated by the natives. Forster tells
us, however, that Cook took special pains to impress the southern
natives with the value of seeds planted: “Captain Cook, apprehen-
sive lest the natives should find our garden and destroy it, not
knowing for what purpose it was intended, conducted Teiratu
thither, and showed him every plant in it, especially the potatoes.
He expressed a great liking to the last, and seemed to know them
very well, evidently because a similar root, the Virginia or sweet
potato, is planted in some parts of the Northern Island, from whence
he came. The captain parted from him after obtaining the promise
that he would not destroy his plantations, but leave everything to
grow up and propagate.” (Best, pp. 149-150.) In 1777 Cook again
reached Queen Charlotte Sound on his third voyage, and described
the condition of the gardens he had so carefully planted four years
earlier. They had all been destroyed to make room for buildings,
but he notes that “.... at all the other gardens then planted by
Captain Furneaux, although now wholly over-run with the weeds
of the country, we found cabbages, onions, leeks, purslain, radishes,
mustard, ete., and a few potatoes. These potatoes, which were first
brought from the Cape of Good Hope, had been greatly improved by
change of soil; and, with proper cultivation, would be superior to
those produced in most other countries. Though the New Zealanders
are fond of this root, it was evident that they had not taken the
trouble to plant a single one (much less any other of the articles
which we had introduced); and if it were not for the difficulty of
clearing ground where potatoes had once been planted, there would
not have been any now remaining.”’ (Ibid.)

By 1805, in any event, the potato had become well established
at the Bay of Islands, far north in North Island, in the region where
Marion had attempted to introduce them. Dr. Savage visited there
and gives the following interesting report: “The inhabitants of this
part of the world are by no means unskilled in arts and manufactures:
among the former is their cultivation of the ground. This, it is true,
is confined to the growth of one vegetable, but in which they are
remarkably successful: I allude to potatoes; and, indeed, I never
met with that root of a better quality; they keep remarkably well,
and we provided a stock of them sufficient to supply the whole ship’s
company for several months. ...’’ Ibid.) It appears from the rest
of his account that the natives, although they were very fond of
potatoes, ate them only sparingly, so as to have a good stock always

a ea

[

PoTATO: MALAYAN AND OCEANIC REGIONS 99

on hand to supply European ships in exchange for iron. Savage
states further that the reason all other plants were neglected was

that they were not good for trade. A few years later, in 1814,
- Reverend Samuel Marsden landed also at the Bay of Islands, and
_ wrote the following graphic description of native potato cultivation,
_ which substantiates the remarks of Dr. Savage: “‘Their potato plan-
_ tations are all very neatly fenced in, and were in as high a condition

as the gardens in and near London, as they do not suffer a single
weed to remain that would injure the growing crops. The flat where

the natives were encamped might contain somewhat about a hun-
dred acres or more, part of which was enclosed and planted with
potatoes. We were furnished with a good supply of potatoes and
_ pork.” (G. M. Thomson, p. 450.)

The experience of Commander Bellingshausen, when visiting New

_ Zealand in 1820, was opposite to that of most explorers and traders,

for he reports that the natives grew potatoes only for their own use

and would not part with them (ibid.). That his experience did not
reflect any real change in Maori economics at this time is clearly

shown by the records of various whaling stations, which indicate a
lively trade in potatoes carried in western ships between New Zealand
and Australia. Entries between 1813 and 1820 such as “eight tons
from Otago,’ and “four tons from Preservation Inlet’ (southeast
and southwest coasts of South Island, respectively) clearly record
this trade, as do remarks of later travelers (ibid.).

The account of the voyage of the Venus (1836-39) also gives
interesting information concerning the early use of the potato in the
Bay of Islands region, and method of cultivation. “On coming
away from the pa of Kawakawa, we noticed some natives who were
planting pommes de terre. For this purpose they made use of a small
piece of straight iron, something like an elongated nail, with which
they scooped a hole for every one. They then returned the earth
on top so that each tuber was surmounted by a little cone something
like those made by the moles in their earth-works. This arrange-
ment, observed with great exactitude, gave to the plantations an
appearance of very finished culture.’ (Best, p. 151.) There fol-

_ lows the statement that the natives prepared the lands which they
_ planned to cultivate—usually that covered with bracken was se-
_ lected—by burning off all the vegetation. They seldom sowed the

same ground two years in succession, but allowed it to lie fallow a
year or two before returning to it. As soon as a piece of land was

100 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

sown it became tapu, and no one dared to infringe upon it. The
whole tribe united to do the work of harvesting.

The potato had become so firmly established by 1839 that Bid-
well, traveling between Tauranga, on the east coast of North Island,
and Tongariro, a mountain almost in the center, could report that
“... the potato might be taken for an indigenous plant, as it is im-
possible to go anywhere without finding it growing wild. Maoris
only grow potatoes in land which is just cleared, and after about
three crops abandon it, and clear another portion of forest.”” (G. M.
Thomson, p. 451.)

A strong tradition exists among the Maoris that they cultivated
certain varieties of the potato before the advent of Europeans. Of
this Best is properly skeptical. He explains (p. 152) the tradition
on the grounds that the coastal tribes passed the tuber and its
method of cultivation into the interior, where it was adopted by other
groups which had no idea of its source nor any knowledge of the
white trader. He calculates, for example, that if the potatoes planted
in Queen Charlotte Sound by Cook in 1773 were perpetuated, then
the tribes of Cook’s Straits must have been cultivating the potato
nearly fifty years before the coming of traders and whalers to the
latter region. This case is instructive, for similar situations occur
frequently everywhere; introduced plants, after a long period of
cultivation, are easily looked upon as native or even cultivated from
time immemorial (compare, for instance, the tradition on Java
concerning tobacco’s being indigenous), so that such oral tradition
ean lay little or no claim to historicity.

The Maoris soon recognized the great superiority of the potato
over the kumera, which requires much more care in its cultivation.
The aborigines soon became skilful in potato culture and conceived
some methods of their own unknown to the European settlers. For
instance, in order to obtain a very early crop, seed tubers were
planted in June in scrub land or light bush, and subsequently the bush
was felled and burned in early spring. The fire destroyed the halm
of the plants that had grown up through the felled timbers, but a
new growth soon followed, whereas exposure to frosts would have
spoiled the crop.

The potato proved in particular a boon to the natives living in
the southern half of South Island, which was too cold for the semi-
tropical products brought along by the Maoris after their immigration
into the islands. That the aptitude for agriculture still survived
centuries of disuse is proved by the avidity with which the southern

ee ae ay oe .

és 0 ae ee ee eee

POTATO: MALAYAN AND OCEANIC REGIONS 101

Maoris acquired and grew potatoes. Williams, who visited the Bluff
of South Island in 1818, narrates: “The natives attend to cultivation
of the potato with as much diligence and care as I have ever seen.
A field of considerably more than 100 acres presented one well culti-
vated bed, filled with rising crops of various ages, some of which
were ready for digging, while others had been but newly planted.
Dried fish and potatoes form their chief support.”’ (Best, p.152.) This
is the first description of potato culture in southern New Zealand.

APPENDIX I. NOMENCLATURE OF THE POTATO

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae). This name appears first in
Caspar Bauhin’s (1560-1624) Phytopinax (Basle, 1596, p. 302), and
was subsequently adopted by Linnaeus (hence Solanum tuberosum L.).

Peruvian: papa (Cieza de Leon).

Quechua: ascu, acsu. Chinchay dialect: ax8u.

Aymara: choke, amka (‘“‘testicle’’).

Chibcha: yomsa, yomuy.

Araucano (Chile): pont (ponyi, pogny), cultivated; malla (maglia,
Italian spelling of Molina), a wild species.

Tupi (Brazil): cara-ti (“white yam’’).

Spanish: turma de tierra (“truffle,” literally “earth testicle’),
in the early chroniclers of South America; papa (from Peruvian) in
Spanish America, also in Andalusia and Estremadura in Spain (but
otherwise unknown in Spain); patata (properly the sweet potato),
in Spain.

Catalanian: criadeta, trumfa (‘‘truffle’’).

Portuguese: batatéira, the plant; batata, batatinha, batata ordi-
naria, batata de terra, the tuber. In Brazil and San Nicolau Island
(Cap Verde): batata ingleza. Madeira: semilha. Goa: batata de
Surrate (that is, batata introduced through the factory of Surrate).
Malayo-Portuguese of Batavia: koemblie (from Malay kembili) hol-
landa, poma de terra.

Italian: patata, batata (from the Spanish); tartuffo, tartuffolo
(“truffle’’), modeled after Spanish turma de tierra. Venezia: tartu-
fola. Milano: tartuffol. Piedmont: tartiflo. Sicily: tirituffulu and
catatuffulu. In dialects: pomo di terra.

French: cartoufle, first in Olivier de Serres, Theatre d’agriculture
et mesnage des champs, 1600 *[1802, vol. 3, p. 173]: “‘C’est arbuste,
dict Cartoufle, porte fruict de mesme nom, semblable a truffes, et
par d’aucuns ainsi appellé.”’ Southern French: kartufle (Meyer-
Liibke, p. 681). Namur: kartuS; papas des Indes, papas des Espagnols
(Caspar Bauhin, Prodromos theatri botanict, 1620 *[ed. of 1671,
Prodromos: p. 90, gives Papas Indorum vel Hispanorum]; arti-
chaut des Indes, name formerly used in Burgundy; truffe, truffe
rouge (1689), patate (1723), topinambour or taupinambour (properly
Helianthus tuberosus), were occasionally used, while patate is still
the name of the potato in Brittany; morelle tubéreuse, solanum tubé-
reaux, scientific term; pomette, poire de terre, poirette (“‘little apple,

102

APPENDIX I: NOMENCLATURE OF THE POTATO 103

earth pear, little pear’); parmentiére, or solanée parmentiére, named
for Parmentier; pomme de terre (with the erroneous addition: ou
topinambour), first employed by Frézier (Relation du voyage de la
Mer du Sud aux cotes du Chily et du Perou, 1716) and in Duhamel du
Monceau (Traité de la culture des terres, 1754-57), while French
patate is now correctly used for the sweet potato. The term pomme
de terre was originally applied to the topinambour (Helianthus
tuberosus) (Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles, vol. 42, 1826, p. 446).
Names for varieties are poméranienne (oblong sort), vitelotte or
viquelotte (red sort), patraque (round sort).

English: potato of America or Virginia (John Gerard, The herball;
or, General historie of plantes, 1597); apple of youth (John Parkinson,
Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris, 1629); potato, early modern
English also potatoe, pottatoe, potatus, potades; also botatas. Down to
the middle of the seventeenth century, this word in general relates
to the sweet potato. W. Hughes (The American physitian, 1672,
p. 14) says, ““The Indians, as also some of the Blacks and Spaniards,
do call them Papus; but we English call them Potatoes.”

United States: white potato, Irish potato, murphy.

Swedish: potatis.

Danish: potet, potetes.

Dutch: aardappel (“earth apple’).

German: kartoffel (eighteenth century), derived from Italian
tartufo, tartufolo (‘‘truffle’’) through the medium of French car-
toufle (1600). (The name taratoufli, in the handwriting of Clusius,
first appears in 1589 on a colored illustration of the plant; it was
still used in 1675 by P. Ammann (Supellex botanica, p. 124),
who writes faratuffli. Castore Durante (Herbario nuovo, Venezia,
1584 *[ed. of Rome, 1585, p. 450]) informs us that truffles (twbera)
were then styled in Italy tartufi and turtufoli.) Erdapfel, erdbirne
(eighteenth century), originally applied to Helianthus tuberosus.
According to Clusius (Rariorum plantarum historia, p. 264),
erdtapfel was employed by the peasants near Vienna for Cyclaminus;
also according to Mattioli (New Kreuterbuch, 1563, p. 224), who
adds Panis porcinus or Schweinbrodt as synonyms. Formerly
artoffel, ertoffel, from erd-kartoffel. German grundbirne is said to
denote in Lausitz and Meissen the eatable, tuberous root of Heli-
anthus tuberosus, and to have been transferred to the potato in the
eighteenth century (Weigand, vol. 1, p. 737). In dialects it is gromm-
bir, Bavarian: krumbeer; Kiarnten: gruntpirn, grumper, krumpir.

104 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

A dialectic form, patake or potakke (East-Frank), is based on Spanish
pataca, which applies to Helianthus tuberosus. C. Bauhin (Pro-
dromos theatri botanici, 1620 *[ed. of 1671, Prodromos: p. 90]) says
that the Germans call the plant griiblingbaum, that is, truffle-tree;
this name is also employed by Jacobus Theodorus (Neu vollkommen
Kréuter-buch, Basle, 1687, p. 868).

Low German: tiiften, tuften, tifken, tufken, irtiften, irrtiffeln,
tiiffeln, kantiiffeln, pantiiffeln, nudeln.

Slavic: The Slavic peoples received the potato from Germany
toward the end of the eighteenth century. There are three groups
of words in use for it in the Slavic languages, all traceable to German:

(1) The group represented by German kartoffel: Russian:
kartofel’, in popular speech kariéska (with diminutive termination);
in dialects: kartépl’a, kartdél’a, kartévka, in the plural karty3i,
kartésy. Polish: kartofel; in dialects: kartofla, felka, tufle, tyfka,
tywka, karczofle; in the Polish of the eighteenth century occurs
tartofl, corresponding to Italian tartufolo, the model of the German
word. Slovenian: krtola.

(2) The group represented by German grundbirne, dialectically
grommbir: Bulgarian: krompir or krumpir, also kompiri, gombirz; plural
gombelki. Serbian: krémpir, kriumpir. Slovenian: krompir. Czech:
krumpir, krumple. Moravian: grumbir. Slovak: krumpla. In Polish
dialects: kompery, kumpery, krompele, and kraple.

(3) In Czech we find brambor as a word for the potato; in Bul-
garian: barabdéj, barabél; in South-Russian: mandybirka, bandira,
barabél’a, garabdl’a, gardyburka. This group is connected with
the name Brandenburg (Old Czech: Bramburk; Upper Sorbian:
Brambor, with the meaning ‘‘Prussian’’), as probably referring to
the locality from which the potato was introduced. In Polish an
oblong potato of violet color is styled berlinka (Berneker, pp. 81,
491, 622). Russian also bun’ba.

Lithuanian: klumberis (from German grundbirne).

Hungarian: krumpli (from German grundbirne), pitydka, puczoka,
csucsorka, csicséka; *[burgonya, a literary term].

Rumanian: crumpira, crumpena, crumpen, grumciri (from German
grundbirne), cartofla, cartofa, cartof, bandraburca (‘‘Brandenburg’’),
baraboi, bara-bula (in Moldavia), mere-de-pamint (Transylvania), nap
(“turnip’’), picisica, piciorca (Agaricus campestris), bologeana, pom-
de-pamint, nap turcesc, porcesc (“topinambour’’). Moldavia: gulie
(“topinambour’’), picidaca (from Hungarian pitydka).

a a ee

APPENDIX I: NOMENCLATURE OF THE POTATO 105

Neo-Greek: patata, ged’melon (“earth-apple’’).

Hungarian Gypsy: peuvune, pityoka (from Magyar pitydka).
American Romani (Gypsy): pivéngero (piv, “earth, ground’’).

Osmanli: patate, badate, yer almdsi (“earth-apple’’).

Karaim of Troki: bulba.

Chuwassian: ulma (“‘apple’’).

Finnish: maaomena (“earth-apple’’).

Chinese: yang shu ¥£3% (“foreign Dioscorea’’); yang yii #E7F
(“foreign taro’’); with the west-Szechwan variant == 7 (literally
“sheep taro”); Yang yii B= and # (“taro of Yang’’); shan yii
iy4= and yang shan yiit FEI (“mountain taro” or “the foreign
mountain-taro”); ma ling shu Ij%3# (literally “horse-bell yam’’
because the tubers are supposed to resemble a horse-bell); Ho-lan
shu 3% (“Holland Dioscorea’’). Colloquial names: shan yao
tan \lj342 (“mountain medicinal egg,” cited in the Chih wu ming
shih t’u k’ao); shan yao or shan yo or shan yao tow’r 3852, (literally
“mountain medicinal bean’’) in Peking; t’u tou +9. (“earth bean’’) in
Tientsin;! shit tsai 3¢47* in Canton. *[Doubtful: fan shu #73, the
regular name for the sweet potato but perhaps sometimes mistakenly
used for Solanum tuberosum; chan yii #§3F in the Sui ching t’un
chih, but see p. 76, footnote 1.]

Miao: yang yii (a Chinese loan-word).

Dioi: dak iang iii.

Siamese: man farang.

Annamese: khoai tay.

Tibetan: p’an Su (transcription of Chinese fan shu *[but see
p. 72, footnote 2 and p. 84, footnote 1]); rgya gro (pronounced
gya-d’o), from gro-ma (Potentilla anserina) and rgya, which may refer
to India or China; skyiw (Sikkim), originally referring to Dioscorea;
p'i-lin skyiu (“English Dioscorea’’) ; Z0-gog, 40-kog (pronounced Zo-g’o,
Z0-ko); ia-lu (from Persian-Hindustani Gla), in West Tibet.

Lepcha: p’i-lin-mo buk (“English Dioscorea’’).

Dafla: ked-blaiam (“earth egg-plant’’).

*(Japanese: bareisho I3h3#%; Jagatara imo WEORIEM, that is,
Jactra or Batavia tuber; Orando imo Fnfj ##, Holland tuber; Ryukyu
imo HEERSE, tuber from the Ryukyu Islands (used by Kaibara

1 The names T’u-yii +3 (“native taro”) and T’u-luan +:9f (“ground egg”),

given for Solanum tuberosum by Stuart (p. 418) are not correct; they relate exclu-
sively to a species of Dioscorea.

106 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Ikken, but probably the sweet potato); Hzo imo #34, tuber of
Ezo (Hokkaido).]}

Ainu: toma, appura (from Dutch aardappel).

Korean: kam-tsa.

Mongol: lankkirun.

Kalmuk: bodomontsok.

Manchu: larhén.

Malayan: artapel (from the Dutch aardappel); abi welanda
(“Holland yam’’); abi Europa (“European yam’’); kembili welanda
(“Holland tuber’’); ab: Benggala (“yam from Bengal’’), according to
Swettenham (vol. 1, p. 93), ‘‘as most of those used in the Straits
come from Bengal’; kentang (‘‘tuber’’).

Java: kantang, kentang; kentang welonda or holanda (‘‘Holland
tuber’’); wwi kentang (‘“‘yam tuber’’).

Bali: sabrang jawa.

Sumba: ketawi jawa. These two terms allude to Java.

Sunda: huwi walanda (applies also to Manihot), kentang.

Minahasa: kapu ne walanda.

Palembang: ubi kumandur.

Menangkabau: whi ulando, pelo gadueng.

Sika (Flores): tuka wawa, tuka wolonda.

Philippines: papas, patatas (from the Spanish).

Fiji: kawai ni vavalagi (‘tuber of foreigners’’).

Maori: riwai, hiwai; kapana, taiawa (literally, ‘‘a foreigner’’);
parareka (para, ‘‘an edible fern; reka, “‘sweet’’); kokart (new
potatoes) ; kotero (potatoes steeped in water) ; kotipo (a purple potato);
kotokoto (small potatoes); kwpango (potatoes spoiled by the heat of
the sun and greenish in appearance; pango, “‘black’’); ngihongtho
(small potatoes); ngote (a small potato). (After E. Tregear *[p. 653
and passim].)

Neo-Sanskrit: golalu.

Hindustani: ala (also in Parbatiya, Nepal).

Bihar: Glu, in east Tirhut also Gru; north of the Ganges alua
and alui. North of the Ganges lalka or dackhini denotes a red kind;
and maldahiya or napali, a white one. A red variety of maldahiya
is called maldahiya kanakpuriya. Seed potatoes brought from the
hills are termed biya ke alu; the “eye,” dankhi or Gnkh. The
produce of those kept for the following year is styled pahila manti

APPENDIX I: NOMENCLATURE OF THE POTATO 107

ke biya; and the seeds of this crop kept for the third year, dosra
manti ke biya (Grierson, p. 250).

Singhalese: rata innala, or artapal (from the Dutch aardappel).

Tamil: wallarai kilangu.

Telugu: uralat gudda.

Concani: batato, botate, batatin (from the Portuguese batatinha).

Marathi and Gujarati: batatd.

Persian: Gli-yi Malkam (‘‘Malcolm’s plum,” after Sir John
Malcolm, who introduced the plant into Persia) ; sib-2 zamini (‘‘earth-
apple’).

Arabic: kalkas firenji (“Colocasia of the Franks’’).

The European nomenclature demonstrates plainly that great
efforts were made from the latter part of the sixteenth century
to coin a suitable name for a product of foreign importation. These
efforts are by no means deserving of praise, and we hardly have
reason to be proud of the result. The only sensible people are
the Spaniards of South America, who have adopted the Peruvian
designation papa.' We can realize, however, that this word did
not appeal to the Spaniards of Europe and the Italians (presumably
owing to the homophony with il Papa). It is regrettable that
patata (hence our potato), properly the designation of the sweet
potato, was applied to the plant, as the two have no botanical
relationship and the duplication of name has given rise to many
unnecessary confusions. Both in England and Spain, the potato
was preceded by the sweet potato; in Spain the potato was hardly
known in the beginning of the eighteenth century, while the sweet
potato was cultivated in the sixteenth century. The phonetic
differentiation of patata and batata is curious. The word pataca,
however, which Meyer-Liibke (p. 466) places with patata, is inde-
pendent and denotes Helianthus tuberosus. In view of the fact
that the subterranean tuber is the most prominent characteristic
of the plant, descriptive names bearing on this single trait were
formed. The comparison with truffles first came to the early Con-
quistadores of Peru, who thus spoke simply of ‘“earth-truffles”
(turma de tierra). With this name, the tubers were apparently
handed on to Italy, where the word tartufo or tartufulo of the same

1R. Lenz (p. 558) says justly: ‘Toda la América espafiola lo mismo que
Andalucia i Estremadura ...conservan el nombre antiguo i lejitimo de papa,
de modo que en Chile es absurda la pretension de ciertos literatos ‘academizantes’
de querer sustituir la denominacion propia americana por la ‘impropia’ espafiola,
debida a un simple error de los peninsulares.”’

108 AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

significance was consequently applied to them. This term reached
Clusius, and hence the French-German appellations tartoufle, tar-
tuffel, cartoufle, kartoffel. England was spared this continental
invasion, and adhered to her potato, alleged by Gerard to have
been introduced from ‘“‘Virginia.”’ EN

In regard to the origin of the curious form kartoffel, German
philologists have attempted many explanations, but without reaching
any satisfactory result (Spitzer, pp. 156-158). F. Kluge (p. 187)
holds that kartoffel originated by way of phonetic dissimilation
from tartuffel, which, in his opinion, occurs between 1650 and 1760.!
This view of so late an origin of the k-form cannot be correct, for
cartoufle appears for the first time and as early as 1600 in Olivier
de Serres *[1802, vol. 3, p. 178]. According to Spitzer, the change
of the initial from ¢ to k was accomplished in Germany, because
the corruption of a Romanic word is rather intelligible in a non-
Romanic language; and he seeks comfort in the fact that Olivier
received the potato from Switzerland, which, in his opinion, must
be German Switzerland. These arguments certainly are feeble
and prove nothing in the way of facts. The doublets tirituffulu
and catatuffulu in Sicilian show well that an alternation of ¢ and k is
possible in a Romanic dialect. The only outstanding fact remaining
is that cartoufle made its debut in France at a time when this
word was unknown in Germany, or, at least, cannot be proved to
have then existed in Germany or Switzerland. Southern French
kartufle and Namur kartus demonstrate that the k form is of French
origin. According to M. Heyne *[vol. 2, p. 297], the form kartoffel
is first recorded by Adelung in the middle of the eighteenth century,
and is accordingly a century and a half later than French cartoufle.
In assuming that the Germans adopted it from the French, it is
curious that, with the exception of dialects, it has vanished in
France, while in Germany it finally superseded all other designations,
and has become the proper word of the written language and culti-
vated speech. Again, while the type “truffle’’ predominates in
France, there is not a trace of it in German dialects; merely the
French word came to Germany, without any consciousness of its
etymological origin.

It is not clear that German erdapfel, as assumed by Kluge
*fp. 187], is traceable directly to Dutch aardappel and French
pomme de terre. The word erdapfel pre-existed in Middle High

1 This word, however, is used by J. Beckmann (vol. 1, p. 434) as late as 1782.

Kluge asserts also that the dialectic form pataken is based on Spanish-Italian
patata; in fact, it is traceable to Spanish pataca.

APPENDIX I: NOMENCLATURE OF THE POTATO 109

German (ertapfel), and, for instance, is applied by Konrad von Megen-
berg, in his Das Buch der Natur (1349-50, pp. 391, 407, 603), both
to Citrullus and the mandrake.! What Kluge overlooks is the fact
that German erdapfel originally did not at all refer to the potato,
but to the tubers of Helianthus tuberosus, and that only in the
eighteenth century was the word transferred to the potato. French
pomme de terre, as shown above, is a recent term, and first appears
in 1716.

In most countries of the Old World the newly introduced potato
was compared with species of Dioscorea and Colocasia (taro and
yam), and we receive such designations as “foreign taro,”’ “Holland
yam” in the Far East. Chinese terminology foreshadows the
foreign character of a plant which is not much appreciated in China.
Both in China and in the Malay Archipelago “Holland” figures
in the nomenclature, and the Dutch term aardappel has penetrated
into Malayan regions as well as into India and Japan.

1 According to Heyne, it also applied to a melon (Latin pepo, German pfebe);
what he calls a kind of artichoke is Helianthus tuberosus.

APPENDIX II.

WORLD STATISTICS

OF THE POTATO

POTATOES: PRODUCTION IN SPECIFIED COUNTRIES (1934-35 To 1936-37)

AND VALUE (1934-35)

(From the United States Department of Agriculture)

PRODUCTION VALUE
(In 1,000 bushels) ($1,000)
COUNTRY
Average
1925-26 to | 1934-35 1935-36 *1936-37 | 1934-35
1929-30
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
North America
Canada iis he sees 74,579 80,158 64,450 65,105 | 23,822
United States: 2.25.) 5. 349,484! 406,105] 386,380] 329,997 | 181,857
POURS eset ates eee 424,013| 486,263) 450,880} 395,102).......
Europe
AURIS rs eo 83,216 | 101,020 87,908 O1836"} 0. 3S.
Belgnim 33. oe. a 124.585.) 119, 8514 “S10 448 been aya eS Pre
Czechoslovakia........ 310,025| 351,757} 282,094] 341,577|.......
DON MARK i Fic ils ewes 36,243 50,447 rE v8 Neen cael ete ea ah
PRUONMIR’ cs ee oe 26,245 32,780 32,800 B0,004 | os.
WRONG os Secs tees 27,522 41,865 46,629 48:5964 cio. O58
PEON oa os sic 528,939 | 611,891] 526,156) 591,928 | 343,117
Ek \ See eh See RN 1,400,991 | 1,718,876 | 1,518,621 | 1,691,749 |.......
Hangary 5130 eae 72,221 77,848 51,171 97,813 | 23,820
Irish Free State....... 87,856 94,999 96,21 Bae, cok eho Oasis
1s Rae ES NAR Gent 72,837 99,636 TO SSO 4 Fotos mel eee oe
TGAE VIR ger oe es See ee 28,477 53,124 53,688 45-8156 Ss
TAGHUANIG ocr oe oe 53,809 91,606 65,174 TA GTO| See ce
Netherlands........... 121,249} 108,031 97,704 8051004 vent
BOER es aes 81,592 29,415 33,674 872993).
POWMMN MS ks eens 972,152 | 1,229,815 | 1,194,222 | 1,175,044 | 163,206
POUINGNIR 0S a esse. 75,865 76,118 69,629 |i ou eis cuore
Spas eel ot ta te TESST VT FO BIE] tes oe hearer
RPWMMONY ooo e's fy ko ore os 63,397 TEST 63,957 68,7465 ode
Switzerland: 6006.5. 25,691 81,055 24,927 yA ee 5 bs Oy seattle
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics ..= is<.43 15602822 2068874 4) scien ca cileecnne eee areal
United Kingdom....... 198,501 | 201,112) 171,964} 166,205 | 758,557
NV AUIMOSIS WAGs eis eed 41,930 66,955 49 GHG es OS Se ha
Total for European
countries report-
ing production,
all years. 50. 33%: 3,939,027 | 4,751,565 | 4,250,689 | 4,568,498 |.......
Estimated European
Total eee 6,135,000 | 7,537,000 | 6,708,000 | 7,178,000 |.......
Total for Northern
Hemisphere coun-
tries reporting all
YORI) ocho see 4,363,040 | 5,237,828 | 4,701,519 | 4,963,600 |.......
Estimated Northern
Hemisphere Total... | 6,633,000 | 7,626,000 | 6,864,000 | 7,242,000 |.......

* Preliminary.

110

t+ Output value for England and Wales.

} Four-year average.

APPENDIX II: WORLD STATISTICS OF THE POTATO

111

POTATOES: PRODUCTION IN SPECIFIED COUNTRIES (1934-35 To 1936-37)
AND VALUE (1934—35)—Continued

PRODUCTION VALUE
(In 1,000 bushels) ($1,000)
CouUNTRY

Average
1925-26 to | 1934-35 1935-36 1936-87 | 1934-385

1929-30

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
WPPONUINE so. Sal 29,325 28,504 Brey 8) 1 © ieee aie ae (eae
I Sk vc. et 13,315 BORG ee 3 ers Catv LS, Fs ee eee St
OM SIR a Gl Re 13,557 16,993 ‘Ae 0) Tn RO eR
Estimated Southern

Hemisphere Total..... 4£32:000'} <F86;000 1 SEZ 000 Tk. oes loses
Estimated World Total. | 6,745,000 | 7,762,000 | 6,984,000; ........ ).......

Production figures refer to the year of harvest.

Harvests of the Northern

Hemisphere are combined with those of the Southern Hemisphere which immedi-
ately follow; thus for 1934-35 the crop harvested in the Northern Hemisphere
countries in 1934 is combined with the Southern Hemisphere harvest which
begins late in 1934 and ends early in 1935.

IF-M

MDGNVO
MGMN
NASGA

ZE
*(In the

been seen by C.M.W

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INDEX

Acosta, J. de, 20

Adaptability of potato, 11, 16, 17

Adenes Virginiani, Lauremberg’s name
for potato, 66

Africa, potato in, 9, 89

Ainslie, W., 90

Ainu, potato known to, 87

Algonkian dialects, as aid to study of
Virginia languages, 32

Alpaca, concentrated in highlands, 14

Ammann, P., 66, 103

Anderson, J., on potato in Yiinnan, 77

Apfel, Japanese term for potato, 83

Aptos tuberosa, confusion of potato
with, 19, 33; twekahoe as Indian name
for, 33; in Virginia, 32-35

Appura, Japanese term for potato, 80

Arabs, potato not important to, 69, 88

Arachidna Theoph., confused with po-
tato, 42, 48, 52

Archaeological evidence for
in Chile, 22; in Peru, 22-24

Archer, G., mentions ground-nuts in
Virginia, 34

Argemone, compared with potato, 22

Argentina, tuber-bearing species of
Solanum in, 12, 13, 16, 17

Arizona, Solanum Jamesii in, 13

Artichoke, in Massachusetts, 33; in
Virginia, 36

Asia, potato not accepted in, 69

Asparagus, in Virginia, 36

Australia, trade in potatoes from New
Zealand to, 99

Austria, potato in, 29, 45, 66

Aversion to potato, in China, 69; in
Europe, 11, 68; see also Prejudice

potato

Bacon, F., on potato, 56

Baker, J. G., 12
Ball, J. D., 78
Banks, J., confuses openauk with

potato, 29; on introduction of potato
to England, 28, 29

Bareisho no hana, 82

Batata, 70, 78

Battata, 19; virginiana, Clusius’ name
for potato, 46

Bauhin, C., 41, 52, 95, 102, 104;
identifies openauk with potato, 31;
introduces potato to France, 61

Beckmann, J., 108

Benzoni, G., 21

Berggren, J., 88

Berneker, E. K., 104

Best, E., 97-101

Bishop, I. B., 83

Bitter, G., 14 }

Bogle, G., introduces potato to Tibet, 84

Bolivia, tuber-bearing species of So-
lanum in, 12-14, 16

Bougainville, 16

Bradley, R., 58

Brazil, potato grown in, 26; tuber-
bearing species of Solanum in, 12, 17

od vehi J., on ground-nuts in Virginia,

Bretschneider, E., 70, 75, 78

Bricegno, Diego Davile, on value of.
potato, 40

Brinton, D. G., 32

British Columbia, introduction of po-
tato into, 39

Brown, E., 77

Browne, P., 27

Brushfield, T. N., 34, 55

Buchan, advocates potato, 57

Buckland, advocates potato, 54, 57

Biirger, O., 26

Bukasov, S. M., 12-14, 17

Burma, potato in, 93; source of potato
in China, 78

Burt, E. W., 75

Butler, Nathaniel, 34; sends potato to
Virginia, 35

Cabbage, cultivated in China, 69

. Calendar of Sakhalin, 87

Camel, G. J., 95

Campbell, W., 70, 78

Candolle, A. de, 25, 29-31, 34, 36, 43,

_ 62, 60

Cardano, G., 22

Carrot, in Virginia, 36

Cassada root, introduced to Virginia, 35

Castrén, M. A., 86

Caucasus, potato in, 86

Cavendish, T., finds potato in Chile, 24

Celebes, potato in, 96

Central Asia, potato in, 84-86; as
source for potato in China, 79

Chamberlin, R. V., 37

Champier, low opinion of potato, 61

Chan yii, as possible name for potato, 76

Chibcha, maize the principal food of,
20; potato known to, 20

Ch’ien Lung period, potato advocated
by emperor, 72; potato in Tibet
mentioned in, 84

Chih wu ming shih tu k’ao, 71, 73, 105

Chile, arguments for origin of potato in,
24, 25; dried potatoes found in graves
in, 22; potato cultivated by natives
in, 24; Solanum Maglia wild in, 17-
19; tuber-bearing species of Solanum
in, 12-14, 17, 18

Chiloe Island, as center of origin of
potato, 12

126

INDEX

China, potato in, 9, 69-79
Chinese, many plants adopted by, 69;
prefer rice to potato, 70, 77
hinese gazetteers, potato mentioned
in, 71, 72, 74, 75
Chromosomes, ‘numbers of, in potato,
Chufio, method of making, 19-22;
Solanums used for making of, 16, 17
Chu shan hsien chih, on potato flour, 74
Cieca, Peter, see Cieza e Léon
Cieza de Léon, 40; ganas potato,
19, 20, 29; gives first documentary
evidence for potato, 19; papas of,
identified by Clusius, 43, 45
Clos, 64
Clusius, C., 13, 44, 46, 47, 60, 61, 64,
103, 107; botanical description of
potato by, 43; not critical of Hariot,
31; did not get potato in England, 80;
did not recognize economic im
tance of potato, 65; first recelves
csnaes 29, 41, 45; great man in
istory of potato, 9, 65; mistakes
potato for arachidna of Theophrastus,
42; potato known to, prior to i
introduction to England, 47; pro
gates potato in Germany, 66; no re er
ence to Gerard, 48; thinks openauk
little different from potato, 31;
visited England, 48, Spain, 41
Cobo, B., on preparation of potatoes by
natives, 20, 21; on ‘value of potato, 40
Cocks, Richard, on sweet potato in
Japan, 80
Colombia, potato found in, 19; tuber-
g species of Solanum in, 12, 16
Combles, de, on potato in France, 62
Commerson, P., 16
Cook, Captain, 97, 98, 100
Cooking of potatoes, methods of, 20, 22,
38, 42, 47, 56, 57, 59, 61-63, 72
Cook, 0. F..
Corréa, M. P., 26
Cotton, not native to Peru, 14
Couling, S., 78
Crawfurd, J., 95
Crevost, C. and Lamarié, C., 94
Crooke, W., 91
Cultivation ‘of potato, methods of, 56-59,
69, 76, 77, 92, 93, 99-101
Cunningham James, early reference to
potato in China, 70, 71.
Cushing, F. H., 38
Cuvier, G., 63
Cytological analysis of potato, 12

Dalgado, D. G., 90

Dalgado, S. R., 90

Darwin, Charles, Solanum Maglia found
in Chile by, 17

Das, S. C., 85

127

David, A. A., 10, 78

— H. R., on potato in China, 70,
Davis, J. F., on potato in China, 69
De Bry, 28

Denmark, potato in, 68

Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles, 60,

103

Dictionnaire universel ... , 55

Diderot, D. and D’Alembert, J., on
potato, 62

Diffusion of potato, to Asia, 9, 70; to
Austria, 66; to China, 70, 71, 74, 78,
79; to England, 28, 40, 46-48, 50-53,
55; to Europe, 9, 29, 40-45, 52; to
France, 59-61; to Germany, 43, 66;
to India, 9, 79, 90, 91; to Ireland, 28,
29; to Italy, 4i, 42: to Japan, 80, 81;
to New Zealand, 97, 98, 100; to North
America, 28, 31, 34-36; to Norway,
67, 68; to Siberia, 86; in South
America, 19, 24-26; to Spain, 40, 41,
47, no record of, 40; to Sweden, 68;
to Tibet, 84; to West Indies, 27, 34, 35

Dilock, Prince of Siam, 94

Dioscorea, indigenous to China, 70;
potato compared with, 72, confused
with, 79

Distribution of potato, early, 19

Divination by means of potato, 21

Dodonaeus, illustrations of, used by
Johnson, 43

Drake, Francis, finds potato in south-
ern Chile, 24; as importer of potato
to England, 52, 54, 55, 66

Duhamel du Monceau, i. L., 62, 103

Dunal, 16

Durante, C., 103

Dutch, import potato to China, 78, to
Dutch Indies, 95, to Japan, 79-81

Duyvendak, J. J. be on Dutch impor-
tation of potato to Formosa, 78

Economic ps eae of potato, not
great in China, 69-71, in tropical
regions, 89; recent in Europe, 41;
recognized in France, 62; recognized
by Takano, 83; by Wu Ch’i-chiin, 72

Ecuador, potato found in, 19; tuber-
ang species of Solanum in, 12-14,

Edkins, J., on introduction of potato
to China, 79

Ehrmann, T. F., 89

— die van Nederlandsch-Indié,

England, potato in, 46-48, 50, 55, 56,
58, 62

Englebrecht, T. H., 92

Erd apfel, Japanese term for potato, 83
Espolox, Samish name for potato, 39
E. W., on sweet potato, 36

128

Famine, potato in connection with,
40, 57, 62-64, 66, 67, 72, 76, 82, 94

Fan shu, doubtful as Chinese name for
potato, 72, 84, 105

Favier, A., 75

Ficalho, de, 89

Figs, introduced to Virginia, 35

Fiji, potato in, 96

Findlay, A., 56

Fiske, J.,

Flatulency, caused by potato, 43, 61, 63

Foreman, J., 95

Formosa, potato in, 70, brought by
Dutch, 7

France, annual harvest of potato in,
65; potato in, 59-65, regions of, 60—
64; potato varieties known in, 10;
slow in adopting potato, 62; Solanum
Commersonii introduced, 16

Frederick the Great, forces potato culti-
vation, 67

Frederick William, Great Elector, pro-
motes potato culture, 66

Frézier, A. F., 103

Fryer, J., 91

Fujimaki, Y., 81

Furneaux, Captain, planted potato in
New Zealand, 98

Gait, E. A., 93

Garet, J., illustrates potato, 43; inter-
pnd between Clusius and Gerard,

Gent, J. W., advocates potato, 57

Gerard, A., 86

Gerard, John, 13, 30, 48, 103; criticized
by Mitchell, 50; describes potato, 28,
46; did not know Clusius, 47; did not
receive potato from Clusius, 48, from
Drake, 54, from Raleigh, 54; does not
confuse openauk with potato, 30, 47,
50; does not mention Hariot, 30, 47,
50; honesty of, 51, 53; identification
of potato confirmed by Clusius, 47;
importance of for potato history, 47;
knowledge of Virginia, 53; on nomen-
clature of potato, 46, 47; not men-
tioned by Clusius, 48; portrait of, 47-
49, 51; potato grown by, 46, 50,
recommends potato, 29, 47

Gerard, W. R., on Indian plants, 33

Germany, potato in, 66, 67; Solanum
Commersonii cultivated in, 17

Gilmore, M. R., 33

Glycine apios, illustrated, 33

Goltz, C. von der, 88

Goodrich, L. C., on potato in China, 71,
Formosa, 78, India, 90

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 34

Graafland, N., 96

Gray, A., 32, 36

Greece, potato in, 68

Grierson, G. A., 107

AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Ground-nuts, in Virginia, 34; see also
Aptos tuberosa

Gunther, Erna, 38

Gurdon, P. R. T., 93

Guttenberg, K. von, 67

Halicacabus glandifer,
name for potato, 66

Handbook of Kenya Colony, 89

Hardy, O., 22

Hariot, T., 18, 31, 34; description of
openauk, 28, 29; did not bring open-
auk to England, 30; did not bring
potato to England, 47; not important
for history of potato, 47; potato not
known to, 36, 55

Hart, V. C., on potato in Szechwan, 76

Hastings, Warren, introducer of potato
to central Asia, 84, to India, 90, 91

Hawkins, as importer of potato to
Ireland, 55

Haxthausen, Baron von, 88

Hazlett, C. A., on introduction of
potato in New Hampshire, 37

Healthful properties of potato, 27, 41,
47, 61, 63

Heckel, E., 18, 31, 40, 64, 65

Helianthus tuberosus, confused with
potato, 60, 103, 104, 107, 108;
introduced to France, 60; J. Parkinson
on, 56

Henry, A., 75

Lauremberg’s

~ Hertzberg, P. H., 67

Heyne, M., 108, 109

Historye of Bermudaes, authorship of, 34

Hokkaid6, potato in, 81, 82

Ho lan shu, Chinese term for potato,
78, 81, 105

Hooker, J. D., 85, 93

Hosie, A., 75, 86

Hsiao i ting chih, on introduction of
potato to China, 74

Hsi fan, grow potato, 77

Huaca, illustrated, 23, 24

Hua ching, 83

Hiigel, Baron, introducer of potato to
Kashmir, 85

Hughes, W., reports potato in West
Indies, 27, 103

Hulbert, H. B., 83

Humboldt, A. de, 18, 55

Hummel, A. W., 76

Hybridization of potato with other
Solanums, 14, 16, 18

Illustrations of potato, 9, 43-51, 61, 71,
3

Inca, agriculture of, not indigenous, 14;
learn potato cultivation from Peru,
25; potato known to, 11, 14

Indians, adoption of potato by, 37-39

India, potato in, 90

Indo-China, potato in, 94

INDEX

Institute of Plant Industry, see U.S.S.R.
Academy of Agricultural Sciences

Ipomoea batatas, appeared before potato
in Europe, 107; described by Gerard,
46; in Japan, 82; introduced to
Virginia before potato, 35; potato
compared with, 72, confused with,
71, 82, 107

I pu fang wu liieh chi, on Chan yii, 76

Ireland, potato in, 54, 58, 62

Irrigation, Inca culture based on, 14;
not practiced in Collao of Peru, 19;
of potato in South America, 16

Italy, potato in, 41, 42

Ito, T., 80

Iwasaki, T., 81, 82

Iwzepozuk, 16

Jack, R. L., 75

Jackson, B. D., 31, 47, 48, 51-53

Jagatara imo, Japanese term for potato,
79-81, 105

Jamaica, potato imported into, 27

Japan, potato in, 9, 69, 80—83

Jarilow, A., 86

Java, potato in, 95

Jefferson, T., on potato, 36

Jerusalem Artichoke, 56-58

Johnson, E., 67

Johnson, G. W., 54, 58, 91

Johnson, Thomas, 43, 51, 52

Kaibara, I., 82, 105

aan rits! camp a derivation of word, 32;
descri by Hariot, 30

Kalm, P., 33, 37

Kannenberg, K., 88

Kansei period, potato introduced to
Hokkaido during, 82

Kansho, Japanese term for sweet
potato, 82.

Kashmir, potato in, 85

Kawahara, Shédayt, 82

Keiché period, potato known during, 80

Klautke, P., 83

Kluge, F., 108

Kono, G., 81

Konrad von Megenberg, 109

Korea, potato in, 83

Kurimoto, Tansha, 83

La Bissachére, de, 94

Langen, Johann Georg von, 67

Lan, J. J., 94

Latcham, R. E., 18

Lathyrus amphicarpus Dorth., potato
mistaken for, 42

seorenbere, P., names for potato, 66

Laurence, J., on method of cultivating
potato, 58

L’Ecluse, Charles de, see Clusius, C.

Lefroy, J. H., a

129

Lemon, introduced to Virginia, 35

Leningrad Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, 12

Lenz, R., 25, 107

Leprosy, potato as cause of, 10, 52, 61

Lescarbot, introduced Helianthus tube-
rosus to France, 60

Lévi, S., 85

Liétard, A., 77

Li Han-yiian, 76

Linnaeus, 102

Liquors, made from potato, 64, 68

Llama, concentrated in highlands, 14

— illustrations of, used by Johnson,

Local introductions of potato, 37, 67, 78
Locro, name for cooked potato, 20
pee git pete uu
uis » promoter of tato i
France, 64 Peter ts.
Lubentsov, A. G., 83

Machatschek, F., 86

Magazzini de Vallombrosa, on trans-
Te of potato from Spain to Italy,

Mainwaring, G. B., 85

Maize, Gerard on, 53; not grown in
elevated Collao of Peru, 20; men-
tioned in Peruvian prayer, 21; not
native to Peru, 14; principal food of
Chibcha, 20; route of, to China, 79;
universal diffusion of, 69 :

Makino, T., 81

Malaya, potato in, 95, 96

recy BES age ponte in, 9, 95, 96
alcolm, John, introducer of po

Prag 88, 107 ee
a ling shu, Chinese term for
71, 81, 83, 86, 105 Pere

Malla, Indian term for S. Maglia, 17

Manchuria, potato in, 75

Maori, potato important to, 9, 97;
traditions concerning potato, 100

Markham, C. R., 19-21, 34, 84

Martin, K., 96

Martyr, Peter, 19

Mason, F., 93

Mattioli, P. A., 103

Maybon, C. B., 94

Melanesia, potato in, 9, 96

Merrill, E. D., on potato in the Philip-
pines, 95

Merzbacher, G., 88

Mexico, potato not cultivated in, before
Spanis x sn 19; tuber-bearing
species of Solanum in, 12, 13, 17, 24;
wild potato in, 17

Meyer-Liibke, W., 102, 107

Miao-tse, potato important to, 75, 94

Pena as spreaders of potato,

130

Mitchell, W. S., 51, 52

Mohammedans in India, use potato, 91

Moellendorff, F. von, 77

Molina, C. de, 21

Moluccas, potato in, 96

Mongolia, potato in, 86

Montenegro, potato in, 68

Moray, name for dried potato, 21

Morgan, E. D., ascribes Historye of
Bermudaes to Nathaniel Butler, 34

Morfa, P., 21

Mukerji, N. G., 92

Near East, potato in, 9, 86

Nepal, potato in, 85

New Guinea, potato in, 96

New Hampshire, introduction of potato
to, 36, 37

New Zealand, potato in, 9, 97-101

Nightshade, relationship of, to potato,
9, 52,. 57

Nomenclature of the potato, African,
89; Algonkian, 38, 36; Arabic, 107;
Chinese, 71, 72, 74-78, 83, 105, 109;
Choctaw, 86; Danish, 103; Dutch,
103; in languages of East Indies, 106;
English, 103; French, 41, 62, 102;
Gerard on, 46, 47; German, 41, 103,
104, 108, 109; Gypsy, 105; in lan-
guages of India, 106, 107; Italian,
41, 102; Japanese, 80-83, 105, 106;
Lolo, 77; Malayan, 96, 106; Persian,
88, 107; Portuguese, 102; Rumanian,
104; Samish, 39; scientific, 102;
Slavic languages, 68, 104; South
American, 102; Spanish, 102, 104;
Swedish, 103; Tibetan, 85, 105

Norembega, name for Virginia, 28, 31,
46, 53

North America, potato in, 28-39

Norway, potato in, 67, 68

Okeepenauk, derivation of word, 32;
described by Hariot, 30; identified as
Lycoperdon solidum or Pachyma cocos,
32

Oliver, P., 16

Oliver, S. P., 89

Ono, R., 82

Openauk, derivation of word, 32;
described by Hariot, 28, 30, 31;
identified as Apios tuberosa (or
Glycine apios L.), 32; name for potato,
29; not potato, 30-32, 34; of Virginia,
13; a wild plant, 32

Opuntia ficus indica, Gerard on, 53

Orando imo, Japanese term for potato,
81, 105

Orange, introduced to Virginia, 35

Ord, G., 19, 31, 32

Origin ‘of potato, botanical, 12-18;

geographical, 43°433,°17; 18, 24, 25,

AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Otsuki, Gentaku, 83
Otto, Prince of Bavaria, 68
Oviedo y Valdez, G. F., 20

Pallegoix, J. B., 93

Papa, Peruvian name for potato, 19-22,
29, 31, 40, 47, 95; used by Spaniards
for all tuber-bearing Solanums, 25,

Papas amargas, Spanish name _ for

olanum Commersonii, 31

Papa-sara, Peruvian name for maize, 21

Papas peruanorum, Clusius’ term for
potato, 41, 48, 45, 48, 54

Papaya, introduced ‘to Virginia, 35

Parker, A. C., 33

Parker, E. H., 75

Parker, E. L.. 87, 38 :

Parkinson, J., on Helianthus tuberosus,
55, 56; on potato, 56, 103

Parmentier, A. A., 9, 103; on Olivier
de Serres, 60; scientific studies of
potato, 63, 64, 65

Paske-Smith, M., 80

Pear, introduced to Virginia, 35

Peltandra alba, tuckahoe as Indian name
for, 33

-Penauk, Indian suffix, 30, 31

Pén ts’ao kang mu, potato not men-
tioned in, 70

Pepper, introduced to Virginia, 35

Persia, potato in, 79, 88

- Peru, archaeological evidence for potato

in, 23; center of origin of potato, 18;
many varieties of potato grown in, 11;
potato grown by natives, 19-21, in
Collao region of, 19, in Cuzco, 22, in
Quito, 22; tuber-bearing species of
Solanum in, 12-14, 16, 17

Peruvian potato varieties, illustrated, 9

Philippines, as source for potato in
China, 78; potato in, 69, 95; Span-
iards introduce potato to, 9

Phillips, H., 12, 18, 29, 31, 54, 56-58, 90

Phytophthora, vulnerability of potato
to, 14

Pickering, C., 25, 38

Pigs, potato as food for, 42, 57, 58

Pineapple, contrasted with potato, 9;
introduced to Virginia, 35

P’ing li hsien chih, potato in new edi-
tion of, 74

Pinochet, A. C., 24, 25

Pisum sativum, cultivated in China, 69

Plantain, introduced to Virginia, 35

Plantin, printer of Antwerp, 48, 45

Poison in potatoes, how removed, 38, 94

Poisonous properties of potato, 9, 57,
64, 94; see also Leprosy, Nightshade

Polynesia, potato in, 9, 96-101

Pomegranate, introduced to Virginia, 35

Population increase, factors in, 10;
potato as cause of, 10

INDEX

Portugal, inactive in propagating po-
tato, 9

Portuguese, introducers of potato to
India, 90

Potato not important, regions where,

9, 69, 94

“Potato of Virginia,” 13, 28, 29, 46, 53

Potosi, potato transported to, 20, 22, 40

Pottery, potato-form in, 22-24

Pozdnieev, D., 75

Prayer for good harvest, Peruvian, 21

Prejudice against potato, in China, 69,
70; in England, 56—58; in France, 61,
62, 64; in India, 90; in Scotland, 58;
see also Aversion

Prentice, Thomas, planted potatoes in
Scotland, 58

Preparation of potato, 19-21, 38, 94

Preservation of potato, 19-22

Price of potatoes, in China, 77; in
England, 56

Prostov, E. V., 12-14, 16, 17

Proyart, 89

Purchas, S., 24, 34, 35

Putsche, 55

Quality of potato, factors in, 11, 21

Raleigh, Walter, 28, 52-55

Ramsay, H., 85

Range of potato, altitudes of, 10, 11, 17,
22, 24, 42, 81-83, 85, 92; geographical,
14, 16, 68, 82, 86, 100

Ratzel, F., 70

Reproductions of potato in pottery,
22, 24; illustrated,'23, 24

Richtofen, F. von, 71, 86

Robbins, W., Harrington, J. and Freire-
Marreco, B., 38

Rocher, E., 77

Rockhill, W. W., 85, 86

Roe, Thomas, 91

Ross, J., 83

Roux, S. J., 97

Rowland, W. M., defends Gerard, 51

Roze, E., 31, 34, 40, 44, 45, 46, 58, 60, 62

Rumezx crispus, some wild potatoes re-
semble, 17

Russia: Department of Agriculture,
Industries of Russia, 86, 88

Russia, hybrids of Solanum Rybinii
grown in, 16; potato in, 68; Solanum
nig 4 studied in, 17; studies of potato
in,

Rydberg, P. A., 14

Ryukyu imo, Japanese term for potato,
82

Sabine, J., 18

Safford, W. E., 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, 24, 27,
33, 36, 40, 54, 66

Sakhalin, potato in, 87

131

Sakinishi, S., on potato in Japan, 81-83

Sandberg, G., 85

Sanders, T. W., 69

Sato, S., 81

Saunders, R., 84

Savina, F. M., 94

Schlechtendhal, 17

Schiibeler, F. C., 68

Schweinfurth, G., 89

Scotland, potato in, 58, 62

Scott, D., introduces potato to Assam, 93

Seemann, B., 96

Seler, E., 24

Serres, Olivier de, 59; on potato, 59, 102

Shirai, M., 81, 83

Siam, potato in, 98, 94

Siberia, potato in, 86

Sieroshevskii, V. L., 86

Sifan, see Hsi fan

Sikkim, potato in, 85

Silvestre, A. F. de, 64

Sivry, Philippe de, illustrates potato,
43, 44; receives potato from Italy, 41;
sends potato to Clusius, 41, 48, 45, 66

Smith, Captain John, 34, 35

Smith, F. P., error regarding potato
in Pen Ts’ao, 70; on Dutch importa-
tion of potato to China, 78

Smith, H. H., on potato cultivated by
Menomini, 38

Smith, J., on ground-nuts, 34

Solanum, acaule, 17; Ajanhuiri, 12,
16; andigenum, 12, 18, 16; anti-
poviczii, 17; bayacense, 12, 16; cardio-
phyllum, 12; Chocclo, 12; Chuga, 16;
collinum, 12; colombianum, 12; Com-
mersonii, 12, 13, 16, 17; cuencanum,
12; curtilobum, 12, 16; demissum, 12,
17; esculentum tuberosum, Ammann’s
name for potato, 66; etuberosum, 12;
Fendleri, 12, 25, 38; fernandezianum,
12; goniocalyx, 12; immite, 12; James-
ti, 12, 18; Juzepezukii, 12, 16, 17;
Kesselbrenneri, 12, 16; Maglia, 12, 13,
17, 18, attempted crossing with
Solanum tuberosum, 18; mamilliferum,
12;Mandoni, 13; oxycarpum,12; pauci-
florum, 12; phureja, 12,16; riobambense,
12; Rybinti, 12, 16; squamulosum,
12; stentonum, 12; stoloniferum, 12;
suaveolens, 12; tenuifilamentum, 12;
tuberosum Esculentum, Bauhin’s name
for potato, 52; utile, 12; Valenzuelae,
12; Vavilovii, 17; verrucosum, 12

Solanums, domesticated varieties, 12-
14, 16; tuber-bearing species of, 12—14

South America, agricultural expeditions
to, 14; history of potato in, 19-26;
map of potato varieties in, 15

Southwell, Robert, 28, 29

Spain, inactive in propagating potato,
9; potato cultivated in, 42

132

Speck, F. G., 36; discusses openauk, 32,
33; on Indian food plants, 32, 33

Spitzer, L., 108

Ssu ti ch’ing wen chien, 84

Strachey, W., 35

Strettell, G. W., 93

Struys, John, earliest reference to
potato in China, 70; finds potato in
Formosa, 70, 71, 78

Stuart, G. A., 79

Stuart, W., 91, 105

Stuhlmann, F., 89

Sturtevant, E. L., 25, 38

Sugar cane, introduced to Virginia, 35

Sui ching t’un chih, 75, 76

Sumatra, potato in, 95

Sung Ch’i, 76

Sung ch’i hsien chih, earliest reference
to potato in China, 71

Surville, de, introducer of potato to New
Zealand, 97

Sutton, A., 18

Sweden, potato in, 68

Swettenham, F. A., 95, 106TH

Switzerland, potato in, 59

Syria, potato in, 88

TY OF |
Tabernaemontanus, D. J. Rye

Tafel, A., on potato in China, 74, 78

Takano, C., on potato in Japan, 80, 83

Tanaka, S., 80

Tanaka, T., on potato in Japan, 80, 81

Taratoufli, early Italian name for potato,
29, 41, 102

Tenwa period, potato used during, 82

Thomson, G. M., on potato in New
Zealand, 97, 99, 100

Thomson, T., 93

Thunberg, C. P., on potato in Japan, 80

Tibet, Chinese influence on agriculture
of, 84; potato in, 84, 86

Tibetans in China use potato, 75

Timor, potato in, 96

Ting ytian Ving chih, on potato, 72

Tiswaw, Indian name for ground-nut, 34

Tobacco, introduction to China, 78;
mentioned by Gerard, 54; universal
diffusion of, 69

Topinambour, see Helianthus tuberosus

Tregear, E., 106

Trumbull, I. H., 31, 32

Tschudi, J. J. von, 21, 22, 40

Tuckahoe, derivation of word, 33

Tung a hsien chih, on potato, 72

Turgot, attempts to introduce potato
in France, 62

Turkestan, potato in, 86

Turkey, potato in, 88

Turmas de tierra, 19, 20

Turner, S., 84

£ LIBRARY OF

AUG 22 \awa

AMERICAN PLANT MIGRATION

Uhle, M., 25

United States of America, tuber-bearing
species of Solanum in, 12

Uruguay, tuber-bearing species of So-
lanum in, 12, 1

U.S.8.R. Academy of Agricultural Sci-
ences, Institute of Plant Industry, 14

Varieties of potato, 10, 14, 15, 17, 40,
48, 60, 61, 72, 75, 77, 81, 85, 86;
Peruvian, illustrated, 9

Vaschalde, H., on Olivier de Serres, 59

Vavilov, N. I., 12-14

Venezuela, potato introduced to, 25, 26;
prehistoric potato culture in, 25

Vial Pyo77.

Vigne, G. T., 85

Ville, J. B. de, 61

Virginia, native languages of, 32;
potato of, see “‘Potato of Virginia’;
potato not native to, 52, planted in,
35, 36, 52

dell, L. A., 84
lace, A. R., 96
g Ch’iian, 75
Kuo-ting, authority on Chinese
yyRetsculture, 71
att, G., 40, 90, 91, 93
Waymouth, George, mentions ground-
nut in Virginia, 34
Weigand, F. L. K., 103

~ Weir, H., 56

‘‘West Indie potatoe,’’ as name for sweet
potato in Virginia, 36

West Indies, potato in, 27

White, J. C., 86

Wight, W. F., 14

Wild potato, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 38; not
found in United States, 32

Wilken, G. A., 96

Willkomm, H. M. and Lange, J., 42, 43

Willoughby, C. C., on artichoke and
ground-nut, 33

Wilson, E. H., 76

Wittmack, L., 13, 17, 32, 34, 45, 50, 52

Wittmann, J., 68

Worlidge, advocates potato, 58

Wu Ch’i-chiin, botanical description of
potato, 71; illustrates potato, 73

Wyatt, Francis, 35

Yakut, potato known to, 86

Yang, as legendary introducer of
potato to China, 74, 75

Yang yti, Chinese term for potato, 71,
72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 105

Yang Yt-ch’un, as introducer of potato
to China, 74

Yao Ming-hui, 86

Yoma, Chibcha name for potato, 20

Zoller, H., 96

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