An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians,: Written in ...

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L<x~ *&$>

UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE
DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

AN ACCOUNT

OF THE

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

OP TUB

MODERN EGYPTIANS,

WRITTEN IN EGYPT DURING THE YEARS

1833,-34, and-35,

PARTLY FROM NOTES MADE DURING A FORMER VISIT TO
THAT COUNTRY IN THE YEARS 1825.-36,-27, AND-28.

By EDWARD WILLIAM LANE.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I. *

LONDON:
CHARLES KNIGHT & Co., 22, LUDGATE STREET.

MDCCCXXXVI.

OXFORD

6 APR 1999

LONDON:

Primtio by William Clowks and Sons,

14, Charing Cioaf.

I

PREFACE.

Cairo, 1835.
During a former visit io this country, undertaken

chiefly for the purpose of studying the Arabic language
in its most famous school, I devoted much of my atten-
tion to the manners and customs of the Arab inhabi-
tants ; and in an intercourse of two years and a half with
this people, soon found thai all the information which I
had previously been able to obtain respecting them was
insufficient to be of much use to the student of Arabic
literature, or to satisfy the curiosity of the general
reader. Hence I was induced to cover some quires of
paper with notes on the most remarkable of their
usages, partly for my own benefit, and partly in the
hope that I might have it in my power to make some of
my countrymen better acquainted with the domiciliated
classes of one of the most interesting nations of the
world, by drawing a detailed picture of the inhabitants
of the largest Arab city. The period of my first visit
to this country did not, however, suffice for the accom-

a2

IV PREFACE.

plishment of this object, and for the prosecution of ray
other studies ; and I relinquished the idea of publish-
ins: the notes which I -had made on the modern in-
habitants : but, five years after my return to England,
those notes were shown to some members of the Com-
mittee of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know-
ledge, at whose suggestion, the Committee, interested
with the subjects of them, and with the novelty of some
of their contents, engaged me to complete and print
them. Encouraged by their approbation, and relying
upon their judgment, I immediately determined to fol-
low their advice, and, by the earliest opportunity, again
departed to Egypt. After another residence of more
than a year in the metropolis of this country, and half
a year in Upper Egypt, I have now accomplished, as
well as I am able, the task proposed to me *.

It may be said, that the English reader already pos-

* Jt gives me much pleasure to find, that, while I hare been
attempting to preserve memorials of the manners and customs of
the most polished modern Arab people, one of my learned friends
(M. Fulgence Fresnel) has been occupied, with eminent success,
in rescuing from oblivion many interesting notices of the history
of the early Arabs, and that another (Mr. Wilkinson) has been
preparing to impart to us an account of the private life, manners
&c, of the Ancient Egyptians.

PREFACE. V

sesses an excellent and ample description of Arab man-
ners and customs, in Dr. Russell's account of the people
of Aleppo. I will not forfeit my own claim to the
reputation of an honest writer, by attempting to detract
from the just merits of that valuable and interesting
work ; but must assert, that it is, upon the whole, rather
an account of Turkish than of Arab manners ; and that
neither the original Author, nor his brother to whom
we are indebted for the enlarged and much improved
edition, was sufficiently acquainted with the Arabic Ian-
guage to scrutinize some of the most interesting subjects
of inquiry which the plan of the work required them to*
treat : nor would their well-known station in Aleppo, or
perhaps their national feelings, allow them to assume
those disguises which were necessary to enable them to-
become familiar with many of the most remarkable
religious ceremonies, opinions, and superstitions, of the
people whom they have described. Deficiencies in their
remarks on these subjects are the only faults of any
importance that I can discover in their excellent and
learned work*.

* Among the memoirs in " the great French work 1 ' on Egypt
is one entitled "Essai stir les moeurs <les habitans modernes de
l'Egypte ;" but its author appears to me to have fallen into an
error of considerable magnitude, in applying, to the Egyptians in

VI PREFACE.

I have been differently circumstanced. Previously
to my first visit to this country, I acquired some know-
ledge of the language and Mtefatore of the Arabs ; and

general, observations which are, ia truth, for the most part descrip-
tive of the manners and customs of their naturalized rulers, the
MemlcK/ks. It is probable that the Egyptians in some degree
imitated, when they were able to do so, the habits and customs of
this oJa-,s : I may, however, venture to affirm, that the essay- here
alluded to does not convey a true notion of their present moral
and social state. Its author, moreover, shows himself to have
been often extremely careless both in his observations and in-
quiries: this is particularly evident in his singular misstatement
of the correspondence of French and Mohhammadan hours, and
in the first two pages (in the 8vo. edition) of the section on public
fetes. 3Ie has given many just philosophical observations ; bat
these occupy too large a proportion of a memoir scarcely exceed-
ing one third of the extent of the present work. To show that
these remarks are not made in an invidious spirit, I most willingly
express my high admiration of other parts of " the great work"
(especially the contributions of M. Jomard), relating to subjects
which have alike employed my mind and pen, and upon which I
shall probably publish my observations. — Burckhardt's " Arabic
Proverbs" and their illustrations convey many notions of remark-
able customs and traits of character of the modern Egyptians ;
but are very far from composing a complete exposition, or, in ev&y
case, a true one ; for national proverbs are bad tests of the mo-
rality of a people. — There is one work, however, which presents
most admirable pictures of the manners and cuMtfns of the
Arabs, and particularly of those of the Egyptians : it is " the
Thousand and One Nights," or Arabian Nights' Entertainments:
i£ the English reader possessed a close translation of it with suf-
ficient illustrative notes, I might almost have spared myself the
labour off the present undertaking.

PREFACE. VU

in a year after my arrival here, I was able to converse,
with the people among whom I was residing, with
tolerable ease. I have associated, almost exclusively,
with Moos'lims, of various ranks in society : I have
Hved as they live, conforming with their general habits ;
and, in order to make them familiar and unreserved to-
wards me on every subject, have always avowed my
agreement with them in opinion whenever my con-
science would allow me, and in most other cases, re-
frained from the expression of my dissent, as well as
from every action which might give them disgust;
abstaining from eating food forbidden by their religion,
and drinking wine, &c. ; and even from habits merely
disagreeable to them ; such as the use of knives and
forks at meals. Having made myself acquainted with
all their common religious ceremonies, I have been able
to escape exciting, in strangers, any suspicion of my
being a person who had no right to intrude among
them, whenever it was necessary for me to witness any
Mohhammadan rite or festival. While, from the dress
which I have found most convenient to wear, I am
generally mistaken, in public, for a Turk, my acquaint-
ances, of course, know me to be an Englishman ; but
I constrain them to treat me as a Moos'lim, by my

Till PREFACE.

freely acknowledging the hand of Providence in the
introduction and diffusion of the Mohhammadan re-
ligion, and, when interrogated, avowing my belief in
the Messiah, in accordance with the words of the
Ckoor-a'n, as the Word of God, infused into the womb
of the Virgin Mary, and a spirit proceeding from Him.
Thus, I believe, I have acquired their good opinion,
and much of their confidence ; though not to such an
extent as to prevent my having to contend with many
difficulties. The Moos'lims are very averse from giving
information on subjects connected with their religion or
superstitions to persons whom they suspect of differing
from them in sentiments ; but very ready to talk on
such subjects with those whom they think acquainted
with them : hence, I have •generally obtained some
slight knowledge, of matters difficult for me thoroughly
to learn, from one of the most lax, and of the least in-
structed, of my friends; so as to be able to draw into
conversation, upon the desired topics, persons of better
information ; and by this mode, I have invariably suc-
ceeded in overcoming their scruples. I have had two
professors of Arabic and of Mohhammadan religion and
law as my regular, salaried tutors ; and, by submitting
to them questions on any matters respecting which I

PREFACE. IX

was in doubt, have authenticated or corrected, and
added to, the information derived from conversation
with my other friends. Occasionally, also, I have ap-
plied to higher authorities; having the happiness to
number among my friends in this city some persons of
the highest attainments in Eastern learning.

Perhaps the reader may not be displeased if I here
attempt to acquaint him more particularly with 'one of
my Moos'lim friends, the first of those above alluded
to; and to show, at the same time, the light in which
he, like others of his country, regards me in my present
situation. — The sheykh Ahh'mad (or seyd Ahh'mad ;
for he is one of the numerous class of shereJfs, or
descendants of the Prophet) is somewhat more than
forty years of age, by his own confession ; but appears
more near to fifty. He is as remarkable in physiog-
nomy as in character. His stature is under the middle
size : his beard, reddish, and now becoming grey. For
many years he has been nearly blind : one of his eyes
is almost entirely closed ; and both are ornamented, on
particular occasions (at least on the two grand annual
festivals), with a border of the black pigment called
kohhl, which is seldom used but by women. . He boasts
his descent not only from the Prophet, but also, from

A 5

-X PBfiFAOE.

a very ceWtfsied samt, Esh-Shafura'wee * ; and bis com-
plexion, which is very fair, support? his assertion* that
his ancestors, for sevens! generations, lured in the north-
western parts of Africa. He obtains his subsistence
from a slender patrimony, ami by exercising the trade
of a bookseller. Partly to profit in this Pectination,
and partly for the sake of society,, or at least to enjoy
some tobacco and coffee, be is a visitor in my house
almost evevy evening.

For several years before be adopted the trade of a
bookseller, which was that of bis father, he pursued mo
other occupation than that of performing in the reU-
gaous ceremonies called. ztitra; which consist in the -re-
petition of the name and attributes* &c>, of God, by a
number of persons, in chorus ; and in such perform-
ances he is still often employed. He was then a
member of the order of the Snndet/yeh duxwee/shnfi,
who are particularly famous for devouring live ««•-
pents; and be is said to have been one of thft-serpantr
naters: hut be did not confine himself to food so eas%
digested. One night, during a meeting of a party of
dnrweefehas of his order, at which their aheykb was
present, my fifend beeame affected wlh.religisus freuty,
* Hiusuotmnwrniy proDounotd, fbrBth ihamaZnea.

.BEEF AGE. XI

seized a tall glass shade which surrounded a candle
placed Mike floor, and ale a large portion of it. The
sheykh and the other dnrwee'shes, looking at him with
astonishment, upbraided him with having broken the
institutes of his order; since the eating of glass was not
among the miracles which they were allowed to per-
form ; and they immediately expelled him. He then
enfcnsd the order of the Ahhmedee'yeh ; and as they,
likewise, never ate glass, he determined not to do so
again. However, soen after, at a meeting of some

9

bmfl n mn of this order, when several SaadWyeh also
were present, he again was seized with frenzy, and,
j— pkig np to a ehandelier, caught hold of one of the
saaatt glass lamps attached to it, and devoured about
half of it, swallowing also the oil and water which it
contained. He was conducted before his Sheykh, to be
nried n»r this offence ; but, on his taking an oath never
In eat glass again, he was neither punished nor expelled
the osder. Notwithstanding this oath, he soon again
gmthttd his propensity to eat a glass lamp ; and a bro-
ther oaunvee'sh, who was present, attempted to do the
ansae ; bat a hnge fragment stuck between the tongue
and palate of this rash person; and my friend had
great txntible to extract it. He was again tried by his

Xll PREFACE.

Sheykh; and, being reproached for having broken his
oath and vow of repentance, he coolly answered, "I
repent again : repentance is good : for He whose name
be exalted hath said, in the Excellent Book, * Verily,
God loveth the repentant'" The Sheykh, in anger,
exclaimed, " Dost thou dare to act in this manner, and
then come and cite the Ckoor-a'n before me?"— and
with this reproof, he ordered that he should be impri-
soned ten days ; after which, he made him again swear
to abstain from eating glass ; and on this condition he
was allowed to Bcmain a member of the Ahhmedee'yeh.
This second oath, he professes not to have broken.—
The person whose office it was to prosecute him related
to me these facts ; and my friend reluctantly confessed
them to be true.

When I was first acquainted with the sheykh Ahh'-
mad, he had long been content with one wife ; but now
he has indulged himself with a second*, who continues
to live in her parents' house : yet he has taken care to
assure me, that he is not rich enough to refuse my
yearly present of a dress. On my visiting him for the
second time during my present residence in this place,

* He professes to have had more than thirty wives in the course
of his life ; but, in saying so, I believe he greatly exaggerates.

PREFACE. XUl

his mother came to the door of the room in which I

was sitting with him, to complain to me of his conduct

in. taking this new wife. Putting her hand within the

door, to give greater effect to her words by proper

action (or perhaps to show how beautifully the palm,

and the tips of the fingers, glowed with the fresh red

dye of the hhen'na), but concealing the rest of her

person, she commenced a most energetic appeal to my

sympathy. — " O Efen'dee ! " she exclaimed, " I throw

myself upon thy mercy ! I kiss thy feet ! I have no

hope but in God and thee ! " " What words are these,

my mistress ? " said I : " what misfortune has befallen

thee ? and what can I do for thee ? Tell me." u This

son of mine," she continued, " this my son Ahh'mad, is

a worthless fellow : he has a wife here, a good creature,

with whom he has lived happily, with God's blessing,

for sixteen years; and now he has neglected her and

me, and given himself up to a second wife, a young,

impudent wench : he lavishes his money upon this

monkey, and others like her, and upon her father and

'mother and uncles and brother and brother's children,

and I know not whom besides, and abridges us, that is,

myself and his first wife, of the comforts to which we

were before accustomed. By the Prophet ! and by thy

•

XIV PBSFAGK.

dear head ! I speak truth* I kiss thy feet, and beg
thee to insist upon his dimming his new wife." — lie

poor man looked a little foolish while his mother was

me from behind the door; and as soon

aa she was gone, promised to da what she desired.
" But," said he, "it is a difficult esse. I was in the
habit of sleeping occasionally in the house of the
brother of die girl whom I have lately taken as my
wife: he is a deck in the employ of 'Abba's Ba/aha.;
and rather more than a year ago, 'Abhe/s Ba/sha seat
for me, and said, * I hear that yon ate often sleeping
in the house of my clerk Mohham'mad. Why do yon
act so? Do you not know that it is Tery improper,
when there are women in tie house ? ' I said, * I am
going to marry his sister. 9 * Then why have yon not
married'her already? ' asked the Bafaha. 'She is only
nine years of age*' 'Is the marriage contract made? '
'No.' 'Why not?' 'I cannot affirnd, at pmaant^to
give the dowry/ * What is the d^ry to be?' 'Ninety
piaster*' ' Hem, then,' said the fiafsha, ' take the
money, and let, the contract be concluded iinmediaidy.'
So yon see I was obliged to many the girl; and I am
afraid that the Ba/nhn will be angry if I divorce her:
but I: will act hxsnch a manner that her heather shall

FKKFACE. XV

insist upon, the dscorce; and then, please God, 1 shall
km m peace Again." — This is a good example of the
comfort of having two wives-

A short time since, upon hie offering me a copy of
the CkooWn, for safe, he thought it necessary to make
•some exenae for his doing so. He remarked, that, by
my oonfaoming with many of the ceremonies of the
Masd\ma>,l tacitly paoffissad myself to be one of ffiom ;
and that it was uummhent upon him to regard me in
the most faronsahle light, which he was the more
willing to do because he knew that J should incur the
displeasure of my King by making an open profession
of the. Mehhammadan faith,, and theseibne could not do
&*> "Tfou give me*" said he, "the salntotion of
'Peace be on you!' and it would be impious in me,
being directly forbidden by my religion, to pronounce
yon an unbeliever; for God, whose name be exalted,
hath, said, c Say not unto Mm who gaeetelh thee with
peace, Thou art not a belieser t ' : therefbm," he added,

* It it a eanuneit bttitf *mong the Egyptians, that eveiy
EuropeantraveUer who visits their country is.an eniiasjuyfrajn bis
King; and it is difficult to convince them that this is not the
esse: to storage to them it the idea of a man's incurring great
JwhleaMjaxyeng^for.tbe
foreign countries and nations.

t Ckoor-a'n, ohapi.hr., tot. Sfi.

XVI PREFACE.

" it is ho sin in me to put into your hands the noble
Ckoor-a'n : but there are some of your countrymen who
will take it in unclean hands, and even sit upon it ! I
beg God's forgiveness for talking of such a thing : far
be it from you to do so : you, praise be to God, know
and observe the command, 'None shall touch it but
those who are clean*' ". — He once sold a copy of the
Ckoor-a'n, on my application, to a countryman of mine,
who, being disturbed, just as the bargain was concluded,
by some person entering the room, hastily put the sacred
book upon the seat, and under a part of his dress, to
conceal it. The bookseller was much scandalized by
this action ; thinking .that my friend was sitting upon
the book, and that he was doing so to show his con-
tempt of it : he declares his belief that he has been
heavily punished by God for this unlawful sale. — There
was only one thing that I had much difficulty in per-
suading him to do during my former visit to this
country; which was, to go with me, at a particular
period, into the mosque of the Hhasaney'n, the reputed
burial-place of the head of El-Hhosey'n, and the most
sacred of the mosques in the Egyptian metropolis. On
my passing with him before one of the entrances of this

* Ckoor-a'n, chap, lvi., ver.78.

PREFACE. XVII

building, one afternoon during the fast of Rum'ada'n,
when it was crowded with Turks, and many of the
principal people of the city were among the congrega-
tion, I thought it a good opportunity to see it to the
greatest advantage, and asked my companion to go in
with me. He positively refused, in the fear of my
being discovered to be an Englishman, which mjght so
rouse the fanatic anger of some of the Turks there as to
expose me to some act of violence. I therefore entered
alone. He remained at the door, following me with his
eye only (or his only eye), and wondering at my auda-
city; but as soon as he saw me acquit myself in the
usual manner, by walking round the bronze screen
which surrounds the monument over the spot where the
head of the martyr is said to be buried, and then put-
ting myself into the regular postures of prayer, he came
in, and said his prayers by my side.

After relating these anecdotes, I should mention, that
the characters of my other acquaintances here are not
marked by similar eccentricities. My attentions to my
visitors have been generally confined to the common
usages of Eastern hospitality; supplying them with
pipes and coffee, and welcoming them to a share of my
dinner or supper. Many of their communications I

XVU1 PREFACE.

have written in Arabic, at tfceir dictation, and
translated, and inserted in the fallowing pages. What
I have principally aimed at, in this work, is correct-
ness ; and I do not scruple to assert, that I am not con-
scious of having endeavoured te render iaterestiag any
matter that I have related by the slightest sacrifice of
truth.

Since writing the above, it has occurred to me, that I
should offer some apology for the unusual mode in which
I have written Arabic words in the following pages.
Had I found it necessary only to insert a few of such
words, already found in die works 1 - of many of my
countrymen, I might have expressed them in the same
manner as most of those authors have done ; writing
" Mahomet "or" Mohammed " for " Mohharn'mad,"
" Koran " for " Ckoor-afn;' " Caliph " for * Khakeifih?
u Sultan » for " SoMn," " Dervise » 4br a DurweJih,"
"JBedeum" for "Bed'awee," " Divan- for "Deemctnl'
" Harem " for " Hhareefm" &c; hut since I have been
obliged to employ a great number of Arabic words*, and
many which I have never seen in European characters
in any former work, I have thought it better to write all
of them according to a particular system that appeals

PREFACE. XIX

to me best calculated to enable an English wader to

proJNMU&ee the* wi& tolerable correctness *. Accord-
ing to this-aysfcem,

a is pronounced as in our word fiarf ;

a', generally as in father ; but sometimes its 80und ap-
proaches to that of a in ball :

ck represents a guttural k : most of the people of the
metropolis of Egypt, and those of some provinces,
cannot pronounce it, and substitute for it a hiatus ;
while in Upper Egypt, the sound of g in give is used
in its stead :

€ is pronounced as in bed :

e f 9 as in there ; *

ee 9 as in bee :

eu as our word eye :

ey 9 as in they:

g f generally as in give ; but in some parts of Egypt, as
in gem* or nearly so :

g& represents a vary guttural g ; the sound produced in
gargling:

hh represents a strong aspirate, very different from our
h: '

* I should remark also, that I have written " Bafsha " instead of
"Pash'a'" in conformity with the pronunciation of the Egyptians.

XX PREFACE.

i is pronounced as in bid :

kh represents a guttural sound like that produced in
expelling saliva from the throat : it approaches nearer
to the sound which I express by hh than to that of Ar ;

o is pronounced as in obey (short) :

o', as in bone :

oo, as in book :

oo\ as in boot :

ow f as in down :

u f as in but.

An apostrophe denotes a guttural sound to which no
letter of our alphabet approximates: it is tike that
which is heard in the bleating of sUlep.

The usual sign of a dueresis is employed to show that
a final e is not mute, but pronounced as that letter
when unaccented in the beginning or middle of a
word.
With regard to the engravings which accompany this

work, I should mention, that they are from drawings

which I have made, not to embellish the pages, but

merely to explain the text

CONTENTS.

i^«

• PAQR

Preface ..•••.!

INTRODUCTION.
The' Country and Climate— Metropolis— Houses-
Population . . . . . 1

CHAPTER I.

Personal Characteristics and Dress of the Moos'lim

Egyptians * .... 29

CHAPTER II. *

Infancy and Easjgr Education • . • 57

CHAPTER III.
Religion and Laws • • • • • 70

CHAPTER IV.

Government . . • • • 129

CHAPTER V.
Domestic Life. (The Higher and Middle Orders) . 161

CHAPTER VI.

Domestic Life— continued. (The Hharee'm) • 193

XX11 CONTENTS,

PAOI

CHAPTER VII.
Domestic life— continued. (The Lower Orders) • 242

CHAPTER VUL
Common Usages of Society • • • • 250

CHAPTER IX.

Language, Literature, and Science •. • • 262

CHAPTER X.

Superstitions. (Genii, Saints, and Durwee'shes) • 283

CHAPTER XI.

Superstitions — continued. (Charms, and Auguration) 3l8

CHAPTER XII.

Magic, Astrology, and Alchymy • • .341

9 CHAPTER XIII.
Character . • • • ^ . 368

I

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Wo.
1. Private Houses in Cairo .

2L- Door of a Private House .

3. Specimens of Lattice-work •

4. Court of a. Private Heat* in Cairo

5. Fountain • • •

6. Pavement of a Doorcka / 'ah .

7. Soof'feh

8. Specimens of Panel-work .

9. Ceiling of a Doorcka"ah •

10. Ceiling of a projecting Window

11. A Cka"ah .

12. Wooden Lock

13* Men of the Middle and Higher Classes
14* Men of the Lower Classes •

15. The Meock'idi

16. An Bye ornamented with Kohhl .

17. Mook'hhooKahs and Mir 7 weds

18. Ancient Vessel and Probe for Kohhl

19. An Eye and Eyebrow ornamented with

ancient mode •

20. Hands and Feet stained with HWna

21. A Tattooed Girl
22* Specimens of Tattooing on the Chin

23. Tattooed Hands and Foot. •

24. A Lady in the Dress worn in private

25. A Lady adorned with the Ckoor's and Suf a, &c.

26. Ladies attired for Riding or Walking

27. Women and Children of the Lower Classes

28. A Woman clad in the Mila'yeh, &c. •

29. Ornamented black Veils • •

30. The 'As'beh

31. A Woman of the Southern Province of Upper Egypt

Kohhl after an

Pafe

• 6

. 8
. 10
. 11

• It

• 13
. 14 ;
. 16
. 17
ibid.
. 18
. 21
. 3*
. 3T

• 3*
. 41
. 42

• 48

ibid.
. 44

• 4T

ibid,
ibid.
. 49

• 50
. 51
. 53
ibid.
. 54

• 55

• 56

XXIV

ILLUSTRATIONS.

No. %

32. Parade previous to Circumcision

33. A School-boy learning the Alphabet

34. Vessels for Ablution •

35. Postures of Prayer. (Part I.).

36. Postures of Prayer. (Part II.)

37. Interior of a Mosque

38. Pipes • • •

39. Coffee-service • •

40. 'AVckee and Mun'ckuds •

41. An Ass equipped in the usual manner

42. Tisht and Ibree'ck .

43. Washing before or after a Meal

44. Koor'see and Seenee'yeh •

45. A Party at Dinner or Supper

46. Water-bottles (Do'rucks) .

47. Water-bottles (Ckool'lehs) .

48. Earthen Mib'khar'ah and China Do'ruck

49. Brass Drinking-cnps

50. Sherbet-cups, or Ckool'lehs .

51. Lantern and Lamp • •

52. Lantern &c. suspended on the occasion

53. Bridal Procession. (Part I.) .

54. Bridal Procession. (Part II.)

55. Mesb/'als . . .

56. The Men'seg

57. Ladies Riding • •

58. Ckoom'ckoom and Mib'khar'ah

59. Books, and Apparatus for Writing

60. Magic Invocation and Charm

61. Magic Diagram and Mirror of Ink

for riding

of a Wedding

.**
. 64

• 77

. 83
. 89
. 93
. 165

• 169
. 170
. 172
. 175
. 176
. 177
. 178
. 183

• ibid.

• 184

• ibid.
. 187
. 188
. 203
. 206

• ibid.
. 211
. 239
. 240
. 257

• 265

• 349

• 351

THE

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

INTRODUCTION.

THE COUNTRY AND CLIMATE — METROPOLIS — HOUSES-
POPULATION.

It is generally observed, that many of the most remark-
able peculiarities in the manners, customs, and character
of a nation, are attributable to the physical peculiarities
of the country. Such causes, in an especial manner,
affect the moral and social state of the modern Egyp-
tians, and therefore here require some preliminary notice :
but it will not as yet be necessary to explain their par-
ticular influences : these will be evinced in many subse-
quent parts of the present work.

The Nile, in its course through the narrow and wind-
ing valley of Upper Egypt, which is confined on each
side by mountainous and sandy deserts, as well as
through the plain of Lower Egypt, is everywhere bor-
dered, excepting in a very few places, by cultivated fields
of its own formation. These cultivated tracts are not
perfectly level, being somewhat lower towards the deserts
than in the neighbourhood of the river. They are in-
terspersed with palm-groves and villages, and intersected
by numerous canals. The copious summer rains which
prevail in Abyssinia and the neighbouring countries

B

2 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

begin to show their effects in $gypt, by the rising of the
Nile, about the period of the summer solstice. By the
autumnal equinox, the river attains its greatest height,
which is always sufficient to fill the canals by which the
fields are irrigated, and, generally, to inundate large
portions of the cultivable land : it then gradually falls
until the period when it again begins to rise. Being
impregnated, particularly during its rise, with rich soil
washed down from the mountainous countries whence it
flows, a copious deposit is annually spread, either by the
natural inundation or by artificial irrigation, over the
fields which border it; while its bed, frtm the same
cause, rises in an equal degree. The Egyptians depend
entirely upon their river for the fertilization of the soil ;
rain being a very rare phenomenon in their country,
excepting in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean;
and as the seasons are perfectly regular, the peasant,
may make his arrangements with the utmost precision
respecting the labour he will have to perform* Some-
times his labour is light; but when it consists in raising,
water for irrigation, it is excessively severe.

The climate of Egypt, during the greater part of the
year, is remarkably salubrious. The exhalations from
the soil after the period of the inundation render the
latter part of the autumn less healthy than the summer
and winter; and cause ophthalmia and dysentery, and
some other diseases, to be more prevalent then than at
other seasons ; and during a period of somewhat move
or less than fifty days (called el-khum'a'&ee'n)^ com-
mencing in April, and lasting throughout May, hot
southerly winds occasionally prevail for about three days
together. These winds, though they seldom cause the
thermometer of Fahrenheit to rise above 95° in Lower

COUNTRY AND CLIMATE. *

Egypt, or, in Upper Egypt, 105°*, are dreadfully oppres-
sive, even to the natives. When the plague visits Egypt,
it is generally in the spring ; and this disease is most
severe in the period of the khumWsee'n. Egypt is also
subject, particularly during the spring and summer, to
Hie hot wind called the 8emoo , m 9 which is still more
oppressive than the khum'a'see'n winds, but of much
shorter duration ; seldom lasting longer than a quarter of
an hour, or twenty minutes. It generally proceeds from
the south-east, or south-south-east, and carries with it
clouds of dust and sand. The general height of the
thermometer in the depth of winter in Lower Egypt, in
the afternoon and in the shade, is from 50° to 60° : in
the hottest season it is from 90° to 100°; and about' ten
degrees higher in the southern parts of Upper Egypt.
But though the summer heat is so great, it is seldom
very oppressive; being generally accompanied by a* re-
freshing northerly breeze, and the air being extremely
dry. There is, however, one great source of discomfort
arising from this dryness, namely, an excessive quantity
of dust ; and there are other plagues which very much
detract from the comfort which the natives of Egypt, and
visiters to their country, otherwise derive from its genial
ofimate. In spring, summer, and autumn, flies are so
abundant as to be extremely annoying during the day-
time, and musquitoes are troublesome at night (unless
a curtain be made use of to keep them away), and some-
times even in the day; and every house that contains
mock wood-work (as most of the better houses do)
swarms with bugs during the warm weather. Lice are

* Tkk it the temperature in the shade. At Thebes, I have
o k iB i pei the thermometer to me above 110° during a khumV-
see'n wind, in the shade*

b 2

4 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

not always to be avoided in *ny season, but they are
easily got rid of; and in the cooler weather, fleas are
excessively numerous.

The climate of Upper Egypt is more healthy, though
hotter, than that of Lower Egypt. The plague seldom
ascends far above Cairo, the metropolis. It is most
common in the marshy parts of the country, near the
Mediterranean. During the last ten years, the country
having been better drained, and quarantine regulations
adopted to prevent or guard against the introduction of
this disease from other countries, very few plague-cases
have occurred, excepting in the parts above-mentioned,
and in those parts the pestilence has not been severe*.
Ophthalmia is also more common in Lower Egypt than
in the southern parts. It generally arises from checked
perspiration ; but is aggravated by the dust and many:
other causes. When remedies are promptly employed,
this disease is seldom alarming in its progress ; but vast
numbers of the natives of Egypt, not knowing how to
treat it, or obstinately resigning themselves to fate, are
deprived of the sight of one or both of their eyes.

When questioned respecting the salubrity of Egypt, I
have often been asked whether many aged persons are
seen among the inhabitants ; few, certainly, attain a
great age in this country ; but how few do, in our owft
land, without more than once suffering from an illness

* This remark was written before the terrible plague of the ■
present year (1835), which was certainly introduced from Turkey, _
and extended throughout the whole of Egypt, though its ravages
were not great in the southern parts. It has destroyed not less
than eighty thousand persons in Cairo: that is, one-third of the
population ; and far more, I believe, than two hundred thousand ut \
all Egypt.

METROPOLIS. *

that would prove fatal Without medical aid, which is
obtained by a very small number in Egypt ! The heat
of the summer months is sufficiently oppressive to occa-
sion considerable lassitude, while, at the same time, it
excites the Egyptian to intemperance in sensual enjoy-
ments ; and the exuberant fertility of the soil engenders
indolence ; little nourishment sufficing for the natives,
and the sufficiency being procurable without much
exertion.

The modern Egyptian metropolis, to the inhabitants
of which most of the contents of the following pages
relate, is now called Musr ; but was formerly named
El-Cka 1 hireh ; whence Europeans have formed the name
Of tairo. It is situated at the entrance of the valley of
tJpper Egypt, midway between the Nile and the eastern
mountain range of Moockut'tum. Between it and the
river there intervenes a tract of land, for the most part
cultivated, which, in the northern parts (where the port
6f Boola'ck is situated), is more than a mile in width,
and, at the southern part, less than half a mile wide.
The metropolis occupies a space equal to about three
Square miles ; and its population is about two hundred
and forty thousand. It is surrounded by a wall, the gates
of which are shut at night, and is commanded by a large
citadel, situated at an angle of the town, near a point
of the mountain. The streets are unpaved ; and most
of them are narrow and irregular : they might more pro-
perly be called lanes.

By a stranger who merely passed through the streets,
Cairo would be regarded as a very close and crowded
city ; but that this is not the case, is evident to a person
who overlooks the town from the top of a lofty house,
or from the minaret of a mosque. The great thorough^

I MODERN EGYPTIANS.

fare-streets have generally a row of shops along each
aide*. Above the shops are apartments which do not
communicate with diem, and which are seldom occupied
by the persons who rent the shops. To the right and
left of the great thoroughfares are by-streets and quar-
ters. Most of the by-streets are thoroughfares, and
have a large wooden gate at each end, closed at night,
and kept by a porter within, who opens to any persons
requiring to be admitted. The quarters mostly consist
of several narrow lanes, having but one general entrance,
with a gate, which is also closed at night; but several
have a by-street passing through them.

Of the private houses of the metropolis, it is particu-
larly necessary that I should give a description. The
accompanying engraving will serve to give a general
notion of their exterior. The foundation-walls, to the
height of the first floor, are cased, externally and often
internally, with the soft calcareous stone of the neigh*
bouring mountain. The surface of the stone, when
newly cut, is of a light yellowish hue ; but its colour soon
darkens. The alternate courses of the front are some-
times coloured red and white, particularly in large
houses j as is the case with most mosquesf. The super-
structure, the front of which generally projects about
two feet, and is supported by corbels or piers, is of brick ;
and often plastered. The bricks are burnt, and of a
dull red colour. The mortar is generally composed of

* A view of shops in a street of Cairo will be found in
work. *

f Thii mode of decorating the houses hat lately become more
general, in consequence of an order of the government, whereby
the inhabitants were required thus to honour the arrival of
Ibrahee / m Ba/sha from Syria.

l-oiro.—Tht ilrat In thin Tin 1. wider than n.ual. Th.
m opposite iidn of a atreet often nearly meet each other;
Jdlng the bud. ud thni producing an agreeable roglmn

PRIVATE HOUSES. 7

mud, in the proportion of one-half, with a fourth part
of lime, and the remaining part of the ashes of straw
and rubbish. Hence the unplastered walls of brick are
of a dirty colour ; as if the bricks were unburnt. The
roof is flat, and covered with a coat of plaster.

The most usual architectural style of the entrance of
a private house in Cairo, is shown by the sketch here
inserted. The door is often ornamented in the manner
here represented : the compartment in which is the in-
scription, and the other similarly-shaped compartments,
are painted red, bordered with white ; the rest of the
surface of the door is painted green. The inscription,
" He (i. c. God) is the Creator, the Everlasting" (the
object of which will be explained when I treat of the
superstitions of the Egyptians), is seen on many doors ;
but is far from being general : it is usually painted in
black or white characters. Few doors but those of
large houses are painted. They generally have an iron
knocker, and a wooden lock; and there is usually a
mounting-stone by the side.

The ground-floor apartments next the street have
small wooden grated windows, placed sufficiently high
to render it impossible for a person passing by in the
street, even on horseback, to see through them,. The
windows of the upper apartments generally project a foot
and a half, or more, and are mostly formed of turned
wooden lattice-work, which is so close that it shuts out
much of the light and sun, and screens the inmates of
the house from the view of persons without, while at the
same time it admits the ahv They are generally of
unpainted wood ; but some few are partially painted red
and green, and some are entirely painted. A window
of this kind is called a ro'shan, or, more commonly, a

B &

ItODEBN BOTPTIAK8.

mcthrebce'geh, which latter word has another applica-
tion that will be mentioned below. Several windows of
different descriptions are represented in some of the
illustrations of this* work ; and sketches of the most com-
mon patterns of the lattice -work, on a larger scale, are
here inserted *. Sometimes a window of the kind above
described has a little meshrebee'yeh, which somewhat
resembles a ro'shan in miniature, projecting from the
front, or from each side. In this, in order to be exposed
to a current of air, are placed porous earthen bottled,
which are used for cooling water by evaporation. Hence
the name of " meshrebee'yeh," which signifies " a place
for drink,* or " — for drinking." The projecting window
has a flat one of lattice-work, or of grating of wood, or
of coloured glass, immediately above it. Some project-
ing windows are wholly constructed of boards ; and a
few have frames of glass in the sides. In the better
houses, also, the windows of lattice-work are now gene-
rally furnished with frames of glass in the inside, which
in the winter are wholly closed ; for a penetrating cold
is felt in Egypt when the thermometer of Fahrenheit
is below 60°. The windows of inferior houses are
mostly of a different kind ; being even with the exterior
surface of the wall : the upper part is of wooden lattice-

* No. 1 is a view and section of a portion of the most simple
kind. This and the other four kinds are here represented on a
scale of about one-seventh of the veal site. No. 6* shows the
general proportions of the side of a projecting window. The por-
tion A is, in most instances, of lattice-work similar to No. 1, and
comprises about twelve rows of beads in the width: the portion B
is commonly either of the same kind, or like No. 2 or No. 3 ; and
the small lattice C, which w attacked bybiaget, » gMemUy
similar to No. 4.

MODERN EOTPTIAKS.

Mill

ME

. of Lattice -work.— Fran tin «ntr* of oue ruw of be«di

tbs not (In then ipeebscu) li bolwcen ui inch »nd » qauta u
ud thrw qmrttn.

Court of ■ Private House in Cuiio,

PRIVATE HOUSES. 11

work*, or grating; and the lower, closed by hanging
shutters ; but many of these have a little meshrebee'yeh
for the water-bottles projecting from the lower part

The houses in general are two or three stories high ;
and almost every house that is sufficiently large encloses
an open, unpaved court, called a hho'sh, which is entered
by a passage that is constructed with one or two turn*
ings, for the purpose of preventing passengers in the
street from seeing into it. In this passage, just within
the door, there is a long stone seat, called mu*'tub'ah %
built against the back or side wall, for the porter and
other servants. In the court is a well of slightly
brackish water, which filters through the soil from the
Nile ; and on its most shaded side are, commonly, two
water-jars, which are daily replenished with water of the
Nile, brought from the river in skins f. The principal
apartments look into the court; and their exterior walls
(those which are of brick) are plastered and white-
washed. There are several doors which are entered
from the court. One of these is called bafb el-hharet'm
(the door of the hharee'm) : it is the entrance of the
stairs which lead to the apartments appropriated exclu-
sively to the women and their master and his children {.

In general, there is, on the ground-floor, aa apart-
ment called a tnun'dar'ah, in which male visiters
are received. This has a wide, wooden, grated window,
or two windows of this kind, next the court. A small part

* Commonly similar to No. 1, or No. 5.

f Some large houses have two courts ; the inner for the hharee'm ;
and in the latter, or both of these, there is usually a little enclosure
of arched wood-work, in which trees and flowers are raised.

I In the accompanying view of the court of a house, the door
of the hharee'm is that which faces the spectator.

is

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

tof the floor, extending from the door to the opposite
side of the room, is six or seven inches lower than
the rest: this part is called the doorcka"ah * In a
handsome house, the doorcka"ah of the mnu'dWah
is paved with white and black marble, and little pieces of
red tile, inlaid in complicated and tasteful patterns, and
has in the centre a fountain (called Jiiclcee'yeh), which

plays into a small, shallow, pool, lined with coloured
marbles, &c. , like the surrounding pavement I give, as
a specimen, the pattern of the pavement of a doorcka"ah,
such as I have above described, and a sketch of the
fountain. The water which falls from the fountain is
drained off* from the pool by a pipe. There is generally,
fronting the door, at the end of the doorcka"ah, a shelf
of marble or common stone, about four feet high, called

•The view of a clia^oli, oppoiile p>ge 18, will serve to illuitrate
the description of the mun'dat'ih. '

PRIVATE HOUSES.

auiiiriiiiiiwini i in raxxr

llinimiiimmiiiniMTy

Pwemmt of a Doorcka"ih.— The .14* of tliit li about elglit feet.

M

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

a soof'feh, supported by two or more arches, under
which are placed utensils in ordinary use — such as per-
fuming vessels, and the basin and ewer which are used
for washing before and after meals, and for the ablution
preparatory to prayer: water-bottles, coffee-cupB, 4c.,
are placed upon the soof'feh. In handsome booses, the
arches of the soof'feh are faced with marble and tile,

Sooffeh.

like the pool of the fountain, as represented in the
sketch, p. 12 ; and sometimes the wall over it, to the
height of about four feet or more, is also cased with
similar materials ; parjry with large upright slabs, and
partly with small pieces, like the doorcka"ah. The
raised part of the floor of the room is called letwa'n (a
corruption of " el-eewa'n," which signifies " any raised
place to sit upon," and also " 8 palace")- Every person
slips off his shoes on the doetcka^ah before he steps
upon the leewa'n *. The leewa'n is generally paved with
common stone, and covered with a mat in summer, atd
a carpet over the mat in winter ; and has a mattress

• One of the chief reasons of the custom here mentioned as,
to avoid defiling a mat or carpet upon which prayer is usually
made. This, as many authors have observed, il lu str a te s p assage s
of the Scriptures,— Exodus, iii. 5, and Joshua, v. 15.

private houies. 16

and cushions placed against each of its three walls, com-
posing what is called a deewafn, or divan. The mattress,
which is generally about three feet wide, and three or
four inches thick, is placed either on the ground or on a
raised frame ; and the cushions, which are usually of a
Jength equal to the width of the mattress, and of a
height equal to half that measure, lean against the wall.
Both mattresses and cushions are stuffed with cotton,
and are covered with printed calico, cloth, or some more
expensive stuff. The walls are plastered and white*
washed. There are generally, in the walls, two or three
shallow cupboards, the doors of which are composed of
very small panels, on account of the heat and dryness
of the climate, which cause wood to warp and shrink as
if it were placed in an oven ; for which reason the doors
of the apartments also are constructed in the same
manner. We observe great variety and much ingenuity
* displayed in the different modes in which these small
panels are formed and disposed. A few specimens are
here introduced. The ceiling over the leewa'n is of
wood, with carved beams, generally about a foot apart,
partially painted, and sometimes gilt. But that part of
the ceiling which is over the doorcka"ah, in a handsome
house is usually more richly decorated : here, instead of
beams, numerous thin strips of wood are nailed upon
the planks, forming patterns curiously complicated, yet
perfectly regular, and having a highly ornamental effect
I give a sketch of the half of a ceiling thus decorated,
but not in the most complicated style. The strips are
painted yellow, or gilt ; and the spaces within, painted
green, red, and blue*. In the example which I have

* See Jeremiah, zxii. K.

Wk

PRIVATE HOUSES.

'■ Doorckn' , Dh.— Abont eight feel wide.

Celling of a projecting Window.— The dim

It MODBU EGYPTIANS.

inserted, the colours are as indicated in a sketch of a
portion of the same on a larger scale, which is prefixed,
excepting in the square in the centre of the ceihng,
where the strips are black, upon a yellow ground. From
the centre of this square a chandelier is often suspended.
There are many patterns of a similar kind ; and the
colours generally occupy similar places with regard to
each other ; but in some houses these ceilings are not
painted. The ceiling of a projecting window is often
ornamented in the same manner. A sketch of one is
here added. Good taste is evinced by only decorating
in this manner parts which are not always before the
eyes ; for to look long at so many lines intersecting each
other in various directions would be painful.

In some houses (as in that which is the subject of
the engraving opposite page 11) there is another room,
called a Muck"ad, for the same use as the mun'dar'ah,
having an open front, with two or more arches, and a
low railing; and also, on the ground-floor, a square
recess, called a Tukhtabo'$h % with an open front, and
generally a pillar to support the wall above : its floor is
a paved leewa'n; and there is a long wooden sofa
placed along one, or two, or each, of its three walls.
The court,, during the summer, is frequently sprinkled
with water, which renders the surrounding apartments
agreeably cool — or at least those on the ground-floor.
All the rooms are furnished in the same manner as that
first described.

Among the upper apartments, or those of the Hha-
ree'm, there is generally one called a Cka f> ah 9 which is
particularly lofty. It has two leewa'ns — one on each
hand of a person entering : one of these is generally
larger than the other, and is the more honourable part

fRIVATE HOUSES. 19

A portion of the roof of this saloon, the part which is
over the doorcWah that divides the two leewa'ns, is a
little elevated above the rest ; and has, in the centre, a
small lantern, called mem'ruck^ the sides of which are
composed of lattice-work, like the windows before de-
scribed, and support a cupola* The doorcka"ah is com-
monly without a fountain; but is often paved in a
similar manner to that of the mun'dar / ah ; which the
cka"ah also resembles in having a handsome soof 'feh,
and cupboards of curious panel-work. There is besides,
in this and some other apartments, a narrow shelf of
wood, extending along two or each of the th ee walls
which bound the leewa'n, about seven feet or more from
the floor, just above the cupboards ; but interrupted
in some parts — at least in those parts where the win-
dows are placed : upon this are arranged several vessels
Of china, not so much for general use as for ornament*.
All the apartments are lofty, generally fourteen feet or
more in height; but the cka"ah is the largest and most,
jolty room, and in a large house it is a noble saloon.

In several of the upper rooms, in the houses of the
wealthy, there are, besides the windows of lattice-work,
others of coloured glass, representing bunches of flowers,
Peacocks, and other gay and gaudy objects, or merely
fanciful patterns, which have a pleasing effect. These
coloured glass windows, which are termed chant! art^^
J/ehs^ are mostly from a foot and a half to two feet and
* half in height, and irom one to two feet in width; and

* In the larger hornet, and tome othen, there it alto, adjoining
the principal taloon, an elevated dotet, detigned at an orchettra,
*" female ringers. A description of this will be found in Uia
*fc*ptet on Music

C

i_

90 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

are generally placed along the- upper part of the pro-
jecting lattice-window, in a row; or above that kind of
window, disposed in a group* so as to form- a large
square; or elsewhere in the upper parts of the walls,
usually singly, or in pairs, side by side* They are com-
posed of small pieces of glass, of Various colours, set hi
rims of fine plaster, and enclosed in a frame of wood*
On the plastered walls of some apartments are rude
paintings of the temple of MekOceh, or of the tomb of
the Prophet, or of flowers and other objects, executed
by native Moos'lim artists, who have not the least
notion of the rules of perspective, and who consequently
deface what they thus attempt to decorate. Sometimes,
also, the walls are ornamented with Arabic inscriptions,
of maxims, &c, which are more usually written on
paper, in an embellished style, and enclosed in glazed
frames. No chambers are furnished as bed-rooms.
Hie bed, in the day-time, is rolled up, and placed on
one side, or in an adjoining closet, called khuz'nek,
which, in the winter, is a sleeping-place: in summer,
many people sleep upon the house-top. A mat, or
carpet, spread upon the raised part of the stone floor,
and a deewa'n, constitute the complete furniture of a
room. For meals, a round tray is brought in, and
placed upon a low stool, and the company sit round it
on the ground. There is no fire-place* : the room is
warmed, when necessary, by burning charcoal in a
ehafingdish. Many houses have, at the top, a sloping
shed of boards, called a mvl'ckvf^, directed towards

* Xictpting ia the kitchen, m wlfch are several saaU vscepta*
•lis for she, eonatrocted on a kind ef tench of brick.
f See again'the engraving opposite page U.

pritatk houses, n

the north or north-west, to convey to s fet'lthah (or
•pen apartment) below, (be cool breezes which general!;
blow from those quartern.

Every door is furnished with a wooden lock, catted a
-dwVosft; the mechanism of which it shown fay a sketch
here inserted. No. 1 in this sketch is a front view of
the lock, with the bolt drawn back ; No*, 2, 3, and 4,
awe back views of the separate parte, and the key. A

a

number of small iron pins (four, five, or more) drop
into corresponding holes in the sliding bolt, as soon as
the latter is pushed into the hole or staple of the door-
post. The key, also, has small pins, made to correspond
with the holes, into which they are introduced to open
the lock: the former pins being thus pushed up, the
boh may be drawn back. The wooden lock of a street-
door is commonly about fourteen inches long * : those of
the doom of apartments, cupboards, Ac, are about seven,

ft MODERN EGYPTIANS.

#r eight, or nine inches. The locks of the gates of
quarters, public buildings, &c., are of the same kind,
and mostly two feet, or even more, in length. It is not
difficult to pick this kind of lock.

In the plan of almost every house there is an utter
Want of regularity. The apartments are generally of
different heights — so that a person has to ascend or
descend one, two, or more steps, to pass from one cham-
ber to another adjoining it The principal aim of the
architect is to render the house as private as possible;
particularly that part of it which is inhabited by the
women ; and not to make any window in such a situa-
tion as to overlook the apartments of another house.
Another object of the architect, in building a house for
a person of wealth or rank, is to make a secret door
(ba'b rirr), from which the tenant may make, his escape
in case of danger from an arrest, or an attempt at assas-
sination — or by which to give access and egress to a
paramour; and it is also common to make a hiding-
place for treasure (called mukh f ba) in some part of the
house. In the Hharee'm of a large house, there is
generally a bath, which is heated in the same manner as
the public baths.

Another style of building has lately been very gene-
rally adopted for houses of the more wealthy. These
do not differ much from those already described, except-
ing in the windows, which are of glass, and placed almost
close together. Each window of the hharee'm has,
outside, a sliding frame of close wooden trellis-work, to
cover the lower half. The numerous glass windows are
ill adapted to a hot climate.

\ When shops occupy the lower part of the buildings in
a street (as is generally the case in the great thorough-

PRIVATE HOUSES. M

faxes of the metropolis, and in some of the by-streets),
the superstructure is usually divided into distinct bdg- i
jugs, and is termed rub'a. These lodgings are separate
from each other, as well as from the shops below, and
let to families who cannot afford the rent of a whole
house. Each lodging in a rub'a comprises one or two
sitting and sleeping-rooms, and generally a kitchen and
latrina. It seldom has a separate entrance from the
street; one entrance and one staircase usually admitting
to » range of several lodgings. The apartments are
similar to those of the private houses first described*
They are never let ready -furnished; and it is very
seldom that a person who has not a wife or female slave
is allowed to reside in them, or in any private house :
such a person (unless he have parents or other near rela-
tions to dwell with) is usually obliged to take up his
abode in a, WtkaHth^ which is a building chiefly designed
for the reception of merchants and their goods. Franks^,
however, are now exempted from this restriction.

Very few large or handsome houses are to be seen ht
Egypt, excepting in the metropolis and some other
towns. The dwellings of the lower orders, particularly
those of the peasants, are of a very mean description:
they are mostly built of unbaked bricks, cemented to*
gether with mud. Some of them are mere hovels. The
greater number, however, comprise two or more apart-
ments ; though very few are two stories high* In one
of these apartments, in the houses of the peasants in
Lower Egypt, there is generally an oven (Jborri), at the
end farthest from the entrance, and occupying the whole
width of the chamber. It resembles a wide bench of
eeat, and is about breast-high: it is constructed at
brick and mud; the roof arched within, and flat oil

S4 MODERN EOTPTIANS.

tbe top. The inhabitants of the house, who seldom
hare any night-covering during the winter, sleep upon
the top of the oven, having previously lighted a. fire
within it; or the husband and wife only enjoy this
luxury, and the children sleep upon the floor. The
chambers have small apertures high up in the walls, for
the admission of light and air — sometimes furnished
with a grating of wood. The roofs are formed of palm
branches and palm leaves, or of millet stalks, Ac., laid
upon rafters of the trunk of the palm, and covered with
a plaster of mud and chopped straw. The furniture
consists of a mat or two to sleep upon, a few earthen
vessels, and a hand-mill to grind the corn. In many
villages, large pigeon-houses, of a square form, but with
the walls slightly inclining inwards (like many of the
ancient Egyptian buildings), or of the form of a sugar*
loaf, are constructed upon the roofs of the huts, with
crude brick, pottery, and mud *• Most of the villages of
Egypt are situated upon eminences of rubbish, which
rise a few feet above the reach of the inundation, and
are surrounded by palm trees, or have a few of these
trees in their vicinity. The rubbish which they occupy
chiefly consists of the materials of former huts, and
seems to increase in about the same degree as the level
of the alluvial plains and the bed of the river.

In a country where neither births nor deaths are
registered, it is next to impossible to ascertain, with
precision* the amount of the population. A few yeans
ago, a calculation was made, founded on the number of
houses in Egypt, and the supposition that the inha-

* The earthen pott used in the contraction of these pigeon*
houses are of au oral form, with a wide mouth* which is placed
outwards, aad a small bole at the other end. Each pair of pigeons,
occupies a separate pot.

POPULATION. If

bitants of each house in the metropolis amount to eight
persons, and in the provinces to four. This computa-
tion approximates, A believe, very, nearly to the tenth ;
but personal observation and inquiry incline me to think
that the houses of such towns as Alexandria, BooTa'ck,
and Must ei-'Aieefekah contain each, on the average, at
least five persons: Rashee'd (or Aosetta) is half dV
serted; but as to the crowded town of Dimya't <or
Damietta), we must reckon as many as six persons to
each house, t>r our estimate will fall far short of what
is generally believed to be the number of its inhabitants.
The addition of one or two persons to each house in the
above-mentioned towns will, however, make little dif-
ference in the computation of the whole population Of
Egypt, which was found, by this mode of reckoning, to
amount to rather more than two millions and a half;
but it is now mueh reduced. Of 2,500,000 souls, say
1,200,000 are males; and one-third of this number
(400,000) men fit for military service : from this latter
number the present Ba'sha of Egypt has taken, at the
least, 200,000 (that is, one-half of the most serviceable
portion of the male population) to form and recruit fan
armies of regular troops, and for the service of his navy*
The further loss caused by withdrawing so many men
from their wives, or preventing their marrying, during
ten years, must surely far exceed 300,000 : consequently,
the present population may be calculated as less than
two millions. The numbers of the several classes of
which the population is mainly composed are nearly as
follow : —

Mooslim Egyptians (fella'hhee'n, or

peasants, and townspeople) . . . 1,750,000
Christian Egyptians (Copts) • . . 150,000 '
'Osma'nlees, or Turks * 10,000

it moot* wemrvs*.

5,000

Greeks »•••»»»••• 5,009
Armenias* • ••«»••.* S/W*
•Jews • •«»•••••* 5,006

Of the remainder (namely, Arabians, Western Arabs,
Nubians, Negro slaves, MemWks [or white male
slaves], female while slaves, Franks, Ac), amounting
to about 70,000, the respective numbers are very uncer-
tain and variable. The Arabs of the neighbouring de~
•efts ought not to be included among the population of

Egypt*.

Cairo, I have said, contains about 240,000 mbabitantflt.
We should be greatly deceived if we judged of the
population of this city from the crowds that we meet in
the principal thoroughfare-streets and markets: in most
of the by-streets and quarters, very few passengers are
seen. Nor should we judge from the extent of the
city and suburbs; for there are within the walls many
vacant places, some of which, during the season of the
inu ndation, are lakes (as the Birlcet el-Ezbekee'yeh,
BirTtet el-Feel, &c.) The gardens, several burial-
grounds, the courts of houses, and the mosques, also
occupy a considerable space. Of the inhabitants of the
metropolis, about 190,000 are Egyptian Mooslims;

* The Mooilim Egyptians, Copts, Syrians, and Jews of Egypt,
with few exceptions, speak no language but the Arabic, which is
also the language generally used by the foreigners settled in this
country. The Nubians, among themselves, speak their own
dialects.

f The population of Cairo has increased to this Amount, from
about 200,000, within the last three or four years. Since the
computation here stated was made, the plague of this year
(1835) has destroyed not fewer than one-third of its inhabitants,
as before mentioned ; but this deEciency will be rapidly supplied
frost the villages*

1POFULATION, &

about 10,000, Copts; 3,000 or 4,000, Jews; and the
arest, strangers from various countries*.

The population of Egypt in the times of the Pharoahs
ms probably about six or seven millions f. The pro*
«mce of the soil in the present age would suffice, if none
were exported, for the maintenance of a population
amounting to 4,000,000 ; and if all the soil which is
capable of cultivation were sown, the produce would be
sufficient for the maintenance of 8,000,000. But this
would be the utmost number that Egypt could maintain
in years of plentiful inundation : I therefore compute the
ancient population, at the time when agriculture was in
a very flourishing*, state, to have amounted to what I
first stated ; and must suppose it to have been scarcely
more than half as numerous in the times of the Ptole-
mies, and at later periods, when a great quantity of
corn was annually exported J. This calculation agree*
with what Diodorus Siculus says (in lib. i., cap. 31) ;
namely, that Egypt contained, in the times of the
ancient kings, 7,000,000 inhabitants, and in his own
time not less than 3,000,000.

* About one-third of the population of the metropolis consists.
of adult males. Of this number (or 180,000) about 30,000 are
merchants, petty shop-keepers, and artisans ; 20,000, domestic ser-
vants ; 15,000, common labourers,' porters, &c. : the remainder
chiefly consists of military and civil Servants of the government.

t I place but little reliance on the accounts of ancient authors
on this subject.

X It has been suggested to me, that, if corn was exported,
something of equal value was imported ; and that the exportation
of corn, or anything else, would give a stimulus to industry and
to population: but I do not know what could be imported that
would fill up the measure of the food necessary to sustain a popu-
lation much greater than that which would consume the corn
retained.

G 5

m Mom* EGYPTIANS.

How (liferent, now, is the state of Egypt from what
H might be ; possessing a population of scarcely more
than one quarter of the number that it might be ren-
dered capable of supporting! How great a rhangr
might be effected in it by a truly enlightened govern-
ment; by a prince who (instead of oppressing the pt*»
snntry by depriving them of their lands, and by fain
monopolies of the most valuable productions of the soil;
by employing the best portion of the population to
prosecute his ambitious schemes of foreign conquest,
and another large portion in the vain attempt to rival
European manufactures) would give his people a greater
interest in the cultivation of the fields, and make Egypt
what nature designed it to be — almost exclusively an
agricultural country! Its produce of cotton alone would
more than suffice to procure all the articles of foreign
manufacture, and all the natural productions of foreign
countries, that the wants of its inhabitants demand *•

• Daring tht present year, 1835, more then 100,000 bales of
cotton (each bale weighing a hundred-weight and three quarters)
have been shipped at Alexandria. The price paid for this quantity
by the merchants exceeded 700,000/* The quantity exported last
year was 34,000 bales, which is considerably less than usual. — The
policy above recommended is strongly advocated by Ibraeeefrs
Ba'she.

Chapter I.

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DRESS OF THE

MOOS'lJM KGTPTIAN8.

Moos'ltms of Arabian origin have, for many centuries,

mainly composed "the population of Egypt; they have

changed its language, laws, and genera] manners; and

its metropolis they have made the principal seat of

Arabian learning and arts. To the description of this

people, and especially of the middle and higher classes

in the Egyptian capital, will be devoted the chief portion

of the present work. In every point of view, Musr (or

Cairo) must be regarded as the first Arab city of our

age ; and the manners and customs of its inhabitants

are particularly interesting as they are a combination of

those which prevail most generally in the towns of

Arabia, Syria, and the whole of Northern Africa, and

in a great degree in Turkey. There is no other place in

which we can obtain so complete a knowledge of the

most civilized classes of the Arabs. From statements

made in the introduction to this work, it appears that

Moorfim Egyptians (or Arab-Egyptians) compose

nearly four-fifths of the population of the metropolis

(which is computed to amount to about 240,000}, and

just seven-eighths of that of all Egypt.

The Moos'lim Efrvptians are descended from various

St MODBBK TO YPTUlft.

Arab tribes and mmines which 1mm settled in Egypt «t
different periods; mostly soon after the conquest of this
country by 'Amr, its first Arab governor; bat by inter-
marriages with the Copts and others who have become
proselytes to the faith of EUsWm, as well as by the
change from a life of wandering to that of citizens or of
agriculturists, their personal characteristics have, by de-
grees, become so much altered, mat there is a strongly-
marked difference between them and the natives of
Arabia. Tet they are to be regarded as not less genuine
Arabs than the townspeople of Arabia itself; among
whom has long and very generally prevailed a custom
of keeping Abyssinian female slaves, either instead of
marrying their own countrywomen, or (as is commonly
the case with the opulent) in addition io their Arab
wives ; so that they bear almost as strong a resemblance
to the Abyssinians as to the Bed'awees, or Arabs of the
Desert The term 'A^ab, it should here be remarked,
is used, wherever the Arabic language is spoken, only
to designate the Bed'awees, collectively: in speaking of
a tribe, or of a small number of those people, the word
'Orba'n is also used ; and a single individual is called
Bed'awee*. In the metropolis and other towns of
Egypt, the distinction of tribes is almost wholly lost;
but it is preserved among the peasants, who have re-
gained many Bed'awee customs, of which I shall have
to speak. The native Mooslim inhabitants of Cairo
commonly call themselves El~Mu*reeyee!n t Owla'4
Must (or Ah'l Jfiur), and Oicla'd el-Bel' ed^ which
signify people of Musr, children of Must, and children
ef the town: the singular forms of these appellations

* Feminin*, BtdaweJiftk*

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS. ft

are Mus'ree, Wn Mutr, and Ibn el-BeFed** Of these
three terms, the last is most common in the town itself.
-The country people are called Et-Fella'hhee'n (or the
'Agriculturists), in the singular Fella'hh f. The Turks
-©Ren apply this term to the Egyptians in general in
an abusive sense, as meaning "the boors," or "the
clowns;" and improperly stigmatise them with the
appellation of Ah'l Fai'oo'n J, or " the People of
Pharoah."

t In general, the Moos'lim Egyptians attain the height
*of about five feet eight, or five feet nine inches. Most
of the children under nine or ten years of age have
spare limbs and a distended abdomen; but, as they
grow up, their forms rapidly improve : in mature age,
most of them are remarkably well-proportioned; the
men, muscular and robust ; the women, very beautifully
formed and plump ; and neither sex is too fat I have
never seen corpulent persons among them, excepting a
few in the metropolis and other towns, rendered so by
a life of inactivity. In Cairo, and throughout the
northern provinces, those who have not been much
exposed to the sun have a yellowish, but very clear
complexion, and soft skin ; the rest are of a considerably
darker and coarser complexion. The people of Middle
Egypt are of a more tawny colour, and those of the
more southern provinces are of a deep bronze or brown
complexion — darkest towards Nubia, where the climate
is hottest. In general, the countenance of the Moos'lim
Egyptian (I here speak of the men) is of a fine oval
form : the forehead, of moderate size, seldom high, but

* Iu the feminine, Musrce'yth, Bin't Mutr, and Bint tl-Bttcim

f Feminine, FelMhhah.

X Thus, commonly pronounced for Fir'ou/tu

tt MODERN EGYPTIAN*.

generally prominent: the eyes are deep sunk* black,
mod brilliant: the nose is straight, but rattier thick: the
mouth, well formed : the lips are rather full than other-
wise : the teeth, particularly beautiful* : the beard is
commonly black and curly, but scanty. I have seem
very few individuals of this race with grey eyes; or
rather, few persons supposed to be of this race; for I
am inclined to think them the offspring of Arab women
by Turks or other foreigners. The FellaTihee'n, from
constant exposure to the sun, have a habit of half*
shutting their eyes : this is also characteristic of the
Bed'awees. Great numbers of the Egyptians am
blind in one or both eyes. They generally shave that
part of the cheek which is above the lower jaw, and
likewise a small space under the lower lip, leaving,
however, the hairs which grow in the middle under the
mouth ; or, instead of shaving these parts, they pluck
out the hair. They also shave a part of the beard
under the chin. Very few shave the rest of their
beards f, and none their mustaches. The former
they suffer to grow to the length of about a hand's
breadth below the chin (such, at least, is the general
rule, and such was the custom of the Prophet) ; and

* Tooth-ache it, however, a very common disorder in Egypt, as
it was in ancient times : this, at least, was probably the case, as
Herodotus (lib. iL, cap. 84) mentions dentists among the classes
of Egyptian physicians. It is, of course, most prevalent among
the higher orders*

f A lew of the servants, and some others, shave their beards*
The respect which Orientals in general pay to the beard has often
been remarked. They swear by it, and say that a man disgraces
it by an evil action. The punishment recorded in 2 Samuel,
ch. z., v. 4, has frequently been practised in modern times, but not
so often as the shaving of the whole of the baud.

PERSOKAI* CHARACTERISTICS. »

their mustaches they do not allow to become to long
as to incommode them is eating and drinking. The
practice of dyeing the beard ia not common ; for a grey
beard is much respected. The Egyptians shave ail the
rest of the hair, or leave only a small tuft (called
*W**e») upon the crown of the head. This last
custom (which is almost universal among them), I haws
been told, originated in the fear that if the Mooslim
should fall into the hands of an infidel, and be slain,
|he latter might cut off the head of his victim, and,
finding no hair by which to hold it, put his impure
hand into the mouth, in order to carry it ; for the beard
might not be sufficiently long*. With the like view of
avoiding impurity, the Egyptians observe other customs,
which need not here be described-)-. Many men of the
lower orders, and some others, make blue marks upon
their arms, and sometimes upon the hands and chest,
as the women, in speaking of whom this operation
will be described.

The dress of the men of the middle and higher
classes consists of the following articles}. First, a
pair of full drawers (in Arabic, liba's) of linen or
cotton, tied round the body by a running string or band
(called dik'keh or tik'leeh), the ends of which are em-
broidered with coloured silks, though concealed by the
outer dress. The drawers descend a little below the
knees, or to the ankles ; but many of the Arabs will not

* Persons of literary and religions professions generally disep-
pro?e of the shoo'sheh.

f They are mentioned ia the " Miehcaliii-MaeabiV to), n.,
p. 359, and are observed by both sexes.

t The fashion of their dress remains alsaost the same during
the lapse of centuries*

£1 YODBRN BOTPTIAM.

long drawers, because prohibited by the Prophet
Next is worn a shirt (chance's), with very full sleeves,
Teaching to the wrist: it is made of linen, of a loose,
open texture, or of cotton stuff, or of muslin, or silk, or
of a mixture of silk and linen or cotton, in stripes, but
all white*. Over this, in winter, or in cool weather,
most persons wear a soodei/ree, which is a short vest of
doth, or of striped coloured silk and cotton, without
sleeves. Over the shirt and the soodey/ree, or the
former alone, is worn a long vest of striped silk and
cotton f (called ckufla'n, or more commonly ckoof-
torn), descending to the ankles, with long sleeves
extending a few inches beyond the fingers' ends, but
divided from a point a little above the wrist, or about
the middle of the fore-arm ; so that the hand is gene-
rally exposed, though it may be concealed by the sleeve
when necessary ; for it is customary to cover the hands
in the presence of a person of high rank. Round this
vest is wound the girdle (kheza'tri), which is a coloured
shawl, or a long piece of "white figured muslin. The
ordinary outer robe is a long cloth coat, of any colour
(called by the Turks joob'beh, but by the Egyptians
gib'beh), the sleeves of which reach not quite to the
wrist}. Some persons also wear a bence'sh, or ben'uh ;
which is a robe of cloth, with long sleeves, like those of
the ckoofta'n, but more ample § : it is, properly, a

* The Prophet forbade men to wear silk clothing, but allowed
.Women to do to. The prohibition is, however, attended to by very
few modern McWlims, excepting the Wah'ha'bees.

f The stripes are seldom plain : they are generally figured or
flowered.

X See the foremost figure in the accompanying engraving.

} See the figure to the left in the same engraving*

DRR3S. 9$

robe of ceremony, and should be worn over the other
cloth coat; bat many persons wear it instead of the
gir/beh *. The head-dress consists, first, of a small,
dose-fitting cotton cap (cafted ta'ckce'yth, or 'arack&f-
yeh), which is often changed ; next, a turbocfsh, which
is a red cloth cap, also fitting closely to the head, with a
tassel of dark bine stHc at the crown; lastly, a long
piece of white muslin, generally figured, or a Kash-
mee'r shawl, which is wound round the turboo'sh.
Thus is formed the turban, or 'enurfmck. The Kash<-
mee'r shawl is seldom worn excepting' in cool weather;
Some persons Wear two or three turboo'shes, one over
another. A thereof (or descendant of the Prophet)
Wears a green turban, or is privileged to do so ; but no
other person ; and it is not common for any but asheree'f
Jto wear a bright green dress. Stockings are not in usej
bat some few persons, in cold weather, wear woollen or
cotton socks. The shoes (murkoo'b) are of thick red
morocco, pointed and turning up at the toes. Some
persons also wear inner shoes (called mezz, or more
properly, mezdf), of soft, yellow morocco, and. with
soles of the same : the murkoo'b are taken off on step**
ping upon a carpet or mat ; but not the mezz :. for this
reason, the former are often worn turned down at the
heel

On the little finger of the right hand is worn a seal-

* In cold or cool weather a kind of black woollen cloak, called
'abba'yeh, is commonly worn (a). Sometimes this is drawn over
the head. In winter also many persons wrap a muslin or other
shawl (such as they ass Cor a turban) about the head and
shoulders.

f From the Turkish, metU

(a) 8ee the natt engraving, ia which U wpt w e nl ed a striped 'abbt/jrsh.

** MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ring (khaftim), which is generally of silver, with m
cornelian, or other stone, upon which is engraved the
wearer's name: the name is accompanied by the words
•* his servant" (signifying " the servant, or worshipper
of God"), and often by other words expressive of the
person's trust in God, Ac * The Prophet disapproved
of gold ; therefore few Moorfims wear gold rings ; but
the women have various ornaments (rings, bracelets,
Ac.) of that precious metal The seal-ring is used for
signing letters and other writings; and its impression is
considered more valid than the sign-manual j\ A little
ink is dabbed upon it with one of the fingers, and it is
pressed upon the paper — the person who uses it having
first touched his tongue with another finger, and moist-
ened the place in the paper which is to be stamped.
Almost every person who can afford it has a seal-ring,
even though he be a servant The regular scribes, lite-
rary men, and many others, wear a silver, brass, or
copper dawa'yeh, which is a case with receptacles far
ink and pens, stuck in the girdle J. Some have, in the
place of this, or in addition to it, a case-knife, or a

<*agger.

The Egyptian generally takes his pipe with him
wherever he goes (unless it be to the mosque), or has a
servant to carry it, though it is not a common custom
to smoke while riding or walking. The tobacco-purse
he crams into his bosom, the ckoofta'n being large, and
lapping over in front A handkerchief, embroidered
With coloured silks and gold, and neatly folded, is also

* See St John's Gospel, iii. 33 ; and Exodus, xxxix. 30.
f Therefore, giving the ring to another person is the utmost
mark of confidence. — See Genesis, xli. 4%
I This is a very ancient custom. — See Eselnel, ix. 2, 3, ll»

DRESS. 37

placed in the bosom. Many persons' of the middle
orders, who wish to avoid being thought rich, conceal
such a dress as I have described by a long black gown
of cotton, similar to the gown worn by most persons of
tile lower classes.

The costume of the men of the lower orders is very

ample. These, if not of the very poorest class, wear a

pair of drawers, and a long and full shirt or gown of

blue linen or cotton, or of brown woollen stuff (the

former called Vr'ee, and the latter zaabocffy, open from

the neck nearly to the waist, and having wide sleeve**.

Over this, some wear a white or red woollen girdle.

Their turban is generally composed of a white, red, or

yellow woollen shawl, or of a piece of coarse cotton or

muslin, wound round a turboo'sh, under which is a

white or brown felt cap (called lib'deh) ; but many are

so poor as to have no other cap than the lib'deh — no

turban, nor even drawers, nor ishoes, but only the blue

or brown shirt, or merely a few rags; while many, on

the other hand, wear a soodey'ree under the blue shirt ;

and some, particularly servants in the houses of great

men, wear a white shirt, a soodey'ree, and a ckoorWn

or gft/beh, or both, and the blue shirt over all. The

full sleeves of this shirt are sometimes drawn up, by

means of cords, which pass round each shoulder and

cross behind, where they are tied in a knot. Tins

eustom is adopted by servants (particularly grooms),

who have cords of crimson or dark-blue silk for this

purpose* In cold weather, many persons of the lower

classes wear an 'abba'yeh, like that before described,

tat coarser; and sometimes, instead of being black,

• The tiabootwrnotdy worn m the winter.

$8 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

having broad stripes, brown and white, or blue and
white, but the latter rarely. Another kind of cloak,
more full than the 'abba'yeh, of black or deep-blue
woollen stuff, is also very commonly worn : it is calle4
diffee'yeh** The &hoes are of red or yellow morocco,
or of sheep-skin.

Several different forms of turbans are represented ia
some of the engravings which illustrate this work. The
Moos'] ims are distinguished by the colours of their
turbans from the Copts and the Jews, who (as well as
other subjects of the Turkish Soolta'n who are not
Mooslims) wear black, blue, grey, or light-brown turt
bans, and generally dull-coloured dresses. The distinct
tion of sects, families, dynasties, Ac, among the Moos'lim
Arabs, by the colour of the turban and other articles of
dress, is of very early origin. When the Ima'm Ibra-
hee'm Ib'n Mohham'raad, asserting his pretensions to
the dignity of Khalee'fehf, was put to death by the*
Oom'awee Khalee'feh Murwa'n, many persons of the
family of £1-' Abba's assumed black clothing, in testi-
mony of their sorrow for his fate ; and hence the black
dress and turban (which latter is now characteristic*
almost solely, of Christian and Jewish tributaries to the
'Osma'nlee, or Turkish, Soolta'n) became the distin-
guishing costume of the 'Abba'see Khalee'fehs, and of
their officers. When an officer under this dynasty was
disgraced, he was made to wear a white dress. White.
Was adopted by the false prophet MoockanW t to disr

* A kind of blue and white plaid (called mil J y eh) is also wo A
fcy some men, but more commonly by women, in the account of
vhpse dress it will be further described: the men. throw it ore*
the shoulders, or wrap it about the body.

f Commonly written by English authors u Caliph*"

DRESS. 39

tinguish his party from the 'Abba'sees; and the
Fawa'tim of Egypt (or Khalee'fehs of the race of
Fa'timeh), as rivals of the 'Abba'sees, wore a white
Costume. El-Mel'ik El-Ash'raf Shaaba'n, a Soolta'n
of Egypt (who reigned from the year of the Flight
764 to 778, or a.d. 1362 to 1376), was the first who
ordered the sheree'fi to distinguish themselves by the
green turban and dress. Some durwee'shes of the
sect of the Rifa"ees, and a few, but very few, other
Mooslims, wear a turban of black woollen stuff, or of
a very deep olive-coloured (almost black) muslin ; but
that of the Copts, Jews, &c, is generally of black or
blue muslin, or. linen. There are not many different
forms of turbans now worn in Egypt : that worn by
most of the servants is very formal. The kind com-
mon among the middle and higher classes of the
tradesmen and other citizens of the metropolis and
large towns is also very formal, but less so than that
just before alluded to. The Turkish turban worn in
Egypt is of a more elegant mode. The Syrian is dis-
tinguished by its width. The 'ool'ama, and men of
religion and letters in general, used to wear, as some
dp still, one particularly wide and formal, called a
rnoock'ieh. The turban is much respected. In the

T

4t MODERN EGYPTIANS.

bouses of the more Wealthy 6188968, there is usually •
Chair (called koor'see el-'ewia'meh) on which it is placed
at night Tnis is often sent with the furniture of a
bride* It is common for a lady to have one upon
which to place her head-dress. This kind of chair ia
never used for any other purpose. As an instance of
the respect paid to the turban, one of my friends men-
tioned to me that an 'a'lim* being thrown off his
donkey in a street of this city, his moock'leh fell off,
and rolled along for several yards; whereupon the
passengers ran after it, crying, " Lift up the crown of
El-Isla'm !" while the poor 'a'lim, whom no one came
to assist, called out in anger, " Lift up the sheykh-f of
El-Isla'm ! "

The general form and features of the women must
now be described. From the age of about fourteen to
that of eighteen or twenty they are generally models
of beauty in body and limbs; and in countenance
most of them are pleasing, and many exceedingly
lovely : but soon after they have attained their perfect
growth, they rapidly decline ; the bosom early loses all
its beauty, acquiring, from the relaxing nature of the
climate, an excessive length and flatness in its forms,
even while the face retains its full charms; and thougff,
in most other respects, time does not commonly so
soon nor so much deform them, at the age of forty
it renders many who in earlier years possessed consi-
derable attractions absolutely ugly. In the Egyptian
females the forms of womanhood begin to develop

* This appellation (of which 'oofama is the plural) signifies a
man of science or learning,
f " Sheykh" here signifies matter, or doctor.

WOMEN.

41

themselves about the ninth or tenth year : at the age of
fifteen or sixteen they generally attain their highest
degree of perfection. With regard to their com-
flexions, the same remarks apply to diem as to the
■len, with only this difference, that their faces, being
generally retted when they go abroad, are not quite so
much tanned aa those of the men. They are charac-
terized, like the men, by a fine oral countenance;
though, in some instances, it is rather broad. The
eyes, with very few exceptions, are black, large, and of
a long almond-form, with long and beautiful lashes
and an exquisitely soft, bewitching expression : eyes
mere beautiful <*an hardly be conceived : their charm-
ing effect is much heightened by the concealment of
the other features (however pleasing the latter may
be), and is rendered still more striking by a practice
universal among the fetn ales of the higher and middle
classes, and very common among those of the lower
orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eye-
lids, both above and below the eye, with a black powder
called kohhl. This is a collyrium commonly com-

An Eye orouDtnted with KohU. ^

posed of the smoke-black which is produced by burning
a kind of libaln — an aromatic resin— a species of frank-
incense, used, I am told, in preference to the better
kind of frankincense, as being cheaper, and equally
good for this purpose. Kohhl is also prepared of the
smoke-black produced by burning the shells of almonds.
These two kinds, though befieved to be beneficial to

' d2

L

« MODERN EGTFTUNS.

the eyes, ere aaed merely lor ornament ; bat there «e
neveral kinds need for their reel or ■apposed medical
propectiFs; particularly the powder of several kinds of
lead ore * ; lo which are often added sarcocollat, loli g
pepper J, sugar-candy, fine dust of a Venetian aeqniii,
and sometimes powdered pearls. Antimony, it is said,
was formerly used for painting the edges of the eye-
lids. The knbhl is applied with a small probe, of wood,
ivory, or silver, tapering towards the end, bat blunt :
this is moistened, sometimes with rose-water, then
dipped in the powder, and drawn along the edges of
die eyelids : it is called tmr'wed ; and the glass vessel
in which the kohhl is kept, mook'hhoofah. The custom

t

Tbw* ire njyHtated 01

of thus ornamenting the eyes prevailed among both
sexes in Egypt in very ancient times : this is shown by
the sculptures and paintings in the temples and tombs of
this country ; and kohhl -vessels, with the probes, and

• Kohhl el-Mmg'ar.

■f 'Aniaroo't.

USE OF KOHHL. 43

even with remains of the black powder, have often been
found in the ancient tombs. I have two in my posses-

Ancient Vessel and Probe for KohhL

sion. But in many cases, the ancient mode of orna-
menting with the kohhl was a little different from the
modern, as shown by the subjoined sketch : I have,

An Eye and Eyebrow ornamented with Kohhl, at represented in ancient

Paintings.

however, seen this ancient mode practised in the present
day in the neighbourhood of Cairo ; though I only
remember to have noticed it in two instances. The
same custom existed among the ancient Greek ladies
and among the Jewish women in early times*. The
eyes of the Egyptian women are generally the most
beautiful of their features. Countenances altogether
handsome are far less common among this race than
handsome figures ; but I have seen among them faces
distinguished by a style of beauty possessing such "Sweet-
ness of expression, that they have struck me as exhi-
biting the perfection of female loveliness, and impressed

* See 2d Kings, is. 30 (where, in our common version, we find
the words, "painted her face" for "painted her eyes*'), and Eze-
kiel, xxiii.40.

M MODERN EGYPTIANS.

roe with the idea (perhaps not false) that their equals
could. not be found in an; other country: with such
eyes as many of them have, the face must be hand-
some, if its other features be but moderately well
formed*. The nose is generally straight : the lips are
mostly rather fuller than those of the men, but not in
the least degree partaking of the negro character. The
hair is of that deep, glossy black, which best suits all
but fair complexions: in some instances it is rather
coarse and crisp, but never woolly.

The females of the higher and middle classes, and
many of the poorer women, stain certain parts of their
hands and feet (which are, with very few exceptions,

" Sciason are often und lo reduce
ami to give them a more arched form.

With Hheo

e the width of the'

USE OF HHEN'NA. <5

beautifully formed) with the leaves of the hhen'na*
tree*, which impart a yellowish red, or deep orange
colour. Many thus dye only the nails of the fingers
and toes ; others extend the dye as high as the first
joint of each finger and toe ; some also make a stripe
along' the next row of joints; and there are several
other fanciful modes of applying the hhen'na ; but the
most common practice is to dye the tips of the fingers
and toes as high as the first joint, and the whole of the
inside of the hand and the sole of the foot f ; adding,
though not always, the stripe above-mentioned along
the middle joints of the fingers, and a similar stripe a
Kttle above the toes. The hhen'na is prepared for mis
use merely by being powdered and mixed with a little
water, so as to form a paste* Some of this paste being
spread in the palm of the hand, and on other parts of
h which are to be dyed, and the fingers being doubled,
and their extremities inserted into the paste iu the
palm, the whole hand is tightly bound with linen, and
remains thus during a whole night. In a similar
manner it is applied to the feet. The colour does not
disappear until after many days : it is generally renewed
after about a fortnight or three weeks. This custom
prevails not only in Egypt, but in several other coun-
tries of the East, which are supplied with hhen'na from
the banks of the Nile. To the nails, the hben'mi
imparts a more bright, clear, and permanent oolour
than to the skin. When this dye alone is applied to
i&e nails, or to a larger portion of the fingers and toes,

* Lawsomia inermis; also called " Egyptian privet."
f The application of this dye to the palms of the bands and
the soles of .the feet is said to have an agreeable effect upon the
skin ; particularly to prevent its being too tender and sensitive.

4$ MODERN EGYPTIANS.

it may, with some reason, be regarded as an embellish-
ment; for it makes the general complexion of the hand
and foot appear more delicate; but many ladies stain
their hands in a manner much less agreeable to our
taste : by applying, immediately after the removal of
the paste of hhen'na, another paste composed of quick*
lime, common smoke-black, and linseed-oil, they con<»
vert the tint of the hhen'na to a black, or to a blackish
olive hue. Ladies in Egypt are often seen with their
nails stained with this colour, or with their fingers of
the same dark hue from the extremity to the first joint,
red from the first to the second joint, and of the former
colour from the second to the third joint ; with the palm
also stained in a similar manner, having a broad, dark
stripe across the middle, and the rest led red; the
thumb dark from the extremity to the first joint, and
red from the first to the second joint. Some, after a
more simple fashion, blacken the ends of the fingers
and the whole of the inside of the hand.

Among the females of the lower orders, in the coun-
try-towns and villages of Egypt, and among the same
classes in the metropolis, but in a less degree, prevails
a custom somewhat similar to that above described : it
consists in making indelible marks of a blue or greenish
hue upon the face and other parts, or, at least, upon
the front of the chin, and upon the back of the right
hand, and often also upon the left hand, the right arm*
or both arms, the feet, the middle of the bosom, and
the forehead : the most common of these marks made
upon the chin and hands are here represented. The
operation is performed with several needles (generally
6even) tied together : with these the skin is pricked in

TATTOOING.

® lilt <ll> II ®

Specimen! of tattooing od the Chio,

Titloori II no lis and Fool

4i MODERN EGYPTIANS.

the desired pattern : some smoke-black (of wood or
tnl), nixed with milk from the breast of a woman, is
then rubbed in ; and about a week after, before the skin
has healed, a paste of the pounded fresh leaves of white
beet or clover is applied, and gives a blue or greenish
colour to the marks. It is generally performed at the
age of about five or six years, and by gipsy-women.
The term applied to it is duck'ck. Most of the females
of the higher parts of Upper Egypt, who are of a very
dark complexion, tattoo their lips instead of the parts
above-mentioned ; thus converting their natural colour
to a dull, bluish hue, which, to the eye of a stranger, is
extremely displeasing*.

Another characteristic of the Egyptian women that
should be here mentioned, is their upright carriage and
gait. This is most remarkable in the female peasantry,
owing, doubtless, in a great measure, to their habit of
bearing a heavy earthen water-vessel, and other bur-
thens, upon the head.

The dress of the women of the middle and higher
orders is handsome and elegant. Their shirt is very
full, like that of the men ; but rather shorter; reaching
not quite to the knees : it is also, generally, of the
same kind of material as the men's shirt, or of coloured
crape ; sometimes black. A pair of very wide trousers
(called shintiya'n), of a coloured, striped stuff of silk

* The depilatory most commonly used by the Egyptian women
is a kind of resin, called liba'n sha'mee, applied in a melted
state : but this, they pretend, is not always necessary : by apply
ing the blood of a bat to the skin of a newly-born female infant,
on the parts where they wish no hair to grow, they assert that
they accomplish this desire. A female upon whom this applica-
tion has been made is termt&moowut'wmfak ; from wutwa't, a bat.

A Lmdy in the Dnn

DRESS. 49

and cotton, or of printed, or worked, or plain white
muslin, is tied round the hips, under the shirt, with a
dik'keh; its lower extremities are drawn up and tied
just below the knee with running strings ; but it is suffi-
ciently long to hang down to the feet, or almost to the
ground, when attached in this manner. Over the shirt
and shintiya'n is worn a long vest (called yel'ek), of the
same material as the latter: it nearly resembles the
ckoofta'n of the men ; but is more tight to the body
and arms : the sleeves also are longer ; and it is made
to button down the front, from the bosom to a little
below the girdle, instead of lapping over : it is open,
likewise, on each side, from the height of the hip,
downwards. In general, the yel'ek is cut in such a
manner as to leave half of the bosom uncovered, except
by the shirt ; but many ladies have it made more ample
at that part; and, according to the most approved
fashion, it should be of a sufficient length to reach to
the ground, or should exceed that length by two or
three inches, or more. A short vest (called 'an'ter'ee),
reaching only a little below the waist, and exactly re*
sembling a yel'ek of which the lower part has been cut
off, is sometimes worn instead of the latter. A square
shawl, or an embroidered kerchief, doubled diagonally,
is put loosely round the waist as a girdle ; the two cor-
ners that are folded together hanging down behind.
Over the yel'ek is worn a gib'beh of cloth, or velvet, or
silk, usually embroidered with gold or with coloured
silk: it differs in form from the gib'beh of the men
chiefly in being not so wide ; particularly in the fore
part*. Instead of this, a jacket (called sal'tah), gene*

* It is of the same length as the yel'ek.

$0 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

rally of cloth or velvet, and embroidered in the same
manner as the gib'beh, is often worn. The head-dress
consists of a ta'ckee'yeh and turboo'sh, with a square
kerchief (called far'oo'dee'yeK) of printed or painted
muslin, or one of crape, wound tightly round, com-*
posing what is called a ruVtah. Two or more such
kerchiefs were commonly used, a short time since, and
are still sometimes, to form the ladies' turban, but
always wound in a high, flat shape, very different from
that of the turban of the men. A kind of crown, caned
ckoor 1 *, and other ornaments, are attached to the ladies'
head-dress : descriptions and engravings of these and
other ornaments of the women of Egypt will be found
in the Appendix to this work. A long piece of white
muslin embroidered at each end with coloured silks
and gold, or of coloured crape ornamented with gold
thread, lama, and spangles, rests upon the head, and
hangs down behind, nearly or quite to the ground : this
is called tar^hhah — it is the head-veil : the nice-veil I
shall presently describe. The hair, excepting over the
forehead and temples, is divided into numerous braids
or plaits, generally from eleven to twenty-five in
number, but always of an uneven number : these hang
down the back. To each braid of hair are usually
added three black silk cords, with little ornaments of
gold, &c, attached to them. For a description of these,
which are called sufa> I refer to the Appendix. Over
the forehead, the hair is cut rather short ; but two full
locks (called muck' a! set's) hang down on each side of
the face : these are often curled in ringlets, and some-
times plaited*. Few of the ladies of Egypt wear

* Egyptian .women swear by the side-lock (at men do by the

d »Kh Ihe Ckoor'i >nd SulV, *t— <Tb« Hud It pntlliUj

DRESS. 5i

t

stocking* or socks, but many of them wear mezz (or
inner shoes), of yellow or red morocco, sometimes
embroidered with gold : over these, whenever they step
off the matted or carpeted part of the floor, they put
on bafboo'g (or slippers) of yellow morocco, with high,
pointed toes ; or use high wooden clogs or pattens
(called ckubcka'b, or, more commonly, choobcka'b),
generally from fonr to nine inches in height, and usually
ornamented with mother-of-pearl, or silver, Ac. These
are always used in the bath by men and women ; but
not by many ladies at home : some ladies wear them
merely to keep their skirts from trailing on the ground :
others to make themselves appear tall. Such is the
dress which is worn by the Egyptian ladies in the
house.

The riding or walking attire is called tezyee'reh.
Whenever a lady leaves the house she wears, in addi-
tion to what has been above described, first a large,
loose gown (called to'b, or seVleh), the sleeves of which
are nearly equal in width to the whole length of the
gown * : it is of silk j generally of a pink, or rose, or
violet colour. Next is put on the boor'cko* % or face-
veil, which is a long strip of white muslin, concealing
the whole of the face except the eyes, and reaching
nearly to the feet. It is suspended at the top by a
narrow band, which passes up the forehead, and which
is sewed, as are also the two upper corners of the veil,
to a band that is tied round the head. The lady then

beard), generally holding it when they utter the oath, wmJthagaft
wtucktoo'te I

* This is similar in form to the fc/b of women of the lower,
orders, represented in the next engraving.

52 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

covers herself with a hhab'arah, which, for a married
lady, is composed of two breadths of glossy, black
silk, each ell-wide, and three yards long: these are
sewed together at or neap the selvages (according to the
height of the person) ; the seam running horizontally,
with respect to the manner in which it is worn : a piece
of narrow, black riband is sewed inside the upper part,
about six inches from the edge, to tie round the head.
This covering is always worn in the manner shown by
the accompanying sketch. The unmarried ladies wear
a hhab'arah of white silk, or a shawl. Some females
of the middle classes, who cannot afford to purchase
a hhab'arah, wear instead of it an eeza'r; which
is a piece of white calico, of the same form and size
as the former, and is worn in the same manner. Oil
the feet are worn short boots or socks (called khooff) %
of yellow morocco, and over these, the ba'boo'g.

This dress, though chiefly designed for females of
the higher classes, who are seldom seen in public oit
foot, is worn by many women who cannot often afford
so far to imitate their superiors as to hire an. ass to
carry them. It is extremely inconvenient as a walking
attire. Viewing it as a disguise for whatever is attrac-
tive or graceful in the person and adornments of the
wearer, we should not find fault with it for being itself
deficient in grace : we must remark, however, that, in
one respect, it fails in accomplishing its main purpose ;
displaying the eyes, which are almost always beautiful ;
making them to appear still more so by concealing the
Other features, which are seldom of equal beauty ; and
often causing the stranger to imagine a defective face
perfectly charming. The veil is of very remote anti-

> dad in llis Mll.'jeh, &r.

DRESS. 53-

quity* ; but, from the sculptures and paiu tings of the
ancient Egyptians, it seems not to have been worn by*
the females of that nation.

The dress of a large proportion of those women of
the lower orders who are not of the poorest class con-
sists of a pair, of trousers or drawers (similar in form
to the shintiya'n of the ladies, but generally of plain
white cotton, or linen), a blue linen or cotton shirt (not
quite so full as that of the men), a boor'cko' of a kind
of coarse black crape, and a dark blue tar'hhah of
muslin or linen. Some wear, over the shirt, or instead
of the latter, a linen to'b, of the same form as that of
the ladiesf. The sleeves of this are often turned up
over the head ; either to prevent their being incommo-
dious, or to supply the place of a tar'hhahj. In addi-
tion to these articles of dress, many women who are not
of the very poor classes, wear, as a covering, a kind of
plaid, similar in form to the hhab'arah, composed of
two pieces of cotton, woven in small chequers of blue
and white, or cross stripes, with a mixture of red at
each end. It is called mila/yeh : in general it is worn
iu the same manner as the hhab'arah ; but sometimes
like the tar'hhah §. The upper part of the black
boor'cko' is often ornamented with false pearls, small
gold coins, and other little flat ornaments of the same

* See Genesis, xxiv. 65 ; and Isaiah, iii. 23. See also 1 Corin-
thians, xi. 10, and a marginal note on that verse.

f See the figure to the left in the first of the two engraving*
opposite this page.

X See the figure to the right in the same engraving.

§ There is a superior kind of mila'yeh, of silk, and of various,
eolours ; but this is now seldom worn. The two pieces which,
compose the mila'yeh are sewed together.

s

MODERN EBYPTIANB.

metal (catted tvrci) ; somctieMS with a coral bead, ud
* gold coin beneath ; also with sonJl coins of hue
silver; and more commonly with a pair t> f chaia. tassels,
of brass or silier (called 'oyoo'n), attached to (be comers.

Veili— Onlj dim of IhuM (that 10 tht if|hO ii rmre-
■tend in iU shale length.

A square black silk kerchief (called WaeA), with a
border of red and yellow, is bound round the bead,
doubled diagonally, and tied with a single knot behind ;
or, instead of this, the turboo'sb and farWdee'yeh. an
Worn, though by very few women of the lower chases.
TT» best kind of shoes worn by the females of that

ThB'A/beh.

lower orders are of red morocco, turned up, but round,
at the toes. .The boor'cko' ami shoes are most common
in Cairo, and are also worn by many of the women
throughout Lower Egypt; but in Upper Egypt, the
boor'cko' is very seldom seen, and shoes are scarcely
less uncommon. To supply the place of the former,
when necessary, a portion of the tar'hhah Is drawn
before the face, so as to conceal nearly all the counte-
nance excepting one eye. Many of the women of
the lower orders, even in the metropolis, never conceal
their faces. Throughout the greater part of Egypt the
most common dress of the women merely consists of
the blue shirt or to'b and tar'hhah. In the southern
parts of Upper Egypt, chiefly above Akhmee'm, most
of the women envelop themselves in a large piece of
dark brown woollen stuff (called a hhoolalee'yeh) ;
wrapping it round tbe body, and attaching the upper
parts together over each shoulder; and a piece of the
same they use as a tar'hhah. This dull dress, though
picturesque, is almost aa disguising as the blue tinge
which, as I have before mentioned, the women in these

5ft. MODERN EGYPTIANS.

parts of Egypt impart to their lips. Most of the
women of the lower orders wear a variety of trumpery
ornaments, such as ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets, Ac.,
and sometimes a nose- ring. Descriptions and engrav-
ings of some of these ornaments will be given in the
Appendix.

The women of Egypt deem it more incumbent upon
them to cover the upper and back part of the head
than the face ; and more requisite to conceal the face
than most other parts of the person. I have often seen
in this country women but half covered with miserable
rags ; and several times, females in the prime of wo-
manhood, and others in more advanced age, with only
a narrow strip of rag bound round the hips.

»7

Chapter II.

INFANCY AND EARLY EDUCATION.

It was a custom very common in Egypt, as in other
Moos'llm countries, to consult an astrologer previously
to giving a name to a child, and to he guided by his
choice ; but very few persons now conform with this
old usage : the father makes choice of a name, and
confers it without any ceremony. Boys are often
named after the Prophet (Mohham'mad, Ahh f mad, or
Moos'tuf a), or some of the members of his family
CAl'ee, Hhas / an, Hhose/n, &c), or his eminent
companions ('Om'ar, Ab'oo Bekr, 'Osma'n, 'Amr, &c),
or some of the prophets and patriarchs of early times
{as Ibrahee'm, Is-hha'ck, Isma'eel, Yaackoofb, Mood's,
Da'-ooM, Sooleyma'n, &c), or receive a name signify-
ing ** Servant of God," " Servant of the Compassionate,' 9
u Servant of the Powerful," Ac. ('Abd Allah, 'Abd
Er-Rahhma^n, 'Abd El-Cka'dir). Girk are mostly
named after the wives or daughter of the Arabia*
Prophet, or after others of his family (as Khadee'geh,
"A'isheh, A'm'neh, Fa't'meh, Zey'neb), or are distin-
guished by a name implying that they are " beloved/'
M blessed," '* precious," &c. (Mahhboo'beh, Mebroolceln
Nefee'seh, Ac), or the name of a flower, or of some
other pleasing object*.

The dress of the children of the middle and higher

* In Cairo, it is the fashion to change the first fife female
names here mentioned, and the last, into Khuddoo'geh,'SSyw)'sh©h f

58 MODERN "EGYPTIANS.

orders is similar to that of the parents, but generally
slovenly. The children of the poor are either clad in a
shirt and a cotton skull-cap or a turboo'sh, or (as is
mostly the case in the Tillages) are left quite naked
until the age of six or seven years or more, unless a
bit of rag can be easily obtained to serve them as
a partial covering. Those little girls who have only a
piece of ragged stuff not large enough to cover both
the head and body, generally prefer wearing it upon
the head, and sometimes have the coquetry to draw a
part of it before the face, as. a veil, while the whole
body is exposed. Little ladies, four or five years of
age, mostly wear the white face-veil, like their mothers.
When a boy is two or three years old, or often earlier,
his head is shaved ; a tuft of hair only being left on the
crown, and another over the forehead* : the heads of
female infants are seldom shaven. The young children,
of both sexes, are usually carried by their mothers and
nurses, not in the arms, but on the shoulder, seated
Astridef, and sometimes, for a short distance, on the hip.
In the treatment of their children, the women of the

Ammoo'neh, Futoot'meh, Zennoo'beh, and NefFoo'seh ; and some
Other names are changed to the same measure as these ; which
measure implies, in these cases, a superior degree of dignity*

* It is customary among the peasants throughout a great part
of Egypt, on the first occasion of shaving a child's head, to slay
a victim, generally a goat, at the tomb of some sunt in or near
their village, and to make a feast with the meat, of which their
friends, and any other persons who please, partake. This is
most common in Upper Egypt, and among the tribes not very long
established on the banks of the Nile. Their Pagan ancestors in
Arabia observed this custom, and usually gave, as alms to the
poor, the weight of the hair in silver. The victim was called
'ackee'ckah,

t Set Isaiah, xlix. 22.

INFANCY. 50

wealthier classes are remarkable for their excessive in-
dulgence; and the poor, for the little attention they
bestow, beyond supplying the absolute wants of nature*
The mother is prohibited, by the Mohhammadan law,
from weaning her child before the expiration of two
years from the period of its birth, unless with the con-
sent of her husband, which, I am told, is generally
given after the first year or eighteen months. In the
houses of the wealthy, the child, whether boy or girl,
remains almost constantly confined in the hharee'm (or
the women's apartments), or, at least, in the house:
sometimes the boy continues thus an effeminate, pri-
soner until a master, hired to instruct him daily, has
taught him to read and write. When the ladies go out
to pay a visit, or to take an airing, mounted on assed,
the children generally go with them, each carried by a
female slave or servant, or seated between her knees
Upon the fore part of the saddle ; the female attendants,
as well as the ladies, being usually borne by asses, and
it being the custom of all the women to sit astride. But
it is seldom that the children of Jthe rich enjoy this
slight diversion ; their health suffers from confinement
and. pampering, and they are often rendered capricious,
proud, and selfish. The women of the middle classes
are scarcely less indulgent mothers. The estimation in
which the wife is held by her husband, and even by her
acquaintance, depends, in a great degree, upon her
fruitfulness, and upon the preservation of her children ;
lor by men and women, rich and poor, barrenness is
still considered, in the East, a curse and a reproach;
.and it is regarded as disgraceful in a man to divorce,
without some cogent reason, a wife who has borne him
a child, especially while her child is living. If, there*

S 5

CO MODEKX EGYPTIANS.

fore, a woman desire ber husband's love, or the respect

of others, her giving birth to a child it a source of

. great joy to heraelf and him, and her owe interest

.alooe k a sufficient motive for maternal tenderness.

Very little expense u required, in Egypt, for the mam-

-tenaaee of a numerous ofspring*.

With the exception of those of the wealthier dosses,
the children in Egypt, though objects of so much
solicitude, are generally very dirty, and shabbily dad.
The stranger here is disgusted by the sight of them,
and at once condemns the modern Egyptians as a very
filthy people, without requiring any other reason for
forming such an opinion of them ; but it is often the
case that those children who are most petted and he-
aved am the dirtiest, and worst dad. It is not uncom-
mon to see, in the city in which I am writing, a lady
shuffling along in her ample U/b and hhaVarah of new
and rich and glistening silks, and one who scents the
whole street with the odour of musk or chret as she
passes along, with all that appears of her person
scrupulously dean and delicate, her eyes neatly bor-
dered with kohhl applied in the most careful manner,
and the tip of a finger or two showing the fresh dye of
the hhen'na, and by her side a Utile boy or girl, her own
child, with a face besmeared with dirt, and with domes
-appearing as though they had been worn for months
without being washed. Few things surprised me so
much as sights of this kind on my first arrival in this
country. I naturally inquired the cause of what struck
me as so strange and inconsistent, and was informed

* It is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (lib. i. cap. 20), that At
ancient Egyptian* clothed and teared their childr en at a very
-trifling expense.

Pnmi'e pretl™ i to Clrtnmclda*.

CIRCUMCISION* 61

that the affectionate mothers thus neglected the appear*
ance of their children, and purposely left them un-
washed, and clothed them so shabbily, particularly when
they had to take them out in public, from fear of the
evil eye, which is excessively dreaded, and especially in
the case of children, since they are generally esteemed
the greatest of blessings, and therefore most likely to
be coveted.

The children of the poor have a yet more neglected
appearance : besides being v,ery scantily clad, or quite
naked, they are, in general, excessively dirty ; their
eyes are frequently extremely filthy ; it is common to
see half-a-dozen or more flies in each eye unheeded and
unmolested. The parents consider it extremely inju-
rious to wash, or even touch, the eyes, when they dis-
charge that acrid humour which attracts the flies : they
even affirm that the loss of sight would result from
frequently touching or washing them when thus
affected; though washing is really one of the best
means of alleviating the complaint

At the age of about five* or six years, or sometimes
later, the boy is circumcised*. Previously to the per-
formance of this rite in the metropolis and other towns
of Egypt, the parents of the youth, if not in indigent
circumstances, generally cause him to be paraded
through several streets in the neighbourhood of their
dwelling. They mostly avail themselves of the occur-
rence of a bridal procession to lessen the expenses pf
the parade : and, in this case, the boy and his attend-
ants lead the procession. He generally wears a red

* Among the peasants, not nnfrequently at the age of twelfe*
thirteen, or fourteen yean.

•2 MODERN BGCTIAN6.

Kashmeer turban; bat, in other respects, is dressed as a
girl, with a yel'ek and sal'tah, and with a ckoors, snf a,
and other female ornaments . These articles of dress
are of the richest description that can be procured : they
are usually borrowed from some lady, and much too
large to fit the boy. A horse, handsomely caparisoned,
is also borrowed to convey him ; and in his hand is
placed a folded embroidered handkerchief, which he
constantly holds before his mouth in his right hand.
He is preceded by a servant of the barber, who is the
operator, and by three or more musicians, whose instru-
ments are commonly a hautboy and drams. The fore-
most person in the procession is generally the barber's
servant, bearing his kheml, which is a case of wood, of
a semi-cylindrical form, with four short legs ; its front
(the flat surface) covered with pieces of looking-glass
and embossed brass ; and its back, with a curtain. Tins
is merely the barber's sign : the servant carries it in
the manner represented in the engraving here inserted.
The musicians follow next (or some of them precede
the hheml), and then follows the boy ; his horse led by
a groom. Behind him walk several of his female rela-
tions and friends. Two boys are often paraded toge-
ther, and sometimes borne by one horse. Of the bridal
processions, with which- that above described is so often
united, an account will be found in its proper place. A
description, also, of some further customs observed on
the occasion of a circumcision, and particularly of a
more genteel but less general mode of celebrating- that

* For a description of the ornaments here mentioned see the
^Appendix: the ckoors and eufta are also represented ia a preced-
ing engraving, opposite page 50.

EARLY EDUCATION #3

crest, will be given in another chapter, relating to
various private festivities*.

The parents seldom devote much of their tine or
attention to the education of their children ; generally
contenting themselves with instilling into their young
minds a few principles of religion, and then submitting
them, if they can afford to do so, to the instruction of
a schoolmaster. As early as possible, the child is taught
to say, " I testify that there is no deity but God; and I
testify that Mohham'mad k God's Apostle." fie re-
ceives also lessons of religions pride, and learns to hate
the Christians, and all other sects but his own, as tho-
roughly as does the Moos / lim in advanced age. Most
of the children of the higher and middle classes, and
some of those of the lower orders, are taught by the
schoolmaster to read, and to recite the whole or certain
portions of the Ckoor-a'n by memory. They after-
wards learn the most common rules of arithmetic.

Schools are very numerous, not only in the metro-
polis, but in every large town ; and there is one, at
least, in every considerable village. Almost every
mosque, sebee'l (or public fountain), and hho'd (or
drinking-place for cattle) in the metropolis has a koot-
ta!b (or school) attached to it, in which children are
instructed for a very trifling expense ; the sheykh or

* A custom mentioned by Strabo (p. 824), at prevailing among
the Egyptians in his time, is still umrefsahy practised in every
part of Egypt, both by the Mootf*lims and Copts, excepting in
Alexandria and perhaps a few other places on the shore of the
Ifssftfeeraaaeaa : it is also common, if ant equally prevalent, in
Arabia. Reload, who imperfectly describes this eastern (De
Beligione Mohsirnnedka, p, 75, edit 1717), te rnari e s its being
mentioned likewise by Galen.

|4 MODERN EaTPTIAHK.

JLek'ce (the master of the school) receiving from the
parent of each pupil half a piaster (about five farthings
of oar money), or something more or less, every
Thursday*. The master of a school attached to n
mosque or other public building in Cairo also generally
receives yearly a turboo'sh, a piece of white muslin for
a turban, a piece of linen, and a pair of shoes ; and
each boy receives, at the same time, a linen skull-cap,
four or five cnbits f of cotton cloth, and perhaps half a
piece (ten or twelve cubits) of linen, and. a pair of
shoes, and, in some cases, half a piaster or a piaster.
These presents are supplied by funds bequeathed to the
school, and are given in the month of Rum'adu'n. The
boys attend only during the hours of instruction, and
then return to their homes. The lessons ore generally
Written upon tablets of wood, painted white; and when

A Schoolboy learning Ilia Alpfeafet-

* Friday, bring the sabbath of the Mooi'lim*, is a holiday to
the school-boyi and fick'oe.

f The cubit employed in measuring Egyptian cloths ii eo,naI
Is twenty two inches and twc-third».

BARLY EDUCATION* «$

one lesson is learnt, the tablet is washed and another is
written. They also practise writing upon the same
tablet. The schoolmaster and his pupils sit upon the
ground, and each boy has his tablet in his hands, or a
copy of the Ckoor-a'n, or of one of its thirty sections,
on a little kind of desk of palm-sticks. All who are
learning to read recite their lessons aloud, at the same
time, rocking their heads and bodies incessantly back-
wards and forwards; which practice is observed by
almost all persons in reading the Ckoor-a'n; being
thought to assist the memory. The noise may be
imagined *.

The boys first learn the letters of the alphabet ; next,
the vowel points and other orthographical marks ; and
then, the numerical value of each letter of the alphabet-)-.
Previously to this third stage of the pupil's progress, it
is customary for the master to ornament the tablet with
black and red' ink, and green paint, and to write upon
it the letters of the alphabet in the order of their
respective numerical values, and convey it to the father,
who returns it with a piaster or two placed upon it.
The like is also done at several subsequent stages of
the boy's progress, as when he begins to learn the
Ckoor-a'n, and six or seven times as he proceeds in
learning the sacred book; each time the next lesson
being written on the tablet. When he has become
acquainted with the numerical values of the letters, the
master writes for him some simple words, as the names
-of men ; then the ninety-nine names or epithets of

* The usual punishment is beating on the toles of the feet
With a palm-stick.

f The Arabic letters are often used as numerals.

W MODBHEf BUTFTULKS.

God : next the Fa'f hank, or opeoiag chapter of the
CkoorVn, is written opom hw tablet, and he read* at
repeatedly until he has perfectly committed it to me-
mory. He then proceeds to learn the other chapters of
the Ckoor-a'n : after the first chapter he learn* the Inst;
then the last but one ; next the last bat two, and so on,
in inverted order, ending with the second ; as the chap-
ters in general successively decrease in length from the
second to the last inclusively. It is seldom that the
master of a school teaches writing ; and few boys leam
to write unless destined for some employment which
absolutely requires that they should do so ; m which
latter case they are generally taught the art of writing,
and likewise arithmetic, by a ekabbofnee, who is a
person employed to weigh goods in a market or ba'xafr,
with the steelyard. Those who are to devote themselves
to religion, or to any of the learned professions, mostly
pursue a regular course of study in the great mosqne
El-Az'har.

The schoolmasters in Egypt are mostly persons of
very little learning : few of them are acquainted with
tmy writings except the Ckoor-a'n, and certain prayers,
which, as well as the. contents of the sacred Tolume,
they are hired to recite on particular occasions. I was
lately told of a man who could neither read nor write
succeeding to the office of a schoolmaster in my neigh-
bourhood. Being able to recite the whole of the
Ckoor-a'n, he eould hear the boys repeat their lessons:
to write them, he employed the % arte?f (or head boy in
the school), pretending that his eyes were weak. A few
days after he had taken upon himself this office, a poor
woman brought a letter for him to read to her from her

EARLY EDUCATION. €7

son, who had gone on pilgrimage. The fiefc'ee pre-
tended to read it, but said nothing ; and the woman,
inferring from his silence that the letter contained bad
news, said to him, "Shall I shriek? 9 ' He answered
*« Yea." " Shall I tear my clothes ?" she asked ; he im-
plied " Yes." So the poor woman returned to her
house, and with her assembled friends performed the
lamentation and other ceremonies usual on the occasion
of a death. Not many days after this her son arrived,
and she asked him what he could mean by causing a
letter to be written stating that he was dead. He ex-
plained the contents of the letter, and she went to the
schoolmaster and begged him to inform her why he had
told her to shriek and to tear her clothes, since the
letter was to inform her that her son was well, and he
was now arrived at home. Not at all abashed, he said,
" God knows futurity ! How could I know that your
son would arrive in safety ? It was better that you
should think him dead than be led to expect to see him
and perhaps be disappointed." Some persons who
were sitting with him praised his wisdom, exclaiming,
"Truly, our new fick'ee is a man of unusual judg-
ment !" and, for a little while, he found that he had
raised his reputation by this blunder.

Some parents employ a sheykh or fick'ee to teach
their boys at home. The father usually teaches his
son to perform the woodoo' and other ablutions, and to
say his prayers, and instructs him in other religious and
moral duties to the best of his ability. The Prophet
directed his followers to order their children to say their
prayers when seven years of age, and to beat them if
they did not do so when ten years old ; and at the latter

68 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

•age to make them sleep in separate beds : in Egypt*
however, very few persons pray before they have
attained to manhood.

The female children are very seldom taught to read
or write ; and not many of them, even among the higher
order*, learn to say their prayers. Some of the
rich engage a shey'khah (or learned woman) to visit
the hharee'm daily, to teach their daughters and female
slaves to say their prayers, and to recite a few chapters
of the Ckoor-a'n, and sometimes to instruct them in
reading and writing ; but these are very rare accom-
plishments for females even of the highest class in
Egypt*. There are many schools in which girls are
taught plain needle-work, embroidery, &c. In families
in easy circumstances a m'al'lim'ehf, or female teacher
of such kinds of work, is often engaged to attend the
girls at their own home.

However much the son is caressed and fondled, in
general he feels and manifests a most profound and
praiseworthy respect for his parents* Disobedience to
parents is considered by the Moos'lims as one of the
greatest of sins, and classed, in point of heinousness,
with six other sins, which are idolatry, murder, falsely
accusing modest women of adultery, wasting the pro*
perty of orphans, taking usury, and desertion in an
expedition against infidels. An undutiful child is very
seldom heard of among the Egyptians or the Arabs in

* The young daughters of persons of the middle classes are
sometimes instructed with the boys in a public school ; but they
are usually veiled, and hold no intercourse with the boys. I have
often seen a well-dressed girl reading the Ckoor-a'n in a boy*'
school.

f Thus pronounced for mttaPlimtek*

EARLY EDUCATION. 69

general. Sons scarcely ever sit, or eat, or smoke, in
the presence of the father, unless bidden to do so;
and they often even wait upon him aud upon his guests
at meals and on other occasions : they do not cease to
act thus when they have become men. I once break-
fasted with an Egyptian merchant, before the door of
his house, in the month of Rum'ada'n (and therefore a
little after sunset) ; and though every person who passed
by, however poor, was invited to partake of the meal,
we were waited upon by two of my host's sons ; the
elder about forty years of age. As they had been
fasting during the whole of the day, and had as yet.
only taken a draught of water, I begged the father to
allow them to sit down and eat with us : he imme-
diately told them that they might do so ; but they de-
clined. The mothers generally enjoy, in a greater
degree than the fathers, the affection of their children ;
hut do not receive from them the same outward marks
of respect. I have often known servants to hoard
their wages for their mothers, though seldom for their
fathers.

7*

Chapter III.

RELIGION AN* LAWS.

As the most important branch of their education, and
the main foundation of their manners and customs,
the religion and laws of the people who are the subject
of these pages must be well understood, — not only in
their genera] principles, but in many minor points, —
before we can proceed to consider their social condi-
tion and habits in the state of manhood.

A difference of opinion among Moos'lims, respecting
some points of religion and law, has given rise to four
sects, which consider each other orthodox as to funda-
mental matters. These sects are the Hhan f afees 9
Sha'fe'ees, Ma'likees*, and Hhani'betees, — so called
from the names of the respective doctors whose tenets
they have adopted. The Turks are of the first sect,
which is the most reasonable : the inhabitants of Cairo,
a small proportion excepted (who are Hhan'afees), are
either Sha'fe'ees or Ma'likees ; and it is generally said
they are mostly of the former of these sects, as are also
the people of Arabia : those of the Shurckee'yeh, on the
east of the Delta, Sha'fe'ees : those of the Ghurbee'yeh,
or Delta, Sha'fe'ees, with a few Ma'likees : those of the
Bohhey'reh, on the west of the Delta, Ma'likees : the in-

* Commonly pronounced MaTkec.

habitants of the SaWd, or the valley of Upper Egypt,
are likewise, with few exceptions, llalikees : so also
are the Nubians, and the Western Arabs. To the
fourth sect, very few persons in the present day belong.

The Mohhammadan religion is generally called by
the Arabs, el-Isla!m. Eemafn and Been are the parti-
cular terms applied, respectively, to faith and practical
religion*

The grand principles of the faith are expressed in
two articles; the first of which is this—

" There is no deity but GodJ*

God, who ereated all things in heaven and in earth,
who preserveih all things, and decreeth all things, who
it without beginning, and without end, omnipotent,
omniscient, and omnipresent, is one. His unity is thus
declared in a short chapter of the Ckoor-a'n* : " Say,
He is one God ; God the Eternal : He neither begets,
nor is He begotten ; and there is none equal unto Him.*'
He hath no partner, nor any offspring, in the creed of
the Moos'lim* Though Jesus Christ (whose name
should not be mentioned without adding — " on whom
be peace") is believed to have been born of a pure
virgin, by the miraculous operation of God f> without
my natural father, — to be the Messiah, and " the Word

* Cfe, 1 12-— -laquotwg pottages in th* Ckoor-a'n,I have
times followed Sale's translation ; to the fidelity of which I need
scarcely add my testimony. When nece ssary, I have distinguished
the veieeB by nunbert. la doing this I had originally adopted me
divisions made by Marracci, but have tunc* made the numbers to
agree with those in the late edition of the Arabic text by Ffaegel,
wh i ch, front He superior scrnstry, ia likely to supersede the

f Ckoor-a'n, ch. iii, w. 40—42.

72 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of God, which He imparted unto Mary, and a Spirit
proceeding from Him"* — yet he is not called the Son of
God ; and no higher titles are given to him than those
of a Prophet and Apostle : he is even considered as of
inferior dignity to Mohham'mad, inasmuch as the Gos-
pel is held to be superseded by the Ckoor-a'n. The
Moos'Iim believes that Seyyid'na 'Ee'saf (or "our
Lord Jesus"), after he had fulfilled the object of his-
mission, was taken up unto God from the Jews, who
sought to slay him ; and that another person, on whom-
God had stamped the likeness of Christ, was crucified
in his stead J. He also believes that Christ is to come
again upon the earth, to establish the Mohhammadan
religion, and perfect peace and security, after having*
killed Antichrist, and to be a sign of the approach of
the last day.

The other grand article of the faith, which cannot
be believed without the former, is this—*

" Mohham'mad is Ood*s Apostle?

Mohham'mad is believed, by his followers, to have;
been the last and greatest of Prophets and Apostles §.
Six of these — namely, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,
Jesus, «and Mohham'mad — are believed each to have
received a revealed law, or system of religion and
morality. That, however, which was revealed to Adam
was abrogated by the next ; and each succeeding law,

* Ckoor-a'n, ch. iv., v. 169.

f The title of Seyyid'na (our Lord) is given by the Mooslimsv
to prophets and other venerated persons.

J Ckoor-a'n, ch. iv., v. 156.

§ The Moos'Iim seldom mentions the name of the Prophet
without adding, " taPtal'tafhoo 'aley'ki we-ieHcmf' I e., "God-
favour and preserve him !"

RELIGION. 73

or code of laws, abrogated the preceding : therefore,
those who professed the Jewish religion from the time
of Moses to that of Jesus were true believers ; and
those who professed the Christian religion (un cor-
rupted, as the Moos'lims say, by the tenet that Christ
was the son of God) until the time of Mohham'mad
are held, in like manner, to have been true believers.
But the copies of the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David
(which the Moos'lims also hold to be of divine origin),
and the Gospels now existing, the Mohhammadarls
believe to have been so much altered as to contain
very little of the true word of God. The Ckoor-a'n,
they believe to have suffered no alteration whatever.

It is further necessary, that the Mooslim should
believe in the existence of angels, and of the devil,
and likewise genii (an intermediate race of beings
between angels and men) : also, in the immortality of
the soul, the general resurrection and judgment, in
future rewards and punishments in Paradise * and
Hell f; in the balance in which good and evil works
shall be weighed, and in the bridge Es-Sira't (which
extends over the midst of Hell, finer than a hair, and
sharper than the edge of a sword), over which all
must pass, and from which the wicked shall fall into
Hell. He believes, also, that they who have acknow-
ledged the faith of Mohham'mad and yet acted wickedly
will not remain in Hell for ever ; but that all of other
religions must : that there are, however, degrees of
punishments, as well as of rewards, — the former con-
sisting in severe torture by excessive heat and cold,
and the latter, in the indulgence of the appetites by

* Ei-Gen'neh, or the garden. f Gchen'nem.

F

74 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

most delicious meats and drinks, and, above all, by the
company of the girls of Paradise, whose eyes will be
very large and entirely black*, and whose stature will
be proportioned to that of the men, which will be the
height of a tall palm-tree, or about sixty feet. Such,
the Moos'lims generally believe, was the height of our
first parents. It is said that the souls of martyrs
reside, until the judgment, in the crops of green birds,
which eat of the fruits of Paradise. Women are
not to be excluded from Paradise, according to the
Mohhammadan faith ; though it has been asserted, by
many Christians, that the Moos'lims believe women to
have no souls. In several places in the Ckoor-a'n,
Paradise is promised to all true believers, whether
■tales or females. It is the doctrine of the Ckoor-a'n
that no person will be admitted into Paradise by his
own merits ; but that admission will be granted to the
believers merely by the mercy of God ; yet that the
felicity of each person will be proportioned to his
merits. The very meanest in Paradise is promised
** eighty thousand servants" (beautiful youths, called
welee'ds, or wildafn), "seventy-two wives of the girls
of Paradise" (hhoo'ree'yehsi or kkoo'r el-oyocfnJ f
u besides the wives he had in this world,'* ff he desire to
have the latter (and the good wilt doubtless desire the
good), "and a tent erected for him of pearls, jacinths,
and emeralds, of a very large extent ;" " and will be
waited on by three hundred attendants while he eats,
and served in dishes of gold, whereof three hundred
shall be set before him at once, each containing a dif-
ferent kind of food, the last morsel of which will be as

* Like those of the gazelle: tint, however, is disputed.

RELIGION. 7S

grateful as the first :" wine also, " though forbidden
in this life, will yet be freely allowed to be drunk in
the next, and without danger, since the wine of Para*
dise will not inebriate*." We are further told, that all
superfluities from the bodies of the inhabitants of Para-
dise will be carried off by perspiration, which will
diffuse an odour like that of musk ; and that they will
be clothed hi the richest silks, chiefly of green. They
are also promised perpetual youth, and children as
many as they may desire. These pleasures, together
with the songs of the angel Isra/fee'l, and many other
gratifications of the senses, will charm even the
meanest inhabitant of Paradise. But all these enjoy-
ments will be lightly esteemed by those more blessed
persons who are to be admitted to the highest of all
honours — that spiritual pleasure of beholding, morning
and evening, the face of Grodf. The Moos'lim must
also believe in the examination of the dead in the
sepulchre, by two angels, called Moon'kir and Nekee'rJ,
of terrible aspect, who will cause the body (to which
the soul shall, for the time, be re-united) to sit upright
in the grave§, and will question the deceased respecting
his faith. The wicked they will severely torture ; but
the good they will not hurt Lastly, he should believe

* See Sale's Preliminary Discourse to his Translation of the
Cftoor-a'n, sect. ir.

f A Moos'lim of some learning professed to me that he consi-
sted the descriptions of Paradise given in the Ckoor-a'n to be,
in a great measure, figurative; "like those/' said he, "in the
book of the Revelation of St. John ;" and he assured me that
many learned Moos'lims were of the same opinion*

I Vulgarly called m'kir and Nekee'r*

£ The corpse is always deposited in a vault, and not placed in
a coffin, but merely wrapped in winding-sheets or clothes*

f2

76 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

in God's absolute decree of every event, both good and
evil. This doctrine has given rise to as much con*
troversy among the Moos'lims as among Christians;
but the former, generally, believe in predestination as,
in some respects, conditional.

In religious practice, the most important duties are
prayer, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage.

The religious purifications, which are of two kinds,
first, the ordinary ablution preparatory to prayer, and
secondly, the washing of the whole body, together with
the performance of the former ablution, are of primary
importance : for prayer, which is a duty so important
that it is called "the Key of Paradise," will not be
accepted from a person in a state of uncleanness. It is
therefore also necessary to avoid impurity by clipping
Ihe nails, shaving the head, and other similar prac-
tices*.

There are partial washings, or purifications, which
rail Moos'lims perform on certain occasions, even if
they neglect their prayers, and which are considered as
-religious actsf. The ablution called el-woodoo 9 , which
is preparatory to prayer, I shall now describe. The
purifications just before alluded to are a part of the
woodoo' : the other washings are not, of necessity, to
be performed immediately after, but only when the
person is about to say his prayers ; and these are per-
formed in the mosque or in the house, in public or in
private. There is in every mosque a tank (called
mey'da-ah), or a hhanafee'yek, which is a raised re-

* Alluded to in the first chapter.

f For an account of these private ablutions, and the occasions
which require their performance, the reader may consult Roland,
Do Ret Moh. pp. 80—83, ed. 1717.

RELIGION. 17

servoir, with spouts round it, from which the water
falls. In some mosques there are both these. The
Moos'lims of the Hhan'afee sect (of which are the
Turks) perform the ablution at the latter (which has
received its name from that cause) ; for they must, do
it with running water, or from a tank or pool at least
ten cubits in breadth, and the same iu depth; and I
believe that there is only one mey'da-ah in Cairo of
that depth, which is in the great mosque El-Az'har.
A small hbanafee'yeh of tinned copper, placed on a.
low shelf, and a large basin, or a small ewer and basin
of the same metal, are generally used in the house for
the performance of the woodoo 1 .

Veuell (bl Ablution. — Tho upper W l l (or hnamlse'yeh) 1, gEnaraOly

78 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

The person, having tucked tip bis sleeves a little
higher than his elbows, says, in a low voice, or ia-
audibiy, **I purpose performing the woodoo', for
prayer V He then washes his hands three times;
saying, in the same manner as before, " In the name
of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful ! Praise be
to God, who hath given water for purification, and
made el-Isla'm to be a light and a direction, and a
guide to thy gardens, the gardens of delight, and to
thy mansion, the mansion of peace." Then he rinses
his mouth three times, throwing the water into it with
bis right hand t ; and in doing this he says, " O Godj
assist me in the reading of thy book, and in commemo-
rating Thee, and in thanking Thee, and in the beauty of
thy worship." Next, with his right hand, he throws
water up his nostrils (snuffing it up at the same time),
and then blows it out, compressing his nostrils with
the thumb and finger of the left hand ; and this also
is done three times. While doing it, he says, " O God,
make me to smell the odours of Paradise, and bless
me with its delights ; and make me not to smell the
smell of the fires [of Hell].** He then washes his
face three times, throwing up the water with both
hands, and saying, " O God, whiten my face with thy
light, on the day when Thou shaK whiten the faces of
thy favourites ; and do not blacken my face, on the
day when Thou shalt blacken the faces of thine ene-
mies." His right hand and arm, as high as the elbow,

* AU persons do not me exactly the same words on this occa-
sion, nor during the performance of the woodoo'; and most per-
sons use no words during the performance.

f He should also use a tooth-stick (miswa'k) to clean his
teeth ; but few do so.

RELIGION. 79

lie next washes three times, and as many times causes
some water to run along his arm, from the palm of the
hand to the elbow, saying, as he does this, " O God,
give me my book in my right hand* ; and reckon with
me with a slight reckoning.' ' In the same manner
he washes the left hand and arm, saying, " O God*
do not give me my book in my left hand, nor behind
my back ; and do not reckon with me with a difficult
reckoning j nor make me to be one of the people of
the fire." He next draws his wetted right hand over
the upper part of his head, raising his turban or cap
with his left : this he does but once ; and accompanies
the action with this supplication, " O God, cover me
with thy mercy, and pour down thy blessing upon me ;
and shade me under the shadow of thy canopy, on the
day when there shall be no shade but its shade." If
he have a beard, he then combs it with the wetted
fingers of his right hand ; holding his hand with the
palm forwards, and passing the fingers through his
beard from the throat upwards. He then puts the tips
of his fore -fingers into his ears, and twists them round,
passing his thumbs at the same time round the back
of the ears, from the bottom upwards; and saying,
" O God, make me to be of those who hear what is
said, and obey what is best ;" or, " O God, make me
to hear good." Next he wipes his neck with the back
of the fingers of both hands, making the ends of his
fingers meet behind his neck, and then drawing them
forward ; and in doing so, he says, " O God, free my
neck from the fire; and keep me from the chains, and

* To every man is appropriated a took, in which all the actions
of his life are written. The just man, H is said, will receive hit
hook in his right hand; but the wicked, in fab left, which will be
tied behind his back; his right hand being tied up to his neck.

80 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

the collars, and the fetters." Lastly, he washes his
feet, as high as the ankles, and passes his fingers
between the toes : he washes the right foot first, saying,
at the same time, Ci O God, make firm my foot upon
the Sira't, on the day wheu feet shall slip upon it :" on
washing the left foot, he says, "O God, make my
walking to be approved, and my sin forgiven, and my
works accepted, merchandise that shall not perish, by
thy pardon, O Mighty! O Forgiver! by thy mercy,
O most Merciful of those who show mercy !" After
having thus completed the ablution, he says, looking
towards heaven, ** Thine absolute glory, O God !
[I assert] with thy praise : I testify that there is no
deity but Thee alone : Thou hast no companion : I
implore thy forgiveness, and turn to Thee with repent-
ance." Then, looking towards the earth, he adds, " I
testify that there is no deity but God : and I testify
that Mohham'mad is his servant and his apostle."
Having uttered these words, he should recite, once,
twice, or three times, the Soo'rat el-Ckudr, or 97th
chapter of the Ckoor-a'n.

The woodoo' is generally performed in less than two
minutes; most persons hurrying through the act, as
well as omitting almost all the prayers, &c, which
should accompany and follow the actions. It is not
required before each of the five daily prayers, when the
person is conscious of having avoided every kind of
impurity since the last performance of this ablution.
When water cannot be easily procured, or would be
injurious to the health of the individual, he may per-
form the ablution with dust or sand. This ceremony
is called teyem'moom. The person, in this case,
strikes the palms of his hands upon any dry dust or
sand (it will suffice to do so upon his cloth robe, as it

RELIGION, 8\

must contain some dust), and, with both hands, wipes
his face : then, having struck his hands again upon the
dust, he wipes his right hand and arm as high as the
elbow ; and then, the left hand and arm, in the same
manner. This completes the ceremony. The washing
pf the whole body is often performed merely for
the sake of cleanliness; but not as a religious act,
excepting on particular occasions — as on the morning
pf Friday, and on the two grand festivals, &c.*, when
it is called ghoos*l.

Cleanliness is required not only in the worshipper,
but also in the ground, mat, carpet, robe, or whatever
else it be, upon which he prays. Persons of the lower
orders often pray upon the bare ground, which is con-
sidered clean if it be dry ; and they seldom wipe off
immediately the dust which adheres to the nose and
forehead in prostration, for it is regarded as orna-
mental to the believer's face ; but when a person has
a cloak or any other garment that he can take off
without exposing his person in an unbecoming manner,
he spreads it upon the ground to serve as a prayer-
carpet. The rich use a prayer-carpet (called segga'deh)
about the size of our hearth-rugs, having a niche repre-
sented upon it, the point of which is turned towards
Mek'kehf* It is reckoned sinful to pass near before
a person engaged in prayer.

Prayer is called sal' ah. Five times in the course of

* Here, again, I must beg to refer the reader (if he desire such
information) to Reland's account of the ghoosl, and the occa-
sions which require its performance* — De Rel. Moh. pp. 66—77,
ed.1717.

t Segga'dehs, of the kind here described, are now sold in
London, under the name of Persian carpets or Persian rugs,

F 5

8* MODERN MYFTIANS.

every day it its per fo rmance required of the Mearfim ;
bat there are comparatively few persons in Egypt waft
do not sometimes, or often, neglect this duty; and
many who scarcely ever pray. Certain portions of die
ordinary prayers are called fotrd, which ane appointed
by the Ckoor-a'n; and others, soon'nek, which ase
appointed by the Prophet, without allegation of a
divine order.

The first time of prayer is the mughtrib, or sunset * f
or rather, about four minutes later ; the second, the
9 etk'e> or when the evening has closed, and it is quite
dark f ; the third, is the soobhh, or fegr ; i. e*, day*
break J ; the fourth, the dookr, or noon, or, rather, a
little later, when the sun has begun to decline; the
fifth, the '<wr, or afternoon ; t, e%, about mid~time be*
tween noon and nightfall §. The Prophet would not
have his followers pray at sunrise, nor exactly at noon
or sunset, because, he said, infidels worshipped the sun
at such times.

Should the time of prayer arrive when they are

* The Mohhammadan day commencing from sunset.

f The 'esh'e of the Sha'fe'ees, Ma'likees, and Hham'berees is
when the red gleam {e*h>*hupudk el>ahWm*r) after eunset has dis-
appeared ; and that of the Hhan'afets, when both the red and the
white gleam hate disappeared*

X Generally on the first faint appearance of light in the East
The Hhan'afees mostly perform the morning-prayer a little later,
when the yellow gleam (el-itfira'r) appears : this they deem the
most proper time, hut they may pray earlier.

§ The 'asr, according to the Sha'fe'ees, Malikees, and Hham'-
befees, is when the shade of an object, cast by the sun, is equal
to the length of that object, added to the length of the shade
which the same object casts at noon j and, according to the Hhan -
afees, when the shadow is equal to twice the length of the object
added to the length of its mid-day shadow.

RELIGION. 83

eating, or about to eat, they are not to rise to prayer
till they have finished their meal. The prayers should
be said as nearly as possible at the times above men-
tioned : they may be said after, but not before. The
several times of prayer are announced by the moo-
ed' din of each mosque. Having ascended to the
gallery of the ma'd'neh, or men'a'relf, he chants the
ada'n, or call to prayer, which is as follows : " God is
most Great ! " (this is said four times.) " I testify that
there is no deity but God ! " (twiee.) " I testify that
Mohham'mad is God's Apostle!" (twice.) "Come
to prayer ! " (twice.) " Come to security ! " (twice.)*
" God is most Great ! '' (twice.) " There is no deity
but God ! " — Most of the moe-ed'dins of Cairo have
harmonious and sonorous voices, which they strain to
the utmost pitch ; yet there is a simple and solemn
melody in their chants which is very striking, particu-
larly in the stillness of nigh tf.

Two other calls to prayer are made during the night,
to rouse those persons who desire to perform superero-
gatory acts of devotion J. A little after midnight, the
meo-ed'dins of the great royal mosques in Cairo (i. e^
of each of the great mosques founded by a Soolta'n,
which is called Gat me* Soolta'nee)^ and of some other
large mosques, ascend the ma'd'nehs, and chant the
following call ; which, being one of the two night-calls
not at the regular periods of obligatory prayers, is
.called the Oo'la, a term signifying merely " the First"

* Here is added, in the morning call, " Prayer is better than
-sleep !" (twice.)

f A common air, to which the ada'n is chanted in Cairo, will
be given in the chapter on Egyptian Music

% They are few who do so.

84 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Having commenced by chanting* the common ada'n,
with those words which are introduced in the call to
morning-prayer ("Prayer is better than sleep"), he
adds, " There is no deity but God" (three times)
" alone : He hath no companion : to Him belongeth
the dominion; and to Him belongeth praise. He
giveth life, and causeth death ; and He is living, and
shall never die. In His hand is blessing [or good] ;
and He is Almighty. — There is no deity but God ! "
(three times) "and we will not worship any beside
Him, ' serving Him with sincerity of religion*,' * though
the infidels be aversef' [thereto]. There is no deity
but God ! M oh ham' mad is the most noble of the
creation in the sight of God. Mohham'mad is the best
prophet and apostle and lord by whom his companions
have been governed ; comely ; liberal of gifts ; per-
fect; pleasant to the taste ; sweet; soft to the throat
[or to be drunk]. Pardon, O Lord, thy servant and
thy poor dependant, the endower of this place, and him
who watches it with goodness and beneficence, and its
neighbours, and those who frequent it at the times of
prayers and good acts, O thou Bountiful ! — O Lord ! f
(three times.) " Thou art He who ceaseth not to be
distinguished by mercy : Thou art liberal of thy cle-
mency towards the rebellious ; and protectest him ;
and cove rest the base ; and art the author of everything
that is good ; and thou bestowest thy beneficence upon
the servant, and relievest him, O thou Bountiful ! — O
Lord ! " (three times.) " My sins, when I think upon
them, [I see to be] many ; but the mercy of my Lord

* Ckoor-a'n, ch. xcviii. y. 4.

f Same, ch. iz, v. 32, and ch. lxi. v. 8.

X This exclamation {Ya rubb!) is made in a very loud tone.

RELIGION. 85

is more abundant :" I am not solicitous on account of
good that I have done ; but for the mercy of God I am
most solicitous. Extolled be the Everlasting! He
hath no companion in his great dominion. His abso-
lute glory [I assert] : exalted be his name : [I assert]
the absolute glory of God."

About an hour before daybreak, the moo-ed'dins of
most mosques chant the second call, named the Eb'ed •
(which signifies " the Eternal"), and so called from
that word occurring near the commencement. This
call is as follows : " [I assert] the absolute glory of ,
God, the Eternal One, the Eternal " (three times) :
" the absolute glory of God, the Desired, the Existing,
the Single, the Supreme : the absolute glory of God,
the One, the Sole: the absolute glory of Him who
taketh to himself, in his great dominion, neither female
companion, nor male partner, nor any like unto Him,
nor any that is disobedient, nor any deputy, nor any
equal, nor any offspring. His absolute glory [I assert] :
exalted be his name ! He is a Deity who knew what
hath been before it was, and called into existence what
hath been ; and He is now existing as He was [at the
first]. His absolute glory [I assert] : exalted be his
name ! He is a Deity unto whom there is none like
existing. There is none like unto God, the Bountiful,
existing. There is none like unto God, the Cle-
ment, existing. There is none like unto God, the Great,
existing. There is no deity but Thee, O our Lord, to
be worshipped and to be praised and to be desired and
to be glorified. [I assert] the absolute glory of Him
who created all creatures, and numbered them, and
distributed their sustenance, and decreed the affairs of
his servants: and our Lord, the Bountiful, the Cle-

85 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ment, the Great, ibrgetteth not one of them. [I assert]
the absolute glory of Him who, of his power and great-
ness, caused the puve water to low from the solid stone,
the mass of rock: the absolute giory of Him who spake
with our lord Moo's* [or Moses] upon the mountain* ;
whereupon the mountain was reduced to dustf, through
dread of God, whose name be exalted, the One, the
Sole. There is no deity but God. He is a j«st Judge.
[I assart] the absolute glory of the First. Blessing
and peace be on thee, O comely of countenance ! O
Apostle of God 1 Blessing and peace oe on thee, O first
of the creatures of God ! and seal of the apostles of
God ! Blessing and peace be on thee, O thou Prophet 4 ,
on thee and on thy Family, and all thy Companions.
God is most Great ! God is most Great !" &e- to the
end of the call to morning-prayer. *' O God, favour
and preserve and bless the blessed Prophet, our lord
Mohham'mad ! May God, whose name be blessed and
exalted, be well pleased with thee, O cur lord EA-
Hbas'an, and with thee, O our lord JSl-Hhosey'n, and
with thee, O Ab'oo Farra'gi, O Sheykh of the Arabs,
and with all the favourites [the wetees] of God. Amen."
The prayers which are performed daily at the five
periods before mentioned are said to be of so many
rekf'ahs, or inclinations of the head$.

* These words, "The absolute glory of Him who spake,** &c.
(toobftkana mem ktfbma, tec), «r« pronounced in a very high and
loud tone.

f See Ckoor-a'n, ch. vii. v. 139.

X " Ab'oo Farra'g" is a surname of a famous saint, the sey'yid
Ahh'mad El-Bed'awee, buried at Tunta, in the Delta : it implies
that he obtains relief to those who visit his tomb, and implore his
intercession.

§ The mornkig-peayers, two r«k*ah» soan%eh and tw» fisrd:

SBLIGIQH. if

line worshipper* ataeding with hit face towards the
Ckib'leh (that is, towards Mekfeh), and his feet a*
quite dose together, lays, inaudibly, that he has ps»»
posed to recite the prayers of so maay rek''abt'(s<MHr'aeh
-or furd) the morning-prayera (or the noon, Ac.) of the
present day (or night) ; and then, raising his open
hands on each side of his face, and touching the lobes
of his ears with the ends of his thumbs, he says, " God
is most Great !" (Allafhoo Ak'bar) This ejaculation is
called the tekbetfr. He then proceeds to recite the
prayers of the prescribed number of rek"ahs*.

Still standing, and placing his hands before him, a
little below bis girdle, the left within the right, he
recites (with eyes directed towards the spot where his
head will touch the ground in prostration) the Fa't'hhah,
or opening chapter of the Ckoor-a'nf, and after it three

the noon, four soon'neh and four ford; the afternoon, the same;
the evening, three furd and two soon'neh ; and the night-prayers
(or 'esh'fc), four soon'neh and four ford, and two soon'neh again.
After these are yet to be performed three rek?abs witr ; i. e. single
or separate prayers : these may be performed immediately after
the 'esh'e prayers, or at any time m the sight ; but are more meri-
torious if late in the night.

* There are some little differences in the attitudes of the four
great sects during prayer. I describe those of the Hhan'afees.

t Some persons previously utter certain supererogatory ejacula-
tions, expressive of the praise and glory of God ; and add, " I
seek refuge with God from Satan the accursed ;" which petition is
often offered up before reciting any part of the Ckoor-a'n on other
occasions, as commanded by the Ckoor-a'n itself (ch. xvi. v. 100).
The Ckoor-a'n is usually recited, in the furd prayers, in a voice
slightly audible, excepting at noon and the 'asr, when it is recited
inaudibly. By Ima'ms, when praying at the head of others, and
sometimes by persons praying alone, it it chanted. In the
etos/nch ptajretait is crated inandihiy.

W MODERN EGYPTIANS.

or more other Terses, or one of the short chapters, of
the Ckoor-a'n; very commonly the 112th chapter; but
without repeating the biamillah (in the name of God,
&c.) before the second recitation. He then says, " God
is most Great !" and makes, at the same time, an incli-

PoitnPM of Prayer. (Port I.)

nation of his head and body, placing his hands upon
his knees, and separating his fingers a little. In this
posture he says, " [I assert] the absolute glory of my
Lord, the Great !" (three times), adding, " Hay God
hear him who praised) Him. Our Lord, praise bo unto

RELIGION. 89

Thee !" Then, raising his head and body, he repeats;
"God is most Great !" He next drops gently upon bis
knees, and, saying again, " God is most Great !" places
his hands upon the ground, a little before his knees, and
puts his nose and forehead also to the ground (the
15 46 ft

Poitoroi of Prujti. (Purl II.)

former first), between his two hands, During this pros-
tration be says, " [I assert] the absolute glory of my
Lord, the Most High 1" (three times). He raises his
head and body (but his knees remain upon the ground),
■inks backwards upon his heels, and places his hands

H MODERN EGYPTIANS.

upon his thighs, saying* at the same time, " God is most
Great !" and this lie repeats as he bends his head a
second time to the ground. During this second pros-
tration he repeats the same words as in the first, and in
raising his head again 9 he utters the tekbee'r as before.
Thus are completed the prayers of one rek"ah. Jn all
the changes of posture, the toes of the right foot must
not be moved from the spot where they were first
placed, and the left foot should be moved as little as
possible.

Having finished the prayers of one rek f 'ah, the wor-
shipper rises upon his feet (but without moving his toes
from the spot where they were, particularly those of the
right foot), and repeats the same ; only he should recite
some other chapter, or portion, after the Fa't'hbah,
than that which he repeated before, as, for instance, the
108th chapter*.

After every secxmd rek"ah (and after the last, though
there be an odd number, as in the evening ford), he
does not immediately rake his knees from the ground,
but bends his left foot under him, and site upon it, and
places his hands upon his thighs, with the fingers a little
apart. In this posture, be says, " Praises are to God,
and prayers, and good works. Peace be on thee, O
Prophet, and the mercy of God, and his blessings!
Peace be on us, and on [all] the right worshippers of

* In the third and fourth furd rekfahs, the recitation of a
second portion of the Ckoor-a'n after the Fa't'hhah should be
omitted ; and before furd prayers of four rek/'ahs, the icka'mek
(which consists of the words of the ada'ji, with the addition of
a the time of prayer is come," paonouneed twice after M «ome to
security)" should be repeated; but most persons neglect doing
this, and many do not observe the former rule.

EKLK3I0K. il

God I 1 ' Then rawing the first finger of the right hand*
(but not the hand itself), he adds, " I testify that there
is no deity but God ; and I testify that Mohham'mad is
his servant and bk apostle/ 9

After the last rek"ah of each of the prayers (that is,
.after the soon'neh prayers and the furd alike), after
saying, " Praises are to God," Ac, the worshipper,
looking upon his right shoulder, says, " Peace be on
you, and the mercy of God!" then, looking upon
the left, he repeats the same. These salutations are
considered by some as addressed only to the guardian
angels who watch over the believer, and note all his
actionst ; but others say that they are addressed both
to angels and men (t. e. believers only), who may be
present; no person, however, xetur as them. Before the
salutations in the lad prayer, the worshipper may offer
up any short petition -(in Scriptural language rather
than his own) ; while he does so looking at the palms
of his two hands, which he holds like an open book
before him, and then draws over his face* from the
forehead downwards.

Having finished both the soon'neh and furd prayers,
the worshipper, if he would acquit himself completely,
or rather, perform supererogatory acts, remains sitting
{but may then sit more at his ease), and recites the
A'yet el-Koor'see^ or Throne-Verse, which is the 256th

* The doctors of El-Isla'm differ respecting the proper position
of the fingers, of the right hand on this occasion : some hold that
. all the fingers but the first are to he doubled, as represented in
Part II. of the sketch of the postures of prayer.

t Some saj that every believer is attended by two angels;
others say, five ; others, sixty, or a hundred and sixty.

92 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of the 2d chapter of the Ckoor-a'n*; and adds, "O
High! O Great! Thine absolute glory [I assert.]"
He then repeats, "The absolute glory of God !" (thirty-
three times.) " The absolute glory of God, the Great,
with his praise forever !" (once.) " Praise be to God !**
(thirty-three times.) " Extolled be his dignity ! There is
no deity but Him," (once.) ** God is most Great !*'
(thirty-three times.) " God is most Great in greatness,
and praise be to God in abundance !" (once.) He counts
these repetitions with a string of beads called seb'hhak
(more properly soob'hhah). The beads are ninety-nine,
and have a mark between each thirty-three. They are
of aloes, or other odoriferous or precious wood, or of
coral, or of certain fruit-stones, or seeds, &c.

Any wandering of the eyes, or of the mind, a cough-
ing, or the like, answering a question, or any action not
prescribed to be performed, must be strictly avoided
(unless it be between the soon'neh prayers and the furd
or be difficult to avoid, for it is held allowable to make
three slight irregular motions or deviations from correc
deportment) ; otherwise the worshipper must begin
again, and repeat his prayers with due reverence. It
is considered extremely sinful to interrupt a man when
engaged in his devotions. The time usually occupied
in repeating the prayers of four rek"ahs, without the
supererogatory additions, is less than four, or even
three minutes. The Moos'lim says the five daily
prayers in his house or shop or in the mosque, accord-
ing as may be most convenient to him: it is seldom
that a person goes from his house to the mosque to

* Beginning with the words '< God ! there is no deity but film ;'
and ending with, « He is the High, the Great."

Interior of a Uoaqng,

RELIGION. 93

pray, excepting- to join the congregation on Friday.
Men of the lower orders oftener pray in the mosques
than those who have a comfortable home, and a mat or
carpet upon which to pray.

The same prayers are said by the congregation in
the mosque on the noon of Friday, but there are addi-
tional rites performed by the Ima'm and other ministers
on this occasion. The chief reasons for fixing upon
Friday, as the Mohhammadan Sabbath, were, it is said,
because Adam was created on that day, and died on the
same day of the week, and because the general resur-
rection was prophesied to happen on that day ; whence,
particularly, Friday was named the day of El-Go om n ok
for the assembly). The Moos'lim does not abstain
from worldly business on Friday excepting during the
time of prayer, according to the precept of the Ckoor-a'n,
ch. hn\, vv. 9 and 10.

To form a proper conception of the ceremonials of
the Friday-prayers, it is necessary to- have some idea
of the interior of a mosque. A mosque in which a
congregation assembles to perform the Friday- pray era
is called ga'me\ The mosques of Cairo are sa nume-
rous, that none of them is inconveniently crowded on
the Friday ; and some of them are so large as to occupy
spaces three or four hundred feet square. They are
mostly built of stone, the alternate courses of which
are generally coloured externally red and white. Most
commonly a large mosque consists of porticoes sur-
rounding a square open court, in the centre of which is
a tank or a fountain for ablution. One side of the
building feces the direction of Melrlteh, and the portico
on this sidey being the principal place of prayer, is more
spacious than those on> the three ether sides of the

94 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

court : it generally has two or more rows of columns,
forming so many aisles, parallel with the exterior wall.
In some cases, this portico, like the other three, is open
to the court; in other cases, it is separated from the
court by partitions of wood, connecting the front row of
columns. In the centre of its exterior wall is the
mehhra'b (or niche) which marks the direction of Mek'-
keh ; and to the right of this is the mim'bar (or pulpit).
Opposite the mehhra'b, in the fore part of the portico,
or in its central part, there is generally a platform
(called dik'keh), surrounded by a parapet, and sup-
ported by small columns ; and by it, or before it, are
one or two seats, having a kind of desk to bear a
volume of the Ckoor-a'n, from which a chapter is read
to the congregation. The walls are generally quite
plain, being simply white-washed ; but in some mosques
the lower part of the wall of the place of prayer is
lined with coloured marbles, and the other part orna-
mented with various devices executed in stucco, but
mostly with texts of the Ckoor-a'n (which form long
friezes, having a pleasing effect), and never with the
representation of anything that has life. The pave-
ment is covered with matting, and the rich and poor
pray side by side ; the man of rank or wealth enjoying
no peculiar distinction or comfort, unless (which is
sometimes the case) he have a prayer-carpet brought by
his servant, and spread for him*.

The Prophet did not forbid women to attend public
prayers in a mosque, but pronounced it better for them
to pray in private; but in Cairo neither females nor
young boys are allowed to pray wkh the congregation

• Adjoining each mosque are several latrines, in each of which
is a receptacle with water, for ablution.

RELIGION. 9*

in the mosque, nor even to be present in the mosque at
anytime of prayer : formerly women were permitted (and
perhaps are still in some countries), but were obliged to
place themselves apart from the men, and behind the
latter; because, as Sale has remarked, the Moos'lima
are of opinion that the presence of females inspires a
different kind of devotion from that which is requisite in
a place dedicated to the worship of God. Very few
women in Egypt even pray at home.

Over each of the mosques of Cairo presides a Na'zir
(or warden), who is the trustee of the funds which arise
from lands', houses, &c. bequeathed to the mosque by
the founder and others, and who appoints the religious,
ministers and the inferior servants. Two Ima'ms are
employed to officiate in each of the larger mosques : one
of them, called the Khatefeb, preaches and prays before
the congregation on the Friday : the other is an Ima'm
Ra'tib, "or ordinary Ima'm, who recites the five prayers
of every day in the mosque, at the head of those persons
who may be there at the exact times of those prayers :
but in most of the smaller mosques both these offices
are performed by one Ima'm. There are also to each
mosque one or more moo-ed'dins (to chant the call to
prayer), and bowwa'bs (or door-keepers), according as
there are one or more ma'd'nehs (or menarets) and
entrances; and several other servants are employed to
sweep the mosque, spread the mats, light the lamps, and
attend to the sa'ckiyeh (or water-wheel), by which the
tank or fountain, and other receptacles for water, neces-
sary to the performance of ablutions, are supplied. The
Ima'ms, and those persons who perform the lower
offices, are all paid from the funds of the mosque, and
not by any contributions exacted from the people.

a

9* MODERN EGYPTIANS.

The condition of the Ima'ms it very different, ha
most respects, from that of Christian priests. They hatve
no authority above other persons, and do not enjoy any
respect but what their reputed piety or learning may
obtain them : nor are they a distinct order of men ^et
apart for religious offices, like our clergy, and composing
an indissoluble fraternity ; for a man who has acted am
the Ima'm of a mosque may be displaced by the warden,
of that mosque, and, with his employment and salary,
loses the title of Ima'm, and has no better chance of
being again chosen for a religious minister than any
other person competent to perform the office. The
Ima'ms obtain their livelihood chiefly by other meaoa
than the service of the mosque, as their salaries are
very small : that of a Khatee'b being generally about »
piaster (2fd. of our money) per month ; and that of
an ordinary Ima'm, about five piasters. Some of them
engage in trade; several of them are 'cUta'rs (or drug-
gists and perfumers), and many of them are school-
masters : those who have no regular occupations of these
kinds often recite the Ckoor-a'n for hire in private
houses. They are mostly chosen from among the poor
students of the great mosque El-Az'har.

The large mosques are open from day-break till a
little after the 'esh'e, or till nearly two hours after sunset.
The others are closed between the hours of morning
and noon prayers ; and most mosques are also closed kr
rainy weather (excepting at the times of prayer), lest
persons who have no shoes should enter and dirt the
pavement and matting. Such persons always enter by
the door nearest the tank or fountain, (if there be
than one door,) that they may wash before they
into the place of prayer; and generally this door

RELIGION. 97

is left open in dirty weather. The great mosque El-
Az'har remains open all night, with the exception of the
principal place of prayer, which is called the muck-
so&rahy being partitioned off from the rest of the build-
ing. In many of the larger mosques, particularly in
the afternoon, persons are seen lounging, chatting
together, eating, sleeping, and sometimes spinning or
sewing, or engaged in some other simple craft; but,
notwithstanding such practices, the Moos'lims very
highly respect their mosques. There are several
mosques in Cairo (as the Az'har, Hhasaney'n, &c.)»
before which no Frank, nor any other Christian, nor a
Jew, were allowed to pass, till of late years since the
French invasion.

On the Friday, half an hour before the doohr (or
noon), the moo-ed'dins of the mosques ascend to the
galleries of the ma'd'nehs, and chant the Sela'm, which
is a salutation to the Prophet, not always expressed in
the same words, but generally in words to the following
effect : — " Blessing and peace be on thee, O thou of great
dignity ! O Apostle of God ! Blessing and peace be on
thee, to whom the Truth said, I am God ! Blessing and
peace be on thee, thou first of the creatures of God, and
seal of the Apostles of God ! From me be peace on
thee, and on thy Family and all thy Companions!"
Persons then begin to assemble in the mosques.

The utmost solemnity and decorum are observed in
the public worship of the Moos'lims* Their looks and
behaviour in the mosque are not those of enthusiastic
devotion, but of calm and modest piety. Never are they
guilty of a designedly irregular word or action during
their prayers. The pride and fanaticism which they

Q.2

98' MODERN EGYPTIANS.

exhibit in common life, in intercourse with persons of
their own, or of a different faith, seem to be dropped on
their entering the mosque, and they appear wholly
absorbed in the adoration of their Creator ; humble and
downcast, yet without affected humility, or a forc%l
expression of countenance. The Moos'lim takes off his
shoes at the door of the mosque, carries them in his
left hand, sole to sole, and puts his right foot first over
the threshold. If he have not previously performed
the preparatory ablution, he repairs at once to the tank
or fountain to acquit himself of that duty* Before he
commences his prayers he places his shoes (and his
sword and pistols, if he have such arms,) upon the
matting, a little before the spot where his head will
touch the ground in prostration : his shoes are put one
upon the other, sole to sole.

The people who assemble to perform the noon-prayers
of Friday arrange themselves in rows parallel to that
side of the mosque in which is the niche, and facing
that side. Many do not go until the ada'n of noon, or
just before. When a person goes at, or a little after, the*
Sela'm, as soon as he has taken his place in one of the
ranks, he performs two rek"ahs, and then remains
sitting, on his knees or cro3s-legged, while a reader,
having seated himself on the reading-chair immediately
after the Sela'm, is occupied in reciting (usually without
book) the Soo'rat el-Kahf (the 18th chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n), or a. part of it; for, generally, he has not
finished it before the ada'n of noon, when he stops.
All the congregation, as soon as they hear the ada'n
(which is the same as on other days), sit on- their knees
and feet. When the ada'n is finished, they stand up,.

RELIGION. 99

and perform, each separately, two* rek"ahs, soon' net
el-gooml'ah (or the soon neh ordinance for Friday),
which they conclude, like the ordinary prayers, with the
two salutations. A servant of the mosque, called a
mporuck'ckee, then opens the folding-doors at the foot
of the pulpit-stairs, takes from behind them a straight,
wooden sword, and, standing a little to the right of the
door-way, with his right side towards the ckib'Ieh, holds
this sword in his right hand, resting the point on the
ground : in this position he says, " Verily God favoureth,
and his angels bless, the Prophet. O ye who believe,
bless him, and greet him with a salutation !" Then, one
or more persons, called Mooballighs, stationed on the
dik'keh, chant the following, or similar words f. w O
God ! favour and preserve and bless the most noble of
the Arabs and 'Ag'am [or foreigners], the Ima'm of
Mek'keh and El-Medee'neh and the Temple, to whom
the spider showed favour, and wove its web in the cave ;
and whom the dubbj saluted, and before whom the
moon was cloven in twain, our lord Mohham'mad, and
his Family and Companions !" The Mooruck'ckee then
recites the ada'n (which the Moo-ed'dins have already
chanted) : after every few words he pauses, and the
Moobal'lighs, on the dik'keh, repeat the same words in
a sonorous chant §. Before the ada'n is finished, the

* If of the seek of the Sha'fe'ees, to which most of the people
of Cairo belong; but if of that of the Hhan'afees,/oi/r rek"ahs.

f There are some trifling differences in the forms of saluta-
tions on the. Prophet in the Friday-prayers in different mosques :
I describe what is most common.

I A kind of lizard, the iacerta Libyca.

§ In the great mosque El-Az'har, there are several Moobal'-
lighs in different places, to make the ada'n heard to the whole
congregation.

ttFMD
4'i

100 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Khateet), or Ima'm, comes to the foot of the pulpit,
takes the wooden sword from the Moorock'ckee's hand,
ascends the pulpit, and sits on the top step or platform.
The pulpit of a largje mosque, on this day, is decorated
with two flags, with the profession of the faith, or the
names of God and Mohham'mad, worked upon them :
these are fixed at the top of the stairs, slanting forward.
The Mooruck'ckee and Mooballighs having finished the
ada'n, the former repeats a tradition of the Prophet,
saying, " The Prophet, upon whom be blessing and
peace, hath said, * If thou bast said unto thy companion
while the Ima'm is preaching on Friday, Be thou silent,
thou hast spoken rashly.' Be ye silent: ye shall be
rewarded: God shall recompense you." He then sits
down. The Khatee'b now rises, and, holding the
wooden sword* in the same manner as the Mooruck'ckee
did, delivers an exhortation, called khootbet el-waaz.
As the reader may be curious to see a translation of a
Mohhammadan sermon, I insert one. The following
is a sermon preached on the first Friday of the Arab
yearf. The original, as usual, is in rhyming prose.

" Praise be to God, the renewer of years, and the
multiplier of favours, and the creator of months and
days, according to the most perfect wisdom and most
admirable judgment ; who hath dignified the months of
the Arabs above all months, and pronounced that

* To commemorate the acquisition of Egypt by the sword.

•f- During my first visit 1o Egypt, I went to the great mosque
Kl-At'har, 1o witness the performance of the Friday-prayers by
the largest congregation in Cairo. I was pleased with the
preaching of the Khatee'b of the mosque, Ga'd El-Mowla, and
afterwards procured his sermon-book (detwcln khool'ab), contain-
ing sermons for every Friday in the year, and for the two Varft, dr
grand festivals. I translate the first sermon.

RELIGION. 101

among the more excellent of them is El-Mohhar'ram
the Sacred, and commenced with it the year, as he hath
dosed it with Zoo-1-Hheg'geh. How propitious is the
bediming", and how good is the end! [I assert] his
absolute glory, exempting Him from the association of
any other deity with Him. He hath well considered
what He hath formed, and established what He hath con-
trived, and He alone hath the power to create and to
annihilate. I praise Him, asserting his absolute glory,
and exalting his name, for the knowledge and inspira-
tion which He hath graciously vouchsafed ; and I testify
that there is no deity but God alone ; He hath no com-
panion ; He is the most holy King ; the [God of] peace :
and I testify that our lord and our Prophet and our
friend Mohbam'mad is his servant, and his apostle, and
his elect, and his intimate, the guide of the way, and the
lamp of the dark. O God ! favour and preserve and
bless this noble Prophet, and chief and excellent apostle,
tiie merciful-hearted, our lord Mobham'mad, and his
family, and his companions, and his wives, and his pos-
terity, and the people of his house, the noble persons !
and preserve them amply! O servants of God! your
lives have been gradually curtailed, and year after year
has passed away, and ye are sleeping on the bed of
indolence and on the pillow of stubbornness. Ye pass
by the tombs of your predecessors, and fear not the
assault of destiny and destruction, as if others de-
parted from the world and ye must of necessity remain
in it. Ye rejoice at the arrival of new years, as if they
brought an increase to the term of life, and swim in the
seas of desires, and enlarge your hopes, and m every
way exceed other people [in presumption}, and ye are
sluggish in doing good. how great a calamity is

102 MODERN EGYPTIANS,

this ! God teacheth by an allegory. Know ye not that
in the curtailment of time by indolence and sleep there
is very great trouble ? Know ye not that in the cutting
short of lives by the termination of years is a very
great warning? Know ye not that the night and day
divide the lives of numerous souls ? Know ye not that
health and capacity are two blessings coveted by many
men ? But the truth hath become manifest to those who
have eyes. Ye are now between two years : one year
hath passed away, and come to an end, with its evils;
and ye have entered upon another year, in which, if it
please God, mankind shall be relieved. Is any of you
determining upon diligence [in doing good] in the year
to come ? or repenting of his failings in the times that
are passed ? The happy is he who makes amends for
the time passed in the time to come ; and the miserable
is he whose days pass away and he is careless of his
time. This new year hath arrived, and the sacred month
of God hath come with blessings to you,— ^the first of the
months of the year, and of the four sacred months, as
hath been said, and the most worthy of preference and
honour and reverence : its fast is the most excellent of
fasts after that which is incumbent *, and the doing of
good in it is among the most excellent of the objects of
desire. Whosoever desires to reap advantage from it,
let him fast the ninth and tenth. days, looking for aid.
Abstain not from this fast through indolence, and
esteeming it a hardship ; but comply with it in the best
manner, and honour^ it with the best of honours, and
improve your time by the worship of God, morning and
evening. Turn unto God with repentance, before the
assault of death : He is the God who accepteth repent-
* That of the month of Rum'ada'n.

RELIGION* 103

ance of his servants, and pardoneth sins. — The Tradi-
tion *. — The Apostle of God (God favour and preserve
him !) hath said, 'The most excellent prayer, after the
prescribed t» is the prayer that is said in the night; and
the most excellent fast, after Rum'ada'n, is that of the
rnonth of God, El-Mohhar / ram.' "

The Khateet), having concluded his exhortation, says
to the congregation, " Supplicate God." He then sits
down, and prays privately; and each member of the
congregation at the same time offers up some private'
petition, as after the ordinary prayers, holding his hands
before him (looking at the palms), and then drawing
them down his face. This done, the Moobal'lighs say
"A'mee'n! A'mee'n! [Amen! Amen!] O Lord of
all creatures !" — The Khateelb now rises again, and re-
cites another Rhoofbeh, called khoot'bet en-naat, of
which the following is a translation % : —

" Praise be to God, abundant praise, as He hath com-
manded ! I testify that there is no deity but God alone :
He hath no companion : affirming his supremacy, and
condemning him who denieth and disbelieveth : and I
testify that our lord and our Prophet Mohham'mad is his
servant and his apostle, the lord of mankind, the inter-
cessor, the accepted intercessor, on the day of assem-
bling: God favour him and his family as long as the-
eye seeth and the ear heareth ! O people ! reverence-
God by doing what He hath commanded, and abstain
from that which He hath forbidden and prohibited. The
happy is he who obeyeth, and the miserable is he who

* The Khatee'b always closes his exhortation with one or two
traditions of the Prophet.

f The five daily prayers ordained by the Ckoor-a'n.
X This is always the same, or nearly so.

g5

104 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

opposeth and sinneth. Know that the present world is
a transitory abode, and that the world, to come is a
lasting abode. Make provision, therefore, in your
transitory state for your lasting state, and prepare for
your reckoning and standing before your Lord : for know
that ye shall to-morrow be placed before God, and
reckoned -with according to your deeds ; and before the
Lord of Might ye shall be present, ' and those who hare
acted unjustly shall know with what an overthrowal they
shall be overthrown *.' Know that God, whose absolute
glory I assert, and whose name be exalted, hath said
(and ceaseth not to say wisely, and to command judi-
ciously, warning you, and teaching, and honouring the
dignity of your Prophet, extolling and magnifying him),
4 Verify, God favoureth, and his angels bless, the Pro-
phet : O ye who believe, bless him, and greet him with
a salutation t !' O God ! favour Mohham'mad and the
family of Mohham'mad, as Thou favouredst Ibrahee'm J
and the family of Ibrahee'm ; and bless Mohham'mad
and the family of Mohham'mad, as Thou bfessedst
Ibrahee'm and the family of Ibrahee'm, among all
creatures — for Thou art praiseworthy and glorious ! O
-God ! do Thou also be well pleased with the four Kha-
lee'rehs, the orthodox lords, of high dignity and illus-
trious honour, Ab'oo Bekr Es-Siddee'ck, and 'Om'ar,
and 'Osma'n, and 'Al'ee ; and be Thou well pleased, O
God ! with the six who remained of the ten noble and
just persons who swore allegiance to thy Prophet Mo-
hham'mad (God favour and preserve him !) underthe tree ;
(for Thou art the Lord of piety, and the Lord of pardon,)

* Ckoor-a'n, chap. xxvL, Last verse.
t Idem., chap, xxxiii., vtr. 56. J The patriarch Abraham.

RELIGION. 10*

those persons of excellence and clemency, and rectitude
sad prosperity, Tal'hhah, and Ez-Zoobey'r, and Saad,
and Saee'd, and 'Abd Er-Rahhma'n Ib'n 'Owf, and
Ab'oo 'Obey'deh 'A'mir Ibn El-Garra'hh; and with
all Ike Companions of the Apostle of God ! (God favour
and preserve him !) ; and be Thou well pleased, O Gad!
with the two martyred descendants, the two bright
moons, ' the two lords of the youths of the people of
Paradise in Paradise,' the two sweet-smelling flowers of
the Prophet of this nation, Ab'oo Mohham'mad El-
Hbas'an, and Ab'oo 'Abd Allah El-Hhosey'n : and be
Thou well pleased, O God! with their mother, the
daughter of the Apostle of God (God favour and pre-
serve him !), Fa'timeh Ez-Zah'ra, and with their grand-
mother Khadee'geh El-Koot/ra, and with 'A'isheh, the
mother of the faithful, and with the rest of the pure
wives, and with the generation which succeeded the
Companions, and the generation which succeeded that,
with beneficence to the day of judgment! O God!
pardon the believing men and the believing women, and
the Mooslim men and the Mooslim women, those who
are living, and the dead; for Thou art a hearer near, an
answerer of prayers, O Lord of all creatures ! O God !
aid El-Isla'm, and strengthen its pillars, and make infi-
delity to tremble, and destroy its power, by the preserva-
tion of thy servant, and the son of thy servant, the sub-
missive to the might of thy majesty and glory, whom
God hath aided, by the care of the Adored King, our
master the Soolta'n, son of the Soolta'n, the Soolta'n
Mahhmoo'd Kha'n : may God assist him, and prolong
[his reign] ! O God ! assist him, and assist his armies !
O thou Lord of the religion, and of the world .present,
and the world to come ! O Lord of all creatures! O

106 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

God ! assist the forces of the Moos'lims and the armies
of the Unitarians ! O God ! frustrate the infidels and
polytheists, thine enemies, the enemies of the religion !
O God ! invert their banners, and ruin their habitations,
and give them and their wealth as booty to the Moos -
lims*! O God! unloose the captivity of the captives,
and annul the debts of the debtors ; and make this town
to be safe and secure, and blessed with, wealth and
plenty, and all the towns of the Moos'lims, O Lord
of all creatures! and decree safety and health to us
and to all travellers, and pilgrims, and warriors, and
wanderers, upon thy earth, and upon thy sea, such as
are Moos'lims, O Lord of all creatures ! ' O Lord ! we
have acted unjustly towards bur own souls, and if Thou
forgive us not and be merciful unto us, we shall surely be
of those who perish V I beg of God, the Great, that
He may forgive me and you, and all the people of
Mohham'mad, the servants of God. ' Verily God
commandeth justice, and the doing of good, and giving
[what is due] to kindred; and forbiddeth wickedness,
and iniquity, and oppression : he admonisheth you that
ye may remember J.' Remember God; He will re*
member you : and thank Him ; He will increase to you
[your blessings]. Praise be to God, the Lord of all
creatures !"

During the rise of the Nile, a good inundation is also

* This sentence, beginning " O God, frustrate," was not in-
serted in one copy of this prayer, which I obtained from an
Ima'm. Another Ima'm, at whose dictation I wrote the copy here
translated, told me that this sentence and some others were often
omitted.

f Ckoor-a'n, chap, vii., v. 22.

J Ibid., chap, xvi., v« 92.

HELIGION. - 107

prayed for in this Khoot'beh. The Khatee'b, or Ima'm,
having ended it, descends from the pulpit, and the
Moobal'lighs chant the icka'meh (described in page 90) :
the Ima'm, stationed before the niche, then recites the
furd prayers of Friday, which consist of two rek"ahs,
and are similar to the ordinary prayers. The people do
the same, but silently, and keeping time exactly with
the Ima'm in the various postures. Those who are of
the Malikee sect then leave the mosque; and so also
do many persons of the other sects: but some of the
Sha'fe'ees and Hhan'afees (there are scarcely any
Hham'bel'ees in Cairo) remain, and recite the ordinary
furd prayers of noon; forming a number of separate
groups, in each of which one acts as Ima'm. The rich,
on going out of the mosque, often give alms to the
poor outside the door.

I have spoken thus fully of Mohhammadan worship,
because my countrymen in general have very imperfect
and erroneous notions on this subject; many of them
even imagining that the Moos'lims ordinarily pray to
their Prophet as well as to God. Invocations to the
Prophet, for hi3 intercession, are, indeed, frequently
made, particularly at his tomb, where pious visiters
generally say, " We ask thy intercession, O Apostle of
God!" The Moos'lims, also, even implore the inter-
cession of their numerous saints.

The duty next in importance to prayer is that of
giving alms. Certain alms are prescribed by law, and
are called zek'ah ; others, called sud'ackah, are volun-
tary. The former, or obligatory alms, were, in thp
earlier ages of El-Isla'm, collected by officers appointed
by the sovereign, for pious uses, such as building
mosques, &c. ; but now it is left to the Mooslim's con*

1#8 MODES* EGYPTIANS.

to give them, and to apply them in what mi
he thinks fit; that is, to bestow them upon whatever
needy persons he may choose. They are to be given
once in every year, of cattle and sheep, generally in the
proportion of one in forty, two in a hundred and
twenty ; of camels, for every five, a ewe ; or for twenty-
five, a pregnant camel; and likewise of money, and,
among the Hhan'afeea, of merchandise, Ac. He who
has money to the amount of two hundred cuVhems (or
drams) of silver, or twenty mitckals (*. e. thirty drams)
of gold (or, among the Hhan'afees, the value of the
above in gold or silver ornaments, utensils, Ac.), must
annually give the fortieth part (rooba el-'oiAr), or the
value of that part.

Fasting is the next duty. The Mooslim is com-
manded to fast during the whole month of Rum'ada'n*
every day, from the first appearance of day-break, or
rather from the hour when there is sufficient light for a
person to distinguish plainly a white thread from a
black thread f (about two hours before sunrise in
Egypt), until sunset. He must abstain from eating,
drinking, smoking, smelling perfumes, and every unne-
cessary indulgence or pleasure of a worldly nature;
even from intentionally swallowing his spittle. When
Rum'ada'n foils in summer J the fast is very severe;
the abstinence from drinking being most painfully felt*
Persons who are sick, or on a journey, and soldiers in
time of war, are not obliged to observe the fast during

* Because the Prophet received the first revelation in thai
month.

f Cfcoor-afa, chap, ii., v. 183.

% The yaar being lunar, each 1 month retregraiiai ■ thaaagh all
the leaaoaa in the coarse of about thirty-three years and a hal£.

RELIGION. 109

Ruta'ada'n ; but if they do not keep it in this month
they should fast an equal number of days at a future
time. Fasting is also to be dispensed with in the cases
of a nurse and pregnant woman. The Prophet even
disapproved of any person's keeping the fast of Rum'-
ada'n if not perfectly able; and desired no man to
fast so much as to injure his health, or disqualify him-
self for necessary labour. The modern Moos'lims seem
to regard the fast of Rum'ada'n as of more impor-
tance than any other religious act, for many of them
keep this fast who neglect their daily prayers ; and even
those who break the fast, with very few exceptions,
pretend to keep it Many Moos'lims of the wealthy
classes eat and drink in secret during Rum'ada'n ; but
the greater number strictly keep the fast, which is fatal
to numerous persons in a weak state of -health. There
are some other days on which it is considered merito-
rious to fast, but not absolutely necessary. On the two
grand festivals, namely, that following Rum'ada'n, and
that which succeeds the pilgrimage, it is unlawful to
fast, being expressly forbidden by the Prophet.

The last of the four most important duties, that of
pilgrimage, remains to be noticed. It is incumbent on
every Mooslim to perform, once in his life, the pilgrim-
age to Meklteh and Mount 'Arafa't, unless poverty or
ill health prevent him ; or, if a Hhan'afee, he may send
a deputy, whose expenses he must pay*. Many, how*
ever, neglect the duty of pilgrimage who cannot plead
a lawful excuse ; nor are they reproached for so doing'.
It is not by the visit to Meklteh, and the performance

* A Malikee ii held bound to perform the pilgrimage if strong
enough to bear the journey on foot, and able to earn his food on
the way.

110 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of the ceremonies of circuiting the Ka'abeh seven times
and kissing the " black stone" in each round, and other
rites in the Holy City, that the Mooslim acquires the
title of el-hha'gg* (or the pilgrim) ; the final object of
the pilgrimage* is Mount 'Arafa't, six hours' journey
distant from MekTceh. During his performance of the
required ceremonies in Meklceh, and also during hid
journey to 'Arafa't, and until his completion of the
pilgrimage, the Mooslim wears a peculiar dress,
called ehhra'm (vulgarly hhera'm), generally consisting
of two simple pieces of cotton, or linen, or woollen cloth,
without seam or ornament, one of which is wrapped
round the loins, and the other thrown over the shoulders :
the instep and heel of each foot, and the head, must be
bare ; but umbrellas are now used by many of the pil-
grims. It is necessary that the pilgrim be present on
the occasion of a Khootf beh which is recited on Mount
'Arafa't in the afternoon of the 9th of the month of
Zoo-1-Hheg'geh. In the ensuing evening, after sunset,
the pilgrims commence their return to Meklceh. Halt-
ing the following day in the valley of Min'a (or, as it is
"more commonly called, Moon'a), they complete the
ceremonies of the pilgrimage by a sacrifice (of one or
more male sheep, he-goats, cows, or she-camels, part of
the flesh of which they eat, and part give to the poor),
and by shaving the head and clipping the nails. Every
one, after this, resumes his usual dress, or puts on a new
one, if provided with such. The sacrifice is called
el-fid! a (or the ransom), as it is performed in comme^
moration of the ransom of Isma'ee'l (or Ishmael) by

* On the pronunciation of this word, see a note to the scconf
paragraph of Chapter V.

RELIGION. HI

the sacrifice of the ram, when he was himself about to
have been offered up by his father : for it is the general
opinion of the Moos'lims that it was this son, not Isaac,
who was to have been sacrificed by his father.

There are other ordinances, more er less connected
with those which have been already explained.

The two festivals, called el-Eed es~Sooghe?yir*, or
the Lesser Festival, and el- y Eed el-Kebee'r> or the
Great Festival, the occasions of which have been men-
tioned above, are observed with public prayer and
general rejoicing. Each of these lasts three days.
The festivities with which they are celebrated will be
described in a subsequent chapter. On the first day of
the latter festival (being that on which the pilgrims
perform their sacrifice), every other Moos'lim should
Slay a victim if he can afford to purchase one. The
wealthy slay several sheep, or a sheep or two and a
buffalo, and distribute the greater portion of the meat
to the poor. The slaughter may be performed by a
deputy.

The duty of waging war against infidels is strongly
and repeatedly urged in the Ckoor-a'n ; and he who
dies fighting for the defence or propagation of El-IsWm
is promised the rewards of a martyr. As the Jews were
ordered to exterminate heathen nations, so the Moos'-
lims are commanded to put to death every idolater who
refuses to embrace the Mohhammadan faith, and to
exact an annual tribute from Jews and Christians who
show the like resolution. The Moos'lims are even for-
bidden to contract friendship with any unbelievers.

There are certain prohibitory laws in the Ckoor-a'n

* More property Saghcc'r. This is what many travellers have
incorrectly called "the Great Festival.'*

112 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

which most be mentioned here, as remarkably affecting
the moral and social condition of its disciples.

Wine and all inebriating liquors are forbidden, as
being the cause of " more evil than profit" * Many of
the Mooslims, however, in the present day, drink wine,
brandy, &c, in secret ; and some, thinking it no sin to
indulge thus in moderation, scruple not to do so openly ;
but among the Egyptians there are few who transgress
in this flagrant manner. Boo'zeh, which is an intoxicat-
ing liquor made with barley-bread, crumbled, mixed
with water, strained, and left to ferment, is commonly
drunk by the boatmen of the Nile, and by other persons
of the lower orders t- Opium, and other drugs which
produce a similar effect, are considered unlawful, though
not mentioned in the Ckoor-a'n ; and persons who are
addicted to taking these drugs are regarded as immoral
characters ; but, in Egypt, such persons are not very
numerous. Some sectarians have pronounced tobacco,
and even coffee, to be unlawful.

The eating of swine's flesh is strictly forbidden. The
unwholesome effects of that meat in a hot climate would
be a sufficient reason for the prohibition ; but the pig b
held in abhorrence by the Moos'lim chiefly on account
of its extremely filthy habits J. Most animals prohibited
for food by the Mosaic law are alike forbidden to the
Moos'lim ; the camel is an exception. The Moos'lim is

* Ckoora'n, chap, ii., v. 216.

f A similar beverage, thus prepared from barley, waa used bjr
the ancient Egyptians. (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 77.) The
modern inhabitants of Kgypt also prepare boo'zeh from wheat and
from millet in the same manner, but less commonly.

J The swine was universally deemed impure by the ancient
Egyptians. (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 47.)

LAWS. H3

"forbidden [to eat] that which dieth of itself, and blood,
and swine's flesh, and that on which the name of any
beside God hath been invoked; and that which hath
been strangled, or killed by a blow, or by a fall, or by
the horns [of another beast] ; and that which hath been
eaten by a wild beast, except what he shall [himself]
kill; and that which hath been sacrificed unto idols *."
Ah animal that is killed for the food of man must be
slaughtered in a particular manner : the person who is
about to perform the operation must say, " In the name
of God ! God is most great !" and then cut its throat,
taking care to divide the windpipe, gullet, and carotid
arteries. It is forbidden to employ, in this case, the
phrase which is so often made use of on other occasions,
"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Mer-
ciful !" because the mention of the most benevolent
epithets of the Deity on such an occasion would seem
like a mockery of the sufferings which the animal is
about to endure. Some persons in Egypt, but mostly
women, when about to kill an animal for food, say, " In
the name of God ! God is most great ! God give thee
patience to endure the affliction which he hath allotted
theet 1 ." If the sentiment which first dictated this
prayer were always felt, it would present a beautiful
trait in the character of the people who use it. In
cases of necessity, when in danger of starving, the
Moos'lim is allowed to eat any food which is prohibited
under other circumstances. The mode of slaughter
Bbove described is, of course, only required to be prae*
tised in the cases of domestic animals. Most kinds of

* Ckoor-a'n, ch. v., v. 4

f The Arabic words of this prayer, " God give thee patience;
&c, are APlah yoosutibiruk 9 afa mu' btla 1 *.

»»

114 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

fish are lawful food * ; so also are many birds, the tame
kinds of which must be killed in the same manner as
cattle ; but the wild may be shot. The hare, rabbit,
gazelle, &c. are lawful, and may either be shot or killed
by a dog, provided the name of God was uttered at the
time of slipping the dog, and he have not eaten any
part of the prey. This animal, however, is considered
very unclean : the Sha'fe'ees hold themselves to be pol-
luted by the touch of its nose if it be wet, and if any
part of their clothes be so touched, they must wash that
part with seven waters, and once with clean earth:
some others are only careful not to let the animal lick*
or defile in a worse manner, their persons or their
dress, &c.

Gambling and usury are also prohibited, and all
games of chance ; and likewise the making of images
or pictures *of anything that has lifef. The Prophet
declared that every representation of this kind would be
placed before its author on the day of judgment, and
that he would be commanded to put life into it ; which
not being able to do, he would be cast, for a time, into
Hell.

The principal civil laws of the Ckoor r a'n and the
Traditions, &c, remain to be stated. These laws are
partly founded upon the customs of the Pagan Arabs,
but mostly upon the Jewish Scriptures and traditions.

* In some respects, the Mooslim code does not appear to be
so strictly founded upon exigencies of a sanatory natureas the
Mosaic. See Leviticus, xi., 9—12. In Egypt, fish which have
not scales are generally found to be unwholesome food.

f Many of the Mooslims hold that only sculptures which cast
a shadow, representing living creatures, are unlawful; but the
Prophet certainly condemned pictures also.

LAWS. 115

The civil laws are chiefly derived from the Ckoor-a'n* ;
but, in many important cases, this highest authority
affords no precept. In most of these cases the Traditions
of the Prophet direct the decisions of the judgef. There
are, however, some important cases, and many of an
inferior kind, respecting which both the Ckoor-a'n and
the Traditions are silent. These are decided on the au-
thority of one of the four great Ima'ms, or founders of the.
four orthodox sects of El-Isla'm; on the authority of
the Ima'm of that sect to which the ruling power
belongs, which sect, in Egypt, and throughout the
Turkish empire, is that of the Hhan'afees ; or, if none
of the decisions of the Ima'm relate to a case in dispute
(which not unfrequently happens), judgment is given,
in that case, on the authority of some other eminent
doctor. In general, only the principal laws, as laid down
in the Ckoor-a'n, will be here stated.

It seems to be well ascertained that polygamy is as
unfavourable to population as it is injurious to domestic
happiness, to morality, and to the exercise and im-
provement of the nobler powers of the mind ; and, in
justice to the legislator of the Moos'lims, we should
remark, that, instead of introducing or encouraging,
he limited this licence: it is true that he assumed to
himself the privilege of having a greater number of
wives than he allowed to others, but, in doing so, he
may have been actuated by the want of male offspring
rather than impelled by voluptuousness. The law
respecting marriage and concubinage \ though express
as to the number of wives whom the Moos'lim may

* A law given in the Ckoor-a'n it called furiL

f A law derived from the Traditions is called toon'nch.

11* MODERN EGYPTIANS.

have at the same time, namely four> is not considered
by the less strict as perfectly explicit with regard to the
number of concubines he may keep. It is written,
"Take in marriage, of the women who please you,
two, three, or four ; but if ye fear that ye cannot act
equitably [to so many, take] one; or [take] those whom
your right hands have acquired *," that is, slaves. Many
of the wealthy Moos'lims, interpreting this text accord-
ing to their desires, marry two, three, or four wives,
and keep, besides, several concubine slaves. When
a female slave becomes a mother by her master, the
child which she bears to him is free ; and she herself
cannot afterwards be sold by her master (though she
must continue to serve him and be bis concubine), and
is entitled to emancipation at his death. Her bearing a
child to him is called the cause of her emancipation or
liberty, but does not oblige him to emancipate her as
long as he lives, though it is commendable if he do so,
and make her his wife, provided he have not already
four wives, or if he marry her to another man, should
it be her wish. It is held lawful for a Moos'liin to
marry a Christian, or a Jewish woman, if induced to do
so by excessive love of her, or if he cannot obtain a
wife of his own faith. In this case the offspring must
follow the father's faith, and the wife does not inherit
when the husband dies. A Mohharamadan woman
cannot, however, under any circumstances but by force,
marry a man of another faith. The degrees of rela-
tionship in which marriage is prohibited are stated in
the 26th and 27th verses of the 4th chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n, where it is said, " Marry not women whom
your fathers have had to wife." " Ye are forbidden to

* Ckoor-a'n, chap, iv., v. 3.

LAWS, lit

many your mothers* and your daughters, ami your
sisters, and your aunte both on the father's and on the
mother's aide, and your brother's daughters* and your
sister's* daughters, and your foster-mothers, and your
foster-sisters, and your wives' mothers, and your step-
daughters which are under your tuition, born of your
wires," " and the wives of your sons ;" " and ye are
forbidden to take to you two sisters, as your wives." It is
lawful for the McWlim to see the faces of these women
whom he is forbidden to marry, but of no others, ex-
cepting his. own wives and female slaves. The marriage
of a man and woman, or of a man and a girl who has
arrived at puberty, is lawfully effected by their declaring
(which the latter generally does by a wekee'l, or deputy)
their consent to marry each other, in the presence of
two witnesses (if witnesses can be procured), and by the
payment, or part-payment, of a dowry. But the consent
of a girl under age is hot required; her father, or
paternal grandfather, or her mother, uncle, or any other
person appointed by will, or by the Cka'dee, acting for
her as he pleases . The giving a dowry is indispen-
sable, and the least sum that is allowed by law is ten
dir 9 kerns (or drams of silver), which is equal to about
five shillings of our money. A man may legally marry
a woman without mentioning a dowry ; but after the
consummation of the marriage, she can, in this case,
compel him to pay the -sum of ten dir/hemst.

A man may divorce his wife twice, and each time
take her back, without any ceremony, excepting in a case

* A boy may be thus married, but he may divorce his wife.

-f* Whatever property the wife receives from her husband,
parents, or any other person, is entirely at her own disposal; and
not subject to any claim of hex husband or hi* cred i t ots.

118 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

to be mentioned below ; but if he divorce her the third
time, or put her away by a triple divorce conveyed, in one
sentence, he cannot receive her again until she has been
married and divorced by another husband, who must
have consummated his marriage with her.* When a
man divorces his wife (which he does by merely saying,
u Thou art divorced," or " I divorce thee"), he pays her
a portion of her dowry (generally one-third), which he
had kept back from the first, to be paid on this occasion,
or at his death; and she takes away with her the furni-
ture, &c, which she brought at her marriage. He may
thus put her away from mere dislike t, and without
assigning any reason, but a woman cannot separate
herself from her husband against his will, unless it be
for some 'considerable fault on his part, as cruel treat-
ment, or neglect; and even then, application to the
Cka'dee's court is generally necessary to compel the man
to divorce her, and she forfeits the above-mentioned
remnant .of the dowry.

The first and second divorce, if made without any
mutual agreement for a compensation from the woman,
or a pecuniary sacrifice on her part, is termed tala'ck
reg"ee (a divorce which admits of return) ; because the
husband may take back his wife, without her consent,
during the period of her 'ed'deh (which will be presently
explained), but not after, unless with her consent, and
by a new contract. If he divorce her the first or second
time for a compensation, she perhaps requesting, " Di-
vorce me for what thou owest me," or " — hast of mine,"
(that is, of the dowry, furniture, &c), or for an addi-

* Ckoor-a'n, ch. ii., ver. 229, 230.

f As the Mosaic law also allows* See Deut, xxiv. 1.

LAWS. 119

tional sum, he cannot take her again but by her own
consent, and by a new contract. This is a tala'ck bo! in
(or separating divorce), and is termed " the lesser sepa-
ration," to distinguish it from the third divorce, which
is called " the greater separation." The *ed'deh is the
period during which a divorced woman, or a widow,
must Wait before marrying again, — in either case, if
pregnant, until delivery : otherwise, the former must
wait three lunar periods, or three months; and the
latter, four months and ten days. A woman who is
divorced when in a state of pregnancy, though she may
make a new contract of marriage immediately after her
delivery, must wait forty days longer before she can
complete her marriage by receiving her husband. The
man who divorces his wife must maintain her in his own
house, or in that of her parents, or elsewhere, during
the period of her 'ed'deh ; but must cease to live with
her as her husband from the commencement of that
period. A divorced woman who has a son under two
years of age may retain him until he has attained that
age, and may be compelled to do so by the law of the
Sha'fe'ees ; and, by the law of the Ma'likees, until he
has arrived at puberty ; but the Hhan'afee law limits
the period during which the boy should remain under
her care to seven years : her daughter she should retain
until nine years of age, or the period of puberty. If a
man divorce his wife before the consummation of mar-
riage, he must pay her half the sum which he has pro-
mised to give her as* a dowry ; or, if he have promised
no dowry, he must pay her the half of the smallest
dowry allowed by law, which has been above mentioned ;
and she may marry again immediately.

When a wife refuses to obey the lawful commands of

• H

120 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

htr husband, he may, and generally does, take her, or
two witnesses* against her, to the Cka'dee's court, to
prefer a complaint against her; and, if the case W
proved, a certificate is written declaring the woman
Tialthizeh) or rebellious against her husband. Thia
process is termed " writing a woman na'shixehJ' It
exempts her husband from the obligation to lodge*
clothe, and maintain her. He is not obliged to divorce
her ; and, by refusing to do this, he may prevent her
marrying another man as long as he lives ; but, if she
promise to be obedient afterwards, he must take her
back, and maintain her, or divorce her. It is mere
common, however, for a wife whose husband refuses to
divorce her, if she have parents or other relations aUe
and willing to support her comfortably, to make a
plaint at the Cka'dee's court, stating her husband's
duetto be of such a nature towards her that she will not
live with him, and thus cause herself to be registered
" na'shiseh," and separated from him. In this case, the
husband generally persists, from mere spite, in refusing
to divorce her.

To establish a charge of infidelity against a wife, four
eye-witnesses of her crime are necessary t. If convicted
thus, she is to be put to death by stoning J. It need
scarcely be said that cases of this kind have very seldom
occurred, from the difficulty of obtaining such testimony^.

* The witnesses must always be MoWlims is accusations
against a person of the same faith.

f Ckoor-a'n, chap, ir., ▼. 19.

X This is a toovtntk law, or founded on tradition. The law is
the same in tho case of the adulterer, if married; but it is never
enforced. See Leviticus, xx., 10, and John, viii., 4, 5.

§ It is worthy of remark, that the circumstance which
sioned the promulgation of this extraordinary law was an

LAWS. 121

Further laws on this subject, and still more favourable
to the women, are given in the Ckoor-a'n*, in the fol-
lowing words : — " But [as to] those who accuse women
of reputation [of fornication or adultery], and produce
not four witnesses [of the fact], scourge them with
eighty stripes, and receive not their testimony for ever ; -
for such are infamous prevaricators; excepting those
who shall afterwards repent ; for Qod is gracious and
merciful. They who shall accuse their wives [of adul-
tery], and shall have no witnesses [thereof] besides
themselves, the testimony [which shall be required] of
one of them [shall be], that he swear four times by
God that he speaketh the truth, and the fifth [time that
he imprecate] the curse of God on him if he be a liar ;
and it shall avert the punishment [of the wife] if she
swear four times by God that he is a liar, and if the
fifth [time she imprecate] the wrath of God on her if
he speak the truth." The commentators and lawyers
have agreed that, under these circumstances, the mar*
riage must be dissolved. In the chapter from which
the above quotation is made (v. 2), it is ordained thai
unmarried persons convicted of fornication shall be
punished by scourging, with a hundred stripes ; and a
Soon'neh law renders them obnoxious to the further
punishment of banishment for a whole yearf. Of the

sation of adultery preferred against the Prophet's favourite wife,
'Alsbeh : she was thus absolved from punishment, and her repu-
tation was cleared by additional * revelations."

* Chap, xxiv., v v. 4 — 9.

f An unmarried person, convicted of adultery, is also obnoxious
only tt* this punishment. The two laws mentioned in Leviticus, xx.,
13 and 15, have been introduced into the Mohhammadan code;
but, in the present day, they are never executed.

ii 2

122 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

punishment of women convicted of incontinence in
Cairo, I shall speak in the next chapter, as it is an arbi-
trary act of the government, not founded on the laws of
the Ckoor-a'n or Traditions*. No distinction is made
between the children of wives and those of concubine
slaves : they inherit equally.

The most remarkable general principles of the laws
of inheritance are the denial of any privileges to pri-
mogeniture t, and awarding to a female a share equal to
half that of a male of the same degree of relationship to
the deceased. A man may bequeath to any persons, or
for any purpose, one-third of his property, but not a
larger portion. The children of a man deceased inherit
Ids whole property, or all of it that he has not otherwise
lawfully disposed of, or what remains after paying his
lawful legacies and debts, if neither of his parents be
living, nor any wife ; and the portion of a male is
double that of a female. If they be females only, and
two or more in number, they receive, by the law of the
Ckoor-a'n, two-thirds ; or if there be but one child, and
that a female, she receives, by the same law, half the
property; but the remaining third or half is also given
up to the said daughters or daughter, by a law of the
Soon'neh, if there be no other relations to whom it may
be awarded* If the parents of the deceased be living J,
they have each one sixth of the property if he leave

. * In the villages of Egypt, a woman found, or suspected, to
have been guilty of this crime, if she be not a common prostitute,
often experiences a different fate, which will be described in the
account of the domestic life and customs of the lower orders.

f In this, the Mooslim law differs from the Mosaic, which
appropriates a double portion to the first-born. See Deut. xxi.,17.

J Or the grandfather or grandmother

LAWS. 123

children * ; and, if there be no children t, his father
receives two-thirds, and his mother the remaining third;
or, if there be brothers of the deceased, the mother has
only one-sixth, and the said brothers have one-sixth. If
there be brothers and sisters of the deceased, but no
parents, nor children, nor wives, the property is divided
among them ; the share of a male being double that of
a female. If only one sister of the deceased be living,
and there be neither parents, nor brothers, nor children,
nor wives, she enjoys the same right as the female only
child of a man who leaves neither parent nor wife ; or, if
there be two or more sisters, in such case their right is
the same as that of two or more daughters of a man who
leaves neither son, nor parent, nor wife. One-eighth only
is the share of the wife, or wives, if there be issue ; and
one-fourth if there be no issue |. A man inherits half
his wife's property if she have left no issue, and one-
fourth if she have left issue. In all cases, the debts and
legacies (if there be any) of the deceased must be first
paid§. The laws respecting cases in which no near
relations of the deceased exist are found in the Tradi-
tions of the Prophet, and the decisions of the Ima'ms ||.
In Egypt, the property of the deceased is nominally
divided into ckeera'ts, or twenty-fourth parts; and the
share of each son or other heir is said to be so many
ckeera'ts.

* Or grandchildren.

f Idem.

I This is exclusive of what may remain due to her of her
dowry ; of which one-third is usually held iu reserve by the hus^
band, to be paid to her if he divorce her, or when he dies.

$ Ckoor-a'n, chap, iv., vv. 12 — 14, and 175.

|| A bastard inherits from his mother, but not from his father.

124 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

The law is remarkably lenient towards debtors. " If
there be any [debtor]", says the Ckoor-a'n +, " under a
difficulty [of paying his debt], let [his creditor] wait till
it be easy [for him to do it] ; but if ye remit it as alms,
it will be better for you, if ye knew it." The Mooslim
is commanded (in the chapter from which the above
extract is taken), when he contracts a debt, to cause a
statement of it to be written, and attested by two men,
or a man and two women, of his own faith. The
debtor is imprisoned for non-payment of his debt ; but,
if he establish his insolvency, he is liberated. He may
be compelled to work for the discharge of his debt, if
able.

It is ordained that murder shall be punished with
death, or that the perpetrator shall pay, to the heirs of
the person whom he has killed, a tine, which is to be
divided according to the laws of inheritance ; and it is
optional with the said heirs to decree whether the mur-
derer shall be put to death or the fine acceptedf. By
the Hhan'afee code, the free may be put to death for
the murder of a slave; but not the parent for the
offspring. In the present day, however, murder is
generally punished with death ; the government seldom
allowing a composition in money to be made. Hie
Bed'awees have made the law of the avenging of blood
terribly severe and unjust, transgressing the limits
assigned by the Ckoor-a'n : for, with them, any single
person descended from the homicide, or from the
homicide's father, grandfather, great-grandfather, or
great-grandfather's father, may be killed by any of
'such relations of the person murdered or killed in

* Chap, ii., v. 280. f Ckoor-a'n, chap.ii., v. 173.

LAWS. 125

fight; but, among most tribes, the fine is generally
accepted instead of the Wood. Cases of blood-revenge
ace very common among the peasantry of Egypt, who,
as I have before remarked, retain many customs of their
Bed'awee ancestors. The relations of a person who has
been killed, in an Egyptian village, generally retaliate
wkh their own hands rather than apply to the govern-
it, and often do so with disgusting cruelty, and even
and insult the corpse of their victim. The rela-
of a homicide usually fly from their own to
another village, for protection. Even when retaliation
has been made, animosity frequently continues between
the two parties for many years; and often a case of
blood-revenge involves the inhabitants of two or more
villages in hostilities, which are renewed, at intervals,
daring the period of several generations, A woman,
of a capital crime, is generally put to death by
ling in the Nile.
Theft, according to the Ckoor-a'n*, is to be punished
by cutting off the offender's right hand for the first
ofience ; but a Soon'neh law ordains that this punish-
ment shall not be inflicted if the value of the stolen pro-
perty be less than a quarter of a deena'rf ; and it is also
held necessary, to render the thief obnoxious to this
IMHJHliiminl, that the property stolen should have been
deposited in a place to which he had not ordinary or easy
access: whence it follows, that a man who steals in the
a near relation is not subject to this punishment ;

* Chap, v., v. 42.

f The deena'r m a miteks/1 (or nearly 7* English grain*) of
Sale, copying a false translation by Marracci, and neglect-
ing ie examine the Arabic text quoted by the latter, bas stated
fee am in question to be four deena'rs.

126 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

nor is a slave who robs the house of his master. For
the second offence, the left foot is to be cut off; for the
third, the left hand ; for the fourth, the right foot ; and,
for further offences of the same kind, the culprit is to be
flogged or beaten. A man may steal a free-born infant
without offending against the law, because it is not pro-
perty ; but not a slave : and the hand is not to be cut
off for stealing any article of food that is quickly perish-
able ; because it may have been taken to supply the im-
mediate demands of hunger. There are also some other
cases in which the thief is exempt from the punishments
above mentioned. In Egypt, of late years, these punish-
ments have not been inflicted. Beating and hard labour
have been substituted for the first, second, or third
offence, and frequently death for the fourth. Most petty
offences are usually punished by beating with the koor-
ba'g (a thong or whip of hippopotamus' hide, hammered
into a round form), or with a stick, generally on the
soles of the feet*.

Drunkenness was punished, by the Prophet, by flog-
ging; and is still in Cairo, though not often : the hhadd,
or number of stripes, for this offence, is eighty.

Aposlacy from the Mohhammadan faith is considered
a most heinous sin, and must be punished with death,
unless the apostate will recant on being thrice warned.
I once saw a woman paraded through the streets of
Cairo, and afterwards taken down to the Nile to be
drowned, for having apostatized from the faith of Mo-
hham'mad, and having married a Christian. Unfortu-
nately, she had tattooed a blue cross on her arm, which

* The feet are confined by a chain or rope attached at each
end to a staff, which is turned round to tighten it. This is called
ufefckeh. Two persons (one on each side) strike alternately.

LAWS. 127

led to her detection by one of her former friends in a
bath. She was mounted upon a high-saddled ass, such
as ladies in Egypt usually ride, and very respectably
dressed, attended by soldiers, and surrounded by a rabble,
who, instead of commiserating, uttered loud imprecations
against her. The Cka'dee, who passed sentence upon
her, exhorted her, in vain, to return to her former faith.
Her own father was her accuser ! She was taken in a
boat into the midst of the river, stripped nearly naked,
strangled, and then thrown into the stream*. The Eu-
ropeans residing in Cairo regretted that the Ba'sha was
then at Alexandria, as they might have prevailed upon
him to pardon her. Once before they interceded with
him for a woman who had been condemned for apos-
tacy. The Ba'sha ordered that she should be brought
before him : he exhorted her to recant ; but, rinding her
resolute, reproved her for her folly > and sent her home,,
commanding that no injury should be done to her.

A few words may here be added respecting the sect of
the Wah'ha'bees, which was founded, less than a century
ago, by Mohham'mad Ibn 'Abd El-Wah'ha'b, a pious
and learned sheykh of the province of Nejd, in central
Arabia. About the middle of the last century, he had
the good fortune to convert to his creed a powerful chief
of Ed-Dir'ee'yeh, the capital of the Nejd. This Chief,
Mohham'mad Ib'n SoWd, became the sovereign of the
new sect — their religious and political head — and under
him and his successors the WahWbee doctrines were
spread throughout the greater part of Arabia. He was

* The conduct of the lower orders in Cairo on this occasion
speaks sadly against their character. A tong was composed on the
victim of this terrible law, and became very popular in the
metropolis.

H 5

If 8 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

first succeeded by his son, 'Abd El-'Asee'z ; next, by
So Wd, the son of the latter, aad the greatest of the
WahWhee leaders; and, lastly, by 'Abd Allah, the son
of this So'oo'd, who, after an arduous warfare with the
armies of Mohham'mad 'ATee, surrendered himself to
his victorious enemies, was sent to Egypt, thence to
Constantinople, and there beheaded. The wars which
Mohham'mad ' Al'ee carried on against the Wah'ha'bees
had for their chief object the destruction of the political
power of the new sect : their religious tenets are still
professed by many of the Arabs, and allowed to be
orthodox by the most learned of the 'Ool'ama of £gypt.
The Wah'ha'bees are merely reformers, who believe all
the fundamental points of El-Isla'm, and all the accessory
-doctrines of the Ckoor-a'n and the Traditions of the Pro-
phet : in short, their tenets are those of the primitive
Moosltms. They disapprove of gorgeous sepulchres,
and domes erected over tombs : such they invariably de-
stroy when in their power. They also condemn, as
idolater*, those who pay peculiar veneration to deceased
saints; and even declare all other Mooslims to be
heretics, for the extravagant respect which they pay to
the Prophet They forbid the wearing of silk, and gold
ornaments, and all costly apparel ; and also the practice
of smoking tobacco. For the want of this last luxury,
they console themselves in some degree by an immo-
derate use of coffee*. There are many learned men
among them, and they have collected many valuable
books (chiefly historical) from various parts of Arabia,
and from Egypt.

* Among many other erroneous statements respecting the
Wah'ha'bees it has been asserted that they prohibit the drinking
of coffee.

129

Chapter IV.

^ Government.

ton ha*, of late years, experienced great political
riwwgrs, and nearly ceased to be a province of the
Ibrkith Empire. Its present Bafsha (Mohham'inad
'AJfee), having exterminated the Ghoozz, or Memloolcs,
«haved the government with his predecessors, ha*
himself an almost independent prince. He,
•, professes allegiance to the Soolta'n, and remits
Ibe tribute, according to former custom, to Constaor
tincfde; he is, moreover, under an obligation to respect
the fundamental laws of the Ckoor-a'n and the Trmr
ditiiwin ; but he exercises a dominion otherwise unlimited.
He may cause any one of his subjects to be put to death
without the formality of a trial, or without assigning any
; a simple horizontal motion of his hand is suffi-
to imply the sentence of decapitation. But I must
be understood to insinuate that he is prone to shed
blood without any reason : severity is a characteristic of
this prince, rather than wanton cruelty ; and boundless
ambition has prompted him to almost every action by
which he has attracted either praise or censure*.

* The government of Egypt, from the period of the conquest
jof this country by the Arabs, has been nearly the same as at
in it? influence upon the manners and customs and cha-
of the inhabitants ; and I therefore do not deem an his-
retrospect necessary to the illustration of this work. It

130 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

In the Citadel of the Metropolis is a court of judicature,
called Deewa'n el-Khidee'wee, where, in the Ba'sha's
absence, presides his Kikh'ya*> or deputy, Hhabee'b
Efen'dee. In cases which do not fall within the pro-
vince of the Cka'dee, or which are sufficiently dear to be
decided without referring them to the court of that
officer, or to another council, the president of the
Deewa'n el-Khidee'wee passes judgment. Numerous
guard-houses have been established throughout the me*
tropolis, at each of which is stationed a body of Niza'm,
or regular troops. The guard is called Ckool'loock f, or,
more commonly, at present, Ckai J a-ckoUt* Persons
accused of thefts, assaults, &c, in Cairo, are given in
charge to a soldier of the guard, who takes them to the
chief guard-house, in the Moo'skee, a street in that part of
the town in which most of the Franks reside. The charges
being here stated, and committed to writing, he conducts
them to the Za'bit, or chief magistrate of the police of
the metropolis. The Za'bit, having heard the case, sends
the accused for trial to the Deewa'n el-Khidee'wee §.

should, however, be mentioned, that the people of Egypt are not
now allowed to indulge in that excessive fanatical rudeness with
which they formerly treated unbelievers. Restraint may, at first)
increase, but will probably, in the course of time, materially
diminish, the feeling of fanatical intolerance.

* Thus pronounced in Egypt, but more properly Kyathhya, or
Ketkhood'a.

f From the Turkish Ckorfl-loock,

X Vulgarly, Karako'n.

$ A very arbitrary power is often exercised in this and similar
courts, and the proceedings are conducted with little decorum.
Many Turkish officers, even of the highest rank, make use of
language far too disgusting for me to mention towards persons
brought before them for judgment, and towards those who appeal
to them for justice.

GOVERNMENT. i31

When a person denies the offence with which he is
charged, and there is not sufficient evidence to convict
bim, hut some ground of suspicion, he is generally bas-
tinadoed, in order to induce him to confess ; and then,
if not before, when the crime is not of a nature that
renders him obnoxious to a very heavy punishment, h£,
if guilty, admits it. A thief, after this discipline, gene-
rally confesses, ** The devil seduced me, and I took it."
The punishment of the convicts is regulated by a system
of arbitrary, but lenient and wise, policy : it usually con-
sists in their being compelled to labour, for a scanty sus-
tenance, in some of the public works ; such as the
removal of rubbish, digging canals, &c. ; and some-
times the army is recruited with able-bodied young men
convicted of petty offences. In employing malefactors
in labours for the improvement of the country, Mo-
hham'mad 'Al'ee merits the praises bestowed upon
Sabacon, the Ethiopian conqueror and king of Egypt,
who is said to have introduced this policy. The Ba'sha
is, however, very severe in punishing thefts, &c, com-
mitted against himself: — death is the usual penalty in
such cases.

There are several inferior councils for conducting the
affairs of different departments of the administration.
The principal of these are the following : 1 . The Meg' lis
el-Mesh'war'ah (the Council of Deliberation) ; also called
Mecflis el-Mesh' war* ah el-Mel'ekee'yeh (the Council of
Deliberation on the affairs of the State), to distinguish it
from other councils. The members of this and of the
other similar councils are chosen by the Ba'sha, for their
talents or other qualifications; and consequently his will
and interest sway them in all their decisions. They are
his instruments, and compose a committee for presiding

132 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

over the general government of the country, and the
commercial and agricnUural afiairs of the Ba'sha. Peti-
tions, &o, addressed to the Ba'sha, or to his Deewa'n, re-
lating to private interests or the affairs of the government,
are fenerally submitted to their consideration and judg-
ment, unless they more properly come under the cog-
nizance of other councils hereafter to be mentioned.
2. The Mentis el-Gih'a'dee'yeh (the Council of the
Army) ; also called Mentis el-Mesh' war' ah el-Ask&-
reefyeh (the Council of Deliberation on Military Affairs).
The province of this court is sufficiently shown by its
name. 3. The Council of the Turskha'aeh, or Navy.
4. The Deeutafn el-Toogga'r (or Court of the Mer-
chants). This court, the members of which are mer-
chants of various countries and religions, presided over
by the Sha'fi-ben'dar (or chief of the merchants of Cairo),
was instituted in consequence of the laws of the Ckeor-a'n
and the Soou'neh being found not sufficiently explicit m
some cases arising out of modern commercial trans-
actions.

The Cka'dee (or chief judge) o£ Cairo presides in
Egypt only a year, at the expiration of which term, a
new Cka'dee having arrived from Constantinople, the
former returns.. It was customary for this officer to
proceed from Cairo, with the great caravan of pilgrims,
to Meklteh, perform the ceremonies of the pilgrimage,
and remain one year as Cka'dee of the holy city, and
one year art El-Medee'neh *. He purchases his place
privately of the government, which pays no particular
legaid to his qualifications ; though he must be a men

* He used to arrive in Cairo in the beginning of
feet the beginning of the -first month, Mohaaftana, has of late
been fiiod upon instead of the former period.

GOVERNMENT. IS*

of some knowledge, an 'Osma'niee (that is, a Turk),
and of the sect of the Hhan'afees. His tribunal b
called the Mahk'kem'eh, or Place of Judgment. Few
Cka'dees are very well acquainted with the Arabic lan-
guage ; nor is it necessary for them to have such know-
ledge. In Cairo, the Cka'dee has little or nothing to
do but to confirm the sentence of his Nafib (or deputy),
who hears and decides the more ordinary cases, and
whom he chooses from among the 'Ool'ama of latam*
boo'l, or the decision of the Moo f tee (or chief doctor of
the law) of his own sect, who constantly resides in
Cairo, and gives judgment in all cases of difficulty ; but in
general the Na'ib is, at the best, but little conversant with
the popular dialect of Egypt; therefore, in Cairo, where
the chief proportion of the litigants at the Mahh'kem'eh
are Arabs, the judge must place the utmost confidence
in the Ba'sh Toorgooma'n (or Chief Interpreter), whose
place is permanent, and who is consequently well ac-
quainted with all the customs of the court, particularly
with the system of bribery ; and this knowledge he is
generally very ready to communicate to every new
Cka'dee and Na'ib. A man may be grossly ignorant
of the law, and yet hold the office of Cka'dee of Cairo :
several instances <t£ this kind have occurred : but the
Na'ib must be a lawyer of learning and experience.

When a person has a suit to prefer at the Mahh'-
kem'eh against another individual or party, he goes
thither, and applies to the Ba'sk Roos'ool (or chief of the
sergeants who execute arrests) for a Rmsoo'l to arrest
the accused. The Rasoot receives a piaster or two*,

* The Egyptian piaster is mow equivalent to the fifth pact §£ a
chitting, or 2}£

134 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

and generally gives half of this fee privately to his
chief. The plaintiff and defendant then present them-
selves in the great haD of the Mahh'kem'eh; which is a
large saloon, facing a spacious court, and having an
open front, formed by a row of columns and arches.
Here are seated several officers called Shafhids, whose
business is to write die statements of the cases to be
submitted to judgment, and who are under the authority
of the BJsh Ka'tib (or Chief Secretary) . The plaintiff,
addressing any one of the Shalrids whom he finds un*
occupied, states his case, and the ShaTiid commits it to
writing, and receives a fee of a piaster or more ; after
Which, if the case be of a trifling nature, and the
defendant acknowledge the justice of the suit, he (the
SbVhid) passes sentence; but otherwise he conducts
the two parties before the Nalb, who holds his court in
an inner apartment. The Na'jb, having heard the case,
desires the plaintiff to procure afefwa (or judicial deci-
sion) from the Moof'tee of the sect of the Hhan'afees,
who receives a fee, seldom less than ten piasters, and
often more than a hundred, or two hundred. This is
the course pursued in all cases but those of a very
trifling nature, which are settled with less trouble, and
those of great importance or intricacy. A case of the
latter kind is tried in the private apartment of the
Cka'dee, before the Cka'dee himself, the Na'ib, and the
Moof'tee of the Hhan'afees, who is summoned to hear
it, and to give his decision ; and sometimes, in cases of
very great difficulty or moment, several of the 'Ool'ama
of Cairo are, in like manner, summoned. The Moof'tee
hears the case, and writes his sentence ; and the Cka'dee
confirms his judgment, and stamps the paper with his
seal, which is all that he has to do in any case. The

GOVERNMENT. 135

accused may clear himself by his oath, when the plain-
tiff has not witnesses to produce : placing 1 his right
hand on a copy of the Ckoor-a'n, which is held out
to him, he says " By God, the Great!" three times;
adding " By what is contained in this of the word of
God !" The witnesses must be men of good repute, or
asserted to be such, and not interested in the cause : in
every case, at least two witnesses are requisite * (or one
man and two women) ; and each of these must be
attested to be a person of probity by two others. An
infidel cannot bear witness against a Moos'lim in a case
involving capital or other heavy punishment, and evi-
dence in favour of a son or grandson, or of a father or
grandfather, is not received; nor is the testimony of
slaves ; neither can a master testify in favour of his
slave.

The fees, until lately, used to be paid by the successful
party ; but now they are paid by the other party. The
Cka'dee's fees for decisions in cases respecting the sale
of property are two per cent, on the amount of the pro-
perty : in cases of legacies, four per cent., excepting
when the heir is an orphan not of age, who pays only
two per cent.: for decisions respecting property in
houses or land, when the cost of the property in ques-
tion is known, his fees are two per cent. ; but, when the
cost is not known, one year's rent. These are the legi-
timate fees ; but more than the due amount is often
exacted. In cases which do not concern property, the
Cka'dee's Na'ib fixes the amount of the fees. There
are also other fees than those of the Cka'dee to be paid

* This law is borrowed from the Jews. See Deut. xix., 15. A
man may refuse to give his testimony.

136 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

after the decision of the case : for instance, if the
Cka'dee's fees be two or three hundred piasters, a fee f
about two piasters must be paid to the Ba'sh Toorgoo-
ma'n ; about the same to the Ba'sh Roos'ool ; and one
piaster to the Rasoo'I, or to each Rasoo'i employed.

The rank of a plaintiff or defendant, or a bribe from
either, often influences the decision of the judge. In
general the Na'ib and Moof 'tee take bribes, and the
Cka'dee receives from his Na'ib. On some occasions,
particularly in long litigations, bribes are given by each
party, and the decision is awarded in favour of him who
pays highest. This frequently happens in difficult law-
suits ; and, even in cases respecting which the law is per*
fectly clear, strict justice is not always administered;
bribes and false testimony being employed by one of the
parties. The shocking extent to which the practices of
bribery and suborning false witnesses are carried in
Moos'lim courts of law, and among them in the tribunal
of the Cka'dee of Cairo, may be scarcely credited on the
bare assertion of the fact : some strong proof, resting
on indubitable authority, v may be demanded ; and here I
shall give such proof, in a summary of a case which was
tried not long since, and which was related to me by
the Secretary and Ima'm of the Sheykh El-Mah'dee,
who was then supreme Moof'tee of Cairo (being the
chief Moof'tee of the Hhan'afees), and to whom this
case was referred after judgment in the Cka'dee s court.

A Turkish merchant, residing in Cairo, died, leaving
property to the amount of six thousand purses *, and

* A purse is the sum of five hundred piasters, and was then
equivalent to nearly seven pounds sterling ; but is now equal to
only five pounds.

GOVERNMENT. 137

no relation to inherit but one daughter. The Seyd
Mohham'mad El-Mahhroo'ckee, the Sha'h-ben'dar (chief
of the merchants of Cairo), hearing of this event,
suborned a common fella'hh, who was the bowVa'b (or
door-keeper) of a respected sheykh, and whose parents
(both of them Arabs) were known to many persons, to
assert himself a son of a brother of the deceased. The
case was brought before the Cka'dee, and, as it was one
o[ considerable importance, several of the principal
'Ool'ama of the city were summoned to decide it. They
were all bribed or influenced by El-Mahhroo'ckee, as
will presently be shown ; false witnesses were brought
forward to swear to the truth of the bow'wa'b's preten-
sions, and others to give testimony to the good cha-
racter of these witnesses. Three thousand purses were
adjudged to the daughter of the deceased, and the other
half of the property to the bow'wa'b. El-Mahhroo'ckee
received the share of the latter, deducting only three
hundred piasters, which he presented to the bow'wa'b.
The chief Mooftee, El-Mah'dee, was absent from Cairo
when the case was tried. On his return to the metro-
polis, a few days after, the daughter of the deceased
merchant repaired to his house, stated her case to him,
and earnestly solicited redress. The Mooftee, though
convinced of the injustice which she had suffered, and
not doubting the truth of what she related respecting
the part which El-Mahhroo'ckee had taken in this affair,
told her that he feared it was impossible for him to
annul the judgment unless there were some irregularity
in the proceedings of the court, but that he would look
at the record of the case in the register of the Mahh'-
kem'eh. Having done this, he betook himself to the
Ba'sha, with whom he was in great favour for his

138 MODERN EGTPTTAN8.

knowledge and inflexible integrity, and complained to
him that the tribunal of the Cka'dee was disgraced by
the administration of the most flagrant injustice ; that
false witness was admitted by the 'Ool'ama, however
evident and glaring it might be ; and that a judgment
"which they had given in a late case, daring his absence,
was the general talk and wonder of the town. The
Ba'sha summoned the Cka'dee, and all the 'Ool'ama
who had tried this case, to meet the Moof'tee in the
Citadel ; and, when they had assembled there, addressed
them, as from himself, with the Moof tee's complaint.
The Cka'dee, appearing, like the 'Ool'ama, highly indig-
nant at this charge, demanded to know upon what it
was grounded. The Ba'sha replied that it was a general
charge, but particularly grounded upon the case in which
the court had admitted the claim of a bow'wa'b to a
relationship and inheritance which they could not believe
to be his right. The Cka'dee here urged that he had
passed sentence in accordance with the unanimous deci-
sion of the 'Ool'ama then present. " Let the record of
the case be read," said the Ba'sha. The journal being
sent for, this was done ; and when the secretary had.
finished reading the minutes, the Cka'dee, in a loud
tone of proud authority, said, " And I judged so.*' The
Moof'tee, in a louder and more authoritative tone, ex-
claimed, " And thy judgment is false !" All eyes were
fixed in astonishment, now at the Moof'tee, now at the
Ba'sha, now at the other 'Ool'ama. The Cka'dee and
the 'Ool'ama rolled their heads and stroked their
beards. The former exclaimed, tapping his breast, " I,
the Cka'dee of Musr, pass a false sentence !" •' And
we," said the 'Ool'ama, "we, Sheykh Mah'dee! we,
'Ool'ama el-Isla'm, give a false decision !" " O Sheykh

GOVERNMENT. 139

Mah'dee," said El-Mahhroo'ckee (who, from his com-
mercial transactions with the Ba'sha, could generally
obtain a place in his councils), " respect the 'Ool'ama, as
they respect thee !" " O Mahhroo'ckee !" exclaimed the
Moof tee, " art thou concerned in this affair ? Declare
what part thou hast in it, or else hold thy peace : go,
speak in the assemblies of the merchants, but presume
not again to open thy mouth in the council of the
'Ool'ama!" El-Mahhroo'ckee immediately left the pa-
lace, for he saw how the affair would terminate, and
had to make his arrangements accordingly. The Moof*
tee was now desired, by the other 'Ool'ama, to adduce a
proof of the invalidity of their decision. Drawing from
his bosom a small book on the laws of inheritance, he
read from it, " To establish a claim to relationship and
inheritance, the names of the father and mother of the
claimant, and those of his father's father and mother,
and of his mother's father and mother, must be ascer-
tained.'' The names of the father and mother of the
pretended father of the bow'wa'b, the false witnesses
had not been prepared to give ; and this deficiency in
the testimony (which the 'Ool'ama, in trying the case,
purposely overlooked) now caused the sentence to be
annulled. The bow'wa'b was brought before the council,
and, denying the imposition of which he had been made
the principal instrument, was, by order of the Ba'sha,
very severely bastinaded ; but the only confession that
could be drawn from him by the torture which he en-
dured was, that he had received nothing more of the
three thousand purses than three hundred piasters.
Meanwhile, El-Mahhroo'ckee had repaired to the bow'-
wa'b's master : he told the latter what had happened at
the Citadel, and what he had foreseen would be the

140 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

result, put into his hand three thousand purses, and
begged him immediately to go to the council, give this
sum of money, and say that it had been placed in Ins
hands in trust by his servant Hiis was done, and the
money was paid to the daughter of the deceased.

In another case, when the Cka'dee and the council of
the 'Ool'ama were influenced in their decision by a
Ba'sha (not Mohham'mad 'Al'ee), and passed a sen-
tence contrary to law, they were thwarted in the same
manner by El-Mah'dee. This Mooftee was a rare
example of integrity. It is said that he never took a
fee for a fetfwa. He died shortly after my first visit to
this country. I could mention several other glaring
cases of bribery in the court of the Cka'dee of Cairo;
but the -above is sufficient.

There are five minor Mahh / kem / ehs in Cairo ; and
likewise one at its principal port, Boola'ck ; and one at
its southern port, Musr El-'Atee'ckah. A Sha'hid from
the great Mahh'kem'eh presides at each of them, as
deputy of the chief Cka'dee, who confirms their acts.
The matters submitted to these minor tribunals ace
chiefly respecting the sales of property, and legacies,
marriages, and divorces ; for the Cka'dee marries female
orphans under age who have no relations of age to act
as their guardians; and wives often have recourse to
law to compel their husbands to divorce them. In every
country-town there is also a Cka'dee, generally a native
of the place, and never a Turk, who decides all cases,
sometimes from his own knowledge of the law, but
commonly on the authority of a Mooftee. One Cka'dee
generally serves for two or three or more villages.

Each of the four orthodox sects of Moos'lims (the
Hhan'afees, Sha'fe'ees, Ma'likees, and Hham'bel'ees).

GOVERNMENT. 14]

has its Sheykh, or religious chief, who is chosen from
among the most learned of the- body, and resides in the
metropolis. The Sheykh of the great mosque El-
Asltar (who is always of the sect of the Sha'fe'ees, and
sometimes Sheykh of that sect), together with the other
Sheykhs above mentioned, and the Cka'dee, the Na-
ckeeHb el-Ashra'f (the chief of the Sheree'fs, or descend-
ants of the Prophet), and several other persons, constitute
the council of the 'OoVama* (or learned men), by whom
the Turkish Ba'shas and Memloo'k chiefs have often
been kept in awe, and by whom their tyranny has fre-
quently been restricted : but now this learned body has
lost almost all its influence over the government. Petty
disputes are often, by mutual consent of the parties at
variance, submitted to the judgment of one of the four
Sheykhs first mentioned, as they are the chief Moof 'tees
of their respective sects ; and the utmost deference is
always paid to them. Difficult and delicate causes, which
concern the laws of the Ckoor-a'n or the Traditions, are
also frequently referred by the Ba'sha to these Sheykhs;
but their opinion is not always followed by him : for
instance, after consulting them respecting the legality of
dissecting human bodies, for the sake of acquiring
anatomical knowledge, and receiving their declaration
that it was repugnant to the laws of the religion, he,
nevertheless, has caused it to be practised by Moos'lim
students of anatomy.

The police of the metropolis is more under the direc-
tion of the military than of the civil power. A few
years ago it was under the authority of the Wei lee and the

* In the singular, 'rflim. This title is more particularly given
to m professor of jurisprudence. European writers generally use
the plural form of this appellation for the singular.

142 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Za'bit ; but since my first visit to this country the office
of the former has been abolished. He was charged
with the apprehension of thieves and other criminals ;
and under his jurisdiction were the public women, of
whom he kept a list, and from each of whom he exacted
a tax. He also took cognizance of the conduct of the
women in general ; and, when he found a female to have
been guilty of a single act of incontinence, he added her
name to the list of the public women, and demanded
from her the tax, unless she preferred, or could afford,
to escape that ignominy, by giving to him, or to his
officers, a considerable bribe. This course was always
pursued, and is still, by a person who farms the tax of
the public women *, in the case of unmarried females,
and generally in the case of the married also ; but the
latter are sometimes privately put to death, if they cannot,
by bribery or some other artifice, save themselves.
Such proceedings are, however, in two points, contrary
to the law, which ordains that a person who accuses a
woman of adultery or fornication, without producing
four witnesses of the crime, shall be scourged with
eighty stripes, and decrees other punishments than
those of degradation and tribute against women con-
victed of such offences.

The office of the Za'bit has before been mentioned.
He is now the chief of the police. His officers, who
have no distinguishing mark to render them known as
such, are interspersed through the metropolis : they
often visit the coffee-shops, and observe the conduct,
and listen to the conversation, of the citizens. Many of
them are pardoned thieves. They accompany the mili-

* Since this was written, the public women throughout Egypt
have been compelled to relinquish their licentious profession.

GOVERNMENT. 143

tary guards in their nightly rounds through the streets
of the metropolis. Here, none but the blind are
allowed to go out at night later than about an hour and
a half after sunset, without a lantern or a light of some
kind. Few persons are seen in the streets later than two
or three hours after sunset. At the fifth or sixth hour,
one might pass through the whole length of the metro-
polis and scarcely meet more than a dozen or twenty
persons, excepting the watchmen and guards, and the
porters at the gates of the by-streets and quarters. The
sentinel, or guard, calls out to the approaching pas-
senger, in Turkish, " Who is that * ?" and is answered,
in Arabic, " A citizenf." The private watchman, in the
same case, exclaims, " Attest the unity of God J !" or
merely, "Attest the unity § I" The answer given to
this is, "There is no deity but God||!" which Chris-
tians, as well as Moos'lims, object not to say; the former *
understanding these words in a different sense from the
latter. It is supposed that a thief, or a person bound
on any unlawful undertaking, would not dare to utter
these words. Some persons loudly exclaim, in reply to
the summons of the watchman, " There is no deity but
God : Mohham'mad is God's Apostle."

The ZaHbit, or A'gha of the police, used frequently to
go about the metropolis by night, often accompanied
only by the executioner and the she'alegee, or bearer of
a kind of torch called ske'aleh, which is still in use.

* Kee f men door' <J, for ke e'm door* <f,

f lUn bePed. If blind, he answers A'ama,

X WahUhhxd Allah. '

A VVahhlhhid ; or, to more than one person, JVM'hhidoo.

|| Let ila'ha Ula-Ua'h.

I

144 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

This torch burns, soon after it is lighted, without a
flame, excepting when it is waved through the air, when
it suddenly blazes forth : it therefore answers the same
purpose as our dark lantern. The burning end is some-
times concealed in a small pot or jar, or covered with
something else, when not required to give light ; but it
is said that thieves often smell it in time to escape meet-
ing the bearer. When a person without a light is met
by the police at night, he seldom attempts resistance or
flight ; the punishment to which he is liable is beating.
The chief of the police had an arbitrary power to put
any criminal or offender to death, without trial, and
when not obnoxious, by law, to capital punishment ;
and so also had many inferior officers, as will be seen in
subsequent pages of this work : but within the last J;wo
or three years, instances of the exercise of such power
have been very rare, and I believe they would not now
be permitted. The officers of the Za'bit perform their
nightly rounds with the military guards merely as being
better acquainted than the latter with the haunts and
practices of thieves and other bad characters; and the
Za'bit himself scarcely ever exercises any penal autho-
rity beyond that of beating or flogging.

Very curious measures, such as we read of in some of
the " Tales of a Thousand and One Nights," were often
adopted by the police magistrates of Cairo, to discover
an offender, before the late innovations. I may mention
an instance. The authenticity of the following case,
and of several others of a similar nature, is well known.
I shall relate it in the manner in which I have heard it
told. A poor man applied one day to the A'gha of the
police, and said, " Sir, there came to me, to-day, a

GOVERNMENT. 145

woman, and she said to me, 'Take this ckoors*, and
let it remain in your possession Jpr a time, and lend me
five hundred piasters :' and I took it from her, Sir, and
gave her the five hundred piasters, and she went away :
and when she was gone away, I said to myself, c Let me
look at this ckoors ;' and I looked at it, and behold, it
was yellow brass : and I slapped my face, and said, ' I
will go to the A'gha,* and relate my story to him ; per-
haps he will investigate the affair, and clear it up ;' for
there is pone that can help me in this matter but thee/
The A'gha said to him, " Hear what I tell thee, man.
Take whatever is in thy shop ; leave nothing ; and lock
it up; and to-morrow morning go early; and when thou
hast opened the shop, cry out, * Alas for my property !'
then take in thy hands two clods, and beat thyself with
them, and cry, 'Alas for the property of others!' and
whoever says to thee, * What is the matter with thee T
do thou answer, * The property of others is lost : a
pledge that I had, belonging to a woman, is lost ; if it
were my own, I should not thus lament it;' and this
will clear up the affair." The man promised to do as he
was desired. He removed everything from his shop,
and early the next morning he went and opened it, and
began to cry out, " Alas for the property of others !" and
he took two clods, and beat himself with them, and went
about every district of the city, crying, " Alas for the
property of others ! a pledge that I had, belonging to a
woman, is lost ; if it were my own, I should not thus
lament it." The woman who had given him the ckoors
in pledge heard of this, and discovered that it was the
man whom she had cheated ; so she said to herself, "Go

* An ornament worn on the crown of the head-dress by women,
described in the Appendix to this work.

12

•

146 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

and bring an action against him." She went to his
shop, riding on an ass, to give herself consequence, and
said to him, " Man, give me my property that is in thy
possession." He answered, u It is lost." " Thy tongue
be cut out !" she cried : " dost thou lose my property ?
By Allah ! I will go to the A'gha, and inform him of it."
" Go," said he ; and she went, and told her case. The
A'gha sent for the man ; and when he had come, said tq
his accuser, " What is thy property in his possession ?'*
She answered, " A ckoors of red Venetian gold."
" Woman," said the A'gha, " I have a gold ckoors
here : I should like to show it thee." She said, u Show
it me, Sir, for I shall know my ckoors." The A'gha
then untied a handkerchief, and, taking out of it the
ckoors which she had given in pledge, said " Look."
She looked at it and knew it, and hung down her head.
The A'gha said, " Raise** thy head, and say where are
the five hundred piasters of this man." She answered,
" Sir, they are in my house." The executioner was sent
with her to her house, but without his sword ; and the
woman, having gone into the house, brought out a purse
containing the money, and went back with him. The
money was given to the man from whom it had been
obtained, and the executioner was then ordered to take
the woman to the Roomey'leh (a large open place below
the Citadel), and there to behead her, which he did.

The markets of Cairo, and the weights and measures,
are under the inspection of an officercalled the Mohh'tes'ib.
He occasionally rides about the town, preceded by an offi-
cer who carries a large pair of scales, and followed by the
executioners and numerous other servants. Passing by
shops, or through the markets, he orders each shopkeeper,
one after another, or sometimes only one here and there,

GOVERNMENT. 147

/

to produce his" scajes, weights, and measures, and tries
whether they be correct. He also inquires the prices
of provisions at the shops where such articles are sold.
Often, too, he stops a servant, or other passenger, in the
street, whom he may chance to meet carrying any article
of food that he has just bought, and asks him for what
sum, or at what weight, he purchased it. When he
finds that a shopkeeper has incorrect scales, weights, or
measures, or that he has sold a thing deficient in weight,
or above the regular market-price, he punishes him on
the spot. The general punishment is beating or Bog-
ging. Once I saw a man tormented in a different way,
for selling bread deficient in weight. A hole was bored
through his nose, and a cake of bread, about a span
wide and a finger's breadth in thickness, was suspended
to it by a piece of string. He was stripped naked, with
the exception of having a pie*e of linen about his loins,
and tied, with his arms bound behind him, to the bars of
a window of a mosque called the Ashrafee'yeh, in the
principal street of the metropolis, his feet resting upon
the sill. He remained thus about three hours, exposed
to the gaze of the multitude which thronged the street,
and to the scorching rays of the sun.

A person who was appointed Mohh'tes'ib shortly after
my former visit to this country (Moos'tufa Ka'shif, a
Koord) exercised his power in a most brutal manner,
clipping men's ears (that is, cutting off the lobe, or ear-
lap), not only for the most trifling transgression, but
often for no offence whatever. He once met an old
man driving along several asses laden with water-melons,
and, pointing to one of the largest of these fruits, asked
its price. The old man put his finger and thumb to his
ear-lap, and said, " Cut it, Sir." He was asked again

148 MODEHN EGYPTIANS.

and again, and gave the same answer. The Mohh'tes'ib,
angry, but unable to refrain from laughing, said, u Fellow,
are you mad or deaf?" " No," replied the old man, " I
am neither mad nor deaf; but I know that, if I were to
• say the price of the melon is ten fud'dahs, you would
say ' Clip his ear;' and if I said Jive fud'dahs, or one
fud'dah, you would say ' Clip his ear :' therefore dip it at
once, and let me pass on." His humour saved him.
Clipping ears was the usual punishment inflicted by this
Mohh'tes'ib ; but sometimes he tortured in a different
manner. A butcher, who had sold some meat wanting
two ounces of its due weight, he punished by cutting off
two ounces of flesh from his back. A seller of koondfek
(a kind of paste resembling vermicelli) having made
his customers pay a trifle more than was just, he caused
him to be stripped, and seated upon the round copper
tray on which the koonaifeh was baked, and kept so
until he was dreadfully burnt He generally punished
dishonest butchers by putting a hook through their nose,
and hanging a piece of meat to it. Meeting, one day, a
man carrying a large crate full of earthen water-bottles
from Semennoo'd, which he offered for sale as made at
Ckin'e, he caused his attendants to break each bottle
separately against the vender's head. Moos' tufa Ka'shif
also exercised his tyranny in other cases than those
which properly fell under his jurisdiction. He once took
a fancy to send one of his horses to a bath, and desired
the keeper of a bath in his neighbourhood to prepare
for receiving it, and to wash it well, and make its coat
very smooth. The bath-keeper, annoyed at so extra-
ordinary a command, ventured to suggest that* as the ,
pavements of the bath were of marble, the horse might
«Up, and fall ; and also, that it might take eold on going.

GOVERNMENT. 149

out ; and that it would, therefore, be better for him to
convey to the stable the contents of the cistern o ithe
bath in buckets, and there to perform the operation.
Moos' tufa Ka'shif said, " I see how it is ; you do not
like that my horse should go into your bath," He <
desired some of his servants to throw him down, and
beat him with staves until he should tell them to stop*
They did so ; and beat the poor man till he died.

A few years ago there used to be carried before the
Mohh'tes'ib, when going his rounds to examine the
weights and measures, &c, a pair of scales larger than
that used at present. Its beam, it is said, was a hollow
tube, containing some quicksilver ; by means of which,
the bearer, knowing those persons who had bribed his
master, and those who had not, easily made either scale
preponderate.

As the Mohh'tes'ib is the overseer of the public mar-
kets, so there are officers who have a similar charge in
superintending each branch of the Ba'sha's trade and
manufactures ; and some of these persons have been
allowed to perpetrate most abominable acts of tyranny
and cruelty. One of this class, who was named 'Al'ee
Bey, Na'zir el-Ckoorna'sh (or Overseer of the Linen),
when he found a person in possession of a private loom,
or selling the produce of such a loom, generally bound
him up in a piece of his linen, soaked in oil and tar ;
then suspended him, thus enveloped, to a branch of a
tree, and set light to the wrapper. After having de-
stroyed a number of men in this horrible manner, he
was himself, among many others, burnt to death, by the
explosion of a powder-magazine on the northern slope
of the Citadel of Cairo, in 1624, the year before my
first arrival in Egypt. A friend of mine, who spoke to

150 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

me of the atrocities of this monster, added, " When
his corpse was taken to be buried, the Sheykh El-'Aroo'-
see (who was Sheykh of the great mosque El-Azliar)
recited the funeral prayers over it, in the mosque of the
Hhas'aney'n ; and I acted as moobaVligh (to repeat the
words of the Ima'm) : when the Sheykh uttered the
words, * Give your testimony respecting him,' and when
1 had repeated them, no one of all the persons present,
and they were many, presumed to give th* answer,
* He was of the virtuous :* all were silent : to make the
circumstance more glaring, I said again, ' Give your
testimony respecting him :' but not an answer was
heard ; and the Sheykh, in confusion, said, but in a very
low voice, * May God have mercy upon him.' Now we
may certainly say of this cursed man," continued my
friend, u that he is gone to hell : yet his wife is con-
stantly having khuVmehs (recitals of the Ckoor-a'n)
performed in her house for him ; and lights two wax
candles, for his sake, every evening, at the niche of the
mosque of the Hhas'aney'n."

Every quarter in the metropolis has its sheykh, called
Sheykh el-HhaWali^ whose influence is exerted to main-
tain order, to settle any trifling disputes among the
inhabitants, and to expel those who disturb the peace of
their neighbours. The whole of the metropolis is also
divided into eight districts, over each of which is a
sheykh, called Sheykh el-Toomn?

The members of various trades and manufactures in
the metropolis and other large towns have also their
respective sheykhs, to whom all disputes respecting
matters connected with those trades or crafts are sub-
mitted for arbitration ; and whose sanction is required
for the admission of new members.

GOVERNMENT. 151

The servants in the metropolis are likewise under the
authority of particular sheykhs. Any person in want of
a servant may procure one by applying to one of these
officers, who, for a small fee (two or three piasters),
becomes responsible for the conduct of the man whom
he recommends. Should a servant so engaged rob his
master, the latter gives information to the Sheykh, who,
whether he can recover the stolen property or not, must
indemnify the master.

Even the common thieves used, not many years
since, to respect a superior, who was called their sheykh.
He was often required to search for stolen goods, and
to bring offenders to justice ; which he generally accom-
plished. It is very remarkable that the same strange
system prevailed among the ancient Egyptians*.

The Coptic Patriarch, who is the head of his church*
judges petty causes among his people in the metropolis ;.
and the inferior clergy do the same in other places;,
but an appeal may be made to the Cka'dee. A Moos'lim
aggrieved by a Copt may demand justice from the
Patriarch or the Cka'dee : a Copt who seeks redress
from a Moos'lim must apply to the Cka'dee. The Jews
are similarly circumstanced. The Franks, or Europeans
in general, are not answerable to any other authority
than that of their respective consuls, excepting when
they are aggressors against a Moos'lim : they are then
surrendered to the Turkish authorities, who, on the
other hand, will render justice to the Frank who is
aggrieved by a Moos'lim.

The inhabitants of the country-towns and villages,
are under the government of Turkish officers and of

— * See Diodorus Siculus, lib. i., cap. 80.

I 5

15* MODERN EGYPTIANS.

their own countrymen. The whole of Egypt is divided
into several large provinces, each of which is governed
by an 'Osma'nlee (or a Turk) ; and these provinces are
subdivided into districts, which are governed by native
officers, with the titles of Ma-moo'r and NdzLt. Every
village, as well as town, has also its Sheykh, called
Sheykh el-Bel' ed; who is one of the native Moos'lim
inhabitants. All the officers above mentioned, except-
ing the last, were formerly Turks ; and there were other
Turkish governors of small districts, who were called
Ka'shifs, and Cka'im'inacka'ms : the change was made
very shortly before my present visit to this country ; and
the Fella'hhee'n complain that their condition is worse
than it was before ; but it is generally from the tyranny
of their great Turkish governors that they suffer most
severely.

The following case will convey some idea of the con-
dition of Egyptian peasants in some provinces. A
Turk*, infamous for many barbarous acts, presiding at
the town of Tun'ta, in the Delta, went one night to the
government granary of that town, and finding two pea-
sants sleeping there, asked them who they were, and
what was their business in that place. One of them
' said that he had brought 130 ardet/bs of corn from a
village of the district ; and the other, that he had
brought 60 ardeb'bs from the land belonging to the
town. "You rascal !" said the governor to the latter;
" this man brings 130 ardeb'bs from the lands of a small
village ; and you, but 60 from the lands of the town."

This man,' 1 answered the peasant of Tun'ta, " brings

cc

* Sooleyma'n A'gha, the Silahhda'r : he has died since this
was written.

GOVERNMENT. 153

corn but once a week ; and I am now bringing it every
day." " Be silent I" said the governor ; and, pointing
to a neighbouring tree, ordered one of the servants of
the granary to hang the peasant to one of its branches.
The order was obeyed, and the governor returned to
his house. The next morning he went again to the
granary, and saw a man bringing in a large quantity of
corn. He asked who he was, and what quantity he
had brought; and was answered, by the hangman of the
preceding night, " This is the man, Sir, whom I
hanged by your orders, last night ; and he has brought
160 ardeVbs." "What!" exclaimed the governor:
* : has he risen from the dead ?" He was answered " No,
Sir : I hanged him so that his toes touched the ground ;
and when you were gone, I untied the rope : you did
not order me to kill him." The Turk muttered, u Aha !
hanging and killing are different things : Arabic is
copious : next time I will say kill. Take care of Ab'oo
Da'-oo'd*." This is his nick-name.

Another occurrence may here be aptly related, as a
further illustration of the nature of the government to
which the people of Egypt are subjected. A fella'hh, who
was appointed Na'zir (or governor) of the district of El-
Men'oo'fee'yeh (the southernmost distrct of the Delta),
a short time before my present visit to Egypt, in col-
lecting the taxes at a village, demanded, of a poor pea-
sant, the sum of sixty riya'ls (ninety fud'dahs each,
making a sum total of a hundred and thirty-five pias-
ters, which was then equivalent to about thirty shillings).
The poor man urged that he possessed nothing but a

* Ab'oo Da'-oo'd, Ab'oo 'Al'ee, &c, are patronymics, used by
the Egyptian peasants in general, not signifying " Father of Da'-
oo'd," *« Father of 'Al'ee," &c, but « whose father is (or was)
DaWd,* « — 'Al'ee,* &c

1*4 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

cow, which barely afforded sustenance to himself and his
family. Instead of pursuing the method usually fol-
lowed when a feuVhh declares himself unable to pay the
tax demanded of him, which is to give him a severe
bastinading, the Na'zir, in this case, sent the Sheykh
el-Bel'ed to bring the poor peasant's cow, and desired
some of the fellaTihee'n to buy it They saying that
they had not sufficient, money, he sent for a butcher,
and desired him to kill the cow ; which was done : he
then told him to divide it into sixty pieces. The butcher
asked for his pay ; and was given the head of the cow.
Sixty fella'hhee'n were then called together ; and each
of them was compelled to purchase, for a rival, a piece
of the cow. The owner of the cow went, weeping and
complaining, to the Na'zir's superior, the late Mohham'-
mad Bey, Defturda'r. u My master," said he, " I
am oppressed and in misery: I had no property but
one cow, a milch cow : I and my family lived upon her
milk ; and she ploughed for me, and threshed my corn ;
and my whole subsistence was derived from her : the
Na'zir has taken her, and killed her, and cut her up into
sixty pieces, and sold the pieces to my neighbours ; to
each a piece, for one riya'l; so that he obtained but
sixty riya'ls for the whole, while the value of the cow
was a hundred and twenty riya'ls, or more. I am
oppressed and in misery, and a stranger in the place,
for I came from another village ; but the Na'zir had no
pity on me. I and my family are become beggars, and
have nothing left. Have mercy upon me, and give me
justice : I implore it by thy hhareeW The Defturda'r,
having caused the Na'zir to be brought before him,
asked him, « Where is the cow of this fella'hh?" " I
have sold it," said the Na'zir. "For how much?"
" For sixty rivals." « Why did you kill it and sell it P*

GOVERNMENT. 155

C( He owed sixty riya'ls for land : so I took his cow, and
killed it, and sold it for the amount." " Where is the
butcher that killed it?" " In MenooT* The butcher
was sent for, and brought The Defturda'r said to him,
"Why did you kill this man's cow?" "The Na'zir
desired me," he answered, " and I could not oppose
him : if I had attempted to do so, he would have beaten
me, and destroyed my house : I killed it ; and the
Na'zir gave me the head as my reward." •• Man," said
the Defturda'r, " do you know the persons who bought
the meat?*' The butcher replied that he did. The
Defturda'r then desired his secretary to write the names
of the sixty men, and an order to the sheykh of their
village, to bring them to Menoo'f, where this complaint
was made. The Na'zir and butcher were placed in
confinement till the next morning ; when the sheykh of
the village came, with the sixty fella'hhee'n. The two
prisoners were then brought again before the Deftur-
da'r, who said to the sheykh and the sixty peasants,
" Was the value of this man's cow sixty riya'ls ?" " O
our master," they answered, " her value was greater."
The Defturda'r sent for the Cka'dee of Menoo'f, and
said to him, " O Cka'dee, here is a man oppressed by
this Na'zir, who has taken his cow, and killed it ; and
sold its flesh for sixty riya'ls: what is thy judgment?"
The Cka'dee replied, " He is a cruel tyrant, who op-
presses every one under his authority. Is not a cow
worth a hundred and twenty riya'ls, or more ? and he
has sold this one for sixty riya'ls : this is tyranny
towards the owner." The Defturda'r then said to some
of his soldiers, " Take the Na'zir, and strip him, and
bind him." This done, he said to the butcher, " Butcher,
dost thou not fear God ? Thou hast killed the cow
unjustly." The butcher again urged that he was

1*4 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

obliged to obey the Na'zir. " Then," said the Def-
turda'r, " if I order thee to do a thing, wilt thou do it ?"
" I will do it," answered the butcher. " Kill the
Na'zir," said the Defturda'r. Immediately, several of
the soldiers present seized the Na'zir, and threw him
down ; and the butcher cut his throat, in the regular
orthodox manner of killing animals for food. " Now,
cut him up," said the Defturda'r, " into sixty pieces."
This was done : the people concerned in the affair, and
many others, looking ^m; but none daring to speak.
The sixty peasants who had bought the meat of the
cow were then called forward, one after another, and
each was made to take a piece of the flesh of the Na'zir,
and to pay for it two rivals; so that a hundred and
twenty riya'ls were obtained from them : they were then
dismissed; but the butcher remained. The Cka'dee
was asked what should be the reward of the butcher ;
and answered that he should be paid as he had been
paid by the Na'zir. The Defturda'r therefore ordered
that the head of the Na'zir should be given to him ;
and the butcher went away with his worse than valueless
burden, thanking God that he had not been more
unfortunate, and scarcely believing himself to have so
easily escaped until he arrived at his village. The
money paid for the flesh of the Na'zir was given to the
owner of the cow.

Most of the governors of provinces and districts
carry their oppression far beyond the limits to which
they are authorized to proceed by the Ba'sha ; and even
the sheykh of a village, in executing the commands of
his superiors, abuse's his lawful power : bribes, and the
ties of relationship and marriage, influence htm and
them; and by lessening the oppression of some* who
are more able to bear it, greatly increase that of others.

GOVERNMENT. 1*7

But the office of a sheykh of a village is far from being
a sinecure : at the period when the taxes are demanded
of him, he frequently receives a more severe bastinad-
ing than any of his inferiors ; for when the population
of a village does not yield the sum required, their
sheykh is often beaten for their default ; and not
always does he produce his own proportion until he has
been well thrashed. All the fella'hhee'n are proud of
the stripes they receive for withholding their contribu-
tions; and are often heard to bqasi of the number of
blows which were inflicted upon them before they would
give up their money. Ammianus Marcellinus gives
precisely the same character to the Egyptians of bis
time*.

The revenue of the Ba'sha of Egypt is generally said
to amount to about three millions of pounds sterling f.
Nearly half arises from the direct taxes on land, and
from indirect exactions from the fella'hhee'n : the
remainder, principally from the custom-taxes, the tax
on palm-trees, a kind of income-tax, and the sale of
various productions of the land; by which sale, the
government, in most instances, obtains a profit of more
than fifty per cent.

The present Ba'sha has increased his revenue to this
amount by most oppressive measures. He has dispos-
sessed of their lands all the private proprietors throughout
his dominions, allotting to each, as a partial compen-
sation, a pension for life, proportioned to the extent and
quality of the land which belonged to him. The farmer

* Lib. xxii. The more easily the peasant pays, the more is he
made to pay.

f Some estimate it vAfive millions ; others, at little more than
two millions.

158 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

has, therefore, nothing to leave to his children but his
hut, and perhaps a few cattle and some small savings.

The direct taxes on land are proportioned to the
natural advantages of the soil. Their average amount
is about 8s. per fedda'n, which is nearly equal to an
English acre*. But the cultivator can never calculate
exactly the full amount of what the government will
require of him : he suffers from indirect exactions of
quantities, differing in different years, but always levied
per fedda'n, of butt*, honey, wax, wool, baskets of
palm-leaves, ropes of the fibres of the palm-tree, and
other commodities : he is also obliged to pay the hire of
the camels which convey his grain to the government
shoo'neh (or granary), and to defray various other
expenses. A portion of the produce of his land is taken
by the government f, and sometimes the whole produce,
at a fixed and fair price, which, however, in many parts
of Egypt, is retained to make up for the debts of the
insolvent peasants {. The fella'hh, to supply the bare
necessaries of life, is often obliged to steal, and convey
secretly to his hut, as much as he can of the produce of
his land. He may either himself supply the seed for
his land, or obtain it as a loan from the government;
but in the latter case he seldom obtains a sufficient
quantity ; a considerable portion being generally stolen

* The fedda'n has lately been reduced : it was equal to about
an English acre and one-tenth a few years ago ; and somewhat
more at an earlier period.

f Of some productions, as cotton, flax, &c, the government
always takes the whole.

X gven the debts of the peasantry of one village are often im-
posed upon the inhabitants of another who have paid all that is
justly due from them.

GOVERNMENT. 159

by the persons through whose hands it passes before he
receives it. To relate all the oppressions which the
peasantry of Egypt endure, "would require too much'
space in the present work. It would be scarcely pos-
sible for them to suffer more, and live. It may be
hardly necessary, therefore, to add, that few of them
engage, with assiduity, in the labours of agricultuie,
unless compelled to do so by their superiors.

The Ba'sha has not only taken possession of the
lands of the private proprietors, Ijut he has also thrown
into his treasury a considerable proportion of the in-
comes of religious and charitable institutions, deeming
their accumulated wealth superfluous. He first im-
posed a tax (of nearly half the amount of the regular
land-tax) upon all land which had become a vmckf
(or legacy unalienable by law) to any mosque, fountain,
public fthool, &c. ; and afterwards took absolute posses-
sion of such lands, granting certain annuities in lieu of
them, for keeping in repair the respective buildings, and
for the maintenance of those persons attached to them,
as Na'zirs (or wardens), religious ministers, inferior
servants, students, and other pensioners. He has thus
rendered himself extremely odious to most persons of
the religious and learned professions, and especially to
the Na'zirs of the mosques, who too generally enriched
themselves from the funds intrusted to their care, which
were, in most cases, superabundant. The household
property of the mosques and other public institutions
(the wuckfs of numerous individuals of various ranks)
the Ba'sha has hitherto left inviolate.

The tax upon the palm-trees has been calculated to
amount to about a hundred thousand pounds sterling.

1«0 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

The trees are rated according to their qualities ; generally
at a piaster and a half each.
* The income-tax, which is called Jit* deh, is generally
a twelfth or more of a man's annual income or salary,
when that can be ascertained. The maximum, however,
is fixed at five hundred piasters. In the large towns
it is levied upon individuals; in the villages, upon
houses. The income-tax of all the inhabitants of the
metropolis amounts to eight thousand purses, or about
forty thousand pounds sterling.

The inhabitants of the metropolis and of other large
towns pay a heavy tax on grain, &c. The tax on each
kind of grain is eighteen piasters per ardeb'b (or about
five bushels) ; which sum is equal to the price of wheat
in the country after a good harvest.

161

Chapter V.

Domestic Life.

Haying sufficiently considered the foundations of the
moral and social state of the Moos'lims of Egypt, we
may now take a view of their domestic life and ordinary
habits ; and, first, let us confine our attention to the
higher and middle orders/

A master of a family, or any person who has arrived
at manhood, and is not in a menial situation, or of very
low condition, is commonly honoured with the appella-
tion of • the sheykh" prefixed to his name. The word
w sheykh" literally signifies M an elder," or " an aged
person ;" but it is used as synonymous with our appel-
lation of " Mister * :" a sheree'f, or descendant of the
Prophet, is called " the ser/d" or "the setfyid' ' (master,
or lord), whatever be his station. Many sheree'fs are
employed in the lowest offices : there are servants, dust-
men, and beggars, of the honoured race of Mohham/mad;
but all of them are entitled to the distinctive appellation
above mentioned, and privileged to wear the green
turban t; many of them, however, not only among

* Though more particularly applied to a learned man, or a
reputed saint.

t Men and women of this caste often contract marriages with
persons who are not members of the same ; and as the title, of
sheree'f is inherited from either of the parents, the nnrn^er of
persons who enjoy this distinction has become very considerable*

162 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

those of humble station, but also*among the wealthy,
and particularly the learned, assume neither of these
prerogatives ; preferring the title of " •heykh," and the
white turban. A man who has performed the pilgrim-
age is generally called " the hhctgg*;" and a woman
who has alike distinguished herself, "the hhctggeh:"
yet there are many pilgrims who, like those sheree'fs
just before alluded to, prefer the title of " sheykh.'^ The
general appellation of a lady is " the siit" which signi-
fies " the mistress," or " the lady."

Before I describe the ordinary habits of the master of
a family, I must mention the various classes of persons
of whom the family may consist. The hharee'm, or
the females of the house, have distinct apartments
allotted to them ; and into these apartments (which, as
well as the persons to whom they are appropriated, are
called " the hharee'm") no males are allowed to enter,
excepting the master of the family, and certain other
near relations, and children. The hharee'm may con-
sist, first, of a wife, or wives (to the number of four) ;
secondly, of female slaves, some of whom, namely,
white and Abyssinian slaves, are generally concubines,
and others (the black slaves) kept merely for servile
offices, as cooking, waiting upon the ladies, &c. ; thirdly,
of female free servants, who are, in no case, concubines,
or not legitimately so. The male dependants may con-
sist of white and of black slaves, and free servants ; but
are mostly of the last-mentioned class. Very few of the
Egyptians avail themselves of the licence which their

* This word is thus pronounced by the inhabitants of Cairo
and the greater part of Egypt ; but in most other countries where
Arabic is spoken, hhofjj. The Turks and Persians use, instead of
it, the synonymous Arabic word hha'jjte.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 163

religion allows theirij of having four wives ; and still
smaller is the number of those who have two or more
wives, and concttbines besides. Even most of those
men who have but one wife are content, for the sake of
domestic peace, if for no other reason, to remain without
a concubine slave : but some prefer the possession of an
Abyssinian slave to the more expensive maintenance of
a wife^ and keep a black slave girl, or an Egyptian
female servant, to wait upon her, to clean and keep in
order the apartments of the hharee'm, and to cook. It
is seldom that two or more wives are kept in the same
house : if they be, they generally have distinct apart-
ments. Of male servants, the master of a family keeps,
if he can afford to do so, one or more to wait upon him
and his male guests ; another, who is called a sacVcka^
or water-carrier, but who is particularly a servant of the
hharee'm, and attends the ladies when they go out * ; a
bov/wa'b, or door-keeper, who constantly sits at the
door of the house ; and a sol is, or groom, for the horse,
mule, or ass. Few of the Egyptians have memloo'ks,
or male white slaves ; most of these being in the posses-
sion of rich 'Osma'nlees (or Turks) ; and scarcely any
but Turks of high rank keep eunuchs : but a wealthy
Egyptian merchant is proud of having a black slave to
ride or walk behind him, and to carry his pipe.

The Egyptian is a very early riser ; as he retires to
sleep at an early hour : it is his duty to be up and dressed
before daybreak, when he should say the "morning-
prayers. In general, while the master of a family is
performing the religious ablution, and saying his pray-

* Unlets there be a eunuch. The sack'cka is generally the
chief of the servants.

164 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ers, his wife or slave is prepaJftig for him a cup of
coffee, and filling' his pipe, which she presents to him as
soon as he has acquitted himself of his religious duties.
Many of the Egyptians take nothing before noon but
the cup of coffee and the pipe : others take a light meal
at an early hour. The meal of breakfast (el-fatodr)
generally consists of bread, with eggs, butter, cheese,
clouted cream, or curdled milk, &c; or of *fdtedreh>
which is a kind of pastry, saturated with butter, made
' very thin, and folded over and over like a napkin : it is
eaten alone, or with a little honey poured over it, or
sugar. A very common dish for breakfast is fodl
moodem!mes 9 oT beans, similar to our horse-beans, slowly
boiled, during a whole night, in an earthen vessel,
buried, all but the neck, in the hot ashes of an oven or
a bath, and having the mouth closely stopped : they are
eaten with linseed-oil, or butter, and generally with a
little lime-juice: thus prepared, they are sold in the
morning in the soc/cks (or markets) of Cairo and other
towns. A meal is often made (by those who cannot
afford luxuries) of bread and a mixture called doock'-
ckahy which is commonly composed of salt and pepper,
with zafatar (or wild marjoram) or mint or cumin-seed,
and with one, or more, or all, of the following ingredients ;
namely, coriander-seed, cinnamon, sesame, and hhom!-
moos (or chick-peas) : each mouthful of bread is dipped
in this mixture. The bread is always made in the form
of a round flat cake, generally about a span in width,
and a finger's breadth in thickness.

The pipe and the cup of coffee are enjoyed by almost
all persons who can afford such luxuries, very early in
the morning, and oftentimes during the day. There
are many men who are scarcely ever seen without a

DOMESTIC LIFE.

165

Pipes.

166 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

pipe either in their hand or carried behind them by a
servant. The smoker keeps his tobacco for daily use in
a purse or bag made of shawl-stuff, or silk, or velvet,
which is often accompanied with a small pouch contain-
ing a flint and steel, and some agaric tinder, and is
usually crammed into his bosom.

The pipe (which is called by many names, as shib'-
ooifc*, 'odd, &c.) is generally between four and five feet
long : some pipes are shorter, and some , are of greater
length. The most common kind used in Egypt is made
of a kind of wood called gu^mushluck f. The greater
part of the stick (from the mouth-piece to about three
quarters of its length) is covered with silk, which is
confined at each extremity by gold thread, often inter-
twined with coloured silks, or by a tube of gilt silver ;
and at the lower extremity of the covering is a tassel of
silk. The covering was originally designed to be
moistened with water, in order to cool the pipe, and,
consequently, the smoke, by evaporation : but this is
only done when the pipe is old, or not handsome.
Cherry-stick pipes, which are never covered, are also
used by many persons, particularly in the winter. In
summer, the smoke is not so cool from the cherry-stick
pipe as from the kind before mentioned. The bowl
(called hhagfar) is of baked earth, coloured red or
brown {. The mouth-piece (foom! 9 or turkee/beh) is
composed of two or more pieces of opaque, light-coloured
amber, interjoined by ornaments of enamelled gold,
agate, jasper, cornelian, or some other precious sub-

* From the Turkish chibodck. f I believe it is maple.

% To preserve the matting or carpet from injury, a small brass
tray is often placed beneath the bowl ; and a small tray of wood
is made use of to receive the ashes of the tobacco.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 167

stance. It is the most costly part of the pipe : the price
of one of the kind most generally used by persons of
the middle order, -is from about one to three pounds
sterling. A wooden tube passes through it This is
often changed, as it soon becomes foul from the oil of
the tobacco. The pipe also requires to be cleaned very
often, which is done with tow, by means of a long wire.
Many poor men in Cairo gain their livelihood by going
about to clean pipes.

The tobacco smoked by persons of the higher orders,
and some others, in Egypt, is of a very mild and de-
licious flavour. It is mostly from the neighbourhood of
El-La'diekee'yeh, in Syria. The best kind is the
" mountain tobacco" (dookh'khafn geVelee). A stronger
kind, which takes its name from the town of Soo'r
(dookhfkhcin Soiree), sometimes mixed with geVelee, is
used by most persons of the middle orders. In smok-
ing, the people of Egypt and of other countries of the
East draw in their breath freely ; so that much of the
smoke descends into the lungs ; and the terms which
they use to express u smoking tobacco" signify " drink'
ing smoke," or " drinking tobacco :" for the same word
signifies both " smoke*' and " tobacco." Few of them
spit while smoking : I have very seldom seen any do so.

Some of the Egyptians use the Persian pipe, in which
the smoke passes through water. The pipe of this kind
most commonly used by persons of the higher classes
is called nafrgeefleh, because the vessel that contains the
water is a cocoa-nut, of which " nalrgeefleh" is an
Arabic name. Another kind, which has a glass vase*
is called sheefsheh*. Each has a very long, flexible
tube A particular kind of tobacco, called toombolk\

* A Persian word, signifying " glass/'

K

J68 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

from Persia, is used in the water-pipe: it is first
washed several times, and put into the pipe-bowl while
damp; and two or three pieces of live charcoal are
placed on the top. Its flavour is mild, and very agree*
able ; but the strong inhalation necessary in this mode
of smoking is injurious to persons of delicate lungs**.
In using the Persian pipe, the person as freely draws the
smoke into his lungs as he would inhale pure air. The
great prevalence of liver-complaints in Arabia is attri-
buted to the general use of the na'rgee'leh ; and many
persons in Egypt suffer severely from the same cause.
A kind of pipe, called go'zeh t, which is similar to the
na'rgee'Ieh, excepting that it has a short cane tube, in-
stead of the snake (or flexible one), and no stand, is
used by men of the lowest class, for smoking both the
toomba'k and the intoxicating hhashee'sh, or hemp.

The coffee (ckah'wehX) is made very strong, and
without sugar or milk. The coffee-cup (which is called
Jingo! n) is small ; generally holding not quite an ounce
and a half of liquid. It is of porcelain, or Dutch-ware,
and, being without a handle, is placed within another
cup (called zurf), of silver or brass, according to the
circumstances of the owner, and, both in shape and size,
nearly resembling our egg-cup §. In preparing the

* It is, however, often recommended in the case of a cough.
One of my friends, the most celebrated of the poets of Cairo, who
is much troubled by asthma, uses the na'rgee'Ieh almost inces-
santly from morning till night.

f " Gc/zeh" is the most common name.

J This is the name of the beverage: the berries (whether whole
Or pounded) art called boon'n.

§ In a full service there are ten finga'ns and turfs of uniform kinds,
and often another finga'n and zurf of a superior kind for the mas*
ter of the house, or for a distinguished guest. In the accompanying

DOMESTIC LIFE. 169

Coffee-service.

coffee, the water is first made to boil: the coffee
(freshly roasted, and pounded) is then put in, and
stirred ; after which the pot is again placed on the fire,
once or twice, until the coffee begins to simmer ; when
it is taken off; and its contents are poured out into the
cups while the surface is yet creamy. The Egyptians
are excessively fond of pure and strong coffee, thus pre-
pared ; and very seldom add sugar to it (though some
do so when they are unwell), and never, milk or cream;
but a little cardamom -seed* is often added to it. It is a
common custom, also, to fumigate the cup with the
smoke of mastic ; and the wealthy sometimes impreg-
nate the coffee with the delicious fragrance of amber-
grisf. The most general mode of doing this is, to put

sketch, the coffee-pot (beffreg, or buk'rug) and the zurfs and hray are
of silver, and are represented on a scale of one-eighth of the real
size. Below this set are a similar zurf and fings/n, on a scale of
one-fourth, and a brass zurf, with the finga'n placed in it. Some
zurfs are of plain or gilt silver filigree ; and a few opulent persons
have them of go'd. Many Moos'liras, however, religiously dis-
allow all utensils of gold and of silver.

* UhaUihhc/n. + 'Am'bar.

K 2

170 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

•bout a caret-weight of ambergris in a coffee-pot, and
melt it over a fire ; then make the coffee in another pot,
in the manner before described, and, when it has settled
a little, pour it into the pot which contains the amber-
gris. Some persons make use of the ambergris, for the
same purpose, in a different way; sticking a piece of it,
of the weight of about two carets, in the bottom of the
cup, and then pouring in the coffee : a piece of the
weight above-mentioned will serve for two or three
weeks. This mode is often adopted by persons who
like always to have the coffee which they themselves
drink flavoured with this perfume, and do not give all
their visiters the same luxury. The coffee-pot is some-
times brought in a vessel of silver or brass (culled
'a'i'ckeej, containing burning charcoal. This vessel is
suspended by three chains. In presenting the coffee,
the servant holds the foot of the zurf with his thumb and

* One of the Utter (that to the right) i> an earthen nisei. Each

of the above utenjils ii represented on a scale of about one-eigWb
oftherealiiie.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 171

first finger. In receiving the finga'n and zurf, he makes
use of both hands, placing the left beneath and the right
above at the same instant

In cold weather, a brasier, or chafing-dish (called
mun'ckud), of tinned copper, full of burning charcoal, is
placed on the floor; and sometimes perfume is burnt in
it. The Egyptians take great delight in perfumes *j
and often fumigate their apartments. The substance
most commonly used for this purpose is frankincense of
an inferior quality, called bakhoo'r el-burr. Benzoin t
and aloes : wood J are also used for the same purpose.

If he can conveniently afford to keep a horse, mule,
or ass, or to hire an ass, the Egyptian is seldom seen
walking far beyond the threshold of his own house ; but
very few of the people of Cairo, or of the other towns, •
venture to expose themselves to the suspicion of pos-
sessing superfluous wealth, and, consequently, to greater
exactions of the government than they would otherwise
suffer, by keeping horses §. The modern saddle of the
horse is generally padded, and covered with cloth or
velvet, embroidered, or otherwise ornamented ; and the
liead-stall and breast- leather are adorned with silk
tassels, and coins, or other ornaments, of silver.
Wealthy merchants, and the great 'ool'ama, usually ride
mules. The saddle of the mule is, generally, nearly
the same as that of the ass ; of which a sketch is in-
serted : when the rider is one of the 'ool'ama, it is
covered with a segga'deh (or prayer-carpet) : so, also,
sometimes, is the ladies' saddle ; from which, however,

* They sometimes perfume the beard and mustaches with civet,
f Mwee. t 'Oo'd.

§ Whether walking or riding* a person of the higher classes is
usually attended by a servant bearing his pipe.

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

the former differs considerably ; as will be shown here-
after. Asses are must generally used for riding through
the narrow and crowded streets of Cairo ; and there are
many for hire : their usual pace is an easy amble. The
ass is furnished with a stuffed saddle ; the forepart of
which is covered with red leather, and the seat, most
commonly, with a kind of sod woollen lace, similar to our
coach-lace, of red, yellow, and other colours. The
stirrup-leathers are, in every case, very short The
horseman is preceded by a servant, or by two servants,
to clear the way ; and, for the same purpose, a servant
generally runs beside or behind the ass, or sometimes
before ; calling out to the passengers to move out of the
way to the right or left, or to take care of their backs,
faces, sides, feet or heels-)-. The rider, however, must

* Nearly the whole of ita coat is closely thorn.

t RwWm*.' Mmtflak! (to thy light! to thy left 1), dU7*l !

DOMESTIC LIFE. 173

Be vigilant, and not trust merely to his servant, or he
may be thrown down by the wide load of a camel;
which accident, indeed, is sometimes unavoidable in the
more narrow and crowded streets. His pipe is generally
Carried by the servant ; and filled and lighted if he dis-
mount at a house or shop.

If hef have no regular business to employ him, the
Egyptian spends the greater part of the day in riding,
paying visits, or making purchases ; or in smoking and
sipping coffee and chatting with a friend at home ; or
he passes an hour or more in the morning enjoying the
luxuries of a public bath. At noon, he has again to say
prayers, if he fulfil the duties imposed on him by his
religion : but, as I have remarked on a former occasion,
there are comparatively few persons among the Egyp-
tians who do not sometimes neglect these duties ; and
there are many who scarcely ever pray. Directly after
mid-day, he dines; then takes a pipe and a cup of
coffee, and, in hot weather, usually indulges himself
with a nap. Often he retires to recline in the hharee'm ;

(thy back J), with'ihak ! (thy face !), gem'bak ! (thy side !), rirflak f
(thy foot!), ka'abak! (thy heel!), and, to a Turk, tdckiu ! (take
care !), are the most common cries. The following appellations are
also often added : — yd e/eddee ! (to a Turk), yd sheykh ! (to an old,
or a middle-aged, Mooslim native), yd tuUee I (to a young man),
yd we ted! or ydib'nee! (to a boy), yd theredf 7 (to a green-tur-
baned descendant of the Prophet), yd rdatlim! (to a native Chris-
tian, or a Jew), yd khawdgeh ! (to a Frank), yd siti ,' (to a lady,
or a female of the middle order), and yd bint ! that is " daughter,"
or " girl" (to a poor female). A woman of the lower class, how-
ever old she be, the servant must call "girl," or " daughter," or
probably she will not move an inch out of the way. A little girl,
or young woman, is often called 'aroo'*eA, or " bride ;" and khdggeh,
or " female pilgrim," is an appellation often given to women in
the streets.

174 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

where a wife or female slave watches over his repose, or
rubs the soles of his feet with her hands. On such
occasions, and at other times when he wishes to enjoy
privacy, every person who comes to pay him a visit is
told, by the servant, that he is in the hharee'm ; and no
friend expects him to be called thence, unless on very
urgent business. From the time of the afternoon-prayers,
until sunset (the next time of prayer), he generally en-
joys, again, his pipe and a cup of coffee in the society of
some one or more of his friends at home or abroad.
Shortly after sunset, he sups.

I must now describe the meals of dinner (el-ghudfa)
and supper (el J ashla\ and the manner and etiquette of
eating. The same remarks will apply to both these re-
pasts; excepting that supper is always the principal
meal. It is the general custom to cook in the afternoon;
and what remains of the supper is eaten the next day for
dinner, when there are no guests in the house. The
master of a femily generally dines and sups with his
wife or wives and children ; but there are many men,
particularly in the higher classes, who are too proud to
do this, or too much engaged in society to be able to do
so, unless on some few occasions ; and there are men
even in the lowest class who scarcely ever eat with their
wives or children. When a person is paying a visit to
a friend, and the hour of dinner or supper arrives, it is
incumbent on the master of the house to order the meal
to be brought; and the same is generally considered
necessary if the visiter be a stranger.

Every person, before he sits down to the table, or
rather to the tray, washes his hands*, and sometimes
his mouth also, with soap and water; or, at least, has

* See Mark, ?ii. 3.

DOMESTIC LIFE.

lft

some water poured upon his right hand. A servant
brings to him a basin and ewer (called iisht and
ibretfck), of tinned copper, or of brass*.. The former

Tkhtaadltaee'ckt.

of these has a cover pierced with holes, with a raised
receptacle for the soap in the middle ; and the water,
being poured upon the hands, passes through this cover
into the space below ; so that, when the basin is brought
to a second person, the water with which the former one
has washed is not seen. A napkin (focftah) is given
to each person.

A round tray (called seeneefyeh) of tinned copper, or
sometimes of brass, generally between two and three feet
in diameter, serves as a table ; being placed upon a stool
(hoo^see) about fifteen inches high, made of wood, and
often covered with mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, bone,
Ac. These two pieces of furniture compose the soofrdk

* In the houses of tome of the opulent, these utensils are of sti-
ver. I have also seen some of gilt copper.

f The width of the former is fourteen inches ; and the heigh
of the latter, die same.

K 5

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Wuhlgg btfan gr uflei a Htil

Round cakes or bread, such as have been before dc
scribed, sometimes cut in halves across the middle, are
placed round the tray, with several limes, cut iu two, to
be squeezed over any of the dishes that may require the
acid ; and a spoon of box-wood, or of ebony, or tortoise'
shell, is put for each person. The bread often serves as
a plate. Several dishes of tinned copper, or of china,
containing different kinds of viands, vegetables, &c.,
are then placed upon the tray, according to the common
fashion of the country; or only one dish is put on at a
time, after the Turkish mode.

The persons who are to partake of the repast sit upon
the floor around the tray ; each with his napkin upon
his knees: or, if the tray be placed near the edge
of a low deewa'n, which is often done, some of the per;

Domestic life.

Kooi'im ami S«raee*j<h.

sons may sit on the deewa'n, and the others on tin;
floor t but if the party be numerous, the tray is placed
in the middle of the room, and they sit round it with
one knee on the ground, and the other (the right) raised ;
and, in this manner, as many as twelve persons may sit
round a tray three feet wide. Each person bares his-
right arm to the elbow, ur lucks up the hanging end of
his sleeve. Before he begins to eat, he says " Bi-smi-
Vlah" (In the name of God)*. This is generally said
in a low, but audible voice ; and by the master of the
house first. It is considered both as a grace and as an
invitation to any person to partake of the meat; and
when any one is addressed with " Bi-tmi-tlah" or
" Tafudfdal " (which latter signifies, in this case, " Do
me the favour to partake of the repast"), he must reply,

* Ot * Bi-imi-P/i/hi-r-rahhvia'mr-raAhtt'm" (In the OMM of

God, the Comjiaabionato, the Merciful).

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

A P«rty>l DinDn«9ufpcc*.

if he do not accept the invitation, " Hened-an " (or
"May it benefit"), or use some similar expression:
else it will be feared that an eril eye has been cast upon
the food; and they say that, "in the food that is
coveted " (or upon which an envious eye has fallen),
'* there is no blessing." But the manner in which the
Egyptian often presses n stranger to eat with him shows
that feelings of hospitality most forcibly dictate the
" Bi-smi-Klah." The master or the house first begins to
eat; the guests or others immediately follow his ex-
* One of the mrrants ii holding a mter-bottte : the otter, a
flr-whiali mad* of palm-leatm.

DOMESTIC LIFE. I7f

ample. Neither knives nor forks are used : the thumb
and two fingers of the right hand serve instead of those
instruments; but the spoons are used for soup or rice
or other things that cannot be easily eaten without; and
both hands may be used in particular cases, as will be
presently explained. When there are several dishes
upon the tray, each person takes of any that he likes,
or of every one in succession : when only one dish is
placed upon the tray at a time, each takes from it a few
mouthfols, and it is quickly removed, to give place to
another*. To pick out a delicate morsel, and hand it
to a friend, is esteemed polite. The manner of eating
with the fingers, as practised in Egypt and other Eastern
countries, is more delicate than may be imagined by
Europeans who have not witnessed it, nor heard it cor-
rectly described. Each person breaks off a small piece,
of bread, dips it in the dish, and then conveys it to his
mouth, together with a small portion of the meat or
other contents of the dish f. The piece of bread is
generally doubled together, so as to enclose the morsel
of meat, &c. ; and only the thumb and first and second
fingers are commonly used. When a person takes a
piece of meat too large for a single mouthful, he usually
places it upon his bread.

The food is dressed in such a manner that it may be
easily eaten in the mode above-described. It generally
consists, for the most part, ofyukh'nee, or stewed meat,
with chopped onions, or with a quantity of bctmiyehs |,

• Oar Saviour and his disciples thus ate from one dish. See
Matt. xxvi. 23.

f Or he merely sops his morsel ef bread in the dish. See
Buth, ii. 14 ; and John, xiii. 26.

J The ba'miyeh is the -esculent hibucus: the part which is

180 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

or other vegetables; cka!woor J meh, or a richer stew
with onions; war'uck maJih'shee, or vine-leaves, or bits
Of lettuce-leaf or cabbage-leaf, with a mixture of rice,
and minced meat (delicately seasoned with salt, pepper,
and onions, and often with garlic, parsley, &c.) wrapped
up in them, and boiled ; cucumbers (khiycir\ or black,
white, or red boldingcins *, or a kind of gourd (called
cha^&koo'sek) of the size and shape of a small
cucumber, which are all mahh'shee, or stuffed, with the
same composition as the leaves above-mentioned ; and
kebafby or small morsels of mutton or lamb, roasted on
skewers. Many dishes consist wholly, or for the most
part, of vegetables; such as cabbage, purslain, spinach,
beans, lupins, chick-peas, gourd cut into small pieces,
colocasia, lentils, &c. Fish, dressed with oil, is also a
common dish. Most of the meats are cooked with
clarified butter; on account of the deficiency of fat;,
and are made very rich : the butter, in the hot seasons-
is perfectly liquid. When a fowl is placed whole on the
tray, both hands are generally required to separate the
joints ; or two persons, each using the right hand alone*
perform this operation together: but some will do it
very cleverly without assistance, and with a single hand.
Many of the Arabs will not allow the left hand to
touch food in any casef, excepting when the right is
maimed. A boned fowl, stuffed with raisins, pistachio-
nuts, crumbled bread, and parsley, is not an uncommon.

eaten is a polygonal pod, generally between one and three inched
in length, and of the thickness of a small finger : it is full of seeds
and nutritive mucilage, and has a very pleasant flavour. A Kttle
lime-juice is usually dropped on the plate of ba'roiyehs.

• The black and white ba'dinga'n are the fruits of two kinds of
egg-plant : the red is the tomata.

f Because used for unclean purposes.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 181

dish ; and even a whole lamb, stuffed with pistachio-
nuts, &c, is sometimes served up; but the meat is
easily separated with one hand. Sweets are often
mixed with stewed meat, &c. ; as, for instance, 'annolb
(or jujubes) and sugar with yukh'nee. Various kinds
of sweets are also served up, and often in no particular
order with respect to other meats. A favourite sweet
dish is koona'feh, which is made of wheat-flour, and re*
sembles vermicelli, but is finer ; it is boiled, and sweet-
ened with sugar or honey. A dish of water-melon
Q,uttee?kh) y if in season, generally forms part of the meal
This is cut up about a quarter of an hour before, and
left to cool in the external air, or in a current of air, by
the evaporation of the juice on the surfaces of the slices;
but it is always watched during this time, lest a serpent
should come to it, and poison it by its breath or bite ;
for this reptile is said to be extremely fond of the water-
melon, and to smell it at a great distance. Water-
melons are very abundant in Egypt, and mostly very
delicious and wholesome. A dish of boiled rice (called
roodz moofetfel) the filolv of the Turks), mixed with a
little butter, and seasoned with salt and pepper, is gene-
rally that from which the last morsels are taken ; but, in
the houses of the wealthy, this is often followed by a
bowl of khoosha'f*, a sweet drink, commonly consisting
of water with raisins boiled in it, and then sugar : when
cool, a little rose water is dropped into itf. The water*
melon frequently supplies the place of this J.

* So called from the Persian kho'sh ctb, or " tweet water. 9 *
f It it drunk with ladles of tortoise-shell, or cocoa-nut.
. % The principal and best fruits of Egypt are dates, grapes,
oranges and citrons of various kinds, common figs, sycamore*
figs, prickly-pears, pomegranates; bananas, and a great variety of

182 MODKRN EGYPTIANS.

The Egyptians eat very moderately ; though quickly.
Each person, as soon as he has finished, says u El-
hkam'doo li-flalh " (Praise be to God)*, and gets up,
without waiting till the others have donef: he then
washes his hands and mouth with soap and water; the
basin and ewer being held by a servant, as before.

The only beverage at meals is water of the Nile, or,
sometimes, at the tables of the rich, sherbet, which will
presently be described. The water of the Nile is re-
markably good ; but that of all the wells in Cairo and
in other parts of Egypt is slightly brackish. In general,
water is drunk either from an earthen bottle or from a
brass cupj. The water-bottles are of two kinds ; one
called detruck, and the. other ckooVleh : the former has
a narrow, and the latter a wide, mouth. They are made
of a greyish, porous earth, which cools the water deli-
ciously, by evaporation ; and they are, therefore, gene-
rally placed in a current of air. The interior is often
blackened with the smoke of some resinous wood, and
then perfumed with the smoke of ckufal§ wood and
mastic; the latter used last. A small earthen vessel
(called mib f khw J ati) is employed in performing these
operations, to contain the burning charcoal, which is

melons. From this enumeration it appears that there are not
many good fruits in this country.

* Or « El-Aham>doo M/t/ht rut/bi-J-^fomee'n" (Praise be to
God, the Lord of all creatures).

f It is deemed highly improper to rise during a meal, even
from respect to a superior who may approach. It has been men-
tioned before, that the Prophet forbade his followers to rise while
eating, or whom about to eat, even if the time of prayer arrived.

% The ancient Egyptians used drinking-cupe of brass. (Hero*
detas, lib. ii. cap. 37.)

t Jmyri* hafml. ForskaL A* Arabian tree.

DOMESTIC LIKE.

it. Tbeboltlttlntha

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Earthen MiU'khu'ull. tnd Cbin*. Wrack, OOMlilhoftlHirmlito. »

required to ignite the wood, and the mastic ; and the
water-bottle is held inverted over it. A strip of rag ia
tied round the neck of the doVuck, at the distance of
about an inch from the mouth, to prevent the smoke-
black from extending too far upon the exterior of the
bottle. Many persons also put a little or a age-flower -
water* into the bottles. This gives a very agreeable
flavour to their contents. The bottles have stoppers
of silver, brass, tin, wood, or palm-leaves ; and are
generally placed in a tray of tinned copper, which
receives the water that exudes from them. In cold
weather, china bottles are used in many houses in-
stead of those above-described, which then render the
water too cold. The two most common forms of drink-
ing-cups are here represented. Every person, before

fSrjm Driokiurf-cui A one-flftli of Ibci
* JHo'/el Kuhr, or mafytt xah'r m

DOMESTIC LIFE. 185

and after drinking, repeats the same ejaculations as
before and after eating; and this he does each time
that he drinks during a meal : each friend present then
says to him "May it benefit"*; to which the reply is

"God benefit thee" f-

Though we read, in some of the delightful " Tales of

a Thousand and One Nights," of removing " the table
of viands" f and bringing " the table of wine M §, this pro-
hibited beverage is not often introduced in general so-
ciety, either during or after the meal, or at other times,
by the Moos'lims of Egypt in the present day. Many
of them, however, habitually indulge in drinking wine
with select parties of their acquaintance. The servants
of a man who is addicted to this habit know such of his
friends as may be admitted, if they happen to call when
he is engaged in this unlawful pleasure; and to all
others they say that he is not at home, or that he is in
the hharee'm. Drinking wine is indulged in by such
persons before and after supper, and during that meal ;
but it is most approved before supper ; as they say that
it quickens the appetite. The "table of wine" is
usually thus prepared, according to a penitent Moos'lim
wine-bibber, who is one of my friends (I cannot speak
on this subject from my own experience ; for, as I never
drink wine, I have never been invited to join a Moos'lim
wine-party ) : — a round japanned tray, or a glass dish,
is placed on the stool before-mentioned: on this are
generally arranged two cut-glass jugs, one containing
wine ||, and the other, rosoglio^f; and sometimes two or

* Henee'-an.

t At iah yekenfnee'k (for yoohen'nee'k').

X Soofrai et-ta'a'm. } Soof'rat el-mooda'wu

| Nebec'd, or mooda'm, €|f 'Am'ber'ee.

186 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

more bottles besides: several small glasses are placed
with these ; and glass saucers of dried and fresh fruits,
and, perhaps, pickles : lastly, two candles, and, often, a
bunch of flowers stuck in a candlestick, are put upon the
tray.

The Egyptians have various kinds of sherbets, or
sweet drinks. The most common kind* is merely
sugar and water ; but very sweet : lemonadef is another :
a third kind, the most esteemed J, is prepared from a
hard conserve of violets, made by pounding violet-
flowers, and then boiling them with sugar : this violet-
sherbet is of a green colour : a fourth kind § is prepared
from mulberries : a fifth ||, from sorrel. There is also a
kind of sherbet sold in the streets % which is made with
raisins, as its name implies ; another kind, which is a
strong infusion of licorice -root, and called by the name
of that root**; and a third kind, which is prepared from
the fruit of the locust-tree, and called, in like manner, by
the name of the fruitft- The sherbet is served in covered
glass cups containing about half a pint measure, or
rather more ; some of which (the more common kind)
are ornamented with gilt flowers, &c. The sherbet-cups
are placed on a round tray, and covered with a round
piece of embroidered silk, or cloth of gold. On the right
arm of the person who presents the sherbet is hung a
large oblong napkin with a wide embroidered border of

* Called limply skwba't, or thvrba't »ook f Aar,%h&bet of sugar*
f Ley'moo'na'teh, ot thara'b cl-Uymoo'n.
% Shara'bel-benef'$eg. $ Shara'b tt-too't.

|| Shara'b cl-hhommey r d.

% Called zebet'b* This name is also given to aa intoxicating
conserve.
** Wok waV ft ***»W*.

DOMESTIC LIFE.

gold and coloured silks at each end. This is ostensibly
offered for the purpose of wiping the lips after drinking
the sherbet ; but it is really not so much for use as for
display : the lips are seldom or scarcely touched with it.

The interval between supper and the 'estte, or time
of the night-prayers, is generally passed in smoking a
pipe, and sipping a cup of coffee. The enjoyment of
the pipe may be interrupted by prayer, but is continued
afterwards ; and sometimes draughts or chess, or some
other game, or at least conversation, contributes to
make the time glide away more agreeably. The mem-
bers of an Egyptian family in easy circumstances may
pass their time very pleasantly; but they do so in a
quiet way. The men often pay evening visits to their
friends at, or after, supper-time. They commonly use,
on these and similar occasions, a folding lantern
(Jo! nods), composed of waxed cloth strained over rings
of wire, and a top and bottom of tinned copper. This
kind of lantern is here represented, together with the
common lamp (ckand&ff), and its usual receptacle of
wood, which serves to protect the flame from the wind.
The lamp is a small vessel of glass, having a little tube
in the bottom, in which is stuck a wick formed of cotton
twisted round a piece of straw. Some water is poured in
first, and then the oiL A lamp of this kind is often bung

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

LuKo

over the entrance of a house. By night, the interiors of
the houses present a more dull appearance than in the
day : the light of one or two candles (placed on the floor
or on a stool, and sometimes surrounded by a large
glass shade, or enclosed in a glass lantern, on account of
the windows being merely of lattice -work) ' 3 generally
thought sufficient for a large and lofty saloon. Few of
the Egyptians sit up Iater,in summer, than three or four
o'clock, which is three or four hours after sunset; for
their reckoning of time is from sunset at every season
of the year : in winter they often sit up five or sis hours.

Thus the day is usually spent by men of moderate
wealth who have no regular business to attend to, or
none that requires their own active superintendence.
But it is the habit of the tradesman to repair, soon after
breakfast, to bis shop or warehouse, and to remain there
until near sunset*. He has leisure to smoke as much

* A detcripiion of the ihops, and a further account of the
tradesmen of Cairo, will be given ia another chapter, on Industry.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 189

as he likes ; and his customers often smoke with him*
To some of these he offers his own pipe (unless they
have theirs with them), and a cup of coffee, which is
obtained from the nearest coffee -shop. A great portion
of the day he sometimes passes in agreeable chat with
customers, or with the tradesmen of the next or opposite
shops. He generally says his prayers without moving
from his shop. Shortly after the noon-prayers, or some*
times earlier or later, he eats a light meal, such as a
plate of keba'b and a cake of bread (which a boy or maid
daily brings from his house, or procures in the market),
or some bread and cheese or pickles, &c, which are
carried about the streets for sale ; and if a customer be
present, he is always invited, and often pressed, to par-
take of this meal. A large earthen bottle of water is
kept in the shop, and replenished, whenever necessary,
by a passing sack'cka^ or water-carrier. In the even-
ing the tradesman returns to his house, eats his supper,
and, soon after, retires to bed.

It is the general custom in Egypt for the husband
and wife to sleep in the same bed, excepting among the
wealthy classes, who mostly prefer separate beds. The
bed is usually thus prepared in the houses of persons of
moderate wealth: a mattress*, stuffed with cotton,
about six feet long, and three or four feet in width, is
placed upon a low frame t ' a pillow is placed for the
head, and a sheet spread over this and the mattress :
the only covering in summer is generally a thin blanket % ;
and in winter, a thick quilt §, stuffed with cotton. If
there be no frame, the mattress is placed upon the floor ;
or two mattresses are laid one upon the other, with the
sheet, pillow, &c. ; . and often, a cushion of the deewa f n

* toorra'hhah. f SereSr. $ Hhcra!m. $ Lehha/f.

190 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

is placed on each side. A musquho-curCain * is sus-
pended over the bed by means of four strings, which
are attached to nails in the wall. The dress is seldom
changed on going to bed ; and in winter, many people
sleep with all their ordinary clothes on, excepting the
gib'beh, or cloth coat ; but in summer, they sleep almost,
or entirely, unclad. In winter, the bed is prepared in a
small closet (called khuz'neh) : in summer, in a large
room. All the bed-clothes are rolled up, in the day*
time, and placed on one side, or in the closet above-
mentioned. During the hottest weather, many people
sleep upon the house-top, or in nfesfhhah, which is an
uncovered apartment ; but ophthalmia and other k dis-
eases often result from their thus exposing themselves to
the external air at night The most common kind of
frame for the bed is made of palm-sticks ; but this
harbours bugs, which are very abundant in Egypt in the
summer, as fleas are in the winter. These and other
plagues to which the people of Egypt are exposed by
night and day, have been before mentioned f. With
regard to the most disgusting of them, the lice, it may
here be added, that they are not always to be avoided
even by the most scrupulous cleanliness : but a person
who changes his linen after two or three days' wear is
very seldom annoyed by these vermin ; and when he is,
they are easily removed, not attaching themselves to the
skin : they are generally found in the linen. A house
may be kept almost clear of fleas by frequent washing
and sweeping ; and the flies may be kept out by placing
nets at the doors and windows : but it is impossible to

* Na'moo'tet'yeh. It is composed of muslin, or linen of an open
texture, or crape, and forms a close canopy,
t In the Introduction to this work.

DOMESTIC LIFE. 191

purify an Egyptian house from bugs, if it contain much
wood-work, which is generally the case.

The male servants* lead a very easy life, with the
xception of the satis, or groom, who, whenever his
master takes a ride, runs before or beside him ; and this
he will do in the hottest weather for hours together,
without appearing fatigued. Almost every wealthy per*
son in Cairo has a bov/watb 9 or door-keeper, always at
the door of his house, and several other male servants.
Most of these are natives of Egypt ; but many Nubians
are also employed as servants in Cairo and other Egyp-
tian towns. The latter are mostly bow'wa'bs, and are
generally esteemed more honest than the Egyptian
servants ; but I am inclined to think, from the opinion
of several of my friends, and from my own experience,
that they have acquired this reputation only by superior
cunning. The wages of the male servants are very
small, usually from one to two dollars (or from four to
eight shillings) per month : but they receive many pre-
sents. On the y eed (or festival) after Rum'ada'n, the
master generally gives, to each of his servants, part or
the whole of a new suit of clothes, consisting of an 'e/ee
(a blue shirt, which is their outer dress), a turboo'sh^
and a turban. Other articles of dress which they re-
quire during the year (excepting, sometimes, shoes) the
servants are obliged to provide for themselves. Besides
what their master gives them, they also receive small
presents of money from his visiters, and from the trades-
people with whom he deals ; particularly whenever he
has made any considerable purchase. They sleep in
the clothes which they wear during the day, each upon
a small mat ; and in winter they cover themselves with

* Khad'da'mec'n, singular khad'da'm.

L

192 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

a cloak* or blanket. In some respects, they are often
familiar in their manners to their master, even laughing
and joking with him : in others, they are very submis-
sive ; paying him the utmost honour, and bearing cor-
poral chastisement from his hand with child-like patience.

The male black slave f is treated with more consider-
ation than the free servant ; and leads a life well suited
to his lazy disposition. If discontented with his situa-
tion, he can legally compel his master to sell him.
Many of the slaves in Egypt wear the Turkish military
dress. "Diey are generally the greatest fanatics in the
East j and more accustomed than any other class to
insult the Christians and every people who are not of
the faith which they have themselves adopted without
knowing more of its doctrines than Arab children who
have been but a week at school.

An acquaintance with the modern inhabitants of
Egypt leads us often to compare their domestic habits
with those of Europeans in the middle ages ; and, per*
haps, in this comparison, the points of resemblance
which we observe, with regard to the men, are more
striking than the contrasts; but the reverse will be
found to be the case when we consider the state of the
females.

* See Exodus, xxii. 26, 27, t Called >abd.

«^wvwv**v*w^w^-**M^»*ma*n

193

Chapter VI.

Domestic Life— continued.

Quitting the lower apartments, where we have been
long detained, I must enter upon a more presumptuous
office than I have yet undertaken, which is that of a
guide to the Hhareelm: but first I must give some
account of marriage, and the marriage ceremonies.

To abstain from marrying when a man has attained
a sufficient age, and when there is no just impediment,
is esteemed, by the Egyptians, improper, and even
disreputable. For being myself guilty of this fault (to
use no harsher term), I have suffered much incon-
venience and discomfort during my stay in this country,
and endured many reproaches. During my former visit
to Egypt, having occasion to remove from a house which
I had occupied for some months in a great thoroughfare-
street in Cairo, I engaged another house, in a neigh-
bouring quarter : the lease was written, and some money
paid in advance ; but a day or two after, the agent of
the owner came to inform me that the inhabitants of
the quarter, who were mostly shereeffs (or descendants
of the Prophet), objected to my living among them,
because I was not married. He added, however, that
they would gladly admit me if I would even purchase a
female slave, which would exempt me from the oppro-
brium cast upon me by the want of a wife. I replied,
that, being merely a sojourner in Egypt, I did not like

l2

194 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

either to take a wife or female slave, whom I must soon
abandon: the money that I had paid was, therefore,
returned to me. In another quarter, I was less unfor-
tunate ; such heavy objections on account of my being
unmarried were not raised : I was only required to
promise that no persons wearing hats should come into
the quarter to visit me ; yet, after I had established my-
self in my new residence, the sheykh (or chief) of the
quarter often endeavoured to persuade me to marry.
All my arguments against doing so he deemed of no
weight. " You tell me,' 1 said he, " that in a year or
two you mean to leave this country: now, there is a
young widow, who, I am told, is handsome, living within
a few doors of you, who will be glad to become your
wife, even with the express understanding that you shall
divorce her when you quit this place ; though, of course,
you may do so before, if she should not please you."
This young damsel had several times contrived to let
me catch a glimpse of a pretty face, as I passed the
house in which she and her parents lived. What answer
could I return ? I replied, that I had actually, by acci-
dent, seen her face, and that she was the last woman I
should wish to marry, under such circumstances ; for I
was sure that I could never make up my mind to part
with her. But I found it rather difficult to silence my
officious friend. — It has been mentioned before, in the
Introduction, that an unmarried man, or one who has
not a female slave, is usually obliged to dwell in a
weka'leh, unless he have some near relation with whom
to reside ; but that Franks are now exempted from this
restriction.

The Egyptian females arrive at puberty much earlier
than the natives of colder climates. Many marry at

MARRIAGE. 195

the age of twelve or thirteen years ; and some remark-
ably precocious girls are married at the age of ten* :
but such occurrences are not common. Few remain
unmarried after sixteen years of age. An Egyptian
girl at the age of thirteen, or even earlier, may be a
mother. The women of Egypt are generally very pro*
Dfic ; but females of other countries residing here are
often childless ; and the children of foreigners, born in
Egypt, seldom live to a mature age, even when the
mother is a native. It was on this account that the
emancipated MemWks (or military slaves) usually
adopted MemWks.

It is very common among the Arabs of Egypt and of
other countries, but less so in Cairo than in other parts
of Egypt, for a man to marry his first cousin. In this
case, the husband and wife continue to call each other
" cousin ;" because the tie of blood is indissoluble ; but
that of matrimony, very precarious. A union of this
kind is generally lasting, on account of this tie of blood ;
and because mutual intercourse may have formed an
attachment between the parties in tender age ; though,
if they be of the higher or middle classes, the young
man is seldom allowed to see the face of his female
cousin, or even to meet and converse with her, after she
has arrived at or near the age of puberty, until she has
become his wife*

Marriages in Cairo are generally conducted, in the
case of a virgin, in the following manner; but in that
of a widow, or a divorced woman, with little ceremony.
Most commonly, the mother, or some other near female
relation, of the youth or man who is desirous of obtain-
ing a wife describes to him the personal and other
* They are often betrothed two or three or more yean earlier.

196 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

qualifications of the young women with whom she is
acquainted, and directs his choice * : or he employs a
khatVbeh) or khcltibeh; a woman whose regular busi-
ness is to assist men in such cases. Sometimes two or
more women of this profession are employed. A
kha't'beh gives her report confidentially, describing one
girl as being like a gazelle, pretty and elegant and
young; and another, as not pretty, but rich, and so
forth. If the man have a mother and other near female
relations, two or three of these usually go with a
kha't'beh to pay visits to several hharee'ms, to which she
has access in her professional character of a match*
maker ; lor she is employed as much by the women as
by the men. She sometimes also exercises the trade of
a dettdleh (or broker) for the sale of ornaments, cloth*
ing, &c, which procures her admission into almost every
hharee'm. The women who accompany her in search
of a wife for their relation are introduced to the different
hharee'ms merely as ordinary visiters ; and as such, if
disappointed, they soon take their leave, though the
object of their visit is of course understood by the other
party : but if they find among the females of a family
(and they are sure to see all who are marriageable) a
girl or young woman having the necessary personal
qualifications, they state the motive of their visit, and
ask, if the proposed match be not at once disapproved
of, what property, ornaments, &c, the object of their
wishes may possess. If the father of the intended bride
be dead, she may perhaps possess one or more houses,

* Abraham's sending a messenger to his own country to seek
a wife for his son Isaac '(see Genesis, xxiv.) was just such a mea-
sure as most modern Arabs would adopt under similar circum-
stances, if easily practicable.

MARRIAGE. 197

shops, &c. i and in almost every case, a mi
girl of the middle or higher ranks has a set of ornaments
of gold and jewels. The women-visiters, having asked
these and other questions, bring their report to the ex-
pectant youth or man. If satisfied with their report, ht
gives a present to the kha't'beh, and sends her again to
the family of his intended wife, to make known to them
his wishes. She generally gives an exaggerated descrip-
tion of his personal attractions, wealth, &c. For in-
stance, she will say, of a very ordinary young man, of
scarcely any property, and of whose disposition she
knows nothing, " My daughter, the youth who wishes
to marry you is young, graceful, elegant, beardless, has
plenty of money, dresses handsomely, is fond of delica-
cies, but cannot enjoy his luxuries alone ; he wants you
as his companion; he will give you everything that
money can procure ; he is a stayer-at-home, and will
spend his whole time with you, caressing and fondling

you."

The parents may betroth their daughter to whom
they please, and marry her to him without her consent,
if she be not arrived at the age of puberty ; but after
she has attained that age, she may choose a husband
for herself, and appoint any man to arrange and effect
her marriage, In the former case, however, the khat'beh
and the relations of a girl sought in marriage usually
endeavour to obtain her consent to the proposed union.
Very often, a father objects to giving a daughter in
marriage to a man who is not of the same profession or
trade as himself; and to marrying a younger daughter
before an elder*. The bridegroom can scarcely ever
obtain even a surreptitious glance at the features of his

«

* See Genene, xxi*., 26*

198 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

bride, until he finds her in his absolute possession, un-
less she belong to the lower classes of society ; in which,
case, it is easy enough for him to see her face.

When a female is about to marry, she should have a
icekeefl (or deputy) to settle the compact, and conclude
the contract, for her, with her proposed husband. If
she be under the age of puberty, this is absolutely neces-
sary ; and in this case, her father, if living, or (if he be
dead) her paternal grandfather, or a guardian appointed
by will, or by the Cka'dee, performs the office of wekee'l :
but if she be of age, she appoints her own wekee'l, or
may even make the contract herself ; though this is
seldom done.

After a youth or man has made choice of a female to
demand in marriage, on the report of his female rela-
tions, or that of the kha't'beh, and, by proxy, made the
preliminary arrangements before described with her and
her relations in the hharee'm, he repairs with two or
three of his friends to her wekee'l. Having obtained
the wekee'l's consent to the union, if the intended bride
be under age, he asks what is the amount of the re-
quired mahr (or dowry).

The giving of a dowry is indispensable, as I have
mentioned in a former chapter. It is generally calcu-
lated in riyafls, of ninety fud'dahs (now equivalent to
five pence and two fifths) each. The riya'l is an ima-
ginary money ; not a coin. The usual amount of the
dowry, if the parties be in possession of a moderately
good income, is about a thousand rivals (or twenty-two
pounds ten shillings) ; or, sometimes, not more than
half that sum. The wealthy calculate the dowry in
purses, of five hundred piasters (or, now, five pounds
sterling) each; and fix its amount at ten purses, or

MARRIAGE. 19&

more. It must be borne in mind that we are consider*
ing the case of a virgin-bride ; the dowry of a widow or
a divorced woman is much less. In settling the amount
of the dowry, as in other pecuniary transactions, a little
haggling frequently takes place : if a thousand riyals
be demanded through the wekee'l, the party of the in-
tended bridegroom will probably make an oner of six
hundred : the former party then gradually lowering the
demand, and the other increasing the offer, they at
length agree to fix it at eight hundred. It is generally
stipulated that two thirds of the dowry shall be paid
immediately before the marriage-contract is made ; and
the remaining third held in reserve, to be paid to the
wife in case of divorcing her against her own consent,
or in case of the husband's death.

This affair being settled, and confirmed by all persona
present reciting the opening chapter of the Ckoor-a'n
(the Fa't'hhah), an early day (perhaps the day next
following) is appointed for paying the money, and per*
forming the ceremony of the marriage-contract, which
is properly called 'ackd en-nikafhh*. The making this=
contract is commonly called ketb el-kitalb (or the writing
of the writ) ; but it is very seldom the case that any
document is written to confirm the marriage, unless the
bridegroom is about to travel to another place, and fears
that he may have occasion to prove his marriage where
witnesses of the contract cannot be procured. Some-
times the marriage-contract is concluded immediately
after the arrangement respecting the dowry, but more
generally a day or two after. On the day appointed

* It is a common belief in Egypt, that, if any one make a
tnarriage-contract in the month off Mohhar'ram, the marriage will
he unhappy, and soon dissolved : wherefore, few persons do so.

L 5

190 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

for this ceremony, the bridegroom, again accompanied
by two or three of his friends, goes to the house of the
bride, usually about noon, taking with him that portion
of the dowry which he has promised to pay on thm
occasion* He and his companions are received by the
bride's wekee'l; and two or more friends of the latter
are usually present. It is necessary that there be two
witnesses (and those must be MoWlims) to the mar-
riage-contract, unless in a situation where witnesses
cannot be procured. AH persons present recite the
FaVhhah; and the bridegroom then pays the money;
After this, the marriage-contract is performed. It is
very simple. The bridegroom and the bride's wekee'l
sit upon the ground, face to face, with one knee upon
the ground, and grasp each other's right hand, raising
the thumbs, and pressing them against each other. A
fick'ee* is generally employed to instruct them what
they are to say. Having placed a handkerchief over
their joined hands, he usually prefaces the words of the
contract with a hhoatbeh^ consisting of a few words of
exhortation and prayer, with quotations from the Ckoor-
a'n and Traditions, on the excellency and advantages of
marriage* He then desires the bride's wekee'l to say
" I betroth [or marry], to thee, my daughter [or the
female who has appointed me her wekee'l], such a one
[naming the bride], the virgin f [or the adult virgin],
for a dowry of such an amount" (The words " for a
dowry," &c., are sometimes omitted.) The bride's
wekee'l having said this, the bridegroom, prompted in
the same manner by the fick'ee, says " I accept from

* This appellation is commonly given to a schoolmaster,
f If the bride be not a virgin, a word importing *hl# is substi-
tuted; namely, tey'yib.

MARBIAGE. 201

thee her betrothal [or marriage] to myself and take
her under my care, and bind myself to afford her my
protection ; and ye who are present bear witness of this."
The wekee'l addresses the bridegroom in the same man-
ner a second and a third time ; and each time, the latter
replies as before* They then generally add, "And
blessing be on the Apostles, and praise be to God, the
Lord of all creatures, amen :" after which, all present
again repeat the Fa't'hhah. It is not always the same
form of khooifbeh that is recited on these occasions : any
form may be used; and it may be repeated by any
person : it is not even necessary ; and is often altogether
omitted. The contract concluded, the bridegroom some-
times (but seldom unless he be a person of the lower
orders) kisses the hands of his friends and others there
present; and they then remain to dinner* Each of
them receives an embroidered handkerchief provided by
the family of the bride ; excepting the hck'ee, who re-
ceives a similar handkerchief, with a small geM coin
tied up in it, from the bridegroom. Before the persons
assembled on this occasion disperse, they settle when
the " leyiet ed-dookh'leh" is to be : this is the night
when the bride is brought to the house of the bride-
groom, and the latter, for the first time, visits her.

In general, the bridegroom waits for his bride about
eight or ten days after the conclusion of the contract.
Meanwhile, he sends to her, two or three or more times,
seme fruit, sweetmeats, Ac.; and perhaps makes her a
present of a shawl, or some other 1 article of value. The
bride's family are at the same time occupied in prep ar ing
for her a stock of household furniture (as deewa'ns,
matting, carpets, bedding, kitchen-utensils, &c.) and
dress. The portion of the dowry which has been paid

202 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

by the bridegroom, and generally a much larger sum
(the additional money, which is often more than the
dowry itself, being supplied by the bride's family), is
expended in purchasing the articles of furniture, dress,
and ornaments, for the bride. These articles, which are
called gahafzy are the property of the bride; and if she
be divorced, she takes them away with her. She cannot,
therefore, with truth be said to be purchased *. The
furniture is sent, commonly borne by a train of camels,
to the bridegroom's house. Often, among the articles
of the gaha'z, is a chair for the turban or head-dress
(koor'see d^emcimeh)^ alluded to in a former page. It
is of a large size, but slight make ; the bottom and back
generally of cane-work; sometimes with a canopy. It
is never used to sit upon. The' turban, when placed
upon it, is covered with a napkin of thick silk stuff,
usually ornamented with gold thread. There are some-
times sent two of these chairs ; one for the husband, and
the other for the wife.

The bridegroom should receive his bride on the eve
of Friday, or that of Monday t ; but 'the former is

* Among the peasants, however, the, father, or nearest male
relation of the bride, receives the dowry, and gives nothing in
leturn but the girl, and sometimes a little corn, &c. The bride-
groom, in this case, supplies everything ; even the dress of the
bride*

f Burckhardt has erred in stating that Monday and Thursday
are the days on which the ceremonies immediately previous to the
marriage-night are performed : he should have said Sunday and
Thursday. He has also fallen into some other errors in the
account which he has given of the marriage ceremonies of the
Egyptians, in the illustrations of his "Arabic Proverbs" (pp. 112
—118). To mention this, I feel to be a duty to myself; but one
which I perform with reluctance, and not without the fear that

MARRIAGE.

generally esteemed the more fortunate period. Let us
say, for instance, that the bride is to be conductedjto
him on the eve of Friday. During two or three or more
preceding nights, the street or quarter in which the
bridegroom Uvea is illuminated with chandeliers and
lanterns, or with lanternsand small lamps, suspended

.Lantern, fcc. impended on the orauioa of ■ Wedding.

from cords drawn across from the bridegroom's and
several other bouses on each side to the houses opposite ;
and several small silk flags, each of two colours, generally

Bnrckhardt's just reputation for general accuracy may make my
reader think that he is right in these cases, and that 1 am wiong.
T write these words in Cairo, with his book before me, and after
sufficient experience and inquiries.

SM MODERN EGYPTIANS.

red and green, are attached to other coeds *« An enter-
tainment is also given on each of these nights? particu-
larly on the last night before that on which the wedding
is concluded, at the bridegroom's house. On these
occasions, it is customary for the persons invited, and
for all intimate friends, to send psesents to has house,
a day or two before the feast which they purpose or
expect to attend: they generally send sugar, coffee,
rice, wax candles, or a lamb : the former articles are
usually placed upon a tray of copper or wood, and covered
with a silk or embroidered kerchief. The guests are
entertained on these occasions by musicians and male or
female singers, by dancing girls, or by the performance
of a khudtnth or a zikr f.

In the houses of the wealthy, the kha/t'beh or
kha't'behs, together with the dafyeh (or midwife) of the
family, the bellclneh (or female attendant of the bath),
and the nurse of the bride, are each presented, a day or
two after the conclusion of the contract, with a piece of
gold stuff, a Kashmee'r shawl, or a piece of striped silk,
such as yel'eks and shintiya/ns are made of; and, plac-

* The lantern here represented, which is constructed of wood,
and painted green, red, white, and blue, is called toorei'ya (the
Arabic name of the Pleiades), and, together with the frame above,
from which six lamps are suspended, and which is termed kka'tim
Sookymd* (or Solomon's seal), composes what is called a hhem'i
cJkm f a f dtt / L

f These entertainments I do not here particularly describe, as
it is my intention to devote the whole of a subsequent chapter to
the subject of private festivities. The khut'tneh is the recitation
of the Ckoor-a'n ; and the zikr, the repetition of the name of God,
or of the profession of his unity, &c : I shall have occasion to
■peak of both more fully in another chapter, on the periodical
public festivals.

MARBIAGS. tM

ing these over the left shoulder, and attaching the edges
together en the right side, go upon asses, with two or
more men before them beating kettle-drams or tafcours,
to the houses of all the friends of the bride, to invite the
females to accompany her to and from the bath, and to
partake of an entertainment given on that occasion.
At every house where they call, they are treated with a
repast, having sent notice the day before of their in-
tended visit They are called moodnalt *. I have some-
times seen them walking, and without the drams before
them ; but making up for the want of these instruments
by shrill, quavering cries of joy, called zughfefraftf.

On the preceding Wednesday (or on the Saturday if
the wedding be to conclude on the eve of Monday), at
about the hour of noon, or a little later, the bride goes
instate to the bath J. The procession to the bath is
called zef'fet el-hhammcfm. It is headed by a party of
musicians with a hautboy, or two, and drums of different
kinds§. Frequently, as I have mentioned in a former
chapter, some person avails himself of this opportunity
to parade his young son previously to circumcision : the
child and his attendants, in this case, follow next after
the musicians, in the manner already described. Some-
times, at the head of the bride's party are two men who

* From the verb arfna, "fee brought," &c.

-t These cries of the women, which ase hewrd on Tariousoieca-
•ions of rejoicing in Egypt and other eastern countries, are pro-
duced by a sharp uttesance of the voice, accompanied by a quick,
tremulous motion of the tongue.

I I have'once seen this xef r feh, or procession, and a second
which will he described hereafter, go forth much later, and return
am hour after mraset*

v The music is generally of a very side kind ; and the airs
usually played are those of popular songs ; specimens of which
will he found in this work.

206 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

carry the utensils and linen used in the bath, upon twd
round trays, each of which is covered with an em-
broidered or a plain silk kerchief: also, a sack'cka, who
gives water to any of the passengers, if asked ; and two
other persons, one of whom bears a ckoomfckoom, or
bottle, of plain or gilt silver, or of china, containing rose*
water, or orange-flower-water, which he occasionally
sprinkles on the passengers ; and the other, a mil/khar'ah
(or perruming-vessel) of silver, with aloes-wood, or some
other odoriferous substance burning in it : but it is
seldom that the procession is thus attended. In gene*
ral, the first persons among the bride's party are several
of her married female relations and friends, walking in
pairs; and next, a number of young virgins. The
former are dressed in the usual manner, covered with
the black silk hhaVarah: the latter have white silk
hhat/arahs, or shawls. Then follows the bride, walking
under a canopy of silk, of some gay colour, as pink,
rose -colour, or yellow; or of two colours, composing
wide stripes, often rose-colour and yellow. It is carried
by four men, by means of a pole at each corner, and is
open only in front ; and at the top of each of the four
poles is attached an embroidered handkerchief. The
dress of the bride, during this procession, entirely con-
ceals her person. She is generally covered, from head
to foot, with a red Kashmee'r shawl ; or with a white or
yellow shawl, though rarely. Upon her head is placed
a small pasteboard cap, or crown. The shawl is placed
over this, and conceals from the view of the public the
richer articles of her dress, her face, and her jewels, &c,
excepting one or two ckoosfsahs* (and sometimes other
ornaments), generally of diamonds and emeralds, at-

* For a description of these ornaments, see the Appendix.

MARRIAGE. 207

tached to that part of the shawl which covers her fore-
head. She is accompanied by two or three of her female
relations within the canopy; and often, when in hot
weather, a woman, walking backwards before her, is
constantly employed in fanning her, with a large fan of
black ostrich-feathers, the lower part of the front of
which is usually ornamented with a piece of looking-
glass. Sometimes one zef 'feh, with a single canopy,
serves for two brides, who walk side by side. The pro-
cession moves very slowly: it is closed by a second
party of musicians, similar to the first, or by two or three
drummers.

In the bridal processions of the lower orders, which
are often conducted in the same manner as that above
described, the women of the party frequently utter, at
intervals, those shrill cries of joy called zugh'a'ree't,
which I have before had occasion to mention ; and
females of the poorer classes, when merely spectators of
a zef feh, often do the same.

The whole bath is sometimes hired for the bride and
her party exclusively. They pass several hours, or sel-
dom less than two, occupied in washing, sporting, and
feasting; and frequently 'A'Vmehs (or female singers)
are hired to amuse them in the bath : they then return
in the same order in which they came. The expense
of the zef feh falls on the relations of the bride ; but the
feast is supplied by the bridegroom.

Having returned from the bath to the house of hef
family, the bride and her companions sup together. If
'A'l'mehs have contributed to the festivity in the bath,
they, also, return with the bride, to renew their concert*
Their songs are always on the subject of love, and of
the joyous event which occasions their presence. After:

St* MODERN EGYPTIANS.

the company have been thus entertained, a large quan-
tity of hhen'na having 1 been prepared, mixed into a
paste, the bride takes a lump of it in her hand, and re-
ceive* contributions (called noocfux/t) from her guests:
each of them sticks a coin (usually of gold) in the
hhenfaa which she holds upon her hand ; and when the
lump is closely stuck with these coins, she scrapes it off
her hand upon the edge of a basin of water. Having
collected in this manner from all her guests, some more
hhen'na is applied to her hands and feet, which are
then bound with pieces of linen ; and in this state they
remain until the next morning, when they are found to
be sufficiently dyed with its deep orange-red tint. Her
guests make use of the remainder of the dye for their
own hands. This night is called Lei/ let eLHhenfna, or
« the Night of the Hhen'na."

It is on this night, and sometimes also during the
latter half of the preceding day, that the bridegroom
gives his chief entertainment. Mohhabbazeefn (or low
farce-players) often perform on this occasion before the
house, or, if it be large enough, in the court The other
and more common performances by which the guests
are amused have been before mentioned.

On the following day, the bride goes in procession to
the house of the bridegroom. The procession before-*
described is called " the aef feh of the bath " to dis-
tinguish it from this, which is the more important, and
which is therefore particularly called teffei eVarodseh^
or " the ssef feb of the bride." In some cases, to dimi-
nish the expenses of the marriage-ceremonies, the bride
is conducted privately to the bath, and only honoured
withazef'feh to the bridegroom's house. This pro-
cession is exactly similar to the former* The bride and

HARRIAOE. 20f

her party, after breakfasting together, generally set out
a little after midday. Tfcey proceed in die same order,
and at the same slow paoe,as in the aeffeh of the bath;
and, if the house of the bridegroom be near, they follow
a circuitous route, through several principal streets, for
the sake of display. The ceremony usually occupies
three or more hours.

Sometimes, before bridal processions of this kind,*two
swordsmen, dad in nothing hut their drawers, engage
each other in a moek combat ; or two felWmWn cudgel
each other with nebboo'ts, or long staves. In the pro-
cession of a bride of a wealthy family, any person who
has the art of performing some extraordinary feat to
amuse the spectators is almost sure of being a welcome
assistant, and of receiving a handsome present * When
the seyd 'Om'ar, the Nackee'b el-Ashra'f (or chief of the
descendants of the Prophet), who was the main instru-
ment of advancing Mohham'mad 'AFee to the dignity of
Ba/sha of Egypt, married a daughter, about twenty-
seven years since, there walked before the procession a
young man who had made an incision in his abdomen,
and drawn out a large portion of his intestines, which

• One of the most common of the feats witnessed on such
an occasion is the performance of a laborious task by a water-
earner, termed a ckei'yim, who, for the sake of a present, and this
empty title, carries a water-skin fitted with sand and water of
greater weight, and for a longer period, than any of his brethren
will venture to do 5 and this he must accomplish without ever
wttingdown, except in a crouching position, to rest. la the case
of a bndaljprocession which I lately witnessed, the ckei'yim be-
f! 11 ^ ^Z WS *?*•* a 8kin 0f 8and *** water weighing about

•hole n*bt, and the ensuing day, before and during the proces-
sion, and eonturoed to do so till sunset. *

210 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

he carried before him on a silver tray. After the pro-
cession, he restored them to their proper place, and re-
mained in bed many days before he recovered from the
effects of this foolish and disgusting act. Another man,
on the same occasion, ran a sword through his arm,
before the crowding spectators, and then bound, over
the wound, without withdrawing the sword, several
handkerchiefs, which were soaked with the blood.
These facts were described to me by an eyewitness. A
spectacle of a more singular and more disgusting nature
used to be not uncommon on similar occasions, but
is now very seldom witnessed*. Sometimes, also,
hhalwees (or conjurers and sleight-of-hand performers)
exhibit a variety of tricks on these occasions. But the
most common of all the performances here mentioned
are the mock fights. Similar exhibitions are also
sometimes witnessed on the occasion of a circumcision f.

The bride and her party, having arrived at the bride-
groom's house, sit down to a repast. Her friends,
shortly after, take their departure; leaving, with her*
only her mother and sister, or other near female rela-
tions, and one or two other women ; usually the bel-
la'neh. The ensuing night is called Lei/let ed-Dookh!-
leh, or " the Night of the Entrance."

The bridegroom sits below. Before sunset, he goes to
the bath, and there changes his clothes ; or he merely

* A correct description of this is given in Burckhardt's " Arabic
Proverbs," pp. 115, 116.

f Grand zef'fehs are sometimes accompanied by a number of
cars, each bearing a group of persons of some manufacture or
trade performing the usual work of their craft ; even such as
builders, white-washers, &c. ; including members of all, or almost
all, the arts and manufactures practised in the metropolis.

MAftRIAGE. 211

does the latter at home, and, after having supped with a
party of his friends, waits til! a little before the 'e»He (or
time of the night-prayer), or until the third or fourth
hour of the night, when, according to general custom,
he should repair to some celebrated mosque, such as
that of the Hhasaney'n, and there say his prayers. If
young, he is generally honoured with a zeffeh on this
occasion : he goes to the mosque preceded by musicians
with drums and one or more hautboys, and accom-
panied by a number of friends, and by several men bear-
ing mesh"aU. The mesh'al is a staff with a cylindri-
cal frame of iron at the top filled with flam ing wood, or
having two, three, four, or five of these receptacles for

212 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

fire. The party usually proceeds to the mosque with a
quick pace, and without much order. A second group
of musicians, with the same instruments, or with drums
only, closes the procession. The bridegroom is generally
dressed in a ckufta'n with red stripes, and a red git/beh,
with a Kashmee'r shawl of the same colour for his tur-
ban ; and walks between two friends similarly dressed.
The prayers are commonly performed merely as a mat-
ter of ceremony ; and it is frequently the case that the
bridegroom does not pray at all, or prays without haying
previously performed the woodoo', like mernkx/ks who
say their prayers only because they fear their master*.
The procession returns from the mosque with more
order and display, and very slowly ; perhaps because it
would be considered unbecoming in the bridegroom to
hasten home to take possession of his bride. It is
headed, as before, by musicians, and two or more bearers
of mesh"als. These are generally followed by two men,
bearing, by means of a pole resting horizontally upon
their shoulders, a hanging frame, to which are attached
about sixty or more small lamps, in four circles, one
above another ; the uppermost of which circles is made
to revolve ; being turned round occasionally by one of
the two bearers. These numerous lamps, and several
mesh"als beside those before-mentioned, brilliantly
illumine the streets through which the procession passes,
and produce a remarkably picturesque effect. The
bridegroom and his friends and other attendants follow,
advancing in the form of an oblong ring, all facing the
interior of the ring, and each bearing in his hand one or
more wax candles, and sometimes a sprig of hhen'na or

• Hence, this kind of prayer is called sal' ah mcm'a'ice'kee'yeh,
or u the prayer of memloo'ks."

MARRIAGE. 219

some other flower, excepting the bridegroom and the
friend on either side of him. These three form the
latter part of the ring, which generally consists of twenty
or more persons. At frequent intervals, the party stops
for a few minutes ; and during each of these pauses, a
boy or man, one of the persons who compose the ring,
sings a few words of an epithalamium. The sounds of
the drums, and the shrill notes of the hautboy (which
the bride hears half an hour or more before the proces-
sion arrives at the house), cease during these songs.
The train is closed, as in the former case, by a second
group of musicians.

In the manner above described, the bridegroom's
zeffeh is most commonly conducted; but there is
another mode, that is more respectable, called zef'feh
sal da! tee, which signifies " the gentlemen's zef 'feb." In
this, the bridegroom is accompanied by his friends in
the same manner as before related, and attended and
preceded by men bearing mesh"als, but not by musi-
cians : in the place of these are about six or eight men,
who, from their being employed as singers on occasions
of this kind, are called tvilafd el-laya f lee, or " sons of the
nights." Thus attended, he goes to the mosque ; and
while he returns slowly thence to his house, the singers
above mentioned chant, or rather sing, moowesht shahhs
(or lyric odes) in praise of the Prophet. Having re-
turned to the house, these same persons chant portions
of the Ckoor-a'n, one after another, for the amusement
of the guests ; then, altogether, recite the opening chap-
ter (the Fa't'hhah) ; after which, one of them sings a
ckaseedeh (or short poem) in praise of the Prophet :
lastly, all of them again sing moowesh'shahhs. After
having thus performed, they receive noockodt (or con*

M 2

214 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

tributions of money) from the bridegroom and his
friends.

Soon after his return from the mosque, the bride-
groom leaves his friends in a lower apartment, enjoy-
ing their pipes and coffee and sherbet. The bride's
mother and sister, or whatever other female relations
were left with her, are above ; and the bride herself, and
the bella'neh, in a separate apartment. If the bride-
groom be a youth or young man, it is considered proper
that he, as well as the bride, should. exhibit some degree-
of bashfulness : one of his friends, therefore, carries him
a part of the way up to the hharee'm. On entering the
brides apartment, he gives a present to the bella'neh,
and she retires. The bride has a shawl thrown over
her head ; and the bridegroom must give her a present
of money, which is called " the price of the uncovering
of the face *," before he attempts to remove this, which
she does not allow him to do without some apparent re-
luctance, if not violent resistance, in order to show her
maiden modesty. On removing the covering, he says
" In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful,"
and then greets her with this compliment : 4< The night
be blessed,*' or " — is blessed:" to which, she replies,
if timidity do not choke her utterance* "God bless
thee/' The bridegroom now sees the face of his bride
for the first time, and generally finds her nearly what
he has been led to expect. Often, but not always, a
curious ceremony is then performed. The bridegroom
takes off every article of the bride's clothing except-
ing her shirt ; seats her upon a mattress or bed, the
head of which is turned towards the direction of

* Hhack'ck keshf el-wish' sh. With'sh is a vulgar corruption of
wgh, or wejh.

MARRIAGE. 215

Mek'keh, placing her so that her back is also turned
in that direction ; and draws forward, and spreads upon
the bed, the lower part of the front of her shirt : having
done this, he stands at the distance of rather less than a
yard before her, and performs the prayers of two rek"ahs ;
laying his head and hands, in prostration, upon the part
of her shirt that is extended before her lap. Here-
mains with her but a few minutes longer*: having
satisfied his curiosity respecting her personal charms, he
calls to the women (who generally collect at the door,
where they wait in anxious suspense) to raise their cries
°f j°yi or zugh'a'ree't ; and the shrill sounds acquaint
the persons below and in the neighbourhood, and often,
responded by other women, spread still further the news,
that he has acknowledged himself satisfied with his
bride : he soon after descends to rejoin his friends, and
remains with them an hour, or more, before he returns
to his wife. It very seldom happens that the husband,
if disappointed in his bride, immediately disgraces and
divorces her : in general, he retains her, in this case, a
week or more.

Having now described the most usual manner in
which the marriages of virgin-brides are conducted in
Cairo, I may add a few words on some of the ceremonies
observed in other cases of matrimony, both of virgins
and of widows or divorced women.

The daughters of the great, generally having baths in
their own houses, seldom go to the public bath pre-
viously to marriage. A bride of a wealthy family, and

* I beg to refer the reader, if he desire further details on this
subject, to page 117 of Burckhardt's "Arabic Proverbs." His
account might have been more complete ; but he seems to have
studied to be particularly concise in this case.

*1<> MODERN EGYPTIANS.

her female relations and friends, if there be not a bath
in her house, go to the public bath, which is hired for
them exclusively, and to the bridegroom's house, without
music or canopy, mounted on asses : the bride herself
generally wearing a Kashmee'r shawl, in the manner of
a hhab'arah. If the bridegroom or the bride's family
have eunuchs, these ride before the bride ; and some-
times a man runs at the head of the procession, crying
" Bless ye the Prophet* !" This man, on entering the
house, throws down, upon the threshold, some leaves of
the white bete (aulck), over which the ladies ride. The
object of this act is to propitiate fortune. The same
man then exclaims "Assistance from God, and a
speedy victory -fl'*

Marriages, among the Egyptians, are sometimes con-
ducted without any pomp or ceremony even in the case
of virgins, by mutual consent of the bridegroom and the
bride's family, or the bride herself; and widows and
divorced women are never honoured with a zef 'feh on
marrying again. The mere sentence " I give myself up
to thee % " uttered by a female to a man who proposes
to become her husband (even without the presence of
witnesses, if none can be easily procured) render her his
legal wife, if arrived at puberty; and marriages with
widows and divorced women, among the Moos'lims of
Egypt, and other Arabs, are sometimes concluded in
this ample manner. The dowry of such women is
generally one quarter or third or half the amount of that
of a virgin.

In Cairo, among persons not of the lowest order,

* Sal'loo *ar-n-neb'ee. $ A-n-neb f ee is a vulgar contraction of
Wa-n-nel/ee.

f Ckoor-a'n, chap. lxi. ver. 13. J Wahetftoo lak wtftee.

MARRIAGE. 217

though in Tery humble life, the marriage -ceremonies are
conducted in the same manner a£ among the middle
orders. But when the expenses of such zef 'fehs as I
have described cannot by any means be paid, the bride
is paraded in a very simple manner, covered with a shawl
(generally red), and surrounded by a group of her fe-
male relations and friends, dressed in their best, or in
borrowed clothes, and enlivened by no other sounds of
joy than their zugh'a'ree't, which they repeat at frequent
intervals.

The general mode of zef 'feh among the inhabitants
of the villages is different from those above-described.
The bride, usually covered with a shawl, is seated on a
camel ; and so conveyed to the bridegroom's dwelling.
Sometimes four or five women or girls sit with her, on
the same camel ; one on either side of her, and two or
three others behind : the seat being made very wide,
and usually covered with carpets or other drapery. She
is followed by a group of women singing. In the
evening of the wedding, and often during several pre-
vious evenings, in a village, the male and female friends
of the two parties meet at the bridegroom's house, and
pass several hours of the night, in the open air, amusing
themselves with songs and a rude kind of dance, accom-
panied by the sounds of a tambourine or some kind of
drum : both sexes sing; but only the women dance. I
have introduced here these few words on the marriage-
ceremonies of the peasantry to avoid scattering notes on
subjects of the same nature. I now revert to the cus-
toms of the people of Cairo.

On the morning after the marriage, khou/al** or

* A khow'al is also called gha'ith, y\um\gheeya'*h.

218 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

gJia'zetfyehs (dancing men or girls) perform in the street
before the bridegroom's house, or in the court*. On
the same morning also, if the bridegroom be a young
man, the person who carried him up- stairs generally
takes him and several friends to an entertainment in the
country, where they spend the whole day. This cere-
mony is called el-hoorodbeh, or the flight. Sometimes
the bridegroom himself makes the arrangements for it ;
and pays part of the expenses, if they exceed the amount
of the contributions of his friends ; for they giv
noockoo't on this occasion. Musicians and dancing-
girls are often hired to attend the entertainment. If
the bridegroom be a person of the lower orders, he is
conducted back in procession, preceded by three or four
musicians with drums and hautboys ; his friends and
other attendants carrying each a nosegay, as in the
zef 'feh of the preceding night ; and if their return be
after sunset, they are accompanied* by men bearing
mesh"als, lamps, &c. ; and the friends of the bridegroom
carry lighted wax candles, besides the nosegays f- Sub-

* This performance is called the bride's sub'a'hJiee'ych.

f Among the peasants of Upper Egypt, the relations and ac-
quaintances of the bridegroom and bride meet together on the day
after the marriage ; and while a number of the men clap their
hands, as an accompaniment to a tambourine, or two, and any
other instruments that can be procured, the bride dances before
them for a short time. She has a head-veil reaching to her heel?,
and a printed cotton handkerchief completely covering her face,
and wears, externally, the most remarkable of her bridal garments
(mentioned by Burckhardt, in the place before referred to, and,
jn some parts of Epypt, hung over the door of a peasant's house
after marriage). Other women, similarly veiled, and dressed in their
best, or borrowed, clothes, continue the dance about two hours, or
more.

MAURI AGE. 219

sequent festivities occasioned by marriage will be de-
scribed in a later chapter.

The husband, if he can conveniently so arrange,
generally prefers that his mother should reside with him
and his wife ; that she may protect his wife's honour,
and consequently his own also. It is said that the
mother-in-law is, for this reason, called hhamfah*.
The women of Egypt are said to be generally prone to
criminal intrigues; and T fear that, in this respect, they
are not unjustly accused. Sometimes a husband keeps
his wife in the house of her mother, and pays the daily
expenses of both. This ought to make the mother very
careful with regard to expenditure, and strict as to her
daughter's, conduct, lest the latter should be divorced ;
but it is said, that, in this case, she often acts as her
daughter's procuress, and teaches her innumerable tricks,,
by which to gain the upper hand over her husband, and
to drain his purse. The influence of the wife's mother
is also scarcely less feared when she only enjoys occa-
sional opportunities of seeing her daughter : hence it is
held more prudent for a man to marry a female who
has neither mother nor any near relations of her own
sex ; and some wives are even prohibited receiving any
female friends but those who are relations of the hus-
band : they are very few, however, upon whom such
severe restrictions are imposed.

For a person who has become familiar with male
Moos'lim society in Cairo, without marrying, it is not
so difficult as might be imagined by a stranger to obtain,
directly and indirectly, correct and ample information
respecting the condition and habits of the women.

* Thus commonly pronounced, for hhama'h, a word derived from
the verb hham'a, " he protected, or guarded."

H 5

220 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Many husbands of the middle classes, and some of the
higher orders, freely talk of the affairs of the hharee'm
with one who professes to agree with diem in their
general moral sentiments, if they have not to converse
through the medium of an interpreter.

Though the women have a particular portion of the
house allotted to them, the wives, in general, are not to
be regarded as prisoners ; for they are usually at liberty
to go out and pay visits, as well as to receive female
visiters, almost as often as they please. The slaves,
indeed, being subservient to the wives, as well as to their
master, or, if subject to the master only, being under
an authority almost unlimited, have not that liberty.
One of the chief objects of the master in appropriating
a distinct suite of apartments to his women, is to pre-
vent their being seen by the male domestics and other
men without being covered in the manner prescribed by
their religion. The following words of the Ckoor-a'n
show the necessity under which a Mohhammadan wo-
man is placed of concealing whatever is attractive in her
person or attire from all men, excepting certain relations
and some other persons. " And speak unto the believ-
ing women, that they restrain their eyes, and preserve
their modesty, and discover not their ornaments, except
what [necessarily] appeareth thereof: and let them
throw their veils over their bosoms, and not show their
ornaments, unless to their husbands, or their fathers, or
their husbands' fathers, or their sons, or their husbands'
sons, or their brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their
sisters' sons, or their women, or those [captives] which
.their right hands shall possess, or unto such men as
attend [them] and have no need [of women], or unto
children :" " and let them not make a noise with their

THE HBAKEE'm. 2S1

feet* that their ornaments which they hide may [thereby]
be discovered*." The last passage alludes to the prac-
tice of knocking together the anklets which the Arab
women in the time of the Prophet used to wear ; and
which are still worn by many women in Egypt.

I must here transcribe two notes of an eminent
Egyptian commentator on the Ckoor-s/n, in illustration
of the above extract, and inserted in Sale's translation.
This I do, because they would convey an erroneous idea
of modern customs with regard to the admission, or
non-admission, of certain persons into the hharee'm.
The first is on the above words " or their women,"
which it thus explains — " That is, such as are of the
Mohhammadan religion: it being reckoned by some
unlawful, or, at least, indecent, for a woman who is a
true believer, to uncover herself before one who is an
infidel; because the latter will hardly refrain from de-
scribing her to the men : but others suppose all women
in general are here excepted; for, in this particular,
doctors differ." In Egypt, and I believe in every other
Mohhammadan country, it is not now considered im-
proper for any woman, whether independent, or a
servant, or a slave, a Christian, a Jewess, a Moos'lim'eh,
or a pagan, to enter a Moos'lim's hharee'm. — The second
of the notes above alluded to is on the words " or those
captives;" and is as follows. "Slaves of either sex are
included in this exception, and, as some think, domestic
servants who are not slaves, as those of a different nation.
It is related that Mohham*mad once made a present of
a man-slave to his daughter Fa'timeh; and when he
brought him to her, she had on a garment which was so

* Chap, xxiv., yer. 31.

222 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

scanty, that she was obliged to leave either her head or
her feet uncovered : and that the Prophet, seeing her in
great confusion on that account, told her, she need be
under no concern, for that there was none present but
her father and her slave." Among the Arabs of the
Desert this may still he the case ; but in Egypt I have
never heard of an instance of an adult male slave being
allowed to see the hharee'm of a respectable man, whe-
ther he belonged to that hharee'm or not; and am
assured that it is never permitted. Perhaps the reason
why the man-slave of a woman is allowed this privilege
by the Ckoor-a'n is, because she cannot become his law-
ful wife as long as he continues her slave : but this is a
poor reason for granting him access to the hharee'm, in
such a state of society. It is remarkable that, in the
Terse of the Ckoor-a'n above quoted, uncles are not
mentioned as privileged to see their nieces unveiled:
some think that they are not admissible, and for this
reason, lest they should describe the persons of their
nieces to their sons ; for it is regarded as highly impro-
per for a man to describe the features or person of a
female (as to say, that she has large eyes, a straight
nose, small mouth, &c.) to one of his own sex by whom
it is unlawful L for her to be seen, though it is not con-
sidered indecorous to describe her in general terms, as,
for instance, to say " she is a sweet girl, and set off with
kohhl and hhen'na."

It may be mentioned here, as a general rule, that a
man is allowed to see unveiled only his own wives and
female slaves, and those females whom he is prohibited,
by law, from marrying, on account of their being within
certain degrees of consanguinity or family connexion, or
having given him suck, or having been suckled by the

THE HUAREe'm. 223

same nurse as himself*. The high antiquity of the
veil has belli alluded to in the first chapter of this work.
It has also been mentioned, that it is considered Jm ore
necessary, in Egypt, for a woman to cover the upper
and back part of her head than her face ; and more
requisite for her to conceal her face than most other
parts of her person : for instance, a female who cannot
be persuaded to unveil her face in the presence of men,
will think it but little shame to display the whole of her
bosom, or the greater part of her leg. There are, it is
true, many women among the lower classes in this
country who constantly appear in public with unveiled
face ; but they are almost constrained to do so by tiie
want of a boor'cko' (or face-veil), and the difficulty of
adjusting the Wuhan (or head- veil), of which scarcely
any woman is destitute, so as to supply the place of the
former ; particularly when both their hands are occupied
in holding some burden which they are carrying upon
the head. When a respectable woman is, by any chance,
seen with her head or face uncovered, by a man who is
not entitled to enjoy that privilege, she^ quickly assumes
or adjusts her tar'hhah, and often exclaims " O my mis-
fortune f •" or " O my sorrow J !" Motives of coquetry,
however, frequently induce an Egyptian woman to ex-
pose her face before a man when she thinks that she
may appear to do so unintentionally, or that she may be
supposed not to see him. A man may also occasionally
enjoy opportunities of seeing the face of an Egyptian
lady when she really thinks herself unobserved ; some-

* See the chapter on Religion and Laws. Eunuchs are allowed
to see the face of any woman : so, also, are young boys,
f IV dahh'wet'ee, for da'atoet'ee,
% Yol neda'm'lee, for nedu'metce. „

*24 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

times at an open lattice, and sometimes on a house-top.
Many small booses in Cairo have no apartment on
the ground-floor for the reception of male visiters,
who therefore ascend to an upper room ; but as they
go up stairs, they exclaim, several times, " d&todr!*
(" permission \"\ or " yel Saftir /" ( tt O Protec-
tor!" that is "O protecting God!"), or use some
similar ejaculation, in order to warn any woman who
may happen to be in the way, to retire, or to veil
herself; which she does by drawing a part of her tar f -
hhah before her face, so as to leave, at most, only one
eye visible. To such an absurd pitch do the Moos'lims
carry their feeling of the sacredness of women, that
entrance into the tombs of some females is denied to
men ; as, for instance, the tombs of the Prophet's wives
and other females of his family, in the burial-ground of
El-Medee'neh ; into which women are freely admitted :
and a man and woman they never bury in the same
vault, unless a wall separate the bodies. Yet there are,
among the Egyptians, a few persons who are much less
particular in this respect: such is one of my Aloos'lim
friends here, who generally allows me to see his mother
when I call upon him. She is a widow, of about fifty
years of age; but, being very fat, and not looking so
old, she calls herself forty. She usually comes to the
door of the apartment of the hharee'm in which I am
received (there being no lower apartment in the house
for male visiters), and sits there upon the floor, but will
never enter the room. Occasionally, and as if by acci-
dent, she shows me the whole of her face, with plenty
of kohhl round her eyes ; and does not attempt to con-
ceal her diamonds, emeralds, and other ornaments ; but
rather the reverse. The wife, however, I am never

THE HHAREEfM. £21

permitted to see; though once I was allowed to talk to
her, in the presence of her husband, round the corner of
a. passage at the top of the stairs.

I believe \that, in Egypt, the women are generally
under less restraint than in any other country of the
Turkish Empire ; so that it is not uncommon to see
females of the lower orders flirting and jesting with men
in public, and men laying their hands upon them very
freely. Still it might be imagined, that the women of
the higher and middle classes feel themselves severely
oppressed, and are much discontented with the state of
seclusion to which they are subjected : but this is not
commonly the case ; on the contrary, an Egyptian wife
who is attached to her husband is apt to think, if he
allow her unusual liberty, that he neglects her, and does
not sufficiently love her ; and to envy those wives who
are kept and watched with greater strictness.

It is not very common for an Egyptian to have more
than one wife, or a concubine slave; though the law
allows him four wives (as I have before stated), and,
according to the opinion of some, as many concubine
slaves as he may choose. But, though a man restrict
himself to a single wife, he may change as often as he
desires; and there are certainly not many persons in
Cairo who have not divorced one wife, if they have been
long married. The husband may, whenever he pleases,
say to his wife "Thou art divorced*:" if it be his wish,
whether reasonable or not, she must return to her parents
or friends. This liability to an unmerited divorcement
is the source of more uneasiness to many wives than all
the other troubles to which they are exposed ; as they
may thereby be reduced to a state of great destitution :

* En! tec tdlkkah.

226 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

but to others, who hope to better their condition, it is,
of course, exactly the reverse. I have mentioned, in a
former chapter *, that a man may divorce his wife twice,
and each time receive her again without any ceremony ;
but that he cannot legally take her again after a third
divorce until she has been married and divorced by
another man. The consequences of a triple divorce
conveyed in one sentencef are the same, unless the
man and his wife agree to infringe the law, or the for-
mer deny his having pronounced the sentence; in
which latter case, the woman may have much difficulty
to enforce his compliance with the law, if she be inclined
to do so.

In illustration of this subject, I may mention a case
in which an acquaintance of mine was concerned as a
witness of the sentence of divorce. He was sitting in
a coffee-shop with two other men, one of whom had just
been irritated by something that his wife had said or
done. After a short conversation upon this affair, the
angry husband sent for his wife, and, as soon as she
came, said to her "Thou art trebly divorced:" then,
addressing his two companions, he added "You, my
brothers, are witnesses." Shortly after, however, he
repented of this act, and wished to take back his
divorced wife; but she refused to return to him, and
appealed to the Shar'ti Al'lah (or Law of God). The
case was tried at the M ahh'kem'eh. The woman, who
was the plaintiff, stated that the defendant was her
husband; that he had pronounced against her the
sentence of a triple divorce ; and that he now wished
her to return to him, and live with him as his wife, con-
trary to the law, and consequently in a state of sin. The

* On the Religion and Laws. f Enftee ta'lickah bi-Hcla'tth.

THE HHAREE'M. 227

•

defendant denied that he had divorced her. " Have
you witnesses ?" said the judge to the plaintiff. She
answered, " I have here two witnesses." These were
the men who were present in the coffee -shop when the
sentence of divorce was pronounced. They were desired
to give their evidence ; and stated that the defendant
divorced his wife, by a triple sentence, in their presence.
The defendant averred that she whom he divorced in
the coffee-shop was another wife of his. The plaintiff
declared that he had no other wife ; but the judge ob-
served to her that it was impossible she could know
that ; and asked the witnesses what was the name of the
woman whom the defendant divorced in their presence ?
They answered that they were ignorant of her name.
They were then asked if they could swear that the plain-
tiff was the woman who was divorced before them ?
Their reply was, that they could not swear to a woman
whom they had never seen unveiled. Under these cir-
cumstances, the judge thought it right to dismiss the
case ; and the woman was obliged to return to her
husband. She might have demanded that he should
produce the woman whom he professed to have divorced
in the coffee-shop; but he would easily have found a
woman to play the part he required ; as it would not
have been necessary for her to show a marriage-certifi-
cate ; marriages being almost always performed in Egypt
without any written contract, and sometimes even with-
out witnesses.

It not unfrequently happens, that, when a man who
has divorced his wile the third time wishes to take her
again (she herself consenting to their reunion, and there
being no witnesses to the sentence of divorce), he does
so without conforming with the offensive law before-

228 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

mentioned. It is also a common custom for a man
under similar circumstances to employ a person to marry
the divorced woman on the condition of his resigning
her, the day after their union, to him, her former hus-
band, whose wife she again becomes, by a second con-
tract ; though this is plainly contrary to the spirit of the
law. A poor man (generally a very ugly person, and
often one who is blind) is usually chosen to perform
this office. He is termed a Moostahhill, or MohhatliU
It is often the case that the man thus employed is so
pleased with the beauty of the woman to whom he is
introduced on these terms, or with her riches, that he
refuses to give her up ; and the law cannot compel him
to divorce her, unless he act unjustly towards her as her
husband ; which of course he takes good care not to do.
But a person may employ a moostahhiFl without run-
ning this risk. It is the custom of many wealthy Turks,

*

and of some of the people of Egypt, to make use of a
slave, generally a black, their own property, to officiate
in this character. Sometimes, a slave is purchased for
this purpose ; or if the person who requires him for such
a service be acquainted with a slave-dealer, he asks from
the latter a present of a slave ; signifying that he will
give him back again. The uglier the slave, the better.
The Turks generally choose one not arrived at puberty;
which the tenets of their sect allow. As soon as the
woman has accomplished her 'edfdeh (or the period
during which she is obliged to wait before she caa
marry again), the husband who divorced her, having
previously obtained her consent to what he is about to
do, introduces the slave to her, and asks her if she will
be married to him. She replies that she will. She is
accordingly wedded to the slave, in the presence of wit-

THE HHAREE/m. 22*

nesses ; and a dowry is given to her, to make the mar-
riage perfectly legal. The slave consummates the mar-
riage ; and thus becomes the woman's legitimate hus-
band. Immediately after, or on the following morning,
her former husband presents this slave to her as her own
property, and the moment that she accepts him, her
marriage with him becomes dissolved ; for it is unlaw-
ful for a woman to be the wife of her own slave ; though
she may emancipate a slave, and then marry him. As
soon as her marriage is dissolved by her accepting the
gift of the slave, she may give back this slave to her
husband: but it seldom happens that the latter will
allow a person who has been a moostahhiPl for him to
remain in his house. The wife, after this proceeding,
may, as soon as she has again accomplished her 'edMeh,
become reunited to her former husband, after having
been separated from him, by the necessity of her ful-
filling two 'ed'dehs, about half a year, or perhaps more.
The depraving effects of this facility of divorce upon
both sexes may be easily imagined. There are many
men in this country who, in the course of ten years,
have married as many as twenty, thirty, or more wives ;
and women not far advanced in age who have been
wives to a dozen or more men successively. I have
heard of men who have been in the habit of marrying a
new wife almost every month. A person may do this
though possessed of very little property : he may choose,
from among the females of the lower orders in the
streets of Cairo, a handsome young widow or divorced
woman who will consent to become his wife for a dowry
of about ten shillings; and when he divorces her, he
need not give her more than double that sum to main-
tain her during her ensuing 'edMeh. It is but just,

230 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

however, to add, that such conduct is generally regarded
as very disgraceful; and that few parents in the middle
or higher classes will give a daughter in marriage to a
man who has divorced many wives.

Polygamy, which is also attended with very injurious
effects upon the morals of the husband and the wives, is
more rare among the higher and middle classes than
it is among the lower orders ; and it is not very com-
mon among the latter. A poor man may indulge him-
self with two or more wives, each of whom may be able,
by some art or occupation, nearly to provide her own
subsistence ; but most persons of the middle and higher
orders are deterred from doing so by the consideration
of the expense and discomfort which they would incur.
A man having a wife who has the misfortune to be
barren, and being too much attached to her to divorce
her, is sometimes induced to take a second wife, merely
in the hope of obtaining offspring ; and from the same
motive, he may take a third, and a fourth ; but fickle
passion is the most evident and common motive both to
polygamy and repeated divorces. They are compara-
tively very few who gratify this passion by the former
practice. I believe not more than one husband among
twenty has two wives.

When there are two or more wives belonging to one
man, the first (that is, the one first married) generally en-
joys the highest rank ; and is called " the great lady *."
Hence it often happens that, when a man who has already
one wife wishes to marry another girl or woman, the father
of the latter, or the female herself who is sought in
marriage, will not consent to the union unless the first
wife be previously divorced. The women, of course, do

* Et-sitt el-ketxc'reh.

THE HHAREE'M. 231

not approve of a man's marrying more than one wife.
Most men of wealth, or of moderate circumstances, and
even many men of the lower orders, if they have two or
more wives, have, for each, a separate house. The wife
has, or can oblige her husband to give her, a particular
description of lodging*, which is either a separate
house, or a suite of apartments (consisting of a room in
which to sleep and pass the day, a kitchen, and a latrina)
that are, or may be made, separate and shut out from
any other apartments in the same house. A fellow-wife
is called doo^rahf. The quarrels of dooi/rahs are
often talked of : for it may be naturally inferred, that,
when two wives share the affection and attentions of
the same man, they are not always on terms of amity
with each other ; and the same is generally the case
with a wife and a concubine slave living in the same
house, and under similar circumstances J. If the chief
lady be barren, and an inferior, either wife or slave,
bear a child to her husband or master, it commonly re-
sults that the latter woman becomes a favourite of the
man, and that the chief wife or mistress is " despised in
her eyes," as Abraham's wife was in the eyes of Hagar
on the same account §. It therefore not very unfre-
quently happens that the first wife loses her rank and
privileges ; another becomes the chief lady, and, being
the favourite of her husband, is treated by her rival or
rivals, and by all the members and visiters of the

* Called mes'kin thar^ee.

f Commonly thus pronounced, for dur'rah ; originally, perhaps,
by way of a pun ; as door 1 rah is a common name for a parrot,

I The law enjoins a husband who has two or more wives to be
strictly impartial to them in every respect ; but compliance with
its dictates, in this matter, is rare.

§ See Genesis, xvL 4.

232 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

hharee'm, with the same degree of outward respect which
the first wife previously enjoyed: but sometimes the
poisoned cup is employed to remove her* A preference
given to a second wife is often the cause of the first's
being registered as nctshizeh*, either on her husband's
or her own application at the Mahh'kem'eh. Tet many
instances are known of neglected wives behaving with
exemplary and unfeigned submission to their husband,
in such cases, and with amiable good nature towards the
favourite f.

Some wives have female slaves who are their own
property, generally purchased for them, or presented to
them, before marriage. These cannot be the husband's
concubines without their mistress's permission, which is
sometimes granted (as it was in the case of Hagar,
Sarah's bondwoman); but very seldom. Often, the
wife will not even allow her female slave or slaves to
appear unveiled in the presence of her husband. Should
such a slave, without the permission of her mistress, be*
come the concubine of the husband, and bear him a
child, the child is a slave, unless, prior to its birth, the
mother be sold, or presented, to the father.

The white female slaves are mostly in the possession
of wealthy Turks. The concubine slaves in the houses
of Egyptians of the higher and middle classes are, gene-

* This has been explained in the 3d chapter.

f In general, the most beautiful of a man's wives or slaves is,
of course, for a time, his greatest favourite ; but in many (if not
most) cases, the lasting favourite is not the most handsome* The
love of a Mooslim, therefore, is not always merely sensual ; nor
does the relative condition and comfort of his wife, or of each of
his wives, invariably depend so much on his caprice, or her own
personal charms, as on her general conduct and disposition.

THE HHAREE'M. 233

rally, Abyssinians, of a deep brown or bronze com-
plexion. In their features as well as their complexions
they appear an intermediate race between the negroes
and white people : but the difference between them and
either of the above-mentioned races is considerable.
They themselves, however, think that they differ so little
from the white people, that they cannot be persuaded to
act as servants, with due obedience, to their master's
wives ; and the black (or negro) slave-girl feels exactly
in the same manner towards the Abyssinian; but is
perfectly willing to serve the white ladies. I should
here mention, that the slaves who are termed Abys-
sinians are not from the country properly called Abys-
sinia, but from the neighbouring territories of the Gallas.
Most of them are handsome. The average price of one
of these girls is from ten to fifteen pounds sterling, if
moderately handsome ; but this is only about half the
sum that used to be given for one a few years ago.
They are much esteemed by the voluptuaries of Egypt*;
but are of delicate constitution : many of them die, in
this country, of consumption. The price of a white
slave-girl is usually from treble to tenfold that of an
Abyssinian ; and the price of a black girl, about half or
two thirds, or considerably more if well instructed in the
art of cookery. The black slaves are generally em-
ployed as menials*.

Almost all of the slaves become converts to the Mo-
hhammadan faith ; but, in general, they are little in-
structed in the rites of their new religion ; and still less
in its doctrines. Most of the white female slaves who

* The white female slave is called Ga'riyeh Bey' da; the
Abyssinian, Qofriyth Hhabathee'yeh ; and the black, Ga'riyeh
So* da.

234 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

were in Egypt during my former visit to this country
were Greeks ; vast numbers of that unfortunate people
having been made prisoners by the Turkish and Egyptian
army under Ibrahee'm Ba'sha; and many of them,
males and females, including even infants scarcely able
to walk, sent to Egypt to be sold. Latterly, from the
impoverishment of the higher classes in this country,
the demand for white slaves has been small. A few,
some of whom undergo a kind of preparatory education
(being instructed in music or other accomplishments, at
Constantinople), are brought from Chercassia and
Georgia. The white slaves, being often the only female
companions, and sometimes the wives, of the Turkish
grandees, and being generally preferred by them before
the free ladies of Egypt, hold a higher rank than the
latter in common opinion. They are richly dressed,
presented with valuable ornaments, indulged, frequently,
with almost every luxury that can be procured, and,
when it is not their lot to wait upon others, may, in
some cases, be happy ; as lately has been proved, since
the termination of the war in Greece, by many females
of that country, captives in Egyptian hharee'ms, refusing
their offered liberty, which all of these cannot be sup-
posed to have done from ignorance of the state of their
parents and other relations, or the fear of exposing
themselves to poverty. But, though some of them are
undoubtedly happy, at least for a time, their number is
comparatively small : most are fated to wait upon more
favoured fellow-prisoners, or upon Turkish ladies, or to
receive the unwelcome caresses of :i wealthy dotard, or
of a man who has impaired his body and mind by ex-
cesses of every kind ; and, when their master or mistress
becomes tired of them, or dies, are sold again (if they

THE HHAREE'M. 235

have not borne children), or emancipated, and married
to some person in humble life, who can afford them but
few of the comforts to which they have been accustomed.
The female slaves in the houses of persons of the middle
classes in Egypt are generally more comfortably circum-
stanced than those in the hharee'ms of the wealthy : if
concubines, they are, in most cases, without rivals to
disturb their peace ; and if menials, their service is light,
and they are under less restraint. Often, indeed, if
mutual attachment subsist between her and her master,
the situation of a concubine slave is more fortunate than
that of a wife ; for the latter may be cast off by her
husband in a moment of anger, by an irrevocable sentence
of divorce, and reduced to a state of poverty ; whereas a
man very seldom dismisses a female slave without pro-
viding for her in such a manner that, if she have not
been used to luxuries, she suffers but little, if at all, by
the change : this he generally does by emancipating her,
giving her a dowry, and marrying her to some person
of honest reputation ; or by presenting her to a friend.
I have already mentioned, that a master cannot sell a
slave who has borne him a child ; and that she is entitled
to her freedom on his death. It often happens that
such a slave, immediately after the birth of her child, is
emancipated, and becomes her master's wife : when she
has become free, she can no longer lawfully supply the
place of a wife unless he marry her. Many persons
consider it disgraceful even to sell a female slave who
has been long in their service. Most of the Abyssinian
-and black slave-girls are abominably corrupted by the
Gella'bs, or slave-traders, of Upper Egypt and Nubia,
by whom they are brought from their native countries :
there are very few of the age of eight or nine years who
have not suffered brutal violence ; and so severely do

N

286 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

these children, particularly the Abyssimans, and boys as
well as girls, feel the treatment which they endure from
the Gella/hs, that many instances occur of their drown-
ing themselves during the voyage down the Nile *. The
female slaves of every class are somewhat dearer than
the males of the same age. Those who have not had
the small-pox are usually sold for less than the others.
Three days'- trial is generally allowed to .the purchaser ;
during which time, the girl remains in his, or some
friend's, hharee'm ; and the women make their, report to
him. Snoring, grinding the teeth, or talking during
sleep, are commonly considered sufficient reasons for
returning her to the dealer. — The dresees of the female

• slaves are similar to those of the Egyptian women.

The female servants, who are Egyptian girls or wo-
men, are those to whom the lowest occupations are
allotted. .They generally veil: their faces in the presence
of their masters, with the head-veil; drawing a part of
this before the face, so that they leave only one eye and
one hand at liberty to see and perform what they have
to do. When a male visiter is received by the master
of a house in an apartment of the hharee'm (tine females
of the family having been eent into another apartment
on the occasion), he is usually, or often, waked upon by
a female servant, who is always veiled.

8uoh are the relative conditions of the various Classes
in the hharee'm, A short account vof their usual itthfts

, and employments must be added.

The wives,. as. weiLas ithe female cslaves, are-not only
often debarred from *he privilege cheating with the

jooaater of the family,* bnt aJsateouired to^wait upon him
when. he dines or- sups, ior^even. lakes iiis pipe and eofiee

"* llhejGaUVba^gtneHiHy convey their stares. ?attly< over the
dewrt and partly! dewn Aexwrer.

THE HH&RES'M. 2&7

. in the hharee'm. They frequently serve him as menials ;
fill and light his. pipe, make coffee for him, and prepare
t his food, or, at least, certain dainty dishes ; and, if I
.might judge from my own experience, I should say that
.most of them Are excellent cooks ; for, when a dish has
been recommended to me because made by the wife of
my host, I have generally found it especially good. The
wives of men . of the higher and middle classes make a
great study of pleasing and fascinating their husbands
by unremitted attentions, and by various arts. Their
coquetry is exhibited, even in their ordinary gait, when
they go abroad, by a peculiar twisting of the body*.
In the presence of the husband, they are usually under
more or less restraint ; and hence they are better pleased
when his visits, during the day, are not very frequent or
long : in his absences they often indulge in noisy merri-
ment.

The diet of the women is similar to that of the men,
but more frugal; and their manner of eating is the
same. Many of them are allowed to enjoy the luxury
of smoking; for this habit is not considered unbecom-
ing in a female, however high her rank ; the odour of
the tobacco which they use being very delicate. Their
pipes are generally more slender than those of the men,
. and more ornamented; and the month-piece is some-
times partly composed of coral, in the place of amber.
They generally make use of perfumes, such as musk,
civet, &c; and often, also, of cosmetics, and particularly
of several preparations, which they eat or drink with the
view of acquiring what they esteem <a proper degree of
: plumpness t: one of those preparations is extremely

•♦"The motion- here described they term ghotn'g.
f The Egyptians (unlike the Mugh'ieb'ees, and some other

N 2

238 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

disgusting ; being chiefly composed of mashed beetles*.
Many of them also have a habit of chewing frank-
incense f, and labdanum }, which impart a perfume to the
breath. The habit of frequent ablutions renders them
cleanly in person. They spend but little time in the
operations of the toilet ; and, after having dressed them-
selves in the morning, seldom change their clothes dur-
ing the day. Their hair is generally braided in the
bath ; and not undone afterwards for several days.

The care of their children is the primary occupation
of the ladies of Egypt : they are also charged with the
superintendence of domestic affairs ; but, in most families,
the husband alone attends to the household expenses.
Their leisure-hours are mostly spent in working with the
needle; particularly in embroidering handkerchiefs,
head-veils, &c, upon a frame called mer/seg^ with
coloured silks and gold. Many women, even in the
houses of the wealthy, replenish their private purses by
ornamenting handkerchiefs and other things in this
manner, and employing a della!leh (or female broker)
to take them to the market, or to other hharee'ms, for
sale. The visit of one hharee'm to another often occu-
pies nearly a whole day. Eating, smoking, drinking
coffee and sherbet, gossiping, and displaying their finery,
are sufficient amusements to the company. On such
occasions, the master of the house is never allowed to
enter the hharee'm, unless on some particular and un-
people of Africa, and of the East) do not generally admire very
fat women. In his love-songs, the Egyptian commonly describes
"the object of his affections as of slender figure, and small waist.

* It would seem that these insects were eaten by the Jews (see
Leviticus, xi. 22) ; but we cannot suppose that they derived this
custom from the Egyptians, who regarded the beetle as sacred^
f Liba'n. J La! din.

THE HHABEH'M.

UrtolH-dwlL TllBD

aid with mother-of- ptarl

avoidable business; and in this case, he must give notice
of his approach, and let the visiters have sufficient time
to veil themselves, or to retire to an adjoining room.
Being thus under no fear of his sudden intrusion, and
being naturally of a lively and an unreserved disposition,
they indulge in easy gaiety, and not unfrequently in
youthful rrolic When their usual subjects of conversa-
tion are exhausted, sometimes one of the party entertains
the rest with the recital of some wonderful or facetious.
tale. The Egyptian ladies are very seldom instructed
either in music or dancing ; but they take great delight
in the performances of professional musicians and public
dancers; and often amuse themselves and their guests,
in the absence of better performers and better instru-
ments, by beating the dsa'abooWkeh (which is a kind of

240 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

drum) and the tcir (or tambourine *) ; though seldom in
houses so situated that many passengers might hear the
sounds of festivity. On the occasion of any great re-
joicing among the women (such as takes place on account
of the birth of a son, or the celebration of a circum-
cision, or a wedding, &c.), 'AwaWm (or professional
female singers) are often introduced; but not for the
mere amusement of the women, on common occasions,
in any respectable family ; for this would be considered
indecorous. The Qhawafzee (or public dancing-girls),
who exhibit in the streets with unveiled faces, are very
seldom admitted into a hharee'm ; but on such occasions
as those above-mentioned, they often perform in front of
the house, or in the court; though, by many persons,
even this is not deemed strictly proper. The Aldtt^yeh
(or male musicians) are never hired exclusively for the
amusement of the women ; but chiefly for that of the
men : they always perform in .the assembly of the latter :
their concert, however, is distinctly heard by the inmates
of the hharee'm f-

When the women of the higher or middle classes go
out to pay a visit, or for any other purpose, they generally
ride upon asses. They sit astride, upon a very high and
broad saddle, which is covered with a small carpet ; and
each is attended by a man on one or on each side.
Generally, afl the women of a hharee'm ride out to-
gether; one behind another. Mounted as above
described, they present a very singular appearance.
Being raised so high above the back of the hhomdr %

* Descriptions and engravings of these instruments will be •
given in another chapter, in the second volume.
• t The performances of the A'la'tee'yeh, ' AwVIIm, and Ghawa'-
zeti will be described in the second volume*
% Thus commonly pronounced, for Kktma'r.

TUB HHAREB'M. 241

Wlee (or the " high ass" — for so the animal which they
ride, furnished with the high saddle, is commonly called*),
they seem very insecurely seated ; but I believe this is
not really the case: the ass is well girthed, and sure-
footed; and proceeds with a slow, ambling pace, and
very easy motion. The ladies of the highest rank, as
well as those of the middling classes, ride asses, thus
equipped : they are very seldom seen upon mules or
horses. The asses are generally hired. When a lady
cannot procure a hhoma'r Wlee, she rides one of the
asses equipped for the use of the men; but has a
rtggafdeh (or prayer-carpet) placed over its saddle ; and
the inferior members of the hharee'm, and females of
the middle orders, often do the same. Ladies never
walk abroad, unless they have to go but a very short
distance. They have a slow and shuffling gait, owing,
to the difficulty of retaining the slippers upon their feet r
and, in walking, they always hold the front edges of the*
hhab'arah in the manner represented in the engraving-
opposite page 51 in this volume. Whether walking or
riding, they are regarded with much respect in public :
no well-bred man stares at them ; but rather directs his
eyes another way. They are never seen abroad at night,
if not compelled to go out or return at that time by some
pressing and extraordinary necessity : it is their usual
rule to return from paying a visit before sunset. The
ladies of the higher orders never go to a shop, but send
for whatever they want ; and there are numerous della'-
lehs who have access to the hharee'ms, and bring all
kinds of ornaments, articles of female apparel, &c.,~for
sale. Nor do these ladies, in general, visit the public bath,
unless invited to accompany thither some of their friends ;
for most of them have baths in their own houses.

* It is alto called hhoma'r mooghut'tcc (covered ass).

N 5

24*

Chapter VII.

Domestic Life— continued.

The domestic life of the lomer order* will be the subject
of the present chapter. In most respects, it is so simple, ,
that, in comparison with the life of the middle and higher
classes, of which we have just been taking a view, it
offers but little to our notice.

The lower orders in Egypt, with the exception of a
very small proportion, chiefly residing in the large
towns, consist of Fella'hhee'n (or Agriculturists). Most ,
of those in the great towns, and a few in the smaller
towns and some of the villages, are petty tradesmen or '
artificers, or obtain their livelihood as servants, or by
various labours. In all cases, their earnings ate very
small; barely sufficient, in general, and sometimes in»
sufficient, to supply them and their families with the
cheapest necessaries of life.

Their food chiefly consists of bread (made of millet or
of maize), milk, new cheese, eggs, small salted fish*,,
cucumbers and melons and gourds of a great variety of
kinds, onions and leeks f, beans, chick-peas, lupins, the
fruit of the black egg-plant, lentils, &c, dates (both
fresh and dried), and pickles. Most of the vegetables
they eat ia a crude state. When the maize (or Indian
corn) is nearly ripe, many ears -of it are plucked, jand
toasted or baked, and «atea thus by the peasants' Rise;

* CaHed/ttfe'M. t See Numbers , xi. 5«*

THE LOWER ORDBftS. 243

is too dear to be an article of common food for the felW-
hhee'n; and flesh-meat they very seldom taste. There
is one luxury, however, which meet of them, enjoy ; and
that is, smoking the cheap tobacco of their country,,
merely dried, and broken up. It . is of- a - pale, greenish
colon?, when dried;. and of amtkl flavour^ Though all
the articles of food mentioned above are extremely <chea$^
there are mamy poor persons who often have nothing
with which to season their coarse bread but the mixture
called doook r ckak i described in a former chapter. It is
surprising to observe how simple and poor is the diet of
the Egyptian peasantry, and. yet how robust and healthy'
moat of them are, and how severe is the labour which
they can undergo..

The women, of the lower orders seldom pass a life of
inactivity. Some of them are even condemned to greater
drudgery than the men. Their chief occupations are
the preparing of, the husband's food, fetching water
(which they carry in a, large vessel on the head), spin*
ning cotton, linen, or woollen yarn, and. making the fuel
called gel'lchy which is composed of the dung of cattle,
kneaded with chopped straw, and formed into round
flat cakes: these they stick upon the walls or roofs of
their houses,, or upon the ground, to dry in the sun ;
and then use for heating their ovens, and for other pur-
poses. They are in a state of much greater subjection
to their husbands than is the case among the superior
classes* Not always is a poor woman allowed to eat
with her husband. When she goes out with him, she
generally walks behind him; and if there be anything
for either? of them to carry, it is- usually borne by the
wife; unless' it be merely a. pipe or a stick. Some wo-
men, in the towosv keep shops; and sell bread, vege-

244 MODIRN EGYPTIANS.

tables, &c ; and thus contribute as much as their hus-
bands, or even more than the latter, to the support of
their families. When a poor Egyptian is desirous of
marrying, the chief object of his consideration is the
dowry, which is usually from about twenty riycilt (or
nine shillings) to four times that amount, if consisting
only of money ; and rather less if, as is the case through-
out a great part of Egypt, it comprise certain articles of
clothing : if he can afford to give the dowry, he seldom
hesitates to marry; for a little additional exertion will,
enable him to support a wife and two or three children.
At the age of five or six years, the children become of
use to tend the flocks and herds ; and at a more ad-
vanced age, until they marry, they assist their fathers in
the operations of agriculture. The poor in Egypt have
often to depend entirely upon their sons for support in
their old age ; but many parents are deprived of these
aids, and consequently reduced to beggary, or almost to
starvation. A few months ago, the Ba'sha, during his
voyage from Alexandria to this city (Cairo), happening
to land at a village on the bank of the Nile, a poor man
of the place ran up to him, and grasped his sleeve so
tightly, that the surrounding attendants could not make
him quit his hold : he complained that, although he had
been once in very comfortable circumstances, he had
been reduced to utter destitution by having his sons
taken from him in his old age as recruits for the army. .
The Ba'sha (who generally pays attention to personal
applications) relieved him ; but it was by ordering that
the richest man in the village should give him a cow.

A young family, however, is sometimes an insupport-
able burden to poor parents. Hence, it is not a very
rare occurrence, in Egypt, for children to be publicly

THE LOWER ORDERS.. 245

carried about for sale, by their mothers or by women
employed by the fathers : but this very seldom happens .
except in cases of great distress. When a mother dies, .
leaving one or more children unweaned, and the father
and other surviving relations are so poor as not to be
able to procure a nurse, this singular mode of disposing
of the child or children . is often resorted to ; or some-
times an infant is laid at the door of a mosque, generally
when the congregation is assembled to perform the noon-
prayers of Friday ; and in this case it usually happens
that some member of the congregation, on coming out
of the mosque, and seeing the poor foundling, is moved
with pity, and takes it home to rear in his family, not as
a slave, but as an adopted child; or, if not, it is taken
under the care of some person until an adoptive father
or mother be found for it. A short time ago, a woman
offered for sale, to the mistress of a family with whom a
friend of mine is acquainted in this city, a child a few
days old, which she professed to have found at the door
of a mosque. The lady said that she would take the
child, to rear it for the sake of God, and in the hope
that her own child, an only one, might be spared to her
as a reward for her charity ; and handed, to the woman
who brought the infant, ten piasters (then equiva-
lent to a little more than two shillings) : but the offered
remuneration was rejected. This shows that infants
are sometimes made mere objects of traffic ; and some
persons who purchase them may make them their slaves,
and sell them again. I have been informed, by a slave-
dealer (and his assertion has been confirmed to me by
other persons), that young Egyptian girls are sometimes
sold as slaves from other countries, either by a parent or
by some other relation. The slave-dealer here alluded

24* MODEttK EGYPTIANS^

to said* thai several such girls had been committed 'to
him for' sale; and by their own consent: they were
taught to expeet rich dresses, and great kKuries ; and
were instructed tosay, that they had been brought from
their own country when onry three or four years of age,
and that they consequently were ignorant of their native
language, and could speak only Arabic.

It often happens, too, that a felWhh in a state of great
porerty is induced* by the o4fer of a shut of mosey, to*
place has son in a situation far worse than that of ordi-
nary slavery. When a certain number of recruits are
required from a village, the sheykh of the village often
adopts the plan that gives him the least trouble to obtain
them, which is, to take the sens of* those persons* who •
are possessed of most property. . Under such cireum-
stances, a father, rather than part with Ms son, generally
offers, to one of his poorer fettow- villagers, a sum eqrava*-
lent to one or two pounds sterling, to procure a son of
the latter as a substitute for his own ; and usually sue*
ceeds ; though the love of offspring prevails, among the
Egyptians as much as filial piety; and most; parents
have a great horror of parting with their children, par**
ticu'arry if taken for recruits, as is proved by the means
to which they have recourse for the prevention of such*
an occurrence. There is now (in 1834) seldom to be
found, in any of' the villages, an able-bodied youth or
young man who has not had one or mote of his teeth
broken out (that he may net be able to bite a cartridge);
or a finger cut off, or an eye pulled oat' or blinded, to-
prevent his being taken for a recruit. Old women and*
others makea regular trade of going about from village
to village* to perform these operations upon the boys;
and the parents- themselves are sometimes theoperatorsy

the: lower ohders: 247^

But, from what has been said before, it appears that it
is not always aifectton atone that prompts the parents 40'
have recourse to saab expedients to prevent their being
v deprived of their children.

The Fetta'hbbe'n of Egypt cannot be jnstiy repre**
seated in> a very favourable light with regard to their'
domestic and social condition and manners. In the 1
worst points'of view, they resemble their BecYawee an-
cestors, without possessing many of the virtues of' the *
inhabitants of the desert, unless in am inferior degree; -
and the customs which they have inherited from their'
forefathers often have a very baneful ' effect upon their
domestic state. It has before been mentioned that
they are descended from Tarious Arab tribes -who have
settled in Egypt at different periods*, and that the dte-«
tinction of tribes is still preserved by the inhabitants of;
the villages throughout this country. In the course- of j
years, the descendants of each tribe of settlers have be-
come divided into numerous branches, and these minor'
tribes have distinctive appellations, which have akto often
been given to the village* or villages -or district' which:
they inhabit. These who have been longest established
in Egypt have retained less- of Bed'awee manners, and
have more infringed the purity of ) their race by inter-
marriages with Copt proselytes to the Mohhammadan,
faith, or with the descendants of such persons : hence,
they are often despised by the tribes more lately settled <
in this country, who frequently* in contempt, term the
former " FelWhhee'n," while they arrogate to themselves
the appellation of " Arabs" or " BecVawees." The latter,
whenever* they please, take the daughters of the former
w marriage, but will not' give their own daughters in
return ; and if one of them be kitted by a person of the

248 UODBRN EGYPTIANS.

inferior tribe, {hey kill two, three, or even four, in blood-
revenge. The prevalence of the barbarous Becfawee *
law of blood-revenge among the inhabitants of the
villages of Egypt has been mentioned in a former
chapter: the homicide, or any person descended from
him, or from his great-grandfather's father, is killed by
any of such relations of the person whom he has slain ;
and when the homicide happens to be of one tribe, and
the person killed of another, often a petty war breaks
forth between these two tribes, and is sometimes con-
tinued, or occasionally renewed, during a period of several
years. The same is also frequently the result of a
trifling injury committed by a member of one tribe upon
a person of another. • In many instances, the blood-
revenge is taken a century or more after the commission
of the act which has occasioned it; when the feud, for
that time, has lain dormant, and perhaps is remembered
by scarcely more than one individual. Two tribes in
Lower Egypt, which are called Set ad and Hharafm, are
most notorious for these petty wars and feuds; and
hence their names are commonly applied to any two
persons or parties at enmity with each other. It is
astonishing that, in the present day, such acts (which,
if committed in a town or city in Egypt, would be
punished by the death of, perhaps, more than one of
the persons concerned) should be allowed. Some other
particulars respecting blood-revenge, and its conse-
quences, have been stated in the chapter above alluded
to. The avenging of blood is allowed by the Ckoor-a r n ;
but moderation and justice are enjoined in its execu-
tion; and the petty wars which it so often occasions
in the present age are in opposition to a precept of the
Prophet, who said " If two Moos'lims contend with their

TUB LOWER ORDERS. 249

swords, the slayer and the slain will be in the fire [of
Hell]."

The Felia'hhee'n of Egypt resemble the Bed'awees in
other respects. When a Fella'hhah is found to have
been unfaithful to her husband, in general, he, or her
brother, throws her into the Nile, with a stone tied to
her neck; or cuts her in pieces, and then throws her
remains into the river. In most instances, also, a father
or brother punishes in the same manner an unmarried
daughter or sister who has been guilty of incontinence.
These relations are considered as more disgraced than
the husband by the crime of the woman ; and are often
despised if they do not thus punish her.

250

Chiptbr vm.

Common Usages of Society.

Tab Moos'lims are extremely formal and regular in
their social manner?;, though generally very easy in
thetr demeanour, and free ia their conversation. Safe*
ral of their meet common usage? are founded upon pre-
cepts of their religion, and distinguish them in soeiety
from all other people. Among these is theurcustoos of
greeting each other with the salutation of " Peace be on
you*!" to which the proper and general reply is **On
you be peace, and the mercy of God, and his blessings t '"
This salutation is neyer to be addressed by a Moos'lim
to a person whom he knows to be of another religion J ;
nor vice versci. The giving it, by one Moos'lim to
another, is a duty; but one that maybe omitted without
sin: the returning it is absolutely obligatory; the
former is a soon'neh ordinance ; and the latter, furd.
Should a Moos'lim, however, thus salute, by mistake,
a person not of the same faith, the latter should not

* Et-tela'moo 'aletfiooM, or Sela'moon 'aletfkoom, or, vulgarly,
et-teklm 'aiey'koom*

t 'Aley'kootnoQ-t-ttlcJmoo wa-rahh f matoo-tta f hi tot-bar oka' took, or
merely 'Mcy'koom tn-tela'm (On you be peace !) ; but the longer
salutation is more commonly used, in accordance with an injunc-
tion in the Ckoor-a'n, chap. iv. ver. 88.

% Very few Mooslims in Egypt do so. A European traveller,
not disguised by Turkish dress, often fancies that he is greeted
with this salutation when it is really intended for his Moos'lim
attendant.

COMMON USAGES OF 80CIETY. 251

return it ; and' the former, on discovering his mistake, .
generally revokes his salutation:: so also he sometimes *
does if aMoos/lim refuse to re turn his salutation ; usually
saying "Peace be on u$, and on [all] the right worship-
pers of God."

The chief roles respecting salutation, as dictated by
the Prophet, and generally observed by modem Moos/-
lims, are as follow.— The person riding should first
salute him who is on foot ; and he who passes by, the v
person or persons who are sitting down or standing still;
and a small party, or one of such a party, should give
the salutation to a large party; and the young, to the
aged*. As it is sufficient for one party to give, so is it,
also, fbr one only to return, the salutation. It is re-
quired, too, that a Moos'lim, when he enters a house, :
should salute the people of that house; and that he
should do he same when he leaves it He should
always salute first, and then talk. — But, to the above
rules, there are seme exceptions. For instance, in a*
crowded city, it is not necessary (indeed it is hardly;
possible) to salute many of those whom one may pass ;
nor on a road where one meets numerous passengers.
Yet it is usual for a wealthy or well-dressed person, or a
venerable sheykh, or any person of distinction, to salute
another who appears to be a man of rank, wealth, or
learning, even in a crowded street. Among polite people,
it is customary for him who gives or returns the saluta-
tion to place his right hand upon his breast, at the same
time; or to touch his lips, and then his forehead, or
turban, with the same hand. This action is called

* Herodotus speaks of the respect paid in Egypt to the aged/
and of the polite salutations of the Egyptians to each other,
(lib. ii cap. 80.)

252 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Uymttfnth. The latter mode of teymeefaeh, which is the '
more respectful, is often performed to a person of superior
rank, not only at first, with the sela'm (or salutation of
u Peace be on you "), but also, frequently during a con-
versation, and in the latter case, without the sela'm.

A person of the lower orders, on approaching a
superior, particularly if the latter be a Turk, does not
always give the sela'm, but only performs this tey-
meefaeh ; and he shows his respect to a man of high
rank by bending down his hand to the ground, and then
putting it to his lips and forehead, without pronouncing
the sela'm. It is a common custom, also, for a man to
kiss the hand of a superior (generally on the back only,-
but sometimes on the back and front), and then to put it
to his forehead, in order to pay him particular respect ;
but in most cases, the latter does not allow tins ; and
only touches the hand that is extended towards his : the
other person, then, merely puts his own hand to his lips
and forehead. To testify abject submission, in craving
pardon for an offence, or interceding for another per-
son, or begging any favour of a superior, not unfre-
quently the feet are kissed instead of the hand. The
son kisses the hand of the father ; the wife, that of her
husband ;,and the slave, and often the free servant, that
of the master. The slaves and servants of a grandee
kiss their lord's sleeve, or the skirt of his clothing.

When particular friends salute each other, they join
their right hands, and then each kisses his own hand,
and puts it to his lips and forehead, or his forehead
only, or his breast ; or merely places it on his breast,
without kissing it: if after a long absence, and on some
other occasions, they embrace each other; each falling
upon the other's neck, and kissing him on the right side

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 253

of the face or neck, and then upon the left. Another
mode of salutation is very commonly practised among
the lower orders, when two friends or acquaintances
meet after a journey : joining their right hands, each of
them compliments the other on his safety, and expresses
his wishes for his welfare, by repeating, alternately,
many times, the words set alma't and tetyibeefn*: in
commencing this ceremony, which is often continued
for nearly a minute before they proceed to make any
particular inquiries, they join their hands in the same
manner as is usually practised by us; and at each
alternation of the two expressions above-mentioned, they
change the position of the hands: in repeating the
second word, each of the two persons turns his fingers
over the thumb of the other ; and in repeating the first
word again, the former position is resumed.

In polite society, various other formal salutations and
compliments follow the sela'm. To most of these, there
are particular replies ; or two or more different forms of
reply may be used in some cases ; but to return any that
custom has not prescribed would be considered as a
proof of ignorance or vulgarity. When a person asks
his friend "How is -your health t?" the latter replies
"Praise be to God J!" and it is only bythevtone of
voice in which he makes this answer that the inquirer
can infer whether he be well or ill. When one greets
the other with " Teiyibedn? the usual reply is " God
bless thee§, w or "God preserve thee!]." A friend or

* Meaning, " I congratulate you on your safety" and "I hope
you are well."

f Eyth hha'fkoom. J El-kham'doo li-lla'h.

§ Aflah yeba'rik (for yooba'rik) feek.
\ AlUah yuel'lim'ak (for yootcl'lim'ak).

254 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

acquaintance, on meeting another whom he has not
seen for several days, or for a longer period, generally
says, after the seWm, " Thou hast made us desolate by
thy absence from us * ; " and is usually answered " May
God not make [us] desolate by thy absence f" The
ordinary set compliments in use in Egyptian society are
so numerous,, that a dozen pages of this work would not
suffice for the mention of those which may be heard
almost every day.

When a person goes to the house of another, to pay
a visit, or for any other purpose, he never enters un-
awares ; for this is expressly forbidden by the Ckoor-a'n};
and particularly, if he have to ascend to an upper apart-
ment ; in which case, he should call out for permission,
or announce his approach, as he goes up stairs, in the
manner which. I have had occasion to describe in a
former chapter §. Should he find no person below, he
generally claps his hands, at the door, or in the court;
and waits for a servant to come down, to* him; or for
permission to be given htm to seat himself in a lower
apartment, or to ascend to an upper room. On entering

. the room in which the master of the house is seated, he
gives the sela'm. The master returns the salutation ;
and welcomes the visiter with courteousness and affa-

t bilky. To has superiors || . or equals, he rises ; and to
the former, and often to the latter also, he yields the
most honourable . place, which is a corner of the

. deewa'n : it is that comer which is to the light of a per-
son facing the upper end of the room. This end of the

* Owkhath'tcn't. f Al'lah la! yoo'hkekhuiin'nbk.

% Chap. xxiv. ver, 27. § Chap. vi.

|| That is, to those who are above him either in dffice, wealth,
or religious or literary reputation.

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 255

room is called the sudr; and the whole of the seat
which extends along it is more honourable than those

* which extend along the sides; each of which is called
gemb. Visiters inferior in rank to the master of the
house never seat themselves at the upper end unless in-
vited to do so by him ; and when so invited, they often
decline the offered honour. His equals sit at their ease,
cross-legged, or with one knee raised; and recline
against the cushions : his inferiors (first, at least) often
sit upon their heels ; or take their place upon the edge
of the deewa'n ; or, if very much beneath him in grade,
seat themselves upon the mat or carpet. In strict
etiquette, the visiter should not, at first, suffer his hands
to appear, when entering the room, or when seated ;
but should let the sleeves fall over them ; and when he

-has taken his place on the deewa'n, he should not
stretch out his legs, nor even allow his feet to be seen :
but these rules are not often attended to, excepting in
the houses of the great. Various formal compliments
and salutations are given and returned after the sela'm ;
and some of them, particularly the expressions of
"tei'ynWn" and "eysh hha'l'koom," are repeated
several times during the same interview.

Sometimes the visiter's own servant attends him with
his pipe : the former takes, his tobacco-purse out of his
bosom^and gives it to the servant, who folds it up and
returns it after having filled the pipe, or after the ter-
mination of: the visit : otherwise, a servant of the host
brings a pipe for the visiter, and one for this master;
and jaext, a . cup of coffee is presented to each * ; for
" tobacco without coffee," say . the Arabs, " is like -meat

•»* T%ef iiiter, if «uperior> 01 not much inferior *in Tank to the
master of the house/ re*ei ve&his pip* and coffee before the latter.

256 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

without salt." On receiving the pipe, and the coffee,
the visiter salutes the master of the house with the
teymee'neh, which the latter returns ; and the same is
done on returning the cup to the servant. The master
of the house also salutes his guest in the same manner,
if the latter be not much beneath him in rank, on receiv-
ing and returning his own cup of coffee. The sub-
jects of conversation are generally the news of the day,
the state of trade, the prices of provisions, and some-
times religion and science. Facetious stories are often
related ; and, very frequently, persons in the best society
tell tales, and quote proverbs, of the most indecent na-
ture. In good society, people seldom talk of each
other's hharee'ms ; but intimate friends, and many per-
sons who do not strictly observe the rules of good breed*
ing, very often do so, and in a manner not always deli-
cate. Genteel people inquire respecting each other's
" houses," to ascertain whether their wives and families
are well. — Visits not unfrequently occupy several hours ;
and sometimes (especially those of. hharee'ms), nearly a
whole day. The pipes are replenished, or replaced by
others, as often as is necessary; for however long a
visiter may stay, he generally continues smoking during
the whole time ; and sometimes coffee is brought again,
or sherbet. The manner in which the coffee and sher-
bet are served has been before described. A person re-
ceives the same compliment after drinking a glass of
sherbet as after taking a draught of water*; and re-
plies to it in the same manner.

In the houses of the rich, it used to be a common
.custom to sprinkle the guest, before he rose to take his
leave, with rose or orange-flower water ; and to perfume

* Mentioned in ch*p. v.

COMMON USAGBS OF SOCIETY. 337

him with the smoke of some odoriferous substance ; but
of late years, this practice h&s become (infrequent. The
scent-bottle, which is called ckoonickoom, is of plain
or gilt silver, or fine brass, or china, or glass ; and has a
cover pierced with a small hole. The perfuming- vessel,
or mWkhaSah, is generally of one or the other of the
metals above mentioned : the receptacle for the burn-

Ckoom'ekoon ui Mib'khor'nli. — Etch Is aboui eight liichei high.

ing charcoal is lined, or half filled, with gypsum-plas-
ter; and its cover is pierced with apertures for the
emission of the smoke. The mib'kha/ah is used last :
it is presented by a servant lo the visiter or master,
who wafts the smoke towards his face, beard, &c, with
his right hand. Sometimes it is opened, to emit the
smoke more freely. The substance most commonly
used in the mib'khar'ah is aloes- wood *, or benzoin f, or
* 'Odd. f Oifut*,

268 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

cascarilla-bark *. The wood is moistened before it is
placed upon the burning coals. Ambergris f is also
used for the same purpose.; but very rarely, and only
in the bouses of persons of great wealth ; as it is ex-
tremely costly. As soon as the visiter has been per-
fumed, be takes his leave ; giving the sela'm, which is
returned to him, and paying and receiving other set com-
pliments. If he be a person of much higher rank than
the master of the bouse, the latter not only rises, but
also accompanies him to the top of the stairs, and then
commends him to the care of God.

It is usual for a person, after paying a visit of cere-
mony, and on some other occasions, previously to his
leaving the house, to give a small present (two or three
piasters, or more, according to circumstances) to one,
or to several, of the servants ; and if his horse or mule
or ass be waiting for him at the door, one of the ser-
vants goes out with him, to adjust bts dress wben he
mounts : this officious person particularly expects a pre-
sent. When money is thus given to a man's servants,
it is considered incumbent upon their master to do
exactly the same wben he returns the visit

Friends very often send presents to each other, merely
for the sake of complying with common custom. When
a person celebrates any private festivity, he generally
receives presents from most of bis friends 5 and it is a
universal rule that he should repay the donor by a simi-
lar gift, or one of the same value, on a similar occasion.
It is common for the receiver of a pseseot, on such an
«rent, even to express to the giver his hope that be
may have to repay it on the occasion of a like festivity.
An acknowledgment accompanied by such an allusion

* Ckishr 'am'bar. f Um'bar,

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 259

to the acquitment of the obligation imposed by the gift,
which would be offensive to a generous European, in, in
this country, esteemed polite. The present is generally
wrapped in an embroidered handkerchief, which is re-
turned, with a trifling pecuniary gratification, to the
bearer. Fruit, laid upon leaves, and sweetmeats and
other dainties, placed in a dish or on a tray, and covered
with a rich handkerchief or napkin, are common pre-
sents. Very frequently, a present is given by a person
to a superior with the view of obtaining something
more valuable in return. This is often done by a ser-
vant to his master; and the gift is seldom refused ; but
often paid for immediately in money, more than equi-
valent. It is generally with the expectation above
mentioned that an Oriental gives a present to a Euro-
pean. The custom of giving money to the servants of
a friend, after paying him a visit, is not now so com-
mon as it was a few years since ; but it is still observed
by most persons on the occasion of a visit of ceremony ;
and particularly on the two 'eeds, or religious festivals,
and by the guests at private festivities. Other customs
of a similar nature, which are observed at these festi-
vities, will be described in a subsequent chapter*. To
decline the acceptance of a present generally gives
offence ; and is considered as reflecting disgrace upon
the person who has offered it.

There are many formal usages which are observed
in Egypt not merely on the occasions of ceremonious
visits, or in the company of strangers, or at the casual
meetings of friends, but also in the ordinary intercourse
of familiar acquaintances. When a man happens to
sneeze, he says <c Praise be to God f ! " Each person

* In the second volume. + EUkhamldoo h-lla!h.

o 2

260 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

present (servants generally excepted) then says to him
*• God have mercy on you * ! " to which the former
generally replies " God guide us and guide you f ! " or
he returns the compliment in words of a similar pur-
port. Should he yawn, he puts the back of his left
hand to his mouth, and then says "I seek. refuge with
God from Satan the accursed | ! " but he is not compli-
mented on this act ; as it is one which should rather
be avoided ; for it is believed that the devil is in the
habit of leaping into a gaping mouth. For a breach
of good manners, it is more common to ask the pardon
of God, than that of the present company ; by saying
"I beg pardon of God, the Great §!" When a. man
has just been shaved, or been to the bath, when he has
just performed the ablution preparatory to prayer, when
he has been saying his prayers, or doing any other
meritorious act, when he has just risen from sleep,
when he has purchased or put on any new article of
dress, and on many other occasions, there are particular
compliments to be paid to him, and particular replies for
him to make. v

It is a rule with the Moos'lims to honour the right
hand and foot above the left : to use the right hand for
all honourable purposes ; and the left, for actions which,
though necessary, are unclean : to put on and take off
the right shoe before the left ; and to put the right foot
first over the threshold of a door.

The Egyptians are extremely courteous to each other,
and have a peculiar grace and dignity in their manner

* Rahkem'koom Al'la'h.

f Yahdee'nc wa-yahdee'koom Al'la'h.

X A'oo'z bi-lla'h min e*h-»heyta'n er-ragee'm.

§ Attugh'jir Al'la'h el.'azec'm.

COMMON USAGES OF SOCIETY. 261

of salutation and their general demeanour, combined
with easiness of address, which seem natural to them ;
being observable even in the peasants. The middle
and higher classes of townspeople pride themselves
upon their politeness and elegance of manners, and their
wit, and fluency of speech ; and with some justice : but
they are not less free in their ^conversation than their
less accomplished fellow-countrymen. Affability is a
general characteristic of the Egyptians of all classes.
It is common for strangers, even in a shop, after mu-
tual salutation, to enter into conversation with each other
with as much freedom as if they were old acquaint-
ances ; and for one who has a pipe to offer it to another
who has none ; and it is not unusual, nor is it generally
considered unpolite, for persons in a first, casual meet-
ing, to ask each other's names, professions or trades,
and places of abode. Lasting acquaintances are often
formed on such occasions. In the middle and higher
ranks of Egyptian society, it is very seldom that a man
is heard to say anything offensive to the feelings of
another in his company ; and the most profligate never
venture to utter an expression meant to cast ridicule
upon sincere religion: most persons, however, in every
class, are otherwise more or less licentious in their con-
versation, and extremely fond of joking. They are
generally very lively and dramatic in their talk ; but
scarcely ever noisy in their mirth. They seldom in-
dulge in loud laughter ; expressing their enjoyment of
anything ludicrous by a smile or an exclamation.

262

Chapter IX.
Language, Lttbratu&b, and Science.

The metropolis of Egypt maintains the reputation by
which it has been distinguished for many centuries, of
being the beat school of Arabic literature, and of Mo-
hhammadan theology and jurisprudence. Polite know-
ledge has much declined among the Arabs universally;
but least in Cairo : consequently, the fame of the pro*
feasors of this city still remains unrivaUed ; and its great
mosque, the Az'har, continues to attract innumerable
students from every quarter of the Moos'lim world.

The Arabic spoken by die middle and higher classes
in Cairo is generally inferior, in point of grammatical
correctness and pronunciation, to the dialects of the
BeoYawees of Arabia, and of the inhabitants of the
towns in their immediate vicinity ; but much to be pro*
ferred to those of Syria ; and still more, to those of the
Western Arabs. The most remarkable peculiarities in
the pronunciation of the people of Egypt are the follow-
ing : — The fifth letter of the alphabet is pronounced by
the natives of Cairo, and throughout the greater part of
Egypt, as g in give ; while, in most parts of Arabia,
and in Syria and other countries, it receives the sound
of j in joy : but it is worthy of remark, that, in a part
of southern Arabia, where, it is said, Arabic was first
spoken, the former sound is given to this letter. In
those parts of Egypt where this pronunciation of the

LANGUAGE. 263

fifth letter prevails, the sound of hemfzeh (which is pro-
duced by a sudden emission of the voice after a total
suppression) is given to the twenty-first letter, excepting'
by the better instructed, who give to this letter its true
sound, which I represent by ck. In other parts of
Egypt, the pronunciation of the fifth letter is the same-
as that of j in joy, or nearly so ; and the twenty-first
letter is pronounced as g in give. By all the Egyptians,
in comnon with most other people who speak the
Arabic language, the third and fourth letters of the
alphabet are pronounced alike* as- our t ; and the eighth
and ninth, as our d. — Of the peculiarities in the storm*
tare of the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, the most remark-
able are, the annexation of the letter sheen in negative-
phrases, in the same manner as the word " pas" is used
in French; mmaf per da! 8 fk, for maf yer'da, "he wiU
not consent "; ma! hos/sh tei'yib, for ma! hod a tetyib*
*it is not good"; the placing the demonstrative pro-
noun after the word to which it relates ; as el-bey t di y
"this house"; and a frequent unnecessary use of the
diminutive form in adjectives; as toogh&tyir^oc sagheJr r
* small " ; ckooreiyib^ for chared b± u near."

There is not so much difference between the literary
and popular dialects of Arabic as some European Ori-
entalists have supposed. The latter may be described
as the literary dialect simpHfied, principally by the
omission of the final vowels and other terminations
which distinguish the different eases of nouns and some
of the persons of verbs. Nor is there so great a differ-
ence between the dialects of Arabic spoken in different
countries as some persons, who have not held intercourse
with the inhabitants of such countries, have imagined :
they resemble each other more than the dialects of some

264 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of the different counties in England. The Arabic Ian*
guage abounds with synonymes ; and, of a number of
words which are synonymous, one is in common use in
one country, and another elsewhere. Thus, the Egyp-
tian calls milk lei/ en ; the Syrian calls it hhaleJb : the
word leUtn is used in Syria to denote a particular pre-
paration of sour milk. Again, bread is called in Egypt
'eysh ; and in other Arab countries, khoob'z ; and many
examples of a similar kind might be adduced. — The
pronunciation of Egypt has more softness than that of
Syria and most other countries in which Arabic is
spoken.

The literature of the Arabs is very comprehensive ;
but the number of their books is more remarkable than
the variety. The relative number of the books which
treat of religion and jurisprudence may be stated to be
about one-fourth : next in number are works on gram-
mar, rhetoric, and various branches of philology: the
third in the scale of proportion are those on history
(chiefly that of the Arab nation), and on geography : the
fourth, poetical compositions. Works on medicine,
chymistry, the mathematics, algebra, and various other
sciences, &c, are comparatively very few.

There are, in Cairo, many large libraries; most of
which are attached to mosques, and consist, for the
greater part, of works on theology and jurisprudence, and
philology. Several rich merchants, and others, have
also good libraries. The booksellers of Cairo are, I am
informed, only eight in number * ; and their shops are
but ill stocked. Whenever a valuable book comes into
the possession of one of these persons, he goes round
with it to his regular customers ; and is almost sure of

* These are natives. There are also a few Turkish booksellers.

BOOKS, &c. 365

finding a purchaser. The leaves of the books are seldom
sewed together j but they are usually enclosed in a cover
bound with leather ; and mostly have, also, an outer case
(called turf) of pasteboard and leather. Five sheets,
or double leaves, are commonly placed together, one
within another ; composing what is called a karraft. The
leaves are thus arranged, in small parcels, without being
sewed, in order that one book maybe of use to a number
of persons at the same time ; each taking a karra's. The
books are laid flat, one upon another ; and the name is
written upon the front of the outer case, or upon the
edge of the leaves. The paper is thick and glazed : it
is mostly imported from Venice, and glazed in Egypt-

Books, nd Appuatui tar Writing •,

The ink is very thick and gummy. Reeds are used
instead of pens ; and they suit the Arabic character much
better. The Arab, in writing, places the paper upon his

• Tha latter consist of the reed (ctat'am), the mietufla, the
penknife (mick'ihui), the iawa'gtk, the mii'lar'ah, the mu'tud'rA
(upon which the five articles befo™ mentioned lie), ajid the iciwora
(tnieiiu't), which, with their ihento, ate plated upon tha upper
book.

o 5

2*6 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

knee, or upon the palm of his left hand, or upon what is
called a miJneftehi composed of a dozen or more pieces
of paper attached together at the four corners, and re-
sembling a thin book, which he rests on his knee. His
ink and pens are contained in a receptacle called dawd-
ycft, mentioned in the first chapter of this work, to-
gether with the penknife, and an ivory instrument
{mickwtteC) upon which the pen is laid to be nibbed.
He rules his paper by laying under it a piece of paste*
board with strings strained and glued across it (called a
miJtar'ah), and slightly pressing it oyer each string.
Scissors are included among the apparatus of a writer:
they are used for cutting the paper ; a torn edge being
considered as unbecoming. In Cairo there are many
persons who obtain their livelihood by copying manu-
scripts. The expense of writing a karrafs of twenty
pages, quarto size, with about twenty-five lines to a page,
in an ordinary hand, is about three piasters (or a little
more than sevenpence of our money) ; but more. if in an
elegant hand ; and about double the sum if with the
vowel points, &c.

In Egypt, and particularly in its metropolis, those
youths or men who purpose to devote themselves to
religious employments, or to any of the learned profes-
sions, mostly pursue a course of study in the great
mosque El-Az'har ; having previously learned nothing
more than to read, and, perhaps, to write, and to recite
the Ckoor-a'n. The Az'har, which is regarded as the
principal university * of the East, is an extensive build-

* The Atfia? it not called a "university" with strict pro*
prfery 5 but is regarded as such by the Moos'lims, as whatever
they deem worthy of the name of scieace, or necessary to be known,
is taught within its walls. Its name has been translated, by

THE GBBAT M08QUB KL~AZ'HAR. W

ing, surrounding a large, square court. On one side of
this eourt, the side towards Mek/keh, is the chief place
of prayer; a spacious portico : on each of the other three
sides are smaller porticoes, divided into a number ot
apartments, called rtWtfo, each of which is destined
for the use of natives of a particular country, or of a
particular province of Egypt. This building is situated
in the heart of the metropohe. It is net remarkable in
point of architecture, and is so sarroonded by houses
that very Htne of it is seen extematty. The students are
called moogatwireJn*. Each riwafck has a library for
the use of its members ; and from these books, and the
lectures of the professors, the students acquire their
learning. The regular subjects ef study are grammatical
inflexion and syntax t, rhetoric & versification §, logic (J,
theology % the exposition of the Ckoor-afa**, the Tra-
ditions of the Prophet ft* the complete science of juris-
prudence, or rather of religious, moral, civil, and criminal
law J}, which is chiefly founded on the Ckoor-a/n and the
Traditions; together with arithmetic §§, as far as it is
useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on
algebra Mf, and on the calculations of the Mohhammadan
calendar, the times of prayer, Ac. %%. Different books
are read by students of different sects. Most of the

European travellers, "the Mosque of Flowers;" at though it had
been called GaW el-Jtha'r, instead of Et-GaPmP tLJz f har f which
is its proper appellation, and sigaifies "the Splendid Mosque*
It is the first with respect te the period of its foundation, as veil
es in six*, of all the mosques within the original limits of the city.

* In the singular, nmgdwir* \ Surf and nahh'oo,

\ Ehna'a'net wt-l-bayatn* § Ei-*arw/d.

|| Eiimm'tic*. f EMowkheSJ. ** EMtfmlr.

ft ELakk?a'd*e r *. \% ElfcUk. $$ EW*k9*?b.

Et-phr «e44K*>«!*Wstf/«A. %% Eivteteia't.

268 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

students, being natives of Cairo, are of the Sha'fe'ee
sect; and always the Sheykh, or head of the mosque, is
of this sect. None of the students pay for the instruc-
tion they receive; being mostly of the poorer classes.
Most of those who are strangers, having riwa'cks appro-
priated to them, receive a daily allowance of food, pro-
vided from funds chiefly arising from the rents of houses
bequeathed for their maintenance. Those of Cairo and its
neighbourhood used to receive a similar allowance ; but
this they no longer enjoy, excepting during the month of
Rum'ada'n : for the present Ba'sha of Egypt has taken
possession of all the cultivable land which belonged to
the mosques ; and thus the Az'har has lost the greater
portion of the property which it possessed : nothing but
the expenses of necessary repairs, and the salaries of its
principal officers, are provided for by the government
The professors, also, receive no salaries. Unless they
inherit property, or have relations to maintain them, they
have no regular means of subsistence but teaching in
private houses, copying books, &c. ; but they sometimes
receive presents from the wealthy. Any person who is
competent to the task may become a professor by leave
of the Sheykh of the mosque. The students mostly
obtain their livelihood by the same means as the pro-
fessors ; or by reciting the Ckoor-a'n in private houses,
and at the tombs and other places. When sufficiently
advanced in their studies, some of them become cka'dees,
mooftees, ima'ms of mosques, or schoolmasters, in their
native villages or towns, or in Cairo : others enter into
trade: some remain all their lifetime studying in the
Az'har; and aspire to be ranked among the higher
'Ool'ama. Since the confiscation of the lands which
belonged to the Az'har, the number of that class of

BLIND STUDENTS. 269

students to whom no endowed riwa'ck is appropriated
has very much decreased. The number of students*
including all classes excepting the blind, is (as I am
informed by one of the professors) about one thousand
five hundred*.

There is a chapel (called Za'toiyet elrOmya'n, or the
Chapel of the .Blind), adjacent to the eastern angle of
the Az'har, and one of the dependencies of that mosque,
where at present about three hundred poor blind men,
most of whom are students, are maintained, from funds
bequeathed for that purpose. These blind men often
conduct themselves in a most rebellious and violent
manner : they are notorious for such conduct, and for
their fanaticism. A short time ago, a European traveller
entering the Az'har, and his* presence there being buzzed
about, the blind men eagerly inquired " Where is the
infidel ?" adding " We will kill him ;" and groping about
at the same time to feel and lay hold of him : they were
the only persons who seemed desirous of showing any
violence to the intruder. Before the accession of the
present Ba'sha, they often behaved in a very outrageous
manner whenever they considered themselves oppressed,
or scanted in their allowance of food : they would, on
these occasions, take a few guides, go about with staves,
seize the turbans of passengers in the streets, and plunder
the shops. The most celebrated of the present professors
in the Az'har, the sheykh El-Ckoowey'sinee f» who is
himself blind, being appointed, a few years ago, Sheykh
of the Za'wiyet el-'Omya'n, as soon as he entered upon

* Many persons say that their number is not less than three
thousand : others, not more than one thousand; It varies very
much at different times.

f Since this was written he has become Sheykh of the As'har.

270 MODERN SSTFTIAltS.

his office, erased every one of the blind men there to be
flogged ; but they rose against him, bound him, end in-
flicted upon him a flogging far more severe than that
which they had themselves endued; and obliged him
to give up his office.

Learning was in a much more flourishing state in
Cairo before the entrance of the French army the* it
has been in later years* It suflfered severely from this
invasion ; not thro u g h direct oppression, hat in oonee
qnence of the panic which this event occasioned, and the
troubles by which it was followed. Before that period,
a sheykh who had studied in the Azfhur, if he had only
two boys, sons of a moderately rich fells/hh, to educate,
hved in luxury : his two pupils served him, cleaned hir
bouse, prepared his mad, and, though they partook of it
with him, were his menial attendants at every time but
mat of eating: they followed him whenever he went out;
carried his shoes (and often kissed them when they took
them off) on his entering a mosque ; and in every case
treated him with the honour due to a prince. He was
men distinguished by an ample dress, and the large
formal turban called a moockteh ; and as he passed
along the street, whether an foot or mounted on an ass
or mule, passengers often pressed towards him to implore
a short ejacuktory prayer on their behalf; and he who
succeeded in obtaining this wish believed himself espe*
dally blessed; if he passed by a Prank riding, the latter
was obliged to dismount : if he went to a butcher, to
procure some meat (for he found it best to do so, and
not to send another), the butcher refused to make any
charge; but kissed his hand, and received as an honour
and a blessing whatever he chose to give.— The con-
dition of a man of mis profession is now so fallen, that it

8CTIWCI. 171

is with difficulty he can obtain a scanty subsistence,
unless possessed of extraordinary talent.

The Moofttim 'ooKama are certainly much fettered in
Hie pursuit of some of the paths of learning by their
religion; and superstition sometimes decides a point
which has been controverted for centuries. There is one
singular means of settling a contention on any point of
faith, science, or fact, of which I must give an instance.
The following anecdote was related to me by the Ima'tn
of the late Mooftee (the sheykh El-MahMee) : I wrote
it in Arabic, at his dictation, and shall here translate his
words. The sheykh Mohham'mad El-Baher* (a learned
man, whom the vulgar regard as a wetee, or especial
favourite of heaven) was attending the lectures of the
sheykh El-Emee'r El-Kebee'r (sheykh of the sect of the
Ma'likees), when the professor read, from the Ga'mi?
es-Saghee'r * of Es-Sooyoo'tee, this saying of the Pro-
phet " Verily El-Hhasfan and El-Hhosey'n are the two
lords of the youths of the people of Paradise, in Para*
dise,'' and proceeded to remark, in his lecture, after
having given a summary of the history of El-Hhas'an
and El-Hhosey'n, that, as to the common opinion of the
people of Musr (or Cairo) respecting the head of El-
Hhosey'n, holding it to be in the famous Mesh'hed in
this city (the mosque of the Hhas'aney'n), it was with-
out foundation ; not being established by any credible
authority. "I was affected," says Mohham'mad El*
Bahei', "with excessive grief, by this remark; since I
believed what is believed by people of integrity and of
intuition, that the noble head was in this Mesh'hed;
and I entertained no doubt of it: but I would not op-
pose the sheykh El-Emee'r, on account of his high
* A celebrated collection of the Traditions of the Prophet*

272 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

reputation and extensive knowledge. The lecture ter-
minated, and I went away, weeping ; and when night
overshaded the earth, I rose upon my feet, praying, and
humbly supplicating my Lord, and betaking myself to
his most noble apostle {God favour and preserve him !),
begging that I might see him in my sleep, and that he
would inform me in my sleep of the truth of the matter
concerning the place of the noble head. And I dreamed
that I was walking on the way to visit the celebrated
Mesh'hedEl-Hhosey'nee in Musr, and that I approached
the ckoot/beh*, and saw in it a spreading light, which
filled it : and I entered its door, and found a sheree'f
standing by the door ; and I saluted him, and he re-
turned my salutation, and said to me 'Salute the
Apostle of God (God favour and preserve him !) ;' and
I looked towards the ckib'lehf, and saw the Prophet
(God favour and preserve him !) sitting upon a throne,
and a man standing on his right, and another man
standing on his left: and I raised my voice, saying
* Blessing and peace be on thee, O Apostle of God V
and I repeated this several times, weeping as I did it :
and I heard the Apostle of God (God favour and pre*
serve him !) say to me ' Approach, O my son ! O Mo-
hham'mad!' Then the first man took me, and con-
ducted me towards the Prophet (God favour and pre-
serve him !) and placed me before his noble hands ; and
I saluted him, and he returned my salutation, and said
to me ' God recompense thee for thy visit to the head
of El Hhosey'n my son.' I said ' O Apostle of God, is
the head of El-Hhosey'n here?' He answered 'Yes;

* The saloon of the tomb.

f That is, towards the niche which marks the direction of
Meklcehi

SCIENCE. 273

t is here.' And I became cheerful : grief fled from
me ; and my heart was strengthened. Then I said ' O
Apostle of God, I will relate to thee what my sheykh
and my preceptor El-Emee'r hath affirmed in his lec-
ture : and I repeated to him the words of the sheykh :
and he (God favour and preserve him !) looked down,
and then raised his head, and said ' The copyists are
excused.' - I awoke from my sleep joyful and happy :
but I found that much remained of the night ; and I
became impatient of its length; longing for the mora
to shine, that I might go to the sheykh, and relate to
him the dream, in the hope that he might believe me.
When the morn arose, I prayed, and went to the house
of the sheykh; but found the door shut: I knocked it
violently ; and the porter came in alarm, asking ' Who
is that ? ' but when he knew me, for he had known my
abode from the sheykh, he opened the door to me : if it
had been another person, he would have beaten him.
I entered the court of the house, and began to call out
* My Master ! My master !' The sheykh awoke, and
asked * Who is that?' I answered 'It is I, thy pupil,
Mohham'mad El-Bahei' !' The sheykh was in wonder
at my coming at this time, and exclaimed ' God's abso-<
lute glory ! What is this ? What is the news?' think-
ing that some great event had happened among the
people. He then said to me * Wait while I pray.' I
did not sit down until the sheykh came down to the
hall ; when he said to me ' Come up :' and I went up,
and neither saluted him, nor kissed his hand, from the
effect of the dream which I had seen ; but said c The
head of El-Hhose/n is in this well-known mesh'hed in
Musr : there is no doubt of it.' The sheykh said ' What
proof have you of that? If it be a true record, adduce

274 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

it.' I said 4 From a book, I have none/ The sheykh
said * Hast thou seen a vision ? ' I replied ' Yes ;* and:
I related it to him ; and informed him that the Apostle
of God (God favour and preserve him !) had acquainted
me that the man who was standing 1 by the door was
' Aree the son of At/oo Taftib, and that he who was on the
right of the Prophet, by the throne, was AVoo Bekr,
and that he on his left was 'Om'ar the son of EI-
Khatte'b; and that they had come to visit the head of
the Ima'm El-Hhoee/n« The sheykh rose, and took
me by the hand, and said 'Let us go and visit the
Meshfhed El-Hhosey'nee^ and when he entered the
ekooVbeh, he said * Peace be on thee, O son of the
daughter of the Apostle of God? I believe that the
noble head is here, by reason of the vision which this
person has seen ; for the vision of the Prophet is true ;
since he hath said * Whoso seeth me in his steep seeth
me truly; for Satan cannot assume the similitude of
my form. 9 Then the sheykh said to me c Thou hast be-
fieved, and I have believed: for these lights are not
ittoshre/" — The above-quoted tradition of the Prophet
has often occasioned other points of dispute to be settled
in the same manner, by a dream; and when the
dreamer is a person of reputation, no one ventures to
contend against him.

The remark made at the commencement of this chap-
ter implies that there are, in the present day, many
learned men in the metropolis of Egypt ; and there are
some also in other towns c£ this country. One of the
most celebrated of the modern 'OoPama of Cairo is the
sheykh Hhas'an El-'Atta'r, who is the present sheykh of
the Az'har*. In theology and jurisprudence, he is not

* Since the above was written, this eminent scholar has died.

SC1BHC1. 275

so deeply versed as some of his contemporaries, particu-
larly the sheykh El-Ckoowey'sinee, whom I have before
' mentioned ; but he is eminently accomplished in polite
literature*. He is the author of an "In'sha," or an
excellent collection of Arabic letters, on various subjects,
which are intended as models of epistolary style. This
work has been printed at Boc/la'ck. In mentioning its
author, I fulfil a promise which he condescended to ask
of me r supposing that I should publish, in my own
country, some account of the people of Cairo, he desired
me to state that I was acquainted with him, and to give
my opinion of his acquirements. — The sheykh Mo-
hham'mad Shihafb is also deservedly celebrated as an
accomplished Arabic scholar, and elegant poet. His affa-
bility and wit attract to his house, every evening, a few
friends, whose pleasures, on these occasions, I some*
times participate. We are received in a small, but very
comfortable room : each of us takes his own pipe ; and
coffee alone is presented to us : the sheykh's conversa-
tion is the most delightful banquet that he can offer us.
—-There are also several other persons in Cairo who
enjoy considerable reputation as philologists and poets.
— The sheykh \Abd Er-Rahhma'n El-Genio/tee, an-
other modern author, and a native of Cairo, particularly
deserves to be mentioned, as having written a very ex-
cellent history of the events which have taken place in
Egypt since the commencement of the twelfth century
of the Flightf. He died in 1825, or 1826, soon after my
first arrival in Cairo. His family was of El-Geburt
(also called Ez-Zey' la*), a province of Abyssinia, border-

* 'Ihn el-ad' ab.

f The twelfth century of the Flight commenced on the 16th or
17th of October, A.D. 1688.

S76 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ing on the ocean. The Gebur'tees (or natives of that
country) are Moosftims. They have a riwa'ck (or
apartment appropriated to such of them as wish to
study) in the Az'har ; and there is a similar provision
for them at Mek'keh, and also at El-MedWneh.

The works of the ancient Arab poets were but im-
perfectly understood (in consequence of many words
contained in them having become obsolete) between
two and three centuries, only, after the introduction of
the Mohhammadan faith : it must not therefore be in-
ferred, from what has been said in the preceding para-
graph, that persons able to explain the most difficult
passages of the early Arab authors are now to be found
in Cairo, or elsewhere. There are, however, many in
Egypt who are deeply versed in Arabic grammar, rhe-
toric, and polite literature ; though the sciences mostly
pursued in this country are theology and jurisprudence.
Few of the 'ooFania of Egypt are well acquainted with
the history of their own nation ; much less with that of
other people.

The literary acquirements of those who do not belong
to the classes who make literature their profession are of
a very inferior kind. Many of the wealthy trades-
people are well instructed in the arts of reading and
writing ; but few of them devote much time to the pur-
suit of literature. Those who have committed to memory
the whole, or considerable portions, of the Ckoor-a'n, and
can recite two or three celebrated cktueJdeh* (or short
poems), or introduce, now and then, an apposite quota-
tion in conversation, are considered accomplished per-
sons. Many of the tradesmen of Cairo can neither read
nor write, or can only read ; and are obliged to have
recourse to a friend to write their accounts, letters, &c. :

SCIENCE. 277

bat these persons generally cast accounts, and make in-
tricate calculations, mentally, with surprising rapidity
and correctness.

It is a very prevalent notion among the Christians of
Europe, that the Moos'lims are enemies to almost every
branch of knowledge. This is an erroneous idea ; but
it is true that their studies, in the present age, are con-
fined within very narrow limits. Very few of them
study medicine, chymistry (for our first knowledge of
which we are indebted to the Arabs), the mathematics,
or astronomy. The Egyptian medical and surgical
practitioners are mostly barbers, miserably ignorant of
the sciences which they profess, and unskilful in their
practice ; partly in consequence of their being prohibited
by their religion from availing themselves of the advan-
tage of dissecting human bodies. But a number of
young men, natives of Egypt, are now receiving Euro-
pean instruction in medicine, anatomy, surgery, and
other sciences, for the service of the government. Many
of the Egyptians, in illness, neglect medical aid; placing
their whole reliance on Providence or charms. Alchymy
is more studied in this country than pure chymistry ;
and astrology, more than astronomy. The astrolabe
and quadrant are almost the only astronomical instru-
ments used in Egypt. Telescopes are rarely seen here ;
and the magnetic needle is seldom employed, excepting
to discover the direction of Mek'keh ; for which purpose,
convenient little compasses (called ckibletfyehi), showing
the direction of the ckit/leh at various large towns in
different countries, are constructed, mostly at Dimya't :
many of these have a dial, which shows the time of the
'asr at different places and different seasons. Those
persons in Egypt who profess to have considerable know-
ledge of astronomy are generally blind to the true prin-

276 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ciples of the science : to say that the earth revolves round
the son, they consider absolute heresy. Pure astronomy
they make chiefly subservient to their computations of
the calendar.

The Mohhammadan year consists of twelve lunar
months; the names of which are pronounced by the
Egyptians in the following manner :—

1* Mohhar'ram.

2. Suf'ar.

8. Rabee'a el-Ow'wal.

4. Rabee'a et-Ta'nee.

5. Gooma'd el-Ow'wal, or Gooma'da-1-Oo'la,

6. Gooma'd et-Ta'nee, or Gooma'da-t-Ta'niyeh.

7. Reg'eb.

8. Shaabe/n.

9. Rum'ada'n.

10. ShowWl.

11. Zoo-1-Cka'adeh, or El-Cka'adeh.

12. Zoo4-Hheg / geh, or El-Hheg'geh *

Each of these months re t rogrades through all the
different seasons of the solar year in the period of
about thirty-three years and a half: consequently, they
are only used for fixing the anniversaries of most reli-

* It is the general opinion of our chrbnologers, that the first day
of the Mohhammadan era of "the Flight* (in Arabic, et-Hy'rak,
tit, ai it is pronounced by most of the Egyptians, el-Hig f rtK) was
Friday, the 16th of July, A.D. 622: but it mutt be remarked,
that the Arabs generally commenee each month on the night on
which, or on the ere of which, the new moon is actually seen ;
and this night is, in most cases, the second, but sometimes and in
some places, the third, after the true period of the new moon : if,
however, the moon is not seen on the second or third night, the
month is commenced on the latter. The new moon of July, A.D.
622, happened between 5 and 6 o'clock in the morning of the 14th :
therefore the 16th was. most probably the first amy of the era.

SCIENCE*

279

gkms festivals, and for the dates of historical events,
letters, &c, and not in matters relating to astronomy
or the seasons. In the latter cases, the Coptic months
are still in general use.

With their modern names, I give the corresponding
periods of our calendar.
1. Too't commences on the 10th or 1 1th of September.

10th or 11th of October.
9th or 10th of November*
9th or 10th of December.
8th or 9th of January.
7th or 8th of February.
9th of March.
8th of April,
8th of May.
7th of June.
7th of July.
6th of August

2. Ba^beh .

3. HaWr *

4. Kayah'k (vulg. Kiya'k)

5. TWbeh •

6. Amshee'r .

7. Baramha't

8. Burnux/deh

9. Beshen's .

10. BaWneh

11. Ebee'b .

12. Mis'™ .
Hie Eiya'm en-Nes'ee (Intercalary days) five or six

days, complete the year.

These months, it will be observed, are of thirty days
each. Five' intercalary days are added at the end of
three successive years ; and six at the end of the fourth
year. The Coptic leap-year immediately precedes ours:
therefore the Coptic year begins on the 11th of Sep-
tember only when it is the next after their leap-year ; or
when our next ensuing year is a leap-year ; and, conse-
quently, after the following February, the corresponding
days of the Coptic and our months will be the same as
in other years. The Copts begin their reckoning from
the era of Diocletian, A.D. 884.

In Egypt, and other Moos%n countries, from sunset
to sunset is reckoned as the civil day; the night being

280

MODERN EGYPTIANS.

classed with the day which follows it : thus the night
before Friday is called the night of Friday. Sunset is
twelve o'clock : an hour after sunset, one o'clock : two
hours, two o'clock ; and so on to twelve : after twelve
o'clock in the morning, the hours are again named one,
two, three, and so on *• The Egyptians wind up, and,
if necessary, set their watches at sunset ; or rather a few
minutes after ; generally when they hear the call to even-
ing-prayer. Their watches, according to this system of
reckoning from sunset, to he always quite correct, should
be set every evening ; as the days vary in length.

The following Table shows the times of Mohham-
madan prayer t» with the apparent European time of
sunset, in and near the latitude of Cairo, at the com-
mencement of each zodiacal month.

Sunset

'Esh'e.

Day-
break.

Noon.

•A*r.-

June 21

Mo. T.
b. m.
IS

Ewr. T.
h. m.

7 4

Mo. T.
h. m.
1 34

Mo. T.
h. m.
8 6

Mo.T.
h. m.
466

Mo. T.
h. m*
8 31

July S3

May SI

IS

653

1 30

830

5 7

8 43

Aug. S3

Apr. SO

IS

6 31

1 82

9S4

•589

9 4

Sep. S3

Mar. SO

13

6 4

1 18

10 24

556

9 94

Oct S3

Feb. 18

13

537

1 18

11 18

6 83

935

Nov. SS 1 Jan. SO

12

5 15

1 32

11 59

645

9 41

Dec SI

13

5 4

1 34

IS 15

656

943

* Consequently, the time of noon according to Mohhammadan
reckoning, on any particular day, subtracted from twelve gives the
apparent time of sunset, on that day, according to European
reckoning.

f The periods of the 'esh'e, daybreak, and 'asr are here given
according to the reckoning most commonly followed in Egypt.
(See the chapter on religion and laws.) Mo. T. denotes Mohham-
madan Time: Eur. T., European Time.

SCIENCE, 231

A pocket almanac is annually printed at the govern-
ment-press at Borfa'ck *. It comprises the period of a
solar year, commencing and terminating with the vernal
equinox ; and gives, for every day, the day of the week,
and of the Mohhammadan, Coptic, Syrian, and Euro-
pean months; together with the sun's place in the
zodiac, and the time of sunrise, noon, and the 'asr. It
is prefaced with a summary of the principal eras and
feast-days of the Moos'lims, Copts, and others ; and re-
marks and notices relating to the seasons. Subjoined
to it is a calendar containing physical, agricultural, and
other notices for every day in the year; mentioning
eclipses, &c; and comprising much matter Suited to the
superstitions of the people. It is the work of Yahh'ya
EfenMee, originally a Christian priest of Syria ; but now
a Moos'lim.

Of geography, the Egyptians in general, and, with
very few exceptions, the best instructed among them,
have scarcely any knowledge: having no good maps,
they are almost wholly ignorant of the relative situations
of the several great countries of Europe. Some few of
the learned venture to assert that the earth is a globe ;
but they are opposed by a great majority of the 'Ool'ama.
The common opinion of all classes of Moos'lims is, that
the earth is an almost plane expanse, surrounded by the
ocean, which, they say, is encompassed by a chain of
mountains called Cka'f.

Such being the state of science among the modern
Egyptians, the reader will not be surprised at finding
the present chapter followed by a long account of their

* More than a hundred hooks have been printed at this press:
most of them for the use of the military, naval, and civil servants
of the government.

P

282 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

superstitions; a knowledge of which is necessary to
enable him to understand their character and to make
due allowances for many of its faults. We may hope
for, and, indeed, reasonably expect, a very great im-
provement in the intellectual and moral state of this
people, in consequence of the introduction of European
sciences, by which their present ruler has, in some de-
gree, made amends for his oppressive sway ; but it is
not probable that this hope will be soon realized to any
considerable extent.

283

Chapter X.

Superstition*.

The Arabs are a very superstitious people ; and none
of them are more so than those of Egypt Many of
their superstitions form a part of their religion ; being
sanctioned by the Ckoor-a'n ; and the most prominent
of these is the belief in Ginn^ or Genii — in the singular,
Gvrtne&>

The Ginn are said to be of prseadamite origin, an in-
termediate class of beings between angels and men,
created of fire, and capable of assuming the forms and
material fabric of men, brutes, and monsters, and of be-
coming invisible at pleasure. They eat and drink, pro-
pagate their species {like, or in conjunction with, human
beings), and are subject to death ; though they generally
five many centuries. Their principal abode is in the
chain of mountains called Chaff f which are believed to
encompass the whole earth ; as mentioned at the dose
of the preceding ehapter. Some are believers in El-
Isla'm : others are infidels. Of both these classes, the
Arabs stand in great awe ; and for the former, they en-
tertain a high degree of respect. It is a common cus-
tom of this people, on pouring water, &c. on the ground,
to exclaim, or mutter, destodr ; that is, to ask the per-
mission, or crave the pardon, of any gin'nee that may
chance to be there : for the ginn are supposed to per-
vade both the solid matter of the earth and the firma-

p 2

284 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ment. They are also believed to inhabit rivers, rained
houses, wells, baths, ovens, and even the latrina : hence,
persons, when they enter the latter place, and when they
let down a bucket into a well, or light a fire, and on
other occasions, say, " Permission !" or " Permission ye
blessed*!"; which words, in the case of entering the
latrina, they sometimes preface with a prayer for God's
protection against all e v,l spirits; but in doing this,
some persons are careful not to mention the name of
God after they have entered (deeming it improper in
such a place), and only say, " I seek refuge with Thee
from the evil (that is Satan) and the evil ones." These
customs present a commentary on the story in "the
Thousand and one Nights," in which a merchant is de-
scribed as having killed a gin'nee by throwing aside the
stone of a date which he had just eaten. In the same
story, and in others of the same collection, a gin'nee is
represented as approaching in a whirlwind of sand or
dust ; and it is the general belief of the Arabs of Egypt,
that the zo'baah, or whirlwind which raises the sand or
dust in the form of a pillar of prodigious height, and
which is so often seen sweeping across the fields and
deserts of this country, is caused by the flight of one of
these beings; or, in other words, that the gin'nee
" rides in the whirlwind." A charm is usually uttered
by the Egyptians to avert the zc/ba'ah, when it seems
to be approaching them : some of them exclaim, " Iron,
thou unlucky f ! " ; as genii are supposed to have a great
dread of that metal : others endeavour to drive away the
monster by exclaiming, " God is most great J ! ". What
we call a " falling star" (and which the Arabs term

* Dettoo'r, or Dettoo'rya! mooba r rahee f n.
f Hhadcc'd ya f methoo'm. J Alia'hoo ah/bar.

GENII. 285

shihafb) is commonly believed to be a dart thrown by
God at an evil gin'nee ; and the Egyptians, when they
see it, exclaim, " May God transfix the enemy of the
faith*!". The evil gin'nees are commonly termed
'Efr&fls. The existence of 'efree'ts must be believed by
the Moos'lim on account of the occurrence, in the
Ckoor-a'n, of these words, " An 'efree't from among the
ginn answered " (chap, xxvii. ver. 39) ; which words Sale
translates " A terrible genius answered.'' They are ge-
nerally believed to differ from the other ginn in being
very powerful, and always malicious ; but to be, in other
respects, of a similar nature.

Connected with the history of the ginn are many
fables not acknowledged by the Ckoor-a'n, and therefore
not credited by the sober Moos'lims, but only by the less
instructed. The latter believe that the earth was in-
habited, before the time of Adam, by a race of beings
differing from ourselves in form, and much more power-
ful ; and that forty (or, according to some, seventy-two)
prseadamite kings, each of whom bore the name of
Sooleyma'n (or Solomon), successively governed this
people. The last of these Sooleyma'ns was named Ga'n
Ib'n Ga'n ; and from him, it is said, the ginn (who are
also called gain) derive their name. Hence, some be-
lieve the ginn to be the same with the prseadamite race
here mentioned : but others assert that they (the ginn)
were a distinct class of beings, and brought into subjec-
tion by the other race.

Ginnees are believed often to assume, or perpetually
to wear, the shapes of cats, dogs, and other brute ani-
mals. The sheykh Khalee'l El-Meda'bighee, one of
the most celebrated of the 'ool'ama of Egypt, and author

* Sak'am Alia! h fee 'adoof ed-deen.

286 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of several works on various sciences, who died, at a very
advanced age, during the period of my former visit to
this country, used to relate the following anecdote. He
had, said he, a favourite black cat, which always slept
at the foot of his inusqmto-curtain. Once, at midnight,
he heard a knocking at the door of his house ; and h»
cat went, and Opened the hanging shutter of his window,
and called, " Who is there ? " A voice replied, * I am
such a one " (mentioning a strange name) u the gin'nee :
open the door." "The lock," said the sheykh's cat,
"has had the name [of God] pronounced upon it*."*—
"Then throw me down," said the other, "two* cakes
of bread."— u The bread-basket,' * answered the cat at
the window, " has had the name pronounced upon it."
" WelC said the stranger, "at least give me a drink of
water." But he was answered that the water-jar had
been secured in the same manner; and asked what he
was to do, seeing that he was likely to die erf hunger
and thirst : the sheykh's cat told him to go to the door
of the next house ; and went there also himself, and
opened the door, and soon after returned. Next morn-
ing, the sheykh deviated from a habit which he had
constantly observed : he gave, to the cat, half of the
fatee'reh upon which he breakfasted, instead of a little
morsel, which he was wont to give; and afterwards said,
" O my cat, thou knowest that I am a poor man : bring

* It is a custom of many foock'aha (or learned and devout
persons), and some others, to say the b i t mii 'Iah (In the name of
God, the Compassionate, the Merciful) on locking a door, cover-
ing bread, laying down their clothes at night, and on other occa-
sions; and this, they believe, protects their property from genii.
The thing over which the bis mil Hah has been pronounced is termed
mootem'mee (for mootem'ma) 'aley'k.

GENII. 287

me, then, a little gold:" upon which words, the cat im-
mediately disappeared, and he saw it no more. — Ridi-
culous as stories of this kind really are, it is impossible,
without relating one or more, to convey a just notion of
the opinions of the people whom I am attempting to
describe*

It is commonly affirmed, that malicious or disturbed
genii very often station themselves on the roofs, or at
the windows, of houses in Cairo, and other towns of
Egypt, and throw bricks and stones down into the
streets and courts. A few days ago, I was told of a case
of this kind, which had alarmed the people in the prin-
cipal street of the metropolis for a whole week ; many
bricks having been thrown down from some of the houses
every day during this period; but nobody killed or
wounded* I went to the scene of these pretended
pranks of the genii, to witness them, and to make in*
quiries on the subject; but on my arrival there I was
told that iheregm (that is, the throwing) had ceased. I
found no one who denied the throwing down of the
bricks, or doubted that it was the work of genii ; and
the general remark, on mentioning the subject, was.
" God avert from us their evil doings ! "

One of my friends observed to me, on this occasion,
that he had met with some Englishmen who disbelieved
in the existence of genii; but he concluded that they
had never witnessed a public performance, though com-
mon in their country, of which he had since heard,
called koomedfyeh (or comedy); by which term he
meant to include all theatrical performances. Addressing
one of his countrymen, and appealing to me for the
confirmation of his words, he then said — " An Algerine,
a short time ago, gave me an account of a spectacle of

288 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

this kind which he had seen in London." — Here his
countryman interrupted him, by asking, "Is not Eng-
land in London ? or is London a town in England ?"
—My friend, with diffidence, and looking to me, an-
swered that London was the metropolis of England ;
and then resumed the subject of the theatre. — "The
house," said he, " in which the spectacle was exhibited
cannot be described : it was of a round form, with many
benches on the floor, and closets all round, in rows, one
above another, in which people of the higher classes
sat ; and there was a large square aperture, closed with
a curtain. When the house was full of people, who
paid large sums of money to be admitted, it suddenly
became very dark : it was at night ; and the house had
been lighted up with a great many lamps ; but these
became almost entirely extinguished, all at the same
time, without being touched by any body. Then, the
great curtain was drawn up : they heard the roaring of
the sea and wind ; and indistinctly perceived, through
the gloom, the waves rising and foaming, and lashing
the shore. Presently, a tremendous peal of thunder was'
heard ; after a flash of lightning had clearly shown to
the spectators the agitated sea: and then there fell a
heavy shower of real rain. Soon after, the day broke ;
the sea became more plainly visible; and two ships
were seen in the distance : they approached, and fought
each other, firing their cannons ; and a variety of other
extraordinary scenes were afterwards exhibited. " Now
it is evident," added my friend, " that such wonders must
have been the works of genii, or at least performed by
their assistance." — He could not be convinced of his
error by my explanations of these phenomena.

During the month of Rum'ada'n, the genii, it is said,

GENU. 280

are confined in prison ; and hence, on the eve of the
festival which follows tfra&month, some of the women
of Egypt, with the view og^fceventing these objects of
dread from entering their houses, sprinkle salt upon the
floors of the apartments ; sVying, as they do it, "In the
name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful."

A curious relic of ancient Egyptian superstition must
here be mentioned. It is believed that each quarter in
Cairo has its peculiar guardian-genius, or Agathodse-
mon, which has the form of a serpent.

The ancient tombs of Egypt, and the dark recesses of
the temples, are commonly believed, by the people of
this country, to be inhabited by 'efree'ts. I found it im-
possible to persuade one of my servants to enter the
Great Pyramid with me, from his having this idea.
Many of the Arabs ascribe the erection of the Pyramids,
and all the most stupendous remains of antiquity in
Egypt, to Ga'n Ib'n Ga'n, and his servants, the ginn ;
conceiving it impossible that they could have been raised
by human hands.

The term 'efree't is commonly applied rather to an
evil gin'nee than any other being ; but the ghosts of dead
persons are also called by this name ; and many absurd
stories are related of them; and great are the fears
which they inspire. There are some persons, however,
who hold them in no degree of dread. — I had once a
humorous cook, who was somewhat addicted to the in-
toxicating hhashee'sh: soon after he had entered my
service, I heard him, one evening, muttering and ex-
claiming, on the stairs, as if in surprise at some event;
and then politely saying, u But why are you sitting here
in the draught? — Do me the favour to come up into
the kitchen, and amuse me with your conversation a

p 5

290 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

little:" the civil address, not being answered, was re-
peated and varied several times; till I called oat to the
man, and asked him to whom he was speaking. " The
'efree't of a Turkish soldier," he replied, " is sitting on
the stairs, smoking his pipe, and refuses to move : he
came up from the well below : pray step and see him."
On my going to the stairs, and telling the servant that I
could see nothing, he only remarked that it was because
I had a clear conscience. He was told, afterwards, that
the house had long been haunted ; but asserted that he
had not been previously informed of the supposed cause;
which was the fact of a Turkish soldier having been
murdered there. My cook professed to see this 'efree't
frequently after.

The existence of Ghodls likewise obtains almost uni-
versal credence among the modern Egyptians, in com-
mon with several other Eastern nations. These beings
are said to appear in the forms of various animals, and
in many monstrous shapes ; to haunt burial-grounds, and
other sequestered spots ; to feed upon dead bodies ; and to
kill and devour every human creature who has the mis-
fortune to fall in their way. Hence, the term " ghoo'l "
is applied, in general, to any cannibal.

That fancies such as these should exist in the minds
of a people so ignorant as those who are the subject of
these pages cannot reasonably excite our surprise. But
the Egyptians pay a superstitious reverence not to ima-
ginary beings alone : they extend it to certain indivi-
duals of their own species ; and often to those who are
justly the least entitled to such respect*. An idiot or a
fool is vulgarly regarded by them as a being whose
mind is in heaven, while his grosser part mingles
* As is the case also in Switzerland.

SAINTS. 291

among ordinary mortals; consequently, he is consi-
dered an especial favourite of heaven. Whatever enor-
mities a reputed saint may commit (and there are many
who are constantly infringing precepts of their religion),
such acts do not affect his fame for sanctity ; for they
are considered as the results of his soul, or reasoning
faculties, being wholly absorbed in devotion; so that
his passions are left without control. Lunatics who
are dangerous to society are kept in confinement ; but
those who are harmless are generally regarded as saints.
Most of the reputed saints of Egypt are either lunatics
or idiots or impostors. Some of them go about per-
fectly naked, and are so highly venerated, that the wo-
men, instead of avoiding them, sometimes suffer these
wretches to take any liberty with them in a public
street; and, by the lower orders, are not considered as
disgraced by such actions, which, however, are of very
rare occurrence. Others are seen clad in a cloak or
long coat composed of patches of various coloured
cloths, which is called a dilck, adorned with numerous
strings of beads, wearing a ragged turban, and bearing
a staff with shreds of cloth of various colours attached
to the top. Some of them eat straw, or a mixture of
chopped straw and broken glass ; and attract observa-
tion by a variety of absurd actions. During my first
visit to this country, I often met, in the streets of Cairo,
a deformed man, almost naked, with long matted hair,
and riding upon an ass, led by another man. On
these occasions, he always stopped his beast directly
before me, so as to intercept my way, recited the
Fa't'hhah (or opening chapter of the Ckoor-a'n), and
then held out his hand for an alms. The first time
that he thus crossed me, I endeavoured to avoid him ;

292 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

but a person passing by remonstrated with me, observ-
ing that the man before me was a saint, and that I
ought to respect him, and comply with his demand, lest
some misfortune should befal me. Men of this class
are supported by alms, which they often receive without
asking for them. A reputed saint is commonly called
sheykh, moor af bit, or weVee. If affected with lunacy
or idiotcy, or of weak intellect, he is also, and more
properly, termed megzodb, or meslodb. Welee is an
appellation correctly given only to an eminent -aii<rf l e7y"
devout saint ; and signifies " a favourite of heaven ;"
but it is so commonly applied to real or pretended
idiots, that some wit has given it a new interpretation,
as equivalent to beleefd, which means "a fool" or
" simpleton ;" remarking that these two terms are
equivalent both in sense and in the numerical value of
the letters composing them : for wel'ee is written with
the letters wa'oo, la!m t and ye', of which the numerical
values are 6, 30, and 10, or, together, 46 ; and beledd
is written with be?, la'm, yi % and da! I, which are 2, 30,
10, and 4, or, added together, 46. A simpleton is
often jestingly called a wel'ee. >

The Moos'lims of Egypt, in common with those of
other countries, entertain very curious superstitions re-
specting the persons whom they call wel'ees. I have
often endeavoured to obtain information on the most
mysterious of these superstitions ; and have generally
been answered, " You are meddling with the matters of
the tareefckah" or the religious course of the dur-
wee'shes ; but I have been freely acquainted with the
general opinions on these subjects ; and such are per-
haps all that might be required to be stated in a work
like the present: I shall, however, also relate what I

SAINTS. 293

have been told by learned persons, and by durwee'shes,
in elucidation of the popular belief.
. In the first place, if a person were to express a doubt
as to the existence of true wel'ees, he would be branded
with infidelity; and the following passage of the
Ckoor-a'n would be adduced to condemn him : " Are
not the favourites * of God those upon^ whom no fear
shall come, and who shall not be grievedf?'' This is
considered as sufficient to prove that there is a class of
persons distinguished above ordinary human beings.
The question then suggests itself, " Who, or of what
description, are these persons ?" and we are answered,
" They are persons wholly devoted to God, and pos-
sessed of extraordinary faith; and, according to their
degree of faith, endowed with the power of performing
miracles J."

The most holy of the wel'ees is termed the Ckootb ;
or, according to some persons, there are two who have
this title ; and again, according to others, four. The
term ckootb signifies an axis ; and hence is applied to a
wel'ee who rules over others : they depending upon him,
and being subservient to him. For the same reason it
is applied to temporal rulers, or any person of high au-
thority. The opinion that there are four ckootbs, I am
told, is a vulgar error, originating from the frequent
mention of " the four ckootbs," by which expression
are meant the founders of the four most celebrated
orders of durwee'shes (the Rif'a'Wyeh, Cka'diree'yeh,
Ahhmedee'yeh, and Bara'himeh) ; each of whom is be-

* In the original, ou> , lee r a > or owliya', plural of wel'ee.
f Chap. x. ver. 63.

} A miracle performed by a wel'ee is termed kara'meh : one
performed by a prophet, mo'agiz'eh.

294 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

lieved to have been the ckootb of his time. I hare also
generally been told, thai the opinion of there being two
ckootbs is a vulgar error, founded upon two names,
Ckootb el-HhackeJckah (or the Ckootb of Truth), and
Ckootb el-Ghat * (or the Ckootb of Invocation for help),
which properly belong to but one person* The term el-
Ckootb el-MootauxVlee is applied, by those who believe
in but one ckootb, to the one ruling at the present time ;
and by those who believe in two, to the acting ckootb.
The Ckootb who exercises a superintendence over all
other weFees (whether or not there be another ckootb
— for if there be, he is inferior to the former) has, under
his authority, weKees of different ranks, to perform dif-
ferent offices ; Ncgedbs, Nackeefbs, Bededls*, &c. ; who
are known only to each other, and perhaps to the rest
of the wel'ees, as holding such offices.

The Ckootb, it is said, is often seen, but not known as
such : and the same is said of all who hold authority
under him. He always has a humble demeanour, and
mean dress ; and mildly reproves those whom he finds
acting impiously ; particularly those who have a false re-
putation for sanctity. Though he is unknown to the
world, his favourite stations are well known ; yet at these
places he is seldom visible. It is asserted that he is almost
constantly seated at Mek'keh, on the roof of the
Ka'abeh ; and, though never seen there, is always heard
at midnight to call twice, " O thou most merciful of
those who show mercy f ! " which cry is then repeated
from the maM'nehs of the temple, by the moo-ed'dins :
but a respectable pilgrim, whom I have just questioned

* In the plural forms, Angalb or Noog'aba, Noockfaba, and
Abda'l.

f Ya! ar'hhama-r-ra'hhanet'iu

SAINTS. 295

upon this matter, has confessed to me that he himself
has witnessed that this cry is made by a regular minister
of the mosque ; yet that few pilgrims know this : he be-
lieves, however, that the roof of the Ka/abeh is the
chief mur'kaz (or station) of the Ckootb. Another
favourite station of this revered and unknown person is
the gate of Cairo called Ba'b Zoowey'leh, which is at
the southern extremity of that part of the metropolis
which constituted the old city ; though now in the heart
of the town ; for the capital has greatly increased to-
wards the south, as it has also towards the west. From
its being a supposed station of this mysterious being,
the Ba'b Zoowey'leh is commonly called % " El-Moota-
wetlee *." One leaf of its great wooden door (which
is never shut), turned back against the eastern side of
the interior of the gateway, conceals a small vacant
space, which is said to be the place of the Ckootb.
Many persons, on passing by it, recite the Fa't'hhah ;
and some give alms to a beggar who is generally seated
there, and who is regarded by the vulgar as one of the
servants of the Ckootb. Numbers of persons afflicted
with head-ache drive a nail into the door, to charm away
the pain ; and many sufferers from the tooth-ache ex-
tract a tooth, and insert it in a crevice of the door, or fix
it in some other way, to insure their not being attacked
again by the same malady. Some curious individuals
often try to peep behind the door, in the vain hope of
catching a glimpse of the Ckootb, should he happen to
be there, and not at the moment invisible. He has also
many other stations, but of inferior celebrity, in Cairo ;
as well as one at the tomb of the seyd Ahh'mad EI-
Bed'awee, at Tun'ta ; another at El-Mahhal'leh (which,

* For Ba'b Et-Mootawetlec.

296 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

as well as Tun'ta, is in the Delta) ; and others in other
places. He is believed to transport himself from
Mek'keh to Cairo in an instant; and so also from any
one place to another. Though he has a number of
favourite stations, he does not abide solely at these ; but
wanders throughout the whole world, among persons of
every religion, whose appearance, dress, and language
he assumes; and distributes to mankind, chiefly through
the agency of the subordinate wel'ees, evils and bless-
ings, the awards of destiny. When a Ckootb dies, he
is immediately succeeded in his office by another.

Many of the Moos'lims say that Elijah, or Elias,
whom they generally call El-Khidr, was the Ckootb of
his time ; and that he invests the successive ckootbs :
for they acknowledge that he has never died. This par-
ticular in their superstitious notions respecting the
ckootbs, combined with some others which I have be-
fore mentioned, is very curious when compared with
what we are told, in the Bible, of Elijah, of his being
transported from place to place by the spirit of God;
of his investing Elisha with his miraculous powers, and
his offices ; and of the subjection of the other prophets
to him and to his immediate successor*. Some wel'ees
renounce the pleasures of the world, and the society of
mankind ; and, in a desert place, give themselves up to
meditation upon heaven, and prayer ; depending upon
divine providence for their support: but their retreat
becomes known ; and the Arabs daily bring them food.
This, again, reminds us of the history of Elijah : for, in
the opinion of some critics, we should read, for the word
" ravens,'* in the fourth and sixth verses of the seven-
teenth chapter of the second book of Kings, " Arabs :"

* See 1 Kings, xviii. 12, and 2 Kings, ii. 9 — 16*

SAINTS. 297

u I have commanded "the Arabs to feed thee" — " And
the Arabs brought him bread/' &c.

Certain wel'ees are said to be commissioned by the
Ckootb to perform offices which, according to the ac-
counts of my informants here, are far from being easy.
These are termed As-hha'b ed-Daifak, which is inter-
preted as signifying " watchmen," or " overseers." In
illustration of their employments, the following anecdote
was related to me a few days ago. — A devout tradesman
in this city, who was ardently desirous of becoming a
wel'ee, applied to a person who was generally believed
to belong to this holy class, and implored the latter to
assist him to obtain the honour of an interview with the
Ckootb. The applicant, after having undergone a strict
examination as to his motives, was desired to perform
the ordinary ablution (el-woodoo / ) very early the next
morning ; then to repair to the mosque of El-Moo-ei'yad
(at an angle of which is the Ba'b Zoowey'leh, or El-
Mootawel'lee, before mentioned), and to lay hold of
the first person whom he should see coming out of
the great door of this mosque. He did so. The first
person who came out was an old, venerable-looking
man ; but meanly clad ; wearing a brown woollen
gown (or zaaboo't) ; and this proved to be the Ckootb.
The candidate kissed his hand, and entreated to
be admitted among the As-hha'b ed-Dar'ak. After
much hesitation, the prayer was granted: the Ckootb
said, " Take charge of the district which consists of the
Durb el-Ahh'mar * and its immediate neighbourhood ;"
and immediately the person thus addressed found him-
self to be a wel'ee ; and perceived that he was acquainted
with things concealed from ordinary mortals : for a

* A street on the south of the Ba'b Zooweyleh.

298 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

weree is said to be acquainted by God with all secrets
necessary for him to know.— It is commonly said of a
weree, thai be knows what is secret*, or not discover-
able by the senses; which seems plainly contradictory
to what we read in several pkeea in the Ckoor-a'n ; that
none knoweth what is secret (or hidden from the senses)
but God : the McWlims, however, who are seldom at
a loss in a discussion, argue that the passages above
attaded to, in the Ckoor-a'n, imply the knowledge of
secrets in an unrestricted sense; and that God imparts
to weFees such secrets only as He thinks fit.

The wel'ee above mentioned, as soon as he had en-
tered upon his office, walked through his district; and
seeing a man at a shop, with a jar full of boiled beans
before him, from which he was about to serve his cus-
tomers as usual, took up a large piece of stone, and, with
it, broke the jar. The bean-seller immediately jumped
up ; seized hold of a palm-stick that lay by his side;
and gave the wel'ee a severe beating : but the holy man
complained not; nor did he utter a cry : as soon as he
was allowed, he walked away. When he was gone, the
bean-seller began to try if he could gather up some of
the scattered contents of the jar. A portion of the jar
remained in its place ; and on looking into this* he saw
a venomous serpent in it, coiled round, and dead. In
horror at what he had done, he exclaimed, " There is no
strength nor power but in God 1 I implore forgiveness
of God, the Great I What have I done ! This man is
a wel'ee ; and has prevented my selling what would
have poisoned my customers." — He looked at every pas-
senger all that day, in the hope of seeing again the
saint whom he had thus injured, that he might implore

• Ya'aiam el-gheyb.

SAINTS. 299

his forgiveness ; but he saw him not ; for he was too
much bruised to be able to walk. On the following day,
however, with his limbs still swollen from the blows he
had received^ the weKee limped through his district, and
broke a great jar of milk at a shop not far from that of
the bean-seller ; and its owner treated him as the bean-
seller had done the day before ; but while he was beating
him, some persons ran up, and stopped his hand, in-
forming him that the person whom he was thus pu-
nishing was a wel'ee, and relating to him the affair of
the serpent that was found in the jar of beans. " Go,
and look," said they, " in your jar of milk, and you will
find, at the bottom of it, something either poisonous or
unclean." He looked ; and found, in the remains of
the jar, a dead dog. — On the third day, the wefee, with
the help of a staff, hobbled painfully up the Durb el-
Ahh'mar, and saw a servant carrying, upon his head,
a supper-tray covered with dishes of meat, vegetables,
and fruit, for a party who were going to take a repast in
the country. He put his staff between the servant's
legs, and overthrew him ; and the contents of the dishes
were scattered in the street. With a mouth full of
curses, the servant immediately began to give the saint
as severe a thrashing as he himself expected to receive
from his disappointed master for this accident : but
several persons soon collected around him ; and one of
these bystanders observed a dog eat part of the con-
tents of one of the dishes, and, a moment after, fall down
dead: he instantly seized the hand of the servant, and
informed him of this circumstance, which proved that
die man whom he had been beating was a wefee.
Every apology was made to the injured saint, with many
prayers for his forgiveness ; but he was so disgusted with

300 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

his new office, that he implored God and the Ckootb to
release him from it ; and, in answer to his solicitations,
his supernatural powers were withdrawn, and he returned
to his shop, more contented than before. — This story is
received as true by the people of Cairo ; and therefore I
have inserted it; for, in treating of superstitions, we
have more to do with opinions than with facts. I am
not sure, indeed, that it is altogether false : the sup-
posed saint might have employed persons to introduce
the dead serpent and dog into the vessels which he
broke. I am told that many a person has obtained the
reputation of being a weKee by artifices of the kind just
mentioned.

There have been many instances, in Egypt, of weFees
afflicting themselves by austerities similar to those which
are often practised by devotees in India. At the present
time there is living, in Cairo, a wel'ee who has placed an
iron collar round his neck, and chained himself to a wall
of his chamber ; and it is said that he has been in this
state more than thirty years : but some persons assert
that he has often been seen to cover himself over with a
blanket, as if to sleep, and that the blanket has been
removed immediately after, and nobody found beneath
it! Stories of this kind are related and believed by
persons who, in many respects, are endowed with good
sense; and to laugh, or express discredit, on hearing
them, would give great offence. I was lately told,
that, a certain wel'ee being beheaded, for a crime of
which he was not guilty, his head spoke after it was
cut off*; and, of another decapitated under similar
circumstances, that his blood traced upon the ground,

* Like that of the Physician Doo'ba'n, whose story is told in
" the Thousand and one Nights."

SAINTS. 301

in Arabic characters, the following declaration of his
innocence — u I am a weFee of God ; and have died a
martyr."

It is a very remarkable trait in the character of the
people of Egypt and other countries of the East, that
Moosttims, Christians, and Jews adopt each other's super-
stitions, while they abhor the more rational doctrines of
each other's faiths. In sickness, the Moos'lim sometimes
employs Christian and Jewish priests to pray for him :
the Christians and Jews, in the same predicament, often
coll in Moos'lim saints, for the like purpose. Many
Christians are in the frequent habit of visiting certain
Moos'lim saints here ; kissing their hands ; begging
their prayers, counsels, or prophecies ; and giving them
money and other presents.

Though their prophet disclaimed the power of per-
forming miracles, the Moos'lims attribute to him many;
and several miracles are still, they say, constantly, or
occasionally, performed for his sake, as marks of the
divine favour and honour. The pilgrims who have
visited El-Medee'neh relate that there is seen, every
night, a ray or column of faint light, rising from the
cupola over the grave of the Prophet to a considerable
height, apparently to the clouds, or, as some say, to
Paradise ; but that the observer loses sight of it when he
approaches very near the tomb*. This is one of the
most remarkable of the miracles which are related as
being still witnessed. On my asking one of the most
grave and sensible of all my Moos'lim friends here, who
had been on a pilgrimage, and visited El-Medee'neh,
whether this assertion were true, he averred that it was ;

* It is also said, that similar phenomena, but not so brilliant
distinguish some other tombs at El-Medee'neh and elsewhere.

302 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

that be had seen it every night of his stay in that city ;
and he remarked that it was a most striking and im-
pressive proof of God's favour and honour for ** our
lord Mohham'mad.*' I did not presume to question the
truth of what he asserted himself to have seen ; nor to
suggest that the great number of lights kept burning
every night in the mosque might produce this effect;
but, to judge whether this might be the case, I asked
my friend to describe to me the construction of the
apartment of the tomb, its cupola, &c He replied, that
he did not enter it, nor the Ka'abeh at Mek'keh, partly
from his being in a state of excessive nervous excitement
(from his veneration for those holy buHdmgs, but par-
ticularly for the former, which almost aflfected him with
a kind of hysteric fit), and partly because, being of the
sect of the Hhan'afees, he held it improper, after he
should have stepped upon such sacred ground, ever
again to run the risk of defiling his feet, by walking
barefooted: consequently, he would have been obliged
always to wear leather socks or mezE within his outer
shoes ; which, he said, he could not afford to do. — The
pilgrims also assert, that, in approaching El-Medee'neh,
from the distance of three days' journey, or more, they
always see a flickering lightning, in the direction of the
sacred city, which they believe to proceed from the Pro-
phet's tomb. They say, that, however they turn, they
always see this lightning in the direction of El-Medee'-
neh. There is something strikingly poetical in this and
m the former statement.

A superstitious veneration, and honours unauthorised
by the Ckoor-a'n or any of the Traditions, are paid, by
all sects of Moos'lims, excepting the WahWbees, to
deceased saints, even more than to those who arc living;

SAINTS. 303

and more particularly by the Moos'lims of Egypt*
Over the graves of most of the more celebrated saints
are erected large and handsome mosques : over that of a
saint of less note (one who, by a life of sanctity or hypo-
crisy, has acquired the reputation of being a wef ee, or
devout sheykh) is constructed a small, square, white*
washed building, crowned with a cupola. There is gene-
rally, directly over the vault in which the corpse is depo-
sited, an oblong monument of stone or brick (called
turkeefbeh) or wood (in which case it is called to! bod t) ;
and this is usually covered with silk or linen, with some
words from the Ckoor-a'n worked upon it, and sur-
rounded by a railing or screen, of wood or bronze, called
muckso</rah. Most of the sanctuaries of saints hi
Egypt are tombs ; but there are several which only con-
tain some inconsiderable relic of the person to whom
they are dedicated ; and there are a few which are mere
cenotaphs. Hie most sacred of all these sanctuaries is
the mosque of the Hhas'aney'n, in which the head of
the martyr El-Hhosey 7 !), the son of the Ima'm 'Al'ee,
and grandson of the Prophet, is said to be buried.
Among others but little inferior in sanctity, are the
mosques of the se/yideh Zey'neb (daughter of the

* Several superstitious customs, observed in the performance
of many ordinary actions, result from their extravagant respect
for their prophet, and their saints in general. For instance, on
lighting the lamp in the evening, more particularly at a shop, it
is customary to say, " Commemorate Mohham'mad, and forget
not the excellencies of 'Al'ee: the Fa't'hhah for the Prophet, and
lor every wel'ee :" and then, to repeat the Fa't'hhah. It is usual
to say, on first seeing the new moon, "O God favour our lord
Mohham'mad ! God make thee a blessed moon (or month) : M
on looking at one's face in a glass, "O God favour our lord
Mohham'mad! 9

304 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Ima'm 'APee, and grand-daughter of the Prophet), the
sey'yideh Sekee'neh (daughter of the Ima'm El-Hho-
se/n), the sey'yideh Nefee'seh (great-grand-daughter of
the Ima'm El-Hhas'an), and the Ima'm Esh-Sha'fe'ee,
already mentioned as the author of one of the four
great Moosflim sects, that to which most of the people
of Cairo belong. The buildings above mentioned, with
the exception of the last two, are within the metropolis ;
the last but one is in a southern suburb of Cairo ; and
the last, in the great southern cemetery.

The Egyptians occasionally visit these and other sanc-
tuaries of their saints, either merely with the view of pay-
ing honour to the deceased, and performing meritorious
acts for the sake of these venerated persons, which they
believe will call down a blessing on themselves, or for
the purpose of urging some special petition, as for the
restoration of health, or for the gift of offspring, &c. ; in
the persuasion that the merits of the deceased will insure
a favourable reception of the prayers which they offer
up in such consecrated places. The generality of the
Moosftms regard their deceased saints as intercessors
with the Deity ; and make votive offerings to them. The
visitor walks round the mucksoo'rah or the monument
from left to right ; and recites the Fa't'hhah, inaudibly,
or in a very low voice, before its door, or before each of
its four sides. Sometimes a longer chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n than the first (or Fa't'hhah) is recited after-
wards ; and sometimes a khutfmeh (or recitation of the
whole of the Ckoor-a'n) is performed on such an occa-
sion. These acts of devotion are generally performed
for the sake of the saint ; though merit is likewise be-
lieved to reflect upon the visitor who makes a recitation.
He usually says at the close of this, " [Assert] the abso-

SAINTS. 305

lute glory of thy Lord, the Lord of Might, exempting
Him from that which they [that is, the unbelievers]
ascribe to Him " (namely, the having a son, or a par-
taker of his godhead) ; and adds, " and peace be on the
Apostles ; and praise be to God, the Lord of all crea-
tures. O God, I have transferred the merit of what I
have recited from the excellent Ckoor-a'n to the person
to whom this place is dedicated," or — " to the soul of
this weFee." Without such a declaration, or an intention
to the same effect, the merit of the recital belongs solely
to the person who performs it. After this recital, the
visitor, if it be his desire, offers up any prayer, for tem-
poral or spiritual blessings; generally using some such
form as this — ** O God, I conjure thee by the Prophet,
and by him to whom thi$ place is dedicated, to grant me
such and such blessings :" or " My burdens be on God
and on thee, O thou to whom this place is dedicated."
In doing this, some persons face any side of the muck-
soc/rah : but it is more proper to face the mucksoo'rah
and the ckit/leh. During the prayer, the hands are held
as in the private supplications after the ordinary prayers
of every day; and afterwards they are drawn down the
face. — Many of the visitors kiss the threshold of the
building, and the walls, windows, mucksoo'rah, &c.
The rich, and persons in easy circumstances, when they
visit the tomb of a saint, distribute money or bread to
the poor; and often give money to one or more water-
carriers to distribute water to the poor and thirsty, for the
sake of the saint. There are particular days of the week
on which certain tombs are more generally visited : thus,
the mosque of the HhWane/n is mostly visited, by men,
on Tuesday, and by women, on Saturday : that of the
se/yideh Ze/neb, on Wednesday: that of the Ima'm

306 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Esh-Sha/fe'ee, on Friday. On these occasions, it is a
common custom for the male visitors to take with them
sprigs of myrtle : they place some of these on the
monument, or on the floor within the mucksoo'rah ; and
take back the remainder, which they distribute to their
friends. The poor sometimes place khods (or palm-
leaves); as most persons do upon the tombs of their
friends and relations. The women of Cairo, instead of
the myrtle or palm-leaves, often place roses, flowers of
the hhen'na-tree, jasmine, &c.

At almost every village in Egypt is the tomb of some
favourite or patron saint, which is generally visited, on a
particular day of the week, by many of the inhabitants ;
chiefly women; some of whom bring thither bread,
which they leave there for poor travellers, or any other
persons. Some also place small pieces of money in
these tombs. These gifts are offerings to the sheykh ;
or given for his sake. Another custom common among
the peasants is, to make votive sacrifices at the tombs of
their sheykhs. For instance, a man makes a vow (nedr)
that, if he recover from a sickness, or obtain a son or any
other specific object of desire, he will give, to a certain
sheykh (deceased), a goat, or a lamb, or a sheep, &c. : if
he attain his object, he sacrifices the animal which he
has vowed at the tomb of the sheykh, and makes a feast
with its meat for any persons who may choose to attend.
Having given the animal to the saint, he thus gives to
the latter the merit of feeding the poor. Little kids are
often vowed as future sacrifices ; and have the right ear
alit ; or are marked in some other way. It is not un-
common, too, without any definite view but that of obtain-
ing general blessings, to make these vows : and some-
times, a peasant vows that he will sacrifice, for the sake

SAINTS. 307

of a saint, a calf which he possesses, as soon as it is full-
grown and fatted : it is let loose, by consent of all his
neighbours, to pasture where it will, even in fields of
young wheat; and at last, after it has been sacrificed, a
public feast is made with its meat. Many a large bull is
thus given away.

Almost every celebrated saint, deceased, is honoured
by an anniversary birth-day festival, which is called
moc/lid, or, more properly, mdUd. On the occasions
of such festivals, many persons visit the tomb, both as a
duty and as a supposed means of obtaining a special
blessing ; fickees are hired to recite the Ckoor-aV for
the sake of the saint ; foock'ara often perform zikrs ;
and the people living in the neighbourhood of the tomb
hang lamps before their doors, and devote half the
night to such pleasures as those of smoking, sipping
coffee, and listening to story-tellers at the coffee-shops,
or to the recitals of the Ckoor-a'n, and the zikrs. I have
now a cluster of lamps hanging before my door, in ho-
nour of the moc/hd of a sheykh who is buried near the
house in which I am living. Even the native Christians
often hang up lamps on these occasions. The festivities
often continue several days. The most famous moo'lids
celebrated in Cairo, next to that of the Prophet, are those
of the Hhas'aney'n and the se/yideh Ze/neb ; accounts
of which will be found in a subsequent chapter, on the
periodical public festivals, &c. of the people of Egypt.
Most of the Egyptians not only expect a blessing to
follow their visiting the tomb of a celebrated saint, but
they also dread that some misfortune will befal them if
they neglect this act. Thus, while I am writing these
lines, an acquaintance of mine is suffering from an ill-
ness which he attributes to his having neglected, for the

Q 2

308 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

last two years, to attend the festivals of the seyM
Ahh'mad El-Bed'awee, at Tun'ta; this being the period
of one of these festivals. The tomb of this saint attracts
almost as many visitors, at the periods of the great an-
nual festivals, from the metropolis, and from various
parts of Lower Egypt, as Mek'keh does pilgrims from
the whole of the MoosMim world. Three moo'lids are
celebrated in honour of him every year ; one, about the
tenth of the Coptic month of Tot/ben (17th or 18th of
January) ; the second, at, or about, the Vernal Equinox* ;
and the third, or great moo'lid, about a month after the
Summer Solstice (or about the middle of the Coptic
month of Ebee'b), wben the Nile has risen consider-
ably, but the dams of the canals are not yet cut. Each
lasts one week and a day ; beginning on a Friday, and
ending on the afternoon of the next Friday ; and, on
each night, there is a display of fireworks. One week
after each of these, is celebrated the moo'lid of the seyd
Ibrahee'm Ed-Desoo'ckee, at the town of Desoo'ck, on
the east bank of the western branch of the Nile. The
seyd Ibrahee'm was a very famous saint ; next in rank
to the seyd El-Bed'awee. These moo'lids, both of the
seyd El-Bed'awee and of the seyd Ibrahee'm, are great
fairs, as well as religious festivals. At the latter, most
of the visitors remain in their boats ; and some of the
Saadee'yeh durwee'shes of RasheeM exhibit their feats
with serpents : some carrying serpents with silver rings
in their mouths, to prevent their biting : others partly
devouring these reptiles alive. The religious ceremonies
at both are merely zikrs t, and recitals of the Ckoor-a'n.

• Called the Shems tl-Keb*t'reh.

f The zxkr will be fully described in another chapter, on the
periodical public festivals, &c, in the second volume.

DURWEE'SHES. 309

— It is customary among the Moos'lims, as it was
among the Jews, to rebuild, whitewash, and decorate,
the tombs of their saints, and occasionally to put a new
covering over the turkeeHbeh or taTxK/t; and many of
them do this from the same pharisaic motives which
actuated the Jews*.

Durweefshes are very numerous in Egypt ; and some
of them who confine themselves to religious exercises,
and subsist by alms, are much respected in this country ;
particularly by the lower orders. Various artifices are
employed by persons of this class to obtain the reputa-
tion of superior sanctity, and of being endowed with the
power of performing miracles. Many of them are re-
garded as wel'ees.

A direct descendant of At/oo Bekr, the first KhaleeTeh,
having the title of Esh-Sheykh el-Bek'ree, and regarded
as'the representative of that prince, holds authority over
all orders of durwee'shes in Egypt. The present Sheykh
el-Bek'ree, who is also descended from the Prophet, m
is Nackee'b el- Ashra'f, or chief of the Sheree'fs. — I may
here add that the second Khalee'feh, 'Om'ar, has like-
wise his representative, who is the sheykh of the
'En'a'nee'yeh, or Owla'd 'Ena'n, an order of durwee'shes
so named from one of their celebrated sheykhs, Ibn
'Ena'n. 'Osma'n has no representative ; having left no
issue. The representative of 'Al'ee is called Sheykh es-
Sa'da't, or Sheykh of the Sey'yids, or Sheree'fs ; a title
of less importance than that of Nackee'b of the Sheree'fs.
Each of these three sheykhs is termed the possessor of
the seggafdeh (or prayer carpet) of his great ancestor.
So also the sheykh of an order of durwee'shes is called
the possessor of the segga'deh of the founder of the

• See St. Matthew, xxiii. 29.

310 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

order*. The segga'deh is considered as the spiritual
throne. There are four great segga'dehs of durwee'shes
in Egypt ; which are those of four great orders about to
be mentioned.

The most celebrated orders of durwee'shes in Egypt
are the following. — 1. The JRi/VWyeA (in the singu-
lar Rifat'ee). This older was founded by the seyd
AluYmad Rifa"ah El-Kebee'r. Its banners, and the
turbans of its members, are black ; or the latter are of a
very deep blue woollen stuff, or muslin of a very dark
greenish hue. The Rifa"ee durwee'shes are celebrated
for the performance of many wonderful feats \. The
'Ilxoafnee'yeh, or Cholafd 'Ilwa!n 9 who are a sect of the
Rifa"ees, pretend to thrust iron spikes into their eyes
and bodies without sustaining any injury ; and in ap-
pearance they do this, in such a manner as to deceive
any person who can believe it possible for a man to do
such things in reality. They also break large masses
of stone on their chests ; eat live coals, glass, &c. ; and
are said to pass swords completely through their bodies,
-and packing-needles through both their cheeks, without
suffering any pain, or leaving any wound: but such
performances are now seldom witnessed. I am told
that it was a common practice for a durwee'sh of this
order to hollow out a piece of the trunk of a palm-tree,
fill it with rags soaked with oil and tar, then set fire to
these contents, and carry the burning mass under his
arm, in a religious procession (wearing only drawers) ;
the flames curling over his bare chest, back, and head,
and apparently doing him no injury. — The SaadeJyeh,

* The title is ta'hheb segga'deh. (

t In most of their juggling performances, the durwee'shes of
Egypt are inferior to the most expert of the Indians.

DURWEE'SHES. 311

an order founded by the sheykh Sa'ad ed-Deen El-
Giba'wee, are another and more celebrated sect of the
Rifa"ees. Their banners are green; and their tur-
bans, of the same colour, or of the dark hue of the
Rifa"ees in general. There are many durwee'shes of
this order who handle, with impunity, live, venomous
serpents, and scorpions ; and partly devour them. The
serpents, however, they render incapable of doing any
injury, by extracting their venomous fangs ; and doubt-
less they also deprive the scorpions of their poison. On
certain occasions (as, for instance, on that of the festival
of the birth of the Prophet), the Sheykh of the Saadee r yeh
rides, on horseback, over the bodies of a number of his
durwee'shes, and other persons, who throw themselves
on the ground for the purpose ; and all assert that they
are not injured by the tread of the horse *. This cere-
mony is called the dcl*eh* Many Rifa"ee and Sa'adee
durwee'shes obtain their livelihood by going about to
charm away serpents from houses. Of the feats of these
modern Psylli, an account will be given in another
chapter. — 2. The Ckc/diredyeh; an order founded by
the famous seyd 'Abd El-Cka'dir El-Geela'nee. Their
banners and turbans are white. Most of the Cka'diree*-
yeh of Egypt are fishermen : these, in religious proces-
sions, carry, upon poles, nets of various colours (green,
yellow, red, white, &c.), as the banners of their order.—
3. The Ahhmededyeh, or order of the seyd Ahh'mad
El-Bed'awee, whom I have lately mentioned. This is
a very numerous and highly respected order. Their
banners and turbans are red. — The Betyodmedyeh

* In the chapter on the periodical public festivals, &c, this
and other performances of the durwee'shes of Cairo will be
described more fully.

312 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

(founded by the seyd 'AFee El-Beiyoo'mee), the Shcta-
rafwetfyeh (founded by the sheykh Esh-Shaara'wee),
the Shirt not wetfych (founded by the seyd 'AFee Esh-
Shinna'wee), and many other orders, are sects of the
Ahhmedee'yeh. The Shin'na'wee'yeh train an ass to
perform a strange part in the ceremonies of the last day
of the moo'lid of their great patron saint, the seyd
Ahh'mad El-Bed/awee, at Tun'ta : the ass, of its own
accord, enters the mosque of the seyd, proceeds to the
tomb, and there stands while multitudes crowd around
it, and each person who can approach near enough to it
plucks off some of its hair, to use as a charm, until the
skin of the poor beast is as bare as the palm of a man's
hand. There is another sect of the Ahhmedee'yeh,
called Owlafd Noclhh> all young men ; who wear tur-
todrs (or high caps), with a tuft of pieces of various-
coloured cloth on the top, wooden swords, and numer-
ous strings of beads ; and carry a kind of whip (called
firckiVleh), a thick twist of cords.— 4. The Barathimeh*
or BoorhalmeJyeh ; the order of the seyd Ibrahee'm
Ed-Desoofckee ; whose moo'lid has been mentioned
above. Their banners and turbans are green. — There
are many other classes of durwee'shes ; some of whom
are sects of one or other of the above orders. Among
the more celebrated of them are the Hhefnalwedyeh,
the y Afeiftdy<h* the Dimurdafshedyeh^ the Nucksha-
bertdee'yeh, the Bekreefyeh, and the Leyseefyeh.

It is impossible to become acquainted with all the
tenets, rules, and ceremonies of the durwee'shes, as
many of them, like those of the freemasons, are not to
be divulged to the uninitiated. A durwee'sh with whom
I am acquainted thus described to me his taking the
'ahd, or initiatory covenant ; which is nearly the same

DURWBE'SHBS. 313

in all the orders. He was admitted by the sheykh of
the Dimurda'shee'yeh. Having first performed the
ablution preparatory to prayer (the woodoo 7 ), he seated
himself upon the ground before the sheykh, who was
seated in like manner. The sheykh and he (the
moored d, or candidate) then clasped their right hands
together in the manner which I have described as prac-
tised in making the marriage-contract : in this attitude,
and with their hands covered by the sleeve of the sheykh,
the candidate took the covenant; repeating, after the
sheykh, the following words, commencing with the
form of a common oath of repentance. " I beg for-
giveness of God, the Great" (three times) ; " than whom
there is no other deity; the Living, the Everlasting: I
turn to Him with repentance, and beg his grace, and
forgiveness, and exemption from the fire." The sheykh
then said to him, " Dost thou turn to God with repen-
tance ?'' He replied, " I do turn to G od with repentance ;
and I return unto God ; and I am grieved for what I
have done [amiss], and I determine not to relapse" —
and then repeated, after the sheykh, "I beg for the
favour of God, the Great, and the noble Prophet ; and
I take as my sheykh and my guide unto God (whose
name be exalted), my master 'Abd Er-Rahhee'm Ed*
Dimurda'shee El-Khal'wetfee Er-Rifa"ee En-Net/awee ;
not to change, nor to separate ; and God is our witness :
by God, the Great!" (this oath was repeated three
times): "there is no deity but God" (this also was
repeated three times). The sheykh and the mooreeM
then recited the Fa't'hhah together ; and the latter con*
eluded the ceremony by kissing the sheykh's hand.

The religious exercises of the durwee'shes chiefly con-
sist in the repetition of zikrs. Sometimes standing in

Q 5

314 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

the form of a circular or oblong ring, or in two rows,
facing each other, and sometimes sitting, they exclaim,
or chant, Lei ilafha Ula-lUth (There is no deity but
God), or Alldhl At lath! At id hi (God! God!
God !), or repeat other invocations, &c, over and over
again, until their strength is almost exhausted ; accom-
panying their ejaculations or chants with a motion of the
head, or of the whole body, or of the arms. From long
habit, they are able to continue these exercises for a sur-
prising length of time without intermission. They are
often accompanied, at intervals, by one or more players
upon a kind of flute, called naly 9 or a double reed-pipe,
called arghodl, and by persons singing religious odes ;
and some durwee'shes use a little drum, called bafz *, or
a tambourine, during their zikrs : some, also, perform a
peculiar dance ; the description of which, as well as of
several different zikrs, I reserve for a future chapter.

Some of the rites of durwee'shes (as forms of prayer,
modes of zikr, &c) are observed only by particular
orders : others, by members of various orders. Among
the latter may be mentioned the rites of the Khal T -
wetfees and Shdzilees ; two great classes ; each of which
has its sheykh. The chief difference between these is
that each has its particular form of prayer to repeat
every morning ; and that the former distinguish them-
selves by occasional seclusion ; whence their appellation
of" Khal'wetfeesf:" the prayer of this class is repeated
before day-break ; and is called wir'd sahlar : that of
the*Sha'zilees, which is called hhez'b esh-Skctzilee, after
day-break. Sometimes, a Khal'wetfee enters a solitary

* For descriptions of the instruments here mentioned, see a
subsequent chapter, on the Egyptian music, &c
f From kkaPweh, a cell, or closet.

DURWEE'SHES. 315

cell, and remains in it for forty days and nights, fasting
from day-break till sunset the whole of this period*
Sometimes also a number of the same class confine
themselves, each in a separate cell, in the sepulchral
mosque of the sheykh Ed-Dimur'da'shee, on the north
of Cairo, and remain there three days and nights, on
the occasion of the moo'lid of that saint, and only eat a
little rice, and drink a cup of sherbet, in the evening:
they employ themselves in repeating certain forms of
prayer, &c. not imparted to the uninitiated ; only coming
out of their cells to unite in the five daily prayers in the
mosque ; and never answering any one who speaks to
them but by saying " There is no deity but God." Those
who observe the forty days 1 fast, and seclude themselves
during that long period, practice nearly the same rules ;
and employ their time in repeating the testimony of the
faith, imploring forgiveness, praising God, &c.

Almost all the durwee'shes of Egypt are tradesmen
or artisans or agriculturists ; and only occasionally assist
in the rites and ceremonies of their respective orders ;
but there are some who have no other occupations than
those of performing zikrs at the festivals of saints and at
private entertainments, and of chanting in funeral pro-
cessions. These are termed foocUata^ or fackeefrs ;
which is an appellation given also to the poor in general,
but especially to poor devotees. Some obtain their live-
lihood as water-carriers, by supplying the passengers in
the streets of Cairo, and the visitors at religious festivals,
with water, which they carry in an earthen vessel, or a
goat's skin, on the back. A few lead a wandering life,
and subsist on alms ; which they often demand with
great importunacy and effrontery. Some of these distin-
guish themselves in the same manner as certain reputed

316 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

saints before mentioned, by the dilck, or coat of patches,
and the staff with shreds of cloth of different colours
attached to the top : others wear fantastic dresses of
various descriptions.

Some Rifef'ee durwee'shes (besides those who follow
the occupation of charming away serpents from houses)
pursue a wandering life; travelling about Egypt, and
profiting by a ridiculous superstition which I must here
mention. A venerated saint, called See Da-ooM El*
'Az'ab (or Master David the Bachelor), who lived at
Tefa'hineh, a village in Lower Egypt, had a calf, which
always attended him, brought him water, &c. Since his
death, some RhV'ee durwee'shes have been in the habit
of rearing a number of calves at his native place, or
burial place, above named ; teaching them to walk up
stairs, to lie down at command, &c. ; and then going
about the country, each with his calf, to obtain alms.
The calf is called 'Egl El- 9 Az'ab (the Calf of El-' Az'ab,
or of the Bachelor). I once called into my house one
of these durwee'shes, with his calf; the only one I have
seen : it was a buffalo calf; and had two bells suspended
to it; one attached to a collar round its neck, and the
other, to a girth round its body. It walked up the stairs
very well ; but showed that it had not been very well
trained in every respect. The 'Egl El-' Az'ab is vul-
garly believed to bring into the house a blessing from
the saint after whom it is called.

There are numerous wandering Turkish and Persian
durwee'shes in Egypt ; and to these, more than to the
few Egyptian durwee'shes who lead a similar life, must
the character for impudence and importunacy be as-
cribed. Very often, particularly in Rum'ada'n, a foreign
durwee'sh goes to the mosque of the Hhas'aney'n,

DURWBB'SHES. 317

which is that most frequented by the Turks and Persians,
at the time of the Friday-prayers ; and, when the Kha-
tee'b is reciting the first khoot'beh, passes between the
ranks of persons who are sitting upon the floor, and
places before each a little slip of paper upon which are
written a few words, generally exhortative to charity (as
u He who giveth alms will be provided for" — u The poor
durwee'sh asketh an alms," &c.) ; by which proceeding
he usually obtains from each, or almost every person, a
piece of five or ten fud'dahs, or more. Many of the
Persian durwee'shes in Egypt carry an oblong bowl
of cocoa-nut or wood or metal, in which they receive
their alms, and put their food ; and a wooden spoon ;
and most of the foreign durwee'shes wear dresses pecu-
liar to their respective orders : they are chiefly distin-
guished by the cap : the most common description of
cap is of a sugar-loaf, or conical, shape, and made of
felt : the other articles of dress are generally a vest and
full drawers, or trowsers, or a shirt and belt, and a coarse
cloak, or long coat. The Persians here all affect to be
Soon'nees. The Turks are the more intrusive of the two
classes.

318

Chapter XI.

superstitions — continued.

One of the most remarkable traits in modern Egyptian
superstition is" the belief in written charms. The com-
position of most of these amulets is founded upon magic ;
and occasionally employs the pen of almost every village
schoolmaster in Egypt. A person of this profession,
however, seldom pursues the study of magic further than
to acquire the formulae of a few charms, most commonly
consisting, for the greater part, of certain passages of
the Ckoor-a'n, and names of God, together with those
of spirits, genii, prophets, or eminent saints, intermixed
with combinations of numerals, and with diagrams, all
of which are supposed to have great secret virtues.

The most esteemed of all hhegafbs (or charms) is a
mooffhhaf (or copy of the Ckoor-a'n). It used to be
the general custom of the Turks of the middle and
higher orders, and of many other Moos'lims, to wear a
small moos'hhaf in an embroidered leather or velvet
case hung upon the right side by a silk string which
passed over the left shoulder : but this custom is not
now very common. During my former visit to this
country, a respectable Turk, in the military dress, was
seldom seen without a case of this description upon his
side ; though it often contained no hhega'b. The
moos'hhaf and other hhega'bs are still worn by many
women ; generally enclosed in cases of gold, or of gilt or

CHARMS. 319

plain silver. To the former, and to many other charms,
most extensive efficacy is attributed : they are esteemed
preservatives against disease, enchantment, the evil eye,
and a variety of other evils. The charm next in point
of estimation to the mcWhhaf is a book or scroll contain-
ing certain chapters of the Ckoor-a'n ; as the 6th, 18th,
36th, 44th, 55th, 67th, and 78th ; or some others ; gene-
rally seven. — Another charm, which is believed to
protect the wearer (who usually places it within his cap)
from the devil, genii, and many other objects of fear, is
a piece of paper inscribed with the following passages
from the Ckoor-a'n*, u And the preservation of both
[heaven and earth] is no burden unto Him. He is the
High, the Great'' (chap, ii., ver. 256). " But God is the
best protector ; and He is the most merciful of those who
show mercy " (chap, xii., ver. 64). " They watch him
by the command of God " (chap, xiii., ver. 12). " And
we guard them from every devil driven away with stones"
(chap, xv., ver. 17). " And a guard against every
rebellious devil " (chap, xxxvii, ver. 7). " And a guard.
This is the decree of the Mighty, the Wise " (chap, lxi.,
ver. 11). *• And God encompasseth them behind. Verily
it is a glorious Ckoor-a'n, [written] on a preserved
tablet" (chap, lxxxv., ver. 20, 2 1,22). —The ninety-nine
names, or epithets, of God, comprising all the divine
attributes, if frequently repeated, and written on a paper,
and worn on the person, are supposed to make the
wearer a particular object for the exercise of all the
beneficent attributes. — In like manner it is believed that
the ninety-nine names, or titles, &c, of the Prophet,
written upon anything, compose a charm which (accord-

* Called a'ya't cl-hhefz (the verses of protection, or preserva-
tion).

320 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ing to bis own assertion, as recorded by bis son-in-law
the Ima'm 'Al'ee) will, if placed in a bouse, and fre-
quently read from beginning to end, keep away every
misfortune, pestilence and all diseases, infirmity, the
envious eye, enchantment, burning, ruin, anxiety, grief,
and trouble. After repeating each of these names, the
Moos'lim adds, " God favour and preserve him ! " —
Similar virtues are ascribed to a charm composed of the
names of the As-hhafb el-Kahf (or Companions of the
Cave, also called the Seven Sleepers), together with the
name of their dog *. These names are sometimes en-
graved on the round tray of tinned copper which, placed
on a stool, forms the table for dinner, supper, &c. —
Another charm, supposed to have similar efficacy, is
composed of the names of those paltry articles of pro-
perty which the Prophet left at his decease. These
relics f were two set/hhahs (or rosaries), his mooihhaf
(in unarranged fragments), his mooW-hhootah (or the
vessel in which he kept the black powder with which he
painted the edges of his eyelids), two seggafdehs (or
prayer-carpets), a hand-mill, a staff, a tooth-stick, a suit
of clothes {, the ewer which he used in ablution, a pair
of sandals, a bo<n*deh (or a kind of woollen covering §),

* These, it is said, were Christian youths of Ephesus, who
took refuge from the persecution of the emperor Decius in a cave,
and slept there, guarded by their dog, for the space of 300 [solar]
or 309 [lunar] years. (See the Ckoor-a'n, chap, xviii.)

f Called mookhallqfa't tn-mVtt.

% A shirt which is said to have been worn by the Prophet is
preserved in the mosque of El-Ghoo'ree, in Cairo. It is wrapped
in a Kashmee'r shawl ; and not shown to any but persons of very
high rank.

§ The boor'dch) which is worn by some of the peasants in
Egypt, is an oblong piece of thick woollen stuff, resembling the

CHARMS. 321

three mats, a coat of mail, a long woollen coat, his white
mule dootdool, and his camel 'actba. — Certain verses of
the Ckoor-a'n are also written upon slips of paper, and
worn upon the person as safeguards against various
evils, and to procure restoration to health, love and
friendship, food, &c. These and other charms, enclosed
in cases of gold, silver, tin, leather, or silk, &c, are worn
by many of the modern Egyptians, men, women, and
children.

It is very common to see children, in this country,
with a charm against the evil eye, enclosed in a case,
generally of a triangular form, attached to the top of
the cap; and horses often have similar appendages.
The Egyptians take many precautions against the evil
eye; and anxiously endeavour to avert its imagined
consequences. When a person expresses what is con*
sidered improper or envious admiration of anything, he
is generally reproved by the individual whom he has
thus alarmed, who says to him, " Bless the Prophet* ! " ;
and if the envier obeys, saying, "O God, favour
himt!''» no ill effects are apprehended. It is consi-
dered very improper for a person to express his admira-
tion of another, or of any object which is not his own

hkera'm, excepting in colour, being generally brown or greyish.
The Prophet's is described as about seven feet and a half in
length, and four and a half in width. It was used by him, as
boorMehs are at present, both to envelop the body by day and as
a night-covering. I may be excused for remarking here (as it
seems to be unknown to some Arabic scholars) that the terms
akh'dar and ahh'tnar, which are applied by different historians to
the Prophet's boorMeh, are used to signify respectively grey and
brown, as well as green and red.

* Sal'lee 'a-n-neb'te, for ~al ! a-n-neb , ee.

f Alla'hoom (for Jlia'hoom'ma) toPlee 'aley'Ju

322 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

property, by saying " God preserve Ǥ*!* "How
pretty ! " or, u Very pretty ! * : the most approved ex-
pression in such eases is '< Md tha-Ua!k!" (or " God's
will ! ") ; which implies both admiration, and submis-
sion to, or approval of, the will of God. A person who
has exclaimed " How pretty I ", or used similar words,
is often desired to say, rather, u Ma' sha-us/hl" as weH
as to bless the Prophet In the second chapter of this
work, a remarkable illustration has been given of the
fear which mothers in Egypt entertain of the effect of
the evil eye upon their children. It is the custom in
this country, when a person takes the child of another
into his arms, to say, " In the name of God, the Com-
passionate, the Merciful!" and, "O God, favour out
krdMohham'mad!"; and then to add, ''JoVsha-Ua/h!''
It is also a common custom of the people of Egypt,
when admiring a child, to say, " I seek refuge with the
Lord of the Day-break for thee ! " alluding to the
Chapter of the Day-break (the 113th chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n); in the end 6f which, protection is im-
plored against the mischief of the envious. The
parents, when they see a person stare at, or seem to
envy, their young offspring, sometimes cut off a piece
of the skirts of his clothes, burn it with a little salt
(to which some add coriander-seed, alumn, &&), and
fumigate with the smoke, and sprinkle with the ashes,
the child or children. This, it is said, should be
done a little before sunset; when the sun becomes
red.
Alumn is very generally used, in the following man-

* The ejaculation which I thus translate it IV teia'm, or Yet
tela! moo ieflim.

CHARMS. 323

ner, by the people of Egypt, to counteract the effects of
the evil eye. A piece of about the size of a walnut is
placed upon burning coals, and left until it has ceased
to bubble. This should be done a short time before
sunset; and the person who performs the operation
should repeat three times, while the ahunn is burning,
the first chapter of the Ckoor-a'n, and the last three
chapters of the same ; all of which are very short On
taking the alumn off the fire, it will be fouud (we are
told) to have assumed the form of the person whose
envy or malice has given occasion for this process : it is
then to be pounded ; put into some food ; and given to
a black dog, to be eaten. I have once seen this done,
by a man who suspected his wife of having looked
upon him with an evil eye ; and in this case, the alumn
did assume a form much resembling that of a woman,
in what the man declared was a peculiar posture in
which his wife was accustomed to sit. But the shape
which the alumn takes depends almost entirely upon the
disposition of the coals ; and can hardly be such that
the imagination may not see in it some resemblance to
a human being. — Another supposed mode of obviating
the effects of the envious eye is, to prick a paper with a
needle, saying, at the same time, " This is the eye of
such a one, the envier ;" and then to burn the paper. —
Alumn is esteemed a very valuable charm against the
evil eye : sometimes, a small, flat piece of it, ornamented
with tassels, is hung to the top of a child's cap. A
tassel of little shells and beads is also used in the same
manner, and for the same purpose. The small shells
called cowries are considered preservatives against the
evil eye ; and hence, as well as for the sake of orna-
ment, they are often attached to the trappings of camels,

324 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

hones, and other animals, and sometimes to the caps of
children *.

To counteract the effects of the evil eye, many per-
sons in Egypt, but mostly women, make use of what is
called mafah moobafrakah (or blessed storax), which is
a mixture of various ingredients that will be mentioned
below, prepared and sold only during the first ten days of
the month of Mohhar'ram. During this period, we often
see, in the streets of Cairo, men carrying about this mix-
ture of mey"ah, &c. for sale ; and generally crying some
such words as the following — a Mey"ah mooba'rakah !
A new year and blessed 'A'shoo'raf! The most
blessed of years [may this be] to the believers! Ya'
mey"ah mooba'rakah ! '' — The man who sells it bears
upon his head a round tray, covered with different-co-
loured sheets of paper, red, yellow, &c. ; upon which is
placed the valuable mixture. In the middle is a large
heap of tifl (or refuse) of a dark reddish material for
dying, mixed with a little mer/'ah (or storax), coriander-
seed J, and seed of the fennel-flower § : round this large
heap are smaller heaps ; one consisting of salt dyed
blue with indigo ; another, of salt dyed red; a third, of
salt dyed yellow ; a fourth, of sheehh (a kind of worm-
wood) ; a fifth, of dust of libafn (or frankincense).
These are all the ingredients of the " Mey"ah mooba'-
rakah.*' The seller is generally called into the house of'
the purchaser. Having placed his tray before him, and
received a plate, or a piece of paper, in which to put the

* Such appendages are evidently meant to attract the eye to
themselves, and so to prevent observation and envy of the object
which they are designed to protect.

f This is the name of the tenth day of Mohhar'ram.

X Kooz'bar'ah. § Hhab f be h so f da, ox hhab' bet el-bar' akah.

CHARMS. 325

quantity to be purchased, he takes a little from one
heap, then from another, then from a third, and so on,
until he has taken some from each heap ; after which*
again and again, he takes an additional quantity from
each kind. While he does this, he chants a long spell,
generally commencing thus — "In the name of God!
and by God ! There is no conqueror that conquereth
God, the Lord of the East arid the West : we are all his
servants : we must acknowledge his unity : his unity is
an illustrious attribute." After some words on the vir-
tues of salt, he proceeds to say — " I charm thee from
the eye of girl, sharper than a spike ; and from the eye
of woman, sharper than a pruning-knife ; and from the
eye of boy, more painful than a whip ; and from the eye
of man, sharper than a chopping-knife ;'' and so on.
Then he relates how Solomon deprived the evil eye of
its influence ; and afterwards enumerates every article
of property that the house is likely to contain, and that
the person who purchases his wonderful mixture may
be conjectured to possess; all of which he charms
against the influence of the eye. Many of the ex-
pressions which he employs in this spell are very ridi-
culous : words being introduced merely for the sake of
rhyme. — The mey^ah mooba'rakah, a handful of which
may be purchased for five fud'dahs *, is treasured up by
the purchaser during the ensuing year ; and whenever
it is feared that a child or other person is affected by the
evil eye, a little of it is thrown upon some burning coals
in a chafing-dish ; and the smoke which results is gene-
rally made to ascend upon the supposed sufferer.

It is a custom among the higher and middle classes
in Cairo, on the occasion of a marriage, to hang chan-

* Now equivalent to a farthing and one fifth.

326 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

dehers in the street before the bridegroom's bouae; and
it often happens that a crowd is collected to see a very
large and handsome chandelier suspended: in this
case, it is a common practice to divert the attention of
the spectators by throwing down and breaking a large
jar, or by some other artifice, lest an envious eye should
cause the chandelier to fall. Accidents which confirm
the Egyptians in their superstitions respecting the evil
eye often occur : for instance, a friend of mine has just
related to me, that, a short time ago, be saw a camel
carrying two very large jars of oil : a woman stopped
before it, and exclaimed "God preserve us! What
large jars ! " — the conductor of the camel did not tell
her to bless the Prophet ; and the camel, a few minutes
after, fell, and broke both the jars, and one of its own
legs.

While writing these notes on modern Egyptian super-
stitions, I have been amused by a complaint of one of
my Musfree* friends, which will serve to illustrate
what I have just stated. — "The Ba'sha," he said,
" having, a few days ago* given up his monopoly of the
meat, the butchers now slaughter for their own shops;
and it is quite shocking to see fine sheep hung up in
the streets, quite whole, tailf and all, before the public
eye ; so that every beggar who passes by envies them ;
and one might, therefore, as well eat poison as such
meat." — My cook has made the same complaint to me ;
and, rather than purchase from one of the shops near at
hand, takes the trouble of going to one in a distant
quarter, kept by a man who conceals his meat from the
view of the passengers in the street.

* That is, Caireen.

f The fat of the tail ia esteemed a dainty.

CHARMS. 327

Many of the tradesmen of the metropolis and other
towns of Egypt, place over their shops (generally upon
the hanging shutter which is turned up in front) a paper
inscribed with the name of God, or that of the Prophet,
or both, or the profession of the faith (" There is no
deity bat God: Mohham'mad is God's Apostle"), the
bismitlah (" In the name of God, the Compassionate,
the Merciful*), or some maxim of the Prophet, or a
verse of the Ckoor-a'n (as, " Verily we have granted thee
a manifest victory " [ch. xlviii., ver. 1], and "Assistance
from God, and a speedy victory : and do thou bear good
tidings to the true believers" [ch. lxi.,ver. 13]), or an
invocation to the deity, such as, " Oh thou opener [of
the doors of prosperity, or subsistence] ! O thou wise !
O thou supplier of our wants ! O thou bountiful * ! " —
This invocation is often pronounced by the tradesman
when he first opens his shop in the morning, and by
the pedestrian vender of small commodities, bread, vege-
tables, &c., when he sets out on his daily rounds. It
is a custom among the lower orders to put the first
piece of money that they receive in the day to the lips
and forehead before putting it in the pocket

Besides the inscriptions over shops, we often see, in
Cairo, the invocation " O God f '•" sculptured over the
door of a private house ; and the words "The Creator
is the Everlasting," or " He is the Creator, the Ever-
lasting/' painted in large characters upon the door,
both as a charm and to remind the master of the house,
whenever he enters it, of his own mortality J. These

• Ya'fetta'hh! Ya"aieJm! Yaf rexzafck! Ya> keree'n!
f Ya' AVlcthl

\ See the engraving of a door with this inscription inserted in
the introduction.

328 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

words are often inscribed upon the door of a house when
its former master, and many or all of its former inhabi-
tants, have been removed by death.

The most approved mode of charming away sickness
or disease is to write certain passages of the Ckoor-a'n *
on the inner surface of an earthenware cap or bowl ;
then to pour in some water, and stir it until the writing
is quite washed off; when the water, with the sacred
words thus infused h> it, is to be drunk by the patient.
These words are as follow : " And he will heal the
breasts of the people who believe" (chap, ix., ver. 14).
" O men, now hath an admonition come unto you from
your Lord ; and a remedy for what is in your breasts'*
(chap, x., ver. 58). u Wherein is a remedy for men"
(chap, xvi., ver. 71). " We send down, of the Ckoor-a'n,
that which is a remedy and mercy to the believers"
(chap, xvii., ver. 84). u And when I am sick Ixehealetk
me*' (chap, xxii., ver. 80). " Say, it is, to those who be-
lieve, a guide and a remedy 19 (chap, xli., ver. 44). Four
of these verses, notwithstanding they are thus used,
refer not to diseases of the body y but of the mind; and
another (the third) alludes to the virtues of honey I —
On my applying to my sheykh (or tutor) to point out
to me in what chapters these verses were to be found,
he begged me not to translate them into my own lan-
guage ; because the translation of the Ckoor-a'n, unac-
companied by the original text, is prohibited : not that
he seemed ashamed of the practice of employing these
words as a charm, and did not wish my countrymen to
be informed of the custom ; for he expressed his full
belief in their efficacy, even in the case of an infidel
patient, provided he had proper confidence in their
* Called a'yolt eth-skifc (the verses of restoration).

MAGIC. 353

seven flags as appearing to him, he was desired to say,
"Bring the Soolta'n's tent; and pitch it." This he
did; and in about a minute after, he said, " Some men
have brought the tent ; a large, green tent : they are
pitching it ;" and presently he added, " they have set
it up." " Now," said the magician, *• order the soldiers
to come, and to pitch their camp around the tent of the
Soolta'n." The boy did as he was desired ; and imme-
diately said, "I see a great many soldiers, with their
tents : they have pitched the tents." He was then told
to order that the soldiers should be drawn up in ranks ;
and, having done so, he presently said, that he saw them
thus arranged. The magician had put the fourth of
the little strips of paper into the chafing-dish ; and soon
after, he did the same with the fifth. He now said,
" Tell some of the people to bring a bull." The boy
gave the order required, and said, u I see a bull : it is
red: four men are dragging it along; and three are
beating it." He was told to desire them to kill it, and
cut it up, and to put the meat in saucepans, and cook
it. He did as he was directed ; and described these
operations as apparently performed before his eyes.
" Tell the soldiers," said the magician, " to eat it."
The boy did so ; and said, " They are eating it. They
have done ; and are washing their hands." The magi-
cian then told him to call for the Soolta'n ; and the boy,
having done this, said, " I see the Soolta'n riding to his
tent, on a bay horse ; and he has, on his head, a high
red cap : he has alighted at his tent, and sat down
within it." " Desire them to bring coffee to the Soolta'n,"
said the magician, " and to form the court." These
orders were given by the boy; and he said that he saw
them performed. The magician had put the last of the

8

154 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

six little strips of paper into the chafing-dish. In his
jnutterings I distinguished nothing but the words of
the written invocation, frequently repeated, excepting
on two or three occasions, when I heard him say, " If
they demand information, inform them ; and be ye ve-
racious."

He now addressed himself to me ; and asked me if I
wished the boy to see any person who was absent or
dead. I named Lord Nelson; of whom the boy had
evidently never heard ; for it was with much difficulty
that he pronounced the name, after several trials. The
magician desired the boy to say to the Soolta'a — " My
master salutes thee, and desires thee to bring Lord
Nelson : bring him before my eyes, that I may see him,
speedily/' The boy then said so; and almost imme-
diately added, u A messenger is gone, and has returned,
and brought a man, dressed in a black * suit of Euro-
pean clothes: the man has lost his left arm." He then
paused for a moment or two ; and, looking more in-
tently, and move closely, into the ink, said, " No, he
has not lost his left arm ; but it is placed to his breast"
This correction made his description more striking than
it had been without it: sinee Lord Nelson generally had
his empty sleeve attached to the breast of his coat : but
It was the right arm that he had lost Without saying
that I suspected the boy had made acnistake, I asked
the magician whether the objects appeased in the ink as
if actually before the eyes, <cr as if in a glass, which
makes the right appear left He ansmtened, tint they
appeased as m a jninrar. This ffendened the coy* de-
scription faultless.

* Jfc&!Hue4Sca^d,%theM*mBgyff^
fmoparly^gai&<9^^e^«^ifi<thjSMfoie8D translated bate.

r~

MAGIC. 365

The next person I called for was a native of Egypt,
who has been for many years resident in England,
where he has adopted our dress ; and who had been
long confined to his bed by illness before I embarked
for this country : I thought that his name, one not very
uncommon in Egypt, might make the boy describe him
incorrectly; though another boy, on the former visit
of the magician, had described this same person as
wearing a European dress, like that in which I last saw
him. In the present case the boy said, " Here is a
.man brought on a kind of bier, and wrapped up in a
sheet" This description would suit, supposing the
person in question to be still confined to his bed, or if
he be dead *. The boy described his face as covered ;
and was told to order that it should be uncovered. This
he did ; and then said, " His face is pale ; and he has
mustaches, but no beard :" which is correct.

Several other persons were successively called for;
but the boy's descriptions of them were imperfect;
though not altogether incorrect. He represented each
object as appearing less distinct than the preceding
one; as if his sight were gradually becoming dim : he
was a minute, or more, before he could give any account
of the persons he professed to see towards the close of
the performance ; and the magician said it was useless
to proceed with him. Another boy was then brought
in ; and the magic square, &c. made in his hand ; but
he could see nothing. The magician said that he was
too old.

* A few months after this* was written, I had the pleasure of
hearing that the person here alluded to was in better health.
'Whether he was confined to his bed at the time when this ex-
yrimcnt was performed, I have not been able to ascertain.

s 2

356 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Though completely puzzled, I was somewhat disap-
pointed with his performances, for they fell short of
what he had accomplished, in many instances, in pre-
sence of certain of my friends and countrymen. On
one of these occasions, an Englishman present ridiculed
the performance, and said that nothing would satisfy
him but a correct description of the appearance of his
own father, of whom, he was sure, no one of the com-
pany had any knowledge. The boy, accordingly, hav-
ing called by name for the person alluded to, described
a man in a Frank dress, of course, with his hand placed
to his head, wearing spectacles, and with one foot on the
ground, and the other raised behind him, as if he were
stepping down from a seat. The description was ex-
actly true in every respect : the peculiar position of the
hand was occasioned by an almost constant head-ache ;
and that of the foot or leg, by a stiff knee, caused by a
fall from a horse, in hunting. I am assured that, on
this occasion, the boy accurately described each person
and thing that was called for. On another occasion,
Shakspeare was described with the most minute correct-
ness, both as to person and dress; and I might add
several other cases in which the same magician has ex-
cited astonishment in the sober minds of Englishmen
of my acquaintance. A short time since, after perform-
ing in the usual manner, by means of a boy, he prepared
the magic mirror in the hand of a young English lady,
who, on looking into it for a litttle while, said that she
saw a broom sweeping the ground without anybody
holding it, and was so much frightened that she would
look no longer.

I have stated these facts partly from my own expe-
rience, and partly as they came to my knowledge on the

MAGIC. 357

authority of respectable persons. The reader may be
tempted to think, that, in each instance, the boy saw
images produced by some reflection in the ink ; but this
was evidently not the case ; or that he was a confederate,
or guided by leading questions. That there was no con-
federacy, I satisfactorily ascertained, by selecting the boy
who performed the part above described in my presence
from a number of others passing by in the street, and
by his rejecting a present which I afterwards offered
him with the view of inducing him to confess that he
did not really see what he had professed to have seen. I
tried the veracity of another boy on a subsequent occa-
sion in the same manner ; and the result was the same.
The experiment often entirely fails ; but when the boy
employed is right in one case, he generally is so in all :
when he gives, at first, an account altogether wrong, the
magician usually dismisses him at once, saying that he
is too old. The perfumes, or excited imagination, or
fear, may be supposed to affect the vision of the boy
who describes objects as appearing to him in the ink ;
but, if so, why does he see exactly what is required, and
objects of which he can have had no previous particular
notion ? Neither I nor others have been able to dis-
cover any clue by which to penetrate the mystery ; and
if the reader be alike unable to give the solution, I hope
that he will not allow the above account to induce in his
mind any degree of scepticism with respect to other
portions of this work.

359

Chapter XIII.

CHARACTER.

The natural or innate character of the modern Egyp-
tians is altered, in a remarkable degree, by their religion,
laws, and government, as well as by the climate and
other causes ; and to form a just opinion of it is, there-
fore, very difficult. We may, however, confidently state,
that they are endowed, in a higher degree than most
other people, with some of the more important mental
qualities, particularly, quickness of apprehension, a ready
wit, and a retentive memory. In youth, they generally
possess these and other intellectual powers ; but the
causes above alluded to gradually lessen their mental
energy.

Of the leading features of their character, none is more
remarkable than their religious pride. They regard
persons of every other faith as the children of perdition ;
and such, the Mooslim is early taught to despise *. It
is written in the Ckoor-a'n, " O ye who have become
believers, take not the Jews or Christians for your
friends: they are friends, one to another; but who-
soever of you taketh them for his friends, he, surely,
is one of them f ." From motives of politeness, or

* I am credibly informed that children in Egypt are often
taught, at school, a regular set of curses to denounce upon the
persons and property of Christians, Jews, and all other unbe-
lievers in the religion of MohhanVmad.

f Chap, v., ver. 56.

CHARACTER. 359

selfish interest, these people will sometimes talk with
apparent liberality of sentiment, and even make pro-
fessions of friendship, to a Christian (particularly to
a European), whom, in their hearts, they contemn : but
ae the Moos'lims of Egypt judge of the Franks in ge-
neral from the majority of those in their towns, some of
whom are outcasts from their native countries, and others,
men under no moral restraint, they are hardly to be
blamed for despising them. The Christians are, how-
ever, generally treated with civility by the people of
Egypt: the Moos'lims being as remarkable for their
toleration as for their contempt of unbelievers.

It is considered the highest honour, among the
Moos'lims, to be religious ; but the desire to appear so
leads many into hypocrisy and pharisaical ostentation.
When a Moos'lim is unoccupied by business or amuse-
ment or conversation, he is often heard to utter some
pious ejaculation. If a wicked thought, or the remem-
brance of a wicked action that he has committed, trouble
him, he sighs forth, " I beg forgiveness of God, the
Great*!" The shop-keeper, when not engaged with
customers, nor enjoying his pipe, often employs himself,
in the sight and hearing of the passengers in the street,
in reciting a chapter of the Ckoor-a'n, or in repeating to
himself those expressions in praise of God which often
follow the ordinary prayers, and are counted with the
beads ; and in the same public manner he prays. — The
Moos'lims frequently swear by God (but not irrever-
ently) ; and also, by the Prophet, and by the head, or
beard, of the person they address. When one is told
ail) thing that excites his surprise and disbelief, he gene-
rally exclaims, " wa-l'lah?" or, " wa-Ualhi?" (by

« Astvgh'fir Alla'h el-AxeSm.

360 MODBRN EGYPTIANS.

God?); and the other replies, "uxt-UathiP 1 — As on
ordinary occasions before eating and drinking', so, also,
on taking medicine, commencing a writing or any im-
portant undertaking, and before many a trifling act, it
is their habit to say, " In the name of God, the Compas-
sionate, the Merciful ;" and after the act, " Praise be to
God." — When two persons make any considerable bar-
gain, they recite together the first chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n (the Fa't'hhah). In case of a debate on any
matter of business or of opinion, it is common for one of
the parties, or a third person who may wish to settle the
dispute, or to cool the disputants, to exclaim, " Blessing
on the Prophet*!" — " O God, favour himt , •' , I s said,
in a low voice, by the other or others ; and they then
continue the argument ; but generally with moderation.*
Religious ejaculations often interrupt' conversation
upon trivial and even licentious subjects, in Egyptian
society ; sometimes, in such a manner that a person not
well acquainted with the character of this people would
perhaps imagine that they intended to make religion a
jest. In many of their most indecent songs, the name
of God is frequendy introduced ; and this is certainly
done without any profane motive, but from the habit of
often mentioning the name of the Deity in vain, and of
praising Him on every trifling occasion of surprise, or in
testimony of admiration of anything uncommon. Thus,
a libertine, describing his impressions on the first sight
of a charming girl (in one of the grossest sougs I have
ever seen or heard even in the Arabic language), ex-
claims, " Extolled be He who formed thee, O full

* Et-tal'ah 'a-n-neb'cc (for — 'al'a-n-neb'ee) / or " Bless ye (or
bless thou) the Prophet !" — Sal' loo (or wafltt) 'a'ti-ncb'ee.
f AUa'koom (for Alla'hoom'ma) Ml'lce 'a/eg' A.

CHARACTER. 361

moon!" — and this and many similar expressions are
common in many other songs and odes : but what is
most remarkable in the song particularly alluded to
above is a profane comparison with which it terminates.
I shall adduce, as an example of the strange manner in
which licentiousness and religion are often blended toge-
ther in vulgar Egyptian poetry and rhyming prose, a
translation of the last three stanzas of an ode on love
and wine : —

" She granted me a reception, the graceful of form,
after her distance and coyness. I kissed her teeth and
her cheek ; and the cup rang in her hand. The odours
of musk and ambergris were diffused by a person whose
form surpassed the elegance of a straight and slender
branch. . She spread a bed of brocade ; and I passed
the time in uninterrupted happiness. A Turkish fawn
enslaved me.

" Now I beg forgiveness of God, my Lord, for all my
faults and sins ; and for all that my heart hath said.
My members testify against me. Whenever grief
oppresses me, O Lord, Thou art my hope from what-
ever afflicts me. Thou knowest what I say, and what
I think. Thou art the Bountiful, the Forgiving! I
implore thy protection : then pardon me.

" And I praise that benignant being * whom a cloud
was wont to shade ; the comely : how great was his
comeliness ! He will intercede for us on the day of judg-
ment, when his haters, the vile, the polytheists, shall be
repentant. Would that I might always, as long as I live,
accompany the pilgrims, to perform the circuits and wor-
ship and courses, and live in uninterrupted happiness !"

In translating the first of the above stanzas, I have

* The Prophet.

8 5

36* MODRSN EGYPTIANS.

substituted the feminine for the masculine pronoun : for,
in the original, the former is meant, though the latter is
used ; as is commonly the case in similar compositions
of the Egyptians.— One of my Moos'lim friends having
jnst called on me, after my writing the above remarks, I
read to him the last four stanzas of this ode ; and asked
him if he considered it proper thus to mix up religion
with debauchery. He answered, " Perfectly proper : a
man relates his having committed sins ; and then prays
to God for forgiveness, and blesses the Prophet." —
" But," said J, " this is an ode written to be chanted for
the amusement of persons who take pleasure in unlawful
indulgences : and see here, when I close the leaves,
the page which celebrates a debauch comes in contact,
face to face, with that upon which are written the names
of the Deity : the commemoration of the pleasures of
sin is placed upon the prayer for forgiveness." " That
is nonsense," replied my friend : " turn the book over :
place that side upwards which is now downwards ; and
then the case will be the reverse ; sin covered by for*
giveness : and God, whose name be exalted, hath said
in the Excellent Book, c Say, O my servants who have
transgressed against your own souls, despaitfiot of the
mercy of God ; seeing that God fbrgiveth all sins : for
He is the Forgiving ; the Merciful*.' ''—His answer re-
minds me of what I have often observed, that the gene-
rality of Moosftms, a most inconsistent people, are every
day breaking their law in some rjbint or other, trusting
that two words (" Asiogh'nr Alla'h," <* " I beg forgive-
ness of God ") will cancel every transgression. He had
a copy of the Ckoor*e/n in his hand ; and on my turning
k over to look for the vene he had quoteaY * found in it

* Ckoor-a'n, chap, xxxix., ver. 54.

CHARACTER. 363

a scrap of paper containing some words from the vene-
rated volume : he was about to burn this piece of paper,
lest it should fall out) and be trodden upon ; and on my
asking him whether it was allowable to do so, he an-
swered, that k might either be burnt, or thrown into
running water ; but that it was better to burn it, as the
words would ascend in the flames, and be conveyed by
angels to heaven. — Sometimes the Ckoor-a'n is quoted
in jest, even by persons of strict religious principles.
For instance, the following equivocal and evasive answer

4

was once suggested to me on a person's asking of me a
present of a watch, which, I must previously mention, is
called " sa^ah," a word which signifies an " hour,'' and
the " period of the general judgment :"— " Verily, the
id' ah shall come : I will surely make it to appear "
(chap, xx., ver. 15).

There are often met with, in Egyptian society, persons
who will introduce an apposite quotation from the
Ckoor-a'n or the Traditions of the Prophet in common
conversation, whatever be the topic ; and an interruption
of this kind is not considered, as it would be in general
society in our own country, either hypocritical or annoy-
ing ; but father occasions expressions, if not feelings,
of admiration; and often diverts the hearers from a
trivial subject to matters of a more serious nature. The
Moos'lims of Egypt, and, I believe, those of other coun-
tries, are generally fond of conversing on religion ; and
the most prevalent mode of entertaining a party of guests
among the higher and middle ranks in this place (Cairo)
is the recital of a kkuifmek (or the- whole of the Ckoor-
ahi), which is chanted by fiek'ees, hired. for the purpose j
or the performance of a zikr, which has been before
mentioned. Few persons among them would venture

364 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

to say, that they prefer hearing a concert of music to the
performance of a khut'meh or zikr ; and they certainly
do take great pleasure in the latter performances. The
manner in which the Ckoor-a'n is sometimes chanted
is, indeed, very pleasing ; though I must say, that a
complete khut'meh is, to me, extremely tiresome. With
the religious zeal of the Moos'lims, I am daily struck :
yet I have often wondered that they so seldom attempt
to make converts to their faith. On my expressing my
surprise, as I have frequently done, at their indifference
with respect to the propagation of their religion, con-
trasting it with the conduct of their ancestors of the
early ages of El-Isla'm, 1 have generally been answered
— <f Of what use would it be if I could convert a thou-
sand infidels? Would it increase the number of the
faithful? By no means: the number of the faithful is
decreed by God ; and no act of man can increase or
diminish it." The contending against such an answer
would have led to an interminable dispute : so I never
ventured a reply. I have heard quoted, by way of apo-
logy for their neglecting to make proselytes, the follow-
ing words of the Ckoor-a'n : " Dispute not against those
who have received the Scriptures*" (namely, #ie Chris-
tians and Jews), without the words immediately follow-
ing — i( unless in the mildest manner ; except against
such of them as behave injuriously [towards you] : and
say [unto them] we believe in [the revelation] that hath
been sent down unto us, and [also*in that] which hath
been sent down unto you: and our God and your God.
is one." This precept is, however, generally considered
as abrogated by that of the sword : if it were acted upon
by the Moos'lims, it might perhaps lead to disputes

* Chap, xzix., ver. 45.

CHARACTER. 365

which would make them more liberal-minded, and much
better informed.

The respect which most modern Moos'lims pay to their
Prophet is almost idolatrous. They very frequently
swear by him ; and many of the most learned, as well
as the ignorant, often implore his intercession. Pil-
grims are generally much more affected on visiting his
tomb than in performing any other religious rite. There
are some Moos'lims who will not do anything that the
Prophet is not recorded to have done ; and who parti-
cularly abstain from eating anything that he did not eat,
though its lawfulness be undoubted. The Ima'm Ahh'-
mad Ib'n Hham'bal would not even eat water-melons,
because, although he knew that the Prophet ate them,
he could not learn whether he ate them with or without
the rind, or whether he broke, bit, or cut them : and he
forbad a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety
of the act, to spin by the light of torches passing in the
street by night, which were not her own property, be-
cause the Prophet had not mentioned whether it was
lawful to do so, and was not known to have ever availed
himself of a light belonging to another person, without
that person's leave. I once, admiring some very pretty
pipe- bowls, asked the maker why he did not stamp them
with his name. He answered u God forbid ! My name
is Ahh'mad " (one of the names of the Prophet) : " would
you have me put it in the fire?" — I have heard adduced
as one of the subjects of complaint against the present
Ba'sha, his causing the camels and horses of the govern-
ment to be branded with his names of " Mohham'mad
'Aree." " In the first place," said a friend of mine,
who mentioned this fact to me, " the iron upon which
are engraved these names, names which ought to be so

366 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

much venerated, the names of the Prophet (God favour
and preserve him !), and his Nephew (may God be weH
pleased with him !), is put into the fire, which is shocking :
then it is applied to the neck of a camel ; and causes
blood, which is impure, to flow, and to pollute the sacred
names both upon the iron and upon the animal's skin :
and when the wound is healed, how probable is it, and
almost certain and unavoidable, that the camel will, whea
he lies down, lay his neck upon something unclean."

A similar feeling is the chief reason why the Moos'Uras
object to printing their books. They have scarcely*
book (I do not remember to have seen one) that does not
contain the name of God : it is a rule among 1 them to
commence every book with the words " In the name of
God, the Compassionate, the Merciful," and to begin
fhe preface or introduction by praising God, and blessing
the Prophet ; and they fear some impurity might be
contracted by the ink that is applied to the name of the
Deity, in the process of printing, or by the paper to be
impressed with that sacred name, and perhaps with words
taken from the Ckoor-a'n :- they fear, also, that their
books, becoming very cheap by being printed, would fall
into the hands of infidels; and are much shocked at the
idea of using a brush composed of hogs' hair (which was
at first done here) to apply the ink to the name, and
often to the words, of God. Hence, books have hitherto
been printed in Egypt only by order of the government i
but two or three persons have lately-applied for, and re-
ceived, permission to make use of the government-press*
I am acquainted with a bookseller here who has long
been desirous of printing some books which he feela sun
would bring him considerable profit; but cannot over*'
come his scruples as to the lawfulness of doings so.

CHARACTflR. 3*7

The honour which the Moos'lims show to the Ckoor-
a'n is very striking. They generally take care never to
hold it, or suspend it, in such a manner as that it shall
he below the girdle ; and they deposit it upon a high*
and clean place ; and never put another book, or any-
thing else, on the top of it. On quoting from it, they
usually say, "He whose name be exalted " (or " God,
whose name be exalted ") " hath said, in the Excellent
Book." They consider it extremely improper that the
sacred volume should be touched by a Christian or a
Jew, or any other person not a believer in its doctrines;
though some of them are induced, by covetousness, but
very rarely, to sell copies of it to such persons. It is
even forbidden to the Moos'lim to touch it unless he be
in a state of legal purity ; and hence, these words of the
book itself—" None shall touch it but those who are
clean * " — are often stamped upon the cover. The same
remarks apply) also, to anything upon which is inscribed
a passage of the Ckoor-a'n. It is remarkable, however,
that most of the old Arab coins bear inscriptions of
words from the Ckoor-a'n, or else the testimony of the
faith (" There is no deity but God : Mohham'mad is
God's Apostle ") ; notwithstanding they were intended
for the use of Jews and Christians, as well as Moos'lims :
but I have heard this practice severely condemned. — Ota
my once asking one of my Moos'lim friends whether
figs were esteemed wholesome in Egypt, he answered,
* Is not the fig celebrated in the Ckoor-a'n ? God
swears by it : * By the fig and the olive !' " (chap, xcv.,
fer. 1).

There is certainly much enthusiastic piety in the cha*
racter of the modern Moos'lims, notwithstanding their

* Ckoor-a'n, chap. lvi./V«r» 78*

368 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

inconsistencies and superstitions : such, at least, is gene*
rally the case. There are, I believe, very few professed
Moos'lims who are really unbelievers ; and these dare
not openly declare their unbelief. I have heard of two
or three such, who have been rendered so by long and
intimate intercourse with Europeans ; and have met with
one materialist, who has often had long discussions with
me. In preceding chapters of this work, several prac-
tices indicative of the religious feeling which prevails
among the Moos'lims of Egypt have been inciden-
tally mentioned. Religious appeals are generally used
by the beggars in this country : some examples of these
will be given hereafter. Of a similar nature, also, are
the cries of many of the persons who sell vegetables,
&c. The cry of the nightly watchman in the quarter in
which I lived in Cairo during my first visit struck me as
remarkable for its beauty and sublimity — "I proclaim
the absolute glory of the living King, who sleepeth not
nor dieth*." The present watchman, in the same
quarter, exclaims, "O Lord! O Everlasting t!" Many
other illustrations of the religious character of the people
whom I am endeavouring to portray might be added.
I must, however, here acknowledge, that religion has
much declined among them and most others of the same
faith. Whoever has been in the habit of conversing
familiarly with the modern Moos'lims, must often have
heard them remark, with a sigh, "It is the end of
time !"— " The world has fallen into infidelity.'—They
are convinced that the present state of their religion is
a proof that the end of the world is near. The mention
which I have made, in a former chapter, of some of the

V

* Soobhha'n el-meVik tUhhei' cMez'ct la f yenctm wefa ycmoo't!
t Yafntbb! Ya! da'im.

character: 369

tenets of the Wdh'ha'bees, as being those of the primitive
Moos'lims, shows how much the generality of the modern
professors of the faith of the Ckoor-a'n have deviated
from the precepts originally delivered to its disciples.

Influenced by their belief in predestination, the men
display, in times of distressing uncertainty, an exemplary
patience, and after any afflicting event, a remarkable
degree of resignation and fortitude, approaching nearly
to apathy * ; generally exhibiting their sorrow only by a
sigh, and the exclamation of Allah kereefm ! (God is
bountiful !) : but the women, on the contrary, give vent
to their grief by the most extravagant cries and shrieks.
While the Christian blames himself for every untoward
event which he thinks he has brought upon himself, or
might have avoided, the Moos'lim enjoys a remarkable
serenity of mind in all the vicissitudes of life. When he
sees his end approaching, his resignation is still con-
spicuous : he exclaims, " Verily to God we belong ; and
verily to Him we return!" and to those who inquire
respecting his state, in general his reply is, " Praise be
to God ! Our Lord is bountiful !" — His belief in pre-
destination does not, however, prevent his taking any
step to attain an object that he may have in view ; not
being perfectly absolute, or unconditional : nor does it
in general make him careless of avoiding danger ; for
he thinks himself forbidden to do so by these words of
the Ckoor-a'n t» "Throw not [yourselves] with your

* They are not, however, so apathetic as some travellers have
supposed ; for it is not uncommon to see them weep ; and such a
demonstration of feeliog is not considered by them as unmanly :
even heroes are frequently represented, in their romances and
histories, as weeping under heavy affliction.

f Chap, ft., ver. 191.

37t MODEMIf EGYPTIANS.

bands into perdition;'' excepting in some esses; as ta
those of pestflenee and other sicknesses; being com*
mended, by the Prophet, not to go into a city where
there is a pestilence, nor to come oat from it. The hwr-
fumess of qasrsjitine is contested among Moos/lims; but
the generality of them condemn it.

The same behef in predestination renders the Moosf-
lim utterly devoid of presumption with regard to his
future actions, or to any future events. He never speak*
of anything that he intends to do, or of any circumv
stance which he ezpectB and hopes may eome to pass*
without adding, " if it be the will of God *;" and, in like
manner, in speaking of a past event of which he is not
certain, he generally prefaces or concludes what he says
with the expression "God is all-knowing t»"

Benevolence and charity to the poor are virtues which,
the Egyptians possess in an eminent degree, and which
are instilled into their hearts by religion ; but from their
own profession it appears that they are as much excited
to the giving of alms by the expectation of enjoying
corresponding rewards in heaven, as by pity for the dis-
tresses of their fellow-creatures, or a disinterested wish
to do the will of God. It may be attributed, in some
measure, to the charitable disposition of the inhabitants,
that beggars are so numerous in Cairo. The many
handsome Sebeefls, or public fountains (buildings erected
and endowed for the gratuitous supply of water to pas-
sengers), which are seen in this city, and the more
humble structures of the same kind in the villages and
fields, are monuments of the same virtue.

In my earlier intercourse with the people of Egypt, I
was much pleased at observing their humanity to dumb

* Il*-tka4 ! lah. f AUa'hoo a* atom.

J

CHARACTER. 371

animals; to see a person, who gathered together the
folds of his loose clothes to prevent their coming in con-
tact with a dog, throw, to the impure animal, a portion
of the bread which he was eating. Murders, burglaries,
and other atrocious crimes, were then very rare among
them. Now, however, I find the generality of the
Egyptians very much changed for the worse, with re-
spect to their humanity to brutes and to their fellow-
creatures. The increased severity of the government
seem?, as might be expected, to have engendered
tyranny, and an increase of every crime, in the people.
It is shocking to see the miserable asses which are used
for carrying dust, &c. in Cairo ; many of them with
large crimson wounds, like carbuncles, constantly chafed
by rough ropes of the fibres of the palm-tree which are
attached to the back part of the pack-saddle. The dogs
in the streets are frequently beaten, both by boys and
men, from mere wantonness ; and I often see children
amusing themselves with molesting the cats, which were
formerly much favoured*. Robberies and murders,
during two or three months after my last arrival here,
were occurrences of almost every week. Most of the
Turkish governors of districts used to exercise great

* I think it proper to remark here, that I have good reason for
believing Burckhardt to have been misinformed when stating
(see his Arabic Proverbs, No. 393) that children in the East (in
Egypt, &c.) torture serpents by putting them into a leather bag,
then throwing unslaked lime upon them, and pouring water on it*
I find no one who has heard of such cruelty ; and it is not likely
that boys in this country would dare to put a serpent in a bag
(for they are excessively afraid of this reptile), or would give
several piasters for a bag to destroy in this manner. The proverb
upon which this statement is founded perhaps alludes to a mode
of destroying serpeuts ; but not for sport.

372 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

oppression over the fella' hhee'n ; but since persons of
the latter class have been put in the places of the former
they have exceeded their predecessors in tyranny ; and
it is a common remark, that they are " more execrable
than the Turks *."

Though I now frequently see the houseless dogs
beaten in the streets of Cairo, and that when quite in-
offensive and quiet, I still often observe men feeding
them with bread, &c. ; and the persons who do so are
mostly poor men. In every district of this city are
many small troughs, which are daily replenished with
water for the dogs. In each street where there are
shops, a sack'cka receives a small monthly sum from
each shopman for sprinkling the street, and filling the
trough or troughs for the dogs in that street. There
is also a dogs'-trough under almost every shop of a
shurbetflee, or seller of sherbets. — It may here be men-
tioned, that the dogs of Cairo, few of which have
masters, compose regular and distinct tribes ; and the
•dogs of each tribe confine themselves to a certain dis-
trict or quarter, from which they invariably chase away
any strange dog that may venture to intrude. These
animals are very numerous in Cairo. They are gene-
rally careful to avoid coming in contact with the men ; as
if they knew that the majority of the people of the city
regarded them as unclean : but they often bark at per-
sons in the Frank dress ; and at night, they annoy every
passenger. They are of use in eating the offal thrown

* "The oppression of the Turks, rather than the justice of the
Arabs," is a proverb often heard from the mouth of the Arab
peasant ; who, in this case, applies the term " Arabs*' to his own
class, instead of the Bed'awees, to whom it properly belongs.
See Burckhardt's « Arabic Proverbs," No. 176.

CHARACTER. 373

out from the butchers' shops, and from houses. Many
dogs also prowl about the mounds of rubbish around
the metropolis ; and these, with the vultures, feed upon
the carcases of the camels, asses, &c, that die in the
town. They are mostly of a sandy colour; and seem to
partake of the form and disposition of the jackal.

The general opinion of the Moos'lims, which holds
the dog to be unclean, does not prevent their keeping
this animal as a house-guard, and sometimes even as a
pet. A curious case of this kind occurred a short time
ago. A woman in this city, who had neither husband
nor child nor friend to solace her, made a dog her com-
panion. Death took this only associate from her ; and,
in her grief and her affection for it, she determined to
bury it ; and not merely to commit it to the earth with-
out ceremony, but to inter it as a Moos'lim, in a respect-
able tomb, in the cemetery of the Ima'm Esh-Sha'fe'ee,
which is regarded as especially sacred. She washed the
dog according to the rules prescribed to be observed in
the case of a deceased Moos'lim, wrapped it in hand-
some grave-clothes, sent for a bier, and put it in ; then
hired several wailing-women ; and, with them, performed
a regular lamentation. This done (but not without ex-
citing the Wonder of her neighbours, who could not con-
jecture what person in her house was dead, yet would
not intrude, because she never associated with them),
she hired a number of chanters, to head the funeral-
procession, and school-boys, to sing, and carry the
Ckoor-a'n before the bier ; and the train went forth in
respectable order ; herself and the hired wailing-women
following the bier, and rending the air with their
shrieks: but the procession had not advanced many
steps, when one of the female neighbours ventured to

374 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ask the afflicted lady who the person was that was dead ;
and was answered, "It is my poor child." The en-
quirer charged her with uttering a falsehood; and the
bereaved lady confessed that it was her dog ; begging,
at the same time, that her inquisitive neighbour would
not divulge the secret ; but, for an Egyptian woman to
keep a secret, and such a secret, was impossible : it was
immediately made known to the by-standers; and a
mob, in no good humour, soon collected, and put a stop
to the funeral. The chanters and the singing-boys and
wailing-women vented their rage against their employer
(as soon as they had secured their money) for having
made fools of them ; and if the police had not inter-
fered, she would probably have fallen a victim to popular
fury*.

It is a curious fact, that, in Cairo, houseless cats are
fed at the expense of the Cka'dee ; or, rather, almost
wholly at his expense. Every afternoon, a quantity of
offal is brought into the great court before the Mahh'-
kem'eh ; and the cats are called together to eat. The
Soolta'n Ez-Za'hir Beybur's (as I learn from the Ba'sh
Ka'tib of the Cka'dee) bequeathed a garden, which is
called gheyt eUckoot'tah (or the garden of the cat),
near his mosque, on the north of Cairo, for the benefit
of the cats : but this garden has been sold, over and
over again, by the trustees and purchasers : the former

* D'Hefbeloi mentions a somewhat similar ease, in wfeieh a
Turk, having buried a favourite dog, with come mark* of respect,
iu his garden, was accused, before the Cka'dee, of having interred
the animal with the ceremonies practised at the burial of a Moos/-
Hm, and escaped punishment (perhaps a severe one) by informing
the judge that his dog had made a will, leaving to him (the
Cks/dee) a turn of aaoaey*~(Billt»ttoque Oriental*, art. Cadhi)

«.•

CHARACTER. 375

sold it, on pretence of its being too much out of order
to be rendered productive, excepting at a considerable
expense ; and it now produces only a hhekr (or quit-
rent) of fifteen piasters a year, to be applied to the main-
tenance of the destitute cats. Almost the whole expense
of their support has, in consequence, fallen upon the
Cka'dee, who, by reason of his office, is the guardian of
this and all other charitable and pious legacies, and must
suffer for the neglect of his predecessors. Latterly,
however, the duty of feeding the cats has been v<ery ina-
dequately performed. Many persons in Cairo, when
they wish to get rid of a cat, send or take it to the Cka'-
dee's house, and let it loose in the great court.

The affability of the Egyptians towards each other
has been mentioned in a preceding chapter. Towards
foreigners who do not conform with their manners and
customs, and profess the same way of thinking, they are
polite in their address, but cold and reserved, or para-
sitical, in conversation. With such persons, and even
among themselves, they often betray much impertinent
. curiosity. They are generally extremely afraid of making
to themselves enemies ; and this fear frequently induces
them to uphold each other, even when it is criminal to
do so.

Cheerfulness is another remarkable characteristic of
this people. Some of them profess a great contempt
far frivolous amusements ; but most take pleasure in
«ueh pastimes; and it is surprising to see how easily
ihey are amnsed : wherever there are crowds, noise, and
hustle, they are delighted. In their public festivals,
there as Hfctle to amuse a person of good education ; but
4he Egyptians enjoy them as much as we do the best ef
4nur^atertakwne«fe6. Those of the tower orders seem to

376 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

be extremely happy with their pipes and coffee, after the
occupations of the day, in the society of the coffee-
shop.

Hospitality is a virtue for which the natives of the
East in general are highly and deservedly admired;
and the people of Egypt are well entitled to commenda-
tion on this account A word which signifies literally
" a person on a journey" (moosa'Jir) is the term most
commonly employed in this country in the sense of a
visitor or guest. There are very few persons here who
would think of sitting down to a meal, if there were a
stranger in the house, without inviting him to partake of
it, unless the latter were a menial ; in which case, he
would be invited to eat with the servants. It would be
considered a shameful violation of good manners if a
Moos'lim abstained from ordering the table to be pre-
pared at the usual time because a visitor happened to be
present. Persons of the middle classes in this country,
if living in a retired situation, sometimes take their
supper before the door of their house, and invite every
passenger of respectable appearance to eat with them.
This is very commonly done among the lower orders.
In cities and large towns, claims on hospitality are un-
frequent ; as there are many weka'lehs, or kha'ns, where
strangers may obtain lodging ; and food is very easily
procured : but in the villages, travellers are often lodged
and entertained by the Sheykh or some other inhabi-
tant ; and if the guest be a person of the middle or
higher classes, or even not very poor, he gives a present
to his host's servants, or to the host himself. In the
desert, however, a present is seldom received from a
guest. — The account of Abraham's entertaining the
three angels, related in the Bible, presents a perfect pic-

J

CHARACTER. 377

tare of the manner in which a modern Bed'awee sheykh
receives travellers arriving at his encampment. He im-
mediately orders his wife or women to make bread;
slaughters a sheep or some other animal, and dresses it
in haste ; and bringing milk and any other provisions
that he may have ready at hand, with the bread, and the
meat which he has dressed, sets them before his guests.
If these be persons of high rank, he stands by them
while they eat; as Abraham did in the case above
alluded to. Most Bed'awees will suffer almost any in-
jury to themselves or their families rather than allow
their guests to be ill-treated while under their protection.
There are Arabs who even regard the chastity of their
wives as not too precious to be sacrificed for the gratifi-
cation of their guests*; and at an encampment of the
Bish'a'ree'n, I ascertained that there are many persons
in this great tribe, which inhabits a large portion of the
desert between the Nile and the Red Sea, who offer
their unmarried daughters to their guests, merely from
motives of hospitality, and not for hire.

There used to be, in Cairo, a numerous class of per-
sons called Toof'ct/kdyeh) or Toofej/kes (that is,
Spungers), who, taking advantage of the hospitality of
their countrymen, subsisted entirely by spunging : but
this class has, of late, very much decreased in number.
Wherever there was an entertainment, some of these
worthies were almost sure to be found ; and it was only
by a present of money that they could be induced to re-
tire from the company. They even travelled about the
country, without the smallest coin in their pockets, in-
truding themselves into private houses whenever they

* See Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins, &c, 8vo. edition
vol. i., pp. 179jind 180.

T

378 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

wanted a meal, or practising various tricks for this pur-
pose. Two of them, I was told, a little while since, de-
termined to go to the festival of the seyd El-Bed'awee,
at Tun'ta ; an easy journey of two days and a half front
Cairo, Walking at their leisure, they arrived at the
small town of Ckalyoo'b at the end of their first day's
journey; and there found themselves at a loss for a
supper. One of them went to the Cka'dee; and, after
saluting him, said — u O Cka'dee, I am a traveller Iron
the Shurckee'yeh, going to Musr; and I have a com-
panion who owes me fifty purses, which he has wkh hw
at present, and refuses to give me ; and I am actually in
want of them." " Where is be ?" said the Cka'dee.
" Here, in this town," answered the compkinanL The
Cka'dee sent a rasox/1 to bring the accused ; and m the
meantime, expecting considerable fees for a judgment in
such a case, ordered a good supper to be prepared;
which Cka'dees of country towns or villages generally do
under similar circumstances. The two men were ift-
vited to sup and sleep before the case was tried. Next
morning, the parties were examined : the accused ad-
mitted that he had in his possession the fifty purses of
his companion ; and said that he was ready to give them
up; for they were an encumbrance to him; being only
the paper purses in which coffee was sold. " We as*
Toofey/lees" — he added; and the Cka'dee, in. anger,
dismissed them.

The natives of Egypt in general, in common with the
Arabs of other countries, are justly chargeable with a
fault which is regarded by us as one of great magmV
tude: it is want of gratitude. This I am inclined te
consider a relic of the Bed'awee character; and as
arising from the very common practice of hospitality and

CHARACTER. 379

generosity, and from the prevailing opinion that these
virtues are absolute duties which it would be disgraceful
ta neglect.

The temperance and moderation of the Egyptians,
with regard to diet, are very exemplary. Since my first
arrival in Egypt, I have scarcely ever seen a native of
this country in a state of intoxication ; unless it were a
musician at an entertainment, or a dancing girl, or low
prostitute. It hardly need be added that they are ex-
tremely frugal. They show a great respect for bread, as
the staff of life*, and on no account suffer the smallest
portion of it to be wasted, if they can avoid it. I have
often observed an Egyptian take up a small piece of
bread, which had, by accident, fallen in the street or
road, and, after putting it before bis lips and forehead
three times, place it on one side, in order that a dog
might eat it, rather than let it remain to be trodden
under foot The following instance of the. excessive and
unreasonable respect of the Egyptians for bread has
been related to me by several persons; but I must say
that I think it hardly credible. — Two servants were sit-
ting at the door of their master's* house, eating their
dinner, when they observed a MemWk Bey, with
several of hi& officers, riding along the. street towards
them. One of these servants rose, from respect to the
grandee, who, regarding him with indignation, ex-
claimed, "Which, is the more worthy of respect,, the
bread, that is before you, or myself?" — Without wait-
ing for a reply, he made, it is said r a well-understood
signal with his hand; and the unintending ouender was
beheaded on the spot.

* The name which they give to it it '«ytA* which literally sig-
nifies life,

T 2

380 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

The higher and middle orders of Moos'lims in Egypt
are scrupulously cleanly ; and the lower orders are more
so than in most other countries : but were not cleanliness
a point of their religion, perhaps it would not be so
much regarded by them. From what has been said in
a former chapter of this work, it appears (hat we must
not judge of them, with respect to this quality, from the
dirty state in which they generally leave their children.
Their religious ablutions were, certainly, very wisely
ordained; personal cleanliness being so conducive to
health in a hot climate. The Egyptians in general are
particularly careful to avoid whatever their religion has
pronounced unclean and polluting. One of their objec-
tions against wine is, that it is unclean ; and I believe
that very few of them, if any, could be induced by any
means, unless by a considerable bribe, to eat the smallest
piece of pig's flesh ; excepting the peasants of the Bo-
hhey'reh (the province on the west of the western
branch of the Nile), many of whom eat the flesh of the
wild boar, and rats*. I was once amused with the re-
mark of a Moos'lim, on the subject of pork : he ob-
served that the Franks were certainly a much calum-
niated people : that it was well known they were in the
habit of eating swine's flesh ; but that some slanderous
persons here asserted that it was not only the flesh of
the unclean beast that was eaten by the Franks, but also
its skin, and its entrails, and its very blood : on being
answered that the accusation was too true, he burst forth
with a most hearty curse upon the infidels, devoting them
to the lowest place in hell.

* Dogs, too, are eaten by many Mugh'reb'ees settled at Alex-
andria, and by descendants of the same people ; of whom there
are also a few in Cairo, in the quarter of Teyloo'n.

CHARACTER. 381

Many of the butchers who supply the Moos'lim inha-
bitants of the metropolis with meat are Jews. A few
years ago, one of the principal 'ooFama here complained
of this fact to the Ba'sha ; and begged him to put a stop
to it. Another of the 'ool'ama, hearing that this person
had gone to make the complaint above mentioned, fol-
lowed him, and urged, before the Ba'sha, that the prac-
tice was not unlawful. " Adduce your proof" said the
former. " Here," answered the other, " is my proof,
from the word of God — * Eat of that whereon the name
of God hath been commemorated *.' " The chief of the
Jewish butchers was then summoned, and asked whether
he said anything previously to slaughtering an animal :
he answered, " Yes : we always say, as the Moos'Iims,
'In the name of God ! God is most great !' and we
never kill an animal in any other way than by cutting
its throat." — The complaint was consequently dis-
missed.

A few days ago, a man, purchasing a fatee'reh of a
baker in this city, saw him take out of his oven a dish
of pork which he had been baking for a Frank ; and,
supposing that the other things in the oven might have
been in contact with the unclean meat, and thus con-
taminated, immediately brought a soldier from the
nearest guard-house, and caused the baker (who was in
no slight alarm, and protested that he was ignorant of
there being any pig's flesh in his oven) to be conducted
before the Za'bit. This magistrate considered the case
of sufficient importance to be referred to the Ba'sha's
deewa'n ; and the president of this council regarded it
as of too serious and difficult a nature for him to decide,
and accordingly sent the accused to be judged at the

* Ckoor-a'ii, chap, vi., ver/ 118.

382 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Mahh'kem'eh. The Cka'dee desired the opinion of the
Moof tee, who gave the following sentence : — That aQ
kinds of food not essentially or radically impure were
purified, of any pollution which they might liave con-
tracted, by fire ; and consequently, that Whatever thing
of this description was in the oven, even if it had been
in contact with the pork, was clean as soon as it had
been baked.

A short time since, the Ba'sha received, from Europe,
a set of mattresses and cushions staffed with horse-hair,
to form a deewa'n for his hharee'm. The ladies opened
one of the cushions, to ascertain what was the substance
which rendered them so agreeably elastic; and, dfe-
gusted in the highest degree at seeing what they sup-
posed to be hog's-hair, insisted upon throwing away the
whole deewa'n.

A Frenchman who was -employed here, a few years
ago, to refine sugar, by the present Ba'sha, made use of
blood for this purpose ; and since that, very few of the
people of this country have ventured to eat any sugar
made by the Franks : the Ba'sha was also obliged to
prohibit the use of blood in his own sugar-bakeries ; and
the white of eggs has been employed in its stead.
Borne of the Egyptians, seeing the European sugar to
be very superior to that made here, use it ; holding the
doctrine that what is originally clean may become clean
again after pollution ; but I am obliged to keep the
coarse Egyptian sugar for the purpose of making sher-
bet for my visitors ; some of whom hold long discussions
with me on this subject.

It is a general custom among the Egyptians, after
washing clothes, to pour clean water upon them, and to
say, in doing so, " I testify that there is no deity but

CHARACTER. , 383

God ; and T testify that Mohham'mad is God's Apostle*."
In speaking of their religion, I have mentioned several
other practices instituted for the sake of cleanliness;
most of which are universally observed, But, notwith-
standing these cleanly practices and principles, and their
custom of frequently going to the hath, the Egyptians
do not change their linen so often as some people of
more northern climates, who need not so much to do
this frequently : they often go to the bath in a dirty
shirt; and, after a thorough washing, put on the same

Filial piety is one of the more remarkable virtues of
this people. The outward respect which they pay to
their parents, I have already had occasion to mention.
Great respect is also shown by the young to those far
advanced in age f ; particularly to such as are reputed
men of great piety or learning.

Love of their country is another predominant charac-
teristic of the modern Egyptians. In general, they have
a great dread of quitting their native land. I have
heard of several determining to visit a foreign country,
for the sake of considerable advantages in prospect;
but when the time of their intended departure drew
near, their resolution failed them. Severe oppression
has lately lessened this feeling; which is doubtless
owing, in a great degree, to ignorance of foreign lands
and their inhabitants. It was probably from the same
feeling prevailing among the Arabs of his time that
Mohham'mad was induced to promise such high re-
wards in a future world to those who fled their country

* To express that a person has done this, they say, tha'had
el-hhawafig, for ghtdal d-hhatoa'ig we-tcshah! had 'alet/ka.
t See Leviticus, xix,, 32.

384 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

for the sake of his religion. I have heard it remarked
as a proof of the extraordinary love which the Egyptians
have for their native place, that a woman or girl in this
country will seldom consent, or her parents allow her,
to marry a man who will not promise to reside with her
in her native town or village ; but I rather think that
the reluctance to change the place of abode in this case
arises from the risk which the female incurs of wanting
the protection of her relations. The Bed'awees are so
attached to their deserts, and have so great a contempt
for people who reside in towns, and for agriculturists,
that it is a matter of surprise that so many of them were
induced to settle even upon the fertile banks of the Nile.
The modern Egyptians, though mostly descended from
Bed'awees, while they resemble their ancestors in love
of their native country, have a horror of the desert
One journey in the desert furnishes them with tales of
exaggerated hardships, perils, and wonders, which they
are extremely fond of relating to their less experienced
countrymen.

Indolence pervades all classes of the Egyptians, ex-
cepting those who are obliged to earn their livelihood by
severe manual labour. It is the result of the climate,
and of the fecundity of the soil. Even the mechanics,
who are extremely greedy of gain, will generally spend
two days in a work which they might easily accomplish
in one ; and will leave the most lucrative employment
to idle away their time with the pipe : but the porter,
the groom, who runs before his master's horse, and the
boatmen, who are often employed in towing the vessels
up the river during calm and very hot weather, as well
as many other labourers, endure extreme fatigue.

The Egyptians are also excessively obstinate. I have

CHARACTER. 385

mentioned, in a former chapter, that they have been
notorious, from ancient times, that is, from the period
of the Roman domination, for refusing to pay their
taxes until they have been severely beaten ; and that
they often boast of the number of stripes which they
have received before they would part with their money.
Such conduct is very common among them. I was once
told, that a fella'hh, from whom the value of about four
shillings was demanded by his governor, endured so
severe a baslinading rather than pay this paltry sum,
which he declared he did not possess, that the governor
ordered him to be dismissed ; but, striking him on his
face as he limped away, there fell out of his mouth a
gold coin of the exact value of the sum demanded of
him ; so that his beating, terrible as it was, fell short of
what was necessary to make him pay. This disposition
seems a strange peculiarity in their character ; but it is
easily accounted for by the fact that they know very well
the more readily they pay, the more will be exacted from
them. In other respects, however, they are extremely
obstinate and difficult to govern; though very obsequious
in their manners and professions. It is seldom that an
Egyptian workman can be induced to make a thing
exactly to order : he will generally follow bis own opi-
nion in preference to that of his employer ; and will
scarcely ever finish his work by the time he has pro-
mised.

Though very submissive to their governors, the fella'-
hhee'n of Egypt are not deficient in courage when ex-
cited by feuds among each other; and they become
excellent soldiers.

In sensuality, as far as it relates to the indulgence of
libidinous passions, the Egyptians, as well as other

T 5

386 MODEttN EGYPTIANS.

natives of hot climates, certainly exceed mere northern
nations ; yet this excess is not to be attributed merely 4e
the climate, bat move especially to the institution of
polygamy, to the facility with which divorcements are
accomplished whenever a man may wish to marry a new
wife, and to the custom of concubinage. It is even said,
and, I believe, with truth, that, in this respect, they
exceed the neighbouring nations, whose religion and
civil institutions are similar ; and that their country still
deserves the appellation of " the abode of the wicked,"
which, in the Ckoor-a'n *, is, according to the best com-
mentators, applied to ancient Egypt, if we take the
word here translated " wicked" in its more usual modern
sense of ** debauchees." — A vice for which the Merokx/ks
who governed Egypt were infamous was so spread by
them in this country as to become not less rare here than
in almost any other country of the East ; but of late years,
it is said to have much decreased.

The most immodest freedom of conversation is
indulged in by persons of both sexes, and of every sta-
tion of life, in Egypt; even by the most virtuous and
respectable women, with the exception of a very few,
who often make use of coarse language, but not un-
chaste. From persons of the best education, expres-
sions are often heard so obscene as only to be fit lor a
low brothel ; and things are named, and subjects talked
of, by the most genteel women, without any idea of their
being indecorous, in the hearing of men, that many
prostitutes in our country would abstain from men-
tioning.

The women of Egypt have the character ttf being the
most .licentious in their feelings of all females who lay

* Oh up, mu, ver. 142.

CHARACTER. 387

y claim to be considered as members of a civilized
nation ; and tilts character is freely bestowed upon them
by their countrymen, even in conversation with foreign*
ers. What liberty they have, many of them, it is said,
abuse ; and most of them are not considered safe, unless
under lock and key ; to which restraint, few are sub-
jected. It is believed that they possess a degree of
canning in the management of their intrigues that the
most prudent and careful husband cannot guard against ;
and, consequently, that their plots are seldom frustrated,
however great may be the apparent risk of the under-
takings in which they engage. Sometimes, the hus-
band himself is made the unconscious means of gratify-
ing his wife's criminal propensities. Some of the stories
of the intrigues of women in the " Tales of a Thousand
and one Nights " present faithful pictures of occurrences
not unfrequent in the modern metropolis of Egypt
Many of the men of this city are of opinion that almost
all the women would intrigue if they could do so with-
out danger; and that the greater proportion of them
do. I should be sorry to think that the former opinion
was just ; and I am almost persuaded that it is over-
severe, because it appears, from the customs with regard
to women generally prevailing here, that the latter
must be fake. The difficulty of carrying on an intrigue
with a female in this place can hardly be conceived by a
person who is not moderately well acquainted with
Eastern customs and habits. It is not only difficult for
a woman of the middle or higher classes to admit her
paramour into the house in which she resides, but it is
almost impossible for her to have a private interview
with a man who has a hhmree'm, in his own house; or to
enter the house of an unmarried man,^>r one who has

388 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

not a concubine slave, without attracting the notice of
the neighbours, and causing their immediate inter-
ference. But as it cannot be denied that many of the
women of Egypt engage in intrigues notwithstanding
such risks, it may be supposed that the difficulties which
lie in the way are the chief bar to most others : for it is
certain that the women of this country are, with very
few exceptions, of hjghly libidinous dispositions. Among
the females of the lower orders, intrigues are more easily
accomplished, and frequent

The libidinous character of the women of Egypt, and
the licentious conduct of a great number of them, may
be attributed to many causes; partly, to the climate;
partly, to their want of proper instruction, and of inno-
cent pastimes and employments ; partly, to the degree
of restraint imposed upon them, and their seclusion from
open intercourse with the other sex, which undoubtedly
has a tendency rather to make women vicious than to
secure them from vice : but it is more to be attributed to the
conduct of the husbands themselves ; and to conduct far
more disgraceful to them than the utmost severity that
any of them is known to exercise in the regulations of
his hharee'm. The generality of husbands in Egypt
endeavour to increase the libidinous feelings of theii
wives by every means in their power ; though, at the
same time, they assiduously study to prevent their in-
dulging those feelings unlawfully. The women are per-
mitted to listen, screened behind their windows of
wooden lattice -work, to immoral songs and tales sung or
related in the streets by men whom they pay for this
entertainment; and to view the voluptuous dances of the
ghawa'zee, and of the effiminate khow'als. The
ghawa'zee, who are professed prostitutes, are not unfre-

CHARACTER. 389

quently introduced into the hharee'ms of the wealthy,
not merely to entertain the ladies with their dances, but
to teach them their voluptuous arts ; and even indecent
puppets are sometimes brought into such hharee'ms for
the amusement of the inmates. — Innumerable stories of
the artifices and intrigues of the women of Egypt have
been related to me. The following narratives of late
occurrences will serve as specimens.

A slave-dealer, who had been possessed of property
which enabled him to live in comfort, but had lost the
greater part of it, married a young and handsome
woman in this city, who had sufficient wealth to make
up for his losses. He soon, however, neglected her;
and as he was past the prime of life, she became in-
different to him, and placed her affections upon another
man, a dust-man, who had been in the habit of coming
to her house. She purchased, for this person, a shop
close by her house ; gave him a sum of money to enable
him to pursue a less degraded occupation, as a seller of
grain and fodder ; and informed him that she had con-
trived a plan for his visiting her in perfect security. Her
hharee'm had a window with hanging shutters ; and
almost close before this window rose a palm-tree, out-
topping the house : this tree, she observed, would afford
her lover a means of access to her, and of egress from
her apartment, in case of danger. She had only one
servant, a female, who engaged to assist her in the ac-
complishment of her desires. Previously to her lover's
first visit to her, she desired the servant to inform her
husband of what was about to take place in the ensuing
night. He determined to keep watch; and, having
told .his wife that he was going out, and should not re-
turn that night, concealed himself in a lower apart-

396 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

ment At night, the maid came to tell him that the
visitor was in the faharee'm. He went up; but found
die hharee'm-door shut On his trying to open it, his
wife screamed ; her lover, at the same time, escaping
from the window, by means of the palm-tree. She
eaHed to her neighbours — "Come to my assistance!
Pray come ! There is a robber in my house ! " — Several
of them soon came ; and, finding her locked m her
room, and her husband outside the door, told her there
was nobody in the house but her husband and maid.
She said that the man they called her husband was a
robber : that her husband was gone to sleep out The
latter then informed them of what had passed ; trad in-
sisted that a man was with her : he broke open the door,
and searched the room ; but finding no man, was repri-
manded by his neighbours, and abused by his wife, for
uttering a slander. The next day, his wife, taking with
her, as witnesses of his having accused her of a criminal
intrigue, two of the neighbours who had come in on
hearing her screams for assistance, arraigned her hus-
band at the Mahh'kem'eh as the slanderer of a virtuous
woman without the evidence of his own sight or of
other witnesses* Being convicted of mis offence, he was
punished with eighty stripes, in accordance with the
ordinance of the Ckoor-a'n *. His wife now asked him
if he would divorce her; but he refused. For three
days after this event, they lived peaceably together. On
the third night, the wife, having invited her lover to
visit her, bound her husband, hand and foot, while he
was asleep, and tied him down to the mattress. Shortly
after, her lover came up, and, waking the husband,
threatened him with instant death if he should cal, and

* Chap, xxiv., ver. 4.

CHARACTER. 391

remained with the wife for several hours, in his presence.
As soon as the intruder had gone, the husband was un-
bound by lik wife, and called eut to his neighbours,
beating her at the same time with such violence that she,
also, began to call for assistance. The neighbours
coming in, and seeing him in a fury, easily believed her
assertion that he bad become raving mad, and, trying
to soothe him with kind words, and prayers that God
would restore him to sanity, liberated her from his grasp.
She procured, as soon as possible, a rasooft from the
Cka'dee ; and went with him and her husband and
several of her neighbours who had witnessed the beating
that she had received, before the judge. The neighbours
unanimously declared their opinion that her husband
was mad ; and the Cka'dee ordered that he should be
conveyed to the Ma'rista'n * (or common mad-house) :
but the wife, affecting to pity him, begged that she
might be allowed to chain him in an apartment in her
house, that she might alleviate his sufferings by waiting
upon him. The Cka'dee assented ; praising the bene-
volence of the woman, and praying that God might re-
ward her. She accordingly procured an iron collar and
a chain from the Ma'rista'n, and chained him in a lower
apartment of her house. Every night, in his presence,
her lover visited her : after which she importuned him
in vain to divorce her; and when the neighbours came
in daily to ask how he was, the only answer he received
to his complaints and accusations against his wife was
— "God restore thee! God restore thee!" Thus lie
continued about a month ; and his wife, finding that be
still persisted in refusing to divorce her, sent for a, keeper
of the Ma'rista'n to take him. The neighbours came

* Vulgarly called Mooritta'n.

392 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

round as he left the house : one exclaimed — " There is
no strength nor power but in God ! God restore thee !"
—another said — u How sad ! He was really a worthy
man:'' — a third remarked — "Ba'dinga'ns* are very
abundant just now." — While he was confined in the
Ma'rista'n, his wife came daily to him, and asked him if
he would divorce her: on his answering, "No," she
said — " Then chained you may lie until you die ; and my
lover shall come to me constantly." At length, after
seven months' confinement, he consented to divorce her.
She procured his liberation ; and he fulfilled his pro-
mise. Her lover was of too low a grade to become her
husband ; so she remained unmarried ; and received him
whenever she pleased : but the maid revealed the true
history of this affair ; and it soon became a subject of
common talk. .

When the wife of a man of wealth or rank engages
in a criminal intrigue, both she and her paramour
generally incur great danger f . — Last year, the wife of
an officer of high rank in the army took advantage of
the absence of her husband from the metropolis (where
he always resided with her when not on military duty)
to invite a Christian merchant, of whom she had been
in the habit of buying silks, to pay her a visit. He
went to her house at the time appointed, and found a

* Madness is said to be more common and more violent in
Egypt when the black ba'dinga'n (or black egg-plant) is in sea-
son : that is, in the hot weather.

f " How many men, in Must/' said one of my friends to me,
" have lost their lives on account of women ! A very handsome
young libertine, who lived in this house which you now oocupy,
was beheaded here in the street, before his own door, for an in-
trigue with a wife of a Bey; and all the women of Musr wept for
him."

CHARACTER. 393

eunuch at the door, who took him to another house,
disguised him in the loose outer garments and veil of a
lady, and then brought him back, and introduced him
to his mistress. He passed nearly the whole of the
night with her ; and, rising before she awoke, put into
his pocket a purse which he had given her, and went
down to the eunuch, who conducted him again to the
house where he had put on his disguise : having here
resumed his own outer clothes, he repaired to his shop.
Soon after, the lady, who had missed the purse, came,
and taxed him with having taken it: she told him that
she did not want money, but only desired his company ;
and begged him to come to her again in the ensuing
evening ; which he promised to do : but in the after-
noon, a female servant from the house of this lady came
to his shop, and told him that her mistress had mixed
some poison in a bottle of water which she had ordered
to be given him to drink. — This mode of revenge is
said to have been often adopted when the woman's
paramour has given her even a slight offence.

It is seldom that the wife of a Moos'lim is guilty of a
criminal intrigue without being punished with death
if there be four witnesses to the fact, and they or the
husband prosecute her ; and not always does she escape
this punishment if she be detected by any of the officers
of justice : in the latter case, four witnesses are not
required, and often the woman, if of a respectable
family, is put to death, generally in private, on the mere
arbitrary authority of the government : but a bribe will
sometimes save her ; for it will always be accepted if it
can with safety. Drowning is the punishment now
almost always inflicted, publicly, upon women convicted
of adultery in Cairo and other large towns of Egypt*

J94 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

instead of that ordained by the law, which is stoning.—-
A few months ago, a poor woman of this cky married
a man whose trade was sel&ng fowls, and, while living
with him and her mother, took three other lodgings,
and married three other husbands; all of whom were
generally absent from the metropolis ; so she calculated
that when any of these three persons came to town fer
a few days she might easily find an excuse to go to him.
Tb&y happened, unfortunately for her, to come to town
on the same day ; and all of them went, the same
evening, to inquire for her at her mother's house.
Being much embarrassed by their presence, and her
first husband being also with her, she feigned to be iR,
and soon to become insensible ; and was taken, by her
mother, to an inner room. One of the husbands pro-
posed to give her something to restore her: another
wished to try a different remedy : they began to contend
which was the best medicine ; and one of them said,
" I shall give her what I please : is not she my wife f
" Your wife!* exclaimed each of the three other hus-
bands at the same time: "she is my wife." — Each
proved his marriage: the woman was taken to the
Mafrl/kem'eh ; tried; condemned to death ; and thrown
into the Nile. — Some time ago, when I was before in
this country, a similar case occurred : a woman married
three soldiers, of the niza'm, or regular troops. She
was buried in a hole breast-deep; and then shot.

A woman may sometimes, but very rarely, trust in pal-
liating circumstances, or Ohe support of powerful friends,
to save her from the penalty of death, in case of her
detection in a criminal intercourse ; as in the following
instance. — The' Ba'sha, last year, gave one of the slaves
in his hharee'm in marriage to a rich slave- merchant,

CHARACTER. 39d

from whom he had purchased many of his memloo'ks
and female slaves. This man was not only unfaithful
to her ; bat utterly neglected her ; and she, in conse-
quence, formed an improper intimacy with a merchant
Of whom she was a frequent customer. One day, when
her husband was out, a black slave belonging to him
happened to see a man's head at a small aperture in a
window of the hharee'm. He immediately went up to
search the room of the wife ; who, hearing him coming,
locked her paramour in an adjoining closet. The slave
broke open me door of the closet; and the man within
rushed at him with a dagger Which he wore in his
girdle ; but the former siezed the blade in his hand;
and the woman held him until her lover had escaped :
she then kissed the slave's hand, and implored him not
to cause her death by informing her husband of what
had passed : she, however, found him inexorable : he
immediately went to his master, showing his bleeding
hand, and telling him the cause of the wound. The
woman, meanwhile, fled to the Ba'sha's hharee'm, for
protection. Her husband demanded of the Ba'sha that
she should be given up, and put to death ; and, the re-
quest being deemed a proper one, she was brought
before her former master to answer for her crime. She
threw herself at his feet ; kissed the skirt of his cloth-
ing; and acquainted him with her husband's vicious
conduct, and his utter neglect of her. The Ba'sha,
feeling himsetf insulted by the husband's conduct, spat
in his face ; and sent back the wife to his own hharee'm.
Her paramour did not live long after this : he was smo-
thered in the house of some courtesans ; but none of
these women was punished; as it could not be proved
which of them committed the act

396 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

For their sentiments with regard to women, and their
general conduct towards the fair sex, the Egyptians, in
common with other Moos'lims, have been reprehended
with too great severity. It is true that they do not con-
sider it necessary, or even delicate, to consult the choice
of a girl under age previously to giving her away in
matrimony ; but it is not less true that a man of the
middle or higher classes, almost always, makes his choice
of a wife from hearsay, or as a person blindfold ; hav-
ing no means of seeing her until the contract is made,
and she is brought to his house. It is impossible, there-
fore, that there should be any mutual attachment before
marriage. Both sexes, in truth, are oppressed by tyranr
nical laws and customs ; but, happily, they regard their
chains as becoming and honourable : they would feel
themselves disgraced by shaking them off. As to the
restraint which is exercised towards the women, I have
before remarked that it is in a great degree voluntary on
their part, and that I believe it to be less strict in Egypt
than in any other country of the Turkish empire : it is
certainly far less so than it has been represented to be
by many persons. They generally look upon this re-
straint with a degree of pride, as evincing the husbands
care for them ; and value themselves upon their being
hidden as treasures*. In good society, it is considered
highly indecorous to inquire, in direct terms, respecting
the health of a friend's wife, or of any female in his
house, unless she be a relation of the person who makes
the inquiry. — One of my Egyptian acquaintances asking
another native of this country, who had been in Paris,

* A respectable female it generally addressed, in a letter, as
"the guarded lady, and concealed jewel" (e$-titt cf-mafoo'neh
we-l-go'harah cl-meknoo'neh).

CHARACTER. 397

what was the most remarkable thing that he had seen in
the land of the infidels, the latter, thinking lightly of
all that he had observed really worthy of exciting the
admiration of an unprejudiced and a sensible man, gave
the following answer. " I witnessed nothing so remark-
able as this fact. It is a custom of every person among
the rich and great, in Paris and other cities of France,
frequently to invite his friends and acquaintances, both
men and women, to an entertainment in his house. The •
rooms in which the company are received are lighted
with a great number of candles and lamps. There,
the men and women assemble promiscuously ; the
women, as you well know, unveiled ; and a man may
sit next to another's wife, whom he has never seen
before, and may walk, talk, and even dance with her, in
the very presence of her own husband, who is neither
angry nor jealous at such disgraceful conduct."

The Egyptians are equally remarkable for generosity
and cupidity. That two such opposite qualities should be
united in the same mind is not a little surprising ; but
such is generally the case with this people. An over-
reaching and deceitful disposition in commercial trans-
actions, which is too common among all nations, is one
of the most notorious faults of the Egyptian : in such
cases, he seldom scruples to frame a falsehood which
may better his bargain. Among people who groan be-
neath the yoke of a tyrannical and rapacious government
(and such, indeed, is the government of Egypt), a dis-
position to avarice invariably predominates : for a man
is naturally most tenacious of that which is most liable
to be taken from him ; and hence the oppressed Egyp-
tian, when he has a sum of money which he does not
require for necessary expenses, and cannot profitably

398 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

employ, generally lays it oat in the purchase of orna-
ments for his wife or wives ; which ornaments he can
easily convert again into money. Hence, also, it is a
common practice in this country (as it is, or has been,
in almost every country under similar political circum-
stances) for a man to bide treasure in bis house, under
the paved floor, or in some other part ; and as many a
person who does so dies suddenly, without being able to
inform his family where is his mukh'ba, or hiding-place,
money is not unfrequently discovered on pulling down
houses. A vice near akin, to cupidity, namely envy, I
believe to be equally prevalent .among the modern Egyp-
tians, in common with the whole Arab race ; for many
of them are candid enough to confess their own opinion
that this hateful disposition is almost wholly concentrated
in the minds of their nation.

The Egyptians are generally honest in the payment
of debts. Their Prophet asserted that even martyrdom
would not atone for a debt undischarged* Few of them
ever accept interest for a loan of money ; as it is strktly
forbidden by their law.

Constant veracity is a virtue extremely rare in modern
Egypt. Falsehood was commended by the Prophet
when it tended to reconcile persons at variance with each
other : also, when practised in order to please one's wife ;
and to obtain any advantage in a war with the enemies
of the faith: though highly reprobated in other cases*
This offers some little palliation, of the general practice
of lying which prevails among the- modem Moosfiim&;
for, if people- are allowed to lie in certain cases, they inr
sensibly contract a habit of doing so in others. Though
most of the Egyptians often, lie designedly, they are
seldom heard to retract an. unintentional misstatement

CHARACTER. 39Q

without expressing themselves thus — " No, I beg for-
giveness of God*: it was so and so;" as, in stating
anything of which they are not quite certain, they say,
" God is all-knowing fj 9 — I may here mention (and I
do it with some feeling of national pride) that, some
years ago, there was an Armenian jeweller in this city
(Cairo) so noted for his veracity that his acquaintances
determined to give him some appellation significant of
his possessing a virtue so rare among them ; and the
name they gave him was El-Ingilee'zee t or The English-
man, which has become his family name. It is common
to hear tradesmen in this place, when demanding a price
which they do not mean to abate, say, " One word ; the
word of the English J :" they also often say, " the word
of the Franks," in this sense : but I have never heard
any particular nation thus honourably distinguished
excepting the English and the Mugh'reb'ees, or Western
Arabs, which latter people have acquired this reputa-
tion by being rather more veracious than most other
Moos'lims.

I have before mentioned the practice of swearing by
God which prevails among the Egyptians : I must here
add, that many of them seruple not to make use of an
oath with the view of obtaining credit to a falsehood.
In this case, they sometimes say, " Wa-tidhiV* ("By
God!'*); but more commonly, "Wa-Vlahr '.: for,
though the latter expression has the same meaning as
the former, they pretend that it may also be used as an
ejaculation in praise of God; whereas " Wa-lla'hi" is
a decided oath, and, if uttered to a falsehood, or vio-
lated, must be expiated by feeding or clothing ten poor

* La' attugk'Jir Atta'k. \ AUa'hoo a'alam.

J Kii'nut ei-IngiteJz.

4C0 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

men, liberating a captive Moosflim, or fasting three
days*. This, however, is the expiation allowed by the
Ckoor-a'n only for an inconsiderate oath: yet the
modern Moos'lims sometimes observe it in order to free
themselves from the guilt of a deliberate false oath ; and
they generally prefer the fast to either of the other
modes. of expiation. There are some oaths which, I
believe, few Moos'lims would falsely take; such as
saying, three times, " By God, the Great f • "» and the
oath upon the moos'hhaf (or copy of the Ckoor-a'n)—
saying, " By what this contains of the word of God V —
but a form of oath that is still more to be depended
upon is that of saying, " I impose upon myself divorce-
ment X' (that is, the divorce of my wife, if what I say
be false) ; or, " I impose upon myself interdiction § !",
which has a similar meaning ( u My wife be unlawful to
me!"); or," I impose upon myself a triple divorcement||!",
which binds him by the irrevocable divorce of his wife.
If a man use any one of these three forms of oath falsely,
his wife, if he have but one, is divorced by the oath
itself, if proved to be false, without further ceremony ;
and if he have two or more wives, he must, under such
circumstances, choose one of them to put away. There
are, however, abandoned liars who will swear falsely by
the oath that is generally held most binding. A poet,
speaking of a character of this description, says,

" But AVoo-1-Mo'alla is most false
When he swears by the oath of divorce.*'

The generality of the Egyptians are easily excited to
quarrel ; particularly those of the lower orders, who, on

* Ckoor-a'n, chap, v., ver. 91. f WoMhiJ-'as&Jm.

% 'Alei'ga-t'tala'ck. § 'Alci'ya'l-hhara'm.

|| 'Alei'ya-t-tala'ck bi-t-tela'Uh.

\

CHARMS. 329

virtue ; " seeing* he observed, w that the Prophet (God
favour and preserve him !) has said, * If thou confide in
God, with true confidence, He will sustain thee as He
sustaineth the birds.' " I silenced his scruples on the
subject of translating tjiese verses by telling him, that
we had an English translation of the whole of the
Ckoor-a'n. — Sometimes, for the cure of diseases, and to
counteract poisons, &c, a draught of water from a metal
cup, having certain passages of the Ckoor-a'n, and
talismanic characters and figures, engraved in the in-
terior, is administered to the patient. I have a cup of
this description, lately given to me* here (in Cairo),
much admired by my Moos'lim acquaintances. On the
exterior is an inscription enumerating its virtues : it is
said to possess charms that will counteract all poisons
&c, and the evil eye, and cure " all sicknesses and dis-
eases, excepting the sickness of death.'' I have seen,
here, another cup which appeared to have been exactly
similar to that above mentioned; but its inscriptions
were partly effaced. — The secret virtues of the Ckoor-a'n f
are believed to be very numerous. One day, on my
refusing to eat of a dish that I feared would do me
harm, I was desired to repeat the Soo'rat Ckoorey'sh
(106th chapter of the Ckoor-a'n) to the end of the
words " supplieth them with food against hunger ;" and
to repeat these last -words three times. This, I was
assured, would be a certain preventive of any harm that
I might have feared.

There are various things which are regarded in the
same light as written charms ; such as dust from the

* By Robert Hay, Esq., who purchased it from a peasant at
Thebes.

t A*ra r r ei-Ckoor-a'n.

R

330 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

tomb of the Prophet, water from the sacred well of
Zem'zem, in the Temple of Mek'keh, and pieces of the
black silk covering of the Ka'abeh*. Hie water of
Zem'sem is much valued for the purpose of sprinkling
upon grave-clothes. — An Arab, to whom I had given
some medicine which had been beneficial to him, in the
Sa'ee'd, daring my former visit to this country, heard
me inquire for some Zem'zem- water (as several boats
full of pilgrims on their return from Mek'keh were
coming down the Nile), and perhaps thought, from my
making this inquiry, that I was a pious Moos'lim : ac-
cordingly, to show his gratitude to me, he gave me what
I was seeking to obtain. Having gone to his house,
he returned to my boat, bringing a small bundle, which
he opened before me. " Here," said he, "are some
things which, I know, you will value highly. Here are
two tin flasks of the water of Zem'sem : one of them
you shall have : you may keep it to sprinkle your wind-
ing-sheet with it This is a miswa'k (a tooth-stick)
dipped in the water of Zem'zem : accept it from me :
clean your teeth with it, and they will never ache, nor
decay. " And here,'' he added (showing me three
small, oblong and flat cakes, of a kind of greyish earth,
each about an inch in length, and stamped with Arabic
characters, ' In the name of God ! Dust of our land
[mixed] with the saliva of some of us')) "these are
composed of earth from over the grave of the Prophet
(God favour and preserve him !) : I purchased them
myself in the noble tomb, on my return from the pil-
grimage : one of them I give to you : you will find it a

* Every year, on the day after the completion of the pilgrim-
age, a new covering is hung upon the Ka'abehT The old one
is cut up ; and the greater part of it is sold to the pilgrims.

CHARMS. 331

Cure for every disease : the second I shall keep for my-
self; and the third we will eat tog&her." — Upon this,
he broke in halves one of the three cakes ; and we each
ate our share. I agreed with him (though I had read
the inscription) that it was delicious; and I gladly
accepted his presents. — I was afterwards enabled to
make several additions to my Mek'keh curiosities;
comprising a piece of the covering of the Ka'abeh,
brought from Mek'keh by the sheykh Ibrahee'm (Burck-
hardt), and given to me by his legatee 'Osma'n. — A
cake composed of dust from the Prophet's tomb is
sometimes sewed up in a leather case, and worn us an
amulet. It is also formed into lumps of the shape of a
pear, and of the size of a small pear ; and hung to the
railing or screen which surrounds the monument over
the grave of a saint, or to the monument itself, or to
the windows or door of the apartment which contains it.
So numerous are the charms which the Egyptians
employ to insure good fortune, or to prevent or remove
evils of every kind, and so various are the superstitious
practices to which they have recourse with these views,
that a large volume would scarcely suffice to describe
them in detail. These modes of endeavouring to obtain
good, and to avoid or dispel evil, when they are not
founded upon religion or magic or astrology, are termed
matters of y Um er-rootfkeh, or the science of the distaff
(that is, of the women) ; which designation is given to
imply their absurdity, and because women are the per-
sons who most confide in them. This term is con-
sidered, by some, as a vulgar corruption of " 'ilm er-
roock'yeh," or "the science of enchantment:" by
others, it is supposed to be substituted for the latter term
by way of a pun. Some practices of the nature just

r 2

332 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

described have already been incidentally mentioned : I
shall only give a few other specimens.

It is a very common custom in Cairo to hang an
aloe-plant over the door of a house ; particularly over
that of a new house, or over a door newly built : and
this is regarded as a charm to insure long and flourish-
ing lives to the inmates, and long continuance to the
house itself*. The women also believe that the Pro-
phet visits the house where this plant is suspended.
The aloe, thus hung, without earth or water, will live for
several years ; and even blossom.

When any evil is apprehended from a person, it is
customary to break a piece of pottery behind his back.
This is also done with the view of preventing further
intercourse with such a person.

As ophthalmia is very prevalent in Egypt, the igno-
rant people of this country resort to many ridiculous
practices of a supersitious nature for its cure. Some, for
this purpose, take a piece of dried mud, from the bank
of the Nile at or near Boo'la'ck, the principal port of
Cairo, and, crossing the river, deposit it on the opposite
bank, at Imba'beh. This is considered sufficient to
insure a cure. — Others, with the same view, hang to
the head-dress, over the forehead, or over the diseased
eye, a Venetian sequin f; but it must be one of a par-
ticular description, in which the figures on each side
correspond, head to head, and feet to feet J. Yet if a
person having a Venetian sequin, or a dollar, in his

* It has been said, by a traveller, that this is only done at pil-
grims 1 houses ; but such is not the case at least in Egypt.

f Ben'doock'et.

% A sequin of this description is termed bcm'doock'ee moo*ha r -
haruh.

CHARMS. 333

pocket, enter the room of one who is suffering from
ophthalmia or fever, his presence is thought to aggra-
vate the complaint. It also is a general belief, here,
that, if an individual in a state of religious uncleanness
enter a room in which is a person afflicted with ophthal-
mia, the patient's disease will consequently be aggra-
vated, and that a speck will appear in one or each of his
eyes. A man with whom I am acquainted has, at the
time I write this, just come out of a room in which he
had confined himself, while suffering from ophthalmia,
for about three months, from this fear ; never allowing
any person to enter; his servant always placing his
food outside his door : he has, however, come out with
a speck in one of his eyes.

Another practice, which is often adopted in similar
cases, but mostly by women, and frequently with the
view of preventing barrenness, is very singular and dis-
gusting. The large open place called the Roomey'feh,
on the west of the Citadel of Cairo, is a common scene
of the execution of criminals ; and the decapitation of
persons convicted of capital offences in the metropolis
was formerly almost always performed there, rather than
in an/ other part of the town. On the south of this
place is a building called Mvgh'sil es-Soollafn, or the
Soolta'n's washing-place for the dead ; where is a table
of stofle, upon which the body of every person who is
decapitated is washed, previously to its burial ; and there
is a trough to receive the water, which is never poured
out, but remains tainted with the blood, and fetid.
Many a woman goes thither, and, for the cure of
ophthalmia, o& to obtain offspring, or to expedite de-
livery in the case of a protracted pregnancy, without
speaking (for silence is deemed absolutely necessary),

334 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

passes under the stone table above mentioned, with the
left foot foremost, and then over it ; and does this seven
times ; after which, she washes her face with the polluted
water that is in the trough, and gives five or ten fud'-
dahs to an old man and his wife, who keep the place ;
then goes away, still without speaking. Men, in the
case of ophthalmia, often do the same. The Mugh'sil
is said to have been built by the famous Beybur's, before
he became Soolta'n ; in consequence of his observing
that the remains of persons decapitated in Cairo were
often kicked about, and buried without being previously
washed.

Some women step over the body of a decapitated
man seven times, without speaking, to become preg-
nant; and some, with the same desire, dip, in the
blood, a piece of cotton wool, of which they afterwards
make use in a manner I must decline mentioning.

A ridiculous ceremony is practised for the cure of a
pimple on the edge of the eye-lid, or what we commonly
call a " sty," and which is termed in Egypt shahhf-
hhciteh ; a word which literally signifies " a female
beggar." The person affected with it goes to any seven
women of the name of Fa't'meh, in seven different
houses, and begs, from each of them, a morsel of bread :
these seven morsels constitute the remedy. — Sometimes,
in a similar case, and for the same purpose, a person
goes out before sunrise, and, without speaking, walks
round several tombs, from right to left, which is the
reverse of the regular course made in visiting tombs.—
Another supposed mode of cure in a case of the same
kind is, to bind a bit of cotton on the end of a stick ;
then to dip it in one of the troughs out of which the
dogs drink in the streets of Cairo, and to wipe the eye

CHARMS. 335

with it The patient is thus careful to preserve his
hand from the polluted water, when he is about to
apply this to another part of his person.

As an imaginary cure for ague, some of the women
of Egypt (I mean those of the Moos' Urn faith) hang to
their necks the ringer of a Christian or Jew, cut off a
corpse, and dried. This and other practices mentioned
before are striking proofs of the degrading effects of
superstition, and of its powerful influence over the mind :
for, in general, the Moos'lims are scrupulously careful
to conform with that precept of their religion which
requires them to abstain from everything polluting or
unclean.

When a child is unable to walk, after having obtained
the age when it is usual to begin to do so, it is a com-
mon custom for the mother to bind its feet together
with a palm-leaf tied in three knots, and to place it at
the door of a mosque during the period when the congre-
gation are engaged in performing the Friday-prayers :
when the prayers are ended, she asks the first, second,
and third persons who come out of the mosque to untie
each a knot of the palm-leaf; and then carries the child
home, confident that this ceremony will soon have the
effect of enabling the little-one to walk.

There are several pretended antidotes for poison, and
remedies for certain diseases, to which the Egyptians
often have recourse, and which may perhaps have some
efficacy : but superstition attributes to them incredible
virtues. The bezoar-stone * is used as an antidote for
poison, by rubbing it in a cup with a little water : the
cup is then filled with water, which the patient drinks.
In the same manner, and for the same purpose, a cup

* Hhag'ar el-benzahee f r.

336 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

made of the horn of the rhinoceros* is used : a piece of
the same material (the horn) is rubbed in it. — As a
cure for the jaundice, many persons in Cairo drink the
water of a well in this city, called beer eUyarackctn, or
" the well of the jaundice." It is the property of an old
woman, who reaps considerable advantage from it:
for it has two mouths, under one of which is a dry
receptacle for anything that may be thrown down ; and
the old woman desires the persons who come to use the
medicinal water to drop through this mouth whatever
she happens to be in need of; as sugar, coffee, &c.

The McWlims have recourse to many superstitious
practices to determine them when they are in doubt as
to any action which they contemplate, whether they
shall do it or not Some apply, for an answer, to a
table called a zalir'geh. There is a table of this kind
ascribed to Idree's, or Enoch. It is divided into a
hundred little squares ; in each of which is written some
Arabic letter. The person who consults it repeats,
three times, the opening chapter of the Ckoor-a'n, and
the 58th verse of the Soo'rat el-An'a'm (or 6th chapter)
— " With Him are the keys of the secret things : none
knoweth them but Him : He knoweth whatever is on
the dry ground or in the sea : there falleth no leaf but
He knoweth it ; neither is there a single grain in the
dark parts of the earth, nor a green thing nor a dry
thing, but it is [written] in a perspicuous book." — Hav-
ing done this, without looking directly at the table, he
places his finger upon it : he then looks to see upon
what letter his finger is placed; writes that letter; the
fifth following it ; the fifth following this ; and so on,
until he comes again to the first which he wrote ; and

» Ckur'n khttrtee't.

AUGORATION.

337

these letters together compose the answer. The construe*
tion of the table may be shown by translating it, thus—

d

•

1

w

w

a

w

h

a

b

h

•

i

t

d

t

t

w

w

a

a

a

•

i

e

n

•

l

•

l

t

1

d

n

t

h

•

i

a

a

e

t

t

n

t

u

w

t

d

h

t

•

1

a

e

s

f

1

•

i

n

P

u

e

1

n

•

J

c

a

d

t

c

r

h

y

e

w

y

e

f

r

w

8

e

d

•

i

i

a

e
h

1

n

c

t

1

g

h

e

For an example, suppose the finger to be placed on the
letter e in the sixth line : we take, from the table, the
letters enjoypeac eabstainand, which
compose this sentence " Abstain, and enjoy peace :" the
sentence always commencing with the first of the letters
taken from the uppermost line. It will be seen that
the table gives only five answers ; and that, if we pro-
ceed as above directed, we must obtain one of these
answers, with whatever letter of the table we com-
mence. It will also be observed, that the frame r of the
table, knowing that men very frequently wishio do what
is wrong, and seldom to do what is right, and that it is
generally safer for them to abstain when in doubt, has
given but one affirmative answer, and four negative *.

* The more approved za r iVgehs are extremely complicated;
and the process of consulting them involves intricate astrological
calculations.

a 5

338 MODBBN EGYPTIANS.

Some persons have recourse to the Ckoor-a'n for an
answer to their doubts. This they call making an
ixtikhalrah, or application for the favour of heaven.
Repeating, three times,' the opening chapter, the 112th
chapter, and the verse above quoted, they let the book
fall open, or open it at random, and, from the seventh
line of the right-hand page, draw their answer. The
words often will not convey a direct answer ; but are
taken as affirmative or negative according as their
general tenor is good or bad; promising a blessing,
or denouncing a threat, &c. Instead of reading the
seventh line of this page, some count the number of the
letters hha and sheen which occur in the whole page ;
and if the khas predominate, the inference is favourable :
kha represents kheyr, or good : sheen, shurr^ or evil.

There is another mode of istikha'rah; which is, to
take hold of any two points of a seVhhah (or rosary),
after reciting the Fa't'hhah three times, and then to
count the beads between these two points, saying, in
passing the first bead through the fingers, " [I assert]
the absolute glory of God ;" in passing the second,
" Praise be to God ;" in passing the third, " There is
no deity but God ;" and repeating these expressions in
the same order, to the last bead : if the first expression
fall to the last bead, the answer is affirmative and favour-
able : if the second, indifferent : if the last, negative.
This is practised by many persons.

Some, again, in similar cases, on lying down to sleep,
at night, beg of God to direct them by a dream ; by
causing them to see something white or green, or water,
if the action which they contemplate be approved, or if
they are to expect approaching good fortune; and if
not, by causing them to see something black or red, or

AUOUSATION. S3»

fire: they then recite the Fa't'hhah ten times; and
continue to repeat these words—" O God, favour our
lord If ohhain/mad !" — until they fall asleep.

The Egyptians place great faith in dreams, which
often direct them in some of the most important actions
of life. They have two large and celebrated works on
the interpretation of dreams, by It/n SbVhee'n and Ib'n
Seereefa ; the latter of whom was the pupil of the former.
These books are consulted, even by the learned, with
implicit confidence. When one person says to another,
"I have seen a dream," the latter usually answers,
** Good*" (i. e. may it be of good omen), or, •* Good,
please God t>" When a person has had an evil dream,
it is customary for him to say, " O God favour our lord
Mohhan/mad !" and to spit over his left shoulder three
times, to prevent an evil result.

In Egypt, as in most other countries, superstitions
are entertained respecting days of the week ; some being
considered fortunate; and others, unfortunate.-— The
Egyptians regard Sunday as an unfortunate day, on
account of the night which follows it. — This night,
which (according to the system already mentioned) is
called the night of Monday, the learned MoosTims, and
many of the inferior classes, consider unfortunate, be-
cause it was that of the death of their Prophet ; but
some regard it as fortunate, particularly for the con-
summation of marriage ; though not so auspicious for
this affair as the eve of Friday. The day following it is
also considered, by some, as fortunate ; and by others,
as unfortunate. — Tuesday is generally thought unfor-
tunate, and called " the day of blood ;" as it is said that
several eminent martyrs were put to death on this day :

* Kheyr. f *& e y «* tha-l'lafh.

340 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

and hence, also, it is commonly esteemed a proper day
for being bled. — Wednesday is regarded as indifferent.
— Thursday is called el-moobalrak (or the blessed);
and is considered fortunate ; particularly deriving a bles-
sing from the following night and day. — The eve, or
night, of Friday is very fortunate ; especially for the
consummation of marriage. Friday is blessed above all
other days as being the sabbath of the Moosftims : it is
called eUfadee'leh (or the excellent). — Saturday is the
most unfortunate of days. It is considered very wrong
to commence a journey, and, by most people in Egypt,
to shave, or cut the nails, on this day. — A friend of mine
here was doubting whether he should bring an action
against two persons on so unfortunate a day as Satur-
day : he decided, at last, that it was the best day of the
week for him to do this, as the ill fortune must fall upon
one of the two parties only, and doubtless upon his
adversaries, because they were two to one. — There are
some days of the year which are esteemed very fortu-
nate; as those of the two grand festivals, &c. ; and
some which are regarded as unfortunate; as, for in-
stance, the last Wednesday in the month of Sufar;
when many persons make a point of not going out of
their houses, from the belief that numerous afflictions
fall upon mankind on that day. — Some persons draw
lucky or unlucky omens from the first object they see
on going out of the house in the morning : according
as that object is pleasant or the reverse, they say, " our
morning is good*' or " — bad."

341

Chapter XII.

MAGIC, ASTROLOGY, AND ALCHYMY.

If we might believe some stories which are commonly
related in Egypt, it would appear that, in modern days,
there have been, in this country, magicians not less
skilful than Pharoah's "wise men and sorcerers" of
whom we read in the Bible.

The more intelligent of the Moos'lims distinguish two
kinds of magic, which they term Er-Ro</hha!nee (vulgo.
RoufKhafnee) and Es-Seefmiya : the former is spiritual
magic, which is believed to effect its wonders by the
agency of angels and genii, and by the mysterious
virtues of certain names of God, and other supernatural
means : the latter is natural and deceptive magic ; and
its chief agents, the less credulous Moos'lims believe to
be certain perfumes 'and drugs, which affect the vision
and imagination in a manner somewhat similar to
opium: this drug, indeed, is supposed, by some per-
sons, to be employed in the operations of the latter
branch of magic.

Er-Ro</hha!nee 9 which is universally considered,
among the Egyptians, as trite magic, is of two kinds,
'ittcee (or high) and soof'lee (or low) ; which are also
called rahhmdnee (or divine, or, literally, relating to
** the Compassionate," which is an epithet of God) and
sheytclnee (or satanic). The 'irwee, or rahhma'nee, is
said to be a science founded on the agency of God, and

342 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

of bis angels, and good genii, and on other lawful mys-
teries ; to be always employed for good purposes, and
only attained and practised by men of probity, who, by
tradition, or from books, ltarn the names of those super-
human agents, and invocations which insure compliance
with their desires. The writing of charms for good
purposes belongs to this branch of magic, and to astro-
logy, and to the science of the mysteries of numbers.
The highest attainment in divine magic consists in the
knowledge of the Ism et-A'azam. This is " the most
great name" of God, which is generally believed, by the
learned, to be known to none but prophets and apostles
of God. A person acquainted with it can, it is said, by
merely uttering it, raise the dead to life, kill the living,
transport himself instantly wherever he pleases, and per*
form any other miracle. Some suppose it to be known
to eminent wefees. — The sooftee is believed to depend
on the agency of the devil, and evil spirits, and unbe-
lieving genii ; and to be used for bad purposes, and by
bad men. To this branch belongs the science called,
by the Arabs, es-sehhr; which is a term they give only
to wicked enchantment. — Those who perform what is
called durb el-men! del (of which I purpose to relate
some examples) profess to do it by the agency of genii;
that is, by the science called er-roo'hha'nee : but there
is another opinion on this subject which will be presently
mentioned.

Es-See'miya is generally pronounced, by the learned,
to be a false science, and deceptive art, which produces
surprising effects by those natural means which have
been above mentioned ; and the durb el-men! del, as
perfumes are emplyed in the performance of it, is con-
sidered, by such persons, as pertaining to es-see'miya.

MAGIC, &c. 343

'Ilm en-Noogodm, or Astrology, is studied by many
persons in Egypt. It is chiefly employed in casting
nativities, in determining fortunate periods, &c. ; and
very commonly, to divine by what sign of the zodiac a
person is influenced ; which is usually done by a calcu-
lation founded upon the numerical values of the letters
composing his or her name, and that of the mother :
this is often done in the case of two persons who con-
template becoming man and wife, with the view of
ascertaining whether they will agree. — The science
called durb er-reml, or geonaancy, by which, from cer-
tain marks made at random on paper, or on sand
(whence its name), the professors pretend to discover
past, passing, and future events, is, I am informed,
mainly founded on astrology.

El-Keefmiya> or Alchymy, is also studied by many
persons in Egypt, and by some possessed of talents by
which they might obtain a better reputation than this
pursuit procures them, and who, in spite of the derision
which they experience from a few men of sounder minds,
and the reproaches of those whom they unintentionally
make their dupes, continue, to old age, their fruitless
labours. Considerable knowledge of Chymistry is,
however, sometimes acquired in the study of this false
science ; and in the present degraded state of physical
knowledge in this country, it rather evinces a superior
mind when a person gives his attention to alchymy.

There is, or was (for I am informed that he died a few
weeks ago), a native of Egypt very highly celebrated
for his performances in the higher kind of that branch
of magic called er-roo'hha'nee ; the sheykh Isma'ee'l
AVoo Roo-oo's, of the town of Desoo'ck. Even the
more learned and sober of the people of this country

344 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

relate most incredible stories of his magteal skill ; for
which some of them account by asserting his having
been married to a ginnetfyeh (or female genie) ; and
others, merely by his having ginn at his service, whom
he could mentally consult and command, without making
use of any such charm as the lamp of 'AW ed-Deen*.
He is said to have always employed this supernatural
power either for good or innocent purposes; and to
have been much favoured by the present Ba'sha, who,
some say, often consulted him. One of the most
sensible of my Moos'lim friends, in this place (Cairo),
informes me that he once visited AVoo Roo-oc/s, at
Desoo'ck, in company with the sheykh El-Emee'r, son
of the sheykh El-Emee'r El-Kebee'r, sheykh of the sect
of the Malikees. My friend's companion asked their
host to show them some proof of his skill in magic ;
and the latter complied with the request. " Let coffee
be served to us," said the sheykh El-Emee'r, "in my
father's set of finga'ns and zurfs, which are at Musr."
They waited a few minutes ; and then the coffee was
brought; and the sheykh El-Emee'r looked at the
finga'ns and zurfs, and said that they were certainly his
father's. He was next treated with sherbet, in what he
declared himself satisfied were his father's ckool'lebs.
He then wrote a letter to his father, and, giving it to
AVoo Roo-oo's, asked him to procure an answer to it.
The magician took the letter, placed it behind a cushion
of his deewa'n, and, a few minutes after, removing the
cushion, showed him that this letter was gone, and that
another was in its place. The sheykh El-Emee'r took

* I must be excused for deviating from our old and erroneous
mode of spelling the name of the master of " the wonderful lamp."
It is vulgarly pronounced 'Ala'y ed-Deen.

MAGIC. 345

the latter ; opened and read it ; and found in it, in a
handwriting which, he said, he could have sworn to be
that of his father, a complete answer to what he had
written, and an account of the state of his family which
he proved, on his return to Cairo, a few days after, to
he perfectly true.

A curious case of magic fell under the cognizance of
the government during my former visit to this country;
and became a subject of general talk and wonder
throughout the metropolis. I shall give the story of
this occurrence, precisely as it was related to me by
several persons in Cairo ; without curtailing it of any of
the exaggerations with which they embellished it; not
only because I am ignorant how far it is true, but be-
cause I would show how great a degree of faith the
Egyptians in general place in magic, or enchantment.

Moos'tuf'a Ed-Dig'wee, chief secretary in the Cka'-
dee's court, in this city, was dismissed from his office,
and succeeded by another person of the name of Moos'-
tufa, who had been a se/refee, or money-changer.
The former sent a petition to the Ba'sha, begging to be
reinstated ; but before he received an answer, he was
attacked by a severe illness, which he believed to be the
effect of enchantment: he persuaded himself that
Moos' tufa the se/refee had employed a magician to
write a spell which should cause him to die ; and there*
fore sent a second time to the Ba'sha, charging the new
secretary with this crime. The accused was brought
before the Ba'sha ; confessed that he had done so ; and
named the magician whom he had employed. The
latter was arrested; and, not being able to deny the
charge brought against him, was thrown into prison,
there to remain until it should be seen whether or not

346 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

'wee would die. He was locked up in a small
cell ; and two soldiers were placed at the door ; that
one of them ought keep watch while the other slept
Now for the marvellous part of the story. At night,
after one of the guards had fallen asleep, the other heard
a strange, murmuring noise, and, looking through a
crack of the door of the cell, saw the magician sitting
in the middle of die floor, muttering some words which
he (the guard) could not understand* Presently, the
candle which was before him became extinguished;
and, at the same instant, four other candles appeared ;
one in each corner of the celL The magician then
rose, and, standing on one side of the cell, knocked his
forehead three times against the wall ; and each time;
that he did so, the wail opened, and a man appeared to
come forth from it. After the magician had conversed
for some minutes with the three personages whom he
thus produced, they disappeared ; as did, also, the font
candles ; and the candle that was in the midst of the
cell became lighted again, as at first : the magician then
resumed his position on the floor ; and all was quiet.
Thus the spell that was to have killed £d-Dig / wee was
dissolved. Early the next morning, the invalid felt him*
self so much better, that he called for a basin and ewer,
performed the ablution, and said his prayers ; and from
that time he rapidly recovered. He was restored to
his former office ; and the magician was banished from
Egypt. — Another enchanter (or sahhlhhalr) was
banished a few days after, for writing a charm which
caused a Mohhammadan girl to be affected with an
irresistible love for a Copt Christian.

A few days after my first arrival in this country, my
curiosity was excited on the subject of magic by a cir-

MAGIC. 347

cumstance related to me by Mr. Salt, our consul-gene-
ral. Haying had reason to believe that one of his ser-
vants was a thief, from the fact of several articles of
property having been stolen from his house, he seat for
a celebrated Mugh'rel/ee magician, with the view of in*
timidating them, and causing the guilty one (if any of
them were guilty) to confess his crime. The magician
came; and said that he would cause the exact image of
the person who had committed the thefts to appear to
any youth not arrived at the age of puberty ; and de-
sired the master of the house to call in any boy whom
he might choose. As several boys were then employed
in a garden adjacent to the house, one of them was*
called for this purpose. • In the palm of this boy's right
hand, tlie magician drew, with a pen, a certain diagram,
in the centre of which he poured a little ink. Into this
ink, he desired the boy stedfastly to look. He then
burned some incense and several bits of paper inscribed
with charms ; and, at the same time, called for various-
objects to appear in the ink. The boy declared that he
saw all these objects, and, last of all, the image of the
guilty person: he described his stature, countenance,
and dress; said that he knew htm; and directly ran
down into the garden, and apprehended one of the
labourers, who, when brought before the master, imme-
diately confessed that he was the thief.

The above relation made me desfcus of witnessing a
similar performance during my first visit to this coun-
try ; but not being acquainted with the name of the
magician here alluded to, or his place of abode, I was
unable to obtain any tidings of him. I learned, how-
ever, goon after my return to England, that he had be-
come known to later travellers in Egypt ; was residing

348 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

in Cairo; and that he was called the sheykh 'AbdJEl-
Cka'dir El-Mugh'ret/ee. A few weeks after my second
arrival in Egypt, my neighbour 'Osma'n, interpreter of
the British consulate, brought him to me ; and I fixed
a day for his visiting me, to give me a proof of the skill
for which he is so much famed. He came at the time
appointed, about two hours before noon; but seemed
uneasy; frequently looked up at the sky, through the
window ; and remarked that the weather was unpro-
pitious: it was dull and cloudy; and the wind was
boisterous. The experiment was performed with three
boys ; one after another. With the first, it was partly
successful; J>ut with the others, it completely failed.
The magician said that he could do nothing more that
day ; and that he would come in the evening of a sub-
sequent day. He kept his appointment ; and admitted
that the time was favourable. While waiting for my
neighbour, before mentioned, to come and witness the
performances, we took pipes and coffee ; and the magi-
cian chatted with me on indifferent subjects. He is a
fine, tall, and stout man, of a rather fair complexion,
with a dark brown beard ; is shabbily . dressed ; and
generally wears a large green turban ; being a descend-
ant of the prophet. In his conversation, he is affable
and unaffected. He professed to me that his wonders
were effected by the agency of good spirits ; but to
others, he has said the reverse : that his magic is satanic.
In preparing for the experiment of the magic mirror
of ink, which, with some other performances of a similar
nature, are here termed durb eLmen!dcl> the magician
first asked me for a reed-pen and ink, a piece of paper,
and a pair of scissors ; and, having cut off a narrow
strip of paper, wrote upon it certain forms of invocation,

MAGIC. 349

together with another charm, by which he professes to
accomplish the object of the experiment. He did not
attempt to conceal these; and on my asking him to
give me copies of them, he readily consented, and im-
mediately wrote them for me ; explaining to me, at the
same time, that the object he had in view was accom-
plished through the influence of the two first words,
" Tur'shoon" and " Turycx/shoon," which, he said,
were the names of two genii, his " familiar spirits." I
compared the copies with the originals ; and found that
they exactly agreed. Fac-similes of them are here
inserted, with a translation.

Moglc Invocation and Charm.

" Tur'shoon ! Turyoo'shoon ! Come down !

150 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

Come down ! Be present ! Whither are gone
the prince and his troops ? Where are El-Ahh'mar
the prince and his troops? Be present
ye servants of these names !"

" And this is the removal. * And we have removed
from thee
thy veil ; and thy sight to-day
is piercing.* Correct, correct."

Having written these, the magician cut off the paper
containing the forms of invocation from that upon
which the other charm was written ; and cut the former
into six strips. He then explained to me that the ob-
ject of the latter charm (which contains part of the 21st
verse of the Soofrat Cka'f, or 50th chapter of the
Ckoor-a'n) was to open the boy's eyes in a supernatural
manner ; to make his sight pierce into what is to us the
invisible world.

I had prepared, by the magician's direction, some
frankincense and coriander-seed*, and a chafing-dish
with some live charcoal in it. These were now brought
into the room, together with the boy who was to be em-
ployed: he had been called in, by my desire, from
among some boys in the street, returning from a manu-
factory ; and was about eight or nine years of age. In
reply to my inquiry respecting the description of persons
who could see in the magic mirror of ink, the magician
said that they were a boy not arrived at puberty, a virgin,
a black female slave, and a pregnant woman. The
chafing-dish was placed before him and the boy ; and
the latter was placed on a seat The magician now de-
sired my servant to put some frankincense and cori-

* He generally requires some benzoin to bo added to thcat.

magi a

ZSl

ander-seed into the chafing-dish; then, taking hold of
the boy's right hand, he drew, in the palm of it, a magic
square, of which a copy is "here given. The figures
which it contains are Arabic numerals. In the centre,

Magic Diagram and Mirror of Ink,

he poured a little ink, and desired the boy to look into
it, and to tell him if he could see his face reflected in
it ; the boy replied that he saw his face clearly. The
magician, holding the boy's hand all the while*, told
him to continue looking intently into the ink ; and not
to raise his head*

He then took one of the little strips of paper in-
scribed with the forms of invocation, and dropped it
into the chafing-dish, upon the burning coals and per-
fumes, which had already filled the room with their

* Thii reminds us of animal magnetism.

352 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

smoke ; and as he did this, he commenced an indistinct
muttering of words, which he continued during the
whole process, excepting when he had to ask the boy a
question, or to tell him what he was to say. The piece
of paper containing the words from the Ckoor-a'n, he
placed inside the fore part of the boy's ta'ckee'yeh, or
scull-cap. He then asked him if he saw anything in
the ink ; and was answered u No :" but about a mi-
nute after, the boy, trembling, and seeming much
frightened, said, " I see a man sweeping the ground."
u When he has* done sweeping,* said the magician, " tell
me." Presently, the boy said, " He has done." Th^r
magician then again interrupted his muttering to ask
the boy if he knew what a bet/ruck (or flag) was ; and,
being answered, " Yes*" desired him to say, " Bring a
flag." The boy did so ; and soon said, " He has brought
a flag." " What colour is it ?" asked the magician : the
boy replied, " Red. 9 ' He was told to call for another
flag; which he did; and soon after he said that he
saw another brought; and that it was black. In like
manner, he was told to call for a third, fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh ; which he described as being suc-
cessively brought before him ; specifying their colours,
as white, green, black, red, and blue. The magician
then asked him (as he did, also, each time that a new
flag was described as being brought), " How many flags
have you now before you ?" " Seven," answered the
boy. While this was going on, the magician put the
second and third of the small strips of paper upon
which the forms of invocation were written, into the
cha fing -dish ; and, fresh frankincense and coriander-
seed having been repeatedly added, the fumes became
painful to the eyes. When the boy had described the

CHARACTER. 401

such occasions, curse each otfeer*s fathers, mothers;
beavds, &e. ; and lavish upon- each other a variety of
opprobrious epithets ; such as **son of the dog, pimp,
pig," and an appellation which they thmk stiff worse than
any of these, namely, ** Jew:'* When one curses the
father of the other, the ratter generally retorts by curs-
ing the father and 1 mother, and sometimes the whole
household of his adversary. They menace each other;
but seldom proceed to blows. In a few instances, how-
ever, I have seen low persons in this country so enraged
as to bite, and grasp each other by the throat. I have
also witnessed many instances of forbearance on the
part of individuals of the middle and lower classes, when
grossly insulted : I \ have often heard an Egyptian say,
on receiving a blow from an equal, " God bless thee ! "
" God requite thee good !" " Beat me again." In ge-
neral, a quarrel terminates by one or both parties saying
" Justice is against me * :" often, after this, they recite
the Fa't'hhah together ; and then, sometimes, embrace
and kiss one another.

The Egyptians are particularly prone to satire ; and
often display considerable wit in their jeers and jests.
Their language affords them great facilities for punning,
and for ambiguous conversation, in which they very
frequently indulge. The lower orders sometimes lam-
poon their rulers in songs, and ridicule those enact-
ments of the government by which they themselves
most suffer. I was once much amused with a song
which I found to be very popular in the towj| and dis-
trict of Aswa'n, on the southern frontier of Egypt : its
burden was a plain invocation to the plague to take
their tyrannical governor and his Copt clerk. Another

* EUihacHck'aUt'ya.

V

402 MODERN EGYPTIANS.

song, which was popular throughout Egypt during my
first visit to this country, and which was composed on
the occasion of an increase of the income-tax called
fii*deh> began thus : " You who have [nothing on your
head but] a lib'deh ! sell it, and pay the nYdeh." The
lib'deh, I have before mentioned, is a felt cap, which is
worn under, or instead of, the turban; and the man
must be very poor who has no other covering than this
for his head.

END OP THE FIRST VOLUME.

London : Printed by W. Clowes and Sons, 14, Charing Cross,

ERRATA AND ADDENDA.

Page
9. Line 15, after " above it," add, « This upper window, if

of lattice-work, is often fancifully worked with the re-
presentation of a basin with a ewer above it, or the
figure of a lion, or the name of God, or the. words ' God
is my hope,' &c."
18. Line 2, for " prefixed," read " appended."
30. Line 18. The term 'Ar'ab was formerly used to de-
signate the townspeople of Arabian origin, while the
people of the same race who dwelt in the desert were
called dara'b, or Aara'bce*.
48. Note. Add,— "Some women pluck out the hair after

merely rubbing the part with the ashes of charcoal."
58. Note, line 1, for « Futoot'meh," read " ruttcD'Each."
83. Line 18. Add, — "Blind men are generally preferred for
the office of moo-ed'dins, that the hharee'ms and ter-
races of surrounding houses may not be overlooked from
the ma'd'nehs."
150. Line 17, for " khufmehs? read « khut'mehs."
167. Last line. Insert a period after * f tube."
175. Last line of text. Insert a period after * toofrah."
263. Line 17. " Ma' hoo'sh" is vulgarly contracted into

«mo'sh:>
278. Note. It should be added, that the era does not com-
mence from the day on which the Prophet departed
from Mek'keh (as most of our authors who have men.
tioned this subject suppose), but from the first day of
the moon or month of Mohhar'ram preceding that
event. It is said that Mohham'mad, after having re-
mained concealed in a cave near Mek'kelrchree days,
with Ab'oo Bekr, began his journey, or "the flight,"
to El-Medee'neh, on the ninth day of the third month
(Rabee'a el-Ow'wal), sixty-eight days after the com-
mencement of the era. Thus the first rwo months are

ERRATA AND ADDENDA.

Page

made of thirty days each, which it often the case

when the calculation from the actual sight of the new

moon is followed ; and the flight itself, from the cave,

may he inferred to hare commenced on the 22d of

September.

322 and 323, for " alumn, read '•' alum."

335. Line 14, for " obtained/' read " attained."

•375. Line 1, dele comma after "it."

Wftt