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'hD\
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E.<:!U<^ X ^ T^. \"i , ^"Sr^ A
HARVARD COLLEGE
LIBRARY
TRANSFERRED FROM THE
GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
^~i
- .» _■ ■!, ■■ ■■ ■ ■
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* 3 2044 081 492 175
/
AN ADVANCED
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
WITH EXERCISES
BY
GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
PBOFE880B OF ENGLISH IV HABYARD DNIYERSITT
AND
FRANK EDGAR FARLEY
PBOFBSSOR OF ENGLISH IN SIMMONS COLLEGE
FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH
IN SYRACUSE UNIYERSITY
GINN AND COMPANY
B08TOK • NEW TOEK • CHICAGO • LONDON
^^<*-«--*T -|T3r. v3 . wJr i»-'\
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY
ALL RIGHTS BBSBBVED
414.6
HA»!" . . i£ LI3SA«y
RfCCUtJ i.i ; .JaH THE
6'»A'^<JM£ SCIIJOL UF1
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATIOft
a.
L. -u^, \^\7.i
GINN AND COMPANY • PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A
PREFACE
This grammar is intended for students who have already
received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such text-
book must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which
occupies pp. 1-24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of
Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase
and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions.
Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized
as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.
Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and
Syntax (pp. 25-182). It includes also a chapter on the use of
subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157-
162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically
classified in accordance with their particular offices in the
expression of thought (pp. 163-182).
Part Three (pp. 183-226) develops the subject of Analysis
in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put
together, and then illustmting the process by which they may
be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Com-
plements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements
are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combinar
tions of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations
of coordination and subordination are set forth, and their func-
tions in the effective use of language are considered. This
portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to
students of English composition.
The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjuga
tion, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary;
of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English
lajiguage.
m
iv PREFACE
The Exercises (pp. 227-290) are collected at the end of the
text, so as not to break continuity. References prefixed to
each, as well as page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable
the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they
concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been
carefully selected from a wide range of eminent British and
American writers. The name of the author is often appended
to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy
either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this
has not been done ; but the student may always feel confident
that he is occupying himself with specimens of English as ac-
tually composed by distinguished authors. The constructive
exercises call particular attention to those matters in which
error is especially prevalent.
An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two
ways. It should afford the means for continuous and system-
atic study of the subject or of any part of it ; and it should also
be useful for reference in connection with the study of compo-
sition and of literature. With this latter end in view, many
notes and observations have been included, in smaller type,
to show the nature and development of the various forms and
constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of
to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and
other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy
to find anything that the volume contains.
In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain
topics of importance have been treated with unusual thorough-
ness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of shall and
will, should and would, the infinitive and the infinitive clause,
conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination
of clauses in sentences of different kinds.
The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions
and criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theo-
dore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and
Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School.
CONTENTS
[The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those in the
second column to the pages of the Exercises.]
EXER-
CISES
INTRODUCTION
TEXT
Language and Grammar xi
Grammar and Usage xv
Summary of General Principles xvii
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PART ONE -THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE
SENTENCE
The Sentence — Subject and Predicate 1 227
Kinds of Sentences 2 227
The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 228
The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 9 229
Infinitives and Participles 11 229
Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech 13
Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 14 230
Compound Subject and Predicate 16 230
Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 16 231
Phrases — Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 16 231
Clauses — Independent and Subordinate 16 232
Compound and Complex Sentences 17 232
Compound Complex Sentences 18 232
Clauses as Parts of Speech 19 232
Summary of Definitions 21
PART TWO -INFLECTION AND SYNTAX
CHAPTER I — INFLECTION
Inflection in General ..." 25
Summary of Inflections 26
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER II — NOUNS ___ bxkr-
CISES
Classification — Common Nouns and Proper Nouns 27 233
Special Classes — Abstract, Collective, Compound 29 234
Inflection of Nouns 30 235
Gender 31 236
Number 34 236
Person 39 238
Case 40 237
Nominative Case 41 237
Possessive Case * .... 43 238
Objective Case 47 239
Parsing of Nouns 64 240
CHAPTER III — PRONOUNS
Personal Pronouns 56 241
Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 66 241
Case of Personal Pronouns 67 241
The Self -Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) 60 241
Adjective Pronouns — Demonstratives 62 243
Adjective Pronouns — Indefinites 64 243
Relative Pronouns 66 244
The Relative Pronoun What 71 246
Compound Relative Pronouns 72 246
Interrogative Pronouns 73 246
Parsing of Pronouns 74 247
CHAPTER IV— ADJECTIVES
Classification of Adjectives 76 248
Adjectives — the Articles 77 248
Comparison of Adjectives 79 249
Irregular Comparison 81 249
CHAPTER V — ADVERBS
Classification of Adverbs 83 260
Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 86 251
Comparison of Adverbs 87 262
Use of the Comparative and Superlative 88 262
Numerals — Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 89 262
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER VI— VERBS ^.^ exkb-
TEXT
CISES
Classification of Verbs 91 263
Auxiliary Verbs — Verb-Phrases 91 263
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 92 263
Copulative Verbs 93 263
Inflection of Verbs '94 264
Tense of Verbs 94 264
Present and Past Tenses 94 264
Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs 96 264
Person and Number 97 264
The Personal Endings 97 264
Conjugation of the Present and the Past 98 264
Special Rules of Number and Person 100 264
The Future Tense — 5^ZZ and TTitt 102 266
Complete or Compound Tenses 106 268
Voice — Active and Passive 107 268
Conjugation of the Six Tenses 108 268
Use of the Passive Voice 110 268
Progressive Verb-Phrases 113 260
Emphatic Verb-Phrases 114 260
Mood of Verbs 116 261
Indicative Mood 116 261
Imperative Mood 116 261
Subjunctive Mood — Forms 118 261
Uses of the Subjunctive 119 261
Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 124 262
Special Rules for Sfiould and Would 127 264
The Infinitive 132 266
The Infinitive as a Noun 134 266
The Infinitive as a Modifier 136 266
The Infinitive Clause 137 267
Participles — Forms and Constructions 140 268
Nominative Absolute 144 269
Verbal Nouns in -ing (Participial Nouns) 146 269
CHAPTER VII — PREPOSITIONS
List of Prepositions 148 270
Special Uses of Prepositions 149 270
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII — CONJUNCTIONS ^^^ exer-
CISES
Coordinate (or Coordinating) Conjunctions 151 270
Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 158 270
Correlative Conjunctions 153 270
CHAPTER IX — INTERJECTIONS
Interjections 156 272
Exclamatory Expressions 155 272
CHAPTER X— CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
Clauses as Parts of Speech 167 272
Adjective Clauses 167 272
Adverbial Clauses 158 272
Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 169 272
CHAPTER XI — THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Clauses of Place and Time 163 272
Causal Clauses 164 272
Concessive Clauses 164 272
Clauses of Purpose and Result 166 274
Conditional Sentences 167 274
Forms of Conditions 169 274
Present and Past Conditions 170 274
Future Conditions 171 274
Clauses of Comparison 173 275
Indirect Discourse 173 277
Shall and Will, Slwuld and Would in Indirect Discourse . . 177 278
Indirect Questions 179 280
Shall and WiU, Should and Would in Indirect Questions . . 182 281
PART THREE -ANALYSIS
CHAPTER I — THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
Analysis — the Elements 188 282
Simple Sentences 184 282
Compound Sentences 186 282
CONTENTS
IX
TSXT
CISES
Complex Sentences 186 282
Comi)oun(i and Complex Clauses 186 287
Comi)oiind Complex Sentences 187 283
CHAPTER II — ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
Simple Sentences 188 288
Compound Sentences 188 283
Complex Sentences 189 283
Compound Complex Sentences 190 283
CHAPTER III — MODIFIERS
Modifiers in General 191 283
Modifiers of the Subject 192 283
Modifiers of the Predicate 196 284
CHAPTER IV — COMPLEMENTS
Use of Complements , 200 285
The Direct Object 201 285
The Predicate Objective 202 285
The Predicate Nominative 202 285
The Predicate Adjective 203 285
CHAPTER V— MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF
MODIFIERS
Modifiers of Complements 205 286
Modifiers of Other Modifiers 207 286
CHAPTER VI — INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
Four Kinds of Independent Elements 209 286
Parenthetical Expressions 209 286
CHAPTER VII — COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
General Principles 210 287
Codrdination and Subordination . 210 287
Clauses — Simple, Compoimd, Complex 211 287
X CONTENTS
TBXT
CI8ES
Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate . . 212 287
Compound and Complex Sentences 213 287
Compound Complex Sentences 216 287
Varieties of the Complex Sentence .- 216 287
Special Complications in Complex Sentences ....... 220 288
Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences . . 222 288
CHAPTER VIII — ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 224 288
Varieties of Ellipsis 225 288
Examples of Elliptical Constructions 226 288
EXERCISES
PAGE
Exercises on Part One 227
Exercises on Part Two .233
Exercises on Part Three 282
APPENDIX
Lists of Verbs 291
Conjugation of the Verb to be 300
Conjugation of the Verb to strike 301
Use of Capital Letters 305
Rules of Punctuation 306
Rules of Syntax .311
The English Language 316
Index 321
INTRODUCTION
LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
I. The Nature of Language
Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken
or written words.
The English word language comes (through the French
langue) from the Latin lingvM, " the tongue." But the tongue
is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the teeth,
the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and
the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which lan-
guage consists. These various organs make up one delicate and
complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the
speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other
wind instrument.
Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of
sounds made with the vocal organs. A word may consist of
one sound (as Ah I or or /), but most words consist of two
or more different sounds (as go, see, try, finish). Long or short,
however, a word is merely a signxmade to express thought.
Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with
the head, the hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person's arm and
point to a dog, he may understand me to ask, " Do you see that
dog ? " And his nod in reply may stand for " Yes, I see him."
But any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmen-
tary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully, freely, and
accurately, we must use words, — that is, signs made with the
voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with
them by custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once
xi
xii INTRODUCTION
understood by all. Their advantage is twofold ; they are far
more numerous and varied than other signs ; and the meanings
attached to them are much more definite than those of nods
and gestures.
Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and
recall to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written
language (that is, compo'feition) must, of necessity, be somewhat
fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and exact.
For the reader's understanding is not assisted by the tones of
the voice, the changing expressions of the face, and the lively
gestures, which help to make spoken language intelligible.
Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, Charles,
captain, cat, mouse, bread, stone, cup, ink, call up images or
pictures of persons or things ; strike, dive, climb, dismount,
express particular kinds of action ; green, blue, careless, rocky,
triangular, muscular, enable us to describe objects with accu-
racy. Even general terms like goodness, truth, courage, coward-
ice, generosity, have sufficiently precise meanings, for they name
qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is familiar.
By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups,
we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by
mere gestures. The utterance of the single word ^^ Charles ! "
may signify : " Hullo, Charles ! are you here ? I am surprised
to see you." " Bread ! " may suggest to the hearer : " Give me
bread ! I am very hungry." ^^ Courage ! " may be almost equiv-
alent to, "Don't be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon
be over."
Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of sin-
gle words. To express our thoughts we must put words to-
gether, — we must combine them into groups ; and such groups
have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like
the meanings of single words) by the customs or habits of the
particular language that we are speaking or writing. Further,
these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must con-
struct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE xiii
we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and
we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean.
In constructing these groups (which we call phrases, clauses,
and sentences) we have the aid of a large number of short words
like andj ify hy, to, in, is, was, which are very different from
the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined.
They do not caU up distinct images in the mind, and we should
find it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in
the expression of thought is clear ; for they serve to join other
words together, and to show their relation to each other in
those groups which make up connected speech.
Thus, " box heavy " conveys some meaning ; but ^^ T?ie box
is heavy" is a clear and definite statement. The shows that
some particular box is meant, and is enables us to make an
assertion about it. And, in " Charles and John are my brothers,"
indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my
thought, and that what I say of one applies also to the other.
If, in " If Charles comes, I shaH be glad to see him," connects
two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere supposi-
tion (for Charles may or may not come).
In grouping words, our language has three different ways
of indicating their relations : (1) the forms of the words them-
selves ; (2) their order ; (3) the use of little words like and, if,
is, etc.
I. Change of form. Words may change their form. Thus
the word boy becomes boys when more than one is meant ; kill
becomes killed when past time is referred to; was becomes
were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things ;
fast becomes faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated.
Such change of form is called inflection, and the word is said
to be inflected.
Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of
words in connected speech. In "Henry's racket weighs four-
teen ounces," the form Henry^s shows at once the relation
between Henry and the racket, — namely, that Henry owns or
xiv INTEODUCTION
possesses it. The word Henry, then, may change its form to
Hennfs to indicate ownership or possession.
II. Order of words. In " John struck Charles," the way in
which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck,
and who received the blow. Change the order of words to
*^ Charles struck John," and the meaning is reversed. It is,
then, the order that shows the relation of John to struck, and
of struck to Charles,
III. Use of other words. Compare the two sentences :
The train /rom Boston has just arrived.
The train /or Boston has just arrived.
Here from and for show the relation between the train and
Boston, " The Boston train " might mean either the train from
Boston or the train for Boston. By using from or for we make
the sense unmistakable.
Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language, —
the forms of words, and the Telations of words. The science
which treats of these two matters is called grammar.
Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change
in its meaning.
The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence
is called its construction.
Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions
of words.
Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the construc-
tions of words.
Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main
subjects, — inflection and syntax.
English belongs to a family of languages— the Indo-European
Family ^ — which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness
may be seen in other members of the family, — such as Greek
or Latin. The Latin word homo, " man," for example, has
1 For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.
GEAMMAR AND USAGE xv
eight different inflectional forms, — homo, '^ a man " ; hominis,
** of a man " ; homini, ^^ to a man/' and so on. Thus, in Latin,
the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown
by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which
it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,^
English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional
endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these,
however, had disappeared by Chaucer^s time (1340-1400), and
still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one
of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be
lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by
using of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the
relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in sim-
plicity is enormous.
II. Grammar and Usage
Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of
grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In
other words, grammar is usually logical, — that is, its rules
accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the
science of exact reasoning.
The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority
from logic, but from good usage, — that is, from the customs
or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These
customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every
language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions
or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms.
Thus, in English we say, " It is I " ; but in French the idiom
is ^^ C'est moi," which corresponds to " It is me." Many care-
less speakers of English follow the French idiom in this par-
ticular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted
usage. Hence, though "C'est moi" is correct in French, we
must still regard ^^ It is me " as ungrammatical in English. It
1 Compare pp. 316-317.
xvi INTRODUCTIOK
would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted
by the great majority of educated persons.
Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its
business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language
which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes,
the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or construc-
tions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both.
Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion.
These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammai-
in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language
usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable
the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is
wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult
to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred
by careful writers.
Every language has two standards of usage, — the colloquial
and the literary. By " colloquial language," we mean the lan-
guage of conversation ; by " literary language," that employed
in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits
many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be
out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an
error in taste to be always ^^ talking like a book." Unpractised
speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They
should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression
that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they
are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to
be correct without being stilted or affected.^
Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms,
and constructions become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and
others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the
older English classics, methods of expression which, though
formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold
1 In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are men-
tioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in
the language.
SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES xvii
caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise
Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time ;
but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own
errors by appealing to ancient usage.
Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible,
are: "the best of the two" (for **the better of the two") ; "the most
unkindest cut of all " ; " There 's two or three of us " (for t?iere are) ; " I
have forgot the map " (tor forgotten) ; '* Every one of these letters are in
my name " (for is); "I think it be " (for is).
The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and
constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These
are called archaisms (that is, ancient expressions). Among the
commonest archaisms are thou, ye^ hath, thinkest, doth. Such
forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the
solemn style, which is modelled, in great part, on the language
of the Bible.^
In general, it should be remembered that the style which
one uses should be appropriate, — that is, it should fit the occa-
sion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in
style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of
business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary
result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness
it is, of course, impossible.
SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or
written words.
2. Words are the signs of ideas.
Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written
words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.
1 In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is
constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper
places, — always with an indication of their difference from the modem
standard.
xviii INTRODUCTION
The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in
each language.
3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas : as, — Charles, cap-
tain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless.
Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more
definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected
speech.
4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups
called phrases, clauses, and sentences.
5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the
sentence is called its construction.
The construction of English words is shown in three ways : (1) by
their form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like
to, from, is, etc.
6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some
change in its meaning : as, — boy, boy's ; man, men ; drink, drank.
7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the
constructions of words.
Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the con-
structions of words.
8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,
— that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers
and writers.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PART ONE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN
THE SENTENCE
Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.
— Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives
and Participles. — Comparative Importance of the Pftrts of Speech in the Sen-
tence : the Snbject Noun (or Simple Subject) ; the Predicate Verb (or Simple
Predicate) ; Compound Subject and Predicate. — Substitutes for the Parts of
Speech : Phrases ; Clauses ; Compound and Complex Sentences.
THE SENTENCE
1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete
thought.
Fire bums.
Wolves howl.
Rain is falling.
Charles is courageous.
Patient effort removes mountains.
London is the largest city in the world.
A man who respects himself should never condescend
to use slovenly language.
Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple
thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought
is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its
expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is
complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed
by a full pause.
1
2 THE SENTENCE
2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two
parts, — a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that
is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is Jire and the predicate
is bums. In the third, the subject is rain ; the predicate, is falling. In
the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should
never condescend to use slovenly language.
Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single
word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by
itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sen-
tence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a
complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (bums), if
we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the
assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a
predicate are necessary to make a sentence.
3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or ex-
clamatory.
1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
Dickens wrote " David Copperfield."
The army approached the city.
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.
Who is that officer ?
Does Arthur Moore live here ?
3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
Open the window.
Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other
emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
How calm the sea is !
What a noise the engine makes 1
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 3
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is
also ezdamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone
of voice.
4. In imperative sentences, the subject {thou or you) is
almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker
and hearer without being expressed.
Sach omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both
speaker and hearer, are said to be " understood." Thus, in " Open the win-
dow," the subject is *^you (understood)." If expressed, the subject would be
emphatic : as, — " You open the window."
5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predi-
cate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.
Here comes Tom.
Next came Edward.
Over went the carriage.
A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is
said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common
in interrogative sentences.
Where is your boat ?
When was your last birthday ?
Whither wander you ? — Shakspere.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe
that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the
expression of thought.
fiavage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects ;
roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did ; savage
describes the beasts ; through shows the relation in thought be-
tween forest and roamed ; the limits the meaning of forest^
showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of
these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence.
4 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
7. In Accordance witlitliairiiae in the Mntanoeywordi an dirided into
tight cUuMos called parts of apeoch, — namely, nonna, prononna, adjec-
tiyes, yerbs, adyerbs, prepoaitionay conjunctiona, and interjectiona.
I. NOUHS
8. A notm is the name of a person, place, or tiling.
Examples : Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago,
island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss,
song.
n. PRONOUHS
9. A pronoun is a word nsed instead of a noun. It designates a per-
son, place, or thing without naming it.
In '' J am ready, *' the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the
speaker^s name. In ** You have forgotten your umbrella, ^^ the pronouns
you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.
Other pronouns are : Ac, his, him ; she, hers, her; U, its ; tMs, that ;
who, whose, whom, which; myself, yourself, himself, ihemsel^aes.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about
a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the
name.
10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The dif-
ference between them is merely that the noun designates a
person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun
designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a
general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.
11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
FrarOc introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of
the pronoun his,']
Eleanor is visiting her aunt.
The hook has lost iJLs cover.
The trappers sat round their camp fire.
Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways.
[Their has two antecedents, connected by arid.]
ADJECTIVES 6
m. ADJECTIVES
12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.^
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or
limits.
13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the
range of its meaning.
The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we
say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If w« use a
second adjective (smaXJ) and a third (square), we limit the size and the
shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like wooden^ square, and small) describe as
well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.
We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen
by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not
describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are
called definitive adjectives.^
IV. VERBS
14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action)
concerning a person, place, or thing.^
The wind hUms, Her jewels sparkled.
The horses ran. Tom climbed a tree.
The fire blazed. The dynamite exploded.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
The treaty still exists.
The book lies on the table.
Near the church stood an elm.
My aunt sufers much from headache.
1 In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe a
substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.
2 Definitive adjectives are often called limiting adjectives. All adjectives,
however, limit, even those that also describe.
« The usual brief definition of a verb is, " A verb is a word which asserts."
But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.
6 VERBS
15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single
verb, to make ah assertion.
A group of words tlutt is used as a yerb is called a yerb-phrase.
You wiU see.
The tree haafaUen.
We might have invited her.
Our driver has been discharged.
16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are
called auxiliary (that is, ^^ aiding") verbs, because they help
other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in **Tou wiU see,*' the auxiliary verb wiU helps see to express
future action ; in '* We might have invited her,*' the auxiliaries might and
have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can,
mtist, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do,
did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with
the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase,
and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word
or words.
Where was Washington bom f
The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.
17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in
the predicate describe or define the subject.
1. Gold is a metal.
2. Charles is my friend's name.
3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.
4. Iron becomes red in the fire.
5. Our condition seemed desperate.
6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.
7. My soul grows sad with troubles. — Shakspere.
In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion,
but it also connects the rest of the predicate {a metal) with the
ADVERBS 7
subject {gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a descrip-
tion or definition of gold. *
In sentences 4-7, becomes, seemed, proved^ and grows are
similarly used.
In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the
same purpose are called copolatiye (that is, ^^ joining ") yerl».
Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the " joiner" or "link."
The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the
commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases
ha.8 been, have been, had been, shall be, will be}
V. ADVERBS
18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adj6ctiye, or '
another adverb.
To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some waj.
Thus in "The river fell rapidly,'*'' the adverb rapidly modifies the verb
fell by showing how the falling took place. In " I am nener late," " This
is absolutely true," "That is too bad," the italicized words are adverbs
modifying adjectives ; in " He came very often," " He spoke almost hope-
fully," "The river fell too rapidly," they are adverbs modifying other
adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question " How ? " ^^ When ? "
** Where ? " or ^^ To what degree or extent ? "
19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same
way in which adjectives modify nouns.
Adjectives Adverbs
A bright fire burned. The fire burned brightly,
A fierce wind blew. The vrind hlewfi^cely,
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of
another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives
modify substantives ; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or
other adverbs.
1 For full inflection see pp. 300-301.
PREPOSITIONS
VL PREPOSITIONS
20. A piepositioii ia a word placed before a snbstantiye to show its
relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
, A preposition is said to goyem its object.
In " The surface of the water glistened," of makes it clear that sur-
face belongs with water. In "Philip is on the river," on shows Philip's
position with respect to the river. In, or ?icar, or beyond would have
indicated a dififerent relation. Water is the object of the preposition o/,
and river is the object of the preposition on.
21. A preposition often has more than one object.
Over hill and dale he ran.
He was filled with shame and despair.
Vn. CONJUNCTIONS
22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object,
and in indicating a less definite relation between the words
which it connects.
In "Time and tide wait for no man," "The parcel was small but
heavy," " He wore a kind of doublet or jacket," the conjunctions and,
but, or, connect single words, — time with tide, small with heavy, doublet
with jacket. In " Do not go if you are afraid," " I came because you sent
for me," "Take my key, but do not lose it," " Sweep the floor and dust
the furniture," each conjunction connects the entire group of words
preceding it with the entire group following it.
Vra. INTERJECTIONS
23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with
the groups of words in which they stand ; hence their name,
which means "thrown in."
Examples: Oh! 1 forgot. ^ A, how I miss you 1 Bravo! Alas!
DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 9
THE SAME WORD AS DIPFSRSNT PABTS OF SPEECH
24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determinea to what part
of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes
another.
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use some-
times look and sound alike: as in "The minstrel sang a
plaintive Zay," and "He lay on the ground." But the follow-
ing examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more
than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the
meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines
its classification as a part of speech.
25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are
(1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives
and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and
prepositions.
I. Nouns and Adjectives
Nouns Adjectives
Bvbber comes from South America. This wheel haa a rubber tire.
That briclc is yellow. Here is a brick house.
The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merch?Lnt lives here.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly
nouns may be used as adjectives ; the third shows how words
that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. Nouns and Verbs
Nouns Verbs
Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows.
Give me a stamp. Stamp this envelope.
It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief.
Other examples are : act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause,
close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule,
sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
10 DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
III. Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives Adverbs
That is a foA boat. The snow is melting f<uL
Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight.
Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early.
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.
IV. Adjectives and Pronouns
Adjectives Pronouns
This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant.
That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo.
Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each.
For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62-65.
V. Adverbs and Prepositions
Adverbs Prepositions
Jill came tumbling afler. He returned ajter the accident.
We went hekm. Below us lay the valley.
The weeds sprang up. We walked up the hill.
Other examples are : aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following : —
Noun. The calm lasted for three days.
Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds.
Verb. Calm your angry friend.
Other examples are : iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black,
light, head^ wet, round, square, winter, spring.
Noun. Wrong seldom prospers.
Adjective. You have taken the wrong road.
Adverb. Edward often spells words lorong.
Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions.
Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy.
Adjective. We have an outside stateroom.
Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside.
Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 11
Adjective. That boat is a sloop.
Pronoun. That is my uncle.
Conjunction. You said thxU you would help me.
Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica.
Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time.
Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late.
Preposition. I am waiting /or the train.
Conjunction. You have plenty of time, /or the train is late.
Interjection. Hurrah I the battle is won.
Noun. I heard a loud hurrah.
Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
26, Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way
the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of
speech ; for they really belong to two different parts of speech
at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is
both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and
adjective).
27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following
sentences: ^ . , i
To struggle was useless.
To escape is impossible.
To exercise regularly preserves the health.
To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the
sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in
the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be
substituted for to escape ; and, in the third sentence, regular
exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted
for to exercise regularly.
But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise)
are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to ex-
ercise) is modified by an adverb (regularhj). Such forms, there-
fore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs,
and are called infinitives.
12 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
28. The infinitiTe is a Terb-form which partakes of the nature of a
noon. It ie commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the
sign of the inflnitiye.
29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of
verb-phrases.
I ^laU go. Mary may recUe.
John will win. Jack can swim.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection
of verbs.
Note. That go^ win^ recite^ and swim are infinitives may be seen by com-
paring the following sentences: — ** I intend to go" ** John is sure to win,"
"Mary is permitted to recite f** ** Jack is able to swim."
30. The following sentence contains two participles : —
SJiaUered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb
shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both ex-
press action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But
shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they
are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are
adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and
are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the
nature of adjectives.
31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it
describes or limits.
32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and
past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing. Past participles have
several different endings, which will be studied in connection
with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT 18
38. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom is coming. Your book is found.
Our boat was wrecked. They have sold their horses.
I have sent the money. You have broken your watch.
He has brought me a letter. The ship had struck on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection
of verbs.
Note. The doable nature of the infinitiye (as both verb and noun) and
the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying
each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of
eight) . But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in
accordance with the usual practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1)
that these have very different offices or functions in the sen-
tence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives
(nouns and pronouns) and verbs.
Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places,
or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them.
Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in
framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no
subject ; without a verb, there can be no predicate : and both a
subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make
a sentence.
Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives
and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech,
that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives
modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs
usually modify verbs (by indicating howy when, or where the
action took place). Without substantives, there would be no
use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use
for adverbs.
14 SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT
PrepositioDB and conjunctioiis are also less important than sub-
stantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show-
relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives
if there were nothing to connect.
Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveli-
ness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We
could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without
ever using an interjection.
35. A sentence may consist of but two words, — a noun or
pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus, —
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or
both, will contain more than one word. Thus, —
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the complete subject (^young Charles) consists of a noun
(^Charles) and an adjective {young), which describes Charles.
The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb
(slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is
performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb
(swim^) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could
be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the
frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers,
the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, with-
out destroying the sentence ; for this would still exist as the
expression of a thought (Charles swim^), though the thought
would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers
are included.
36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its mean-
ing, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete predicate.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE PREDICATE 15
In each of the following sentences the complete subject and
the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the
simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics : —
The spider \ spreads her web.
The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless unrest \ urged me forward.
Our frantic horses \ swept round an angle of the road.
The irifirmities of age | came early upon him.
The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in
favor of the Governor General,
Salutes I were fired from the batteries.
The Clives \ had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an
estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
1 1 have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make
one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to
make one compound predicate.
1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.
2. Moore and I \ passed some merry days together.
3. Frances and s?ie \ are friends.
4. Hais, caps, boots, and gloves \ were piled together in confusion.
6. The watch | sank and was lost.
6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared.
7. He I neither smiled noTfrovmed.
8. Snow and ice \ covered the ground and made our progress difficult.
38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or .the predicate, or both, may be compound.
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles
and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a com-
pound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (hats, caps,
boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by
and. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are com-
pound ; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the mem-
bers of a compound subject or predicate : and (both . . . and),
or (either . . . or ; whether . . . or), nor (neither . . . rwr).
16 SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH
SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASES
40. A group of words may take the place of a part of sx>eecli.
T?ie Father of Waters is the Mississippi.
A girl toith blue eyes stood at the window.
You are looking well.
The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something.
With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective (blue-eyed), and modifies
girl
At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood,
and modifies stood.
Are looking could be replaced by the verb look,
41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a
predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase ; toith
blue eyes, an adjective phrase ; at the window, an adverbial phrase ; are
looking, a verb-phrase.
42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a
preposition and its object, with or without other words.
Your umbrella is in the comer.
He has a heart of oak.
A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf.
My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap.
Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its ob-
ject, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.
CLAUSES — COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses.
The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate
and a phrase does not.
CLAUSES 17
44. A cUnae it a group of wocda tbat teau part of a sestonoo and
tiuit oontaiiw a subjoct aoA a prodicato.
The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.
The train started | when the bell rang.
Each of these sentences contains two clauses ; but the relation
between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from
that between the clauses in the second.
In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a sepa^
rate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a
simple sentence, — that is, as a sentence having but one subject
and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction
and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels
that there is some relation in thought between the two state-
ments, or he would not have put them together as clauses in
the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expres-
sion to show what that relation is. In other words, the two
clauses are grammatically indapendent, for neither of them modi-
fies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are
therefore said to be coordinate, — that is, of the same " order "
or rank, and the sentence is called compound.
In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between
the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the
train started) makes the main statement, — it expresses the
chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause.
The other clause {when the bell rang) is added because the
speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started) by defining
the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of
speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly)
or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the hell). For this pur-
pose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence
it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it depends
(that is, " hangs ") upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower
or " subordinate " rank in the sentence. When thus constructed,
a sentence is said to be complex.
18 CLAUSES
45. An ordinary compound sentonce (as we have seen in § 44}
is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which
thus becomes an independent coordinate cUnse.
In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences,
using them as clauses to make one compound sentence : —
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the
last car disappeared.
This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two
coordinate clauses (the train started when the hell rang ; Tom
watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each
of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by
itself as a complex sentence.
Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as
coordinate clauses to make a compound sentence.
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in
Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in
which one or more of the coordinate clauses are complex, is
called a compound complex sentence.^
46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and
that contains a subject and a predicate.
A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All
other clauses are said to be independent.
Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coordinate.
Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or
both of which may be compound.
2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coor-
dinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which
is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coordinate clauses
are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
1 Compound complex sentences are also called complex compound sentences
For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 216-21G.
CLAUSES 19
I. Simple Sentences
Iron rusts.
GreoTge V is king.
Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both
subject and predicate are compound.]
II. Compound Sentences
Shakspere was bom in 1664 ; he died in 1616. [Two coordinate
clauses ; no conjunction.]
A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the
conjunction and,]
You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or,]
James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved
it. [Two clauses joined by but.]
Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach
me. [Two clauses joined by either . . .or,]
The following conjunctions may be used to join coordinate
clauses : and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or), nor (neither
. . nor), but, for.
III. Complex Sentences
Examples will be found in §§ 48-50.
Clauses as Parts of Speech
47. Subordinate clauses , like phrases, are used as parts of speech.
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or
substantive) clause.
2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an
adjective clause.
3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called
•an adverbial clause.
20 KOUl^ OR SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
48. L Noun (or Substantive) Cijluses.
That we should muxeed in tAwpten/" ""P™^^^®-
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the sec-
ond it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject
is the noun success ; in the second, the subject is the noun clause,
that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced
by the conjunction that ; the simple subject of the clause is the
pronoun we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase shxmld
succeed. The first sentence is simple ; the second is oomplfiz.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction
that,
49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illus-
trate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjectiTe phraae, (3) an
adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun.
An fionorable man "j
A man of honor [• will not lie.
A man who values his honor)
A seasonable word ^
A word in season I may save a soul.
A word that is spoken at the right moment J
My native land
The land of my birth Hies far across the sea.
The land wfiere I was bom ,
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the' third
is complex.
50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences
illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase,
(3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or
verb-phrase).
rhere.
The lightning struck J on this spot,
[^where we stand.
Mr. Andrews lives
(near,
in this neighborhood,
where you see thai dm.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 21
r punctually.
The game began '{ on the stroke of one,
[^when the clock struck,
r conditionally.
The banker will make the loan <J on one condition,
l^ifyeu endorse my note.
The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third
is complex.
51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pro-
nouns whoy which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where,
whence, whither, when.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs
where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how,
as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if,
that (in order that, so that), lest, etc.
Note. The use of phrases and clauses as ]»arts of speech increases enor-
moasly the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock
of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every
idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make
a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to
the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
The Sentence
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete
thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fjict.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some
other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also
be exclamatory.
22 SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
Subject ajud Predicate
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that
is spoken of ; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun,
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
The Parts of Speech
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided
into eight classes called parts of speech, — namely, nouns, pro-
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a
person, place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes
or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective ; one
which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an
action) concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary
(that is, " aiding ") verbs, because they help other verbi3 to express
action or state of some particular kind.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 23
Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to
frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate de-
scribe or define the subject. In such sentences, is and other verbs
that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is,
"joining") verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning
of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverb's are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show
its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound express-
ing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what
part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes
another.
11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of
a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called
the sign of the infinitive.
12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state
in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes
or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past
participles, so called from the time which they denote.
Substitutes for the Parts of Speech
Phrases
13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and
a predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
24 SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and
its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional
phrases.
Clauses
15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and
that contains a subject and a predicate.
16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause.
All other clauses are said to be independent.
17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coordinate.
18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either
or both of which may be compound.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
coordinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of
which is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coordinate
clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech.
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun
(or substantive) clause.
(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an
adjective clause.
(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is
called an adverbial clause.
PAET TWO
INFLECTION AND SYNTAX
CHAPTER I
INFLECTION
52. Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change
in its meaning. A word thns changed in form is said to be inflected.
Thus the nouns man, mfe, dog, may change their form to man's, wife^s,
dog^Sj to express possession ; or to nien, mvea, dogs, to show that two or
more are meant.
The pronouns I, she, may change their form to our, her.
The adjectives large, happy, good, may change their form to larger,
Tiappier, better, to denote a higher degree of the quality ; or to largest,
happiest, best, to denote the highest degree.
The verbs look, see, sing, may change their form to looked, saw, sang,
to denote past time.
The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the
addition of a final letter or syllable (dog, dogs ; look, looked),
(2) by the substitution of one letter for another (man, men),
or (3) by a complete change of form (good, better, best),
53. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension;
that of an adjective or an adverb, its comparison; that of a
verb, its conjugation.
Note. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct
words. Thus we is regarded as a form of the pronoun /, but it is in fact an
altogether different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous,
and are properly enough included under the head of inflection.
25
26
INFLECTION
The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may
be used for reference with the following chapters.
Substantives
(Nouns and
Pronouns)
Verbs ....
Gender
Number
Person
Case
'Masculine (male)
- Feminine {female)
^ Neuter (no sex)
r Singular (one)
\ Plural (more than one)
f First (speaker)
< Second (spoken to)
1^ Third (spoken of)
( Nominative (subject case)
•I Possessive (ownership)
1^ Objective (object case)
Adjectives
AND Adverbs
f Positive Degree
Comparison -j Comparative Degree
[ Superlative Degree
Number
Person
r Singular"
' I Plural
r First
. < Second
[Third
Verb agrees with Subject
Tense
Mood
Simple
Tenses
Compound!
Tenses 1
{Present
Past
Future
Perf ect(or Present Perfect)
Pluperf ect(or Past Perfect)
Future Perfect
' Indicative (all six tenses)
Imperative (Present Tense only)
Subjunctive (Present, Pasty Perfect,
Pluperfect)
. ( Active (Subject acts)
' ' ' \ Passive (Subject receives the action)
Infinitives (Present and Perfect)
Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)
COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS 27
CHAPTER II
NOUNS
CIJV.SSIFICATION — COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS
54. A noon is the name of a person, place, or thing.
55. Nouns are divided into two classes — proper nouns and common
noons.
1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.
Examples : Lincoln, Napoleon, Ruth, Gladstone, America, Denver,
JoYe, Ohio, Monday, December, Yale, Christmas, Britannia, Niagara,
Merrimac, Elmwood, Louvre, Richardson, Huron, Falstaff.
2. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a
class of persons, places, or things.
Examples : general, emperor, president, clerk, street, town, desk,
tree, cloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser,
dictionary, railroad.
Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns
usually begin with a small letter.
Note. Although a proper noun is the Dame of a particular person, place,
or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one
man is named James; but when we say JameSy we think of one particular
person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say mariy on the
contrary, we are not calling any single i)erson by name : we are using a noun
which apphes, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.
Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun.
Thus,—
^nd is a conjunction.
56. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as
the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.
Nelson's flagship was the Victory.
Give me this evening's Herald.
My dog is named Rover.
The Limited Express is drawn by the Pioneer.
28 NOUNS
57. A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some
of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.
Examples : James Russell Lowell, Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower,
Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, Stony Brook, Westminster
Abbey, Measure for Measure, White House, Brookljm Bridge, Atlantic
Railroad, Sherman Act, The Return of the Native, Flatiron Building.
Note. These ara (strictly speaking) noun-phnMS (( 41) ; but, since aU are
particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.
58. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a
name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.
The museum owns two Rernbrandts and a Titian.
I exchanged my old motor car for a new JSnUtead,
My fountain pen is a BlaJce.
Lend me your Webster.
He was a Napoleon of finance.
I am going to buy a Kazak.
59. Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when
used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small
letter.
Examples : macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Mac-
adam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof garment), napoleon (a
coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings), mentor (a wise counsellor), derrin-
ger (a kind of pistol).
60. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human
quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.
This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or
quality is said to be personified.
Each old poetic Mountain
Inspiration breathed around. — Gray.
Who '11 toll the bell ?
"I," said the Bull,
"Because I can pull."
His name was Palience. — Spenser.
SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS 29
Smiles on past Mi^ortune^s brow
Soft Reflection' 8 hand can trace ;
And o'er the cheek of Sorrow throw
A melancholy grace. — Gray.
Love is and was my lord and king,
And in his presence I attend. — Tenntsok.
Time gently shakes his wings. — Dryden.
The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper
noun and is usually written with a capital letter.
Note. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is
kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shak8i)ere), the noun
often begins with a small letter.
SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS
61. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.
Examples : blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight, height, length,
depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty, liberty, eternity, satisfaction,
precision, splendor, terror, disappointment, elegance, existence, grace,
peace.
Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.
Examples : greenness (from green), depth (from deep), freedom (from
free), wisdom (from uoise), rotundity (from rotund), falsity or falseness
(from/atee), bravery (from brave),
62. A collectiye noun is the name of a group, claaa, or multitude,
and not of a single person, place, or thing.
Examples : crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf, battalion,
squad. Associated Press, Mediterranean Steamship Company, Senior
Class, School Board.
The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings,
collectiye in another.
They believe in fraternity. [Abstract.]
The student joined & fraternity, [Collective.]
30 NOUNS
63. Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper
when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).
Collective nouns may be either proper or common.
64. A noon consisting of two or more words united is called a com-
pound noun.
Examples : (1) common nouns, — tablecloth, sidewalk, lampshade,
bedclothes, steamboat, fireman, washerwoman, jackknife, hatband,
headache, flatiron, innkeeper, knife-edge, steeple-climber, brother-in-
law, commander-in-chief, window curtain, insurance company ; (2) proper
nouns, — Johnson, Williamson, Cooperstown, Louisville, Holywood, Elk-
kom, Aubumdale, Stratford-on-Avon, Lowell Junction.
As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be
joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some
words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is
less used than formerly.
Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the
manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either
(1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus
railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (conductor) «
limited by an adjective (railway).
INFLECTION OF NOUNS
65. In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we
have to consider gender, number, person, and case.
1. Gender is distinction according to sex.
2. Number is that property of substantiyes which shows whether
they indicate one person or thing or more than one.
8. Person is that property of substantiyes which shows whether they
designate (i) the speaker, (a) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or
thing spoken of.
4. Substantiyes haye inflections of case to indicate their grammatical
relations to yerbs, to prepositions, or to other substantiyes.
These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for con-
venience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case
only. Gender is shown in various ways, — usually by the meaning of the
noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by
the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.
GENDER 81
I. GENDER
66. Gender is distinction according to sex.
Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the
neuter gender.
1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine
gender.
Examples : Joseph, boy, coclerel, buck, footman, butler, brother,
father, uncle, he.
2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine
gender.
Examples : girl, Julia, hen, waitress, maid, doe, spinster, matron,
aunt, squaw, she.
8. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the
neuter gender.
Examples : pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it.
A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and some-
times feminine is often said to be of common gender.
Examples: bird, speaker, artist, animal, cat, European, musician,
operator, they.
67. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it
stands or to which it refers.
Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender :
Masculine : he, his, him.
Feminine : sAc, her, hers.
Neuter : it, its.
All other pronouns vary in gender.
Robert greeted his employer. [Masculine.]
A mother passed with her child. [Feminine.]
This tree has lost Us foliage. [Neuter.]
Who laughed ? [Masculine or feminine.]
How do you do ? [Masculine or feminine.]
They have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
I do not care for either. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
82
NOUNS
68. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by
personification (§ 60).
Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams
The blue Mediterranean. — Shelley.
Stern daughter of the Voice of God 1
O Duty ! — Wordsworth.
Nature from her seat
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe. — Milton.
69. In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the
moon, it is customary to use she and her. In like manner, he
is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without
reference to sex, although it often designates an insect or other
small creature, and even a very young child.
TVho and which are both used in referring to the lower ani-
mals. Which is the commoner, but who is not infrequent, espe-
cially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.
Thus one would say, **The dog which is for sale is in that kennel,"
even if one added, "ITe is a collie." But which would never be used in
such a sentence as, "I have a dog who loves children."
70. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be
shown in various ways.
1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living
beings are denoted by different words.
[asculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
father
mother
gander
goose
husband
wife
drake
duck
uncle
aunt
cock
hen
king
queen
ram
ewe
monk
nun
bull
cow
wizard
witch
. hart
hind
lord
lady
buck
doe
horse
mare
fox
vixen i
"^Vixen is really formed from/ox (compare the German FUchain from Fuchs),
GEKDER
88
2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition
of an ending.
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
heir
heiress
executor
executrix
baron
baroness
administrator
administratrix
lion
lioness
hero*
heroine
prince
princess
Joseph
Josephine
emperor
empress
sultan
sultana
tiger
tigress
Philip
Philippa
Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Fre-
quently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as, — actor,
actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending ess is not so
common as formerly. Usage favors proprietor^ author^ editor^ etc., even for
the feminine (rather than the harsher forms proprietress, aythoress, editress),
whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.
3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition
of an ending. Thus, — widow, widower ; bride, hridegroovi.
4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man, woman,
maid, hoy, or girl.
Examples : salesman, saleswoman ; foreman, forewoman ; laundry-
man ; milkmaid ; cash boy, cash girl.
5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to
indicate gender.
Examples : manservant, maidservant ; mother bird ; cock sparrow,
hen sparrow ; boy friend, girl friend ; he-wolf, she-wolf.
6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accom-
panying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.
My cat is always washing his face.
The intruder shook her head.
I was confronted by a pitiful creature, haggard and unshaven.
Note. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (abqve) are often re-
garded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine
are diflFerent words. Thus, baroness is not an inflectional form of baron, but a
distinct noun, made from baron by adding the ending ess, precisely as barony
and baronage are made from baron by adding the endings y and age. The
process is rather that of derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection.
84 NOUNS
n. HUMBER
71. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether
they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.
There are two numbers, — the singular and the plural.
The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The
plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.
72. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the
singular.
Examples : mat, mats ; wave, waves'; problem, problems ; bough,
boughs ; John, Johns ; nurse, nurses ; tense, tenses ; bench, benches ;
dish, dishes ; class, classes ; fox, foxes.
Special Rules
1. If the singular ends in 5, x, «, ch, or sh, the plural end-
ing is es.
Examples : loss, losses ; box, boxes ; buzz, buzzes ; match, matches ;
rush, rushes.
2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also
take the ending es in the plural.
Examples: hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes; motto,
mottoes ; buffalo, buffaloes ; mosquito, mosquitoes.
3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural '
in s: as, — cameo, cameos ; folio, folios,
4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant
also form their plural in s : —
banjo
casino
dynamo
memento i
quarto
torso
bravo
chromo
haloi
octavo
solo
tyro
burro
contralto
junto
piano
soprano
zeroi
canto
duodecimo
lasso
proviso
stiletto
73. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters
the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.
1 Ilalo^ memento, zero also form a plural in es {haloes, etc.).
NUMBER 36
1. l^ouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to
i and add es in the plural.
Examples : sky, skies ; fly, flies ; country, countries ; berry, berries.
(Contrast : valley, valleys ; chimney, chimneys ; monkey, monkeys ; boy,
boys ; day, days.)
Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s.
Examples : Mary, Marys ; Murphy, Murphys ; Daly, Dalys ; Rowley,
Rowleys ; May, Mays.
2. Some nouns ending in / or /e, change the f to v and
add es or s.
Examples : wharf, wharves ; wife, wives ; shelf, shelves ; wolf,
wolves ; thief, thieves ; knife, knives ; half, halves ; calf, calves ; life,
lives ; self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; loaf, loaves ; leaf, leaves ; elf, elves ;
beef, beeves.
74. A few nouns form their plural in en.
These are : ox, oxen ; brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children.
Note. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are : eyne (for
eyen, from eye), kine (cows), ahoon (shoes), hosen (hose).
75. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel.
These are : man, men ; woman, women ; merman, mermen ; foot, feet ;
tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. Also compound
words ending in man or woman^ such as fireman, firemen ; saleswoman,
saleswomen ; Dutchman, Dutchmen.
Note. German^ Mussulmariy Ottoman^ dragoman^ firman^ and talisman^
which are not compounds of inauj form their plurals regularly : as, — Germans^
Mussulmans. Norman also forms its plural in s.
76. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and
plural.
Examples : deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois.
Note. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included,
for example, year^ which in Shakspere has two plurals : — ** six thousand
years f" "twelve year since."
36 NOUNS
77. A few nouns have two plurals, but usuallj with some
difference in meaning.
SiNGULAB Plural
brother T brothers (relatives)
\ brethren (members of the same society)
horse r horses (animals)
\ horse (cavalry)
Iqq^ r feet (parts of the body)
L^oot (infantry)
•J ( sails (on vessels)
\ sail (vessels in a fleet)
jj ^ r heads (in usual sense)
\ head (of cattle)
fl^, r fishes (individually)
l^fish (collectively)
penny f pennies (single coins)
\ pence (collectively)
^l^^jj r cloths (pieces of cloth)
\ clothes (garments)
die r dies (for stamping)
\ dice (for gaming)
The pennies were arranged in neat piles.
English money is reckoned in i)ounds, shillings, and pence.
78. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part usu-
ally takes the plural form ; less often the first part ; rarely
both parts.
Examples : spoonful, spoonfuls ; bathhouse, bathhouses ; forget-me-
not, forget-me-nots ; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief ; maid-of -honor,
maids-of -honor ; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers ; Knight Templar,
Knights Templars; Lord Justice, Lords Justices; manservant, men-
servants.
79. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing,
and words regarded merely as words take 's in the plural.
" Embarrassed " is spelled with two r^s and two «'«.
Your S'8 look like 8'8,
Tell the printer to change the §'s to t's.
Don't interrupt me with your but^a I
NUMBER
37
80. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign
plurals ; but many have an English plural also.
Some of the. commonest are included in the following list: ^
Singular
Plural
alumna (feminine) alumnse
alumnus (masculine) alumni
amanuensis
analysis
animalculum
antithesis
appendix
axis
bacillus
bacterium
bandit
basis
beau
candelabrum
cumulus
cherub
crisis
curriculum
datum
ellipsis
erratum
formula
amanuenses
analyses
animalcula ^
antitheses
f appendices
\ appendixes
axes
bacilli
bacteria
{banditti
bandits
f beaux
\ beaus
candelabra
cumuli
f cherubim
\ cherubs
crises
curricula
data
ellipses
errata
J formulae
\ formulas
Singular
Plural
genius
genus
gymnasium
r genii
\ geniuses
genera
C gymnasia
(^ gymnasiums
hippopotamus hippopotami
hypothesis hypotheses
larva larvse
memorandum /'"«°'<"^*'>^»
(^ memorandums
nebula nebulae
oasis
parenthesis
phenomenon
radius
seraph
species
stratum
synopsis
tableau
tempo
terminus
thesis
trousseau
vertebra
parentheses
phenomena
radii
J seraphim
\ seraphs
species
strata
synopses
tableaux
tempi
termini
theses
trousseaux
vertebrae
The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning : as, —
Michael Angelo and Raphael were geniuses.
Spirits are sometimes called genii.
This book has two indices.
The printer uses signs called indexes.
1 This list is intended for reference.
2 The English word animalcule (plural animalcules) is preferable,
plural animalcula is erroneous.
The
88 NOUNS
81. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs,, Miss, or
Master, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows : —
1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs, (pronounced Messers ^). The
name remains in the singular. Thus, —
Mr, JcLcksoiu, plural Messrs, (or the Messrs.) Jackson,
2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural
form. Thus, —
Mrs, Jackson, plural tJie Mrs. Jacksons.
3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the
plural, sometimes the name. Thus, —
Miss Jackson, plural the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons,
The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be
used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.
4. The plural of Master is Masters, The name remains in
the singular. Thus, —
Master Jackson, plural tJie Masters Jackson,
Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural
form : as, — the two General FoUansbys. But when two or more names follow,
the title becomes plural : as, — Generals Rolfe and Johnson.
82. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or
never used in the plural.
Such are many names of qualities (as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences
(as chemistry^), of forces (as grrauitoiion).
Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take
a plural in some special sense. Thus, —
earth (the globe) earths (kinds Of soil)
ice (frozen water) ices (food)
tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans)
nickel (a metal) nickels (coins)
1 Messrs. is an abbreviation of the French messieurs.
2 When such nouns as chemistry refer to textbooks, they may be used in
the plural : as, — " Bring your chemistries to-morrow."
PERSON 89
83. Some nouns are used in the plural only.
Such are: annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees,
nuptials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds,
tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals ; and (in certain special senses)
ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks.
84. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.
Such are: gallows, news, measles, mumps, small-pox (for smcUl pocks) ^
politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathe-
matics, physics, optics).
Note. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. News^
for example, originally meant " new things." Shakspere uses it both as a sin-
gular and as a plural. Thus, — " This news was brought to Richard ** {King
John, V. 3. 12) ; "But whereifore do I tell tfiese news to thee? " (1 Henry IV,
iii. 2. 121). In a few words modem usage varies. The foUowing nouns are
sometimes singular, sometimes plural : alms, amends, hellows, means, pains
(in the sense of *' effort "), tidings.
m. PERSON
85. Person is that property of substantires which shows whether
they denote (i) the speaker, (a) the person spoken to, or (3) the person
spoken of.
A substantiye is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in
the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third
person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.
I, the king, command his presence. [First i)erson.]
You, Thom>as, broke the window. [Second person.]
Charles, come here. [Second person.]
He, ihe fireman, saved the train. [Third person.]
The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has noth-
ing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or con-
nection ; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision.
Thus, / is always of the first person ; you of the second ; and
he of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in
Chapter III.
40
NOUNS
IV. CASE
86. Substantiyes hare inflections of case to indicate their grammati-
cal relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other snbstantiTes.
There are three cases, — the nominatiye, the posseMive, and
the objectire.
The possessiye csuse is often called the genitive.
The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always
alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference
(as, — /, me ; Ae, hirfi).
Declension of Nouns
87. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension.
To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the
singular number and then in the plural. Thus, —
Singular
Possessive
Objective
boy
boy's
boy
horse
horse's
horse
Plural
fly
fly's
fly
chimney
chimney's
chimney
Nominative
Possessive
elective
boys
boys'
boys
horses
horses'
horses
Singular
flies
flies'
flies
chimneys
chimneys'
chimneys
Nominative
Possessive
O^ective
calf
calf's
calf
lass
lass's
lass
Plural
man
man's
man
deer
deer's
deer
Nominative
Possessive
Objective
calves
calves'
calves
lasses
lasses'
lasses
men
men's
men
deer
deer's
deer
NOMINATIVE CASE 41
Nominative Case
88. The nominatiye case is used in the following constructions :
(1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative
(or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nomina-
tive, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative
absolute.
1. The subject of a verb is in the nominatiTe case.
Water freezes.
Charles climbed the mountain.
The boy's /ace glowed with health and exercise.
A thousand men were killed in this battle.
In the third example, face is the simple subject ; the com-
plete subject is the boj/s face. In the fourth, men is the simple
subject ; the complete subject is a thousand men. Both face
and men are in the nominative case ; fuce is in the singular
number ; men in the plural.
2. A substantlTe standing in the predicate, but describing or defin-
ing the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate
nominative.
A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute.
Lobsters are cruataceans.
A good book is a faithful friend,
Shakspere was a native of Stratf ord-on-Avon.
Arnold proved a traitor,
Adams was elected president.
The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particu-
larly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).
I am he. Are you she f
It is I. It was we who did it.
The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is
(in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection
with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).
42 . NOUNS
8. A sttbtUntiTe used for the purpose of addreseing a person directly^
and not connected with any verb, is called a Tocatire.
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a
nominatiye by direct address or a Tocative nominative.
Come, Ruth, give me your hand.
Turn to the right, madam,
Herbert, it is your turn.
Come with me, my child.
Note. A yocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct
Address, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a voca-
tive is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun
thou in this construction : as, — I will arrest thee, t?iou traitor (see § 115).
4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory
nominative (or nominative of exclamation).
Peace, be still.
Fortunate Ruth !
A drum ! a drum ! Macbeth doth come.
Look ! a balloon I
The sun ! then we shall have a fine day.
Certain exclamatory nominatives are somethnes classed as interjections
(§376).
6. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and sig-
nifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to
be in apposition.
An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.
Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in
the nominative case.
Mr. Scott, the grocer, is here. [Apposition with subject.]
Tom, old /cZ/oio, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard, [Apposition
with predicate nominative.]
Note. Apposition means *' attachment " ; appositive means " attached
noun or pronoun." An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in appo-
sition much as an adjective might do (compare ** Balboa, a Spaniard" with
" Spanish Balboa "). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
FORMS OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 43
Possessive Case
89. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.
John's yacht lies at her moorings.
The duck^s feet are webbed.
The mutineer'' s pistol burst when he fired.
Note. Most ases of the possessive come under the general head of posses-
sion in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are source (as in ** hen^s eggs ")
and authorship (as in " Wordsworth's sonnets").
A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is
'attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective
modifier.
Forms of the Possessive Case
90. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number,
the ending 's.
Examples : the owPs feathers, Ellzabeth^s hat, the officer^s name.
Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive.
In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the
possessive case.
Examples: the owls' feathers, the oflBcei's' names, the artists' petition,
the engineers' ball.
Plural nouns not ending in s take 's in the possessive.
Examples : the firemen's ball, the policemen's quarters, the children's
hour.
Note. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well
as pronounced with the ending -es or -is. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of
child is childes or childis ; that of king is hinges or kingis ; that of John is
Johnes or Johnis. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a compara-
tively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time
thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his; that is, they
took such a phrase as George's book for a contraction of George his book.
Hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of
part of the word his. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought
to be an omission of a final es; that is, such a phrase as the horses' heads was
thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads. Both these errors hUve
long been exploded.
44 NOUNS
91. Nouns like sheep and deer^ which have the same form
in both the singular and the plural, usuaUy take 's in the
possessive plural.
Thug, the deer^s tracks would be written, whether one deer or more
were meant.
92. Possessive Singular of Nouns ending in 5.
1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an 5-sound usually
make their possessive singular by adding '5.
Examples : Charles's hat, Forbes's garden, Mr. Wells's daughter.
Rice's carriage, Mrs. Dix's family, a fox's brush.
Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule
accords with the best usage ; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence
forms like Charles* and Welh' cannot be condemned as positively wrong,
though Charleses and WelWs are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is
often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Dix' and Dick's,
Mr. Hills' and Mr. IlilVs, Dr. Childs' and Dr. Child's,
2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound,
and not accented on the last syllable, may make their posses-
sive singular by adding 's, or may take no ending in the pos-
sessive.
In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in
sound there is no difference between the possessive and the
nominative.
Examples : Burrows's (or Burrows') Hotel, jEneas's (or -^Eneas')
voyage, Beatrice's (or Beatrice') gratitude, Felix's (or Felix') arrival,
for conscience's (or conscience') sake.
Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speak-
ing, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity ;
for Williams^ and WllUam^s, Roberts^ and Roberfs, Rabbins'
and Robin's, are indistinguishable in sound.
Note. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an ^sound and ac-
cented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus, — Laplace's
mathematics (not Laplace'); Alphonse's father (not Alphonse').
When final s is silent (as in many French names), 's must of course be added
in the possessive. Thus, — Descartes' s philosophy (pronounced Daycdrt's).
USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE 45
Use of the Possessiye Case
93.^ Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well
as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two
forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following
suggestions will be of use.
I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of
nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the
possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead.
The mayor of Detroit (not DetroWs mayor).
The top of the post (not thepo«t'« top).
The prevalence of the epidemic (not the epidemic'' s prevalence).
Contrast the poetic use : —
Belgium'* s capital had gathered then
Her beauty and her chivalry. — Byron.
Other prepositions are sometimes used : as, — " the explosion in New York "
(not " New York's explosion "), " the station at Plymouth."
II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.
1 . If there is actual ownership or possesion of some material thing, the
X)08sessive case is generally used in the singular : as, -^ " John's hat " (not
" the hat of John "). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by
a phrase with of to avoid ambiguity or harshness ; as, — " the jewels
of the ladies''^ (rather than "the ladies^ jewels") 2, ''the wings of the
geese " (rather than " the geese's wings ").
2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the pos-
sessive or the o/-phrase is proper: as, — *^ JohrCs generosity," or "the
generosity of John " ; " John^s condition," or " the condition of John " ;
" the guide^s efforts," or " the efforts of the guide " ; " Coesar^s death," or
'*the death of Ccesar.^'
When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agree-
able sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however,
there is a distinction in sense. " John's fear," for example, indicates that
John is afraid ; but " the fear of John " means the fear which John inspires
in others.
1 This section is intended chiefly for reference.
2 Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.
46 NOUNS
III. The following phrases are established idioms with the
possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be
replaced by of and its object.
(1) The earth^s surface, the san^s rays, the moon^s reflection, the pit^s
mouth, a ropers end, his journey^s end, at his wit^s end, the ship^s keel,
the water's edge, the cannon's mouth, out of harm's way, at swords'
points, for pity's sake, for conscience' sake ; (2) a moment's pause, a
year's time, a hand's breadth, a boat's length, a month's salary, a week's
notice, a night's rest, a day's work, a stone's throw, a feather's weight,
an hour's delay, a dollar's worth, not a foot's difference.
In the second group of phrases (" a moment's pause," etc.), the pos-
sessive denotes not ownership, but measure or extent.
IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (my, owr, your^
his, her, its, their) is more freely used than that of nouns in
expressions that do not denote actual ownership.
I know him to my sorrow. [Compare : to his loss, to our detriment,
to his advantage.]
The brass has lost its polish.
This question must be decided on its merits.
His arguments did not fail of their effect.
For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of whose^ see § 152.
94. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the
sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.
Brown, Jones, and Richardson's factories. [Brown, Jones, and Rich-
ardson are partners.]
It is George and William's turn to take the boat. [George and Wil-
liam are to go in the boat together.]
On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say,
"Brown's, Jones's, and Richardson's factories," if each individual had
a factory of his own ; and "George's and William's answers were cor-
rect," if each boy answered independently of the other.
95. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive
sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.
My/ot/ier-tn-tow'shome is in Easton.
We had a quarter of an houfs talk.
OBJECTIVE CASE 47
Other examples are the following : —
My brother-in-law's opinion ; the commander-in-chief's orders ; the
lady-in-waiting's duties ; the coal dealer's prices ; Edward VII's reign ;
the King of England's portrait ; half a year's delay ; in three or four
months' time ; a cable and a half's length ; the pleasure of Major Pen-
dennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis's company (Thackeray).
Note. Nonn-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which
is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, of is generally preferable to
the possessive. Thus, we may say either ** Tom the blacksmith's daughter " or
** the daughter of Tom the blacksmith " ; but ** the son of Mr. Hill the carpen-
ter" is both neater and clearer than '*Mr. Hill the carpenter's son." The use
of *« is also avoided with a very long phrase like " the owner of the house on
the other side of the street."
An> objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being
equivalent to q^with an object. Thus, — "I am not yet of Percy's mind [ = of
the mind of Percy] , the Hotspur of the North " (Shakspebe).
96. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted
when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.
Canard'' s [shop] is open until noon.
I buy my hats at BryarWa [shop].
We will dine at Pemuock's [restaurant].
That camera is mine. (See § 122.)
This construction is common in such expressions as : —
He was a relative of John^s,
That careless tongue of John's will get him into trouble.
In the first example, " a relative of John's " means " a relative of (''from
among) John's relatives.^' The second example shows an extension of this
construction by analogy. See § 122.
Objective Case
97. The objectiye case, as its name implies, is the case of the
object. ISiost of its uses are covered by the following rule : —
The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
The object of a preposition has already been explained and
defined (§§ 20-21).
48 NOUNS
98. The object of a rerb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the
predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate ob-
ject. Of these the direct object is the most important.
The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in ap-
position with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject
of an infinitive (§ 111).
1. Direct Object
99. Some verbs may be followed by a substantire denoting that
which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transi-
tive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.
1. That man struck my dog.
2. The arrow hit the target.
3. Caesar conquered Gaud.
4. Mr. Holland seUs flour.
5. The farmer raises com.
6. Mr. Eaton TnaJces ^ves.
7. My grandfather built that house.
In Nos. 1-4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the
receiver of the action. Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives
the blow ; in the second, the target receives the action of hit-
ting. In Nos. 5-7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the
product of the action. For example, the com is produced by the
action expressed by the verb raises.
In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes
the sense of the verb. "That man struck ." "Struck
whom ? " " He struck the dog.'* Until dog is added the sense
of the verb struck is incomplete.
100. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb
is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.
Thus, in the examples above, dog is the direct object of the transitive
verb strtick ; target is the direct object of hit, — and so on. Each of these
nouns is therefore in the objective case.
The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the
verb.
DIRECT OBJECT 49
101. Intransitiye verbs have no objeet
The lion roared.
The viator eougJied gently.
The log drifted downstream.
We all Ugtened intently.
Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe
that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no objeet, since
their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun
to denote the receiver or product of the action. "The man
struck " prompts the inquiry, ''Struck wham?^ But no
such question is suggested by ^ The lion roared " ; for '' Roared
what ? " would be an absurdity.
102. The predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) must not be confused
with the direct object. They resemble each other in two particu-
lars : (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete
the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their
relation to the subject of the sentence. For —
The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence
both substantives denote the same person or thing.
Charles [subject]
IS
. > captain [predicate nominative].
was elected J
The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject.
On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject
acts. Hence the two substantives regularly^ denote different
persons or things.
r Struck James [object] .
Charles [subject] -| threw a sione [object].
[built a Ixxd [object].
Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are
classed as complements, because they are used to complete the
sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).
1 The only exception is in refliexive action, where the object is a compound
personal pronoun ("^Charles deceived himself"). See § 126.
50. ' NOUNS
103. A verb of a«A:£»^ sometimes taker .two'diroct ofajecta^ dhe
denoting the person and the other theJthingv .
She asked the boy his nif.me. .
Ask me no favors,
I asked the lawyer his optiiUm.
2. Predicate Objective
104. Verbs of choo$mg, caOwa, naming, makaig, and UMdng may take
two objects referring to the same person or thing.
The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes
the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.
We chose Oscar president, [Oscar is the direct object of chose; presi-^
dent is the predicate objective.]
I call John mj friend.
They thought the man a coward.
Make my house your Jiome,
The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective
attribute. It is classed as a complement.
An adjective may serve as predicate objective.
I call this ship unseaworthy.
Your letter made your sister anxious.
What makes Edwin so careless f
3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms
105. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two
objects, a direct object and an indirect object.
The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or
toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.
Direct Object only
Direct Object and Indirect
Object
Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold John his bicycle.
I gave permission. I gave this man permission.
He paid a dollar. He paid the gardener a dollar.
She taught Latin. She taught my cl^ildren Latin.
INDIKECT OBJECT AND SIMILAR IDIOMS 51
Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included
ijQ the following list : —
allot, aMow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid,
forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon,
pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare,
teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe.
Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.
They denied her the necessities of life.
I guaranteed them a handsome profit.
The king vouchsafed them an audience.
It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect
object without changing the sense.
Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase,
it is classed as a modifier of the verb.
Thus, in " Dic^ sold John his bicycle," John is an adverbial modifier
of the predicate verb sold.
The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object
expressed. Thus, —
He paid the hatter.
Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before
it and adding a direct object (" his bill" " his money " or the like).
106. The objective case sometimes expresses the person for
whom anything is done.
William made his brother a kite [= made a kite for his brother],
Sampson built me a boat [= built a boat for me].
This construction may be called the objective of service.
Note. The objective of service is often included under the head of the
indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should
be carefully distinguished. To do an act to a person is not the same thing as
to do an act /or a person. Contrast " John paid the money to me," with " John
paid the money /or me"; "Dick sold a bicycle to me," with "Dick sold a
bicycle /or me."
62 NOUNS
107. The objectire case is used after like, unlike, near, and
next, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this
construction they are often regarded as prepositions.
She sang like a bird. [Like is an adverb.]
The earth is like a ball, [Like is an adjective.]
My office is near the station. [Near is an adjective.]
That answer ytbs unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adjective.]
This man walks unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adverb.]
A stream ran near the hut. [Near is an adverb.]
The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom
similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the con-
struction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting
to or unto Q^ She sang like unto a bird ").
Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after
likCt unlikCf and near are all survivals of old dative constractions. Besides
the case of the direct object (often called accnsative), English once had a case
(caUed the dAtive) which meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative
case is easily distingaished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it
has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.
4. Cognate Object
108. A verb that is regularly intransitiye sometimes takes as object
a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.
A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb
and is in the objective case.
He ran a race.
The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating coiigh.
A scornful laiigh laughed he.
The trumpeter blew a loud blast.
She sleeps the sleep of death.
Note. Cognate means "kindred" or "related." The cognate object re-
peats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may foe classed
as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen
by contrasting "The blacksmith struck the anvil" with "The blacksmith
struck a mighty blow " (cf. " struck mightily "). For the pronoun it as cog-
nate object, see § 120.
ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE 68
5. Adyertxial Objective
109. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may
be used adrerbially. Such a noun is called an adrerbial objective.
We have waited years for this reform.
I am years older than you are.
The river is miles away.
The water rose three feet.
This is an inch too long.
My brother is twenty years old.
I will stay a short time.
Wait a m,oment.
Come here this instarU !
Turn your eyes this way.
This silk is several shades too light.
A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its
modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41).
6. Objective in Apposition
110. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself
in the objective case.
Yesterday I saw Williams the expressman, [Apposition with the direct
object of saw,"]
Tom gave his friend John a book. [Apposition with the indirect object
friend,"]
He lives with Andrews the blacksmith, [Apposition with the object of
the preposition with.]
This rule follows from the general principle that an apposi-
tive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is
attached (§ 88, 5).
7. Subject of an Infinitive
111. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
This construction will be treated in connection with the uses
of the infinitive (§ 325).
64 NOUNS
Fmntng
112. To ptne a word is to describe its grammatical form
and to give its construction.
In parsing a noim, we mention the class to which it belongs,
give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in
that case. Thus, —
1. Frank shot a wolf.
Frank is a proper noon of the nuuBcoline gender, in the singular num-
ber and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the sub-
ject of the verb shot.
Wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common]
gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective
case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb sAot.
2. Jane, come here.
JoM is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number
and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative
(or in direct address).
3. The rope is fifteen feet long.
Ved, is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number
and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial
modifier of the adjective \xmjg.
4. Edgar^s boat is a sloop.
Edgafa is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular
number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the
noun boat.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 65
CHAPTER III
PRONOUNS
113. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noon. It designates a
person, place, or thing without naming it.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called ite antecedent.
A pronoun must agree with ite antecedent in gender, number, and
person (§ 11).
Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.
114. Pronouns may be classified as (1) personal, (2) adjective,
(3) relative, and (4) interrogative.
Under adjective pronouns are included (a) demonstrative pro-
nouns and (b) indefinite pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
115. The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (i) the speaker,
(a) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken
of (§ 86).
They are declined as follows : —
Thb Pbonoun of thb Fibst Person : I
SINGULAR PLURAL
. Nominative I Nominative we
Possessive my or mine Possessive our or ours
Oioective me Objective us
The Pronoun of the Second Person : thou
SINGULAR PLURAL
Nominative thou Nominative you or ye
Possessive thy or thine Possessive your or yours
Objective thee Objective you or ye
66
PKONOUNS
The Pronoun op thb
Third Person:
he, she, it
Singular
Plural
MASCULINE
FEMININE
masculine, feminine,
^^^^^^ and neuter
Nominative he
she
it
they
Possessive his
her or hers
its
their or theirs
Objective him
her
it
them
Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct
forms for the nominative and the objective.
Note. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe.
Thus, — itSy yourSf theirs.
The form it's is proper only as a contraction of it is.
GENDER Ain> NUMBER
116. The pronouns of the first and second persons (/ and
thou) may be either masculine or feminine.
The pronouns of the third person have different forms for
masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular (he, she, it);
but in the plural the form they serves for all three genders.
Note. In tlie oldest English his was hoth masculine and neuter. The
neuter use lasted imtil the seventeenth century. Thus, —
That same eye whose hend doth awe the world
Did lose his lustre. — Shaksperb, Julius Csesary i. 2. 123.
117. Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are old forms still found
in poetry and the solefnn style.
In ordinary prose, you, your, and yours are the only f orans
used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet
you, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb-
forms that go with plural subjects. Thus, —
My friend, you were [not was"] in error.
Hence you, may best be regarded as always plural in form, but
may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one
person only.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 5T
NoTB. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly callad Quakers) and
of some other religious bodies use thee and thy in their ordinary conversation.
Ye was formerly the regular nominative plural, and you the objective u
but the forms were afterwards confused. Ye has gone out of use except iiH
poetry and the solemn style, and you is now the regular form for both nomi-
native and objective.
Where an objective form ye is found printed instead of you (as often in
Shakspere, — "A southwest blow on yc '*), it represents an indistinct pronun-
ciation of you rather than the old nominative ye. This indistinct soimd may
still be heard in rapid or careless speech (*U '11 tell yer the truth **).
Ye as an abbreviation for the (as in **ye old town ") has nothing to do with
the pronoun ye. The y simply stands for the character \> (an old sign for th)f
and the abbreviation was pronounced thej never ye.
118. They, you, and we are often used indefinitely for " one "
or " people in general."
They say that Joe has gone to sea.
To shut off the steam, you close both valves of the radiator.
NoTB. TTe, our, and us are used in editorial articles instead of /, my, and
m€y because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice
should not be followed in ordinary composition.
A sovereign ruler may use v>e, our^ and us when speaking of himself in
proclamations and other formal documents. This construction is often called
" the plural of majesty." Thus, —
Know that we have divided
In three our kingdom. — Shakspere.
The form 'em (as in "Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose 'em,*' in
Julius Caesar) is not a contraction of them^ but of A«m, an old objective
plural of he.
CASE OP PERSONAL PRONOUITS
Nominative Case
119. Nominatiye constructions of the personal pronouns are the
same as those of nouns (§ 88).
I am ready. [Subject.]
It is I. [Predicate nominative.]
Here, you rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]
Poor you I [Nominative of exclamation.]
General Austin, he and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]
For the nominative absolute, see § 345.
68 PRONOUNS
Care rnnst be taken not to nse an objective form when a
predicate nominative is required.
It is / [not me].
It 18 loe [not u«] who did it.
It was he [not him] who told us.
It was they [not them] who were to blame.
120. It has several peculiar uses in the nominative.
1. It is used as the subject in many expressions like ^^ It
rains," "It snows," "It lightens," "It is cold," where np
definite subject is thought of. In this use, it is said to be
imperaonal.
Note. An impersonal it also occors as a cognate object (§ 106) in colloquial
language: as, — "Hang it!'' *'Goit!" "He went it." " He farmed it for a
year." Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal it in varioos construc-
tions are: "We are roughing it." "Keep U up." "You'll catch U." "Let
it all go." " He made a poor job of it." " He made a success of it."
2. It often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce
the verb is, the real subject of the thought standing in the
predicate. In this use it is called an expletive (or " filler ").
It is he.
It is Christmas.
It was a tiresome ride.
In these examples, the subject of the thought (he, Christ-
mas, ride) appears as a predicate nominative.
3. The antecedent of it is often a group of words.
Wearing tight shoes is foolish. It deforms the feet.
121. In imperative sentences the subject (you) is commonly
omitted : as, — " Shut the door."
Note. The subject / is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, " Would he were
here! " for " I would that he were here "). So also in " Thank you," " Pray
tell me " (compare prt^Aee for " I pray thee").
Expressions like "Canst teU?" (for "Canst thou tell?"), "Art there?"
(for " Art thou there ? ") are common in poetry and older English. These come
from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun thou
{canst thoUf canstoWf cansti, canst).
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 69
Possessive Cas^
122'. The poBsessiTe foims my, thy^ our, your, her, 2ihd*their
are used when a noun follows ; Tnine, thine, ours, yours, hers,
and theirs cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commoijily
in the predicate. Bis may be used in either way.
My brother has arrived. The fault is mine.
Our work is doti6. Those sieata Ardours. '!
I have torn your glove. This pencil is yours.
Their turn has come. That field is tlieirs.
J?id hair is black. The book is not ^m.
Examples of mine, yours, etc. not in the predicate are :
Mine was a terrier ; yours was a pointer.
Tfieirs is a red motor car.
Ours broke down last night.
JEfw leaked badly.
His name is Martin ; Tiers is Smith.
In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly
colloquial.
NoTB. In older English and in poetry mine and thine are common instead
of my and thy before words beginning with a vowel or h : as, —
Mine eyes dazzle : she died young. — John Webster.
The very minute bids thee ope thine ear. — Shakspere.
Mine is sometimes used after a vocative noun : as, — brother mine.
For expressions like ** a friend of mine," *^ that unruly tongue of yours,".
see § 96.
123. When two or more separate objects are spoken of as
possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there
is danger of ambiguity.
I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]
I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]
I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]
I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]
Have you Bacon's " Essays and Apophthegms " ? [One book.]
Have you Bacon's "Essays" and his ''Advancement of Learning" ?
[Two books.]
60 PRONOUNS
ObJBCTIVK CiLSC
124. The commonest constructions in which personal pro-
nouns take the objeetiTS case are the following : —
1. Object of a preposition (§ 97) : as, —
Take it from him,
2. Direct object of a transitive verb (S 99) : as, —
I will find you,
3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 106) : as, —
He gaye me a dollar.
4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).
Note. In poetry the objectiye me is sometimes used in exclamations : as, —
" Me miserable I " (Milton).
In m^thinks and msseems (** it seems to me ")» me is a remnant of the old
dative, as in the indirect object (see § 107).
The compounds thereof ^ therewUhy therefrom^ etc., are equivalent to af it,
with it, from it, etc. : as, — " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all
the inhabitants thereof" {Leviticus xxv. 10).
For the impersonal it as cognate object, see § 120.
THE iS^iF-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS)
125. The three componnd personal pronouns are made by adding
the word self to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus, —
myself, plural ourselves ;
thyself or yourself, plural yourselves ;
himself, herself, itself, plural themselves.
To these may be added the indefinite oneself, more commonly written as
two words, one\s self (§ 139).
Observe that yourself is singular, and yourselves plural.
Hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms. Ourself (not our^
seloes) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal we
(§'118).
What touches us owr«c^ shall be last served. — Shakspere.
COMPOUND PEKSONAL PKONOUNS 61
126. 1. The compound personal pronouns may be used to empbatize
substantives.
In this use they are called intensive pronouns.
I myself will go.
King Alfred himself took the field.
They did the work themaelves.
An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive
to which it refers.
2. The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of
transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same
person or thing as the subject.
In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.
I have hurt rwyself.
King Alfred interested himself in his subjects.
These schemers deceived themMlves.
Mary was talking to herself.
He gave himself a holiday. [Indirect object.]
These pronouns are called reflexive (that is, " bending back ")
because they refer back to the subject and repeat its meaning in
an object construction.
Note. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objec-
tive case : as, — " Our captors left us to ourselves.**
In older English the simple personal pronouns me, fAee, etc., were often
nsed reflexively : as, — "I held me [= myself^ still " ; '* Yield thee [= thyself^
captive " ; " They built them \,—for themselves] houses " (see § 106) . This idiom
survives in colloquial language (as, "I have hurt m^,^ "I have bought me a
rifle "), but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: "I
must look about me " ; '* We gazed about us'^\ '* Look behind you,"
127. The adjective ovm is sometimes inserted between the
first and the second part of the se(/*-pronouns for emphasis.
Examples : my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves,
their own selves.
In this use, self is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the
adjective own^ but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other
adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self: as, — my
very self, his worthless self.
62 PKONOUNS
128. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a
substantive. Thus, —
Itiamysetf, [My8e{f = I myaeif,]
Tou are hardly yourself to-day.
In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects:
as, — '* Owr«e(^ will mingle with society " (Macbeth).
129. The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple
personal pronouns.
Thus we should say : — "He was kind to Mary and me " (not myseif) ;
" They invited my wife and me (not myself),"
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
130. Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such
words are called adjective pronouns.
Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their mean-
ing, as (1) demonstrative pronouns and (2) indefinite pronouns.
I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUITS
131. The demonstratives are this (plural, t/kese), that (plural, those).
They point out perlbns or things for special attention.
The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as
pronouns.
I. As adjectives : —
This sailor saved my life. These girls are energetic.
Be kind to this child. I am not alarmed by these threats.
Give this boy a dime. These cherries are sour.
This fire is too hot. Look at these acoms.
That saw is dull. Those trees are dying.
We must cross that stream. Take those dishes away.
That train is late. Who are those strangers ?
Send that dog home. Do you see those rocks ?
I am tired of that tune. I am sorry for those children.
DEIVIONSTKATIVE PKONOUNS 63
II. As pronouns : —
This is a fine morning.^ These are cowboys.
This is my uncle. Robert gave me these.
Can you do this f I never saw these before.
This is the road. Who are these f
Look at this. These are our rackets.
Thai is Ellen in the canoe. Those are deer.
That would please him. Those are nasturtiums.
Thai must be he. What are those f
What is thai f Those are kangaroos.
If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in
*^this sailor")', it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out some-
thing which it does not name (as in " This is a fine morning*'), it takes
the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of
the sentence "This camera is expensive" is the noun camera^ which is
modified by the adjective this. The subject of the sentence " This is
expensive " is the pronoun this.
Note. Yon, yond, and yonder are common as demonstratives in older Eng-
lish and in poetry. Thus, — "Nerissa, cheer yon stranger" {Merchant of
Venice). "Question yond man" {As You Like It). "Is not yondDioiaeA ?"
{Troilus and Cresnida). " Call yonder fellow hither" {Henry V). " Is yonder.
the man ? " {As You Like It).
132. Demonstratives have only the inflection of number.
They have the same form for all three genders. The nomina-
tive and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced
by of with the objective.
Singular
Plural
Nom. and Obj. this Nom. and Obj,
Possessive [of this] Possessive
these
[of these]
Nom. and Obj. that Nom. and Obj.
Possessive [of that] Possessive
those
[of those]
Yon^ yondf and yonder are not inflected.
1 The pupil should not " supply nouns " in such sentences as these. For ex-
ample, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into " This [morning] is a
fine morning," and then to parse this as an adjective. It is even more objec-
tionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting thing or the like after this.
The plan of " supplying " unexpressed words (as being " understood ") tends
to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when
it can be avoided.
64 PRONOUNS
133. A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the
repetition of a noun.
My dog and that [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.
Compare these maps with those [= the maps] on the blackboard.
134. The singular forms this and that (not the plurals t?iese
and those) are used with the nouns kind and sort,
I like this kind of grapes.
I have met this sort of people before.
T?iat kind of apples grows in Idaho.
n. nroEFINITE PRONOUirS
135. The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or defi-
nitely than demonstratives do.
Examples : each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none,
other, another, each other, one another.
Each has its merits. Either is correct.
Some are missing. He knows neitfier of you.
I cannot give you any. I like both.
136. Most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives.
But none is always a substantive in modern use, and every is
always an adjective.
137. None may be either singular or plural. When it means
distinctly not one, it is singular. In many instances either con-
struction is permissible.
None of us has the key.
None was (or were) left to tell the tale.
138. Each other and one another are regarded as compound
pronouns. They designate related persons or things.
My neighbor and I like each other.
We must bear with one another.
The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they
are often called reciprocal pronouns.
There is no real distinction between each other and one another. The rules
sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage.
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS 66
139. One (possessive one's) is often used as an indefinite
personal pronoun. Thus, —
One does not like ot^jb's [not his or their ] motives to be doubted.
The use of his (for one^s) to refer back to a preceding one is found in
respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage.
For the indefinite use of we^ you^ they, see § 118.
140. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often
classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as
substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody, anything, some-
what, aught, naught,^ etc., are called indefinite nouns.
141. Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the
following : —
Everybody has his [not thevr] faults.
If anybody wishes to go, he [not they'\ may.
If anybody objects, let him [not them] speak.
Every member of this class must hand in his [not their] composition
to-day.
Each hurries toward his [not their] home.
Each of us must lead his [not their] own life.
In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (lie, his,
him) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent
(everybody, anybody, etc.) (see § 113).
Note. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example),
the personal pronouns {he, his, him) may be regarded as of common gender
also. In very precise or formal language, one may say he or she, his or her :
as, — "Each of us must lead his or her own life " ; but this form of expression
is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary.
142. When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have
any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pro-
nouns, except as follows : —
Others is used as the plural of another. The possessive forms are : —
singular, another^ s; plural, others'. The other (possessive, the other's) has
in the plural the others (possessive, the others'). Each other and one another
add 's in the possessive. One has a possessive one's; the one becomes the
ones in the plural.
1 The negative not (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of naught.
66 PRONOUNS
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
143. Relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sen-
tence, since they serve both as pronouns and as connectives. Their
use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow : —
1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.
2. This is the sailor who saved my life.
Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two
clauses are connected by the conjunction and, which belongs
to neither ; the pronoun he, which stands for sailor, is the sub-
ject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction ;
instead, we find the word who, which replaces and he. This
who is a pronoun, since it stands for sailor (precisely as he does
in No. 1) and (like he) is the subject of the verb saved. But
who is also a connective, siuce it joins the two parts of the sen-
tence as and does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as
pronouns and as connectives) are called relative pronouns.
In No. 1, the two clauses are coordinate. Neither serves as a
modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence
(" This is the sailor." " He saved my life "). The sentence is
compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause who
saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause, for it is used
as an adjective modifier of the noun sailor, which it limits by
showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is complex
(§ 44). The dependent clause (who saved my life) is connected
with the main clause {this is the sailor) by the pronoun who,
which refers to sailor.
144. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses
by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.^
This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (§11).
Thus in § 143 the noun sailor is the antecedent of who.
Relative means " carrying back." These pronouns are so caUed because
they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent.
1 Because of their use as comiectives, relative pronouns are sometimes
called conjunctive pronouns.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 67
145. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as,
and what.
Who and which are declined as follows in both the singular
and the plural : —
Nominative who which
Possessive whose whose
Objective whom which
That, as, and what are not inflected. They have the same
form for both nominative and objective and are not used in
the possessive case.
146. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such
stands in the main clause.
Such of you OS have finished may go.
I have never seen such strawberries as these [are].
Use such powers as you have.
147. As is often used as a relative after the same.
This color is the same as that [is].
Other relatives are also used after the same.
This is the same book that (or which) you were reading yesterday.
This is the same man that (or whom) I saw on the pier last Friday.
148. Who is either masculine or feminine ; which and what
are neuter ; that and as are of all three genders.
All who heard, approved.
Here is the lad whose story interested you.
The first woman whom I saw was Mary.
He answered in such English as he could muster.
I saw nobody thai I knew.
This is the road that leads to London.
In older English the which is often used for which : as, —
Our foster-nurse of nature is repose,
The which he lacks. — Shakspbbb.
For other uses of as, see §§ 368, 428-429. For hut in such sentences as
" There was nobody hut believed him," see § 370.
68 PRONOUNS
149. A reUtlYe pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender,
numbery and person.
The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relar
tive with its antecedent in gender.
Since relative pronouns have the same form for both num-
bers and for all three persons, their number and person must be
discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and
person of the antecedent.
It is I who am wrong. [First person, singular number : antecedent, 7.]
All [you who are ready may go. [Second person plural : antecedent,
you.^
Give help to him who needs it, [Third person, singular : antecedent,
him.]
The road that leads to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular:
antecedent, road.]
The roads that lead to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural :
antecedent, roads.]
To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun
is particularly necessary when it is the subject of the clause, for
the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according
to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the
rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of
much practical importance.
150. The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante-
cedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause.
The servant who opened the door wore livery. [ W?io is in the nomi-
native case, being the subject of opened.]
He discharged his servant, w}io immediately left town. [Who is in
the nominative case, since it is the subject of left, although its antecedent
{servant) is in the objective.]
The servant whom you discharged has returned. [Whom is in the
objective case, since it is the direct object of discharged. The antecedent
(servant) is, on the ot>heT hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject
of has returned.]
Here is such money as I have. [As is in the objective case, being the
object of have. The antecedent (maney) is in the nominative.]
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 69
151. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often
omitted.
Here is the book which you wanted. Here is the book you wanted.
The noise that I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind.
The man whorp, I met was a cari)enter. The man I met was a carpenter.
Note. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted : as,
— "There's two or three of us have seen strange sights" {Julius CsMar)^
that is, " There are two or three of ns who have seen," etc. The same omission
is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses
with there in such sentences as *' He is one of the best men there are in the
world" (§232).
152. Certain questions of gender call for particular attention.
1. Which is oommonly used in referring to the lower animals
unless these are regarded as persons. This is true even when
he or she is used of the same animals (§ 69).
This is the dog which I mentioned. Is n't he a fine fellow ?
We have one cow which we prize highly. She is a Jersey.
2. The possessive whose may be used of any object that
has life.
This is the man whose watch was stolen.
I have a cat whose name is Tabby.
This is the tree whose leaves were destroyed. It is quite dead.
3. In the case of things without animal life, of which and
whose are both common. The tendency is to prefer of which
in prose, but whose is often used because of its more agreeable
sound. In poetry, whose is especially frequent.
A broad river, the name of which I have forgotten, forms the northern
boundary of the province.
Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end of which he had tied a
short piece of ordinary twine.
She was gazing into the pool, whose calm surface reflected her fea-
tures like a mirror. [" The surface of which " would not sound so well.]
NoTB. In older English, which is often used for who or whom : as, — "He
which hath your noble father slain, pursued my life " (Hamlet) .
The compounds whereof ^ wherefrom, wherewith^ etc., are equivalent to of
which, from which, etc. (cf. § 124). Thus, — ** Esau hated Jacob because of the
blessing wherewith his father blessed him " (Genesis xxvil. 41).
70 PRONOUNS
DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES
153. The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an
adjectiye clause, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the
antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which the
antecedent may be thus modified.
1. The Italian, w?io wore a flower in his coat, smiled at me.
2. The Italian who wore aflmoer in his coal smiled at me.
In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves
simply to describe the Italian, not to identify him. The flower
is a mere detail of the picture.
In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely
to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all
others. The flower is mentioned as a means of identification.
The relative clause colifines or restricts the meaning of the
antecedent (Italian).
154. A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive
fact is called a descriptive relative.
A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the
application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative.
Thus in the first example in § 153, who is a descriptive
relative; in the second, it is a restrictive relative.
155. Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause
in speaking, but never before a restrictive relative. Hence
the rule ; —
A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma ; a restrictive relative
is not.
Three sailors, who were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue.
A clumsy weapon, which I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the
fireplace.
I told the news to the first man thai (or whom) I met.
The coins that (or which) you showed me are doubloons.
Nothing that I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than
the third act of *' King Lear."
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 71
156. WhOf which, and that are all used as restrictive rela-
tives ; but some writers prefer that to which, especially in the
nominative case.
Note. That is not now employed as a descriptive relative, thongh it was
common in this use not very long ago. Thus in 1844 Disraeli wrote : ** The deer,
that abounded, lived here in a world as savage as themselves " {Coningshy^
book iii, chapter 5).
The omission of the relative (§ 151) is possible only when the relative is
restrictive.
The boy {whom] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.]
Charles, whom I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.]
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT
157. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which,
and has a double constmction : ^ — (1) the construction of the
omitted or implied antecedent (that) ; (2) the construction of the
relative (which).
What ^
That which i ^*® ^^ ^ tme, [Here wAoi, being equivalent to t?iat
which, serves as the subject both of laos said and of is.]
Tom always remembers -< .^^ which i ® ^^ *^ ^^™' [Here wJiat, being
equivalent to that which, serves as both the object of remembers and as
the subject of is said.]
Tom always remembers -j ., . which i^® learns. [Here what serves
both as the object of remembers and as the object of learns.]
In parsing what, mention both of its constructions.
Note. Another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the
whole clause {what was said ; what is said to him ; what he learns) as a noun
clause. Thus the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the sub-
ject of is ; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of
remembers. What^ in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of was
said; in the second, as the subject of is said; and in the third, as the object
of learns. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The
student may well be familiar with both methods, remembering that grammar
cannot be treated like mathematics.
72 PRONOUNS
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
158. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or
soeoer to who, which, and what.
They are declined as follows : —
Singular and Plural
Nominative whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever)
Possessive whosever (whosesoever)
Otfjective whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever)
Whatever (whatsoever) has no inflection. The nominative
and the objective are alike, and the possessive is supplied by
the phrase of whatever (of whatsoever).
The phrase of whichever (of whichsoever) is used instead of
whosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose (§ 152).
159. Th^ compound relative pronouns may include or imply their
own antecedents and hence may have a double construction.
Wfioever calls, ?ie must be admitted. [Here he, the antecedent of who-
ever, is the subject of must be admitted, and whoever is the subject of caXls.'\
Whoever calls must be admitted. [Here the antecedent he is omitted,
being implied in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double construction,
being the subject of both calls and must be admitted.']
He shall have whatever he wishes.
I will do whicliever you say.
In such sentences, care should be taken to use whoever and
whomever correctly. The nominative (whoever) is required
when the relative is the subject of its own clause.
He asked wJioever came.
He told the story to whoever would listen.
He asked whomever he knew.
He told the story to whomever he met.
160. The compound relatives are sometimes used without an
antecedent expressed or implied.
INTEREOGATIVE PROKOUKS 73
WJioever deserts you, I will remain faithful.
Whomeoer it offends, I will speak the truth.
Whatever he attempts, he is sure to fail.
Whicliever you choose, you will be disappointed.
Note. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159.
^* Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithfnl," is practically equivalent to
** Whoever deserts you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful." No
antecedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied
in parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 401).
161. Which f what, whichever, and whatever are often used
as adjectives.
Use what (or whatever) powers you have.
Whichever plan you adopt, you have my best wishes.
162. A noun limited by the adjectives what, whichever, and
whatever, may have the same double construction that these
relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 159). Thus, —
Take whichever pen is not in use. [Here pen is both the direct object
of toifce, and the subject of is.']
Whoso for whosoever and whatso for whatsoever are common in older
English.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
163. The interrogatiye pronouns are who, which, and what. They are
used in asking questions. ^
Who is your neighbor ? Which shall I take ?
Who goes there ? Which is correct ?
Wh(ym have you chosen ? What did he say ?
From whom did you leam this ? What is lacking ?
Whose voice is that ? With what are you so delighted ?
164. Who has a possessive whose, and an objective whom.
Which and what are not inflected.
Who may be either masculine or feminine ; which and what
may be of any gender.
1 For indirect questions, see § 441.
74 PRONOUNS
165. The objective whom often begins a question (as in the
third example in § 163). Care should be taken not to write tcho
for whom,
166. Which and what are used as interrogatiye adjectiyes.
Which street shall I take?
Whal village is this ?
167. The interrogative adjective what may be used in a
peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus, —
Whai a cold night this is !
What courage he must have had !
What! by itself often serves as an exclamation: as, — ^^What! do you
really think so?" In this use what may be regarded as an interjection.
168. In parsing pronouns the following models may be used : —
1. He was my earliest friend.
He is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine
gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject
of the verb was.
2. A policeman whom I met showed me the house.
Whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number,
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, policeman. It is in the
objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb met,
3. The corporal, whose name was Scott, came from Leith.
Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number,
and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, corporal. It is in the
possessive case, modifying the noun nam^,
4. Whose birthday do we celebrate in February ?
Whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender,
singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun birthday.
5. He injured himself severely.
Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used re-
flexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third per-
son, agreeing with its antecedent, he. It is in the objective case, being
the direct object of the transitive verb injured.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES 75
CHAPTER IV
ADJECTIVES
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
169. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes
or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective ; one
which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective (§ 13).
Most axijectives are descriptive : as, — round, cold, red, angry,
graceful, excessive, young, sudden, Roman.
Note. Many descriptive adjectives are compound (see §64): as, — stead-
fast, lionlike, fireproof, downright, heartsick, everlasting, brown-eyed, broad-
shouldered, ill-tempered, dear-bought, far-fetched, never-ending, self-evident,
self-important. " He was a matter-of-fact person." " Tom is hail-fellow-well-
inet with everybody." " This is an out-of-the-way place." " A dashing, down-
at-the-heel youth answered my knock."
170. A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective
derived from a proper noun, is called a proper adjective and
usually begins with a capital letter.
Examples : a Panama hat, Florida oranges, a Bunsen burner ; Vir-
ginian, Spenserian, Newtonian, Icelandic, Miltonic, Byronic, Turkish,
English, Veronese.
Note. Many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because
their origin is forgotten or disregarded : as, — china dishes, italic type, mes-
meric power, a. jovial air, a saturnine expression, a mercurial temperament,
a stentorian voice.
171. Definitive adjectives include: — pronouns used as adjec-
tives (as, this opportunity ; those pictures ; either table ; irhat
time is it ?) ; numeral adjectives (as, two stars ; the third year) ;
the articles, a (or an) and the.
76 ADJECTIVES
Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal ad-
jectives) have been studied under Pronouns — demonstratives
(§§ 131-134), indefinites (§§ 135-142), relatives (§§ 143-162),
interrogatives (§§ 163-167).
Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals
(nouns and adverbs), in §§ 204-208.
The articles will be treated in §§ 173-180.
172. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position
in the sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives.
1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and
regularly precedes it.
The angry spot doth glow on Csesar^s brow.
O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome I
Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look.
2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it,
like a noun in apposition (§ 88, 5).
Noun in Apposition Appositive Adjective
The castle, a ruin^ stood on the The castle, ancieid and ruinous^
edge of the cliff. stood on the edge of the cliff.
Bertram, the ringleader^ refused Bertram, undaurded, refused to
to surrender. surrender.
3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate
verb, but describes or limits the subject.
Predicate adjectives are common after is (in its various forms)
and other copulative verbs, particularly become and seem (§17).
The sea is rowgh to-day.
Burton soon became cautious in his judgments.
You seem anxious about your future.
The air grew hot and sultry.
Our first experiment proved unsuccessful.
The milk turned sour.
Our agent proved trustworthy.
Note. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the
predicate nominative (§ 88, 2). Both are known as complements, because they
complete the meaning of a verb.
ARTICLES 77
After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, a predicate adjective is
used to describe the subject. Thus, —
Your flowers look thrifty, [Not : look thriftily.]
Their voices sound shriU, [Not : sound shrilly.]
This apple tastes sweet, [Not : tastes sweetly.]
The air smells good. [Not : smells well.]
The patient feels comfortable, [Not : feels comfortably.]
For predicate adjectives after passive verbs, see § 492.
For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 104.
THE ARTICLES
173. The adjectives a (or an) and the are called articles.
1. The definite article the points out one or more particular objects as
distinct from others of the same kind.
The train is late.
Here is the key.
The children are in the next room.
2. The indefinite article a (or an) designates an object as merely one
of a general class or kind.
Lend me a pencil.
I have a cold.
A young man answered my knock.
The article a is a fragment of an (pronounced ahn), the
ancient form of the numeral one; an keeps the n, which a
has lost. The is an old demonstrative, related to that.
174. The with a singular noun sometimes indicates a class
or kind of objects.
The scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust.
The elephamt is the largest of quadrupeds.
The aeroplane is a very recent invention.
Resin is obtained from the pine.
Note. In this use the is often called the generic article (from the Latin
genuSf " kind " or " sort "). The singular number with the generic the is prac-
tically equivalent to the plural without an article. Thus in the first example
the sense would be the same if we had, ** Scholars are not necessarily dryas-
dusts."
78 ADJECTIVES
175. An adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural
noun.
The brace are honored.
The rich have many cares.
The strong should protect the weak,
176. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent A;
a before other words. Thus, —
an owl ; an apple ; an honest man ; a stone ; a pear.
177. Special rules for a or an are the following : —
1. Before words beginning with the sound of y or w, the
form a, not an, is used.
Examples : a union, a university, a yew, a ewe, a eulogy, a Utopian
scheme, such a one.
This rule coTers all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u.
Note that the initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel. An was formerly
common before such words (as, — an union, such an one), but a is now the
settled form.
2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the
first syllable, an is often used. Thus, we say —
a his'tory; but, an histor'ical novel.
In such cases, the h is very weak in sound, and is sometimes quite silent,
so that the word practically begins with a vowel. Usage varies, but careful
writers favor the rule here given. An was formerly more common before h
than at present.
178. With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the
article should be repeated whenever clearness requires (cf. §123).
I have consulted the secretary and the treasurer. [" The secretary and
treasurer" would imply that the same person held both offices.]
I found an anchor and a chain. ["An anchor and chain ' ' would suggest
that the chain was attached to the anchor.]
In some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls ;
in others the boys and girls attend the same schools.
He waved a red and white flag.
He waved a red and a white flag.
COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES 79
179. A is often used distributively, in the sense of each,
I paid five dollars a pair for my shoes.
The letter-carrier calls twice a day.
My class meets three times a week.
In snch phrases a is hetter than per, except in strictly commercial language.
180. When used with adjectives, the articles precede, except
in a few phrases : as, —
Such an uproar was never heard.
Many a man has tried in vain.
For the adverh the^ which is quite distinct from the article in use and
meaning, see § 195.
For the preposition a (as in ** He went a-fishing "), see § 352.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
181. In comparing objects with each other, we may use three
different forms of the same adjective.
Thomas is strong.
William is stronger than Thomas.
Herbert is strongest of the three.
This inflection of adjectives is called comparison, and the
three forms are called degrees of comparison.
182. The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree
of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists.
There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive, the compara-
tive, and the superlative.
1. The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has
no special ending.
It merely describes the quality, without expressing or sug-
gesting any comparison. *
Thomas is strong.
Thus, the positive degree of the adjective strong is strong.
80 ADJECTIVES
2. The comparatiTe degree of an adjectiye is formed by adding tlie
termination er to the positive degree.
It denotes that the quality exists in the object described in
a higher degree than in some other object.
William is stronger than Thomas.
Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective strong is stronger,
8. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive
degree.
It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in
the object described.
Herbert is strongest of the three.
Other examples of the comparison of adjectives are : —
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
rich richer richest
poor poorer poorest
fast faster fastest
firm firmer firmest
183. KuLES OF Spelling.
•
1. Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the
comparative ending er and the superlative ending est. Thus, —
wise, wiser, wisest ; pure, purer, purest ; handsome, handsomer,
handsomest.
2. Most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the end-
ings er and est. Thus, —
silky, silkier, silkiest ; glossy, glossier, glossiest ; sorry, sorrier, sorriest.
3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single
consonant double this before the endings er and est. Thus, —
dim, dimmer, dimmest ; sad, sadder, saddest ; fit, fitter, fittest ; big,
bigger, biggest ; red, redder, reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest.
lEREGULAR COMPARISON 81
1 84. Many ad jectives are compared by prefixing tbe adyerbs man and
most to the positive degree.
Many axijectives of two syllables and most adjectives of
three or more syllables are so compared. Thus, —
recent, more recent, most recent ; terrible, more terrible, most terrible ;
triumphant, more triumphant, most triumphant ; economical, more eco-
nomical, most economical.
Some adjectives may be compared in either way.
Examples: intense, intenser, intensest; or intense, more intense,
most intense. So also — profound, sublime, unkind.
NoTB. The adverbs less and least may be used with an adjective, if one
wishes to run down the scale of comparison : as, — terrible^ less terrible^ least
terrible. This idiom, however, should not be regarded as comparison of the
adjective. " Superlative " means " in the highest degree," and is not applica-
ble to least terrible, which means ** terrible in the lowest degree."
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
185. Several adjectives have irr.egular comparison.^
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
bad (evil, ill)
worse
worst
far
farther
farthest
further
furthest
good
better
best
late
later, latter
latest, last
well (in health)
better
little
less, lesser
least
much, many
more
most
Old has comparative older or elder, superlative oldest or eldest.
Elder or eldest may be used with certain nouns of relation-
ship, or in the phrases the elder and the eldest.
This is my elder brother. My brother is older than yours.
Jane was the eldest of six children. I shall wear my oldest clothes.
Elder is also used as a noun : as, — " You should respect your elders."
1 In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really differ-
ent words from the positive.
82
ADJECTIVES
Next is a superlative of nigh. It is used only in the sense of
" the very nearest." •
I live in the next street.
The next time he comes, I shall refuse to see him.
186. A few superlatives end in -most. With these, one or
both of the other degrees are commonly wanting.
Positive
hind
(out, adverb)
(up, ad'oerh)
top
north
northern
south
southern
east, eastern
west, western
Comparative
Superlative
(former)
foremost
hinder
hindmost
inner
inmost, innermost
' outer
\ (utter)
outmost, outermost
utmost, uttermost
upper
uppermost
endmost
nether
nethermost
topmost
furthermost
northmost
(more northern)
northernmost
southmost
(more southern)
southernmost
(more eastern)
easternmost
(more western)
westernmost
Note. The ending -most is not the adverb most. It is a very old superla-
tive ending -meat changed under the influence of the adverb m,ost.
187. For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 202. For
special rules for the use of comparative and superlative, see
§§199-203.
188. In parsing an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive or
definitive, mention the substantive to which it belongs, and
specify the degree of comparison.
ADVERBS 83
CHAPTER V
ADVERBS
189* An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, oi
another adverb.
The storm ceased syddenly,
A very disastrous storm swept the coast.
The storm ceased very suddenly.
190. Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as :
(1) adverbs of manner; (2) adverbs of time; (3) adverbs of
place; (4) adverbs of degree.^
1. Adverbs of manner answer the question ^^How?" ^^In
what way ? "
They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. Most of
them are formed from adjectives by adding ly.
Tom answered courageously.
The poor child looked helplessly about.
SofUy and silently fell the snow.
The pain was terribly severe.
The river rose surprisingly fast.
2. Adverbs of time answer the question " When ? " They
usually modify verbs. Thus, —
The old castle is now a museum.
He was recently promoted.
I have been disturbed lately.
My friend arrives to-day.
James was tlien a boy of seven.
I have already rung the bell.
Afterwards he regretted his haste.
1 The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in
different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is
room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under 1,
terribly and surprisingly are equivalent to " in a terrible (or surprising) man-
ner/' and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner ; but they may also be
regarded as adverbs of degree.
84 ADVERBS
3. Adverbs of place answer the question " Where ? " They
usually modify verbs. Thus, —
Come here.
Yonder stands the culprit.
An old sailor came /onoard.
My sister is ou^.
I was aJbroad that winter.
4. Adverbs of degree answer the question " To what degree
or extent?" They modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Thus, —
Arthur is rather tall.
Father was much pleased.
Father was very much pleased.
The task seemed utterly hopeless.
That is hardly possible.
That is riot possible.
191. Some adverbs have the same form as the correspond-
ing adjectives.
You have guessed right.
How /ost the tide ebbs !
The horse was sold cheap.
Tired men sleep aouvd.
Other examples are: — wrong, straight, early, late, quick, hard, far,
near, slow, high, low, loud, ill, well, deep, close, just, very, much, little.
Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to
modify adjectives.
His eyes were dark blue. [Compare : very blue.]
That silk is light yellow. [Compare : rather yellow.]
These flowers are deep purple. [Compare : intensely purple.]
The water was icy cold. [Compare : extremely cold.]
That dark, light, etc., are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that
they answer the question "How ?" Thus, — "His eyes were blue." ^^ How
blue?" "i)arA blue."
Note. In the oldest English many adverbs ended in -e, as if fonned
directly from adjectives by means of this ending. Thos, the adjective for hot
was hat, side by side with which was an adverb hite (dissyUabic), meaning
hotly. In the .fourteenth century this distinction was still kept up. Thus,
ADVERBS 85
Chaucer used both the adjective hot and the dissyllabic adverb hote, meaning
hotly. Between 1400 and 1500 all weak final e's disappeared from the language.
In this way the adverb hotiy tor example, became simply ?iot. Thus these ad-
verbs in -€ became identical in form with the corresponding adjectives. Hence
in the time of Shakspere there existed, in common use, not only the adjective
hot, but also the adverb hot (identical in form with the adjective but really
descended from the adverb hote). One could say not only "The fire is hot"
(adjective), but " The fire bums hot " (adverb of manner).
The tendency in modem English has been to confine the form without end-
ing to the adjective use and to restrict the adverbial function to forms in -ly.
Thus, a writer of the present time would not say, in prose, " The fire bums
hot," but '* The fire bums hotly." Nevertheless, a number of the old adverbs
without ending still remain in good use, and must not be regarded as Erroneous.
In poetry, moreover, such adverbs are freely employed; as, — "The boy
like a gray goshawk stared wild." [In prose : stared wildly.]
For adverbial phrases, see §§ 41-42, 475.
Tor the adverbial objective, see § 109.
192. Yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and
denying. Thus, —
Are you hungry ?
No.
Note. As now used, yes and no stand for complete sentences. Originally,
however, they were modifiers, and hence they are still classed as adverbs.
The original meaning of no was "never." Compare never as an emphatic
negative in modem English: as, — "Will you surrender?" "iVevcr/" The
oldest affirmative adverb was yea. Yes was originally a compound of yea
with a form of so, and was used in emphatic affirmatives (like our just so !).
Other adverbs or adverbial phrases are sometimes used like yes or no.
Such are certainly, assuredly, by no means, not at all. In these cases, how-
ever, the modifying effect of the word or phrase may easily be seen when the
sentence is supplied. Thus, — "Will you help me?" '^Certainly [I will
help you]."
193. There is often used merely to introduce a sentence in
the inverted order (§5).
There is a hole in my shoe.
There are many strangers in town.
There rose a thick smoke from the volcano.
In this use, there is sometimes called an ezpletiye (or ^^ filler").
It is unemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place.
Contrast "There [emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree " with,
" There [unemphatic expletive] stood an Indian under a tree."
86 ADVEEBS
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
194. Relatiye adrerbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar
in their use to relative pronouns.
I know a farmhouse J ^^_^ ^^ I we can spend the night.
Where is an adverb of place, modifying can spend. But it also
introduces the subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun which
does. Hence where is called a relative adverb.
195. The principal relative adverbs are: — where, whence,
whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, as, how, why, before,
after, till, until, since.
Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called
conjonctive adverbs.
He had a fever w?ien he was in Spain.
Work while it is day.
As the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with
Malays. [Time.]
Keep to the right, as the law directs. [Manner.]
You started b^ore 1 was ready.
Wait until the car stops.
Since you came, it has rained constantly.
As and since in the sense of *' because," and while in the sense of '* although,"
are classed as conjunctions (§ 368).
The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either
adjective or adverbial (§§ 49-60, 379-382).
Note. In " The more you waste, t?ie sooner you will want" (and similar
sentences) the is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun thatf used
as an adverb of degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: '* To what
extent you waste more, to that extent you will want sooner." Thus it appears
that the first the has a relative force, and the second ths a demonstrative force.
196. An interrogative adverb introduces a question.
Where, when, whence, tvhither, how, why, may be used as
interrogative adverbs. Thus, —
Where are you goin*? ?
Why must you go ?
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
87
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
197. Adrerbs haye three degrees of comparison, — the positire, the
comparatiTe, and the snperlatiye.
1. Most adyerbs are compared by means of more and most,
John came promptly. [Positive.]
Richard came more promptly than John. [Comparative.]
Henry come most promptly of all. [Superlative.]
8. A few adyerbs are compared by means of the endings er and
est. Thus,—
Positive Comparativb Superlative
near
soon
nearer
sooner
nearest
soonest
Further examples are: — cheap, dear, early, fast, hard, high, long, loud,
quick, slow, deep.^
Some adverbs are compared in both ways. Thus, —
often, oftener or more often, oftenest or most often.
198. Several adverbs have irregular comparison.
OSITIVE
Comparative
Superlative
far \
forth/
'farther
'further
' farthest
' furthest
ill I
badly/
worse
worst
nigh
nigher
/nighest
\next
well
better
best
late
later
'latest
'last
little
less
least
much
more
most
These adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied
in § 185 above. Note, however : (1) that good and bad are never adverbs ;
(2) that ill and toeW, better and best^ worse and worst, may be either adverbs
or adjectives. Rather is now used in the comparative only.
1 Many comparatives and superlatives in cr and est that are no longer
allowable in prose are still used in poetry.
88 USE OF COMPARISON
USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
199. The comparatiye degree, not the superlatiye, is need in compar-
ing two persons or things.
The superlatiye is used in comparing one person or thing with two
or more.
J Mary is the more agreeable of the two.
iGHT • "l^^g^jy jg ^jjg jj^Qg^ agreeable of all the family.
rl like both Mary and Jane, but I aun fondest of Mary.
WsoNO : «! I am studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike
L the latter.
The same principle applies to adverbs.
John TvaiB faster than Tom. [Here the acts of two persons are com-
X>ared.]
Which of you three can run fastest f [Here the acts of more than two
are compared.]
Note. In older English the superlative sometimes occurs when only two
objects are thought of. This use is still found in a few proverbial phrases :
as, — "Put your best toot foremost.'*
200. The superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis,
without implying any definite comparison : as, ^- " My dearest
Kate ! "
The superlative of emphasis is very common with most
Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors. — Shakspbre.
Justice had been m^st crueUy defrauded. — Wordsworth.
Excessive use of this construction (like frequent repetition of very) is tire-
some and weakens style.
Double comparison (as m^re worthier, most unkindest) is common in older
English, but is now a gross error.
201. When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by
means of than, more is used with the first.
Such indulgence is more kind than wise.
This scheme is mare cleoer than honest.
He acts mare boldly than discreetly.
Note. The adverb rather is often used with the first adjective or adverb
(as, — '' rather kind than wise " or " kind rather than wise), but in a slightly
different sense.
NUMEKALS 89
202. Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning,
incapable of comparison. Such are : —
1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete,
and adverbs derived from such adjectives.
Examples : unique, universal, single, matchless, instantaneous, trian-
gular, everlasting, infinite, mortal ; uniquely, singly, eternally, mortally.
2. The adverbs here, there, then, now, when, and the like.
Note. Words like perfect^ exacts straight, etc., are commonly said to be
incapable of comparison, but this is an error. For each of these words may
vary in sense. When perfect (for example) denotes absolute perfection^ it
cannot be compared. But perfect has also another sense : namely, *' partaking
in a higher or lower degree of the qualities that make up absolute perfection,"
so that we may describe one statue as more perfect than another, or one of
three statues as the most perfect of , them all. In this use, which is unobjec-
tionable, we simply admit that nothing in the world is absolutely flawless,
and assert that the three statues approach ideal perfection in various degrees.
203. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by
means of more and most,
I was never irwre out of humor [= more vexed],
I think your last suggestion m^st in keeping [= most appropriate].
NUMERALS — ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS
204. Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjec-
tires, nouns, or adverbs.
There are seven days in the week. [Adjective.]
Twelve make a dozen, [Noun.]
I have called twice, [Adverb.]
205. The chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals.
1. Cardinal numeral adjectives (one, two, three, fowr^ etc.) are used in
counting, and answer the question ^* How many ? "
I had to pay three dollars.
There were forly-iwo vessels in the fleet.
Note. In such expressions as ** The boy was sixteen/' the numeral is a
predicate adjective limiting 6oy (§ 172, 3). We need not expand sixteen to
"sixteen years old."
90 NUMERALS
2. Ordinal numeral adjectiyes {firsts second, third, etc.) denote the
position or -order of a person or thing in a series.
Carl plays the second violin.
Your friend is sitting in the Jffih row.
206. All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become
nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses.
One is enough.
Four are missing.
The nine played an excellent game.
Three twos are six.
The men formed by /ours.
Thousands perished by the way.
Eight is two thirds of twelve. [So regularly in fractioiial parts.]
NoTB. Hundreds thousand^ million were originally nouns, but are now
equally common as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are: — twain, couple,
pair, brace, trio, quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century.
207. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.)
indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like
parts it consists.
A doid)le row of policemen stood on guard.
A fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door.
Some of these words may be used as adverbs.
The cabman charged double.
His fear increased tenfold.
208. Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate
how many times an action takes place.
Once my assailant slipped.
I rang the bell twice.
The river hath thrice flow'd, no ebb between. — Shakspere.
The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice. For
larger numbers an adverbial phrase {three times, four timeSj etc.) is employed.
Thrice^ however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style.
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 91
CHAPTER VI
VERBS
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
209. A yerb is a word which can assert something (usually an
action) concerning a person, place, or thing (§ 14).
Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express
state or condition. Thus, —
1. We jumped for joy.
Rabbits burrow into the sides of hills.
2. While memory lasts^ I can never forget you.
This mountain belongs to the Appalachian range.
A yerb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15).
The leaves are turning.
The money has been found,
210. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are
called auxiliary (that is, "aiding") verbs, because they help
other verbs to express action or state of some particular
kind (§ 16).
The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can,
viust, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did.
I am writing. He has forgotten me.
We must go. We had failed.
You will fall. I do see him.
The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the
verb-phrase by other words.
I fiave always liked him.
I shall soon send for you.
Robert was completely bewildered.
He has hardly ever spoken to me.
92 VEEBS
211. Verbs are either transitiye or intransitiye (§ 99).
Some verbs may be followed by a substantiTe denoting that which
receiyes the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive
verbs. All other verbs are called intransitiye.
A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is
called its direct object.
In the following sentences, the first four verbs are transitive
(with objects), the last five are intransitive (without objects) : —
Lightning shattered the oak.
Clouds darkened the sky.
Chemists extract radium from pitchblende.
The orator quoted Tennyson incorrectly.
Look where he stands and glares!
The bankrupt absconded.
The orange sky of evening died away.
The words differ in a single letter.
212. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransi-
tive in another.
Transitive Intransitive
(with Object) (without Object)
Boys fly kites. Birds ^y.
The pirates sank the ship. The stone sank.
I closed my eyes. School closed yesterday.
Tom tore his coat. The cloth tore easily.
213. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely, — that is, merely
to express action without any indication of the direct object.
Transitive Verb Transitive Verb
WITH Object expressed used absolutely
The horses drank water. The horses drank from the brook.
The fanner plows his fields. The farmer plows in the spring.
Charles is drawing a picture. Charles is drawing.
There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used
absolutely and a real intransitive verb. To the former we can
always add an object ; with the latter no object is possible.
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 98
214. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may
be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in
the predicate describe or define the subject (§ 17).
Such verbs are called copulative (that is, " joining ") verbs.
Is in this use is often called the oopula (or " link ").
Time is money.
Grant was a tireless worker.
Macbeth became a tyrant.
His swans always prove geese.
The current is sluggish.
Lions are carnivorous.
This village looks prosperous.
The consul's brow grew stem.
The queen turned pale.
In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple
predicate^) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2);
in the last five by a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).
The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object. Some-
times, however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive
and intransitive verbs.
215. The verb is is not always a copula. It is sometimes
emphatic and has the sense of exist
I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.]
Whatever is, is right. [The second is is the copula.]
Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some
sense in which they cease to be copulative.
The lawyer proved his case.
Walnut trees grow slowly.
Mr. Watson grows peaches.
The wheel turned slowly on the axle.
He turned his head and looked at me.
^ Many grammarians regard is and the noun or adjective that follows it
{is moneys etc.) as the simple predicate ; but the nomenclature here adopted
is equally scientific and more convenient.
94 VERBS
INFLECTION OF VERBS
216. Verbs have inflections of tense, person and number, and
mood. They also have the distinction of voice, which is ex-
pressed by the help of verb-phrases.
Tense indicates time ; person and number correspond with per-
son and number in substantives ; mood shows the manner in
which the action is expressed; voice indicates whether the
subject acts or is acted upon.
TENSE OF VERBS
217. The tense of a verb indicates its time.^
Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time.
1. A verb in the present tense refers to present time.
2. A verb in the past tense refers to past time.*^
8. A verb in the future tense refers to future time.
The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses.
Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense
He lives here. He lived here. He will live here.
The sun shines. The sun shone. The sun wiU shine
1 know him. I knew him. I shaU know him.
FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
218. The present and the past tense have special forms of
inflection.
For the moment we will consider the form which the verb
has when its subject is the first personal pronoun J.
In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any
inflectional ending.
I like it. I dwell in the wilderness.
I hope for the best. IJind him amusing.
1 The word tense is simply an English form of the French word for time.
2 The past tense is often called the preterite (from a Latin word meaning
" gone by ") . Preterite is in some ways a better name for the tense than pasti
since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.
FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 95
219. The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is
classed as weak or strong in accordance with the way in which
it forms this tense.
1. Weak yerbs form the past tense by adding edy d, or t to the present.
Examples : mend, mended ; select, selected ; fill, filled ; glow, glowed ;
talk, talked ; revere, revered ; dwell, dwelt.
2. Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the
present, without the addition of an ending.
Examples : drink, drank ; begin, began ; come, came ; rise, rose ; bind,
bound ; cling, clung ; stick, stuck ; wear, wore.i
Weak verbs are sometimes called regular, and strong verbs
irregular verbs.
For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291-297.
Note. The terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a some-
what fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to
form the past tense out of their own resources, without calling to their assist-
ance any ending. The weak verbs were so called because they could not form
the past tense without the aid of the ending edf, d!, or t.
220. The ending that is written ed is fully pronounced only
when doTt precedes (as, — thread, threaded ; attract, attracted^.
Otherwise, e is silent, so that the ending becomes, in pronun-
ciation, d OT t (as, — entered, pronounced entered / rocked,
pronounced rockt).
In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent e in the
ending ed is sometimes restored to its ancient rights.
221. Many weak verbs show special irregularities in the
past tense.
1. Make has made in the past, and have has had,
2. Some verbs in -^ and -Id form their past tense by chang-
ing this d to t
Examples : bend, bent ; send, sent ; lend, lent ; rend, rent ; spend,
spent; build, built.
1 Silent final e is not counted as an ending.
96 VEEBS
3. A few verbs add d or t in the past and also change the
vowel of the present. Thus, —
sell sold buy bought
tell told catch caught
shoe shod seek sought
say said (pronounced aed) beseech besought
hear heard (pronounced herd) teach taught
bring brought methinks methought
Work has an old past tense wrought^ common in poetry ; its usual past is
worked. For miLstf would, etc., see p. 299.
4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present
have in the past a short vowel sound before the ending t
Examples : creep, crept ; keep, kept ; sleep, slept ; sweep, swept ; weep,
wept ; feel, felt ; deal, dealt (pronounced dell) ; mean, meant (pronounced
ment) ; lose, lost ; leave, lef t.i
5. Some verbs in c? or ^ preceded by a long vowel sound have
a short vowel in the past but add no ending.
Examples : bleed, bled ; breed, bred ; feed, fed ; speed, sped ; lead,
led ; read (pronounced reed), read (pronounced red) ; meet, met ; light,
lit (also lighted).
6. Some verbs in c? or ^ have in the past the same form as
in the present.
Examples : shed, past shed ; spread, past spread ; bet, past bet ; hit,
past hit ; set, past set ; put, past put ; shut, pdst shut ; cut, past cut *
hurt, past hurt ; cast, past cast.
Note. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to be strong verbs, since they
have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel. They are,
however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the
d or ^ of the termination has been absorbed in the final d or t ot the verb
itself. Thus, the past^e^ was originally sette (dissyllabic), and this form, after
the loss of -e, became indistinguishable in sound from set, the present.
For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291-299.
1 Notice also the change from v to / before t.
PERSON AND NUMBER 97
PERSON AND NUMBBR-THE PERSONAL ENDINGS
822. A yerb must agree with its subject in number and person.
Verbs, like substantives, hare two numbers (singular and plural) and
three persons (first, second, and third).
The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural
number denotes more than one person or thing.
The first person denotes the speaker ; the second person denotes the
person spoken to ; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of.
223. The inflections of person and number in verbs may be
seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as sub-
jects. Thus, —
Present Tense
singular plural
1. I walk. 1. We walk.
2. Thou walk-est. 2. You walk.
3. He walk-s [old form, walk-c^A]. 3. They walk.
Past Tense
singular plural
1. I walked. 1. We walked.
2. Thou walked-s^ 2. You walked.
3. He walked. 3. They walked.
From the sentences it is evident (1) that the person and num-
ber of a verb are usually shown by its subject only, but (2)
that some verb-forms have special endings which denote person
and number.
224. The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and
number are called personal endings.
1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, est
for the second person singular and s for the third person sin-
gular (old form eth).
The first person singular and all three persons of the plural
are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no per-
sonal ending is added.
98
VERBS
2. The past tense has but one personal ending, — est or st in
the second person singular.^
The forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn
style. In ordinary language, the second person plural is used
to address a single person.
The following table shows the penonal endings of the present
and the past tense : —
Persona^ Endings
Present Tense Past Tense
1. [no ending^
2. -est, -st
3. -8 [old, -eth]
2. > [no ending]
3.
SINGULAR
1. [no ending]
2. -est, -st
3. [no ending]
2. \[no ending]
Conjugation of the Present and the Past
225. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (§ 53).
When we inflect a verb we are said to conjugate it.
Conjugation of the Weak Verb Walk
Present Tense
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1.
2.
3.
I walk.
Thou walkest.2
He walks.
1.
2.
3.
We walk.
You walk.
They walk.
SINGULAR
Past Tense
PLURAL
1.
2.
3.
I walked.
Thou walkedst.
He walked.
1.
2.
3.
We walked.
You walked.
They walked.
1 The ending ed indicates tense, not person or number.
2 The second person singular is often given as " Thou walkest or You walk,"
but it is simpler to regard You walk in this use as a plural in a singular sense
(§224).
PERSON AND NUMBER
99
Conjugation of the Strong Verb Fikd
Present Tense
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1. I find.
1. We find.
2. Thou findest.
2. You find.
3. He finds.
Past Tense
3. They find.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1. I found.
1. We found.
2. Thou foundest.
2. You found.
3. He found.
3. They found.
Conjugation of the
Copula
Present Tense
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1. I am.
1. We are.
2. Thou art.
2. You are.
3. He is.
Past Tense
3. They are.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
1. I was.
1. We were.
2. Thou wast.
2. You were.
3. He was.
3. They were.
Note. The English verb formerly had more personal endings. In Chaucer,
for instance, the typical inflection of the present is : —
Singular
1. I walke.
2. Thouwalkest.
3. He walketh.
Plural
1. We walken {or walke).
2. Ye walken (or walke).
3. They walken {or walke) .
The disappearance of all weak final e's in the fifteenth century (§ 191) reduced
the first person singular and the whole plural to the single form walk. Later,
wcdks (a dialect form) was substituted for walketh, and still later the second
person singular was replaced in ordinary use by the plural. The result has
been that in modem speech there are only two common forms in the present
tense, — walk and walks. In poetry and the solemn style, however, walkeat and
walketh are still in use. The plural in en is frequently adopted by Spenser as
an ancient form (or archaism) : as, — *' You deenien the spring is come."
100 VERBS
Special Rules of Number aicd Person
226. When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of
the verb is determined by the following rules : —
1. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the
plural number.
My brother and sister play tennis.
The governor and the mayor are cousins.
2. A compound subject with or or rurr takes a verb in the
singular number if the substantives are singular.
Either my brother or my sister i» sure to win.
Neither the governor nor the mayor /owr« this appointment.
3. A compound subject with and expressing but a single
idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number.
The sum and substance [= gist] of the matter is this.
Note. This construction is rare in modem English prose. It is for the
most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as end and aim {" purpose) ^ the
long and short of it^ etc. The poets, however, use the construction freely (as
in Kipling's ** The tumult and the shouting dies ").
4. If the substantives connected by or or nor differ in num-
ber or person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer.
Either you or he is to blame.
Neither you nor he is an Austrian.
Neither John nor we were at home.
Neither the mayor nor the aldermen /auor this law.
But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided
by careful writers. The following sentences show how this may
be done : —
Either you are to blame, or he is.
One of you two is to blame.
Neither of you is an Austrian.
He is not £^raid ; neither am I.
Both John and we were away fiom home.
PERSON AND NUMBER 101
227. In such expressions as the following, the subject is not
compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject : —
The governor with his staff is present.
John, as well as Mary, is in London.
Torn, along with his friends Dick and Bob, is taking a sail.
228. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense
commonly take a verb in the singular number (§ 84).
Economics is an important study.
The gallows Juis been abolished in Massachusetts.
In some words usage varies. Thus, pains^ in the sense of care or effort^ is
sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural.
Great pains has (or hxuoe) been taken about the matter.
229. Collectiye nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes
a plural verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as
indiridualSy the plural should be used. When the collection is
regarded as a nnit, the singular should be used.^
1. The Senior Class requests the pleasure of your company. [Here the
class is thought of coUectively, acting as a unit.]
2. The Senior Class are unable to agree upon a president. [Here the
speaker has in mind the indiyldaals of whom the class is composed.]
3. The nation welcomes Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a
single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.]
4. The American nation are descended from every other nation on
earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the
nation are in the ^eaker's mind.]
230. A wumber in the sense of " several " or " many ^' regu-
larly takes the plural ; the number takes the singular
A number of sailors were loitering on the pier.
The number of tickets is limited,
1 This mle is not absolute. Sometimes the distinetion is unimportant, and
the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb.
102 VEKBS
231. Half^ part, portion, and the like, take either the sin-
gular or the plural according to sense.
Half of a circle is a semicircle.
HaJf of the passengers were lost.
232. A verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in
the same person and number as the antecedent. For examples,
see § 149.
Errors are especially common in such sentences as, —
This is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen. [The antece-
dent of thaJi is sights (not one) ; hence the relative {flwl) is plural, and
accordingly the verb is plural (were, not was)."]
Mr. Winn's oration was among the most eloquent that have [not hasi
been delivered in this state for many years.
This is one of the finest paintings there ore in the hall. [For the omission
of the relative, see § 161.]
THE FUTURE TENSE
233. The future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the aux-
iliary verb shall or wUl followed by the infinitive without to
(§ 29).
The following table shows the form of the future for each of
the three persons (1) in assertions and (2) in questions : —
Future Tense
Assertions (Declabative)
singular plural
1. I shall fall. 1. We shall fall.
2. Thou wilt fall. 2. You will fall.
3. He will fall. 3. They will fall.
Questions (Interrogative)
singular plural
1. Shall I fall ? 1. Shall we fall ?
2. Shalt thou fall ? 2. Shall you fall ?
3. Will he fall ? 3. Will they fall ?
FUTURE TENSE 103
234. Common errors are the use of wUl for shall (1) in the
first petBon in assertions and questions^ and (2) in the second person
in questions.
In the following sentences the first person of the future
tense is correctly formed: —
J shall [not will] drown. Shall [not vnU] I drown ?
I shall [not vjiU ] fail. Shall [not wtZi] I fail ?
We shall [not vjiU] sink. Shall [not loill] we sink ?
The verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of the
verb in future time. They do not indicate .any willingness or
desire on the part of the subject.
Contrast the following sentences, in which / will or we will
is used : —
I will go with you.
I will give you what you ask.
I will not endure it.
We will allow you to enter.
We will have the truth.
Here the verb-phrases with will do not (as in the previous
examples of / shall) express the action of the verb in future
time. They express the present willingness or desire or determi-
nation of the speaker to do something in the future.
Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are
not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases
expressing willingness or desire.
235. In the first person shaU, not wUl, is the auxiliary of the future
tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, with-
out expressing willingness^ desire, or determination.
Wttt in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting,
and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity.
I. Simple Futurity (Future Tense)
I sTicUl he eighteen years old in July. [Not : vnU be.]
Hurry, or we shall miss our train. [Not : will miss.]
We shall be glad to see him. [Not : will be.]
104 VERBS
II. Promises, Threats, etc.
I will subscribe to your fund. [Promise.]
We will do our best. [Promise.]
I will discharge you if you are late again. [Threat.]
We will permit you to go. [Consent.]
I will have obedience. [Resolution.]
I'll and we 7Z are contractions of / will and we will and can
never stand for / shall and we shall,
I'M meet you at noon. [Promise.]
I'M never consent. [Resolution.]
TFe'tt be' revenged on you. [Threat.]
236. When willingness is expressed by an adjective, / shall
is correct ; when by an adverb, / will. Thus, —
I shall he glad to help you.
I wiM gladly help you.
NoTB. Such expressions as I shall be glad^ I shall be willing^ I shall be
charmed to do this, express willingness not by means of shall but in the adjec-
tives gladf willing f charmed. To say, " I will be glad to do this," then, would
be wrong, for it would be to express volition twice. Such a sentence could
only mean '* I am determined to be glad to do this."
On the other band, in '* I wUl gladly help you," volition is expressed by the
verb-phrase will help and the adverb merely modifies the phrase by emphasiz-
ing the speaker's willingness. Hence I will is correct.
237. Willy when emphaelxed, always expresses determination
on the part of the subject, even in the second and third perscms.
I WILL go, no noatler what you say.
He WILL I *®* foolishly, in spite of my advice.
238. In the second person Shtdl you ? not WW. you f is the proper
form of the future tense in questions.
WiO. you ? always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and
never simple fvtitrlty.
Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary
used is the same as that expected in the answer.
TENSE OF VEKBS 105
I. Future Tense (Simple Futurity)
Shall you be disappointed if he does not come ? [I shall.]
8MU you regret his absence ? [I shall.]
Sfiall you go by boat or by train ? [I shall go by boat.]
n. Verb-Phrase denoting Willingness, etc.
WiUjOMvyrite of t&n? [I will.]
WiU you aMow me to help you ? [I will.]
WiU you be so kind as to open the window ? [I will.]
239. Shall in the second and third penons is not the sign of
the future tense in declarative sentences.
It is used in commanding^ promising, threatening, and express-
ing resolution, the volition being that of the speaker.
Thou shaU not kill. [Command.]
You shaU luioe the hat before Monday. [Promise.]
You sfiaU pay for this insult I [Threat.]
She shaU not regret her generosity. [Resolution.]
In prophetic language, shall is common in the second and
third persons, even when there is no idea of commanding or
the like.
The sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood. —
Joel ii. 31.
240. In military orders and official communications, custom
permits the more courteous will in the place of shall in the
second and third persons.
You mil immediately report for orders.
Heads of Departments voill suJbmU their estimates before January first.
For shall and wUl in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130-132.
241. Future time may also be expressed by the present
tense, or by ab&tU or going with the infinitive (§ 319).
We aaU for Havana on Tuesday.
They are about to begin the study of Greek.
106 VERBS
COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES
Si42. Completed action is denoted by special yerb-phrases made
by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary
verb have.
These are called the complete or compound tenses.
There are three complete or compound tenses, — the perfect
(or present perfect), the pluperfect (or past perfect), and the future
perfect.
1. The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of
the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing
have (hast, has) to the past participle.
I Jiave learned my lesson.
He has convinced me.
NoTB. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary he is sometimes used
instead of have : as, — " My friends are gone *' (or " have gone ") ,* " Your time
is come " (or " has come ").
2. The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was
completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing had
(hadst) to the past participle.
Before night fell, I had finished the book.
When Blake had spoken^ Allen rose to reply.
3. The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed
at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense
of have (shall have, etc.) to the past participle.
Before I hear from you again, I shall have landed at Naples.
The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing.
243. The forms of the past participle will be studied in
§ 334. Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve every
purpose : —
The past participle is that verb-form which is used after / have.
Examples : [I have] mended, tried, swept, bought, broken, forgotten,
found, sunk, dug.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE 107
244. A verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past
participle is called the perfect participle.
Having reached my destination, I stopped.
A verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past parti-
ciple is called the perfect infinitive.
I am sorry to have missed you.
245. Three forms of the verb are so important that they
are called the principal parts. These are : —
(1) the first person singular of the present ;
(2) the first person singular of the past ;
(3) the past participle.
Present
(I) walk
(I) think
(I) see
(I) come
(I) make
VOICE — ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
246. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the
subject acts or is acted upon.
There are two voices, active and passive.
1. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the
doer of an act.
Richard shot the bear.
Mr. Hardy builds carriages.
Dr. Wilson has cured my father.
2. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as
the receiver or the product of an action.
The bear wa^ shot by Richard.
Carriages are built by Mr. Hardy.
My father has been cured by Dr. Wilson.
Past
Past Participle
(I) walked
walked
(I) thought
thought
(I) saw
seen
(I) came
come
(I) made
made
108
VERBS
247. The passiTV roict ol a rtrb k ezpnssed by a yerb-phrase made
by prefixing some form of the oopala (1b, wa», etc.) to the past participle.
In the passive voice of the complete tenses, the past participle
been follows the proper form of the auxiliary have (as in the
third example in § 246, 2).
The passive of the infinitiye is made by prefixing to be (per-
fect, to have been) to the past participle. Thus, —
Present infinitive passive : to be struck.
Perfect infinitive passive: to have been struck.
The following table gives the conjugation of the verb
strike in the active and passive of the six tenses : —
Active Voice
1. I strike.
2. Thou strikest.
3. He strikes.
Passive Voice
Present Tense
singular
1. I am struck.
2. Thou art struck.
3. He is struck.
1. We strike.
2. You strike.
3. They strike.
1. We are struck.
2. You are struck.
3. They are struck.
Past Tense
SINGULAR
1. I struck.
2. Thou struckest.
3. He struck.
1. I was struck.
2. Thou wast (or wert) struck.
3. He was struck.
1. We struck.
2. You struck.
3. They struck.
PLURAL
1. We were struck.
2. You were struck.
3. They were struck.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS
109
Active Voice Passive Voice
Future Tense
1. I shall strike.
2. Thou wilt strike.
3. He will strike.
SINGULAR
1. I shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt be struck.
3. He will be struck.
1. We shall strike.
2. You will strike.
3. They will strike.
PLURAL
1. We shall be struck.
2. You will be struck.
3. They will be struck.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. I have struck.
2. Thou hast struck.
3. He has struck.
SINGULAR
1. I have been struck.
2. Thou hast been struck.
3. He has been struck.
1. We have struck.
2. You have struck.
3. They have struck.
PLURAL
1. We have been struck.
2. You have been struck.
3. They have been struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. I had struck.
2. Thou hadst struck.
3. He Siad struck.
singular
1. I had been struck.
2. Thou hadst been struck.
3. He had been struck.
1. We had struck.
2. You 'had struck.
3. They had struck.
1. We had been struck.
2. You had been struck.
3. They had been struck.
110 VERBS
Active Voice Passive Voice
FuTUBE Perfect Tense
SINGULAR
1. I shall have struck. 1. I shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck.
3. He will have struck. 3. He will have been struck.
1. We shall have struck. 1. We shall have been struck.
2. You will have struck. 2. You will have been struck.
3. They will have struck. 3. They will have been struck.
Use of the Passive Voice
249. Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive
verb followed by an object, may be changed from the active
to the passive form without affecting the sense.
Active. Richard shot the bear.
Passive. The bear was shot by Richard.
In this change, (1) bear, the object of the active verb
shot, becomes the subject of the passive verb was shot ; and
(2) Richard, the subject of the active verb shot, becomes by
. Richard, an adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb wa^
shot. Thus we have the rule : —
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and
the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase
modifying the predicate verb.
Active Voice Passive Voice
My cat caught a bird. A bird was caught by my cat.
Austin thanked Charles. Charles was thanked by Austin.
The bullet penetrated a tree. A tree was penetmted by the bullet.
Sargent painted that portrait. That portrait was painted by Sargent.
The fireman had saved the child. The child had been saved^by the fire-
PASSIVE VOICE 111
250. Intransitive rerbs are ordinarily used in the active voice
only.
The bystanders laugfied. The watchdogs hark. Snow is faUing,
251. An intransitive verb followed by a prejwsition is often
used in the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the
subject of the verb.
Active Voice Passive Voice
Everybody Umghed at hiin. He was laughed at by everybody.
The attorney general has not yet This bill ha^ not yet been passed
passed upon this bill. upon.
He has tampered vMh this lock. This lock has been tampered with.
The cart ran over me. I was run over by the cart.
Other examples are: talk about (= discuss), look or inquire into
(= investigate), look upon (= regard), jeer at (= deride), reason with,
object to, insist upon, act upon.
Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to
the verb to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, pass upon, etc., are
treated as compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the
object of the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and
the preposition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The
passive construction is weU established, but not always graceful.
252. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling , naming,
making, and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative
(§ 88, 2).
Active Voice Passive Voice
(predicate objective) (predicate nominative)
We elected John presiderd. John was elected president.
The Roman people called the chief The chief was called friend by the
friend. Roman people.
The herald proclaimed him em- He was proclaimed emperor by the
peror. herald.
Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to
the same person or thing, — a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104). In
the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective
becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).
112 VERBS
Object of the Passive
253. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object,
one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other
becoming the subject. Thus, —
1. The indirect object is retained.
Active Voice Passive Voice
My aunt gave me this watch. This watch was given me hj my
aunt.
We allowed them free choice. Free choice was allowed them.
He allowed each speaker an hour. An hour was allowed each speaker.
Congress granted ms a pension. A pension was granted me.
Note. The preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction,
especially with a noun ; as, — "A small pension was granted to Dr. Johnson."
2. The direct object is retained.
Active Voice Passive Voice
We allowed them their choice. They were allowed their choice.
He allowed each speaker an hour. Each speaker was allowed an hour.
They showed me the way. I was shown the way.
Experience has taught me vrisdom. I have been taught xvisdom by ex-
perience.
The direct object after a passive verb is often called the
retained object.
Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful
writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one's
style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of " He was given permission," one
may say " He received permission " ; instead of " I was given this watch by
my aunt," either " It was my aunt who gave me this watch " or " This watch
was a present from my aunt."
254. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects, —
one denoting the person, the other the thing, — sometimes
retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 103).
Active. We asked him his opinion.
Passive. He was asked his opinion.
PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 118
PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES
255. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs
have so-caUed progressive forms.
The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as
going on or continuing at the time referred to.
I ate my dinner.
I was eating my dinner.
While I was quietly reading by my fireside, strange things were taking
place in the square.
Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely
expresses a past action, whereas was eating describes this action
as continuing or in progress in past time.
256. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to
the present participle some form of the verb to be.
Progressive Form
Active Voice
Pkesent Tense
singular plural
1. I am striking. 1. We are striking.
2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking.
3. He is striking. 3. They are striking.
So ill the other tenses :
Past
I was striking, etc.
Future
I shall be striking, etc.
Perfect
I have been striking, etc.
Pluperfect
I had been striking, etc.
Future perfect
I shall have been striking, etc.
Passive Voice
Present
I am being struck, etc.
Past
I was being struck, etc.
114 VERBS
257. In the passiye, the progressive forms are confined to
the present and the past tense.
He is being helped by his brother. [Present.]
I am being trained by Arthur Ray. [Present.]
When I called, tea loas being served. [Past.]
258. In subordihate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms)
with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases.
While waiting for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is. While I
was waiting.]
Though [he was] swimming vigorously, he could not stem the tide.
When [I am] reading, I like to have the light shine over my left
shoulder.
In x)arsing, the omitted words should be supplied.
259. For such progressive forms as is building for is being
built, see § 352.
EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES
260. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be ex-
pressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did
and the infinitive without to.
Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense.
" I do see you " and " I did go " differ from " I see you *' and " I went "
merely in emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic fonn of the present
tense of see, and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go.
261. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic
forms are used without the effect of emphasis.
Did you go ? I did not go.
Note. Do often stands for some other verb which has just been used : as, —
" Jack swims better than I do," " You looked as tired as she did." This idiom
comes from the omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase: — "Jack swims
better than I do [swim]."
In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative
sentences often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the place of the present
or past : as, — '* The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat."
INDICATIVE MOOD 115
MOOD OF VERBS
Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in
which the action or state is expressed.
Mood (or mode) is derived from the Latin word modus, " manner."
Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the
verb in each : —
Richard is quiet.
Is Richard quiet ?
If Richard were quiet, I might study.
Richard, be quiet.
In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert
or question a fact ; in the third, the form were expresses a con-
dition or supposition that is contrary to fact ; in the fourth, the
form be expresses a command or request.
The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is
called a difference of mood.
There are three moods, — the indicative, the imperative, and
the subjunctive. •
1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but
it is used in other constructions also.
2. The imperative is the mood of command or request.
8. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of
wish, condition, and the like.
Thus, in the examples in § 262, is is in the indicative, were
in the subjunctive, and be in the imperative mood.
I. INDICATIVE MOOD
264. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active
and the passive voice and in all six tenses, — present, past,
future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect),
and future perfect, — may be seen in the table on pp. 108-110.
For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 256 ; for the
emphatic form, see § 260.
116 VERBS
265. The commonest uses of the indicatiye mood are in state-
ments or questions as to matters of fact ; but it may express
almost any other form of thought. Thus, —
Time and tide wait for no man. - [Assertion.]
How goes the world with you ? [Interrogation.]
How it rains I [Exclamation.]
If the river rises, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.]
I suspect that he fuis absconded, [Doubt.]
I hope that John vnU come soon. [Desire.]
Though Ellen dislikes algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.]
You toill report for duty immediately. [Command.]
Will you allow me to use your knife ? [Request.]
Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct
in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has
grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become
almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied
at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of
thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which ttie indica-
tive cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfac-
tory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in
one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which
asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses
thought as supposition (or as mere thought) . But the indicative, as well as the
subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc.
Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts of the language allow.
All the efforts of grammarians to devise more *' accurate " definitions break
down when tested by actual usage.
n. IMPERATIVE HOOD
266. The imperative is the mood of command or request.
Hurry I Light the lamp.
Lie down. Show us the way.
Shut the door. Wait a moment.
Have patience. Come to dinner.
The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only
one tense, — the present. It has both numbers, the singular and
the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same
form for both the singular and the plural.
IMPERATIVE MOOD 117
267. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.
For examples, see § 266.
The imperative of the verb to he is he. Thus, —
Be brave. Be sure you are right.
Be careful. Be here at noon.
2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a
past participle.
Be trusted rather than feared.
Study your failures and be instructed by them.
268. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is
emphatic.
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative :
as, — You sit here.
Note. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative : as, —
Go thou. Go you, Sear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and
to poetry.
269. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the im-
perative do, followed by the infinitive without to.
Do tell me what he said.
Bo stand still.
The form with do is often used when the subject is expressed ;
as, — Do you remain,
270. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed
by means of the form with do.
Do not open a closed door without knocking.
Do not forget to say " thank you."
In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed
by the simple imperative with not.
Tell me not what too well I know.
Devise not evil against thy neighbor.
Seek not to learn my name.
118
VERBS
271. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative
by means of shall or wUl (§§ 239-240).
Thou Shalt not steal.
You wiU leave the room immediately.
For such expressions as "Forward!" "Off with you I" and the like,
see §530.
For the imperative in conditions, see § 418.
m. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Forms of the Subjunctive
272. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions
of wish, condition, and the like.
In older English the subjunctive forms were common in a
variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn
style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare,
and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the
case of the copula he.
The subjunctive forms of be are the following : —
Subjunctive Mood
SINGULAR
Present Tense
PLURAL
1.
2.
3.
If I be.
If thou be.
If he be.
1.
2.
3.
If we be.
If you be.
If they be.
SINGULAR
Past Tense
PLURAL
1.
2.
3.
If I were.
If thou wert.
If he were.
1.
2.
3.
If we were.
If you were.
If they were.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
singular plural
1. If I have been. 1. If we have been.
2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been.
3. If he have been. 3. If they have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 119
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
singular plural
1. If I had been. 1. If we had been.
2. If thou* hadst been. 2. If you had been.
3. If he had been. 3. If they had been.
If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that
the subjunctive is commonest in modem English ; but \f is of course no part
of the subjunctive inflection.
273. In other verbs, the subjonctiye active has the same forms
as the indicative, except in the second and third persons singular
of the present and the perfect, which are like the first person : —
Present Perfect
1. If I strike. 1. If I have struck.
2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck.
3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck.
In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula
(§ 272) are used as auxiliaries : — present, If I he struck; past,
If I were struck; perfect. If I have been struck; pluperfect. If
I had been struck. (See table, p. 304.)
274. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed
by means of the copula : — present. If I be striking; past. If I
were striking. The present is rare ; the past is common.
Uses of the Subjunctive
Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations
275. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.
Angels and ministers of grace defend us I
Heaven help him !
The saints preserve us I
God bless you 1
Long live the king I
that I had listened to him I
that we were rid of him 1
120 VERBS
In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an inde-
pendent sentence. In the last two, the construction is sub-
ordinate, — the ^Aa^-clause being the object of an unexpressed
"I wish" (§407).
276. The subjunctive he is often omitted when it may easily
be supplied.
Peace [6e] to his ashes !
Honor [6e] to his memory 1
Honor [6c] to whom honor is due 1
277. Wishes are often introduced by may or would.
May you never want !
Would that he were safe !
Would you were with us I [For WoxM thai.']
May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives; would
stands for / would^ that is, / should wish. Want in the first example is an
infinitive without to (§ 311). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.
278. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take
the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style.
Hear we the king !
Join we in a hymn of praise !
Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let tis followed by
the infinitive without to.
Let us join hands.
Let us have peace.
Let 's camp here.
Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive
(Join, havCf camp) depends on let.
Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.
279. The subjunctive is nsed after though, aUhaugh, to express an
admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition.
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
Though he were to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 121
When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indica-
tiye is regular.
Although he i8 a foreigner, he speaks good English.
Though he sometimes sings, he is not now in good voice.
280. After if and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive
may be used in a variety of ways.
1. If this be gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be gold.]
2. If he confess, 1 shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not
confess.]
3. Unless he confess, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not
confess.]
4. If this were gold, our fortune would be made. [It is not gold ; hence
our fortune is not made.]
5. If he stood before me at this moment, I should tell him my opin-
ion. [He does not stand before me ; hence I do not tell him.]
6. If he ?iad\ confessed, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did
not confess ; hence I did not overlook it.]
7. Unless he had confessed, he could not have been convicted. [He
did confess ; hence he was convicted.]
In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive denotes either
present or future tinie. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but
not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1-3.)
The past subjunctive refers to present time. It implies that
the supposed case is not now a fact. (See examples 4 and 6.)
The pluperfect (or past perfect) subjunctive refers to past time.
It implies that the supposed case was not a fact. (See 6 and 7.)
For details of conditional sentences, see §§ 167-172.
281 . Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive
without though or if, the verb preceding the subject, which is
sometimes omitted.
I. Concession
Try as we may, we cannot swim to that rock.
Say what he will, he can never convince me.
Come what will, I '11 stand my ground.
Be that as it may, my mind is made up.
122 VERBS
n. Condition
Were I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.]
Had I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.]
I shall be twenty years old, come Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.]
I will go, rain or shine, [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.]
Be he prince or he he pauper, every guest is welcome here.
NoTB. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really
the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). ** Try \we] as we may " means liter-
ally, *^ Let us try as hard as we can," and this has the force of "However
hard we try " or ^^ Although we try ever so hard."
282. After as if {as though), the past subjanctive is used.
He looks as if he were about to speak. [Not : as if he was about to
speak.]
I act as if I were crazy. [Not : as if I was crazy.]
283. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but
what would be or would have been, the case.
It were safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.]
I had been wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser if
I had.]
This construction is old-fashioned. Modem English commonly uses should
(or would) bCf should (or would) have been, instead.
284. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, be-
fore, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future
and commonly expressing purpose or expectation.
Take heed that he escape not. [Purpose.]
Give him food lest he perish. [Purpose.]
Let us tarry until he come, [Expectation.]
This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or
formal style. In ordinary language the indicative or a verb-
phrase with may is used.
Take heed that he does not escape.
Give him food in order that he may not perish.
Let us wait till he comes.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 123
285. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and
similar phrases.
I had raiher wait a day.
You had better leave the room.
He had as lief go as stay.
Note. Had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or
inelegant; but the idiom is well-established.
Might better^ would better^ and would rather may be used instead of had
better f etc. ; but would better is improper in the first person.
286 . The subj uncti ve forms are often replaced by verb-phrases
containing the auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should,
1. In wishes (§ 277).
May you live long and prosper !
May he never repent this act !
Ah, could I but live a hundred years !
2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279-280).
Thought you l should fail, there would still be hope.
Ue J
ifjy
you V should fail, all would be lost.
Lhe J
3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what
would be or would have been, the case (§ 283).
I should ^
You would I write to Charles if I knew his address.
He would J
It would have been better to telegraph.
4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before,
until, etc. (§ 284).
I will take care that nothing raay prevent.
I took care that nothing-^ j^ yj \ prevent.
The general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive.
124 VERBS
POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES
USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES
287. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating
ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity.
Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, " phrases
of possibility."
The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are : — may, can,
must, might, could, ivould, and should. They are called modal
auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to.
We may ask him a few questions.
I can manage a motor car.
You must inquire the way.
He might give you a chance.
I could show you his house if you would permit me.
I should enjoy a sea-voyage.
NoTB. The fact that givcj etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives
may be seen by comparing " I can strike " with " I am able to strike," " I may
strike " with '* I am permitted to strike," " I must strike " with " I am obliged
to strike," and so on. In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had
a special ending (-an or -en), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.
288. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjuga-
tion, like that on pp. 108-110. They are often called, collec-
tively, the potential mood.
Active Voice
Present Tense
singular plural
1. I may strike.^ 1. We may strike.
Thou mayst strike. 2. You may strike.
He may strike. 3. They may strike.
2
Past Tense
1. I might strike.2 1. We might strike.
2. Thou mightst strike. 2. You might strike.
3. He might strike. 3. They might strike.
i So / can strike, etc. 2 go / could strike, etc.
POTENTIAL VEBB-PHRASES 125
Perfect (oh Present Perfect) Tense
sinoulas plural
1. I may have struck.^ 1. We may have struck.
2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck.
3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. I might have struck.^ 1. We might have struck.
2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck.
3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck.
Passive Voice
Present Tense
I may be struck, etc. We may be struck, etc.
Past Tense
I might be struck, etc. We might be struck, etc.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, etc.
289. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates that the
subject is able to do something.
John can ride a bicycle.
Harry could swim.
290. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2)
possibility or doubtful intention, (3) a wish.
(1) You may borrow my pencil.
I told him that he might join our party.
(2) He may accept my ofEer.
You might not like it.
(3) May good fortune attend you I
1 So J can have strucky etc. ^So I could have strucky etc.
126 VERBS
291. In asking permission, the proper form is ^^ May I ? "
not " Can I ? " With negatives, however, can is more common
than TTiay^ except in questions. Thus, —
Question. May I (or may rCt I) play ball this morning ?
Answer. No, you cannot ; but you may play this afternoon.
292. Must expresses necessity or obligation.
We must all die sometime.
You must wait for the train.
You must not be discouraged by failure.
Note. Must^ though originally a past tense, is in modem Enrgllsh almost
always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by had to with
the infinitive : as, — "I had to wait for the train."
293. Ought with the present infinitive, expresses a present
duty or moral obligation ; with the perfect infinitive, a past duty
or obligation. Should is often used in the same sense.
I ougJU to vjrite that letter. [Present.]
You ou^ht not to object, [Present.]
This roof ought to he mended, [Present.]
I ought to have known better. [Past.]
Your dog ought not to have been unleashed. [Past.]
You should be careful. [Present.]
The garden should have been weeded yesterday. [Past.]
NoTB. Ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe^ but is now always
a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly's ** You ought
him a thousand pound " (Shakspere, 1 Henry /F, iii. 3. 152).
Had should never be prefixed to ought.
Correct Incorrect
You ought to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home.
We ought ii't to make so much We hadn't ought to make so much
noise. noise.
John ought to begin, ought n't he ? John ought to begin, had n't he ?
294. Should and ought sometimes express what would cer-
tainly be expected in the case supposed.
SHOULD AND WOULD 127
Three weeks {^Jj^f^j suffice.
xn XI. X . . X. 1- (should 1 .
If the train is on time, hes ^y^j^t 4^ ?-arnve at six.
295. Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual
action in the past.
I would gaze at the sea for hours at a time.
Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, he would begin to
talk of something else.
SPECIAL RULES FOR SHOULD AND WOULD
296. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past
tense of will. Hence the rules for should and would are similar
to those for shall and ivill (§§ 233-239). But there is much
variation, especially in subordinate clauses.
I. m SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
297. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the
distinction between should and would is practically the same
as that between shall and will.
When the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea
of wishing, consenting, or the like, the forms are as follows : —
•
Assertions • (Declarative)
singular plural
1. I should fall. 1. We should fall.
2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall.
3. He would fall. 3. They would fall.
Questions (Interrogative)
singular plural
1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall?
2. Shouldst thou faU? 2. Should you fall?
3. Would he fall? 3. Would they faU?
128 VERBS
S98. Common errors are the use of I would iov I should in
assertions, and that of Would I? and Would you ? for Should
I? and Should you ? in questions.
The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.
I. I should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertioiis : —
1. I Should break my neck if I fell.
2. I sJunUd hesitate to try this experiment.
3. I «Aouid n't wonder if he escaped.
4. We should regret any misunderstanding.
6. / should wish to examine the plans again before deciding.
6. I s?iould be glad to accept any fair offer.
7. I loould give five dollars for a ticket.
8. I icouW help you if I could.
9. I would never agree to such a proposition.
10. We vjould rather die than surrender.
11. We would pay our bill to-day if we had the money.
12. I would gladly accept any fair offer.
In the first six examples, / (or we) should is correct, because
the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker's will (or
volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker's will-
ingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and /
(or we) would is therefore used.
Note. In such sentences as the fifth, — "I should wish to examine the plans
again before deciding," — wish expresses volition. Hence " I would wish " is
incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can mean only '* I desire to wish."
On the same principle we say ."I should prefer," "I should be glad," etc.
(see§ 236).
Sometimes either I would or / should may be used, but with a difference in
meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, " I should help you " might be substi-
tuted for " I would help you. " This change, however, makes the remark sound
less cordial and sympathetic ; for / should (unlike / would) gives no hint of
the speaker's desire to be of service.
II. Should I (or we) ? in questions : —
1. Should I break my neck if I fell ?
2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries ?
3. Should I take cold without my overcoat ?
4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson ?
6. Should we run aground if we missed the channel ?
SHOULD AND WOULD 129
Note. Would J? is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one
repeats the words or thought of another. Thus, — '* You would give five doUars
for a ticket." " Would If No, I would n't ! " In this use it is chiefly coUoquial.
III. Should you ? and Would you ? in questions : —
1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize ? [Yes, I should
drown, for I do not know how to swim.]
2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure ? [No, I should not,
for I have other resources.]
3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough ? [Yes,
I should think so.]
4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly ? [No, I should
not be offended.]
5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding ?
[Yes, I should (see note under I, above).]
6. Would you wear a hat or a cap ? [I would wear a cap if I were you.]
7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place ? [Yes, I would,]
8. Would you accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, I
would accept it gladly.]
9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses ? [Certainly
I would lend them, if I had not lost them.]
10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference ? [I would,"]
The choice between should and would in these sentences
corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).
299. The chief occasions on which Would you? is correct
are : — (1) in asking advice in a matter of doubt, and (2) in
asking consent or permission.
In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice ; in 8, 9,
and 10, he asks consent or permission.
300. ITote that the proper forms are / should like, Should I
like? and Should you like?
I should like to read that book.
Should I like to go to Rome ? Indeed, I should.
Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue ? [I should like to
receive one.]
Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of
repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the
same as in I should wish (§ 298, 1, note).
130 VERBS
301. I^d and we^d are contractions of / would and we
would. Hence they can never stand for I sliould and we
should (§235).
302. Should in the second and third persons may be used in
simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to ex-
press the will of the speaker (§ 239).
If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is: I would take
care that you were prosecuted.]
If I had tlie money, you should be paid immediately. [Compare : You
shall be paid.]
If I were you, site should not regret her generosity. [Compare : She
shall not regret it.]
II. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
303. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the use of should
and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences
and principal clauses.
The following classes require attention : — (1) clauses of pur-
pose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive
clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of
the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea
(§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).
304. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expec-
tation with which anything is done, shall and should are used
in all three persons.
Carleton took great pains that J you V should understand the details
of the treaty. [.they)
Scott < y very careful that nothing \ o/i^u W i ^^*® ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ plans.
t^ yo
They took every precaution lest-j you V should suspect the plot.
l^ J
Anderson waited patiently untiU you \ should arrive with the horses.
ithey]
We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break.
SHOULD AND WOULD 131
305. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future
supposed case doubtfully, shcdl and should are used in all three
persons; but wUl and would are proper when the subject is
thought of as wishing or consenting.
r^ 1
you V should not carry out the commander's
M J
1. What would happen if
instructions ?
2. Ji\yo
you \^ should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed.
Ue J
3. Whoever ^Ij^j^j violate this law jghould} P*^ ^^® penalty.
[That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]
4. Whenever -I you ^ shall find an opportunity, let us try the experi-
Ue J
ment. [That is : If ever I shall find, etc.]
5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [When-
ever = if ever.]
(we ^
6. Though -j you ^«^uW fail, others would make the attempt. [Con-
cession.] {.they)
7. Though Evans sfiovM disappoint me, I should not lose confidence
in him.
8. Vemon will do his part if -
[wiU
9. If J
you VwiU cooperate with him.
they)
will only make the effort, success is certain.
I ^ Itheyj
you lunl
Ihe J
f^ 1
10. Edmund would reveal the secret if < you > wovM assist him in his
search for the treasure. t t?i€y J
11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied.
12. Whoever toiU join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable
journey. [That is : If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]
When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain,
wUl may be used in the second and third persons to denote
mere futurity.
Though -j ? ywiU certainly fail,-! ^ [-may make the attempt.
Though the ship wiU not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats.
132 VERBS
306. Shall and should are often used in the second and third
persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not
that of the subject.
Templeton Insists that you shall accompany him.
This letter directs where you sJioM station yourself.
We gave orders that the gates should be closed.
My wish is that-j ? >s?u)uM remain at home.
The law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid.
307. When a clause with that states something, not as a
fact but as an idea to be considered, should is the proper
auxiliary in all three persons.
I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult.
[That is : " When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising."
In ** I am not surprised that youjind,^^ etc., the subordinate clause makes
the statement as a fact.]
It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast :
It is strange that Tom neglects.']
That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Con-
trast : That Napoleon chafed,"]
308. For shall and wUl^ should and would, in indirect dis-
course, see §§ 438-439.
THE INFINITIVE
309. The infinitive is a yerb-form that has some of the proper-
ties of a noun (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly
when it is used as the subject of a sentence.
1. To hope is our only resource.
2. To fiaUer is not my custom.
3. To sleep was an impossibility.
4. To surrender seemed disgraceful.
5. To choose wisely was my greatest difficulty.
6. To scale the wall was the work of a moment.
Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun,
for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordi-
nary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change
INFINITIVES 133
in meaning; as, — ^^ Hope is our only resource " ; ^^ Flattery is
not my custom " ; ^"^ Sleep was an impossibility."
But each of these infinitives is also a verb, — for (1) it ex-
presses action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in
No. 5 ; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.
An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no sub-
ject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not
bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with
its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, infinitive,
which means " unrestricted " or " free from limitations." ^
310. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a
noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without
person or number.
It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the
sign of the infinitive.
To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may
be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of
its uses, is preceded by to.
Note. To sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as, —
"You may go if you wish to" (that is, "if you wish to go"). Such expres-
sions are to be avoided. It is better to say, " You may go if you wish."
311. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases
with the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, must, might, could,
would, should, do, did. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124.
312. The infinitive has two tenses, — the present and the
perfect.
1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usu-
ally preceded by to : as, — to live, to tea/ih, to bind, to strike.
2. The perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of
the auxiliary verb have to the past participle (§ 243) : as, —
to have lived, to have taught, to have bound, to have struck.
1 For the so-called infinitive clause, in which the infinitive has a subject of
a peculiar kind, see §§ 324-328.
134 VERBS
313. An infinitive may be modified by an adyerb, an adyerbial
phrate, or an adyerbial clause.
To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment.
It would be useless to search longer.
They allowed him to go in peace, [Adverbial phrase.]
To dive among those weeds would be folly.
Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.]
No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive.
I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [Not : to carefully
inquire.]
Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [Not: to
indefinitely postpone.]
I expect always to be poor. [Not : to always be poor.]
Note. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good
writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestion-
ably still in accord with the best usage.
314. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.
I long to visit Italy,
My mother feared to enter the ftouse.
To launch a boat was impossible.
To grant your request is a pleasure.
To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give^
and him the indirect object.]
315. The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions, —
(1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective modifier or adverbial modifier,
(3) in the so-called infinitive clause.
I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN
316. The infinitive is used in various noun constructions, — as
subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation,
as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.
317. An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may
be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as
an appositive.
INFIXITIVES 136
To descend was extremely difficiilt. [Subject.]
To secure a seat was impossible.
To sing well requires practice.
His delight was to travel, [Predicate nominative.]
The governor's policy is to wait.
My wish is to see you immediately.
To decide was to act, [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second
is a predicate nominative.]
Both alternatives, to advance and to retreai, seemed equally hazardous.
[Apposition with the subject.]
My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure.
He has but one aim in life, to succeed, [Apposition with the object.]
I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you.
I give you three choices, — to buy, to lease, or to buHd,
318. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition
with the expletive subject it.
It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of : To see him was a pleasure.]
It is easy to understand you.
It will be impossible to forget.
It proved very difficult to find evidence against him.
In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is
reaUy the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).
319. The infinitive may be used as the object of the prep-
ositions but, except, about
There was nothing to do but waUc (or to waUc),
He will do anything except resign (or except to resign).
We are about to object, [An idiom expressing futurity.]
The train is about to start.
Note. Can but and cannot hut are distinct idioms. (1) In " I can but thank
you," but is an adverb (= only). The sentence means: "I can only thank
you — simply that and nothing more!" (2) In "I cannot but thank you,"
but is a preposition (= except). The idiom is shortened from "I cannot
choose but thank you," — that is, "I have no choice except to do so," or, in
other words, " I cannot help it."
The infinitive after for (now a gross error) was once in good use : as, —
What sweeter music can we bring
Than a carol /or to «my. — Hebbick.
136 VERBS
320. The infinitive may be used as a nominatiye of exclamatioii
(§ 88, 4).
To sleep I perchance to dream I
To suffer and be silent !
O to 6e a boy again 1 [A wish.]
O to have lived in the brave days of old !
n. THE UfFlUlTIVE AS A MODIFIER
321. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.
In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it
modifies.
With Nouns With Adjectives
(Adjective Modifier) (Adverbial Modifier)
An opportunity to advavce came. The men are ready to advance.
Determination to vrin brings success. John is eager to vdn.
Willingness to oblige makes friends. I shall be glad to oblige you.
I wish I had the ability to swim. We are all able to smm.
His anxiety toplea>se us was laughable. He is anxious to please everybody.
Note. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with to is really a
prepositional phrase (§42). Thus, "determination to win" is equivalent to
" determination /or victory," and "eager to win" to "eager /or victory.**
The adjective force of the infinitive comes out clearly in "nothing to eat,*
where to eat is practically synonymous with eatable.
In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no distinction
in voice, so that the active and the passive are interchangeable: as, — "a
house to let " or " to be let " ; " an axe to grind " or " to be ground." In such
expressions the active form is usually preferable.
322. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective
modifier after the direct object of see, hear, feel, and some
other verbs of like meaning.
I saw the policeman arrest him.
Hear the sea roar I
Can you feel the ground tremble f
Ruth watched the tide corns in.
In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare
" I heard him shout " with " I heard him shouting." Hence the substantive
may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the
construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324-325).
INFINITIVES 137
323. An infinitiye may modify a verb (x) by completing its meaning,
or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.
I. Complementary Infinitive
The ship began to roU,
The rain continued to fall heavily.
Every boy desires to succeed.
The officer neglected to watch his men.
The prisoners attempted to escape.
You promised to come to-night.
After dare^ the complementary infinitive may or may not have to. Thus, —
** I dare not do it " ; " Who will dare to apeak ? "
II. Infinitive of Purpose
He went to New York to study medicine.
He opened his lips to speak.
She closed her eyes to shut out the sight.
Elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside.
The conductor signalled to stop the train.
Harold waited to assist his teacher.
Both the complementary infinitiye and the infinitive of purpose
may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb.
Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a
pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus, — "I desire to see you "
(compare "I desire a sight of you")- It is simpler, however, to regard all
such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers.
For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after cer-
tain adjectives (as in *^I am eager to see you") from its construction after
such verbs as wish and desire.
m. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE
324. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that-
clause as the object of a verb. Thus, —
I wished /*^^*^*^^^^ ^^•
\him to go.
In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the
object of wished; in the second, this clause is replaced by him to
138 VERBS
go^ but without any change in meaning. This expression con-
sists of two parts : — (1) h Im, a pronoun in the objective case,
which replaces the subject he; and (2) an infinitive to go^
which replaces the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that
him to go is also a noun clause, of which him is the subject,
and to go the predicate. Such an expression is called an
infinitiye clause.
325. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain
verbs.
Such clauses are called Infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said
to be the subject of the infinitive.
The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, coTum^nd-
ing, advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believ-
ing, declaring, smd perceiving.^ Thus, —
The colonel commanded tJiem to charge [= that they should charge].
I believe him to be trustworthy [= that he is trustworthy].
The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [= that he was, etc.].
After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infini-
tive clauses.
Mr. Esmond bade his servant padc a portmanteau and get horses.
[Compare : ordered his servant to pack, etc.]
What makes him cry f [Compare : What causes him to cry f]
I let him sleep. [Compare : I allowed him to sleep.]
Note. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject
(§ 309). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar exception, for him to go
makes an assertion as clearly as that he should go does. That hiin is really
the subject of to go and not the object of wished is manifest, for / wished
him makes no sense. The object of wished is the whole clause (him to go).
Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was felt to be
the object of the main verb, and this relation may still be felt in ** I ordered
him to go " ; but even here the real object of ordered is the clause (as may be
seen in '* I ordered the castle to be blown up "). The substantive has come to
be the real subject of the infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing.
1 After verbs of wishing, etc., they express purpose (§ 403) ; after verbs of
believing, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§431).
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 139
326. A predicate pronoun after to he in an infinitive clause is
in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.
Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with
the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).
Predicate Projioun after to be Predicate Nominative
I believed it to be her, I believed that it was she.
We know the author to be him. We know that the author is he.
The author is known to be he.
He thought Richard to be me. He thought that Richard was I.
Richard was thought to be I,
We suspected the intruders to be We suspected that the intruders
them, were they,
Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in
the following sentences : —
A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [ Whom is the subject
of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.]
A boy 10^0, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject
of was and is therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical {§ 502).]
A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me.
A boy who^ I believe, was he, just passed me.
327. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition
for. Thus,—
I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to corns is the object of for;
him is the subject of to come.]
They are waiting on the shore
For the bark to take them home. — Noel.
I long for him to come back,
328. An infinitive clause with /or may be used as a subject,
as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.
For us to delay 'w^ould be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare : Our
delay would be fatal.]
Our best plan is/or the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative
agreeing with the subject plan,]
I see no way out of the difficulty except /or them to offer an apology,
[Compare : except the offer of an apology on their part.]
140 VERBS
PARTICIPLES
Certain words unite in themselves some of the prop-
erties of adjectiyes with some of the properties of verbs. Such
words are called participles (§ 31). Thus, —
ShaUered and sinking^ but gallantly returning the enemy's fire, the
frigate drifted out to sea.
Shattered, sinking, and returning are verb-forms which are in
some respects similar to infinitives ; for (1) they express action ;
(2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither
person nor number ; and (3) one of them takes a direct object.
They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble,
not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive
frigate to which they belong.
Such verb-forms are called participles, because they share (or
participate in) the nature of adjectives.
330. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
Who thundering comes on blackest steed ? — Bybon.
Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood. — De Quince y.
Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he
did not even deign to stand on the defensive. — Macau lay.
Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen
in clear azure splendor, enlightening the world. — Carlyle.
FORMS OF PARTICIPLES
331. Verbs have three participles, — the present, the past,
and the perfect.
332. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes
an action as taking place at the* same time with some other
action.
Tom came sauntering up the path.
The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling.
Beaching for the flower, I lost my balance.
PARTICIPLES
141
333. The present participle often refers to time preceding
that denoted by the predicate verb.
Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]
Learning that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.
334. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past
time or completed action.
1. The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past
tense.i
Present Tense
I mend chairs.
I sweep the rooms.
I seek treasure.
I lose money.
Past Tense
I mended the chairs.
I swept the rooms.
I sought treasure.
I lost money.
Past Participle
The chairs are mended.
The rooms are swept
Treasure is sought.
The money is lost.
Present Tense
Past Tense
He speaks.
He spoke.
He draws.
He drew.
He sings.
He sang.
He loins.
He won.
2. The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel
of the present tense.
All strong verbs had originally the ending en (n) in the past parti-
ciple, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.
Past Participle
(He has) spoken,
(He has) drawn,
(He has) sung.
(He has) won.
The forms show great variety and must be learned by
practice. (See pp. 291-297 for a list.)
335. The perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the
past participle.
Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner.
Having lost his money, James was forced to walk home.
336. The present participle is used in forming the progres-
sive verb-phrases (§§ 255-259).
The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses
(§§ 242-244) and the passive voice (§ 247).
1 The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.
142 VERBS
CONSTRUCTIOHS OP PARTIdPLBS
337. Since the participle has adjective properties, its con-
structions are in the main like those of adjectives.
338. A participle la said to belong to the substantiye which it
describes or limits.
Rupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present
participle missing belongs to the subject Rupert,]
Rising, she oi)ened the window. [Rising belongs to she.]
I heard the rain falling. [FaUing belongs to the object rain.]
Tom's arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle
broken belongs to the subject arm.]
Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The
perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.]
339. A participle should not be used without some substantive to
which it may belong.
Right : Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle
entering belongs to the pronoun we.]
Wrong : Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is
no substantive to which entering can belong, it has no construction.]
Apparent exceptions are concerning^ considering, pending,
generally speaking, etc. The first three may be classed as prepo-
sitions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.
We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day. — De
QUINCEY.
Note. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as on entering^
after investigating y etc., in which the words in -ing are not participles, but
verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical: — ** On
entering the room, a strange sight appeared " ; *^ After investigating the sub-
ject, the plan was adopted." Such expressions, however, should be used with
caution, since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.
340. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adyerbial
phrase, or an adverbial clause.
Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]
He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might, [Adverbial phrase.]
Laughing uniU he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]
PARTICIPLES 143
341. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.
I found the old man mending his net.
Lifting the box, he moved toward the door.
Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object
of giving, and me is the indirect object.]
The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to
it, is sometimes called a participial phrase.
342. A participle may be used as a pure adjective.
A grinning boy confronted me.
A baUered hat hung on the peg.
Kate was playing with a broken doll.
We could hear a rushing stream.
WiMing hands make light work.
He was struck by a spent ball.
343. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective
expressing state or condition.
This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs.
The distinction may be seen in the following examples : —
The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck
us we were drenched by it.
When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very wet].
In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of
the verb drench (compare the active "every time a gust of
wind struck us, it drenched us "). In the second, the participle
drenched expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predi-
cate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp,
and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a
passive verb.
Note. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is dis-
tinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb-
phrase. Whenever, on the other hand; the participle merely describes condition
with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction
is that of a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).
144 VERBS
Nominative Absolute
344. A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is
often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying
phrase: as, —
The toindfaiUrig, we lowered the sail.
Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on
the failure of the wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind
failed). It defines the time of the action.
The wind failing^
On the failure of the wind^
When the voind failed,
»we lowered the sail.
346. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time,
or circumstances of an action.
This is called the absolute construction.
The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative
absolute.
My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slip-
ping is equivalent to because my knife slipped : it expresses cause.]
Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics
is equivalent to when two days had elapsed : it expresses time.]
Evenings he read aloud, his wife sewing by his side, [The phrase ex-
presses one of the circumstances that attended the reading.]
This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to
the clause since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.]
Note. This construction is called absolute (that is, " free " or " loosened ")
because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object,
apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words
in the sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from
the rest of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.
346. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the ab-
solute construction.
Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That
is; Allen once being mayor.]
Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.
His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.
PAETICIPIAL NOUNS 145
VERBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)
347. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns
that end in -ing, and that serve as the names of actions.
These are identical in form with present participles, for which
they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear,
for the present participle is never used as the name of an ac-
tion. Hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an object,
or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.
While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.]
TraveUtng broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]
He enjoys traveUirig. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]
He spends his time in travelling, [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.]
Tom's favorite exercise is swimming, [Verbal noun, predicate nom-
inative.]
This sport, fishing, has been called the contemplative man's recreation.
[Verbal noun, in apposition with sport,]
That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting
ordinary nouns in their place.
Travelling broadens the mind. Travel broadens the mind.
Talking is useless. TaUc is useless.
He is afraid of falling. He is afraid of a fall.
348. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal
noun in -ing.
Verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but the
construction of nouns.
They are often called participial nouns.
Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a
series along with ordinary nouns.
Mining is a dangerous occupation.
Painting and sculpture are sister arts.
The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in hunting, fishing,
agriculture, and warfare,
Reading, writing, and arithmetic are jocosely called "the three r's."
146 PARTICIPIAL NOUNS
349. Verbal nouns in -inff have certain properties of the
yerb.
1. Verbal nouns in -ag may take a direct or an indirect object if their
meaning allows.
Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure.
Lending him money is useless ; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits.
[Here the noun lending, which is the simple subject of the sentence,
takes both a direct object (money) and an indirect object (him), precisely
as the verb lend might do.]
2* A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.
Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Here the verbal noun
speaking is the simple subject ; but it is modified by the adverb extempo-
raneously, precisely as if it were a verb.]
But verbal nouns in 4ng, like other nouns, may be modified
by adjectives.
Extemporaneous sx)eaking is good practice.
8. To the verbal nouns being and hamng, past participles may be
attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.
After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king.
There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon.
After having been treated in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat
the interview.
Such expressions are verbal noun-phrases.
350. Verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their con-
structions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).
Infinitive as Noun Verbal Noun in -ing
To swim was difficult. Swimming was difficult.
My business is to make shoes. My business is making shoes.
To see is to believe. Seeing is beUemng,
Nouns in -ing are sometimes called Inflnitiyes or gerunds.
351. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the
adjective element in a compound noun (§ 64).
The sleeping car was completely wrecked.
William has plenty of spendirig money.
PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 147
Note. Other examples are; — a working day^ an ironing hoards drinking
water, smelling salts, marching orders, a walking tour, a swimming race, a
vaulting pole. In such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns
are taken together as a compound, or whether the lirst is regarded as an
adjective modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of
the participle is perfectly clear. A ^^sleeping dog" is a dog that sleeps; a
^^ sleeping car" is a c&rfor sleeping. Sometimes, indeed, either explanation
is possible. Thus, a ^^ hoisting engine " may be understood either as an *^ en-
gine that hoists," or as an *^ engine/or hoisting" But it is better to class these
exceptions with the nouns in -ing.
352. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any
other adjective, it cannot take an object.
Shooting song-birds V , , . , ,
'-'I forbidden.
|isi
The shooting of song-birds
Launching a ship 1 . ^ , .„
The launching of a shipr*'!""®^ <^« '"'^ ^'""-
Drawing maps 1 .
rri,« ^^° :„ \.^ ^^„ Ms a useful exercise.
The drawing of maps J
Eating confectionery constantly T . , , ,
Constant eating of confectionery | '« ^^ ^"^ *'^« *««*''•
,, ^ . . r driving wells..
My business isj^j^^ ^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^j^
Observe that, in each instance, the object {song-birds^ ship,
maps, confectionery, wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase
when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.
Note. In such expressions as '* I went a-fishing," a is a shortened form of
the preposition on, &nd Jishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is
omitted we have "I went fishing," "The house is building," and the like,
in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of
the omitted a (= on).
353. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used
to limit a verbal noun in -ing.
I was sure of its being he. [Not : it.]
I heard of Allen's being elected. [Not : Allen.]
148
PKEPOSITIONS
CHAPTER VII
PREPOSITIONS
364. A preposition is a word placed before a substantiye to show its
relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantiye which follows a preposition is called its object and
is in the objective case.
A phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without
other words, is called a prepositional phrase.
On the floor lay a heap of nuts.
He stood behind the tree /or some time.
From morning tiU night he remained at his post.
The fire destroyed everything except a few articles of furniture.
A prepositional phrase may be either adjective or adverbial.
Thus, in the first example, of nuts is an adjective phrase modifying the
noun heap^ and on tfie floor is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb
lay. In the second sentence, the verb stood is modified by two adverbial
phrases, behind the tree and /or some time.
355. The following list includes most of the prepositions :
aboard
because of
considering
about
before
despite
above
behind
down
according to
below
during
across
beneath
ere
after
beside, besides
except, excepting
against
between
for
along
betwixt
for the sake of
along with
beyond
from
amid, amidst
but (= except)
from among
among, amongst
by
from between
apart from
by dint of
from under
around
by means of
in
as for, as to
by reason of
in accordance with
at
by virtue of
in addition to
athwart
by way of
in case of
barring
concerning
in compliance with
PKEPOSITIONS
149
in consequence of
in consideration of
in front of
in lieu of
in opposition to
in place of
in preference to
in regard to
in spite of
inside (inside of)
instead of
into
notwithstanding
of
off
on
on account of
out of
outside (outside of)
over
over against
past
pending
regarding
respecting
round
round about
save, saying
since
through
throughout
to, unto
touching
toward, towards
under
underneath
until, till
up
upon
with
within
without
with reference to
with regard to
with respect to
Note. Such expressions as by means of, in accordance withy in spite o/,
etc., are really phrases, but may ba regarded as compound prepositions.
Several participles like concerning, considering, pending, are common in a
prepositional use and are therefore included in the list (§ 339).
For a (a form of on) in abed, asleep, afire, a-fishing, etc., see § 352.
Per is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions
as perforce, per cent, per annum (§ 179).
356.
clause.
A preposition may stand at the end of a sentence or
Whom did you osikfor f [Compare : For whom did you ask ?]
The box which it came in has been destroyed. [Compare : The box in
which it came.]
Note. This order, though informal, is common in the best authors ; but,
if carelessly used, it may result in awkwardness of style. Sometimes a rela-
tive which is the object of the preposition is omitted (see § 151). Thus, in the
second sentence, which might be dropped, and the object of in would then be
** which, understood." For ^*He was laughed at," and the like, see § 251.
In poetry a preposition sometimes follows its object directly : as, — " Bare-
foot plod I the cold ground upon** (Shakspbre).
357. Certain adverbial expressions like "on Sunday," "on
March first," occur both with and without the preposition.
He came Sunday {or, on Sunday).
We sail March first {or, on March first).
Note. The forms without on are good colloquial English, but are avoided
in the more formal style. No preposition need be supplied in parsing. The
noun is an adverbial objective (§ 109).
150 PREPOSITIONS
358. Care is required in the use of pronomis as the objects of
prepositions.
He has been very friendly ^
The old house will seem lonely i- to you and me. [Not : you and /.]
That makes no difference J
Tom's carelessness makes trouble \
There are letters at the post office /^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^'
f you and him.
I have Invitations for|y^^ ^^ ^
He will divide the reward between you and me.
Whom are you waiting f or ? 'I
Whom were you speaking to ? J l-^^^ = ^"^'^
359. Several words are used either as adverbs or prepositioiui.
As Adverb As Preposition
I fell dovm, I fell down the steps.
Stand by I He stood by the window.
A big dog ran behind, A dog ran behind the carriage.
Keep Q/f / Keep Q/f the grass.
Other examples are : — aboard, above, after, along, before, below, be-
neath, beside, between, beyond, ere, in, inside, on, outside, past, round,
since, under, up, within, without.
For words used either as prepositions or as coDJunctions, see pp. 152-154.
360. Prepositions show various distinctions in use and
meaning which must be learned by practice and by the study
of synonyms in a large dictionary.
The following groups afford opportunity for such study : — at, in ; in,
into ; between, among, amid ; on, upon ; from, off ; round, around,
about ; to, with ; beside, besides ; agree with, agree to ; change for,
change with ; disappoint in, of ; differ with, from ; confide in, to ; cor-
respond with, to ; part from, with ; compare to, with ; join with, to ;
connect with, to ; come up with, to ; talk to, with ; speak to, with ;
hang on, from, to ; live at, in, on ; argue with, against ; contend with,
against ; depart from, for, at, on, in.
CONJUNCTIONS 151
CHAPTER VIII
CONJUNCTIONS
361. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words.
Conjunctions are either coordinate or subordinate.^
1. A coordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that
are independent of each other.
1. Hay and grain are sold here.
2. Will you take tea or coffee ?
3. He was pale but undaunted.
4. The messenger replied courteously but firmly.
6. The troops embarked rapidly but without confusion.
6. Noon came, and the task was still unfinished.
7. We must hide here until night falls and the street is deserted.
In each of the first four sentences, the conjunction (and, or,
but) connects single words that are in the same construction
(subjects, objects, predicate adjectives, adverbs). In the fifth,
but connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase (both being
modifiers of the verb embarked). In the sixth, and joins the
two coordinate clauses of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the
seventh, and joins two coordinate clauses which, taken to-
gether, make up the subordinate clause until . . . deserted ; this
clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause
(see § 454).
2. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the
clause on which it depends.
Harmon did not quail, though he saw the danger.
Take this seat, if you prefer.
I hesitated because I remembered your warning.
Unless you reform, your career will be ruined.
1 Coordinate conjunctions are also called coordinating, and subordinate
conjunctions are also caUed subordinating.
162 CONJUNCTIONS
362. The chief codrdinate conjunctioiiB axe : —
and (both . . . and) moreover
not only . . . but also therefore
or (either ... or) then
nor (neither . . . nor) yet
but still
for nevertheless
however notwithstanding
Several of these are much used for transition, whether from
sentence to sentence or from one paragraph to another.
Such are : — however, moreover, therefore, then, nevertheless, not-
withstanding, yet, still.
363. Then is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction
when it denotes consequence or the like.
Then the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.]
Men are imperfect creatures : we must not, then^ expect them to be
angels. [Consequence.]
364. Yet and still are adverbs when they express time or
degree, conjunctions when they connect.
We have not started yet. [Time.]
It is stiXL raining. [Time.]
This hatchet is dull, but that is duller still, [Degree.]
I miss him, yet I am glad he went. [Conjunction.]
I like dogs ; stiU I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.]
365. For and notwithstanding may be either prepositions or
conjunctions.
Prepositions Conjunctions
I am waiting /or you. We must go, for it is late.
Jane is coming, vjotwUhstanding It is a hard storm. She will come,
the storm. notwitJistanding,
Note. For is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the
fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a
sentence opens a paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coordinates.
CONJUNCTIONS 153
366. The chief subordinate conjunctions are : —
although, though
if
that
as
lest
unless
as if (as though)
since (= because)
whereas
because
than
whether (whether
. or)
A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions. Such are: —
in order that^ so that, provided tJiat, in case that, but tfiat, as if, as though,
even if. Provided, and in case (without that) may also be used as conjunc-
tions : as, — "I will go provided it does n't rain."
367. The subordinate conjunction that is often omitted when
it may readily be supplied.
He said [that] he was starving.
They feared [that] they were betrayed.
I cannot believe [that] you would try to injure me.
Note. This omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun (§ 161). It
is extremely common, not only in colloquial language but also in literature,
whether prose or verse.
368. As and since in the sense of " because," and while in the
sense of ** though," are conjunctions.
When denoting time, as is an adverb, while is a noun or an
adverb, and since is an adverb or a preposition.
As (or since) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.]
As we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the rushing stream.
[Adverb.]
Ten years have passed since my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.]
The house has been empty since Christmas. [Preposition.]
369. Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative con-
junctions.
The chief correlatives are : —
both . . . and though . . . yet (still)
not only . . . but also although . . . yet (still)
either ... or since . . . therefore
neither . . . nor if . , . then
154 CONJUNCTIONS
Examples of correlatives may be seen in the following
sentences : —
Both lions and wolves are carnivorous.
The culprit looked both angry arid ashamed.
William II is not only German Emperor but also King of Prussia.
EUher brass or copper will do.
Neither Keats nor Shelley lived to be old.
He asked me whether I was an Austrian (yr 9, Russian.
Though the roads were very bad, yet he managed to reach Utica befbre
midnight.
Although he has wronged me, stiM I cannot believe he is my enemy.
Since four is the square of two, therefwe two is the square root of four.
X/" Allen's testimony is true, then Gilbert's must be false.
370. But is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense
of hut that or unless.
There is no doubt hut thai they are murderers. — Shelley.
Your uncle must not know but [ = bat thaf] you are dead. — Shakspere.
Ne'er may I look on day but [=un2e88] she tells your highness the
truth. — Shakspere. [This use is obsolete.]
There is not a wave of the Seine but is associated in my mind with the
first rise of the sandstones and forest pines of Fontainebleau. — Rusk in.
There was nobody hut loved her.
Note. In the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is
omitted : — " There is not a wave hut [it] is associated," " There was nobody
hut [Ae] loved her." In saeh cases, hut is sometimes regarded as a relative
pronoun.
N^ot withstanding is used as a subordinate conjunction in the
sense of though.
I shall go, notwithstanding the road is said to be impassable.
371. Relative adverbs are similar in their use to conjunctions,
and are therefore often called conjunctive adverbs (§ § 194-195).
Note. Most conjunctions, historically considered, are merely adverbs (or
adverbial phrases) which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form
a special class among the parts of speech. Thus the adverbs since and while
become conjunctions when they cease to denote time ; because is a corruption
of the phrase by cause ; but is developed from an old adverb meaning " outside."
INTERJECTIONS 156
CHAPTER IX
INTERJECTIONS
372. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion ox feeling.
Examples : O {or oh), ah, hullo (holloa, halloo), bah, pshaw, fie,
whew, tut-tut, St (ofien spelled hist), ha, aha, ha ha, ho, hey, hum, hem,
heigh-ho (heigh-o), alas, bravo, lo.
When written, interjections axe often followed by an ex-
clamation point (!).
373. Among interjections are properly included calls to
animals (like ^^whoa!") and imitations of sounds such as
^* mew ! " " cock-ardoodle-do ! " " ding dong ! " " swish ! " " tu-
whit-tu-who ! ''
374. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the
phrases or sentences in which they stand.
Hence they are counted among the " independent elements "
of a sentence (§ 501).
Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an
interjection by means of a preposition. Thus, —
O for a camera 1
Alas for my hopes !
Adjectives and adverbs are also found in this use: as, —
" Good for you ! " "Up with it!"
Note. All such expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences, as
if "O for a camera! " stood for " O, I wish for a camera! " and "Good for
you ! " for " That is good for you ! " But it is better to treat them as exclamatory
phrases. 1 Other exclamatory phrases are " Dear me I " " Goodness gracious ! "
"O my! ''and the like.
^ Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative
(§88,4).
156 INTERJECTIONS
375. Almost any part of speech may be used as an ex-
clamation.
Nonsense I I do not believe it. On 1
Fire ! Away !
Haiti ^ocik, Yillains !
Good I I like that ! I / not a bit of it !
Forward 1 But !
Such words are often called interjections, but it is better to
describe them as nouns, adjectives, etc., used in exclamation,
and to confine the term interjection to words which belong to
no other part of speech.
Note. Thus nonsense ! and fire ! are nouns in the exclamatory nomina-
tive; J/ is a pronoun in the same construction; halt! is a verb in the im-
perative (compare hark I hush I behold! look!); good! is an adjective;
forward! on! away! and back! are adverbs; but! is a conjunction.
The following examples illustrate various exclamatory expres-
sions, — words, phrases, and sentences : —
1. How late I shuddered on the brink 1 — Young.
2. *' Right 1 right ! " a thousand tongues exclaimed. — Southey.
3. The pale stars are gone ! — Shelley.
4. Poor widowed wretch 1 't was there she wept in vain. — Campbell.
5. O heartfelt raptures I Bliss beyond compare 1 — Burns.
6. 'T is done ! dread Winter spreads his latest glooms, — Thomson.
7. Heigh-ho ! sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly. — Shakspere.
8. I had — ah I have I now ? — a friend. — Byron.
9. ''To arms!" cried Mortimer, and couched his quivering lance.
Gray.
10. for the gentleness of old Romance ! — Keats.
11. '' Run ! " exclaims she, with a toss of indignant astonishment.
Carlyle.
12. Can he keep himself still if he would ! Oh, not he ! — Wordsworth.
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH 157
CHAPTER X
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
376. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and
that contains a subject and a predicate.
A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46).
377. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a
relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an
interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.
The relative pronouns are : who, which, wJuxt, that (= who or which),
as (after 8iu:h or same), and the compound relatives whoever, whichever,
whatever. Their uses have already been studied (pp. 66-78).
The chief relative adverbs are : where, whence, whither, wherever, when,
wTienever, while, brfore, after, till, until, since, as, how, why (p. 86).
The interrogative pronouns are : who, which, what (§§ 163-166).
The interrogative adverbs are : wJiere, when, whence, whither, how, why.
The most important subordinate conjunctions are: hecaiLse, since (= be-
cause), though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), lest, as, as
if, as though, than, whether (whether . . , or).
378. According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate
clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses.
I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
379. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an
adjective clause (§ 47).
Able men ^
Men of abUity V can always find employment.
Men who show ability J
Treeless spots ^
Spots vjithout trees > were plainly visible.
Spots where no trees grew J
In each of these groups, a noun (meny spots) is modified
(X) by an adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an
adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.
158 CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
380. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative
pronouns, (2) by relative adverbs of place {where, whence, whither,
etc.) or time (when, while, etc.).
II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
381. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is
called an adverbial clause (§ 47).
r thoughtlesfdy.
Jack spoke i without thinkijig,
l^before he thought,
r there.
The schoolhouse stands < at the crossroads.
L where the roads meet.
(mordhly.
We pay our rent -I on the first of every month.
l^wfien the first of the m^nth cotnes.
In each of these groups, the verb (spoke, stands, pay) is
modified (1) by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by
an adverbial clause.
382. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative
adverbs (when, where, before, etc.) ; (2) by subordinate conjunc-
tions (if, though, because, etc.) ; (3) by relative or interrogative
pronouns.
383. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are
also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs.
Angry because he had failed^ he abandoned the undertaking. [The
clause modifies angry. ^
I am uncertain which road I should take. [The clause modifies uncertain.']
Farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing waters. [The
clause modifies farther.']
Here, where the cliff was steepest, a low wall protected the path. [The
clause modifies here.]
384. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify
verbs and adjectives.
NOUN CLAUSES 169
He rejoiced that the victory was uoon,
I am glad tliat you are coming.
He was positive that no harm had been done.
They were unwilling that the case should he brought to trial.
Note. In this use that is equivalent either to " because " or to ** as to the
fact that." The clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial
objective construction (§ 109).
'For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their
meaning (place, time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163-182.
III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES
385. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun
(or substantive) clause (§ 47).
Agreement ^
To agree • V seemed impossible.
That we should agree)
Victory ^
To win > was out of the question.
That we should mn j
floss.
The merchant feared "I to lose,
L that' he might lose money,
r sujccess.
I expect'! to succeed,
\,that I skaXL succeed.
In each of these groups a noun (agreement, victory, etc.) is
replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the
first two examples, the noun clause is the subject ; in the last
two, it is the object of a verb {feared, expect),
386. Noun clauses may be used in any of the more impor-
tant constructions of nouns : — (1) as subject, (2) as direct object
of a transitive verb, (3) in apposition with a substantive, (4) as
a predicate nominative.
That Milton was spared has often caused surprise. [Subject.]
Brutus said that Ccesar was a tyrant, [Object of said.]
160 CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
Caesar commanded that the prisoners should be spared, [Object.]
I A;vigli that you uxmld work harder, [Object.]
The traveller inquired where he couM find the inn, [Object.]
He asked me what my name was, [Second object of asiced.']
My fear thai the bridge might faU proved groundless. [Apposition with
fear,]
One fact is undoubted, — that the state of America has been kept in conr-
tinual agitation. — Burke . [Apposition with fact.]
The old saying is tiiat misery loves company, [Predicate nominative.]
387. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate
conjunctions t?iaty whether (whether , , , or), and if (in the
sense of tchether ) ; (2) by the interrogative pronouns who,
which, what ; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where, whence,
whither, hoiv, why, when (§ 196).
388. Xoun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of
comraanding, desiring, etc. ; (2) of telling, thinking, etc. ; (3)
of asking, doubting, etc.
See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406) ; (2) indirect discourse (§§ 431-437) ; (3)
indirect questions (§ 443).
Object clauses frequently omit that (§ 367).
Charles said [that] he was sorry,
I hope you will come,
I wish he would help me.
For the infinitive clause replacing a that-clsLUse as object,
see §§324-325.
389. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a
passive verb (§ 253).
Active Voice Passive Voice
(Clause as Object) (Retained Object)
They informed me that the train I was informed that the train was
was late. late.
Charles told us that the ice was thin. We were told that the ice was thin.
They asked me whether (or if)I I was asked whether I Weed tennis.
liked tennis.
NOUN CLAUSES 161
390. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.
I see no reason for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn.
[Compare : except the stubbornness of both.]
She never studies, except when she can find nothing else to do.
I could say nothing but [= except] that I was sorry.
Justice was well administered in his time, save where the king was
party, — Bacon.
She could see me from where she stood.
There is a dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim.
For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384.
391. Noun clauses with that are common in the predicate
when the expletive it is the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2).
It was plain that war was at hand.
It was clear that this administration voould last but a very short time.
It must be admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances.
It was by slow degrees that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater.
It was under the command of a foreign general tfiat the British had
triumphed at Minden.
In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the
clause. This, however, may be regarded as grammatically in
apposition with it, as if one said " It (that war was at hand)
was plain."
Note. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order
(§ 5), and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast " That war was at hand was
plain " with '* It was plain that war was at hand." In the former sentence,
the noun clause is made prominent ; in the latter, the adjective plain.
392. The following sentences, taken from distinguished
authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the
noun clause in its various constructions.
1. That the king would ever again have received Becket into favor is
not to be believed. — Southe y.
2. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex
is a truth which has always been to some extent acted on. — Spencer.
3. How great his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to
him. — Coleridge.
4. It vexed old Hawkins that his counsel was not followed. — Fuller.
162 CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
5. It became necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and
yalet to the expediency of removing the treasure. — Poe.
6. There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species
in many physiological characteristics. — Huxley.
7. The main definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is,
that he was of the pedant species. — Carlyle.
8. The fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous
explosion. — Brougham.
9. The question is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or the regular
instruction of philosophy, have the more force in teaching. — Sidney.
10. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend. — Poe.
11. I think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven
is the great deep. — Cowper.
12. Aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only
raised up a more determined adversary. — Gibbon.
13. Harold alleged that he was appointed by Edward. — Temple.
14. That we shall die, we know. — Shakspere.
15. Her Majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her
Parliament. — Swift.
16. Deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe.
Cooper.
17. I remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep. — Landor.
18. I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the practice.
Reynolds.
19. No man knew what was to be expected from this strange tribunal.
Macaulay.
20. We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards
must have gazed on this horrid spectacle. — Prescott.
21. Observe how graciously Nature instructs her human children.
Coleridge.
22. My friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming
home late. — Addison.
23. A message came that the committee was sitting at Kensington
Palace. —Thackeray.
24. Jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not
pardon her. — Burnet.
25. The present age seemsL pretty well agreed in an opinion that the
utmost scope and end of reading is amusement only. — Fielding.
26. He suddenly alarmed me by a startling question — whether I had
seen the show of prize cattle that morning in Smithtield. — Lamb.
27. I am told that the Lancashire system is perfect. — Kingsley.
CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME 163
CHAPTER XI
THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
393. Subordinate clauses may be classified not only accord-
ing to their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different
way, in accordance with their various meanings. These distinc-
tions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and
forcible expression of thought.
394. The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses
may express is great, but most of these meanings come under
the following heads : — (1) place or time, (2) cause, (3) conces-
sion, (4) purpose, (5) result, (6) condition, (7) comparison,^ (8) in-
direct discourse, (9) indirect question.
The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by
the word which introduces it.
I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME
395. An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time.
I. Adjective Clauses
The house where the robbery occurred is No. 14.
The bridge over which we rode is in ruins.
There is a point beyond which you cannot go.
The day wfien (or on which) I was to sail arrived at last.
The day before you came was rainy.
His terror while it thundered was pitiable.
IL Adverbial Clauses
Remain wJiere I can see you.
That belongs wJiere you found it.
Whithersoever I go, fear dogs my steps.
Whenever the hell rings, you must take down the receiver.
Esmond heard the chimes as h£ sat in his own chamber,
I have lived in Cairo since my father died,
1 Including clauses of manner and degree (§§ 428-429).
164 MEANINGS OF SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES
396. Adjective claases of place and time may be introduced
by relative pronouns (see examples above).
Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be
introduced by relative adverbs. Thus, —
Place : where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wheref rom,
whereto, etc.
Time : when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since.
For as and since in causal clauses, see §396; for while in concessive
clauses, see §S99.
397. Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omis-
sion of the copula and its subject.
When [he was] rescued, he was almost dead.
Tom was attacked by cramp while swimming across the river.
II. CAUSAL CLAUSES
398. An adverbial clause may express cause.
Causal clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions
because, since, as, inasmuch a^, and sometimes that.
I came home because I was tired.
As the day was clear, we decided to climb the mountain.
Since you will not relent, you must take the consequences.
We were glad that the wreck was no worse,
Tom was delighted that his friend was safe.
Since is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes time; as is an adverb
when it denotes time. Both since and as are conjunctions when they express
cause. For as used as a relative pronoun, see § 147.
in. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
399. An adverbial clause may express concession.
A concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate
conjunction, though, although, or even if. It admits (or con-
cedes) some fact or supposition in spite of which the assertion
in the main clause is made.
COKCESSIVE CLAUSES 165
Although I do not like his manners, I respect his character.
We won the game, though we expected to lose.
Even if you fail, you will have gained experience.
Even if you were a king, you would find somebody or something more
powerful than yourself.
Though he should read books forever, he would not grow wise.
Note. While is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for
although.
The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may-
be emphasized by means of yet, still, nevertheless.
Although the task was heavy, yet his courage never failed. [Although
and yet are correlative conjunctions (§ 369).]
Though his reputation was great at home, yet it was greater abroad.
Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.
Though [he was] tired, he was not disheartened.
This punishment, though perhaps necessary, seems rather severe.
400. For the distinction between the indicative and the
subjunctive in concessive clauses, see § 279 ; for that between
should and would, see § 305.
401. A concessive clause may be introduced by the con-
junction as, or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
Whatever you say, ->
Whichever argument you present, L he will carry his point.
However much you object, J
Weak as I am, I will make the effort.
Gay OS the scene was, 'twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.
Note. The adverbial use of ?ix>wever is quite distinct from its use as a
coordinate conjunction (§362).
402. Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive
clause without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 281).
Be it ever so humble, there 's no place like home.
I will help you, cost what it may I
166 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
IV-V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT
403. A subordinate clause may express purpose or result.
I. Clauses of Purpose
These men died that we might live,
I will take care that you are not harmed,
John worked day and night that the planS'might be ready in time.
We threw our ballast overboard, so that the airship might clear tlie
treetops.
All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, in
order that the ship may be launched promptly and vntJiout accident,
II. Clauses of Result
He has recovered his strength, so that he can now work.
The town stood at the foot of the volcano, so that every building was
destroyed.
Quentin started so suddenly that he almost dropped his weapon.
His rancor against the duke was so apparent that one saw it in the first
half-hour'' s conversation.
Their minds were so much embittered that they imputed to each other
nothing less than deliberate villany.
You make such a noise that I cannot hear the mtisic,
404. Clauses of purpose may be introduced by the subordinate
conjunction that or by a phrase containing it (so thaty in order
that, to the end that, etc.).
Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by that . . .
not or by lest. For lest with the subjunctive, see § 284.
Take heed lest thou faU,
I feared lest I might anger thee, — Shakspere.
405. Clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so
that, consisting of the adverb so and the subordinate conjunc-
tion that ; or by that alone, especially when so, such, or some
similar word stands in the main clause.
406. A clause of purpose or of result may be either an
adverbial clause (as in § 403) or a substantive clause.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT 167
I intend that you sJiall be elected. [Object.]
My intention is that you shall be appointed. [Predicate nominative.]
The result is that he is bankrupt. [Predicate nominative.]
His exertions had this effect, that the vote was unanimous. [Appositive.]
407. A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the
object of a verb of cammanding, desiring, or the like.
The general ordered that the fort should be bhum up.
The prisoner begged tJiat his fetters might be struck off.
408. For subordinate clauses with shall or should, implying
purpose or expectation, see § 304.
409. Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with to or
in order to, and result by the infinitive with to or ds to.
He abandoned his profession to [or in order to] become a missionary.
[Purpose.]
He was kind enough to help me. [Result. Compare : He was so kind
tJiat he helped me.]
He was so kind as to help me. [Result.]
Negative result is often expressed by the adverb too and the
infinitive.
Iron is too' heavy to float. [Compare : Iron is so heavy that it does not
float.']
410. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 325).
The teacher intended us to finish the book. [Compare : The teacher
intended that we should finish the book.]
The foreman ordered the engine to be stopped. [Compare : The fore-
man ordered that the engine should be stopped.]
VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
411. A clause that expresses a condition introduced by if, or by some
equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause.
A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional
sentence.
If it rains, we shall remain at home.
I shall attend the convention if I am in toum.
I will take this book, if you please.
168 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
412. A conditional sentence in its simplest form consists of
two parts : —
(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced
by i/", and expressing the condition.
(2) A main clause expressing the conclusion, that is, the
statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the
i/-<5lause is true.
ThuB in the first example in § 411, the condition is if it rains; the con-
clusion is we s?uill remain at home.
Either the condition or the conclusion may come first.
The conditional clause is often called the protasis, and the conclusion is
often called the apodosis.
The conclusion of a conditional sentence may be declarative,
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
If you go to Philadelphia, wTiere shaU you stay f [Interrogative.]
Sit here, if you wish. [Imperative.]
If you win the prize, hx>w glad I shall be ! [Exclamatory.]
413. A conditional clause may be introduced by provided
(or provided that), granted that, supposing (or suppose), on
condition that,
1 will permit you to go, on condition that you come home early.
You may have the money, provided you will put it in the bank.
Supposing (or suppose) it rains, what shall we do ?
Suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle, the clause being
the object.
414. A negative condition is commonly introduced by if , , ,
not or unless.
I will wait for him, t/you do not object.
Unless you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.
415. Double (or alternative) conditions may be introduced by
whether , . . or.
Whether he goes or stays, he must pay a week's board. [Compare : If
he goes or if he stays, etc.]'
He is determined to buy that car, whdher you approve or not. [That
is : ifjoxji approve or ifjOM do not approve.]
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 169
416. A conditional clause may be introduced by whoever,
whenever, or some similar compound (§§ 169, 195).
Whoeoer offends, is punished. [Compare : If anybody offends, he is
punished.]
Whoeoer shall offend, shall be punished.
Whomever you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare : If you shall
ask anybody.]
He will come whenever [= if ever] he is called.
Note. In older English and in poetry, who is common in this construction :
as, — " Who [= whoever] steals my purse, steals trash" (Shakspkre).
417. A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and
its subject.
I will go if [it is] necessary.
If [it is] possible, come to-morrow.
The i/-elause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the
conclusion omitted.
If I only had a rifle !
418. A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion,
a question, an imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345).
We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We
replace it, and the connection is broken. [Compare : If we take the
receiver from the hook, the operator answers, etc.]
Press that button, and the bell will ring.
Do you refuse ? Then you must take the consequences.
We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting.
Note. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in
the first example, we have two independent coordinate clauses, making a
compound sentence (§ 44) .
FORMS OF CONDITIONS
419. Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but
it is easy to classify them according to the time of the supposed
case and the degree of doubt that the speaker expresses.
420. Conditions may be present, past, or future.
170 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Present and Past Conditions
421. Present and past conditions may be either (1) non-
committal or (2) contrary to fact.
1. A condition is non-committal when it implies nothing as
to the truth or falsity of the case supposed.
If James i» angry ^ I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.]
2. A condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the
supposed case is not or was not true.
If James were angry ^ I should be sorry. [James is not angry.]
422. In a non-committal present condition, the i/*-clause ^ takes
the present indicative ; in a non-committal past condition, the
past, the perfect, or the pluperfect.
The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows.
I. Present Condition, Non-committal
' it is valuable,
guard it carefully,
you have made a great discovery,
you will get a large sum for it.
why are you so careless of it ?
^ what a prize it is !
If it is raining, shut the window.
' he is a lucky boy.
ring the bell,
^he has moved since last May.
If this pebble is a diamond,
If Jaxk lines in this house,
II. Past Condition, Non-committal
r it was valuable.
If that pebble was a diamond, < why did you throw it away ?
Lgo back and look for it.
r he has done his duty.
If Tom has apologized, -j you ought to excuse him.
L forgive him.
If John had reached home before we started, he must have made a
quick journey.
1 By " (/'-clause " is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 171
In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit
himself as to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the
pebble was a diamond, perhaps not; Tom may or may not
have apologized ; whether or not John had reached home, we
cannot tell.
423. In a condition contrary to fact, the i/-clause takes the
past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time,
the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time.
The conclusion regularly takes should or would (§ 286, 3).
If John were here, I should recognize him. [Present condition, present
conclusion.]
If John were here, I should have recognized him before this. [Present
condition, past conclusion.]
If I had offended him, I should have regretted it. [Past condition, past
conclusion.]
If I had then offended him, I should regret it now. [Past condition,
present conclusion.]
In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies
that the supposed case (or condition) is (or was) not a fact
It follows, of course, that the conclusion is not a fact : — John
is not here ; therefore I do not recognize him.
424. In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without
if is common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281).
Were he my friend, I should expect his help. [ = If he were my friend.
Present condition, contrary to fact.]
Had he been my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he
had been my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.]
Note. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses : as, —
" He were no lion, were not Romans hinds " (Shakspere).
Future Conditions
425. Future conditions always imply doubt, for no one can tell
what may or may not happen to-morrow.
426. In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting
future time is used in both clauses.
172 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the
probability or improbability of the case supposed, the present
indicative is regularly used in the i/-clause, and the future
indicative in the conclusion.
If it rains to-morrow, I sJiaU not go.
In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with shall may be used in
the t^-clause : as, — " If it shall rain to-morrow, I shaU not go."
2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the if-
clause. This form commonly suggests more doubt than the
present indicative.
If it rain to-morrow, I shall not go.
3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather
vaguely, often with a considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb-
phrase with should or would is used in both clauses.
If it should rain to-morrow, I shouH not go.
For the use of should or would in such clauses, see § 305.
A phrase with were to may replace the sA-ow^phrase in the
i/-clause. This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt.
If it were to rain to-morrow, I should not go.
The past Subjunctive may stand in the t/*-clause instead of
the should-^hx2i&Q,
If it rained to-morrow, I should not go.
Note. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of
future conditions cannot be defined with precision ; for it varies with the cir-
cumstances or the context, and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the
voice. Thus, in '* if it should rain to-morrow," should may be so emphasized
as to make the supposed case seem highly improbable, whereas an emphasis
on to-morrow would have a very different effect. As to the subjunctive, its
use is often due rather to the writer's liking for that mood than to any special
doubt in his mind.
427. For even if in concessive clauses, see § 399 ; for as if
in clauses of comparison, see § 428 ; for if (in the sense of
whether) in indirect questions, see § 442.
CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 173
VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
428. An adverbial clause introduced by as ^ may express com-
parison.i
You speak as if you were angry. ^
He breathes as if lie were exhausted.
She cared for me aa i/ 1 had been her son.
As though is also used, but a^ifi^ now preferred by most writers.
The subjunctive were^ not the indicative was, is used after
as if (§ 282).
429. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce
clauses of comparison or degree.
You are as old as ^ [t«].
I am younger than you \are'\.
He weighs as much cw I Iweigh"] .
I pity you more than [I pity] her.
When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows as
or than is in the same case in which it would stand if the
verb were expressed. Thus, —
You are stronger than /le. [Not : than him.]
I see you of tener than him. [Not : than he.]
He plays a better game than I. [Not : than mc.]
They will miss John more than m^. [That is : more than they miss me.]
VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE
430. A quotation may be direct or indirect.
A direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in its original
form.
I replied : "I am sorry to hear it."
" Henceforth^" he explained, "I shall call on Tuesdays."
" You must see California," she insisted.
1 Claases introduced by as are often called clauses of manner.
2 Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, " The man acts as if he were
crazy " is equivalent to " The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy."
But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing.
174 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
" Elizabeth no longer lives here," he said.
" I know nothing about it," was the witness's reply.
" Where," thought I, " are the crew ? " i
An indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in substance,
but usually with some change in its form.
An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate
clause dependent on some word of saying or thinking, and
introduced by the conjunction that
I replied thxU I was sorry to hear it, [Direct : I am sorry.]
He explained thxit henceforth he should call on Txiesdays.
She insisted that I must see California,
A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is a frag-
ment of a sentence. It is enclosed in quotation marks.
An indirect quotation begins with a small letter. It usually has
no quotation marks.
431. A substantive clause introduced by f/kaf may be used with verbs
and other expressions of teUing, thinking, knowing, and perceiving, to report
the words or thought of a person in substance, but usually with some
change of form.
Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.
For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct
quotation) is said to be in the direct discourse.
432. statements in indirect discourse, being substantive
clauses, may be used in various noun constructions : (1) as
object of some verb of telling, thinking, or the like, (2) as sub-
ject, (3) as predicate nominative, (4) as appositive.
He said that the box was empty, [Object.]
That the box was empty was all he could say. [Subject.]
My remark was that the biU is a menace, [Predicate nominative.]
Your remark, thctt the biU is a menace^ has aroused vigorous protest.
[Apposition.]
^ In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the
verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive) ; and if it forms
a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not
proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE 175
433. The conjunction that is often omitted.
Jack said [thaf] he was sorry.
I hope \thaJt'] you can come.
I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me. — Cowper.
434. In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect
tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past,
and the perfect becomes pluperfect.
1. Direct : I am tired.
Indirect : John-j , , . , phat he was tired.
2. Direct : I hxive won.
Indirect: John-! , , . , |-that he fiad won.
But a general or universal truth always remains in the
present tense.
Direct : Air is a, gas.
Indirect : I told him that air is a gas.
Indirect : I had told him a hundred times that air is a gas.
435. The clause with that in indirect discourse is sometimes
replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 325).
The jury declared him to he innocent. [Compare : The jury declared
that he was innocent.]
Morton admitted them to he counterfeit, [Compare : Morton admitted
tliat they were counterfeit.]
In these sentences, him and th^m are, of course, the subjects of the infini-
tives, not the objects of declared and admitted.
436. When the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive
voice, three constructions occur : —
1. A clause with that is used as the subject of the passive
verb.
That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported.
2. The expletive it is used as the grammatical subject, and
a ^Aa^lause follows the passive verb.
It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office.
176 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
3. The subject of the that-cisLuae becomes the subject of the
passive verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an
infinitive.
Rogers is commonly reported to desire the office.
The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of
emphasis or euphony. The first may easily become heavy or
awkward, and it is therefore less common than either of the
others.
Note. The third of these idioms is often caUed the personal construction,
to distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the im-
personal it (§ 120, 1) . The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a
peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb.
Further examples of the three constructions with passive
verbs of telling, thinking, etc., are the following: —
That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among
the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged. — Macaula y.
It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful.
Shelley.
It must be owned that Charles's life has points of some originality.
Stevenson.
Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch
have declared war against us. — Gray.
He was generally believed to have been a pirate. — Lytton.
Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head.
Johnson.
She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that
the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way. — Hawthorne.
This is said to be the only chateau in France in which the ancient
furniture of its original age is preserved. — Longfellow.
437. A substantive- clause with t?iat is common after it seems,
it is true, it is evident, and similar expressions.
It seems tficU Robert has lost all his money.
It is true thai genius does not always bring happiness loiih it.
It is evident that Andrews teUs the truth.
This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2.
INDIEECT DISCOUESE 177
438. The uses of shall and will, should and would, in in-
direct discourse are the same as in the direct/ with the following
exception : —
When the first person with shaU or should in direct discourse becomes
the second or third person in the indirect, shall or should is retained.
Direct : You say, " I shaU die."
Indirect : You say that you shall die.
Direct : You said, " I shall die."
Indirect : You said that you should die.
Direct : He says, ** I shall die."
Indirect : He says that he shall die.
Direct : He said, ** I shaU die."
Indirect : He said that ^e should die.
The reason for the retention of shall or should is that, in
such cases, the second or third person of the indirect discourse
represents the first person of the direct.
The change from shall (after says) to should (after said) is
a mere change of tense, according to the rule in § 434.
Note. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse the aux-
iliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary (§ 434). This prin-
ciple of course covers the use of you or he shall or should to represent /
shall or should. There is, however, one important exception to the general
principle : when its application would result in the use of / will or / would to
express mere futurity, I shall or / should is employed. Thus, John says to
Charles, " If you fall overboard, you will drown ; but Charles, reporting this,
must say, "John tells me that, if I fall overboard, I shall [not will] drown."
The general rule, then, may be stated as follows : The indirect discourse re-
tains the auxiliary of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless
such retention makes will or would express simple futurity in the first person, —
in that case, shall or should is used.
439. The following sentences illustrate the correct use of
shall and will, should and would, in the indirect discourse : —
1. He writes me that he believes he shall be at Eton till the middle
of November. — Gray. [Direct : I shall be at Eton.]
1 See pp. 102-105, 127-132.
178 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and
decency, must, while he is young, consider that ?ie ahcUl one day be old.
— Johnson. [Direct : I shall one day be old.]
3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that Tie should be
safe. — PRESCOTT. [Direct : I shall be safe.]
4. Plantagenet took it into his head that Ae should like to ledm to play
at bowls. — Disraeli. [Direct : I should like.]
5. He answered that Jie should be very proud of hoisting his flag
under Sir John's command. — Sodthey. [Direct: I shall (or should)
be, etc.]
6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of
reformation, he should raise every bad passion in arms against him.
— Macaulat. [Direct : If I apply myself . . ., I shall raise, etc.]
7. He was pleased to say that he should like to have the author in
his service. — Carlyle. [Direct : I should like.]
8. Mr. Tristram .at last declared that he was overcome with fatigue,
and shouJd be happy to sit down. — Henry James. [Direct : I should
be happy.]
9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, she should never
die easy. — Thackeray. [Direct : Unless you make a great match, I
shall never die easy.]
10. You think now I shall get into a scrape at home. You think /
sJuiU scream and plunge and spoil everything. — George Eliot. [Direct :
She will get into a scrape, etc.]
11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent,
by declaring that you wiU be so yourself. — Cowper. [Determination : I
will be silent.]
12. He [Swift] tells them that Ae vjiU run away and leave them, if
they do not instantly make a provision for him. — Jeffrey. [Threat : I
will run away.]
13. The king declared that he would not reprieve her for one day.
— Mackintosh. [Direct : I will not.]
14. Horace declares that ?ie would not for all the world get into a boat
with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries. — Cowper.
[Direct : I would not.]
15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if he would liberate this one
man to please me, 7w should be no loser. — Speke. [Direct: If you will
liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.]
16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days'
time, we would return. — De Foe. [Direct : If we do not, etc., we will
return.]
17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that I should see, he
opened some cages and released half a dozen cats. — W. J. Locke.
[Direct : You shall see.]
INDIRECT QUESTIONS 179
IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS
440. A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is
called a direct question.
What is your name ?
" What is your name ? " he asked.
The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted
or reported, as in the second example above. Often, however,
a question is quoted or reported, not in the direct form, but in
the form of a subordinate clause : as, —
He asked whcd my name was.
Such a clause is called an indirect question.
441. An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct ques-
tion in the form of a subordinate clause.
Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking,
doubting, thinking, percewing, and the like.
Franklin asked where the difficulty lay. [Direct question : " Where
does the difficulty lie ? "]
The sergeant wondered how he should escape. [Direct question : '' How
shall I escape ? "]
I have not decided which train I shall take. [Direct question : " Which
train shall I take ? "]
442. Both direct and indirect questions may be introduced (1)
by the interrogative pronouns who, which, what ; (2) by the
interrogative adverbs when, where, whence, whither, how, why.
Indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate con-
junctions whether (whether . . . or) and if.
The use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the
indirect discourse (§ 434).
The constable inquired whether (or if)I lived in Casterbridge. [His
question was : Do you live in Casterbridge ?]
Your father wishes to know if you have been playing truant. [Direct
question : Have you been playing truant ?]
I considered whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold. [Direct
question : Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold ?]
180 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
443. Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may
be used in various noun constructions ; (1) as object of some verb
of asking or the like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative,
(4) as appositive, (5) as object of a preposition.
The skipper asked wJuxt had become of the cook. [Object.]
He was asked what his profession was, [Retained object after the
passive (§§ 253, 380).]
How we could escape was a difficult question. [Subject.]
The problem was how they should find food. [Predicate nominative.]
The question who was to blame has never been settled. [Apposition
with question.']
They all felt great perplexity as to what they should do. [Object of a
preposition.]
An indirect question may be an adverbial clause.
They were uncertain what course they should take. [The clause modifies
uncertain.]
Edmund was in doubt where he should spend the night. [The clause
modifies the adjective phrase in doubt.]
444. Since the pronouns who, which, and what may be either
interrogative or relative, an indirect question may closely re-
semble a relative clause. These two constructions, however,
are sharply distinguished. A relative clause always asserts some-
thing. An indirect question, on the contrary, has an inteirogative
sense which may be seen by turning the question into the direct
form.
The sailor who saved the child is a Portuguese. [The clause who saved
the child is a relative clause, for it makes a distinct assertion about the
sailor, — namely, that he saved the child. Who is a relative pronoun
and sailor is its antecedent.]
I asked
I do not know
It is still a question
It is doubtful
" wJio saved the chUd.
[Here the clause wJio saved the child makes no assertion. On the con-
trary, it expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form
with an interrogation point : '' Who saved the child ? " Who is an inter-
rogative pronoun. It has no antecedent.]
INDIRECT QUESTIONS 181
The following examples further illustrate the difference be-
tween these two constructions ; —
1. I foresee the course which he will take. [Relative clause.]
I foresee which course he wiXL take. [Indirect question.]
2. I heard whai he said. [Relative clause. Wh4it= "that which."]
I wondered what he said. [Indirect question. What is an interroga-
tive pronoun.]
3. This is the man who brought the news. [Relative clause.]
The king asked who brought the news. [Indirect question.]
4. Here is a paper which you must sign. [Relative clause.]
The clerk will tell you which paper you must sign. [Indirect question.]
Note. In such a sentence as '* Tom knows who saved the diild" the in-
direct question may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted
antecedent (the marit or the person). If, however, we insert such an antece-
dent ("Tom knows t?ie man who saved the child"), the meaning is com-
pletely changed. In the original sentence, it is stated that Tom knows the
answer to the question, " Who saved the child ? " In the new form of the sen-
tence, it is stated that Tom is acquainted with a certain person, and to this is
added an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause.
445. An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means
of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an iniinitive.
Whom to choose is a serious question. [Direct question : Whom shall
we choose ?]
John asked wh^ to do. [John's question was : What shall I do ?]
I know where to go^ [Direct question : Where shall I go ?]
Tell me when to strike the bell.
I was at a loss how to reply.
I am in doubt how to begin this essay.
In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a
noun (either as subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase how
to reply is adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase at a loss.
446. The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect ques-
tions, and is still occasionally used after if or whether.
I doubt if it be true.
Elton questioned whether the project were wise.
182 MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
447. The rule for shall {should) and will (would) in indirect
questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question,
merely changing the tense (shcUl to should; will to would)
when necessary (§ 442).
I. Mere Futurity
1. Direct: What aAoZZ I do ?
Indirect : I wonder what / shaJl do.
You ask me what you shaU do.
He asks me what he ahaU do.
I wondered what / sJundd do.
You asked me what you should do.
He asked me what he should do.
2. Direct : Shall you lose your position ?
Indirect : I ask
He asksj
yjovL if you should lose your position,
xie asKed j
3. Direct : WiU Charles lose his position ?
Indirect : I ask if Charles wiU lose his position.
I you if you shall lose your position.
I 1
You U
You V asked if Charles would lose his jxraition.
Tom J
II. Volition
4. Direct : WiU you help me ?
Indirect ; You ask if I wiU help you.
He asks if I voiU help him.
You asked if I would help you.
He asked if I would help him.
I asked him ^ r help me.
You asked him lit he ux)uldi help you.
Tom asked him J [help him.
Note. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in changing
from a direct to an indirect question, the third person with will or would be-
comes the first, shall or should is substituted unless yolition is expressed.
Thus, John says to Thomas, " Will Charles die of his wound?" Charles,
reporting John's question, says, ^* John asked Thomas whether / should die of
my wound." Compare § 438, note.
PART THREE
ANALYSIS
CHAPTER I
THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
448. Analysis is a Greek word which means " the act of dis-
solving or breaking up/' In grammar it is applied to the sepa-
ration of a sentence into its constituent parts, or elements. To
dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it.
The elements which make up a sentence are : (1) the simple
subject; (2) the simple predicate; (3) modifiers; (4) the complements,
— direct object, predicate objective, predicate adjective, predi-
cate nominative ; and (5) the so-called independent elements, —
the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address),
the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expres-
sions (§ 501).
449. The absolute essentials for a sentence are a substantive
as subject and a verb as predicate (§ 35). By combining these
two indispensable elements, in various ways, with modifiers
and complements, the sentence may be extended to any length
desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of
the writer and the hearer's ability to follow the thought with-
out losing the thread.
In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are
built up, or constructed. Our starting point in this study will
be the simple sentence.
183
184 STRUCTUEE OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES
450. The following statement is a simple sentence, for it con-
tains but one subject and one predicate (§ 46) : —
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.
The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists
of the subject noun hear (the simple subject) and the predicate
verb lives (the simple predicate). To make the complete subject,
hear takes as modifiers the two adjectives the and polar ; to
make the complete predicate, lives takes as modifier the adverbial
phrase in the Arctic regions.
By attaching another simple subject to hear we make a
compound subject. Similarly, we make a compound predicate by
adding another verb (§ 38).
The polar hear and the walrus | live and thrive in the Arctic regions.
The compound subject is hear and walrus ; the compound
predicate is live and thrive. Both verbs are modified by the
adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. The sentence itself is
still a simple sentence.
In each of the following simple sentences either the subject
or the predicate or both are compound : —
Games and carols closed the busy day. — Rogers.
The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing
moon. — George Meredith.
Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows,
and saw nothing. — Dickens.
Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face. — Dotle.
Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock.
Irving.
He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth.
Lttton.
Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and
vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass.
DiCKBNS.
There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the
harrows. — Longfellow.
COMPOUND SENTENCES 185
Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted
upon its immediately being carried into effect. — Poe.
Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite
Xiondon, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons
and our martial laurels. — De Quince y.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
451. If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 460,
the result is a compound sentence.
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes.
This is manifestly a compound sentence, for it consists of two
coordinate clauses, joined by the conjunction hut (§ 46).
The framework of the second clause consists of the subject
it and the simple predicate reaches. To make the complete
predicate, the verb reaches takes not only a modifier (the
adverb sometimes), but a complement, — the direct object lati-'
tudes, which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is
itself modified by the adjective temperate. Both clauses are
simple, for each contains but one subject and one predicate.
452. Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may
be joined (with or without conjunctions) to make one compound
sentence.
The quiet August noon has come ;
A slumberous silence fills the sky ;
The fields are still, the woods are dumb.
In glassy sleep the waters lie. — Bryant.
States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die. — Btbon.
The court was sitting ; the case was heard ; the judge had finished ;
and only the verdict was yet in arrear. — De Quincey.
He softly blushed ; he sighed ; he hoped ; he feared ; he doubted ; he
sometimes yielded to the delightful idea. — Thackebay.
A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the
door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville. — Cowper.
His health had suffered from confinement ; his high spirit had been
cruelly wounded ; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.
Macaulay.
186 STEUCTUEE OF SENTENCES
COMPLEX SENTENCES
453. The simple sentence in § 450 may be made complex by
means of a subordinate clauae used as a modifier (§ 47).
The polar bear, which Uvea in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts
southward.
In the first example, the simple subject (bear), besides its two
adjective modifiers (the Q,nd polar), takes a third, the adjective
clause which lives in the Arctic regions (§ 47). The sentence,
then, is complex : the main clause is the polar bear sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which
lives in the Arctic regions.
The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is
the same as in the first (the polar bear som^etimes reaches tem^
perate latitudes). The subordinate clause is when the ice drifts
southward, an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb reaches.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES
454. Two or more coordinate clauses may be joined to make
one compound clause.
The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical con-
stitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate, sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes wh£n the floes
break up and when the ice drifts southward.
In the first example, the italicized words form a compound
adjective clause, modifying the noun bear. It consists of two
coordinate adjective clauses joined by and. These clauses are
coordinate because they are of the same order or rank in the
sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective
modifier of the noun.
In the second example, the predicate verb reaches is modi-
fied by a compound adverbial clause, similarly made up.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES 187
455. A clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause.
The polar bear, which Uvea in the Arctic regions when it is at home,
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Here the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions
when it is at home is complex, for it contains the adverbial
clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
456, Two or more independent complex clauses may be
joined to make a compound complex sentence.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; {| and || the polar bear
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
This is a compound complex sentence, for it consists of two
complex clauses joined by the coordinate conjunction and.
Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, for
each might stand by itself as a complex sentence.
The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, of
which there are several varieties, modifying bear ; the second
contains an adverbial clause, when the ice drifts southward^
modifying reoAihes.
457. A sentence consisting of two or more independent
clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any
one of these is complex.
The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern
Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate lati-
tudes when the ice drifts southward.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in
the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere ; || and || the polar
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the
first clause is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the
other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple.
188 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
. CHAPTER II
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES
458. In analyzing a simple sentence, we first divide it into
the complete subject and the complete predicate. Then we point
out the simple subject with its modifiers, and the simple predicate
with its modifiers and complement (if there is one). If either the
subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple
subjects or predicates that are joined.
1. The i)olar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is the polar bear ; the
complete predicate is lives in the Arctic regiona. The simple subject is
the noun bear; the simple predicate is the verb lives. Bear is modified
by the adjectives ths and polar ; lives is modified by the adverbial phrase
in the Arctic regions. This phrase consists of the preposition in; its
object, the noun regions; and the adjectives the and Arctic, modifying
regions.
2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions.
The complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus. Two simple
subjects {bear and walrus) are joined by the conjunction and to make a
compound subject, and two simple predicates (live and thrive) are joined
by and to make a compound predicate. Live and thrive are both modified
by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
459. In analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into
its coordinate clauses, and then analyze each clause by 'itself.
Thus,—
The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.
This is a compound sentence consisting of two coordinate clauses joined
by the conjunction but : (1) the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions and
(2) it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The complete subject of the
COMPLEX SENTENCES 189
first clause is the polar hear [and so on, as in § 458, above] . The subject of the
second clause is it ; the complete predicate is smnetimes reaches temperate
latitudes. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverb
s&metiTfies and is completed by the direct object latitudes. The comple-
ment latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
460. In analyzing a complex sentence, we first divide it into
the main clause and the subordinate clause.
1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is tJie polar bear some-
times reajches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in
the Arctic regions. The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear,
which lives in the Arctic regions; the complete predicate is sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes. The simple subject is bear, which is modified
by the adjectives the and potor and by the adjective clause which lives in the
Arctic regions. The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the
adverb som£times and completed by the direct object latitudes. This com-
plement, latitudes, is modified by the adjective temperate. The subordinate
clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which. [Then analyze the
subordinate clause.]
2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts
southward.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear reaches
temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward.
The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear; the complete
predicate is reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. The
simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar.
The simple predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverbial clause
when the ice drifts southward, and completed by the noun latitudes (the
direct object of reaches). The complement latitudes is modified by the
adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative
adverb when. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at
home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear some-
times reaches temperate latitudes ; the subordinate clause is which lives in
the Arctic regions when it is at home, which is complex, since it contains
the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the verb lives.
190 A]>J^ALYSIS OF SENTENCES
4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is Ae says ; the subordinate
clause is that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The subject of the sen-
tence is he^ the complete predicate is says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic
regions. The simple predicate is says^ which is completed by its direct object,
the noun clause that . . , regions, introduced by the conjunction that. [Then
analyze the subordinate clause.]
5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches • temperate latitudes is a
familiar fact.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause {is a familiar fact) appears as
a predicate only, since the subordinate clause {thai the polar bear sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes) is a noun clause used as the complete subject of
the sentence. The simple predicate is is, which is completed by the predicate
nominative/ac^ This complement is modified by the adjectives a Andfamiliar.
The subordinate clause, which is used as the complete subject, is introduced
by the conjunction that. [Then analyze this clause.]
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
461. In analyzing a compound complex sentence, we first
divide it into the independent clauses (simple or complex) of
which it consists, and then analyze each of these as if it
were a sentence by itself.
See the examples in § § 456, 457.
MODIFIERS 191
CHAPTER III
MODIFIERS
462. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have
all been studied in preceding chapters, — each in connection
with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of
analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such
and complements as such.
The topics will be taken up in the following order : — (1) mod-
ifiers, — of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements;
(3) modifiers of complements ; (4) modifiers of modifiers.
463. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning
of another word is called a modifier (§ 19).
can always find employment.
Men
Able men
Men of abUUy ,
Walls ^
Battlemented walls I usually enclosed mediaeval cities.
Walls loUh battlements J
Cottages *^
English cottages I are often thatched.
Cottages in England)
The boy listened /^f^-
[^loith eagerness,
[purposely.
[^on purpose.
The bullet passed-f^^^i?': ,
j^tjoit/umt doing harm.
464. Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives
and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs.
All modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers ; all
modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial
modifiers.
: coughed J ^
192 MODIFIERS
NoTB. The terms adJectlTe modiller and adJectlTe are not synonymons. All
adjectives are adjective modifiers, bat all adjective modifiers are not adjec-
tives. Thus, in ** Henry's skates are rusty/' the possessive noun Henry^s is
an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do.
465. A group of words used as a modifier may be either a
phrase or a clause (§§ 40-46).
Able men ^
Men of abilily > can always find employment.
Men who have ability .
C thoughtlessly,
I spoke 'I vyithovt thinking.
\,b^ore I thought,
A phrase or a clause used as an adjeetive modifier is called an adjec-
tiye phrase or clause.
A phrase or a clause used as an adyerbial modifier is called an adverbial
phrase or clause.
Adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate, because
they are used as parts of speech (§ 46).
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT
466. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective
modifier, but modifiers of the subject are particularly important.
The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, an
adjective phrase, or an adjective clause; (2) a participle; (3) an
infinitive ; (4) a possessive ; (5) an appositive.
I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
467. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an
adjective phrase, or an adjective clause.
Ivory trinkets *]
Trinkets of ivory [ lay scattered about.
Trinkets which were carved from ivory)
Treeless spots ^
Spots withovd. trees i-were plainly visible.
Spots where no trees grew J
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 193
In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first
sentence is modified by an adjectiye, that of the second by an
adjective phrase, that of the third by an adjectiye clause.
Most adjective phrases are prepositional (§ 42), as in the
examples.
468. An adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pro~
noun or a relative adverb. For lists, see § 377.
I. Relative Pronouns
The architect wTio designed this church was a man of genius.
The painter whom Buskin oftenest mentions is Turner.
A piece of amber which in rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper.
The day tfiat I dreaded came at last.
The plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile.
The book from which I got this information is always regarded as
authoritative.
A friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price.
The boys with whom he associates do him no good.
II. Relative Adverbs
The spot where the Old Guard m>ade their last stand is marked by a
bronze eagle.
The morning when I arrived in Borne is one of my pleasantest memories.
The year after Ashton left home brought fresh disaster.
The land whence Scyld drifted in his m^ic boat will never be known.
Note. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative
adverb. Thus, in the second example, on which might be substituted for when.
n. PARTICIPLES
469. The subject may be modified by a participle (with or
without modifier op complement).
1. Smiling, the child shook his head.
2. My aunt, reassured, took up her book again.
3. The prisoner sank back exhausted,
4. Sxasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.
6. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels.
194 MODIFIEKS
6. Hasoing 6rofceii one oar, Robccrt had to acolL
7. The natives, fearing captivity above all things, leaped into the river.
8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen.
In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adver-
bial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the
seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the ei^th,
it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. In analysis,
the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and
accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase
modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the par-
ticiple as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers,
etc., separately.
Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject natioea is modified by
the participle fearing, which has for a complement captimty (the direct
object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase above cM thinga.
NoTB. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time
a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adver-
bial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, /eaH7i^ is practically equivalent to
the clause becatise they feared^ which, if substituted for the participle, would
of course modify the predicate verb leaped. This dual office of the participle
comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing,
we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it be-
longs ; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important
means of securing variety in style.
m. INFINITIVES
470. The subject may be modified by an infinitive.
Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln^s strongest passion.
Desire to travel made Taylor restless.
The wish to succeed prompted him to do his best.
Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment.
Howard's unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life.
In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modi-
fier (rapidly) ; and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object
(friend). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allow-
able, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 195
IV. F0SSES8IVB8
471. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the
possMsiye case.
Such a substantive may be called a posiMsiva modifier.
Napoleon's tomb is in Paris.
A man's house is his castle.
One's taste in reading changes as one grows older.
A momeni^s thought would have saved me.
The squirrel's teeth grow rapidly.
The Indians^ camp was near the river.
His name is Alfred.
Your carriage has arrived.
In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive
case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as
an adjective would do.
Note. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive.
Thus, in the first example, instead of ^^ Napoleon's tomb ** one may say " the
tomb of Napoleon " (§ 93) .
V. APPOsrrivEs
472, The subject may be modified by a substantiye in appo-
sition (§ 88, 6).
Meredith the carpenter lives in that house.
Herbert, our captain^ has broken his leg.
The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image^ was thrown down by the
Spaniards.
Many books, both pamphlets and bound volume, littered the table.
[Here the subject ipocks) is modified by two appositives.]
Appositives often have modifiers of their own.
Thus carpenter is modified by the adjective iAe, captain by the pos-
sessive our^ image by the adjectives a and grotesqy£.
In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and
attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well,
however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the
adjectives, etc., by which the appositive Itself Is modified.
196 MODIFIERS
473. A noun danae may be used as an appositive, and so
may be an adjective modifier (§ 386).
The question whether Antonio vxia a citizen wa4S settled in the affirma-
tive. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with
<piestion.'\
The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid
zone. [The clause tJuit voater freezes is in apposition with statement.']
An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositiye adjective
(§ 172). " A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier's scabbard."
MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE
474. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can
have only adverbial modifiera.
The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an abverb, an
adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an
adverbial objective, (4) a nominative absolute, (5) an indirect object,
(6) a cognate object.
I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
475. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverb,
an adverbial jphrase, or an adverbial clause.
r monMy,
The landlord collects his rents -j on the first of emery month.
l^wfien the first of the month comes,
' there.
The old schoolhouse stands- ai the cross-roads.
L where the roads meet,
r early.
We left the hall -J b^ore the last speech.
\,whUe the last speech was being delivered.
In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first
sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an
adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause.
Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42).
MODIFIERS OF THE PEEDICATE
'19T
Abyerb
Adverbial Phrase
Adverb
speedily
with speed
rapidly
furiously
with fury
skUfully
lately
instantly
there
of late
in an instant
in that place
promptly
to-morrow
unwillingly
Adverbial !Fhrasb
at a rapid rate
r in a skilful manner
L with skill
on the instant
on the morrow
against my will
Peculiar adverbial phrases are : —
to and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and last,
full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first, upside down,
inside out, sink or swim, cash down.
476. An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be intro-
duced by (1) a relative adverb, or (2) a subordinate conjunction.
I. Relative Adverbs
Our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest.
When I give the signal, press the button.
Whenjecer I coZi, you refuse to see me.
Miller arrived after the play had begun.
Everybody listened while the vagrarU told his story.
My uncle laughed until the tears came.
The prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape.
n. Subordinate Conjunctions
Archer resigned because his health failed,
I will give the address if you will let me choose my subject.
Brandon insisted on walking, although the roads were dangerous.
The child ran with all her might lest she should be too late.
I gave you a front seat in order that you might hear.
The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the
north wind,
n. urFlMlTIVB
477. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive
(§ 323).
He lay down to rest.
I stopped to listen.
The fire continued to bum.
198' MODIFIERS
The wind began to subside.
Jack worked hard to fell the tree.
Will did his best to win the prize.
Kate began to weep bitterly.
That draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful.
The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in
the last four examples.
m. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE
478. The simple predicate may be modified by an «dT«rbija
objective (§ 109).
I have waited ages.
We have walked miles.
Arthur practised weeks.
The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes
an adverbial phrase.
Walter ran t?ie entire distance.
He stayed a whole day.
I will forgive you this time.
He came at me fuU tiU.
The wind blew all night.
Come with me a little way.
In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase the entire distance
modifies the verb ran as an adverb would do. This phrase
consists of the noun distance with its adjective modifiers, t?ie
and entire.
IV. KOMINATIVE ABSOLIJTE
479. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative
absolute (§ 345).
A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its
modifiers an adverbial phrase.
The ship having arrived, we all embarked.
We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting.
That done, repair to Pompey's theatre.
The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated
to attempt the passage.
MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE 199
In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, the ship
having arrived, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional
phrase, on the arrival of the ship, and defines the time of the
action expressed by the verb embarked,
V. nTDIRECT OBJECT
480. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect
object (§ 105).
He gave mA a watoh. [=£ He gave a watch to me.]
Tom told wc the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.]
In these sentences, the indirect object me, being equivalent
to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.
The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.
VI. COGNATE OBJECT
481. The simple predicate may be modified by a connate object
or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).
The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily].
The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily].
The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully].
In the first sentence, the cognate object {daggers) modifies
the predicate verb (looked) as the adverb angrily would do.
It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third
sentences the modifier of the predicate verb {sang, laughed) is
an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh)
with its adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful).
200 COMPLEMENTS
CHAPTER IV
COMPLEMENTS
482. 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself.
Such a verb needs only a subject. When this has been sup-
plied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb, without any
additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate.
Birds fly. The man scowled.
Fishes swim. The girl laughed.
The sun sfdnes. The owls hooted.
The moon rose. The clock ticked.
Verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs, or verbs
of complete predication.
2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as
predicates. Thus, —
The Indians killed . Tom is .
Mr. Harris makes . The man seemed .
These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfin-
ished. The verb requires the addition of a substantive or an
adjective to complete its sense.
The Indians killed deer, Tom is captain,
Mr. Harris makes shoes. The man seemed sorry.
Verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs, or verbs of
incomplete predication.
NoTB. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it
belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of
its senses and to the second in others (§§ 212-215).
483. A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to com-
plete its meaning is called a complement.
Complements are of four kinds, — the direct object, the predicate
objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective.
THE DIRECT OBJECT 201
In the examples in § 482, deer and shoes are direct objects,
— -the former denoting the receiver of the action, the latter
denoting the product; captain is a predicate nominative, denot*
ing the same person as the subject Tom (§ 88, 2) ; s<yrry is a
predicate adjective describing the subject man.
Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are sub-
stantives, they may take adjective modifiers ; if adjectives, they
may take adverbial modifiers (§§ 464, 494).
484. For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of
complements are here repeated, with examples.
1. THE DIRECT OBJECT
485. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that
which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called tran-
sitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.
A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called
its direct object (§ 100).
The direct object is often called the object oomplement, or merely the object
of the verb.
Alfred has broken his arm.
Morse invented the electric idegraph.
Black foxes command a high price.
You have accomplished a task of great difficulty.
Have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you ?
He asked me the news. [Two direct objects (§ 103).]
Most of these objects are modified, — arm by the possessive
his ; telegraph by the and electric ; price by a and high ; task
by the adjective phrase of great difficulty ; dog by the and by
the adjective clause which your uncle gave you.
486. A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a
verb (§ 386).
You promised that my coal should he ready to-day.
The mayor ordered thai the AreA should be dosed for three hours.
I heggod that mj/ passport might be returned to me.
For further examples, see §§ 407, 432, 439, 441,
202 COMPLEMENTS
2. THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE
487. Verbs of choosing, catting, naming, making, and thinking may take
two objects referring to the same person or thing.
The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes
the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objectiye (§ 104).
The predicate objectiye is often called the complementary object or the
objectiye attribute.
The people have elected Chamberlain governor.
Peter calls Richard my shadow.
The court has appointed you the child's guardian.
John thinks himself a hero.
488. An adjectiye may serve as a predicate objective. Thus, —
I thought your decision hasty.
1 call that answer impertinent.
The jury found the prisoner guiUy.
Your letter made him joyful.
Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives
in 'ly serving as predicate objectives.
You called him sickly. [Adjective.]
You called him early. [Adverb.]
After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a predicate
nominative (§ 489).
3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
489. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defin-
ing the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate
nominative (§ 88, 2).
A predicate nominative is often called a subject eomplenieat or an attrilmte.
The predicate nominative is common after is and other copula-
tive verbs, and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice.
Chemistry is a useful science.
Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
Jefferson became President*
THE PEEDICATE NOMINATIVE 203
This bird is called & flamingo.
Mr. HaJe was appointed secretary,
Albert has been chosen captain of the crew.
You are a friend upon whom I can rely.
In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one
or more modifiers. In the first sentence, science is modified by
the two adjectives a and useful ; in the second, capital is modi-
fied by the adjective phrase of Massachusetts ; in the last,
friend is modified by the adjective clatise upon whom lean rely.
For the distinction between the predicate nominative and the
direct object, see § 102.
490. A noun clause may be used as a predicate nominative
(§ 386).
My plan is that the weU should he dug to-morrow.
His intention was that you should remain here.
The result is tfiat he is bankrupt.
Ruth's fear was th^ the door might be locked.
491. An infinitive may be used as a predicate nominative.
To hear is to obey.
My hoi)e was to reach the summit before dark.
Their plan was to undermine the tower.
My habit is to rise early.
The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the
second and third examples, it takes an object; in the fourth
it is modified by an adverb.
4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
492. An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in
the subject is called a predicate adjective.
A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb
and is therefore a complement (§ 172, 3.)
Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is
common after copulative verbs and after certain transitive
verbs in the passive voice (§§ 172, 3; 252).
204 COMPLEMENTS
John was angry.
My knife is growing dxiU,
The task seemed yery easy.
The report proved /(Use in every particular.
The boat was thought unaafe.
The cover was made perfectly tight.
In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a
modifier. In the third, easy is modified by the adverb very ;
in the fourth, faZse is modified by the adverbial phrase in every
partmdar ; in the last, tight is modified hj perfectly.
483. An adjective phrase may be used as a predicate adjeo-
tive. Thus, —
Richard was out of fieaJih, [Compare : Richard was iU.]
Rachel seemed in a pa^saion. [Compare : seemed angry,]
This act is against my interests, [Compare : is harmful to me.]
The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or
without the preposition aI>out (§319).
I was about to speak.
This house is to let,
I am to sail to-morrow.
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS 205
CHAPTER V
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS
COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED
494. Complements, being either substantives or adjectives,
may be modified in various ways, most of which have been noted
in Chapter HI.
1. A substantive used as a complement may have the same
kinds of modifiers that are used with the subject (§ 466).
2. An adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers.
495. The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of
substantive complements : —
Herbert lost a gold watch. [The direct object (watch) is modified by
the adjectives a and gold.']
The duke built towers of marble. [The direct object ijMwers) is modified
by the adjective phrase of marble.]
My father built the house in which I was bom. [The direct object
(house) is modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which
I was bom.]
I saw a man running across the field. [The direct object (man) is
modified by the adjective a and the participle running.]
You have forfeited your right to vote. [The direct object (right) is
modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote.]
I have seen Henry^s brother. [The direct object (brother) is modified
by the possessive noun Henry^s.]
I must ask my brother, the mayor. [The direct object (brother) is
modified by the possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor.]
The guild has elected Walter honorary president. [The predicate ob-
jective (president) is modified by the adjective honorary.]
Her husband is an old soldier. [The predicate nominative (soldier) is
modified by the adjectives an and old.]
Her sons are veterans of the Franco-Prussian war. [The predicate
nominative (veterans) is modified by the adjective phrase of the Franco-
Prussian war.]
They are rivals in business. [The predicate nominative (rivals) is
modified by the adjective phrase in business.]
206 MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS
The author is Will Jewell, w?io was formerly editor of " The Pioneer,''*
[The predicate nominative (Will Jewell) is modified by the adjective
clause wlio was formerly editor, etc.]
Baldwin is t?ie man standing under the tree. [The predicate nomina-
tive (man) is modified by the adjective the and the participle standing,]
Your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate. [The predicate
nominative {inclination) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and
the infinitive to procrastinate.]
This man is GrdcheTCs brother. [The predicate nominative (brother)
is modified by the possessive noun Gretchen's.]
The first to fall was the bugler, John Wilson. [The predicate nom-
inative ipugler) is modified by the adjective the and the appositive
John WiJbon.]
496. Adjectiye clauses are very common as modifiers of sub-
stantive complements (cf. § 468).
Have you lost the watch thai your cousin gave you f
This is the very spot where the temple of Saturn stood.
The general issued an order that all non-combatants sJiould be treated
well.
We have abundant proof that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon
did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits,
497. An adjectiTe used as a complement may be modified
by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.
I am very sorry /or you. [Sorry is modified by the adverb very and the
adverbial phrase /or you.]
rrather "i
Charles seems •< very > angry.
I extremely }
The road is rough/ *"*^,f ^ ,,
^ \ where they are repaxriisg it.
The whole tribe appeared eager /or war.
He grew envious qf his successful rival
Be zealous in every righteous cause.
The chief ^6 face looked dads vdth passion.
He wM selfish beyond belief. [The predicate adjective («e{^ft) is modi-
fied by the adverbial phrase beyond bdi^.]
Ellen seemed desirous that her friends shauXd admire her.
The secretary appeared unwilling to resign. [See f 821, note.]
MODIFIERS OF MODIFIERS 20T
MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS
498. Modifiers may themselves be modified.
The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in
the following sentences.
I. Adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs
or by words or groups of words used adverbially.
A very old man came to the door.
An exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge.
This raiher odd proposal interested us.
The quay is miles long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).]
At least five different amendments have been offered. [Five is modi-
fied by the adverbial phrase at least. "l
The general, wholly in the dark as to the enemy's intentions, ordered
an advance. [The adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly,}
Quite at his ease, John began to speak. [At his ease is modified by
quite.}
Her smile, pathetic in its weariness, quickly faded. [The adverbial
phrase modifies patfietic.]
This sleeve is a good two inches short. [The phrase modifies short.]
II. Possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by
possessives.
The poor man's days are numbered.
Honest Tom's face shone with delight.
The faithful animal's head drooped.
My uncle's barn is on fire.
John's brother's name is Reginald.
III. Appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups
of words used as adjectives.
Joe, the old butler, met me at the station.
Sam, the cunning rascal, had stolen the oars.
Her mother, a woman of fashion, sadly neglected her.
The other, the man at the table, laughed rudely.
Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer who had charge of the construction,
proved incompetent.
Two Englishmen, friends whom I visited last summer, are coming to
New York in December.
208 MODIFIERS OF MODIFIERS
IV. Adyerbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs
or by words or groups of words used adverbially.
Jane plays tery well.
Robert spoke almost hopef ally.
She answered quite at random.
I write to him ai least once a year,
499. An adjective may be modified by an infinitive (§ 321).
Unable to move, I suffered torments of anxiety.
The sailors, eager to reach the island, plunged into the sea.
Reluctant to ai:t, but unwilling to stand idle, Burwell was in a pitiful
state of indecision.
500. Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as
modifiers of modifiers (cf. § 496).
Geronimo, an old chief who bore the scars qf many battles, led the attack.
[The adjective clause modifies the appositive chief.']
The servant, angry because he had been r^mked, slammed the door as
he went out.
The hunter, confident that the deer had not heard him, took deliberate
aim.
The fugitive, in a panic lest he should be overtaken, made frantic efforts
to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrajse
in a panic.}
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 209
CHAPTER VI
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
501. A word or group of words that has no grammatical comiection
with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element.
Independent elements are of four kinds, — interjections, vocatiyes (or
nominatiyes by direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and paren-
thetical expressions.
Ah I why did I undertake this task ?
Help arrived, alas I too late.
You are a strange man, Arthur,
Mary^ come here 1
"Boot Charles I I am sorry for him.
Clothes I clothes ! you are always wanting clothes.
Lucky she I we are all envious of her prospects.
The first two sentences contain interjections (§ 372); the
second two, vocatives (or nominatives by direct address)
(§88, 3) ; the last three, exclamatory nominatives (§ 88, 4).
When the independent word has a modifier (as in the fifth
and seventh examples), the whole phrase may be treated as
an independent element.
502. A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence
as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the
predicate, is said to be parenthetical.
The market, indeed, was already closed.
Peter, to be sure, was not very trustworthy.
The house, at all events, is safe.
The road is, I admit, very hilly.
Luttrell's method, it must he confessed, was a little disappointing.
Richard was not a bad fellow, after all.
503. In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by
itself, and not as a part of the complete subject or the com-
plete predicate.
210 COMBINATIOKS OF CLAUSES
CHAPTER VII
COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
504. The use of subordinate clauses as complements and
modifiers, and as modifiers of complements and of modifiers, may
produce sentences of great length and complicated structure.
Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow.
Their analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a
few simple principles, which have already been explained and
illustrated.
505. These principles may be summed up as follows : —
I. All clauses are either independent or subordinate. A clause
is subordinate if it is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective,
or adverb) ; otherwise, it is independent (§ 46).
II. Coordinate means ^^of the same rank'' in the sentence
(§ 46).
1. Two or more independent clanses in the same sentence are
manifestly coordinate.
The fire blazed and the wood crackled. [Two declarative clauses.]
WTiat is your name^ and where were you bom f [Interrogative clauses.]
8U down and tell me your story, [Imperative clauses.]
2. Two or more subordinate clauses are coordinate with each
other when they are used together in the same construction, —
as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Such a group may be regarded as forming one compound
subordinate clause.
The truth is, that I have no money and that my friends have forsaken,
me, [Noun clauses.]
The Indians, who were armed with long lances^ and who showed great
skill in using tAem, made a furious attack on the cavalry. [Adjective
clauses.]
When he had spoken^ but b^ore a vote had been taken., a strange tumult
was heard in the outer room [Adverbial clauses.]
COMBIKATIONS OF CLAUSES 211
In the first example, we have a compound noun clause ; in the
second, a compound adjectiye clause ; in the third, a compound
adyerbial clause.
3. Coordinate clauses are either joined by coordinate con-
junctions (andy or, but, etc.), or such conjunctions may be
supplied without changing the sense (§ 362).
The good-natured old gentleman, who was friendly to both parties, [and]
w?io did not lack courage, and who haied a quarrel, spoke his mind with
complete frankness.
III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordi-
nate clause.
The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, [The subordinate clause
depends upon the independent (main) clause.]
The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing vio-
lently. [The second subordinate clause depends upon the first, being an
adjective modifier of locomotive.']
In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may
be taken together as forming one complex subordinate clause.
Thus, in the second example, when he saw the locom>otive, which was
puffing violently may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modify-
ing shied, and containing an adjective clause (which wa^ puffing violently),
506. From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears
that —
Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex.
1. A simple clause contains but one subject and one predicate,
either or both of which may be compound (§ 451).
2. A compound clause consists of two or more coordinate clauses
(§ 454).
3. A complex clause consists of at least two clauses, one of
which is subordinate to the other.
507. The unit in all combinations of clauses is clearly the
simple sentence, which, when used as a part of a more com-
plicated sentence, becomes a simple clause.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus, —
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Macaulay.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples {making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty.
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott. •
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun (they, she) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded, browsedf
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
codrdinate simple clauses.
214 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last ex«
ample below), but its structure is usually transparent.
A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christinas
gambols long ago. — Hazlitt.
The moments were numbered ; | the strife was finished ; | the vision
was closed. — De Qcincby.
The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strong-
est towers of the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept him from
repose. — Irving.
The clock has just struck two ; | the expiring taper rises and sinks in
the socket ; | the watchman forgets his hour in slumber ; | the laborious and
the happy are at rest ; | and | nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, revelry,
and despair. — Goldsmith.
The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent objects ;
I it is not a contest for acquisition of territory ; | it is not a contest for
power and glory ; | as little is it carried on merely for any commercial
advantage, or any particular form of government ; | but | it is a contest
for the security, the tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain,
connected with that of every established government and every country
in Europe. — Pitt.
512. A complex sentence, in its most elementary form, con-
sists of one simple independent (main) clause and one simple
subordinate clause.
The gas exploded when I struck a match.
Though he is idle, he is not lazy.
The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries.
Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness,
that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on
the blue sky. — Keats.
The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing
of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who
stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent
suspense. — Gibbon.
513. Both compound sentences and complex sentences ad-
mit of much variety in structure, according to the nature and
the relations of the clauses that compose them.
CO]tfPOrXD C03IPLEX SEXTENCES 215
COMPOUND COMPLEX SESTEXCES
514. Any or an of tfce t
sentence may be complez. lBtfcatcMe»tfcei
complex sentence.
Note. Compound conpfex acBtances fooK a qwcial dasB or sabdiTisioii
under the general head of eompomMl acnteaccs.^
Old Uncle Yenner was jnst coming out of h^ door, with a wood-hoise
and saw on his shoulder ; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled not
to keep company with Phc^be, so far as their paths lay together ; nor, in
spite of his patched coat and msty beayer, and the corioos fashion of his
tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to outwalk him.
Hawthorne.
This sentence consists of thzee cooviiaate ttanues, each independent of the
others. These are joined by the coordinate conjmictions and, nor. The first
and the third clause are stinpie, bat the second clause is oomplex. Hence the
whole forms one compoiuid aunplex aeateaoe.
The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is subor-
dinate to the first. Taken as a whole, howcTer, this complex clause is mani-
festly coordinate with the two simple clauses, since the three form a series
joined by coordinate conjunctions.
515. Further examples of compound complex sentences are : —
1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his
child ; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle
in Delphi. — Kingslet.
2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown ; novels ai*e their
literature. — Emerson.
3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have
more of their music. — Cowper.
4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces
that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away, — Frovdk.
6. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar ; and
if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country,
I should be tempted to say a little in their justification. — Swift.
6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams tliat
they should rest awhile in this delightful place. — Fielding,
7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was
difficult to say what she did. — C. BrontS.
1 Instead of compound complex, the term complex compound is often iiHod.
The terms are synonymous, both meaning '* compound in general structure,
but complex in one or more members."
216 COMBIKATIONS OF CLAUSES
8. Malaga possefised a brave and numerous garrison, and the com-
mon people were active, hardy, and resolute; but the city v^as rich
and commercial, and under the habitual control of opulent merchajits,
who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege. — Ikving.
9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise ; and, before the
barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly
fire from their heavy guns, supported by the musketry and crossbows,
that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly, but fearfully
mangled, to their former position. — Prescott.
10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy, ashen
white ; and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached, most
probably, by bitter and continual tears. — Hood.
11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell
like a thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched him
in his talons, folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost, they
tumbled down like a black ball, till within a short distance from the
earth. — Trelawny.
In this sentence t?iey were is understood after tUl.
VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
516. A complex sentence may be expanded either by com-
pounding the main clause, or by increasing the number of sub-
ordinate clauses. Both methods may be used in the same
sentence.
517. The independent (main) clause of a complez sentence may be
compound.
When they saw the ship, tfiey shouted for joy and some of them burst
into tears.
As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, th£ sun
dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and
grayness of the early night, — Stevenson.
The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed tmih
sudden anger, as he listened to proposals so humiliating. — Prescott.
Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won him
so many friends, or pitying observers, that it is not easy to write of him
without prejudice or favor. — A. Lang.
As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, his
life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and
lazy dependents, — Thackeray.
VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 217
Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound
main clause, not upon either of its members.
Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (wlien they saw the
ship) depends upon the compound main clause, tJiey shouted for joy and
some of them burst into tears. It is an adverbial modifier of both sJiouted
and burst,
518. Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple
or compound) main clause, there is, in theory, no limit to the
number of subordinate clauses.
519. Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause
(1) as separate modifiers or complements ; (2) in a coordinate series
of clauses, all in the same construction, and forming one com-
pound clause ; (3) in a series of successiyely subordinate clauses,
forming one complex clause.
520. Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main
clause separately, each as a distinct modifier or complement.
The bridge, which had been weakened by the ice, fell with a crash while
the locomotive was crossing it, [The first subordinate clause is an adjective
modifier of bridge; the second is an adverbial modifier oifeU.']
The architect who drew the plans says thai the house wiU cost ten thou-
sand dollars. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of
architect; the second is a complement, being the object of says,]
Isabella, wJiom every incident was sufficient to dismay, hesitated whether
she should proceed, — H. Walpole.
As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had
just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line. — Ruskin.
Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to despise,
assume new terrors as we grow old. — Goldsmith.
When Farmer Oak smiled, the comers of his mouth spread till they
were within an unimportant distance of his ears. — Hardy.
As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by the way-
side a poor aged man, and, as he seemed weary with the road, helped him
on with the burden which he carried, a certain distance. — Pater.
While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three
companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep
silence, each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was sus-
pended over the fire. — Dickens.
218 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
6S1. Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction,
forming one compound clause, may be attached to the main clause as a
modifier or complement.
1. The truth was that Leonard had (merslept^ that he had missed the
train, and that he had failed to keep his appointment,
2. The guide told us that the road was impassable, that the river was
in flood, and that the bridge had been swept away,
3. Ellis, whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb,
stared dismally at the passing crowd.
4. Brfore the battle was over and whUe the result was still in doubt, the
general ordered a retreat.
6. After we had arrived at the hotel, but b^ore we had engaged our rooms,
we received an invitation to stay at the castle.
6. My first thought was, that atl was lost, and that my only chance for
executing a retreat was to sa/yryice my baggage. — De Qdincey.
7. The author fully convinced his readers that they were a race of
cowards and scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were on the
point of being enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly deserved their
fate, — Macaulay.
In the first and second examples, three coordinate noun
clauses are joined to make one compound clause, which is used
as a complement, — as a predicate nominative in the first sen-
tence, as the direct object of told in the second.
In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies
Ellis. In the fourth and fifth, a compound adverbial clause
modifies the predicate verb (ordered, received). In the seventh,
four ^Aa^-clauses unite in one compound clause.
Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one
complex clause, may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or
complement.
In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached di-
rectly to the main clause, the second is subordinate to the first,
the third to the second, and so on in succession.
In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman,
(a) who wa^ bom in the village (6) where my parents lived (c) before they
came to America,
VAEIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 219
Here gentleman (a complement in the main clause) is modi-
fied by the adjective clause who was horn in the village (a).
Village, in clause a, is modified by the adjective clause where
my parents lived (b). Lived, the predicate verb of clause b, is
modified by the adverbial clause before they came to America (c).
Thus it appears that a is subordinate to the main clause, and
that b, in turn, is subordinate to a, and c to b. In other words,
the three clauses (a, ft, c) are united to make one complex clause,
— who was bom in the village where my parents lived before they
came to America. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an
adjective modifier describing gentleman.
523. Further examples of the successiye subordination of one
clause to another may be seen in the following sentences : —
I have passed my latter years in this city, where I am frequently seen
in public places^ through there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends
thai know me, — Addison.
In this manner they advanced by moonlight till they cams within view
of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley, at the ex-
tremity of which rose the vaM ruins of IstaJcar, — Beckford.
The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly
in tune to a feeling heart, tJiat I instantly made a vow I would give him a
four-and-twevdy sous piece, when I got to Marseilles, — Sterne. [The con-
junction that is omitted before I would (§ 888).]
Three years had scarcely elapsed b^ore the sons of Constantine seemed
impatient to convince mxinkind that they were incapable of contenting them-
selves with the dominions which they were unqualified to govern, — Gibbon.
Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot's illness, which is a
very sensible qffliction to me, who, by living so long out of the world, have lost
that hardness of heart contracted by years and general conversation. — Swift.
Note. The method of forming complex clauses by successiye subordination,
if overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless sentences, as in the follow-
ing example from Borrow : — "I scouted the idea that Slingsby would have
stolen this blacksmith's gear ; fori had the highest opinion of his honesty,
which opinion I still retain at the present day, which is upwards of twenty
years from the time of which I am speaking, during the whole of which period
I have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of him." A
famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect is ** The House
that Jack Built "
220 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS
52S4. The processes of cottrdioation and subordination (§§ 514-
523) may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to
produce a very complicated structure.
Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference
(§§ 525-526). Their structure, however elaborate, is always
either complex or compound complex.
I. nr COMPLEX SENTEIfCES
525. The following sentences are complex. They contain
either compound or complex clauses, or both.
1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and
which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the
gold which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they
were unacquainted. — Macaulay.
The main clause of this complex sentence is they preferred the silver to the
gold. To this are separately attached (§ 520) two adjective clauses, both com-
pound: (1) with which . . . hand, modifying silver ; (2) which they had . . . unao-
quaintedf modifying gold.
2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where
hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread
of the world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness
and of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland,
who had humbled Holland and Spain. — Macaulay.
The sentence is complex. The main clause is all London crowded to shout
and laugh round the gibbet. The rest of the sentence {where . . . Spain) forms
one long complex adjective clause, modifying gibbet. In this complex clause,
the first clause (where . . . prince) has dependent on it a compound adjective
clause (modifying prince), made up of four coordinate clauses, each beginning
with who. The subordination of this compound clause to that which precedes
(where . . . prince) produces the long complex subordinate clause wfiere . . .
Spain.
3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall
leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his
mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage in
JEschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without suffer-
ing him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller. — Fielding.
COMPLEX SENTENCES 221
In this complex sentence , two subordinate clauses are separately attached
to the main clause : (1) the adverbial clause as . , . inn ; (2) the adjective
clause who . . .fellow-traveller. This latter clause is complex, since it con-
tains the adjective clause which . . . felloiu-travellerf dependent on who . . .
^schyluSf and modifying passage.
4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling
about my clearing ; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos" and threes
athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind
my house, gfves a voice to the air ; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface
of the pond and brings up a fish ; a mink steals out of the marsh before
my door and seizes a frog by the shore ; the sedge is bending under the
weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither ; and for the last half
hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and then
reviving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to
the country. — Thoreau.
This sentence is complex. Its main clause is compound, consisting of a series
of six coordinate simple clauses. The whole of this long compound main clause
is modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins {as . . .
afternoon).
5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great
wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly,
that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh
eggs to rotten boroughs ; that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that
their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples
of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in
the country ; that some of them, with all their magnificence, could not
catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of
menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the
Burgundy, were still low men, — these were things which excited, both
in the class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they
attempted to force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of
mingled envy and contempt. — Macaulay.
This complex sentence, though very long, is perfectly easy to follow. It
begins with a long compound noun clause (consisting of nine coordinate that-
clauses). This would be the subject of the main predicate verb were, but for
the fact that the pronoun these is inserted to act as the subject (referring back
to the compound noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the
complement ^/imgrs is attached the adjective clause to^ic^ ea;ce<e(? . . . contempt.
This clause is complex, for it contains three adjective clauses, (1) from which
they had sprung (modifying class) y (2) into which . . . themselves (modifying
that) J and (3) which is . . . contempt (modifying aversion). All three are sepa-
rately attached to the clause on which they depend, which excited that bitter
aversion. Thus all that portion of the sentence which follows things forms
one complex clause, modifying that noun.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus, —
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Macaulay.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of StrafEord,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are componnd. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. Thfe sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples {making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty,
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott. •
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, x)oured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compoand predicate often differs very slightly
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun (thepf she) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded, browsed^
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compoand if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
codrdinate simple clauses.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus,—
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly rejwse for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Macaulay.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of StrafEord,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — May.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples (making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty,
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott.
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun {thepf s?ie) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded^ browsed,
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
coordinate simple clauses.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus,—
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly rejwse for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Macaulat.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples (making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty.
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott.
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, jwured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun (ihej/f she) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded^ browsed,
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
coordinate simple clauses.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus,—
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly rejwse for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Macaulay.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are componnd. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples (making and examining) ^ which modify the simple subject twenty.
6. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott.
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly
from a compound sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun (t/iey^ she) to serve as a subject for the second verb (proceeded^ browsed,
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compomid if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
coordinate simple clauses.
212 COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen,
are really but two in number, — coordination and subordination.
Coordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound
clauses ; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sen-
tences or complex clauses.
508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs
(in structure) to one of the three classes, — simple, compound,
and complex.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predi-
cate (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and
complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It
remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple
or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate.
Thus,—
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen
miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hun-
dred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a
fortress at the top. — Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly
to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton
Castle.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly rejwse for the insecure
and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to
live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers, nay, perhaps,
to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of
the Hague. — Mac aula y.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as
adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjec-
tive). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford,
and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the
opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into
Cavaliers and Roundheads. — Mat.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 213
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns
in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound
predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier
(a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble
over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, mak-
ing themselves much at home and examining every article with great
inquisitiveness. — Poe.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of parti-
ciples {making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty.
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious
closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibi-
tion, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage. —
Lamb.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling
her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean
wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events. — Scott. '
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for
the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them
in their own quarters. — Prescott.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered
the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage
of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned
during a tumult of twenty-eight days. — Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compoimd predicate often differs very slightly
from a compoimd sentence. Thus in examples 4-7 the insertion of a single pro-
noun (iAey, she) to serve as a subject for the second verb {proceeded^ browsed,
etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either
compound or complex.
A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independ-
ent clauses ; complex, if it consists of one independent (main)
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more
coordinate simple clauses.
232 EXEECISES
EXERCISE 6
(§§ 48-61, pp. 16-21)
1. Tell whether each sentence is simple, compound, or comr
plex. If the sentence is compound, divide it into its independ-
ent clauses, and mention the simple subject (noun or pronoun)
and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause.
If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (inde-
pendent) and the subordinate clause, and tell whether the lat-
ter is used as an adjective or as an adverb.
1. The great gate slowly opened, and a steward and several serving-
men appeared. 2. The victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort ; the
whole was soon in a blaze ; many of the old men, the women, and the
children perished in the flames. 3. Night closed in, but still no guest
arrived. 4. The black waves rolled by them, and the light at the horizon
began to fade, and the stars were coming out one by one. — William
Black. 6. Mr. Nickleby closed an account book which lay on his desk.
6. By ceaseless action all that is subsists. — Cowper. 7. When the
morning broke, the Moorish army had vanished. 8. At midnight, when
the town was hushed in sleep, they all went quietly on board. 9. For-
tune had cast him into a cavern, and he was groping darkly round.
10. I paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his poem.
11. I strove to speak ; my voice utterly failed me. 12. The only avenue
by which the town could be easily approached, was protected by a stone
wall more than twenty feet high and of great thickness.
13. The night fell tempestuous and wild, and no vestige of the hapless
sloop was ever after seen. 14. The simple majesty of this anecdote can
gain nothing from any comment which we might make on it. 15. Raleigh
speaks the language of the heart of his country when he urges the English
statesmen to colonize Guiana. — Froude. 16. Men, in their youth, go
to push their fortune in the colony ; they succeed ; they acquire property
there ; they return to their native land ; they continue to draw the
income from their colonial estates. — Brougham. 17. The moonlight
glistened upon traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider
and steed. 18. While this brief conversation. passed, Donatello had
once or twice glanced aside with a watchful air. 19. Pray for us,
Hilda; we need it.
2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coordi-
nate clauses. Tell whether each of these clauses, when stand-
ing alone, is a simple or a complex sentence.
NOUNS 233
1. It woald be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved
a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van
Winkle. 2. Language gradually varies, and with it fade away the writ-
ings of authors who have lived their allotted time. 3. The tallest and
handsomest men whom England could produce guarded the passage
from the palace gate to the river-side, and all seemed in readiness for
the queen's coming forth, although the hour was yet so early. 4. Edward
the Confessor died on the fifth of January, 1066, and on the following
day an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of
the citizens of the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king.
EXERCISE 7
(§§ 54-64, pp. 27-30)
1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns.
Mention all the examples of personification.
1. There Guilt his anxious revel kept. — Scott. 2. The first vessel
we fell in with was a schooner, which, after a long chase, we made out
to be an American. 3. You will be sauntering in St. Peter's perhaps,
or standing on the Capitol while the sun sets. 4. I am very deep in my
Aristophanes. 5. I saw a most lovely Sir Joshua at Christie's a week
ago. — FiTZ Gerald. 6. I hear there is scarce a village in England
that has not a Moll White in it. — Addison. 7. Such a spirit is Liberty.
At times she takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses,
she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her !
— Macaulay. 8. Rough Wulfstane trinuned his shafts and bow. —
ScoTT. 9. To-day we have been a delightful drive through Ettrick
Forest, SLnd to the ruins of Newark — the hall of Newark, where the
ladies bent their necks of snow to hear " The Lay of the Last Minstrel."
— Maria Edgeworth.
10. The same waves wash the moles of the new-built Califomian
towns, and lave the faded but still gorgeous skirts of Asiatic lands, older
than Abraham ; while all between float milky-ways of coral isles, and
low-lying, endless, unknown Archipelagoes and impenetrable Japans. —
Melville. 11. The duchess said haughtily that she had done her best
for the Esmonds. 12. To see with one's own eyes men and countries is
better than reading all the books of travel in the world. — Thackeray.
13. Defeat and mortification had only hardened the king's heart.
14. Earth, Ocean, Air, beloved brotherhood I — Shelley. 15. The
iron tongue of St. Paul's has told twelve. 16. The Indians, bran-
dishing their weapons, answered only with gestures of angry defiance.
234 EXERCISES
2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the
compound nouns.
1. The poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire
of human society. — Wordsworth. 2. The country is now showing
symptoms of greenness and warmth. 3. When the public are gone, we
at once put up the great iron shutters. 4. Washington returned to
headquarters at Newbury. 5. The Bruce's band moves swiftly on. —
Scott. 6. He shall with speed to England. — Shakspere. 7. Soon
were dismissed the courtly throng. — Scott. 8. Sickness, desertion, and
the loss sustained at Guilford Courthouse had reduced his little army.
9. A detachment was sent against them. 10. Never before this summer
have the kingbirds, handsomest of flycatchers, built in my orchard.
11. The young suddenly disperse on your approach, as if a whirlwind
had swept them away. — Thoread. 12. This lighthouse, known to our
mariners as Cape Cod or Highland Light, is one of our " primary seacoast
lights." 13. We have some salt of our youth in us. — Shakspere.
14. Thou hast nor youth nor age. — Shakspere.
15. The passion for hunting had revived with Washington on return-
ing to his old hunting grounds. 16. A circle there of merry listeners
stand. — Byron. 17. The act of the Congress of Vienna remains the
eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge and political sagacity.
— Disraeli. 18. Lee undertook the task with alacrity. 19. A row
of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach. 20. The situation he had
held as aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an oppor-
tunity of observing the course of affairs. 21. The ground was frozen to
a great depth. 22. He was aware of his unpopularity. 23. The stern
old war-gods shook their heads. — Emerson.
24. Freckled nest eggs thou shalt see
Hatching in the hawthorn tree. — Keats.
25. Fair mom ascends, and sunny June has shed
Ambrosial odors o'er the garden-bed,
And wild bees seek the cherry's sweet perfume
Or cluster roimd the full-blown apple-bloom. — Campbell.
26. For in their looks divine
The image of their glorious Maker shone,
Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure. — Milton.
27. Steer, helmsman, till you steer our way
By stars beyond the line. — Campbell.
28. Say I sent thee thither :
I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear. — Shakspere.
NOUNS 235
EXERdSB 8
(§§ 66-84, pp. 31-39)
1. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the
three genders. Use each of these nouns in a sentence.
2. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common
gender.
3. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corre-
sponding to the feminine forms in this list, and the feminine
forms corresponding to the masculine : —
earl, abbess, schoolmaster, porter, hind, mare, ram, sire, witch, sultan,
czar, widow, marquis, executor, salesman, tailor, hero, bride, songster,
great-uncle, nephew, buck, horseman, bachelor, belle.
4. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell
whether the gender is shown by the form, by the meaning, or
by both. Whenever it is possible, give the plural of each
noun that is singular, and the singular of each noun that is
plm-al.
1. Oft Music changed, but never ceased her tone. — Byron. 2.
Grace Crawley was at this time living with the two Miss Prettymans. —
Trollope. 3. The Catos and the Scipios of the village had gathered in
front of the hotel. 4. This gunner was an excellent mathematician, a
good scholar, and a complete sailor. — Defoe. 5. I was, in fact, in the
chapel of the Knights Templars. — Irving. 6. The luckless culprit was
brought in, forlorn and chapfallen, in the custody of gamekeepers,
huntsmen, and whippers-in, and followed by a rabble rout of country
clowns. — Irving. 7. The hare now came still nearer to the place
where she was at first started. — Bcdgell. 8. The Fairfaxes were no
longer at hand. — Irving. 9. All the peers and [peeresses put on their
coronets. 10. Time is no longer slow ; his sickle mows quickly in this
age. — Disraeli. 11. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person
in plain clothes sits there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the
Egyptian colossi. — Emerson.
12. Within forty-eight hours, hundreds of horse and foot came by
various roads to the city. 13. The hart and hind wandered in a wilder-
ness abounding in ferny coverts and green and stately trees. — Disraeli.
14. The ship had received a great deal of damage, and it required some
time to repair her. — Defoe. 15. When Mary, the nurse, returns with
286 EXERCISES
the little Min Smiths from Master Brown's birthday party, she is nar-
rowly questioned as to their behavior. 16. Of all our fleet, consisting
of a hundred and fifty sail, scarce twelve appeared. — Smollett. 17. Hin-
doos, Russians, Chinese, Spaniards, Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen,
Genoese, Neapolitans, Venetians, Greeks, Turks, descendants from all the
builders of Babel, come to trade at Marseilles, sought the shade alike. —
Dickens. 18. There lies the port ; the vessel pufiCs her sail. — Tenntsok.
19. I had desire to see the old family seat of the Lucys. — Irving.
20. The Miss Lambs were the belles of little Britain. — Irvino. 21.
Lord Culloden at length appeared with his daughters, Ladies Flora and
Grizell. — Disraeli. 22. Still his honied wealth Hymettus yields. —
Btron. 23. Josephine has been made executrix of her father^s estate.
24. Georgette crouched by the fire, reading a wonderful tale of kings,
princesses, enchanted castles, knights and ladies, monks and nuns,
wizards and witches. 25. She was a vixen when she went to school. —
Shaksfere. 26. Keep a gamester from the dice and a good student
from his book. — Shaksfere. 27. They are sheep and calves which
seek out assurance in that. — Shaksfere. 28. A score of good ewes
may be worth ten pounds. — Shaksfere. 29. Let ay's seem no's and
no's seem ay's. — Gay.
30. She clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee ;
It laughs at the lightning, it mocks the mixed thunder
Of the air and the sea. — Shelley.
EXERCISE 9
(§§ 71-84, pp. 84-89)
1. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or
figures are used in the plural number : —
German, radius, lens, moose, wharf, index, piano, thesis, 4, 500, p, q,
and, syllabus, staff, die, s, t, seraph, hero, stimulus, crisis, elf, heathen,
brother-in-law, July, March, spoonful, memorandum. Miss Allen, Mas-
ter Allen, Mr. Hayes, General Raymond, Knight Templar, head (of
cattle), animalcule, potato, valley, formula, penny, curriculum, dwarf,
man-child.
2. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used
in the singular number : —
strata, phenomena, alumnae, alumni, candelabra, species, cherubim,
errata, bacteria, Japanese, beaux, vertebrae, Messrs., theses, oases.
NOUNS 237
EXERCISE 10
(§88, pp. 41-42)
Mention all the nouns that are in the nominative casej and
give the construction (or syntax) of each, — as subject, predi-
cate nominative, vocative (or nominative of direct address),
exclamatory nominative, or nominative in apposition.^
1. A weary lot is thine, fair maid. — Scott. 2. At last, our small
acquaintance, Ned Higgins, trudged up the street, on his way to school.
— Hawthorne. 3. The soil is in general a moist and retentive clay.
4. Rumors alone were their guides through a wild and desolate country.
— Longfellow. 5. Young man, have you challenged Charles the
wrestler? — Shaksfere. 6. Ralph was an Eton boy, and hence, being
robust and shrewd, a swimmer and a cricketer. 7. Here Harold was
received a welcome guest. — Scott. 8. The tall Highlander remained
obdurate. 9. The beams and rafters, roughly hewn and with strips of
bark still on them, and the rude masonry of the chimneys, made the
garret look wild and uncivilized. 10. Deathlike the silence seemed.
11. Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike. —
Longfellow. 12. Fly, fly, detested thoughts, forever from my view I
— Beattie. 13. Time must not be counted by calendars, but by sensa-
tion, by thought. — Disraeli.
14. This is the history of Charlotte Corday. 15. The nabobs soon
became a most unpopular class of men. 16. Before him stretched the
long, laborious road, dry, empty, and white. — Hardy. 17. With the
great mass of mankind, the test of integrity in a public man is consis-
tency. — Macaulay. 18. These are trifles, Mr. Premium. 19. My
thanks are due to you for your trouble and care. 20. Here 's my great
uncle. Sir Richard Ravelin. 21. Rowley, my old friend, I am sure you
congratulate me. 22. David, you are a coward ! 23. Here come other
Pyncheons, the whole tribe, in their half-a-dozen generations. 24. Uncle
Venner, trundling a wheelbarrow, was the earliest person stirring in the
neighborhood. 25. Up the chimney roared the fire, and brightened the
room with its broad blaze. 26. Liberty 1 freedom I tyranny is dead ! —
Shaksfere. 27. The hostess's daughter, a plump Flanders lass, with
long gold pendants in her ears, was at a side window. — Irving.
28. Horses ! can these be horses that bound off with the action and
gesture of leopards ? — De Quince y. 29. Peace ! silence ! Brutus
speaks. 30. The rains, frosts, and tempests splinter the chalk above
and the waves gnaw it away below. — Geikie.
1 Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.
238 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 11
(§§ 89-06, pp. 48-47)
1. Point out all the nouns in the possessive case, and parse
them according to the model in § 112.
1. James's parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new
ministers. . 2. I live in general quietly at my brother-in-law's in Norfolk
(see § 96). 3. There is a small cottage of my father's close to the lawn
gates. 4. We had found, in that day's heap of earth, about fifty pounds'
weight of gold dust. — Defoe. 5. Much the most striking incident in
Bums's life is his journey to Edinburgh. 6. As to freaks like this of
Miss Brooke's, Mrs. Cadwallader had no patience with them. — George
Eliot. 7. Homeward they bore him through the dark woods' gloom. —
Morris. 8. The eye travels down to Oxford's towers. — Arnold. 9. I
obeyed all my brother's military commands with the utmost docility.
10. Tellson's wanted not elbowroom, Tellson's wanted no light, Tellson's
wanted no embellishment. Noakes & Co.'s might, or Snooks Brothers'
might ; but Tellson's — thank heaven ! — Dickens.
2. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 1 (above),
and tell which of the possessives might be replaced by an
o/-phrase. Mention particularly those passages in which the
possessive would not be used in modern prose.
3. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of —
Henry, James, Thomas, Mr. Fox, child, Charles Price, Mrs. Gibbs,
Edward, General Edwards, horse, Hortense, Miss Bellows, father-in-law,
Major Ellis, commander-in-chief, Thompson and Howard {a firm), Eustis
and Morris (a firm), Messrs. Cartwright and Bobbins, ApoHo, Brutus,
Ulysses.
4. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of —
Englishman, fireman, washerwoman, fox, sheep, horse, ox, child,
emperor, empress, robin, Norman, German, hawk. Knight Templar,
lady, sailor, heir, heiress, teacher, whale, walrus, critic, poet, vireo.
5. In which of the sentences that you have written (under
3 and 4) would it be possible to substitute an o/-phrase for the
possessive ? In which of them (if any) would this phrase be
preferable? Why?
NOUNS 239
EXERCISE 12
(§§ 97-110, pp. 47-53)
Paxse the nouns in the objective case, according to the model
in § 112. Tell the particular construction in each instance, —
direct object, predicate objective, indirect object, etc.
1. Such was the narrative of Jack Grant, the mate. 2. Rippling
waters made a pleasant moan. — Byron. 3. Swiftly they hurried away
to the forge of Basil the blacksmith. — Longfellow. 4. A pale fog
hung over London. 5. So like a shattered column lay the king. —
Tennyson. 6. Then sing, ye birds, sing, sing a joyous song. — Words-
worth. 7. A blighted spring makes a barren year. — Johnson. 8. Dark
and neglected locks overshadowed his brow. 9. Imagine the wind howl-
ing, the sea roaring, the rain beating. 10. Lay these vain regrets aside.
11. Birds of passage sailed through the leaden air. 12. Authority for-
gets a dying king. — Tennyson. 13. Three years she grew in sun and
shower. — Wordsworth. 14. The sound of horns came floating from
the valley, prolonged by the mountain echoes. 15. Hours had passed
away like minutes. 16. Your mistrust cannot make me a traitor. —
Shakspere.
17. She halted a moment before speaking. 18. The room opened on
a terrace adorned with statues and orange trees. 19. The sun is coming
down to earth, and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts.
— Meredith. 20. England is unrivalled for two things — sports and
politics. — Disraeli. 21. Thus we lived several years in a state of
much happiness. 22. The old gentleman's whole countenance beamed
with a serene look of indwelling delight. 23. I am reading Selwyn's
"Correspondence," a remarkable book. 24. I have lived my life. —
Tennyson. 26. My heart is like a singing bird. — Christina Rossetti.
26. How like a winter hath my absence been. —Shakspere. 27. Three
weeks we westward bore. — Longfellow. 28. It rains pitchforks. —
Fitz Gerald. 29. The sublimer and more passionate poets I still read,
by snatches and occasionally. — De Quincey. 30. Coningsby slept the
deep sleep of youth and health. — Disraeli.
31. Thou mightst call him a goodly person. 32. My father named me
Autolycus. 33. A country fellow brought him a huge fish. 34. I '11
make you the queen of Naples. 35. You call honorable boldness impu-
dent sauciness. — Shakspere. 36. Sir Roger generally goes two or three
miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or par-
tridge. 37. This misconception caused Washington some embarrass-
ment. 38. I now thank you for Beattie, the most agreeable and amiable
writer I ever met with. — Cowper.
240 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 13
(§§ 97-110, pp. 47-68)
1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb
and its direct object (§§ 99-100).
2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case.
3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a
predicate objective (§ 104).
4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 105,
each with both a direct and an indirect object.
5. For each indirect object, substitute to with an object.
Change the order, if necessary.
6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object
(§ 108).
7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objec-
tive (§ 109).
8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition
with a noun in the objective case (§ 110).
EXERCISE 14
(§§ 54-112, pp. 27-54)
Parse every noun, according to the models in § 112.
1. Pennon and banner wave no more. 2. They soon gained the ut-
most verge of the forest, and entered the country inhabited by men with-
out vice. — Goldsmith. 3. Our avenue is strewn with the whole crop of
autumn's withered leaves. — Hawthorne. 4. He is the rich man who
can avail himself of all men's faculties. — Emerson. 5. Like an awak-
ened conscience, the sea was moaning and tossing. — Longfellow. 6. He
again called and whistled after his dog. 7. She wrote and addressed a
hurried note. 8. The light and warmth of that long-vanished day live
with me still. 9. Violet and primrose girls, and organ boys with military
monkeys, and systematic bands very determined in tone if not in tune,
filled the atmosphere. — Meredith. 10. The blood left Wilfrid's ashen
cheek. 11. Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power ! — Wordsworth.
12. A great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base of the stone wall,
and takes away the hardness of its outline.
PEONOUNS 241
13. 1 travelled the whole four hundred mileA between this and Madras
on men's shoulders. 14. Here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers*
tents. 15. Swiftly they glided away, like the shade of a cloud on the
prairie. 16. Athens, even long after the decline of the Roman empire,
still continued the seat of learning, politeness, and wisdom. — Goldsmith.
17. Four times the sun had risen and set. 18. Speak I speak I thou
fearful guest ! 19. The oak rose before me like a pillar of darkness.
20. Another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its echoes,
and was answered by the warder from the walls. 21. Sound, sound the
clarion, fill the fife ! — Scott. 22. Now, Falstaff, where have you been
all this while ? 23. Sounds of a horn they heard, and the distant lowing
of cattle. 24. Homer was always his companion now. 25. Forgive me
these injurious suspicions. 26. O, pride I pride I it deceives me with the
subtlety of a serpent. 27. I made Mr. Wright's gardener a present of
fifty sorts of plant seeds. 28. Your mother and I last week made a trip
to Gayhurst, the seat of Mr. Wright, about four miles off. 29. Beneath
the shelter of one hut, in the bright blaze of the same fire, sat this varied
group of adventurers. 30. The cares of to-day are seldom the cares of
to-morrow. — Cowpee.
EXERCISE 15
(§§ 115-129, pp. 65-62)
1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 168.
1. She peeped from the window into the garden. 2. The little mar-
quis immediately threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell
a long story. 3. It pours and it thunders, it lightens amain. — Scott.
4. Master, master, look about you ! 5. Leontine, with his own and
his wife's fortune, bought a farm of three hundred a year. — Addison.
6. The Tories carry it among the new members six to one. — Swift.
7. I wrote to him, but could tell him nothing. 8. On the next morning
after breakfast the major went out for a walk by himself. 9. Their
hearts quaked within them, at the idea of taking one step farther.
10. Mrs. Forrester's surprise was equal to ours. 11. It 's twenty years
since he went away from home. 12. I seated myself in a recess of a
large bow window. 13. At the last moment his heart failed him, and
he looked round him. for some mode of escape. 14. A friend of mine
has been spending some time at Sir Walter Scott's.
15. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham's. 16. I have
lately received from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers' names.
17. We came in our first morning's march to very good springs of fresh
242 EXERCISES
water. 18. We are both of ug inclined to be a little too pogitive.
19. HeyHe^s best teacher was himself. — Cabltle.
20. Aspasia, you have lived but few years in the world, and with only
one philosopher — yourself. 21. I got to the side in time to see a huge
liner^s dim 8hai>e slide by like a street at night ; she would have been
invisible but for her row of lights. 22. The cataracts blow their trum-
pets from the steep. — Wordsworth. 23. I am he they call Old Care.
— Peacock. 24. The sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell made
itself audible. 26. The heroes themselves say, as often as not, that
fame is their object. 26. He seems to himself to touch things with
muffled hands. 27. She took counsel with herself what must be done.
28. The head of the Pyncheons found himself involved in serious finan-
cial difficulties. 29. Ha 1 here is Hepzibah herself !
2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the
first person is used as direct object, as indirect object, as
predicate nominative ; in the possessive singular with a noun ;
in the possessive singular without a noun.
3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the
third person.
1. He thought the burglars were .
2. He mistook the burglars for .
3. William is better at his lessons than .
4. It is .
5. These are .
6. Nobody volunteered except Edward and .
7. bpys have formed a debating club.
8. Mr. Jones is going to give boys a baseball field.
9. Who is there? .
10. Between you and , I am not sorry that he has resigned.
11. If I were I would study art.
12. Arthur likes you better than .
13. Behind Ruth and came the guest of honor.
14. Automobiles are not for such as .
15. It was that Joseph meant.
16. two are always together.
17. Richard dislikes everybody, most of all.
4. Write sentences in which myself, yourself, ourselves, him-
self, herself, themselves are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively
as direct object, (3) reflexively as indirect object.
ADJECTIVE PEONOUNS 243
EXERCISE 16
(§§ 181-142, pp. 62-66)
1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing
the word, tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective.
If it is used as a pronoun, tell the number and the case and give
the reason for the case. If it is used as an adjective, mention
the substantive which it modifies.
1. What is the meaning of all this ? 2. On either side extended a
ruinous wooden fence. 3. You have seen that picture, then I 4. This very
Judge Pyncheon was the original of the miniature. 5. Twenty years
ago this man was equally capable of crime or heroism ; now he is fit for
neither. — Stevenson. 6. None are all evil. 7. Solitude has many a
dreary hour. 8. Every science has its hitherto undiscovered mys-
teries. — Goldsmith. 9. The same day we visited the shores of the
isle in the ship's boats. 10. None but picked recruits were enlisted.
11. A longing for the brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at
such times. 12. Such were Addison's talents for conversation. 13. Nich-
olas Vedder ! why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years 1 14. What
a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron ! 15. Several houses
were pillaged and destroyed.
16. Each warrior was a chosen man. 17. See how yond justice rails
upon yond simple thief I — Shakspere. 18. Our naval annals owe
some of their interest to the fantastic and beautiful appearance of old
warships. — Stevenson. 19. Some are too indolent to read anything till
its reputation is established. — Johnson. 20. In both sexes, occasionally,
this lifelong croak, accompanying each word of joy or sorrow, is one of
the symptoms of settled melancholy. — Hawthorne. 21. Such voices
have put on mourning for dead hopes. 22. Another phenomenon was a
package of lucif er matches. 23. How few appear in those streets which
but some few hours ago were crowded I 24. This was a very different
camp from that of the night before.
25. Alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other.
26. The poor know best how to console each other's sorrows. 27. Every-
body has his own interpretation for that picture. 28. I strove with none,
for none was worth my strife. — Landor. 29. Scarcely any of the items
in the above-drawn parallel occurred to Phoebe. 30. He went about mop-
ing. None spake to him. No one would play vdth him. — Lamb. 31. Ah,
that good Kept ! He said it would be thus. 32. How easy is the expla^
nation to those who know I 33. There has been a quarrel between him
and Hepzibah this many a day.
244 EXERCISES
2. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141).
1. Each of us should do best.
2. Everybody thinks own way is wise.
3. If anybody has a better plan, now is the time for to speak.
4. It was an old-fashioned picnic, every person furnishing share
of the provisions.
5. When anybody is talking, it is bad manners to interrupt .
EXERCISE 17
(§§ 148-166, pp. 66-71)
1. Parse the relative pronouns, using the models in § 168.
1. The lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy
mist, which thickened every moment. 2. I shall not budge from the
position that I have taken up. 3. The land of literature is a fairy land
to those who view it at a distance. — Irving. 4. I hate people who
meet Time half-way. — Lamb. 6. The weather, which had been stormy
and unsettled, moderated toward the evening. 6. He that once indulges
idle fears will never be at rest. — Johnson. 7. The only ford by which
the travellers could cross was guarded by a party of militia. 8. One
dark unruly night she issued secretly out of a small postern gate of the
castle, which the enemy had neglected to guard. 9. I paused to con-
template a tomb on which lay the eflfigy of a knight in complete armor.
10. He who loves the sea loves also the ship's routine. — Conrad.
11. There were two or three indefatigable men among them, by whose
courage and industry all the rest were upheld. — Defoe.
12. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea. — Wordsworth.
13. They slander thee sorely who say thy vows are frail. — Moore.
14. The first great poet whose works have come down to us, sang of war
long before war became a science or a trade. — Macaulay. 15. The
gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it from its foot-
hold of rock. 16. At its western side is a deep ravine or valley, through
which a small stream rushes. 17. A weak mother, who perpetually
threatens and never performs, is laying up miseries both for herself and
for her children. — Spencer. 18. As they approached, a raven, who sat
upon the topmost stone, black against the bright blue sky, flapped lazily
away. — Kingsley. 19. To such of her neighbors as needed other atten-
tion, she would give her time, her assistance, her skill. 20. It was such a
battle-axe as Rustum may have wielded in fight upon the banks of Oxus.
21. I may neither choose whom I would, nor refuse whom I dislike.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 245
2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in
1 (above).
3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive rela-
tive ; ten sentences, each containing a restrictive relative.
4. Fill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences,
at least, use who or whom,
1. This is the boy 1 recommended.
2. The boy I recommended is a Swede.
3. The boy brought the letter is not the one 1 recommended.
4. I told Anna, I knew would keep my secret.
5. I told Anna, 1 knew I could trust.
. 6. I told Anna, I knew to be trustworthy.
7. I told Anna, I knew intimately.
8. No one you know lives in this street.
9. All 1 can say is, I am sorry.
10. Give me the same horse I had yesterday.
11. A dog, showed his teeth and growled, blocked the way.
12. Choose the partner you like best.
13. The policeman was leading a little child had lost its mother.
14. Take such measures you deem necessary.
15. Take measures seem necessary.
16. Take the measures seem to you necessary.
17. My hat is of the same size yours.
18. This is the picture I am so proud of.
19. This is the picture of I am so proud.
20. The man is talking to Henry is the one owns this house.
5. Supply the relatives that are " understood " (§ 151).
1. It was a bold step she had taken.
2. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have in hand.
3. His taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in.
4. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.
5. Who is the wittiest man you know ?
6. Morton was the only friend I had.
7. That sonata was the first piece I learned.
8. Ten dollars is the price he asks.
9. Are you the man I bought the coat of ?
10. This is the book we are reading evenings.
11. Take any seat you like.
12. " Faust '* is the only opera I care for.
13. I have done all I can.
246 EXERCISES
EXERaSE 18
(§§ 157-162, pp. 71-73)
Parse the relatives.
1. Whatever wisdom and energy could do William did. 2. Whatever
is done skilfully appears to be done wijbh ease. 3. We must suspect
what we see, distrust what we tear, and doubt even what we feel ! —
Miss Burney. 4. Whoever has been in a state of nervous agitation,
must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable it grows.
— Irving. 5. Time hath reft whatever my soul enjoyed. — Byron.
6. The gallant major showed no hesitation whatever. 7. Whoever has
made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill Mountains.
8. A recollection of what I had seen and felt the preceding night still
haunted my mind. 9. Hard work was what he needed now. 10. What-
ever regrets Mrs. Thorverton might indulge in secret, she had had the
strength of mind to hide them. 11. Like all weak men, they had re-
course to what they called strong measures. 12. We see in him a freer,
purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves. 13. Sir Roger
was what you call a fine gentleman. 14. Sweet princes, what I did, I
did in honor. — Shaksfere. 15. He was really interested in what
Coningsby had seen and what he had felt. 16. What was to be seen at
Naples, Addison saw.
EXERCISE 19
{§§ 163-168, pp. 73-74)
Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, num-
ber, person, and case. If the interrogative word is an adjective,
tell what noun it limits.
1. Who would not sing for Lycidas? 2. What that sigh meant I
cannot say. 3. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of
sand? 4. Which of the two was daughter to the duke? 5. Whom
next shall we summon from the dusty dead ? — Lamb. 6. Why I Peggy,
what have you brought us ? 7. What 's fame ? A fancied life in others'
breath. — Pope. 8. To what shall I compare it ? 9. And what art
thou, O melancholy voice ? — Shelley. 10. Proud sufferer, who art
thou? 11. What were Swigby's former pursuits I can't tell. What
need we care ? Had n't he five hundred a year ? Ay, that he had. —
Thackeray. 12. What does it matter? 13. Which way have you
looked for Master Caius ? 14. What business had they in Prussia ?
REVIEW OE PRONOUNS 247
EXERCISE 20
(§§ 163-168, pp. 78-74)
Fill each blank with who or whom, as the. construction may
require.
1. He asked me was elected.
2. From did she hear this news ?
3. To did you apply for assistance ?
4. do you regard as the better scholar of the two ?
5. shall I ask for the key ?
6. did you see when you called ?
7. do you think is the best physician in town ?
8. can I trust i;i such an emergency ?
9. With have you discussed this affair ?
10. do you suppose this letter is from ?
11. do you suppose I am ?
12. do you suppose I saw ?
13. do you think will help us ?
EXERCISE 21
(§§ 118-168, pp. 66-74)
Point out each pronoun; tell to what class it belongs, and
give its construction.
1. His mind now misgave him. 2. Under the dark and haunted gar-
ret were attic chambers which themselves had histories. 3. Passion
itself is very figurative, and often bursts out into metaphors. — Gold-
smith. 4. He had a wiry, well-trained, elastic figure, a stiff military
throw-back of his head, and a springing step, which made him appear
much younger than he was. 5. It was the owl that shrieked. 6. Slowly,
slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other. 7. Say nothing to the
men, but have all your wits about you. 8. He saw that it would be dark
long before he could reach the village. 9. I must do myself the justice
to open the work with my own history. 10. Economy in our affairs
has the same effect upon our fortunes which good breeding has upon
our conversations. — Steele. 11. It was a cloudy night, with frequent
showers of rain. 12. " Fair sirs," said Arthur, " wherefore sit ye here ? "
13. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. — Byron.
14. This is my son, mine own Telemachus. — Tennyson.
15. Richard bade them adieu. 16. Ye men of Kent, 'tis victory or
death I — Wordswobth. 17. We dined yesterday with your friend and
248 EXEECISES
mine, the most companionable and domestic Mr. C. 18. Great is the
power of the man who has nothing to lose. — Doyle. 19. Each hamlet
started at the sound. 20. Look on me with thine own calm look.
21. Mr. Rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault.
22. They were conversing with much earnestness among themselves.
23. He heard the deep behind him, and a cry before. 24. When Deer-
slayer reached the fire, he found himself surrounded by no less than eight
grim savages. 26. Mine hostess, indeed,, gave me a long history how the
goblet had been handed down from generation to generation. 26. The
uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking.
27. We had yet seen no wild beasts, or, at least, none that came very
near us. — Defoe. 28. We envy you your sea-breezes. 29. Which is
he that killed the deer ? 30. There was the choice, and it was still open
to him to take which side he pleased. 31. There is always something
to worry you. It comes as regularly as sunrise.
EXERCISE 22
(§§ 169-188, pp. 75-82)
1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive
or definitive (§§ 169-171), and mention the substantive to
which it belongs. If the adjective can be compared, give its
three degrees of comparison.^
1. The old, unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture.
2. "My very dog," sighed poor Rip, "has forgotten me ! " 3. Loud
was the lightsome tumult on the shore. — Byron. 4. Sweet are the shy
recesses of the woodland. 5. Rows of pewter and earthen dishes glit-
tered along the dresser. 6. The major spoke in a matter-of-fact way.
7. The sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth, but only a hard pad
in the upper jaw. — Huxley. 8. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered
dimly on the bare floor and stairs. 9. He wiped his serious, perplexed
face on a red bandanna handkerchief, a shade lighter than his complex-
ion. 10. The yellow moonlight sleeps on all the hills. — Beattib. 11. The
young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain degree of des-
perate determination. 12. This warning is meant in a friendly spirit.
13. The house remained untenanted for three years. 14. Number-
less torrents, with ceaseless sound, descend to the ocean. 15. The con-
test between the two branches of the legislature lasted some days longer.
^For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see
pp. 24»-250, 252.
ADJECTIVES 249
2. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives;
five containing definitive adjectives.
3. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, rela-
tive, and interrogative adjectives.
4. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly
followed by —
honorable, youthful, yew, ewe, euphonious, historical, history, hjrmn,
humble, hilarious, university, express, horticultural, oratorio, automatic,
heritage, harmonious.
(§§ 181-187, pp. 79-82)
Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention
any superlatives used for emphasis (§ 200).
1. The Governor-General is the frankest and best-natured of men.
2. The company grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller.
3. A knock alarmed the outer gate. 4. At once there came the jk)-
litest and friendliest reply. 5. Many a poet has been jworer than Bums,
but no one was ever prouder. — Carlyle. 6. The last tyrant ever
proves the worst. — Pope. 7. The profoundest secrecy was observed in
the whole transaction. 8. Earth has not anything to show more fair.
9. The natural principle of war is to do the most harm to our enemy
with the least harm to ourselves. — Irving. 10. During the rest of the
journey, Kose was in the strangest state of mind. 11. There 's not a
nobler man in Rome than Antony. 12. Little he ate, and less he spake.
13. Our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest
country in the world. 14. Meanwhile the throng without was constantly
becoming more numerous and more savage. 15. Vain are his weapons,
vainer is his force. 16. She might have been more lenient.
17. You'll have to be more practical. 18. How does a love of gain
transform the gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridicu-
lous ! — Goldsmith. 19. Most authors speak of their fame as if it were
quite a priceless matter.
20. Loveliest and best ! thoii little know'st
The rank, the honor, thou hast lost ! — Scott.
21. Of two such lessons, why forget
The nobler and the manlier one ? — Byron.
250 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 24
(§§ 189-198, pp. 83-87)
1. Parse eaxjh adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of
manner, time, place, or degree, and by mentioning the verb,
adjective, or adverb which it modifies. Compare the adverbs
which are capable of compaiison.
1. A great part of the island is rather level. 2. They had worked
very hard and very cheerfully. 3. When spake I such a word ? 4. We
can ill spare the commanding social benefits of cities. — Emerson. 6. She
looked up and met his eyes, and thereupon both became very grave.
6. The silence of the prairie at night was well-nigh terrible. 7. Far in
the West there lies a desert land. 8. The whistling ploughman stalks
afield. 9. Swiftly they glided along. 10. He has only just arrived in
England. 11. Fast the white rocks faded from his view. 12. Whole
ranks instantly laid down their pikes and muskets. 13. Thick clouds of
dust afar appeared. 14. Bitter sobs came thick and fast. 15. How
long are you going to be in Paris ? 16. To-morrow I intend to hunt
again. 17. Answer made King Arthur, breathing hard. 18. Some of
us laughed heartily. 19. They had spoken simply and openly about that
from the very start.
2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following ad-
jectives. Use each adverb in a sentence. Tell what it modifies.
Proud, careless, vehement, tender, vigorous, dainty, brave, formal,
courteous, blunt, sharp, keen, weary, heavy, true, skilful, legible.
3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the
adjective or the adverb.
1. Ogilvie was lucky that day.
2. They were thought to be fashionable people.
3. She made her objections delicately as she could.
4. July has been hot.
5. Carlyle was dainty about his food.
6. Jack did not come early to find a seat.
7. The tide runs fast round this point.
8. The balloon soared high that it disappeared.
9. The fugitive reached the pier late to take the steamer.
10. The bear growled savagely that the dogs were frightened.
11. You write more legibly than I.
ADVERBS 251
EXERCISE 25
(§§ 194-196, p. 86)
-1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordi-
nate clause introduced by each. Tell whether each adverb
expresses time, place, or manner.
1. Just as the sun went down, they heard a murmur of voices. 2. On
waking, he found himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the
old man of the glen. 3. There is no place of general resort wherein I do
not often make my appearance. 4. Wherever he determines to sleep,
there he prepares himself a sort of nest. 6. I hastened to the spot
whence I had come. 6. Where rolled the ocean, thereon was his home.
— Byron. 7. Where shineth thy spirit, there liberty shineth tool —
Moore. 8. He will look on the world, wheresoever he can catch a
glimpse of it, with eager curiosity. 9. Until Lady Glenmore came to
call next day, we heard of nothing unusual. 10. When she and Miss
Pole left us, we endeavored to subside into calmness. 11. Small service
is true service while it lasts. 12. Long before we saw the sea, its spray
was on our lips. 13. As they ascended. Rip every now and then heard
long rolling peals, like distant thunder. 14. The village clock struck
five aeTMr. Millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion.
15. When, only a small space was left between the armies, the High-
landers suddenly drew their broadswords and rushed forward with a
fearful yell. — Macaulay. 16. When he rejoined his companions, he
said something to them in Welsh.
2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each
modifies.
1. Why look'st thou so ? 2. Whence came ye, jolly satyrs ? whence
came ye? — Keats. 3. Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and
blind? — Campbell. 4. Why weep ye by the tide? — Scott. 5. See
how the world its veterans rewards ! — ^Pope. 6. How wildly will am-
bition steer I — Dryden. 7. Where have you been these twenty long
years ? 8. Here was a Csesar ! When comes such another ? — Shaksperb.
9. When shall we three meet again ? 10. History is clarified experience,
and yet how little do men profit by it 1 Nay, how should we expect it
of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own? — Lowell.
11. Why did you not bring what I asked for ?
3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs ; ten con-
taining interrogative adverbs.
252 EXERCISES
BZERCBSB 26
(SS 107-203, pp. 87-80)
1. Point ont the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether
each is an adjective or an adverb.
1. I thought it the most pnident method to lie still. 2. When the
people observed I was quiet, they discharged no more arrows. 3. You
know your own feelings best. 4. He was taller than any of the other
three who attended him. 6. The song and the laugh grew less and less
frequent. 6. The harder I try to f oi^t it, the more it comes into my
mind. 7. The night grew darker and darker ; the stars seemed to sink
deeper in the sky. 8. I answered in a few words, but in a most submis-
sive manner. 9. Their sight is much more acute than ours. 10. The
natives came by degrees to be less apprehensive of any danger from me.
11. Whoever performs his part with the most agility, and holds out
longest in leaping, is rewarded with the blue-colored silk. 12. It re-
ceived less damage than I expected. 13. Long live the most puissant
king of Lilliput 1 14. Fast are the flying moments, faster are the hoofs
of our horses. 16. Nigh come the strangers and more nigh. — Scott.
2. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the
superlative of the following words : —
merry, uncomfortable, ill, joyfully, northern, old {both forms), far, in,
out, early, little {adjective), little {adverb), badly, often, worthy, wonderful,
accurate, far, nigh, top, much, severe.
3. Write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapar
ble of comparison ; six containing adjectives which are inca-
pable of comparison.
EXERCISE 27
(§§ 204-208, pp. 89-90)
1. Write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjec-
tives, five in which they are nouns. Use the same numerals in
the ordinal form as adjectives, as nouns.
2. Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb ;
five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral.
VERBS 258
EXERCISE 28
(§§ 209-216, pp. 91-93)
1. Point out all the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether
each is transitive or intransitive. TeU which are copulative;
which are auxiliary. Mention any examples of the copula.
1. Little tasks make large return. 2. We must now return to the
fortress of Tlllietudlem and its inhabitants. 3. Though I look old, yet I
am strong and lusty. 4. The sunshine might now be seen stealing down
the front of the opposite house. 6. He sat apart from them all, and
looked at them with a melancholy, haughty counteiMuice ; while the rest
hallooed and sang and laughed, and the room rang. 6. You cannot re-
lieve me, but you may add to the torments I suffer. 7. One gains noth-
ing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather. They come in
at the keyhole ; they peer through the dripping panes ; they insinuate
themselves through the crevices of the casement, or plump themselves
down chimney astride of the raindrops. — Whittier. 8. A large lamp
threw a strong mass of light upon the group. 9. The baron pardoned
the young couple on the spot. 10. Every now and then he would turn his
head slowly round.
11. The river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the
clustering foliage. 12. A severe gale compelled him to seek shelter.
13. Miss Betsy Barker dried her eyes and thanked the Captain heartily.
14. Pray you, look not satl. 15. I am 1 yet what I am who cares, or
knows ? — Clare. 16. After all, it is a glorious pastime to find oneself
in a real gale of wind, in a big ship, with not a rock to run against within
a thousand miles. — Kingsley. 17. We will talk over all this another
time. 18. What is progress ? Movement. But what if it be movement
in the wrong direction? — Disraeli. 19. They say you are a melan-
choly fellow. 20. The valiant Clifford is no more. 21. The wreck had
evidently drifted about for many months; clusters of shellfish had
fastened about it, and long seaweed flaimted at its sides. — Irving.
22. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of
matrimony rolled on.
2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a verb-phrase.
Use the auxiliaries mentioned in § 210. Let some of the sen-
tences be interrogative.
3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one
sense, intransitive in another (§ 212). Use these verbs in
sentences.
254 EXERCISES
4. Illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing
ten sentences (§ 213).
5. Make a list of six copulative verbs (§ 214). Use them in
sentences. Frame sentences in which the same verbs are not
copulative (§ 215).
6. Use the copula (§ 214) in twenty sentences, several of
which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases.
EXERCISE 29
(§§217-226, pp. 94-99)
1. Write ten sentences in each of which a weak (or regular)
verb is used in the past tense ; ten, in each of which a strong
(or irregular) verb is used in the past tense.
2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of
the following verbs is used : drink, lie, sow, get, wake, dwell,
sing, pay, hid, light, bereave, build, ride, hang, swim, lay, split,
shrink, slay, wring, weave, thrive, spin, tread, shake, burst, slink,
dive, flee, fly, swing, wet, fling, kneel, let, chide.
3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries)
in Exercise 28, 1, and conjugate them in the present and the
past tense. Tell which are weak (regular) and which are strong
(irregular). Account for the person and number.
EXERCISE 30
(§§ 226-232, pp. 100-102)
1. Eill each blank with am, is, or are,
1. England and the United States at peace.
2. Neither Arthur nor John right. .
3. Either a saw or an axe necessary.
4. Either you or Dorothy going.
5. You and I going.
6. You and he going.
7. Is it Mr. Allen or is it his children who going ?
8. Either he going or you .
VEEBS 255
9. Either you going or I .
10. The sum and substance of the article this.
11. Half the sheep missing.
12. A number of Italians present.
13. The number of Italians in this town small.
14. Mathematics my most difficult study.
15. The number of applicants not sufficient.
16. A number of reasons alleged.
17. The jury in agreement.
18. The jury being charged by the judge.
19. The committee composed of five members.
20. The committee always wrangling with one another.
21. I, who only a beginner, cannot compete with Richards, who
an expert.
22. He is one of those men who always out of work.
23. I am not a man who easily frightened.
24. Walter is one of the best fellows there in this town.
25. Is it the king and queen who coming ?
26. Is it the king or the queen who coming ?
27. They made me, who the shyest of mortals, respond to a
toast.
28. A gift of four hundred books, eighteen maps, and ten plaster
casts to be made to our school.
29. Vocal and instrumental music taught here.
30. Neither vocal nor instrumental music taught here.
31. Neither elementary nor advanced physics taught here.
32. Neither organic nor inorganic chemists trained here.
33. One or two pages missing.
34. Physics, together with algebra and Latin, taught the first
year.
35. Stevenson's "Memories and Portraits " lying on the table.
36. The insurgent general with ten of his followers said to have
surrendered.
37. James, as well as his sisters, coming.
38. Six months a long time to wait.
39. A series of lectures given here every winter.
2. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences
(1) with a singular verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the
difference in meaning.
3. Use the relative who in ten sentences in which the ante-
cedent is in the first or the second person.
256 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 31
(§§ 283-241, pp. 102-105)
1. Explain the use of will and shall in the following
sentences.
1. We shall never forget what you have done for us. 2. " You ought
to know my military secretary," said the general, as Lothair entered,
"and therefore I will introduce you.'' 3. I am very patient; I will
wait. 4. If I do return, I will vote against them. But I will not return.
I have made up my mind to that. 5. I will send you Jennings's poem, if
you like. 6. You will of course make a drawing and an estimate, and
send them to me (§240). 7. Do congratulate her for me, will you?
8. Another Athens shall arise. — Shelley. 9. "I won't allow it!"
cried Lady Niton, " he sha'n't go ! " 10. Shall I find you at home if I
call some day soon, between five and six o'clock ? 11. You must be con-
vinced, and on reflection you will be convinced. 12. Before my journey
to Rochdale, you shall have due notice where to address me. 13. I con-
sider myself a first-rate shot, and you shall practise with me. 14. Shall
I ever forget that party ? 15. Shall you hunt to-morrow, Mr. Deronda ?
16. When shall you be at Cambridge ?
17. Lady St. Jerome is a little indisposed — a cold caught at one of her
bazaars. She will hold them, and they say that no one ever sells so much.
— Disraeli. 18. Will you be good enough to keep an account of all the
manuscripts you receive, for fear of omi&sion ? 19. O rest ye, brother
mariners, we will not wander more. — Tennyson. 20. Will you forward
the inclosed immediately to Corbet, whose address I do not exactly re-
member ? 21. Byron was no common man : yet if we examine his poetry
with this view, we shall find it far enough from faultless. — Carlyle.
22. I shall be in town by Sunday next, and will call and have some conver-
sation on the subject of Westall's proposed design. 23. Will you go
down, dear ? I will follow you in a moment. 24. Will not your trip to
Bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at Weston ? 25. Never,
as long as I live, will I speak to you again, nor shall Harry, whom you
have humiliated !
26. Yet he for whom I grieve shall never know it. 27. Shall you let
him go to Italy ? 28. Prone to the dust Oppression shall be hurled. —
Campbell. 29. You sha'n't go on with this affair, I tell you, Harry. 30. I
shall probably return this evening, but I will see you before I go. — Trol-
lope. 31. In the interim I shall leave town ; on Sunday I shall set out
for Herefordshire, from whence, when wanted, I will return. 32. If my
father does not return with me in the spring, it shall not be for want of
urging on my part. — Cooper.
VEEBS 257
2. Fill each blank with wiU or shall.
1. I be glad to see you.
2. We be obliged to go home early.
3. I help you whenever you wish.
4. I promise that he not trouble you again.
5. You be kind enough to take your seat.
6. We miss our train, I fear.
7. I must hurry or I be late.
8. Robert have as much as is good for him.
9. Arthur disobey me in spite of all I can do.
10. Arthur obey you, I am sure.
11. Arthur obey me, or I punish him.
12. If we reject these offers, we regret it.
13. I no longer endure his insolence.
14. they return in season for dinner ?
15. I have to excuse you this time, I suppose.
16. I gladly see you at any time.
17. You not leave this room until you have confessed.
18. He give you the money, I feel confident.
19. He give you the money, or I have no more to do with him.
20. we allow them to do as they please ?
3. Write declarative sentences, using will or shall in the
first person (singular or plural) to express a threat, a promise,
resolution, consent, desire, determination, simple futurity.
4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with will or
shall. Write sentences (using will or shall) in answer.
1. you promise to do better ?
2. you make any promises if he insists ?
3. we miss our train ?
4. we go ? Just ask us I
5. I go now ? I fear I am wearying you.
6. I tell you what I really think ?
7. you call a cab for me, if you please ?
8. you be glad to see him ?
9. you see me if I call at one o'clock ?
10. we see you this evening ?
11. you be kind enough to open that door, or I ?
12. you miss your brother ?
13. we wait here, or you relent and let us go with you ?
14. . we allow this evil to continue ?
15. you forgive me ?
258 EXERCISES
EXERaSE 32
(§§ 242-245, pp. 106-107)
1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain
their formation.
1. Four long years in the times of the war had he languished a cap-
tive. — Longfellow. 2. The adventurer has subsequently returned to
his native country. 3. Spiders had built their webs in the angles of the
walls and ceilings. 4. Whole fleets had been cast away. Large mansions
had been blown down. 6. I am just returned from staying three days
at a delightful inn by the river Ouse, where we always go to fish (§ 242, 1,
note). — FiTz Gerald. 6. In the evening we reached a village where I
had determined to pass the night. 7. I have sent by the Gisbomes a
copy of the " Elegy on Keats.'' 8. I have really done my best. 9. Our
visits to the islands have been more like dreams than realities. 10. We
are here arrived at the crisis of Bums' s life. 11. The chills of a long
winter had suddenly given way ; the north wind had spent its last gasp ;
and a mild air came stealing from the west. 12. The officer at last turned
away, having satisfied himself that the room was empty. 13. Carson will
have reached shelter long before this.
2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise
29, 2 are used in the perfect tense.
3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect
tense ; into the future perfect tense. Write sentences in which
the same verbs are used as perfect participles; as perfect
infinitives.
EXERCISE 33
(§§ 246-254, pp. 107-112)
1. Tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive
voice.
2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make
such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is active,
change it to the passive.
3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE 259
1. The customs of mankind are influenced in many ways by climate.
2. The door, which was slightly ajar, was suddenly pushed open. 3. The
landlord handed the stranger the newspaper. 4. After a short pause,
my host resumed his narration. 5. During the greater part of that night
my slumbers were disturbed by strange dreams. 6. Not a word was
spoken, not a sound was made. 7. The great willow tree had caught
and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water. 8. Early in
the morning I was awakened by the voices of Peter and his wife. 9. He
that is loudly praised will be clamorously censured. — Johnson. 10. Out
of this story he formed a tragedy. 11. The assailants were repulsed in
their first attack, and several of their bravest officers were shot down in
the act of storming the fortress sword in hand. 12. This fatal question
has disturbed the quiet of many other minds. 13. No genius was ever
blasted by the breath of critics. — Johnson. 14. The jury then heard
the opinion of the judge.
15. What cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world I
— Miss Bcrney. 16. Their departure made another material change at
Mansfield. 17. The appearance of a housemaid prevented any further
conversation. 18. Each word of this leave-taking was overheard by
Kezia. 19. Before nine o'clock next morning the two canoes were in-
stalled on a light country cart. 20. An old harper was summoned from
the servants' hall. 21. He had been wounded at Waterloo. 22. This
advice struck the disputants dumb. 23. Through the night were heard
the mysterious sounds of the desert. 24. A violent storm of rain obliged
them to take shelter in an inn. 25. Far was heard the fox's yell. — Scott.
26. Adams highly commended the doctor's opinion.
4. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the
verbs from active to passive, or from passive to active. Notice
the effect upon subjects and objects.
1. I was brought up by my uncle. 2. I have found them. 3. We
were delayed by the storm. 4. They were warned by the pilot. 5; She
saw us. 6. That winter will never be forgotten by any of us. 7. You
surprise me. 8. Will you meet me ? 9. Was he struck by a bullet ?
10. Have you forgotten me ? 11. How the crowd cheered him ! 12. Tom,
the blacksmith, makes horseshoes. 13. The schooner was run down by
the steamship. 14. The old man has opened a little shop. 15. Mary
has invited Ellen. 16. Mary might have invited Ellen. 17. Mary will
invite Ellen. 18. The storm has made great havoc along the coast. 19. The
children have been called home by their nurse. 20. He vexes me. 21. The
tower was struck by lightning yesterday. 22. A policeman helped her
over the crossing. 23. I was amused by your letter.
260 EXERCISES
5. Use eaxjh of the following verbs in both the active and
the passive of the past, the future, and the perfect (or present
perfect): — send, bring y teachy drinky get, set, lay, leave, find,
forget.
6. Use each of the verbs in § 105 in the active voice of the'
past tense with both a direct and an indirect object. Change
to the passive.
EXERCISE 34
(§§ 255-261, pp. 113-114)
1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb-
phrases. Mention the tense and voice of each. Note any in-
stances where do and did are not emphatic.
1. Thus did the long sad years glide on. 2. Now pray do settle in
England. 3. Meanwhile, I go about in my little ship, where I do think
I have two honest fellows to deal with. 4. I remember. I do indeed
remember — too well I 5. Not until it was broad daylight did I quit
the haunted house. 6. Do but look on her eyes. 7. Roland reached
the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in. 8. We are being
entertained by the Archers. 9. The man at our wheel was spinning his
spokes desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see, but
whose bells were ringing everywhere about us. 10. Wild weeds are
gathering on the wall. 11. 1 did actually pick up a French crown piece,
worth about a dollar and six cents, near high-water mark. 12. I was
loitering about the old gray cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 13. The
friends of Coningsby were now hourly arriving. 14. My eyes have
been leaving me in the lurch again.
15. They had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of
the mountains, along the edges of a tumbling stream. 16. We are just
sitting down to dinner with a pleasant party. 17. The large Newfound-
land house-dog was standing by the door. 18. " Do thou," said Ber-
tram, "lead the way.'' — Scott. 19. Music in his ears his beating heart
. did make. 20. Over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling. — Holmes.
2. Write sentences in which the verb teach is used in the
present progressive, past progressive, future progressive, per-
fect progressive, pluperfect progressive, and future perfect
progressive tenses of the active voice.
3. Write ten questions containing some form of do (or did).
IMPEEATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE 261
EXERCISE 35
(§§ 262-286, pp. 116-128)
Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive
mood. Tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the
forms and uses of the subjunctives.
1. And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords. — Shakspere.
2. I think you had better speak to Lady Corisande yourself (§ 286).
3. My dear boy, God bless thee a thousand times over ! 4. O that the
desert were my dwelling place I 5. "Rest we here," Matilda said. —
Scott. 6. Go where thy destiny calls thee. 7. Now Hesper guide my
feet. — Akenside. 8. O that such hills upheld a freeborn race 1 —
Byron. 9. Perish those riches which are acquired at the expense of my
honor or my humanity ! — Goldsmith. 10. Would all were well ! but
that will never be. — Shakspere. 11. The distaff were more fitting for
you. 12. Robert hesitated, as if he were inclined to refuse. 13. Do
what they might, the hook was in their gills. — George Meredith.
14. Fare you well, fair gentlemen. — Shakspere. 15. Suffice it to say,
the robbers were defeated. 16. Disclose thy treachery, or die ! 17. Let
us not be influenced by any angry feelings. 18. Be that as it may, Kidd
never returned to recover his wealth.
19. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward's. — Shakspere.
20. Move we on. — Scott. 21. Mark that the signal-gun be duly fired.
— Byron. 22. The hull drives on, though mast and sail be torn. 23. I
am glad that you liked my song, and, if I liked the others myself so well
as that I sent you, I would transcribe them for you also. — Cowper.
24. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts. — Shakspere.
25. If there be change, no change I see. — Landor. 26. Be it as thou
wilt. 27. Weep you no more, sad fountains. 28. If thou leave thy
father, he will die. — Wordsworth. 29. Come thou no more for ransom,
gentle herald. — Shakspere. 30. Learn thou his purpose. 31. Come,
go we in procession to the village. — Shakspere. 32. The destruction
of proi)erty which took place within a few weeks would be incredible,
if it were not attested by witnesses unconnected vnth each other and
attached to very different interests.
33. I wish I were as I have been.
Hunting the hart in forest green. — Scott.
34. Come what come may.
Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. — Shakspere.
35. Buried be all that has been done.
Or say that naught is done amiss, — Crabbe.
262 EXERCISES
EXERaSE 36
(§§272-286, pp. 118-128)
Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form.
1. O that he here 1
2. Would that I there 1
3. If he a little older, I should take him into partnership.
4. you asked me to go, I should have refused.
5. you to ask me, I should refuse.
6. If you there, I should have seen you.
7. I am glad I saw the play, even if I a little disappointed.
8. I should have been glad to see the play, even if I a little
disappointed.
9. I should be glad to see the play, even if I a little disappointed.
10. I shall be glad to see the play, even if I a little disapi>ointed.
11. Though he to increase my salary, I should not remain in his
employ. [Use the copula.]
12. Unless he to increase my salary, I should not remain in his
employ. [Use the copula.]
13. When Tom saw you, you looked as if you angry. [Use the
copula.]
14. When Tom sees you, I suppose you will look as if you angry.
16. I must remind him to post this letter, lest he it.
EXERCISE 37
(§§ 287-296, pp. 124-127)
Explain the meaning of each potential verbrphrase, and
parse the phrase. In parsing such a phrase, describe it merely
as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense, voice, person, and
number, without assigning it to any mood.
1. Enough! You may depart. 2. Men should travel. 3. What must
be shall be. That's a certain text. — Shakspere. 4. At times, with a
strong effort, he would glance at the open door which still seemed to
repel his eyes. 6. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. — Emerson.
6. It was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone. He would
have a book near him, and for a while would keep it in his hands. —
Trollope. 7. O, my friend I may I believe you ? May I speak to you ?
8. Presently he faced Adrian, crying, " And I might have stopped it ! "
9. Nothing is impossible to the man who can will. — Emerson. 10. A
MODAL AUXILIARIES 263
scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not. — Emerson. 11. ''I
trust we 're at liberty to enter," said the elder lady with urbanity. " We
were told that we might come at any time." 12. I sent for you that I
might have your counsel and assistance. 13. I could no longer doubt
the doom prepared for me.
14. I am as well as I can expect to be under the excitement which I
suffer. 15. I can become a party to no such absurd proceeding. 16. I
could scarcely refrain from tears. 17. Come ! we must go back. 18. We
must be strangers to each other in future. 19. As my horse must now
have eaten his provender, I must needs thank you for your good cheer,
and. pray you to show me this man's residence, that I may have the means
of proceeding on my journey.
EXERCISE 38
(§§ 289-291, pp. 125-126)
1. Fill each blank with can or may,
1. I borrow your pen ?
2. Yes, you .
3. No, you not.
4. I swim across this river some day, for I know well enough
that I .
5. I shall ask my father if I swim across this river. I know well
enough that I .
6. My father is confident that I swim across the river safely.
7. My father says that I swim across the river if I will wait
until he go with me.
8. I trouble you to give me that tennis racket ?
9. It be that you will regret this.
10. It not be that you will regret this.
11. you take a vacation this year, or is permission still refused ?
12. Why not ask if you take a vacation ?
13. You take your vacation after I have taken mine.
14. The weather man says we hope for sunshine to-morrow.
15. He be thankful that he escaped so easily.
16. When you are twenty-one, you have your own way.
2. Write sentences asking permission in the first, second,
and third persons. Write sentences (1) granting these requests;
(2) refusing them.
264 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 39
(§§ 297-308, pp. 127-182)
1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (shovZd or would). In
some of the sentences, should might be substituted for would.
Which are they ?
1. If I were you, I would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours.
2. I have neither servants nor clothes, and, if it had not been for these
good people, I should not have had food. 3. I should delight in having
her for a sister-in-law. 4. I should hardly wish to go out before Friday.
5. I should n*t wonder if this made him set his teeth. 6. Well, that 's
over ! and I *m sure neither Oliver nor I would go through it again for
a million of money. 7. If I were you, I would turn it over in my mind.
8. I should be afraid to express myself in this manner, if the matter were
not clear and indisputable. — Burke. 9. I should like to remain where I
am for another week or ten days. 10. Would you do me the favor to look
at a few specimens of my portrait-painting ? — Dickens. 11. " Would
you come?" she said, with a serious, searching glance, and in a kind
of coaxing manner. — "I should be an intruder, my dear lady," said
Theodore, declining the suggestion. — Disraeli.
12. I should not like to be out of my seat were the House in session.—
W. J. Locke. 13. If I were you I would not tempt Fate by remaining
here a day longer. — W. E. Norris. 14. Candidates would rather, I
suppose, climb in at a window than be absolutely excluded. — Cowper.
15. Impey would not hear of mercy or delay. 16. I should not be sur-
prised if he were here immediately. 17. There 's a plantation of sugar-
canes at the foot of that rock : should you like to look? — George Eliot.
2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (shall, should, or wUl,
would) in each subordinate clause.
1. With this purpose in view, he sent a skilful architect to build him
such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in.
2. Their majesties commanded me to submit to whatever Bobadilla should
order in their name. 3. Should you find yourself able to push on to
Braemar, your visit will be most welcome. 4. It 's a simple affair enough,
if you '11 just leave it as it stands. 5. Fearing to awaken Joseph a second
time, lest he should again hazard all by his thoughtlessness, he crept
softly out of the wigwam. 6. I watched the grapes from day to day
till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams. 7. If
an old prophecy should come to pass, we may see a man, some time or
SHOULD AND WOULD 265
other, with exactly such a face as that. 8. He kept his heart continually
open, and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it
should come. — Hawthorne. 9. This law provided that the presidency
of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the
Company. 10. It is time that we should proceed.
11. It is necessary that he should have some work to do. 12. I shall
be thankful if you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance. 13. It
was natural that the leading authors should affect a style of levity and
derision. — Jeffkey. 14. I will take care that you shall not be troubled
by him again'. 15. That the Duke of Wellington should cordially approve
is singular enough. 16. '* Boys," interrupted Wilder, *' it is now proper
that you should know something of my future movements." — Cooper.
17. We all stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion. —
Defoe. 18. You are so well qualified for the task yourself that it is
imi)08sible you should need any assistance ; at least, it is hardly possible
that I should afford you any. — Cowper. 19. The brave sufferer refused
to purchase liberty, though liberty to him would have been life, by recog-
nizing the authority which had confined him. 20. I meant that he should
walk off, but he did not choose to understand me. 21. When time shall
serve, you shall have the fruit of my labors. — Cowper.
22. I shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read. — George Eliot.
23. I protest against such a combat, until the king of England shall have
repaid the fifty thousand bezants. — Scott. 24. Unless something should
go wrong, I flatter myself that the performance will elicit your generous
approbation. 25. A seat in the cabinet was offered to him, on condition
that he would give efficient support to the ministry in Parliament. 26. The
proposition which he made was, that Fox should be Secretary of State.
27. That night he put forth a proclamation, directing that the posts
should be stopped, and that no person should, at his peril, venture to
harbor the accused members. — Macau lay. 28. Hyde interfered, and
proposed that the question should be divided. 29. I am sorry that you
should be bothered in this way. 30. I am sorry that Murray should
groan on my account. — Byron. 31. There are old brass andirons, wait-
ing until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes. 32. Should
he be acquitted, that, I imagine, should end the matter. 33. A rumor was
circulated that some new pageant was about to be exhibited, which should
put a fitting close to the splendid festivities. 34. If this new purpose of
conquest shall be abandoned, Richard may yet become King of Jerusalem
by compact. — Scott. 35. Saladin desires no converts save those whom
the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his law. 36. Pride
now came to Montezuma^s aid, and, since he must go, he preferred that
it should appear to be with his own free will. 37. God forbid that I
should regret those gifts 1
266 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 40
(§§ 309-828, pp. 132-137)
1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construction as
noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as
modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as part of a verb-phrase
(with an auxiliary).
2. Point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives.
1. To advance toward London woold have been madness. 2. To trace
the exact boundary between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossi-
ble. — Macaula Y. 3. I was too young to keep any journal of this voyage.
4. The baron hastened to receive his future son-in-law. 5. It was her
habit to go over to the deanery (§ 318). 6. He could not consent to turn
his back ux)on a party of helpless travellers. 7. The fixed purpose of
these men was to break the foreign yoke. 8. Here rise no cliffs the vale
to shade. 9. They saw the gleaming river seaward flow (§ 322). 10. She
perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move. 11. His first scheme was
to seize Bristol. 12. The first business of the Commons was to elect a
Speaker. 13. The old man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze
over the tract that he had yet to traverse. 14. When other things sank
brooding to sleep, the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen. —
Hardy. 16. All were anxious to hear the story of the mysterious pic-
ture. 16. I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and the
mist. 17. Then the bishop rose from his chair to speak.
18. To dismiss him from his high i)ost was to emancipate him from all
restraint. 19. This is not a time to hesitate. 20. Burghers hastened to
man the wall. 21. I felt Leslie's hand tremble on my arm. 22. He
heard a mighty bowstring twang. — Morris. 23. Mr. Ralph Nickleby
sat in his private office one morning, ready dressed to walk abroad. 24. I
put down the letters, and began to muse over their contents. 25. Waves
of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch. 26. Halifax had now nothing
to give. 27. The neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity.
28. It is always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide. 29. Soldiers
were drawn up to keep the passage clear.
3. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, as
predicate nominative, as appositive, as the object of a preposi-
tion, as an adjective ; a complementary infinitive ; an infinitive
of purpose ; an infinitive used with shally with will, with ttiusL
4. Note any modifiers or objects that you have used with
the infinitives.
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE 267
EXERCISE 41
(§§ 324-328, pp. 137-139)
,1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of
which it is the object. Eind the subject of each infinitive.
When it is possible, substitute a ^Aa^clause for the infinitive
clause.
1. It might seem irreverent to make the gray cathedral and the tall
time-worn palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market.
2. We have made you wait. 3. We then went to Pembroke College,
and waited on his old friend Dr. Adams, the master of it, whom I found
to be a most polite, pleasing, communicative man. — Boswell. 4. The
doctor expects Captain Starbuck to recover. 5. For a good sailor to foul
the first buoy was ludicrous enough. 6. Will you ask Annie to feed the
parrot ? 7. I believe it to be a speaking likeness. 8. I suppose them
to be utterly ignorant of their own condition.
9. Hepzibah bade her young guest sit down. 10. Calamity and peril
often force men to combine. 11. He knew himself to be a liar whom
nobody trusted. 12. I must not ask the reader to suppose that he was
cheerful. 13. I felt this melancholy to be infectious. 14. No one on
seeing Mr. Crawley took him to be a happy man, or a weak man, or an
ignorant man, or a wise man. — Trollope. 15. Humanity impelled him
to rescue the poor wretch.
2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after
verbs of wishing, commanding, believing, declaring, perceiving,
3. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun.
1. He believes the author to be . [First person.]
2. He believes that the author is . [First person.]
3. I knew the thief to be . [Third person.]
4. I thought that the thief was . [Third person.]
5. We thought the strangers to be . [Third person.]
6. We thought that the strangers were . [Third person.]
4. Fill each blank with who or whom,
1. The man 1 believe to be responsible for this accident is the
engineer.
2. I believe that the man is responsible for this accident is the
engineer.
3. My knock was answered by a lad — ^ I believed to be a lodger.
4. You are not the person I believed you to be.
268 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 42
(§§ 32^343, pp. 140-143)
1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell
what substantive each modifies. Mention such as are used as
pure adjectives. Mention any modifiers or objects of participles.
1. The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done. —
Whitman. 2. Even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains
drawn close could not shut out the sound of the driving sleet. 3. Godol-
phin was not a reading man. 4. Mr. Sikes, dragging Oliver after him,
elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd. 5. Betrayed, de-
serted, disorganized, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies, the
noble city was still no easy conquest. 6. Thus regretted and cautioned
on all hands, Mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household. 7. Far
away, an angry white stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray
waters, shot with gleams of green, diminished swiftly, without a hiss,
like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun. — Conrad. 8. I set her
on my pacing steed. — Keats.
9. But the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute, and then
went on, stumbling through the mud, striking his ill-covered feet against
the rough stones in the dark, sweating in his weakness, almost tottering
at times, and calculating whether his remaining strength would serve to
carry him home. — Trollope. 10. His teeth are set, his hand is clenched.
11. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small
amphitheatre. 12. He found the house gone to decay — the roof fallen
in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. 13. And now,
sir, when you next go to the British Museum, look for a poet named
Vaughan. 14. A heavy sea struck us on our starboard quarter, almost
throwing us on our beam-ends. 15. He stood chuckling and rubbing his
hands, and scarcely hearing a word the parson said. 16. The light
struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 17. We sailed
merrily forward for several days, meeting with nothing to interrupt us.
2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six
weak verbs ; of six strong verbs.
3. Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure
adjective ; a participle used as a predicate adjective ; a parti-
ciple modified adverbially ; a participle taking an object.
4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle.
Substitute for each a clause introduced by when.
PARTICIPIAL NOUNS 269
EkERCISE 43
(§§ 344-846, p. 144)
Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. .Substitute
a modifying clause in each sentence.
1. A carriage, drawn by half a dozen horses, came driving at a furious
rate, the postilions smacking their whips like mad. 2. As far as the eye
could reach, the sea in every direction was of a deejp blue color, the
waves running high and fresh, and sparkling in the light. 3. For some
years past there had been a difficulty about the rent, things not having
gone at the Dragon of Wantly as smoothly as they had used to go. 4. He
began to talk rapidly, all diffidence subdued. 5. Noon coming, and the
Doctor not returning, Mr. Lorry advised with Lucie. 6. The second mate
falling ill during the passage, I was promoted to officer of the watch.
7. The dog now roused himself and sat on his haunches, his ears moving
quickly backward and forward. 8. This done, Mazeppa spread his
cloak. 9. She was seated alone, her arms on the table, her head bent
down. 10. There being some time upon his hands, he left his luggage at
the cloak-room, and went on foot along Bedford Street to the church.
EXERCISE 44
(§§ 347-353, pp. 145-147) .
1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal
nouns in -ing (participial nouns). Show the difference. Men-
tion any modifiers or complements used with either.
1. The consternation was extreme. Some were for closing the gates
and resisting ; some for submitting ; some for temporizing. 2. A troop
of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his
gray head. 3. The wicket opened on a stone staircase leading upward.
4. Watching and toil were to me pleasure, for my body was strong, and
my spirits winged. 5. The lingerings of decent pride were visible in her
appearance. 6. His deep bass voice had a quavering in it, his eyes looked
dim, and the lines on his face were deep. 7. There were several French
privateers hovering on the coast. 8. He does not like talking of these
matters to strangers. 9. Miss Matty cared much more for the circum-
stance of her being a very good card-player. 10. His discourse was
broken off by his man's telling him he had called a coach. 11. Swallows
and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves. 12. I have loved,
lived with, and left the sea without ever seeing a ship's tall fabric of
sticks, cobwebs, and gossamer go by the board. — Conrad.
270 EXERCISES
13. The sexton was a meek, acquiescing little man, of a bowing, lowlj
habit ; yet he had a pleasant twinkling in his eye. 14. The rain always
made a x>oint of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do.
15. I have been employed this morning in composing a Latin motto for
the king^s clock. 16. Two more of the boats were lost by being stoTe
and swamped alongside. 17. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds.
18. After wandering through two or three streets, I found my way to
Shakspere's birthplace. 19. Rip^s heart died away at hearing of these
sad changes in his home and friends. 20. The fish did not bite freely,
and we frequently changed our fishing ground without bettering our
luck. 21. Lady Niton sat blinking and speechless. 22. I cannot help
hearing things, and reading things, and observing things, and they fill
me with disquietude. 23. Here was circumstance after circumstance
goading me onward. 24. I sat staring at a book of my own making.
25. That thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger.
2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a
present participle are formed from —
run, hunt, leap, swim, strike, find, speak, sing, shout, play, skate,
blow, spend, listen, eat, move, translate, recite, murmur, whisper, read,
talk, complain, paint, build, give, breathe, teach, flow, shine.
3. Whenever It is possible, substitute either a noun or an
infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences.
4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sen-
tences in which each is used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct
and an indirect object, (3) with an adjective modifier, (4) with
an adverbial modifier.
EXERCISE 45
(§§ 364-371, pp. 148-154)
1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions.
In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word
to which the preposition shows the relation of the object.
In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of
words which it connects, tell whether it is coordinate or sub-
ordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 369) if it has one.
PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS 271
1. Neither witch nor warlock crossed Mordaunt's path. 2. But I will
"be bolder, and do not doubt to make it good, though a paradox, that one
great reason why prose is not to be used in serious plays, is, because it
is too near the nature of converse. — Dryden. 3. All down that im-
mense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of scarlet and gold.
4. No doubt, something of Shakspere^s punning must be attributed to his
age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime
of the courtly and accomplished. — Coleridge. 5. Bodily labor is of
two kinds : either that which a man submits to for his livelihood, or that
which he undergoes for his pleasure. — Addison, 6. Early upon the
morrow the march was resumed. 7. The camp was broken up, and
the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country. 8.
My attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the
bleatings of sheep. 9. This is well to be weighed, that boldness is ever
blind, for it seeth not dangers and inconveniences. — Bacon. 10. At a
little distance from Sir Roger's house, among the ruins of an old abbey,
there is a long walk of aged elms. 11. Then I sent you the Greek instead
of the Persian whom you asked for? — Fitz Gerald. 12. Rowland's
allowance at college was barely suflacient to maintain him decently, and,
his degree nevertheless achieved, he was taken into his father's counting-
house to do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend.
13. Though this lady never expressed an idea, Richard was not mis-
taken in her cleverness. 14. If I am tired, your letter will refresh me.
15. The young ladies however, and Mr. Pecksniff likewise, remained in
the very best of spirits in spite of these severe trials, though with some-
thing of a mysterious understanding among themselves. 16. He went
along almost gaily, nor felt the fatigue of the road.
2. Write sentences in which the following words are used
as indicated : —
for (preposition, conjunction), then (conjunction, adverb), notwithstand-
ing (preposition, conjunction), since (preposition, adverb, relative adverb),
until (preposition, relative adverb), as (conjunction, relative pronoun, rela-
tive adverb), that (conjunction, relative pronoun, demonjstrative adjective,
demonstrative pronoun), but (preposition, conjunction),
3. Construct sentences containing either and or, neither
and nor, whether and or, not only and but also, both and and,
though, if, because.
4. Construct six sentences containing coordinate conjunc-
tions ; six containing subordinate conjunctions ; six containing
relative adverbs.
272 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 46
(§§ 372-376, pp. 156-156)
Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used
here in exclamation, and all exclamatory phrases.
1. Ring the alarum-bell 1 Murder and treason ! — Shakspebe. 2. Kip-
ling is by far the most promising young man who has appeared since —
ahem — I appeared. — Stevenson. 3. O, to be in England 1 4. " Cour-
age I " he said, and pointed toward the land. — ^Tennyson. 5. Ah ! my
lord Arthur, whither shall I go ? 6. Alas for my credulous fancy !
7. Tut, man I we must take things as they come. 8. O day, the last of
all my bliss on earth ! — Marlowe. 9. Adieu, fair Cadiz I yea, a long
adieu! — Byron. 10. Peace, sister, peace! 11. Fie, fie, my brother!
12. How now, Thersites ? what, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury ?
13. Farewell for the present, my dear sir. 14. O Jupiter ! how weary
are my spirits 1 — Shakspere. 15. Guilty, my lord, guilty ! I confess,
I confess ! 16. Hence, you long-legg'd spinners, hence 1 17. O mon-
strous ! O strange ! we are haunted ! 18. Faith, he is gone unto the
taming school. 19. But, soft ! whom have we here ?
20. A Tory ! a Tory I a spy ! a refugee I hustle him ! away with him !
21. What I this gentleman will outtalk us all. 22. Up, up, Glentarkin !
rouse thee, ho ! — Scott. 23. And now good-bye, my dear fellow.
24. Ahem I you remember, friend ? Grand triumphs those, eh ?
EXERCISE 47
(§§ 376-392, pp. 157-162)
1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun
or pronoun) is modified by an adjective clause ; ten in which
the simple predicate is modified by an adverbial clause.
2. Tell the construction (as subject, predicate nominative,
object, etc.) of each noun clause in § 392. Mention the simple
subject and predicate of each clause.
EXERCISE 48
(§§ 395-402, pp. 163-165)
1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses
place, time, cause, or concession. Is the clause adjective or ad-
verbial ? What introduces it ? What does it modify ?
CLAUSES OF PLACE, TIME, ETC. 273
1. Though often misled by prejudice and passion, he was emphatically
an honest man. 2. When a prisoner first leaves his cell, he cannot bear
the light of day. 3. As I walked through the wilderness of this world,
I lighted on a certain place where was a den. — Bunyan. 4. He post-
poned his final decision till after the Parliament should have reassembled.
5. They gave a dismal croak or two, and hopped aside into the darkest
comer, since it was not yet their hour to fiap duskily abroad. 6. Calmly
and sadly she waited, until the procession approached her. 7. Half the
task was not done when the sun went down. 8. However I might be
disposed to trust his probity, I dare not trust his prejudices. 9. After
a little more conversation we strolled to the stable, where my horse was
standing. 10. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music,
and now and then a burst of laughter. 11. His face was not cruel, though
it was desperate.
12. We again set out for the hut, at which we deposited our golden
burdens. 13. It will be midnight before we arrive at our inn. 14. Though
I was not particularly well supplied with money, I had enough for the
expenses of my journey. 15. The day, though it began brightly, had
long been overcast. 16. As there were no men in the company, the girls
danced with each other. 17. Although without fear, I did not neglect
to use all proper precautions. 18. When I return, I shall find things
settled. 19. Clifford, as the company partook of their little banquet,
grew to be the gayest of them all. 20. The mill where Will lived with
his adopted parents stood in a falling valley between pine woods and great
mountains. 21. As Ichabod approached this fearful tree, he began to
whistle. 22. Infected be the air whereon they ride ! — Shakspere.
23. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they.
24. Since you will not help me, I must trust to myself. 25. When
they beheld his face, they recognized Basil the blacksmith. 26. This is
the third day since we came to Rome. 27. Amsterdam was the place
where the leading Scotch and English assembled. 28. These considera-
tions might well have made William uneasy, even if all the military means
of the United Provinces had been at his absolute disposal. 29. Although
the breeze had now utterly ceased, we had made a great deal of way
during the night.
2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession, by-
constructing twenty sentences, five for each.
3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What
does each modify ?
4. See if you can replace your clauses of time by participles
or adverbial phrases.
274 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 49
(§§ 403-410, pp. 166-167)
1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result.
1. The weather was so bad I could not embark that night. 2. She
opened the casement that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing
temples. 3. So intent were the servants ux)on their sports, that we had
to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard. 4. The con-
sequence was that, according to the rules of the House, the amendment
was lost. 6. Therefore I am going this way, as I told you, that I may
be rid of my burden. 6. Tess's friends lived so far off that none could
conveniently have been present at the ceremony. 7. Sometimes I was
afraid lest I should be charged with ingratitude. 8. There is such an
echo among the old ruins and vaults that, if you stamp but a little louder
than ordinary, you hear the sound repeated. — Addison. 9. They durst
not speak without premeditation, lest they should be convicted of dis-
content or sorrow. 10. My purpose was, to admit no testimony of liv-
ing authors, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of
my contemporaries might have reason to complain. — Johnson. 11. It
is King Richard^s pleasure that you die undegraded.
2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose ;
of result ; an infinitive clause expressing purpose.
3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a
subject) expresses purpose.
4. Review Exercise 40.
EXERCISE 50
(§§ 411-427, pp. 167-172)
1. Tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sen-
tences are non-committal or contrary to fact, and whether they
represent present, past, or future condition.
1. Should Hayley be with you, tell him I have given my friend
Mr. Rose an introductory letter to him. 2. If the judgment against
him was illegal, it ought to have been reversed. If it was legal, there
was no ground for remitting any part of it. 3. If I ever saw horror in
the human face, it was there. 4. His affliction would have been insupport-
able, had not he been comforted by the daily visits and conversations of
his friend. 5. We perish if they hear a shot. — Scott. 6. Can Freedom
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 275
"breathe if Ignorance reign ? — Holmes. 7. If power be in the hands of
men, it will sometimes be abused. 8. If hopes were dupes, fears may
be liars. — Clough. 9. If you write to Moore, will you tell him that I
shall answer his letter the moment I can muster time and spirits ? 10. If
you have any good news to tell, it will not be unwelcome ; if any bad,
you need not be afraid. 11. I feel quite as much bored with this fool-
ery as it deserves, and more than I should be, if I had not a headache.
12. Will you let me offer you this little book ? If I had anything better,
it should be yours.
13. I shall hope, if we can agree as to dates, to come to you sometime
in May. 14. If I could only get to work, we could live here with com-
fort. 15. If he had been left to himself, he would have whistled life
away in perfect contentment. 16. If this frolic should lay me up with
a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Van Winkle.
17. I know that two and two make four, and should be glad to prove it, if
I could, — though, I must say, if by any sort of process I could convert
two and two into five, it would give me much greater pleasure. — Byron.
18. I would not say this if I could help it. 19. If you are disposed to
write — write ; and if not, I shall forgive your silence, and you will not
quarrel with mine. 20. Had not exercise been absolutely necessary for
our well-being, nature would not have made the body so proper for it. —
Addison. 21. Nothing will ever be attempted, if all possible objections
must first be overcome. — Johnson. 22. If fashion gives the word, every
distinction of beauty, complexion, or stature ceases. — Goldsmith.
2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional
clause. Tell whether each condition refers to present, past, or
future time. Which of them are contrary to fact ?
EXERCISE 51
(§§ 428-429, p. 173)
1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such
forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment.
1. Dull as a flower without the sun, he sat down upon a stone. 2. He
sighed as if he would break his heart. 3. The modem steamship advances
upon a still and overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame,
an occasional clang in her depths, as if she had an iron heart in her iron
body. — Conrad. 4. It would have been as difficult, however, to follow
up the stream of Donatello^s ancestry to its dim source, as travellers have
276 EXERCISES
found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the Nile. 6. 1 will become
as liberal as you. 6. The triumph was as destructive to the victorious as
to the vanquished. 7. The public conduct of Milton must be approved
or condemned, according as the resistance of the people to Charles the
First shall appear to be justifiable or criminal. 8. There was no one in
all Clavering who read so many novels as Madame Fribsby. 9. No kind
of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous. —
Macaulay.
10. The leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as sav-
agely as if he were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery
of guns. — Black. 11. He shouts as if he were trying his voice against
a northwest gale of wind. 12. The playground seemed smaller than
when I used to sport about it. 13. The blood in me raCn cold, and I drew
in my breath as if I had been struck. 14. There are few things more
formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man. — Miller.
16. Nor was Lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily
vigor. 16. He showed less wisdom than virtue. 17. He was as cour-
ageous an animal as ever scoured the woods. 18. As fierce a beak and
talon as ever struck — as strong a wing as ever beat, belonged to Swift.
— Thackeray.
19. Homer's description of war had as much truth as "poeiij requires.
— Macaulay. 20. Of all the objects I have ever seen, there is none
which affects my imagination so much as the sea. — Addison. 21. " Some-
body must go," murmured Mrs. Heathcliff, more kindly than I expected.
22. We do not so often disappoint others as ourselves. — Johnson.
23. The battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. 24. The
young man looked down on me from the comer of his eyes, for all the
world as if there were some mortal feud unavenged between us. —
E. BRONTfi.
2. Write ten sentences containing as if with a subjunctive.
3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person.
1. You are much stronger than .
2. Your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts .
3. You are not so studious as .
4. He was quite as much to blame as .
5. I blame myself rather than .
6. You should rather blame yourself than .
7. How much older are you than ?
8. Is Jack more ambitious than ?
9. Do you wish to please yourself more than ?
10. Your conduct was less censurable than .
INDIRECT DISCOURSE 277
EXERCISE 52
(§§ 480-436, pp. 173-176)
1. Change the direct statements to indirect discourse, prefix-
ing He said. Thus, —
Supper was announced shortly after my arrival.
He said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival.
Be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense.
1. Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 2. Misery loves
company. 3. Iron [floats in mercury. 4. The grime and sordidness of
the House of the Seven Gables seem to have vanished. 5. Nothing is to
be seen. 6. Straws show which way the wind blows. 7. I remained
undecided whether or not to follow my servant. 8. Rest of mind and
body seems to have reestablished my health. 9. The fortifications consist
of a simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds. 10. Fire is a good serv-
ant but a bad master. 11. Not a cheer was heard ; not a member ven-
tured to second the motion. 12. The most rigid discipline is maintained.
13. Without our consent, such an expedition cannot legally be undertaken.
14. The newspapers will happily save me the trouble of relating minute
particulars.
15. The ringing of bells is at an end ; the rumbling of the carriages
has ceased ; the pattering of feet is heard no more. 16. My mind has
been much disturbed, and too agitated for conversation. 17. While all
this is taking place within the Towers, vast bodies of people are assem-
bling without. 18. The spelling and handwriting are those of a man
imperfectly educated. 19. I have an unconquerable repugnance to return
to my chamber. 20. I like to see a man know his own mind.
2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in the
indirect discourse. Mention the construction of the clause (as
subject, object, etc.).
1. The booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded
the lightship. 2. All of a sudden she thought she heard something move
behind her. 3. Though they spoke French fluently, I perceived that it
was not their native language. 4. I soon found that, in making the
acquaintance of the young man, I had indeed made a valuable acquisi-
tion. 6. I thanked him, but said that Dr; Johnson had come with me
from London, and I must return to the inn and drink tea with him ; that
my name was Boswell, and I had travelled with him in the Hebrides.
6. I discovered that he was wonderfully fond of interfering with other
278 EXERCISES
people's business. 7. I had heard that he had been unhappy, that he
had roamed about, a fevered, distempered man, taking pleasure in noth-
ing. 8. I had observed that the old woman for some time past had
shown much less anxiety about the book. 9. I learned that times had
gone hard with her. 10. I perceived that the objects which had excited
my curiosity were not trees, but inunense upright stones.
11. That no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform
is a self-evident proposition. — Mackintosh. 12. That there are some'
duties superior to others will be denied by no one. 13. It can hardly be
doubted that the highest obligation of a citizen is that of contributing to
preserve the community. 14. Reports had been brought back that six
Christians were lingering in captivity in the interior of the country.
15. If it be true that, by giving our confidence by halves, we can scarcely
hope to make a friend, it is equally true that, by withdrawing it when
given, we shall make an enemy. — Prescott. 16. He concluded with
the assurance that the whole fleet would sail on the following day.
17. Pen protested that he had not changed in the least.
3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is ex-
pressed by an infinitive clause (§ 435).
EXERCISE 53
(§ 436, p. 176)
1. Change each of the sentences quoted at the end of § 436
into one of the other two passive constructions described in
that section.
2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the
indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb.
EXERCISE 54
(§§ 438-439, pp. 177-178)
1. Explain the use of shall, should, wUl, or would in each
instance. Change the indirect discourse to the direct.
1. I believe I should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant
English town all the days of my life. — Fitz Gerald. 2. The sultan
said he would oblige us with donkeys or anything else if we would only
INDIEECT DISCOUESE 279
give him a few more pretty cloths. — Speke. 3. I think that I should
like it to be always summer. 4. He often told his friends afterwards,
that unless he had found out this piece of exercise, he verily believed he
should have lost his senses. — Addison. 5. Do you remember once say-
ing to me that you hoped you should never leave Brentham ? 6. I knew
that he would not have accepted office in 1841-1842 if he could have
avoided it. 7. l*romise you will give him this little book of drawings.
8. I have often thought that there has rarely passed a life of which a
judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful. — Johnson. 9. She
said, very quietly, that she wished to speak to him after breakfast, and
that he would find her in her sitting room. 10. Lady Annabel had
promised the children that they should some day ride together to
Marringhurst.
11. One of them told us that he would make us a canoe. 12. Promise,
Marion — pray promise you will not even mention my name to him when
you write next. 13. He felt that no argument of his would be of any
use. 14. I know very well that I shall sign my own death warrant on
the day when I retire from business. 15. She knew very well now that
Grandcourt would not go without her ; but if he must tyrannize over
her, he should not do it precisely in the way he would choose. She would
oblige him to stay in the hotel. 16. They were afraid that they should
not long be able to put him off with promises. 17. Bungay replied that
he should be happy to have dealings with Mr. Pendennis.
2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (sTiall or shouldy
or will or would),
1. Your father said that he be glad to see me.
2. I told him that I be obliged to dismiss him.
3. I wrote that we gladly accept his invitation.
4. My friends believed that I not be willing to go.
5. Robert thinks that he have to work evenings.
6. Robert says that I have to work evenings.
7. They say that Robert work evenings, although he ought not.
8. I promised that Robert not work evenings.
9. I told Mary that I was sure she succeed.
10. Mary said she had no doubt that I succeed.
11. Mary will say that she has no doubt I succeed.
12. I repeat that I have no doubt you succeed.
13. He declared that you go, even against your will.
14. The report is that we dissolve partnership.
3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which
you have just made to direct statements.
280 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 55
(§§ 440-445, pp. 179-181)
1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain in-
direct questions. Point out these questions and tell what
introduces them (interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb,
subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each
interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.).
2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question.
3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sen-
tences. Are they adjective or adverbial modifiers ?
1. Warrington did not know what his comrade's means were. 2. He
could scarcely tell whether she was imbued with sunshine, or whether it
was a glow of happiness that shone out of her. 3. I started the ques-
tion whether duelling was consistent with moral duty. — Boswell.
4. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the
gate. 6. He 'knew not what to make of the letter. 6. I hardly heard
what he said. 7. Every one knows practically what are the constituents
of health or of virtue. — Newman. 8. Think calmly over what I have
written. 9. Then she asked him whence he was and whither he was go-
ing ; and he told her. 10. What to expect, he knew not. 11. Theseus
wondered what this immense giant could be. 12. Hack says it was
Mrs. Bungay who caused all the mischief. 13. The question was how
best to extricate the army from its perilous position. 14. Addison was
a delightful companion when he was at his ease. 15. I doubt whether
the wisest of us know what our own motives are.
16. I puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two
cases was the more applicable. 17. I returned to the studies which I had
neglected. 18. I cannot tell how I dared to say what I did. 19. How
long he slept he could not say. 20. Fanny, in dismay at such an unprec-
edented question, did not know which way to look, or how to be pre-
pared for an answer. — Miss Austen. 21. What my course of life will
be when I return to England is very doubtful. 22. I cannot tell you how
vaingloriously I walked the streets. 23. Then I told what a tall, up-
right, graceful person their great-grandmother Field once was. 24. When
the bean-vines began to flower on the poles, there was one particular
variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom. 25. I know not which way
I must look. 26. Why she submitted, Mrs. Turpin could not have told
you. 27. I began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum
was. 28. How Ferguson escaped, was, and still is, a mystery. 29. How
far he felt the force of this obligation will appear in the sequel.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS 281
4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced
by who^ which, what, when, how, why, whether, if.
5. Fill the blanks with who or whom. Tell, in each sentence,
whether wh^ or whom is an interrogative or a relative pronoun.
1. I know it was that broke the window.
2. I know it was that you saw.
3. I know you saw.
4. I know the person you saw.
5. I asked if the man we saw was Douglas.
6. I asked if the boy broke the window was Archer.
7. I know it was you overheard.
8. Tell me it is that I resemble.
9. Tell me I resemble.
10. Tell me you think I resemble.
11. Tell me if I resemble anybody. you know.
6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just writ-
ten into direct questions.
7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb-
phrases) is followed by an indirect question ; —
asked, tell, inquire, is learning, see, might discover, had heard, have
found, doubt, have perceived, is thinking, wonders, knew, was told, under-
stands, to comprehend, is, could ascertain, has reported, will announce.
EXERCISE 56
(§447, p. 182)
1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Ex-
plain the use of shall, should, will, would.
1. " I doubt,'' said Donatello, ** whether they will remember my voice
now." 2. I did not know whether to resent his language or pursue my
explanations. 3. I clambered to its apex, and then felt much at a loss
as to what should be next done. 4. How we shall live I cannot imagine.
5. When I shall get to town I cannot divine, but it will be between this
and Christmas. 6. I scarcely know which of us three would be the
sorriest. 7. I can feel for you, because I know what I should feel in the
same situation. 8. Let us see if she will know you. 9. I wonder how
282 EXERCISES
you will answer me a year hence. 10. I asked if Greorgiana would ac-
company her. 11. You must see the carriage, Jane, and tell me if you
don't think it will suit Mrs. Rochester exactly, and whether she won't
look like Queen Boadicea, leaning back against those purple cushions. —
C. BrontS. 12, Catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser
or less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime. 13. Mr.
Hindley will have to proceed to extremities, — see if he won't !
2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall, should,
will, would). Then change each indirect question to the direct
form.
1. Tom asked me if I like to go with him.
2. They inquired whether I prefer to go or to stay.
3. She asked me if I help her.
4. Tell me whether he consent or not.
6. He wishes to know if you recommend him.
6. I was in doubt whether I succeed or fail.
7. I do not know whether you find her at home or at her uncle's.
8. He is in doubt whether or not he get the appointment.
9. We think we like to sail on the twentieth.
10. He thinks he like to be a farmer.
EXERCISE 57
(§§ 448-453, pp. 183-186)
1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound
subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates
in § 450 ; in Exercise 4.
2. See if you can make any of the sentences compound by
inserting personal pronouns as subjects.
3. Divide each compound sentence in § 452 and in Exer-
cise 6 into the independent coordinate clauses that compose it.
4. Make each sentence in § 450 complex by inserting or add-
ing a subordinate clause. Is your clause adjective or adverbial ?
What does it modify ?
5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 17, 25, 39 (2),
48-51, into the independent (main) clause and the subordinate
clause.
ANALYSIS 283
exerCise 58
(§§ 468-461, pp. 188-190)
1. Analyze (according to the directions in §§ 458-461) the
simple sentences in Exercise 1. In analyzing, describe each
sentence as declarative, interrogative, etc. If the sentence is
imperative, supply the subject.
2. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences in
Exercises 6, 17, 25, 39(2), 48-51.
3. Analyze the compound complex sentences in §§ 456-457,
516.
EXERCISE 59
(§§ 462-473, pp. 191-196)
1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject.
Substitute for each an adjective phrase ; an adjective clause
(§§467-468).
1. Standing in the door was a tearful child. 2. A tall Scot shut off
my view. 3. An iron mask concealed the prisoner's face. 4. Honorable
men pay their debts. 5. A tumble-down shed stood in the hollow. 6. A
three-cornered hat was cocked over one of his ears. 7. The American
Indians are becoming extinct. 8. An experienced stenographer should
spell correctly. 9. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole
building. 10. The royal army was assembled at Salisbury. 11. The mid-
day meal was excellent. 12. The morning mist lies heavy upon yonder
chain of islands.
2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases
as modifiers of the subject : —
of great height ; in a red hat ; with black hair ; from Cairo ; to
Indianapolis ; from India ; with high gables ; of brilliant plumage ; on
the rear platform ; in a state of intense agitation ; between the two
ships ; over the mountain ; on the summit of the tower.
3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each adjec-
tive phrase in the sentences you have just written.
4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple
subject in Exercise 42. Write ten sentences containing such
modifiers (§ 469).
284* EXERCISES
5. Construct ten sentences similar to those in § 470 (with
infinitives modifying the simple subject).
6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the
possessive case used as modifiers of the subject (§ 471).
7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with
the subject (§§ 88, 5 ; 472) ; five in which a noun clause is thus
used (§§ 386, 473).
EXERCISE 60
(§§ 474-481, pp. 196-199)
1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predi-
cate. Substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause.
1. The witness chose his words deliberately. 2. The old man moved
slowly down the street. 3. I carefully avoided making that promise.
4. Do not speak so loud. 5. I am eagerly looking forward to your visit.
6. That golf ball must have hit him hard. 7. Allan has played in public
twice. 8. I shall call you early. 9. We often see your eccentric friend.
10. The priest shook his head doubtfully. 11. Your father barely escaped
drowning. 12. The next morning Chester awoke late. 13. The accident
happened here. 14. The captain had gone below. 15. Marion refuses
to go by coach unless she can sit outside. 16. Frank left home three
years ago, and has not been heard from since. 17. Look yonder and tell
us where the path lies.
18. We were then presented to Governor Gore. 19. I have not been
there since April. 20. Bruce was afterward ashamed of his discourage-
ment. 21. The sun will soon set. 22. You are expected to arrive in
good season hereafter. 23. Alice cannot spell correctly. 24. The Indian
suddenly disappeared. 25. The girl laughed carelessly. 26. The moose
fell heavily to the earth. 27. He passionately longs to see Italy. 28. All
foreigners seem to speak rapidly. 29. Edith listened attentively.
2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modi-
fied by an infinitive (§§ 323, 477) ; by an adverbial objective
or by a phrase containing one (§§ 109, 478) ; by a nominative
absolute (§§345, 479); by an indirect object (§§105, 480);
by a cognate object (§§ 108, 481).
3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives
of purpose in Exercise 40, and tell what verb each modifies.
ANALYSIS 285
EXERCISE 61
(§§ 482-498, pp. 200-204)
1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct
object, predicate nominative, etc.). Analyze the sentences.
1. The most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty.
— Conrad. 2. Music is Love in search of a word. — Lanieb. 3. The
destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjecture. 4. The reports
from the front made Washington anxious. 5. Plato says that the pun-
ishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take part in the government,
is, to live under the government of worse men. — Emerson. 6. I thought
your book an imposture ; I think it an imposture still. — Johnson.
7. Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over
the people. 8. The old gray porter raised his torch. 9. This you will
call impudence. 10. Firm and irrevocable is my doom. 11. In return
for mere board and lodging, Topham became Mr. Starkey's assistant.
12. It was they who attacked us.
13. Serene will be our days and bright. 14. Warwick thought the
situation awkward, but he held his peace. 15. If there were not too
great a risk of the dispersion of their fleet, I should think their putting
to sea a mere manceuver to deceive. — Irving. 16. I thought "Alad-
din " capital fun. — Stevenson. 17. The faces of the father and mother
had a sober gladness ; the children laughed ; the eldest daughter was the
image of Happiness at seventeen ; and the aged grandmother, who sat
knitting in the warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old.
18. His stories were what frightened people worst of all. 19. The old
man was nervous, fidgety, and very pale. 20. I am growing old, the
grey hairs thicken upon me, my joints are less supple, and, in mind as
well as body, I am less enterprising than informer years. — Southey.
21. I was uneasy about my letter. 22. Confidence is almost everything
in war. 23. He thinks me a troublesome fellow.
24. At the end of this strange season. Bums gloomily sums up his
gains and losses. 25. Little fire grows great with little wind. — Shak-
spere. 26. As he rose to walk, he found himself stiff in the joints.
27. Noise had been my native element. 28. I caught tantalizing glimpses
of green fields, shut from me by dull lines of high-spiked palings. 29. One
house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare of lights.
2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct
object of a verb ; a predicate objective ; a predicate nominative ;
a predicate adjective. Analyze your sentences.
286 EXERCISES
BXERCISB 62
(§§ 494-497, pp. 205-206)
1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences
called for in Exercise 61, 2. Introduce other modifiers of com-
plements if you can without injuring the sentences.
2. Write sentences similar to those in § 492, taking care to
include in each a complement modified.
3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive com-
plement modified by an adjective clause (§ 496) ; an adjective
complement modified by an adverbial clause (§ 497). Analyze
your sentences.
4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 12
and 22.
5. Analyze the sentences in § 495.
EXERCISE 63
(§§ 498-500, pp. 207-208)
1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective
phrases) modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used
adverbially.
2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noim
modified ; an appositive modified ; an adverbial phrase modified.
3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or
adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers.
4. Analyze the sentences in § 498.
EXERCISE 64
(§§ 501-503, p. 209)
Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an
interjection, a vocative (nominative by direct address), an ex-
clamatory nominative, or a parenthetical expression. Analyze
the sentences.
ANALYSIS 28T
1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. O Mary,
go and call the cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4. Be-
tween ourselves, I shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening. 6. Knowl-
edge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual ideas. — Newman.
6. Oh I oh I pictures don't pay. 7. To make a long story short, the com-
pany broke up. 8. True, our friend is already in his teens. 9. To use
a ready-made similitude, we might liken universal history to a magic
web. — Carlyle. 10. Poor fellows I they only did as they were or-
dered, I suppose. 11. The world, as we said, has been unjust to him.
12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear.
13. Peace ! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for
such omission. 15. The lord — for so I understood he was — looked at
me with an air of surprise. 16. Lo, Caesar is afraid. 17. Delay not,
Caesar ; read it instantly. 18. My counsel, I need not say, made full
use of this hint. 19. My small services, you remember, were of no use.
20. I knew — one knows everything in dreams — that they had been
slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty ! freedom I
tyranny is dead 1 23. Stay, ho I and let us hear Mark Antony.
EXERCISE 65
(§§ 504-523, pp. 210-219)
1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509; the compound
sentences in § 511 ; the complex sentences in § 512 ; the com-
pound complex sentences in §§ 514-515.
2. Study the examples in §§ 517-523, and explain their
structure orally. Tell whether the various subordinate clauses
are simple, compound, or complex, and why. Give the con-
struction of each. Analyze the sentences.
3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of
§ 517; of § 520; of § 521; of § 522.
EXERCISE 66
(§§ 624-626, pp. 220-223)
1. Study the sentences in §§ 525-526 until you can explain
their structure.
2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sen-
tences of considerable length and explain their structure.
288 EXERCISES
EXERCISE 67
(§§ 627-688, pp. 224-226)
1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in
each sentence.
2. Sui)ply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical
sentences in § 533 (p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each
sentence.
3. Analyze the sentences in § 533.
4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following
kinds of ellipsis : — (1) the subject of an imperative ; (2) a
relative pronoun; (3) the conjunction that; (4) the copula
and its subject with while, when, though, if; (5) ellipsis in a
clause with as or than,
EXERCISE 68
(§§ 448-626, pp. 183-223)
The following compound, complex, and compound complex
sentences will give further practice in analysis and in study of
the relations of clauses.
I. Deeralayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes.
2. The mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and
requires to be as constantly wound up. — Hazhtt. 3. He became sen-
sible that his life was still in imminent peril. 4. A young author is
apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors, which leave the sense
disjointed, and distract the imagination. — Goldsmith. 5. Everybody
kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever he could get.
6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word
of it had reached the young lady's ears. 7. The captain screwed his
lips up, and drummed on the table, but he did not speak. 8. Poor
Andrew Fern had heard that his townsman's sloop had been captured
by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we went, and very pretty I
thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint that there
were no stagecoaches, nowadays.
II. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir.
12. That few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity
to their precepts, must be readily confessed. — Johnson. 13. Down
went Pew with a cry that rang high into the night. 14. Pluck the dog
ANALYSIS 289
off, lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of men have their
good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in
great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the
hall without reply ; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a
bright brisk morning, and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past
my window. 19. The musician was an old gray-headed negro, who had
been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a
century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general's patience
was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were busy in prepa-
rations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for the assault. —
Prescott.
21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in the
lanes and woods. 22. Every man desires tp live long, but no man would
be old. — Swift. 23. If my face had been pale the moment before, it
now glowed almost to burning. 24. The sentinels who paced the ram-
parts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in sight.
25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a report
that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter, when, from
the shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible, is in Zetland the
time of revel, feasting, and merriment. 28. Every log which is carried
past us by the current has come from an undiscovered country. 29. The
fair heavens shone over the windy blue seas, and the green island of
Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30. The greatest event was, that
the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the drawing room.
31. My grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered.
32. Talk to a man about himself, and he is generally captivated.
33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When
the morning dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which
he hoped soon to add to his dominions. — Irving. 35. No one doubts
that the sloth and the ant-eater, the kangaroo and the opossum, the tiger
and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros, are respectively members
of the same orders. — Huxley. 36. The traveller, a man of middle age,
wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when he had reached
the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay
between him and his home. 37. It was a scene on which I had often
looked down, but where I had never before beheld a human figure.
38. He found that he had undertaken a task which was beyond his
power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of Napoleon,
which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a prisoner at
Saint Helena.
40. The girl's was not one of those natures which are most attracted
by what is strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs. Pen-
dennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief, if Pen
went to the same college with him. 42. I had been some time at sea
290 EXERCISES
before I became aware of the fact that hearing plays a x>erceptible part
in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian conqueror,
when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale,
replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale herself ; and
the same treatment must every man expect, whose praise is that he imi-
tates another. — Johnson. 44. Tie a couple of strings across a board
and set it in your window, and you have an instrument which no artistes
harp can rival. — Emerson. 45. I was on the point of asking what part
of the country he had chosen for his retreat. 46. That no man can law-
fully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition. —
Mackintosh.
47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the
outfit is not very clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Russia
was that of Peter the Great, whose genius overcame the obstacles conse-
quent on the remoteness of its situation, and opened to its people the
career of European industry, arts, and arms. — Alison. 49. As the
chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last the foremost hunts-
man is left alone, and his horse, overcome with fatigue, stumbles and
dies in a rocky valley. — Jeffrey. 50. The Lowland knight, though
startled, repeats his defiance ; and Sir Roderick, respecting his valor, by
a signal dismisses his men to their concealment, and assures him anew
of his safety. 51.1 stood awe-struck — I cannot tell how long — watch-
ing how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt and roared,
and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling
wind, and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over
the peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard
beyond. — Kingsley. 52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up
several Oriental manuscripts, which I have still by me. — Addison.
63. Often have I wondered at the temerity of my father, who, in spite
of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested
towards him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in
some argument touching their youthful days. — Lamb. 54. By all means
begin your folio ; even if the doctor does not give you a year, even if he
hesitates about a month, make one brave push and see what can be
accomplished in a week. — Stevenson.
APPENDIX
LISTS OF VERBS
In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indis-
putably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the
present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in
using the forms registered in this list.^
A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary
language are included in this list. These have various irregularities.
A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.
Weak verbs are printed in italics.
For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
abide
abode
abode
am (suhJunCi
, be)
was
been
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke,
awaked
awaked
bear
bore
borne, born ^
beat
beat
beaten
beget
begot
begotten
begin
began
begun
behold
beheld
beheld
^ The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate
that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage
with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take
much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the
same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the
list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be
no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later
(pp.297-^J99).
2 Born is used only in the passive sense of '* bom into the world."
291
292
APPENDIX
pRESEMT Tense
Past Teksb
Past Participle
bend
bent
bent
bereave
bereft, bereaved
bereft, bereaved *
beseech
besought
besought
bet
bet
bet
bid (command)
bade
bidden
bid (money)
bid
bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
bleed
bled
bled
bless (see p. 298)
bloW
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
build
built
bum
burn (see p. 298)
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
chide
chid
chidden
choose
chose
chosen
♦cleave (split) «
clefty clove
cleft, cleaved (cloven, adj,)
cling
clung
clung
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
crow (see p. 299)
curse (see p. 298)
cut
cut
cut
dare (see p. 299)
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
1 The adjective form is bereaved: as, " The bereaved father."
2 Cleave, " to adhere," has cleaved in both the past tense and the past parti-
ciple, and also an archaic past form clave.
LISTS OF VERBS
293
Frbsent Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
dream (see
p. 298)
dress (see p
. 298)
drink
drank
drunk (drunken, adj.)
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
eat
ate
eaten
engrave (see p. 299)
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
Jlee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forbear
forbore
forborne
forget
forgot
forgotten
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
freight (see
p. 299)
get
got
goti
gird (see p.
298)
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grave (see j
>. 299)
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung, hanged ^
hung, hanged ^
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
heave
hove, heaved ^
hove, heaved «
Jiew
hewed
hewn
1 The archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and /or-
gottent and as an adjective (** ill-gotten gains "). Many good speakers also use
it instead of the past participle goty but got is the accepted modem form.
3 Hanged is used only of execution by hanging.
* Usage varies with the context. We say, " The crew hove the cargo over-
board," but NOT " She hove a sigh."
294
APPENDIX
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
hide
hid
hidden
hit
hU
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
kneel (see p. 298)
knit (see p. 298)
know
knew
known
lade^
laded
laded, laden
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
learn (see p. 298)
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie (recline) ^
lay
lain
light
lighted OT lit'
lighted OT lit'
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
mow (see p. 299)
pay
paid
paid
pen (shut up) (see p.
298)
put
put
put
quit (see p. 298)
read
rSad
read
*reave
reft, reared
reft, reaved
reeve
rove
rove
rend
rent
rent
rid
rid
rid
ride
rode
ridden
1 Load has loaded in both the past tense and the i>ast participle. Laden is
sometimes used as the past participle of load.
3 LiCy '*to tell a falsehood," has lied in both the i>a8t tense and the past
participle.
« So both light, '*to kindle," and light, "to alight." The verb alight has
usually alighted in both the past tense and the past participle.
LISTS OF VERBS
295
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
*rive
rived
riven, rived
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
♦seethe (transitive) ^
sell
sought
sod, seethed
sold
sought
seethed (sodden, adj.)
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
sew (see p
shake
.299)
shook
shaken
shape (see
shave
shear (see
shed
p. 299)
p. 299)
shaved
shed
shaved (shaven, adj.)
shed
shine
shone
shone
shoe
shod
shod
shoot
shot
shot
shoic
showed
shown
shred (see
shrink
♦shrive
p. 298)
shrank
shrove, shrived
shrunk (shrunken, adj.)
shriven, shrived *►
shut
shut
shut
sing
sink
sang
sank
sung
sunk
sit
sat
sat
slay
sleep
slide
slew
slept
slid
slain
slept
slid, slidden
sling
slink
slung
slunk
slung
slunk
slit
slit
slit
smell (see
p. 298)
1 Seethe, intransitive, has usually seethed in both the past tense and the past
participle. It is in rather common literary use.
296
APPENDIX
Pbesent Tenbb
Past Tekbe
Past Pahticiple
smite
smote
smitten
saw
sowed
sowed, sown
speak
speed (see p. 298)
spell (see p. 299)
spend
spill (see p. 299)
spoke
spent
spoken
spent
spin
spit -
split
spoil (see
spread
p. 299)
spun
spit
split
spread
spun
spit
split
spread
spring
stand
sprang
stood
sprung
stood
stave
stove, staved
stove, staved
stay (see
steal
p. 299)
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stink
stung
stunk
stung
stunk
strew
strewed
strewn
stride
strode
stridden
strike
string
strive
struck
strung
strove
struck (stricken, adj.) ^
strung
striven
swear
swore
sworn
sweat (see p. 299)
sweep
swell
swept
swelled
swept
swelled, swollen
swim
swam
swum
swing
take
swung
took
swung
taken
teach
tear
taught
tore
taught
torn
tell
told
told
1 Stricken is also used as a participle In a figurative sense. Thus we say,
" The community was stricken with pestilence," — but '* The dog was struck
with a stick."
LISTS OF VERBS
297
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
think
thought
thought
thrive
throve,
thrived
thriven, thrived
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
tread
thrust
trod
thrust
trodden
wake
woke, waked
woke, waked
wax (grow) (see p.
299)
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven
wed (see p.
299)
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet
wet
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
Bear^ break, drive, get (beget, forget), speak, spin, stink, swear, tear, have
an archaic past tense in a : bare, brake, drave, gat, spake, etc.
Beat, beget (forget), bite, break, forsake, hide, ride, shake, speak, weave,
write, and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like
those of the past tense. The participles in en, however, are now the ac-
cepted forms. Chid and trod are common participial forms.
Begin, drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, often have in poetry a
It-form (begun, sung, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle.
This form (though good old English) ^ should be avoided in modem speech.
Bend, beseech, bet, build, burst, catch, dwell, rend, split, wet, have archaic
or less usual forms in ed : bended, beseeched, betted, etc. Builded is common
in the proverbial '' He builded better than he knew." Bursted is common
as an adjective : '* a bursted bubble."
Bid, ''to command," has sometimes bid in both the past tense and the
past participle ; bid, " to offer money," has these forms regularly.
Blend, leap, lean, have usually blended, leaped, leaned ; but blent, leapt,
leant are not uncommon.
Clothe has commonly clothed ; but clad is common in literary use, and
is regular in the adjectives well-clad, ill-clad (for which ordinary speech
has substituted weU-dressed, badly or poorly dressed),
1 It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts
of begin were : present, beginne ; past, began ; past plural, begunnon ; past
participle, beguniien.
298 APPENDIX
Dive ha8 dived; but dove (an old form) is common in America.
Plead has past tense and past participle pleaded. Plead (pronounced pU^d)
is avoided by careful writers and speakers.
Prove has past tense and past participle proved. The x>ast participle proven
should be aroided.
Work has past tense and past participle worked. Wrought in the past tense
and the past participle is archaic, but is also modem as an adjective (as in
wrought iron).
Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms ;
thus digged f shinedf past tense and past participle of dig, shine ; showed, past
participle of show.
Ate and eaten are preferred to eat (pronounced M).
Quoth, "said," is an old strong past tense. The compound bequeath has
bequeathed only.
Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses sate for sat, trode for trod, spat
for spit ; also writ for wrote and written, rid for rode and ridden, strewed and
strown for strewn.
II
The following verbs vary between ed and t (d) m the past
tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation
is a mere difiFerence of spelling. In writing, the ed forms are pre-
ferred in most cases ; in speaking, the t forms are very common.
bless
burn
blessed, blest 1
burned, burnt*
curse
cursed, curst ^
dare
dream
dared (less commonly, durst)
dreamed, dreamt
dress
dressed, drest
gird
kneel
girded, girt *
kneeled, knelt *
knit
learn
knit, knitted 2
learned, learnt '
pen (shut up)
quit
shred
penned, pent *
quitted, quit '
shredded, shred *
smell
smelled, smelt*
speed
sped, speeded*
jctives are
usually pronounced blessed, cursed. Compare also the
adjective accursed.
2 Both forms are in good use.
« Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced learned.
LISTS OF VERBS
299
speU
spelled, spelt
spiU
spilled, spilt ^
spoil
spoiled, spoilt ^
stay
stayed, staid
sweat
sweated, sweat ^
wed
wedded (p.p. also wed)^
III
The following verbs have regular ed forms in modern
prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show
archaic forms.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
crow
crowed, crew
crowed, crown
freight
freighted
freighted, fraught (figurative)
grave
graved
graved, graven
engrave
engraved
engraved, engraven
mow
mowed
mowed, mown
sew
sewed
sewed, sewn
shape
shaped
shaped, shapen
shear
sheared, shore
sheared, shorn
wax (grow)
waxed
waxed, waxen
The present tense of may, can, shall, is an old strong past. Hence
the first and third persons singular are alike : — / may, he may. The
actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms: — might, could,
should. Must is the weak past tense of an obsolete mot, and is almost
always used as a present tense (§ 292).
Dare and owe originally belonged to this class. Owe has become
a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense ought, which
is use(i in a present sense (see § 293) ; dare has in the third person
dare or dares, and in the past dared, more rarely durst. The archaic
wot "know," past loist, also belongs to this class. Will i^ inflected
like shall, having will in the first and third singular, wilt in the second
singular, and would in the past.
1 Both forms are in good use.
800 APPENDIX
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
singular plural
1. I am. We are.
2. Thou art. You are.
3. lie is. They are.
Past Tense
1. I was. We were.
2. Thou wast (wert). You were.
3. He was. They were.
FuTUKE Tense
1. I shall be. We shall be.
2. Thou wilt be. You will be.
3. He will be. They will be.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. I have been. We have been.
2. Thou hast been. You have been.
3. He has been. They have been.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. I had been. We had been.
2. Thou hadst been. You had been.
3. He had been. They had been. *
Future Perfect Tense
1. I shall have been. We shall have been.
2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been.
3. He will have been. They will have been.
CONJUGATIOIsr OF TO BE 301
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
SINGULAR PLUBAIi
1. If I be. If we be.
2. If thou be. If you be.
3. If he be. If they be.
Past Tense
1. If I were. If we were.
2. If thou wert. If you were.
3. If he were. If they were.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. If I have been. If we have been.
2. If thou have been. If you have been.
3. if he have been. If they have been.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. If I had been. If we had been.
2. If thou hadst been. If you had been.
3. If he had been. If they had been.
Imperative Mood. Present, Sing, and PI. Be [thou or you].
Infinitive. Present, to be ; Perfect, to have been.
Participles. Present, being ; Past, been ; Perfect, having been.
CONJUGATIOJ^ OF THE VERB TO STRIKE
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
1. I strike. We strike.
2. Thou strikest You strike.
3. He strikes. They strike.
802
APPENDIX
1. I struck.
2. Thou struckest.
3. He struck.
1. I shall strike.
2. Thou wilt strike.
3. He will strike.
Past Texse
PLUBAL
We struck.
You struck.
They struck.
Future Tense
We shall strike.
You will strike.
They will strike.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. I have struck. We have struck.
2. Thou hast struck. You have struck.
3. He has struck. They have struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. I had struck. We had struck.
2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck.
3. He had struck. They had struck.
Future Perfect Tense
1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck.
3. He will have struck. They will have struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
1. If I strike.
2. If thou strike.
3. If he strike.
If we strike.
If you strike.
If they strike.
1.
3.
If I struck.
If thou struck.
If he struck.
Past Tense
If we struck.
If you struck.
If they struck.
CONJUGATION OF TO STRIKE 303
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tensk
singular plural
1. If I have struck. If we have struck.
2. If thou have struck. If you have struck.
3. If he have struck. If they have struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. If I had struck. If we had struck.
2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck.
3. If he had struck. If they had struck.
Imperative Mood. Present, Sing, and PL Strike [thou or you].
Infinitive. Present, to strike ; Perfect, to have struck.
Participle. Present, striking; Past, struck ; Perfect, having struck.
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Tense
1.
2.
3.
I am struck. We are struck.
Thou art struck. You are struck.
He is struck. They are struck.
Past Tense
1. I was struck. We were struck.
2. Thou wast (or wert) struck. You were struck.
3. He was struck. They were struck.
Future Tense
1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck.
3. He will be struck. They will be struck.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. I have been struck. We have been struck.
2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck.
3. He has been struck. They have been struck.
804 APPENDIX
Pluperfect (ou Past Perfect) Tense
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I had been struck. We had been struck.
2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck.
3. He had been struck. They had been struck.
Future Perfect Tense
1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck.
3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present Tense
1. If I be struck. If we be struck.
2. If thou be struck. If you be struck.
3. If he be struck. If they be struck.
Past Tense
1. If I were struck. If we were struck.
2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck.
3. If he were struck. If they were struck.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck.
2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck.
3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck.
2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck.
3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.
Imperative Mood. Present Sing, and PL Be [thou or you]
struck.
Infinitive. Present, to be struck ; Perfect, to have been struck.
Participles. Present, being struck ; Past, struck ; Perfect, having
been struck.
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 305
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.
2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.
3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital
letter.
Note. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.
4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins
with a capital letter.
5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital
letters; as, — American, Indian, Swedish, Spenserian,
Note. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be
closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come, and
therefore . begin with small letters. Thus, — voltaic, galvanic, mesmeric,
maudlin, stentorian.
6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a
capital letter.
Mr. Thomas Smith C. J. Adams, M.D,
John Wilson, Esq. President Grant
Miss Allerton Professor Whitney
Dr. F. E. Wilson Sir Walter Raleigh
7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every impor-
tant word that follows, begins with a capital letter.
8. The interjection and the pronoun / are always written in
capital letters.
9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.
Note. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized
when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule is often
disregarded altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of
capitals, as In the Bible and in many hymn books and works of theology.
10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters
when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or simi-
lar statements. Such capitals are called emphatic (or topical) capitals.
Note. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the
titles of books (see Rule 7) , but their use is not obligatory. They are especially
common in text-books and other elementary manuals.
306 APPENDIX
RULES OF PUNCTUATION 1
The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interro-
gation point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon,
the colon, the dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks.
The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated
along with marks of punctuation.
I
1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point
are used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be
followed by one of these three marks.
The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by
a period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is like-
wise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead
of a period.
The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.
An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is fol-
lowed by an exclamation point ; as, — " How absolute the knave is 1 "
2. A period is used after an abbreviation.
3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or
phrase.
Note. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the exclamation
point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs ; if strong feeling is
expressed, the exclamation point is commonly used, but too many such marks
deface the page.
The comma is used —
1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a vocative nomina-
tive). Thus, —
John, tell me the truth.
Little boy, what is your name ?
Note. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used
instead of a comma.
1 The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important
distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, how-
ever, there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on
such uniformity in the pupils' practice as is not found in the printed books
which they use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their
sentences properly, much has been accomplished.
KULES OF PUIsTCTUATIOIsr 307
2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus, —
The cry ran through the ranks, " Are we never to move forward ? "
Note. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a
dash, may be used Instead of a comma, especially with the words as follows.
3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object
of a following verb. Thus, —
"They are coming; the attack will be made on the center," said Lord
Fitzroy Somerset.
" I see it," was the cool reply of the duke.
Note. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation
point, no comma is used.
4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coordinate
series, when these are not connected by and, or, or nor.
If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the
series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before
the conjunction.
I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.
They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was difficult to come
at them.
It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly things
I made.
They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.
Note 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if
the members of the series consist of several words, or if ttie writer wishes to
emphasize their distinctness.
Note 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless
they are short and simple (see pp. 309-310).
5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus, —
Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and want of
interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then mechanically to
resume the motion of twirling her spindle. — Scott.
6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate.
Thus,—
To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and
opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt. — Coleridqe.
7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with
its modifiers. Thus, —
I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.
808 APPENDIX
There was an impression apon the public mind, natural enough from the
continually augmenting Telocity of the mail, but quite erroneous, that an out-
side seat on this class of carriages was a post of danger. — Db Quikcey.
Note 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this
head. Thus,—
The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect, told me
I had dwelt long enough upon it. — Addison.
Note 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form
one idea, no comma is used. Thus, —
My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.
Note 3. An intensive pronoun (myself ^ etc.) is not separated by a comma
from the substantive which it emphasizes.
Note 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substan-
tive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.
8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by
a descriptive relative. Thus, —
I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family, who have
been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at Weston. — Cowpbr.
Note. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus, —
I want to know many things which only you can tell me.
Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune.
9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus, —
They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the ferryman
being afraid of them. — Devoe.
10. To set off however, nevertheless, moreover, etc., and introductory
phrases like in the first place, on the one hand, etc.
11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose com-
mas, dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used.
When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the
rest of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus, —
I exercised a piece of h3rpocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me
excused. — Thackeray.
When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked
off by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are
less frequently used at present than formerly.
The connection of the mail with the state and the executive government—
a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined — gave to the whole mail
establishment an official grandeur. -De Quincey.
Note. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text.
EULES OF PUNCTUATION 309
III
The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons,
semicolons, or commas.
1. The colon is used —
a. To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance
of the first in another form, or defines the first as an
appositive defines a noun. Thus, —
This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an innova-
tion in the Roman : all his {days have double actions. — Drtben.
b. To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which con-
tain a semicolon. Thus, ^-
At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in pene-
trating so far into the recesses of the mountains ; but now, as you know, the
approach is easy, and the communication, in summer time, almost hourly:
nor is this strange, for travellers after pleasure are become not less active,
and more numerous, than those who formerly left their homes for purposes of
gain. — Wordsworth.
Note. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to use
a semicolon or to begin a new sentence.
2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general
nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or
more of them contain commas. Thus, —
The sky was cloudless ; the sun shone out bright and warm ; the songs of
birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and the cottage
garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew
like beds of glittering jewels. — Dickens.
3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple
(see p. 307).
Note. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined in
many cases by the writer's feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the
ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to some extent a matter of taste.
IV
1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally sep-
arated from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent
clause is short and the connection close, the comma may be omitted.
Note. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a restrictive
relative clause is not (see p. 70).
310 APPENDIX
2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construc-
tion, are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each.
Thus,—
[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half
players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a
rubber ; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning ; that they like to
win one game and lose another ; that they can while away an hour very agree-
ably at a card table, but are indifferent whether they play or no; and will
desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong card, to take it up and play
another. — Lamb.
V
1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.
Note. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type,
the marks may be omitted.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single
quotation marks.
3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks
are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.
Note. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.
4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be
enclosed in quotation marks or italicized.
VI
1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are
indicated by dashes. Thus, —
Eh! —what — why — upon my life, and so it is — Charley, my boy, so it 's
you, is it ? — Lever.
2. Parenthetical expressions maybe setoff by dashes (see p. 308).
3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct
quotation, or a statement formally introduced, — especially with as
foUowSy namely, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a
dash may be used. Thus, —
There are eight parts of speech : — nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, ad-
verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Or —
There are eight parts of speech, — nouns, pronouns, etc.
4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the
last paragraph but one).
EULES OF SYNTAX 811
VII
1. The apostrophe is used —
a. To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.
6. As a sign of the possessive or genitive.
c. To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.
2. The hyphen is used —
a. When the parts of a word are separated in writing.
b. Between the parts of some compound words. (See the
dictionary in each case.)
EULES OF SYNTAX
1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case (p. 41).
2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or
defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called
a predicate nominative (p. 41).
3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person
directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nomina-
tive by direct address or a vocative nominative (p. 42).
4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory
nominative or a nominative of exclamation (p. 42).
5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time,
or circumstances of an action.
This is called the absolute construction.
The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative
absolute (p. 144).
6. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).
7. The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case (p. 47)i
8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb
is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case (p. 48).
9. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one de-
noting the person and the other the thing (p. 50).
10. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may
take two objects referring to the same person or thing.
812 APPENDIX
The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which com-
pletes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective
(pp. 50, 111).
11. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take
two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.
The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or
toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the
predicate (p. 60).
12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object
a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.
A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb
and is in the objective case (p. 52).
13. A nouD, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modi-
fiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial
objective (p. 53).
14. An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it
limits (p. 42).
15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number,
and person (p. 55).
16. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses
by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.
This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (p. 66).
A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, num-
ber, and person.
The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its anteced-
ent, but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).
17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).
18. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, and has
a double construction : — (1) the construction of the omitted or implied
antecedent that; (2) the construction of the relative which (p. 71).
19. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their
own antecedents and hence may have a double construction (p. 72).
The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent
expressed or implied (p. 72).
20. An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it de-
scribes or limits (pp. 5, 75).
21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the
sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives (p. 76).
EULES OF SYNTAX 813
1. An attributiye adjective is closely attached to its noun and
regularly precedes it.
2. An appositiye adjective is added to its noun to explain it, like
a noun in apposition.
3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate
verb, but describes or limits the subject.
For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 488.
22. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in compar-
ing two persons or things.
The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two
or more (p. 88).
23. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar
in their use to relative pronouns (p. 86).
24. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person (p. 97).
25. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural
number (p. 100).
26. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular
number if the substantives are singular (p. 100).
27. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly
take a verb in the singular number (p. 101).
28. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a
plural verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals,
the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a unit,
the singular should be used (p. 101).
29. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as
the doer of an act (p. 107).
30. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as
the receiver or the product of an action (p. 107).
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive,
and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adver-
bial phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110).
31. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of
the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the
subject (p. 112).
32. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation,
but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115).
33. The imperative is the mood of command or request (p. 115).
814 APPENDIX
34. The inbject of an imperatiYe is seldom expressed unless it is
emphatic.
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative : as, —
You go. You read (p. 117).
36. The fubjnnctiye mood is used in certain special constructions
of wish, condition, and the like (pp. 115, 118).
For particulars and examples, see pp. 119-123.
For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124-132.
36. An infinitive, with or without a complement or modifiers, may
be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as
an appositiye (pp. 134, 135).
37. An infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions hut,
except, about, (p. 135).
38. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation
(p. 136).
39. An infinitive may modify a verb by completing its meaning, or
by expressing the purpose of the action (p. 137).
40. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.
In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it
modifies (p. 136).
41. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain
verbs.
Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is
said to be the subject of the infinitive.
The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding,
advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring,
and perceiving (p. 138).
An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for.
An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predi-
cate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138-139).
42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state
in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).
43. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it de-
scribes or limits (pp. 12, 142).
EULES OF SYNTAX 315
44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to
which it may belong (p. 142).
45. An infinitive or a participle, like any other verb-form, may
take an object if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).
46. Infinitiyes and participles, like other verb-forms, may be modi-
fied by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142).
47. Verbal (or participial) nouns in -ing have the form of present
participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145).
48. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb (p. 146).
1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if
their meaning allows.
2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.
But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by
adjectives.
49. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective
element in a compound noun (p. 146).
50. The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object
and is in the objective case (p. 148).
51. A coordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words
that are independent of each other (p. 151).
52. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with
the clause on which it depends (p. 151).
53. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the
phrases or sentences in which they stand.
Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjec-
tion by means of a preposition (p. 155).
816 APPENDIX
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of
languages, which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the
languages of Europe and the most important of those found in India.
Within this family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic)
Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues
(Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.
English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old
English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home
was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the
North Sea, but who invaded Britain about a.d. 450, and subdued
the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The
most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the
Saxons. Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of
the seventh century, and their language, which they usually called
" English " (that is, " the tongue of the Angles "), gradually spread
through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the
native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the
present day; and in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic — which is akin
to Welsh and practically identical with the native language of
Ireland — is still extensively used.
At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen,
and the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of
the Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized
than their conquerors. Indeed, they had adoj)ted many features of
Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in
the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the
Anglo-Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remark-
able advances in literature and learning. The language of the
Britons exerted but sliji^lit influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons.
The Celtic words in English are few in number, and most of them
were borrowed in comparatively recent times.
The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in
the history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian
tribe who had been in possession of Normandy (in northern France)
for about a hundred and fifty years. They had abandoned their
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 317
native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about
the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England, —
English, which was employed by the vast majority of the people,
and French, which was the language of the court and the higher
orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of English for
supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the
nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment.
By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400),
it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to be regarded
as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they were of
Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.
Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon Eng-
lish. It is not true — though often asserted — that the multitude of
French words which our language contains were derived from the
Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into English until
after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for
a hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely — not from
Norman, however, but from Central (or Parisian) French, which had
become the standard to which the English descendants of the Nor-
mans endeavored to conform. The effect of the Conquest, then, was
not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring Eng-
land into close social and literary relations with France, and thus
to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central
French.
Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the
main upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose
interest was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national
or general standard of English composition. Every English writer
had recourse to his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as
good as another.
By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come,
apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished
than the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some
writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native.
Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be
sure, Chaucer did not "make modern English." None the less,
he was a powerful agent in settling the language. Since his time,
at all events, the fact of a " standard of literary usage " has been
318 APPENDIX
undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not regarded as authori*
tative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world over,
use the language with substantial uniformity.^
Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had under-
gone many changes before Chaucer was bom. Most of its inflections
had been lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further,
there had been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this
continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once
formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions
from many languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be
mentioned in particular as the source of many words, especially in
the various departments of science. But French and Latin remain
the chief foreign elements in English.
In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in
Roman tyi)e are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words
are derived from Latin or French.
It was not until evening was nearly closed that Ivanhoe was restored
to consciousness of his sUualion, He awoke from a broken slumber, under
the confused impressions which are naturally attendant on the recotsery
from a state of insensibility. He was unable for some time to recall exactly
to memory the circumstances which had preceded his fall in the lists, or to
make out any connected chain of the evente in which he had been engaged
upon the yesterday. A sense of wounds and injury, joined to great weak-
ness and exhaustion, was mingled with the recollection of blows dealt and
received, of steeds rushing upon each other, overthrowing and overthrown,
of shouts and clashing of arms, and all the heady tumult of a confused
fight. An effort to draw aside the curtain of his couch was in some degree
successixxX, although rendered difficult by the pain of his wound.
English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though
they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin.
Danish and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth
century. Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of con-
quest, and for about thirty years (1013-1042) a Danish family occu-
pied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian
element in our language.
1 It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present
day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modem Londoner. The
point is, that what we now call '* English " is, in most respects, the direct de-
scendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth century.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 319
Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from
abroad, it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still
the native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary,
but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign
words have been naturalized, and their presence in no wise inter-
feres with the unity and general consistency of the English language.
It is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-
Saxon and Norman French. As for the loss or decay of inflections,
that is not due to a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency,
which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there
was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed,
is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity.
The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a
century, or a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its
extreme limit may be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500
is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500 to the
present time may be' regarded as the Modern Period, though within
these boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation
and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax, and to some extent in in-
flection. The almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in
common speech is one of the latest of these changes. This, too, is
in the direction of simplicity.
The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers,
explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or diar
lects) of a handful of Grermanic adventurers, has spread to all parts
of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of England,
but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America,
India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous va-
rieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the
whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved.
INDEX
[He/erences are to pages; f. signifies " and following page'* ; ff. signifies
' * and following pages. ' ']
A for on (a-fishing), 147, 149.
A or an, 77 ff. ; distributive, 79.
About, with infinitive, 105, 136.
Absolute construction, 144. See
Nominative.
Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92.
Abstract nouns, 29 f .
Accusative, 62.
Action, nouns in -ing, 145 ff.
Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive,
Adjective, 6, 76 ff. ; descriptive and
definitive, 5, 76 f . ; proper, 75 ;
compound, 76 ; pronominal, 76
(cf . 62 ff.) ; attributive, apposi-
tive, predicate, 76 f. ; articles,
77 ff.; comparison, 79 ff., 88 f.;
numerals, 89 f. ; noun as adjec-
tive, adjective as noun, 9, 78;
participle as, 143 ; adjective in
exclamations, 166 f . ; as modifier
of subject, 192 f . See Adjective
pronoun. Predicate adjective.
Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f. ;
place or time, 163 f. ; as modifiers
of subject, 192 f . ; of comple-
ment, 206.
Adjective phrases, 16, 167; com-
parison of, 89; as modifiers of
subject, 192 f . ; as complements,
204; as modifiers of modifiers,
207.
Adjective pronouns, 62 ff . : demon-
strative, 62 ff. ; indefinite, 64 f.
Adverb, defined, 7; classification,
forms, and use, 83 ff . ; relative or
conjunctive, 86 ; interrogative,
86 ; comparison, 87 ff . ; numeral.
89 f. ; in exclamations, 166 f. ; as
modifier, 196 f ., 206, 208.
Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f. ;
place or time, 163 f. ; causal, 164 ;
concessive, 164 f. ; purpose or re-
sult, 166 f . ; conditional, 167 ff. ;
comparison, degree, manner, 173;
indirect question, 180 ; as modi-
fiers of predicate, 196 f . ; of com-
plement, 206 ; of modifiers, 207 f .
Adverbial objective, 63 ; clause as,
168f. ; as modifier, 198.
Adverbial phrases, 16, 63, 142, 168 ;
numeral, 90; as modifiers of
predicate, 196 f., 198 ff. ; of com-
plement, 206 ; of modifiers, 207 f .
Advising, verbs of, with infinitive
clause, 138.
AflBrmative, 86.
A-Jishing, etc., 147, 149.
After, preposition, 148; relative
adverb, 86, 157, 164.
Agreement, of predicate nomina-
tive with subject, 41, 57 f . ; of
appositive, 42, 47, 53, 57 ; of pro-
noun with antecedent, 56, 66 ; of
relative with antecedent, 68, 102 ;
of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff.
AU, 66.
Alternative conditions, 168; ques-
tions, 179.
AUhoiLgh. See Though. >
Analysis, 183 ff. ; structure of sen-
tences, 183 ff. ; analysis, with
models, 188 ff . ; simple sentences,
188 ; compound, 188 f. ; complex,
189 f . ; compound complex, 190 ;
321
322
INDEX
modifiers, 191 ff. ; complements,
200 ff.; modifiers of complements
and of modifiers, 206 ff. ; inde-
pendent elements, 200 ; combina-
tions of clauses, 210 ff . ; elliptical
sentences, 224 ff. See further
under these several heads.
Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f .
Animals, names of, gender, 32;
pronouns, 69.
Another, (^i.
Antecedent of pronoun, 4 ; agree-
ment, 55, 65, 68, 102 ; unexpressed,
71 ff. ; what, 71 ; compound rela-
tives, 72 f .
Any, anything, 64 f .
Apodosis, 168.
Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311.
Appear, with predicate nominative
or adjective, 6f., 76, 93.
Apposition, 42. See Appositive.
Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57 ;
with possessive, 47 ; infinitive as,
134 f . ; clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174,
180, 196 ; appositive as modifier,
195 f., 207.
Appositive adjective, 76.
Appositive phrase, 195.
Archaisms, xvii. See Old.
Articles, 77 ff. ; generic, 77 ; re-
peated, 78 ; with verbal noun, 147.
As, relative pronoun, 67 ; relative
adverb, 86, 153; conjunction,
153 ; in concession, 165 ; in clauses
of degree, 173.
Aa if, as though, 122, 153, US; as to,
with infinitive, 167.
Asking, verb of, two objects, 50 ;
retained object, 112 ; with in-
direct question, 179 ff. (cf. 160).
Assertion, 2, 5, 13.
Attribute. See Predicate adjec-
tive. Predicate objective.
Attributive adjective, 76.
Aught, naught, 65.
Authorship, 43.
Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91 ; in future,
102 ff. ; in compound tenses, 106 ;
in passive, 108 ff. ; in progres-
sive form, 113 f. ; in emphatic
form, 114; replacing subjunc-
tive, 123; in potential verb-
phrases, 124 ff .
Be, 6 f ., 93 ; conjugation, 99, 118 f .,
300 f . ; auxiliary of passive,
108 ff. ; of progressive form, 113 ;
ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f ., 169,
224 f . ; predicate pronoun after,
139. See Predicate nominative.
Become, with predicate nominative
or adjective, 6f., 76, 93.
Brfore, preposition, 148; relative
adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.; with
subjunctive, 122; with skofuJd,
130.
Beliemng, verbs of, with infinitive
clause, 138.
Biblical style. See Solemn.
Bid, with infinitive, 188.
BoOi, pronoun, 64.
Both .. ,and, 15, 158.
But, adverb, 135.
But, coordinate conjunction, 152 ;
subordinate, 153 f. ; elliptical
constructions, 154.
But, preposition, 148; with infini-
tive, 135.
CcUling, verbs of, two objects, 50 ;
predicate nominative after pas-
sTve, 111.
Can, could, 124 ff., 299.
Capital letters, 27 ff ., 75 ; rules, 306.
Cardinal numerals, 89 f .
Case, 40 ff. ; nominative, 40 ff. ;
possessive, 43 ff. ; objective, 47 ff.;
of appositives, 42, 47, 68, 67.
See Pronouns.
Cause, clauses of, 164 ; nominative
absolute, 144.
Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 86, 317 f .
Choosing, verbs of, two objects,
50; predicate nominative after
passive. 111.
Clauses, independent and subordi-
nate, 16 ff. ; as parts of speech,
19 ff., 157 ff.; infinitive, 137 ff.;
simple, compound, complex,
210 ff.; combination of, 210 ff.
INDEX
823
See AdjeQtive, Adverbial, Noun,
Infinitive clause.
Clauses, subordinate, classified ac-
cording to meaning, 163 ff. ; place
and time, 163 f . ; cause, 164 ;
concession, 164 f . ; purpose and
result, 166f . ; conditional, 167 ff. ;
comparison and manner, 173;
indirect discourse, 173 ff. ; in-
direct questions, 179 ff.
Cognate object, 62 ; if as, 68 ; as
modifier, 199.
Collective nouns, 29 f. ; verbs with,
101 f.
Colloquial forms and constructions,
xvi, 88, 67 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112,
120, 149, 166.
Colon, 309 f .
Color, adjectives of, 84.
Combinations of clauses, 210 ff.
Come, have (or am) come, 107.
Comma, 70, 806 ff .
Command, with shaU or will, 106,
118 ; as condition, 169 ; verbs
of, with infinitive clause, 188 ;
with noun clause, 160, 167. See
Imperative.
Common gender, 31.
Common nouns, 27 ff. ; personifica-
tion, 28 f .
Comparative and superlative, of
adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f. ; of ad-
verbs, 87 ff. ; use, 88 f . j com-
parative with tAe, 86.
Comparison, clauses of, 173.
Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff.,
88 f . ; of adverbs, 87 ff. ; use of,
88 f.
Complementary infinitive, 137.
Complementary object, 60. See
Predicate objective.
Complements. See Object, Predi-
• cate objective. Predicate nomi-
native, Predicate adjective.
Complements, classified, 200 ff. ;
direct object, 201 ; predicate ob-
jective, 202; predicate nomina-
tive, 202 f . ; predicate adjective,
208 f.
Complements, modifiers of, 206 f .
Complete predicate. See Predi-
cate.
Complete predication, 200.
Complete subject. See Subject.
Complete tenses, 106 f .
Complete verbs, 200.
Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f.,
216f., 219ff.
Complex compound. See Com-
pound complex.
Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186 ;
analyzed, 189 f . ; varieties of,
216 ff.
Compound adjectives, 76.
Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff.
Compound complex sentences, 18,
187, 216 f.; analyzed, 190, 222 f.
Compound conjunctions, 168.
Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.; plural,
36 ; possessive, 46 f .
Compound personal pronouns,
60 ff . ; intensive and reflexive,
61 f . ; relatives, 72 f .
Compound predicate, 16, 184 f.,
212 f.
Compound sentences, 17 ff., 186;
analyzed, 188 f . ; elaboration of,
213 f.
Compound subject, 16, 184 f ., 212 f .;
agreement, 100 f.
Compound tenses, 106 f.
Concerning, 142, 149.
Concession, moods in, 120 ff. ; should
and would in, 128, 131 ; clauses
of, 164ff.
Conclusion, 168.
Conditional clauses and sentences,
moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff. ; forms
and meaning, 167 'ff. ; classifica-
tion, 169 ff. ; past and present,
170 f.; non-committal and con-
trary to fact, 170 f . ; future,
171 f. ; shall, unll, sfiould, loouM,
130 f.
Conjugation, 26, 94 ff. ; indicative
present and past, 98 f. ; future,
102 ; active and passive, 108 ff ;
progressive, 118 f . ; potential
verb-phrases, 124 f.; tables of,
800 ff.
324
INDEX
Conjunction, defined, 8 ; c1aiwific&-
tion and use, 161 ff. ; coordinate
or coordinating, 161 f . ; subor-
dinate or subordinating, 161,
163 f . ; correlatiTe, 163 f . ; ad-
verb, preposition, and, 162 f . ;
and adverb, 160.
Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns.
See Relative.
Considering, 142, 149.
Construction, xiv, 26 ff.
Contractions: tf'«, 66; J'tt, loe'W,
104 ; let's, 120; may n't, oughi n't,
126; Vd,we'd, 130.
Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f.
Coordinate (coordinating) conjunc-
tions, 161 f .
Coordinate clauses, 17 ff., 186 ff.,
210 ff.
Co5rdlnation in sentences, 210 ff.
See Coordinate.
Copula. See Be.
Copulative verbs, 6 f ., 76, 98. See
Be.
Correlative conjunctions, 163 f.
Could. See Ccm.
Dare, 137, 299.
Dash, 310.
Dative, 62, 60.
Declarative sentences, 2.
Declaring, verbs of, with infinitive
clause, 138.
Declension of nouns, 40; of per-
sonal pronouns, 65 f.; of sdf-
pronouns, 60 ; of demonstratives,
63 ; of relatives, 67 ; of compound
relatives, 72 ; of interrogatives,
73.
Defective verbs, 299.
Definite article, 77 ff.
Definitive adjectives, 6, 76 f.
Degree, adverbs of, 84 ; clauses of,
173. See Comparison.
Deity, words for the, 305.
Demonstrative pronouns and ad-
jectives, 62 ff.
Dependent. See Subordinate.
Descriptive adjectives, 4, 76 ; rela-
tives, 70 £.
Desiring, verbs of, with infini-
tive, 137 ; with noun clause, 160,
167.
Did. See Do.
Direct address, nominative in, 42 ;
independent element, 209.
Direct discourse, 174 ff.
Direct object. See Object.
Direct quotations, 173 f . ; ques-
tions, 179.
Do, did, in questions, 114 ; in em-
phatic verb-phrases, 114 ; in im-
perative, 117 ; as substitute for
some other verb, 114.
Double comparison, 88; condi-
tions, 168.
Doubting, verb of, with indirect
question, 179 (cf. 160).
Each, each other, 64 f .
Editorial we, 67.
EUher, 64 ; either . . . or, 16, 163.
Elder, eldest, 81.
Elements. See Subject, Predicate,
Modifiers, Complements, Inde-
pendent.
Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3,
47, 68, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117, 119 f.,
121 f., 133, 144, 149, 163 f., 166,
160, 164 f ., 169, 173, 176, 224 ff.
Elliptical sentences, 224 ff.
'em, 67.
Emphasis, superlative of, 88.
Emphatic verb-phrases, 114; im-
perative, 117.
-en, plural ending of nouns,
36 ; old plural ending of verbs,
99.
Endings, in inflection, 26 ; gender,
33 ; number, 34 ff. ; case, 40 ;
possessive, 43 f . ; comparison, •
80 ff., 87 ; adverbs, 83 ff. ; tense,
96 f. ; personal endings, 97 f .
English language, zi ff ; history of,
316 ff.
Errors of speech, 37, 46, 66, 68, 60,
62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff., 126,
128 ff., 133 ff., 139, 147.
Even if, 153, 164 f.
Every, everybody, everything, 64 f .
INDEX
325
Except, with infinitive, 135.
Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 67,
156 ; objective me, 60 ; infinitive,
136; various parts of speech,
155 f . ; phrases, 155 f . ; clauses,
169; as independent element,
209. See Interjection.
Exclamation point, 155, 306.
Exclamatory sentences, 2 f ., 74 ;
phrases, 155 f. ; expressions,
155 f., 209. See Exclamation,
Interjection.
Exercises, 227-290. See Table of
Contents, v.
Exhortations, 120.
Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f.;
should, 130.
Expletive. See It, There,
Extent, possessive of, 46.
Eyne, 86.
Feel, with predicate adjective, 77 ;
with infinitive, 136.
Feminine. See Gender.
Few, 65.
Figures, plural of, 36.
For, conjunction, 152.
For, preposition, 148, 152 ; with
infinitive, 185; with infinitive
clause, 139.
Foreign plurals, 37.
Fractional parts, 90.
Future conditions, 171 f.
Future perfect tense, 106.
Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See Shall,
tjoill.
Gender, 31 ff. ; of nouns and pro-
nouns, 81 ; special rules for
nouns, 82 ff. ; of pronouns, 56 ;
of relatives, 67 ff. See Personi-
fication.
Generally speaking, 142.
Generic article, 77.
Genitive. See Possessive.
Gerund, 146.
Giving, verbs of, direct and indirect
object, 50 ; retained object, 112.
Go. See Motion.
Going to, 105.
Grammar, nature and principles
of, xi ff.
Granted that, 168.
Habitual action, 127.
Had rather, etc., 123 ; had to, 126.
Half, 102.
Have, had, 6, 96 ; auxiliary in com-
pound tenses, 106 ff., 141.
He, 66 ; for he or she, 66.
Hear, with infinitive, 136.
Hem, old pronoun, 57.
His, as neuter, 56.
Hosen, 35.
How, 86.
However, 152 ; in concessions, 165.
Hyphen, 30, 311.
I'd, we'd, 130.
Idioms, nature of, xv.
If, 153 ; in conditions, 168 ff. ; in
wishes, 169; in indirect ques-
tions, 179.
Ill, 81, 87.
ini,we'U, 104.
Imperative mood, 116 fl. ; in ex-
clamations, 156 ; as a condition,
169.
Imperative sentences, 2f., 116 ff. ;
subject of, 2, 117.
Impersonal it, 58. See It.
In case that, 153 ; in order that, 153,
166 ; in order to, 167.
Incomplete predication, 200; verbs,
200.
Indefinite article, 77 ff. ; pronouns
and adjectives, 64 f . ; nouns, 65 ;
relatives {whoever, etc.), 72 f .
Independent clauses, 17 f. See
Clauses.
Independent elements, 209.
Independent participles, 142.
Indicative mood, 115 f . ; variety
of use, 116 ; in statements and
questions of fact, 116 ; in com-
mands, 105, 118 ; in concessions,
121 ; in conditions, 170, 172.
Indirect discourse, 173 ff.; tenses
in, 176; passive, 175 f. ; shall,
should, will, would, 177 f.
826
INDEX
Indirect object, 60 f. ; retained
with passive, 112 ; of participial
nouns, 146 ; as modifier, 199.
Indirect questions, 179 fl. ; inflni*
tive in, 181 ; subjunctive in, 181 ;
sfiall, should, will, would, 182.
Indirect quotations, 178 ft.
Infinitive, 11 flf., 132 ff.; forms, 107,
133 ; object and modifiers, 134 ;
uses, 134 ff. ; as noun, 11 ff., 184 ;
as object, 136 ; as nominative of
exclamation, 136 ; as modifier,
136 f., 194, 197 f. ; with «cc, hear,
feel, 136 ; complementary, 137 ;
of purpose, 137, 167 ; in verb-
phrases, 12 ; in future, 102 ; in
emphatic forms, 114, 117 ; in
potential verb-phrases, 124 ff. ;
with ought, tenses, 126 , in indi-
rect questions, 181 ; in verb-
phrases, see Future, Future
perfect. Emphatic, Potential.
Infinitive clause, 137 ff . ; as object,
138 f.; as subject, 139 ; predicate
pronoun in, 139 ; expressing pur-
pose, 167 ; indirect discourse,
176.
Infinitive phrase, 194.
Inflection, nature and function of,
xiii f ., 26 ; summary of, 26 ; of
nouns, 30 ff. ; of pronouns, 66 ff . ;
of adjectives, 79 ff. ; of verbs,
94 ff. ; lists of verb-forms, 291 ff.
-ing, verbal nouns in, 146 ff. See
Participial nouns.
Intensive pronouns, 61 f .
Interjections, defined, 8 ; use, 156f . ;
as independent elements, 209.
Interrogation point, 306.
Interrogative adverbs, 86 ; with
clauses, 167; in indirect ques-
tions, 179 ; with infinitive, 181.
Interrogative pronouns, 73 f. ; as
adjectives, 74 ; with prepositions,
160 ; with clauses, 167 ; in in-
direct questions, 179 ff. ; with
infinitive, 181.
Interrogative sentences, 2 f . ; order
in, 3 ; do, did in, 114 ; direct
and indirect questions, 179 ff.
Intransitive verbs, 48 f ., 92 f . ;
voice. 111 ; in i)a88ive with prep-
osition, 111.
Inverted order, 8, 86, 121 f., 161.
Irregular verbs, 95, 99; partici-
ples, 141; lists, 291 ff.
Is. ^Be.
It, 66 ; impersonal, 68 ; expletive,
68, 186, 161, 176f.; cognate ob-
ject, 68.
Kind, sort, 64.
Kine, 36.
Knowing^ verbs of, indirect dis-
course, 174; indirect question,
179.
Language, nature of, xi ff. ; Eng-
lish, 316 ff.
Less, least, 81, 87.
Lest, with subjunctive, 122 ; pur-
pose, 122, 166.
Let, with infinitive, ldS;letus, 120.
Letters, plural of, 36.
Like, should like, 129.
Like, with objective, 52.
Limiting adjectives, 4. See Defini-
tive.
Look, with predicate adjective, 77.
Main clause, 17 f. ; analysis, 184 ff.,
213 ff. ; compound, 216 f.
Majesty, plural of, 67.
Make, with infinitive, 138.
Making, verbs of, two objects, 60 ;
predicate nominative after pas-
sive, 111.
-man, words ending in, plural of, 36.
Manner, adverbs of, 83; clauses
of, 173.
Many, 66.
Masculine. See Gender.
May, might, auxiliary, 120 ff . ; re-
placing subjunctive, 123 ; form,
299.
Measure or extent, x>osses8ive of, 46.
Meseems, msthinks, 60.
Might, auxiliary, 123 ff. ; replacing
subjunctive, 123 ; mighi heUer,
123. See May.
DTDEX
327
Modal auxiliaries, use and mean-
ing, 124 ft.
Mode. See Mood.
Models for parsing, analysis, 64,
74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 260 f ., 262,
270. See Exercises.
Modifiers, 7 ; classified, 101 ff. ; of
subject, 192 ff. ; adjectives, ad-
jective phrases, adjective clauses,
102 f . ; participles, 103 f . ; infini-
tives, 194 ; possessives, 106 ; ap-
positives, 196f .; of predicate, 196
ff. ; adverbs, adverbial phrases,
adverbial clauses, 196 f . ; infini-
tives, 107 f . ; adverbial objec-
tives, 108 ; nominative absolute,
108 f . ; indirect object, 100 ; cog-
nate object, 100.
Modifiers of complements, 206 f .
Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f .
Mood, 116 fl. ; indicative, 116 f. ;
imperative, 116 ff. ; subjunctive,
118 ff. ; potential, 124. See Indic-
ative, Subjunctive, etc.
More, most, in comparison, 81, 87 ff.
-most, superlative suffix, 82.
Motion, verbs of, with have or be,
107 ; ellipsis, 226.
Must, auxiliary, 124 ff., 200.
My, mine, 60.
Naming, verbs of, two objects, 60 ;
predicate nominative after pas-
sive, 111.
Naught, not, 66.
Near, with objective, 62.
Negative, neither, 64, 162 ; none,
64 ; not, 66 ; no, 86 ; statements
and questions, 114; commands,
117 ; purpose or result, 166 f. ;
condition, 168.
Neither, pronoun, 64 ; conjunction,
with nor, 16, 162 fl. ; number
with, 100.
Neuter. See Gender.
Nejst, 62, 82, 87.
Nigh, next, 82.
No, yes, 86.
Nominative case, 41 f. ; subject, 41 ;
predicate, 41 ; direct address
(vocative), 42 ; in exclamation,
42; absolute, 144, 108 f.
Nbn-conmiittal conditions, 170 f.
None, 64.
Nor, neither . . . nor, number with,
100.
Not, 66.
Notwithstanding, preposition or
conjunction, 162, 164.
Noun, defined, 4 ; classification,
27 ff. ; common and proper, 27 ff . ;
abstract and collective, 20 f. ;
compound, SO, 36, 47, 146 f . ; in-
flection, 80 ff. ; gender, 31 ff. ;
number, 34 ff. ; person, 30 ; case,
40 ff. ; numeral, 80 f . ; verbal
(participial), 146 ff. See Infini-
tive.
Noun clauses, 20, 160 ff. ; construc-
tion, as subject, object, etc.,
160 ff . ; purpose and result, 166 f . ;
indirect discourse, 174 ff. ; indi-
rect questions, 180 ff . ; analysis,
100 ; as complement, 201 ff. ;
direct object, 201 ; predicate
objective, 202 ; predicate nomi-
native, 203.
Noun-phrases, 16, 28; possessive
of, 47; verbal noun-phrases,
146.
Number, a (or the), 101.
Number of nouns, 34 ff . ; of pro-
nouns, 66 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72 ;
of verbs, 07 ff., 100 ff.; agree-
ment in, 66, 66, 68, 07, 100 ff.
Numerals, 80 f .
O or oh, 8, 166 ; in wishes, 166.
Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148 ;
of verb, direct, 48 ff. ; predicate
objective, 60 ; indirect, 60f . ; for
whom, 61; cognate, 62; retained,
112 ; of infinitive, 134 ; of verbal
(participial) noun, 146 f . ; infini-
tive as, 136 ; infinitive clause as,
138 f.; noun-clause as, 160 ff.,
167, 174 ff., 180 f. See Comple-
ments, Modifiers.
Object clauses. See Noun clauses.
Objective attribute, 60.
328
INDEX
Objective case, 47 ff. ; of service,
61 f . ; adverbial, 53 ; in apposi-
tion, 63; of pronouns, 66 f., 60,
63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f. ; in exclama^
tion, 60; subject of infinitive,
138 f. See Object.
Objective complement, 60. See
Predicate objective.
Obsolete words, etc., xvi f . See Old.
Of mine, 47, 69.
(y-phrase, 46.
Old or poetical forms and construc-
tions, 28 f ., 82, 36, 39, 43, 46, 62,
66 ff., 69 «f., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78,
82, 84 f., 88, 90, 95 ff., 99, 100,
105, 114, 116f., 118, 120, 122,
124, 126, 136, 149, 164, 226, 293,
297 ff.
On condition thai, 168.
One, one's, one's self, 60, 66; orve
another, 64 f.
Or, either . . . or, 16, 163 f.; num-
ber with or, nor, 100.
Order. See Inverted.
Orders, toiU in, 106. See Command.
Ordinal numerals, 89 f.
Other, another, 64 f.
Ought, 126 f.
Ourseif, 60.
Owe, ought, 126, 299.
Own, 61.
Pains, 101.
Parsing, models for, 64, 74, 82,
243, 260 f., 262, 270.
Part, portion, 102.
Participial nouns, 146 ff. ; object of,
146 f . ; modifiers of, 146 ; as ad-
jective, 146 f . ; with article, 147.
Participial phrase, 194.
Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.; present,
past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.;
constructions, 142 ff . ; object and
modifiers of, 142 f . ; as preposi-
tions, 142, 149; as adjectives,
143 ; with nominative absolute,
146; as modifiers, 193 f., 206.
Parts of speech, defined, 3ff. ; same
word as different, 9 ff . ; substi-
tutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases,
Clauses) ; inflection and syntax,
25 ff . See Noun, Pronoun, etc.
Passive voice, 107 ff. ; form of,
108 ff. ; use of, 110 ff. ; predicate
nominative with. 111 ; retained
object with, 112 ; in progressive
form, 114; in imperative, 117;
in subjunctive, 119 ; intransitive
verbs with preposition. 111 ; pas-
sive distinguirfied from be with
participle used as adjective, 143 ;
clause as retained object, 160;
indirect discourse, 175 f.
Past conditions, 169 ff . ; non-com-
mittal, 170f. ; contrary to fact,
171.
Past participle, 106, 140 f.; as
predicate adjective, 143.
Past perfect tense, 106, 109 ; sub-
junctive, 121 f ., 171 ; progressive,
125; in conditions, 121, 170 f.;
in indirect discourse, 175.
Past tense, 94 ff.; personal endings,
97 ff . ; passive, 108 ; progressive,
113 f.; emphatic, 114; subjunc-
tive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f.; indica-
tive and subjunctive in condi-
tions, 170ff.; in indirect dis-
course, 176.
Pending, 142, 149.
Per, per cent, etc., 79, 149.
Perceiving, verbs of, with infinitive
clause, 138 ; indirect discourse,
174; indirect question, 179.
Perfect infinitive, 107, 133; with
ought, 126; participle, 107, 140 f.
Perfect (or present perfect) tense,
106.
Period, 306.
Permission, 125 f., 129.
Person of substantives, 39 ; of pro-
nouns, 55 ff . ; of relatives, 68 ;
of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.
Personal construction, 176.
Personal endings, 97 f .
Personal pronouns, 65 ff.; inflec-
tion, 55 ff. ; gender and number,
56 f.; case, 57 ff.; 8cZ/-pronouns,
60 ff . ; as predicate nominative,
41.
INDEX
329
Personification, 28 f., 32.
Phrases, 16; kinds of, 16 (see Noun-
phrases, Adjective phrases. Ad-
verbial phrases. Verb-phrases) ;
as prepositions, 149 ; as conjunc-
tions, 163 ; exclamatory, 165 ; in
analysis, 191 ff . ; as modifiers of
subject, 192 f . ; of predicate,
196 f. ; as complements, 204 ; as
modifiers of complements, 206 f. ;
of other modifiers, 207 f. See
Progressive, Emphatic, Poten-
tial, Appositive, Infinitive, Par-
ticipial, Prepositional, Verbal
noun-phrases.
Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff. ;
clauses of, 163 f.
Pluperfect tense, 106, 109 ; sub-
junctive, 121 f., 171; progres-
sive, 125; in conditions, 121,
170 f. ; in indirect discourse, 175.
Plural of nouns, 34 ff . ; irregular,
36 ff . ; of compounds, 36 ; of for-
eign nouns, 37 ; of proper names
and titles, 35, 38 ; of possessive,
43 f.; of pronouns, 66 f., 60,
62 ff.; of relatives, 67 f.; of
verbs, 97 ff.; plural of majesty,
67.
Poetical forms and constructions,
xvii. See Old.
Portion, part, 102.
Positive degree, 79, 87.
Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff . ; use,
46 ff . ; of measure, 46 ; of- com-
pound nouns and of phrases,
46 f.; apposition v^ith, 47; of.
personal pronouns, 56 f., 69; of
definite pronouns, 66 ; of rela-
tives, 67, 69, 72 ; of interroga-
tives, 73 ; possessive nouns modi-
fied, 207.
Possessive modifiers, 196, 206, 207.
Possessive pronouns, 56 f., 69 ; my,
mine, etc., use of, 69 ; one's, 65 ;
whose, 67, 69, 72, 73.
Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff. ;
mood, 124 ff.
Pray, 58.
Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f.
Predicate, 2 ; inverted order, 3, 86,
121 f ., 161 ; simple and complete,
14f ., 183f . ; compound, 16, 184f .,
212 f . ; possessive in, 69 ; analy-
sis, 183 ff. ; modifiers of, 196 ff. ;
complements, 200 ff. See Com-
plements, Modifiers.
Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93 ; par-
ticiple as, 143 ; analysis, 203 f . ;
as complement, 203 f. ; phrase as,
204; modifiers of, 206.
Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93 ;
of pronouns, 68 ; after passive,
111 ; infinitive as, 134 f. ; infini-
tive clause as, 139 ; noun clause
as, 159 f., 174, 180; in analysis,
202 f.; as complement, 202 f.;
modifiers of, 205 f.
Predicate objective, 50, 111 ; ad-
jective as, 50 ; in analysis, 202 ; as
complement, 202 ; modified, 205.
Predicate pronoun after to be, 139.
Predication, complete and incom-
plete, 200.
Preposition, defined, 8 ; list and
uses, 148 ff . ; object of, 8, 47,
150 ff. ; with intransitive verb,
111 ; with passive. 111 ; phrase
used as, 149 ; at end of clause,
149 ; following the object, 149 ;
omitted, 149 ; participle as, 149 ;
infinitive as object of, 136 ; clause
as object of, 161, 180.
Prepositional phrases, 16, 148.
Present conditions, 170ff. ; non-
committal, 170f.; contrary to
fact, 171.
Present infinitive, 133 ; with oiight,
126.
Present participle, 12, 140 f.; in
verb-phrases, 13, 113 f., 130 f.;
with nominative absolute, 144.
Present perfect tense, 106.
Present tense form, 94 ; personal
endings, 97 f . ; conjugation, 98 f. ;
in future sense, 105 ; in future
conditions, 172 ; passive, 108 ;
progressive, 113 f.; emphatic,
114; imperative, 116f.; subjunc-
tive, 118 f., 120 ff.; indicative
330
INDEX
and subjunctiye in conditions,
170f. ; participle, 12, 144 ff. ; in-
finitiTe, 138.
Preterite, 94. See Past.
Preterite-present verbs, 299.
Principal clause. See Main clause.
Principal parts, 107 ; list, 291 fi.
PrUhee, 68.
Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f. ;
in subjunctive, 119.
Prohibition, 117.
Pronominal adjectives. See Adjec-
tive pronouns ; Demonstrative,
Indefinite, Relative, Interroga-
tive.
Pronoun defined, 4 ; antecedent of,
4 ; classification, forms, and uses,
66 ff. ; predicate nominative, 41,
68. See Personal, Adjective, De-
monstrative, Indefinite, Relative,
Interrogative, Intensive, Reflex-
ive, Reciprocal, Gender.
Pronoun, predicate, after to 66, 189.
Proper nouns, 27 ff. ; plural, 35, 38 ;
possessive, 44 ; adjectives, 76.
Prophecy, shall, 106.
Protasis, 168.
Provided (that), 163, 168.
Punctuation, rules of, 806 ff.
Purpose, subjunctive and indica-
tive, 122 f . ; infinitive of, 137,
167 ; clauses of, 166 f. ; infinitive
clause, 167.
Questions, 3 f . ; shall and mU in,
102 ff. ; sfiould and loould in,
127 ff. ; do, did, 114 ; may, 126 ;
as condition, 169 ; direct and in-
direct, 179 ff. See Interrogative.
Quotation marks, 310.
Quotations, direct and indirect,
173 ff.
Raither, 87 ; Jiad rather, 123.
Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f .
Refiexive pronouns, 61 ; simple
personal pronouns as, 61.
Bousing, verbs of, direct and indi-
rect object, 60 ; retained object,
112.
Regular verbs, 96 ff. ; participles,
141.
Relative adjectives, 73.
Relative adverbs, 86; v^ith sub-
junctive, 122; introducing clauses,
167f.; place and tune, 164; con-
cession, 166 ; conditions, 169.
Relative pronouns, 66 ff. ; forms,
67; gender, 67 ff. ; agreement,
68, 102 ; case, 68 f., 139; omitted,
69; descriptive and restrictive,
70 f . ; wfuU, 71 ; compound rela^
tives, 72 f. ; relatives introducing
clauses, 66, 167 f. ; place and
time, 163 f. ; concession, 131,
166; condition, 131, 169.
Restrictive relatives, 70 f .
Result, clause of, 166 f . ; infinitive,
167 ; negative, 167.
Retained object, 112 ; clause as,
160.
Royal we, 67, 60.
Same (the) cw, 67.
Saying, See TelUng.
See, Yfith infinitive, 186.
Seem, with predicate nominative
or adjective, 6 f ., 76, 93 ; it seems
that, 176.
Sei/-pronouns, 60 ff.
Semicolon, 309 f .
Sentences, 1 ff. ; kinds of, 2 f .
parts of speech in, 3 ff., 18 ff.
essential elements in, 2, 14
simple and complete subject
and predicate, 14 f . ; clauses in,
. 16 ff . ; simple, compound, com-
plex, 17 ff. ; compound complex,
18.
Sentences, analysis, 188 ff.; struc-
ture and elements, 183 ; of simple
sentences, 184 f . ; of compound,
185; of complex, 186; of com-
pound and complex clauses,
186 f. ; of compound complex sen-
tences, 187 ; models for analysis
of simple, compound, complex,
compound complex sentences,
188 ff. ; modifiers, 191 ff. ; com-
plements, 200 ff . ; modifiers of
INDEX
331
complements and of modifiers,
205 ft. ; independent elements,
209 ; combinations of clauses
making sentences of various
forms, 210 fE. ; special complica-
tions, 220 ff. ; elliptical sentences,
224 ff. See Subject, Compound,
Complex, Modifiers, etc.
Sequence of tenses, 176, 179.
Service, objective of, 61 f .
Several, 65.
Shakspere, forms and constructions
in, 36, 89, 47, 56, 57, 69, 60, 62,
63, 67, 69, 88, 90, 126, 149, 154,
166, 169, 171, 226.
Shall and mil, 102 ff. ; in assertions
and questions, 102 ff. ; in subor-
dinate clauses, 180 fi. ; indirect
discourse, 177 f. ; indirect ques-
tions, 182; forms, 299. See
ShouM.
Ship, gender, 32.
Shoon, 86.
Should and would, in simple sen-
tences and independent clauses,
127 ff. ; in subordinate clauses,
180 ff. ; in indirect discourse,
177 f . ; in indirect questions,
182. See Shall.
Should and would, special senses,
126 f.; replacing subjunctive, 128;
in clauses of purpose, 180 ; con-
cessions, 181 ; in conditional sen-
tences, 181, 171 f .
Signs, plural of, 86.
Simple clauses. See Clauses.
Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f. ;
analyzed, 188 f . ; elaboration of,
212 f . See Sentences.
Since, adverb, preposition, con-
junction, 86, 168.
Singular. See Number.
SmeU, with predicate adjective,
77.
So 08 to, 167 ; 80 that, 153, 166.
Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii,
66 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 106,
117, 120, 122, 172.
Some, 64 ; 8omewhat, 66.
Sort, kind, 64.
Sound, with predicate adjective,
77.
Split infinitive, 184.
StiU, yet, adverbs or conjunctions,
162.
Strong verbs, 95, 99; participles,
141 ; list, 291 ff.
Style and grammar, xvi f .
Subject, 2 ; inverted order, 3 ;
omitted, 8, 68, 114, 117, 121,
164 f ., 169, 224 ff. ; simple and
complete, 14 f . ; compound, 15,
184 f . ; infinitive as, 11, 184 f . ;
clause as, 20, 189, 169 f., 174 f.,
180, 190 ; case, 41 ; agreement
with verb, 97, 100 ff. ; modifiers
of, 192 ff. ; subject of infinitive,
188. See Predicate nominative.
Subject and predicate, 2, 18 ff.,
188ff., 191ff.
Subject complement, 41 . See Predi-
cate nominative.
Subjunctive mood, 116 f ., 118 ff. ;
forms, 118 f . ; uses, 119 ff. ; in
wishes, etc., 119 f.; concessions,
120 f. ; conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff. ;
clauses of purpose or expectation,
122, 166 ; with as if, 122, 178 ; in
indirect questions, 181 ; auxilia-
ries replacing subjunctive, 128.
Subordinate clauses, 17 ff. ; as parts
of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff. ; analysis,
186 ff., 189 ff. ; combinations of,
210 ; variety of use, 216 ff. ; spe-
cial complications, 220 ff. See
Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, In-
dicative, Subjunctive.
Subordinate clauses, meanings of,
168 ff.; place and time, 168 f.;
cause, 164 ; concession, 164 f . ;
purpose and result, 166 f. ; condi-
tional, 167 ff.; comparison and
manner, 178 ; indirect discourse,
178 ff. ; indirect questions, 179 ff.
Subordinate (or subordinating) con-
junctions, 151, 163 f., 157.
Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun.
Substantive clauses. See Noun
clauses.
Such, 64 ; such ... as, 67.
332
INDEX
Superlatiye of emphasis, 88. See
Comparison.
Suppose, supposing, 168.
Syntax, ziv, 26flf. ; summary of
rules, 811 ff.
Taste, with predicate adjective, 77.
Telling, verbs of, direct and in-
direct object, 50; retained ob-
ject, 112; object clause, 160;
indirect discourse, 174.
Tense, 94 ff. See Present, Fast, Fu-
ture, Compound tenses.
Tenses, use in conditions, 121,
170 ff.; v^rith ovght, 126; in in-
direct discourse, 176, 177 ff.; in
indirect questions, 179, 182.
Termination. See Endings.
Than, 87 ; case after, 173 ; clauses,
173.
That, conjunction with subordi-
nate clause, 20f., 132, 187, 168,
167 ff., 160ff. ; in clauses of pur-
pose, 122 f., 130, 166 f.; result,
166 f.; indirect discourse, 174ff.;
omitted, 163, 160, 176, 225.
Thai, demonstrative, 62 ff.; rela-
tive, 67 ff.; omitted, 69.
The, article, 77 ff. ; abbreviated to
ye, 57 ; the which, 67 ; adverb
with comparative, 86.
Then, adverb or conjunction, 152.
There, expletive, 85.
Thereof, therewith, etc., 60.
They, indefinite use, 67.
ThinJcing, verbs of, two objects, 60 ;
predicate nominative aiter pas-
sive, 111; object clause, 160;
indirect discourse, 174 ; indirect
question, 179.
This, these, 62 ff .
Thou, ye, you, 66 f .
Though, although, 21 ; mood after,
120 f. See Concession.
TUX, until, relative adverb, 86 ; with
subjunctive, 122 f . ; with should,
123, 130 ; preposition, 149.
Time, adverbs of, 83 ; clauses of,
163 f . ; nominative absolute,
144.
Titles, plural, 38.
To, with infinitive, 11, 182 ff.;
standing for infinitive, 133 ; ex-
pressing purpose, 167 ; to lei,
136 ; to the end that, 166.
Too , , , to, 167.
Transition, 162.
Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92 ; used
absolutely, 92 ; passive use of,
110 ff. See Object.
UrOess, 121 ff., 168.
Unlike, objective vnth, 52.
UntU. See TiU,
Usage and granunar, xv ff .
Verb, 5 ff . ; inflection and syntax,
91 ff. ; classification, 91 ff. ; in-
flection, 94 ff., 102 ff. ; person
and number, 97 ff. ; agreement
with subject, 97, 100 ff. ; voice,
107 ff. ; progressive form, 113 f. ;
emphatic form, 114; mood,
115 ff. ; potential verb-phrases,
124 ff. ; infinitive, 11 f ., 132 ff. ;
participles, 11 f., 140 ff. ; lists
of verbs, 291 ff. See Predicate,
Transitive, Tense, etc.
Verbal noun in -ing, 146 ff. See
Participial nouns.
Verbal, noun-phrases, 146.
Verb-phrases, 6, 16, 91 ; to supply
inflection, see Future, Complete
tenses. Passive, Progressive, Po-
tential, Subjunctive.
Vocal organs, xi.
Vocabulary of English, 318 f.
Vocative (direct address), nomina-
tive, 42 ; as independent element,
209.
Voice, 107 ff. See Passive.
We, indefinite use, 67 ; royal and
editorial toe, 67.
Weak verbs, 96 ff ., 98 f . ; partici-
ples, 141 ; lists, 291 ff.
We'd, 130.
WeU, 81, 87.
WeHl, 104.
Were to, 172.
INDEX
338
What, relative, 71 ; double con-
struction, 71, 73 ; as adjective,
73 ; interrogative, 73 f. ; as ad-
jective, 74 ; in exclamatory sen-
tences, 74 ; interjection, 74.
WJiateoer, whxxtaoeoer, 72 f. ; in con-
cession, 165 ; in conditions, 169.
Whaiso, 73.
Wfien, wfienever, 86 ; in conditions,
169.
Whence, 86.
Wfiere, whereoer, 86.
Whereof, wherefrom, etc., 69.
Whether, whether . , , or, 153, 168,
179.
Which, relative, 67 ff. ; gender,
67 ff . ; for who, whom, 69 ; as ad-
jective, 73 ; the which, 67 ; inter-
rogative, 73 ; as adjective, 74.
Whichever, 72 f .
While, noun, adverb, conjunction,
86, 163.
Whither, 86.
Who, whose, whom, relative, QQ ff . ;
gender, 67 ff. ; interrogative,
73 f., 160.
Whoever, whosoever, whoso, 72 f.;
in concession, 166 ; in condition,
169.
Why, 86, 179.
Will, in orders, 105; in future,
see ShaU.
Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123;
may, 125 f. ; verbs of, with in-
finitive or infinitive clause, 137 f. ;
with object clause, 160, 167 ; O
in a wish, 155 ; if, 169.
Words, nature and use of, xi ff.
Wot, wist, 299.
Would, in wishes, 120 ; habitual
action, 127 ; would better {rather),
128. See Should,
Written and spoken language, xi ff .
Ye, old uses, 57 ; abbreviation,
57.
Yes, no, 85.
Yet, still, adverbs or conjunctions,
152.
Yon, yond, yonder, 63.
You and thou, 66 f . ; indefinite you,
57.
.M^
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